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a for many finite simple groups, including all the sporadic groups except the [[Monster group]].
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Sporadic groups|*]]
[[Category:Finite groups]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]
[[de:Endliche einfache Gruppen und ihre Klassifikation]]
[[fr:Groupe sporadique]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Copper Age</title>
<id>7446</id>
<revision>
<id>37480768</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T06:22:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.1.122.188</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>European Copper Age.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chalcolithic''' (Greek ''khalkos'' + ''lithos'' '[[copper]] stone') period, also known as the '''Eneolithic''' ('''Aeneolithic''') or '''Copper Age''' period, is a phase in the development of [[human]] culture in which the use of early [[metal]] [[tool]]s appeared alongside the use of [[Rock (geology)|stone]] tools.
The literature of European archaeology generally avoids the use of 'chalcolithic' (they prefer the term 'Copper Age'), while Middle-Eastern archaeologists regularly use it. The Copper Age appeared much earlier in the Middle East, while the transition from the European Copper-Age to its own full-fledged Bronze-Age is far more rapid. Basically, the Europeans treated their prestige copper/bronze objects rather much like they did their stone objects, whereas the Middle-East had progressed beyond this.
The period is a transitional one outside of the traditional [[three-age system]], and occurs between the [[neolithic]] and [[bronze age]]. It appears that copper was not widely exploited at first and that efforts in alloying it with [[tin]] and other metals began quite soon, making distinguishing distinct Chalcolithic cultures and periods difficult.
Because of this it is usually only applied by [[archaeologist]]s in some parts of the world, mainly south-east [[Europe]] and [[West Asia|Western]] and [[Central Asia|Central]] Asia where it appears around the [[4th millennium BC]]. Less commonly, it is also applied to American civilizations which already used copper and copper alloys at the time of Spanish conquest.
The European [[Beaker people]] are often considered Chalcolithic as were the cultures which first adopted urbanisation in south west Asia. Many [[megalith]]s in Europe were erected during this period and it has been suggested that [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Proto-Indo-European]] linguistic unity dates to around the same time.
[[Ötzi the Iceman]], found in the Ötztaler [[Alps]] and whose remains have been dated to about [[3300 BC]], carried a copper [[axe]] and [[flint]] [[knife]]. He appears to have been in a region of Europe which was transitioning through this period at that time.
[[Category:Copper Age| ]]
[[ar:عصر نحاسي]]
[[cs:Eneolit]]
[[da:Kobberalder]]
[[de:Kupfersteinzeit]]
[[el:Χαλκολιθική περίοδος]]
[[es:Edad del Cobre]]
[[fr:Chalcolithique]]
[[hu:Rézkor]]
[[ko:순동기 시대]]
[[it:Calcolitico]]
[[he:התקופה הכלקוליתית]]
[[la:Aevum cupri]]
[[nl:Kopertijd]]
[[pl:Eneolit]]
[[sk:Medená doba]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Circumcision and law</title>
<id>7447</id>
<revision>
<id>22676755</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-06T05:34:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pingveno</username>
<id>30062</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==History==
Religious laws pertaining to [[circumcision]] are ancient. The [[Hebrew Bible]] commands the [[Jew]]s to perform the operation on their male child's eighth day of life and also to circumcise their slaves (Genesis 17:11-12). See [[Brit milah]] (the Hebrew name for ritual circumcision).
Laws banning circumcision are also ancient. The ancient Greeks prized the foreskin and disapproved of the Jewish custom of circumcision.[http://www.cirp.org/library/history/hodges2/] Thus, banning circumcision may have been enacted as much to stop what the Greeks regarded as an abuse as for a deliberately anti-Jewish purpose.
King Antiochus IV, of [[Syria]], the occupying power of the [[Holy Land]] in [[170 BCE]] decreed that circumcision was unlawful and punishable by death. According to the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'', the [[Roman empire|Roman]] emperor [[Hadrian]] issued a decree banning circumcision in the empire,[http://www.cirp.org/library/history/hodges2/] triggering the Jewish [[Bar Kokhba]] revolt of [[132|132 CE]]. The Roman historian [[Cassius Dio]], however, made no mention of such a law, and blamed the Jewish uprising instead on Hadrian's decision to rebuild [[Jerusalem]] as [[Aelia Capitolina]], a city dedicated to [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]].
Hadrian's successor, [[Antoninus Pius]], permitted Jews to circumcise their own sons, but forbade them (upon [[capital punishment|penalty of death]] or [[banishment]]) from circumcising non-Jews. [[Genesis]] 17:12 commands that Jews must circumcise their slaves; this law prohibited that practice, as well as making it illegal for a man to convert to Judaism. Antoninus Pius also exempted the [[Egypt]]ian priesthood from the otherwise universal ban on circumcision.
==Modern Law==
[[Circumcision]] has traditionally been presumed legal under British law. One [[1999]] case, ''Re "J" (child's religious upbringing and circumcision)''[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/Re_J/] said that circumcision in Britain required the consent of all those with parental responsibility, or the permission of the court, acting for the best interests of the child, and issued an order prohibiting the circumcision of a male child of a non-practicing Muslim father and non-practicing Christian mother with custody. The reasoning included evidence that circumcision carried some medical risk; that the operation would be likely to weaken the relationship of the child with his mother, who strongly objected to circumcision without medical necessity; that the child may be subject to ridicule by his peers as the odd one out and that the operation might irreversibly reduce sexual pleasure, by permanently removing some sensory nerves, even though cosmetic foreskin restoration might be possible. The court did not rule out circumcision against the consent of one parent. It cited a hypothetical case of a Jewish mother and an agnostic father with a number of sons, all of whom, by agreement, had been circumcised as infants in accordance with Jewish laws; the parents then have another son who is born after they have separated; the mother wishes him to be circumcised like his brothers; the father, for no good reason, refuses his agreement. In such a case, a decision in favor of circumcision was said to be likely. The passage of the [[Human Rights Act 1998]] has caused some to speculate that the lawfulness of the circumcision of male children is unclear.[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/edge1/]
In the United States, circumcision is not specifically unlawful, however, when performed on a child, some believe that the act violates general laws enacted for the protection of children. Doctors who still perform circumcisions on children must take care that all applicable rules regarding informed consent are satisfied. If consent is invalid, then a circumcision is a battery.[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/conundrum/] An effort is currently underway in California to extend the ban on female circumcision to males, using the argument that the ban on female circumcision violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendement to the U.S. Constitution. [http://www.mgmbill.org]
A non-binding research paper of the [[Queensland Law Reform Commission]] (''Circumcision of Male Infants'') concluded that "On a strict interpretation of the assault provisions of the Queensland Criminal Code, routine circumcision of a male infant could be regarded as a criminal act", and that doctors who perform circumcision on male infants may be liable to civil claims by that child at a later date.[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/QLRC/] No prosecutions have occurred in Queensland, and circumcisions continue to be performed.
An attempt to have circumcision ruled illegal was rejected by the Israeli Supreme Court.[http://www.nocirc.org/publish/ar00.pdf] The North Dakota Supreme Court rejected a mother's attempt to prosecute her doctor for circumcising her child with her permission.[http://www.cirp.org/news/theforum09-04-04/] The Jackson County Circuit Court, and later Appeals Court refused a bid by Camile Azar to block the circumcision of her son.[http://www.examiner.net/stories/081004/new_081004010.shtml]
Anti-circumcision groups in various countries have attempted to persuade legislatures to ban circumcision outright. These attempts have thus far not been successful.
A parliamentarian in the Netherlands has called for the circumcision of male children to be made unlawful.[http://www.cirp.org/news/radionetherlands10-04-04/]
In Sweden, the circumcision of minors may only be performed under anaesthesia and, unless performed by a physician, must be performed within the first two months of life.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1572483.stm]
In December 2004, Edwin B. Baxter was convicted of second degree child assault after he circumcised his son with a hunting knife. He was sentenced to serve three years in jail.[http://www.cirp.org/news/thecolumbian12-16-04/]
==External links==
* Gregory J Boyle, J. Steven Svoboda, Christopher P Price, J Neville Turner. [http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/boyle1/ Circumcision of Healthy Boys: Criminal Assault?] 7 Journal of Law and Medicine 301 (2000). The authors are leading anti-circumcision campaigners.
* Peter W Edge, [http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/edge1/ Male circumcision after the human rights act 1998]. 5 J Civil Liberties [U.K.] 320 (2000).
* British Medical Association ''[http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/malecircumcision2003 The law & ethics of male cir |
est Dramatic Presentation
|-
|1983
|London Critics Circle Film Awards - Special Achievement Award
|Lawrence G. Paull, Douglas Trumbull, Syd Mead - For their visual concept (technical prize).
|}
It was nominated for the following awards:
* [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts#Film|BAFTA]] (1983)
** Best Film Editing – [[Terry Rawlings]]
** Best Make Up Artist – [[Marvin G. Westmore]]
** Best Score – [[Vangelis]]
** Best Sound – Peter Pennell, Bud Alper, Graham V. Hartstone, Gerry Humphreys
** Best Special Visual Effects – [[Douglas Trumbull]], [[Richard Yuricich]], [[David Dryer]]
* British Society of Cinematographers: Best Cinematography Award (1982) – [[Jordan Cronenweth]]
* [[Fantasporto]]
** International Fantasy Film Award (1983) - Best Film – [[Ridley Scott]]
** International Fantasy Film Award (1993) - Best Film – Ridley Scott (Director's cut)
* [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]]: Best Original Score (1983) - Motion Picture – Vangelis
* [[Academy Award|Oscar]] (1983)
** Best Art Direction-Set Decoration – Lawrence G. Paull, [[David L. Snyder]], [[Linda DeScenna]]
** Best Effects, Visual Effects – Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich, David Dryer
* [[Saturn Award]] (1983)
** Best Science Fiction Film
** Best Director – Ridley Scott
** Best Special Effects – Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich
** Best Supporting Actor – [[Rutger Hauer]]
** Best Genre Video Release (1994) – Director's cut
== Influence ==
[[Image:RoyBatty.jpg|left|thumb|275px|[[Rutger Hauer]] as ''Roy Batty''.]]
Initially avoided by [[North America]]n audiences, ''Blade Runner'' was popular internationally and has become a [[cult film|cult]] classic. The film's popularity and cult status has made it popular to reference in other media. The television show ''[[Futurama]]'' has made multiple references to ''Blade Runner'', and the shows ''[[Cutting It]]'' and ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' have used quotes from the film. Actor [[William Sanderson]], who played Sebastian, voiced a similar character in the cartoon series ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]''. In the action film ''[[The 6th Day]]'', a virtual [[psychologist]] says, "You seem to be avoiding talking about your parents. Imagine, two turtles are walking through the desert..."
It is also notable that ''Blade Runner's'' opening frames feature a tight close-up on a human eye; ''[[Strange Days (film)|Strange Days]]'', ''[[Minority Report (film)|Minority Report]]'', and certain episodes of the 2004 television series [[Lost (TV Series)|LOST]] start with similar shots.
The film's dark [[cyberpunk]] style and futuristic design have served as a benchmark and inspired many subsequent science fiction films and television programs, including ''[[Batman (1989 movie)|Batman]]'', ''[[RoboCop]]'', ''[[The Fifth Element]]'', ''[[Ghost in the Shell (film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'', ''[[Dark Angel (TV series)|Dark Angel]]'', ''[[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]]'', and ''[[The Matrix]]''. It has also influenced [[animes]], including ''[[Akira (film)|Akira]]'', Armitage III, ''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' and ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]''. Before shooting began on ''[[Batman Begins]]'', director [[Christopher Nolan]] reportedly screened ''Blade Runner'' to the film's crew and told them, "This is how we're going to make Batman." Even the ''[[Star Wars]]'' [[Prequel trilogy (Star Wars)|prequels]] have paid homage to ''Blade Runner'' in their special effects sequences.{{ref|starwars}}
:''"Blade Runner is a unique film, incredible on every level. It is a prophetic and emotional tale that stands as one of the most original and intelligent science fiction films ever made."'' – [http://www.apolloguide.com/mov_print.asp?CID=2301&RID= Alex Ioshpe]
The film is often thought to have inspired [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]'s ''[[Neuromancer]]''.{{ref|brfaq}} Gibson has said in interviews that he was already writing ''Neuromancer'' when ''Blade Runner'' was released, and was actually inspired by the implied background of the film ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]''. The film arguably marks the introduction of the [[cyberpunk]] genre into popular culture. ''Blade Runner'' continues to reflect modern trends and concerns, and an increasing number consider it one of the greatest science fiction films of all time.{{ref|panel}}{{ref|brviews}} The film was selected for preservation in the [[United States]] [[National Film Registry]] in 1993 and is frequently used in [[university]] courses. Its memorable quotations and soundtrack have made it the most musically [[sampling (music)|sampled]] film of the 20th century.{{ref|brsample}}
:''"Ridley Scott's film remains the defining vision of futuristic science fiction."'' – [http://www.cinescape.com/0/Editorial.asp?aff_id=0&this_cat=Movies&action=page&obj_id=19571 Steve Biodrowski]
''Blade Runner'' also served to influence the [[cyberpunk]] [[role-playing game]], ''[[Shadowrun]]'', the seminal computer game ''[[System Shock]]'' and the ''[[Syndicate computer games|Syndicate]]'' games.
== Versions ==
Six versions of the film exist, but only the Director's Cut and Criterion Edition are widely known and seen:
*The original 1982 international cut (a.k.a. Criterion Edition), which included more graphic violence than the U.S. theatrical release, and which was released on VHS and on [[Criterion Collection]] [[Laserdisc]].
*The U.S. theatrical version, also called the ''domestic cut''.
*Two workprint versions, shown only as audience test previews and occasionally at film festivals; one of these was distributed in 1991, as a ''Director's Cut'' without Scott's approval.
*The Ridley Scott-approved 1992 Director's Cut; prompted by the unauthorized 1991 release, it is to date the only version officially released on DVD.
*The broadcast version, edited for [[profanity]].
=== Theatrical versions ===
[[Image:BladeRunner Unicorn1.jpg|right|275px|thumb|right|Deckard's daydream in the 1992 Director's Cut.]]
The 1982 American and European theatrical versions released by the studio included a "happy ending" (using stock footage from [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[The Shining (film)|The Shining]]'') and a [[voice-over]] added at the request of studio executives during [[post-production]] after test audience members indicated difficulty understanding the film. Although several different versions of the script had included a voice-over of some sort, both Ridley Scott and Harrison Ford disliked the studio V.O. and resisted having it added to the film. It's been rumored Ford intentionally did the voice-over poorly in the hope it wouldn't be used,{{ref|brbible5}} but recent interviews indicate otherwise.{{ref|imdb}}
=== Director's Cut ===
In 1990, Warner Brothers briefly allowed theatrical screenings of a 70mm copy of the workprint version of the film, advertising it as a Director's Cut. However, Ridley Scott publicly disowned the workprint version of the film as his definitive Director's Cut, citing that it was roughly edited and lacked the score composed for the film by [[Vangelis]]. In response to Scott's dis-satisfaction (and in part because of the film's resurgent cult popularity in the early 90s) Warner Brothers decided to assemble a definitive Director's Cut of the film with direction from Scott to be released in 1992.
[[Image:Brdvd.jpeg|thumb|left|200px|The DVD cover of the 1992 Director's Cut.]]
They hired film-restorationist Michael Arick, who had been the one that re-discovered the workprint of Blade Runner and who was already doing consultation work for them, to head up the project with Scott. He started by spending several months in [[London, England|London]] with Les Healey, who had been the assistant editor on Blade Runner, attempting to compile a list of the changes that Scott wanted made to the film. He also got a number of suggestions/directions directly from the director himself. Arick made several changes to the film, most of them fairly minor editing changes, including the re-insertion of Deckard finding Gaff's origami unicorn in the hallway near his apartment at the film's closing. However, three major changes were made to the film which most would agree significantly changed the feel of the film: the removal of Deckard's explanatory voice-over, the re-insertion of a dream sequence of a unicorn running through a forest, and the removal of the studio imposed "happy-ending", including some associated visuals which had originally run under the film's end-credits.
Scott has since complained that time and money constraints and his obligation to ''[[Thelma and Louise]]'' kept him from retooling the film in a completely satisfactory manner, and that while he's happier than before with the 1992 release of the film, he's never felt entirely comfortable with it as his definitive Director's Cut.
=== Special Edition ===
Partly as the result of those complaints, Scott was invited back in mid-2000 to help put together a final and definitive version of the film, which was completed in mid 2001. During the process, a new digital print of the film was created from the original negatives, special effects were updated and cleaned, and the sound was remastered in 5.1 [[Dolby Digital]] surround sound. Unlike the rushed 1992 Director's Cut, Scott personally oversaw the new cut as it was being made. The Special Edition DVD was slated for a Christmas time 2001 release, and was originally rumored to be a three-disc set including the full international theatrical cut, the 1992 director's cut and the newly enhanced version in addition to deleted scenes, extensive cast and crew interviews, and the documentary "On the Edge of Blade Runner".
However, [[Warner Brothers]] indefinitely delayed the "Special Edition" release after legal disputes began with the film's original [[completion bond]] guarantors (specifically [[Jerry Perenchio]]), who were ceded ownership of the film when the shooting ran over budget from $ |
ngly kills his father and marries his mother. This act came to great prominence in the [[20th century]] with [[Freud]]'s analysis of the [[Oedipus complex]] as lying beneath the psychology of all men. Its female counterpart is called the [[Electra complex]].
[[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s novel ''[[Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle]]'' deals very heavily with the incestuous relationships in the intricate family tree of the main character Van Veen. There are explicit moments of sexual relations primarily between Van and his sister Ada, as well as between Ada and her younger sister Lucette. Nabokov does not necessarily deal with any complexities or consequences, social or otherwise, which may be inherent to incestuous relationships--outside of the strictly practical concerns of having to hide the taboo relationships from others. Incest in ''Ada'' seems mainly to be a sexual manifestation of the characters' intellectual incestuousness, and operates on a similar plane as do other instances of "sexual transgression" in his novels of this period, such as [[pedophilia]] in ''[[Lolita]]'' and [[homosexuality]] in ''[[Pale Fire]]''.
[[Thomas Mann]]'s [[The Holy Sinner]] explores the spiritual consequences of unintentional incest.
It is also a main plot device in the movie ''[[Caligula (film)|Caligula]]'', the Korean movie ''[[Oldboy]]'', Roman Polanski's ''[[Chinatown (film)|Chinatown]]'' and [[Guy Maddin]]'s film [[Careful]].
In the finale episode of season 3 from [[FX Networks|FX Network's]] television drama [[Nip/Tuck]], the characters of [[Quentin Costa]] and [[Kit McGraw]] are exposed as incestuous lovers, of likewise incestuous parents. This discovery comes soon after Quentin is unmasked as [[The Carver]], the main [[antagonist]] of season 3, along with his accomplice, Kit.<!---My first Wiki contribution, sorry if I screwed up--->
==Incest as a metaphor==
Sometimes the word "incestuous" is also used metaphorically to describe other inappropriately close relationships, for example between an [[authority figure]] and a [[subordinate]], or between people in the same [[profession]] or creative field. The term "incest group" is also common in [[high school]], and denotes a group of friends that only date others within their group. Institutions such as [[church]]es, [[college]]s, and sometimes whole [[nation]]s can be described as ''incestuous'' when inappropriately close relationships, corrupt [[conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] and secret [[conspiracy|collusions]] occur inside the institution and especially within the institution's top echelons such as in cases [[John Boyd (military strategist)|John Boyd]] exposed in the Pentagon.
==See also==
*[[Imprinting (psychology)#Westermarck effect|Westermarck effect]]
*[[Genetic sexual attraction]]
*[[Inbreeding]]
*[[Kinship and descent]]
*[[Sexual morality]]
*[[Incest pornography]]
*[[Incest taboo]]
*[[Human sexual behavior]]
*[[Oedipus complex]]
*[[Electra complex]]
*[[Levirate marriage]]
*[[Paraphilia]]
==External links==
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/nyt-11202005.html ''The Incest Loophole'']
* [http://movingforward.org/v1n4-cover.html Sibling Sexual Abuse: An Emerging Awareness of an Ignored Childhood Trauma]
* [http://www.psychpage.com/family/library/sib_abuse.htm Sibling Sexual Abuse]
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/disp_9803_a.html ''Our Endangered Species: A Hard Look at How We Treat Children'', Parade Magazine, (3/29/98)]
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/disp_9408_a.html ''You Carry the Cure In Your Own Heart'', Parade Magazine, (8/28/94)]
* [http://www.fright.com/edge/sistermysister.html ''Sister My Sister'' English, 1994.]
* [http://www.kalimunro.com/article_mother_son_sexual_abuse.html Male Sexual Abuse Victims of Female Perpetrators: Society's Betrayal of Boys]
* [http://www.enotalone.com/article/4290.html Silently Seduced: When Parents Make Their Children Partners: Understanding Covert Incest]
* [http://www.kalimunro.com/article_sexual_abuse_by_mothers.html Mother-Daughter Sexual Abuse: A Painful Topic]
* [http://www.kalimunro.com/article_sexualabuse.html Incest and Child Sexual Abuse: Definitions, Perpetrators, Victims, and Effects]
* [http://www.drmiletski.com/mother_son.html Mother-Son Incest: The Unthinkable Broken Taboo]
* [http://www.safersociety.org/allbks/wp046.html The Last Secret: Daughters Sexually Abused By Mothers]
* [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/HERFAY.html Father-Daughter Incest]
* [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/135/7/835 Father-Son Incest: Underreported Psychiatric Problem?]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04264a.htm Catholic Consanguinity (in Canon Law)]
* [[Lloyd deMause]]. "The Universality of Incest", ''The Journal of Psychohistory'', Fall 1991, Vol. 19, No. 2. ([http://www.psychohistory.com/htm/06a1_incest.html]) - author argues that incest is universal across all human societies; equates incest with incest with children; argues that sexual relations between children and third persons with parental knowledge or consent constitutes 'indirect incest'
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/disp_9119_a.html Comment on "The Universality of Incest," by Andrew Vachss] - comments on deMause's article by well-known children's attorney and child protection consultant
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4331603,00.html article from The Guardian newspaper, concerning a case of allegedly consensual adult parent-child incest]
* [http://www.umanitoba.ca/anthropology/tutor/marriage/usa-ncst.html State Variations on American Marriage Prohibitions]
* [http://www.vachss.com/help_text/incest.html Intrafamilial (Incest) Abuse Resources]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/incest.html The incest taboo - origins, history, and ethical aspects]
* [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~jamesdow/wrigco.htm The "mathematics of inbreeding"]
* [http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/faculty/tooby/classes/anth7/incest.htm The evolution of incest avoidance mechanisms]
* [http://www.geocities.com/luvacuzn4/CousinsMarryingCousins.html Cousins Marrying Cousins - an article from the New York Times]
* [http://www.coej.org/Medical/marrying_cousins_not_risky.htm Recent research results]
* [http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/issues/2005-12-29/news/feature.html Forbidden Fruit] December 2005 ''New Times'' article on fumarase deficiency following multigenerational cousin marriages in Colorado City, Arizona
==References and further reading==
* Scruton, Roger, ''Sexual Desire: A Moral Philosophy of the Erotic'', Free, 1986.
* Pryor, Douglass, ''Unspeakable Acts: Why Men Sexually Abuse Children'', New York Univ Press, 1996.
* Miller, Alice, ''That Shalt Not Be Aware: Society's Betrayal of the Child'', Farrar Strauss Giroux, 1983.
* Lobdell, William, ''Missionary's Dark Legacy; Two remote Alaska villages are still reeling form a Catholic volunteer's sojourn three decades ago, when he allegedly molested nearly every Eskimo boy in the parishes. The accusers, now men, are scarred emotionally and struggle to cope. They are seeking justice.'', Los Angeles Times, Nov 19, 2005, p. A.1.
* Shaw, Risa, ''Not Child's Play: An Anthology on Brother-Sister Incest'', Lunchbox, 2000.
* DeMilly, Walter, ''In My Father's Arms: A True Story of Incest'', Univ. of Wisc. Press, 1999.
* Blume, E Sue, ''Secret Survivors: Uncovering Incest and It's Aftereffects in Women'', Ballantine, 1991.
* Rosencrans, Bobbie and Bear, Eaun, ''The Last Secret: Daughters Sexually Abused by Mothers'', Safer Society, 1997.
* Adams, Kenneth, M., ''Silently Seduced: When Parents Make Their Children Their Partners, Understanding Covert Incest'', HCI, 1991.
* Love, Pat, ''Emotional Incest Syndrome: What to Do When a Parent's Love Rules Your Life'', Bantam, 1991.
* Herman, Judith, ''Father-Daughter Incest'', Harvard University Press, 1982.
* Miletski, Hani, ''Mother-Son Incest: The Unthinkable Broken Taboo'', Safer Society, 1999.
* {{cite book | author= Forward , Susan | title=Toxic Parents: Overcoming Their Hurtful Legacy and Reclaiming Your Life| publisher= Bantam | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0553284347}}
* Lew, Mike, ''Victims No Longer: Men Recovering from Incest and Other Sexual Child Abuse.'' Nevraumont, 1988.
* Hislop, Julia, ''Female Sexual Offenders: What Therapists, Law Enforcement, and Child Protective Services Need to Know'', Issues, 2001.
* Elliot, Michelle, '' Female Sexual Abuse of Children'', Guilford, 1994.
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[[Category:Incest| ]]
[[Category:Family law]]
[[be:Інцэст]]
[[da:Incest]]
[[de:Inzest]]
[[es:Incesto]]
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[[zh:乱伦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Industrial Revolution</title>
<id>14914</id>
<revision>
<id>42090543</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:39:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zsinj</username>
<id>597658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.79.36.66|65.79.36.66]] to last version by Noisy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Industrial Revolution''' (sometimes known as the First Industrial Revolution) was one of the major [[technology|technological]], [[socioeconomic]] and [[culture|cultural]] changes in the late 18th and early 19th century resulting from the replacement of an economy based on manual labour to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture. It began in [[Britain]] with the introduction of [[steam engine|steam power]] (fueled primarily by [[coal]]) and powered [[machine|machinery]] (mainly in [[textile]] [[manufacturing]]). The development of all-metal [[machine tools]] in the first two decades of the nineteenth century enabled the manufacture of mo |
, chiefly to [[Sweden]], although half of the emigrants ultimately re-migrated again.
Since the late 1990s, Finland has received [[refugee]]s and [[immigrant]]s at a rate comparable with the other [[Nordic]] countries, although the total ethnic-minority population remains far lower in Finland than the rest. A considerable number of immigrants have come from the former Soviet Union claiming [[ethnic]] ([[Finnic]]) kinship. However, over 20 languages are now spoken in Finland by immigrant groups of significant size &mdash; that is, with at least a thousand speakers.
Finland's population has always been concentrated in the southern parts of the country, which is even more pronounced after the 20th century [[urbanization]]. The biggest and most important cities in Finland are the [[Greater Helsinki]] metropolitan area (including the cities of [[Helsinki]], [[Espoo]] and [[Vantaa]]), [[Tampere]], [[Turku]] and [[Oulu]].
After having one of the highest death rates from [[heart disease]] in the world in the 1970s, improvements in the Finnish diet and exercise have paid off. Finland is now one of the fittest countries in the world. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/befit/story/0,15652,1385645,00.html]
== Culture ==
[[Image:Benches_and_ladles_in_a_Finnish_sauna.jpg|thumb|right|Strong [[Finnish sauna]] culture is one of the last remains of the aboriginal culture.]]
[[Image:Jean sibelius.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sibelius|Jean Sibelius]], a Finnish composer of classical music.]]
[[Image:Linus_Torvalds_talking.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Linus Torvalds]], a famous Finnish [[software engineer]].]]
''Main article: [[Culture of Finland]]''
Finnish culture has been influenced by eastern European culture ([[Russia]] and [[Baltic]] region), western European culture (particularly [[Sweden]] and [[Germany]]) and [[United States|America]]n culture. Many Finns, particularly young, are also in increasing contact with cultures outside the nearby cultural sphere.
There are still differences between regions, especially minor differences in accents and vocabulary. Minorities maintain own cultural characteristics, such as Sami culture and Finland Swedes culture. Many Finns are emotionally connected to countryside and nature, because urbanization is relatively late phenomenon.
===Miscellaneaous cultural concepts===
* [[List of Finns]]
* [[Suuret suomalaiset]] List of 100 Greatest Finns
* Characteristics of Finnishness:
** [[Finnish Maiden]] - symbolising Finland
** [[Kalevala]] - The [[national epic]] of Finland
** [[Kantele]] - a musical instrument
** [[Mämmi]] - traditional Easter food
** Historical [[Finnish paganism]]
** [[Joulupukki]] - Santa Claus
** [[Sauna]] and [[Finnish sauna]]
** [[Sisu]] - perseverance
** [[Perkele]] - swear word
** [[Talkoot]] - community work
** [[Makkara]] and [[sinappi]] - sausage and mustard
** [[Salmiakki]] - salty licorice
** [[Koskenkorva]] - Finnish vodka
** [[Wiktionary:Transwiki:Reilu meininki|Reilu meininki]] - fair dealing
=== Public holidays ===
''Main article: [[Public holidays in Finland]]''
[[Image:Runebergintorttu.jpg|thumb|right|[[Runeberg's tart]], is a Finnish pastry available on the poet [[Johan Ludvig Runeberg]]'s birthday.]]
All official holidays in Finland are established by acts of [[Parliament of Finland|Parliament]]. The official holidays can be divided into [[Christianity|Christian]] and secular holidays, although some of the Christian holidays have replaced holidays of pagan origin. The main Christian holidays are [[Christmas]], [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]], [[Easter]], [[Ascension|Ascension Day]], [[Pentecost]] and [[All Saints Day]]. The secular holidays are [[New Year's Day]], [[May Day]], [[Midsummer Day]] and [[Finland Independence Day|Independence Day]].
In addition to this all Sundays are official holidays but they are not as important as the special holidays. The names of the Sundays follow the liturgical calendar and they can be categorised as Christian holidays. When the standard working week in Finland was reduced to 40 hours by an act of Parliament it also meant that all Saturdays became a sort of de facto public holidays, though not official ones. Easter Sunday and Pentecost are Sundays that form part of a main holiday and they are preceded by a kind of special Saturdays.
Retail stores are prohibited by law from doing business on Sundays, except during the summer months (May through August) and in the pre-Christmas season (November and December). Business locations that have less than 400 square meters of floor space are allowed Sunday business throughout the year, with the exception of official holidays and certain Sundays, such as Mothers' Day and Fathers' Day.
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* Cellular frequency: GSM 900, GSM 1800, UMTS 2100
* Cellular technology: [[Global System for Mobile Communications|GSM]]/[[General Packet Radio Service|GPRS]]/[[Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution|EDGE]]/[[Universal Mobile Telecommunications System|UMTS]]
* [[Calendar date|Date]] format: DD.MM.YYYY (ex. 5.6.2005 or 05.06.2005), DD.MM.YY (ex. 5.6.05 or 05.06.05) or DD.MM. (ex. 5.6. or 05.06.)
* [[Decimal]] separator is a comma: 123,45
* Thousands are separated by a space or a dot: 10&nbsp;000 or 10.000
* Currency signs are placed after the digits, with a space as a mandatory separator: 10 €
* The currency is euro [euro], abbreviated €, divided into 100 ''sentti'', abbreviated ''snt''
* [[Voltage]]: 230V, 50 Hz; [[Domestic AC power plugs and sockets|Power connector]]: [[Domestic AC power plugs and sockets#Type F (German 2-pin, side clip earth)|2-pin round (German)]]
* [[Postal code]]: 5 digits.
== Other related articles ==
''main article: *[[List of Finland-related topics]]''
{{sisterlinks|Finland}}
*[[Communications in Finland]]
*[[Education in Finland]]
**[[List of universities in Finland]]
*[[Finland and Globalization]]
*[[Finlandization]]
*[[Finnish innovation system]]
*[[Foreign relations of Finland]]
*[[Gun politics in Finland]]
*[[List of Finnish companies]]
*[[List of Finnish newspapers]]
*[[List of Finnish television stations]]
*[[List of Finns]]
*[[List of towns in Finland]]
*[[Finnish Defence Forces|Military of Finland]]
**[[List of Finnish wars]]
*[[Music of Finland]]
*[[Protected areas of Finland]]
*[[Tourism in Finland]]
*[[Transportation in Finland]]
== International rankings ==
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2004], Rank 8 out of 60 economies (countries and regions)
*[[OECD]]: [http://www.oecd.org/pisa Programme for International Student Assessment 2003], Rank 1 out of 41 countries in math
* [[Reporters without borders]]: [http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=8247 Second world press freedom ranking (October 2003)], Rank 1 out of 166 countries (tied with Iceland, Netherlands and Norway)
* [[Save the Children]]: [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2004/images/pdf/SOWM_2004_final.pdf State of the World’s Mothers 2004], Rank 2 out of 119 countries (tied with Denmark)
* [[Transparency International]]: [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2004], Rank 1 out of 146 countries
* [[UNDP]]: [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/ Human Development Index 2005], Rank 13 out of 177 countries
* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Growth+Competitiveness+Index+rankings+2005+and+2004+comparisons Global Competitiveness Report 2005-2006] - Growth Competitiveness Index Ranking, Rank 1 out of 117 countries
== References ==
{{unreferenced}}
== Further Reading ==
* ''Culture Shock! Finland: A Guide to Customs and Etiquette'' Deborah Swallow
* ''Finland: Cultural Lone Wolf'' Richard D. Lewis
* ''Finland in the New Europe'' Max Jakobson
* ''A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939-1940'' William Trotter
* ''A History of Finland'' Eino Jutikkala, Kauko Pirinen
* ''Hitler's Arctic War: The German Campaigns in Norway, Finland, and the USSR 1940-1945'' Chris Mann
* ''Insight Guide: Finland''
* ''Let Us Be Finns: Essays on History'' Matti Klinge
* ''Lonely Planet Guide: Finland''
* ''A Short History of Finland'' Fred Singleton
* ''The White Death: The Epic of the Soviet-Finnish Winter War'' Allen F. Chew
* ''The Winter War: The Soviet Attack on Finland 1939-1940'' Eloise Engle and Lauri Paananen
== External links ==
* [http://www.iesaf.fi/ International English Speakers' Association of Finland ry] Events and information for English speakers in Finland.
* [http://www.finlandforum.org/bb Finland Forum] Discussion forum for people interested in Finland (in English)
* [http://www.finnguide.fi/ Finnguide.fi] Finland Information in English.
* [http://www.eduskunta.fi/efakta/index01.htm Parliament of Finland] - Official Parliamentary site
* [http://www.government.fi/vn/liston/base.lsp?k=en The Finnish Government] - Official governmental site
* [http://www.president.fi/english/ The President of Finland] - Official site of the President of the Republic of Finland
* [http://www.tte.ch/finland/ The Tourism Expert] - Finland links in 10 languages
* [http://virtual.finland.fi Virtual Finland] - Main portal to Finland (Administered by Finland's government)
* [http://virtual.finland.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=26989 ''Finlandia'' (a cappella version, including traditional lyrics] can be heard on Virtual Finland
* [http://www.worldwide-tax.com/finland/indexfinland.asp Finland economy and business indicators] Finland key Data on Taxes and Income Tax.
* [http://www.freewebs.com/favouritecountry/ Finland pictures ] A photo gallery about Finland.
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al motion, subverters of gravitation, stagnators of the earth, builders of the universe. You will still find specimens of all these classes in the New World and in the new century.
De Morgan gives his personal knowledge of paradoxers. "I suspect that I know more of the English class than any man in Britain. I never kept any reckoning: but I know that one year with another? -- and less of late years than in earlier time? -- I have talked to more than five in each year, giving more than a hundred and fifty specimens. Of this I am sure, that it is my own fault if they have not been a thousand. Nobody knows how they swarm, except those to whom they naturally resort. They are in all ranks and occupations, of all ages and characters. They are very earnest people, and their purpose is ''[[bona fide]]'', the dissemination of their paradoxes. A great many -- the mass, indeed -- are illiterate, and a great many waste their means, and are in or approaching penury. These discoverers despise one another."
A paradoxer to whom De Morgan paid the compliment which Achilles paid Hector -- to drag him round the walls again and again -- was James Smith, a successful merchant of Liverpool. He found <math>\pi = 3 \frac{1}{8}</math>. His mode of reasoning was a curious caricature of the ''reductio ad absurdum'' of Euclid. He said let <math>\pi = 3 \frac{1}{8}</math>, and then showed that on that supposition, every other value of <math>\pi</math> must be absurd; consequently <math>\pi = 3\frac{1}{8}</math> is the true value. The following is a specimen of De Morgan's dragging round the walls of Troy: "Mr. Smith continues to write me long letters, to which he hints that I am to answer. In his last of 31 closely written sides of note paper, he informs me, with reference to my obstinate silence, that though I think myself and am thought by others to be a mathematical Goliath, I have resolved to play the mathematical snail, and keep within my shell. A mathematical ''snail''! This cannot be the thing so called which regulates the striking of a clock; for it would mean that I am to make Mr. Smith sound the true time of day, which I would by no means undertake upon a clock that gains 19 seconds odd in every hour by false quadrative value of <math>\pi</math>. But he ventures to tell me that pebbles from the sling of simple truth and common sense will ultimately crack my shell, and put me ''hors de combat''. The confusion of images is amusing: Goliath turning himself into a snail to avoid <math>\pi = 3\frac{1}{8}</math> and James Smith, Esq., of the Mersey Dock Board: and put ''hors de combat'' by pebbles from a sling. If Goliath had crept into a snail shell, David would have cracked the Philistine with his foot. There is something like modesty in the implication that the crack-shell pebble has not yet taken effect; it might have been thought that the slinger would by this time have been singing -- And thrice [and one-eighth] I routed all my foes, And thrice [and one-eighth] I slew the slain."
In the region of pure mathematics De Morgan could detect easily the false from the true paradox; but he was not so proficient in the field of physics. His father-in-law was a paradoxer, and his wife a paradoxer; and in the opinion of the physical philosophers De Morgan himself scarcely escaped. His wife wrote a book describing the phenomena of spiritualism, table-rapping, [[table-turning]], etc.; and De Morgan wrote a preface in which he said that he knew some of the asserted facts, believed others on testimony, but did not pretend to know ''whether'' they were caused by spirits, or had some unknown and unimagined origin. From this alternative he left out ordinary material causes. Faraday delivered a lecture on ''Spiritualism'', in which he laid it down that in the investigation we ought to set out with the idea of what is physically possible, or impossible; De Morgan could not understand this.
=== Relations ===
De Morgan discovered [[relational algebra]] in his (1966: 208-46), first published in 1860. This algebra was extended by [[Charles Peirce]] (who admired De Morgan and met him shortly before his death), and re-exposited and further extended in vol. 3 of [[Ernst Schröder]]'s ''Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik''. [[Relational algebra]] proved critical to the ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' of [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Alfred North Whitehead]]. In turn, this algebra became the subject of much further work, starting in 1940, by [[Alfred Tarski]] and his colleagues and students at the [[University of California]].
==Notes==
{{ent|1|De_Morgan}} De Morgan, (1838) ''Induction (mathematics)'', ''The Penny Cyclopedia''.
{{ent|2|birthyear}} The year of his birth may be found by solving a conundrum proposed by himself, "I was <math>x</math> years of age in the year <math>x^2</math> " (He was 43 in 1849). The problem is indeterminate, but it is made strictly determinate by the century of its utterance and the limit to a man's life.
==References==
* De Morgan, A., 1966. ''Logic: On the Syllogism and Other Logical Writings''. Heath, P., ed. Routledge.
*[[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 2000. ''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940''. Princeton Uni. Press.
* [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext06/tbmms10p.pdf Ten British Mathematicians of the 19th Century (PDF)], by Alexander Macfarlane, available through [[Project Gutenberg]]
==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=De_Morgan}}
==See also==
* [[De Morgan's laws]]
* [[relational algebra]]
[[Category:1806 births|De Morgan, Augustus]]
[[Category:1871 deaths|De Morgan, Augustus]]
[[Category:19th century philosophers|De Morgan, Augustus]]
[[Category:British logicians|De Morgan, Augustus]]
[[Category:British mathematicians|De Morgan, Augustus]]
[[Category:British philosophers|De Morgan, Augustus]]
[[Category:Music theorists|De Morgan, Augustus]]
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<page>
<title>Ascorbic Acid</title>
<id>1459</id>
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<timestamp>2004-08-12T22:38:32Z</timestamp>
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<username>Ropers</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ascorbic acid]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Asgard</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the realm of Norse Mythology. For other uses, see [[Asgard (disambiguation)]].''
In [[Norse mythology]], '''Asgard''' ([[Old Norse language|Old Norse]]: '''Ásgarðr''') is the realm of the gods, the [[Æsir]], thought to be separate from the realm of the mortals, [[Midgard]].
The walls surrounding Asgard were built by a [[giant (mythology)|giant]]. As payment for his work, the giant was to receive the hand of [[Freyja]] in marriage, as well as the [[sun]] and the [[moon]]. This was agreed, provided that the work was completed within six months. In order to avoid honouring the agreement, [[Loki]] transformed himself into a mare to lure away the giant's magic horse, [[Svadilfari]]. The job was therefore not completed on time, and the gods evaded the payment.
The plain of [[Idavoll]] is the centre of Asgard. The Æsir meet there for discussions on important issues: the male gods meet in a hall called [[Gladsheim]], and the female gods in a hall called [[Vingólf]]. They also meet daily at the [[Well of Urd]], beneath [[Yggdrasill]].
==Other spellings==
*Alternatives Anglicizations: Ásgard, Ásgardr, Asgardr, Ásgarthr, Ásgarth, Asgarth, Ásgardhr
* Common [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Danish language|Danish]] form: Asgård
* [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: Åsgard (also Åsgård, Asgaard)
* [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: Ásgarður
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<title>Project Apollo</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings, see [[Apollo (disambiguation)]].''
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin-left:0.5em;"
!colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|'''North American Apollo CSM'''
|-
|colspan="3" align="center"| [[Image:Apollo_CSM_lunar_orbit.jpg|300px|Apollo CSM in lunar orbit.]] <br/>Apollo CSM in lunar orbit.
|-
!colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|Description
|-
|width="75" colspan="1" |'''Role:'''||width="200" colspan="2"| Earth and lunar orbit
|-
|width="75" colspan="1" |'''Crew: '''||width="250" colspan=" |
le in print every Thursday morning when classes are in session and online: [http://www.ithaca.edu/ithacan]. The Ithacan and its staff have won numerous journalistic awards and The Ithacan is regarded as a model for 4-year college weekly newspapers.
===''iMPrint Magazine''===
[http://www.imprintmagazine.org/ ''iMPrint Magazine: College Life’s Internet Magazine''], published from Ithaca College, is published by college students, for college students, about college students. iMPrint strives to inform its readers of national issues and give them the opportunity to voice their opinion and become involved in the discussion.
To be an informed college student is to be able to understand complex topics and relate them to other aspects of life. In order to allow readers to make connections across all topic areas, each edition of iMPrint is built around a central theme. This allows the sports fanatic, for example, to understand how issues of the news might affect their favorite team. But from Arts & Entertainment to Life to News to Sports & Recreation, iMPrint also understands that every reader’s interests are unique.
Beyond providing stories, iMPrint mobilizes information; that is, it allows the reader to become involved in what he or she just read. Whether by linking to a related site, e-mailing a source in the story or leaving a comment for the writer, the reader has the tools to take part in the discussion. iMPrint continues to stay on the cutting edge of seamlessly linking information across the Internet.
Currently, iMPrint only features writers and editors from Ithaca College. Soon, however, iMPrint will be expanding to other colleges and universities to include more voices, more opinions and more diversified content. Every month, iMPrint is growing by leaps and bounds. Now is the time to get involved. Make a difference. Leave your iMPrint. [http://www.imprintmagazine.org/ Leave your iMPrint]
===''Buzzsaw Haircut''===
''Buzzsaw Haircut'' was founded in [[1997]] and is the college's monthly alternative news magazine. It is available in print and [http://www.buzzsawhaircut.com/ online], with three magazines produced per semester.
''Buzzsaw Haircut'' is produced by the Ithaca College community and printed by Our Press of [[Binghamton, NY]]. It is funded by the Ithaca College Student Government Association, the Park School of Communications, and a grant from [[Campus Progress]].
Buzzsaw is a liberal-leaning campus magazine that accepts writing from students and faculty. The magazine is published with a monthly theme that directs the content of the main content section, ''Upfront.'' Other sections include ''News+Views,'' covering current events, ''Ministry of Cool,'' which includes reviews of books, music and movies as well as discussions of related pop culture topics, and ''Sawdust,'' the section for satire and cartoons.
The magazine exists to inspire thoughtful debate and open up the channels through which information is shared. It supports an op-ed voice and in-depth analysis of current and relavent issues.
===''Ithaca College Radio''===
Ithaca College is also home to two student-operated radio stations.
====92 WICB====
92 WICB is a fully-functional, FCC-licensed station that operates at 7500 Watts at 91.7 on the FM band. The majority of its programming falls under the modern rock category. While broadcasting modern rock, the station is run similarly to a commercial modern rock station, with the inclusion of playlists planned by the programming and music departments that include leeway for listener requests and DJ choices.
WICB also broadcasts a City Rhythms programming block on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday nights. Programming on these nights ranges from mainstream hip-hop and R&B, to underground, downtempo, and other lesser-known genres of what is generally considered urban music.
In addition to a lunchtime Jazz show, WICB broadcasts a number of other specialty shows throughout the week. These shows, which usually run 2-3 hours in length, come from genres such as blues, broadway, jam band music, and "homeless" music, that is not normally heard on the public airwaves.
WICB has a reputation in the entertainment and news industries as a strong training ground for students. Alumni of the station are numerous within the radio, record label and artist management businesses.
====106 VIC====
106 VIC is an internet radio station which also broadcasts on ICTV 16 when that station is not otherwise programmed. Approximately 60% of its programming consists of an "alterna-lite" format, which is a mix of alternative rock and singer/songwriter-style music, which is programmed by the music and programming departments. The rest of its programming consists of specialty shows, programmed by student DJs, which are more representative of a typical college station.
The station also hosts an annual 50 Hour Marathon, where two DJs stay awake for fifty hours straight to raise money for a local charity. The marathon, which is simulcast on 92 WICB and ICTV 16, typically involves events such as concerts, scavenger hunts, and remote broadcasts around Ithaca.
===''Journal of Race, Culture, Gender and Ethnicity''===
Also at Ithaca College is the ''Ithaca College Journal of Race, Culture, Gender and Ethnicity''. Founded in 2004 by several Ithaca College students, this academic journal welcomes student work that explores complexities of such topics. The journal is available in print and [http://www.ithaca.edu/icjournal/ online].
==Athletics==
Ithaca College's sports teams were originally called the Cayugans, but the name was changed to the Bombers in the 1930s. Sources credit an ''[[The Ithaca Journal|Ithaca Journal]]'' sports columnist with giving the Bombers their name when he compared Ithaca's [[baseball]] team to the [[New York Yankees]] (which are affectionately known as the "Bronx Bombers").
Ithaca is a member of the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA's]] Division III, the [[Empire Eight]] Conference, and the [[Eastern College Athletic Conference]]. Ithaca has one of Division III's strongest athletic programs. The Bombers have won a total of 15 national titles in seven team sports and five individual sports. Most recently, the women's crew team won back-to-back NCAA Division III championships in [[2004]] and [[2005]].
The Bombers play the [[State University of New York at Cortland|Cortland]] Red Dragons for the [[Cortaca Jug]], which was added in 1959 to an already competitive rivalry. The matchup is one of the most prominent in [[Division III]] college football.
Ithaca is also home to a large number of club sports. There are over 60 teams and many are very competitive; competing against other colleges in leagues and tournaments.
==Presidents==
===Current president===
[[Image:Peggy_Williams.jpg|left|200px|thumb|President Peggy Williams]]
Ithaca's current president is Peggy R. Williams. President Williams assumed the presidency of Ithaca College on [[July 1]], [[1997]]. She is the College's seventh president and its first female president. Williams came to Ithaca from [[Lyndon State College]], where she had been president since [[1989]]. She had previously worked at [[Trinity College (Vermont)|Trinity College]] in [[Burlington, Vermont]], as associate academic dean, chair of the business and economics department, and associate professor. She also held various positions within the Vermont State Colleges system. Before entering the field of higher education, Williams was a social worker for the Medical Center Hospital of Vermont and the Monroe County Department of Social Services in New York. Williams holds a bachelor of arts degree in psychology from [[St. Michael's College]] of the [[University of Toronto]]; a master of education degree from the [[University of Vermont]]; and a doctorate in administration, planning, and social policy from Harvard University. A native of [[Montreal]], Williams has lived in the United States since [[1968]] and is a citizen of both the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. A little known fact about Williams: she is an award-winning yo-yoist.
===Former presidents===
*'''W. Grant Egbert''' (1892-1924) &mdash; Founder, musical director, and president of the Ithaca Conservatory of Music, the predecessor of Ithaca College
*'''George C. Williams''' (1924-1932) &mdash; Second president of the Ithaca Conservatory of Music and first president of the renamed Ithaca College
*'''Leonard B. Job''' (1932-1957) &mdash; Guardian who successfully shepherded the College through the Great Depression and World War II
*'''Howard I. Dillingham''' (1957-1970) &mdash; Conductor of the movement that transported Ithaca College from downtown Ithaca to South Hill
*'''Ellis L. Phillips Jr.''' (1970-1975) &mdash; Credited with overseeing substantive, comprehensive changes to the College
*'''[[James J. Whalen]]''' (1975-1997) &mdash; Led the College through a time of unprecedented growth
==Notable professors, alumni and former students==
*[[David Boreanaz]], [[actor]], ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' and ''[[Angel (TV series)|Angel]]''
*[[Robert Marella]], a.k.a. [[Gorilla Monsoon]]
*[[Mark Romanek]], [[Film director|director]] of ''[[One Hour Photo]]'' and [[music video]]s
*[[Gavin MacLeod]], [[actor]], ''[[The Love Boat]]'' and ''[[The Mary Tyler Moore Show]]''
*[[Jessica Savitch]], first female network anchor
*[[Kevin Connors]], award winning sportscaster
*[[Rod Serling]], creator of the ''[[The Twilight Zone]]''
*[[CCH Pounder]], [[actor]], ''[[The Shield]]''
*[[Ricki Lake]], [[actress]], ''[[Serial Mom]]'', host ''[[The Ricki Lake Show]]''
*[[Gavin DeGraw]], [[singer]]
*[[Karl Ravech]], [[ESPN]] [[sportscaster]]
*[[Robert Iger]], president and chief executive officer of [[The Walt Disney Company]]
*[[Barbara Gaines]], executive producer of the ''[[Late Show with David Letterman]]''
===A cappella |
held up to 100,000 prisoners at one time.
The camp's main purpose, however, was not internment with forced labour (as Auschwitz I & III) but rather extermination. For this purpose, the camp was equipped with four crematoria with [[gas chamber]]s; each gas chamber was designed to hold up to 2,500 people at one time. Large-scale extermination started in Spring 1942.
Most people arrived at the camp by rail, often after horrifying trips in [[cattle cars]] lasting several days. From 1944 railway tracks extended into the camp itself; before that, arriving prisoners were marched from the Auschwitz railway station to the camp. At times, the whole transport would be sent to its death immediately. At other times, the Nazis would perform "selections", often administered by [[Josef Mengele]], to the end of choosing whom to kill right away and whom to imprison as labour force or use for [[Nazi human experimentation|medical experiments]]. Young children were taken from their mothers and placed with older women to be gassed, along with the sick, weak and old.
Those arriving prisoners who survived the initial selection would go on to spend some time in quarantine quarters and eventually work on the camp's maintenance or expansion or be sent to one of the surrounding satellite work camps.
One section of the camp was reserved for female prisoners. In another section known as "Canada" (so named because Germans believed that Canada was a land of vast riches), the belongings of the arriving victims were sorted and stored, to be transferred to the German government. Items such as banknotes, coins, jewellery, precious metals and diamonds were removed from "Canada" and shipped off to the Reichsbank.
Those selected for extermination were sent to any of four massive gas chamber/crematorium complexes, all at the edge of the camp. Two of the crematoria (Krema II and Krema III) each had an underground undressing room and the underground gas chamber, capable of holding thousands of people. To avoid mass panic, the victims were told that they were going there for showering; to reinforce this impression, shower heads were fitted in the gas chamber, though never connected to a water supply. The victims were ordered to strip naked and leave their belongings in the undressing room in a location that they could subsequently remember, before being led to the adjacent gas chamber. Once the victims were sealed shut in the chamber, the toxic agent [[Zyklon B]] was discharged from openings in the ceiling. Gas chambers in crematoria IV and V were above ground and Zyklon B was poured through the special windows in the walls. An oven room, where selected camp prisoners called ''[[Sonderkommandos]]'' took out the dead bodies and burned them, was part of the same building.
[[Image:Holocaust-gas-hair.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Empty poison gas canisters and hair from victims, as seen in the Auschwitz museum]]
Jews from many countries were sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau to be killed: 300,000 from Poland, 69,000 from France, 60,000 from the Netherlands, 55,000 from Greece, 46,000 from Moravia, 25,000 from Belgium, as well as tens of thousands of Jews from other countries. The largest group of Jews deported to Auschwitz came from Hungary after Germany took control of its former ally in March 1944. Between May and July 1944, about 438,000 Jews from Hungary were deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau and the most were killed there. When the crematoria could not keep up, bodies were burned in open pits. {{ref|anat1}}.
Many Roma had been imprisoned in a special section of the camp, mostly in family units. They were gassed in July 1944. On [[10 October]], eight hundred [[Roma (people)|Roma]] children were systematically killed at Birkenau.
On [[October 7]], 1944, the Jewish ''Sonderkommandos'' (those prisoners kept separate from the main camp and involved in the operation of the gas chambers and crematoria) staged an uprising. Female prisoners had smuggled in [[explosive]]s from a weapons factory, and crematorium IV was partly destroyed by an explosion. The prisoners then attempted a mass escape, but nearly all of the 250 were killed soon after.
Many of the inmates enslaved here survived less than a year due to their harsh living conditions.
Birkenau was liberated on January 27, 1945.
===Auschwitz III and satellite camps===
:''Also see [[List of subcamps of Auschwitz]]''
The surrounding satellite work camps were closely connected to German industry and were associated with arms factories, foundries and mines. The largest work camp was Auschwitz III Monowitz, named after the Polish village of [[Monowice]]. Starting operations in May 1942, it was associated with the synthetic rubber and liquid fuel plant ''Buna-Werke'' owned by [[IG Farben]]. In regular intervals, doctors from Auschwitz II would visit the work camps and select the weak and sick for the gas chambers of Birkenau. The largest subcamps were built at [[Trzebinia]], [[Bleechammer]] and [[Althammer]]. Female subcamps were constructed at [[Budy]] , [[Plawy]], [[Zabrze]], [[Gliwice|Gleiwitz]] I, II, III, [[Rajsko]] and at [[Lichtenwerden]].
=== Knowledge of the Allies ===
[[Image:May311944 auschwitz.jpg|thumb|250px|A photograph of Birkenau, taken May 31, 1944 by a Mosquito plane from South African Air Force, sent to take photographs of the fuel factory at nearby Monowitz. The photographic analysts missed the significance of the photograph, it was identified in the late 1970s and analyzed by the CIA in 1978. Smoke can been seen coming from Crematoria V, indicating that a group of prisoners were recently gassed.]]
Some information regarding Auschwitz reached the Allies during 1941-1944, such as the reports of [[Witold Pilecki]] and [[Jerzy Tabeau]], but the claims of mass killings were generally dismissed as exaggerations. This changed with receipt of the very detailed report of two escaped prisoners, [[Rudolf Vrba]] and [[Alfred Wetzler]], which finally convinced most Allied leaders of the truth about Auschwitz in the middle of 1944.
Detailed air reconnaissance photographs of the camp were taken accidentally during 1944 by aircraft seeking to photograph nearby military-industrial targets, but no effort was made to analyse them. (In fact, it was not until the 1970s that these photographs of Auschwitz were looked at carefully.)
Starting with a plea from the Slovakian rabbi [[Chaim Michael Dov Weissmandl|Weissmandl]] in May 1944, there was a growing campaign to convince the Allies to bomb Auschwitz or the railway lines leading to it. At one point [[Winston Churchill]] ordered that such a plan be prepared, but he was told that bombing the camp would most likely kill prisoners without disrupting the killing operation, and that bombing the railway lines was not technically feasible. Later several nearby military targets were bombed. One bomb accidentally fell into the camp and killed some prisoners. The debate over what could have been done, or what should have been attempted even if success was unlikely, has continued heatedly ever since.
=== Evacuation and liberation ===
The gas chambers of Birkenau were blown up by the Germans in November 1944 in an attempt to hide their crimes from the advancing Soviet troops. On [[January 17]], [[1945]] Nazi personnel started to evacuate the facility; most of the prisoners were [[Death marches (Holocaust)|marched West]]. Those too weak or sick to walk were left behind; about 7,500 prisoners were liberated by the [[322nd Infantry]] unit of the [[Red Army]] on [[January 27]], 1945.
'Liberation' was not necessarily the end of the ordeal for many prisoners. Soviet POWs were accused of collaborating with the Germans and were either executed or sent to [[gulags]] in the Soviet Union.
==Death toll==
Since the Nazis attempted to destroy the evidence of the mass murder at Auschwitz, the exact number of victims is impossible to fix with certainty. Early efforts to count the number of dead relied on the testimony of witnesses, especially Nazi [[Rudolf Hoess]], who gave the number of dead at 2.5-3 million. Though this number, and a higher total of 4 million, was used by Soviet and Polish authorities, it was never taken seriously by Western scholars, who generally supported numbers of around 1-2 million. In 1983, French scholar George Wellers was one of the first to use Nazi data on deportations to estimate the number killed at Auschwitz, arriving at 1.613 million dead, including 1.44 million Jews and 146,000 Poles. A larger study started around the same time by Franciszek Piper used time tables of train arrivals combined with deportation records to calculate 1.1 million Jewish deaths and 140,000-150,000 Polish victims, along with 23,000 Roma. This number has met with "significant, though not complete" agreement among scholars.{{note|anat1}}
== After the war ==
After the war, the camp served as a prison of the [[NKVD]] through most of 1945 and then remained in a state of disrepair for several years. The ''Buna Werke'' were taken over by the Polish government and became the foundation for the chemical industry of the region.
The Polish government then decided to restore Auschwitz I and turn it into a museum honouring the victims of [[nazism]]; Auschwitz II, where buildings were prone to decay, was preserved but not restored. Today, the Auschwitz I museum site combines elements from several periods into a single complex: for example the gas chamber at Auschwitz I (which did not exist by the war's end) was restored and the fence was moved (because of building being done after the war but before the establishment of the museum). However, in most cases the departure from the historical truth is minor, and is clearly labelled.
[[Image:Auschwitzruins.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site - ruins at Birkenau, 2002]]
Auschwitz II and the remains of the gas chambers there are also open to the public. The Ausch |
rg]] to [[Copenhagen]] through:
*the old [[Little Belt Bridge]] - [[1935]]
*the [[Great Belt Bridge|Great Belt rail link]] with the Western Bridge and the Eastern Tunnel - [[1997]].
A [[train ferry]] opened about [[1960]] from [[Rodby]], Denmark to [[Puttgarden]], Germany provides a short cut from the Danish capital to Germany.
=== Metros ===
*[[Copenhagen Metro]]: an automated driverless [[metro]] system with 26 trains, 17 stations and 16.8 km of track, operated by [[Serco]].
== Cycle tracks ==
Denmark, and especially [[Odense]] and [[Copenhagen]], are notable for its extensive system for bicycle transportation. Nearly one-fifth of all trips in Copenhagen are by bicycle, and for home-to-work commutes, nearly one third of all trips are by bicycle.
Odense has been appointed the "bicycle-city of the year" because of the vast amount of bicycle-tracks in the town. A complete network of 350 km all-weather serviced tracks are laid out in the town - this is as much as some states in [[Germany]].
*Cycle tracks: Danish cycle tracks comprise of a whole network of road area exclusively designated for bicycle traffic. Generally these cycle tracks run one-way on either side of the road, as a separate lane system between the center of the road, driven on by motor vehicles, and the sidewalk. Where there is parallel parking, the cycle tracks are generally found outside the row of cars, between the parked cars and the sidewalk. Cycle tracks are usually wide enough for two bicycles to ride side-by-side (2.2m), particularly in urban areas. This allows for passing on the lefthand side and a greater space buffer between cyclists and motor vehicles. In Copenhagen's 2002-2012 Cycle Policy, the city described plans to widen some of the lanes to fit 3 bikes across (3.5m) in particularly congested areas. On the main-roads, the roads are usually separated into two or three lanes, each with its own [[traffic lights]] and directional arrows, so as to assist bikers in getting faster from one point to another during rush-hours.
== Highways ==
<br>''total:''
71,437 km
<br>''paved:''
71,437 km (including 843 km of expressways)
<br>''unpaved:''
0 km (1998 est.)
== Waterways ==
417 km
== Pipelines ==
[[crude oil]] 110 km; [[petroleum]] products 578 km; [[natural gas]] 700 km
== Ports and harbours ==
=== [[North Sea]] ===
* [[Aalborg]]
* [[Esbjerg]]
=== [[Baltic Sea]] ===
* [[Copenhagen]]
* [[Aarhus]]
* [[Fredericia]]
----
[[Grenå]], [[Køge]], [[Odense]], [[Struer]]
== Merchant marine ==
<br>''total:''
336 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 5,190,227 GRT/6,815,128 DWT
<br>''ships by type:''
bulk 12, cargo 132, chemical tanker 22, container 70, liquified gas 26, livestock carrier 6, petroleum tanker 24, rail car carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 13, roll-on/roll-off 19, short-sea passenger 8, specialized tanker 3 (1999 est.)
<br>''note:''
Denmark has created its own internal register, called the Danish International Ship register (DIS); DIS ships do not have to meet Danish manning regulations, and they amount to a flag of convenience within the Danish register (1998 est.)
== Airports ==
118 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
28
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
2
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
7
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
3
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
13
<br>''under 914 m:''
3 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
90
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
7
<br>''under 914 m:''
82 (1999 est.)
=== List of airports ===
* [[Aalborg Airport]] (http://www.world-airport-codes.com/denmark/aalborg-1.html)
* [[Aarhus Airport]]
* [[Billund Airport]]
* [[Copenhagen Airport]]
* [[Karup Airport]]
* [[Odense Airport]]
* [[Roskilde Airport]]
* [[Sønderborg Airport]]
== See also ==
* [[Denmark]]
* [[Road traffic in Denmark]]
==External links==
*[http://www.rejseplanen.dk/bin/query.exe/en? Public transportation Route Planner]
*[http://www.krak.dk/ Online Map, Address lookup]
*[http://www.cph.dk/CPH/UK/ Copenhagen Airports]
*[http://dk.trackmap.net/bigmap All railway tracks]
*[http://www.vejpark.kk.dk/byenstrafik/cyklernesby/uk/index.htm City of Copenhagen: City of Cyclists]
[[Category:Transport in Denmark| ]]
[[it:Trasporti in Danimarca]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Denmark</title>
<id>8038</id>
<revision>
<id>39491058</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T22:02:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Burto88</username>
<id>928336</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Expenditures */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| colspan="4" width=270 style="border: 1px solid #6688AA; background-color:#f0f6fa; margin:0.5em; padding:0.5em; float:right" valign="top" |
|-
| bgcolor="#FE4040" align="center" colspan="2" | <big>'''Det Danske Forsvar'''</big>
|-
| bgcolor=#FFFFFF align="center" colspan="2" |[[Image:Danske Forsvars logo.png|150px|]]<br> The joint badge:<br>[[Royal Danish Army|Royal Army]], [[Royal Danish Navy|Royal Navy]], [[Danish Air Force|Royal Air Force]].
|-
| style="border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa" align="center" colspan="2" | '''Military manpower'''
|-
| Availability <br>(males age 15-49)
| 1,276,087 (2004 est.)
|-
| Fit for military service <br>(males age 15-49)
| 1,088,751 (2004 est.)
|-
| style="border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa" align="center" colspan="2" | '''Military expenditures'''
|-
| [[Danish krone|Kroner]] figure (FY04)
| [[DKK]]:19,8 billion
|-
| Percent of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]
| 1.4% (2004)
|-
| style="border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa" align="center" colspan="2" | '''Military structure (peace)'''
|-
| Army
| 15,450
|-
| Navy
| 5,300
|-
| Air Force
| 6,050
|-
| Home Guard<sup>1</sup>
| 55,000+
|-
| style="border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa" align="center" colspan="2" | '''Military structure (wartime)'''
|-
| Army
| 45,000+
|-
| Navy
| 7,300
|-
| Air Force
| 9,500
|-
| Home Guard<sup>1</sup>
| 55,000+
|-
|}
The [[armed forces]] of the [[Kingdom of Denmark]], known as '''The Danish Defence''' ([[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Det Danske Forsvar'') is charged with the defense of the [[Kingdom of Denmark]].
The [[Chief of Defence (Denmark)|Chief of Defence]] is the head of the Danish Armed Forces, and is head of the [[Defence Command (Denmark)|Defence Command]] which is managed by the [[Ministry of Defence (Denmark)|Ministry of Defence]]. Constitutionally, the [[Commander-in-Chief]] is the head of state ([[Margrethe II of Denmark|Queen Margrethe II]]); practically, it is the Cabinet.
Denmark also has a concept of [[Total defence (Denmark)|Total Defence]].
== Purpose and task ==
The purpose and task of the armed forces of Denmark is defined in Law no. 122 of [[February 27]], [[2001]] and in force since March 1, 2001. It defines 3 purposes and 6 tasks.
Its primary purpose is to prevent conflicts and war, preserve the [[sovereignty]] of Denmark, secure the continuing existence and integrity of the independent Kingdom of Denmark and further a peaceful development in the world with respect to human rights.
Its primary tasks are; [[NATO]] participate in accordance with the strategy of the alliance, detect and repel any sovereignty violation of Danish territory (including [[Greenland]] and the [[Faroe Islands]]), defence cooperation with non-NATO members, especially central- and East European countries, international missions in the area of conflict prevention, crises-control, humanitarian, peacemaking, peacekeeping, participate in ''Total Defence'' in cooperation with civilian resources and finally maintain a sizable force to execute these tasks at all times.
==Defense budget==
Since [[1988]], Danish defense budgets and security policy have been set by multi-year agreements supported by a wide parliamentary majority including government and opposition parties. However, public opposition to increases in defense spending &ndash; during a period when economic constraints require reduced spending for social welfare &ndash; has created differences among the political parties regarding a broadly acceptable level of new defense expenditure.
The latest Defence agreement ("[[Danish Defence agreement 2005-2009|Defence agreement 2005-2009]]") was signed [[June 10]], [[2004]], and calls for a significant re-construction of the entire military. From now about 60% support structure and 40% combat operational capability, it is to be 40% support structure and 60% combat operational capability. E.g. more combat soldiers and less 'paper'-soldiers.
The reaction speed is increased, with an entire [[brigade]] on standby readiness; the military retains the capability to continually deploy 2.000 soldiers in international service or 5.000 over a short time span. The standard mandatory [[conscription]] is modified. Generally this means lesser conscripts, lesser service time for them and only those who choose to will continue into the reaction force system.
===Expenditures===
The Danish military economy is the fifth largest single economy in the Danish Government (the 2005 [[Danish finance law|Finance law]]), significantly less than that of the [[Ministry of Social Affairs of Denmark|Ministry of Social Affairs]] (~100 billion [[DKK]]), [[Ministry of Employment of Denmark|Ministry of Employment]] (~90 billion DKK), [[Ministry of the Interior and Health of Denmark|Ministry of the Interior and Health]] (~50 billion DKK) and [[Ministry of Education of Denmark|Ministry of Education]] (~30 billion DKK) and only slightly larger than that of the [[Ministry |
f events related in the [[Bible]]. These latter are the intellectual descendants of [[John Locke]], [[David Hume]], [[Immanuel Kant]], [[Gotthold Lessing]], [[Gottlieb Fichte]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Georg Hegel]], and the French [[rationalism|rationalists]].
These ideas were taken to [[England]] by [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] and, in particular, by [[George Eliot]]'s translations of Strauss's ''Life of Jesus'' (1846) and Feuerbach's ''Essence of Christianity'' (1854). ''La Vie de Jésus'' (1863), by a Frenchman, [[Ernst Renan|Ernest Renan]] (1823&ndash;1892), continued the same tradition. But three years earlier before the appearance of ''La Vie de Jésus,'' liberal Anglican theologians had begun the process of incorporating this historical criticism into Christian doctrine in ''Essays and Reviews'' (1860). In Catholicism, ''L'Evangile et l'Eglise'' (1902), by [[Alfred Loisy]], against the ''Essence of Christianity'' of [[Adolf von Harnack]] and less inspired than Renan, gave birth to the [[modernist crisis]] (1902&ndash;1961). Some scholars, such as [[Rudolf Bultmann]], have used higher criticism of the Bible to [[Mythology|demythologize]] it.
Although the questions of higher criticism are widely recognized by [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jews]] and many traditional [[Christianity|Christians]] as legitimate questions, they often find the answers given by the [[radical]] higher critics unsatisfactory or even [[heresy|heretical]]. In particular, religious conservatives object to the [[Rationalism|rationalistic]] and [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic]] presuppositions of a large number of practioneers of higher criticism that leads to conclusions that conservative religionists find unacceptable. Nonetheless, conservative Bible scholars practice their own form of higher criticism within their supernaturalistic and confessional frameworks. Other Bible scholars, in contrast, believe that the evidence uncovered by higher criticism undermines such confessional frameworks. In addition, religiously [[Liberal Christianity|liberal Christians]] and religiously liberal Jews typically maintain that since belief in God has nothing to do with belief in whether a certain text, such as [[Isaiah]] or the [[Pentateuch]], has more than one author, it is possible to maintain religious faith while accepting most of the conclusions of religiously uncommitted higher criticism.
One issue of higher criticism for the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) has to do with the authorship of the Pentateuch. See the [[Documentary hypothesis]].
==Higher criticism of other religious texts==
Both higher and lower forms of criticism are carried out today with the religious writings of many religions, including [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Confucianism]].
===Islam===
Modern higher criticism is just beginning to be carried out on the [[Qur'an]]. This scholarship questions some traditional claims about its composition and content, contending that the Qur'an incorporates material from both the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] and the [[New Testament]], and that the text of the Qur'an developed both during and after [[Muhammad]]'s lifetime. For example, Islamic history records that [[Uthman ibn Affan|Uthman]] collected all variants of the Qur'an and destroyed those that he did not approve of. [http://theatlantic.com/issues/99jan/koran.htm]
==See also==
*[[Historical-grammatical]]
*[[Biblical genres]]
*[[Biblical criticism]]
Types of higher criticism:
* [[Source criticism]]
* [[Form criticism]]
* [[Redaction criticism]]
* [[Socio-historical criticism]]
* [[Rhetorical criticism]]
* [[Narrative criticism]]
History of Higher Criticism:
* [[Alexander Geddes]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.depts.drew.edu/jhc/ Journal of Higher Criticism]
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/andrew_white/Chapter20.html From the Divine Oracle to Higher Criticism]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04491c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article "Biblical Criticism (Higher)"]
** [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-51 ''Dictionary of the history of Ideas'':] Modernism and the Church
* [http://www.spirithome.com/biblcrit.html a Christian moderate's view on biblical criticism]
*[http://www.etsjets.org/jets/journal/42/42-2/42-2-pp193-210_JETS.pdf "Historical Criticism and the Evangelical"] by Grant Osborne
* [http://theatlantic.com/issues/99jan/koran.htm What is the Koran?] article from ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'' (full text available to subscribers only).
[[Category:Biblical criticism]]
[[fr:Critique radicale]]
[[nl:Schriftkritiek]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Robert Koch</title>
<id>13722</id>
<revision>
<id>41075775</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:13:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Orioane</username>
<id>362844</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:RobertKoch.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Robert Koch]]
{{dablink|For the American lobbyist, see [[Bobby Koch]].}}
'''Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch''' ([[December 11]], [[1843]] &ndash; [[May 27]], [[1910]]) was a German physician. He became famous for the discovery of the [[Bacillus anthracis|anthrax bacillus]] ([[1877]]), the [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis|tuberculosis bacillus]] ([[1882]]) and the [[Vibrio cholerae|cholera bacillus]] ([[1883]]) and for his development of [[Koch's postulates]]. He was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for his tuberculosis findings in [[1905]]. He is considered one of the founders of [[bacteriology]].
Robert Koch was born in [[Clausthal]], [[Germany]] as the son of a mining official. He studied medicine under [[Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle]] at the [[University of Göttingen]] and graduated in 1866. He then served in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] and later became district medical officer in ''Wollstein'' ([[Wolsztyn]]). Working with very limited resources, he became one of the founders of [[bacteriology]], the other major figure being [[Louis Pasteur]].
After [[Casimir Davaine]] showed the direct transmission of the [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]] bacillus between cows, Koch studied anthrax more closely. He invented methods to purify the bacillus from blood samples and grow pure cultures. He found that, while it could not survive outside a host for long, anthrax built persisting endospores that could last a long time. These [[endospore]]s, embedded in soil, were the cause of unexplained "spontaneous" outbreaks of anthrax. Koch published his findings in 1876, and was rewarded with a job at the Imperial Health Office in [[Berlin]] in 1880.
In [[Berlin]], he improved the methods he used in Wollstein, including staining and purification techniques, and bacterial growth media, including [[agar]] plates (thanks to the advice of his wife), and the Petri dish (named after [[J.R. Petri]]) - these devices are still used today. With these techniques, he was able to discover the bacterium causing [[tuberculosis]] (''[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'') in [[1882]] (he announced the discovery on [[March 24]]). Tuberculosis was the cause of one in seven deaths in the mid-19th century. The importance of his findings raised Koch to the level of [[Louis Pasteur]] in bacteriological research.
In 1883, Koch worked with a French research team in [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]], studying [[cholera]]. Koch identified the [[vibrio]] bacterium that caused cholera, though he never managed to prove it in experiments. The bacterium had been previously isolated by Italian anatomist [[Filippo Pacini]] in 1854, but his work had been ignored due to the predominance of the [[miasma theory of disease]]. Koch was unaware of Pacini's work and made an independent discovery, and his greater preeminence allowed the discovery to be widely spread for the benefit of others. In 1965, however, the bacterium was formally renamed ''Vibrio cholerae Pacini 1854''.
In 1885, he became professor for [[hygiene]] at the [[Charité|University of Berlin]], and later, in 1891, director of the newly formed Institute of Infectious Diseases, a position which he resigned from in 1904. He started traveling around the world, studying diseases in [[South Africa]], [[India]], and [[Java (island)|Java]].
Probably as important as his work on tuberculosis, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize, are ''[[Koch's postulates]]'', which say that ''to establish that an organism is the cause of a [[disease]], it must be'' :
* found in all cases of the disease examined
* prepared and maintained in a pure [[culture]]
* capable of producing the original [[infection]], even after several generations in culture
* could be retrieved from an inoculated animal and cultured again.
But after his success the quality of his own research declined (especially with the [[fiasco]] over his ineffective TB cure "[[tuberculin]]"), although his pupils using his methods found the organisms responsible for [[diphtheria]], [[typhoid]], [[pneumonia]], [[gonorrhoea]], cerebrospinal [[meningitis]], [[leprosy]], [[bubonic plague]], [[tetanus]], and [[syphilis]] among others.
He died in [[Baden-Baden]], Germany.
==See also==
* [[History of medicine]]
* [[Microbiology]]
* [[Timeline of medicine and medical technology]]
==External links==
*[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1905/koch-bio.html Biography at the Nobel Foundation website]
[[Category:1843 births|Koch, Robert]]
[[Category:1910 deaths|Koch, Robert]]
[[Category:Microbiologists|Koch, Robert]]
[[Category:German scientists|Koch, Robert]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners|Koch, Robert]]
[[Category:Tuberculosis]]
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[[id:Rober |
nly two years but in this time wrote ''The Pickwick Papers'', ''Oliver Twist'' and ''Nicholas Nickleby''. It contains a major collection of manuscripts, original furniture and memorabilia.
* '''Charles Dickens' Birthplace Museum''', [[Portsmouth]] is the house in which Dickens was born. It has been re-furnished in the likely style of 1812 and contains Dickens memorabilia.
* '''Dickens House Museum''', [[Broadstairs]], Kent is the house of Miss Mary Pearson Strong, the basis for Miss Betsey Trotwood in ''David Copperfield''. It is visible across the bay from the original Bleak House (also a museum until 2005) where ''David Copperfield'' was written. The museum contains memorabilia, general Victoriana and some of Dickens' letters. Broadstairs has held a '''Dickens Festival''' annually since 1937.
* A '''Dickens World''' theme park covering 71 500 square feet, and including a cinema and restaurants, is scheduled to open in [[Chatham, Kent|Chatham]] in 2007. It will be on the site of the formal naval dockyard where Dickens' father once worked in the Navy Pay Office.
* The '''Charles Dickens Centre''' in Eastgate House, [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]], closed in 2004, but the garden containing the author's Swiss chalet is still open. The 16th-Century house, which appeared as Westgate House in ''The Pickwick Papers'' and the Nun's House in ''Edwin Drood'', will probably re-open under a related use. The city's annual '''Dickens Festival''' (summer) and Dickensian Christmas celebrations continue unaffected.
There also Dickens festivals across the world.
*The '''Riverside Dickens Festival''' in Riverside, California, USA includes literary studies as well as entertainments.
* '''The Great Dickens Christmas Fair''' has been held in San Francisco since the 1970s. During the four or five weekends before Christmas, over 300 costumed performers mingle with and entertain thousands of visitors amidst the recreated full-scale blocks of Dickensian London. This is the oldest, largest, and most successful of the modern Dickens festivals outside of England..
==Bibliography==
===Major novels===
*''[[The Pickwick Papers]]'' (1836)
*''[[Oliver Twist]]'' (1837&ndash;1839)
*''[[Nicholas Nickleby]]'' (1838&ndash;1839)
*''[[The Old Curiosity Shop]]'' (1840&ndash;1841)
*''[[Barnaby Rudge]]'' (1841)
The Christmas books:
**''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' (1843)
**''[[The Chimes]]'' (1844)
**''[[The Cricket on the Hearth]]'' (1845)
**''[[The Battle of Life]]'' (1846)
*''[[Martin Chuzzlewit]]'' (1843&ndash;1844)
*''[[Dombey and Son]]'' (1846&ndash;1848)
*''[[David Copperfield (novel)|David Copperfield]]'' (1849&ndash;1850)
*''[[Bleak House]]'' (1852&ndash;1853)
*''[[Hard Times]]'' (1854)
*''[[Little Dorrit]]'' (1855&ndash;1857)
*''[[A Tale of Two Cities]]'' (1859)
*''[[Great Expectations]]'' (1860&ndash;1861)
*''[[Our Mutual Friend]]'' (1864&ndash;1865)
*''[[The Mystery of Edwin Drood]]'' (unfinished) (1870)
*"Hard Times (serial)"
===Selected other books===
*''[[Sketches by Boz]]'' (1836)
*''[[American Notes]]'' (1842)
*''[[Pictures from Italy]]'' (1846)
*''[[The Life of Our Lord]]'' (1846, published in 1934)
*''[[A Child's History of England|A Child's History of England]]'' (1851&ndash;1853)
===Short stories===
*"Captain Murderer"
*"The Child's Story"
*The Christmas stories:
**"The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Bargain" (1848)
**"A Christmas Tree"
**"The Poor Relation's Story"
**"The Child's Story"
**"The Schoolboy's Story"
**"Nobody's Story"
**"The Seven Poor Travellers"
**"What Christmas Is As We Grow Older"
*"Doctor Marigold"
*"George Silverman's Explanation"
*"Going into Society"
*"The Haunted House"
*"Holiday Romance"
*"The Holly-Tree"
*"Hunted Down"
*"The Lamplighter"
*"A Message from the Sea"
*"Mrs Lirriper's Legacy"
*"Mrs Lirriper's Lodgings"
*"[[Mugby Junction]]"
*"Perils of Certain English Prisoners"
*"[[The Signalman]]"
*"Somebody's Luggage"
*"Sunday Under Three Heads"
*"Tom Tiddler's Ground"
*"The Trial for Murder"
*"Wreck of the Golden Mary"
===Essays===
*''[[In Memoriam W. M. Thackeray]]''
===Articles===
*''[[A Coal Miner's Evidence]]''
==References==
* [http://www.gre.ac.uk/schools/nri/earth/prospect_stud/medroch.htm Rochester local history]
* [http://www.medway.gov.uk/ Uses of Eastgate House, Rochester]
==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Charles Dickens}}
*'''Sources online'''
** {{gutenberg author|id=Charles_Dickens|name=Charles Dickens}}
** [http://www.dickens-literature.com/ Dickens Literature] &mdash; Chapter-indexed, searchable versions of Dickens&rsquo; works
** [http://www.charles-dickens.org Charles Dickens] HTML format of Dickens books
** [http://www.quotesandpoem.com/literature/ListofLiteraryWorks/Dickens__Charles Charles Dickens Books and Quotes]
** [http://www.victorianlondon.org/books/search.cgi The Dickens Search Engine] Search Dickens' books
** [http://www.dickenslive.com A Charles Dickens Journal] Timeline of Dickens' Life
*'''Miscellaneous'''
** [http://www.tellingtrails.co.uk/pages/individuals/dickenspage.html Charles Dickens in south-west London] Twickenham and Richmond
** [http://www.helsinki.fi/kasv/nokol/dickens.html A Dickens web page] with both original content and links to many other Dickens pages
** [http://www.fidnet.com/~dap1955/dickens/characters.html Dickens&rsquo; Characters] some of the estimated 989 characters in Dickens
** [http://www.fidnet.com/~dap1955/dickens/dickens_london_map.html Dickens&rsquo; London Map] Learn more about the London locations Dickens wrote about
**[http://www.lang.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~matsuoka/Dickens.html A comprehensive Dickens page]
**[http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/dickens/genealogy/genealogy-e.html A genealogical tree of the Dickens family]
** [http://www.perryweb.com/Dickens Charles Dickens &mdash; Gad&rsquo;s Hill Place] Daily Dickens information!
** [http://www.dickensmuseum.com Dickens Museum] Situated in a former Dickens House, 48 Doughty Street, London, WC1
** [http://www.charlesdickensbirthplace.co.uk/ Dickens Birthplace Museum] Old Commercial Road, Portsmouth
** [http://www.dickenshouse.co.uk/museum.htm Dickens House Museum] 2 Victoria Parade, Broadstairs, Kent
** [http://www.broadstairsdickensfestival.co.uk/ Broadstairs Dickens Festival]
** [http://www.dickensfest.com/ International Dickens Festival]
** [http://www.dickensfair.com/ Dickens Christmas Fair] in San Francisco
** [http://reverent.org/bulwer-dickens.html Dickens or Bulwer?] A quiz to tell the prose of Charles Dickens from that of the worst writer in history of letters
** [http://librivox.org/a-christmas-carol-by-charles-dickens/ Free audiobook] of ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' at [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox]
** [http://wiredforbooks.org/carol/ Unabridged dramatic audio production of "A Christmas Carol" - RealAudio]
** [http://wiredforbooks.org/peterackroyd/ 1991 audio interview with Peter Ackroyd, biographer of Charles Dickens. Interview by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
**{{imdb name|id=0002042|name=Charles Dickens}}
*'''Critical analysis'''
** [http://www.online-literature.com/chesterton/dickensworks/ ''Appreciations and Criticisms of the Works of Charles Dickens''] by [[G. K. Chesterton]]
** [http://www.dickens-theme.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk Charles Dickens's Themes] An analysis of ''The Mystery of Edwin Drood'' and ''Nicholas Nickleby''
**[http://www.diderot.nl/Uitgeverij%20Diderot%20-%20Life%20of%20Charles%20Dickens-John%20Forster.htm Life of Charles Dickens] by [[John Forster]]
** [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16787 Life of Charles Dickens], by Frank Marzials, at Project Gutenberg. 1887 publication with lengthy bibliography.
**[http://www.fathom.com/course/21701768/index.html Charles Dickens: The Life of the Author] a seminar by [[Kenneth Benson]] from the [[New York Public Library]]
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[Category:1812 births|Dickens, Charles]]
[[Category:1870 deaths|Dickens, Charles]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Dickens, Charles]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Dickens, Charles]]
[[Category:Charles Dickens|*]]
[[Category:English novelists|Dickens, Charles]]
[[Category:English short story writers|Dickens, Charles]]
[[Category:English journalists|Dickens, Charles]]
[[Category:English literature]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts|Dickens, Charles]]
[[Category:Historical novelists|Dickens, Charles]]
[[Category:Londoners|Dickens, Charles]]
[[Category:Natives of Kent|Dickens, Charles]]
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[bs:Charles Dickens]]
[[ca:Charles Dickens]]
[[cs:Charles Dickens]]
[[cy:Charles Dickens]]
[[da:Charles Dickens]]
[[de:Charles Dickens]]
[[et:Charles Dickens]]
[[es:Charles Dickens]]
[[eo:Charles DICKENS]]
[[fr:Charles Dickens]]
[[gd:Charles Dickens]]
[[ko:찰스 디킨스]]
[[hr:Charles Dickens]]
[[id:Charles Dickens]]
[[is:Charles Dickens]]
[[it:Charles Dickens]]
[[he:צ'ארלס דיקנס]]
[[ka:დიკენსი, ჩარლზ]]
[[lv:Čārlzs Dikenss]]
[[ms:Charles Dickens]]
[[nl:Charles Dickens]]
[[ja:チャールズ・ディケンズ]]
[[no:Charles Dickens]]
[[pl:Karol Dickens]]
[[pt:Charles Dickens]]
[[ru:Диккенс, Чарльз]]
[[sq:Charles Dickens]]
[[simple:Charles Dickens]]
[[sk:Charles Dickens]]
[[sr:Чарлс Дикенс]]
[[fi:Charles Dickens]]
[[sv:Charles Dickens]]
[[tr:Charles Dickens]]
[[zh:查尔斯·狄更斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer Aided Design</title>
<id>5885</id>
<revision>
<id>15904073</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-05T23:46:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikkalai</username>
<id>28438</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer-aided design]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carabiner</title>
<id>5898</id>
<revision>
|
ut the idea still surfaces occasionally in a certain racialist current inside the Basque nationalism.
Because of this, research of the genetics of Basques is prone to be interpreted with political intentions, while in the Spanish side it has brought to a total denial of any existing genetic study or even the proper validity of any genetic study in humans.
Investigations of Basque [[blood type]]s have found that there are more Basques with [[type O blood]] than in the general European population. Basques also have a comparatively lower chance of being either [[type B]] or [[type AB]]. The Basques have a high incidence of the [[Rhesus factor|Rhesus]] negative blood type, also common in several North African [[Berber]] tribes.
==See also==
*[[Jai-Alai]]
*[[List of Basques]]
==References==
*''The Basque History of the World'', [[Mark Kurlansky]], [[1999]], ISBN 0802713491
**{{note|KurlanskyHaitz}} [http://www.randomhouse.com/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780676973662&view=excerpt Chapter 1].
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=France Ethnologue report for France] for population statistics in France.
*{{note|EBLUL}} Resolution of the General Assembly of the of the European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages, [[13 September]] [[2003]] (Helsinki), on the situation of the Basque language in the Autonomous Community of Navarre. Reported in MERCATOR Butlleti 55: "Speakers of a regional or minority language should have the right to use their language in private and public life. Contrary to these principles, local authorities from Iruña/Pamplona (capital city of the Autonomous Community of Navarre in Spain) have been implementing a series of reforms to the Autonomous Community legislation limiting the use of the Basque language. Basque is the only endangered language in the Autonomous Community of Navarre&hellip;"
==External links==
*[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~allpoms/genetics3.html History since the last Ice Age: National and International DNA Projects] mentions genetic studies over the Basques' origin.
*[http://www.basqueclubs.com/ NABO (North American Basque Organizations, Inc.) official web site]
*[http://www.basqueheritage.com/ Basque Heritage in North America and Basque diaspora today.]
*[http://www.juandegaray.org.ar/ Basque heritage in Argentina.]
*[http://www.eusko-ikaskuntza.org/ Basque Studies Society-Eusko Ikaskuntza.]
*[http://www.euskomedia.org/ A Basque Encyclopedia and other cultural and historical funds.]
*[http://www.euskonews.com/ Euskonews, Magazine edited by the Basque Studies Society.]
*[http://www.euskadi.net/home/ Basque Autonomous Government.]
*[http://www.hyw.com/books/history/Basques.htm Brief history of Basque whaling]
*[http://www.euskalherria.info/index.php?newlang=eng== Euskal Herria Info] (in Basque)
*[http://www.bastaya.org/ Basta ya! (Stop now!)], association against any terrorism. Supports victims of terorism and defends the state, statutes and constitution. (in Spanish)
[[Category:Basque|Basque]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Spain]]
[[Category:Pre-Indo-Europeans]]
[[als:Basken]]
[[de:Basken]]
[[eo:Eŭskoj]]
[[es:Vasco]]
[[fi:Baskit]]
[[he:בסקים]]
[[ja:バスク人]]
[[jbo:skalduna]]
[[ka:ბასკები]]
[[nl:Basken]]
[[pl:Baskowie]]
[[ru:Баски]]
[[sr:Баскијци]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blot</title>
<id>4661</id>
<revision>
<id>28787013</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-19T23:41:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pankkake</username>
<id>425851</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''blot''' can refer to several different things.
*In [[biology]], a '''[[Blot (biology)|blot]]''' is a method of transferring proteins, [[DNA]], [[RNA]] or [[protein]] onto a carrier. The following types are known:
**[[Southern blot]] to recognize [[DNA]]
**[[Northern blot]] to recognize [[RNA]]
**[[Western blot]] to recognize [[proteins]]
**[[Southwestern blot]]
*In the [[board game]] [[backgammon]] a '''blot''' is an unprotected checker.
*In [[Norse mythology]] and [[Ásatrú]], a '''[[blót]]''' is a sacred meal shared with the gods.
*[[Blot (album)|Blot]], an album by [[Einherjer]].
See also [[Rorschach inkblot test]].
{{disambig}}
[[sv:Blot]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bookkeeping</title>
<id>4662</id>
<revision>
<id>39580558</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T12:27:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>198.54.202.226</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Double-entry book-keeping]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Basil the Great</title>
<id>4663</id>
<revision>
<id>15902923</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-10T08:07:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Llywrch</username>
<id>5094</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to consolidated article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Basil of Caesarea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bézier curve</title>
<id>4664</id>
<revision>
<id>41253730</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T02:15:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fibonacci</username>
<id>18738</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Application in computer graphics */ de Casteljau</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In the [[mathematics|mathematical]] subfield of [[numerical analysis]] a '''Bézier curve''' is a [[parametric curve]] important in [[computer graphics]]. A [[numerical stability|numerically stable]] method to evaluate Bézier curves is [[de Casteljau's algorithm]].
Generalizations of Bézier curves to higher [[dimension]]s are called [[Bézier surface]]s; the [[Bézier triangle]] is a special case.
Bézier curves are also formed by many common forms of [[string art]], where strings are looped across a frame of nails.
==History==
Bézier curves were widely publicized in [[1962]] by the [[France|French]] engineer [[Pierre Bézier|Pierre Bézier]] who used them to design [[automobile]] bodies. The curves were developed in [[1959]] by [[Paul de Casteljau]] using [[de Casteljau's algorithm]].
==Examination of cases==
===Linear Bézier curves===
Given points '''P'''<sub>0</sub> and '''P'''<sub>1</sub>, a linear Bézier curve is just a [[straight line]] between those two points. The curve is given by
:<math>\mathbf{B}(t)=(1-t)\mathbf{P}_0 + t\mathbf{P}_1 \mbox{ , } t \in [0,1].</math>
===Quadratic Bézier curves===
A quadratic Bézier curve is the path traced by the function '''B'''(''t''), given points '''P'''<sub>0</sub>, '''P'''<sub>1</sub>, and '''P'''<sub>2</sub>,
: <math>\mathbf{B}(t) = (1 - t)^{2}\mathbf{P}_0 + 2t(1 - t)\mathbf{P}_1 + t^{2}\mathbf{P}_2 \mbox{ , } t \in [0,1].</math>
[[TrueType]] fonts use [[Bézier spline]]s composed of the quadratic Bézier curves.
===Cubic Bézier curves===
[[image:bezier.png|right]]
Four points '''P'''<sub>0</sub>, '''P'''<sub>1</sub>, '''P'''<sub>2</sub> and '''P'''<sub>3</sub> in the plane or in three-dimensional space define a cubic Bézier curve.
The curve starts at '''P'''<sub>0</sub> going toward '''P'''<sub>1</sub> and arrives at '''P'''<sub>3</sub> coming from the direction of '''P'''<sub>2</sub>. In general, it will not pass through '''P'''<sub>1</sub> or '''P'''<sub>2</sub>; these points are only there to provide directional information. The distance between '''P'''<sub>0</sub> and '''P'''<sub>1</sub> determines "how long" the curve moves into direction '''P'''<sub>2</sub> before turning towards '''P'''<sub>3</sub>.
The [[parametric]] form of the curve is:
:<math>\mathbf{B}(t)=\mathbf{P}_0(1-t)^3+3\mathbf{P}_1t(1-t)^2+3\mathbf{P}_2t^2(1-t)+\mathbf{P}_3t^3 \mbox{ , } t \in [0,1].</math>
Modern imaging systems like [[PostScript]], [[Metafont]] and [[GIMP]] use Bézier splines composed of cubic Bézier curves for drawing curved shapes.
==Generalization ==
The Bézier curve of degree <math>n</math> can be generalized as follows. Given points '''P'''<sub>0</sub>, '''P'''<sub>1</sub>,..., '''P'''<sub>n</sub>, the B&eacute;zier curve is
:<math>\mathbf{B}(t)=\sum_{i=0}^n {n\choose i}\mathbf{P}_i(1-t)^{n-i}t^i =\mathbf{P}_0(1-t)^n+{n\choose 1}\mathbf{P}_1(1-t)^{n-1}t+\cdots+\mathbf{P}_nt^n \mbox{ , } t \in [0,1].</math>
For example, for <math>n=5</math>:
:<math>\mathbf{B}(t)=\mathbf{P}_0(1-t)^5+5\mathbf{P}_1t(1-t)^4+10\mathbf{P}_2t^2(1-t)^3+10\mathbf{P}_3t^3(1-t)^2+5\mathbf{P}_4t^4(1-t)+\mathbf{P}_5t^5 \mbox{ , } t \in [0,1].</math>
=== Terminology ===
Some terminology is associated with these parametric curves. We have
:<math>\mathbf{B}(t) = \sum_{i=0}^n \mathbf{P}_i\mathbf{b}_{i,n}(t),\quad t\in[0,1]</math>
where the polynomials
:<math>\mathbf{b}_{i,n}(t) = {n\choose i} t^i (1-t)^{n-i},\quad i=0,\ldots n</math>
are known as [[Bernstein polynomial|Bernstein basis polynomial]]s of degree ''n'',
defining 0<sup>0</sup> = 1.
The points '''P'''<sub>''i''</sub> are called ''control points'' for the B&eacute;zier curve. The [[polygon]] formed by connecting the B&eacute;zier points
with [[line_(mathematics)|line]]s, starting with '''P'''<sub>0</sub> and finishing with '''P'''<sub>''n''</sub>, that is, the [[convex hull]] of the '''P'''<sub>''i''</sub> , is called the ''B&eacute;zier polygon'', and the B&eacute;zier polygon contains the B&eacute;zier curve.
=== Notes ===
*The curve begins at '''P'''<sub>0</sub> and ends at '''P'''<sub>n</sub>; this is the so-called ''end |
1989, Jorge Born, president of the company from 1987 (replacing the "business genius" Mario Hirsch), began working closely with the government of [[Carlos Menem]]. Bunge provided the government with its first two economy ministers. This intervention in politics upset the other shareholders and together with the company's lacklustre business performance, Born was ousted in 1991 and replaced by Octavio Caraballo.
The prior unity between the shareholders disintergrated as Caraballo struggled to modernize the company. Bizzarely the ousted Jorge Born has started working with one of his former kidnappers, Rodolfo Galimberti.
In 1994 the Bermuda-registered [[Bunge International]] was created as the main company in which the families have shares. There are around 180 shareholders - the main families are Hirsch, Bunge, Born, Engels and De La Tour. This replaced the older structure in which individual shareholders had stakes in all the different Bunge companies. Now only in Argentina does the Bunge y Born name still exist.
[[Category:Companies of Argentina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Big Apple</title>
<id>4691</id>
<revision>
<id>41353989</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T20:28:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.224.153.40</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>npov</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bigapple.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Big Apple: [[Manhattan]] viewed from atop the [[World Trade Center]].]]
:''For the swing dance, see [[Big Apple (dance)|Big Apple (dance)]]''
The '''"Big Apple"''' is a [[List of city nicknames in the United States|nickname]] or alternate [[toponym]] for [[New York City]]. Its popularity since the [[1970s]] is due to a promotional campaign by the New York Convention and Visitor's Bureau. Its earlier origins are less clear.
One explanation cited by the [[New-York Historical Society]] and others is that it was first popularized by [[John J. Fitz Gerald]], who first used it in his [[horse racing]] column in the ''[[New York Morning Telegraph]]'' in [[1921]], then further explaining its origins in his [[February 18]], [[1924]] column. Fitz Gerald credited [[African-American]] stable-hands working at horseracing tracks in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]:
<div style="width: 400px; border: 1px solid #8888aa; padding: 6px; margin: 20px;">
The Big Apple. The dream of every lad that ever threw a leg over a thoroughbred and the goal of all horsemen. There's only one Big Apple. That's New York.
Two dusky stable hands were leading a pair of thoroughbred around the "cooling rings" of adjoining stables at the Fair Grounds in New Orleans and engaging in desultory conversation.
*"Where y'all goin' from here?" queried one.
*"From here we're headin' for '''The Big Apple'''", proudly replied the other.
*"Well, you'd better fatten up them skinners or all you'll get from the apple will be the core", was the quick rejoinder.
</div>
In the 1920s the New York race tracks were the cream of the crop, so going to the New York races was a big treat, the prize, allegorically a Big Apple.
In [[1997]], as part of an official designation of "Big Apple Corner" in [[Manhattan]], former Mayor [[Rudy Giuliani]] summarizes the rest of the story:
:A decade later many jazz musicians began calling the City "The Big Apple" to refer to New York City (especially [[Harlem, Manhattan|Harlem]]) as the jazz capital of the world. Soon the nickname became synonymous with New York City and its cultural diversity. In the early 1970s the name played an important role in reviving New York's tourist economy through a campaign led by the New York Convention and Visitors Bureau. Today the nickname "The Big Apple," which replaced "Fun City," is the international description of the city and is synonymous with the cultural and tourist attractions of New York City.
:Therefore, it is only fitting that the southwest corner of West 54th Street and Broadway, the corner on which John J. Fitz Gerald resided from 1934 to 1963, be designated "Big Apple Corner."
According to [[PBS|PBS's]] Broadway: The American Musical miniseries, [[Walter Winchell]] used the term "Big Apple" to refer to the New York cultural scene, especially [[Harlem]] and Broadway, helping to spread the use of this nickname.
A documented earlier use comes from the [[1909 in literature|1909 book]] ''The Wayfarer in New York'' by Edward S. Martin. He wrote (regarding New York) that the rest of the United States "inclines to think the big apple gets a disproportionate share of the national sap."
Etymologists have been unable to trace any influence that this use had on the nickname's popularity.
== External links ==
* [http://www.ci.nyc.ny.us/html/om/html/97/sp082-97.html Giuliani creates Big Apple Corner] from the February 1997 Archives of the Mayor's Press Office
* [http://www.barrypopik.com/article/3/summary-the-big-apple The Big Apple] Big Apple Timeline from amateur etymologist [[Barry Popik]]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a1_382.html Straight Dope article] about the subject, with [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a990917.html follow-on]
* [http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/faq.html#apple FAQ on the subject] from the [[New York Public Library]] website
* [http://www.nyhistory.org/nyhsqa.html Q&A including the subject] from the [[New-York Historical Society]] website
[[Category:New York City culture]]
[[de:Big Apple]]
[[es:Gran Manzana]]
[[ka:დიდი ვაშლი]]
[[nl:Big Apple]]
[[nn:The Big Apple]]
[[pt:Grande Maçã]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boston Corbett</title>
<id>4692</id>
<revision>
<id>41401142</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T02:07:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tyrenius</username>
<id>393711</id>
</contributor>
<comment>correct link for Andersonville Prison</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:boston corbett.jpg|thumb|240px|Boston Corbett]]
'''Thomas P. "Boston" Corbett''' ([[1832]] - [[1894]]?) is most well known as the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] soldier who shot [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s assassin [[John Wilkes Booth]].
Corbett was born in [[England]] in 1832. Along with his family, he moved to [[New York City]] in [[1839]]. He eventually became a [[hatter]] in [[Troy, New York]]. There has been speculation that the use of [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] as part of the hatter's trade was a cause of Corbett's later mental problems.
Corbett married, but his wife died in childbirth. Following her death, he moved to [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] and continued working as a hatter. He became a reborn, evangelical [[Christian]] and changed his name to Boston. Trying to imitate [[Jesus]], he began to wear his hair very long.
On [[July 16]], [[1858]], in order to avoid the temptation of prostitutes, Corbett [[castration|castrated]] himself with a pair of scissors. Afterward, he went to a prayer meeting and ate a meal before going for medical treatment.
Corbett joined the Union army at the outbreak of the [[American Civil War]]. He re-enlisted three times. His final rank was [[sergeant]] in the [[16th New York Cavalry]]. He was captured by the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] Army on [[June 24]], [[1864]], and was held captive at [[Andersonville Prison]]. He was eventually released and returned to his unit.
On [[April 24]], [[1865]], he was selected as one of the 26 cavalrymen to pursue John Wilkes Booth after his assassination of Abraham Lincoln. On [[April 26]], they cornered Booth and fellow conspirator [[David Herold]] in a tobacco barn on the [[Virginia]] farm of [[Richard Garrett]]. The barn was set on fire. Herold surrendered, but Booth remained inside. Corbett was positioned by a large crack in the barn wall. He saw Booth moving about inside and shot him with a Colt revolver from a distance of several yards. Booth died a few hours later as Corbett's shot had hit his [[spinal cord]].
Corbett was immediately arrested for disobeying orders but the charges were dropped by [[Secretary of War]] [[Edwin M. Stanton]]. Later, Stanton said, "The rebel is dead. The patriot lives." Corbett received his share of the reward money, amounting to $1,653.85.
In his official statement, Corbett claimed he shot Booth because he thought Lincoln's assassin was getting ready to use his weapons. This was denied by other witnesses. When asked later why he did it, he said that "God told me to do it," unsurprising considering his deeply religious background.
Shortly thereafter, Corbett returned to being a hatter, first in Boston and later in [[Connecticut]] and [[New Jersey]].
His later life was not well-documented, but there are a number of stories regarding his increasingly erratic behavior:
* In [[1875]], he threatened several men with a pistol at a soldier's reunion in [[Caldwell, Ohio]].
* In [[1878]], he moved to [[Concordia, Kansas]] where he lived in a hole dug into a hillside.
* In [[1887]], he was appointed assistant doorkeeper of the Kansas House of Representatives in [[Topeka, Kansas]]. Overhearing a conversation in which the legislature's opening prayer was mocked, he jumped to his feet, pulled out his revolver, and waved his gun. No one was hurt. Corbett was arrested, declared insane, and sent to the Topeka Asylum for the Insane.
* On [[May 26]], [[1888]], Corbett escaped from the asylum. He went to [[Neodesha, Kansas]], and stayed briefly with Richard Thatcher, a man he had met during his imprisonment at Andersonville in the Civil War. When he left, he said he was heading for [[Mexico]].
* It was rumored that Corbett settled in the forests near [[Hinckley]], [[Minnesota]], and died in the Great Fire that took place there on [[September 1]], [[1894]]. Although difficult t |
chart, astro-chart, celestial map, sky-map, star-chart, nativity, cosmogram, vitasphere, soulprint, radical chart, radix, or simply ''chart'', among others.
=== Zodiac ===
The path of the sun across the heavens as seen from Earth during a full year is called the [[ecliptic]] by astronomers. This, and the nearby band of sky followed by the visible planets is called the [[zodiac]] by astrologers. A few Western and all [[Jyotish]] ([[Hindu]]) astrologers use the [[sidereal zodiac]], which uses the true astronomical positions of the stars and constellations which lie on the ecliptic. The majority of Western astrologers base their work on the [[tropical zodiac]], which aligns with the seasons in the Northern hemisphere but not with the actual positions of the sidereal zodiac.
[[Image:Birth_Chart_(northern_format).png|thumb|right|225px|An [[India|Indian]] ([[Jyotish]]) astrology chart.]]
[[Image:12_houses_of_heaven.jpg|right|thumb|225px|[[18th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript showing [[astrological house]]s and planetary glyphs.]]
=== Branches of Horoscopic Astrology ===
Every tradition of horoscopic astrology can be divided up into four specific branches which are directed towards specific subjects or used for specific purposes. Often this involves using a unique set of techniques or a different application of the core principles of the system to a different area.
The branches of horoscopic astrology are:
:*[[natal astrology|Genethliacal astrology/natal astrology/Jataka]] (the study of a person's [[natal chart]])
:*[[electional astrology|Katarchic Astrology/electional astrology/Muhurta]] (the act of chosing a chart ahead of time to determine the most auspicious moment to begin an enterprise or undertaking)
:*[[horary astrology|Interrogational astrology/horary astrology/Prasna]] (a chart drawn up in order to answer a specific question which is posed to the astrologer)
:*[[Mundane astrology]] (the study of large groups of people such as cities and nations, as well events both natural and man made)
==History of astrology==
{{main|History of astrology}}
The origins much of the astrology that would later develop in [[Asia]], [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]] are found among the ancient [[Babylonians]] and their system of celestial omens that began to be compiled around the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. This system of celestial omens later spread either directly or indirectly through the Babylonians to other areas such as [[India]], [[China]] and [[Greece]] where it merged with preexisting indigenous forms of astrology. This Babylonian astrology came to Greece initially as early as the middle of the [[4th century BCE]], and then around the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE after the [[Alexander the Great#Period of conquests|Alexandrian conquests]], this Babylonian astrology was mixed with the Egyptian tradition of Decanic astrology to create [[Horoscopic astrology]]. This new form of astrology, which appears to have originated in [[Alexandria|Alexandrian Egypt]], quickly spread across the ancient world into Europe, the Middle East and India. For a detailed description, including astrology in other cultures, see the [[History of astrology|main article]].
==The validity of astrology==
[[Image:Cellarius ptolemaic system.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Ptolemaic system]] depicted by [[Andreas Cellarius]], 1660/61 ]]
{{main|Validity of astrology}}
Astrology is a very [[controversy|controversial]] subject. The case ''for'' and the case ''against'' astrology's [[objectivity (philosophy)|objective]] validity are discussed in more detail in the main article.
Few astrologers today believe that a causal relationship exists between heavenly bodies and earthly events, but there are a number who have called for better statistical studies (for example, Mark McDonough, the President of Astrodatabank [http://www.astrodatabank.com]) and several individuals (most notably [[Michel Gauquelin]]) who have found correlations between some planetary positions and certain vocations. Many astrologers have posited [[acausal]] relationships between astrological observations and events, such as the theory of [[synchronicity]] {{ref|Maggie}} proposed by [[Jung]]. Many others have assumed there was a [[religious]] mechanism in operation, from the original Mediterranean astrologers through [[Guido Bonatti]] from [[Forlì]] ([[Italy]]), [[William Lilly]], and to some extent, [[Geoffrey Cornelius]].{{ref|TMoA_op}}
[[Skepticism|Skeptic]]s see astrology as repeatedly failing to demonstrate its effectiveness in [[Empiricism|controlled studies]], one prominent group saying those who "continue to have faith in astrology do so in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary." and have gone so far as to call astrology "the pretentious claims of astrological charlatans." {{ref|Bok_op}}
==Effects on world culture==
[[Image:Beit Alpha.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[Zodiac]] in a [[6th century]] [[synagogue]] at Beit Alpha, [[Israel]].]]
Astrology has had a profound influence over the past few thousand years on Western and Eastern cultures, along with the [[English language]]. [[Influenza]] was so named because [[physician|doctors]] once believed it to be caused by unfavorable planetary and stellar influences. The word "''disaster''" comes from the Latin "''dis-aster''" meaning "''bad star''". Also, the adjectives "lunatic" (Moon), "mercurial" (Mercury), "martial" (Mars), "jovial" (Jupiter/Jove), and "saturnine" (Saturn) are all old words used to describe personal qualities said to resemble or be highly influenced by the astrological characteristics of the planet, some of which are derived from the attributes of the ancient Roman gods they are named after.
There are many Astrological references in the Old and New Testament.
===Astrology as a descriptive language for the mind===
Many writers, notably [[William Shakespeare]] [http://www.chartplanet.com/html/shakespeare.html], used astrological symbolism to add subtlety and nuance to the description of his characters' motivation(s). An understanding of astrological principles is needed to fully appreciate such literature, along with the work of many other writers and poets of this and many other eras. Some modern thinkers, notably [[Carl Jung]], have acknowledged its descriptive powers of the mind without necessarily subscribing to its predictive claims.
Astrological interpretation is dependent on the particular culture's prevailing mythology. Most classicists think that Western astrology is dependent on Greek mythology. But the Greeks never claimed to have their own mythology. The Greeks claimed that half of their mythology was borrowed from the Egyptians and the other half borrowed from the Hebrew. But where did the myths of the Egyptians and Hebrew come from? The upper Nile River - Ethiopia. (See "Black Athena", Rutgers University Press) The research of the Gauquelin's, which resulted into Neo-Astrology, has modified, updated, but mainly reinforced the Ethiopian/Greek/Roman word association of behavioral characteristics with the particular planets.
==Western Astrology and the classical elements==
{{main|Astrology and the classical elements}}
Astrology has used the concept of classical elements from antiquity up until the present. Most modern [[astrologers]] use the four classical elements extensively, and indeed it is still viewed as a critical part of interpreting the [[natal chart|astrological chart]].
==Western Astrology and alchemy==
[[Image:Alchemy-Digby-RareSecrets.png|thumb|right|300px|Extract and symbol key from 17th century [[alchemy]] text.]]
{{main|Astrology and alchemy}}
[[Alchemy]] in the [[Western World]] and other locations where it was widely practiced was (and in many cases still is) closely allied and intertwined with traditional [[Babylon]]ian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for [[occult|hidden knowledge]]. Traditionally, each of the seven [[planet]]s in the [[solar system]] as known to the ancients was associated with, held dominion over, and ''[[astrological sign|ruled]]'' a certain [[metal]].
A separate article also exists on [[astrology and numerology]].
==The seven liberal arts and Western astrology==
[[Image:Anatomical Man.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The anatomical-astrological human in [[medical astrology]].]]
[[Image:Astrological_remedies.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Table from [[18th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript linking astrological dates with preparation of medicine.]]
In [[medieval Europe]], a [[university education]] was divided into seven distinct areas, each represented by a particular [[planet]] and known as the Seven [[Liberal Arts]].
They were seen as operating in ascending order, beginning with [[Grammar]] which was assigned to the quickest moving [[celestial body]] (the [[Moon]]) and culminating in [[Astrology and astronomy|Astronomia]] which was thought to be [[Astrological sign|astrologically ruled]] by [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]], the slowest moving and furthest out planet known at the time. After this sequence [[wisdom]] was supposed to have been achieved by the [[medieval]] [[College student|university student]].
[[Dante|Dante Alighieri]] used the following associations of the seven [[liberal arts]] to the seven traditional astrological planets in the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' and ''[[Convivio]]''.
*[[Astrology and astronomy|Astronomia]] — [[Saturn (astrology)|Saturn]]
*[[Geometry]] — [[Jupiter (astrology)|Jupiter ]]
*[[Arithmetic]] — [[Mars (astrology)|Mars]]
*[[Music]] — [[Sun (astrology)|Sun]]
*[[Rhetoric]] — [[Venus (astrology)|Venus]]
*[[Dialectic]] — [[Mercury (astrology)|Mercury]]
*[[Grammar]] — [[Moon (astrology)|Moon]]
== Astrology and the days of the week ==
Seven days of the week are |
t until 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced. They were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz car to his line of products. Because France was more open to the automobile in general, more were built and sold in France than by Benz himself in Germany.
Daimler built a car in 1886 - a new horse carriage fitted with his new high-speed 4-stroke engine. In 1889, he built two vehicles from scratch, with several innovations. From about 1890-1895 about 30 vehicles were built by Daimler and his innovative assistant, Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after having a falling out with their backers.
In 1890, Emile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began series-producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of the motor industry in France. They were inspired by Daimler's Stalhradwagen of 1889, which was exhibited in Paris in 1889.
The first American automobile with gasoline-powered [[internal combustion engine]]s was supposedly designed in 1877 by [[George Baldwin Selden]] of [[Rochester, New York]], who applied for a patent on the automobile in 1879. Selden didn't build a single car until 1905, when he was forced to do so due to the lawsuit. Selden received his patent and later sued the Ford Motor Company for infringing his patent. Henry Ford was notoriously against the American patent system, and Selden's case against Ford went all the way to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], who ruled that Ford and everyone else was free to build automobiles without paying royalties to Selden, since automobile technology had improved since Selden's patent, and no one was building those antiquated designs.
Meanwhile, notable advances in steam power evolved in [[Birmingham]], England by the [[Lunar Society]]. It was here that the term [[horsepower]] was first used. It was in Birmingham also that the first British four wheel [[petrol]]-driven automobiles were built in 1895 by [[Frederick William Lanchester]] who also patented the [[disc brake]] in the city. [[Electric vehicle]]s were produced by a small number of manufacturers.
===Innovation===
[[Image:Olds2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Ransom E. Olds, the creator of the Assembly line]]
The first automobile [[patent]] in the [[United States]] was granted to [[Oliver Evans]] in 1789; in 1804 Evans demonstrated his first successful self-propelled vehicle, which not only was the first automobile in the US but was also the first [[amphibious vehicle]], as his steam-powered vehicle was able to travel on [[wheel]]s on land and via a [[paddle wheel]] in the water.
On [[5 November]], [[1895]], [[George B. Selden]] was granted a United States patent for a [[two-stroke cycle|two-stroke]] automobile engine ({{US patent|549160}}). This patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the USA. A major breakthrough came with the historic drive of [[Bertha Benz]] in 1888. Steam, electric, and gasoline powered autos competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s.
[[Image:Bentley Continental GT dashboard.jpg|thumb|right|260px|The interior of a modern luxury car, a [[Bentley Continental GT]]]]
The large scale, [[production-line]] manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by [[Oldsmobile]] in 1902, then greatly expanded by [[Henry Ford]] in the 1910s. Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric [[ignition system|ignition]] and the electric self-starter (both by [[Charles Kettering]], for the [[Cadillac (automobile)|Cadillac]] Motor Company in 1910-1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes.
===Model changeover and design change===
[[Image:1989 Ford Sierra GLS.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An English 1989 Ford Sierra GLS Sports Saloon. No longer in production]]
[[Image:2000 Ford Taurus.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Ford Taurus]], a modern family car which has gone through a number of changes.]]
Cars are not merely continually perfected mechanical contrivances; since the 1920s nearly all have been mass-produced to meet a market, so marketing plans and manufacture to meet them have often dominated automobile design. It was [[Alfred P. Sloan]] who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one firm, so that buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved. The makes shared parts with one another so that the larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1950s, [[Chevrolet]] shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with [[Pontiac]]; the LaSalle of the 1930s, sold by [[Cadillac]], used the cheaper mechanical parts made by the Oldsmobile division.
==Alternative fuels and batteries==
{{main|Alternative fuel cars}}
With heavy [[tax]]es on fuel, particularly in [[Europe]] and tightening environmental [[law]]s, particularly in [[California]], and the possibility of further restrictions on [[greenhouse gas]] emissions, work on alternative power systems for vehicles continues.
[[Diesel]]-powered cars can run with little or no modification on 100% pure [[biodiesel]], a fuel that can be made from [[vegetable oil]]s. Many cars that currently use gasoline can run on ethanol, a fuel made from plant sugars. Most cars that are designed to run on gasoline are capable of running with 15% ethanol mixed in, and with a small amount of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85%. All petrol fuelled cars can run on [[Liquified petroleum gas|LPG]]. There has been some concern that the ethanol-gasoline mixtures prematurely wear down seals and gaskets. Further, the use of higher levels of alcohol requires that the automobile carry/use twice as much. Therefore, if your vehicle is capable of 300 miles on a 15-gallon tank, the efficiency is reduced to approximately 150 miles. Of course, certain measures are available to increase this efficiency, such as different camshaft configurations, altering the timing/spark output of the ignition, or simply, using a larger fuel tank.
In the [[United States]], alcohol fuel was produced in corn-alcohol [[still]]s until [[Prohibition]] criminalized the production of alcohol in 1919. [[Brazil]] is the only country which produces ethanol-running cars, since the late 1970s.
Attempts at building viable [[battery (electricity)|battery]]-powered electric vehicles continued throughout the 1990s (notably [[General Motors]] with the [[EV1]]), but cost, speed and inadequate driving range made them uneconomical. Battery powered cars have used [[lead-acid batteries]] which are greatly damaged in their recharge capacity if discharged beyond 75% on a regular basis and [[Nickel metal hydride|NiMH batteries]].
Current research and development is centered on "[[Hybrid electric vehicle|hybrid]]" vehicles that use both electric power and internal combustion. The first hybrid vehicle available for sale in the USA was the [[Honda Insight]]. As of 2005, The car is still in production and achieves around 60 mpg.
Other R&D efforts in alternative forms of power focus on developing [[fuel cells]], alternative forms of combustion such as [[Gasoline Direct Injection|GDI]] and [[HCCI]], and even the stored energy of compressed air (see [[water Engine]]).
==Safety==
[[Image:Eurocar.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[Mini]] in Paris, France]]
Automobiles were a significant improvement in safety on a per passenger mile basis, over the horse based travel that they replaced. Millions have been able to reach medical care much more quickly when transported by [[ambulance]].
[[Car accident|Accidents]] seem as old as automobile vehicles themselves. [[Joseph Cugnot]] crashed his steam-powered "Fardier" against a wall in 1770. The first recorded automobile fatality was [[Bridget Driscoll]] on [[1896-08-17]] in [[London]] and the first in the [[United States]] was [[Henry Bliss]] on [[1899-09-13]] in [[New York City, NY]].
Cars have two basic safety problems: They have human drivers who make mistakes, and the wheels lose traction near a half gravity of deceleration. [[Automated highway system|Automated control]] has been seriously proposed and successfully prototyped. Shoulder-belted passengers could tolerate a 32[[Gee|G]] emergency stop (reducing the safe intervehicle gap 64-fold) if high-speed roads incorporated a steel rail for emergency braking. Both safety modifications of the roadway are thought to be too expensive by most funding authorities, although these modifications could dramatically increase the number of vehicles that could safely use a high-speed highway.
Early safety research focused on increasing the reliability of brakes and reducing the flammability of fuel systems. For example, modern engine compartments are open at the bottom so that fuel vapors, which are heavier than air, vent to the open air. Brakes are hydraulic so that failures are slow leaks, rather than abrupt cable breaks. Systematic research on crash safety started in 1958 at [[Ford Motor Company]]. Since then, most research has focused on absorbing external crash energy with crushable panels and reducing the motion of human bodies in the passenger compartment.
There are standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like the [[EuroNCAP]] and the [http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/testing/ncap/ US NCAP] tests. There are also tests run by organizations such as [http://www.hwysafety.org/ IIHS] and backed by the insurance industry.
Despite technological advances, there is still significant loss of life from car accidents: About 40,000 people die every year in the [[U.S.]], with similar figures in [[Europe]]. This figure increases annually in step with rising population and increasing travel if no measures are taken, b |
;(am) + 3NH<sub>2</sub><sup>&minus;</sup>(am).
This is a Bronsted-Lowry acid-base reaction in which ammonia is acting as an acid.
=== Formation of other compounds ===
Ammonia can act as a [[nucleophile]] in [[Nucleophilic substitution|substitution]] reactions. [[Amine]]s can be formed by the reaction of ammonia with [[alkyl halide]]s, although the resulting &ndash;NH<sub>2</sub> group is also nucleophilic and secondary and tertiary amines are often formed as by-products. Using an excess of ammonia helps minimise multiple substitution, and neutralises the hydrogen halide formed. [[Methylamine]] is prepared commercially by the reaction of ammonia with [[chloromethane]], and the reaction of ammonia with 2-bromopropanoic acid has been used to prepare [[racemic]] [[alanine]] in 70% yield. [[Ethanolamine]] is prepared by a ring-opening reaction with [[ethylene oxide]]: the reaction is sometimes allowed to go further to produce diethanolamine and triethanolamine.
[[Amide]]s can be prepared by the reaction of ammonia with a number of [[carboxylic acid]] derivatives. [[Acyl chloride]]s are the most reactive, but the ammonia must be present in at least a two-fold excess to neutralise the [[hydrogen chloride]] formed. [[Ester]]s and [[anhydride]]s also react with ammonia to form amides.
Ammonium salts of carboxylic acids can be dehydrated to amides so long as there are no thermally sensitive groups present: temperatures of 150&ndash;200 °C are required.
The [[hydrogen]] in ammonia is capable of replacement by [[metal]]s, thus [[magnesium]] burns in the gas with the formation of [[magnesium nitride]] Mg<sub>3</sub>N<sub>2</sub>, and when the gas is passed over heated [[sodium]] or [[potassium]], sodamide, NaNH<sub>2</sub>, and potassamide, KNH<sub>2</sub>, are formed.
Where necessary in [[IUPAC nomenclature|substitutive nomenclature]], [[IUPAC]] recommendations prefer the name '''azane''' to ammonia: hence [[chloramine]] would be named ''chloroazane'' in substitutive nomenclature, not ''chloroammonia''.
=== Ammonia as a ligand ===
Ammonia can act as a [[ligand]] in [[transition metal]] [[complex (chemistry)|complexes]]. It is a pure σ-donor, in the middle of the [[spectrochemical series]], and shows intermediate [[HSAB concept|hard-soft]] behaviour. For historical reasons, ammonia is named '''ammine''' in the nomenclature of [[coordination compound]]s. Some notable ammine complexes include:
*'''Hexamminecopper(II)''', [Cu(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2+</sup>, a characteristic dark blue complex formed by adding ammonia to solution of copper(II) salts.
*'''Diamminesilver(I)''', [Ag(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>]<sup>+</sup>, the active species in [[Tollens' reagent]]. Formation of this complex can also help to distinguish between precipitates of the different silver halides: [[Silver chloride|AgCl]] is soluble in dilute (2&nbsp;M) ammonia solution, [[Silver bromide|AgBr]] is only soluble in concentrated ammonia solution while [[Silver iodide|AgI]] is insoluble in aqueous solution of ammonia.
Ammine complexes of [[chromium]](III) were known in the late 19th century, and formed the basis of [[Alfred Werner]]'s theory of coordination compounds. Werner noted that only two isomers (''fac''- and ''mer''-) of the complex [CrCl<sub>3</sub>(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>] could be formed, and concluded that the ligands must be arranged around the metal ion at the [[vertex|vertices]] of an [[octahedron]]. This has since been confirmed by [[X-ray crystallography]].
An ammine ligand bound to a metal ion is markedly more [[acid]]ic than a free ammonia molecule, although deprotonation in aqueous solution is still rare. One example is the [[Mercury(I) chloride|Calomel reaction]], where the resulting amidomercury(II) compound is highly insoluble.
::Hg<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub> + 2NH<sub>3</sub> → Hg + HgCl(NH<sub>2</sub>) + NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> + Cl<sup>&minus;</sup>
==Uses==
The most important single use of ammonia is in the production of [[nitric acid]]. A mixture of one part ammonia to nine parts air is passed over a [[platinum]] gauze [[catalyst]] at 850 °C, whereupon the ammonia is oxidized to [[nitric oxide]].
::4NH<sub>3</sub> + 5O<sub>2</sub> → 4NO + 6H<sub>2</sub>O
The catalyst is essential, as the normal oxidation (or combustion) of ammonia gives [[Nitrogen|dinitrogen]] and water: the production of nitric oxide is an example of [[kinetic control]]. As the gas mixture cools to 200&ndash;250 °C, the nitric oxide is in turn oxidized by the excess of [[oxygen]] present in the mixture, to give [[nitrogen dioxide]]. This is reacted with water to give nitric acid for use in the production of [[fertilizer]]s and [[explosive]]s.
In addition to serving as a fertilizer ingredient, ammonia can also be used directly as a fertilizer by forming a solution with irrigation water, without additional chemical processing. This later use allows the continuous growing of nitrogen dependent crops such as [[maize]] (corn) without [[agriculture|crop]] rotation but this type of use leads to poor [[soil]] health.
Ammonia has thermodynamic properties that make it very well suited as a [[Refrigeration|refrigerant]], since it liquefies readily under pressure, and was used in virtually all refrigeration units prior to the advent of [[haloalkane]]s such as [[Freon]]. However, ammonia is a toxic irritant and its corrosiveness to any [[copper]] [[alloy]]s increases the risk that an undesirable leak may develop and cause a noxious hazard. Its use in small refrigeration units has been largely replaced by haloalkanes, which are not toxic irritants and are practically not [[flammable]]. (Note: [[Butane]] and [[isobutane]], which have very suitable thermodynamic properties for refrigerants, are extremely flammable.) Ammonia continues to be used as a [[refrigerant]] in large industrial processes such as bulk icemaking and industrial food processing. Ammonia is also useful as a component in [[Absorptive refrigeration|absorption-type refrigerators]], which do not use compression and expansion cycles but can exploit heat differences. Since the implication of haloalkane being major contributors to [[ozone depletion]], ammonia is again seeing increasing use as a refrigerant.
Ammonia is a primary ingredient in old-style household cleaners.
It is also sometimes added to drinking water along with [[chlorine]] to form [[chloramine]], a [[disinfectant]]. Unlike chlorine on its own, chloramine does not combine with organic (carbon containing) materials to form [[carcinogen|carcinogenic]] [[halomethane]]s such as [[chloroform]].
== Liquid ammonia as a solvent ==
:''See also: [[Inorganic nonaqueous solvent]]''
Liquid ammonia is the best-known and most widely studied non-aqueous ionizing solvent. Its most conspicuous property is its ability to dissolve alkali metals to form highly coloured, electrically conducting solutions containing solvated electrons. Apart from these remarkable solutions, much of the chemistry in liquid ammonia can be classified by analogy with related reactions in aqueous solutions. Comparison of the physical properties of NH<sub>3</sub> with those of water shows that NH<sub>3</sub> has the lower melting point, boiling point, density, [[viscosity]], [[dielectric constant]] and [[electrical conductivity]]; this is due at least in part to the weaker H bonding in NH<sub>3</sub> and the fact that such bonding cannot form cross-linked networks since each NH<sub>3</sub> molecule has only 1 lone-pair of electrons compared with 2 for each H<sub>2</sub>O molecule. The ionic self-[[dissociation constant]] of liquid NH<sub>3</sub> at &minus;50 °C is approx. 10<sup>-33</sup> mol<sup>2</sup>·l<sup>-2</sup>.
=== Solubility of salts ===
{|
|-
! &nbsp;
! Solubility (g per 100 g)
|-
| [[Ammonium acetate]]
| 253.2
|-
| [[Ammonium nitrate]]
| 389.6
|-
| [[Lithium nitrate]]
| 243.7
|-
| [[Sodium nitrate]]
| 97.6
|-
| [[Potassium nitrate]]
| 10.4
|-
| [[Sodium fluoride]]
| 0.35
|-
| [[Sodium chloride]]
| 3.0
|-
| [[Sodium bromide]]
| 138.0
|-
| [[Sodium iodide]]
| 161.9
|-
| [[Sodium thiocyanate]]
| 205.5
|-
|}
Liquid ammonia is an ionizing solvent, although less so than water, and dissolves a range of ionic compounds including many [[nitrate]]s, [[nitrite]]s, [[cyanide]]s and [[thiocyanate]]s. Most [[ammonium]] salts are soluble, and these salts act as [[acid]]s in liquid ammonia solutions. The solubility of [[halide]] salts increases from [[fluoride]] to [[iodide]]. A saturated solution of [[ammonium nitrate]] contains 0.83&nbsp;mol solute per mole of ammonia, and has a [[vapour pressure]] of less than 1&nbsp;bar even at 25 °C.
=== Solutions of metals ===
:''See also: [[Solvated electron]], [[metallic solution]]''
Liquid ammonia will dissolve the [[alkali metal]]s and other [[Electronegativity|electropositive]] metals such as [[Calcium|Ca]], [[Strontium|Sr]], [[Barium|Ba]] [[Europium|Eu]] and [[Ytterbium|Yb]]. At low concentrations (<&nbsp;0.06&nbsp;mol/L), deep blue solutions are formed: these contain metal cations and [[solvated electron]]s, free electrons which are surrounded by a cage of ammonia molecules. These solutions are very useful as strong reducing agents. At higher concentrations, the solutions are metallic in appearance and in electrical conductivity. At low temperatures, the two types of solution can coexist as [[Wiktionary:immiscible|immiscible]] phases.
=== Redox properties of liquid ammonia ===
{|
|-
! &nbsp;
! ''E''° (V, ammonia)
! ''E''° (V, water)
|-
| Li<su |
sing literate, middle and merchant classes, which included many [[Lollard]] sympathizers who would have been inclined to read Chaucer as one of his own, particularly in his satirical writings about priests and various religious. We would not have so many manuscripts of Chaucer's works today if this group of readers had not created a great demand for them.
===Printed Books===
Early on, representations of Chaucer began to circle around two co-existing identites: 1) a courtier and a king's man, an international humanist familiar with the classics and continental greats; 2) a man of the people, a plain-style satirist and a critic of the church. All things to all people (barring some sensitive moralists), for a combination of mixed aesthetic and political reasons, Chaucer was held in high esteem by high and low audiences--certainly a boon for printers and booksellers. [http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg073.htm The sixteenth-century folio editions of Chaucer's ''Works''] were seminal events in the construction of this national literary forefather who could be read in support of both radical and conservative positions as well as different historical narratives: a popular, reformation from below and a court-controlled reformation from above.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Chaucer was printed more than any other English author, and he was the first author to have his works collected in comprehensive single-volume editions in which a Chaucer [[wiktionary:canon|canon]] began to cohere. Some scholars contend that that sixteenth-century editions of Chaucer's ''Works'' set the precedent for all other English authors in terms of presentation, prestige and success in print. These editions certainly established Chaucer's reputation, but they also began the complicated process of reconstructing and frequently inventing Chaucer's biography and the canonical list of works attributed to him.
[[William Caxton]]'s [http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg076.htm two folio editions] of ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' were published in [[1478]] and [[1483]]. [[Richard Pynson]], the [[King's Printer]] for about twenty years, was the first to collect and sell something that resembled an edition of the collected works of Chaucer, introducing in the process five previously printed texts that are not Chaucer's. (The collection is actually three separately printed texts, or collections of texts, bound together as one volume.) There is a likely connection between Pynson's product and [[William Thynne]]'s a mere six years later. Thynne had a successful career from the 1520s until his death in [[1546]], when he was one of the masters of the royal household. His editions of ''Chaucers Works'' in [[1532]] and [[1542]] were the first major contributions to the existence of a widely recognized Chaucerian canon. Thynne represents his edition as a book sponsored by and supportive of the king who is praised in the preface by [[Sir Brian Tuke]]. Thynne's canon brought the number of apocryphal works associated with Chaucer to a total of 28, even if that was not his intention. As with Pynson, once included in the ''Works'', [[Pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphic]] texts stayed within it, regardless of their first editor's intentions.
Probably the most significant aspect of the growing apocrypha is that, beginning with Thynne's editions, it began to include medieval texts that made Chaucer appear as a proto-Protestant [[Lollard]], primarily the ''[[Testament of Love]]'' and ''[[The Plowman's Tale]]''. As "Chaucerian" works that were not considered apocryphal until the late nineteenth century, these medieval texts enjoyed a new life, with English Protestants carrying on the earlier Lollard project of appropriating existing texts and authors who seemed sympathetic--or malleable enough to be construed as sympathetic--to their cause. The official Chaucer of the early printed volumes of his ''Works'' was construed as a proto-Protestant as the same was done, concurrently, with [[William Langland]] and ''[[Piers Plowman]]''. The famous ''Plowman's Tale'' did not enter Thynne's ''Works'' until the second, [[1542]] edition. Its entry was surely facilitated by Thynne's inclusion of [[Thomas Usk]]'s ''Testament of Love'' in the first edition. The ''Testament of Love'' imitates, borrows from, and thus resembles Usk's contemporary, Chaucer. (''Testament of Love'' also appears to borrow from ''Piers Plowman''.) Since the ''Testament of Love'' mentions its author's part in a failed plot (book 1, chapter 6), his imprisonment, and (perhaps) a recantation of (possibly Lollard) heresy, all this was associated with Chaucer. (Usk himself was executed as a traitor in [[1388]].) Interestingly, [[John Foxe]] took this recantation of heresy as a defense of the true faith, calling Chaucer a "right Wiclevian" and (erroneously) identifying him as a schoolmate and close friend of [[John Wycliffe]] at [[Merton College, Oxford]]. ([[Thomas Speght]] is careful to highlight these facts in his editions and his "Life of Chaucer.") No other sources for the ''Testament of Love'' exist--there is only Thynne's construction of whatever manuscript sources he had.
[[John Stow]] (1525-1605) was an antiquarian and also a chronicler. [http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg077.htm His edition of Chaucer's ''Works'' in 1561] brought the apocrypha to more than 50 titles. More were added in the seventeenth century, and they remained as late as [[1810]], well after [[Thomas Tyrwhitt]] pared the canon down in [http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg079.htm his 1775 edition]. The compilation and printing of Chaucer's works was, from its beginning, a political enterprise, since it was intended to establish an English national identity and history that grounded and authorized the Tudor monarchy and church. What was added to Chaucer often helped represent him favorably to Protestant England.
In his [[1598]] edition of the ''Works'', Speght (probably taking cues from Foxe) made good use of Usk's account of his political intrigue and imprisonment in the ''Testament of Love'' to assemble a largely fictional "Life of Our Learned English Poet, Geffrey Chaucer." Speght's "Life" presents readers with an erstwhile radical in troubled times much like their own, a proto-Protestant who eventually came around the king's views on religion. Speght states that "In the second year of Richard the second, the King tooke Geffrey Chaucer and his lands into his protection. The occasion wherof no doubt was some daunger and trouble whereinto he was fallen by favouring some rash attempt of the common people." Under the discussion of Chaucer's friends, namely John of Gaunt, Speght further explains:
::Yet it seemeth that [Chaucer] was in some trouble in the daies of King Richard the second, as it may appeare in the Testament of Loue: where hee doth greatly complaine of his owne rashnesse in following the multitude, and of their hatred of him for bewraying their purpose. And in that complaint which he maketh to his empty purse, I do find a written copy, which I had of Iohn Stow (whose library hath helped many writers) wherein ten times more is adjoined, then is in print. Where he maketh great lamentation for his wrongfull imprisonment, wishing death to end his daies: which in my iudgement doth greatly accord with that in the Testament of Love. Moreover we find it thus in Record.
Later, in "The [[Argument (literature)|Argument]]" to the ''Testament of Love'', Speght adds:
::Chaucer did compile this booke as a comfort to himselfe after great griefs conceiued for some rash attempts of the commons, with whome he had ioyned, and thereby was in feare to loose the fauour of his best friends.
Speght is also the source of the famous tale of Chaucer being fined for beating a [[Franciscan]] [[friar]] in [[Fleet Street]], as well as a fictitious [[coat of arms]] and [[family tree]]. Ironically--and perhaps consciously so--an introductory, apologetic letter in Speght's edition from [[Francis Beaumont]] defends the unseemly, "low," and bawdy bits in Chaucer from an elite, classicist position. Francis Thynne noted some of these inconsistencies in his ''Animadversions'', insisting that Chaucer was not a commoner, and he objected to the friar-beating story. Yet Thynne himself underscores Chaucer's support for popular religious reform, associating Chaucer's views with his father William Thynne's attempts to include ''The Plowman's Tale'' and ''The Pilgrim's Tale'' in the [[1532]] and [[1542]] ''Works''.
====Foxe's Chaucer====
Alongside Chaucer's ''Works'', the most impressive literary monument of the period is [[John Foxe]]'s ''[[Foxe's Book of Martyrs|Acts and Monuments...]]''. As with the Chaucer editions, it was critically significant to English Protestant identity and included Chaucer in its project. Foxe's Chaucer both derived from and contributed to the printed editions of Chaucer's ''Works'', particularly the pseudepigrapha. ''Jack Upland'' was first printed in Foxe's ''Acts and Monuments'', and then it appeared in Speght's edition of Chaucer's ''Works''. Speght's "Life of Chaucer" echoes Foxe's own account, which is itself dependent upon the earlier editions that added the ''Testament of Love'' and ''The Plowman's Tale'' to their pages. Like Speght's Chaucer, Foxe's Chaucer was also a shrewd (or lucky) political survivor. In his [[1563]] edition, Foxe "thought it not out of season . . . to couple . . . some mention of Geoffrey Chaucer" with a discussion of [[John Colet]], a possible source for [[John Skelton]]'s character [[Colin Clout]].
Probably referring to the 1542 [[Act for the Advancement of True Religion]], Foxe says he "marvel[s] to consider . . . how the bishops, condemning and abolishing all manner of English books and treatises wh |
aGuardia having nursed her through the 17 month ordeal grew depressed, and turned to the bottle and spent most of the year following her death on an alcoholic binge. He recovered and became a [[teetotaler]].
LaGuardia ran for, and won, a seat in Congress again in [[1922]]. Extending his record as a reformer, LaGuardia sponsored labor legislation and railed against immigration quotas. He was overwhelmingly defeated by incumbent [[Jimmy Walker]] in the 1929 mayoral election. In 1932, along with Sen. [[George William Norris|George Norris]] (R-NE), Rep. LaGuardia passed the [[Norris-LaGuardia Act]].
LaGuardia was elected mayor of [[New York City]] on an anti-corruption "fusion" ticket during the [[Great Depression]], which united him in an uneasy alliance with New York's Jews and liberal bluebloods (Wasps). These included the famed architect and New York historian [[Isaac Newton Phelps-Stokes]] whose patrician manners LaGuardia detested. Surprisingly, the two men became friends. Phelps-Stokes had personally nursed his wife during the last five years of her life, during which she was paralysed and speechless due to a series of strokes. On learning of Phelps-Stokes's ordeal, so like his own, LaGuardia ceased all bickering and the two developed genuine affection for each other.
LaGuardia was hardly an orthodox Republican. He also ran as the nominee of the [[American Labor Party]], a union-dominated anti-Tammany grouping that also ran FDR for President from 1936 onward. LaGuardia also supported Roosevelt.
LaGuardia was the city's first [[Italian-American]] mayor, but LaGuardia was far from being a typical Italian New Yorker. After all, he was a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Episcopalian]] who had grown up in [[Arizona]], and had an [[Istrian]] Jewish mother and a [[Roman Catholic]]-turned-atheist [[Italy|Italian]] father. He reportedly spoke seven languages, including [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]].
LaGuardia is famous for, among other things, restoring the economic lifeblood of [[New York City]] during and after the [[Great Depression]]. His massive public works programs employed thousands of unemployed New Yorkers and his constant lobbying for federal government funds allowed New York to establish the foundation for its economic infrastructure. He was also well known for reading the comics on the [[radio]] during a newspaper strike, and pushing to have a commercial airport ([[Floyd Bennett Field]], and now [[LaGuardia Airport]]) within city limits. He was also a very outspoken and early critic of [[Hitler]] and the [[Nazi]] regime. In a public address as early as [[1934]], LaGuardia warned, "Part of [Hitler’s] program is the complete annihilation of the Jews in Germany." In 1937, speaking before the Women’s Division of the [[American Jewish Congress]], LaGuardia called for the creation of a special pavilion at the upcoming [[1939 New York World's Fair|New York World’s Fair]]: "a chamber of horrors" for "that brown-shirted fanatic."
LaGuardia was the director general for the [[UNRRA]] in 1946.
LaGuardia loved music and conducting, and was famous for spontaneously conducting professional and student orchestras that he visited. He once said that the "most hopeful accomplishment" of his long administration as mayor was the creation of the High School of Music & Art in 1936, now the [[Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts]]{{ref|Steigman}}. In addition to LaGuardia High School, a number of other instututions are also named for him, including [[LaGuardia Community College]]. He was also the subject of the [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning Broadway musical ''[[Fiorello!]]''. He died in [[New York City]] of [[pancreatic cancer]] at the age of 64.
==External links==
* [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=L000007 Fiorello La Guardia] from the [[Biographical Directory of the United States Congress]]
* [http://www.fiorellolaguardia.lagcc.cuny.edu/laguardia/ Fiorello H. LaGuardia Collection of the La Guardia and Wagner Archives of the City University of New York]
==Numbered References==
#{{note|Steigman}} Steigman, Benjamin: ''Accent on Talent -- New York's High School of Music & Art'' Wayne State University Press, 1984 ISBN64-13873.
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title = [[U.S. Congressional Delegations from New York|U.S. Representative<br>14th District of New York]] | before = [[Michael Francis Farley]] | after = [[Nathan D. Pearlman]] | years = [[1917]]&ndash;[[1919]]}}
{{succession box | title = [[U.S. Congressional Delegations from New York|U.S. Representative<br>20th District of New York]] | before = [[Isaac Siegel]] | after = [[James J. Lanzetta]] | years = [[1922]]&ndash;[[1933]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[John P. O'Brien]] | title = [[Mayors of New York City|Mayor of New York City]] | years = [[1934]]&ndash;[[1945]] | after = [[William O'Dwyer]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Herbert H. Lehman]] | title = [[UNRRA|Directors general of the UNRRA]] | years = [[1946]]&ndash;[[1946]] | after = General [[Lowell Rooks]]}}
Fiorello LaGuardia was in Pi Lambda Phi Fraternity while attending college.
{{end box}}
{{New York City}}
[[Category:1882 births|LaGuardia, Fiorello H]]
[[Category:1947 deaths|LaGuardia, Fiorello H]]
[[Category:Bronxites|LaGuardia, Fiorello]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|LaGuardia, Fiorello]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|LaGuardia, Fiorello]]
[[Category:Jewish-American politicians|LaGuardia, Fiorello]]
[[Category:Mayors of New York City|LaGuardia, Fiorello H]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from New York|LaGuardia, Fiorello H]]
[[Category:People from Arizona|LaGuardia, Fio]]
[[de:Fiorello LaGuardia]]
[[it:Fiorello LaGuardia]]
[[he:פיורלו לה גוארדיה]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Finite element method</title>
<id>11421</id>
<revision>
<id>42034697</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:02:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>147.32.130.148</ip>
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''finite-element method''' ('''FEM''') originated from the needs for solving complex [[elasticity]], [[structural analysis]] problems in [[civil engineering]] and [[aeronautical engineering]]. Its development can be traced back to the work by A. Hrennikoff (1941) and R. Courant (1942). While the approaches used by these pioneers are dramatically different, they share one essential characteristic: [[Mesh (disambiguation) | mesh]] discretization of a continuous domain into a set of discrete sub-domains. Hrennikoff's work discretizes the domain by using lattice analogy while [[Richard Courant]]'s approach divides the domain into finite triangular subregions for solution of second order elliptic partial differential equations (PDEs), which arise from the problem of [[torsion (mechanics)|torsion]] of a [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]]. Courant's contribution was evolutionary, drawing on a large body of earlier results for PDEs developed by [[John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|Rayleigh]], [[Walter Ritz|Ritz]], and [[Boris Grigoryevich Galerkin|Galerkin]]. Development of the finite element method began in earnest in the middle to late [[1950s]] for [[airframe]] and [[structural analysis]], and picked up a lot of steam at [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] (see [http://www.edwilson.org/History/fe-history.pdf Early Finite Element Research at Berkeley]) in the [[1960s]] for use in [[civil engineering]]. The method was provided with a rigorous mathematical foundation in [[1973]] with the publication of [[Gilbert Strang|Strang]] and Fix's ''An Analysis of The Finite Element Method'', and has since been generalized into a branch of applied mathematics for numerical modeling of physical systems in a wide variety of [[engineering]] disciplines, e.g., electromagnetics and [[fluid dynamics]].
The development of the [[finite element method in structural mechanics]] is often based on an energy principle, e.g., the [[virtual work]] principle or the [[minimum total potential energy principle]], which provides a general, intuitive and physical basis that has a great appeal to structural engineers.
[[Mathematics|Mathematically]], the finite element method (FEM) is used for finding approximate solution of [[partial differential equation]]s (PDE) as well as of [[integral equation]]s such as the [[heat equation|heat transport equation]]. The solution approach is based either on eliminating the differential equation completely (steady state problems), or rendering the PDE into an equivalent [[ordinary differential equation]], which is then solved using standard techniques such as [[finite difference]]s, etc.
In solving [[partial differential equation]]s, the primary challenge is to create an equation which approximates the equation to be studied, but which is [[numerically stable]], meaning that errors in the input data and intermediate calculations do not accumulate and cause the resulting output to be meaningless. There are many ways of doing this, all with advantages and disadvantages. The Finite Element Method is a good choice for solving partial differential equations over complex domains (like cars and oil pipelines) or when the desired precision varies over the entire domain. For instance, in simulating the weather pattern on Earth, it is more important to have accurate predictions over land than over the wide-open sea, a demand that is achievable using the finite element method.
== Technical discussion ==
We will illustrate the finite element method using two sample problems from which the general method can be extrapolated. We assume that the reader is familiar with [[calculus]] and [[linear algebra]]. We will use the |
the Indian Mutiny. When the government of India was transferred from the Company to the Crown, Canning became the first [[viceroy]] of India.
===The rise of Indian nationalism===
{{main_article|[[Indian independence movement]]}}
British rule modernized India in many respects. The spread of [[railroad]]s from 1853 contributed to the expansion of business, while [[cotton]], tea and [[indigo]] [[plantation]]s drew new areas into the commercial economy. But the removal of import duties in 1883 exposed India's emerging industries to unfettered British competition, provoking another quite modern development: the rise of a [[nationalism|nationalist]] movement.
The denial of equal status to Indians was the immediate stimulus for the formation in 1885 of the [[Indian National Congress]], initially loyal to the Empire but committed from 1905 to increased self-government and by 1930 to outright independence. The "Home charges," payments transferred from India for administrative costs, were a lasting source of nationalist grievance, though the flow declined in relative importance over the decades to independence in 1947.
Although majority [[Hindu]] and minority [[Muslim]] political leaders were able to collaborate closely in their criticism of British policy into the [[1920s]], British support for a distinct Muslim political organization from [[1906]] and insistence from the [[1920s]] on separate electorates for religious minorities, is seen by many in India as having contributed to Hindu-Muslim discord and the country's eventual partition.
==France in Indochina==
{{main_article|[[French Indochina]]}}
[[Image:Frenchindochina.jpg|thumb|French soldiers appear with local residents at a military post in French Indochina in the early 1900s.]]
France, which had lost its empire to the British by the end of the eighteenth century, had little geographical or commercial basis for expansion in Southeast Asia. After the [[1850s]] French imperialism was initially impelled by a nationalistic need to rival Britain and was supported intellectually by the concept of the superiority of French culture and France's special ''[[mission civilisatrice]]''&mdash;the civilizing of the native through assimilation to French culture. The immediate pretext for French expansionism in Indochina was the protection of French religious missions in the area, coupled with a desire to find a southern route to [[China]] through [[Tonkin]], the northern region of northern [[Vietnam]].
French religious and commercial interests were established in Indochina as early as the seventeenth century, but no concerted effort at stabilizing the French position was possible in the face of British strength in the [[Indian Ocean]] and [[Napoleonic Wars|French defeat]] in Europe at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries. A mid-nineteenth century religious revival under the [[Second Empire]] provided the atmosphere within which interest in Indochina grew. Anti-Christian persecutions in the Far East provided the immediate cause. In [[1856]] the Chinese executed a French missionary in southeastern China, and in [[1857]] the Vietnamese emperor, faced with a domestic crisis, tried to destroy foreign influences in his country by executing the Spanish bishop of [[Tonkin]]. Under [[Napoleon III]], France decided that [[Catholicism]] would be eliminated in the Far East if France did not go to its aid, and accordingly the French joined the British against [[China]] in the [[Second Opium War]] from [[1857]] to [[1860]] and took action against [[Vietnam]] as well. By [[1860]] the French occupied [[Saigon]].
By a Franco-Vietnamese treaty in [[1862]], the Vietnamese emperor ceded France outright the three provinces of [[Cochin China]] in the south; France also secured trade and religious privileges in the rest of Vietnam and a protectorate over Vietnam's foreign relations. Gradually French power spread through exploration, the establishment of protectorates, and outright annexations. Their seizure of [[Hanoi]] in [[1882]] led directly to war with [[China]] ([[1883]]-[[1885]]), and the French victory confirmed French supremacy in the region. [[France]] governed [[Cochin China]] as a direct colony, and [[Annam]] (central [[Vietnam]]), [[Tonkin]], and [[Cambodia]] as protectorates in one degree or another. [[Laos]] too was soon brought under French "protection."
By the beginning of the twentieth century France had created an empire in Indochina nearly 50 percent larger than the mother country. A governor-general in [[Hanoi]] ruled [[Cochin China]] directly and the other regions through a system of residents. Theoretically, the French maintained the precolonial rulers and administrative structures in [[Annam]], [[Tonkin]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Laos]], but in fact the governor-generalship was a centralized fiscal and administrative regime ruling the entire region. Although the surviving native institutions were preserved in order to make French rule more acceptable, they were almost completely deprived of any independence of action. The ethnocentric French colonial administrators sought to assimilate the upper classes into France's "superior culture." While the French improved public services and provided commercial stability, the native standard of living declined and precolonial social structures eroded. Indochina, which had a population of over eighteen million in [[1914]], was important to France for its [[tin]], [[black pepper|pepper]], [[coal]], [[cotton]], and [[rice]]. It is still a matter of debate, however, whether the colony was commercially profitable.
==Russia and "The Great Game"==
{{main article|[[The Great Game]]}}
[[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]] is often not regarded as a colonial power such as Britain or France because of the manner of Russian expansions: unlike Britain, which expanded overseas, the Russian empire grew from the center outward by a process of accretion. In the 19th century Russian expansion took the form of a struggle of an effectively landlocked country for access to a warm water port.
While the British were consolidating their hold on India, Russian expansion had moved steadily eastward to the Pacific, then toward the Middle East, and finally to the frontiers of [[Iran|Persia]] and [[Afghanistan]] (both territories adjacent to British holdings in India). In response, the defense of India's land frontiers and the control of all sea approaches to the subcontinent via the [[Suez Canal]], the [[Red Sea]], and the [[Persian Gulf]] became preoccupations of British foreign policy in the 19th century.
Anglo-Russian rivalry in the Middle East and Central Asia led to a brief confrontation over [[Afghanistan]] in the [[1880]]s. In Persia (now [[Iran]]), both nations set up banks to extend their economic influence. Britain went so far as to invade Tibet, a land under nominal Chinese suzerainty, in 1904, but withdrew when it became clear that Russian influence was insignificant and when Chinese resistance proved tougher than expected.
In [[1907]] Britain and Russia signed an agreement which—on the surface—ended their rivalry in Central Asia. (''see'' [[Anglo-Russian Entente]]) As part of the entente, Russia agreed to deal with the sovereign of Afghanistan only through British intermediaries. In turn Britain would not annex or occupy Afghanistan. Chinese suzerainty over Tibet also was recognized by both Russia and Britain, since nominal control by a weak China was preferable to control by either power. Persia was divided into Russian and British spheres of influence and an intervening "neutral" zone. Britain and Russia chose to reach these uneasy compromises because of growing on the part of both powers of German expansion in strategic areas of China and Africa.
Following the entente, Russia increasingly intervened in Persian domestic politics and suppressed nationalist movements that threatened both Moscow and London. After the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], Russia gave up its claim to a sphere of influence, though Soviet involvement persisted alongside Britain's until the [[1940s]].
In the [[Middle East]], a German company built a railroad from [[Constantinople]] to [[Baghdad]] and the [[Persian Gulf]]. [[Germany]] wanted to gain economic influence in the region and then, perhaps, move on to Iran and India. This was met with bitter resistance by Britain, Russia, and France who divided the region among themselves.
==Imperialism in China==
===Imperialist penetration of China===
[[Image:China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg|left|200px|thumb|A shocked mandarin in [[Manchu]] robe in the back, with [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]]), [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] ([[Germany]]), [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] ([[Russia]]), [[Marianne]] ([[France]]), and a [[samurai]] ([[Japan]]) stabbing into a plate with ''Chine'' ("[[China]]" in [[French language|French]]) written on it]]
''See [[European Enclaves in China]]''
During the 18th century merchants from Western Europe came to China in increasing numbers. However, merchants were confined to Guangzhou and the Portuguese colony of Macao, as they had been since the 16th century. European trades were increasingly irritated by what they saw as the relatively high customs duties they had to pay and by the attempts to curb the growing import trade in [[opium]]. By 1800 its importation was forbidden by the imperial government. However, the opium trade continued to boom. Private vessels sailing from many countries, including the United States, made huge profits from the growing number of Chinese opium addicts.
Early in the 19th century serious internal weaknesses developed in the [[Qing dynasty|Manchu empire]] that left China vulnerable to Western, Japanese, and Russian imperialism. In [[1839]] China found itself fighting the [[First Opium War]] with Brita |
controller that allowed it to store 16 sectors per track. (This upgrade was user-installable on older controllers.) After the release of DOS 3.3, the user community discontinued use of DOS 3.2 except for running legacy software. Programs that required DOS 3.2 were fairly rare, however, as DOS 3.3 was not a major architectural change aside from the number of sectors per track. A program called MUFFIN was provided with DOS 3.3 to allow users to copy files from DOS 3.2 disks to DOS 3.3 disks.
On a DOS 3.x disk, tracks 0, 1, and most of track 2 were reserved to store the operating system. A short ROM program on the disk controller had the ability to seek to track zero -- which it did without regard for the read/write head's current position, resulting in the characteristic "chattering" sound of a Disk II boot, which was the read/write head hitting the rubber stop block at the end of the rail -- and read and execute code from sector 0. The disk's directory was stored on track 17, smack in the middle of the 35-track disks, in order to reduce the average [[seek time]] to the frequently-used directory track. The directory was fixed in size and could hold a maximum of 105 files. Subdirectories were not supported.
Most game publishers did not include DOS on their floppy disks, since they needed the memory it occupied more than its capabilities; instead, they often wrote their own boot loaders and read-only file systems. This also served to discourage "crackers" from snooping around in the game's copy-protection code, since the data on the disk wasn't in files that could be accessed easily.
Some third-party manufacturers produced floppy drives that could write 40 tracks to most 5&frac14;-inch disks, yielding 160 KiB of storage per disk, but the format did not catch on widely, and no known software was published on 40-track media. Most drives, even Disk IIs, could write 36 tracks; simple modifications to DOS for formatting the extra track were common.
Later, Apple IIs were able to use 3&frac12;-inch disks with a total capacity of 800 KB and hard disks. DOS 3.3 did not support these drives natively; third-party software was required, and disks larger than about 400 KB had to be split up into multiple "virtual disk volumes." [[ProDOS]], a 1983 descendent of the Apple ///'s SOS, became the Apple II operating system of choice for users with these larger disks thanks to its native support of volumes up to 32 [[Megabyte|MB]] in size (and the fact that AppleWorks required it).
===Renditions of the "II" name===
The "II" portion of the Apple II name was rendered in a variety of creative ways using punctuation symbols on the front lids of the computers, and most printed material followed this lead. For example, the II and the "unenhanced" IIe was most commonly written <nowiki>][ and ][e,</nowiki> and the IIc and enhanced and platinum IIe models were written as //c and //e. Finally, the IIgs and IIc Plus were rendered in the forms used in this article. To match the silkscreening on the front of the computer, [[small caps]] were often used for the "gs" in "IIgs" if available, otherwise lowercase was usually used for the "gs".
===Life after death===
[[Image:Apple2_BSOD.jpg|thumb|250px|"BSOD" XScreensaver module showing a crashed Apple II]]
[[Image:Apple2_Screensaver.jpg|thumb|250px|"Apple2" XScreensaver module typing a BASIC program]]
Today, [[emulator|emulators]] for various Apple II models are available to run Apple II software on the Macintosh, Linux, Microsoft Windows, and other operating systems. Numerous [[disk image]]s of Apple II software are available free over the [[Internet]] for use with these emulators. However, emulators cannot run software on copy-protected media unless somebody "cracks" (removes the copy restrictions from) the software. The Lost Classics Project had as its goal convincing copyright holders of classic Apple II software to officially allow unrestricted free distribution of their software and has "freed" a number of programs.
One unusual homage to the Apple II is an [[XScreenSaver]] "hack" named ''bsod''. The bsod [[screensaver]] duplicates the appearance of [[computer crash]] screens for various operating systems (including the Windows [[Blue Screen of Death]], after which it is named). In the case of the Apple II, the screensaver actually emulates the [[cathode ray tube|CRT]] display typically used with the computer, so the screen will appear to twitch as text blocks turn on and off, a common quirk of analog NTSC displays. Another module called "Apple2" shows a working Apple II being used to type and run three different [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] programs, also with glitch-complete CRT emulation and even typos (or "syntax errors").
===Industry impact===
It is difficult to estimate the enormous impact that the Apple II family of computers has had on world business and, especially, the technology industry. The Apple II was the first computer many people ever saw, and it was affordable enough for middle-class families. Its popularity bootstrapped the entire [[computer game]] and the [[educational software]] markets and began a boom in the [[word processor]] and [[computer printer]] markets. The first microcomputer "[[killer app]]" for business was ''[[VisiCalc]]'', the first [[spreadsheet]], and it ran first on the Apple II; many businesses bought Apple IIs just to run VisiCalc. Apple's success in the home market inspired competitive [[home computer]]s such as the [[Commodore VIC-20|VIC-20]] (1980) and [[Commodore 64]] (1982), which through their significantly lower price point introduced computers to several million more home users -- grabbing some of Apple's market share in the process.
The success of the Apple II in business spurred [[IBM]] to create the [[IBM PC]], which was then purchased by middle managers in all lines of business in order to run [[spreadsheet]] and [[word processor]] software, at first ported from Apple II versions; later, whole new application software dynasties would be founded on the PC. The popularity of these PCs and their [[IBM PC compatible|clones]] then transformed business again with [[local area network|LAN]] applications such as [[e-mail]] and later Internet applications such as [[Usenet]] and the [[World Wide Web|WWW]].
One valuable lesson from the Apple II was the importance of an open architecture to the success of a computer platform. The first Apple IIs shipped with a schematic of the entire computer's circuitry and a complete source listing of the "Monitor" ROM software that served as the machine's BIOS, along with a detailed technical manual. The Apple II's slots, allowing any peripheral card to take control of the bus, enabled an independent industry of card manufacturers who together created a flood of hardware products that let users build systems that were far more powerful and useful (at a lower cost) than any competing system, most of which were not nearly as expandable and were universally proprietary. Even the game port was unusually powerful and could be used for digital and analog input and output; one hacker used it to drive a [[LaserWriter]] printer.
Apple decided not to create an open architecture with the initial [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] models, and this is widely seen as having hobbled its success. Meanwhile, IBM had created its [[IBM PC]] with an open architecture, which resulted in the near-universal adoption of the platform but led to a [[Pyrrhic victory]] for IBM itself. In the end, its off-the-shelf, open architecture allowed [[IBM PC compatible|clones]] to be manufactured by startup competitors such as [[Compaq]], [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[Gateway Computers|Gateway]], and countless others, leading eventually to IBM's abandonment of the personal computer business in 2005.
==See also==
* [[Apple III]]
* [[Apple IIe]]
* [[Apple IIc]]
* [[Apple IIgs|Apple II<small>GS</small>]]
* [[Apple IIc Plus]]
* [[Apple Computer]]
* [[Steve Wozniak]]
* [[List of Apple II application software]]
* [[List of Apple II games]]
* [[Publications/Periodicals devoted to the Apple II]]
* [[List of BBS software]] &ndash; For the Apple II and other machines
==References==
*[[Steve Wozniak|Wozniak, Steve]]. "System Description: The Apple II". ''[[BYTE]]''. May 1977. [http://oldcomputers.net/byteappleII.html]
==External links==
* [http://www.apple2history.org/ Steven Weyhrich's Apple II History]
* [http://dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Apple/Apple_II/ Dmoz.org - Apple II]
* [http://www.mandrake.demon.co.uk/Apple/8bit.html Apple II expansion cards]
* [http://Applefritter.com/ Applefritter has some Apple I information]
* [http://www.8bit-museum.de/?page=docs/apple3b.htm PCB pictures of the Apple II]
* [http://www.apple2clones.com/ Apple2clones has information on Apple II clones]
* [http://www.gse-reactive.com/ GSE-Reactive - information about rare Apple II hardware]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apple III</title>
<id>2117</id>
<revision>
<id>40359426</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:18:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><div>[[image:Apple3.jpg|thumb|right|325px|The Apple III, an early business machine predating the IBM PC]]</d |
minating with the [[Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising]] organised by the [[IMARO]] in [[1903]].
In [[1912]] and [[1913]] Bulgaria became involved in the [[Balkan Wars]], entering into conflict first against the Ottoman Empire and then against its former Balkan allies in desperate effort to achieve its national unity. After being defeated in the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria lost most of the territory conquered in the first war, as well as [[Southern Dobruja]]. During [[World War I]], Bulgaria found itself fighting on the losing side after its alliance with the [[Central Powers]]. The defeat led to new territorial losses (the [[Western Outlands]] to [[Serbia]], [[Western Thrace]] to [[Greece]] and again the re-conquered [[Southern Dobruja]] to [[Romania]]. The Balkan Wars and World War I led to the influx of over 250,000 Bulgarian refugees from [[Macedonia]], [[Eastern Thrace|Eastern]] and [[Western Thrace]] and [[Southern Dobruja]]. After regaining control over [[Southern Dobruja]] in [[1940]], Bulgaria allied with the [[Axis Powers]] in [[World War II]]. Bulgaria, however, did not participate directly in the war. It also saved the lives of its own 50,000 [[Bulgarian Jews]] from the [[Nazi]] [[death camp]]s by refusing to comply with a [[31 August]] [[1943]] resolution, which demanded their deportation to [[Auschwitz]].
Bulgaria fell within the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] sphere of influence after World War II and became a [[People's Republic]] in 1946 and Moscow's staunchest ally. From the late 1970s it began normalising its relations with Greece and from the 1990s with Turkey. Communist domination ended in 1989, when Bulgaria again held multiparty elections, but economic difficulties and a tide of corruption led to over 600,000 Bulgarians, most of them qualified professionals, to emigrate.
Bulgaria joined [[NATO]] on [[29 March]], [[2004]] and is set to join the [[European Union]] at the earliest on [[1 January]], [[2007]] after signing the [[Treaty of Accession 2005|Treaty of Accession]] on [[25 April]] [[2005]].
==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Bulgaria]]''
===Executive===
[[Image:Parlament1.jpg|thumb|350px|The Parliament in downtown Sofia.]]
The [[president of Bulgaria]] ([[Georgi Purvanov]] since [[22 January]] [[2002]]) is directly elected for a 5-year term with the right to one re-election. The president serves as the [[head of state]] and commander in chief of the armed forces. The president is the head of the Consultative Council for National Security and while unable to initiate [[legislation]], the President can return a bill for further debate, though parliament can overturn the president's veto with a simple majority vote.
The Council of Ministers is chaired by the Prime Minister ([[Sergey Stanishev]] since [[17 August]] [[2005]]), and is the principal body of the Executive Branch and presently consists of 20 ministers. The Prime Minister is nominated by the largest parliamentary group and is given a mandate by the President to form a cabinet.
The current governmental coalition is made of the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP), [[National Movement Simeon II]] ([[NMS]]), and the [[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]] (representing mainly the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] minority).
===Legislative===
The Bulgarian [[unicameral]] [[parliament]], the National Assembly or [[Narodno Sabranie]], consists of 240 deputies who are elected for 4-year-term stretches by popular vote. The votes are for party or coalition lists of candidates for each of the twenty-eight administrative divisions. A party or [[coalition]] must garner a minimum of 4% of the vote in order to enter parliament. Parliament is responsible for enactment of laws, approval of the budget, scheduling of presidential elections, selection and dismissal of the [[prime Minister of Bulgaria|prime minister]] and other ministers, declaration of war, deployment of troops outside of Bulgaria, and ratification of international treaties and agreements.
The last elections took place on June 2005. The next elections are planned for summer 2009.
===Judiciary===
The Bulgarian judicial system consists of regional, district and appeal courts, as well as a Supreme Court of Cassation. In addition, there is a Supreme Administrative Court and a system of military courts. The Presidents of the Supreme Court of Cassation, Supreme Administrative Court and the Prosecutor General are elected by a qualified majority of two thirds from all the members of the Supreme Judicial Council and are appointed by the President of the Republic. The Supreme Judicial Council is in charge of the self-administration and organisation of the Judiciary.
The Constitutional Court is in charge of reviewing the constitutionality of laws and statutes brought before it, as well as the compliance of these laws with international treaties that the Government has signed. Parliament elects the 12 members of the Constitutional Court by a two-thirds majority, the members serve a nine-year term.
===Regional and local government===
The territory of the Republic of Bulgaria is divided into regions and municipalities. In all Bulgaria has 28 regions, each headed by a regional governor appointed by the government. In addition, there are 263 municipalities.
==Regions==
''Main article: [[Regions of Bulgaria]]''
[[Image:Regions of Bulgaria Map.png|thumb|230px|Regions of Bulgaria]]
Since 1999 Bulgaria consists of 28 regions (''oblasti'', singular - ''[[oblast]]''), after having been subdivided into 9 provinces since 1987. All are named after the regional capital, with the national capital itself forming a separate region:
{|
|
* [[Blagoevgrad (region)|Blagoevgrad]]
* [[Burgas (region)|Burgas]]
* [[Dobrich (region)|Dobrich]]
* [[Gabrovo (region)|Gabrovo]]
* [[Haskovo (region)|Haskovo]]
* [[Kardzhali (region)|Kardzhali]]
* [[Kyustendil (region)|Kyustendil]]
|
* [[Lovech (region)|Lovech]]
* [[Montana (region)|Montana]]
* [[Pazardzhik (region)|Pazardzhik]]
* [[Pernik (region)|Pernik]]
* [[Pleven (region)|Pleven]]
* [[Plovdiv (region)|Plovdiv]]
* [[Razgrad (region)|Razgrad]]
|
* [[Ruse (region)|Ruse]]
* [[Shumen (region)|Shumen]]
* [[Silistra (region)|Silistra]]
* [[Sliven (region)|Sliven]]
* [[Smolyan (region)|Smolyan]]
* [[Sofia]]
* [[Sofia Region]]
|
* [[Stara Zagora (region)|Stara Zagora]]
* [[Targovishte (region)|Targovishte]]
* [[Varna (region)|Varna]]
* [[Veliko Tarnovo (region)|Veliko Tarnovo]]
* [[Vidin (region)|Vidin]]
* [[Vratsa (region)|Vratsa]]
* [[Yambol (region)|Yambol]]
|}
==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of Bulgaria]]''
[[Image:Bu-map.png|right|Map of Bulgaria]]
Bulgaria is comprised of portions of the classical regions of [[Thrace]], [[Moesia]], and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. The southwest of the country is mountainous and includes the highest peak of the Balkan Peninsula, peak [[Musala]] at 2,925 metres (9,596&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]); the range of the [[Balkan mountains]] runs west-east through the middle of the country, north of the famous [[Rose Valley]]. Hilly country and plains are found in the southeast, along the [[Bulgarian Black Sea Coast|Black Sea]] coast in the east, and along Bulgaria's main river, the [[Danube]] in the north. Other major rivers include the [[Struma River|Struma]] and the [[Maritsa|Maritsa river]] in the south.
The Bulgarian [[climate]] is [[temperate climate|temperate]], with cold, damp winters and hot, dry summers.
The [[Balkans|Balkan peninsula]] derives its name from the ''Balkan'' or ''[[Stara Planina]]'' mountain range which runs through the center of Bulgaria into eastern [[Serbia]].
''See also:''
* ''[[List of cities in Bulgaria]]''
* ''[[Rivers of Bulgaria]]''
* ''[[Reservoirs and dams in Bulgaria]]''
==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Bulgaria]]''
Bulgaria's economy contracted dramatically after 1989 with the loss of the market of the [[Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]] (COMECON) member states, to which the Bulgarian economy had been closely tied. The [[standard of living]] fell by about 40%, but it regained pre-1990 levels in June 2004. In addition, [[United Nations|UN]] sanctions against [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and [[Iraq]] took a heavy toll on the Bulgarian economy. The first signs of recovery emerged in 1994 when the [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] grew and [[inflation]] fell. During 1996, however, the economy collapsed due to lack of international economic support and an unstable banking system. Since 1997 the country has been on the path to recovery, with GDP growing at a 4-5% rate, increasing FDI, macroeconomic stability and [[EU]] membership set for 2007.
The former government, elected in 2001, pledged to maintain the fundamental economic policy objectives adopted by its predecessor in 1997, i.e., retaining the Currency Board, practicing sound financial policies, accelerating [[privatisation]], and pursuing structural reforms. Economic forecasts for 2005 and 2006 predict continued growth in the Bulgarian economy. The annual year-on-year GDP growth for 2005 and 2006 is expected to total 5,3% and 6,0%, respectively. Industrial output for 2005 is forecast to rise by 11,9% year-on-year, and for 2006 - by 15,2% year-on-year. Unemployment for 2005 is projected at 11,5% and for 2006 - at under 10%.
On [[April 25]], [[2005]] Bulgaria signed the [[Treaty of Accession 2005|Treaty of Accession]] with the [[European Union]] and is set to join the bloc in 2007.
==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Bulgaria]]''
[[Image:Bulgarien 0905.JPG|right|thumb|250px|The [[Rila Monastery]] is one of Bulgaria's most important cultural and historical monuments]]
According to the 2001 [[census]], Bulgaria's population is mainly [[Bulgarians|ethnic Bulgarian]] (83.9%), with two sizable minorities, [[Turkish people|Turks]] (9.4%) and [[Roma and Sinti|Roma]] (4.7%). Of the remaining 2.0%, 0.9% are distributed among some forty smaller minorities, the most numerous of which ar |
low will assume that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples, Bob, who is sitting to her left, Carol to his left, and David to Carol's left.
==Standard five-card draw==
[[Image:Draw-poker-table.png|right|300px|Draw poker]]
This is often the first poker variant learned by most players, and is very common in home games although it is now quite rare in casino and tournament play. When played skillfully, it can become monotonous. The lowball variations described later are more interesting games. Two to eight players can play.
Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, one at a time, all face down. The remaining deck stub is placed aside, often protected by placing a chip or other marker on it. Players pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players. The first betting round occurs at this point, starting with the player to the dealer's left. If more than one player remains after this round, the "draw" phase begins. Each player specifies how many of his cards he wishes to replace, and discards that many from his hand. The deck stub is retrieved, and after a [[burn card]] is dealt, each player in turn is dealt the same number of cards he discarded, so that each player again has five cards. It is important that each player discards the cards he wishes to replace before he takes any replacements, and that he take the same number of replacements as he discarded. A second betting round occurs after the draw phase, followed by a showdown if more than one player remains.
A common "house rule" in some places is that a player may not replace more than three cards, unless he draws four cards while keeping an ace (or wild card). This rule is only needed for low-limit social games where many players will stay for the draw, and will help avoid depletion of the deck stub. In more serious games such as those played in casinos it is unnecessary and generally not used. A rule that ''is'' used by many casinos is that a player is not allowed to draw five consecutive cards from the deck. In this case, if a player wishes to replace all five of his cards, he is given four of them in turn, the other players are given their draws, and then the dealer returns to that player to give him his fifth replacement (if no later player drew, it is necessary to deal a burn card first).
Another common house rule is that the bottom card of the deck is never given as a replacement, to avoid the possibility of someone who might have seen it during the deal using that information. If the deck stub is depleted during the draw before all players have received their replacements, the last players can receive cards chosen randomly from among those discarded by previous players. For example, if the last player to draw wants three replacements but there are only two cards remaining in the deck stub, the dealer gives the player the one top card he can give, then shuffles together the bottom card of the deck, the burn card if any, and the earlier players' discards (but not the three discards of the last player!), and finally deals two more replacements to the last player.
'''Example:''' Alice deals five cards to each player and places the deck stub aside. Bob opens the betting round by betting $1. Carol folds, David calls, and Alice calls, closing the betting round. Bob now declares that he wishes to replace three of his cards, so he removes those three cards from his hand and discards them. Alice retrieves the deck stub, deals a burn card, and then deals three cards directly to Bob, who puts them in his hand. David discards one card, and Alice deals one card to him from the deck stub. Alice now discards three of her own cards, and replaces them with three from the top of the deck stub. Now a second betting round begins. Bob checks, David bets $3, Alice calls, and Bob folds, ending the second betting round. David shows a flush, and Alice shows two pair, so David takes the pot.
==Other draw games==
===Gardena jackpots ("Jacks to open" or simply "Jackpots")===
Played as above, with standard hand values, and with a single joker in the deck acting as a [[Bug (poker)|bug]]. Always played with an ante and no blinds. On the first betting round, no player is allowed to open the betting unless his hand already contains a pair of jacks or a better hand. Other players who checked on the first round may subsequently call or raise if someone else opens. If no player opens, a new deal begins and everyone antes again into the same pot. The player who opened the betting keeps his discarded cards near him on the table so that he can prove, if necessary, that he had a sufficient opening hand. For example, a player with the '''K''', '''J''', '''9''', and '''7''' of clubs and the '''J''' of hearts has a pair of jacks and may open. He may wish to "break openers" in this case by discarding the jack of hearts in an attempt to make the club flush, so he keeps the discarded jack to prove that he was entitled to open.
The game is named after the city of Gardena, California, where this game was especially popular from the 1930s to 1970s (though it was always secondary to lowball). At that time, there were more public poker tables in that small city than in all the rest of the [[United States]]. Public poker rooms are still a big industry there, though Las Vegas, Atlantic City, and other locations now have many more poker rooms than they did at that time. Because "Jacks to open" was the primary form of high-hand draw poker played there, traditional draw poker was often described by the [[retronym]] "Guts to open".
In home games, it is common that when a deal is "passed out" (that is, when no one opens), the players re-ante, and the qualifier to open is raised to a pair of queens. If that deal is passed out, the qualifier is raised to kings, and finally to aces. This is called "progressive" jackpots.
===California lowball===
This was the primary poker game played in California during the heyday of Gardena in the 1970s. It is still played today, though its popularity has somewhat lessened since the introduction of [[stud poker]] and [[community card poker]] to the state.
Played as above, using [[ace-to-five low]] hand values, with a single joker in the deck. Always played with blinds rather than antes, so players may not check on the first betting round (but may on the second round). A player with a '''7'''-high hand or better who checks after the draw forfeits his right to win any money placed in the pot after the draw. (In other words, you may not check a "seven" unless you intend to fold when someone else bets). Another common rule in low-limit games is that a player who checks on the second betting round may not subsequently raise on that round. This latter rule is never used in games with a pot limit or no limit betting structure.
===Badougi===
Also sometimes known as Padooki, Badougi is a four card [[ace-to-five low]] lowball variant where traditional poker hand rankings are changed. A Badougi is a four card hand where all the cards are of different ranks and suits. Any cards which match another card in rank or suit does not play and the first criteria for evaluating hands is the number of cards which are playing. The following is the ranking of several example of hands from best to worst:
#Ace of spades, 2 of clubs, 3 of hearts, 4 of diamonds: 4 card 4 high best possible Badougi
#4 of spades, 6 of hearts, 8 of diamonds, J of clubs: 4 card J high Badougi
#Ten of clubs, J of hearts, Q of Diamonds, K of hearts: 4 card worst possible Badougi
#Ace of hearts, Ace of diamonds, 4 of clubs, 5 of spades: 3 card hand, 5 high
#Ace of clubs, Ace of spades, 4 of spades, 6 of spades: 2 card hand, 4 high
Badougi is usually played triple-draw, with a 1-1-2-2 betting structure, although it also plays well at no limit.
===Other forms of lowball===
Five-card draw, with no joker, and [[deuce-to-seven low]] hand values is called "Kansas City" or "Low Poker" or even "Billy Baxter" draw in honor of the player who dominated the world championship in the event for many years. The '''7'''-high rule and the no check-and-raise rule do not apply. In the eastern United States, the [[United Kingdom]], and elsewhere, [[ace-to-six low]] hand values are common.
===California high/low split===
Played as above, with a single joker, used as a [[Bug (poker)|bug]]. High hand and low hand (using the [[ace-to-five low]] values) [[split (poker)|split]] the pot. An '''8'''-high or better low is required to win low. If no hand qualifies low, high hand takes the whole pot. Played [[cards speak]], that is, players do not declare whether they intend to win the high or low half of the pot (or both); they simply show their cards and the best hands win. Because ace-to-five low values are used, a hand such as a low straight or flush can win both high and low, called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.
===High/low with declare===
This is common in home games but is rarely found in casinos today. Played as are other versions of five-card draw, but after the second betting round and before the showdown, there is a simultaneous [[Declaration (poker)|declaration]] phase. Each player takes two chips from his stack and takes them under the table, bringing up a closed fist that contains either no chips (indicating that the player intends to win the low half of the pot), one chip (indicating that the player intends to win the high half), or two chips (indicating that he intends to scoop). When everyone has brought up the closed fist, the players all open their hands simultaneously to reveal their choices. If any player shows two chips, and his hand is the best low and the best high, he scoops the pot. Otherwise, half |
her second nomination.
In 2005, Theron also portrayed Rita, Michael Bluth's ([[Jason Bateman]]) love interest on the third season of [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]'s critically acclaimed sitcom, ''[[Arrested Development]]''.
==Personal life==
Theron dated the [[lead singer]] of [[Third Eye Blind]], [[Stephan Jenkins]], from [[January 1998]] to [[July 2001]]. Jenkins broke up with her after failing to take her requests of [[marriage]] seriously [http://www.tribute.ca/tribute/1205/sex_degrees.htm]. Theron now resides in [[Los Angeles]] with her long-term boyfriend, [[Stuart Townsend]], with whom she starred in the 2004 film, ''[[Head in the Clouds]]''; she has said that she will not marry him until [[Same-sex marriage|same-sex couples]] are able to have their marriages recognized. In [[October 2005]], her mother, Gerda, was married in [[California]]. The media thought that Charlize was the one getting married (to Townsend) and the paparazzi got as close as they could for the photos.
While filming ''Æon Flux'' in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]], Theron had surgery on a [[hernia]]ted [[cervical vertebrae|cervical]] disc in her neck, the result of an injury incurred on the set during a stunt.
Theron is also involved in [[feminism|women's rights]] organizations [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/04/26/1082831473096.html]. She has tried to apply for a [[Germany|German]] passport because of her mother's German ancestry, but was turned down because she did not have any family members currently residing there.[http://news.webindia123.com/news/showdetails.asp?id=261582&cat=Entertainment]
==Selected filmography==
[[Image:monster02.jpg|right|175px|thumb|Theron as Aileen Wuornos in '''''Monster''''']]
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" align="center"
| '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Role''' || '''Other notes'''
|-
| [[2005 in film|2005]] || ''[[Aeon Flux (film)|Aeon Flux]]'' || Aeon Flux ||
|-
| [[2005 in film|2005]] || ''[[North Country (film)|North Country]]'' || Josey Aimes ||
|-
| [[2004 in film|2004]] || ''[[Head in the Clouds]]'' || Gilda Bessé || limited release
|-
| [[2003 in film|2003]] || ''[[Monster (film)|Monster]]'' || Aileen Wuornos ||
|-
| [[2003 in film|2003]] || ''[[The Italian Job (2003 film)|The Italian Job]]'' || Stella Bridger ||
|-
| [[2002 in film|2002]] || ''Waking Up in Reno'' || Candy Kirkendall ||
|-
| [[2002 in film|2002]] || ''[[Trapped (film)|Trapped]]'' || Karen Jennings ||
|-
| [[2001 in film|2001]] || ''[[Sweet November]]'' || Sara Deever ||
|-
| [[2000 in film|2000]] || ''[[The Legend of Bagger Vance]]'' || Adele Invergordon ||
|-
| [[2000 in film|2000]] || ''[[The Yards]]'' || Erica Stoltz ||
|-
| [[2000 in film|2000]] || ''[[Reindeer Games]]'' || Ashley Mercer ||
|-
| [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[The Cider House Rules (film)|The Cider House Rules]]'' || Candy Kendall ||
|-
| [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[The Astronaut's Wife]]'' || Jillian Armacost ||
|-
| [[1998 in film|1998]] || ''[[Mighty Joe Young]]'' || Jill Young ||
|-
| [[1998 in film|1998]] || ''[[Celebrity (film)|Celebrity]]'' || Supermodel ||
|-
| [[1997 in film|1997]] || ''[[The Devil's Advocate]]'' || Mary Ann Lomax ||
|-
| [[1997 in film|1997]] || ''Trial and Error'' || Billie Tyler ||
|-
| [[1996 in film|1996]] || ''[[2 Days in the Valley]]'' || Helga Svelgen ||
|}
==External links==
===Interviews===
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.moviehole.net/interviews/20060201_interview_charlize_theron_and.html MovieHole interview] (February 1, 2006)
*[http://film.guardian.co.uk/interview/interviewpages/0,6737,1183644,00.html Guardian Unlimited interview] (April 2, 2004)
*[http://www.darkhorizons.com/news05/aeon2.php Dark Horizons interview] (January 3, 2004)
*[http://www.splicedonline.com/03features/ctheron.html Spliced Wire interview] (December 22, 2003)
*[http://actionadventure.about.com/cs/weeklystories/a/aa121903.htm About.com interview] (December 19, 2003)
===Web sites===
*[http://www.charlizetheron.com/ Official Site]
*[http://people.noteroom.com/charlize_theron.html Charlize Theron in the News]
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/newspaper/0,,176-1279700_1,00.html 'Theron brushes up on Hill of Tara]
* {{imdb name|id=0000234|name=Charlize Theron}}
[[Category:1975 births|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Best Actress Oscar|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Best Actress Oscar Nominee|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Cast of Arrested Development|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Film actors|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Living people|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:South African actors|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:South African models|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Worst Actress Razzie nominees|Theron, Charlize]]
[[de:Charlize Theron]]
[[es:Charlize Theron]]
[[fr:Charlize Theron]]
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[[ja:シャーリーズ・セロン]]
[[no:Charlize Theron]]
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[[zh:莎莉·賽隆]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charlize Theron/Filmography</title>
<id>5133</id>
<revision>
<id>15903363</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-30T07:14:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeronimo</username>
<id>108</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>make a redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charlize Theron]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess</title>
<id>5134</id>
<revision>
<id>41911178</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:43:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.6.175.48</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings, see [[Chess (disambiguation)]].''
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Chess.ogg|2005-09-05}}
{{Infobox_Game|
subject_name=Chess |
image_link=[[Image:ChessSet.jpg|none|250px|The Chess Pieces]] |
image_caption=From left, a white [[King (chess)|king]], black [[rook (chess)|rook]] and [[queen (chess)|queen]], white [[pawn (chess)|pawn]], black [[knight (chess)|knight]], and white [[bishop (chess)|bishop]] in a set of [[Howard Staunton|Staunton chess pieces]]. |
players=2 |
ages=Recommended 4 years and up.|
setup_time=30-60 seconds |
playing_time=10-240 minutes, more for tournament games|
complexity=Medium |
strategy=High |
random_chance=None |
skills=[[Chess_strategy_and_tactics|Tactics]], [[Chess_strategy_and_tactics|Strategy]] |
footnotes =
}}
{{portal}}
'''Chess''' is an [[abstract strategy]] [[board game]] for two players. It is played on a square [[Chessboard|board]] of eight rows (called ''ranks'') and eight columns (called ''files''), giving 64 squares of alternating colour, light and dark, with each player having a light square at the near-right corner when facing the board. Each player begins the game with 16 [[Chess piece|pieces]] which can move in defined directions (and in some instances, limited range) and can remove other pieces from the board: each player's pieces comprise eight [[pawn (chess)|pawns]], two [[knight (chess)|knights]], two [[bishop (chess)|bishops]], two [[rook (chess)|rooks]], one [[queen (chess)|queen]] and one [[king (chess)|king]]. All pieces can remove opponent's pieces by landing on the space they occupy.
One player controls the white pieces; the other player controls the black pieces (the player that controls white is always the first player to move). In chess, when a player's king is directly threatened with capture by one or more of the opponent's pieces, the player is said to be in ''check''. When in check, only moves that can evade check, block check, or take the offending piece are permitted. The object of the game is to [[checkmate]] the opponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in check, and no move can be made that would prevent it.
==Introduction==
Chess is not a [[game of chance]]; it is based solely on [[Chess tactic|tactics]] and [[strategy]]. Nevertheless, the game is so complex that not even the best players can consider all contingencies: although only 64 squares and 32 pieces are on the board, the number of possible games that can be played far exceeds the number of [[atom]]s in the universe (see [[Shannon number]]).
Chess is one of the world's most [[popularity|popular]] games; it has been described not only as a game but also as an [[art]] and a [[science]]. Chess is sometimes seen as an [[Abstract strategy|abstract]] [[wargame]]; as a "[[mind|mental]] [[martial art]]", and teaching chess has been advocated as a [[Chess as mental training|way of enhancing mental prowess]]. Chess is played both recreationally and competitively in [[Chess club|clubs]], tournaments, online, and [[Play-by-mail game|by mail]] ([[correspondence chess]]). Many [[Chess variant|variants]] and relatives of chess are played throughout the world. The most popular, in descending order by number of players, are [[xiangqi]] in [[China]], [[shogi]] in [[Japan]], and [[janggi]] in [[Korea]].
==Gameplay==
===Rules of chess===
: ''Main article: [[Rules of chess]]''
{{Chess diagram|=
| tright
|
|=
8 |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd|=
7 |pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|=
6 | | | | | | | | |=
5 | | | | | | | | |=
4 | | | | | | | | |=
3 | | | | | | | | |=
2 |pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|=
1 |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|=
a b c d e f g h
| The position of the pieces at the start of a game of chess.
}}
{| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; clear: right"
|-
!Name
!Letter
!Picture
|-
|[[Pawn (chess)|Pawn]] |
rime minister, [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon|Lord Clarendon]], in [[1667]], was rather called the Cabal because of its secretiveness and lack of responsibility to the "Country party" then out of power.
In [[1777]] a supposed conspiracy, known as the "[[Conway Cabal]]," took place. A series of criticisms of [[General]] [[George Washington]]'s leadership abilities as commander-in-chief during the [[American Revolution]] has been taught as a cabal, but little evidence exists for it being an actual conspiracy.
During the rise of [[Usenet]], the term gained great notice as a semi-ironic description of the efforts of people to maintain some order over the chaotic, anarchic Usenet community; see [[backbone cabal]], [[There is no Cabal]]. As in this specific case, references to an alleged cabal often fall within the realm of the [[conspiracy theory]].
One recent example of the use of the word Cabal came in an accusation by former [[Secretary of State]] [[Colin Powell|Colin Powell's]] chief of staff, [[Lawrence Wilkerson]], who claimed that the [[George_W._Bush_administration|Bush administration's]] foreign policy is run by a "Cheney-Rumsfeld cabal" demonstrating evil intent (See [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/politics/21wilkerson.html?incamp=article_popular]).
Currently on the [[Comedy Central]] program [[The Daily Show]], the phrase "A global cabal of Jews" is referenced from time to time. It's meant as a spoof on the [[Protocols of the Elders of Zion]], which claimed that a secret Jewish society is lurking to disempower non-jews, especially Whites. This theory was one of the inspirations for [[Nazi]] atrocities against Jews leading up to WW2 and is a recurring theory in many communist, racist, and islamic extremist groups.
The existence or otherwise of cabals has led to the [[Internet meme]] originating on [[Usenet]], "TINC" (standing for [[There Is No Cabal]]).
==See also==
Other negative words that arose from descriptions of religious extremism or religious sects include:
:* [[Zealot]]
:* [[Thug]]
:* [[Assassin]]
[[Category:Secret societies]]
[[simple:Cabal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cytochrome</title>
<id>6925</id>
<revision>
<id>34686078</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T00:35:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Julzreb</username>
<id>774832</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cytochromes''' are generally membrane-bound [[protein]]s that contain [[heme]] groups and carry out [[electron transport]] or catalyse [[redox|reductive/oxidative]] reactions. They are found in the [[mitochondrion|mitochondrial]] inner membrane and [[endoplasmic reticulum]] of [[eukaryote]]s, in the [[chloroplast]]s of plants, in [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] [[microorganism]]s, and in [[bacterium|bacteria]].
The [[heme]] group is a highly conjugated ring system (which means its [[electron]]s are very mobile) surrounding a metal ion, which readily interconverts between the oxidation states. For many cytochromes the metal ion present is that of ''[[iron]]'', which interconverts between Fe<sup>2+</sup> (reduced) and Fe<sup>3+</sup> (oxidized) states ([[electron transfer|electron-transfer]] processes) or between Fe<sup>2+</sup> (reduced) and Fe<sup>5+</sup> (formal, oxidized) states (oxidative processes). Cytochromes are thus capable of performing [[redox|oxidation and reduction]]. Because the cytochromes (as well as other complexes) are held within membranes in an organized way, the redox reactions are carried out in the proper sequence for maximum efficiency.
In the process of [[oxidative phosphorylation]], which is the principal energy-generating process undertaken by organisms which need oxygen to survive, other membrane-bound and soluble [[complex (chemistry)|complex]]es and [[cofactor]]s are involved in the chain of redox reactions, with the additional net effect that protons (H<sup>+</sup>) are transported across the mitochondrial inner membrane. The resulting [[Chemiosmotic potential|transmembrane proton gradient]] (protonmotive force) is used to generate [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], which is the universal chemical energy currency of life. ATP is consumed to drive cellular processes that require energy (such as rotation of [[flagellum|flagella]], transport of molecules across the membrane, and synthesis of macromolecules).
Several kinds of cytochrome exist and can be distinguished by spectroscopy, exact structure of the heme group, inhibitor sensitivity, and reduction potential:
*[[Cytochrome_c_oxidase|Cytochrome ''a'']]
*[[Cytochrome_c_oxidase|Cytochrome ''a'']]<sub>3</sub>
*[[Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase|Cytochrome ''b'']]
*[[Cytochrome_c|Cytochrome ''c'']]
*[[Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase|Cytochrome ''c''<sub>1</sub>]]
*[[Cytochrome f|Cytochrome ''f'']]
See the articles on [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] and [[chloroplast]]s for more information on [[Electron_transfer_chain|electron transport]] and related metabolic pathways. See [[cytochrome P450 oxidase]] for more on steroidogenesis and detoxification enzymes.
[[de:Cytochrom]]
[[fr:Cytochrome]]
[[he:ציטוכרום]]
[[ja:&#12471;&#12488;&#12463;&#12525;&#12512;]]
[[pl:Cytochrom]]
[[Category:Hemoproteins]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crowded House</title>
<id>6927</id>
<revision>
<id>41849363</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:25:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>172.145.128.239</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Deleting redundant (and incomplete!) album info already found on indvidual album pages</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Crowded House''' was an [[Australia]]n/[[New Zealand]] [[rock group]] between [[1986]] and [[1996]]; two original members were from Australia and one was from New Zealand. Their notable hits include "Don't Dream It's Over", "Something So Strong", "Better Be Home Soon", and the [[The Byrds|Byrds]]-influenced "Weather with You".
{{Infobox_band |
| band_name = ''Crowded House''
| image = [[image:ch1.jpg |200px]]
| years_active = [[1985]] - [[1996]]
| country = [[Australia]]
| music_genre = [[Rock (music)|Rock]], [[Pop music|Pop]]
| record_label = [[Capitol Records]]
|}}
==Members==
Performing in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], the group was based around the songwriting and vocal talents of New Zealand born lead singer, composer and guitarist [[Neil Finn]]. Members of the band included [[Tim Finn]] (Neil's brother) in [[1990]]&ndash;[[1991|91]], bassist [[Nick Seymour]], [[Paul Hester]] (1986&ndash;[[1994]]), session musician and [[Supertramp]] recruit [[Mark Hart]] ([[1993]]&ndash;1996) and session drummer [[Peter Jones (drummer)|Peter Jones]] (1994&ndash;1996).
==History==
The group had important connections in the Australian and New Zealand rock scenes. Neil Finn and Paul Hester were former members of the [[New Zealand]] rock band [[Split Enz]]; Neil is the younger brother of Split Enz founding member Tim Finn. Nick Seymour was the younger brother of singer-songwriter-guitarist [[Mark Seymour]], leader of Australian rock group [[Hunters & Collectors]].
The first incarnation of the band in [[1985]], [[The Mullanes]], was a 4-piece formed in [[Melbourne, Australia]], which also included guitarist [[Craig Hooper]], formerly of [[The Reels]]. They secured a record contract with [[Capitol Records]] and moved to Los Angeles, at which time Hooper left the band. At the label's behest, the band changed their name to "Crowded House," which alluded to the cramped quarters the three members shared at 1902 N. Sycamore St. in [[Los Angeles]] during the recording of the album. They also invited former Split Enz keyboard player [[Eddie Rayner]] to join. He declined, but he produced the track "Can't Carry On" for the album.
===''Crowded House'' (1986)===
The band had a built-in Australian audience waiting to see what was next for the Split Enz alumni. 1986 saw Crowded House play a few festival shows in Australia and New Zealand. They released their eponymous debut, ''[[Crowded House (album)|Crowded House]]'', in the summer. [[Capitol Records]] did not see any immediate promise for the band, and promotion for the album was lacking. Faced with an uphill battle to get the word out for their efforts, the band played small venues to vie for attention. Word slowly got out, and the song "Don't Dream It's Over" was released as a single in December; it became a massive international hit. The video for the single was mostly autobiographical, showing the houses in which the band members occupied on their way to the "crowded house" that they rented in Los Angeles during their album's production. "Don't Dream It's Over" reached #2 in the United States, and the video earned the group the [[MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist]] in [[1987]]. The song has since been rereleased by artists such as [[Paul Young]] (1998) and [[Sixpence None The Richer]] (2003).
On the strength of the single, their album wound up selling well. "Something So Strong" was the second single from the album, and it was also a successful release. "World Where You Live" also saw some airplay in the US, and "Now We're Getting Somewhere" charted in other countries.
===''Temple of Low Men'' (1988)===
As primary songwriter for the group, Neil was now under pressure to create a second album that matched the success of his band's debut. ''[[Temple of Low Men]]'' was released to great fanfare along with the single "Better Be Home Soon." Other highlights of this album were "I Feel Possessed" and &q |
' *''Living Together'' (Norman Conquests)
|-
|1973||''Round And Round The Garden'' (Norman Conquests)
|-
|1974||''Absent Friends''
|-
|1974||''[[Confusions]]''
|-
|1975 ||''Jeeves'' (re-written 1996 as ''By Jeeves'')
|-
|1975||''Bedroom [[Farce]]''
|-
|1976||''Just Between Ourselves''
|-
|1977||''Ten Times Table''
|-
|1978||''Joking Apart''
|-
|1979||''Sisterly Feelings''
|-
|1979||''Taking Steps''
|-
|1980||''Suburban Strains''
|-
|1980||''Season's Greetings''
|-
|1981||''Way Upstream''
|-
|1981||''Making Tracks''
|-
|1982||''Intimate Exchanges Consisting Of 8 Plays''
|-
|1983||''It Could Be Any One Of Us''
|-
|1984||''A Chorus Of Disapproval''
|-
|1985||''Woman In Mind''
|-
|1987||''A Small Family Business''
|-
|1987||''Henceforward...''
|-
|1988||''Man Of The Moment''
|-
|1988||''Mr A's Amazing Maze Plays''
|-
|1989||''The Revengers' Comedies''
|-
|1989||''Invisible Friends''
|-
|1990||''Body Language''
|-
|1990||''This Is Where We Came In''
|-
|1990||''Callisto 5'' (re-written in 1999 as ''Callisto 7'')
|-
|1991||''Wildest Dreams''
|-
|1991||''My Very Own Story''
|-
|1992||''Time Of My Life''
|-
|1992||''Dreams From A Summer House''
|-
|1994||''Communicating Doors''
|-
|1994||''Haunting Julia''
|-
|1994||''The Musical Jigsaw Play''
|-
|1995||''A Word From Our Sponsor''
|-
|1996||''The Champion Of Paribanou''
|-
|1997||''Things We Do For Love''
|-
|1998||''Comic Potential''
|-
|1998||''The Boy Who Fell Into A Book''
|-
|1999||''House'' (House & Garden)
|-
|1999||''Garden'' (House & Garden)
|-
|2000||''Virtual Reality''
|-
|2000||''Whenever''
|-
|2001||''Gameplan'' (Damsels In Distress)
|-
|2001||''Flatspin'' (Damsels In Distress)
|-
|2001||''Roleplay'' (Damsels In Distress)
|-
|2002||''Snake In The Grass''
|-
|2003||''My Sister Sadie''
|-
|2004||''Drowning on Dry Land''
|-
|2004||''Private Fears in Public Places''
|-
|2005||''Improbable Fiction''
|}
==See also==
*''The Crafty Art of Playmaking'', Palgrave Macmillan (US) 2003, ISBN 1403962294 <br />
*[http://www.alanayckbourn.net The official Alan Ayckbourn website]
* {{contemporary writers|id=C2D9C28A1605c22C66hRk2050A6F}}
[[Category:1939 births|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[Category:Living people|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[Category:English dramatists and playwrights|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[Category:North Yorkshire|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[Category:Knights bachelor|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[Category:Old Haileyburians|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[de:Alan Ayckbourn]]
[[nl:Alan Ayckbourn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adamnan</title>
<id>1976</id>
<revision>
<id>39141128</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T23:47:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Calgacus</username>
<id>140005</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Adomnán of Iona]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Architectural engineering</title>
<id>1977</id>
<revision>
<id>39343538</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T14:37:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Solipsist</username>
<id>49943</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/201.17.175.164|201.17.175.164]] ([[User talk:201.17.175.164|talk]]) to last version by 24.124.113.145</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Architectural engineers''' apply the skills of many engineering disciplines to the design, construction, operation, maintenance and renovation of buildings while paying attention to their impacts on the surrounding environment. In countries such as Canada, the UK and Australia, architectural engineering is more commonly known as '''Building Engineering'''. In some languages, "architect" is literally translated as "architectural engineer".
==Difference from component disciplines==
What differentiates architectural engineering from its component disciplines is the effort to understand and design for the integration of all the building systems. [[Civil engineering|Civil Engineers]], for instance, can and do design the structure of a building. The Architectural Engineer with a specialization in structures may understand and accommodate not only the structural requirements for a building, but also the architectural, [[HVAC]], plumbing, electrical, transportation, acoustic requirements - only the most common of those usually considered problematic.
==Difference from architecture==
A common confusion is the distinction between [[architecture]] and architectural engineering. In essence, architectural engineering is a component of architecture. [[Architects]] are directly responsible for the form and appearance of a building, including the way in which people use and experience the spaces of the building, and they typically act as the leader of the design team. They also coordinate the various engineering requirements of a building project. Architectural Engineering concentrates on ensuring that "the building works" (that it stands up, that the HVAC system operates, that light and power are delivered as needed).
Architectural engineers, as a distinct and separate profession, are somewhat redundant in that their role overlaps that of the architect and other project engineers. Like architects, they seek to achieve optimum system selection and sizing within the overall constraints, except using primarily the tools of engineering. In most parts of the world, architectural engineers are not entitled to practice architecture unless they are architects, and are limited to one or more engineering disciplines. In some locations, such as Japan, architects are also known as architectural engineers.
==Major specializations==
* [[Architecture]]
* [[Structural engineering]]
* [[HVAC|HVAC - Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning engineering]]
* [[Electrical engineering|Building power systems]]
* [[Lighting]]
* [[Plumbing]]
* [[Fire protection engineering]]
* [[Building transportation system]]s
* [[Acoustics]]
* [[Construction engineering]]
* [[Project management]]
==Subjects of interest==
* [[Building construction]]
* [[Energy efficiency]]
* [[Renewable energy]]
** [[Solar power]]
* [[Intelligent building]]s
* [[Autonomous building]]s
==External links==
* [http://www.aeinstitute.org/intro.cfm Architectural Engineering Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers]
==Educational institutions offering AE==
* [http://www.concordia.ca/ Concordia University, Montreal, Canada]
* [http://www.arce.calpoly.edu/general/general.html California Polytechnic State University]
* [http://www.engr.psu.edu/AE/ Penn State Architectural Engineering Department]
* [http://bechtel.colorado.edu/new/undergrad/advising/ University of Colorado]
* [http://www.ce.utexas.edu/ University of Texas at Austin]
* [http://www.cae.drexel.edu/ Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA]
* [http://www.msoe.edu/ae/ Milwaukee School of Engineering, Milwaukee, WI]
* [http://www.ceae.ku.edu/arce/ University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS]
[[Category:Architecture|Engineering]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[ar:هندسة معمارية]]
[[ko:건축 공학]]
[[nl:Bouwkunde]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Assassins (disambiguation)</title>
<id>1978</id>
<revision>
<id>15900436</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-04T23:57:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gtrmp</username>
<id>38984</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge and redirect to [[assassin (disambiguation)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[assassin (disambiguation)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alpha Centauri</title>
<id>1979</id>
<revision>
<id>41937613</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:24:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gcapp1959</username>
<id>298824</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the star system. For the Video Game see [[Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri]].
{{mergefrom|Proxima Centauri}}
{{Starbox begin
| name = Alpha Centauri A/B
}}
{{Starbox image
| image = [[Image:Position_Alpha_Cen.png | 250px]]
| caption = The position of Alpha Centauri.
}}
{{Starbox observe
| epoch = J2000
| ra = 14h 39m 36.5/35.1s
| dec = -60° 50' 02/13"
| appmag_v = -0.01/+1.34
| constell = [[Centaurus]]
}}
{{Starbox character
| class = G2 V/K1 V
| b-v = 0.65/0.85
| u-b = 0.24/0.64
| variable = None
}}
{{Starbox astrometry
| radial_v = -21.6
| prop_mo_ra = -3678.19
| prop_mo_dec = 481.84
| parallax = 747.23
| p_error = 1.17
| dist_ly = 4.36
| dist_pc = 1.338
| absmag_v = 4.38/5.71
}}
{{Starbox detail
| age = 5-6 &times; 10<sup>9</sup>
| metal = 130-230% Sun
| mass = 1.10/0.91
| radius = 1.23/0.87
| rotation = ?
| luminosity = 1.57/0.51
| temperature = 5,800/5,300
}}
{{Starbox visbin
| name = Alpha Centauri B
| period = 79.24
| axis = 17.59
| eccentricity = 0.516
| inclination = 79.24
| node = 204.87
| periastron = 1955.56
}}
{{Starbox catalog
| names = Alp Cen, Rigil Kentaurus, Rigil Kent, Toliman, Bungula, [[Henry L. Giclas catalogue | Gl]]&nbsp;559 A/B, [[Harvard Revised catalogue | HR]]&nbsp;5459/5460, [[Cape Photographic Durchmusterung | CP(D)]]-60°5483, [[Henry Draper catalogue | HD]]&nbsp;128620/128621, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes | GCTP]]&nbsp;3309.00, [[Luyten Half-Second catalogue | LHS]]&nbsp;50/51, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory | SAO]]&nbsp;252838, FK5&nbsp;538, [[Hipparcos catalogue | HIP]]&nbsp;71683/71681.
}}
{{Starbox end}}
'''Alpha Centauri''' (&alpha; Cen / &alpha; Centauri) is the brightest [[star system]] (a triple star system) in the southern [[constellation]] of [[Centaurus]], and contains the [[list of brightest st |
ad]], proposed in 1997 by a leading British engineering firm, Symonds, for a rail tunnel from Dublin to Holyhead. Either tunnel, at 80 km, would be by far the longest in the world, and would cost an estimated €20bn.
===Merchant marine===
;'''Total''' - 35 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totalling 288,401 GRT/383,628 DWT
:''Ships by type'' - bulk 7, cargo 22, chemical tanker 1, container 3, roll on/roll off 1, short-sea passenger 1
:''Foreign-owned'' - Germany 3, Italy 7, Norway 2
:''Registered in other countries'' - 18 (2003 est.)
==Airports==
;'''Total''' - 36
;'''Airports - with paved runways'''
;Total - 16
:Over 3,047 m - 1
:2,438 to 3,047 m - 1
:1,524 to 2,437 m - 4
:914 to 1,523 m - 4
:Under 914 m - 6
;'''Airports - with unpaved runways'''
;Total - 20
:914 to 1,523 m - 3
:Under 914 m - 17 (all 2003 est.)
[[Ireland]]'s main airports are [[Dublin Airport]], [[Shannon International Airport]], [[Cork International Airport]] and [[Belfast International Airport]].
Many regional airports exist, some flying to international destinations. For example [[Ireland West Airport Knock|Knock International Airport]] in [[County Mayo]], [[Galway Airport]], [[Sligo Airport]], [[Kerry Airport]], [[City of Derry Airport]], [[Belfast City Airport]] and [[Waterford Airport]]. Services to the [[Aran Islands]] are operated from [[Connemara Regional Airport]].
Ireland's national airline, [[Aer Lingus]] provides air services from Dublin, Cork and Shannon to Britain, Europe and North America. These three airports are run by the State body, [[Dublin Airport Authority]] (formerly Aer Rianta). Two other Irish airlines are [[Ryanair]] and [[Aer Arann]].
==See also==
* [[List of Airports]]
* [[List of Ireland-related topics]]
==External links==
* [http://groups.msn.com/IrishRailwayNews/ Irish Railway News -reporting on all aspects of irish railways]
* [http://www.platform11.org Platform 11 - Ireland's National Rail Users Group]
[[Category:Transport in Ireland| ]]
[[fr:Transport en Irlande]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Ireland</title>
<id>14681</id>
<revision>
<id>15912217</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-29T20:39:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.125.51.253</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect: [[Irish Defence Forces]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of the Republic of Ireland</title>
<id>14682</id>
<revision>
<id>37552597</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T19:08:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.13.41.22</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Foreign relations of the [[Republic of Ireland]]''' substantially reflect the fact that it is a member of the [[European Union]] ("EU") and that, like all members of the EU, it holds the presidency for six months every twelfth year or so. It is one of the group of smaller nations in the Union.
For many years, Ireland was a member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] group in the [[United Nations]] ("UN") and even today tends towards independence of view in its foreign policy. Specifically, it is not a member of [[NATO]] and has a [[The Emergency#Neutrality|longstanding]] <!-- constitutional? --> policy of military neutrality. This policy has helped the [[Irish Defence Forces]] to be sucessful in their contributions to UN peace-keeping missions since 1960 (in the [[Congo Crisis]]) and subsequently in [[Cyprus]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. The present government has adopted a more evidently pro-[[United States|US]] position, volunteering [[Shannon Airport]] as a stop-over point for [[Military of the United States|US forces]] en-route to [[Iraq]]. Given the large volume of inward investment by US companies, this is perhaps understandable.
The State involved in a number of outstanding international disputes. Since the island of [[Ireland]] was partitioned in [[1922]], the state had been involved in a dispute with the [[United Kingdom]] over the status of [[Northern Ireland]]. [[Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland|Articles 2 and 3]] of the Republic's [[Constitution of Ireland|constitution]] used to claim Northern Ireland as a part of the Irish Nation, though in practice the Irish government did recognise the border. However both nations concluded the [[Belfast Agreement]] on the issue in [[1998]] and now co-operate closely to find a solution to the region's problems. Articles 2 and 3 were amended as part of this agreement and replaced with a statement of aspiration to unite the people of the island of Ireland and not specifically become one state.
The state is also a party to the [[Rockall#Law of the Sea|Rockall continental shelf dispute]] that also involves [[Denmark]], [[Iceland]], and the United Kingdom. The Republic and the United Kingdom have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area. However, neither have concluded similar agreements with Iceland or Denmark (on behalf of the [[Faroe Islands]]) and the matter remains under negotiation. Iceland now claims [http://www.reglugerd.is/interpro/dkm/WebGuard.nsf/key2/196-1985] a substantial area of the [[continental shelf]] to the west of Ireland, to a point 49°48'N 19°00'W, which is further south than Ireland!
The [[Irish Government]] has sought, with mixed success, to prevent the importation of weapons and ammunition through the state by the illegal [[IRA]], for use in their [[The Troubles|conflict]] with the security forces in [[Northern Ireland]]. In the 1970's the [[Irish Navy|Irish warship]], the LÉ Clara intercepted a ship carrying weapons from [[Libya]] which were more than likely destined for the [[Irish Republican|republican]] terrorists. Law enforcement acts such as these additionally improved relations with the government of the United Kingdom.
==See also==
*[[Foreign relations of the United Kingdom]]
*[[Common Travel Area]]
{{Poli-stub}}
{{Ireland-stub}}
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Ireland]]
[[Category:Politics of the Republic of Ireland]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ireland/Provinces</title>
<id>14684</id>
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<id>15912220</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-01T04:51:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Msammon</username>
<id>1703</id>
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<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Provinces of Ireland]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Israel</title>
<id>14685</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42155118</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:34:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mr Adequate</username>
<id>124358</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm irrelevant link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country
| native_name = מדינת ישראל<br>(Medīnat (Y)isra'el)<br>دولة إسرائيل<br>(Dawlat Isrā'īl)
| common_name = Israel
| image_flag = Flag of Israel.svg
| image_coat = Israel-coa-medium.png
| national_motto = none
| image_map = LocationIsrael.png
| national_anthem = ''[[Hatikvah]]''
| official_languages = [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]]
| capital = [[Jerusalem]]
| latd=31|latm=47|latNS=N|longd=35|longm=13|longEW=E
| government_type = [[Parliamentary democracy]]
| leader_titles = [[President]]<br>[[Prime Minister]]<br>[[Deputy Prime Minister|Acting Prime Minister]]
| leader_names = [[Moshe Katsav]]<br> [[Ariel Sharon]]<sup>1</sup><br>[[Ehud Olmert]]
| largest_city = [[Jerusalem]]
| area = 20,770
| area_rank = 150th
| area_magnitude = 1 E10
| percent_water = ~2%
| population_estimate = 7,005,400
| population_estimate_year = December 2005
| population_estimate_rank = 97th
| population_census = 6,780,000
| population_census_year = 2003
| population_density = 333
| population_density_rank = 19th
| GDP_PPP_year = 2005
| GDP_PPP = $163.45 billion
| GDP_PPP_rank = 52nd
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $22,944
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 32nd
| HDI_year = 2003
| HDI = 0.915
| HDI_rank = 23rd
| HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font>
| sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
| established_events = &nbsp;[[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel|Declaration]]
| established_dates = From the [[United Kingdom]]<br>[[14 May]] [[1948]] (05 [[Iyar]] 5708)
| currency = [[New Israeli sheqel]] (₪)
| currency_code = ILS
| time_zone = [[UTC]]+2
| utc_offset =
| time_zone_DST = [[UTC]]+3
| utc_offset_DST =
| cctld = [[.il]]
| calling_code = 972
| footnotes = 1. Ariel Sharon is currently incapacitated, following a Jan 4, 2006 stroke.
|}}
The '''State of Israel''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{Audio|He-Medinat Israel.ogg|{{hbrmem}}{{hbrshva}}{{hbrdalet}}{{hbrhiriqm}}{{hbrnun}}{{hbrpatah}}{{hbrtav}} {{hbryod}}{{hbrhiriq}}{{hbrsin.}}{{hbrshva}}{{hbrresh}}{{hbrqamaz}}{{hbralef}}{{hbrzere}}{{hbrlamed}}}}; ''Medinat Yisra'el''; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: دَوْلَةْ إِسْرَائِيل, ''Dawlat Isrā'īl'') is a country in Asia, (specifically the [[Middle East]]), on the eastern edge of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. It is a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[democracy]] and the world's only [[Jewish state]].
==Name and flag==
The name "Israel" is rooted in the [[Hebrew Bible]], the [[Tanakh]], where [[Jacob]] is renamed Israel after wrestling with a mysterious adversary ("a man", and later "God" according to [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] 32:24–30; or "the angel", according to [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] 12:4). ''Israel'' means "he who has wrestled with God". The nation fathered by Jacob, were then called "the children of Israel" or the "Israelites". Nowdays, they are commonly called [[Jew]]s after Jacob's son [[Judah]], the ancient father of the tribe of King [[David]]'s dy |
er dams is sometimes complicated by demands for irrigation which may occur out of phase with peak electrical demands.
=== Tidal power ===
''Main article: [[Tidal power]]''
Harnessing the tides in a bay or estuary has been achieved in [[France]] (since 1966), [[Canada]] and [[Russia]], and could be achieved in certain other areas where there is a large tidal range. The trapped water can be used to turn [[turbine]]s as it is released through the tidal barrage in either direction. Worldwide this technology appears to have little potential, largely due to environmental constraints. See: [[tidal power]]. Another possible fault is that the system would generate electricity most efficiently if it were to generate electricity in bursts, every six hours (once every tide). Obviously, this limits the applications for which tidal energy can be used.
==== Tidal stream power ====
A relatively new technology development, tidal stream generators draw energy from underwater currents in much the same way that wind generators are powered by the wind. The much higher density of water means that there is the potential for a single generator to provide significant levels of power. Tidal stream technology is at the very early stages of development though and will require significantly more research before it becomes a significant contributor to electrical generation needs.
Several prototypes have however shown some promise. For example, in the UK in 2003, a 300 kW Seaflow marine current propeller type turbine was tested off the north coast of Devon, and a 150 kW oscillating hydroplane device, the Stingray, was tested off the Scottish coast. Another British device, the Hydro Venturi, is to be tested in San Francisco Bay.
The Canadian company Blue Energy has plans for installing very large arrays tidal current devices mounted in what they call a 'tidal fence' in various locations around the world, based on a vertical axis turbine design.
=== Wave power ===
''Main article: [[Wave power]]''
Harnessing power from [[ocean surface wave]] motion is a possibility which might yield much more energy than tides. The feasibility of this has been investigated, particularly in the UK. [[Generator]]s either coupled to floating devices or turned by air displaced by waves in a hollow concrete structure would produce electricity for delivery to shore. Numerous practical problems have frustrated progress.
A prototype shore based wave power generator is being constructed at [[Port Kembla]] in [[Australia]] and is expected to generate up to 500 MWh per annum. The Wave Energy Converter has been constructed (as of [[July]] [[2005]]) and initial test results have exceeded expectations in terms of energy production during times of low wave energy. The energy of waves crashing against the shore is absorbed by an air driven generator and converted to electricity. For countries with large coastlines and rough sea conditions the energy density of breaking waves offers the possibility of generating electricity in utility volumes. Excess power in periods of rough sea could be used to generate renewable hydrogen.
==Physics==
A hydropower resource can be measured according to the amount of available [[Power (physics)|power]], or energy per unit time. The power of a given situation is a function of the hydraulic [[head (hydraulic)|head]] or [[rate of fluid flow]]. When dealing with water in a reservoir, the head is the height of the water level in the reservoir relative to its height after it has left, since [[hydrostatic pressure]] at the base is a function of height only.
The amount of energy <math>E</math> released by lowering an object of mass <math>m</math> by a height <math>h</math> in a gravitational field is
:<math>E = mgh</math> where <math>g</math> is the acceleration due to gravity.
The energy available to [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric dams]] is the energy that can be liberated by lowering water in a controlled way. In these situations, the power is related to the [[mass flow rate]].
:<math>\frac{E}{t} = \frac{m}{t}gh</math>
Substituting <math>P</math> for <math>E/t</math> and expressing <math>m/t</math> in terms of the volume of liquid moved per unit time (the [[rate of fluid flow]] <math>\phi</math>) and the density of water, we arrive at the usual form of this expression:
:<math>P = \rho \phi g \cdot h</math>
For <math>P</math> in [[watt]]s, <math>\rho</math> is measured in kg/m³, <math>\phi</math> is measured in m³/s, <math>g</math> ([[gee]]) is measured in m/s², and <math>h</math> is measured in [[metre]]s.
Some hydropower systems such as [[water wheel]]s can draw power from the flow of a body of water without necessarily changing its height. In this case, the available power is the [[kinetic energy]] of the flowing water.
:<math>P = \frac{1}{2}\rho\phi v^2</math> where <math>v</math> is the [[velocity]] of the water,
or with <math> \phi = A \cdot v</math> where ''A'' is the [[area]] through which the water passes, also
:<math>P = \frac{1}{2}\rho A v^3.</math>
Over-shot water wheels can efficiently capture both types of energy.
==Small scale hydro power==
[[Small hydro|Small scale hydro]] or [[Micro hydro|micro-hydro]] power has been increasingly used as an alternative energy source, especially in remote areas where other power sources are not viable. Small scale hydro power systems can be installed in small rivers or streams with little or no discernable environmental effect on things such as fish migration. Most small scale hydro power systems make no use of a dam or major water diversion, but rather use water wheels with little environmental impact.
There are some major factors to consider when installing a micro-hydro system. First is the amount of water flow available on a consistent basis. Periods of little or no rain can greatly affect power output. Second is what is known as head, this is the amount of drop the water has between the intake and the exit of the system. The more head, the larger amount of power can be generated. Third, there can be legal and regulatory issues that must be researched. Most counties, cities, and states have their own regulations about water rights and easments.
Increasingly over the last few years, the U.S. Government has increased its support for alternative power generation. Many resources such as grants, loans, and tax benefits are available for installing a small scale hydro system.
In poor areas of the world, many remote communities still do not have access to electricity. Micro hydro power, which has a capacity of 100 kW or less, allows such communities to generate their own electricity<sup>[[#References|1]]</sup>. This is a form of power which is supported by various organisations such as the UK's [[Intermediate Technology Development Group]].
Micro-hydro power can be used directly as "shaft power" for many industrial applications. Alternatively, the preferred option for domestic energy supply is to convert to electricity either through the use of a custom generator or through a reversed electric motor which, while often less efficient is more likely to be available locally and cheaply.
==References==
* [http://www.itdg.org/docs/technical_information_service/micro_hydro_power.pdf Micro-hydro power], Adam Harvey, 2004, Intermediate Technology Development Group, retrieved [[1 January]] [[2005]] from http://www.itdg.org/docs/technical_information_service/micro_hydro_power.pdf.
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/electricity/index.cfm/mytopic=11050 Microhydropower Systems], U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 2005
== See also ==
* [[Hydroelectricity]]
* [[Water turbine]]
* [[Ocean thermal energy conversion]]
* [[Deep lake water cooling]]
==External links==
* [http://www.practicalaction.org/docs/technical_information_service/micro_hydro_power.pdf Practical Action (ITDG)] a UK charity developing micro-hydro power and giving extensive technical documentation.
* [http://www.british-hydro.org/ British Hydropower Association]
* [http://microhydropower.net/index.php microhydropower.net]
* [http://wind-power-generators.com/hydroelectric-energy.html Hydropower's Future]
* [http://www.microhydropower.net/intro.html Microhydropower 'how to']
[[Category:Electric power]]
[[Category:Energy conversion]]
[[Category:Renewable energy]]
[[da:Vandkraft]]
[[de:Wasserkraft]]
[[es:Energía hidráulica]]
[[fr:Énergie hydraulique]]
[[he:אנרגיית מים]]
[[it:Energia idroelettrica]]
[[nl:waterkracht]]
[[nn:Vasskraft]]
[[pl:Energia wodna]]
[[sv:Vattenkraft]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hydroelectric plant</title>
<id>14074</id>
<revision>
<id>15911652</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-12T08:51:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
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<minor />
<comment>more specific form of power</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hydroelectricity]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Horse Breed</title>
<id>14075</id>
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<id>15911653</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-24T10:07:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of horse breeds]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Horse breed</title>
<id>14076</id>
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<timestamp>2002-08-24T10:07:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
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<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve" |
in bringing the [[United States]] into the war. In [[World War II]], the cryptanalysis of the German ciphers &mdash; including the [[Enigma machine]] and the [[Lorenz cipher]] &mdash; has been credited with everything between shortening the end of the European war by a few months to determining the eventual result (see [[ULTRA]]). The [[United States]] also benefited from the cryptanalysis of the Japanese [[PURPLE]] code (see [[Magic (cryptography)|MAGIC]]).
Governments have long recognised the potential benefits of cryptanalysis for [[Military espionage|intelligence]], both military and diplomatic, and established dedicated organisations devoted to breaking the codes and ciphers of other nations, for example, [[GCHQ]] and the [[NSA]], organisations which are still very active today. Even [[as of 2004]], it was reported that the United States had broken [[Iran]]ian ciphers. (It is unknown, however, whether this was pure cryptanalysis, or whether other factors were involved: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3804895.stm]).
==Characterising attacks==
Cryptanalytic attacks vary in potency and how much of a threat they pose to real-world [[cryptosystem|cryptosystems]]. A ''certificational weakness'' is a theoretical attack that is unlikely to be applicable in any real-world situation; the majority of results found in modern cryptanalytic research are of this type. Essentially, the practical importance of an attack is dependent on the answers to the following three questions:
# What [[knowledge]] and capabilities are needed as a prerequisite?
# How much additional secret information is deduced?
# How much effort is required? (What is the [[computational complexity]]?)
===Prior knowledge: scenarios for cryptanalysis===
Cryptanalysis can be performed under a number of assumptions about how much can be observed or found out about the system under attack. As a basic starting point it is normally assumed that, for the purposes of analysis, the general [[algorithm]] is known; this is [[Shannon's Maxim]] of "the enemy knows the system". This is a reasonable assumption in practice &mdash; throughout history, there are countless examples of secret algorithms falling into wider knowledge, variously through [[espionage]], [[betrayal]] and [[reverse engineering]]. (On occasion, ciphers have been reconstructed through pure deduction; for example, the [[Germany|German]] [[Lorenz cipher]] and the Japanese [[Purple code]], and a variety of classical schemes).
Other assumptions include:
* ''[[Ciphertext-only attack|Ciphertext-only]]'': the cryptanalyst has access only to a collection of [[ciphertext]]s or [[codetext]]s.
* ''[[Known-plaintext attack|Known-plaintext]]'': the attacker has a set of ciphertexts to which he knows the corresponding [[plaintext]].
* ''[[Chosen plaintext attack|Chosen-plaintext]]'' (''[[chosen ciphertext attack|chosen-ciphertext]]''): the attacker can obtain the ciphertexts (plaintexts) corresponding to an arbitrary set of plaintexts (ciphertexts) of his own choosing.
* ''[[Adaptive chosen plaintext attack|Adaptive chosen-plaintext]]'': like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can choose subsequent plaintexts based on information learned from previous encryptions. Similarly ''[[Adaptive chosen ciphertext attack]]''.
* ''[[Related-key attack]]'': Like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can obtain ciphertexts encrypted under two different keys. The keys are unknown, but the relationship between them is known; for example, two keys that differ in the one bit.
These types of attack clearly differ in how plausible they would be to mount in practice. Although some are more likely than others, cryptographers will often take a conservative approach to security and assume the worst-case when designing algorithms, reasoning that if a scheme is secure even against unrealistic threats, then it should also resist real-world cryptanalysis as well.
The assumptions are often more realistic than they might seem upon first glance. For a known-plaintext attack, the cryptanalyst might well know or be able to guess at a likely part of the plaintext, such as an encrypted letter beginning with "Dear Sir", or a computer session starting with "<tt>LOGIN:</tt>". A chosen-plaintext attack is less likely, but it is sometimes plausible: for example, you could convince someone to forward a message you have given them, but in [[encrypted]] form. Related-key attacks are mostly theoretical, although they can be realistic in certain situations, for example, when constructing [[cryptographic hash function]]s using a [[block cipher]].
===Classifying success in cryptanalysis===
The results of cryptanalysis can also vary in usefulness. For example, cryptographer [[Lars Knudsen]] (1998) classified various types of attack on [[block cipher]]s according to the amount and quality of secret information that was discovered:
* ''Total break'' &mdash; the attacker deduces the secret [[key (cryptography)|key]].
* ''Global deduction'' &mdash; the attacker discovers a functionally equivalent [[algorithm]] for encryption and decryption, but without learning the key.
* ''Instance (local) deduction'' &mdash; the attacker discovers additional plaintexts (or ciphertexts) not previously known.
* ''Information deduction'' &mdash; the attacker gains some [[Claude E. Shannon|Shannon]] [[information]] about plaintexts (or ciphertexts) not previously known.
* ''Distinguishing algorithm'' &mdash; the attacker can [[distinguisher|distinguish]] the cipher from a random [[permutation]].
Similar considerations apply to attacks on other types of cryptographic algorithm.
===Complexity===
Attacks can also be characterised by the amount of resources they require. This can be in the form of:
* Time &mdash; the number of "primitive operations" which must be performed. This is quite loose; primitive operations could be basic computer instructions, such as addition, [[XOR]], shift, and so forth, or entire encryption methods.
* Memory &mdash; the amount of storage required to perform the attack.
* Data &mdash; the ''quantity'' of plaintexts and ciphertexts required.
In [[academic]] cryptography, a ''weakness'' or a ''break'' in a scheme is usually defined quite conservatively. Bruce Schneier sums up this approach: "''Breaking a cipher simply means finding a weakness in the cipher that can be exploited with a complexity less than brute force. Never mind that brute-force might require 2<sup>128</sup> encryptions; an attack requiring 2<sup>110</sup> encryptions would be considered a break...simply put, a break can just be a certificational weakness: evidence that the cipher does not perform as advertised.''" (Schneier, 2000).
<!-- Birthday attacks; man in the middle / time-memory tradeoff -->
==Cryptanalysis of asymmetric cryptography==
[[Asymmetric cryptography]] (or [[public key cryptography]]) is cryptography that relies on using two keys; one private, and one public. Such ciphers invariably rely on "hard" [[mathematical problem]]s as the basis of their security, so an obvious point of attack is to develop methods for solving the problem. The security of two-key cryptography depends on mathematical questions in a way that single-key cryptography generally does not, and conversely links cryptanalysis to wider mathematical research in a new way.
Asymmetric schemes are designed around the ([[conjecture]]d) difficulty of solving various mathematical problems. If an improved algorithm can be found to solve the problem, then the system is weakened. For example, the security of the [[Diffie-Hellman key exchange]] scheme depends on the difficulty of calculating the [[discrete logarithm]]. In [[1983]], [[Don Coppersmith]] found a computationally feasible way to find discrete logarithms, and thereby gave to the cryptanalyst a tool with which to break the Diffie-Hellman cryptosystems. Another scheme, the popular [[RSA]] algorithm, remains unbroken. Its security depends (in part) upon the difficulty of [[integer factorisation]] &mdash; a breakthrough in factoring would impact the security of RSA.
In [[1980]], one could factor a difficult 50-digit number at an expense of 10<sup>12</sup> elementary computer operations. By 1984 the state of the art in factoring algorithms had advanced to a point where a 75-digit number could be factored in 10<sup>12</sup> operations. Advances in computing technology also meant that the operations could be performed much faster, too. [[Moore's law]] predicts that computer speeds will continue to increase. Factoring techniques may continue do so as well, but will most likely depend on mathematical insight and creativity, neither of which has ever been successfully predictable. 150-digit numbers of the kind once used in RSA have been factored. The effort was greater than above, but was not unreasonable on fast modern computers. By the start of the 21st century, 150-digit numbers were no longer considered a large enough [[key size]] for RSA. Numbers with several hundred digits are still considered too hard to factor in [[as of 2004|2005]], though methods will probably continue to improve over time, requiring [[key size]] to keep pace or new algorithms to be used.
Another distinguishing feature of asymmetric schemes is that, unlike attacks on symmetric cryptosystems, any cryptanalysis has the opportunity to make use of knowledge gained from the [[public key]].
== Quantum computing applications for cryptanalysis ==
[[Quantum computer]]s have potential for use in [[cryptanalysis]]. Because [[quantum state]]s can exist in superposition (ie, entangled), a new paradigm for computation is possible. [[Peter Shor]] of [[Bell Labs]] proved the possibility, and various teams have demonstrated one or another aspect of quantum computer engineering in the years si |
on" as a mechanism of change. In contrast, Morgan, Spencer, and Tylor had little to say about the process and mechanics of change.
Furthermore, Darwin built up his theory through a careful examination of considerable empirical data. Boasian research revealed that virtually every claim made by cultural evolutionists was contradicted by the data, or reflected a profound misinterpretation of the data. As Boas's student [[Robert Lowie]] remarked, "Contrary to some misleading statements on the subject, there have been no responsible opponents of evolution as ''scientifically proved'', though there has been determined hostility to an evolutionary metaphysics that falsifies the established facts."
In an unpublished lecture, Boas characterized his debt to Darwin thus:
:Although the idea does not appear quite definitely expressed in Darwin's discussion of the development of mental powers, it seems quite clear that his main object has been to express his conviction that the mental faculties developed essentially without a purposive end, but they originated as variations, and were continued by natural selection. This idea was also brought out very clearly by Wallace, who emphasized that apparently reasonable activities of man might very well have developed without an actual application of reasoning
Thus, Boas suggested that what appear to be patterns or structures in a culture were not a product of conscious design, but rather the outcome of diverse mechanisms that produce cultural variation (such as diffusion and independent invention), shaped by the social environment in which people live and act. Boas concluded his lecture by acknowledging the importance of Darwin's work:
:I hope I may have succeeded in presenting to you, however imperfectly, the currents of thought due to the work of the immortal Darwin which have helped to make anthropology what it is at the present time. (Boas, 1909 lecture; see Lewis 2001b.)
==Early career: Museum Studies==
In the late 1800s anthropology in the United States was dominated by the [[Bureau of American Ethnology]], directed by [[John Wesley Powell]], a geologist who favored [[Lewis Henry Morgan]]'s theory of [[cultural evolution]]. The BAE was housed at the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in Washington, and the Smithsonian's curator for ethnology, [[Otis T. Mason]], shared Powell's commitment to cultural evolution. (The Peabody Museum at [[Harvard University]] was an important, though lesser, center of anthropological research).
It was while working on museum collections and exhibitions that Boas formulated his basic approach to culture, which led him to break with museums and seek to establish anthropology as an academic discipline.
During this period Boas made five more trips to the Pacific Northwest. His continuing field research led him to think of culture as a local context for human action. His emphasis on local context and history led him to oppose the dominant model at the time, [[Cultural evolution]].
Boas initially broke with evolutionary theory over the issue of kinship. [[Lewis Henry Morgan]] had argued that all human societies move from an initial form of [[matrilineal]] organization to [[patrilineal]] organization. Indian groups on the northern coast of British Columbia, like the [[Tsimshian]] and [[Tlingit]], were organized into matrilineal clans. Indians on the southern coast, like the [[Nootka]] and the [[Salish]], however, were organized into patrilineal groups. Boas focused on the [[Kwakiutl]], who lived between the two clusters. The Kwakiutl seemed to have a mix of features. Prior to marriage, a man would assume his wife's father's name and crest. His children took on these names and crests as well, although his sons would lose them when they got married. Names and crests thus stayed in the mother's line. At first, Boas &mdash; like Morgan before him &mdash; suggested that the Kwakiutl had been matrilineal like their neighbors to the north, but that they were beginning to evolve patrilineal groups. In 1897, however, he repudiated himself, and argued that the Kwakiutl were changing from a prior patrilineal organization to a matrilineal one, as they learned about matrilineal principles from their northern neighbors.
Boas's rejection of Morgan's theories led him, in an 1887 article, to challenge Mason's principles of museum display. At stake, however, were more basic issues of causality and classification. The evolutionary approach to material culture led museum curators to organize objects on display according to function or level of technological development. Curators assumed that changes in the forms of artefacts reflect some natural process of progressive evolution. Boas, however, felt that the form an artefact took reflected the circumstances under which it was produced and used. Arguing that "[t]hough like causes have like effects, like effects have not like causes," Boas realized that even artefacts that were similar in form might have developed in very different contexts, for different reasons. Mason's museum displays, organized along evolutionary lines, mistakenly juxtapose like effects; those organized along contextual lines would reveal like causes.
Boas had a chance to apply his approach to exhibits when he was hired to assist [[Frederick Ward Putnam]], director and curator of the Peabody Museum at [[Harvard University]], who had been appointed as head of the Department of Ethnology and Archeology for the Chicago Fair in 1892. Boas arranged for fourteen Kwakiutl Indians from British Columbia to come and reside in a mock Kwakiutl village, where they could perform their daily tasks in context.
After the Exposition Boas worked at the newly-created [[Field Museum]] in Chicago until 1894, when he was replaced (against his will) by BAE archeologist [[William Henry Holmes]]. In 1896 Boas was appointed Assistant Curator of Ethnology and Somatology of the [[American Museum of Natural History]]. In 1897 he organized the Jesup Expedition, a five-year long field-study of the natives of the Pacific Northwest, whose ancestors had migrated across the Bering Strait from Siberia. He attempted to organize exhibits along contextual, rather than evolutionary, lines. He also developed a research program in line with his curatorial goals: describing his instructions to his students in terms of widening contexts of interpretation within a society, he explained that "...they get the specimens; they get explanations of the specimens; they get connected texts that partly refer to the specimens and partly to abstract things concerning the people; and they get grammatical information." These widening contexts of interpretation were abstracted into one context, the context in which the specimens, or assemblages of specimens, would be displayed: "...we want a collection arranged according to tribes, in order to teach the particular style of each group." His approach, however, brought him into conflict with the President of the Museum, [[Morris Jesup]], and its Director, [[Hermon Bumpus]]. He resigned in 1905, never to work for a museum again.
==Later Career: Academic Anthropology==
Boas had been appointed lecturer in physical anthropology at [[Columbia University]] in 1896, and had been promoted to professor of anthropology in 1899. Nevertheless, the various anthropologists teaching at Columbia had been assigned to different departments. When Boas left the Museum of Natural History, he negotiated with Columbia University to consolidate the various professors into one department, of which Boas would take charge. Boas's program at Columbia became the first [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] program in [[anthropology]] in America.
During this time Boas played a key role in organizing the American Anthropological Association as an umbrella organization for the emerging field. Boas originally wanted the AAA to be limited to professional anthropologists, but W.J. McGee (another geologist who had joined the BAE under Powell's leadership) argued that the organization should have an open membership. McGee's position prevailed and he was elected the organization's first president in 1902; Boas was elected a vice-president, along with Putnam, Powell, and Holmes.
At both Columbia and the AAA, Boas encouraged the "four field" concept of anthropology; he personally contributed to [[physical anthropology]], [[linguistics]], [[archaeology]], as well as [[cultural anthropology]]. His work in these fields was pioneering: in physical anthropology he led scholars away from static taxonomical classifications of race, to an emphasis on human biology and evolution; in linguistics he broke through the limitations of classic [[philology]] and established some of the central problems in modern linguistics and cognitive anthropology; in cultural anthropology he (along with [[Bronislaw Malinowski]]) established the contextualist approach to culture, cultural relativism, and the participant-observation method of fieldwork.
The four-field approach understood not merely as bringing together different kinds of anthropologists into one department, but as reconceiving anthropology through the integration of different objects of anthropological research into one over-arching object, was one of Boas's fundamental contributions to the discipline, and came to characterize American anthropology against that of
[[England]], [[France]], or [[Germany]]. This approach defines as its object the human species as a totality. This focus did not lead Boas to seek to reduce all forms of humanity and human activity to some lowest common denominator; rather, he understood the essence of the human species to be the tremendous variation in human form and activity (an approach that parallels Charles Darwin's approach to species in general).
In his 1907 essay, "Anthropology," Boas identified two basic questions fo |
|extreme right]] (i.e. [[Nazi_Germany]]<ref>James Wilkenson and H. Stuart Hughes, ''Contemporary Europe: A History'', Prentice Hall:1995 p.237</ref><ref>Otto Zierer, ''Concise History of Great Nations: Hostory of Germany'', Leon Amiel Publisher:1976 p. 104 </ref>) and the [[Far_left|extreme left]] (i.e. the former [[Communist]] states in [[Eastern Europe]]). The fraternity has encountered both applause for “founding” - and opposition for supposedly thwarting - [[liberal]] [[democracy|democracies]] (such as the United States of America). It has also attracted criticism and suppression from [[theocracy|theocratic]] [[Islam|states]] and organised religions for supposed competition with religion, or [[heterodoxy]] within the Fraternity itself.
=== Case studies in politics and crime ===
Perhaps influenced by the assertion of Masons that many political figures in the past 300 years have been Masons, Freemasonry has long been the target of [[conspiracy]] theories {{fact}}, which see it as an [[occult]] and evil power. Often associated with the [[New World Order]] and other "agents", such as the [[Illuminati]] - the fraternity is seen, by conspiracy theorists, as either bent on world domination, or already secretly in control of world politics.{{fact}}
In [[1799]] English Freemasonry almost came to a halt. In the wake of the [[French Revolution]] the ''Unlawful Societies Act, 1799'' banned any meetings of groups that required their members to take an [[oath]] or obligation. {{fact}}The Grand Masters of the Premier Grand Lodge and the Antients Grand Lodge called on the Prime Minister William Pitt, (not a Freemason) and explained to him how Freemasonry was a supporter of the law and lawfully constituted authority and was much involved in charitable work. As a result Freemasonry was specifically exempted from the terms of the Act, provided that each Private Lodge's Secretary placed with the local "Clerk of the Peace" a list of the members of his Lodge - once a year. {{fact}} This continued until [[1967]] when the obligation of the provision was rescinded by [[Parliament]].{{fact}}
Due to the appearance of secrecy, and the possibility it might be implicated in rebellion{{fact}}, ''regular'' Freemasonry inserted into its core ritual a formal obligation; to be a quiet and peaceable citizens, true to their lawful government of the country in which they live and not to countenance disloyalty or rebellion. <ref> [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref> A Freemason makes a further obligation, before being made Master of his Lodge, to pay a proper respect to the civil [[magistrate|Magistrates]]. <ref> [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref> The words may be varied across Grand Lodges, but the sense in the obligation taken is always there in ''regular'' Freemasonry. No one citation can be given, even historically, since the actual text is not specified, nor is the whole of Freemasonry given to such an undertaking.{{fact}} In fact this has historically been the cause of Grand Lodges calling others ''irregular''.{{fact}}
In [[1826]], [[William Morgan]] disappeared in the [[United States|U.S.]], after threatening to expose Freemasonry's secrets. His disappearence caused claims that he had been murdered by rogue Freemasons.{{fact}} No evidence was ever brought forward, however.{{fact}}
In ''[[Mein Kampf]]'', [[Adolf Hitler]] writes that Freemasonry has "succumbed" to the Jews and has become an "excellent instrument" to fight for their aims and to use their "strings" to pull the upper strata of society into their alleged designs. He continues, "The general pacifistic paralysis of the national instinct of self-preservation begun by Freemasonry" is then transmitted to the masses of society by the press.<ref>A. Hitler, ''Mein Kampf'', pages 315 and 320.</ref>
The ''Enabling Act'' (''[[:de:Ermächtigungsgesetz|Ermächtigungsgesetz]]'' in [[German language|German]]) was passed by Germany's parliament (the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'') on [[March 23]], [[1933]]. Using the "Act", on [[January 8]], [[1934]] the [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[Ministry of the Interior]] ordered the disbandment of Freemasonry, and confiscation of the property of all Lodges; stating that those who had been members of Lodges when Hitler came to power, in January 1933, were prohibited from holding office in the Nazi party or its paramilitary arms, and were ineligible for appointment in public service. <ref>[http://www.nationalsozialismus.de/index.php? ''The ''Enabling Act'''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref> Consistently considered an ideological foe of Nazism in their world perception (''Weltauffassung''), special sections of the Security Service (SD) and later the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) were established to deal with the Freemasonry. Freemasonic Concentration Camp inmates were graded as “Political” prisoners, and wore an inverted, (point down), ''[[Nazi concentration camp badges|red triangle]]''. <ref>''The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust'', volume 2, page 531, citing Katz, ''Jews and Freemasons in Europe''.</ref>
On [[August 8]], [[1935]], as [[Führer]] and [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]], Adolf Hitler announced in the [[National Socialist German Workers Party|Nazi]] Party newspaper, ''Voelkischer Beobachter'', the final dissolution of all Masonic Lodges in Germany. The article accused a conspiracy of the Fraternity and “World Jewry” of seeking to create a “[[New World Order|World Republic]]”. <ref>Bro. E Howe, ''Freemasonry in Germany'', Quatuor Coronati Lodge, No 2076 (UGLE), 1984 Yearbook.</ref>
In modern democracies, Freemasonry is still sometimes accused of being a [[Old boy network|network]], where political influence and illegal business dealings take place. It is held that individuals become Freemasons through invitation, [[patrimony]], or other non-democratic means{{fact}}. This is actually officially and explicitly deplored. <ref> [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref> An individual must ask freely and without persuasion to become a Freemason in order to join the fraternity. <ref> [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref>
In Italy, the ''[[illicit]]'' and ''[[Regular Masonic jurisdictions|irregular]]''{{fact}} P2 lodge (aka [[Propaganda Due]]) has been investigated. In the wake of financial scandals that nearly bankrupted the [[Vatican Bank]] in the late [[1970s]], there is suspicion of involvement in murders, including the head of [[Banco Ambrosiano]], [[Roberto Calvi]]. He was found hanging under [[Blackfriars Bridge]] in [[London]], [[England]]. In [[Nice]], [[France]], the Head [[Prosecutor]] has accused some judges and other judicial personnel of deliberately stalling or refusing to elucidate cases involving Freemasons.{{fact}}
The [[UK]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] Government attempted, in the [[2000s]], to require all members of fraternal organisations who are public officials to make their affiliation public.{{fact}} This was challenged under [[European]] [[Human Rights]] legislation, forcing the Government to curtail the scope of their requirements.{{fact}}
=== Christian religious opposition ===
{{main|Christianity and Freemasonry}}
Although sections of other faiths cite objections, in general, there are three doctrinal objections to Freemasonry cited in common by Christian denominations:
*[[Syncretism]]; in that the religious aim of Freemasonry is the creation of a new 'super' or 'universal' religion created by combining various deities and teachings, many of which are pre-Christian. {{fact}}
*[[dogmatic|Non-dogmatism]], being at odds with the claims of Christian exclusivity. {{fact}}
*[[Esoteric]] gloss put onto Masonic ritual, cited as being synonymous with [[Gnosticism]]. {{fact}}
Those Grand Lodges in amity with UGLE explicitly and adhere to the principle that Freemasonry is not a religion, nor a substitute for religion; There is no separate "Masonic god", and there is no separate proper name for a deity in Freemasonry. <ref>[http://www.grandlodge-england.org/masonry/A2L-religion.htm UGLE: Is Freemasonry a religion?], accessed [[January 21]] [[2006]].</ref>
While regular Masonry has always tended as much to [[rationalism]] as it does to [[mysticism]], the very existence of the possibility of [[hermetic]] interpretations within Freemasonry has led Anti-Masonic activists to quote works such as [[Albert Pike|Albert Pike's]] ''Morals and Dogma'' to try to show Freemasonry as [[Satanic]].
However, since it is not a religion, Freemasonry is [[dogmatic|non-dogmatic]] and [[constitution|constitutionally]] governed. Pike's opinions are his own personal - and now somewhat outdated - interpretations. Most tellingly, Pike himself admits that his book is culled more from other sources than being his original work. Most importantly, Pike is but one commentator amongst many, and no one voice has ever spoken for the whole of Freemasonry.
=== Holocaust ===
{{NPOV-section}}
{{merge|Freemasonry under Totalitarian Regimes}}
[[Image:Forget-me-not close 600.jpg|thumb|right|120px|'''[[Forget-me-not|Forget-me-nots]]''']]
The majority of those who suffered during the [[Holocaust]] were the [[Jews]] (because of their religion) and the [[Polish|Poles]] (because of their nationality). Freemasons were selected for "special treatment" by the [[Nazis]] &mdash; tortured and executed simply because they were Freemasons. During that time, Freemasons are believed in some places to have worn blue [[Forget-me-not|Forget Me Not]] flower |
u believe in God the almighty father"). The latter fragment was written as early as [[900]]. Professor Luc De Grauwe from [[Ghent University]] disputes the language of these sequences of text, and actually believes them to be [[Old English language|Old English]], so there is still some controversy surrounding them.
A process of [[standard language|standardization]] started in the [[Middle ages]], especially under the influence of the [[Burgundy|Burgundian]] Ducal Court in Dijon (Brussels after [[1477]]). The dialects of Flanders and [[Brabant]] were the most influential around this time. The process of standardization became much stronger in the 16th century, mainly based on the urban dialect of [[Antwerp]]. In [[1585]] Antwerp fell to the Spanish army: many fled to Holland, strongly influencing the urban dialects of that province. In 1618 a further important step was made towards a unified language, when the first major Dutch [[bible translation]] was created that people from all over the [[Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands|United Provinces]] could understand. It used elements from various (even Low Saxon) dialects, but was mostly based on the urban dialects from [[Holland]].
:''See also: [[Dutch literature]]''
===Etymology of the word "Dutch"===
The word ''Dutch'' comes from the old Germanic word ''theodisk'', meaning 'of the people', 'vernacular' as opposed to official, i.e. Latin or later [[French language|French]]. ''Theodisk'' in modern [[German language|German]] has become ''deutsch'' and in Dutch has become the two forms: ''duits'', meaning ''German'', and ''[[Dietsch|diets]]'' meaning something closer to ''Dutch'' but no longer in general use (see the [[Dietsch|diets]] article). ''Theodisk'' survives as ''tedesco'' ("German") in modern [[Italian language|Italian]].
The English word ''Dutch'' has also changed with time. It was only in the early [[1600s]], with growing cultural contacts and the rise of an independent country, that the modern meaning arose, i.e., 'designating the people of the Netherlands or their language'. Prior to this, the meaning was more general and could refer to any German-speaking area or the languages there (including the current [[Germany]], Austria, and Switzerland as well as the Netherlands). For example:
*[[William Caxton]] (c.1422-1491) wrote in his ''Prologue'' to his Aeneids in [[1490]] that an old English text was more like to ''Dutche'' than English. In his notes, Professor W.F. Bolton makes clear that this word means ''German'' in general rather than ''Dutch''.
*Peter Heylyn, ''Cosmography in four books containing the Chronography and History of the whole world'', Vol. II (London, 1677: 154) contains "...the Dutch call Leibnitz," adding that Dutch is spoken in the parts of Hungary adjoining to Germany.
*To this day, descendants of German settlers in southeastern Pennsylvania are known as the "[[Pennsylvania Dutch]]", especially those who are members of the [[Plain sects|plain sects]]. (Those who are not members of the plain sects often identify themselves as being ''Pennsylvania German''.)
==Classification and related languages==
Dutch is a [[Germanic language]], and within this family it is a [[West Germanic language]]. Since it did not experience the [[High German consonant shift]] (apart from þ&rarr;d), it is sometimes classed as a [[Low Germanic languages|Low Germanic language]], and indeed it is most closely related to the [[Low German]] dialects of Northern [[Germany]]. There is in fact a [[dialect continuum]] which blurs any clear boundary between Dutch and Low German, and the Low Franconian rural dialects of the Lower Rhine are much closer to [[Hollandic]] than to [[German language|standard German]]. Dividing the West Germanic languages into low and high in this way, however, obscures the fact that Dutch is more closely related to modern standard (high) German than to [[English language|English]].
Dutch is grammatically similar to German, for example in syntax and verb morphology. (For a comparison of verb morphology in English, Dutch and German, see [[Germanic weak verb]] and [[West Germanic strong verb]].) Compare, for example:
:''De kleinste kameleon is maar (slechts) 2 cm groot, de grootste kan wel 80 cm worden.'' (Dutch)
:''Das kleinste Chamäleon ist nur 2 cm groß, das größte kann auch 80 cm erreichen.'' (German)
Some less common phrasings and word choices have closer cognates in German:
:''Der kleinste Chamäleon ist nur (schlechthin) 2 cm groß, der größte kann gut 80 cm werden.'' (less common German)
(Which translates as "The smallest chameleon is just 2 cm big, the biggest can well achieve 80 cm.")
Further examples for the close vicinity of Dutch and German:
:''Op de berg staat een klein huisje'' (Dutch) - ''Auf dem Berg steht ein kleines Häuschen'' (German)
(in English: "There's a small house on the mountain". Literally: "On the mountain stands a small house")
:''In de stad leven veel mensen'' (Dutch) - ''In der Stadt leben viele Menschen'' (German)
(in English: "A lot of people live in the town". Literally: "In the city live many people.")
In some places, German and Dutch are spoken almost interchangeably. Dutch speakers are generally able to read German to a considerable degree, and German speakers (who can read English) can generally read Dutch to some extent.
Dutch still has grammatical cases, but these have become limited mostly to usage in pronouns and set phrases. Technically, Dutch still has three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. Apart from in more formal language, the old masculine and feminine have fallen together to form the common gender (de), whilst the neuter (het) remains distinct as before. The inflexional grammar of Dutch, for instance in adjective and noun endings, has been greatly simplified in a manner more akin to English than German.
Native Dutch vocabulary (as opposed to loan words) is of common West Germanic stock, and in terms of sound shifts it can be imagined as occupying a position somewhere between English and German.
{| class="wikitable"
! English
! Dutch
! German
! Remark
|-----
| eat<br>cat<br>town || eten<br>kat<br>tuin (garden) || essen<br>Katze<br>Zaun (fence) || English and Dutch have kept Germanic t; German has shifted t&rarr;s/z/tz
|-
| apple<br>pipe<br>Scunthorpe||appel<br>pijp<br>dorp (village)||Apfel<br>Pfeife<br>Dorf|| English and Dutch have kept Germanic p; German has shifted p&rarr;f/pf
|-
| think<br>brother<br>thorn|| denken<br>broeder<br>doorn|| denken<br>Bruder<br>Dorn || English has kept Germanic þ; Dutch, like German, has shifted þ&rarr;d
|-
|yesterday<br>yarn<br>day||gisteren<br>garen<br>dag||gestern<br>Garn<br>Tag||Dutch has shifted Germanic g to voiced affricate /&gamma;/, but retained spelling with <g> and thus at least a visual similarity to German; English has shifted further: g&rarr;y
|-----
|}
Even when written Dutch looks similar to German, however, the [[Pronunciation|pronunciation]] may be markedly different. This is true especially of the [[Diphthong|diphthongs]] and of the letter <g>, which is pronounced as a velar continuant similar to the <ch> in Swiss German. The [[Rhotic consonant|rhotic pronunciation]] of <r> causes some English-speakers to believe Dutch sounds similar to a Northern English accent; this is the reason for [[Bill Bryson|Bill Bryson's]] famous remark that when one hears Dutch one feels one ought to be able understand it. Dutch pronunciation is however difficult to master for Anglophones, many of its diphthongs and gutturals being the greatest obstacles. Germans seem to have an advantage with the Dutch grammar, but suffer the same difficulties as the English when dealing with pronunciation. An exception on this all are the North Germans, who can read or understand Dutch after a relatively short period of acclimatisation, speaking however remaining a challenge. Dutch is generally not on the curriculum of German schools, except in some border cities, such as [[Aachen]] and [[Oldenburg]].
==Geographic distribution==
Dutch is spoken by most inhabitants of the [[Netherlands]]. It is also spoken by most in the [[Flanders|Flemish]] northern half of [[Belgium]], with the exception of [[Brussels]], where it is spoken by a minority of the population, [[French language|French]] being the dominant language. (This minority is typically estimated between 7,5% and 15%.) In the northernmost part of [[France]], Dutch is spoken by a minority and the language is usually referred to as ''Vlomsch''. On the [[Caribbean]] islands of [[Aruba]] and the [[Netherlands Antilles]], Dutch is used but less so than [[Papiamento]]. Dutch is spoken in [[Suriname]], and there are some speakers of Dutch in [[Indonesia]]. In [[South Africa]] and [[Namibia]] a language related to Dutch called [[Afrikaans]] is spoken.
===Official status===
Dutch is an [[official language]] of the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Suriname]], [[Aruba]], and the [[Netherlands Antilles]]. The Dutch, Flemish and Surinamese governments coordinate their language activities in the ''Nederlandse Taalunie'' ('[[Dutch Language Union]]'). Afrikaans is an official language in South Africa. Of the inhabitants of New Zealand, 0.7% say their home language is Dutch (see article on [[New Zealand]]). The number of people coming from the Netherlands though is considerably higher but from the second generation on most people changed their language in favour of English.
''Standaardnederlands'' or ''Algemeen Nederlands'' ('Common Dutch', abbreviated to AN) is the [[standard language]] as taught in schools and used by authorities in the Netherlands, Flanders, Suriname and the Netherlands |
ite for industry reviews on printers
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<page>
<title>Communism</title>
<id>5277</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:44:52Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/60.234.157.64|60.234.157.64]] ([[User talk:60.234.157.64|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Communism}}
{{dablink|This article is about '''communism''' as a form of society and as a political movement. For issues regarding Communist organizations, see [[communist party]]. For issues regarding communist party-run states, see [[Communist state]].}}
'''Communism''' refers to a conjectured future [[social class|classless]], stateless social organization based upon [[common ownership]] of the [[means of production]], and can be classified as a multivariant branch of the broader [[socialism|socialist]] movement. Communism also refers to a variety of political movements which claim the establishment of such a social organization as their ultimate goal. Early forms of human social organization have been described as "primitive communism." However, communism as a political goal generally is a conjectured form of future social organization which has never been implemented. There is a considerable variety of views among self-identified communists. However, [[Marxism]] and [[Leninism]], [[school (discipline)|schools]] of communism associated with [[Karl Marx]] and of [[Vladimir Lenin]] respectively, have the distinction of having been a major force in world politics since the early 20th century. [[Class struggle]] plays a central role in the theory of Marxism. The establishment of communism is in this theory viewed as the culmination of the class struggle between the capitalist class, the owners of most of the capital, and the working class. Marx held that society could not be transformed from the capitalist mode of production to the communist mode of production all at once, but required a state transitional period which Marx described as the revolutionary [[dictatorship of the proletariat]]. The communist society Marx envisioned emerging from capitalism has never been implemented, and it remains theoretical. However, the term "Communism", especially when the word is [[capitalization|capitalized]], is often used to refer to the political and economic regimes under [[communist party|communist parties]] which claimed to be the dictatorship of the proletariat.
In the late 19th century, Marxist theories motivated [[socialism|socialist]] parties across Europe, although their policies later developed along the lines of "reforming" capitalism, rather than overthrowing it. The exception was the [[Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party]]. One branch of this party, commonly known as the [[Bolshevik]]s and headed by Vladimir Lenin, succeeded in taking control of the country after the toppling of the [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|Provisional Government]] in the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]]. In 1918, this party changed its name to the Communist Party; thus establishing the contemporary distinction between communism and socialism.
After the success of the Red [[October Revolution]] in [[Russia]], many socialist parties in other countries became communist parties, owing allegiance of varying degrees to the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (see [[Communist International]]). After [[World War II]], regimes calling themselves communist took power in Eastern Europe. In [[1949]], the Communists in [[China]], led by [[Mao Zedong]], came to power and established the [[People's Republic of China]]. Among the other countries in the [[Third World]] that adopted a Communist form of government at some point were [[Cuba]], [[North Korea]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Angola]], and [[Mozambique]]. By the early [[1980s]], almost one-third of the world's population lived under [[Communist state]]s.
Communism carries a strong [[social stigma]] in the [[United States]], due to a history of [[Anti-communism#Anti-communism in the United States and Cold War|anti-communism in America]].<!--research communism in South America--> Since the early [[1970s]], the term "[[Eurocommunism]]" was used to refer to the policies of communist parties in western Europe, which sought to break with the tradition of uncritical and unconditional support of the Soviet Union. Such parties were politically active and electorally significant in [[France]] and [[Italy]]. With the collapse of the Communist governments in [[eastern Europe]] from the late 1980s and the [[History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)|breakup of the Soviet Union]] on [[December 8]], [[1991]], Communism's influence has decreased dramatically in Europe, but around a quarter of the world's population still lives under Communist states.
==Early communism==
The notion of communism has a long history in Western thought, long predating Marx and Engels. Already in ancient Greece the idea of communism was connected to a myth about the "golden age" of humanity, when society lived in full harmony, before private property developed. Some have argued that [[Plato]]'s ''[[The Republic]]'' and works by other ancient political theorists advocated communism in the form of [[communal]] living, and that various early Christian sects, in particular the early Church, as recorded in [[Acts of the Apostles]], and [[Native Americans in the United States|indigenous]] tribes in the [[pre-Columbian]] Americas practiced communism in the form of communal living and common ownership as part of [[Christian communism]]. Other attempts to establish communistic societies were made by the [[Essenes]] and by the [[Judean desert sect]].
In the [[16th century]], English writer St. [[Thomas More]], in his treatise ''[[Utopia (book)|Utopia]]'', portrayed a society based on common ownership of property, whose leaders administered it through the application of reason. In the [[17th century]], communist thought arguably surfaced again in England. [[Eduard Bernstein]], in his [[1895]] ''Cromwell and Communism'' argued that several groupings in the [[English Civil War]], especially the [[Diggers]] (or "[[True Levellers]]") espoused clear communistic, agrarian ideals, and that [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s attitude to these groups was at best ambivalent and often hostile. {{ref|cromwell}}
Criticism of the idea of private property continued into the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] era of the [[18th century]], through such thinkers as [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]]. "[[Utopian socialism|Utopian socialist]]" writers such as [[Robert Owen]] are also sometimes regarded as communists.
Karl Marx saw [[Primitive communism|primitive communism]] as the original [[hunter-gatherer]] state of mankind from which it arose. When humanity was capable of producing surplus, private property developed, society became unequal, resulting in classical society, and then feudalism, to its current state of capitalism. He then proposed that the next step in social evolution would be a return to communism, but at a higher level than when mankind had originally practiced primitive communism. [[Anarcho-primitivism]] asserts that originally hunter-gatherer society used a [[gift economy]] in this form of primitive communism and advocates a return to that society. Marx also made clear that in a communist society, money is not necessary: workers simply make what is needed for themselves and others.
In its contemporary form, communism grew out of the workers' movement of 19th century Europe. At that time, as the [[Industrial Revolution]] advanced, socialist critics saw that capitalist economics had brought about an unskilled working proletariat, urban factory workers who toiled under harsh conditions, and a widening gulf between rich and poor.
==Marxism==
{{main|Marxism}}
Like other socialists, Marx and Engels sought an end to capitalism and the systems which they perceived to be responsible for the exploitation of workers. But whereas earlier socialists often favored longer-term social reform, Marx and Engels believed that popular revolution was all but inevitable, and the only path to socialism.
According to the Marxist argument for communism, the main characteristic of human life in class society is [[alienation]]; and communism is desirable because it entails the full realization of human freedom. Marx here follows [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] in conceiving freedom not merely as an absence of constraints but as action having moral content. They believed that communism allowed people to do what they want but also put humans in such conditions and such relations with one another that they would not wish to have need for exploitation. Whereas for Hegel, the unfolding of this ethical life in history is mainly driven by the realm of ideas, for Marx, communism emerged from material, especially the development of the [[means of production]].
Marxism holds that a process of class conflict and revolutionary struggle will result in victory for the [[proletariat]] and the establishment of a communist society in which private ownership is abolished over time and the means of production and subsistence belong to the community. Marx himself wrote |
ww.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsImperativeMood.htm imperative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsImmediateImperativeMood.htm immediate imperative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsJussiveMood.htm jussive mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsObligativeMood.htm obligative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPermissiveMood.htm permissive mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPrecativeMood.htm precative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsProhibitiveMood.htm prohibitive mood])
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsEpistemicModality.htm epistemic modality]
** [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsJudgmentModality.htm judgment modality]: ([http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAssumptiveMood.htm assumptive mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsDeclarativeMood.htm declarative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsDeductiveMood.htm deductive mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsDubitativeMood.htm dubitative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsHypotheticalMood.htm hypothetical mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsInterrogativeMood.htm interrogative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsSpeculativeMood.htm speculative mood])
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsIrrealisModality.htm irrealis modality]: ([http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsSubjunctiveMood.htm subjunctive mood])
==Bibliography==
*[http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/curricul/ojibwe.pdf Ontario Curriculum Support Document for the Teaching of Language Patterns: Ojibwe and Cree]
[[Category:Grammatical moods| ]]
[[cv:Наклонени]]
[[de:Modus (Grammatik)]]
[[es:Modo gramatical]]
[[eo:Gramatika modo]]
[[fr:Mode (grammaire)]]
[[gl:Modo gramatical]]
[[ja:法 (文法)]]
[[nn:Modus]]
[[pl:Tryb (gramatyka)]]
[[sl:Glagolski naklon]]
[[fi:Tapaluokka]]
[[sv:Modus]]
[[zh:语气]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gustation</title>
<id>13004</id>
<revision>
<id>15910648</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-02T18:10:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Taste]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glasgow Rangers</title>
<id>13005</id>
<revision>
<id>15910649</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-10T11:38:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mintguy</username>
<id>3295</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edit of 80.43.7.70, changed back to last version by RedWolf</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Rangers F.C.]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glasgow Celtic</title>
<id>13006</id>
<revision>
<id>15910650</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-17T17:54:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Morwen</username>
<id>17287</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Celtic F.C.]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geelong Football Club</title>
<id>13007</id>
<revision>
<id>42003320</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:56:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.65.88.222</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>m</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox aus sport club | clubname = Geelong
| image = [[Image:Geelong_Football_Club.png|250px]]
| fullname = Geelong Football Club
| emblem = The Cats
| strip = Navy blue and white hooped guernsey, navy shorts, navy and white hooped socks
| founded = 1859
| sport = [[Australian rules football]]
| league = [[Australian Football League]]
| ground = [[Skilled Stadium]]
| capacity = 27,000
| song = [[We Are Geelong]]
| president = [[Frank Costa]]<BR> [[Brian Cook (football administrator)|Brian Cook]] ([[CEO]])
| coach = [[Mark Thompson (footballer)|Mark Thompson]]
| season = 2005
| position = 5th of 16
}}The '''Geelong Football Club''', nicknamed '''The Cats''', is an [[Australian rules football]] club in the [[Australian Football League]]. The club is based in the city of [[Geelong, Victoria|Geelong]] at [[Skilled Stadium]]. They are the only current AFL team that is not based in a state capital city (although some may count the [[Fremantle Football Club|Fremantle Dockers]], and at one stage the [[Brisbane Bears]] were actually based on the [[Gold Coast, Australia|Gold Coast]]).
==History==
Geelong is the second oldest Australian rules football club (after the [[Melbourne Football Club]]), and ninth [[oldest football club]] in the world, having been formed in the Victoria Hotel in [[1859]]. Originally based at Corio Oval, Geelong moved to [[Skilled Stadium| Kardinia Park]] (now Skilled Stadium) in the [[1940s]]. For many years they were known as the '''Pivotonians''', after the city's nickname 'The Pivot', Seagulls was also an earlier nickname, with the dark blue and white striped uniform still worn today representing the blue water of Corio Bay and the white seagulls so frequent in the Bay. They were nicknamed the 'Cats' in 1923 after a run of losses prompted a local cartoonist to suggest that the club needed a black cat to bring it good luck. When one ran onto the ground in a match and Geelong won that match, breaking the losing streak, they decided that cats were indeed good luck.
Although being relatively strong performers throughout the 1980s and 1990s (Grand Final appearances in 1989, 1992, 1994 and 1995), the Cats have been unable to win a premiership since 1963. The club won the VFL/AFL premierships in: [[1925]], [[1931]], [[1937]], [[1951]], [[1952]] and [[1963]].
The current senior coach is Mark Thompson who is in his 7th year at the helm. The current captain is Steven King. The most recent Club Best and Fairest Winner (2005) was Joel Corey.
In 2004 the club made the finals for the first time in 4 years, finishing 4th. After this improvement 2005 looked to be a very promising year, but the team was plagued by injuries and inconsistent form and could only reach 5th spot. With a young but readily maturing list, the Cats will look to 2006 and again hope to be a genuine premiership contender.
Theme song: "We are Geelong" (sung to the tune of the ''Toreador's song'' from [[Carmen]]).
==Membership Base==
In 2005, the Geelong Football Club had 30,900 members, in excess of the [[seating capacity]] at Skilled Stadium, but less than the capacity of the Telstra Dome where some of the club's home matches are played.
==Individual Awards==
===[[Best and Fairest]]===
:See [[Carji Greeves Medal]]
===[[Brownlow Medal]] winners===
* [[1924]] - [[Edward 'Carji' Greeves]]
* [[1951]] - [[Bernie Smith]]
* [[1962]] - [[Alistair Lord]]
* [[1989]] - [[Paul Couch]]
===[[Leigh Matthews Trophy]] winners===
* [[1985]] - [[Greg Williams]]
* [[1993]] - [[Gary Ablett]]
===[[Coleman Medal]] winners===
* [[Noel Rayson]] (1955)
* [[Doug Wade]] (1962, 1967, 1969)
* [[Larry Donohue]] (1976)
* [[Gary Ablett]] (1993, 1994, 1995)
===[[Norm Smith Medal]] winners===
* [[Gary Ablett]] (1989)
===[[Mark of the Year]] winners===
* [[Gary Ablett]] (1994)
==Team of the Century==
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="center"
| '''Backs:''' || [[Bernie Smith]] || [[George Todd]] || [[Sam Newman|John 'Sam' Newman]]
|-
| '''Half Backs:''' || [[Dick Grigg]] || [[Reg Hickey]] || [[Joe Slater]]
|-
| '''Centres:''' || [[Michael Turner]] || [[Edward 'Carji' Greeves]] || [[Leo Turner]]
|-
| '''Half Forwards:''' || [[Gary Ablett]] || [[Fred Flanagan]] || [[Bob Davis]]
|-
| '''Forwards:''' || [[Henry Young (AFL)|Henry Young]] || [[Doug Wade]] || [[Peter Pianto]]
|-
| '''Followers:''' || [[Graham Farmer|Graeme 'Polly' Farmer &nbsp;]] || [[Garry Hocking]] || [[Bill Goggin]]
|-
| '''Interchange:''' || [[David E. Clarke|David Clarke]] || [[Paul Couch]] || [[Alec Eason]] || [[Les Hardiman]]
|-
| '''Emergencies:''' || [[Ian Nankervis]] || [[Jack Collins]] || [[Tom Quinn]] || [[Cliff Rankin]]
|}
==Current roster==
''As of [[December 13]], [[2005]]:''
{|
|valign="top"|
*&nbsp;&nbsp;1 [[Steven King (footballer)|Steven King]]
*&nbsp;&nbsp;2 [[Tom Harley]]
*&nbsp;&nbsp;3 [[Jimmy Bartel]]
*&nbsp;&nbsp;4 [[Andrew Mackie]]
*&nbsp;&nbsp;5 [[Travis Varcoe]]
*&nbsp;&nbsp;6 [[Brad Ottens]]
*&nbsp;&nbsp;7 [[Tim Callan]]
*&nbsp;&nbsp;8 [[Josh Hunt]]
*&nbsp;&nbsp;9 [[James Kelly (AFL)|James Kelly]]
* 10 [[Kane Tenace]]
* 11 [[Joel Corey]]
* 12 [[Trent West]]
* 13 [[Tom Lonergan (AFL footballer)|Tom Lonergan]]
* 14 [[Paul Koulouriotis]]
* 15 [[Peter Riccardi]]
* 16 [[Charlie Gardiner (footballer)|Charlie Gardiner]]
* 17 [[Shannon Byrnes]]
* 18 [[Kent Kingsley]]
* 19 [[Matthew Egan]]
* 20 [[Steve Johnson (AFL)|Steve Johnson]]
|width="50"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
* 21 [[Cameron Mooney]]
* 22 [[Henry Playfair]]
* 23 [[Nathan Ablett]]
* 24 [[Mark Blake]]
* 25 [[Matthew Spencer]]
* 26 [[Matthew McCarthy]]
* 27 [[Mathew Stokes]]
* 28 [[David Johnson (Australian rules footballer)|David Johnson]]
* 29 [[Gary Ablett Jr.]]
* 30 [[Matthew Scarlett]]
* 31 [[Stephen Owen (AFL footballer|Stephen Owen]]
* 32 [[Brent Prismall]]
* 33 [[Jarad Rooke]]
* 34 [[Ryan Gamble]]
* 35 [[Paul Chapman]]
* 36 [[Todd Grima]] (rookie list)
* 37 [[Will Slade]] (rookie list)
* 38 [[Sam Hunt (footballer)|Sam Hunt]] (rookie list)
* 39 [[Darren Milburn |
memory that the 8088 could address. It was usually sold with a [[Monochrome Display Adapter]] (MDA) video card. The processor was still a 4.77 MHz [[Intel 8088]] and the expansion [[computer bus|bus]] still 8-bit [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]] with [[XT bus architecture]].
* The "[[IBM Personal Computer/AT]]", announced August [[1984]], used an [[Intel 80286]] processor, originally at 6 MHz. It had a 16-bit ISA bus and 20 MB harddrive. A faster model, running at 8 MHz, was introduced in [[1986]]. IBM made some attempt at marketing it as a multi-user machine, but it sold mainly as a faster PC for power users. Early PC/ATs were plagued with reliability problems, in part because of some software and hardware incompatibilities, but mostly related to the internal 20 MB hard drive. While some people blamed IBM's controller card and others blamed the hard drive manufacturer (''Computer Memories International'', or ''CMI''), the IBM controller card worked fine with other drives, including CMI's 33-megabyte model. The problems introduced doubt about the computer and, for a while, even about the 286 architecture in general, but after IBM replaced the 20 MB CMI drives, the PC/AT proved reliable and became a lasting industry standard. CMI quickly went out of business.
* [[IBM Convertible]]
* [[IBM Portable]]
* [[IBM PCjr]]
The models of its second generation, the [[IBM Personal System/2]] (PS/2), are known by model number: [[PS/2 Model 25|Model 25]], [[PS/2 Model 30|Model 30]]. Within each series, the models are also commonly referenced by their [[CPU clock rate]].
All IBM personal computers are [[software]] compatible with each other in general, but not every program will work in every machine. Some programs are time sensitive to a particular speed class. Older programs will not take advantage of newer higher-resolution display standards.
== Technology ==
=== Electronics ===
The main circuit board in an IBM PC is called the [[PC motherboard|motherboard]]. This carries the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and [[computer memory|memory]], and has a [[computer bus|bus]] with slots for expansion cards.
The bus used in the original PC became very popular, and was subsequently named [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]]. It is in use to this day in computers for industrial use. Later, requirements for higher speed and more capacity forced the development of new versions. The [[VESA Local Bus]] allowed for up to three, much faster 32-bit cards, and the [[EISA]] architecture was developed as a backward compatible standard including 32-bit card slots, but it only sold well in high-end server systems. The lower-cost and more general [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus was introduced in [[1994]] and has now become ubiquitous.
The motherboard is connected by cables to internal storage devices such as [[hard disk]]s, [[floppy disk]]s and [[CD-ROM]] drives. These tend to be made in standard sizes, such as 3.5" (90 mm) and 5.25" (133.4 mm) widths, with standard fixing holes. The case also contains a standard [[electronic power supply|power supply]] unit (PSU) which is either an AT or ATX standard size.
[[Intel]] [[Intel 8086|8086]] and [[Intel 8088|8088]]-based PCs require [[Expanded Memory Specification|EMS]] (expanded memory) boards to work with more than one [[megabyte]] of memory. The original IBM PC AT used an Intel [[Intel 80286|80286]] processor which can access up to 16 megabytes of memory (though standard [[DOS]] applications cannot use more than one megabyte without using additional APIs. Intel 80286-based computers running under [[OS/2]] can work with the maximum memory.
=== Keyboard ===
The original [[1981]] IBM PC's [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] was severely criticised by typists for its non-standard placement of the return and left shift keys. In [[1984]], IBM corrected this on its AT keyboard, but shortened the backspace key, making it harder to reach. In [[1987]], it introduced the [[enhanced keyboard]], which relocated all the function keys and the <TT>Ctrl</TT> keys. The <TT>Esc</TT> key was also relocated to the opposite side of the keyboard.
An "IBM PC compatible" may have a keyboard which does not recognize every key combination a true IBM PC does, e.g. shifted cursor keys. In addition, the "compatible" vendors sometimes used proprietary keyboard interfaces, preventing you from replacing the keyboard.
''See also'': [[Keyboard layout]]
=== Character set ===
The original IBM PC used the 7-bit [[ASCII]] alphabet as its basis, but extended it to 8 bits with nonstandard character codes. This character set was not suitable for some international applications, and soon a veritable cottage industry emerged providing variants of the original character set in various national variants. In IBM tradition, these variants were called [[code page]]s. These codings are now obsolete, having been replaced by more systematic and standardized forms of character coding, such as [[ISO 8859-1]], [[Windows-1251]] and [[Unicode]].
This was the original IBM PC character set:
{|
|- align="center"
| || ||<code>-0 </code>||<code>-1 </code>||<code>-2 </code>||<code>-3 </code>||<code>-4 </code>||<code>-5 </code>||<code>-6 </code>||<code>-7 </code>||<code>-8 </code>||<code>-9 </code>||<code>-A </code>||<code>-B </code>||<code>-C </code>||<code>-D </code>||<code>-E </code>||<code>-F </code>|| ||
|- align="center"
|<code>0-</code>|| || ||☺||☻||♥||♦||♣||♠||•||◘||○||◙||♂||♀||♪||♫||☼|| ||<code>0-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>1-</code>|| ||►||◄||↕||‼||¶||§||▬||↨||↑||↓||→||←||∟||↔||▲||▼|| ||<code>1-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>2-</code>|| || ||!||"||#||$||%||&||'||(||)||*||+||,||-||.||/|| ||<code>2-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>3-</code>|| ||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||:||;||<||=||>||?|| ||<code>3-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>4-</code>|| ||@||A||B||C||D||E||F||G||H||I||J||K||L||M||N||O|| ||<code>4-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>5-</code>|| ||P||Q||R||S||T||U||V||W||X||Y||Z||[||\||]||^||_|| ||<code>5-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>6-</code>|| ||`||a||b||c||d||e||f||g||h||i||j||k||l||m||n||o|| ||<code>6-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>7-</code>|| ||p||q||r||s||t||u||v||w||x||y||z||{|||||}||~||⌂|| ||<code>7-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>8-</code>|| ||Ç||ü||é||â||ä||à||å||ç||ê||ë||è||ï||î||ì||Ä||Å|| ||<code>8-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>9-</code>|| ||É||æ||Æ||ô||ö||ò||û||ù||ÿ||Ö||Ü||¢||£||¥||₧||ƒ|| ||<code>9-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>A-</code>|| ||á||í||ó||ú||ñ||Ñ||ª||º||¿||⌐||¬||½||¼||¡||«||»|| ||<code>A-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>B-</code>|| ||░||▒||▓||│||┤||╡||╢||╖||╕||╣||║||╗||╝||╜||╛||┐|| ||<code>B-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>C-</code>|| ||└||┴||┬||├||─||┼||╞||╟||╚||╔||╩||╦||╠||═||╬||╧|| ||<code>C-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>D-</code>|| ||╨||╤||╥||╙||╘||╒||╓||╫||╪||┘||┌||█||▄||▌||▐||▀|| ||<code>D-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>E-</code>|| ||α||ß||Γ||π||Σ||σ||µ||τ||Φ||Θ||Ω||δ||∞||φ||ε||∩|| ||<code>E-</code>
|- align="center"
|<code>F-</code>|| ||≡||±||≥||≤||⌠||⌡||÷||≈||°||∙||·||√||ⁿ||²||■|| || ||<code>F-</code>
|- align="center"
| || ||<code>-0 </code>||<code>-1 </code>||<code>-2 </code>||<code>-3 </code>||<code>-4 </code>||<code>-5 </code>||<code>-6 </code>||<code>-7 </code>||<code>-8 </code>||<code>-9 </code>||<code>-A </code>||<code>-B </code>||<code>-C </code>||<code>-D </code>||<code>-E </code>||<code>-F </code>|| ||
|}
{{details|Code page 437}}
=== Storage media ===
Officially, the standard storage medium for the original IBM PC model 5150 was a [[Compact cassette#Data recording|cassette]] drive. Technologically obsolete even by [[1981]] standards, it was seldom used, and few (if any) IBM PCs left the factory without a floppy disk drive installed. The 1981 PC had one or two 180 [[kilobyte]] 5 1/4 inch single sided double density [[floppy disk]] drives; XT's generally had one double sided 360 kB drive (next to their [[hard disk]]).
The first IBM PC that included a fixed, non-removable, hard disk was the XT. Hard disks for IBM compatibles soon became available with very large storage capacities. If a hard disk was added that was not compatible with the existing [[disk controller]], a new controller board had to be plugged in; some disks were integrated with their controller in a single expansion board.
In 1984, IBM introduced the 1.2 megabyte dual sided floppy disk along with its AT model. Although often used as backup storage, the high density floppy was not often used for interchangeability. In 1986, IBM introduced the 720 kB [[double density]] 3.5" microfloppy disk on its Convertible laptop computer. It introduced the 1.44 MB [[high density]] version with the PS/2 line. These disk drives could be added to existing older model PCs. In 1988 IBM introduced a drive for 2.88 MB "DSED" diskettes in its top-of-the-line models; it was an instant failure and is all but forgotten today (but survives as a possible "size" |
09:45:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Argentina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argentina/Government</title>
<id>1101</id>
<revision>
<id>15899606</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-18T19:29:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cleaning up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Argentina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argentina/Economy</title>
<id>1102</id>
<revision>
<id>15899607</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-03T16:35:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Economy of Argentina</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Argentina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argentina/Communications</title>
<id>1103</id>
<revision>
<id>15899608</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-18T19:29:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cleaning up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Argentina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argentina/Transportation</title>
<id>1104</id>
<revision>
<id>15899609</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-18T19:30:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cleaning up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Argentina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argentina/Transnational issues</title>
<id>1105</id>
<revision>
<id>15899610</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-18T19:30:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cleaning up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Argentina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argentina/Military</title>
<id>1106</id>
<revision>
<id>15899611</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-03T16:37:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Military of Argentina</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Argentina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argentina/History</title>
<id>1107</id>
<revision>
<id>15899612</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Argentina]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argentina/Foreign relations</title>
<id>1108</id>
<revision>
<id>15899613</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-03T16:38:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Foreign relations of Argentina</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Argentina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of American Samoa</title>
<id>1109</id>
<revision>
<id>26994978</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-31T18:53:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marshman</username>
<id>16734</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[American Samoa]]'''.
[[Image:aq-map.png|right|American Samoa]]
[[Image:American Samoa.png|thumb|300px|Tutuila Island - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Color) Satellite Image]]
; Location:
: Oceania, group of islands in the South [[Pacific Ocean]], about two thirds of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand
; Geographic coordinates:
: {{coor dm|14|20|S|170|0|W|}}
; Map references:
: Oceania
; Area:
:* Total: 199 [[square kilometre|km²]]
:* Land: 199 km&sup2;
:* Water: 0 km&sup2;
:* Note: Includes [[Rose Atoll]] and [[Swains Island]]
; Area - comparative:
: Slightly larger than Washington, DC
; Land boundaries:
: 0 km
; Coastline:
: 116 km
; Maritime claims:
:* [[Exclusive economic zone]]: 200 nm (370.4 km)
:* [[Territorial sea]]: 12 nm (22.2 km)
; Climate:
: Tropical marine, moderated by southeast [[trade wind]]s; annual rainfall averages about 3 m; [[rainy season]] from November to April, [[dry season]] from May to October; little seasonal temperature variation
; Island Names in order of size:
: [[Tutuila]], [[Tau, Samoa|Ta&lsquo;&#363;]], [[Ofu-Olosega|Ofu]], [[Ofu-Olosega|Olosega]], [[Aunuu|Aunu&lsquo;u]], [[Swains Island]], [[Rose Atoll]]
; Terrain:
: Five volcanic islands with rugged peaks and limited coastal plains, two coral atolls (Rose and Swains)
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
:* Highest point: Lata 966 m
; Natural resources:
: [[Pumice]], [[pumicite]]
; Land use:
:* [[Arable land]]: 5%
:* Permanent crops: 10%
:* Permanent pastures: 0%
:* Forests and woodland: 70%
:* Other: 15% (1993 est.)
; [[Irrigated land]]:
: NA km&sup2;
; Natural hazards:
: Hurricane season from December to March; Hurricane Heta struck Tutuila and Manu`a January, 2004.
: Landslides
; Environment - current issues:
: Limited natural [[fresh water resources]]; the water division of the government has spent substantial funds in the past few years to expand well system, improve water catchments and pipelines
; Geography - note:
: [[Pago Pago]] has one of the best natural deepwater harbors in the South Pacific Ocean, sheltered by shape from rough seas and protected by peripheral mountains from high winds; strategic location in the South Pacific Ocean
{{maplr|-14.3|-170.7|American Samoa}}
MapQuest zoom level 4 shows the location with respect to the state of Samoa.
[[Category:American Samoa]]
[[Category:Geography by country|American Samoa]]
[[he:&#1490;&#1488;&#1493;&#1490;&#1512;&#1508;&#1497;&#1492; &#1513;&#1500; &#1505;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1492; &#1492;&#1488;&#1502;&#1512;&#1497;&#1511;&#1488;&#1497;&#1514;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of American Samoa</title>
<id>1110</id>
<revision>
<id>39372997</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:08:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Samoa American Demo.png|thumb|550px|center|Demographics of American Samoa, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
'''[[Population]]:'''
57,902 (July 2004 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
36.6% (male 10,983; female 10,208)
<br>''15-64 years:''
60.3% (male 18,010; female 16,933)
<br>''65 years and over:''
3.1% (male 699; female 1,069) (2004 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
0.04% (2004 est.)
'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
24.46 births/1,000 population (2004 est.)
'''[[Death]] rate:'''
3.39 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.)
'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
-20.71 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2004 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.06 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.08 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1.06 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.65 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
1.05 male(s)/female (2004 est.)
'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
9.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2004 est.)
'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
75.62 years
<br>''male:''
72.05 years
<br>''female:''
79.41 years (2004 est.)
'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
3.41 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''[[Nationality]]:'''
<br>''noun:''
American Samoan(s)
<br>''adjective:''
American Samoan
'''[[Ethnic group]]s:'''
[[Samoa]]n ([[Polynesia]]n) 89%, [[whites|Caucasian]] 2%, [[Tonga]]n 4%, other 5%
'''[[Religion]]s:'''
[[Christian Congregationalist]] 50%, [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 20%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] and other 30%
'''Languages:'''
[[Samoan language|Samoan]] (closely related to [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and other [[Polynesian languages]]), [[English language|English]]
<br>''note:''
most people are bilingual
'''[[Literacy]]:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
97%
<br>''male:''
98%
<br>''female:''
97% (1980 est.)
:''See also :'' [[American Samoa]]
[[Category:American Samoa]]
[[he:&#1491;&#1502;&#1493;&#1490;&#1512;&#1508;&#1497;&#1492; &#1513;&#1500; &#1505;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1492; &#1492;&#1488;&#1502;&#1512;&#1497;&#1511;&#1488;&#1497;&#1514;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of American Samoa</title>
<id>1111</id>
<revision>
<id>39337438</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T13:07:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of American Samoa}}
'''Politics of American Samoa''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[dependency]], where |
ecord on Apple vs. Microsoft]''' Syracuse Post-Standard, August 10, 2004. "A good source for unbiased information on the case is the Wikipedia encyclopedia at <nowiki>http://en.wikipedia.org</nowiki>. Use the Wikipedia search form and look for Apple vs. Microsoft."
*'''[http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/aug2004/nf20040811_1095_db_81.htm Howard Rheingold's Latest Connection]''' BusinessWeek Online, [[August 11]] [[2004]]. Q&A with [[Howard Rheingold]], author of ''Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution''. "There's also Wikipedia [the online encyclopedia written by volunteers]. It has 500,000 articles in 50 languages at virtually no cost, vs. Encyclopedia Britannica spending millions of dollars and they have 50,000 articles." At the end of the session, he says, "Here's where Wikipedia fits in. It used to be if you were a kid in a village in India or a village in northern Canada in the winter, maybe you could get to a place where they have a few books once in a while. Now, if you have a telephone, you can get a free encyclopedia. You have access to the world's knowledge. Knowing how to use that is a barrier. The divide increasingly is not so much between those who have and those who don't, but those who know how to use what they have and those who don't."
**Wikipedia is mentioned again in a [http://slashdot.org/articles/04/08/17/2138201.shtml?tid=95&tid=1 summary of the interview] on Slashdot.
*'''[http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/aug2004/tc20040818_1593.htm Linus Torvalds' Benevolent Dictatorship]''' BusinessWeek Online, August 18, 2004. Q&A with Linux creator Linus Torvalds. In discussing the application of open-source methods outside of software, he mentions, "There are encyclopedias -- a collection of a lot of information that's neutral. One project on the Web is Wikipedia."
*'''[http://www.dallasnews.com/s/dws/bus/technology/stories/081804dnbusptech.48583.html Grass-roots Encyclopedia]''' (reg. required) ''Dallas Morning News'', August 18, 2004. Overview article about Wikipedia in personal technology section including quotes from [[User:Jimbo Wales|Jimbo Wales]] and [[User:RadicalBender|Ben Dyer]]. (For a free version, use [http://springfield.news-leader.com/business/today/1017-Experiment-202805.html this reprint] from the Springfield (MO) News-Leader.)
*'''[http://www.cbc.ca/next/schedule.html It's All About Change: An annotated interview on the future of design featuring Bruce Mau]''' at [[CBC]] Radio 1, August 20 and 22, 2004 mentions Wikipedia as an example of open-source ideas used outside software development.
*'''[http://www.syracuse.com/news/poststandard/index.ssf?/base/news-0/1093338972139211.xml Librarian: Don't use Wikipedia as a source]''' Syracuse Post-Standard, August 25, 2004. (Users outside the US may bypass the annoying form by clicking on the ''Outside The US? Click Here'' link.) Questions the reliability of Wikipedia based on the fact that anyone can edit a page: "Anyone can change the content of an article in the Wikipedia, and there is no editorial review of the content. I use this Web site as a learning experience for my students. Many of them have used it in the past for research and were very surprised when we investigated the authority of the site."
*'''First Interview: Dan Gillmor''' ''[http://www.technation.com/ Tech Nation]'', [[August 24]], [[2004]]. Gillmor, technology columnist for [[San Jose Mercury News]] and author of ''We the Media'' ISBN 0596007337, mentioned wikis as an "experiment that works," and Wikipedia specifically as an "encyclopedia written by its users" with 300000 articles and various language editions. He discussed how wikis defeat vandalism. The Wikipedia part is about 20 minutes into the program.
*'''[http://www.dailytrojan.com/news/2004/08/30/Lifestyle/A.CyberUtopia.Is.At.Our.Fingertips-706778.shtml A cyber-utopia is at our fingertips]''' Daily Trojan ([[University of Southern California]] student newspaper), August 29, 2004. Article about open source movement. "One of my favorite open source projects is called Wikipedia, from the Hawaiian term "wiki wiki," meaning "quick" or "super fast." And it's just that: an encyclopedia with super fast navigation and development."
*'''[http://eogn.typepad.com/eastmans_online_genealogy/2004/08/_free_online_en.html Free Online Encyclopedia May Be the World's Best]''' [[August 29]], [[2004]] Eastman's Online Genealogy Newsletter, one of the most widely distributed, includes the above in its paid version, with but a teaser in the free. He takes heat for ''that'' in the feedback, but does enough Britannica bashing to make even the free version worth a read.
=== September ===
* '''[http://www.hindu.com/biz/2004/09/06/stories/2004090601011700.htm Collaborative projects galore]''', [[The Hindu]], [[September 5]], [[2004]], Compare Wikipedia to Javapedia: "The project, which has been created along the lines of the famous free on-line encyclopedia project Wikipedia (http://www.wikipedia.org/), hosts lots of materials on Java."
*'''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3624384.stm From Aaan to ZZ Top]''' [[BBC]] online news pages, [[September 6]] [[2004]]. BBC News Dot.Life article entitled : ''"From Aaan to ZZ Top: An online enclyopaedia which can be edited by all and sundry aims to make finding information on the web easier, and more fun"''. By Jo Twist and BBC News Online science and technology staff. The BBC headlined this article on their main News page and on their Science/nature and Technology pages.
*'''[http://www.journaltimes.com/articles/2004/09/07/rachel_show/iq_3064453.txt Scouring the Web for political facts]''', The Journal Times (Racine, WI), [[September 7]] [[2004]]. "Up until last Saturday, a search for "fascism" on Wikipedia, a widely used and otherwise reputable online encyclopedia, resulted in a page about George W. Bush (a comment about which you can read at <nowiki>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Fascism)</nowiki>." ''(Actually a vandal had redirected the article to [[George W Bush]] on Friday [[3 September]]. It was reverted after 57 minutes.)''
*'''[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/09/07/khmer_rouge_in_daipers/ Wikipedia 'to make universities obsolete']''', The Register, [[September 7]] [[2004]]. Taking its cue from blog comments about Wikipedia, the author describes Wikipedia as "the Khmer Rouge in diapers" and gives a tongue-in-cheek look at Wikipedia replacing traditional universities.
*'''[http://www.newsobserver.com/business/technology/gilster/story/1614317p-7823919c.html Wiki meeting of minds]''' [http://www.newsobserver.com/24hour/ The News & Observer] (Raleigh, NC) online news pages, [[September 8]] [[2004]]. An article by Paul Gilster, on the front page of the "Connect" section, introduces readers to the Wiki concept, and Wikipedia in particular, with a balanced synopsis. "The Wikipedia reminds us that comparing sources and double-checking facts with other references is sound policy no matter how the text was put together. Taken with caution, it can be a useful and surprisingly resilient tool."
*'''[http://ojr.org/ojr/glaser/1094678265.php Collaborative Conundrum: Do Wikis Have a Place in the Newsroom?]''', USC Online Journalism Review, [[September 8]] [[2004]]. Article abstract: "Wikipedia has more than 340,000 articles, written by a sprawling online community. Researchers are testing its veracity, while plans proceed for fact-checking it formally. Can journalists trust Wikipedia, and can collaboration software such as wikis improve newsgathering?"
*'''[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A5430-2004Sep8.html Spreading Knowledge, The Wiki Way]''', Washington Post, [[September 9]] [[2004]], by Leslie Walker. Compares and contrasts Wikipedia with Encyclopedia Britannica. "The free Wikipedia also features a publicly authored current-events page recapping the day's top news, and it is rapidly expanding into other languages -- more than 10,000 articles have been created in each of roughly a dozen languages besides English." Reprinted in [[The Straits Times]], Singapore [http://straitstimes.asia1.com.sg/techscience/story/0,4386,272109,00.html], [[The Austin-American Statesman]], Austin, Texas [http://www.statesman.com/money/content/auto/epaper/editions/sunday/business_14243a44a206b1a40041.html]
*'''[http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0909/p06s01-woap.html Internet prods Asia to open up]''', Christian Science Monitor, [[September 9]] [[2004]]. "China's massive firewall is already showing cracks under the weight of the Internet's expansion. The pressure has come from innumerable sources, including an onslaught of weblogs, open-source directories, and projects like Wikipedia, an "open-content" encyclopedia."
*'''[http://www.iht.com/articles/538271.html Recognizing art in virtual worlds]''', International Herald Tribune, [[September 11]] [[2004]]. Article about the upcoming Ars Electronica festival focusing on the new ''Digital Communities'' award won by Wikipedia, but incorrectly identifies Howard Rheingold as Wikipedia's founder. "As for Wikipedia, its community aspect lies both above and below its surface. A quick visit to Wikipedia reveals only its encyclopedia articles. But alongside each of them lie discussions that help shape the content while bringing together both the readers and the writers of the articles, a distinction that is obviated by the project's design in the first place."
*'''[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/business/story/0,6903,1302435,00.html Wiki's wacky, but it really does work ]''', Observer, [[September 12]] [[2004]]. Very enthusiastic with comparisons with Britannica and CIA Factbook. "Yet here is something that is entirely malleable - whose entries ca |
ction
'''Suffrage:''' 21 years of age; universal
'''[[Executive branch]]:'''
<br />''chief of state:'' [[Presidents of Cameroon|President]] Paul BIYA (since [[6 November]] [[1982]])
<br />''head of government:''
Prime Minister Ephraim Inoni (since December 8, [[2005]])
<br />''cabinet:''
Cabinet appointed by the president
<br />''elections:''
president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held [[11 October]] [[2004]] (next to be held NA October 2011); prime minister appointed by the president
<br />''election results:''
President Paul BIYA reelected; percent of vote - Paul Biya 70.8%; Ni John Fro Ndi 17.4%; Adamou Ndam Njoya 4.4%; Garga Haman Adji 3.7%
'''[[Legislative branch]]:'''
unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (180 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - the president can either lengthen or shorten the term of the legislature)
<br />''elections:''
last held [[30 June]] and [[15 September]] [[2002]] (next to be held NA)
<br />''election results:''
percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RDCP 149, SDF 22, UDC 5, UPC 3, UNDP 1
<br />''note:''
the constitution calls for an upper chamber for the legislature, to be called a Senate, but it has yet to be established
'''[[Judicial branch]]:'''
Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president
==Political parties and leaders==
''Main article: [[List of political parties in Cameroon]]''
:Cameroonian Democratic Union or UDC [Adamou NDAM NJOYA]
:Cameroon Liberation and Development Movement or MLDC [Marcel YONDO]
:[[Democratic Rally of the Cameroon People]] or RDPC (the RDPC or its predecessor parties have ruled since independence) [Paul BIYA, president]
:Movement for the Defense of the Republic or MDR [Dakole DAISSALA]
:Movement for the Liberation of Cameroonian Youths or MLJC [leader NA]
:National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Maigari BELLO BOUBA, chairman]:
:[[Social Democratic Front]] or SDF [John FRU NDI]
:Union of Cameroonian Populations or UPC-K [Augustin Frederick KODOG]
'''Political pressure groups and leaders:'''
:Alliance for Change or FAC [leader NA]
:Cameroon Anglophone Movement or CAM [Vishe FAI, secretary general]
:Southern Cameroon National Council [Henry FOSSUNG]
'''International organization participation:''' [[ACCT]], [[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[BDEAC]], [[Commonwealth|C]], [[CEEAC]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[FZ]], [[G-19]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[NAM]], [[OAU]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[OPCW]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[UDEAC]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNITAR]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]
'''Flag description:''' the [[Flag of Cameroon]] features three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of [[Ethiopia]].
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Cameroon| ]]
[[fr:Politique du Cameroun]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Cameroon</title>
<id>5452</id>
<revision>
<id>38981819</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:50:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Briaboru</username>
<id>284038</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}{{Economy of Cameroon table}}
For a quarter-century following independence, '''Cameroon''' was one of the most prosperous countries in [[Africa]]. The drop in commodity prices for its principal [[export]]s &mdash;[[petroleum]], [[cocoa]], [[coffee]], and [[cotton]] &mdash; in the mid-[[1980s]], combined with an overvalued [[currency]] and economic mismanagement, led to a decade-long [[recession]]. Real per capita [[Gross domestic product | GDP]] fell by more than 60% from [[1986]] to [[1994]]. The current account and fiscal [[deficit]]s widened, and foreign debt grew. Yet because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon still has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in [[sub-Saharan Africa]].
The government embarked upon a series of economic reform programs supported by the [[World Bank]] and [[IMF]] beginning in the late 1980s. Many of these measures have been painful; the government slashed [[civil service]] salaries by 65% in [[1993]]. The [[CFA franc]] &mdash; the common currency of Cameroon and 13 other African states &mdash; was devalued by 50% in January [[1994]]. The government failed to meet the conditions of the first four IMF programs.
Recent signs, however, are encouraging. As of March [[1998]], Cameroon's fifth IMF program &mdash; a 3-year enhanced structural adjustment program approved in August [[1997]] &mdash; is on track. Cameroon has rescheduled its [[Paris Club]] debt at favorable terms. GDP has grown by about 5% a year beginning in [[1995]]. There is cautious optimism that Cameroon is emerging from its long period of economic hardship.
The [[Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility]] (ESAF) signed recently by the IMF and Government of Cameroon calls for greater macroeconomic planning and financial accountability; [[privatization]] of most of Cameroon's nearly 100 remaining non-financial parastatal enterprises; elimination of state marketing board [[monopoly|monopolies]] on the export of cocoa, certain coffees, and cotton; privatization and price competition in the [[banking]] sector; implementation of the [[1992]] [[labor code]]; a vastly improved judicial system; and political liberalization to boost investment.
[[France]] is Cameroon's main trading partner and source of private investment and [[foreign aid]]. Cameroon has an investment guaranty agreement and a bilateral accord with the [[United States]]. USA investment in Cameroon is about $1 million, most of it in the oil sector. Inflation has been brought back under control.
==See also==
* [[Cameroon]]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Cameroon| ]]
[[Category:WTO members|Cameroon]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Cameroon]]
[[fr:Économie du Cameroun]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Cameroon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Cameroon</title>
<id>5453</id>
<revision>
<id>29727321</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-30T20:42:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tedernst</username>
<id>3700</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation link repair [[broadcast]] ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
60,000 (1995)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2,800 (1995)
'''Telephone system:'''
available only to business and government
<br>''domestic:''
[[cable]], [[microwave]] radio relay, and tropospheric scatter
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 11, FM 8, shortwave 3 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
2.27 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (1998)
'''Televisions:'''
450,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
http://www.creolink.com/
'''[[Country code]]:''' CM
==See also==
*[[Cameroon]]
[[Category:Communications in Cameroon| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Cameroon</title>
<id>5454</id>
<revision>
<id>35665654</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-18T11:54:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Morwen</username>
<id>17287</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
== [[Railways]] ==
<br />''total:''
1,104 km
<br />''narrow gauge:''
1,104 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Nigeria|Nigeria]] - no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1000mm/1067mm
* [[Transportation in Chad|Chad]] - no - no railways
* [[Transportation in Gabon|Gabon]] - no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1000mm/1435mm
* [[Transportation in the Central African Republic|Central African Republic]] - no - no railways
* [[Transportation in the Republic of the Congo|Republic of the Congo]] - no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1000mm/1067mm
* [[Transportation in Equatorial Guinea|Equatorial Guinea]] - no - no railways
== [[Highway]]s ==
<br />''total:''
34,300 km
<br />''paved:''
4,288 km
<br />''unpaved:''
30,012 km (1995 est.)
== Waterways ==
2,090 km; of decreasing importance
== [[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s ==
[[Bonaberi]], [[Douala]], [[Garoua]], [[Kribi]], [[Tiko]]
== [[Airport]]s ==
50 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br />''total:''
11
<br />''over 3,047 m:''
2
<br />''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
4
<br />''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
3
<br />''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
<br />''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br />''total:''
39
<br />''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
8
<br />''914 to 1,523 m:''
20
<br />''under 914 m:''
11 (1999 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Cameroon]]
{{CIAfb}}
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:Transport in Cameroon| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Cameroo |
e BNP's historical commitment to re-criminalising [[homosexuality]] seems to have disappeared from its [http://www.bnp.org.uk/candidates2005/man_menu.htm 2005 manifesto], but it opposed the introduction of [[civil partnerships in the United Kingdom]].[http://www.bnp.org.uk/reg_showarticle.php?contentID=506]
According to the BNP's [http://www.bnp.org.uk/policies/policies.htm website], the party's policies include:
*The [[repatriation]] of all illegal immigrants.
*The introduction of a system of voluntary, financially-aided repatriation for existing, legally-settled immigrants.
*The repeal of all equality legislation, regarded as positive discrimination/reverse [[discrimination]].
*Withdrawal of the [[United Kingdom]] from the [[European Union]] and the pursuit of [[protectionism|protectionist]] economic measures.
*Encouraging greater [[share-ownership]] and worker [[Cooperative|co-operatives]].
*Funding public spending increases and tax cuts by cutting [[foreign aid]].
*The introduction of [[corporal punishment]] for petty criminals and vandals, and the introduction of [[capital punishment]] for paedophiles and terrorists and its reintroduction for murderers.
*The reintroduction of [[national service]] and the requirement of people completing national service to maintain a standard issue [[automatic rifle]] in their home.
*A mandatory jail term for anyone assaulting an NHS worker.
Other policies include the promotion of [[organic farming]], funding to allow one parent in every family to stay home and raise children not yet of school age, and increasing [[Defense (military)|defence]] spending.
==Alleged racism==
===Racist history of party and claims of repudiating racism===
In October 1990, the BNP was described by the [[European Parliament]]'s committee on [[racism]] and xenophobia as an "openly Nazi party... whose leadership have serious criminal convictions". When asked in 1993 if the BNP was racist, its deputy leader [[Richard Edmonds]] said, "We are 100 per cent racist, yes".
The BNP's original leader, [[John Tyndall (politician)|John Tyndall]], had proclaimed in 1968 that "[[Mein Kampf]] is my Bible." Under his leadership, the BNP was strongly supportive of the [[South Africa|South African]] [[Apartheid]] system.
When [[Nick Griffin]] eventually became Chairman in 1999, the party began to water down their public statements about racial issues. Griffin claims to have repudiated racism, instead espousing something he calls "ethno-nationalism". He claims that his core ideology is "concern for the well-being of the English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish ethnic nations that compose the [[United Kingdom]]".
The party now claims to oppose any unfair discrimination on the grounds of race and to disavow any interest in white supremacy, which it defines as the "wish to rule over foreign peoples". Nevertheless, its constitution states that all members must be of "British or closely kindred native European stock." The BNP is opposed to mixed-race relationships on the stated ground that ethnic differences must be preserved; it argues that when a white person produces a mixed-race child, "a white family line that stretches back into deep pre-history is destroyed".
Nick Griffin has stated his views on race as follows:
:"... while the BNP is not racist, it must not become multi-racist either. Our fundamental determination to secure a future for white children is restated, and an area of uncertainty is addressed and a position which is both principled and politically realistic is firmly established. We don't hate anyone, especially the mixed race children who are the most tragic victims of enforced multi-racism, but that does not mean that we accept [[miscegenation]] as moral or normal. We do not and we never will." [http://www.bnp.org.uk/articles/race_reality.htm]
Griffin's use of the phrase "secure a future for white children" seems to allude to the [[White nationalism|white-nationalist]] "[[Fourteen Words]]".
===Anti-Semitism===
The BNP denies that it is anti-Semitic and points out that the party has Jewish members, and one of its councillors, Pat Richardson, is herself Jewish. The party's website states that racially British or European Jews may join the party.
Nevertheless, the party and its leadership have a documented history of anti-Semitic speech and activity, including [[Holocaust denial]]:
*In the early [[1990s]] the BNP regularly and openly published the journal ''[[Holocaust News]]''; a newspaper whose sole purpose was to deny the [[Holocaust]].[http://www.s-light.demon.co.uk/presspack/gh6.html]
*BNP leader Nick Griffin has repeatedly denied the Holocaust. He has also alleged that a Jewish cabal controls the British media. (See entry on [[Nick Griffin|Griffin]] for more detail.)
*The 2002 [[Channel 4]] Documentary "Young, Nazi and Proud" featured secret filming of BNP youth leader [[Mark Collett]] claiming his admiration for [[Hitler]], and stating "I'd never say this on camera, the Jews have been thrown out of every country including England. It's not just persecution. There's no smoke without fire." It also featured footage of visitors to the party's annual "Red White and Blue" festival, some of whom wore [[SS]] symbols and the legend "88" (code for HH; [[Heil Hitler]]), others simply had straightforward [[swastika]] [[tattoos]]. [http://www.channel4.com/news/2003/special_reports/young_nazi_proud.html] Collett resigned from the party after the documentary's filming, but rejoined shortly afterwards, with the approval of Nick Griffin on the condition that Mark Collett change his views on the subject, or at least, to never let them influence his involvement with the Party again.
===BNP claims of "anti-white racism"===
A recurrent theme of the BNP's current campaigning is its accusation that the mainstream media and police devote less attention to racially motivated violence when the victims are white. The party has frequently cited the cases of [[Gavin Hopley]] of [[Lancashire]] and [[Kriss Donald]] of [[Glasgow]], two young white men whose murderers were Asian, and whose murders the BNP maintains were hate crimes.
The BNP conducted a demonstration outside the offices of the [[National Union of Journalists]] (NUJ) to highlight what it regarded as biased coverage of the Hopley case. The police and the NUJ have rejected the BNP's criticism, pointing out that ten men were arrested within a week of Hopley's murder, and 48 articles were written on the subject by NUJ members. Hopley's family have also distanced themselves from the BNP.[http://www.nuj.org.uk/inner.php?docid=706]
===Christmas party incident===
In [[December]] [[2004]], the British tabloid the [[Daily Mirror]] reported that a BNP member had hired a black DJ by telephone for the BNP Christmas party without knowing that he was black. The Mirror [http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/allnews/page.cfm?objectid=14947504&method=full&siteid=50143 claimed] that some members walked out, which the BNP [http://www.bnp.org.uk/news_detail.php?newsId=62 denied].
==Alleged fascism==
===Alleged fascist nature of party===
Although the BNP strongly disputes that its policies or members espouse neo-Nazism, some opponents of the party, as well as journalists in two newspapers, the [[right wing politics|right wing]] [[tabloid]] ''[[Daily Express]]'' and the [[Left-wing politics|left wing]] [[broadsheet]] ''[[The Guardian]]'', have claimed often that the BNP is not only racist but also an explicitly [[fascist]] or [[neo-Nazi]] organization.
The former leader of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], [[Michael Howard]] has called the BNP 'a bunch of thugs dressed up as a political party.'[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/conservatives/story/0,9061,1151601,00.html]
===Links to fascist/neo-nazi groups and individuals===
While Griffin was still a leading figure in the National Front, he was a close associate of [[Roberto Fiore]], an [[Italian people|Italian]] who belonged to a Fascist group which carried out the [[Bologna massacre]], killing 85 people and injuring 200 others in the train station of that town.
The violent, openly neo-Nazi group [[Combat 18]] was formed in 1992 (although not originally under this name), to act as stewards for BNP rallies, which were often physically assaulted by left-wing groups, such as [[Anti-Fascist Action]]. According to the BNP, all associations with Combat 18 were ended shortly after the latter were formed, John Tyndall telling BNP members that they could not be members of both organisations simultaneously.
When Tyndall was still chairman, the BNP's 1995 national rally was addressed by American neo-Nazi Dr. [[William Luther Pierce|William Pierce]], head of the US [[National Alliance]]. Pierce wrote ''[[The Turner Diaries]]'', which allegedly inspired [[Timothy McVeigh]] to carry out his [[Oklahoma city bombing]], killing 168 people. The American Friends of the BNP, a party offshoot headed by [[Mark Cotterill]], was still having extensive contacts with the much more extreme [[National Alliance]] as recently as 2003, as documented at length by [[Nick Ryan]] in his book ''Homeland: Into A World of Hate''. [http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=483]
[[Redwatch]], a website that publicises the names and addresses of left-wing activist, and has led to death threats and harassment, was set up by ex-BNP member [[Simon_Sheppard (far-right activist)|Simon Sheppard]] in [[2001]]. The BNP has proscribed the use of the website by its members.[http://www.redwatch.org.uk/bn1.jpg] Nevertheless, BNP Youth leader [[Mark Collett]] has been implicated in involvement with the site.
The [[London]] [[nail bomb|nailbomber]], [[David Copeland]], was a member of the BNP for about two months before moving to the [[National Socialist Movement]]. |
r to strike some universal chord, or by the rarity of the skill of the artist, or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the ''[[zeitgeist]]''.
===Communicating emotion===
Art appeals to human emotions. It can arouse [[aesthetic]] or [[morality|moral]] feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. [[artist|Artists]] have to express themselves so that their public is aroused, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art explores what is commonly termed as ''[[human condition|the human condition]]''; that is, essentially, what it is to be human, and art of a superior kind often brings about some new insight concerning humanity (not always positive) or demonstrates a level of skill so fine as to push forward the boundaries of collective human ability.
This is not to say that technical skill is a necessary prerequisite of art, but rather that a high degree of skill goes some way in conferring a judgement of high standard upon an artist or artwork.
===Creative impulse===
From one [[point of view|perspective]], art is a generic term for any product of the [[creative impulse]], out of which sprang all other human pursuits &mdash; such as [[science]] via [[alchemy]], and [[religion]] via [[shamanism]]. The term 'art' offers no true definition besides those based within the cultural, historical and geographical context in which it is applied. Though to the artists themselves, the impulse to create is undeniable; an artist can no more deny that impulse than he/she could ignore breathing (one might compare [[Kandinsky]]'s [[inner necessity]] to this popular view). It is because of the overbearing need to create, in the face of financial ruin, public obscurity or political opposition, that artists are typically conceived of as unstable, even crazy, or misguided.
==Differences in defining art==
Definitions of art and [[aesthetic]] arguments usually proceed from one of several possible perspectives. Art may be defined by the intention of the artist as in the writings of [[John Dewey|Dewey]]. Art may be seen as being in the response/emotion of the viewer as [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]] claims. In [[Arthur Danto|Danto]]'s view, it can be defined as a character of the item itself or as a function of an object's context.
===Plato===
For [[Plato]], art is a pursuit whose adherents are not to be trusted; given that their productions imitate the sensory world (itself an imitation of the divine world of forms) art necessarily is an imitation of an imitation, and thus is hopelessly far from the source of the truth. Plato, it may be noted, barred artists from access to his ideal city, in his [[Republic]].
===Aristotle===
Aristotle saw art in less of a bad light; though he shared Plato's poor opinion of it, he nevertheless thought that art might serve the purpose of emotional catharsis. That is, by witnessing the sufferings and celebrations of actors onstage onlookers might vicariously experience these same feelings themselves, and thereby purge such negative feelings.
===Institutional definition===
Many people's opinions of what art is would fall inside a relatively small range of accepted standards, or "institutional definition of art" ([[George Dickie]] 1974). This derives from education and other social factors. Most people did not consider the depiction of a [[Brillo|Brillo Box]] or a store-bought [[urinal]] to be art until [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Marcel Duchamp]] (respectively) placed them in the context of art (i.e., the [[art gallery]]), which then provided the association of these objects with the values that define art (Although, strictly speaking, Warhol's artwork was not an actual Brillo box but an ''exact replica'' of one - so it met the traditional criterion of skill at the very least).
Most viewers of these objects initially rejected such associations, because the objects did not, themselves, meet the accepted criteria. The objects needed to be absorbed into the general consensus of what art is before they achieved the near-universal acceptance as art in the contemporary era. Once accepted and viewed with a fresh eye, the smooth, white surfaces of Duchamp's urinal are strikingly similar to classical marble sculptural forms, whether the artist intended it or not. This type of recontextualizing provides the same spark of connection expected from any traditionally created art. It should be noted, however, that Duchamps act might be as readily interpreted as a demonstration of the (not always beneficial) power of artistic institutions, rather than the universal art potentially inherent in all objects.
The placement of an object in an artistic context is not taken as a universal standard of art, but is a common characteristic of [[conceptual art]], prevalent since the 1960s; notably, the [[Stuckist]] art movement criticises this tendency of recent art.
==Related issues==
===Social criticism===
Art is often seen as belonging to one social class and excluding others. In this context, art is seen as a high-status activity associated with wealth, the ability to purchase art, and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it. The [[Palace of Versailles|palaces of Versailles]] or the [[Hermitage]] in [[St. Petersburg]] with their vast collections of art, amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of Europe exemplify this view. Collecting such art is the preserve of the rich, in one viewpoint.
Before the [[13th century]] in [[Europe]], artisans were considered to belong to a lower [[caste]], since they were essentially manual labourers. After Europe was re-exposed to [[Renaissance Classicism|classical culture]] during the [[Renaissance]], particularly in the [[nation-state]]s of what is now Italy ([[Florence]], [[Siena]]), artists gained an association with high status. However, arrangements of "fine" and expensive goods have always been used by institutions of power as marks of their own status. This is seen in the 20th and [[21st century]] by the commissioning or purchasing of art by big businesses and corporations as decoration for their offices.
===Utility===
There are many who ascribe to certain arts the quality of being non-[[utilitarianism|utilitarian]]. This fits within the "art as good" system of definitions and suffers from a class prejudice against labor and utility. Opponents of this view argue that all human activity has some utilitarian function, and these objects claimed to be "non-utilitarian" actually have the rather mundane and banal utility of attempting to mystify and codify unworkable justifications for arbitrary social hierarchy. It might also be argued that non-utilitarian is, in this context, a mis-usage; that art is not in and of itself, useless, but rather that it particularly use does not manifest itself in any traditionally demonstrable way (though advances in neuroscience may arguably enable the isolation of those associated cortices of the brain concerned with the creation or appreciation of art).
Art is also used by art therapists and some psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as [[art therapy]]. The end product is not the principal goal in this case; rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy.
The "use" of art from the artist’s standpoint is as a means of expression. When art is conceived as a device, it serves several context and perspective specific functions. From the artist’s perspective it allows one to symbolize complex ideas and emotions in an arbitrary language subject only to the interpretation of the self and peers.
In a social context, it can serve to soothe the soul and promote popular morale. In a more negative aspect of this facet, art is often utilised as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood (in some cases, artworks are appropriated to be used in this manner, without the creator's initial intention).
From a more anthropological perspective, art is a way of passing ideas and concepts on to later generations in a (somewhat) universal language. The interpretation of this language is very dependent upon the observer’s perspective and context, and it might be argued that the very subjectivity of art demonstrates its importance in providing an arena in which rival ideas might be exchanged and discussed, or to provide a social context in which disparate groups of people might congregate and mingle.
===History of art===
{{main|History of Art}}
The term '[[art history]]' typically refers to a historical examination of the various trends of the visual arts through certain periods of human history. It may also be taken to encompass a study of the theories of art, which may or may not include an examination of their historical context.
===Symbols===
{{main|Symbols}}
Much of the development of individual artist deals with finding principles for how to express certain ideas through various kinds of [[symbolism]]. For example, [[Vasily Kandinsky]] developed his use of [[color]] in [[painting]] through a system of stimulus response, where over time he gained an understanding of the [[emotions]] that can be evoked by color and combinations of color. Contemporary artist [[Andy Goldsworthy]], on the other hand, chose to use the [[medium]] of found natural objects and materials to arrange temporary sculptures.
==Cultural differences of art==
Several genres of art are grouped by cultural relevance, examples can be found in terms such as:
*[[African art]]
*[[American craft]]
*[[Islamic art]]
*[[Asian art]] as found in:
**[[Buddhist art]]
**[[Chinese art]]
**[[Art and architecture of Japan|Japanese art]]
**[[Tibetan art]]
**[[Thai art]]
**[[Laotian art]]
*[[Visual arts of the United States]]
*[[Latin American art]]
==See also==
{ |
under him and his head shook. He stammered and his speech was confused. He slobbered and his nose ran when excited. The [[Stoicism|Stoic]] [[Seneca the younger|Seneca]] states in his ''Apocolocyntosis'' that Claudius' voice belonged to no land animal, and that his hands were weak as well<ref>Seneca ''Apocolo.'' 5, 6.</ref>. However, he showed no physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when calm and seated he was a tall, well-built figure of ''dignitas''<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 30.</ref>. When angered or stressed, his symptoms became worse. Historians agree that this improved upon his accession to the throne<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 31.</ref>. Claudius himself claimed that he had exaggerated his ailments to save his own life.
The modern diagnosis has changed several times in the past century. Prior to World War II, [[infantile paralysis]] (or polio) was widely accepted as the cause. This is the diagnosis used in [[Robert Graves]]' Claudius novels, first published in the 1930s. Polio does not explain many of the described symptoms, however, and a more recent theory implicates [[cerebral palsy]] as the cause, as outlined by Ernestine Leon <ref>Leon (1948).</ref>.
On the personal front, the ancient historians describe Claudius as generous and lowbrow, a man who cracked lame jokes, laughed uncontrollably, and lunched with the [[plebs]]<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 5, 21, 40; Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LX 2, 5, 12, 31.</ref>. They also paint him as bloodthirsty, cruel, and very quick to anger (though Claudius himself acknowledged this last trait, and apologized publicly for his temper)<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 34, 38. Tacitus ''Ann.'' XII 20.</ref>. To them he was also overly trusting, and easily manipulated by his wives and freedmen<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 29. Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LX 2, 8.</ref>. But at the same time they portray him as paranoid and apathetic, dull and easily confused<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 35, 36, 37, 39, 40. Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LX 2, 3.</ref>. The extant works of Claudius present a different view, painting a picture of an intelligent, well-read, conscientious administrator with an eye to detail and justice. Thus, Claudius becomes an enigma. Since the discovery of his "Letter to the Alexandrians" in the last century, much work has been done to rehabilitate Claudius and determine where the truth lies.
==Family and early life==
Claudius was born '''Tiberius Claudius Drusus''' on [[August 1]] [[10]] BCE in [[Lugdunum]], [[Gaul]], on the day of the dedication of an altar to [[Augustus]]. He was the third living child of [[Nero Claudius Drusus]] and [[Antonia Minor]], the two older children being [[Germanicus]] and [[Livilla]]. Antonia may have had two other children as well, but both died young.
His maternal grandparents were [[Mark Antony]] and [[Octavia]], Caesar Augustus' sister. His paternal grandparents were [[Livia]], Augustus' third wife, and [[Tiberius Nero|Tiberius Claudius Nero]]. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor that his father Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus.
In 9 BCE, Drusus unexpectedly died, possibly from an injury. Claudius was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried. When Claudius' afflictions became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity, and seems to have passed him off on his grandmother Livia for a number of years<ref>Dio ''Hist.'' LX 2</ref>. Livia was little kinder, and often sent him short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a "former mule-driver"<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 2. Suet ''Claud.'' 4 indicates the reasons for choosing this tutor, as outlined in Leon (1948).</ref> to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of will-power. However, by the time he reached his teenaged years his symptoms apparently waned and his family took some notice of his scholarly interests. In 7, [[Livy]] was hired in to tutor him in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the latter and the philosopher [[Athenodoros Cananites|Athenodorus]]. Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius' oratory<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 4.</ref>. Expectations were raised as to his future.
[[Image:Claudiusreal.jpg|right|thumb|400px|A [[sestertius]] of Claudius. The obverse image is of [[Spes]] (Hope) Augusta, first issued to commemorate the birth of his son in 41.]]
In the end, it was his work as a budding historian that destroyed his early career. According to [[Vincent Scramuzza]] and others, Claudius began work on a history of the civil wars that was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian<ref>Scramuzza (1940) p. 39.</ref>. In either case, it was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and it may have proved to them that Claudius was not fit for public office. He could not be trusted to toe the line. When he returned to the narrative later in life, Claudius skipped over the civil wars of the second triumvirate altogether. But the damage was done, and his family pushed him to the background. When the [[Arch of Pavia]] was erected to honor the imperial clan in 8, Claudius' name (now '''Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus''' after his elevation to [[paterfamilias]] of Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge &mdash; past the deceased princes, [[Gaius Caesar|Gaius]] and [[Lucius Caesar|Lucius]], and Germanicus' children. There is some speculation that the inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and he originally did not appear at all<ref>Stuart (1936).</ref>.
When Augustus died in 14, Claudius &mdash; then twenty-three &mdash; appealed to his uncle [[Tiberius]] to allow him to begin the ''[[cursus honorum]]''. Tiberius, the new emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments. Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since the new emperor was not any more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life.
Despite the disdain of the imperial family, it seems that from very early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus' death, the ''[[Equestrian (Roman)|equites]]'', or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense. They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in the senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained. During the period immediately after the death of Tiberius' son, [[Julius Caesar Drusus|Drusus]], Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir. This again suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life. However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror of the Praetorian [[Sejanus]] was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility.
After the death of Tiberius, the new emperor [[Caligula]] recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in 37 in order to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus. Despite this, Caligula relentlessly tormented his uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before the Senate, and the like. According to [[Cassius Dio]], as well a possible surviving portrait, Claudius became very sickly and thin by the end of Caligula's reign &mdash; most likely due to the stresses<ref>Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LX 2. Suhr (1955) suggests that this must refer to before Claudius came to power.</ref>.
==Accession as emperor==
On [[January 24]] [[41]], Caligula was assassinated by a broad-based conspiracy (including Praetorian commander [[Cassius Chaerea]] and several [[Roman Senate|Senators]]). There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the assassination, although he probably knew about the plot &mdash; particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before the event. However, after the deaths of Caligula's [[Caesonia|wife]] and daughter, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the imperial family. In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed the German guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including friends of his. Concerned for his survival, he fled to the palace to hide himself. According to tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared him [[imperator]]<ref>Josephus ''Antiquitates Iudiacae'' XIX. Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LX 1.</ref>. A section of the guard may have planned in advance to seek out Claudius, perhaps with his approval. They reassured him that they were not one of the battalions looking for revenge. He was spirited away to the Praetorian camp and put under their protection.
[[Image:Claudiuspax.jpg|left|thumb|400px|Claudius issued this [[denarius]] type to emphasize his clemency after Caligula's assassination. The depiction of the goddess [[Pax-Nemesis]], representing subdued vengence, would be used on the coins of many later emperors.]]
The Senate quickly met and began debating a change of government, but this eventually devolved into an argument over which of them would be the new [[Princeps]]. When they heard of praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused, rightly sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some historians, particularly [[Josephus]]<ref>Josephus ''Ant. Iud.'' XIX.</ref>, claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by the Judean King [[Herod Agrippa]]. However, an earli |
(many of whom also find value in the other approaches), and amongst [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarians]], who interpret the book very differently from fundamentalist Christians but definitely belong to the Biblical Prophecy school. (Rastafarians believe [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie I]] to be the [[Messiah]] and [[God]] [[incarnate]].) Members of more mainline and liberal churches tend to prefer the historical-critical and aesthetic approaches. Moreover, [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] churches have delimited their own specific positions on Revelation.
==Interpretative Views of Revelation as Biblical Prophecy==
===The Preterist View===
The view of [[Preterism]] holds that the contents of Revelation constitute a prophecy of events that were fulfilled in the [[1st century]]. This view depends critically on an early date of Revelation, circa AD [[68]], since any later date makes the "prophecy" postdate the events prophesied. Even accepting that date leaves a narrow margin of one to two years before the fulfillment occurs. Preterist interpretations generally identify Jerusalem as the persecutor of the Church, "Babylon", the "Mother of Harlots", etc. They see Armageddon as God's judgment on the Jews, carried out by the [[Military history of the Roman Empire|Roman army]], which is identified as "the beast". Some preterists see the second half of Revelation as changing focus to Rome, its persecution of Christians, and the fall of the [[Roman Empire]]. It sees the Revelation being fulfilled in AD 70, thereby bringing the full presence of God to dwell with all humanity.
===The Futurist View===
The futurist view assigns all of the prophecy to some future time, shortly before the [[Second Coming|second coming]]. Futurist interpretations generally predict a [[tribulation|Great Tribulation]], a relatively short period of time when believers will experience worldwide persecution and be purified and strengthened by it, and a [[rapture]], whereby all true Christians are taken from Earth by God into [[Heaven]]. [[Dispensationalism|Pretribulationist]]s believe that all Christians then alive will be taken bodily up to Heaven before the Tribulation begins. Some variants of this interpretation portray Israeli Jews as collaborators with the [[Antichrist]]; well-known futurist [[Pat Robertson]] was sharply criticized for actually stating that "The Antichrist is probably a Jew alive in Israel today." [[Middle Tribulation Rapture|Midtribulationist]]s believe that the rapture of the faithful will occur halfway through the tribulation, after it begins but before the worst part of it occurs. [[Post Tribulation Rapture|Posttribulationist]]s believe that Christians will not be taken up into Heaven until Christ returns at the end of the Tribulation.
The futurist view was first proposed by two Catholic writers, [[Lacunza]] and [[Ribera]]. Lacunza wrote under the pen name "Ben Ezra", and his work was banned by the Catholic Church. It has grown in popularity in the 19th and 20th centuries, so that today it is probably most readily recognized. Books about the "[[rapture]]" by authors like [[Hal Lindsey]], and the more recent [[Left Behind]] novels (by[[Jerry Jenkins]] and [[Tim LaHaye]]) and movies, have done much to popularize this school of thought.
The [[Rasta]]farians hold a futurist view of the book of Revelation, relating it both to 20th-century events such as the crowning of [[Ethiopia]]n Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] and the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]], and also to future events such as the second coming of Selassie on the day of judgment.
===The Historicist View ===
The historicist view regards the prophecy as spanning the time from the end of the first century through the second coming of Christ.
Politically, historicist interpretations apply the symbols of Revelation to the gradual division and collapse of the [[Roman Empire]], the emergence of a divided Europe in the West and a Muslim empire in the East, and the collapse of the Eastern Empire while Europe attempts to reunite and recreate the Roman Empire.
Ecclesiastically, historicist interpretations see Revelation as teaching that the Church would expand, despite persecution, until it "conquered" the whole world&mdash;but in the process, would gradually evolve into an [[apostate]] system within which true Christians would be a persecuted minority. The apostate Church is associated with the symbols of the "Mother of Harlots" and with "Babylon". It is seen as an "Antichrist system" which exists for much of history rather than expecting a single "Antichrist" in the last days, as futurist interpretations do.
According to historicist interpretations, the [[second coming]] of Christ occurs about the time that a partly reunited Europe starts to wage war against Israel. This view is held mainly by [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Fundamentalist]] Protestant Christians. The exact constitution of this [[confederation|confederacy]] differs between interpretations: in some it is mainly composed of [[Eastern Europe]]an countries, notably [[Russia]]; in others, [[Western Europe]]an; some include [[United Kingdom|Britain]], while others suggest that Britain and former [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] nations will oppose the confederacy. In all historicist interpretations, Christ defeats this confederacy, rescues Israel from certain destruction, judges apostate Christianity and vindicates the true believers, and sets up a kingdom on earth.
The earliest Christian writers adopted a historicist viewpoint, though at such an early date, the distinction between historicist and futurist views was less pronounced. Historicist interpretations tend to be [[millenarian]], emphasizing the literal reign of Christ on earth, and as that doctrine receded in importance, so too did the historicist focus in interpretation. Today, historicist interpretations are favored in the most ardently millenarian sects.
Many Protestant writers today use this school of interpretation as the foundation for an anti-Catholic polemic, but it should be noted that such is not an inherent property of historical interpretations. Many Catholic writers in the fourth and fifth centuries applied the notion of future apostasy to their own church, in various ways. Some argued that an apostasy would arise within the church. Others argued that this had already happened, and cited one or another sect which arose over some theological dispute. What differs between interpretations is the identity of the [[apostasy]].
===The Spiritual or Idealist View===
The Spiritual view (also called Idealist by some writers) does not see the book of Revelation as predicting specific events in history. Rather it sees the visions as expressing eternal spiritual truths that find expression throughout history. Only in the last few chapters are specifically predictive eschatological issues taken up.
===The Catholic & Eastern Orthodox View===
[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] has an interpretation that does not fit well into any of the above classifications. It treats the text as simultaneously describing contemporaneous events and as prophecy of events to come, for which the contemporaneous events were a form of foreshadow. It rejects attempts to determine, before the fact, if the events of Revelation are occurring by mapping them onto present-day events, taking to heart the Scriptural warning against those who proclaim "He is here!" prematurely. Instead, the book is seen as a warning to be spiritually and morally ready for the end times, whenever they may come ("as a thief in the night"), but they will come at the time of [[God]]'s choosing, not something that can be precipitated nor trivially deduced by mortals.
== Historical-Critical Interpretation ==
The historical-critical interpretation takes as [[axiom]]atic some qualities that would be considered commonplace in a non-Christian or non-Rastafarian context, first of all that Revelation is a ''text'', which is embodied and transmitted in manuscripts, which have their own histories. Such texts are subject to changes, such as miscopying, repetition of lines already entered, excision, interpolation or emendation. Motivations for such changes run the whole gamut of human motivations, and need also to be assessed in their historical context.
The acceptance of Revelation into the [[Biblical canon|canon]] is itself the result of a historical process, essentially no different from the career of other texts. The eventual exclusion of other contemporary apocalyptic literature from the canon may throw light on the unfolding historical processes of what was officially considered orthodox, what was heterodox, what was even heretical.
The historical-critical interpretation cannot address two aspects of Revelation. It is not prepared to discuss aspects of divine inspiration of the original text, nor can it assess the book's relevance to the modern world. Interpretation of meanings and imagery is limited to what the historical author intended and what his contemporary audience inferred. Thus, the symbolism of Revelation is to be understood entirely within its historical literary and social context. Critics study the conventions of [[apocalyptic literature]] and events of the [[1st century]] to make sense of what the author may have intended.
Nevertheless, many interpretative questions remain: Is the structure of the book linear, resumptive, or thematic? How does the imagery relate to historical events? Did the author intend one or multiple meanings in the text? The plurality of answers to these (and other) questions is plain to see both from the text of this article and scholarly opinion. Historical-criticism does not sit well within this plurality, but contemporary approaches to biblical texts, notably the literary-cr |
ied in the Cincinnati Zoo in [[1918]].
* [[Mascarene Parrot]], ''Mascarinus mascarinus''
* [[Broad-billed Parrot]], ''Lophopsittacus mauritianus'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, [[1680]])
:A smaller related form described as Mauritius Grey Parrot (''Lophopsittacus bensoni''), may be the female of ''L. mauritianus''.
* [[Rodrigues Parrot]], ''Necropsittacus rodericanus''
:The species ''N. borbonicus'' and ''N. francicus'' are almost certainly fictional.
* [[Glaucous Macaw]], ''Anodorhynchus glaucus'' (North Argentina)
:Officially [[Endangered species|critically endangered]] due to persistent rumours of wild birds, but probably extinct.
* [[Cuban Red Macaw]], ''Ara tricolor'' (Cuba, West Indies)
:A number of related species have been described from the West Indies, but are not based on good evidence. Several prehistoric forms are now known to have existed in the region, however.
* [[Martinique Amazon]], ''Amazona martinica'' (Martinique, West Indies)
* [[Guadeloupe Amazon]], ''Amazona violacea'' (Guadeloupe, West Indies)
:The extinct amazon parrots were originally described after travelers' descriptions. Both are nowadays considered valid extinct species closely related to the [[Imperial Parrot]].
* [[New Caledonian Lorikeet]], ''Charmosyna diadema''
:Officially [[Endangered species|critically endangered]], there have been no reliable reports of this bird since the early [[20th century]].
===[[Cuckoo]]s===
* [[Delalande's Coua]], ''Coua delalandei'' (Madagascar)
* [[Saint Helena Cuckoo]], ''Nannococcyx psix'' (Saint Helena, Atlantic, [[16th century]])
===[[Owl]]s===
* [[Reunion Owl]], ''Mascarenotus grucheti'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, early [[17th century]])
* [[Mauritius Owl]], ''Mascarenotus sauzieri'' (Mauritus, Mascarenes, c.[[1850]]) - synonyms: ''Otus/Scops commersoni, Strix newtoni, Strix sauzieri''
* [[Rodrigues Little Owl]], ''Mascarenotus murivora'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, mid-[[18th century]]) - synonyms: ''Athene murivora, Bubo leguati''
* [[Sulu Reddish Scops Owl]], ''Otus rufescens burbidgei'' (Sulu, Philippines, mid-[[20th century]])
:A subspecies of the [[Reddish Scops Owl]]. Known from a single questionable specimen and may not be valid.
* [[Virgin Islands Screech Owl]], ''Otus nudipes newtoni''
:A subspecies of the [[Puerto Rican Screech Owl]] of somewhat doubtful validity which occurred on several of the Virgin Islands, West Indies. The last reliable records are in [[1860]]; it was not found in thorough surveys in [[1995]].
* [[Socorro Elf Owl]], ''Micrathene whitneyi graysoni'' (Socorro, Revillagigedo Islands, [[1970]])
* [[Antiguan Burrowing Owl]], ''Athene cunicularia amaura'' (Antigua, St Kitts and Nevis, West Indies, c.[[1905]]) - subspecies of the [[Burrowing Owl]]
* [[Bahaman Burrowing Owl]], ''Athene cunicularia guadeloupensis'' (Guadeloupe and Marie-Galante, West Indies, c.[[1890]]) - subspecies of the [[Burrowing Owl]]
* [[New Caledonian Boobook]], ''Ninox'' cf. ''novaeseelandiae'' (New Caledonia, Melanesia)
:Known only from prehistoric bones, but might still survive.
* [[Lord Howe Island Morepork]], ''Ninox novaezelandia albaria'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, [[1950]]s) - subspecies of the [[Southern Boobook]]
* [[Norfolk Island Morepork]], ''Ninox novaeseelandiae undulata'' (Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, [[1996]])
:Individuals of the [[Southern Boobook|nominate subspecies]] were introduced in a last-ditch effort to save the local owl population. There now exists a hybrid population of a few dozen birds; the last individual of ''N. n. undulata'', a female named ''Miamiti'' died in [[1996]].
* [[Laughing Owl]], ''Sceloglaux albifacies'' (New Zealand, [[1914]]?) - two subspecies, ''S. a. albifacies'' and ''S. a. rufifacies''
* [[Cave-nesting Masked Owl]], ''Tyto novaehollandiae troughtoni'' (Nullarbor Plain, Australia, [[1960]]s)
:Doubtfully distinct from [[Australian Masked Owl|nominate subspecies]], but differed behaviorally.
* [[Buru Masked Owl]], ''Tyto sororcula cayelii'' (Buru, Indonesia, mid-[[20th century]])
:Subspecies of [[Lesser Masked Owl]]. Last seen in [[1921]]; the identity of a similar bird found on Seram remains to be determined.
* [[Peleng Masked Owl]], ''Tyto rosenbergii pelengensis'' (Peleng, Banggai Islands, [[mid-20th century]])
:Subspecies of [[Sulawesi Owl]] or separate species. Possibly extant, but only specimen known taken in [[1938]] and no further records.
* [[Samar Bay Owl]], ''Phodilus badius riverae'' (Samar, Philippines, mid-[[20th century]])
:Subspecies of [[Oriental Bay Owl]] or possibly distinct species. Taxonomy doubtful but only specimen lost in [[1945]] bombing raid so validity cannot be verified; no population exists on Samar today.
===[[Nightjar]]s===
* [[Jamaican Parauque]], ''Siphonorhis americana'' (Jamaica, West Indies, late [[19th century]]
:Reports of unidentifiable nightjars in habitat appropriate for ''S. americanus'' suggest that this cryptic species may still exist. Research into this possibility is currently underway.
* [[Cuban Parauque]], ''Siphonorhis daiquiri'' (Cuba, West Indies)
:Described from [[subfossil]] bones in [[1985]]. There are persistent rumors that this bird, which was never seen alive by scientists, may still survive. Compare [[Puerto Rican Nightjar]].
* [[New Caledonian White-throated Eared-Nightjar]], ''Eurostopodus mystacalis exsul'' (New Caledonia, Melanesia, mid-[[20th century]])
:This distinct subspecies of the [[White-throated Eared-Nightjar]] is possibly a separate species. It was found only once; due to its cryptic habits, it possibly still exists, but this is now considered unlikely.
* [[Vaurie's Nightjar]], ''Caprimulgus centralasicus''
:Only known from a single [[1929]] specimen from Xinjiang, China. It has never been found again, and it is quite possibly invalid as it has not yet been compared to the similar subspecies of the [[European Nightjar]], ''C. europaeus plumipes'' which occurs at the locality where ''C. centralasicus'' was found.
===[[Hummingbird]]s===
* [[Coppery Thorntail]], ''Discosura letitiae'' (Bolivia?)
:Known only from 3 trade specimens of unknown origin. Might still exist.
* [[Brace's Emerald]], ''Chlorostilbon bracei'' (New Providence, Bahamas, late [[19th century]])
* [[Gould's Emerald]], ''Chlorostilbon elegans'' (Jamaica or northern Bahamas, West Indies, late [[19th century]])
* [[Alfaro's Hummingbird]], ''Saucerottia alfaroana'' (Costa Rica, c.[[1900]])
* [[Bogota Sunangel]], ''Heliangelus zusii'' (Colombia?)
:A mysterious bird known only from a single specimen of unknown origin. Might be a hybrid (although the specimen is very distinct) or might still exist.
* [[Alejandro Selkirk Firecrown]], ''Sephanoides fernandensis leyboldi'' (Alejandro Selkirk Island, Juan Fernandez Islands, Southeast Pacific, [[1908]]) - subspecies of the [[Juan Fernandez Firecrown]].
===[[Coraciiformes|Kingfishers and related birds]]===
* [[Ryukyu Kingfisher]], ''Halcyon miyakoensis'' (Miyako-jima, Ryukyu Islands, late [[19th century]])
:This was probably a sub-species of the [[Micronesian Kingfisher]] ''Halycon cinnamomina''. Only seen once by scientists, in [[1887]]; the specimen taken is somewhat damaged, making identification by other than molecular analysis difficult.
* [[Mangareva Kingfisher]], ''Todiramphus gambieri gambieri'' (Mangareva, Tuamotus, late [[19th century]])
:Only known from a single [[1844]] specimen, the nominate subspecies of the [[Tuamotu Kingfisher]] was not found anymore when it was next searched for in [[1922]].
* [[Javan Blue-banded Kingfisher]], ''Alcedo euryzona euryzona'' (Java, Indonesia, mid-[[20th century]])
:The nominate subspecies of the [[Blue-banded Kingfischer]]; the last specimen was taken in [[1937]] and the last unconfirmed records are fron the [[1950s]].
* [[Guadalcanal Little Kingfisher]], ''Alcedo pusilla aolae'' (Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands)
:This subspecies of the [[Little Kingfisher]] is probably extinct.
* [[Malaita Variable Kingfisher]], ''Ceyx lepidus malaitae'' (Malaita, Solomon Islands)
:A subspecies of the [[Variable Kingfisher]] which has not been observed in a long time and is probably extinct.
* [[Sakarha Pygmy Kingfisher]], ''Ispidina madagascariensis dilutus'' (Southwest Madagascar, late [[20th century]]?)
:This subspecies of the [[Madagascar Pygmy Kingfisher]] is only known from one specimen taken in [[1974]] in an area where most habitat had already been lost.
* [[Giant Hoopoe]], ''Upupa antaois'' (Saint Helena, Atlantic, early [[16th century]])
* [[Ticao Tarictic Hornbill]], ''Penelopides panini ticaensis'' (Ticao, Philippines, [[1970]]s)
*A subspecies of the [[Tarictic Hornbill]] of somewhat uncertain status - possibly a distinct species, possibly a color morph -; the last confirmed report was in [[1971]] and it became extinct shortly thereafter.
===[[Piciformes|Woodpecker]]s and related birds===
* [[Northern White-mantled Barbet]], ''Capito hypoleucus hypoleucus'' (Colombia, mid-[[20th century]])
:The nominate subspecies of the [[White-mantled Barbet]] has not been seen since the late [[1940]]s and its habitat has been almost completely destroyed.
* [[Botero White-mantled Barbet]], ''Capito hypoleucus carrikeri'' (Colombia, mid-[[20th century]])
:Another subspecies of the [[White-mantled Barbet]], last seen in [[1950]].
* [[Guadalupe Flicker]], ''Colaptes cafer rufipileus'' (Guadalupe, East Pacific, c.[[1910]])
:A subspecies of the Red-shafted Flicker (or the [[Northern Flicker]], as ''C. auratus rufipileus''), it was last recorded in [[1906]] and not found anymore in [[1922]]. Recently, vagrant birds of a mainland subspecies have begun recolonizing the island as the habitat improves after the removal of feral goats.
* [[Caatinga woodpecker]], ''Celeus obrieni'' (Western Piauí, Brazil, mid-[[20th century]])
:This bird is known from a single specimen taken in [[1926]] and was long believed to be a subspecies of the [[Rufous-headed Woodpecker]]. As it was confined to ''caatinga'' habitat, which has been largely destroyed, it is |
alent, the successive ''K''<sub>a</sub> values will differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged.
== Neutralization ==
[[Neutralization]] is the reaction between equal amounts of an acid and a base, producing a [[salt]] and [[water (molecule)|water]]; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water:
::HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) -> H<sub>2</sub>O(l) + NaCl(aq)
Neutralization is the basis of [[titration]], where a [[PH indicator|pH indicator]] shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid.
== Common acids ==
=== Strong inorganic acids ===
* [[Hydrobromic acid]]
* [[Hydrochloric acid]]
* [[Hydroiodic acid]]
* [[Nitric acid]]
* [[Sulfuric acid]]
* [[Perchloric acid]]
=== Medium to weak inorganic acids ===
* [[Boric acid]]
* [[Carbonic acid]]
* [[Chloric acid]]
* [[Hydrofluoric acid]]
* [[Phosphoric acid]]
* [[Pyrophosphoric acid]]
===Weak [[organic acid]]s===
* [[Acetic acid]]
* [[Benzoic acid]]
* [[Butyric acid]]
* [[Citric acid]]
* [[Formic acid]]
* [[Lactic acid]]
* [[Malic acid]]
* [[Mandelic acid]]
* [[Methanethiol]]
* [[Propionic acid]]
* [[Pyruvic acid]]
* [[Valeric acid]]
== Acids in food ==
* '''[[Acetic acid]]''': (E260) found in [[vinegar]]
* '''[[Adipic acid]]''': (E355)
* '''[[Alginic acid]]''': (E400)
* '''[[Ascorbic acid]]''' (vitamin C): (E300) found in fruits
* '''[[Benzoic acid]]''': (E210)
* '''[[Boric acid]]''': (E284)
* '''[[Citric acid]]''': (E330) found in [[citrus fruits]]
* '''[[Carbonic acid]]''': (E290) found in [[carbonation|carbonated]] [[soft drink]]s
* '''[[Carminic acid]]''': (E120)
* '''[[Cyclamic acid]]''': (E952)
* '''[[Erythorbic acid]]''': (E315)
* '''[[Erythorbin acid]]''': (E317)
* '''[[Formic acid]]''': (E236)found in bee and ant stings
* '''[[Fumaric acid]]''': (E297)
* '''[[Gluconic acid]]''': (E574)
* '''[[Glutamic acid]]''': (E620)
* '''[[Guanylic acid]]''': (E626)
* '''[[Hydrochloric acid]]''': (E507)
* '''[[Inosinic acid]]''': (E630)
* '''[[Lactic acid]]''': (E270) found in [[dairy products]] such as [[yoghurt]] and sour [[milk]], also is product of [[cellular fermentation]], the reason muscles burn
* '''[[Malic acid]]''': (E296)
* '''[[Metatartaric acid]]''': (E353)
* '''[[Methanethiol]]''': found in cheese and some other fermented foods.
* '''[[Niacin]]''' (nicotinic acid): (E375)
* '''[[Oxalic acid]]''': found in [[spinach]] and [[rhubarb]]
* '''[[Pectic acid]]''': found in fruits and some vegetables
* '''[[Phosphoric acid]]''': (E338)
* '''[[Propionic acid]]''': (E280)
* '''[[Sorbic acid]]''': (E200) found in foods and drinks
* '''[[Stearic acid]]''': (E570), a type of [[fatty acid]].
* '''[[Succinic acid]]''': (E363)
* '''[[Sulfuric acid]]''': (E513)
* '''[[Tannic acid]]''': found in [[tea]]
* '''[[Tartaric acid]]''': (E334) found in [[grapes]]
== Sources ==
* [http://www.csudh.edu/oliver/chemdata/data-ka.htm Listing of strengths of common acids and bases]
* Zumdahl, Chemistry, 4th Edition.
== See also==
* [[acid number]]
[[Category:Chemical substances]]
[[Category:Acids|*]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[bg:Киселина]]
[[ca:Àcid]]
[[cs:Kyselina]]
[[da:Syre]]
[[de:Säuren]]
[[et:Hape]]
[[es:Ácido]]
[[eo:Acido]]
[[fr:Acide]]
[[gl:Ácido]]
[[ko:산 (화학)]]
[[hr:Kiseline]]
[[io:Acido]]
[[id:Asam]]
[[it:Acido]]
[[he:חומצה]]
[[lv:Skābe]]
[[lt:Rūgštis]]
[[hu:Sav]]
[[mk:Киселина]]
[[nl:Zuur (chemie)]]
[[nds:Süür]]
[[ja:酸と塩基]]
[[pl:Kwas]]
[[pt:Ácido]]
[[ro:Acid]]
[[ru:Кислоты]]
[[simple:Acid]]
[[sk:Kyselina]]
[[sl:Kislina]]
[[sr:Киселина]]
[[sv:Syra]]
[[tl:Asido]]
[[ta:அமிலம்]]
[[th:กรด]]
[[vi:Axít]]
[[uk:Кислота]]
[[zh:酸]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asphalt</title>
<id>657</id>
<revision>
<id>42066690</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:08:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DonSiano</username>
<id>215548</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add ref</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''The term '''asphalt''' is often used as an abbreviation for [[asphalt concrete]].''
'''Asphalt''' is a sticky, black and highly [[viscosity|viscous]] liquid or semi-solid that is present in most crude [[petroleum]]s and in some natural deposits. Asphalt is composed almost entirely of [[bitumen]]. There is some disagreement amongst [[chemist]]s regarding the structure of asphalt, however it is most commonly modeled as a [[colloid]], with ''asphaltenes'' as the dispersed phase and ''maltenes'' as the continuous phase.
Asphalt is sometimes confused with [[tar]], which is an artificial material produced by the [[destructive distillation]] of [[organic matter]]. Tar is also predominantly composed of bitumen, however the bitumen content of tar is typically lower than that of asphalt. Tar and asphalt have very different engineering properties.
Asphalt can be separated from the other components in crude oil (such as [[naphtha]], [[gasoline]] and [[diesel]]) by the process of [[fractional distillation]], usually under [[vacuum]] conditions. A better separation can be achieved by further processing of the heavier fractions of the crude oil in a [[de-asphalting unit]] which uses either [[propane]] or [[butane]] in a [[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]] phase to dissolve the lighter molecules which are then separated. Further processing is possible by "blowing" the product: namely reacting it with [[oxygen]]. This makes the product harder and more viscous.
Natural deposits of asphalt include Lake Asphalts (primarily from the [[Pitch Lake]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and [[Bermudez Lake]] in [[Venezuela]]), [[Gilsonite]], the [[Dead Sea]] in [[Israel]], and [[Tar Sands]].
Asphalt is rather hard to transport in bulk (it hardens unless kept very hot) so it is sometimes mixed with [[diesel oil]] or [[kerosene]] before shipping. Upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called '''bitumen feedstock''', or BFS.
The largest use of asphalt is for making [[asphalt concrete]] for [[Pavement (material)|pavement]]s, which accounts for approximately 80% of the asphalt consumed in the [[United States]]. [[Roof]]ing [[shingle]]s account for most of the remaining asphalt consumption. Other uses include [[cattle spray]]s, fence post treatments, and waterproofing for fabrics.
In the ancient [[middle-east]] natural asphalt deposits were used for [[mortar (masonry)| mortar]] between bricks and stones, ship [[caulking | caulk]], and waterproofing. The [[Persian language | Persian]] word for asphalt is ''mumiya'', which may be the source for the English word [[mummy]].
==References==
Barth, Edwin J., ''Asphalt: Science and Technology'' Gordon and Breach (1962). ISBN 0677000405.
==External links==
*[http://www.biffvernon.freeserve.co.uk/black_stuff.htm Black Stuff]
*[http://www.hawaiiasphalt.com/HAPI Hawaii Asphalt Pavement Guide]
[[Category:Petroleum products]]
[[Category:Construction]]
[[Category:Pavements]]
[[de:Asphalt]]
[[es:Asfalto]]
[[fr:Asphalte]]
[[id:Aspal]]
[[he:אספלט]]
[[nl:Asfalt]]
[[ja:アスファルト]]
[[pl:Asfalt]]
[[pt:Asfalto]]
[[ru:Асфальт]]
[[sv:Asfalt]]
[[fi:Asvaltti]]
[[vi:Nhựa đường]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acronym</title>
<id>658</id>
<revision>
<id>15899185</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-29T01:43:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nohat</username>
<id>13661</id>
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<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Acronym and initialism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American National Standards Institute</title>
<id>659</id>
<revision>
<id>41941782</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:57:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
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<comment>title => bold text + clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''American National Standards Institute''' (ANSI) is a nonprofit organization that oversees the development of standards for products, services, processes and systems in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide. For example, standards make sure that people who own cameras can find the film they need for them anywhere around the globe.
The American National Standards Institute approves standards that are developed by representatives of standards developing organizations, government agencies, consumer groups, companies, and others. These standards make sure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that people use the same definitions and terms, and that products are tested the same way.
ANSI accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards. The ANSI accreditation programs conform to international guidelines as verified by government and peer review assessments.
In 1918, five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the American Engineering Standards Committee (AESC). The AESC became the American Standards Association (ASA) in 1928. In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI). The present name was adopted in 1969. The organization's headquarters are in Washington, D.C. For more information see its Web site at http://www.ansi.org.
The '''ASA''' photographic exposure system became the basis for the ISO [[film speed]] system, currently used worldwide.
In [[Microsoft Windows]], the phrase "ANSI" refers to the [[Windows ANSI code page]]s. Most of these are fixed width though there are some variable width ones for [[ideographic language]]s. Some of these are |
" style="font-size:24px" | &#2610; || Lulla || ''La''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2613; || Vava || ''Va''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2652; || Rahrha || ''Rra''
|}
In addition to these, there are six consonants created by placing a dot (bindi) at the foot (pair) of the consonant:
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" align="center"
! colspan="2" | Name !! Pron.
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2614; || Shusha paireen bindi || ''Sha''
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2649; || Khukha paireen bindi || ''Khha''
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2650; || Gugga paireen bindi || ''Ghha''
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2651; || Zuzza paireen bindi || ''Za''
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2654; || Fuffa paireen bindi || ''Fa''
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2611; || Lulla paireen bindi || ''Lla''
|}
Lulla paireen bindi was only recently added to the Gurmukhi alphabet. Some sources may not consider it a separate letter.
== Vowels ==
Gurmukhi follows similar concepts to other [[Brahmi]] scripts and as such, all consonants are followed by an inherent&#8216;a&#8217;sound (unless at the end of a word when the &#8216;a&#8217; is usually dropped). This inherent vowel sound can be changed by using dependent vowel signs which attach to a bearing consonant. In some cases, dependent vowel signs cannot be used &#8211; at the beginning of a word or syllable for instance &#8211; and so an independent vowel character is used instead.
Independent vowels are constructed using three bearer characters: Ura (&#2675;), Aira (&#2565;) and Iri (&#2674;). With the exception of Aira (which represents the vowel 'a') they are never used without additional vowel signs.
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="8" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! colspan="3" | Vowel !! colspan="2" | Name !! rowspan="2" | IPA
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! colspan="1" | Ind.
! colspan="1" | Dep.
! colspan="1" | with /k/
! colspan="1" | Letter
! colspan="1" | Unicode
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2565;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:14px" align="center" | (none)
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2581;
| Mukta || A || {{IPA|[&#601;]}}
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2566;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2622;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2581;&#2622;
| Kanna || AA || {{IPA|[&#593;]}}
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2567;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2623;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2581;&#2623;
| Sihari || I || {{IPA|[&#618;]}}
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2568;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2624;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2581;&#2624;
| Bihari || II || {{IPA|[i]}}
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center"| &#2569;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center"| &#2625;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center"| &#2581;&#2625;
| Onkar || U || {{IPA|[&#650;]}}
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2570;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2626;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2581;&#2626;
| Dulankar || UU || {{IPA|[u]}}
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2575;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2631;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2581;&#2631;
| Lavan || EE || {{IPA|[e]}}
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2576;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2632;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2581;&#2632;
| Dulavan || AI || {{IPA|[æ<!-- Might be &#603;? -->]}}
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2579;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2635;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2581;&#2635;
| Hora || O || {{IPA|[o]}}
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2580;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2636;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" align="center" | &#2581;&#2636;
| Kanuara || AU || {{IPA|[&#596;]}}
|}
Dotted circles represent the bearer consonant. Vowels are always pronounced after the consonant they are attached to. Thus, Sihari is always written to the left, but pronounced after the character on the right.
===Vowel Examples===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
! colspan="1" | Word !! Transcription !! Meaning
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2566;&#2610;&#2626; || &#257;l&#363; || potato
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2598;&#2623;&#2610; || dil || heart
|}
== Halant ==
The Halant (&#2637;) character is not used when writing Punjabi in Gurmukhi. However, it may occasionally be used in Sanskritised text or in dictionaries for extra phonetic information. When it is used, it represents the suppression of the inherent vowel.
The affect of this is shown below:
:&#2581; – Ka
:&#2581;&#2637; – K
== Numerals ==
Gurmukhi has its own set of numerals that behave exactly as [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]] do. These are used extensively in older texts. In modern contexts, they are being replaced by standard Latin numerals although they are still in widespread use.
:0 - &#2662;
:1 - &#2663;
:2 - &#2664;
:3 - &#2665;
:4 - &#2666;
:5 - &#2667;
:6 - &#2668;
:7 - &#2669;
:8 - &#2670;
:9 - &#2671;
== Other Signs ==
Bindi (&#2562;) and Tippi (&#2672;) are used for [[nasalisation]] (similar to the ‘n’ sound in words ending in ‘ing’). In general, Onkar (&#2625;) and Dulankar (&#2626;) take Bindi in their initial forms and Tippi when used after a consonant. All other short vowels take Tippi and all other long vowels take Bindi. Older texts may not follow these conventions.
The use of Addak (&#2673;) indicates that the following consonant is [[geminate]]. This means that the subsequent consonant is doubled or reinforced.
== Visarg ==
The Visarg symbol (&#2563;) is used very occasionally in Gurmukhi. It can either represent an abbreviation (like period is used in English) or it can act like a [[Sanskrit]] [[Visarga]] where a voiceless ‘h’ sound is pronounced after the vowel.
== Ek Onkar ==
[[Ek Onkar]] (&#2676;) is a Gurmukhi symbol that is often used in [[Sikh]] literature. It literally means ‘one God’.
== Gurmukhi in Unicode ==
The [[Unicode]] range for Gurmukhi is U+0A00 to U+0A7F. Using Unicode for Gurmukhi has only recently started to become widespread. Many sites still use proprietary fonts that convert Latin ASCII codes to Gurmukhi [[glyph|glyphs]].
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="font-size: large; border-collapse:collapse;"
|- style="font-size: small; text-align:center;"
| &nbsp; || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || A || B || C || D || E || F
|- align="center" style="font-size: small;"
|A00
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp;
||&#2561;
||&#2562;
||&#2563;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp;
||&#2565;
||&#2566;
||&#2567;
||&#2568;
||&#2569;
||&#2570;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp;
||&#2575;
|- align="center" style="font-size: small;"
|A10
||&#2576;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp;
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp |
re-mission photographs showed boulders deposited along the bases of the mountains, which could provide bedrock samples. The area also contained a landslide, several impact craters, and some dark craters which could be volcanic.
A J-class mission, featuring the [[Lunar Rover]], they conducted three lunar surface excursions, lasting 7.2, 7.6 and 7.3 hours. The mission returned 243.6 lb (110.5 kg) of samples from the Moon.
The Command module is currently on display at NASA's [[Johnson Space Center]], in [[Houston, Texas]]. The lunar module impacted the Moon on [[15 December]] [[1972]] at 06:50:20.8 UT (1:50 AM EST) at 19.96 N, 30.50 E.
On this mission the astronauts took a famous photograph of the earth known as "[[The Blue Marble]]".
===Mission notes===
*Schmitt, a [[geologist]], was the first (and to date, only) scientist to walk on the Moon.
*Like the astronauts of Apollos [[Apollo 10|10]], [[Apollo 12|12]], [[Apollo 13|13]], and [[Apollo 14|14]] before it, the Apollo 17 crew were recovered in [[Pacific]] waters near [[American Samoa]] after [[splashdown]], and were flown from the recovery ship to the airport at [[Tafuna, American Samoa|Tafuna]] where they were greeted with an enthusiastic (and well practiced!) Samoan reception before being flown on to [[Honolulu]], thence to [[Houston]].
* The [[lunar plaques|plaque]] left on the ladder of the descent stage of [[Challenger]] read: ''Here Man completed his first explorations of the moon. December 1972 AD. May the spirit of peace in which we came be reflected in the lives of all mankind''. The plaque showed two hemispheres of Earth and the near side of the Moon, plus the signatures of Cernan, Evans, Schmitt, and [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]].
* Commander [[Eugene Cernan]] left a Czechoslovak flag on the Moon because his ancestors came from [[Czechoslovakia]].
*Schmitt was originally due to fly on the cancelled Apollo 18 but following pressure from the science community was moved up to LM pilot on Apollo 17 in place of [[Joe Engle]].
*Apollo 17 broke several records set by previous flights, including longest manned lunar landing flight; longest total lunar surface extravehicular activities; largest lunar sample return, and longest time in lunar orbit.
[[Image:40_A17shorty.jpg|thumb|right|550px|Panoramic Assembly of Schmitt at Shorty Crater (moonpans.com)]]
==Quotes==
"As I take man's last step from the surface, back home for some time to come - but we believe not too long into the future &mdash; I'd like to just [say] what I believe history will record. That America's challenge of today has forged man's destiny of tomorrow. And, as we leave the Moon at Taurus-Littrow, we leave as we came and, God willing, as we shall return, with peace and hope for all mankind. Godspeed the crew of Apollo 17."
:&mdash; Eugene A. Cernan, Apollo 17 Commander. Last man to walk on the moon, [[14 December]] [[1972]].
"Okay, Jack. Let's get this mother outta here."
:&mdash; Eugene A. Cernan, Apollo 17 Commander. Apocryphal last 'informal' words said on the lunar surface, one second before lunar liftoff.
==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Ap17 schmitt falls.ogg|title=Schmitt falls|description=Astronaut [[Harrison Schmitt]] falls while on a moonwalk|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Ap17 strolling.ogg|title=Schmitt sings|description=[[Harrison Schmitt]] sings ''I was strolling on the Moon one day''|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Ap17-ascent.ogg|title=Apollo 17's Lunar Module blasts off and leaves the moon|description=|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video end}}
==References==
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo17info.html Apollo 17 Info by NASA]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4209/appb.htm Development of Manned Space Flight, American and Soviet NASA SP-4209]
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.45.htm Apollo 17 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK]
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a17/a17.html Apollo 17 entry at Apollo Lunar Surface Journal] - Provides an extensive insight of the mission, along with full transcripts and detailed interviews with the crewmembers.
==External links==
{{commons|Apollo 17}}
* [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo17.htm Apollo 17 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
* [http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0407/online_extra.html?c=Newsletters&n=2Q04_Insider2&t=internal September 1973 National Geographic Magazine article]
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/nassp/ Apollo simulation for Orbiter spaceflight sim]
* [http://moon.google.com Apollo landing Locations at Google Moon]
{{Project Apollo| before=[[Apollo 16]]| after=[[Skylab 1]] <br> [[Skylab 2]]}}
[[Category:Lunar spacecraft]]
[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:1972]]
[[cs:Apollo 17]]
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[[et:Apollo 17]]
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[[fr:Apollo 17]]
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[[hu:Apollo-17]]
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[[nn:Apollo 17]]
[[ja:アポロ17号]]
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[[zh:阿波罗17号]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Air transport</title>
<id>1972</id>
<revision>
<id>15900430</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-09T05:30:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DavidLevinson</username>
<id>1689</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Aviation]] (merge)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aviation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Revolution</title>
<id>1973</id>
<revision>
<id>42150566</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:47:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.23.198.165|69.23.198.165]] ([[User talk:69.23.198.165|talk]]) to last version by 129.12.200.49</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''American Revolution''' ended two centuries of British rule for most of the North American colonies and created the modern United States of America. The Revolutionary era was both exhilarating and disturbing---a time of progress for some, dislocation for others. In the wake of the Revolution came events as varied as the drafting and ratification of the Constitution of the United States of America and the rebellions of slaves who saw the contrast between slavery and proclamations of liberty. The American Revolution is the series of events, ideas, and changes that resulted in the [[revolution]] and ensuing political separation of [[thirteen colonies]] in [[North America]] from the [[British Empire]] and the creation of the [[United States|United States of America]] with a new political system. The [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]] (1775&ndash;1783) was one part of the revolution, but the revolution by the Americans began before the [[Shot heard 'round the world|first shot]] was fired at [[Battle of Lexington and Concord|Lexington and Concord]] and continued after the British surrender at [[Battle of Yorktown (1781)|Yorktown]]. Years later, in 1818, [[John Adams]] wrote: "The Revolution was effected before the War commenced," and "The [[Revolution]] was in the minds and hearts of the people."
The precise nature and extent of the revolution is a matter of great interpretation. It is generally agreed that the revolution originated around the time of the [[French and Indian War]] (1754&ndash;1763), and ended with the election of [[George Washington]] as the first [[President of the United States]] in 1789. Beyond that, interpretations vary. At one end of the spectrum is the view that the American Revolution was not "revolutionary" at all, that it did not radically transform colonial society, but 'simply replaced a distant government with a local one'. The opposite view is that the American Revolution was a unique and radical event, producing significant changes that had a profound impact on world history. Most current interpretations fall somewhere in between these two positions.
[[Image:map of territorial growth 1775.jpg|thumb|300px|Before the Revolution: The [[13 colonies]] are in red, the pink area was claimed by Great Britain after the [[French and Indian War]], and the orange region was claimed by [[Spain]]. Note that this map does not show the bulk of [[British North America]] of that time.]]
==Origins==
In the early 1760's, [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] possessed a [[British North America|vast empire]] on the North American continent. In addition to the thirteen British colonies, victory in the [[Seven Years' War]] had given Great Britain claim over [[New France]] ([[Canada]]), [[History of Florida|Spanish Florida]], and the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] lands east of the [[Mississippi River]]. A war against France's former Indian allies&mdash;[[Pontiac's Rebellion]]&mdash;had, if not conquered, at least 'pacified' the western frontier. At this time, most white colonists in America considered themselves loyal subjects of the British Crown, with the same rights and obligations as Englishmen in Britain.
===Philosophy and radical thought===
[[The Enlightenment]] elevated [[natural philosophy]], and began to replace arguments born of tradition and authority with those based upon observation and independent re |
*[{{IPA|ˈjɔlpta}}] from ''hjálpa'' [{{IPA|ˈjɔlpa}}]. Other examples for past forms are: ''sigldi'' [{{IPA|ˈsɪldɪ}}] (sailed), ''yrkti'' [{{IPA|ˈɪɹ̥tɪ}}] (wrote poetry).
*[[homophone]] are ''fylgdi'' (followed) and ''fygldi'' (catched birds with net): [{{IPA|ˈfɪldɪ}}].
*'''skt''' will be:
*#[{{IPA|st}}] in words of more than one syllable: ''føroyskt'' [{{IPA|ˈføːɹɪst}}] (Faroese ''n. sg.'') ''russiskt'' [{{IPA|ˈɹʊsːɪst}}] (Russian ''n. sg.''), ''íslendskt'' [{{IPA|ˈʊʃlɛŋ̊st}}] (Icelandic ''n. sg.'').
*#[{{IPA|kst}}] in monosyllables: ''enskt'' [{{IPA|ɛŋ̊kst}}] (English ''n. sg.''), ''danskt'' [{{IPA|daŋ̊kst}}] (Danish ''n. sg.''), ''franskt'' [{{IPA|fɹaŋ̊kst}}] (French ''n. sg.''), ''spanskt'' [{{IPA|spaŋ̊kst}}] (Spanish ''n. sg.''), ''svenskt'' [{{IPA|svɛŋ̊kst}}] (Swedish ''n. sg.''), ''týskt'' [{{IPA|tʊkst}}] (German ''n. sg.'').
*#*However [{{IPA|ʂt}}] in: ''írskt'' [{{IPA|ʊʂt}}] (Irish ''n. sg.''), ''norskt'' [{{IPA|nɔʂt}}] (Norwegian ''n. sg.)
==Grammar==
Not surprisingly, Faroese grammar is quite similar to the Icelandic and Old Norse. Below in the literature section, you'll find a comprehensive grammar to download (chapter 3 of the standardwork ''Faroese'' by Thráinsson et al. 2004).
===Nominal inflection===
Below is a representation of three [[grammatical gender]]s, two numbers and four cases in the nominal [[inflection]]. This is just an overview to give a general idea of how the grammar works. Faroese actually has even more [[declension]]s.
Read:
*''hvør, hvat?'' [[interrogative pronoun]] "who, what?"
*''ein'' [[indefinite article]] "a"
*''stórur'' [[adjective]] "big"
*''bátur'' [[noun]] "boat"
*ein stórur bátur - a big boat (''m.'')
*ein vøkur genta - a beautiful girl (''f.'')
*eitt gott barn - a good child (''n.'')
In the plural you will see that even the [[numeral]] ''tvey'' (2) is inflected.
{| id=toc style="margin-left: 15px;" width=750 cellpadding=2
|- style="background:#ccccff"
| colspan=7 align=center bgcolor="#ccccff"| Indefinite phrases
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor="#dedeee"| ?
|bgcolor="#dedeee"| Masculine
|bgcolor="#eedede"| ?
|bgcolor="#eedede"| Feminine
|bgcolor="#deeede"| ?
|bgcolor="#deeede"| Neuter
|-
|Nominative
|bgcolor="#efefff"| hvør?
|bgcolor="#efefff"| ein stór'''ur''' bát'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| hvør?
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| ein vøkur gent'''a'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| hvat?
|bgcolor="#efffef"| eitt gott barn
|-
|Accusative
|bgcolor="#efefff"| hvønn?
|bgcolor="#efefff"| ein stór'''an''' bát
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| hvørja?
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| eina vakr'''a''' gent'''u'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| hvat?
|bgcolor="#efffef"| eitt gott barn
|-
|Dative
|bgcolor="#efefff"| hvørjum?
|bgcolor="#efefff"| einum stór'''um''' bát'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| hvørj(ar)i?
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| einari vak'''ari''' gent'''u'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| hvørjum?
|bgcolor="#efffef"| einum góð'''um''' barn'''i'''
|-
|Genitive
|bgcolor="#efefff"| hvørs?
|bgcolor="#efefff"| eins stór'''s''' bát'''s'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| hvørjar?
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| einar vakr'''ar''' gent'''u'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| hvørs?
|bgcolor="#efffef"| eins góð'''s''' barn'''s'''
|-
| colspan="7" bgcolor="#dddddd"|
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor="#dedeee"| ?
|bgcolor="#dedeee"| Masculine
|bgcolor="#eedede"| ?
|bgcolor="#eedede"| Feminine
|bgcolor="#deeede"| ?
|bgcolor="#deeede"| Neuter
|-
|Nominative
|bgcolor="#efefff"| hvørjir?
|bgcolor="#efefff"| tveir stór'''ir''' bát'''ar'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| hvørjar?
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| tvær vakr'''ar''' gent'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| hvørji?
|bgcolor="#efffef"| tvey góð børn
|-
|Accusative
|bgcolor="#efefff"| hvørjar?
|bgcolor="#efefff"| tveir stór'''ar''' bát'''ar'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| hvørjar?
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| tvær vakr'''ar''' gent'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| hvørji?
|bgcolor="#efffef"| tvey góð børn
|-
|Dative
|bgcolor="#efefff"| hvørjum?
|bgcolor="#efefff"| tveimum stór'''um''' bát'''um'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| hvørjum?
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| tveimum vøkr'''um''' gent'''um'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| hvørjum?
|bgcolor="#efffef"| tveimum góð'''um''' børn'''um'''
|-
|Genitive
|bgcolor="#efefff"| hvørja?
|bgcolor="#efefff"| tveggja stór'''a''' bát'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| hvørja?
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| tveggja vakr'''a''' gent'''a'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| hvørja?
|bgcolor="#efffef"| tveggja góð'''a''' barn'''a'''
|}
If the noun is definite, the verb inflects ''weak'', and the noun gets a suffix article as in any Scandinavian language (except for Old Norse).
The interrogative pronoun is the same as above. In the plural, the plural form of the definite article is used.
Read:
*tann stóru báturin - the big boat-the
*tann vakra gentan - the beautiful girl-the
*tað góða barn - the good child-the
{| id=toc style="margin-left: 15px;" width=600 cellpadding=2
|- style="background:#ccccff"
| colspan=4 align=center bgcolor="#ccccff" | Definite phrases
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor="#dedeee"| Masculine
|bgcolor="#eedede"| Feminine
|bgcolor="#deeede"| Neuter
|-
|Nominative
|bgcolor="#efefff"| tann stór'''i''' bátur'''in'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| tann vakr'''a''' gent'''an'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| tað góð'''a''' barn'''ið'''
|-
|Accusative
|bgcolor="#efefff"| tann stór'''a''' bát'''in'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| ta vøkr'''u''' gentu'''na'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| tað góð'''a''' barn'''ið'''
|-
|Dative
|bgcolor="#efefff"| tí stór'''a''' báti'''num'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| tí vøkr'''u''' gentu'''ni'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| tí góð'''a''' barni'''num'''
|-
|Genitive
|bgcolor="#efefff"| tess stór'''a''' báts'''ins'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| teirrar vøkr'''u''' gentu'''nnar'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| tess góð'''a''' barns'''ins'''
|-
|colspan="4" bgcolor="#dddddd"|
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor="#dedeee"| Masculine
|bgcolor="#eedede"| Feminine
|bgcolor="#deeede"| Neuter
|-
|Nominative
|bgcolor="#efefff"| teir stór'''u''' bátar'''nir'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| tær vøkr'''u''' gentur'''nar'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| tey góð'''u''' børn'''ini'''
|-
|Accusative
|bgcolor="#efefff"| teir stór'''u''' bátar'''nar'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| tær vøkr'''u''' gentur'''nar'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| tey góð'''u''' børn'''ini'''
|-
|Dative
|bgcolor="#efefff"| teimum stór'''u''' bátu'''num'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| teimum vøkr'''u''' gentu'''num'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| teimum góð'''u''' børnu'''num'''
|-
|Genitive
|bgcolor="#efefff"| teirra stór'''u''' báta'''nna'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| teirra vøkr'''u''' gentu'''nna'''
|bgcolor="#efffef"| teirra góð'''u''' barna'''nna'''
|}
====Personal Pronouns====
The [[personal pronoun]]s of Faroese are:
{| align=right id=toc style="margin-left: 15px;" width=410 cellpadding=2
|- style="background:#ccccff"
|colspan="6" align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff"|Personal pronouns
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| 1.
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| 2.
|bgcolor="#dedeee"| 3. ''m''
|bgcolor="#eedede"| 3. ''f''
|bgcolor="#deeede"| 3. ''n''
|-
| Nominative
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| '''eg'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| '''tú'''
|bgcolor="#efefff" rowspan="2"| '''hann'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| '''hon'''
|bgcolor="#efffef" rowspan="2"| '''tað'''
|-
| Accusative
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| meg
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| teg
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| hana
|-
| Dative
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| mær
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| tær
|bgcolor="#efefff"| honum
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| henni
|bgcolor="#efffef"| tí
|-
| Genitive
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| mín
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| tín
|bgcolor="#efefff"| hansara
|bgcolor="#ffefef"| hennara
|bgcolor="#efffef"| tess
|-
|width=33% colspan="6" bgcolor="#dddddd"|
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| 1.
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| 2.
|bgcolor="#dedeee"| 3. ''m''
|bgcolor="#eedede"| 3. ''f''
|bgcolor="#deeede"| 3. ''n''
|-
| Nominative
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| '''vit'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| '''tit'''
|bgcolor="#efefff" rowspan="2"| '''teir'''
|bgcolor="#ffefef" rowspan="2"| '''tær'''
|bgcolor="#efffef" rowspan="2"| '''tey'''
|-
| Accusative
|bgcolor="#ffffff" rowspan="2"| okkum
|bgcolor="#ffffff" rowspan="2"| tykkum
|-
| Dative
|bgcolor="#efefff" colspan= "3" align="center" | teimum
|-
| Genitive
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| okkara
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| tykkara
|bgcolor="#efefff" colspan= "3" align="center"| teirra
|}
'''Singular'''
*1st person: ''eg'' [{{IPA|eː}}] - I, ''meg'' [{{IPA|meː}}] - me (''acc.''), ''mær'' [{{IPA|mɛaɹ}}] - me (''dat.''), ''mín'' [{{I |
ens lost some ground to smaller gatherings (of only a thousand or so!) which were under oath, free of men in their impetuous 20's and with more time to focus on just one matter (though never more than a day). One downside was that the new democracy was less capable of rapid response.
Another tack of criticism is to notice the disquieting links between democracy and a number of less than appealing features of Athenian life. Although it predated it by over thirty years, democracy is strongly bound up with Athenian imperialism. For much of the 5th century at least democracy fed off an empire of subject states. [[Thucydides son of Milesias|Thucydides]] the son of Milesias (not the historian), an aristocrat, stood in opposition to these policies, for which he was ostracised in 443 BC. At times the imperialist democracy acted with extreme brutality, as in the decision to execute the entire male population of [[Melos]] and sell off its woman and children simply for refusing to became subjects of Athens. The common people were numerically dominant in the navy, which they used to pursue their own interests in the form of work as rowers and in the hundreds of overseas administrative positions. Further they used the income from empire to fund payment for officeholding. This is the position set out by the anti-democratic pamphlet known whose anonymous author is often called the [[Old Oligarch]]. On the other hand the empire was, more or less, defunct in the 4th century BC so it cannot be said that it was democracy was not viable without it. Only then in fact was payment for assembly attendance, the central event of democracy. (Similarly for the period before the Persian wars, but for the very early democracy the sources are very meagre and it can be thought of as being in an embryonic state.)
A case can be made that discriminatory lines came to be drawn more sharply under Athenian democracy than before or elsewhere, in particular in relation to woman and slaves, as well as in the line between citizens and non-citizens. By so strongly validating one role, that of the male citizen, it has been argued that democracy compromised the status of those who did not share it.
*Male citizenship had become a newly valuable, indeed profitable, possession, to be jealously guarded. Under [[Pericles]] in 450 BC restrictions were tightened so that a citizen had to be born from citizen parentage on both sides. ''Metroxenoi'', those with foreign mothers, were now to be excluded. Traditionally for the poorer citizens local marriage was the norm, while the elite had been much more likely to marry abroad as a part of aristocratic alliance building. A habit of one group in society was thus codified as a law for the whole citizen body, which thus lost one axis of openness. Many Athenians prominent earlier in the century would have lost citizenship, had this law applied to them: [[Cleisthenes]], the founder of democracy, had a non-Athenian mother, and the mothers of [[Cimon]] and [[Themistocles]] were not Greek at all, but [[Thrace|Thracian]]. As Athens attracted an increasing number of resident aliens (''[[metic]]s''), this shift in the definition of citizen worked to keep the immigrant population more sharply distinguished politically.
*Likewise the status of women seems lower in Athens than in many Greek cities. At Sparta women competed in public exercise — so in [[Aristophanes]]' ''Lysistrata'' the Athenian women admire the tanned, muscular bodies of their Sparten counterparts — and women could own property in their own right, as they could not at Athens. [[Misogyny]] was by no means an Athenian invention, but it has been claimed that in regard to gender democracy generalised a harsher set of values derived, again, from the common people. Democracy may well have been impossible without the contribution of women's labour (Hansen 1987: 318).
*[[Slavery in antiquity|Slave]] use was more widespread at Athens than in other Greek cities. Indeed the extensive use of imported non-Greeks ("[[barbarian]]s") as [[chattel slavery|chattel slaves]] seems to have been an Athenian development. This triggers the parodoxical question: Was democracy "based on" slavery? It does seem clear that possession of slaves allowed even poorer Athenians — owning a few slaves was by no means equated with wealth — to devote more of their time to political life. But whether democracy depended on this extra time is impossible to say. The breadth of slave ownership also meant that the leisure of the rich (the small minority who were actually free of the need to work) rested less than it would have on the exploitation of their less well-off fellow citizens. Working for wages was clearly regarded as subjection to the will of another, but at least debt servitude had been abolished at Athens (under the reforms of Solon at the start of the 6th century BC). By allowing a new kind of equality among citizens this opened the way to democracy, which in turn called for a new means, chattel slavery, to at least partially equalise the availability of leisure between rich and poor. In the absence of reliable statistics all these connections remain speculative. However, as [[Cornelius Castoriadis]] pointed out, other societies also kept slaves, yet did not develop democracy. Even with respect to slavery the new citizen law of 450 BC may have had effect: it is speculated that originally Athenian fathers had been able to register for citizenship offspring had with slave women (Hansen 1987:53). This will have rested on an older, less categorical sense of what it meant to be a slave.
Contemporary opponents of [[majoritarianism]] (arguably the principle behind Athenian democracy) call it an illiberal regime (in contrast to [[liberal democracy]]) that allegedly leads to [[anomie]], [[balkanization]] and [[xenophobia]]. Proponents (especially of majoritarianism) deny these accusations, and argue that any faults in Athenian democracy were due to the fact that the franchise was quite limited (only male citizens could vote - women, slaves and non-citizens were excluded). Despite this limited franchise, Athenian democracy was certainly the first - and perhaps the best - example of a working [[direct democracy]].
==See also==
*[[History of Athens]]
*[[History of democracy]]
*[[List of politics-related topics]]
*[[Areopagus]]
*[[Athenian empire]]
*[[Atimia (loss of citizen rights)]]
*[[Attic calendar]]
*[[Boule]]
*[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)]]
*[[Graphe paranomon]]
*[[Hellenic civilization]]
*[[Metic]]
*[[Ostracism]]
*[[Persian Wars]]
*[[Strategos]]
==References==
*Hansen M.H. 1987, The Athenian Democracy in the age of Demosthenes. Oxford.
*Manville B. and J. Ober 2003, A company of citizens : what the world's first democracy teaches leaders about creating great organizations. Boston.
*Meier C. 1998, Athens: a portrait of the city in its Golden Age (translated by R. and R. Kimber). New York.
*Ober J 1989, Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens: Rhetoric, Ideology and the Power of the People. Princeton.
*Ober J and C. Hendrick (edds) 1996, Demokratia : a conversation on democracies, ancient and modern. Princeton.
*Rhodes P.J.(ed) 2004, Athenian democracy. Edinburgh.
==External links==
*[http://www.constitution.org/ari/athen_00.htm The Athenian Constitution, Aristotle]
*[http://www.stoa.org/projects/demos/home?greekEncoding=UnicodeC D&#275;mos: Classical Athenian Democracy], A digital
encyclopedia: the history, institutions, and people of democratic Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, Christopher Blackwell, ed.
[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:Political systems]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek law]]
[[da:Det athenske demokrati]]
[[de:attische Demokratie]]
[[fr:Démocratie athénienne]]
[[pl:Demokracja ateńska]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arabic numerals</title>
<id>1786</id>
<revision>
<id>42046572</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:44:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deeptrivia</username>
<id>274615</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/137.163.18.136|137.163.18.136]] to last version by Noe</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Arabic numerals}}
{{numeral systems}}
[[Image:Numerals.png|thumb|240px|right|Numerals [[sans serif]]]]
'''Arabic numerals''', also known as '''[[Hindu-Arabic numerals]]''', '''[[Indian numerals]]''', '''[[Hindu numerals]]''', '''[[European numerals]]''', and '''Western numerals''', are the most common [[Symbol|symbolic]] representation of [[number]]s around the world. They are considered an important milestone in the development of [[mathematics]].
One may distinguish between the [[decimal]] system involved, also known as the [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]], and the precise [[glyph]]s used. The glyphs most commonly in conjunction with the [[Latin alphabet]] since [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern]] times are <big>[[0 (number)|0]] [[1 (number)|1]] [[2 (number)|2]] [[3 (number)|3]] [[4 (number)|4]] [[5 (number)|5]] [[6 (number)|6]] [[7 (number)|7]] [[8 (number)|8]] [[9 (number)|9]]</big>.
The system was developed in [[India]] by the [[Hindus]] around [[400 BCE]], found its way to [[Persia]], and was relayed to Europe by Arabs. Hence, they became known in the West as "Arabic numerals". The glyphs underwent some modifications en route from India to Europe.
==Description==
{{main articles|[[Algorism]] and [[glyphs used with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system]]}}
The numeral system employed, known as [[Algorism]], is [[positional notation|positional]] [[decimal]] notation.
Various symbol sets are used to represent numbers in the [[Hindu-Arabic numerals (system)|Hindu-Arabic numeral system]], all of which evolved from the [[Brahmi numerals]]. The symbols used to represent the system have split into various typographical variants since the [[Middle Ages]]:
*the widespread Western & |
-undiscovered theory of nature to which quantum mechanics acts as a kind of statistical approximation (albeit an exceedingly successful one). Unlike quantum mechanics, the more complete theory contains variables corresponding to all the "elements of reality". There must be some unknown mechanism acting on these variables to give rise to the observed effects of "non-commuting quantum observables", i.e. the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Such a theory is called a [[hidden variable theory]].
To illustrate this idea, we can formulate a very simple hidden variable theory for the above thought experiment. One supposes that the quantum spin-singlet states emitted by the source are actually approximate descriptions for "true" physical states possessing definite values for the ''z''-spin and ''x''-spin. In these "true" states, the electron going to Bob always has spin values opposite to the electron going to Alice, but the values are otherwise completely random. For example, the first pair emitted by the source might be "''(+z, -x)'' to Alice and ''(-z, +x)'' to Bob", the next pair "''(-z, -x)'' to Alice and ''(+z, +x)'' to Bob", and so forth. Therefore, if Bob's measurement axis is aligned with Alice's, he will necessarily get the opposite of whatever Alice gets; otherwise, he will get "''+''" and "''-''" with equal probability.
Assuming we restrict our measurements to the ''z'' and ''x'' axes, such a hidden variable theory is experimentally indistinguishable from quantum mechanics. In reality, of course, there is an (uncountably) infinite number of axes along which Alice and Bob can perform their measurements, so there has to be an infinite number of independent hidden variables! However, this is not a serious problem; we have formulated a very simplistic hidden variable theory, and a more sophisticated theory might be able to patch it up. It turns out that there is a much more serious challenge to the idea of hidden variables.
=== Bell's inequality ===
In [[1964]], [[John Stewart Bell|John Bell]] showed that the predictions of quantum mechanics in the EPR thought experiment are actually slightly different from the predictions of a very broad class of hidden variable theories. Roughly speaking, quantum mechanics predicts much stronger statistical [[correlation]]s between the measurement results performed on different axes than the hidden variable theories. These differences, expressed using [[inequality|inequality relations]] known as "Bell's inequalities", are in principle experimentally detectable. For a detailed derivation of this result, see the article on [[Bell's theorem]].
After the publication of Bell's paper, a variety of experiments were devised to test Bell's inequalities. (As mentioned above, these experiments generally rely on [[photon]] [[polarization]] measurements.) All the experiments conducted to date have found behavior in line with the predictions of standard quantum mechanics.
However, the book is not completely closed on this issue. First of all, Bell's theorem does not apply to all possible "realist" theories. It is possible to construct theories that escape its implications, and are therefore indistinguishable from quantum mechanics, though these theories are generally ''non-local'' &mdash; they are believed to violate both causality and the rules of special relativity. Some workers in the field have also attempted to formulate hidden variable theories that exploit [[Bell test loopholes|loopholes]] in actual experiments, such as the assumptions made in interpreting experimental data. However, no one has ever been able to formulate a local realist theory that can reproduce all the results of quantum mechanics.
=== Implications for quantum mechanics ===
Most physicists today believe that quantum mechanics is correct, and that the EPR paradox is only a "paradox" because classical intuitions do not correspond to physical reality. Several different conclusions can be drawn from this, depending on which [[interpretation of quantum mechanics]] one uses. In the old [[Copenhagen interpretation]], one concludes that the principle of locality does not hold, and that instantaneous [[wavefunction collapse]] really does occur. In the [[many-worlds interpretation]], locality is preserved, and the effects of the measurements arise from the splitting of the observers into different "[[multiple histories|histories]]".
The EPR paradox has deepened our understanding of quantum mechanics by exposing the fundamentally non-classical characteristics of the [[measurement (quantum mechanics)|measurement]] process. Prior to the publication of the EPR paper, a measurement was often visualized as a physical disturbance inflicted directly on the measured system. For instance, when measuring the position of an electron, one imagines shining a light on it, thus disturbing the electron and producing the quantum mechanical uncertainties in its position. Such explanations, which are still encountered in popular expositions of quantum mechanics, are debunked by the EPR paradox, which shows that a "measurement" can be performed on a particle without disturbing it directly, by performing a measurement on a distant entangled particle.
Technologies relying on quantum entanglement are now being developed. In [[quantum cryptography]], entangled particles are used to transmit signals that cannot be [[Eavesdropping|eavesdropped]] upon without leaving a trace. In [[quantum computation]], entangled quantum states are used to perform computations in [[parallel computing|parallel]], which may allow certain calculations to be performed much more quickly than they ever could be with classical computers.
== Mathematical formulation ==
The above discussion can be expressed mathematically using the [[spin (physics)|quantum mechanical formulation of spin]]. The spin degree of freedom for an electron is associated with a two-dimensional [[Hilbert space]] ''H'', with each quantum state corresponding to a vector in that space. The operators corresponding to the spin along the ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' direction, denoted ''S<sub>x</sub>'', ''S<sub>y</sub>'' and ''S<sub>z</sub>'' respectively, can be represented using the [[Pauli matrices]]:
<math> S_x = \frac{\hbar}{2}
\begin{bmatrix} 0&1\\1&0\end{bmatrix}, \quad
S_y = \frac{\hbar}{2}
\begin{bmatrix} 0&-i\\i&0\end{bmatrix}, \quad
S_z = \frac{\hbar}{2}
\begin{bmatrix} 1&0\\0&-1\end{bmatrix} </math>
where <math>\hbar</math> stands for [[Planck's constant]] divided by ''2&pi;''.
The [[eigenstate]]s of ''S<sub>z</sub>'' are represented as
:<math>
\left|+z\right\rang \leftrightarrow \begin{bmatrix}1\\0\end{bmatrix}, \quad
\left|-z\right\rang \leftrightarrow \begin{bmatrix}0\\1\end{bmatrix} </math>
and the eigenstates of ''S<sub>x</sub>'' are represented as
:<math>
\left|+x\right\rang \leftrightarrow \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \begin{bmatrix}1\\1\end{bmatrix}, \quad
\left|-x\right\rang \leftrightarrow \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \begin{bmatrix}1\\-1\end{bmatrix} </math>
The Hilbert space of the electron pair is <math> H \otimes H </math>, the [[tensor product]] of the two electrons' Hilbert spaces. The spin singlet state is
:<math>
\left|\psi\right\rang = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \bigg(\left|+z\right\rang \otimes \left|-z\right\rang -
\left|-z\right\rang \otimes \left|+z\right\rang \bigg) </math>
where the two terms on the right hand side are what we have referred to as state I and state II above. From the above equations, it can be shown that the spin singlet can also be written as
:<math>
\left|\psi\right\rang = \frac{-1}{\sqrt{2}} \bigg(\left|+x\right\rang \otimes \left|-x\right\rang -
\left|-x\right\rang \otimes \left|+x\right\rang \bigg) </math>
where the terms on the right hand side are what we have referred to as state Ia and state IIa.
To illustrate how this leads the violation of local realism, we need to show that after Alice's measurement of ''S<sub>z</sub>'' (or ''S<sub>x</sub>''), Bob's value of ''S<sub>z</sub>'' (or ''S<sub>x</sub>'') is uniquely determined, and therefore corresponds to an "element of physical reality". This follows from the principles of measurement in quantum mechanics. When ''S''<sub>z</sub> is measured, the system state &psi; collapses into an eigenvector of ''S''<sub>z</sub>. If the measurement result is ''+z'', this means that immediately after measurement the system state undergoes an orthogonal projection of &psi; onto the
space of states of the form
:<math> \left| +z \right\rangle \otimes \left| \phi\right\rangle \quad \phi \in H </math>
For the spin singlet, the new state is
:<math> \left| +z \right\rangle \otimes \left| -z \right\rangle. </math>
Similarly, if Alice's measurement result is ''-z'', a system undergoes an orthogonal projection onto
:<math> \left| -z \right\rangle \otimes \left| \phi\right\rangle \quad \phi \in H </math>
which means that the new state is
:<math> \left|-z\right\rangle \otimes \left|+z\right\rangle </math>
This implies that the measurement for ''S''<sub>z</sub> for Bob's electron is now determined. It will be ''-z'' in the first case or ''+z'' in the second case.
It remains only to show that ''S<sub>x</sub>'' and ''S<sub>z</sub>'' cannot simultaneously possess definite values in quantum mechanics. One may show in a straightforward manner that no possible vector can be an [[eigenvector]] of both matrices. More generally, one may use the fact that the operators do not [[commutation relation|commute]],
:<math>
\left[ S_x, S_z\right] = - i\hbar S_y \ |
: 1934/1935, issue 2, pp. 309-311, reprinted in: Stanisław Herbst, ''Potrzeba historii czyli o polskim stylu życia. Wybór pism.'' Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1978
* K. Górski, ''Pomorze w dobie wojny trzynastoletniej. [Pomerania during the Thirteen Years' War]'', Poznań 1932 - description and 3 maps of the battle of Świecino: p. 308
* Marian Biskup, ''Druga faza wojny trzynastoletniej (1462-1466). [Second phase of the Thirteen Years' War 1462-1466]'', in: Gerard Labuda (ed.), ''Historia Pomorza. [History of Pomerania]'', Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Poznań 1972, - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 738
* ''Świecino'', in: Róża Ostrowska, Izabela Trojanowska, ''Bedeker Kaszubski'', Wydawcnictwo Morskie, Gdańsk 1974
* ''Świecino'', in: Tadeusz Bolduan, ''Nowy bedeker kaszubski'', Gdańsk 1997
[[Category:1462]]
[[Category:Battles of the Thirteen Years' War|Świecino]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Świecinem]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barney Bubbles</title>
<id>4930</id>
<revision>
<id>32114278</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-20T16:24:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cactus.man</username>
<id>264914</id>
</contributor>
<comment>wikilinks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Colin Fulcher''' aka '''Barney Bubbles''' ([[1942]] - [[1983]]) was a British [[graphic designer]] and [[video director]]. Born in West [[London]] in 1942, he lived in the [[Portobello Road]], London in the [[1960s]], and was closely associated with [[Hawkwind]] as an artistic collaborator and album cover designer. He committed [[suicide]] in [[1983]].
Bubbles was also responsible for the graphic art associated with [[Nik Turner]]'s [[Inner City Unit]], [[Stiff Records]] and [[Ian Dury|Ian Dury and the Blockheads]].
==External links==
* http://www.ibiblio.org/mal/MO/philm/barney/
* http://www.ibiblio.org/mal/MO/philm/friends/barney.html
* http://www.nenne.com/typography/bb1.html
* http://www.nikturner.com/noise/black/bubbles.shtml
{{artist-stub}}
[[Category:1942 births|Bubbles, Barney]]
[[Category:1983 deaths|Bubbles, Barney]]
[[Category:British designers|Bubbles, Barney]]
[[Category:Music video directors|Bubbles, Barney]]
[[Category:Hawkwind|Bubbles, Barney]]
[[Category:Suicides|Bubbles, Barney]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Basal body temperature method</title>
<id>4932</id>
<revision>
<id>22152092</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-30T04:28:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Icarus3</username>
<id>282222</id>
</contributor>
<comment>eliminate double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fertility awareness]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blackridge, Pennsylvania</title>
<id>4933</id>
<revision>
<id>40361329</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blackridge''' is a community in eastern [[Allegheny County, Pennsylvania|Allegheny County]] and is a suburb of [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]. This community consists of about 650 private homes built in 1920-1949, Blackridge Estates was and remains one of the area's largest residential communities. Blackridge lies in the municipalties of Wilkinsburg, Penn Hills and Churchill; it maintains a Civic Association and a private park and swim club for residents.
==External links==
*http://www.blackridge-bca.org
[[Category:Unincorporated communities in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Allegheny County, Pennsylvania]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Basic English</title>
<id>4934</id>
<revision>
<id>42005773</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:19:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ashmoo</username>
<id>194089</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Historical references */ pls re-include with a cite?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{English dialects}}
'''Basic English''' is a [[Constructed language|constructed language]] with a small number of words created by [[Charles Kay Ogden]] and described in his book ''Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar'' (1930). The language is based on a simplified version of [[English Language|English]].
Ogden said that it would take seven years to learn English, seven months for [[Esperanto]], and seven weeks for Basic English, comparable with [[Ido]]. Thus Basic English is used by companies who need to make complex books for international use, and by language schools that need to give people some knowledge of English in a short time.
Ogden did not put words into Basic English that could be said with a few other words, and he worked to make the words work in any country. He put his set of words through a large number of tests and adjustments. He also made the grammar simpler, but tried to keep the grammar normal for English users.
The concept gained its greatest publicity just after the [[World War II|Second World War]] as a tool for world peace. Although it was not built into a program, similar simplifications were devised for various international uses.
== Rules of grammar ==
Ogden's rules of grammar for Basic English allow people to use the 850 words to talk about things and events in the normal English way.
#Words are pluralized by adding an "S" on the end of the word. If there are special ways to make a plural word in English, such as "ES" and "IES", they should be used instead.
#Words like "change," "turn," and "use" are used as nouns, but the 300 of them may be turned into different forms by adding the ending -"ER" or -"ING"; or into adjectives by adding -"ING" and -"ED." Only "act" is to be turned into "actor," not "acter."
#Some adjectives can be turned into adverbs with the ending -"LY".
#For comparatives and superlatives, either "MORE" and "MOST" or -"ER" and -"EST" may be used.
#Some adjectives can be inverted with "UN"-.
#Yes/No Questions are formed by adding "DO" at the beginning or changing the word order.
#Operators and pronouns conjugate as in normal English.
#Combined words can be formed from two operators (for example "become"), from two nouns (for example "newspaper" or "headline") or from a noun and a direction ("sundown").
#Measures, numbers, money, months, days, years, clock time, and international words are in English forms.
#The wordlist can be augmented by the [[jargon]] of an industry or science. For example, in a grammar, words such as "grammar" or "noun" might be used, even though they are not on Ogden's wordlist.
== Historical references ==
[[Winston Churchill]] and [[Franklin Roosevelt]] supported the idea of using Basic English as an international language, and Churchill recommended it in a speech at [[Harvard University]] in [[1943]]. Amused critics said that "blood, toil, tears and sweat" translates into Basic English as "blood, hard work, eyewash and body water".
According to the [[Times Educational Supplement]]'s [http://www.talkingto.co.uk/ttgo/html/ttgo_answ.asp?quesID=1923&CatID=187 Talking To series], [[George Orwell]] might have parodied Basic English in his book ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''. The references to [[Newspeak]] could be interpreted as a hidden critique against "[[International auxiliary language|universal languages]]". [[George Bernard Shaw]] is said to have subsidized Basic English, but this may be a misunderstanding: Shaw's real interest in language reform - and the bulk of his estate after his death - went to devising a new alphabet for non-Basic English.
== Word List ==
These are the 850 core words of Basic English.
=== Operations - 100 words ===
come, get, give, go, keep, let, make, put, seem, take,
be, do, have, say, see, send, may, will
<br />about, across, after, against, among, at, before, between, by,
down, from, in, off, on, over, through, to, under, up, with,
as, for, of, till, than,
<br />a, the, all, any, every, no, other, some, such, that, this,
I, he, you, who,
<br />and, because, but, or, if, though, while, how, when, where, why,
<br />again, ever, far, forward, here, near, now, out, still, then,
there, together, well
<br />almost, enough, even, little, much, not, only, quite, so, very,
tomorrow, yesterday
<br />north, south, east, west, please, yes.
=== Things - 400 general words ===
account, act, addition, adjustment, advertisement, agreement, air,
amount, amusement, animal, answer, apparatus, approval, argument, art,
attack, attempt, attention, attraction, authority,
back, balance, base, behaviour/behavior, belief, birth, bit, bite, blood, blow,
body, brass, bread, breath, brother, building, burn, burst, business,
butter, canvas, care, cause, chalk, chance, change, cloth, coal, colour/color, comfort,
committee, company, comparison, competition, condition, connection,
control, cook, copper, copy, cork, cotton, cough, country, cover,
crack, credit, crime, crush, cry, current, curve,
damage, danger, daughter, day, death, debt, decision, degree, design,
desire, destruction, detail, development, digestion, direction,
discovery, discussion, disease, disgust, distance,
distribution, division, doubt, drink, driving, dust,
earth, edge, education, effect, end, error, event, example, exchange,
existence, expansion, experience, expert,
fact, fall, family, father, fear, feeling, fiction, field, fight, fire,
flame, flight, flower, fold, food, force, form, friend, front, fruit,
glass, gold, government, grain, grass, grip, group, growth, |
s= | pages= | publisher=London: Academic Press | id=ISBN 0122270657 | url= | authorlink= }}
* {{cite book | first=Peter | last=Singer | year=1993 | title=[[Practical Ethics]] | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Cambridge University Press| id=ISBN 052143971X | url= | authorlink= }} (monograph)
===Anthologies===
* {{cite book | first=Peter | last=Singer | year=1986 | title=Applied Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Oxford University Press| id=ISBN 0198750676 | url= | authorlink= }}
* {{cite book | first=R.G. | last=Frey | year=2004 | title=A Companion to Applied Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Blackwell | id=ISBN 1405133457 | url= | authorlink= }}
===Journals===
* [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ET/home.html Ethics] (since 1890)
* [http://www.kluweronline.com/issn/1382-4554/contents The Journal of Ethics]
* [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0264-3758 Journal of Applied Philosophy]
* [http://www.pdcnet.org/ijap.html International Journal of Applied Philosophy]
* [http://www.aspcp.org/ijpp/html/contents.html International Journal of Philosophical Practice]
==External links==
* [http://www.scu.edu/ethics Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University]
* [http://www.ethics.ubc.ca W. Maurice Young Centre for Applied Ethics at the University of British Columbia]
* [http://www.indiana.edu/~appe Association for Practical and Professional Ethics at the University of Indiana]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[de:Praktische Ethik]]
[[fr:Éthique appliquée]]
[[sv:Tillämpad etik]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Adolf Eichmann</title>
<id>989</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T12:32:45Z</timestamp>
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<ip>129.187.244.28</ip>
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<comment>/* Early life */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:OldEichmann.jpg|225px|thumb|Adolf Eichmann, Germany 1940
Photo from [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] Photo Archives.]]
'''Adolf Otto Eichmann''' ([[March 19]], [[1906]] &ndash; [[June 1]], [[1962]]), born '''Karl Adolf Eichmann''', was a high-ranking official in [[Nazi Germany]] and served as an ''[[Obersturmbannführer]]'' in the [[Schutzstaffel|S.S.]] He was largely responsible for the logistics of the extermination of millions of people during [[the Holocaust]], in particular [[Jew]]s, which was called the "[[final solution]]" (''Endlösung''). He organized the identification and transportation of people to the various [[concentration camp]]s. Therefore, he is often referred to as the 'Chief Executioner' of the [[Third Reich]].
==Early life==
Born in [[Solingen]], [[Germany]], Adolf Eichmann was the son of a moderately successful businessman and industrialist. In 1914, his family moved to [[Linz]], [[Austria]], and during the [[World War I|First World War]], Eichmann's father served in the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]]. At the war's conclusion, Eichmann's father returned to the family business in Linz. In 1920, Eichmann's family moved to Germany.
==Pre-Nazi years==
[[Image:YoungEichmann.jpg|left|thumb|125px|Adolf Eichmann in 1932]]
When Eichmann came of age in 1925, he returned to Austria to study mechanical engineering. Being a poor student, however, he soon dropped out of college. Eichmann then tried to follow in his father's footsteps in business, working as a travelling salesman which brought him back to Germany in 1930.
Eichmann's first contact with the [[Nazi Party]] was when he joined the [[Wandervogel]] movement, which has been described as "a peasant Aryan brotherhood based on Anti-Semitic ideals". There is evidence, however, that some of the ''Wandervogel'' groups had Jewish members, and anti-Semitism may have existed in only some parts of the movement. In 1932, Eichmann returned again to Austria and formally joined the Austrian Nazi Party at the age of twenty-six.
==Nazi Party and the SS==
[[Image:SSEichmann.jpg|thumb|125px|SS-[[Scharführer]] Adolf Eichmann in 1933]]
On the advice of old family friend [[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]], Eichmann joined the Austrian branch of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]], enlisting on [[April 1]] [[1932]], as an ''SS-[[Anwärter]]''. He was accepted as a full SS member that November, appointed an ''SS-[[Mann (military rank)|Mann]]'', and assigned the SS number 45326.
For the next year, Eichmann was a member of the part time [[Allgemeine-SS]] and served in a mustering formation operating from Salzburg.
In 1933 when the Nazis came to power in Germany, Eichmann returned to that country and submitted an application to join the full time SS. This was accepted, and in November of 1933, Eichmann was promoted to ''[[Scharführer]]'' and assigned to the administrative staff of the [[Dachau concentration camp]].
By 1934, Eichmann had chosen to make the SS a career and requested transfer into the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]]'' (Security Police) which had, by that time, become a very powerful and feared organization. Eichmann's transfer was granted in November of 1934, as he was promoted to the rank of ''[[Oberscharführer]]'' and assigned to the headquarters of the [[Sicherheitsdienst]] (SD) in Berlin. Eichmann became a model administrator in the SD and quickly became noticed by his superiors. He was promoted to ''[[Hauptscharführer]]'' in 1935 and, in 1937, commissioned as an ''SS-[[Untersturmführer]]''.
In 1937 Eichmann was sent to [[British mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] with his superior [[Herbert Hagen]] to assess the possibilities of massive Jewish emigration from Germany to Palestine. They landed in [[Haifa]] but could only obtain a transit visa so they went on to [[Cairo]]. In Cairo they met [[Feival Polkes]], an agent of the [[Haganah]], who discussed with them the plans of the Zionists and tried to enlist their assistance in facilitating Jewish emigration from Europe. According to an answer Eichmann gave at his trial, he had also planned to meet Arab leaders in Palestine; this never happened because entry to Palestine was refused by the British authorities. Afterwards Eichmann and Hagen wrote a report recommending against large-scale emigration to Palestine for economic reasons and because it contradicted the German policy of preventing the establishment of a Jewish state there. This episode is sometimes seen as an important step towards the Nazi abandonment of emigration as the preferred "solution to the Jewish problem".
In 1938, Eichmann was assigned to Austria to help organize SS Security Forces in Vienna after the [[Anschluss]] of Austria into Germany. Through this effort, Eichmann was promoted to ''SS-[[Obersturmführer]]'', and by the end of 1938, Adolf Eichmann had been selected by the SS leadership to form the [[Central Office for Jewish Emigration]], which was in charge of forcibly deporting and expelling Jews from Austria. Through this work, Eichmann became a student of Judaism, finding the religion fascinating while also developing deep [[Anti-Semitic]] values and a hatred of the Jewish faith.
==World War II==
[[Image:Eichmann1942.jpg|right|thumb|145px|Adolf Eichmann in 1942]]
At the start of the [[World War II|Second World War]], Eichmann had been promoted to ''SS-[[Hauptsturmführer]]'' and had made a name for himself with his Office for Jewish Emigration. Through this work Eichmann made several contacts in the [[Zionist]] movement which he worked with to speed up Jewish Emigration from the Reich.
Eichmann returned to Berlin in 1939 after the formation of the Reich Central Security Office ([[RSHA]]). In December 1939, he was assigned to head ''RSHA Referat IV D4'', the RSHA department that dealt with Jewish affairs and evacuation. In August 1940, he released his ''[[Madagascar Plan|Reichssicherheitshauptamt: Madagaskar Projekt]]'' (Reich Central Security Office: Madagascar Project), a plan for forced Jewish deportation that never materialized. He was promoted to the rank of ''SS-[[Sturmbannführer]]'' in late [[1940]], and less than a year later to ''[[Obersturmbannführer]]''.
In 1942, [[Reinhard Heydrich]] invited Eichmann to attend the [[Wannsee Conference]] where Germany's anti-Jewish measures were set down into an official policy of [[genocide]]. To this "Final Solution of the Jewish Question" Eichmann was tasked as "Transportation Administrator", which put him in charge of all the trains which would carry Jews to the Death Camps in [[Poland]]. For the next two years, Eichmann performed his duties with incredible zeal, often bragging that he had personally sent over five million Jews to their deaths by way of his trains.
Eichmann's work had been noticed, and in [[1944]], he was sent to [[Hungary]] after Germany had occupied that country in fear of a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion. Eichmann at once went to work deporting Jews and was able to send four hundred thousand Hungarians to their deaths in the Nazi gas chambers.
By [[1945]], Eichmann's world was collapsing, as Reich Leader [[Heinrich Himmler]] had ordered that Jewish extermination be halted and evidence of the Final Solution be destroyed. Eichmann blatantly turned against Himmler and continued his work in Hungary against official orders. Eichmann was also working to avoid being called up in the last ditch German military effort, since a year before he had been commissioned as a Reserve ''Untersturmführer'' in the [[Waffen-SS]] and was now being ordered to active combat duty.
Eichmann fled Hungary in 1945 as the Russians invaded, and he returned to Austria where he met up with his old friend [[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]. Kaltenbrunner, however, refused to associate with Eichmann since Eichmann's duties as an extermination administrator had left him a marked man by the Allies.
==Post World War II==
At the end of World War II, Eichmann was captured by the US Army, who did not know that this man who presented himself as "Ott |
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<text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete.
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<text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete.
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<text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete.
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<text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete.
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<text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete.
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<text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete.
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<title>Isaac Disraeli</title>
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<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isaac D'Israeli]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Interquartile range</title>
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<id>35609429</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-18T00:04:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.105.7.51</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Example */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[descriptive statistics]], the '''interquartile range (IQR)''' is the difference between the third and first [[quartile]]s and is a measure of [[statistical dispersion]]. The interquartile range is a more stable statistic than the [[range (statistics)|range]], and is often preferred to that statistic.
Since 25% of the data are less than or equal to the first quartile and 25% are greater than or equal to the third quartile, the difference is the length of an interval that includes about half of the data. This difference should be measured in the same units as the data.
==Example==
<pre>
i x[i]
1 102
2 104
3 105 ---- the first quartile, Q1 = 105
4 106
5 108
6 109 ---- the second quartile, Q2 or median = 109
7 110
8 112
9 115 ---- the third quartile, Q3 = 115
10 115
11 118
</pre>
From this table, the '''interquartile range''' is 115 - 105 = 10.
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Socioeconomics]]
[[nl:Interkwartielafstand]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Iliad</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T05:38:37Z</timestamp>
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<username>Josiah Rowe</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* The relationship of Achilles and Patroclus */ remove self-reflexive link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[webcomic]] author '''Illiad''', see [[J.D. Frazer]].
The '''''Iliad''''' ([[Ancient Greek]]: Ιλιάς, ''Iliás'') tells part of the story of the siege of the city of ''[[Troy|Ilium]]'', i.e. the [[Trojan War]], and is, along with the ''[[Odyssey]]'', one of the two major [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[epic poetry|epic]] poems traditionally attributed to [[Homer]], a blind [[Ionia|Ionian]] poet. Scholars dispute whether Homer existed, and whether he was one person, but it is clear that the poems spring from a long tradition of oral poetry. The ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' are traditionally dated to the [[8th century BC|8th]] century BC, but many scholars now prefer a date of the [[7th century BC|7th]] century BC (e.g. [[Martin West]]) or even the [[6th century BC|6th]] century BC (e.g. [[Richard Seaford]]). The epics are considered to be the oldest literary documents in the Greek language, though the classical Greeks thought that the works of the poet [[Hesiod]] were composed earlier. The word ''Iliad'' means "pertaining to ''Ilion''" ([[Latin language|Latin]] Ilium), the name of the city proper, as opposed to ''Troy'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Τροία, ''Troía''; [[Latin language|Latin]]: ''Troja'') the state centered around [[Ilium]], over which [[Priam]] reigned. However, even classics scholars are unsure of why the text is called Iliad rather than Ilium. The names are often used interchangeably. The Iliad documents just 50 days of the tenth year of the Trojan War. Books 11–18 document events that took place over only a single day.
[[Image:TBanksThetis.jpg|thumb|right|380px|''Thetis rising from the sea to comfort Achilles'' (Book 18), by [[Thomas Banks]], English, [[1778]] [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]]]
==Major characters==
{{spoiler}}
As an epic, the ''Iliad'' contains a sometimes confusingly great number of characters. The latter half of the ''Iliad'''s second book (often called the [[Catalogue of Ships]]) is devoted entirely to listing the various commanders. Many of the battle scenes in the ''Iliad'' feature bit characters who are quickly slain. See [[Trojan War]] for a detailed list of participating armies and warriors.
*The [[Achaean]]s (Αχαιοί) - the word "Hellenes", which would today be translated as "Greeks", is not used by Homer
**[[Achilles]] (Αχιλλεύς) the leader of the [[Myrmidons]] (Μυρμιδόνες) and the principal Greek champion whose [[anger]] is the over-arching theme of the story
**[[Agamemnon]], (Αγαμέμνων), King of [[Mycenae]], supreme commander of the [[Achaean]] armies whose actions provoke the feud with Achilles
**[[Patroclus]],(Πάτροκλος) friend or lover to Achilles
**[[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]], (Νέστωρ), [[Menelaus]], (Μενέλαος), [[Diomedes]], (Διομήδης), [[Idomeneus]], (Ιδομενεύς), and [[Telamonian Aias]], (Αίας ο Τελαμώνιος), kings of the principal city-states of [[Greece]] who are leaders of their own armies, under the overall command of Agamemnon
**[[Odysseus]],(Οδυσσεύς) another warrior-king, famed for his cunning, who is the subject of his own epic
**[[Calchas]], (Κάλχας) a powerful Greek [[prophet]] and [[omen]] reader, who guided the Greeks through the war with his predictions.
*The Trojans and their allies
**[[Hector]], (Έκτωρ) firstborn son of King Priam, leader of the Trojan and allied armies and [[heir apparent]] to the throne of [[Troy]]
**[[Priam]], (Πρίαμος) king of the Trojans, too old to take part in the fighting
**[[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], (Πάρης) Trojan prince and Hector's brother, also called Alexander; his abduction of [[Helen]] is the [[casus belli]]. He was supposed to be killed as a baby because his sister [[Cassandra]] saw the destruction of Troy because of him. Raised by a shepherd.
**[[Aeneas]], (Αινείας) cousin of Hector, and his principal lieutenant
**[[Helenus]] and [[Deiphobus]], brothers of Hector who fight at his side
**[[Poludamas]], another Trojan warrior, apparently a commoner, or in any event not a member of the royal family
**[[Glaucus]] and [[Sarpedon]], leaders of the [[Lycia]]n forces allied to the Trojan cause
*Female characters
**[[Helen]], (Ελένη) former Queen of Sparta and wife of [[Menelaus]], now espoused to [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]]
**[[Cassandra]], (Κασσάνδρα) daughter of Priam, a prophetess cursed by [[Apollo]] to prophesy correctly but never be believed
**[[Andromache]], (Ανδρομάχη) [[Hector]]'s wife and mother of their infant son, [[Astyanax]] (Αστυάναξ)
**[[Hecuba]], (Εκάβη) Queen of Troy, wife of [[Priam]], mother of [[Hector]], [[Cassandra]], [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] etc
**[[Briseis]], a woman captured in the sack of Lyrnessos, a small town in the territory of Troy, and awarded to Achilles as a prize; Agamemnon takes her from Achilles in Book 1 and Achilles withdraws from battle as a result
The Olympian deities, principally [[Zeus]], [[Hera]], [[Apollo]], [[Aphrodite]], [[Ares]], [[Eris]], [[Athena]], and [[Poseidon]], appear predominantly in the ''Iliad'' as advisers to and manipulators of the human characters. All except Zeus become personally involved in the fighting at one point or another. (See [[Theomachy]])
==The story of the ''Iliad''==
The ''Iliad'' narrates several weeks of action during the tenth and final year of the [[Trojan War]], concentrating on the wrath of [[Achilles]]. It begins with the dispute between Achilles and [[Agamemnon]], and ends with the funeral rites of [[Hector]]. Neither the background and early years of the war ([[Paris (mythology)|Paris]]' abduction of [[Helen]] from [[monarch|King]] [[Menelaus]]), nor its end (the death of [[Achilles]]), are directly narrated in the ''Iliad''. The ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' are part of a [[Trojan War cycle|larger cycle of epic poems]] of varying lengths and authors; only fragments survive of the other poems, however.
Of the many themes in the ''Iliad'', perhaps the most important is the idea of what a hero is. Achilles is forced to make a choice between living a long life or dying young on the battlefield. For the Greeks of Homer's day, the latter would have been a better choice because death in battle leads to honor and glory which were the most important values of the day — more important than even right and wrong. One of the remarkable things about the ''Iliad'' is the way that Achilles, especially in Book 9, both embraces the concepts of honor and glory and also rejects them. It should be noted that, despite the fact that he is the antagonist in the story, Hector probably best displays the qualities of an ancient Mediterranean hero.
Many Greek myths exist in multiple versions, so Homer had some freedom to choose among them to suit his story. What follows are the most common background details to the Trojan War, including (parenthetically) whether or not Homer specifically mentions them. See [[Greek mythology]] for more detail.
=== Background to the ''Iliad'': The Trojan War===
Both the gods [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] desired the sea-nymph [[Thetis]], but a prophecy made by [[Prometheus]] revealed that Thetis's son would be greater than his father. For this reason, both gods resisted [[Thetis]] and betrothed her to a mortal king, [[Peleus]], so that her offspring would be no more than human. To Peleus and Thetis a son was born, named Achilles. Hoping to protect him, when he was an infant his mother dipped him in the river [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]], making him invincible everywhere except the heel (the legendary [[Achilles' heel]]) by which she held him. Achilles would grow up to be the greatest of all mortal warriors.
All of the gods were invited to Peleus' and Thetis' wedding, except [[Eris]], or Discord. Insulted, she attended invisibly and cast down upon the table a golden apple on which were inscribed the words ''To the fairest'' (''k |
erable by 24th century technology. Cryonics was also satirized by the comedy cartoon series ''[[Futurama]]'', in which the character, [[Philip J. Fry]], is accidentally [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved]] at the turn of the millennium on [[December 31st]] [[1999]], and revived on [[December 31st]] [[2999]], a thousand years later.
It has also been featured in the video game ''[[Halo (video game series)|Halo]]''.
===The subculture of cryonicists===
Cryonicists to some extent form an ethnic group or subculture because of their common interests and radical departure from standard cultural norms. To choose cryonics usually requires intelligence, an appreciation for science/technology ([[technophilia]]), love of life (a desire for [[life extension]]), independent thinking and an ability to resist social pressure/disapproval. Male cryonicists outnumber females by three or four to one. Cryonicists are often [[computer]] [[professional]]s, [[libertarian]]s, readers of [[science fiction]] and people who have little regard for conventional [[religion]]. Often cryonicists have chosen cryonics without support or interest by any of their family or friends, and participate in the cryonics community by [[e-mail]] or occasional meetings. Although the alienation of cryonicists from mass culture should make them a close community, their independence and passion has often made cryonicists intensely hostile to each other. (To borrow from a common ethnic joke, two cryonicists on an island might form three political parties.)
Cryonicists have been able to form cryonics societies in highly populated areas (see [[Cryonics#History|history section]]), have regular meetings, publish magazines and hold conferences. [[Saul Kent]] and Evan Cooper as well as [[Fred and Linda Chamberlain]] were active in organizing cryonics conferences in the early years of cryonics. The magazines of the cryonics organizations have also helped keep members of the cryonics community informed about events and common problems. On July 24, 1988 a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[computer science]] named Kevin Brown started an [[electronic mailing list]] called [http://www.cryonet.org/ CryoNet] that became a powerful tool of communication for the cryonics community. Although the list often is filled with [[philosophy|philosophical]] ruminations about the meaning of [[personal identity]], it remains the most central point of contact for cryonicists.
Cryonicists have also had a common jargon, including their use of the words ''patient'', ''death'', ''deanimation'' and ''suspension''. The phrase ''cryonic suspension'' to describe [[cryopreservation]] is falling into disfavor, partly because cryopreservation is not really [[suspended animation]] and human bodies or heads are not buoyant enough in [[Liquid_nitrogen#Molecular_nitrogen_.28gas_and_liquid.29|liquid nitrogen]] to be suspended. As in other subcultures, some members of the community can have strong feelings about the use of "[[Political correctness|politically correct]]" cryonics language.
==Notes==
*1.{{note|Note1}} [http://www.cryoletter.org/ Scientists' Open Letter on Cryonics]
*2.{{note|Note2}} [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/CaseForWholeBody.html The Case for Whole Body Suspension]
*3.{{note|Note3}} [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_9.html Engines of Creation, excerpt of Ben Franklin letter]
*4.{{note|Note4}} [http://www.cryonics.org/book1.html The Prospect of Immortality]
*5.{{note|Note5}} [http://www.alcor.org/cryonics/cryonics9208.txt Cryonics, August, 1992, "For the Record"]
*6.{{note|Note6}} [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/suspensionfailures.html Cryonics, February, 1992, "Suspension Failures: Lessons from the Early Years"]
*7.{{note|Note7}} [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_9.html Engines of Creation, "A Door to the Future"]
*8.{{note|Note8}} [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_References.html#0156 Early references to cell repair by cryonicists]
*9.{{note|Note9}} [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/MythOfTheGoldenScalpel.html Cryonics, January 1986, "The Myth of the Golden Scalpel"]
*10.{{note|Note10}} [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/baseball/news/2003/08/12/williams_si/index.html SPORTS ILLUSTRATED:What happened to Ted?]
*11.{{note|Note11}} [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/inside_game/tom_verducci/news/2003/08/12/insider/index.html SPORTS ILLUSTRATED:Ted's tragedy unfolds]
*12.{{note|Note12}} [http://www.alcor.org/printable.cgi?fname=Library%2Fhtml%2Falcornews015.html ALCOR NEWS BULLETIN:Renewed Ted Williams Controversy]
*13.{{note|Note13}} [http://www.alcor.org/printable.cgi?fname=Library%2Fhtml%2Flegislation.html Chronology of Attempted 2004 Cryonics Legislation in Arizona]
==See also==
* [[Biological immortality]]
* [[Biostasis]]
* [[Cryobiology]]
* [[Engineered negligible senescence]]
* [[Hibernation]]
* [[Immortality Institute]]
* [[Life extension]]
* [[Senescence]]
* [[Vitrification]]
==External links==
*[http://www.benbest.com/cryonics/CryoFAQ.html Cryonics FAQ]
*[news:sci.cryonics sci.cryonics Usenet newsgroup]
*[http://cryonet.org/ CryoNet]
*[http://www.firstimmortal.com/ The First Immortal] Free download of popular, critically acclaimed cryonics novel
* [http://www.cryonics.org/book1.html The Prospect of Immortality] Free download of the book that started the cryonics movement
*[http://www.merkle.com/cryo/ Ralph Merkle's introduction to cryonics]
*[http://www.alcor.org/ Alcor Life Extension Foundation]
*[http://www.cryonics.org/ Cryonics Institute]
*[http://www.americancryonics.org/ American Cryonics Society]
*[http://www.cryonics.org/bblr/cryonics%20europe/ce.htm Cryonics Europe]
*[http://www.cryonicssociety.org/ Cryonics Society - Resources and Advocacy]
*[http://www.cryocdn.org/ Cryonics Society of Canada]
*[http://www.imminst.org/ The Immortality Institute]
*[http://www.longevitymeme.org/articles/ Longevity Meme]
==News Articles==
*[http://online.wsj.com/public/article/SB113780314900652582-3NZCCoZBW7UHDmouEOrkzkalkfY_20060129.html?mod=blogs "A Cold Calculus Leads Cryonauts To Put Assets on Ice" (Wall Street Journal)]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Community Patent</title>
<id>6761</id>
<revision>
<id>39227533</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T18:09:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.237.152.53</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{European patent law}}
The '''Community Patent''', also known as the '''European Community Patent''' or '''EC patent''', is a [[patent]] law measure being debated within the [[European Union]], which would allow individuals and companies to obtain a unitary patent throughout the European Union. The Community Patent should not be confused with [[European Patent Organisation|European patent]]s which are granted under the [[European Patent Convention]]. European patents, once granted, become a bundle of nationally enforceable patents, in the designated states. This can be expensive for the patentee in that enforcement must be carried out through national courts in individual countries, and for a third party in that revocation cannot be accomplished centrally.
The Community Patent is intended to solve both of these problems, and also to provide a patent right that is consistent across Europe, thus fulfilling one of the key principles of the [[Internal Market]] in that the same market conditions should exist wherever in Europe trade is carried out - different patent rights in different countries presents a distortion of this principle.
In view of the difficulties in reaching an agreement on the community patent, other legal agreements have been proposed outside the European Union legal framework to reduce the cost of [[translation]] (of patents when granted) and [[lawsuit|litigation]], namely the [[London Agreement]] and the [[European Patent Litigation Agreement]] (EPLA).
== Early proposal: Community Patent Convention ==
Work on a Community Patent started in the 1970s, but the resulting Community Patent Convention (CPC) was a failure.
The "[[Luxembourg]] Conference on the Community Patent" took place indeed in [[1975]] and the '''Convention for the European Patent for the common market''', or (Luxembourg) Community Patent Convention (CPC), was signed at Luxembourg on [[December 15]], [[1975]], by the 9 member states of the [[European Economic Community]] at that time. However the CPC never entered into force. It was not ratified by enough countries.
Fourteen years later, the '''Agreement relating to Community patents''', done at Luxembourg on [[December 15]], [[1989]], was an attempt to revive the project. This Agreement consisted in an amended version of the original Community Patent Convention. But this attempt failed again.
Nevertheless, as a minor consolation, a majority of member states of the EEC at that time introduced some harmonisation into their national patent laws in anticipation of the entry in force of the CPC. A more substantive harmonisation took place at around the same time to take account of the European Patent Convention and the [[Convention on the Unification of Certain Points of Substantive Law on Patents for Invention|Strasbourg Convention]].
== Current debate: EU Regulation ==
Renewed efforts from the European Union have now resulted in a Community Patent [[European Union regulation|Regulation]], sometimes abbreviated as '''CPR'''. It provides that a patent application should be filed in only one language (English, French or German) and would be handled with and examined by the [[European Patent Organisation|European Patent Office]] (''this requires a change in the [[European Patent Convention]], which is not that easy to obtain |
otball League teams]]
[[Category:1953 establishments]]
[[de:Indianapolis Colts]]
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[[sv:Indianapolis Colts]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Immigration to the United States</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-26T05:22:47Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Statue-de-la-liberte-new-york.jpg|160px|thumb|right|The [[Statue of Liberty]] has been a symbol of freedom to many immigrants who entered the United States through [[Ellis Island]]]]
'''Immigration to the United States''' is the act of [[immigration|immigrating]], or moving, to the [[United States]] from another nation. The United States has a long history of [[immigration]], from 1600 to the present. Millions came from Europe in the 19th century, from Asia, Africa, and Latin America in the present day. Throughout American history, immigration has caused controversy regarding the political loyalties and values of people who have moved from one nation to another. The British settlers of the colonial era moved from one part of the British Empire to another (as did the Dutch), and did not change their nation, but the Germans did and nearly everyone else did so. (For statistical purposes in this article everyone who arrived in the colonial period is called an immigrant.) (The Puerto Ricans who moved to the mainland after 1945 are not considered immigrants, since they were US citizens.) Given the geography, most immigrants came long distances. However the French Canadians who came down from Quebec after 1860, and the Mexicans who came north after 1911, found it easy to move back and forth. Indeed with cheap jet travel after 1965, a return to the country of origin became fast and fairly inexpensive.
==Historical immigration==
===Colonial-era immigration to North America===
According to the source, ''The Source: A Guidebook of American Genealogy'' by Kory L. Meyerink and Loretto Dennis Szucs, the following were the countries of origin for new arrivals coming to the United States before 1790. The regions marked * were part of Great Britain:
<center>
{| align="center" class=wikitable
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Group !! style="background:#efefef;" | Immigrants before 1790
|-
| [[Africa]]
| 360,000 (most as slaves)
|-
|[[England]]*
| 230,000
|-
|[[Ulster]]*
| 135,000
|-
|[[Germany]]
| 103,000
|-
|[[Scotland]]*
| 48,500
|-
|[[Ireland]]
| 8,000
|-
|[[Netherlands]]
| 6,000
|-
|[[Wales]]*
| 4,000
|-
|[[France]]
| 3,000
|-
|[[Jew]]s
| 2,000
|-
|[[Sweden]]
| 500
|}
</center>
Early immigration laws prevented Asians and Africans from entering the USA legally (except as [[slavery|chattel]]s in the latter case). For most Europeans, however, immigration was relatively free and unrestricted until the 1800s and the onset of the [[Industrial Revolution]].
====Voluntary migration from Europe====
The population of the colonies that later became the United States grew from zero Europeans in the mid-[[1500s]] to 4.6 million Europeans and 900,000 African [[Slavery|slave]]s in 1790. At that time, it is estimated that 3/4 of the population were of British descent with Germans forming the second-largest ''free'' ethnic group and making up some 7% of the population.
Between 1629 and 1640, some 20,000 [[Puritan]]s emigrated from [[England]], most settling in the [[New England]] area of North America. In an event known as the [[Great Migration]], these people became the [[Yankee]]s of New England, who later spread out to [[New York]] and the [[Upper Midwest]].
From 1609 to 1664, some 8,000 [[Netherlands|Dutch]] settlers peopled the New Netherlands, which later became [[New York]] and [[New Jersey]].
Between 1645 and 1670, some 45,000 [[Cavaliers|Royalist]]s and/or [[indentured servants]] left England to work in the [[Middle Colonies]] and [[Virginia]].
From about 1675 to 1715, the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] made their move, leaving the Midlands and North England behind for [[Pennsylvania]], [[New Jersey]] and [[Delaware]]. The Quaker movement became one of the largest religious presences in early colonial America.
[[German people|Germans]] migrated early into several colonies but mostly to Pennsylvania, where they made up a third of the population by the time of the Revolution.
Between about 1710 and 1775, around 135,000 [[Irish people]] left [[Ulster]], (the northern [[Provinces of Ireland|province of Ireland)]], and settled in western [[Pennsylvania]], [[Appalachia]] and the western frontier: these places later would become [[Kentucky]] and [[Tennessee]].
====[[Unfree labour|Unfree labor]]: [[Atlantic slave trade|Slave trade]], [[indentured servant | indentured servitude]] and convict shipments====
The majority of African [[slavery|slaves]] came to the future United States before it gained independence. The numbers remain less than clear, but it is believed that some 300,000 slaves arrived in the British North American colonies before 1776, and some 100,000 were imported in the period between then and 1860. The international slave trade was made illegal in 1808.
A large number of [[indentured servant]]s, from the [[British Isles]], [[Ireland]] and Continental [[Europe]] (especially [[Germany]]), came to the future United States during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with the bulk arriving in the half-century before 1776. Most were teenagers who served terms of four to fourteen years and arrived in the colonies of [[Pennsylvania]], [[New York]] and [[Virginia]]. About 50,000 British convicts also crossed the seas to North America in an [[penal transportation]] system between 1700 and 1770.
===Immigration 1790 to 1849===
Germans made up almost one-tenth of the population of the country by the end of the 18th century. At least 500,000 Germans immigrated in the first half of the 19th century. 20,000 came in the years 1816-1817, fleeing a famine. Some 61,000 fled to America after the failed [[Revolutions of 1848]].
[[Image:Stamp-us-irish-immigration.jpg|thumb|[[United States Postal Service|U.S. postage stamp]] commemorating the vast [[Irish people|Irish]] immigration to North America during the [[Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)|Great Potato Famine]]]]
===Immigration 1850 to 1930===
*see table 4 at end
====Immigration in Detail====
Between 1850 and 1930 about 5 million [[Germany|Germans]] immigrated to the United States with a peak in the years between 1881 and 1885, when a million Germans left Germany and settled mostly in the [[U.S. Midwest|Midwest]]. Between 1820 and 1930, 3.5 [[British]] (mostly Protestant) and 4.5 million [[Irish]] (mostly Catholic) entered America. Before the 1840's most Irish immigrants were Irish Presbyterians or [[Scotch-Irish]]. After 1840, the Catholics arrived in large numbers, in part because of the famines of the 1840s. .
Between [[1840]] and [[1930]], about 900,000 [[French Canadian]]s left [[Quebec]] to emigrate to the United States and settled mainly in [[New England]]. Given the Quebec population at the time, this was a massive exodus. 13.6 million Americans claimed to have French ancestry in the 1980 census. A large proportion of them have ancestors who emigrated from [[French Canada]].
The years [[1910]] to [[1920]] were the highpoint of [[Italian American|Italian]] immigration to the United States. Over 2 million Italians immigrated in those years, with a total of 5.3 million immigrating between 1820 and 1980. About a third of them returned to Italy, after working an average of 5 years in the US.
About 1.5 million Swedes and Norwegians immigrated to the United States within this period, due to opportunity in America and poverty and religious oppression in united [[Sweden-Norway]]. This accounted for around 20% of the total population of the kingdom at that time. They settled mainly in the Midwest after their arrival in America; Minnesota in particular has a large proportion of people with Swedish and Norwegian ancestry. Danes, however, had comparably low immigration rates due to a better government and economy; most Danish immigrants were [[Mormon]] converts who moved to [[Utah]].
Over 2 million Eastern Europeans, mainly Catholics, immigrated during the years of 1880 to 1924. People of [[Poles|Polish]] ancestry are the largest Eastern European ancestry group in the United States. Immigration of Eastern Orthodox ethnic groups was much lower.
From 1880 to 1924, around 2 million Jews moved to the United States, mostly seeking better opportunity in America and fleeing the [[pogroms]] of Eastern Europe. After 1933 Jews who tried to flee [[Nazi Germany]] were often denied access to the United States, highlighted by the event of the [[S.S. St. Louis]].
==Laws concerning immigration and naturalization==
The first naturalization law in the United States was the 1795 [[Naturalization Act]] which restricted citizenship to "free white persons" who had resided in the country for five years. The next significant change in the law came in 1870, when the law was broadened to allow both [[whites]] and [[African-Americans]], though [[Asia]]ns were still excluded from citizenship. Immigration was otherwise unlimited.
In 1882 the [[Chinese Exclusion Act (United States)|Chinese Exclusion Act]] specifically forbade [[China|Chinese]] immigration, overturning the 1868 [[Burlingame Treaty]] that had encouraged it. The "temporary" ban was extended repeatedly and made permanent in 1904. It was the culmination of decades of agitation, particularly by [[California]]ns, who had passed their own [[Anti-Coolie Act]] in 1862. The ban was deeply resented in Asia, but was not repealed until 1943, and only then to reward a [[World War II]] wa |
and the country's second largest city after [[İstanbul]]. The city has a population of 4,319,167 (Provience 5,153,000) ([[as of 2005]]), and a mean elevation of 850 m. (2800 ft.) It was formerly known as '''[[Angora]]''' or '''Engürü''', and in Roman times as '''Ancyra''', and in classical and Hellenistic periods as Ἄγκυρα '''Áŋkyra'''.
It is also the capital of [[Ankara Province]].
Centrally located in [[Anatolia]], Ankara is an important commercial and industrial city. It is the center of the Turkish Government, and houses all foreign embassies. It is an important crossroads of trade, strategically located at the center of Turkey's highway and rail network, and serves as the marketing center for the surrounding agricultural area. The city was famous for its long-haired goat and its wool ([[Angora wool]]), a unique breed of cat ([[Turkish Angora|Ankara cat]]), white [[rabbits]], [[pear]], [[honey]], and the region's [[Muscat grape|muscat]] [[grapes]].
Ankara is situated upon a steep and rocky hill, which rises 500 ft. above the plain on the left bank of the ''Enguri Su'', a tributary of the [[Sakarya]] (Sangarius) river. The city is located 39&deg;52'30" North, 32&deg;52' East (39.875, 32.8333). The city, which is one of the driest places in Turkey and surrounded by a barren featureless steppe vegetation, with various [[Hittite]], [[Phrygian]], [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Roman empire|Roman]] [[archeological site]]s. It has a harsh dry [[continental climate]] with cold snowy winters and hot dry summers. Rainfall occurs mostly during spring and autumn.
The hill is crowned by the ruins of the old castle, which add to the picturesqueness of the view; but the town was not well built, many of its houses constructed of sun-dried mud bricks along narrow streets. <sup>[http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]</sup> There are, however, many finely preserved remains of [[Architecture of Ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine architecture]], the most remarkable being the temple of [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]], on the walls of which is the famous ''Monumentum Ancyranum''<sup>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html]</sup>
== History ==
[[Image:A Turkish Kaleidoscope (1926)- Ankara Bazaar.png|left|thumb|300px|Ankara Bazaar in [[1920s]].]]
The region's vibrant history can be traced back to the [[Bronze Age]] [[Hattians|Hatti]] civilization, which was succeeded in the 2nd millennium BC by the [[Hittites|Hittites]], in the 10th century BC by the [[Phrygians]], then by the [[Lydians]] and [[Persia|Persians]].
Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians' defeat at the hands of the Macedonian king [[Alexander the Great]]. In [[333 BC]], Alexander came from [[Gordium]] to Ankara and stayed in the city for a period of time. After his death at [[Babylon]] in [[323 BC]] and the subsequent division of his empire amongst his generals, Ankara and its environs fell into the share of [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]].
In [[278 BC]], Ankara was occupied by the [[Gaul|Gaulish]] race of [[Galatia|Galatians]] who were the first to make Ankara their capital. It was then known as '''Ancyra''', meaning "[[anchor]]" in [[Greek language|Greek]]. Ankara's organized and written history starts with the [[Galatia|Galatians]].
[[Image:Ulus_Ankara.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A view from Ulus, the historical district of Ankara.]]
The city subsequently fell to the [[Roman Empire]] in [[189 BC]] and became the capital of the Roman province of [[Galatia]]. Under Roman rule, Ankara became a gate to the east for Rome, and as such was well developed, achieving the status of "city-state" or [[polis]]. The city's military as well as logistical significance lasted well into the long [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] reign, even after its capital was moved to [[Constantinople]]. Although Ankara fell into the hands of several Arab armies numerous times after the 6th century, it remained an important crossroads polis within the Byzantine Empire until the late 11th century.
In [[1071]] [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuk]] Sultan [[Alp Arslan|Alparslan]] threw open the door to Anatolia for the Turks by his victory at [[Battle of Manzikert|Malazgirt]]. He then annexed Ankara, an important location for military transportation and natural resources, to Turkish territory in [[1073]]. [[Orhan I]], second "bey" of the [[Ottoman Empire]] captured the city in [[1356]]. Another [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] leader, [[Timur Lenk]] besieged Ankara as part of his campaign in [[Anatolia]], but in [[1403]] Ankara was again under Ottoman control.
At the close of [[World War I]], Turkey was under the control of the Ottoman sultan and having lost the war, was being shared by [[Greece|Greeks]], [[France|French]], [[United Kingdom|British]], and [[Italy|Italians]]. The leader of the Turkish nationalists, [[Kemal Atatürk]] established the headquarters of his resistance movement in Ankara in [[1919]] (See [[Treaty of Sèvres]] and [[Turkish War of Independence]]). After the War of Independence was won and the Ottoman Empire was dissolved, Turkey was declared a [[republic]] on [[October 29]], [[1923]], Ankara having replaced [[İstanbul]] (formerly [[Constantinople]]) as the capital of the new [[Republic of Turkey]] on [[October 13]], [[1923]].
[[Image:Kizilay_Ankara.jpg|left|thumb|300px|A recent view from Kızılay, the central district of Ankara.]]
After Ankara became the capital of the newly founded Republic of Turkey, new development divided the city into an old section, called '''Ulus''', and a new section, called '''Yenişehir'''. Ancient buildings reflecting Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark the old section. The new section, now centered around '''Kızılay''', has the trappings of a more modern city: wide streets, hotels, theaters, shopping malls, and high-rises. Government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section.
==Attractions==
===General attractions===
[[Image:Anitkabir.DO.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Anıtkabir, Atatürk's mausoleum.]]
[[Anıtkabir]] is located on an imposing hill in the ''Anittepe'' quarter of the city stands the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic of Turkey. Completed in [[1953]], it is an impressive fusion of ancient and modern architecture. An adjacent museum houses a superior wax statue of Atatürk, his writings, letters and personal items, as well as an exhibition of photographs recording important moments in his life and in the establishment of the Republic (Anitkabir is open everyday, and the adjacent museum every day except Mondays).
'''The [[Ankara Ethnography Museum]] (''Etnoğrafya Müzesi'')''': This museum is opposite the Opera House on Talat Pasa Boulevard, in Ulus district. There is a fine collection of folkloric as well as Seljuk- and Ottoman-era artifacts.
[[Image:AnatolianCivMuseum.DO.jpg|right|thumb|300px|An Hattian artifact, from 3rd millennium BC, in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations]]
'''The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (''Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi'')''': Situated at the Ankara Castle entrance, it is an old "bedesten" (covered bazaar) that has been beautifully restored and now houses a unique collection of [[Paleolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Hatti]], [[Hittite]], [[Phrygia]]n, [[Urartu|Urartian]], and [[Roman Empire|Roma]]n works and showpiece [[Lydia]]n treasures.
'''The Çengelhan Rahmi M. Koç Museum (''Çengelhan Rahmi M. Koç Müzesi'')''': is an industrial museum opposite the entrance to the Citadel, close to Anatolian Civilization Museum. Located in the historic Çengelhan - a former Caravanserai, built in 1522 - the Museum displays huge variety of exhibits on such diverse themes as Engineering, Road Transport, Scientific Instruments, Maritime, Medicine, and many others. The beautiful and atmospheric courtyard now houses the newly restored shop where the founder of the Koç Group, Mr Vehbi Koç started his working life. And when you have finished your museum visit, you can relax in either the Divan Café or the sophisticated Divan Brasserie in the courtyard.
'''[[State Art and Sculpture Museum]] (The Painting and Sculpture Museum) (''Resim-Heykel Müzesi'')''': Close to the Ethnography Museum and houses a rich collection of Turkish art from the late [[19th century]] to the present day. There are also galleries which host guest exhibitions.
'''The War of Independence Museum (''Kurtuluş Savaşı Müzesi'')''': In Ulus Square, is what was originally the first parliament building of the Republic of Turkey. There the War of Independence was planned and directed here as recorded in various photographs and items presently on exhibition. In another display, wax figures of former presidents of the Republic of Turkey are on exhibit.
'''The TCDD [[Locomotive]] Museum''': Near the railway station by Celal Bayar Blvd., is a very interesting open-air museum that traces the history of steam locomotion through the locomotives and artifacts on display.
===Archeological sites===
[[Image:Ankara Citadel2.MarkHamilto.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Ankara Citadel.]]
'''Ankara Citadel''': The foundations of the citadel were laid by the Galatians on a prominent [[lava]] outcrop, and the rest was completed by the Romans. The Byzantines and Seljuks further made restorations and additions. The area around and inside the citadel, being the oldest part of Ankara, contains many fine examples of traditional architecture. There are also recreational areas to relax. Many restored traditional Turkish houses inside the citadel area have found new life as restaurants, serving local cuisine, music and of course, [[Raki]].
'''Roman Theatre''': The remains, the stage, and the backstage, can be seen outside the castle. Roman statues that were found here are exhibited in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (see abov |
nown as [[fanwank|fanwanking]]. Often when a fan does not agree with one of the events in a story (such as the death of a favorite character), he or she decides to simply ignore that the event ever happened. This is known as [[Krypto-revisionism]]. Discarding all existing continuity and starting from scratch is known as [[reboot (continuity)|reboot]]ing. A less extreme literary technique that erases one episode is called the [[reset button technique|reset button]].
Discrepancies in past continuity are sometimes made deliberately; this is known as [[retcon]]ning.
==Real time programs vs traditional films==
[[Television program]]s like ''[[24 (television)|24]]'', in which actors have to appear as if it is the same day for 24 consecutive episodes, have raised public recognition of continuity. However, traditional films have frequently had much same sort of the issues to deal with; film shoots may last several months and as scenes are frequently shot out of story sequence, footage shot weeks apart may be edited together as part of the same day's action in the completed film. In some ways, ''24'' presents a simpler situation, as costumes and hairstyles generally should ''not'' change very frequently; in many feature films a range of different hairstyles and costumes must be created, changed, and then recreated exactly, as various scenes are shot.
==External links==
*[http://www.moviemistakes.com/ Moviemistakes.com]
*[http://www.continuitycorner.com Continuity Corner]
[[Category:Continuity (fiction)| ]]
[[Category:Narratology]]
[[de:Anschluss (Film)]]
[[nl:Continu]]
[[sv:Klaff-fel]]
[[pt:Continuidade (ficção)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Corporate Police State</title>
<id>5900</id>
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<timestamp>2002-04-25T22:10:21Z</timestamp>
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<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
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<comment>*#redirect[[Corporate police state]] </comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Corporate police state]]
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<page>
<title>Capital punishment</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:15:11Z</timestamp>
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<ip>193.1.172.138</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Execution}}
'''Capital punishment''', also called the '''death penalty''', is the execution of a convicted [[criminal]] as a [[punishment]] for a [[crime]] often called a ''capital offence'' or a ''capital crime''. Historically, the judicial execution of criminals and political opponents was a phenomenon of nearly all societies, and it was often also used as a means to suppress [[political dissent]]. Among democratic countries around the world, most Western and [[Latin America|Latin American]] ones have abolished capital punishment, while [[Democracy|democracies]] in Asia and Africa retain it. Among nondemocratic countries the use of the death penalty is common.
In most places that practice capital punishment today, the death penalty is reserved as a punishment for certain [[Murder|murders]], [[espionage]], or [[treason]] or part of [[military justice]]. In some majority-[[Muslim]] countries, certain sexual crimes, including [[adultery]] and [[sodomy]], carry the death penalty. In many countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China, [[Trafficking in human beings|human trafficking]] and serious cases of [[corruption]] are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world, [[courts-martial]] have sentenced capital punishments also for [[cowardice]], [[desertion]], [[insubordination]], and [[mutiny]].
The death penalty is seen by some proponents as a more effective [[deterrent]] than [[life imprisonment]],while opponents argue that [[life imprisonment]] is an equally effective deterrent. Statistical studies have failed to show either argument to be true.
== History ==
The use of formal execution extends back beyond recorded history. Most historical records as well as various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of the communal justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, [[corporal punishment]], [[shunning]], [[ostracism|banishment]] and execution. However, it should be noted that within a small community, crimes were rare and murder was almost always a crime of passion. Moreover, most would hesitate to inflict death on a member of the community. For this reason, execution and even banishment were extremely rare. Apology, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice.
However, these are not an effective response to crimes committed by outsiders. Consequently, even small crimes including theft committed by outsiders were considered to be an assault on the community and were severely punished. The methods varied from beating and enslavement to executions. However, the response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included formal apology, compensation or [[blood feud|blood feuds]].
A [[Feud|Blood Feud]] or [[vendetta]] occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of an arbitration system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a [[code of honour]]. "Acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies (as well as potential allies) that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished."{{ref|waldmann}} However, it is often difficult to distinguish between a [[war]] of vendetta and conquest.
Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context and compensation system. Compensation was based on the principle of ''substitution'' which might include material (eg. cattle, slave) compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, or transfers of property or [[blood money]] or in some case an offer of a person for execution. It should be noted that the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals. Blood feuds could be regulated at meetings, such as the Viking ''[[Thing (assembly)|thing]]s''.{{ref|thing}} Systems deriving from blood feuds may survive alongside more advanced legal systems or be given recognition by courts (e.g. [[trial by combat]]). One of the more modern refinements of the blood feud is the [[duel]].
In certain part of the world, nations in the form of ancient republics, monarchies or tribal oligarchies emerged. These nations were often united by common linguistic, religious or family ties. Moreover, expansion of these nations often occurred by conquest of neighbouring tribes or nation. Consequently, various classes of royalty, nobility, various commoners and slave emerged. Accordingly, the systems of tribal arbitration were submerged into a more unified system of justice which formalised the relation between the different "classes" rather than "tribes". The earliest and most famous example is [[Code of Hammurabi]] which set the different punishment and compensation according to the different class/group of victims and perpetrators. The [[Pentateuch]] ([[Old Testament]]) lays down the death penalty for [[kidnapping]], [[magic]], violation of the [[Sabbath]], [[blasphemy]], and a wide range of sexual crimes, although evidence suggests that actual executions were rare.{{ref|schabas}} A further example comes from [[Ancient Greece]], where the [[Athenian]] legal system was first written down by [[Draco]] in about 621 BC: the death penalty was applied for a particularly wide range of crimes. The word [[draconian]] derives from Draco's laws. Similarly, in medieval and early modern Europe, the death penalty was also used as a generalised form of punishment. For example, in 18th C. [[Britain]], there were 222 crimes which were punishable by death, including crimes such as cutting down a tree or stealing an animal.{{ref|mich-hist}}
The last several centuries has seen the emergence of modern nation states. Almost fundamental to the concept of nation state is the idea of citizenship. This caused justice to be increasingly associated with equality and universality, which in Europe saw an emergence of the concept of [[natural right]]. Another important aspect is that emergence of standing police forces and permanent penitential institutions. The death penalty become an increasingly unnecessary deterrent and prevention of minor crimes such as theft. The 20th century was one of the bloodiest of the human history. Massive killing occurred as the resolution of war between nation states. A large part of execution was summary execution of enemy combatants. Also, modern military organisations employed capital punishment as a means of maintaining military discipline. In the past, [[cowardice]], absence without leave, [[desertion]], [[insubordination]], [[looting]], shirking under enemy fire and disobeying orders were often crimes punishable by death. The method of execution since firearms came into common use has almost invariably been [[firing squad]]. Moreover, various authoritarian states, for example those with fascist or communist governments, or dictatorships, employed the death penalty as a potent means of political oppression. Partly as a response to such excessive punishment, civil organizations have started to place increasing emphasis on the concept of human rights and abolition of the death penalty.
==The death penalty worldwide==
===Public opinion===
Support for the death penalty varies widely. It is a highly contentious pol |
, microwave optics usually utilize elaborate [[Lens (optics)|lenses]] and [[feed horn]]s.
*'''Water vapor''' Because water absorbs microwave radiation (a fact that is used to build [[microwave oven]]s), it is rather difficult to observe the microwave background with ground-based instruments. CMB research therefore makes increasing use of air and space-borne experiments. Ground-based observations are usually made from dry, high altitude locations such as the [[Andes|Chilean Andes]] and the [[South Pole]].
===Analyses===
The analysis of cosmic microwave background data to produce maps, an angular power spectrum and ultimately cosmological parameters is a complicated, computationally difficult problem. Although computing a power spectrum from a map is in principle a simple [[Fourier transform]], decomposing the map of the sky into [[spherical harmonics]], in practice it is hard to take the effects of noise and foregrounds into account. Constraints on many cosmological parameters can be obtained from their effects on the power spectrum, and results are often calculated using [[Markov Chain Monte Carlo]] sampling techniques.
===Low multipoles===
With the increasingly precise data provided by WMAP, there have been a number of claims that the CMB suffers from anomalies, such as [[non-gaussianity]]. The most longstanding of these is the low-''l'' multipole controversy. Even in the COBE map, it was observed that the [[quadrupole]] (''l'' = 2 spherical harmonic) has a low amplitude compared to the predictions of the big bang. Some observers have pointed out that the anisotropies in the WMAP data did not appear to be consistent with the big bang picture. In particular, the quadrupole and octupole (''l'' = 3) modes appear to have an unexplained alignment with each other and with the [[ecliptic plane]].<ref>A. de Oliveira-Costa, M. Tegmark, M. Zaldarriga and A. Hamilton, "The significance of the largest scale CMB fluctuations in WMAP", ''Phys. Rev.'' '''D69''' (2004) 063516 {{arxiv|archive=astro-ph|id=0307282}}. D. J. Schwarz, G. D. Starkman, D. Huterer and C. J. Copi, "Is the low-''l'' microwave background cosmic?", ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''93''' (2004) 221301 {{arxiv|archive=astro-ph|id=0403353}}.</ref> A number of groups have suggested that this could be the signature of new physics at the largest observable scales. Ultimately, due to the foregrounds and the [[cosmic variance]] problem, the largest modes will never be as well measured as the small angular scale modes. The analyses were performed on two maps that have had the foregrounds removed as best as is possible: the "internal linear combination" map of the WMAP collaboration and a similar map prepared by [[Max Tegmark]] and others.<ref>C. L. Bennett ''et al.'', "First-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observations: preliminary maps and basic results", ''Astrophysical Journal Supplement'' '''148''', 1 (2003). M. Tegmark, A. de Oliveira-Costa and A. Hamilton, "A high resolution foreground cleaned CMB map from WMAP", ''Phys. Rev.'' '''D68''', 123523 (2003). The WMAP paper warns: "the statistics of this internal linear combination map are complex and inappropriate for most CMB analyses."</ref> Later analyses have pointed out that these are the modes most susceptible to foreground contamination from [[synchrotron radiation|synchrotron]], dust and [[Bremsstrahlung|free-free]] emission, and from experimental uncertainty in the monopole and dipole. While the low quadrupole does appear to be robust (The measured value has a likelihood of roughly 2&ndash;4% in the [[Lambda-CDM model]].), removing the parts of the data that are most contaminated by foregrounds removes the alignment, which suggests that it is due to foreground contamination.<ref>A. Slosar and U. Seljak, "Assessing the effects of foregrounds and sky removal in WMAP", ''Phys. Rev.'' '''D70''', 083002 (2004). {{arxiv|archive=astro-ph|id=0404567}}. C. J. Copi, D. Hueterer, D. J. Schwarz and G. D. Starkman, "On the large-angle anomalies of the microwave sky", {{arxiv|archive=astro-ph|id=0508047}}.
</ref>
==References==
<references/>
==Further reading and external links==
*Seife, Charles (2003). Breakthrough of the Year: Illuminating the Dark Universe. ''Science'' '''302''' 2038&ndash;2039.
*Partridge, R. B. (1995). ''3K: The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation''. New York: Cambridge University Press.
* [http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's Legacy Archive for Microwave Background Data Analysis (LAMBDA)]
* Wayne Hu's [http://background.uchicago.edu/ The Physics of Microwave Background Anisotropies]. An extensive collection of cosmic microwave background tutorials, animations and reviews describing the physics behind the microwave background. The materials range in detail from popular introductions to technical discussions.
*[[physical cosmology#Textbooks|Cosmology textbooks]]
[[Category:Radio astronomy]]
[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[ca:Fons cosmològic]]
[[cs:Reliktní záření]]
[[de:Hintergrundstrahlung]]
[[es:Radiación de fondo de microondas]]
[[fr:Fond diffus cosmologique]]
[[hr:Pozadinsko zračenje]]
[[it:Radiazione cosmica di fondo]]
[[he:קרינת רקע קוסמית]]
[[hu:Mikrohullámú kozmikus háttérsugárzás]]
[[nl:Kosmische achtergrondstraling]]
[[ja:宇宙背景放射]]
[[pl:Mikrofalowe promieniowanie tła]]
[[ru:Реликтовое излучение]]
[[sk:Reliktové žiarenie]]
[[fi:Kosminen taustasäteily]]
[[sv:Kosmisk bakgrundsstrålning]]
[[vi:Bức xạ phông vi sóng vũ trụ]]
[[zh:宇宙微波背景辐射]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Comparative law</title>
<id>7378</id>
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<timestamp>2006-01-11T08:58:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Harro5</username>
<id>211795</id>
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<comment>removing list of literature unless cleaned up into brief section per norm</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
'''Comparative law''' has increased enormously in importance in the present age of internationalism, economic globalisation and democratisation. It is the study of differences and similarities between the [[law]] of different countries and, more generally, of the different legal families, the [[common law]] family, the [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] family, the [[socialist law]], the [[islamic law]] family and the Asian law family. It includes the description and analysis of foreign legal systems, even where no explicit comparison is undertaken.
Several disciplines have developed as separate branches of comparative law, like comparative [[constitutional law]], comparative [[administrative law]] and comparative [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] (in the sense of the law of torts, delicts, contracts and obligations), comparative [[commercial law]] (in the sense of business organisations and trade), and comparative [[criminal law]]. These can in themselves be conducted as micro- or macro-comparative studies, i.e. detailed comparisons of two countries, or broad-ranging studies of several countries. Comparative civil law studies, for instance, show how the law of private relations is organised, interpreted and used in different systems or countries.
Comparative law is an academic study of existing separate systems, each one analysed in its constitutive elements, how these differ in the different systems and how these elements are combined into a system. Thus it is different from general [[jurisprudence]] or legal theory, and [[international law]], both [[public international law]] and [[private international law]] (also known as [[conflict of laws]]), although comparative law helps inform all of these areas of normativity as comparative law can help international law institutions, such as those of the [[United Nations System]] in analyzing the laws of different countries regarding their treaty obligations or in private international law when developing an approach to interpretation in a conflicts analysis. It also contributes to legal theory by creating categories and concepts of general application, and also by providing insights into the problem of legal transplants, i.e. the transplanting of law and legal institutions from one system to another.
Comparative law is a very important discipline in communication between legal systems. It may provide the basis for the production of bilingual dictionaries that include the information necessary to make legal communication across borders successful. It also helps mutual understanding and the dispelling of prejudice and misinterpretation. It has become an essential tool in effecting legal reforms and legal transplants in developing countries and transitional-economy countries, and also in European integration.
==Relevant links==
*[http://ausicl.com The Australian Institute of Comparative Legal Systems]
[[Category:Law]]
[[et:Võrdlev õigusteadus]]
[[pt:Direito comparado]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Classical liberal</title>
<id>7379</id>
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<timestamp>2005-07-08T01:19:50Z</timestamp>
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<username>Sam Spade</username>
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<comment>#redirect:[[Classical liberalism]]</comment>
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<page>
<title>CD (disambiguation)</title>
<id>7380</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-09T06:14:02Z</timestamp>
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<username>Mzajac</username>
<id>61482</id>
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<minor />
<comment>de-linking non-disambiguating terms "optics" & "physics"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''CD''' may stand for:
* [[Compact disc]]
* [[.cd]], the Internet domain of the Democratic Republic of the C |
sometimes split in diagonal with other colors for further symbolism. The plain black flag is explained as the opposite of a white flag signalling surrender. It is also sometimes an anarchist dress code, with a practical benefit of not attracting attention and making later identification of a subject difficult. This strategy referred to as a [[black bloc]].
* In [[Germany|German]] politics 'black' is used colloquially to refer to the conservative parties [[Christian-Democratic_Union_of_Germany|CDU]] and [[Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria|CSU]]
* In [[Portugal|Portuguese]] politics, black is the party colour of the [[Leftwing Bloc]]
* In ancient [[China]], black was the symbol of ''North'' and ''Water'', one of the main five colors. There is no negative or positive meaning associated with it. In fact, in Chinese culture, white is the color associated with death.
* Black is the color of the [[snooker]] [[ball]] which has a 7-point value, and also the eighth [[billiard ball]]. In the game of [[eight ball]], this ball is the ultimate object of the game, but, if accidentally sunk, means instant loss of the game.
* A polished black mirror is used for [[scrying]], and is thought to help see into the [[paranormal]] world without interference or distraction.
* Members of the modern [[subculture]] of [[Goth|Goths]] dress predominantly in black.
* A large number of sports teams have uniforms designed with black colors - many feeling the color sometimes inparts a psychological advantage in its wearers. Among the more famous (or infamous) include the [[Oakland Raiders]] and [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] of the [[NFL]], the [[San Antonio Spurs]] of the [[NBA]], and [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Inter Milan]] of the [[Serie A]] of the [[Italian football league system|Italian soccer leagues]].
* Interestingly, among the Chinese communities of South-East Asian countries such as Singapore & Malaysia, "hak gau peh" which literally means "black dog beer" in Cantonese refers to [[Guinness]] Stout.
==Black pigments==
* [[Carbon black]]
* [[Ivory black]]
* [[Mars black]]
==See also==
*[[List of colors]]
{{web colors}}
[[Category:Shades of gray]]
[[Category:Spoken articles]]
{{Spoken Wikipedia|black.ogg|2005-08-16}}
[[bs:Crna]]
[[ca:Negre]]
[[cs:Černá]]
[[da:Sort]]
[[de:Schwarz]]
[[el:Μαύρο]]
[[es:Negro (color)]]
[[eo:Nigro]]
[[fr:Noir]]
[[gl:Negro (cor)]]
[[id:Hitam]]
[[it:Nero]]
[[he:שחור]]
[[lt:Juoda]]
[[nl:Zwart]]
[[ja:黒]]
[[no:Svart]]
[[nn:Svart]]
[[pl:Barwa czarna]]
[[pt:Preto]]
[[ru:Чёрный цвет]]
[[scn:Niuru]]
[[simple:Black]]
[[sk:Čierna]]
[[sl:Črna]]
[[sr:Црна боја]]
[[fi:Musta]]
[[sv:Svart]]
[[vi:Đen (màu)]]
[[tr:Siyah]]
[[zh:黑色]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Black Flag</title>
<id>4036</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-24T20:50:21Z</timestamp>
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<ip>200.175.230.1</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Black Flag''' can refer to:
*[[Black Flag (insecticide)|Black Flag]] is a brand of [[insecticide]] made by the Fountainhead Group.
*[[Czarny Sztandar|Black Flag]] ([[1903]]) was a [[Białystok]] [[anarchist]] [[organisation]].
*[[Black Flag (band)|Black Flag]] was a [[punk rock]] band.
*''[[Black Flag (newspaper)|Black Flag]]'' is the name of an [[anarchism|anarchist]] [[newspaper]].
*'''The Black Flag''' is a progressive website based in Roswell, NM ([http://www.theblackflag.org]).
*The '''[[Black Flag Army]]''' was a bandit unit operating around [[Hanoi]] in the late 19th century
Additionally, "'''black flag'''" may refer to an actual flag:
[[Image:Black flag.jpg|thumb|The black flag is the traditional [[Anarchism|anarchist]] symbol]]
*The '''[[Anarchist_symbolism#Black_flag|Anarchist black flag]]''' has been an [[anarchist]] [[anarchist symbolism|symbol]] since the [[1880s]]. Anarchists use either a plain black flag or a black flag with an "A" for [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]] inside a circle for unity.
*'''Black flag'''s are often associated with [[funeral]]s in the [[Western world|West]], particularly [[state funeral]]s and public [[mourning]].
*'''Black Flag''' is another name for the [[Jolly Roger]], a [[skull and crossbones]] on a black background, and is associated with [[pirate]]s.
*The '''black flag''' is a [[racing flag]] used to summon a driver to the [[Pit stop|pits]].
==External links==
*[http://www.shanatinglipton.com/punk1.html Rekindling the Punk Flame, article]
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Flags]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bletchley Park</title>
<id>4037</id>
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<id>40876445</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T16:30:50Z</timestamp>
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<username>Matt Crypto</username>
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<comment>/* Huts */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bletchley Park.jpg|thumbnail|320px|During World War II, British and American cryptographers at Bletchley Park broke a large number of [[Axis Powers|Axis]] codes and ciphers, including the German [[Enigma machine]]. For this purpose, the mansion at Bletchley Park, pictured here, was soon joined by a host of other buildings. The mansion's [[façade]] is an idiosyncratic mix of architectural styles.]]
'''Bletchley Park''' ('''BP''') is a site located in the town of [[Bletchley, Milton Keynes|Bletchley]], in [[Milton Keynes]], [[England]]. During [[World War II]], Bletchley Park was the location of the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[codebreaking]] establishment. Codes and ciphers of several countries were deciphered, most famously the German [[Enigma (machine)|Enigma]]. The high-level intelligence produced by Bletchley Park was codenamed [[Ultra]]. While the exact influence of Ultra on World War II is debated, it is frequently credited with hastening the defeat of Germany by two years.
Wartime Bletchley Park is sometimes referred to as '''Station X'''.
The site is now a museum and open to the public during the English summer.
==Early history==
The lands of the Bletchley Park estate were formerly part of the Manor of Eaton, included in the [[Domesday Book]] in 1086. [[Browne Willis]] built a mansion in 1711, but this was pulled down by Thomas Harrison, who had acquired the property in 1793. The estate was first known as Bletchley Park during the ownership of Samuel Lipscombe Seckham, who purchased it in 1877. The estate was sold on [[4 June]] 1883 to Sir Herbert Samuel Leon (1850&ndash;1926), a financier and [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] [[Member of Parliament|MP]]. Leon expanded the existing farmhouse into the present mansion<ref>Edward Legg, ''Early History of Bletchley Park 1235&ndash; 1937'', Bletchley Park Trust Historic Guides series, No. 1, 1999</ref>
<ref>Keith A. F. Woodward, [http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/WestBletchley Welcome to West Bletchley &mdash; The Birthplace of the Information Age], site retrieved [[23 January]] 2006.</ref>.
The architectural style is a mixture of Victorian Gothic, Tudor and Dutch Baroque and was the subject of much bemused comment from those who worked there, or visited, during World War II. Leon's estate covered 581 [[acre]]s (235 [[hectare]]s), of which Bletchley Park occupied about 55 acres (22 ha). Leon's wife, Fanny, died in 1937 <ref>[http://www.ma.hw.ac.uk/~foss/valentin/Bletchley%20Park.html]</ref>, and in 1938 the site was sold to a builder, who was about to demolish the mansion and build a housing estate. However, just in time, Admiral Sir [[Hugh Sinclair]], the Director of Naval Intelligence, head of [[MI6]] and founder of the [[Government Code and Cypher School]], knowing that war was imminent, bought the site with his own money in the Spring of 1938, having failed to persuade any government department to pay for it<ref>Smith, 1998, p. 20</ref>. The fact that Sinclair, and not the Government, owned the site was not revealed until 1997 when a trust was set up to save the site from redevelopment{{fact}}.
The estate was conveniently located on the "[[Varsity Line]]" (now largely closed) between the Universities of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], which supplied many of the codebreakers. It was also chosen for its proximity to a major road (the [[A5 road|A5]]) to London and to a route for [[telephone]] trunk lines.
==Wartime history==
[[Image:Turing flat.jpg|right|thumbnail|280px|The cottages in the stableyard were converted from a tack and feed house. Early work on Enigma was performed here by [[Dilly Knox]], [[John Jeffreys]] and [[Alan Turing]]. The windows at the top of the tower open into a room used by Turing.]]
The [[Government Code and Cypher School]] (GC & CS), the intelligence bureau responsible for interception and decryption of foreign transmissions amongst other things, moved into the main house in 1939. Until he broke down, the Sinclair's private chef made early service at BP something to remember fondly. A wireless room was set up in the mansion's water tower and given the code name "Station X"<ref>Bob Watson, "How the Bletchley Park Buildings Took Shape", Appendix in F. H. Hinsley & A. Stripp, ''Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park'', 1993</ref>, a term now sometimes applied to the codebreaking efforts at Bletchley as a whole. (It was called Station X because it was the tenth in a series of radio stations, X being the [[Roman numeral]] for ten.) The radio station was soon moved away from Bletchley Park, possibly to divert attention from the site{{fact}}<!-- I have a source for it being moved, not for the "to divert attention" reason -->. Additional listening stations such as the ones at [[Chicksands]] and [[Beaumanor Hall]], the War Office "Y" Group HQ, also gathered raw signals for processing at Bletchley.
The only direct action that the site experien |
ally in a [[Spiritism|animistic]] context that may be shamanistic or, more often, (as with Santo Daime and the UDV,) mixed with [[Christianity|Christian]] imagery. Both Santo Daime and Uniao do Vegetal now have members and churches throughout the world.
Similarly, the US and Europe has started to see new religious groups born of experiences with ayahuasca. In the US a [[Wiccan|Wicca]] group, PaDeva, has become the first incorporated legal church with which ayahuasca is central to their beliefs.
Several notable celebrities have publicly discussed their use of ayahuasca, including [[Sting]], [[Tori Amos]], and [[Paul Simon]] (who wrote the song ''Spirit Voices'' about his experience with the brew in the Amazon).
==Plant constituents==
===Traditional===
Traditional Ayahuasca brews are always made with ''[[Banisteriopsis caapi]]'' as an MAOI, although DMT sources and other admixtures vary from region to region. There are several [[Banisteriopsis caapi#Types of vine|varieties of caapi]], often known as different "colors", with varying effects, potencies, and uses.
DMT admixtures:
* ''[[Psychotria viridis]]'' (Chakruna) - leaves
* ''[[Diplopterys cabrerana]]'' (Chaliponga, ''Banisteriopsis rusbyana'') - leaves
* ''[[Psychotria carthagensis]]'' (Amyruca) - leaves
Other common admixtures:
* ''[[Justicia pectoralis]]''
* [[Brugmansia]] (Toé)
* ''[[Nicotiana rustica]]'' (Mapacho)
* ''[[Ilex guayusa]]'', a relative of [[yerba mate]]
===Western===
Although traditional plant materials are often used, sources with similar chemical constituents are often substituted for the traditional ingredients.
MAOI:
* [[Harmal]] (''Peganum harmala'', Syrian Rue) - seeds
* [[Passion flower]]
DMT admixture sources:
* ''[[Acacia maidenii]]'' (Maiden's Wattle), ''[[Acacia phlebophylla]]'', and other [[Acacia]]s, most commonly employed in [[Australia]] - bark
* ''[[Anadenanthera peregrina]]'', ''A. colubrina, A. excelsa, A. macrocarpa''
* ''[[Mimosa hostilis]]'' (Jurema) - root bark - not traditionally employed with ayawaska by any existing cultures, though likely it was in the past. Popular in Europe and North America.
* ''[[Reed canary grass|Phalaris arundinacea]]'', (Reed Canary Grass)
* ''[[Phalaris aquatica]]'' (''Phalaris tuberosa'', Harding Grass)
* ''[[Phragmites australis]]'' (common reed)
==Legal Status==
Internationally, DMT is a Schedule I drug under the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]]. The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes, however, that the plant itself is excluded from international control[http://www.maps.org/pipermail/maps_forum/2001-March/003376.html]:
:''The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention. . . . Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the Peyote cactus nor the roots of the plant Mimosa hostilis nor Psilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principles, mescaline, DMT and psilocin.''
A [[fax]] from the Secretary of the International Narcotics Control Board to the [[Netherlands]] Ministry of Public Health sent in [[2001]] goes on to state that ''"Consequently, preparations (e.g.decoctions) made of these plants, including ayahuasca are not under international control and, therefore, not subject to any of the articles of the 1971 Convention."'' [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca_law10.shtml]
The legal status of these plants in the United States is somewhat questionable. Ayahuasca plants and preparations are legal as they contain no scheduled chemicals. However, brews made using DMT containing plants are illegal since DMT is a Schedule I drug. That said, some people are challenging this, using arguments similar to those used by peyotist religious sects, such as the [[Native American Church]]. A court case allowing ''Uniao do Vegetal'' to use the tea for religious purposes in the United States, ''[[Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal]]'', was heard by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] on November 1, 2005; the decision, released February 21st, 2006, allows the UDV to use the tea in its ceremonies persuant to the [[Religious Freedom Restoration Act]].
Religious use in Brazil was legalized after two official inquiries into the tea in the mid-1980s, which concluded that ayahuasca is not a recreational drug and has valid spiritual uses. (more on the legal status of ayahuasca can be found in the [[Erowid]] vault on the [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca_law.shtml legality of ayahuasca]).
In [[France]], Santo Daime won a court case allowing them to use the tea in early 2005; however, they were not allowed an exception for religious purposes, but rather for the simple reason that they did not perform chemical extractions to end up with pure DMT and harmala and the plants used were not scheduled. Four months after the court victory, the common ingredients of Ayahuasca as well as harmala were declared ''stupéfiants'', or narcotic schedule I substances, making the tea and its ingredients illegal to use or possess. See [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnTexteDeJorf?numjo=SANP0521544A%20#] and [http://afssaps.sante.fr/htm/10/filcoprs/indco.htm] (both in French) for more information.
In the United States, on February 21, 2006, the Brazilian-based religious group O Centro Espirita Beneficiente Uniao do Vegetal (UDV) was awarded by the Supreme Court the legal right to use ayahausca as their sacrament.
==External links==
*[http://www.santodaime.org/indexy.htm Santo Daime] (in English)
*[http://www.udv.org.br/english/index.html União do Vegetal] (in English)
*[http://www.padeva.com/home.html PaDeva Church]
*[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca.shtml Erowid Ayahuasca vault]
*[http://deoxy.org/dmt.htm DMT@DEOXY]
*[http://dmt.lycaeum.org/ DMT World]
*[http://www.spiritplants.org/ Spirit Plants]
*[http://releasethereality.com/thomasbitllgallery/index.html "Release The Reality" Preparation Photo Gallery]
*[http://www.plot55.com/usage/ayahuasca.html Traditional Preparation Methods (Plot55.com)]
*[http://www.plot55.com/growing/p.viridis.html Growing Psychotria viridis (Plot55.com)]
*[http://www.drugpolicy.org/news/12_02_04nmchurch.cfm Ayahuasca Church Blocked for Now]
*[http://www.csse.ca/CJE/Articles/FullText/CJE27-4/CJE27-4-tupper.pdf Ayahuasca and other "plant teachers"--educational potential?]
*[http://pot.tv/archive/shows/pottvshowse-3780.html Ayahuasca & the Internet?]
*[http://forums.ayahuasca.com The Ayahuasca Forum] (full of good info.)
*[http://www.religionlink.org/tip_051031b.php?printer_friendly=1 Tea Case Could Cause Religious Liberty Tempest] (backgrounder w/sources)
*[http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/analysis.aspx?id=16011 Justices Take Issue With Ban Of Religious Tea ]
*[http://www.grahamhancock.com/gallery/supernatural/ DMT visions gallery]
*[http://aei.helping.nl Ancient Enchanting Instruments] Website on Enchanting Instruments. You will find information about Ayahuasca, DMT, Mushrooms and more...
==Books==
* Burroughs, William S. & Ginsberg, Allen. ''[[The Yage Letters]]''. San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1963. ISBN 0872860043
*De Rios, Marlene Dobkin. ''Visionary Vine: Hallucinogenic Healing in the Peruvian Amazon, (2nd ed.)''. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1984. ISBN 0881330930
*Lamb, F. Bruce. ''Rio Tigre and Beyond: The Amazon Jungle Medicine of Manuel Córdova''. Berkeley: North Atlantic, 1985. ISBN 0938190598
*Luna, Luis Eduardo. ''Vegetalismo: Shamanism among the Mestizo Population of the Peruvian Amazon''. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1986. ISBN 9122008195
* Luna, Luis Eduardo & Amaringo, Pablo. ''Ayahuasca Visions: The Religious Iconography of A Peruvian Shaman''. Berkeley: North Atlantic, 1999. ISBN 1556433115
* Luna, Luis Eduardo & White, Stephen F., eds. ''Ayahuasca Reader: Encounters with the Amazon's Sacred Vine''. Santa Fe, NM: Synergetic, 2000. ISBN 0907791328
*Matteson Langdon, E. Jean & Baer, Gerhard, eds. ''Portals of Power: Shamanism in South America''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992. ISBN 0826313450
* Metzner, Ralph, ed. ''Ayahuasca: Hallucinogens, Consciousness, and the Spirit of Nature''. New York: Thunder's Mouth, 1999. ISBN 1560251603
* Narby, Jeremy. ''The Cosmic Serpent: DNA and the Origins of Knowledge''. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 1998. ISBN 0874779111
* Ott, Jonathan. ''Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangæan Entheogens''. Kennewick, Wash.: Natural Products, 1994. ISBN 0961423455
* Pinchbeck, Daniel. ''Breaking Open the Head: A Psychedelic Journey into the Heart of Contemporary Shamanism''. New York: Broadway, 2002. ISBN 0767907434[http://www.breakingopenthehead.com]
* Polari de Alverga, Alex. ''Forest of Visions: Ayahuasca, Amazonian Spirituality, and the Santo Daime Tradition''. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 1999. ISBN 089281716X
*Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo. ''The Shaman and the Jaguar: A Study of Narcotic Drugs Among the Indians of Colombia''. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1975. ISBN 0877220387
*Schultes, Richard Evans & Raffauf, Robert F. ''Vine of the Soul: Medicine Men, Their Plants and Rituals in the Colombian Amazonia''. Oracle, AZ: Synergetic, 1992. ISBN 0907791247
* Shanon, Benny. ''The Antipodes of the Mind: Charting the Phenomenology of the Ayahuasca Experience''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0199252939
* Stafford, Peter G. ''Heavenly Highs: Ayahuasca, Kava-Kava, Dmt, and Other Plants of the Gods''. Berkeley: Ronin, 2004. ISBN 1579510698
* Strassman, Rick. ''DMT: The Spirit Molecule: A Doctor's Revolutionary Research into the Biology of Near-Death and Mystical Experiences''. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 2001. ISBN 0892819278
*Taussig, Michael. ''Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man: A Study in Terror and Healing''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. ISBN 0226790126
* Wilcox, Joan Pari |
clown is traditionally sad.
* The '''comedy white face''' or '''grotesque clown''', who uses exaggerated make-up and costumes, such as large noses, shaped head, tiny hat, etc. [[Lou Jacobs]] is a famous ''grotesque'' clown.
* The '''character clown''', who adopts the character of some common type, such as a butcher, a policeman, housewife or [[hobo]]. Prime examples of this type of clown are [[Emmett Kelly]], [[Red Skelton]] and [[Charlie Chaplin]]. [[Lucy Ricardo]], the most famous character played by [[Lucille Ball]] is considered by clowns to be a character clown. Lucille Ball's clown character itself often dressed up as other characters, an instance of a character clown in turn ''playing a clown'' as part of the role.
* The '''[[rodeo clown]]''' has one of the most dangerous jobs in all of [[show business]]. A rodeo clown is a courageous and hard-working [[Cowhand|cowboy]] or [[Wrangler (profession)|animal wrangler]], dressed in wild costumes &mdash; almost always oversized and consisting of loose fitting layers of clothing to protect them from, and to distract, Rodeo bulls, etc. The looseness of the layers allows a rodeo clown to shed portions of their attire in the event of its being snagged. This professional &mdash; whose highly dangerous job is to protect other performers from bucking horses and charging bulls while at the same time entertaining the audience with the antics of a clown &mdash; might tell you: "Druther lose a shirt than lose my life".
* The '''[[Pierrot]]''', or "[[France|French]] clown", derived from the [[commedia dell'arte]] character Pedrolino - the youngest actor of the troupe, deadpan and downtrodden. Although Pedrolino appeared without mask, Pierrot usually appears in whiteface, typically with very little other color on the face. Like Arlechinno, Pedrolino's character changed enourmously with the rising popularity of pantomime in the late 19th century, becoming Pierrot. This clown character prefers black and white or other a simple primary color in his or her costume. (le Pierrot is often female, and has also been called "Pirouette" or "Pierrette". When [[Bernard Delfont]] was made a [[life peer]], he chose "Pierrot and Pierrette" as the heraldic supporters of his [[coat of arms]].).
::The tragic [[Robert Hunter (lyricist)|Robert Hunter]] song ''"Reuben and Cerise"'' mentions Pirouette twice, in symbolic colors:
:::''...Cerise was dressing as Pirouette in white''
:::''when a fatal vision gripped her tight''
:::''Cerise beware tonight...''
::Cerise is Reuben's "true love", but Ruby Claire was a temptress:
:::''...Sweet Ruby Claire at Reuben stared''
:::''At Reuben stared''
:::''She was dressed as Pirouette in red''
:::''and her hair hung gently down...''
:Both women have names which translate as "red", but reuben's true love is dressed in pure white, the other, to whom he played his fateful song, is the "lady in red" this symbolism might imply that Reuben was Pierrot's companion, Arlecchino:
* '''Harlequin''', or ''[[Arlecchino]]'', a character originally from [[Commedia dell'Arte]], is a "motley" clown &mdash; in "commedia", Arlecchino always carries a cane to "whack" the other performers, however this is normally taken off him by the other performers and used against him. This is believed to be the origin of "[[slapstick]]" a form of [[physical comedy]]. A slapstick (''battacio'' in [[Italian language|Italian]]) is a prop with two flat flexible wooden pieces mounted in parallel, the two sticks slap together when the implement is struck, causing a slapping sound, exaggerating the effect of a comedic blow. Despite the slapstick, Arlecchino is not malicious, but mischievous, the slapstick being a classic example of carnivalesque phallic imagery (see also the commedia masks' noses). Like a cross between Puck and Bottom, Arlecchino is spritely and adept at the same time as being clumsy and dim, and is normally the 'messenger' character in a comedy - the catalyst for mayhem. Arlechinno has a female counterpart, Arlechinna, or Rossetta, however more often he is in love with the character of Columbina, a straightforward and intelligent maid, who is usually given the prologue and epilogue. Arlechinno has other derivatives with slightly different features: Traccagnino, Bagattino, Tabarrino, Tortellino, Naccherino, Gradelino, Mezzettino, Polpettino, Nespolino, Bertoldino, Fagiuolino, Trappolino, Zaccagnino, Trivellino, Passerino, Bagolino, Temellino, Fagottino, Fritellino, Tabacchino, whose names could all be considered [[Inherently funny word|funny-sounding names]], even to an [[Italy|Italian]]. Arlechinno's name is probably from "hellech" "inno" - little devil, "inno" is little, so "Trufflino" is little Truffler, Trivellino is (Arlechinno's) "little Brother". The Harlequin often loses much of Arlechinno's character during pantomime, as he becomes more of a ballet character, stripped of dialogue and subversive content to a wide extent.
* '''Auguste''' : accompanying a circus clown, as part of a troupe, or as one of a clown duo, there is often another clown character known as an ''auguste'', but the auguste's role is different from the other clowns: he is the "straight man" in most gags. The Auguste is so self-important that the audience inevitably takes the other clown to heart as their protagonist. [[Bongo]] (of the duo Bongo and [[Clownzo]]) is an Auguste clown, which [[moniker]] he might assure you means "dignified and respectable".
:The Auguste is the zaniest and most foolish of the clown's group, yet attempts to look dignified, and thinks of himself as smart and superior and wise, which only lends to the comedic effect when he receives his inevitable come-uppance. The cleverer clown (the sidekick) always gets the better of the auguste. The auguste gets the pie in the face, is squirted with water, is knocked down on his backside, sits in the wet paint, etc.
There are also differing styles of clowning. In Europe there is a tradition of "entree Clowning" where the troupe of clowns usually comprising of "White Face, August and a "Joey"
perform a set routine; "The Busy Bee" (in German, "Beinchen Beinchen Gib Mir Honig"), "The Bon Bon", or "the Ghost" are just a few regularly performed in European Circus. Water entrees and Paste (soap) entrees are also staple diet for these audiences. Up until the eighties reprise clowns in Europe were very traditional but lately they are showing more versatility with a range of different styles and presentations involving audience participation and more inventive "gags" rather than relying on the old faithfuls. The main difference with the U.S. is that usually European shows have one ring and the clown has the complete attention of the audience; in the States, where multiple rings are the norm, there are more clowns, each working a different section of the public.
There was for many years a tradition of families of clowns all working together (such as the Rastellis, the Francescos, The Alexis, and many more), but with the economics changing it is no longer viable for many shows to afford a large family unit so they are slowly disappearing.
Circuses have recently been faced with stiff pressure from animal rights groups such as [[PETA]] for their abuse and mistreatment of animals, as well as the competetive pressure from popular new live action versions of children's television programs. In response, American circuses at least, have begun to lean towards shows based specifically around the clown as a marketable character and personality. This has promoted a new class of "Celebrity Clowns" like The Big Apple Circus' [[Barry Lubin]] (Grandma), Bello Knock or David Larible, headlining recent Ringling Brothers tours and garnering significantly larger shares of the a shows's operating budget than their fellow performers. This return to clown as central theme in circus is mirrored in the likes of Cirque du Solei, which commonly uses clowns as a central thread to link their acts and give their shows structure. The myriad smaller independent and underground circuses around the world have always relied upon the clown as the primary staple in their retinue.
* "The Power Clown" Wall Street Journal Aug 12th 2005
== Customs and traditions ==
As with any ancient [[:Category:Arts|artform]], fools, clowns and other related [[Performance art|artist]]s have developed customs, traditions and even superstitions regarding their chosen avocation. Many of these customs are widely held, and considered fundamental to the Art of Clowning.
=== A ''knock'' is a ''plug'' ===
[[Image:Clown_chili_peppers.jpg|200px|thumb|A clown participating in a [[Memorial Day]] parade]]Professional clowns typically do not make disparaging remarks about other clowns, not only because this is considered petty, but because of the tradition that "a knock is a plug", in other words, to mention a poor performer by name is to provide that performer with undue advertisement.
=== The Code ===
Each individual clown has the informal right to a costume, makeup and other unique performance attributes that must not be infringed by other clowns. Despite no enforcement through [[copyright]] or similar laws, this [[code of non-infringement]] is always respected by the professional clown, and its protection is even extended to individual clown routines and acts. This practice is of such a great importance to clowns, that it is often referred to by clowns as simply "The Code."
==== "Clown Eggs" ====
In [[United Kingdom|Britain]], as recognition of The Code, each clown has their own [[clown face]] painted onto an eggshell and no two eggs can be alike.
=== Clow |
shef.ac.uk/~es/DINOC01/dinocal1.html Calculate your own Dinosaur speed] More on Gait and his speed calculations.
#{{note|boom}}Douglas, K. and Young, S. (1998). The dinosaur detectives. ''New Scientist'' 2130:24. [http://members.tripod.com/~megalania/recap.html See commentary on the article].
#{{note|hastydino}}Hecht, J. (1998). The deadly dinos that took a dive. ''New Scientist'' 2130. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/78905.stm See commentary on the article].
#{{note|floatingdino}}Henderson, D.M. (2003). Effects of stomach stones on the buoyancy and equilibrium of a floating crocodilian: A computational analysis. ''Canadian Journal of Zoology'' 81:1346-1357. [http://www.nserc.ca/news/features/dinosaurs_e.htm See commentary on the article].
#{{note|permian1}} Citation for Permian/Triassic extinction event, percentage of animal species that went extinct. [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/02/050223130549.htm See commentary]
#{{note|permian2}} Another citation for P/T event data. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2002/dayearthdied.shtml See commentary]
#{{note|eoraptor}} Sereno, P.C., C.A. Forster, R.R. Rogers, and A.M. Monetta. 1993. Primitive dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and the early evolution of Dinosauria. Nature 361:64-66.
#{{note|evolution}}Hayward, T. (1997). The First Dinosaurs. ''Dinosaur Cards''. Orbis Publishing Ltd. D36040612.
#{{note|parsons}}Parsons, K.M. (2001). ''Drawing Out Leviathan''. Indiana University Press. 22-48. ISBN 0253339375.
#{{note|casepoint}}Mayr, G., Pohl, B. and Peters, D.S. (2005). A Well-Preserved Archaeopteryx Specimen with Theropod Features. ''Science'' 310:1483-1486.[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1201_051201_archaeopteryx_2.html See commentary on the article].
#{{note|lungs}}O'Connor, P.M. and Claessens, L.P.A.M. (2005). Basic avian pulmonary design and flow-through ventilation in non-avian theropod dinosaurs. ''Nature'' 436:253.
#{{note|sleepingdino}}Xu, X. and Norell, M.A. (2004). A new troodontid dinosaur from China with avian-like sleeping posture. ''Nature'' 431:838-841.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/news/story/0,12976,1326559,00.html See commentary on the article].
#{{note|fassett2002}}Fassett, J, R.A. Zielinski, & J.R. Budahn. (2002). Dinosaurs that did not die; evidence for Paleocene dinosaurs in the Ojo Alamo Sandstone, San Juan Basin, New Mexico. In: Catastrophic events and mass extinctions; impacts and beyond. (Eds. Koeberl, C. & K. MacLeod): ''Special Paper - Geological Society of America'' 356: 307-336.
#{{note|wang}}Wang, H., Yan, Z. and Jin, D. (1997). Reanalysis of published DNA sequence amplified from Cretaceous dinosaur egg fossil. ''Molecular Biology and Evolution''. 14:589-591. [http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/reprint/14/5/589 See commentary on the article].
#{{note|chang}}Chang, B.S.W., Jönsson, K., Kazmi, M.A., Donoghue, M.J. and Sakmar, T.P. (2002). Recreating a Functional Ancestral Archosaur Visual Pigment. ''Molecular Biology and Evolution'' 19:1483-1489. [http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/9/1483 See commentary on the article].
#{{note|chanceatlife}}Schweitzer, M.H., Wittmeyer, J.L. and Horner, J.R. (2005). Soft-Tissue Vessels and Cellular Preservation in Tyrannosaurus rex. ''Science'' 307:1952-1955. Also covers the [[Dinosaur#Feathered dinosaurs and the bird connection|Reproduction Biology paragraph in the Feathered dinosaurs and the bird connection section]]. [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;307/5717/1952 See commentary on the article]
#{{note|changes}}{{note_label|changes|32|a}}(Nov 2000). ''Earthwatch'' :6-13.
#{{note|koeberl}}Koeberl, C. and MacLeod, K.G. (2002). ''Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions''. Geological Society of America. ISBN 0813723566.
#{{note|enviro1}} [http://www.dinodata.net/DNM/campexplo.htm The Campanian diversity explosion] The effect climate change may have had on the extinction of the Dinosaurs
#{{note|enviro2}} [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/11/1129_051129_sea_level.html Dino-Era Earth Had Polar Ice, Low Sea Level, Study Says] Sea levels during the dinosaur era; [[National Geographic]]; November 29, 2005
#{{note|batofbones}}Williams, P. (1997). The Battle of the Bones. ''Dinosaur Cards''. Orbis Publishing Ltd. D36040607.
#{{note|jpii}}[http://atheism.about.com/od/popejohnpaulii/a/evolution.htm Pope John Paul II, Darwin, and Evolution] Catholic Opinions on Evolutionary Origins.
</div>
==General references==
* Kevin Padian, and Philip J. Currie. (1997). ''Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs''. Academic Press. ISBN 0122268105. (Articles are written by experts in the field).
* [[Gregory S. Paul|Paul, Gregory S.]] (2000). ''The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs''. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312262264.
*Paul, Gregory S. (2002). ''Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of flight in Dinosaurs and Birds''. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801867630.
*[[David B. Weishampel|Weishampel, David B.]] (2004). ''The Dinosauria''. University of California Press; 2nd edition. ISBN 0520242092.
==External links==
<!--Sorted (roughly) from least to most technical-->
{{commons|Dinosauria}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Dinosaur.ogg|2005-12-30}}
;For children
*[http://www.mantyweb.com/dinosaur/ Dinosaur Time Machine from MantyWeb Educational Software] From MantyWeb Educational Software. Kid's site, facts, games.
*[http://yahooligans.yahoo.com/content/science/dinosaurs Dinopedia] From Yahooligans! Science. Glossaries, dino cards and indexes.
*[http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/ Zoom Dinosaurs] From Enchanted Learning. Kid's site, info pages, theories, history.
*[http://www.geschichteinchronologie.ch/natur/dinosaurier/xenos-GB_30-dinosaur-pictures-for-painting.html 30 Dinosaur pictures for painting] so the dinos get into your fingers, also for adults.
;Popular
*[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/dinosaurs-other-extinct-creatures/index.html Dinosaurs & other extinct creatures] From the [[Natural History Museum]]. London popular site, well illustrated dino directory.
*[http://www.arches.uga.edu/~rfreeman/GEOL3350_'4HistoryDinoSt.htm History of Dinosaur discovery] Timeline of the discovery of Dinosaurs.
*[http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dinosaurs/ Dinosaurs: Facts and Fiction] From the [[United States Geological Survey]]. Popular overview.
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dinosaurs/ Dinosaurs] From the [[BBC]]. Popular site, very well illustrated.
*[http://www.dinodata.net/Discussions/dinosaurs.html Discussions] From DinoData. Summaries of modern debates about dinosaurs.
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/dinosaur.html Dinosauria] From UC Berkeley Museum of Paleontology Detailed information - scroll down for menu.
*[http://www.dinosaurnews.org/ The Dinosaur News] The Dino-headlines from around the world. Recent news on dinosaurs, including finds and discoveries, lots of links.
*[http://www.bowdoin.edu/~dbensen/ OPUS: Dinosaur by Daniel Bensen] A gallery of dino-paintings.
;Technical
*[http://www.prehistoricplanet.com/ Prehistoric Planet] From PaleoClones. Current dino news.
*[http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,63613,00.html ''A Fiery Death for Dinosaurs?'' by Amit Asaravala] From ''[[Wired Magazine|Wired]]''. Article on the rapid extinction of dinosaurs.
*[http://www.newscientist.com/hottopics/dinosaurs/ The Rex Files] From the ''[[New Scientist]]''. Articles, latest news but out of date.
*[http://palaeo-electronica.org/ ''Palaeontologia Electronica''] From Coquina Press. Online technical journal.
*[http://www.thunderbolts.info/tpod/2005/arch05/050623impossible-dinosaur.htm ''Impossible Dinosaurs''] Article on a gravity-based approach for the extinction by David Talbott and Wallace Thornhill.
*[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0002255 TeV scale gravity, mirror universe, and ... dinosaurs] Article from [http://th-www.if.uj.edu.pl/acta/ Acta Physica Polonica B] by Z.K. Silagadze.
;Very technical
*[http://www.dinodata.net DinoData] Technical site, essays, classification, anatomy.
*[http://www.dinosauria.com/dml/dml.htm Dinosauria On-Line] Technical site, essays, pronunciation, dictionary.
*[http://dino.lm.com/ The Dinosauricon] By T. Michael Keesey. Technical site, cladogram, illustrations and animations.
*[http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/Unit310/000.html Dinosauromorpha Cladogram] From [http://www.Palaeos.com Palaeos]. A detailed and wonderful amateur site about all things paleo.
*[http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/dinobase/dinopage.html Dinobase] AA dinosaur database with dinosaur lists, classification, pictures, and more.
*[http://planetdinosaur.com/dinosaurs.htm Planet Dinosaur] A very extensive site regarding dinosaur information.
;Bird-dinosaur discussion
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/avians.html DinoBuzz] Are birds Dinosaurs?
*[http://www.dinosauria.com/ Dinosauria] Site focussing on the Dino-Bird aspect.
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Dinosaurs|*]]
[[Category:Paleontology]]
[[Category:Paleozoology]]
[[Category:Prehistoric reptiles]]
[[Category:Reptiles]]
{{Link FA|th}}
{{Link FA|sl}}
[[ast:Dinosauriu]]
[[bg:Динозаври]]
[[ca:Dinosaure]]
[[cs:Dinosauři]]
[[cy:Deinosor]]
[[da:Dinosaurus]]
[[de:Dinosaurier]]
[[es:Dinosauria]]
[[eo:Dinosaŭro]]
[[eu:Dinosauro]]
[[fr:Dinosaure]]
[[gl:Dinosauro]]
[[ko:공룡]]
[[ku:Dînosaur]]
[[id:Dinosaurus]]
[[it:Dinosauri]]
[[he:דינוזאורים]]
[[sw:Dinosaurs]]
[[lt:Dinozauras]]
[[ms:Dinosaur]]
[[nl:Dinosaurus]]
[[ja:恐竜]]
[[no:Dinosaurus]]
[[nn:Dinosaurus]]
[[pl:Dinozaury]]
[[pt:Dinossauro]]
[[ru:Динозавры]]
[[simple:Dinosaur]]
[[sk:Dinosaurus]]
[[sl:Dinozaver]]
[[sr:Диносауруси]]
[[su:Dinosaurus]]
[[fi:Hirmuliskot]]
[[sv:Dinosaurier]]
[[th:ไดโนเสาร์]]
[[tr:Dinozor]]
[[uk:Динозавр]]
[[zh:恐龍]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Lower Silesian Voivodship</title>
<id>8312</id>
<revision>
<id>36673420</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T18:48:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Appleseed</username>
<id>404133 |
prefix free code is a code having the property that no codeword is a prefix of any other codeword.<br>
'''Note-3'''. In the standard Huffman coding problem, it is assumed that each symbol in the set that the code words are constructed from has an equal cost to transmit: a code word whose length is N digits will always have a cost of N, no matter how many of those digits are 0s, how many are 1s, etc. When working under this assumption, minimizing the total cost of the message and minimizing the total number of digits are the same thing.
==== Formalized description ====
'''Input'''.<br>
Alphabet <math>A = \left\{a_{1},a_{2},\cdots,a_{n}\right\}</math>, which is the symbol alphabet of size <math>n</math>. <br>
Set <math>C = \left\{c_{1},c_{2},\cdots,c_{n}\right\}</math>, which is the set of the symbol costs, i.e. <math>c_{i} = \mathrm{cost}\left(a_{i}\right), 1\leq i \leq n</math>. <br>
<br>
'''Output'''.<br>
Code <math>H\left(A,C\right) = \left\{h_{1},h_{2},\cdots,h_{n}\right\}</math>, which is the set of (binary) codewords, where <math>h_{i}</math> is the codeword for <math>a_{i}, 1 \leq i \leq n</math>.<br>
<br>
'''Goal'''.<br>
Let <math>S\left(H\right) = \sum_{i=1}^{n}{c_{i}\times\mathrm{length}\left(h_{i}\right)}</math> be the weighted path length of code <math>H</math>. Condition: <math>S\left(H\right) \leq S\left(T\right)</math> for any code <math>T\left(A,C\right)</math>.
==== Samples ====
====== Sample-1 ======
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" style="background: #efefef;" | Input
! style="background: #efefef; font-weight: normal;" | Alphabet
| a
| b
| c
| d
| e
| f
| g
| h
| i
| &nbsp;
|-
! style="background: #efefef; font-weight: normal;" | Costs
| style="color: blue;" | 10
| style="color: blue;" | 15
| style="color: blue;" | 5
| style="color: blue;" | 15
| style="color: blue;" | 20
| style="color: blue;" | 5
| style="color: blue;" | 15
| style="color: blue;" | 30
| style="color: blue;" | 5
| &nbsp;
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background: #efefef;" | Output
! style="background: #efefef; font-weight: normal;" | Codewords
| <code style="color: red;">000</code>
| <code style="color: red;">010</code>
| <code style="color: red;">0010</code>
| <code style="color: red;">011</code>
| <code style="color: red;">111</code>
| <code style="color: red;">00110</code>
| <code style="color: red;">110</code>
| <code style="color: red;">10</code>
| <code style="color: red;">00111</code>
| &nbsp;
|-
! style="background: #efefef; font-weight: normal;" | Weighted path length
| <span style="color: blue;">10</span> * <span style="color: red;">3</span>
| <span style="color: blue;">15</span> * <span style="color: red;">3</span>
| <span style="color: blue;"> 5</span> * <span style="color: red;">4</span>
| <span style="color: blue;">15</span> * <span style="color: red;">3</span>
| <span style="color: blue;">20</span> * <span style="color: red;">3</span>
| <span style="color: blue;"> 5</span> * <span style="color: red;">5</span>
| <span style="color: blue;">15</span> * <span style="color: red;">3</span>
| <span style="color: blue;">30</span> * <span style="color: red;">2</span>
| <span style="color: blue;"> 5</span> * <span style="color: red;">5</span>
| = 355
|}
== Basic technique ==
The technique works by creating a [[binary tree]] of nodes. These can be stored in a regular [[array]], the size of which depends on the number of symbols(N). A node can be either a '''leaf node''' or an '''internal node'''. Initially, all nodes are leaf nodes, which contain the '''symbol''' itself, the '''weight''' (frequency of appearance) of the symbol and optionally, a link to a '''parent''' node which makes it easy to read the code (in reverse) starting from a leaf node. Internal nodes contain symbol '''weight''', links to '''two child nodes''' and the optional link to a '''parent''' node. As a common convention, bit '0' represents following the left child and bit '1' represents following the right child. A finished tree has N leaf nodes and N&minus;1 internal nodes.
A fast way to create a Huffman tree is to use the [[heap (data structure)|heap]] data structure, which keeps the nodes in partially sorted order according to a predetermined criterion. In this case, the node with the lowest weight is always kept at the root of the heap for easy access.
Creating the tree:
#Start with as many leaves as there are symbols.
#Push all leaf nodes into the heap.
#While there is more than one node in the heap:
##Remove two nodes with the lowest weight from the heap.
##If the heap was storing copies of node data rather than pointers to nodes in final storage for the tree, move these nodes to final storage.
##Create a new internal node, with the two just-removed nodes as children (either node can be either child) and the sum of their weights as the new weight.
##Update the parent links in the two just-removed nodes to point to the just-created parent node.
##Push the new node into the heap.
#The remaining node is the root node; the tree has now been generated.
It is generally beneficial to minimize the variance of codeword length. For example, a communication buffer receiving Huffman-encoded data may need to be larger to deal with especially long symbols if the tree is especially unbalanced. To reduce variance every newly generated node must be favored among same weight nodes and placed as high as possible. This modification will retain the mathematical optimality of the Huffman coding while minimizing the length of the longest character code.
== Main properties ==
The frequencies used can be generic ones for the application domain that are based on average experience, or they can be the actual frequencies found in the text being compressed.
(This variation requires that a [[frequency table]] or other hint as to the encoding must be stored with the compressed text; implementations employ various tricks to store
tables efficiently.)
Huffman coding is optimal when the probability of each input symbol is a negative power of two. Prefix-free codes tend to have slight inefficiency on small alphabets, where probabilities often fall between these optimal points. Expanding the alphabet size by coalescing multiple symbols into "words" before Huffman coding can help a bit. The worst case for Huffman coding can happen when the probability of a symbol exceeds 2<sup>-1</sup> making the upper limit of inefficiency unbounded. To prevent this, [[run-length encoding]] can be used to preprocess the symbols.
Extreme cases of Huffman codes are connected with [[Fibonacci number|Fibonacci and Lucas numbers]] and [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/WythoffArray.html Wythoff array].
[[Arithmetic coding]] produces slight gains over Huffman coding, but in practice these gains have seldom been large enough to offset arithmetic coding's higher computational complexity and [[patent]] [[royalties]]. ([[As of 2001|As of November 2001]], [[IBM]] owns patents on the core concepts of arithmetic coding in several jurisdictions.)
== Variations ==
=== Adaptive Huffman coding ===
A variation called [[adaptive Huffman coding]] calculates the frequencies dynamically based on recent actual frequencies in the source string. This is somewhat related to the [[LZ77|LZ]] family of algorithms.
=== Length-limited Huffman coding ===
Length-limited Huffman coding is a variant where the goal is still to achieve a minimum weighted path length, but there is an additional restriction that the length of each codeword must be less than a given constant.
=== Huffman template algorithm ===
Most often, the weights used in implementations of Huffman coding represent numeric probabilities, but the algorithm given above does not require this; it requires only a way to order weights and to add them. The '''Huffman template algorithm''' enables one to use non-numerical weights (costs, frequencies).
=== ''n''-ary Huffman coding ===
The '''''n''-ary Huffman''' algorithm uses the {0, 1, ..., ''n'' &minus; 1} alphabet to encode message and build an ''n''-ary tree.
=== Huffman coding with unequal letter costs ===
In the standard Huffman coding problem, it is assumed that each symbol in the set that the code words are constructed from has an equal cost to transmit: a code word whose length is ''N'' digits will always have a cost of ''N'', no matter how many of those digits are 0s, how many are 1s, etc. When working under this assumption, minimizing the total cost of the message and minimizing the total number of digits are the same thing.
''Huffman coding with unequal letter costs'' is the generalization in which this assumption is no longer assumed true: the letters of the encoding alphabet may have non-uniform lengths, due to characteristics of the transmission medium. An example is the encoding alphabet of [[Morse code]], where a 'dash' takes longer to send than a 'dot', and therefore the cost of a dash in transmission time is higher. The goal is still to minimize the weighted average codeword length, but it is no longer s |
ival]] and the classical funereal oratory of [[History of Athens#Classical Athens|Athens]], as well as the [[Transcendentalism]] of [[Unitarian]] minister and [[abolitionist]] [[Theodore Parker]] (the source of the phrase "of all the people, by all the people, for all the people") and the constitutional arguments of [[Daniel Webster]].{{ref|Vosmeier}}
Author and Civil War scholar [[James McPherson]]'s review of Wills' book addresses the parallels to [[Pericles]]' funeral oration during the [[Peloponnesian War]] as described by [[Thucydides]], and enumerates several striking comparisons with Lincoln's speech.{{ref|McPherson}} Pericles' speech, like Lincoln's, begins with an acknowledgment of revered predecessors: "I shall begin with our ancestors: it is both just and proper that they should have the honour of the first mention on an occasion like the present"; then praises the uniqueness of the State's commitment to [[democracy]]: "If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences"; honors the sacrifice of the slain, "Thus choosing to die resisting, rather than to live submitting, they fled only from dishonour, but met danger face to face"; and exhorts the living to continue the struggle: "You, their survivors, must determine to have as unfaltering a resolution in the field, though you may pray that it may have a happier issue."{{ref|www.constitution.org.278}}{{ref|www.nybooks.com.279}}
[[Craig R. Smith]], in "Criticism of Political Rhetoric and Disciplinary Integrity", also suggested the influence of Webster's famous speeches on the view of government expressed by Lincoln in the Gettysburg Address, specifically, Webster's "Second Reply to Hayne", in which he states, "This government, Sir, is the independent offspring of the popular will. It is not the creature of State legislatures; nay, more, if the whole truth must be told, the people brought it into existence, established it, and have hitherto supported it, for the very purpose, amongst others, of imposing certain salutary restraints on State sovereignties."{{ref|www.acjournal.org.280}}{{ref|www.dartmouth.edu.281}}
Some have noted Lincoln's usage of the imagery of birth, life, and death in reference to a nation "brought forth," "conceived," and that shall not "perish." Others, including author [[Allen C. Guelzo]], suggested that Lincoln's formulation "four score and seven" was an allusion to the [[King James Version of the Bible]]'s [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalm%2090;&version=9; Psalm 90], in which man's lifespan is given as "threescore and ten."{{ref|refbot.282}}{{ref|Guelzo}}
Writer [[H. L. Mencken]] criticized what he believed to be Lincoln's central argument, that Union soldiers at Gettysburg "sacrificed their lives to the cause of self-determination." Mencken contended, "It is difficult to imagine anything more untrue. The Union soldiers in the battle actually fought against self-determination; it was the Confederates who fought for the right of their people to govern themselves."{{ref|www.lewrockwell.com.284}}
== Myths and trivia ==
In an oft-repeated legend, after completing the speech, Lincoln turned to his bodyguard [[Ward Hill Lamon]] and remarked that his speech, like a bad plow, "won't scour." According to Garry Wills, this statement has no basis in fact and largely originates from the unreliable recollections of Lamon.{{ref_label|Wills|1|c}} In Wills' view, "(Lincoln) had done what he wanted to do (at Gettysburg)."
Another persistent myth is that Lincoln composed the speech while riding on the train from Washington to Gettysburg and wrote it on the back of an envelope, a story at odds with the existence of several early drafts and the reports of Lincoln's final editing while a guest of David Wills in Gettysburg.{{ref|www.thelincolnmuseum.org.285}}
In addition, it is a myth that the assembled at Gettysburg expected Lincoln to speak much longer than he did. Everyone there knew (or should have known) that the President's role was minor. The only known photograph of Lincoln at Gettysburg, taken by photographer [[David Bachrach]]{{ref|Bachrach}} was identified in the [[Mathew Brady]] collection of photographic plates in the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] in [[1952]]. While Lincoln's speech was short and may have precluded multiple pictures of him while speaking, he and the other dignitaries sat for hours during the rest of the program.
The copies of the Address within the Library of Congress are encased in specially-designed, temperature-controlled, sealed containers with [[argon]] gas in order to protect the documents from oxidation and continued degeneration.{{ref|preservation}}
==In popular culture==
The importance of the Gettysburg Address in the history of the United States is underscored by its enduring presence in American culture. In addition to its prominent place carved into a stone [[cella]] on the south wall of the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], the Gettysburg Address is frequently referred to in works of popular culture, with the implicit expectation that contemporary audiences will be familiar with Lincoln's words. [[Image:Lincoln-side.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|A side view of the sculpture inside the [[Lincoln Memorial]]; in the enlarged view, the words of the Gettysburg Address can be seen carved into the south wall in the background.]]
Some examples include Meredith Willson's [[1957]] [[musical theater|musical]], ''[[The Music Man]]'', in which the Mayor of River City consistently begins speaking with the words "Four score . . ." until his actual speech is handed to him. In the [[1967]] musical ''[[Hair (musical)|Hair]]'', a song called "Abie Baby/Fourscore" refers to Lincoln's [[assassination]], and contains portions of the Gettysburg Address delivered in an ironic manner. In the [[1989]] movie ''[[Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure]]'', Abraham Lincoln is snatched from the past by the [[time-travel]]ing title characters, and addresses the students of San Dimas High School with the words, "four score and seven minutes ago." In the [[1999]] movie ''[[Dick (movie)|Dick]]'', the characters Betsy and Arlene say "four score and seven years ago our forefather did something I don't know&hellip;" an example of how Lincoln's actual words, "our fathers," are frequently misquoted.
In another case, [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], began his "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech, itself one of the most-recognized speeches in American history, with a reference to Lincoln and an allusion to Lincoln's words: "Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation."
==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
# {{note|Wills}} pp. 24-5, {{note_label|Wills|1|a}} p. 35, {{note_label|Wills|2|b}} pp. 34-5, {{note_label|Wills|3|c}} p. 36, {{cite book
| authorlink = Garry Wills
| last = Wills
| first = Garry
| title = Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America
| location = New York
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| date = 1992
| id = ISBN 0-671-76956-1
}}
# {{note|showcase.netins.net.266}} {{cite web
| title = Abraham Lincoln in the Wills House Bedroom at Gettysburg
| url = http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/tours/gettyroom.htm
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|Johnson}} {{cite journal
| last = Johnson
| first = Martin P.
| title = Who Stole the Gettysburg Address
| journal = Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association
| volume = 24
| issue = 2
| date = Summer 2003
| pages = 1–19
}}
# {{note|showcase.netins.net.267}} {{cite web
| title = Abraham Lincoln at the Gettysburg Town Square
| url = http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/tours/gettysquare.htm
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|showcase.netins.net.268}} {{cite web
| title = Saddle Used by Abraham Lincoln in Gettysburg
| url = http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/tours/gettysaddle.htm
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|NYT}} The [[New York Times]], November 20, 1863.
# {{note|showcase.netins.net.269}} {{cite web
| title = Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg Cemetery
| url = http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/tours/gettycem2.htm
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|www.gettysburg.com.270}} {{cite web
| title = getaddinfo
| url = http://www.gettysburg.com/bog/ga.htm
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|douglassarchives.org.271}} {{cite web
| title = Edward Everett's complete "Gettysburg Oration"
| url = http://douglassarchives.org/ever_b21.htm
| accessdate = 2005-12-18
}}
# {{note|LOC}} Library of Congress website, [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd/images/frstdrt1.jpg Nicolay Copy, page 1], [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd/images/frstdrt2.jpg page 2]
# {{note|Nicolay}} Nicolay, J. "Lincoln's Gettysburg Address," Century Magazine 47 (February 1894): 596–608, cited by Johnson, Martin P. "Who Stole the Gettysburg Address," Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association 24(2) (Summer 2003): 1-19.
#{{note|americantreasures}} Library of Congress website, [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr00.html Top Treasures of the American Treasures exhibition]
# {{note|LOC3}} Library of Congress website, [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd/images/secdrt1.jpg Hay Copy, page 1], [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd/images/secdrt2.jpg page 2]
# {{note|GNMP}} {{note_label|GNMP|1|a}} {{note_label|GNMP|1|b}} Gettysburg National Military Park Historical Handbook website, http://www.pueblo.gsa.gov/cic_text/misc/gettysburg/g2.htm GNMP website]
# {{note|VG}} Virtual Gettysburg website, [http://www.virtualgettysburg.com/exhibit/lincoln/images/everettZ.jpg Everett Copy]
# {{note|Corn |
lition even called upon the police to disobey orders if asked to fire on an unarmed public. Public disenchantment combined with hard economic times and an unresponsive government. A huge rally surrounded the Parliament building and Indira's residence in Delhi, demanding her to behave responsibly and resign.
Indira advised President [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]] to declare a [[state of emergency]]. Ahmed was an old political ally, and in India the President acts upon the advice of an elected PM alone. (This former Governor of a border state had organized the infiltration of several million Bangladeshis into India). Claiming patriotism, some Indians saw this alliance as a political evil. Having secured a state of emergency, Indira called out the police and the army to break up the strikes and protests, ordering the arrest of all opposition leaders. Many of these were men who had first gone to jail fighting the British in the 1930s and 1940s. Curfews, indiscriminate charges, and unlimited powers of detention were granted to police, while all publications were directly censored by the Ministry for Information and Broadcasting. Elections were indefinitely postponed, and non-Congress state governments were dismissed.
The Prime Minister pushed a series of increasingly harsh bills and constitutional amendments through parliament with little discussion or debate. Indira attempted to re-write the nation's laws to protect herself from legal prosecution once emergency rule was revoked. Still, Indira did not feel her powers were amassing quickly enough, so she utilized President [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]], an Indira loyalist, to issue "extraordinary laws" that bypassed parliament altogether, allowing her to [[rule by decree]]. [[Inder Kumar Gujral]], future Prime Minister but then Indira's Minister for Information and Broadcasting, resigned to protest Sanjay's interference in his Ministry's work. With a few exceptions everyone fell in line to Indira and Sanjay's style of rule; sychophancy and servile attitude in politics were encouraged and came to stay.
Indira's emergency rule lasted nineteen months. During this time, in spite of the controversy involved, the country made significant economic and industrial progress. This was primarily due to the end it put to strikes in factories, colleges, and universities and the disciplining of trade and student unions. Production and government work became more efficient. Tax evasion was reduced by zealous government officials, although corruption remained. Agricultural and industrial production expanded considerably under Indira's 20-point programme; revenues increased, and so did India's financial standing in the international community. Against this must be counted the arrest and torture of thousands of political activists, the ruthless clearing of slums around Delhi's Jama Masjid area ordered by Sanjay, which left hundreds of thousands of people homeless and thousands killed, and the family planning program which forcibly imposed [[vasectomy]] on thousands of fathers and was often poorly administered, nurturing a public anger against family planning that persists into the 21st century.
In 1977, greatly misjudging her own popularity, Indira called elections and was roundly defeated. To the surprise of some observers, she meekly agreed to step down, although the theory has been proposed that Field Marshall [[Sam Maneckshaw]], Chief of Army Staff, threatened her by suggesting the possibility of forcible removal.
==Ouster, Arrest and Return==
The unwieldy [[BJP|Janata]] Party coalition came to power in the 1977 elections. [[Morarji Desai]], Indira's long-time opponent, became Prime Minister and [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]], the establishment choice of 1969, became President of the Republic. Indira had lost her seat and found herself without work, income or residence. The Congress Party split, and veteran Indira supporters like [[Jagjivan Ram]] abandoned her for Janata. The Congress (Indira) Party was now a much smaller group in Parliament, although the official opposition. Unable to govern owing to fractious coalition warfare, the Janata government's Home Minister, [[Choudhary Charan Singh]], ordered the arrest of Indira and Sanjay Gandhi on a slew of charges. Her arrest and long-running trial, however, projected the image of a helpless woman being victimized by the Government, and this triggered Indira's political rebirth.
The people were already dissatisfied with a dysfunctional government, a stagnant economy, disorderly coalition governments at the state levels, near-continuous strikes and disorder, and frustratingly stalled trials of Emergency-era culprits. Millions of poor people recalled their former icon, and the middle classes recalled the order, peace and progress of the Emergency. They were disenchanted by the return of elections and freedom of expression, noting the disorder it caused. Indira began giving speeches again, tacitly apologizing for "mistakes" made during the Emergency, and garnering support from icons like [[Vinoba Bhave]]. Desai resigned in June 1979, and Charan Singh was appointed Prime Minister by the President.
Singh attempted to form a government with his Janata (Secular) coalition but lacked a majority. Charan Singh bargained with Indira for the support of Congress (I) MPs, causing uproar by his unhesitant coddling of his biggest political opponent. After a short interval, Indira withdrew her initial support and President [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]] dissolved Parliament, calling fresh elections in 1980. Indira's Congress (I) Party was returned to power with a landslide majority.
== Operation Blue Star and Assassination==
[[Image:Indira Time.jpg|thumb|250px|Time magzine covered a feature on Mrs. Gandhi after her assasination]]
Indira Gandhi found her toughest opponent in [[Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale]]. Much misunderstanding has existed in the state-controlled Indian press regarding this charismatic leader of the Sikhs. There is no evidence to believe that he began the movement for Khalistan, even though Indira Gandhi labelled him a separatist. On September 1981, Bhindrawale voluntarily offered his arrest in Amritsar, where he was detained and interrogated for twenty-five days, but was released because of lack of evidence. After his release, Bhindranwale relocated himself from his headquarters at Mehta Chowk to Guru Nanak Niwas within the Darbar Sahib precincts.<ref>Ibid, p. 105.</ref> This move of Bhindrawale is generally seen as the reason for Indira Gandhi's attack on the Darbar Sahib. The Indian army, however, attacked not only this important shine, but 37 additional shrines across Punjab where there were no Sikh nationalists or militants in residence.<ref>Mahmood, Cynthia Keppley, “Dynamics of Terror in Punjab and Kashmir,” Jeffrey A. Sluka, ed., Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000, p. 77.</ref> Bhindranwale’s presence at the shrine, therefore, was a minor factor, if a factor at all, in Indira Gandhi’s decision to attack the Sikh Vatican. In fact, “the then deputy commissioner of Amritsar, Gurdev Singh…said that he had categorically informed the highest officials of the Punjab government that if they wanted to arrest Bhindranwale, there would be no major difficulty in organizing it. The chief minister, the governor of Punjab and other senior officials told him that the directive to take action against Bhindranwale had to come from Delhi.”<ref>Kumar, Ram Narayan, et. al., Reduced to Ashes, p. 34</ref> These orders never came because Bhindranwale had no outstanding charges against him. Arun Shourie of The Indian Express noted, "For all I know, he [Bhindranwale] is completely innocent and is genuinely and exclusively dedicated to the teachings of the Gurus.”<ref>Arun Shourie, “The consequences of pandering”, The Indian Express, May 13, 1982.</ref> In December 1983, a senior officer in Chandigarh confessed: “It’s really shocking that we have so little against him [Bhindranwale] while we keep blaming him for all sorts of things.”<ref>India Today, 31 December 1983, page 36.</ref> Therefore, to think that Bhindranwale invited an attack from the Indian army through his presence at the Darbar Sahib is to ignore an established fact that the army operation was planned well in advance, as stated by S. K. Sinha, a major figure in the Indian Army. The attack had been planned several months beforehand and was timed for an important anniversary in the [[Sikhism|Sikh]] calendar when thousands of pilgrims would be expected to be present.<ref>Joyce Pettigrew, "Parents and Their Children in Situation of Terror: Disappearances and Special Police Activity in Punjab," ''Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), p. 204. </ref> The army operation was followed by wholesale killings of [[Sikhism|Sikh]] males between the ages of 15 and 35 in Punjab’s villages.<ref>Mary Anne Weaver, The Christian Science Monitor, [[15 October]], [[1984]]. Also see ''ibid''.</ref> These violent events, together with organized massacre of Sikhs in India’s major cities in November 1984, and daily terror families subsequently experienced in Punjab’s villages gave rise to resistance.<ref> Joyce Pettigrew, "Parents and Their Children in Situation of Terror: Disappearances and Special Police Activity in Punjab," ''Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), p. 204. </ref>
Sikhs everywhere were outraged at the desecration of their holiest shrine. On [[October 31]], [[1984]], two of her Sikh bodyguards assassinated Indira Gandhi in the garden of her home.
Indira Gandhi was cremated on [[3 November]], near Raj Ghat and the place was called [[Raj Ghat and other memori |
exander]]
[[Category:Scottish Nobel laureates|Fleming, Alexander]]
[[Category:Scottish scholars|Fleming, Aleaxnder]]
[[Category:Alumni of Imperial College London|Fleming, Aleaxnder]]
[[Category:Lecturers of Imperial College London|Fleming, Aleaxnder]]
[[ar:ألكسندر فلمينغ]]
[[ca:Alexander Fleming]]
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[[eo:Alexander FLEMING]]
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[[hr:Alexander Fleming]]
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[[id:Alexander Fleming]]
[[it:Alexander Fleming]]
[[he:אלכסנדר פלמינג]]
[[ka:ფლემინგი, ალექსანდერ]]
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[[ja:アレクサンダー・フレミング]]
[[no:Alexander Fleming]]
[[pl:Alexander Fleming]]
[[pt:Alexander Fleming]]
[[ro:Alexander Fleming]]
[[ru:Флеминг, Александр]]
[[fi:Alexander Fleming]]
[[sv:Alexander Fleming]]
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[[vi:Alexander Fleming]]
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[[zh:亚历山大·弗莱明]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andrew Carnegie</title>
<id>1938</id>
<revision>
<id>42102828</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:17:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.44.143.168</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Postwar years, 1865-1880: Carnegie the investor */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name =Andrew Carnegie
| image = Andrew-carnegie-portrait-pd.png
| caption =
| birth_date = [[November 25]] [[1835]]
| birth_place = [[Dunfermline]], [[Scotland]]
| death_date = [[August 11]] [[1919]]
| death_place = [[Lenox, Massachusetts]]
| occupation = [[List of business people|Businessman]] and [[Philanthropist]]
| salary =
| networth =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Andrew Carnegie''' ([[November 25]] [[1835]] &ndash; [[August 11]] [[1919]]) was a [[Scottish-American]] [[List of business people|businessman]], a major [[philanthropist]], and the founder of the [[Carnegie Steel Company]] which later became [[U.S. Steel]]. He is known for having, later in his life, given away most of his riches to fund the establishment of many libraries, schools, and universities in America and worldwide.
==Formative influences==
===The Carnegie family in Scotland===
Andrew Carnegie was born on Wednesday, November 25, 1835, in [[Dunfermline]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]]. He was the son of a [[hand loom]] weaver, William Carnegie. His mother was Margaret, daughter of one Thomas Morrison, a [[tanner]] and [[shoemaker]].
Many of Carnegie's closest relatives were self-educated tradesmen and class activists. William Carnegie, whilst poor, had educated himself and, as far as his resources would permit, saw to it that his children received an education, as well. William Carnegie was moreover a militant political activist and was involved with those organising demonstrations against the [[Corn laws]]. He was also a [[Chartist]].
Andrew Carnegie's maternal grandfather, Thomas Morrison, was one of the most persistent campaigners for [[Liberalism|liberal]] reforms in Scotland. Through the dint of his own efforts of [[self education]], Thomas Morrison acquired an eloquence with the written word that matched his more privileged "betters". He wrote frequently to newspapers and contributed articles in the [[Radicalism|radical]] [[pamphlet]], ''Cobbett's Register'' edited by [[William Cobbett]]. Amongst other things, he argued for: abolition of the [[Rotten Boroughs]] and reform of the [[British House of Commons]], which occurred much later in the [[Great Reform Act of 1832]], [[Catholic Emancipation]], and Laws governing safety at work, which were passed many years later in the [[Factory Acts]]. Most radically of all, however, he promoted the abolition of all forms of hereditary privilege, including all [[Monarchy|monarchies]].
Another great influence on the young Andrew Carnegie was his uncle, George Lauder, a proprietor of a small grocers shop in Dunfermline High Street. This uncle introduced the young Carnegie to such historical Scottish heroes as [[Robert the Bruce]], [[William Wallace]], and [[Rob Roy]]. He was also introduced to the writings of [[Robbie Burns]]. It was, perhaps, Burns who most influenced Carnegie, who regarded Burns as one of the greatest preachers of [[Democracy]]. Uncle George Lauder had Carnegie commit to memory many pages of Burns's writings, writings that were to stay with him for the rest of his life.
George Lauder was additionally interested in the [[United States]]. Lauder saw the U.S.A. as a country with "democratic institutions".
Another uncle, his mother's brother, "Ballie" Morrison, was also a radical political firebrand. The chief object of this gentleman's tirades was the [[Church of England]] and the [[Church of Scotland]]. "Ballie" Morrison was a fervent [[nonconformist]]. In 1842, the young Carnegie's radical sentiments were stirred further at the news of Uncle "Ballie" being imprisoned for his part in a "Cessation of Labour" ([[Strike action|strike]]). At this time, withdrawal of labour by an hireling was covered by criminal law. Notwithstanding these literary and political influences, poverty in the Carnegie family was always at hand and severe.
=== Emigration to America===
Andrew Carnegie's father had worked as a jobbing hand loom weaver. This involved receiving the mill's raw materials at his cottage and weaving them into cloth on the primitive loom in the cottage. In the 1840's, a new system was coming into being, the factory system. During this era, mill owners began constructing large weaving mills with looms powered at first by water wheels and later by steam engines. These factories could produce cloth at far lower cost, partly through increased mechanisation and economies of scale, but partly also by paying mill workers very low wages and by working them very long hours. The success of the mills forced William Carnegie to seek work in the mills or elsewhere away from home. However, the radical views of Andrew Carnegie's father were well known, and he was not wanted.
He chose to emigrate. His mother's two sisters had already emigrated, but it was his wife who persuaded William Carnegie to make the passage. Making the passage was not easy, however, for they had to find the passage money. They were forced to sell their meagre possessions and borrow some £20 from friends, a considerable sum in 1848.
That May, his family emigrated to the U.S.A., sailing on the ''Wiscasset'', a former [[whaler]] that took the family from Broomielaw, in [[Glasgow]], to New York. From there they proceeded up the [[Hudson River]] and the [[Erie Canal]] to [[Lake Erie]] and then to [[Allegheny, Pennsylvania]], where William Carnegie found work in a cotton factory.
Young Andrew Carnegie found work in the same building as a "Bobbin boy" for the sum of $1.20 per week. His younger brother, by some eight years, Thomas, was sent to school. Andrew Carnegie, the Scot, quickly became Andrew Carnegie the American. Three years after arriving in the U.S.A., the young Carnegie began writing to his friends in Scotland extolling the great virtues of American democracy whilst disparaging and criticising "feudal British institutions". At the same time, he followed in his father's footsteps and wrote letters to the newspapers including the ''[[New York Tribune]]'' on subjects such as slavery.
==Early career==
===1850-1860: A 'self made man'===
Andrew Carnegie's education and passion for reading was given a great boost by one Colonel [[James Anderson]], who opened his personal library of 400 volumes to working boys each Saturday night. Carnegie was a most persistent borrower. Andrew Carnegie was a "self made man" in the roundest possible sense insofar as it applied not only to his economic development but also to his intellectual and cultural development. His capacity and willingness for hard work, his perseverance, and his alertness, soon brought forth opportunities.
In 1851, he became a [[Telegraphy|Telegraph]] Messenger boy in the [[Pittsburgh]] Office of the [[Ohio Telegraph Company]], at $2.50 per week. This, to the young Carnegie, seemed a fortune. In addition to providing him with an increase in income, the job also provided him with a lifelong love of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] works. He was frequently required to deliver messages to a [[theatre]], and he often managed to contrive appearing just as the curtain had been raised on a performance. Using a charm that was to pay even greater dividends in the future, Carnegie was then usually able to convince the theatre's manager to allow him to stay and watch the performance for free. When Carnegie was not at the theatre or improving his mind with a book, he would spend time listening to the telegraph instrument itself. The electric telegraph transmitted its signals along the wires that traversed the nation. When they were received into the telegraph office, they were transcribed into readable script on a long paper tape with the aid of an elaborate machine. He quickly learned to distinguish the differing sound the incoming signals produced and learned to transcribe, himself. At the time, Andrew Carnegie was one of only two or three persons so gifted in the entire country. Having learned Telegraphy, he was noted by [[Tom Scott (PRR)|Thomas A. Scott]] of the [[Pennsylvania Railroad Company]], who employed him as a secretary/Telegraph operator starting in 1853, at the princely salary of $4.00 per week. Carnegie was sixteen and soon began a rapid advancement through the company, eventually becoming the Superintendent of the Pittsburgh Division.
===1860-1865: Carnegie during the [[U.S. Civil War]]===
During the pre-war period, Andrew Carnegie had formed a partnership with a Mr. Woodruff, an inventor. Woodruff's invention was the [[sleepin |
ght to increase the quality and safety of the therapy by reducing the likelihood that needed steps can be accidentally omitted.
In the United States, biomedical engineers may operate under two different regulatory frameworks. Clinical devices and technologies are generally governed by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) in a similar fashion to pharmaceuticals. Biomedical engineers may also develop devices and technologies for consumer use, such as physical therapy devices, which may be governed by the [[Consumer Product Safety Commission]]. See [http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=807 US FDA 510(k) documentation process] for the [[United States|US]] government registry of biomedical devices.
Other countries typically have their own mechanisms for regulation. For example, in Europe the actual decision about whether a device is suitable is made by the prescribing doctor, and the regulations are to assure that the device operates as expected. Thus in Europe, the governments license certifying agencies, which are for-profit. Technical committees of leading engineers write recommendations which incorporate public comments and are adopted as regulations by the European Union. These recommendations vary by the type of device, and specify tests for safety and efficacy. Once a prototype has passed the tests at a certification lab, and that model is being constructed under the control of a certified quality system, the device is entitled to bear a "CE mark." The CE mark indicates that the device is believed to be safe and reliable when used as directed.
The different regulatory arrangements sometimes result in technologies being developed first for either the U.S. or in Europe depending on the more favorable form of regulation. Most safety-certification systems give equivalent results when applied diligently. Usually, once one such system is satisfied, satisfying the other requires only paperwork.
In general, FDA certification is seen as more strict, and more time-consuming, but not necessarily more safe. Obtaining a CE mark can be easier, because the certifying agencies have convenient branch offices, and provide technical assistance for fees. Obtaining such assistance early in the design process can save a manufacturer large amounts of money and time.
==See also==
* [[List of biomedical engineering topics]]
==References==
*[http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics profile]
==Further reading==
*Bronzino, Joseph D. (2000). ''The Biomedical Engineering Handbook - Second Edition''. [[CRC Press]].
**''Volume 1''. ISBN 0-8493-0461-X.
**''Volume 2''. ISBN 0-8493-0462-8.
==External links==
'''Organizations'''
*[http://www.bmes.org The Biomedical Engineering Society (US)]
*[http://www.aime.org.uk/ Association of Institutions concerned with Medical Engineering (UK)]
*[http://biomed.org/ Biomed.org]
*[http://www.medicalengineer.co.uk Biomedical Engineering website]
*[http://www.bmenet.org/BMEnet/ The Biomedical Engineering Network]
*[http://www.whitaker.org/index.html Foundation supporting biomedical engineering research]
*[http://meetingscalendar.blogspot.com/ Biomedical Engineering Meetings Calendar]
*[http://www.becon.nih.gov/becon.htm Biomedical engineering at the NIH]
'''Schools (Links to Biomedical Engineering or Bioengineering Departments)'''
*[http://www.bu.edu/dbin/bme/ *Boston University Department of Biomedical Engineering]
*[http://www.engin.brown.edu/undergrad/bioengin/ *Brown University]
*[http://www.cmu.edu/bme/ Carnegie Mellon University]
*[http://bme.cwru.edu/ *Case Western Reserve University]
*[http://www.biomed.drexel.edu/new04/ *Drexel University]
*[http://www.bme.duke.edu/ *Duke University]
*[http://www.bme.fiu.edu/ *Florida International University]
*[http://www.bme.gatech.edu/ *Georgia Tech]
*[http://bme.iust.ac.ir Iran University of Science and Technology]
*[http://www.bme.jhu.edu/ *Johns Hopkins University]
*[http://www.uic.edu/depts/bioe/ *University of Illinois at Chicago]
*[http://www.marquette.edu/engineering/pages/AllYouNeed/biomedical.html *Marquette University]
*[http://biomed.um.edu.my/ *University of Malaya/Malaysia]
*[http://www.biomed.mtu.edu/ *Michigan Technological University]
*[http://www1.umn.edu/bme/ *University of Minnesota]
*[http://www.bme.northwestern.edu/ *Northwestern University]
*[http://www.seas.upenn.edu/be/ *University of Pennsylvania]
*[http://www.engr.pitt.edu/bioengineering/main/ *University of Pittsburgh]
*[https://engineering.purdue.edu/BME Purdue University]
*[http://www.bme.rpi.edu/ *Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]
*[http://www-bioeng.ucsd.edu/ * University of California-San Diego]
*[http://bioeng.berkeley.edu/ University of California-Berkeley]
*[http://www.bme.uci.edu/ University of California-Irvine]
*[http://www.eng.uc.edu/dept_biomed/index.php University of Cincinnati]
*[http://www.bme.ufl.edu University of Florida]
*[http://www.bme.engineering.uiowa.edu/ *University of Iowa]
*[http://www.bme.ncsu.edu/ *University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill/North Carolina State University joint program]
*[http://www.bme.rochester.edu *University of Rochester]
*[http://www.engr.utk.edu/mabe/up-be.html *University of Tennessee at Knoxville]
*[http://www.bme.utexas.edu University of Texas at Austin]
*[http://www.uta.edu/engineering/bme/ University of Texas at Arlington]
*[http://engineering.utsa.edu/BME_program/index.html University of Texas at San Antonio]
*[http://www.ibbme.utoronto.ca/scripts/index_.asp *University of Toronto Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering]
*[http://www.bmen.tulane.edu/ *Tulane University]
*[http://www.bioen.utah.edu/ University of Utah]
*[http://depts.washington.edu/bioe/ *University of Washington]
*[http://biomed.wustl.edu/ Washington University in St. Louis]
<br>
:*"*" Denotes ABET Accredited Engineering Program
:*[http://www.abet.org/accrediteac.asp (Search for ABET accredited programs)]
{{Technology}}
[[Category:Bioengineering]]
[[Category:Biomedical engineering]]
[[Category:Interdisciplinary fields]]
[[es:Ingeniería biomédica]]
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[[ja:&#21307;&#29992;&#29983;&#20307;&#24037;&#23398;]]
[[ms:Kejuruteraan bioperubatan]]
[[pt:Engenharia biomédica]]
[[sr:Биоинжењеринг]]
[[tr:Biyomedikal Mühendisli&#287;i]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balkans</title>
<id>4829</id>
<revision>
<id>41765344</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:11:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.208.13.138</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''Balkan redirects here. For the Turkmen province, see: [[Balkan Province]]''
The '''Balkans''' is the historic and geographic name used to describe a [[subregion|region]] of south-eastern [[Europe]]. The region has a combined area of [[1 E11 m²|728,000 km²]] and a population of around 53 million. In Greek, the Balkan Peninsula was known as the Peninsula of [[Haemus]] (Χερσόνησος του Αίμου). This naming of the Balkans has some basis amongst today's Greeks as well.
The region takes its name from the [[Stara Planina|Balkan mountains]] which run through the centre of [[Bulgaria]] into eastern [[Serbia]].
[[Image:SEEurope-small.jpg|frame|right|Southeastern Europe seen from NASA's Terra Satellite]]
== Definitions and boundaries ==
===Balkan Peninsula===
The Balkans are sometimes referred to as the '''"Balkan Peninsula"''' as they are surrounded by water on three sides: the [[Black Sea]] to the east and branches of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south and west (including the [[Adriatic sea|Adriatic]], [[Ionian sea|Ionian]], [[Aegean sea|Aegean]] and [[Sea of Marmara|Marmara]] seas). While it is not [[physical geography|geographically]] a [[peninsula]] as it has no [[isthmus]] to connect it to the mainland of Europe, this name is nonetheless commonly used to denote the wider region.
===''The'' Balkans===
The identity of the Balkans owes as much to its fragmented and often [[Violence|violent]] common history as to its mountainous geography. The region was perennially on the edge of great empires, its history dominated by wars, rebellions, invasions and clashes between empires, from the times of the [[Roman Empire]] to the latter-day [[Yugoslav wars]].
Its fractiousness and tendency to splinter into rival political entities led to the coining of the term [[Balkanization]] (or ''balkanizing''). The term '''Balkan''' commonly connotes a connection with violence, [[religion|religious]] strife, [[ethnicity|ethnic]] clannishness and a sense of [[hinterland]]. The Balkans, as they are known today, have changed dramatically over the course of [[History of the Balkans|their history]].
===Etymology and evolving meaning===
The region takes its name from the "Balkan" mountain range in [[Bulgaria]] (from a [[Turkish language|Turkish]] word meaning "a chain of wooded mountains"). On a larger scale, one long continuous chain of mountains crosses the region in the form of a reversed letter S, from the [[Carpathians]] south to the [[Balkan]] range proper, before it marches away east into Anatolian [[Turkey]]. On the west coast, an offshoot of the Dinaric Alps follows the coast south through [[Dalmatia]] and [[Albania]], crosses [[Greece]] and continues into the sea in the form of various islands.
. The word was based on [[Turkish language|Turkish]] balakan 'stone, cliff', which confirms the pure 'technical' meaning of the term. Actually the mountain range that runs across Bulgaria from west to east (Stara Planina) is still commonly known as the [[Balkan Mountains]].
As time passed the term gradually obtained political connotations far from its initial geographic meaning, arising from political changes from the late 1800s to the creation of post-[[WW1]] [[Yugoslavia]] (initially the Kingdom of Serbs, Croatians and Slovenians). Zeune's goal was to have a geographical parallel t |
th group homomorphisms, form a [[category theory|category]], the prototype of an [[abelian category]]. In this encyclopedia, we denote this category '''Ab'''. See [[category of abelian groups]] for a list of its properties.
Many large abelian groups carry a natural [[topological space|topology]], turning them into [[topological group]]s.
== A note on the typography ==
Among mathematical [[adjective]]s derived from the [[proper name]] of a [[mathematician]], the word "abelian" is rare in being expressed with a lowercase '''a''', rather than '''A''' (compare, for example, [[Riemannian geometry|Riemannian]]). Contrary to what one might expect, naming a concept in this way is considered one of the highest honors in mathematics for the [[namesake]].
[[Category:Abelian group theory| ]]
[[cs:Abelova grupa]]
[[de:Abelsche Gruppe]]
[[et:Abeli rühm]]
[[es:Grupo abeliano]]
[[eo:Komuta grupo]]
[[fr:Groupe abélien]]
[[ko:아벨군]]
[[it:Gruppo abeliano]]
[[hu:Abel-csoport]]
[[nl:Abelse groep]]
[[ja:アーベル群]]
[[no:Abelsk gruppe]]
[[pl:Grupa abelowa]]
[[pt:Grupo abeliano]]
[[ro:Grup abelian]]
[[ru:Абелева группа]]
[[sk:Abelovská grupa]]
[[sl:Abelova grupa]]
[[sv:Abelsk grupp]]
[[zh:阿贝尔群]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty</title>
<id>2975</id>
<revision>
<id>40360478</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:26:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Ced.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty''' ('''ABM treaty''' or '''ABMT''') was a treaty between the [[United States|United States of America]] and the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] on the limitation of the [[anti-ballistic missile]] (ABM) systems used in defending areas against missile-delivered [[nuclear weapon]]s. On [[May 26]] [[1972]], the [[President of the United States]], [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], [[Leonid Brezhnev]] signed the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. The treaty was in force for thirty years, from [[1972]] until [[2002]]. On [[June 13]] [[2002]], six months after giving the required notice of intent, the US withdrew from the treaty.
The full text is available on [[WikiSource:Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty|Wikisource]].
==Early history==
Throughout the late 1950s and into the 1960s, the United States had been developing a series of missile systems with the ability to shoot down incoming [[ICBM]] warheads. During this period the US maintained a lead in the number and sophistication of their delivery systems, and considered the defense of the US as a part of reducing the overall damage inflicted in a full nuclear exchange. As part of this defence, [[Canada]] and the US established the North American Air Defense Command (now called [[North American Aerospace Defense Command|NORAD]]).
By the early 1960s the US research on the [[Nike Zeus]] missile system (see [[Project Nike]]) had developed to the point where small improvements would allow it to be used as the basis of a "real" ABM system. Work started on a short range, high speed counterpart known as the [[Sprint (missile)|Sprint]] to provide defense for the ABM sites themselves. By the mid-1960s both systems showed enough promise to start development of base selection for a nationwide ABM system, then known as '''Sentinel'''.
At this point an intense debate broke out in public over the merits of such a system. A number of serious concerns about the technical abilities of the system came to light, many of which reached popular magazines such as [[Scientific American]]. At the same time it grew increasingly clear that if the system did work, then the Soviets best course of action was to immediately launch an attack on the US before the system became operational.
As this debate continued, a new development in ICBM technology essentially rendered the points moot. This was the deployment of the [[MIRV]] system, allowing a single ICBM missile to deliver several warheads at a time. With this system the USSR could simply overwhelm the ABM defense system with numbers. Upgrading it to counter the additional warheads would cost more than the handful of missiles needed to overwhelm the new system, as the defenders required one rocket per warhead, whereas the attackers could place perhaps 10 warheads on a rocket that was perhaps the same price as the ABM.
At about the same time, the USSR reached strategic parity with the US in terms of ICBM forces. No longer would a war be a matter of the utter destruction of the USSR with the US able to continue on, now both countries would be devastated. This led to the concept of [[mutually assured destruction]], '''MAD''', in which any changes to the strategic balance had to be carefully weighed. ABMs, now ready for use after over a decade of development, seemed to be far too risky &ndash; it was better to have no defense than one that might trigger a war.
As relations between the US and USSR warmed in the later years of the 1960s, the US first proposed an ABM treaty in 1967. This proposal was rejected. Following the proposal of the Sentinel and Safeguard decisions on American ABM systems, the [[SALT I]] talks began in November [[1969]]. By [[1972]] agreement had been reached to limiting strategic offensive weapons and strategic defensive systems. Each country was allowed one site at which it could base a defensive system, Moscow and [[Grand Forks]], [[North Dakota]]. It was signed in Moscow [[May 26]], [[1972]], and ratified by the Senate [[August 3]], [[1972]]. It was seen by many as a key piece in nuclear arms control, being an implicit recognition of the need to ''protect'' the nuclear balance by ensuring neither side could ever consider itself immune from retaliation.
For many years the ABM Treaty was considered one of the landmarks in arms limitations. It required two enemies to agree not to deploy a potentially useful weapon, deliberately to maintain the [[balance of power]]. In doing so, the formerly terrible relations between the US and USSR started to change considerably.
==After the SDI announcement==
The treaty was undisturbed until [[Ronald Reagan]] announced his [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] (SDI) on [[March 23]] [[1983]]. Reagan stated that SDI was "consistent with... the ABM Treaty" and he viewed it as a defensive system that would help reduce the possibility of [[mutual assured destruction]] (MAD) becoming reality; he even suggested that the Russians would be given access to the SDI technology.
This extremely ambitious project was a blow to [[Yuri Andropov]]'s tentative 'peace offensive'. Andropov said that "It is time they [Washington] stopped... search[ing] for the best ways of unleashing nuclear war... Engaging in this is not just irresponsible. It is insane".
SDI research went ahead, although it did not achieve the hoped for result. SDI research was cut back following the end of Reagan's presidency, and in [[1995]] it was reiterated in a presidential joint statement that "missile defense systems may be deployed... [that] will not pose a realistic threat to the strategic nuclear force of the other side and will not be tested to... [create] that capability." This was reaffirmed in [[1997]].
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 the status of the treaty became unclear, debated by members of [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] and professors of law, [http://www.nesl.edu/intljournal/vol9/mccarty.pdf Succession of the ABM Treaty],[http://www.clw.org/pub/clw/coalition/laws050300.htm State Succession and the Legal Status of the ABM Treaty], and [http://missilethreat.com/reports/abm_memorandum.html Miron-Feith Memorandum]. In 1997, a [[memorandum of understanding]] [http://www.defenselink.mil/acq/acic/treaties/abm/ad_mou.htm] between the US and four of the former USSR states was signed and subject to ratification by each signatory, however it was not presented to the US Senate for ratification by [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]].
On [[December 13]], [[2001]], President [[George W. Bush]] gave [[Russia]] notice of the United States' withdrawal from the treaty, in accordance with the clause that requires six months' notice before terminating the pact. This was the first time in recent history the United States has withdrawn from a major international arms treaty.
Supporters of the withdrawal argued that it was a necessity in order to test and build a limited [[National Missile Defense]] to protect the United States from [[nuclear blackmail]] by a [[rogue state]]. The withdrawal had many critics as well as supporters. John Rhinelander, a negotiator of the ABM treaty, predicted that the withdrawal would be a "fatal blow" to the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] and would lead to a "world without effective legal constraints on [[nuclear proliferation]]."
Reaction to the withdrawal by both Russia and the [[People's Republic of China]] was much milder than many had predicted, and followed months of discussion with both Russia and China aimed at convincing both that development of a [[National Missile Defense]] was not directed at them. In the case of Russia, the United States has stated that it intends to discuss a massive bilateral reduction in the numbers of nuclear warheads, which would allow Russia to reduce its spending on missiles. In the case of China, statements by [[Condoleezza Rice]], U.S. [[Secretary of State]], appeared to some observers to suggest that the United States would not object to an expansion of China's nuclear arsenal in a manner that would allow it to overwhelm American anti-ballistic capabilities.
The U.S. withdrawal from the ABM treaty was followed shortly thereafter by the signing of the [[Strategic Offensive Reducti |
sions of this argument. This argument holds that through the use of various [[film technique]]s, such as the [[point of view shot]], a typical film's viewer becomes aligned with the point of view of its male protagonist. Notably, women function as objects of this gaze far more often than as proxies for the spectator.
==Further reading==
*Sue Thornham (ed.), ''Feminist Film Theory. A Reader'', Edinburgh University Press 1999
*''Multiple Voices in Feminist Film Criticism'', edited by Diane Carson, Janice R. Welsch, Linda Dittmar, University of Minnesota Press 1994
==See also==
*[[Dai Jinhua]]
*[[Claire Johnston]]
*[[Teresa de Lauretis]]
*[[Kaja Silverman]]
*[[Women's cinema]]
*[[Damsel in distress]]
*[[Femme fatale]]
*[[Feminist horror film theory]]
*[[Final girl]]
*[[Hooker with a heart of gold]]
*[[Ingenue (stock character)|Ingenue]]
*[[Scream queen]]
==External links==
* [http://www.uh.edu/~cfreelan/aesth/femfilm.html Entry on feminist film theory for the Encyclopedia of aesthetics]
* [http://thehathorlegacy.info/index.php the Hathor Legacy: what film and tv are really saying about women]
==References==
*{{cite journal | author=Laura Mulvey | title=Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema | journal=Screen | year=1975 | volume=16|issue=3 | pages=6-18|url=http://www.panix.com/~squigle/vcs/mulvey-vpnc.html}}
*{{cite book | author=Laura Mulvey | title=Visual and Other Pleasures | publisher=Bloomington: Indiana University Press | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0253204941}}
[[Category:Feminism]]
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<title>Formalist film theory</title>
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<comment>Classical Hollywood cinema</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}
'''Formalist film theory''' is a theory of [[film]] study that is focused on the formal, or technical, elements of a film: i.e., the lighting, scoring, sound and set design, use of colour, shot composition, and editing. It is the most dominant theory of film study in the world today.
Formalism, at its most general, considers the synthesis (or lack of synthesis) of the multiple elements of film production, and the effects, emotional and intellectual, of that synthesis and of the individual elements. For example, let's take the single element of editing. A formalist might study how standard Hollywood "continuity editing" creates a more comforting effect and non-continuity or jump-cut editing might become more disconcerting or volatile.
Or, one might consider the synthesis of several elements, such as editing, shot composition, and music. The shoot-out that ends Leone's monumental "Dollars" trilogy is a prime example of how these elements work together to produce an effect: the shot selection goes from very wide to very close and tense; the length of shots decreases as the sequence progresses towards its end; the music builds.
Formalism is unique in that it embraces both ideological and auteurist branches of criticism.
The common denominator for both of these branches is style: ideologues focus on how socio-economic pressures create a particular style, and auteurists on how an auteur puts his own stamp on the material. Since formalism is primarily concerned with style and how it communicates the ideas, emotions, and themes (rather than, as critics of formalism point out, concentrating on the themes of a work itself).
Two examples of ideological interpretations that are related to formalism:
The [[classical Hollywood cinema]] has a very distinct style, sometimes called the [[Institutional Mode of Representation]]: continuity editing, massive coverage, three-point lighting, "mood" music, dissolves, all designed to make the experience as pleasant as possible. The socio-economic ideological explanation for this is, quite crassly, that Hollywood wants to make as much money and appeal to as many ticket-buyers as possible.
[[Film noir]], which was given its name by the Cahiers du cinema crowd, is marked by lower production values, darker images, underlighting, location shooting, and general nihilism: this is because, we are told, during the war and post-war years filmmakers were generally more pessimistic (as well as filmgoers). Also, the German Expressionists (including [[Fritz Lang]], who was not technically an expressionist as popularly believed) emigrated to America and brought their crazy lighting effects (and disillusionment due to the war) to American soil.
By this approach, it can be argued that the style or language of these films are directly effected not by the individuals responsible, but by social, economic, and political pressures that the filmmakers themselves might be aware of. It is this branch of criticism that gives us such categories as the classical Hollywood cinema, the American independent movement, the New American independent movement, the new queer cinema, and the French, German, and Czech new waves. Some of these categories are discussed in David Bordwell's "Film Art: an introduction", universally accepted as THE text book for formalists, by the man considered at the forefront of its practice.
If the ideological approach is concerned with broad movements and the effects of the world around the filmmaker, then the auteur theory is dialectically opposed to it, celebrating the individual, usually in the person of the filmmaker, and how his personal decisions, thoughts, and style manifest themselves in the material. To be brief, this branch of criticism, began by Francois Truffaut and the other young film critics writing for Cahiers du cinema, was created for two reasons.
First, it was created to redeem the art of film itself: by arguing that films had auteurs, or authors, Truffaut sought to make films (and their directors) at least as important as the more widely-accepted art forms, such as literature, music, and painting. Each of these art forms, and the criticism thereof, are primarily concerned with a sole creative force: the author of a novel (not, for example, his editor or type-setter), the composer of a piece of music (though sometimes the performers are given credence, akin to actors in film today), or the painter of a fresco (not his assistants who mix the colours or often do some of the painting themselves). By elevating the director, and not the screenwriter, to the same importance as novelists, composers, or painters, it sought to free the cinema from its popular conception as a bastard art, somewhere between theater and literature.
Secondly, it sought to redeem those filmmakers who were looked down upon by the important and snooty critics. It argued that genre filmmakers and low-budget B-movies were just as important, if not more, than the prestige pictures commonly given more press, and legitimacy in France and America. An auteur took material that was beneath their talents-- a thriller, a pulpy action film, a romance-- and, through their style, put their own personal stamp on it. It is this style that concerns formalism, and brings us back to the topic at hand.
A perfect example would be the work of Alfred Hitchcock. Hitchcock made primarily thrillers, which were popular with the public but snorted at by the critics and the award ceremonies (with a few notable exceptions, such as Rebecca, which won Best Picture at the Academy Awards). Truffaut and his colleagues argued that Hitchcock had a style as distinct as that of Flaubert or Van Gogh: the virtuoso editing, the lyrical camera movements, the droll humour. He also had "Hitchcockian" themes: the wrong man falsely accused, violence erupting at the times it was least expected, the cool blonde. Now, Hitchcock is more-or-less universally lauded, his films dissected shot-by-shot, his work celebrated as being that of a master. And the study of this style, his variations, and obsessions all falls quite neatly under the umbrella of formalist film theory.
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<title>Film theory</title>
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<comment>/* Specific theories and styles of film */ added no-wave and remodernist</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Film theory''' seeks to develop concise, systematic concepts that apply to the study of [[film|cinema]] as [[art]]. Classical film theory provides a structural framework to address classical issues of techniques, [[narrativity]], [[diegesis]], cinematic codes, "the image", [[genre]], subjectivity, and [[Auteur theory|authorship]]. More recent analysis has given rise to [[psychoanalytical film theory]], [[structuralist film theory]], [[feminist film theory]], and theories of documentary, new media, [[Third Cinema|third cinema]], and new [[queer]] cinema, to name just a few. See also [[film criticism]].
==History==
The italian [[futurism|futurist]] [[Ricciotto Canudo]] (1879-1923) is considered to be the very first theoretician of cinema. He published his manifesto ''The Birth of the Seventh Art'' in [[1911]]. Another early attempt was ''The Photoplay'' (1916) by the psychologist [[Hugo Münsterberg]].
It must be noted however, that the French philosopher [[Henri Bergson]] with ''Matière et Mémoire'' (1896) made comments on the need for new ways of thinking on movement, and coined the terms "image-temps" and "image-mouvement".
This same Bergson, wrote ''L'évolution créatrice'' in 1906, stating in an essay called ''l'illusion cinématographique'', that film is not quite what he had in mind when he wrote on images-as-movement and images-as-time.
[[Gilles Deleuze]], anothe |
at no accessible air is contaminated. Accordingly, asbestos removal projects are long and costly. Examples of long asbestos removal enterprises include the [[Jussieu Campus]] (begun circa 1996 and still going on [[as of 2005]]) and the ''[[Tour Montparnasse]]'' (in 2005, projected duration was 3 years if the tower was emptied of its users, and 10 years if it was not).
An asbestos-containing building that is to be torn down may have to be sealed, and to have its asbestos safely removed first before ordinary demolition can be performed. The asbestos removal may take longer and cost more than the actual tearing-down of the building.
== Controversy ==
As with some other environmental prohibitions like [[DDT]] and [[CFC]]s, the movement to ban asbestos has many critics, some of whom claim either that the substance in question is not harmful, or that the ban does more harm than good [http://spiderjohnson.com/asbestos.html].
Among the arguments around asbestos prohibition are:
* The view that the [[shuttle Challenger]] exploded because the maker of O-ring putty was pressured by the EPA into ceasing production of its more temperature-resistant, asbestos-laden putty, prompting replacement with an inferior putty, which had continual problems of a sort which could have caused the O-ring leak and subsequent explosion.
* The "Amphibole Hypothesis" states that Chrysotile asbestos is not as harmful as asbestos from the amphibole group. Several studies have been conducted which support this conclusion. Criticisms have been raised about the methodology used in these studies. Several other studies have been conducted which contradict the "Amphibole Hypothesis" [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/97-162-d.pdf].
* Some countries, notably Canada, still use Chrysotile asbestos [http://www.chrysotile.com/en/chrysotile/regulation/qc-gov.aspx]. Canada has a significant economic interest in the mining of Chrysotile.
* The question of why asbestos is also banned in circumstances where inhalation is nearly impossible, such as when it's being included in sealed areas already dangerous to human beings, instead of simply when it might be used as insulation in a ventilated area, or other similar cases which actually expose it to people against their will.
* Critics argue that where asbestos has been banned, its roles were taken by products which are often either inferior, or far more expensive. They argue that this has a negative impact on society as a whole, which (especially if the previous arguments are true in whole or part) may be greater than the benefit of its removal.
==See also==
*[[Eternit]]
*[[List of minerals]]
*[[Vermiculite]]
*[[Asbestine]]
==References==
#{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&entity=HistSciTech000900240192&isize=L]
==External links==
* [http://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/burema/gesein/abhose/abhose_ce03.cfm]
===Mineral links===
*[http://webmineral.com/data/Parachrysotile.shtml Parachrysotile (asbestos)] at the webmineral.com Mineral Database
*[http://www1.umn.edu/eoh/hazards/hazardssite/asbestos/asbestosintro.html Univ. of Minn.: Asbestos]
===Health===
*[http://hesa.etui-rehs.org/uk/dossiers/dossier.asp?dos_pk=6 Asbestos and Occupational Health in the World]
*[http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/asbestos/index.html Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Asbestos Toxicity]
*[http://www.safetyline.wa.gov.au/institute/level2/course21/lecture95/l95_04.asp Health History Source: Article by the SafetyLine Institute - WorkSafe - Western Australian state government]
*[http://www.hse.gov.uk/asbestos/ British Government Health and Safety Executive (HSE)]
*[http://www.catalystmedia.org.uk/issues/nerve7/asbestos_sg.htm An article on the health impact of asbestos from Liverpool's 'Nerve' magazine]
* [http://dailysmarts.com/nucleus/?itemid=4 Samuel Turner, the history of the man who industrialized asbestos]
*[http://www.asbestosdiseases.org.au/asbestosinfo/wittenoom_tragedies.htm The Wittenoom Tragedy], Asbestos Diseases Society of Australia.
===Cleanup and the environment===
*[http://www.epa.gov/asbestos/index.html U.S. EPA Asbestos Home Page]
*[http://www.asbestosnews.com/html/schools.html Asbestos in Schools]
*[http://www.tuc.org.uk/h_and_s/index.cfm?mins=262 Health and Safety - Asbestosis (TUC Resources, UK)]
*[http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P3_11_EN.html White Gold Pioneers: Asbestos Mining] &mdash; The origins of asbestos mining, illustrated with many early photographs
[[Category:Asbestos]]
[[cs:Azbest]]
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[[id:Asbestos]]
[[it:Amianto]]
[[he:אזבסט]]
[[nl:Asbest]]
[[ja:石綿]]
[[pl:Azbest]]
[[pt:Asbesto]]
[[ru:Асбест (материал)]]
[[simple:Asbestos]]
[[fi:Asbesti]]
[[sv:Asbest]]
[[uk:Азбест]]
[[zh:石棉]]</text>
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<page>
<title>A.L.I.C.E</title>
<id>1982</id>
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<comment>Fixed double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ALICE]]</text>
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<title>Arab countries</title>
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<comment>Robot: Fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arab world]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Absorption</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|absorption}}
'''Absorption''' may refer to:
*In physics:
**[[absorption (chemistry)]] - absorption of particles of gas or liquid in liquid or solid material as studied in [[physical chemistry]]
**[[absorption (optics)]] - absorption of [[photon]]s by a material
**[[Absorption (acoustics)]] - absorption of [[sound]] waves by a material
*[[Absorption (economics)]] refers to the total demand of an economy for goods and services both from within and without the economy
*In mathematics, the [[absorption law]] (<math>a\vee (a\wedge b)=a\wedge (a\vee b)=a</math>) defines a [[lattice (order)|lattice]], where the binary operations <math>\wedge</math> and <math>\vee</math> are called [[meet]] and [[join]], respectively.
*In Psychology, absorption is a measure of one's capacity to become totally focussed. Total absorption is often termed '[[Flow (psychology)]]'. The Tellegen Absorption Scale is a reliable questionnaire measure of absorption.
*In Medicine/Biology, adsorption may refer to uptake of substances by the [[GI tract]], see [[Digestion]]. Also see [[Osmosis]].
Absorption should not be confused with ''[[adsorption]]'', the formation of a liquid or gas film on a solid surface.
{{disambig}}
[[da:Absorption]]
[[de:Absorption]]
[[pl:Absorpcja]]
[[nl:Absorptie]]
[[ru:Абсорбция]]
[[sl:Absorpcija]]
[[tl:Absorsyon]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Actinophryid</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Actinophryids
| image = Actinophrys sol.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''Actinophrys sol''
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| divisio = [[Heterokont]]ophyta
| classis = [[Axodine|Actinochrysophyceae]]
| ordo = '''Actinophryida'''
| ordo_authority = [[Hartmann]] 1913
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision =
''Actinophrys''<br />
''Actinosphaerium''
}}
The '''actinophryids''' are a small, familiar group of [[heliozoa]]n protists. They are the most common heliozoa in fresh water, and are especially frequent in lakes and rivers, but a few are found in marine and soil habitats as well. Each is unicellular and roughly spherical in shape, without any shell or test, and with many pseudopodia suported by axopods radiating outward from the cell body, which adhere to passing prey and allows it to roll or float about. The outer portion of the cell, or ectoplasm, is distinct and is filled with many tiny [[vacuole]]s, which assist in flotation. A few contractile vacuoles around the periphery of the cell expel excess water, and are visible as clear bulges when full.
There are two genera included here. ''Actinophrys'' have a single, central nucleus. Most are around [[1 E-5 m|40-50]] &mu;m in diameter, with axopods up to 100 &mu;m in length, though this varies. ''Actinosphaerium'' are several times larger, from [[1 E-4 m|200-1000]] &mu;m in diameter, with many nuclei, and are found exclusively in fresh water. Two other genera, ''Echinosphaerium'' and ''Camptonema'', have been described but appear to be synonyms.
Reproduction takes place by fission, with open [[mitosis]]. Under unfavourable conditions, the organism will form a cyst, which is multi-walled and covered in spikes. While encysted it may undergo a peculiar process of [[autogamy]] or self-fertilization, where it goes through [[meiosis]] and divides to form two gametes, which then fuse together again. This is the only form of [[sexual reproduction]] that occurs within the group, though it is really more genetic reorganization than reproduction.
The axopods are supported by [[microtubule]]s arranged in a unique and characteristic double-coil pattern. In ''Actinophrys'', these arise from the nuclear membrane, while in ''Actinosphaerium'' some do and others don't. Other heliozoa wh |
ot;like cells", are the containers of the life of the body). Individualism may take a radicalist approach, as in [[individualist anarchism]].
The individualist sees society as "a large number of individuals working together" to improve their individual and collective welfare. The single person is not just a member of a greater unity. In fact, the single individual is seen as "the ultimate unity," and society is nothing more than a composition of these "individuals". The "state" is an organized form of society, which "ensures the individual's freedom" by law (under the protections of a republic). Thus, individualist policy tends to approve laws that protect, or otherwise enhance the liberties of the individual citizen, but rejects laws that subordinate the individual to the collective.
==Individualism and society==
[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s "[[social contract]]" maintains that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his own will to the "general will." This advocacy of subordinating the individual will to a collective will is in fundamental opposition to the individualist philosophy. An individualist enters into society to further his own interests, or at least demands the ''right'' to serve his own interests, without taking the interests of society into consideration (an individualist need not be an [[egoist]]). The individualist does not lend credence to any philosophy that requires the sacrifice of the self-interest of the individual for any "higher" social causes.
Societies and groups can differ, in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly "self-regarding" (individualistic, and arguably self-interested) rather than "other-regarding" (group-oriented, and group, or society-minded) behaviour. There is also a distinction, relevant in this context, between "guilt" societies (e.g. medieval Europe) with an "internal reference standard", and "shame" societies (e.g. Japan, "bringing shame upon one's ancestors") with an "external reference standard", where people look to their peers for feedback, as to whether an action is "acceptable" or not (also known as "group-think").
The extent to which society, or groups are "individualistic" can vary from time to time, and from country to country. For example, Japanese society is more group-oriented (e.g. decisions tend to be taken by consensus among groups, rather than by individuals), and it has been argued that "personalities are less developed" (than is usual in the West). The USA is usually thought of as being at the individualistic (its detractors would say "[[atomistic]]") "end of the spectrum", whereas [[European ]]societies are more inclined to believe in "public-spiritedness", state "socialistic" spending, and in "public" initiatives.
[[John Kenneth Galbraith]] made a classic distinction between "private affluence and public squalor" in the USA, and private squalor and public affluence in, for example, Europe, and there is a correlation between individualism and degrees of public sector intervention and taxation.
Individualism is often contrasted with either [[totalitarianism]] or [[collectivism]], but in fact there is a spectrum of behaviours ranging at the societal level from highly individualistic societies (e.g. the USA) through mixed societies (a term the [[UK]] has used in the post-[[World War II]] period) to collectivist. Also, many collectivists (particularly supporters of [[anarchism]] or [[libertarian socialism]]) point to the enormous differences between liberty-minded collectivism and totalitarian practices.
Individualism, sometimes closely associated with certain variants of [[individualist anarchism]], [[libertarianism]] or [[classical liberalism]], typically takes it for granted that individuals know best and that public authority or [[society]] has the right to interfere in the person's decision-making process only when a very compelling need to do so arises (and maybe not even in those circumstances). This type of argument is often observed in relation to policy debates regarding regulation of industries.
==Economic individualism==
The doctrine of [[economic individualism]] holds that each individual should be allowed autonomy in making his own economic decisions as opposed to those decisions being made by the state, or the community, for him. Morever, it supports the liberty of individuals to own property as opposed to state or collective arrangements. Such an economic system is often called ''[[laissez-faire]]'' or ''[[capitalism]].
Critics of modern capitalism sometimes argue that [[capitalism]] is not based on individuals but largely on firms and [[institution|institutions]], and that individuals' roles are largely determined by these institutions. However, compared to various forms of political [[collectivism]], capitalism is usually still considered as individualistic since participation in these institutions is [[voluntary]] and an individual choice. Yet, capitalism can also thrive in certain [[collectivism|collectivistic]] societies with individual choice. The only difference is what the choice is based on: individual need versus collective need.
==Individualism and US history==
At the time of the formation of the [[United States]], many of its citizens had fled from state or religious oppression in Europe and were influenced by the egalitarian and fraternal ideals that later found expression in the [[French revolution]]. Such ideas influenced the framers of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] (the Jeffersonian [[United States Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republicans]]) who believed that the government should seek to protect individual rights in the constitution itself; this idea later led to the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]].
==Opposing views==
Individualism has negative connotations in certain societies and environments where it is associated with selfishness. For example, individualism is highly frowned upon in [[Japan]] where self-interested behavior is traditionally regarded as a kind of [[betrayal]] of those to whom one has obligations (e.g. [[family]] and firm). The absence of [[universal health care]] in the United States, which traces back to a belief in individual (rather than societal) responsibility, is widely criticised in Europe and other countries where universal health care (usually funded through general taxation) is seen as protecting individuals from the vagaries of health problems. Health care in the United States is provided through private insurance. Some people who cannot afford health insurance in the United States are eligible for [[Medicaid]], a gvernment-sponsored program. Medicare is generally only available to those who are disabled and to single mothers (and their children). Not all doctors will accept medicare, typically just doctors in poor areas of the country who might have a large number of Medicare patients.
Proponents of such public initiatives and [[social responsibility]] argue that their policies are beneficial for the individual, and that excessive individualism may actually hurt the individuals themselves. Opponents hold that such public initiatives may have [[law_of_unintended_consequences|unintended consequences]] beyond the issues they are intended to address. Many individualists find the "beneficial to the individual" argument repugnant and argue that individualism is not about individual benefit so much as individual choice.
==References==
* [[Adam Smith]] ''The Wealth of Nations''
* [[Karl Popper]] ''The Open Society and Its Enemies''
* [[Alan Waterman]] ''The Psychology of Individualism''
* [[Lawrence Kohlberg]] ''Six Stages of Moral Development''
==See also==
*[[Anarchism]]
*[[Collectivism]] (opposite of individualism)
*[[Anarcho-capitalism]]
*[[Contrarian]]
*[[Individualist anarchism]]
*[[Libertarianism]]
*[[Self-ownership]]
*[[Tragedy of the commons]]
*[[Tragedy of the anticommons]]
==External links==
{{Philosophy portal}}
*[http://www.individual-i.com Individual-I]
*[http://www.encaoua.net The Individualist's Portal]
*[http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=http://kropot.free.fr/Palante-individu.htm&prev=/search%3Fq%3D%2522Georges%2BPalante%2522%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26c2coff%3D1%26safe%3Doff%26sa%3DG ''Individualistic sensitivity''] by [[Georges Palente]] roughly translated into English
*[http://raforum.apinc.org/article.php3?id_article=169 ''Manifesto''] by [[Josiah Warren]] Classic individualist treatise by the first American anarchist
[[Category:Philosophy]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:20th century]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]
[[Category:Philosophical concepts]]
[[de:Individualismus]]
[[es:Individualismo]]
[[fr:Individualisme]]
[[he:אינדיבידואליזם]]
[[nl:Individualisme]]
[[no:Individualisme]]
[[ja:個人主義]]
[[pt:Individualismo]]
[[sl:Individualizem]]
[[sv:Individualism]]
[[zh:个人主义]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indo-European languages/Satem</title>
<id>15183</id>
<revision>
<id>24793927</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T07:22:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Utcursch</username>
<id>54809</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Centum-Satem isogloss]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indo-European languages/Centum</title>
<id>15184</id>
<revision>
<id>24793919</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T07:22:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Utcursch</username>
<id>54809</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix doub |
that are not humorous, but tell an ongoing [[drama]]tic story. Examples include ''[[Prince Valiant]]'', ''[[Dick Tracy]]'', ''[[Mary Worth (comic)|Mary Worth]]'', ''[[Modesty Blaise]]'' and ''[[Tarzan]]''. Sometimes these are spin-offs from [[comic book]]s, for example ''[[Superman]]'', ''[[Batman]]'', and ''[[The Amazing Spider-Man]]''.
All the comic strips mentioned so far in this article are centered on human beings, but a number of strips have also included animals as main characters. Some are non-verbal (''[[Marmaduke]]''), some have verbal thoughts but aren't understood by humans, (''[[Garfield]]'', [[Snoopy]] in ''[[Peanuts]]''), and some can converse with humans (''[[Get Fuzzy]]''). Other strips have centered entirely on animals, as in ''[[Pogo]]'' or ''[[Donald Duck]]''. [[Gary Larson]]'s [[Far Side|The Far Side]] was unique, as there were no central characters. Instead The Far Side used a wide variety of characters such as humans, monsters, [[Extraterrestrial life|aliens]], chickens, cows, [[worm|worms]], [[amoeba|amoebas]] and more. [[Wiley Miller]] not only mixes human, animal and fantasy characters, he does several different comic strip continuities under one umbrella title, [[Non Sequitur (comic strip)|Non Sequitur]].
[[Newspaper comic strips]] come in two formats, [[daily strip]]s and [[Sunday strip]]s. Daily strips usually run Monday through Saturday, and are usually in black and white. Sunday strips are much larger and are usually in color.
==Social and political influence==
The comics have long held a distorted mirror to contemporary society, and almost from the beginning have been used for political or social commentary. This ranged from the staunch conservative values of ''Little Orphan Annie'' to the unabashed liberalism of ''[[Doonesbury]]''. The aforementioned ''Pogo'' used animals to particularly devastating effect, caricaturing many prominent politicians of the day as animal denizens of Pogo's Okeefenokee Swamp. In a fearless move, Pogo's creator Walt Kelly took on [[Joseph McCarthy]] in the 1950s, caricaturing him as a bobcat named Simple J. Malarkey, a megalomaniac bent on taking over the characters' birdwatching club and rooting out all undesirables.
Kelly also defended the medium against possible government regulation in the [[McCarthy era]]. At a time when comic books were coming under fire for supposed sexual, violent, and subversive content, Kelly feared the same would happen to comic strips. Going before the congressional subcommittee, he proceeded to charm the members with his drawings and the force of his personality. The comic strip was safe for satire.
Some comic strips, such as ''Doonesbury'' and ''[[Boondocks]]'', are often printed on the editorial or op-ed page rather than the comics page, because of their regular political commentary. Conservatives have long warred against ''Doonesbury'', and were recently successful in convincing a major printer of Sunday comics sections to refuse to print the strip. In another case, ''[[Dilbert]]'' is sometimes found in the business section of a newspaper instead because of the strip's commentary about [[office politics]].
The world's longest comic strip is 88.9 metres long and on display at [[Trafalgar Square]] as part of the [[London Comedy Festival]]. The record was previously 81 metres and held in [[Florida]]. The London Cartoon Strip was created by fifteen of [[United Kingdom|Britain's]] best known cartoonists and depicts the history of London.
The [[Reuben Award|Reuben]], named for cartoonist [[Rube Goldberg]], is the most prestigious award for U.S. comic strip artists. Reuben awards are presented annually by the National Cartoonists' Society (NCS).
Today's comic-strip artists, with the help of the NCS, enthusiastically promote the medium, which is considered to be in decline due to fewer markets and ever-shrinking newspaper space. One particularly humorous example of such promotional efforts is the Great Comic Strip Switcheroonie, held on April Fool's Day, 1997. For that day, dozens of prominent comic-strip artists took over each other's strips. ''[[Garfield]]''&rsquo;s Jim Davis, for example, switched with ''[[Blondie (comic strip)|Blondie]]''&rsquo;s Stan Drake, while Scott Adams (''[[Dilbert]]'') traded strips with Bil Keane (''[[The Family Circus]]''). Even the United States Postal Service got into the act, issuing a series of commemorative stamps marking the comic-strip centennial in 1996.
While the Switcheroonie was a one-time publicity stunt, for one artist to take over a feature from its originator is an old tradition in newspaper cartooning (as it is in the comic book industry). In fact, the practice has made possible the decades-spanning longevity of some of the genre's most popular strips. Examples include "Little Orphan Annie" (drawn and plotted by Harold Gray from 1924-44 and thereafter by a succession of artists including Leonard Starr and Andrew Pepoy), and "Terry and The Pirates" (started by Milton Caniff in 1934 and picked up by a string of successors, most notably George Wunder.)
A business-driven variation on the "switch" has sometimes led to the same feature continuing under a different name. In one case, in the early '40s, Don Flowers' "Modest Maidens" was so admired by William Randolph Hearst that he lured Flowers away from the Associated Press and to King Features Syndicate by doubling the cartoonist's salary, and renamed the feature "Glamor Girls" to avoid legal action by the AP. (The latter continued to publish "Modest Maidens" as drawn by Jay Allen, who aped Flowers' style to a tee.)
==Internet comics==
The advent of the [[World Wide Web]] in the 1990s led to an explosion of amateur [[webcomic]]s, comic strips created solely for Web sites. Webcomics differ from published comic strips, in that anyone can start his own comic strip and publish it on the Web; there is no longer any need to for a creator to meet the approval of a publisher or syndicate. Currently there are hundreds of webcomics, most of which are low-quality and sporadically updated. However, a number of webcomics have endured, and the best webcomics rival their newspaper and magazine counterparts in terms of quality and quantity. ''[[Megatokyo]]'', ''[[Penny Arcade (comic)|Penny Arcade]]'', ''[[PvP]]'', ''[[Sluggy Freelance]]'', and ''[[User Friendly]]'' are considered to be among the best of the [[webcomic]]s.
The majority of traditional newspaper comic strips now have some Internet presence. Syndicates often provide archives of recent strips on their websites. [[Scott Adams]], creator of ''[[Dilbert]]'', started a trend by including his e-mail address in each strip.
==See also==
*[[List of comic strips]]
*[[Comic book]]
*[[List of movies based on comic strips]]
*[[Webcomic]]
*[[Yonkoma]] - Japanese comic strip
==External links==
*[http://forums.delphiforums.com/bhob2 Fusebox Vintage Newspaper Comic Strips]
*[http://www.HavenWorks.com/comics/links HavenWorks' list of comic strips available online]
*[http://cartoons.osu.edu/ Ohio State University Cartoon Research Library]
*[http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards2.asp Reuben Awards]
*[http://www.marklansdown.com/pinbacks Comic strip pinbacks]
*[http://www.mainada.net/comics Comics @ Mai'Nada.net - Sketch your own comics online]
[[Category:Comic strips]]
[[Category:Comics]]
[[Category:Newspapering]]
[[ca:Tira còmica]]
[[da:Avisstribe]]
[[de:Comic]]
[[es:Tira cómica]]
[[fr:Bande dessinée]]
[[ko:&#50672;&#51116; &#47564;&#54868;]]
[[pt:Tira (banda desenhada)]]
[[zh:连环画]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Continuum hypothesis</title>
<id>5705</id>
<revision>
<id>41895628</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:00:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''continuum hypothesis''' is a [[hypothesis]], advanced by [[Georg Cantor]], about the possible sizes of [[infinite]] [[set]]s. Cantor introduced the concept of [[cardinal number|cardinality]] to compare the sizes of infinite sets, and he showed that the set of [[integer]]s is strictly smaller than the set of [[real number]]s. The continuum hypothesis states the following:
:There is no set whose size is strictly between that of the integers and that of the real numbers.
Or mathematically speaking, noting that the [[Cardinal number|cardinality]] for the integers <math>|\mathbb{Z}|</math> is <math>\aleph_0</math> ("[[aleph number|aleph-null]]") and the [[cardinality of the real numbers]] <math>|\mathbb{R}|</math> is <math>2^{\aleph_0}</math>, the continuum hypothesis says:
:<math>\lnot \exists \mathbb{A}: \aleph_0 < |\mathbb{A}| < 2^{\aleph_0}.</math>
This is equivalent to:
:<math>|\mathbb{R}| = \aleph_1</math>
The real numbers have also been called [[continuum (mathematics)|''the continuum'']], hence the name. There is also a generalization of the continuum hypothesis called the '''generalized continuum hypothesis''' saying:
: For all ordinals <math>\alpha</math>: <math>2^{\aleph_\alpha} = \aleph_{\alpha+1}</math>
== The size of a set ==
{{main|Cardinal number}}
To state the hypothesis formally, we need a definition: we say that two sets ''S'' and ''T'' have the same ''cardinality'' or ''[[cardinal number]]'' if there exists a [[bijection]]
<math>S \leftrightarrow T</math>.
Intuitively, this means that it is possible to "pair off" elements of ''S''
with elements of ''T'' in such a fashion that every element of ''S'' is paired off with exactly one element of ''T'' and vice versa. Hence, the set {banana, apple, p |
Aerospace courses] at MIT OpenCourseWare
[[Category:Transportation]]
[[Category:Aeronautics| ]]
[[pl:Aeronautyka]]
[[an:Aeronautica]]
[[ca:Aeronàutica]]
[[da:Aeronautik]]
[[de:Luftfahrt]]
[[es:Aeronáutica]]
[[eo:Aeronaŭtiko]]
[[fa:مکانیک پرواز]]
[[fr:Aéronautique]]
[[io:Aeronautiko]]
[[it:Aeronautica (scienza)]]
[[he:אווירונאוטיקה]]
[[pt:Aeronáutica]]
[[sv:Flyg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Auguste and Louis Lumière</title>
<id>2083</id>
<revision>
<id>41484568</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T17:53:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Louis Do Nothing</username>
<id>712874</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fratelli Lumiere.jpg|thumb|right|The Lumière Brothers]]
'''The Lumière Brothers''', '''Louis Jean''' ([[5 October]] [[1864]], [[Besançon]], [[France]] &ndash; [[6 June]] [[1948]], [[Bandol]]) and '''Auguste Marie Louis Nicholas''' ([[19 October]] [[1862]], [[Besançon]], [[France]] &ndash; [[10 April]] [[1954]], [[Lyon]]), were the creators of the [[cinematographe]], a three-in-one [[film|motion picture]] camera, developer, and projector, and were among the earliest key [[film director|filmmakers]]. They were both born in Twin Valley, [[Besançon]], [[France]] but brought up in [[Lyon]]. Both attended [[La Martiniere Lyons]]. Their father ran a [[History of the camera|photographic]] firm and both brothers worked for him: Louis as a physicist and Auguste as a manager. Louis had made some improvements to the still photograph process, the most noticeable being the dry plate process which was a major step towards film.
It was not until their father retired in [[1892]] that the brothers set to work to create moving pictures. They patented a number of significant processes - most notably the creation of [[sprocket|sprocket holes]] in the film strip as a means of getting the film through the camera and projector.
They produced a single device that acted as both camera and projector, the [[cinématographe]] which they patented on [[13 February]] [[1895]]. The first footage ever to be shot on the device was shot on [[19 March]] [[1895]]; the film was ''La sortie des usines Lumière'' (literally, ''The Exit From the Lumière Factories'', or, under its more common English title, ''[[Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory|Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory]]'').
The first paying show was on [[The First Cinema Show|28 December 1895]] in Paris at the Grand Café in the Boulevard des Capucines. They went on tour with the cinématographe in [[1896]] visiting [[Bombay]], [[London]] and [[New York]]. The moving images had an immediate and significant influence on popular culture with ''[[L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de la Ciotat]]'' (literally, ''The Arrival of a Train at the Ciotat Station'', but more commonly known as ''Arrival of a Train at a Station'') and also with [[actuality film]]s often cited as the first documentaries - although this is a matter of some debate - such as ''Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory'', ''Le Déjeuner de Bébé'' (''Baby's Lunch'') and the first steps towards comedy with the slapstick of ''[[L'Arroseur Arrosé]]'' (''The Sprinkler Sprinkled'').
However the brothers stated that "the [[film|cinema]] is an [[invention]] without any future" and declined to sell their invention to [[Georges Méliès]] and so their role in the history of film was exceedingly brief.
They turned their attentions to colour photography and in [[1903]] they patented a colour photography process, the "[[Autochrome Lumière]]", launched on the market in [[1907]].
The Lumière company was a major producer of photographic products in Europe. The brand name Lumière disappeared from the marketplace following merger with [[Ilford]].
The Lumières also proposed the loudspeaker and Tulle-gras® (to heal burns).
== External links ==
* http://www.institut-lumiere.org/francais/films/1seance/accueil.html Website with some of the "short films" done by the Lumière brothers.
[[Category:1864 births|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:1862 births|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:1954 deaths|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:1948 deaths|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:French film directors|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:French businesspeople|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:French inventors|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:Pioneers of photography|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:Cinema pioneers|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:Cinema of France|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:La Martiniere College]]
[[Category:Sibling duos|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
{{film-bio-stub}}
[[da:Brødrene Lumière]]
[[de:Brüder Lumière]]
[[es:Hermanos Lumière]]
[[eo:Fratoj Lumière]]
[[fr:Auguste et Louis Lumière]]
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[[ja:リュミエール兄弟]]
[[no:Brødrene Lumière]]
[[pl:Bracia Lumière]]
[[pt:Auguste e Louis Lumière]]
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[[ru:Люмьер]]
[[sv:Auguste och Louis Lumière]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acts of the Apostles</title>
<id>2084</id>
<revision>
<id>42001818</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:43:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.222.218.206</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''''Acts of the Apostles''''' (Greek ''Praxeis Apostolon'') is a book of the [[Bible]], which now stands fifth in the [[New Testament]]. It is commonly referred to as simply '''Acts'''. The traditional view is that it was written by the [[Macedonian]] Christian physician and historian [[Luke the Evangelist]], the companion of [[the apostle Paul]], in the [[first century]] AD.
An alternative name for the book is '''''Acts of the Holy Spirit'''''. It describes many of the journeys and actions taken by the [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]], meaning "those who have been sent" by God, to be His witnesses. This was originally applied exclusively to those who had personally seen and/or lived with [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]]. The book of Acts contains many descriptions of miraculous events (which were given as signs from God to [[validate]] the apostles' teachings), which were performed by the Holy Spirit through the apostles. These included [[miraculous]] healings, casting out [[evil spirits]], the raising of the dead, and also historical descriptions of everyday life in the [[Roman Empire]] and in ancient [[Jerusalem]].
Acts describes the beginning of the [[Jewish Christians|Jewish-Christian]] church on the Day of [[Pentecost]], explains and describes the growth and spread of the Church despite (and because of) official [[persecution]], narrates the inclusion of the [[gentile]] Greeks, Romans and other [[pagans]] of the [[Near East]] into the Church (and explains how this became possible), and focuses on the lives of the apostles, specifically Simon, called "[[Peter]]" of [[Galilee]] (who followed and lived with Jesus for probably three years) and [[Paul of Tarsus|Saul Paulus of Tarsus]] (who began as a [[Pharisee]] and a persecutor of the Church and was [[religious conversion|convert]]ed later on the [[Road to Damascus]]).
Generally speaking, the book is a historical account of the early years of the church. It focuses mainly on the activities of [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]. It records the history of the Jerusalem Church as led by [[Saint James the Just|James the Just]] from its inception with about 120 members (1:15) composed of [[Jew]]s and [[Proselyte]]s, to Peter baptizing [[Cornelius]] (10:44) ,who is traditionally considered the first [[Gentile]] convert, to the [[Council of Jerusalem]] (15), to James challenging Paul on the rumor that he aims to subvert the [[Law of Moses]] (21:18), to Paul's arrest in Jerusalem.
Internal evidence shows that it was the companion and sequel of the [[Gospel of Luke]] (for instance, they are both addressed to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]], which means "God-lover" or "Beloved by God"); its separation from that [[gospel]] occurred prior to any surviving manuscript. Historically it is of unique interest and value: there is no other book like it within the New Testament. It is the main ancient [[Church]] history; apart from it a connected picture of the [[Apostolic Age]] would be impossible. With it, Paul's letters are of priceless historical value; without it, they would be incomplete or even misleading.
== Plan and Purpose ==
All agree that Acts is the work of a skilled author, and that he has exercised care in keeping with a definite purpose and plan.
* His second narrative is the natural sequel to his first. The [[Gospel of Luke]] set forth in orderly sequence the stages by which Jesus was led, "in the power of the Spirit," to begin the establishment of the consummated [[Kingdom of Heaven|Kingdom of God]]. In the same way, Acts aims at showing how the [[Twelve Apostles|apostle]]s were led in sequential stages by the [[Holy Spirit]]. This involves emphasis on the identity of the Divine (not merely human) power expressed in the accounts.
* The [[Holy Spirit]] appears as directing and energizing throughout the apostles' whole struggle with the powers of evil to be overcome; however, it also shows how human effort must also be brought forth to overcome evil. The working of the energy in the disciples is conditioned by the continued life and volition of their Master at His Father's right hand in heaven. The Holy Spirit, "the Spirit of Jesus," is the living link between Master and disciples. Hence the pains taken to exhibit (1:2, 4f., 8, 2:1ff.; cf. Luke 24:49) the fact of such spiritual solidarity, whereby their activity means His continued action |
rative Legal Systems]
[[Category:Common law| ]]
[[Category:Legal history]]
[[de:Common Law]]
[[et:Üldine õigus]]
[[es:Derecho anglosajón]]
[[fr:Common law]]
[[id:Common law]]
[[it:Common Law]]
[[he:המשפט המקובל]]
[[nl:Common law]]
[[ja:コモン・ロー]]
[[pl:Common law]]
[[pt:Common-law]]
[[ru:Общее право]]
[[fi:Tapaoikeus]]
[[zh:英美法系]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Civil law</title>
<id>5255</id>
<revision>
<id>34616725</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T13:52:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdr</username>
<id>55814</id>
</contributor>
<comment>put into disambig style; add [[civil code]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Civil law''' may refer to:
* [[Civil law (legal system)]], a system of law based on the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]] prevalent in continental Europe, Central and South America, Quebec and Louisiana. In this sense the term is opposed to [[common law]].
* A [[civil code]], a systematic compilation of laws in core areas of private law (typically in a civil law system).
* [[Civil law (common law)]], the area of law in a common law system governing relations between private individuals. In this sense the term is opposed to [[criminal law]] and other areas of [[public law]].
* Laws imposed by the state. In this sense it is opposed to [[natural law]].
{{disambig}}
[[de:Privatrecht]]
[[es:Derecho civil]]
[[eo:Civila juro]]
[[fr:Droit civil]]
[[ko:민법]]
[[it:Diritto civile]]
[[he:המשפט הקונטיננטלי]]
[[lt:Civilinė teisė]]
[[nl:Burgerlijk recht]]
[[ja:民法]]
[[nn:Privatrecht]]
[[pl:Prawo cywilne]]
[[pt:Direito civil]]
[[ru:Гражданское право]]
[[sl:Civilno pravo]]
[[uk:Цивільне право]]
[[zh:民法]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cause of action</title>
<id>5256</id>
<revision>
<id>20804489</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-11T21:25:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mmmbeer</username>
<id>326372</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Add civil procedure template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CivilProcedure}}
In the law, a '''cause of action''' is a recognized kind of legal claim that a plaintiff [[pleading|pleads]] or [[allegation|alleges]] in a complaint to start a lawsuit. Examples are: [[breach of contract]]; [[torts]] such as [[personal injury|injury]], [[invasion of privacy]], [[fraud]], [[defamation|slander]], [[malpractice]], [[intentional infliction of emotional distress]]; suits at [[equity]]. "Cause of action" encompasses both the ''[[legal theory]]'' of what legal wrong the plaintiff claims to have suffered, and the ''[[remedy]],'' which is what a court is allowed to order the defendant to do to compensate the plaintiff for that wrong.
The points a plaintiff must prove to win a given type of case are called the "elements" of that cause of action. For the cause of action of [[negligence]], for example, the elements are (existence of a) [[duty]], breach (of that duty), causation (by that breach), and [[damages]] (incurred by the plaintiff). If a complaint does not allege facts to support every element of the cause of action it describes, the court will dismiss the complaint for ''failure to state a claim,'' for which relief can be granted.
The respondent to a cause of action may plead denials or [[affirmative defense]]s. Most defenses must be raised in the pleadings or by motion or are waived at trial. A few defenses, in particular a court's lack of subject matter [[jurisdiction]], need not be pleaded and may be raised at any time.
{{law-stub}}
[[Category:Civil procedure]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Court of Appeals</title>
<id>5257</id>
<revision>
<id>42005407</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:16:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thesocialistesq</username>
<id>652778</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Court of Appeal}}
'''Court of Appeals''' or (outside the United States) '''Court of Appeal''' is the title of a court which has the power to consider or hear an [[appeal]]. A court of appeal is also a [[superior court]].
==The United States==
The thirteen [[United States Court of Appeals|United States Courts of Appeals]] stand between the [[United States District Court]]s (or other comparable federal courts, such as the [[Court of International Trade]]) and the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]].
Each [[U.S. state|state]] has decided upon its own particular appellate structure.
In the state of [[New York]], for example, the Court of Appeals is the highest court in the state and the court of last resort within the State. Only cases raising questions of federal law can be appealed from there to the United States Supreme Court. Similarly, in the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], the [[District of Columbia Court of Appeals|Court of Appeals]] is equivalent to a [[state supreme court]].
In [[California]], the intermediate appellate courts are known as the Courts of Appeal (note the lack of an "s").
In [[New Mexico]], the Court of Appeals is the intermediate appellate court between county jurisdictions and the state's Supreme Court. Most states that have a Court of Appeals (or multiple Courts) give them a similar intermediate role.
In [[Nevada]] (and a few other states), there is no Court of Appeals. Cases are appealed directly from District (county) Courts to the state's Supreme Court. The state Supreme Court in that case must hear all appeals.
The general rule in the American justice system is that the loser deserves one appeal. Therefore, such intermediate courts usually have [[mandatory jurisdiction]] and must hear an appeal, while the state supreme court (or the U.S. Supreme Court in the federal system) has [[discretionary jurisdiction]] and hears an appeal only if it wants to. There exist some special exceptions to this rule. In some state courts, the state's supreme court is required by law to hear all appeals of a certain nature. These cases usually involve the death penalty or cases involving high-ranking government officials.
==Elsewhere==
Some countries within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] have courts by the name of the [[Courts of England and Wales|Court of Appeal]] above the High Court and below the [[court of last resort]] (which may be the [[Judicial functions of the House of Lords|House of Lords]], the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], etc.). For a fuller treatment, see [[Courts of England and Wales]].
In [[Canada]] the Court of Appeal is the highest court in most of the country's provincial jurisdictions. The [[Supreme Court of Canada]], the country's court of last resort, is the only court higher than any of the provincial or territorial courts of appeal. The chief justice of the appellate court is styled Chief Justice of [the Name of the Province].
In [[France]] the Courts of Appeals are one level under the [[Cour de cassation]], which is the [[court of last resort]]. There exist administrative Courts of Appeal, under the [[Conseil d'État]], for cases belonging to the administrative order.
In [[Germany]], with civil and criminal cases, the highest court in a hierarchy of appellate courts is the ''[[Bundesgerichtshof]]''. The other branches of the German [[judicial branch]] for social, labor, and administrative cases each have their own appellate systems. The ''Bundesgerichtshof'' is distinct from the [[Federal Constitutional Court of Germany]], which only performs [[judicial review]], although both courts are located in [[Karlsruhe]].
==See also==
*[[List of legal topics]]
[[Category:Court systems]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer Storage</title>
<id>5258</id>
<revision>
<id>15903479</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer storage]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Common descent</title>
<id>5259</id>
<revision>
<id>40830696</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T07:34:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Randwicked</username>
<id>73688</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 39939403 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A group of organisms is said to have '''common descent''' if they have a common [[ancestor]]. In [[biology]], the theory of ''universal common descent'' proposes that all [[organism]]s on [[Earth]] are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool.{{ref|transfer}}
A theory of '''universal common descent''' based on [[evolution|evolutionary]] principles was proposed by [[Charles Darwin]] in his book [[The Origin of Species]] ([[1859]]), and later in ''[[The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]'' ([[1871]]).
This theory is now generally accepted by biologists, and the [[last universal ancestor|last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA or LUA), that is, the [[most recent common ancestor]] of all currently living organisms, is believed to have appeared about [[Timeline of evolution|3.5 billion years ago]] (see: [[origin of life]]).
== History ==
The first suggestion that all organisms may have had a common ancestor and diverged through random variation and natural selection was made in [[1745]] by the French mathematician and scientist
[[Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis]] (1698-1759) in his work ''Vénus physique''. Specifically:
:"Could one not say that, in the fortuitous combinations of the productions of nature, as there must be some characterized by a certain relation of fitness which are able to subsist, it is not to be wondered at that this fitness is present in all the spe |
Hooker]].
He recorded for Chicago's [[Chess Records]] subsidiary label Checker.
He is best known for the "Bo Diddley beat", a [[rhumba]]-based beat (see [[clave (rhythm)|clave]]) also influenced by what is known as "[[hambone]]", a style used by street performers who play out the beat by slapping and patting their arms, legs, chest, and cheeks while chanting rhymes. The Bo Diddley beat is often illustrated with the phrase: "shave 'n' a haircut - two bits".
The beat has been used by many other artists, notably [[Johnny Otis]] on "Willie and the Hand Jive", which is more about hambone than it is a direct copy of Bo Diddley, [[Bruce Springsteen]]'s "She's the One," [[U2]]'s "[[Desire (song)|Desire]]", [[Buddy Holly]]'s "Not Fade Away" and the [[Rolling Stones]]' "Mona" as well as more obscure numbers such as "Callin' All Cows" by the Blues Rockers.
Bo Diddley used a variety of rhythms, however, from straight [[back beat]] to pop ballad style, frequently with [[maraca]]s by [[Jerome Green]]. He was also an influential [[guitar]] player, with many special effects and other innovations in tone and attack. He also plays the [[violin]], which is featured on his mournful [[instrumental rock|instrumental]] "The Clock Strikes Twelve".
Rhythm is so important in Bo Diddley's music that [[harmony]] is often reduced to a bare simplicity. His songs (for example "Hey Bo Diddley" and "Who Do You Love?") often have no [[chord (music)|chord]] changes; that is, the musicians play the same chord throughout the piece, so that excitement is created by the rhythm, rather than by harmonic tension and release.
His own songs have been frequently covered. [[The Animals]] recorded "The Story of Bo Diddley", [[The Who]] and [[The Yardbirds]] both covered "I'm a Man" and both [[the Woolies]] and [[George Thorogood]] had hits with "Who Do You Love", which was also covered by [[Quicksilver Messenger Service]] and was a concert favorite of [[The Doors]]. Bo Diddley's "Road Runner" was also frequently covered, including by [[The Who]] in concert. Muddy Waters' "Mannish Boy" was an adaptation of Diddley's "I'm a Man". ("Say Man" was his only [[Top 40]] hit.) [[The Jesus and Mary Chain]] also recorded a tribute song "Bo Diddley is Jesus". [[Ronnie Hawkins]] recorded and covered "Hey Bo Diddley", "Bo Diddley" and "Who Do You Love" during his many recording sessions, including those with his backing band of the time, The Hawks, of course, later known as [[The Band]].
On [[November 20]], [[1955]], Bo Diddley was the first [[African-American]] to appear on [[The Ed Sullivan Show|''The Ed Sullivan Show'' ]], only to infuriate him ("I did two songs and he got mad." Diddley later recalls, "Ed Sullivan said that I was one of the first colored boys to ever double-cross him. Said that I wouldn't last six months."). Diddley was asked to sing [[Tennessee Ernie Ford]]'s hit [[Sixteen Tons]]. But when he appeared on stage, he sang his #1 hit ''Bo Diddley.'' He was banned from performing on Sullivan's show. <!--Shold this be included in this article about Bo Diddley?-->(He wasn't the last performer to cross [[Ed Sullivan|The Great Stoneface]]. In fact, two more performers crossed Sullivan: comedian [[Jackie Mason]]&mdash;when he allegedly gave [[the finger]] to Sullivan around [[1962]], [[1964]], or [[1969]]&mdash;and the rock group [[The Doors]], when [[Jim Morrison]] sang the word "higher" when asked not to, on [[September 17]], [[1967]].)
Although Bo Diddley was a breakthrough crossover artist with white audiences, appearing on the [[Alan Freed]] concerts, for instance, he rarely tailored his compositions to teenaged concerns. The most notable exception is probably his album ''Surfin' With Bo Diddley'', which featured "Surfer's Love Call", and while Bo may never have hung ten in his baggies to catch the big wave, he was definitely an influence on surf guitar players.
His lyrics are often witty and humorous adaptations of [[folk music]] themes. His first hit, "Bo Diddley" was based on the [[lullaby]] "Hush Little Baby". Likewise, "Hey Bo Diddley" is based on the folk song, "Old Macdonald". The [[Roots of rap music|rap]]-style boasting of "Who Do You Love", a [[wordplay]] on [[hoodoo]], used many striking lyrics from the [[African-American]] tradition of toasts and boasts. His "Say Man" and "Say Man, Back Again" have been connected with rap, but actually feature the insults known as the [[Dozens]]: "You look like you been in a hatchet fight and everybody had a hatchet except you."
In addition to the many songs identified with him, he wrote the pioneering [[pop music|pop tune]] "[[Love Is Strange]]" for [[Mickey Baker|Mickey]] and [[Sylvia Vanderpool|Sylvia]] under a pseudonym.
His trademark instrument is the square-bodied guitar that he developed and wielded in thousands of concerts over the years&mdash;from sweaty Chicago clubs to rock and roll oldies tours and even as an opening act for [[The Clash]] and a guest for the [[Rolling Stones]].
In recent years, Bo Diddley has received numerous accolades in recognition of his role as one of the founding fathers of [[rock and roll]]. In 1986, he was inducted into the [[Washington Area Music Association]]'s Hall of Fame. The following year saw his induction into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]. His pioneering contribution to the genre has been recognized by the [[Rockabilly Hall of Fame]]. In 1996, he was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award by the [[Rhythm and Blues Foundation]]. The following years saw his 1955 recording of his song "Bo Diddley" inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame as a recording of lasting qualitative or historical significance and he received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the [[Grammy Awards]] Ceremony.
The start of the new millennium saw Bo Diddley inducted into the [[Mississippi Musicians Hall of Fame]] and into the [[North Florida Music Association]]'s Hall of Fame. In 2002, he received a Pioneer in Entertainment Award from the [[National Association of Black Owned Broadcasters]] and a [[Broadcast Music Incorporated]] (BMI) Icon Award in recognition of his many contributions to contemporary music.
In 2003, tribute was paid to Bo Diddley in the [[United States House of Representatives]] by [[Hon. John Conyers, Jr.]] of [[Michigan]], who described him as "one of the true pioneers of [[rock and roll]], who has influenced generations".
In 2004, [[Mickey Baker|Mickey]] and [[Sylvia Vanderpool|Sylvia]]'s 1956 recording of his song "[[Love Is Strange]]" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame as a recording of qualitative or historical significance and he was inducted into the [[Blues Foundation]]'s Blues Hall of Fame. [[Rolling Stone]] magazine named him as one of its Immortals - The 50 Greatest Artists of All-Time.
In 2005, Bo Diddley celebrated his 50th anniversary in music with successful tours of [[Australia]] and [[Europe]] and with coast to coast shows across [[North America]]. He performed his song "Bo Diddley" with [[Eric Clapton]] and [[Robbie Robertson]] at the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]'s 20th annual induction ceremony and in the UK, [[Uncut]] magazine included his 1958 debut album "Bo Diddley" in its listing of the 100 Music, Movie & TV Moments That Have Changed The World.
In 2006, Bo Diddley graciously participated as the headliner of a grass-roots organized fundraiser concert to benefit the town of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, which was devastated by hurricane Katrina. The "[Florida Keys for Katrina Relief]" was originally set for October 23, 2005, but hurricane Wilma barreled through the Florida Keys On October 24 causing flooding and economic mayhem. In January 2006 the Florida Keys had recovered enough to host the fundraising concert to benefit the more hard hit community of Ocean Springs, MS. When asked about the fundraiser Bo Diddley stated, "This is the United States of America. We believe in helping one another." See the video at [http://www.floridakeysforkatrinarelief.com/musical_performers.htm]
==Discography==
*''[[Bo Diddley (album)|Bo Diddley]]'' ([[1958]])
*''Go Bo Diddley'' ([[1959]])
*''Have Guitar-Will Travel'' ([[1960]])
*''Bo Diddley In The Spotlight'' ([[1960]])
*''Bo Diddley Is A Gunslinger'' ([[1960]])
*''Bo Diddley Is A Lover'' ([[1961]])
*''Bo Diddley's A Twister'' ([[1962]])
*''Bo Diddley'' ([[1962]])
*''Bo Diddley & Company'' ([[1962]])
*''Surfin' with Bo Diddley'' ([[1963]])
*''Bo Diddley's Beach Party'' ([[1963]])
*''Bo Diddley's 16 All-Time Greatest Hits'' ([[1964]])
*''Two Great Guitars'' (with [[Chuck Berry]]) ([[1964]])
*''Hey Good Lookin''' ([[1965]])
*''500% More Man'' ([[1965]])
*''The Originator'' ([[1966]])
*''Super Blues'' (with [[Muddy Waters]] & [[Little Walter]]) ([[1967]])
*''Super Super Blues Band'' (with [[Muddy Waters]] & [[Howlin' Wolf]]) ([[1967]])
*''The Black Gladiator'' ([[1970]])
*''Another Dimension'' ([[1971]])
*''Where It All Began'' ([[1972]])
*''Got My Own Bag of Tricks'' ([[1972]])
*''The London Bo Diddley Sessions'' ([[1973]])
*''Big Bad Bo'' ([[1974]])
*''20th Anniversary of Rock & Roll'' ([[1976]])
*''I'm A Man'' ([[1977]])
*''Ain't It Good To Be Free'' ([[1983]])
*''Bo Diddley & Co - Live'' ([[1985]])
*''Hey...Bo Diddley in Conce rt'' ([[1986]])
*''Breakin' Through The BS'' ([[1989]])
*''Living Legend'' ([[1989]])
*''Rare & Well Done'' ([[1991]])
*''Live At The Ritz'' (with [[Ronnie Wood]]) ([[1992]])
*''This Should Not Be'' ([[1993]])
*''Promises'' ([[1994]])
*''A Man Amongst Men'' ([[1996]])
*''Moochas Gra |
bed wire fence was built from the Mediterranean to the oasis of Al-Jaghbub to sever lines critical to the resistance. Soon afterwards, the colonial administration began the wholesale deportation of the people of the Jebel Akhdar to deny the rebels the support of the local population. The forced migration of more than 100,000 people ended in concentration camps in Suluq and Al-'Aghela where tens of thousands died in squalid conditions. It's estimated that the number of Libyans who died - killed either through combat or starvation and disease - is at a minimum of 80,000 or even up to half of the Cyrenaican population. After Al-Mukhtar's capture September 15, 1931 and his execution in Benghazi, the resistance petered out. Limited resistance to the Italian occupation crystallized round the person of [[Idris of Libya| Sheik Idris]], the Emir of Cyrenaica.
In March 1937 [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] made a spectacular state visit to Libya, where he opened a new military highway running the entire length of the colony. Cynically, he had himself declared ''protector of Islam'' and was presented with a symbolic sword. Mussolini's publicized encouragement of the Arabic nationalist movement suited his wider policies of confronting Britain and France. He also sought to fully colonise Libya, introducing 30,000 Italian settlers which brought their numbers to more than 100,000. These settlers were shipped primarily to Sahel al-Jefara in Tripolitania and the Jebel Akhdar in Cyrenaica, and given land from which the indigenous inhabitants had been forcibly removed.
In [[13 September]]-15 1940, Mussolini's highway sped the invasion of Egypt by Italian forces stationed in Libya. Counterattacks of British Allied forces from Egypt, later commanded by [[Bernard Montgomery|Montgomery]] and their successful two-month campaign ([[Tobruk]], [[Bengasi]], [[El Argheila]]), and the counteroffensives under [[Erwin Rommel|Rommel]], 1940-43, are part of the wider history of [[World War II]]. In November 1942 the Allied forces retook Cyrenaica; by February the last German and Italian soldiers were driven from Libya. In the early post-war period, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica remained under [[United Kingdom|British]] administration, while the [[France|French]] controlled Fezzan. After almost three decades of Italian occupation, a quarter of Libya's population had died.
In [[1944]], Idris returned from exile in [[Cairo]] but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal in [[1947]] of some aspects of foreign control. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the [[Allies]], Italy relinquished all claims to Libya. In July 1999 the Italian government offered a formal apology to Libya and it is reported that Italy agreed to pay USD $260 million as compensation for the occupation.
Some pictures of the Italian occupation can be found [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/dr_ibrahim_ighneiwa/ihtilal1.htm here ]
==Modern Libya==
On [[November 21]], [[1949]], the [[UN General Assembly]] passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before [[January 1]], [[1952]]. Idris represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. When Libya declared its independence on [[December 24]], [[1951]], it was the first country to achieve independence through the United Nations and one of the first former European possessions in [[Africa]] to gain independence. Libya was proclaimed a constitutional and a hereditary [[monarchy]] and Idris was proclaimed king.
The discovery of significant [[petroleum|oil]] reserves in [[1959]] and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled what had been one of the world's poorest countries to become extremely wealthy, as measured by per capita [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Although oil drastically improved Libya's finances, popular resentment grew as wealth was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the elite. This discontent continued to mount with the rise throughout the Arab world of [[Gamal Abdal Nasser|Nasserism]] and the idea of Arab unity.
On [[September 1]], [[1969]], a small group of military officers led by then 28-year-old army officer [[Moammar Al Qadhafi|Mu'ammar Abu Minyar al-Qadhafi]] staged a coup d'etat against King Idris, who was exiled to Egypt. The new regime, headed by the [[Revolutionary Command Council]] (RCC), abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the new Libyan Arab Republic. Qadhafi emerged as leader of the RCC and eventually as de facto chief of state, a political role he still plays. The Libyan Government asserts that Qadhafi currently holds no official position, although he is referred to in government statements and the official press as the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution."
Qadhafi took control of Libya from the [[Senusi|Senusiyyah]]. They gained support by opposing Italian and British occupiers. Their rise in power followed a similar path as that of the Wahhabis in [[Saudi Arabia]], although with obviously different endings.
Since he took power in a 1969 military coup, Qadhafi has espoused his own political system - a combination of [[socialism]] and [[Islam]] - which he calls the Third Universal Theory.
The new RCC's motto became "freedom, socialism, and unity." It pledged itself to remedy "backwardness," take an active role in the [[Palestinian]] Arab cause, promote Arab unity, and encourage domestic policies based on social justice, nonexploitation, and an equitable distribution of wealth.
An early objective of the new government was withdrawal of all foreign military installations from Libya. Following negotiations, British military installations at [[Tobruk]] and nearby El Adem were closed in March [[1970]], and U.S. facilities at Wheelus Air Force Base near Tripoli were closed in June 1970. That July, the Libyan Government ordered the expulsion of several thousand Italian residents. By [[1971]], libraries and cultural centers operated by foreign governments were ordered closed.
Qadhafi rejected both Soviet Communism and Western capitalism and claimed that he was charting an independent course, portraying himself as a champion of "oppressed peoples" and Third World nations seeking to assert their independence on the international stage. In the 1970s, Libya claimed leadership of Arab and African revolutionary forces and sought active roles in international organizations.
In [[1974]], Libya and [[Tunisia]] planned to merge and create the [[Arab Islamic Republic]].
Late in the 1970s, Libyan embassies were redesignated as "people's bureaus," as Qadhafi sought to portray Libyan foreign policy as an expression of the popular will. The people's bureaus, aided by Libyan religious, political, educational, and business institutions overseas, exported Qadhafi's revolutionary philosophy abroad.
Viewing himself as a revolutionary leader, Qadhafi used oil funds during the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] to promote his ideology outside Libya, even supporting militants abroad to hasten the end of Soviet and U.S. [[hegemony]].
On [[August 19]], in the [[Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)]], a dispute over whether the [[Gulf of Sidra]] was international waters or not, two [[Sukhoi Su-22]] fighter jets engaged two United States [[F-14 Tomcat]]s operating from U.S. aircraft carrier [[USS Nimitz (CVN-68)]] operating in the gulf near the "line of death." The U.S. jets shot down the Libyan fighters and the [[United States]] placed an [[embargo]] on Libyan [[petroleum]] imports starting on [[March 10]], [[1982]]. Libyan military adventures failed, e.g., the prolonged foray of Libyan troops into the [[Aozou Strip]] in northern [[Chad]] was finally repulsed in [[1987]].
[[Image:Map of Aouzou stip chad.PNG|thumb|120px|Libya occupied the [[Aouzou strip]] (blue) in [[Chad]] between 1976 and 1987]]
U.S.-Libyan relations quickly deteriorated following the inauguration of U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] in January [[1981]]. The Reagan administration saw Libya as an unacceptable player on the international stage because of its uncompromising stance on Palestinian independence, its support for revolutionary [[Iran]] in its [[1980]]-[[1988]] war against [[Saddam Hussein]]'s [[Iraq]] (''see'' [[Iran-Iraq War]]), support for international terrorism, and its backing for "liberation movements" in the developing world. In March [[1982]] the U.S. declared a ban on the import of Libyan oil and the export to Libya of U.S. oil industry technology; Europe did not follow suit.
The U.S. attacked Libyan patrol boats from January to March [[1986]] during clashes over access to the [[Gulf of Sidra]], which Libya claimed as territorial waters. Later, on [[April 14]], [[1986]], Reagan ordered [[Operation El Dorado Canyon|major bombing raids]] against [[Tripoli]] and [[Benghazi]] that killed 60 people following U.S. accusations of Libyan involvement in a bomb explosion in a German nightclub frequented by U.S. servicemen on [[April 5]], which had killed 3. Among the victims of the [[14 April]] attack was the daughter of the Libyan leader.
After Libya's role was exposed in the [[1988]] bombing of [[Pan Am flight 103]] over [[Lockerbie]], [[Scotland]], UN sanctions were imposed in 1992. [[UN Security Council]] resolutions (UNSCRs) passed in [[1992]] and [[1993]] obliged Libya to fulfill requirements related to the Pan Am 103 bombing before sanctions could be lifted, leading to Libya's political and economic isolation for most of the [[1990s]]. The UN sanctions cut airline connections with the outer world, reduced diplomatic representation and prohibited the sale of military equipment. Oil-related sanctions were assessed by some as equally significant for their exceptions: thus sanctions froze Libya's foreign assets (but excluded revenue from oil and natural gas and agricultural commodities) and banned the sale to Libya of refinery or pipeline equipment (but excluded oil ''production'' equipment).
U |
uot;Ain't I A Woman?" speech pointed out, "Where did your Christ come from? From God and a woman. Man had nothing to do with him!" [[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]] produced the "Woman's Bible," excising the traditional Christian text of all references she thought contradicted the positions of women's rights.
==See also==
* '''[[Religion]]''' : [[Christian views of women]], [[God]], [[Goddess worship]], [[God and gender]]
* '''[[Theology]]''' : [[Liberation Theology]], [[Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus]]
* '''Other''' : [[Feminism]], [[When God Was a Woman]], [[Li Tim-Oi]]
[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Religious feminism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Liberation theology]]
[[nl:Feministische theologie]]
[[de:Feministische Theologie]]
[[tr:Feminist teoloji]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frequency shift keying</title>
<id>11588</id>
<revision>
<id>15909326</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-03T23:44:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jh51681</username>
<id>71006</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to [[Frequency-shift keying]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frequency-shift keying]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FSK</title>
<id>11589</id>
<revision>
<id>18679959</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-12T16:07:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grubber</username>
<id>292593</id>
</contributor>
<comment>wikify to better conform to [[Wikipedia:Disambiguation|dab]] and [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (disambiguation pages)|dab style]] -- no links in list</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''FSK''' can have alternative meanings:
* [[Frequency-shift keying]], a modulation scheme
* [[Forsvarets Spesialkommando]], a Norwegian military unit
* [[FSK (band)]], a German band
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:FSK]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fuel cells</title>
<id>11590</id>
<revision>
<id>15909328</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fuel cell]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fictional guidebook</title>
<id>11591</id>
<revision>
<id>40894184</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T18:50:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lampbane</username>
<id>97129</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>minor formatting plus spelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Some [[fictional universe]]s feature useful guidebooks which assist the hero and friends through difficult situations.
'''Features of a great fictional guidebook:''' Such books are ideally compact enough to carry on even the most strenuous adventures, yet detailed enough to contain exactly the information the reader needs at that particular point in the plot.
Many guidebooks are electronic in nature; some can access relevant information through a wireless connection.
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!Fictional guidebook
!Universe
|-
|''[[Encyclopaedia Galactica]]''
|''[[The Foundation Series]]'' by [[Isaac Asimov]]
|-
|''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''
|''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy|Hitchhiker Trilogy]]'' (in five parts) by [[Douglas Adams]]
|-
|''The [[Junior Woodchucks Guidebook]]''
|''[[Donald Duck]]'' [[comics]] by [[Carl Barks]] and ''[[DuckTales]]''
|-
|''[[Encyclopedia Frobozzica]]''
|''[[Zork]]''
|-
|''The Book of Rules''
|The ''Dancing Gods'' series by [[Jack L. Chalker]]
|-
|''A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer''
|[[Neal Stephenson]]'s novel, ''[[Neal Stephenson/The Diamond Age|The Diamond Age]]''
|-
|''Planetary Guides'' (annual)
|[[Planetary (comics)|Planetary]] by [[Warren Ellis]]
|-
|''[[Pokédex]]''
|[[Pokémon]] games and [[Pokémon (anime)|animation]]
|-
|''Highly Unpleasant Things It Is Sometimes Necessary to Know'' and ''Things That Are Not Good to Know at All''
|[[John Barnes (author)|John Barnes]]'s novel, ''One for the Morning Glory''
|-
|''The Mrin and Darine Codices''
|[[David Eddings]]' ''[[The Belgariad|Belgariad]]'' and ''[[The Malloreon|Malloreon]]''
|-
|[[Ferengi]] ''[[Rules of Acquisition]]''
|''[[Star Trek]]''
|-
|''Marcoh's Notes'' (AKA: ''Tim Marcoh's Guide on Baking Desserts'' - A guide written by the alchemist Tim Marcoh on the Philosophers' Stone, it is thought of as a cookbook, but is actually an alchemy reference written in code.)
|[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]
|-
|''Spates Catalog''
|''[[Ghostbusters]]''
|-
|''Tobin's Spirit Guide''
|''[[Ghostbusters]]''
|-
|''The Spells of Astoroth''
|''[[Bedknobs and Broomsticks]]''
|-
|''Handbook for the Recently Deceased''
|''[[Beetlejuice]]''
|-
|''The Code of Masked Wrestling''
|''[[¡Mucha Lucha!]]''
|-
|''The Slayer Handbook''
|''[[Buffy The Vampire Slayer]]''
|-
|''The Messiah's Handbook and Reminders for the Advanced Soul''
|[[Richard Bach]]'s novel, ''Illusions''
|-
|''A Really Useful Book''
|''[[Mirrormask]]''
|-
|''Stuffwell'' (which is not a book)
|[[Mario and Luigi: Partners in Time]]
|-
|[[Da Rules]]
|[[Fairly Odd Parents]]
|}
==See also==
* [[false document]]
* [[literature]]
* [[fictional book]]
* [[Archive of fictional things]]
{{sf-stub}}
[[Category:Fictional books|Guidebooks]]
[[Category:Lists of fictional things|Guidebooks]]
[[Category:Lists of books]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freeware</title>
<id>11592</id>
<revision>
<id>42035618</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:15:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tor Stein</username>
<id>796442</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+iw:no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Freeware''' is computer [[software]] which is made available free of charge, as opposed to [[payware]] where the user is required to pay.
Freeware contrasts with "[[free software]]", due to the different meanings of the word "free". Freeware is described as "Gratis", as in "free beer" and refers to free price, versus "Free Software" referred to as [[libre software]], as in "free speech", which refers to the license freedom.
==Freeware licencing==
The only criteria for being classed as "Freeware" is that the software be made available at no cost, thus Freeware can be covered by any type of license. Freeware and "free software" are not mutually exclusive, as the former refers to cost, the latter to licensing. However, "free software" which is also freeware is usually simply referred to just as "free software", thus the term Freeware commonly refers to the sub-set of freeware with a proprietary license.
==History of use of the term==
The term ''freeware'' was coined by [[Andrew Fluegelman]] when he wanted to distribute a communications program named [[PC-Talk]] that he had created but for which he did not wish to use traditional methods of distribution because of their cost. Previously, he held a [[trademark]] on the term "freeware" but this trademark has since been abandoned. Fluegelman actually distributed PC-Talk via a process now referred to as [[shareware]].
==Types==
There are many variations on the freeware model. Freeware is an [[umbrella term]] which includes:
* [[Loss leader]]. Commercial vendors often release freeware as a [[loss leader]] to attract customers to other services or products available for a fee.
* [[Adware]]. Adware is distributed as freeware, but it requires the user to view advertisements to use the software. Many cases of [[spyware]] have been adware.
* [[Donationware]] or '''Beggarware''' or [[Nagware]]. The authors of donationware ask that anyone using their software make a donation to the authors or to some third party such as a [[charity]]. Because the donation is optional, donationware may also be freeware or fall into some other category.
* [[Abandonware]]. Abandonware is commercial software that has not been sold for a long time or whose copyright holder is defunct; it has been "abandoned". The licenses of most such software forbid redistribution or require payment, so distributing it violates the author's copyright (even if the author does not or cannot enforce it). "Legal abandonware" is a misnomer for commercial software that has been re-released by the copyright holder as freeware.
*[[Postcardware]]. The software is essentially freeware, however the author requests that you send a post card expressing thanks and providing feedback.
*[[Baitware]]. Very limited or defective freeware software, released to deceptively attract users and drive them to commercial products.
===Related software types===
*[[Shareware]] is distributed similarly to freeware, except that it requires payment after some trial period.
**One type of shareware is [[crippleware]], for which the user can pay to unlock more features or get a "full version".
==See also==
*[[b:Freeware|Freeware]] at [[Wikibooks]].
*[[List of freeware games]]
*[[Pricelessware]]
==External links==
===Sources===
*[http://paulspicks.com/history.asp ''The History of Shareware'' by Michael E. Callahan]
*[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/categories.html#freeware GNU's declaration that "freeware" is not the same as "free software"]
*[http://www.techsoup.org/howto/articlepage.cfm?articleid=40 Making Sense of Freeware, Open Source, and Shareware]
*[http://textfiles.fisher.hu/news/freeware.txt ''Andrew Fluegleman: In Memoriam'' by Kevin Strehlo]
*[http://www.arachnoid.com/careware/index.html Paul Lutus: CareWare concept]
*[http://www.freewarehof.org/names.html "13 of the Great Freeware Writers" by Rey Barry, the Freeware Hall of Fame]
===Freeware===
* {{dmoz|/Computers/Software/Freeware |
arek and while [[hard rock]] remained at the core of their sound Cold Chisel displayed a remarkable versatility. When Kascmarek left in [[1975]], Walker became the major creative force of the band. Built around Walker's superb songwriting, the group also featured the dazzling guitar and vocal talents of [[Ian Moss]] and the enormously powerful lead vocals of [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[immigrant]] [[Jimmy Barnes]].
==Musical Style==
While typically classified as a hard-driving rock and roll band, the Chisel repertoire included such Australian anthems as the landmark [[Vietnam War]] song "[[Khe Sanh (song)|Khe Sanh]]", "Bow River", "[[Flame Trees]]" and "Saturday Night", but also included thoughtful ballads like "Choir Girl" (written about the subject of [[abortion]]), pop-flavoured love songs like "My Baby" and caustic political statements like "Star Hotel", an attack on the late-70s government of [[Malcolm Fraser]] and inspired by a riot at a [[Newcastle, Australia|Newcastle]] pub. The music was not political in context, however Walker's songs were observations of everyday life within the Australian society and culture. One song from this period, "Misfits", which featured on the b-side to "My Baby", was written in the same vein as Chuck Berry, and was about homeless kids in the suburbs surrounding Sydney.
==Reputation==
The band is often the subject of somewhat [[classist]] disdain for its particular popularity among one generation of working-class men (roughly, those born in the 60s and 70s). This is in spite of the fact that they were one of the most broadly popular and best-selling bands of the day, often featured on the nationwide pop show [[Countdown]], and were widely acknowledged as one of Australia's most accomplished live acts. Cold Chisel remains one of Australia's highest-selling bands, with sales in excess of 5 million by the beginning of the 2000s.
Cold Chisel weren't just a band, they were a lifestyle for many of their followers, who were known as some of the roughest in the land. This gave Chisel their hard living approach to their music and made them a tough live band as well. More than 30 years after they originally played together, they attract generation after generation of new listeners. This is also evidence of Chisel's dominance of the pub rock era. They are the only Australian band to have sold more records after breakup than before and are among other bands that have become transgenerational. "Khe Sanh" consistently ranks highly in lists of Australia's most popular songs and their music remains a staple of rock station playlists. The Ian Moss song "Never Before" (from the ''East'' LP) was chosen by FM rock station 2JJJ ([[Triple Jay]]) as the first record played on-air when the station made its transition from AM to FM in [[1980]].
Other Cold Chisel classics which still frequently get airtime on radio and in bars/pubs include Cheap Wine ( 1980 ) , Forever Now ( 1982 ) .
Despite the continued dominance of Walker, during Chisel's later career all four of the other members began to contribute songs to the band, with Moss and drummer Steve Prestwich both emerging as highly accomplished songwriters in their own right. Barnes and Small also contributed significant songs to the group's repertoire and Cold Chisel is one of the few Australian rock bands to score hits with songs written by every member of the group.
Alongside contemporaries [[Midnight Oil]], Cold Chisel was renowned as one of the most dynamic live acts of their day and from early on in their career Cold Chisel concerts routinely became sell-out events. The band was also famous for its wild lifestyle, and the hard-drinking Barnes (who has since given up alcohol) had a well-earned reputation as one of the true wild men of Australian rock.
==The Break-Up==
By [[1983]] the band had reached the zenith of their career in Australia and with overseas markets reluctant to accept them, Cold Chisel began to disintegrate. Their abortive US sojourn was commemorated in Barnes' excoriating rocker "You Got Nothing I Want" from the ''Circus Animals'' album, an emotional volume created from the frustration of the band’s experiences overseas.
Increasing internal tensions and the pressures of touring took their toll and Steve Prestwich -- who was often in conflict with Barnes -- left the band, to be replaced by veteran Australian drummer [[Ray Arnott]] (ex [[Spectrum (band)|Spectrum]]). Shortly afterward Cold Chisel announced their split and a series of farewell concerts, for which Prestwich re-joined. That tour became a legend in itself and was not without incident when Barnes lost his voice before the [[Sydney, Australia|Sydney]] shows, which then had to be rescheduled. The band's final performance was filmed for the documentary concert film ''The Last Stand'', which remains to this day the best-selling concert film of any single Australian act.
==Solo Careers==
Immediately after the break-up, Barnes launched a solo career that earned him an unprecedented six consecutive Number One albums, a feat no other Australian artist is likely to match, and has now sold in excess of two million albums in his own right. Walker went on to a more low-profile career as a songwriter for other artists while dabbling in [[blues]] and roots music. Prestwich joined [[Little River Band]] and was later a drummer for [[John Farnham]]. Moss lay low for most of the rest of the 80s before eventually launching his own solo career that scored him a Number One album in [[1989]].
==The Revival==
Throughout the 80s and most of the 90s, the band was courted to reform but obstinately refused. Eventually, however, Cold Chisel got back together in [[1999]] for a new CD release, titled ''The Last Wave of Summer'', and an associated concert tour. They did so again in [[2003]] for the "Ringside" concert tour.
==Band Members==
* [[Jimmy Barnes]] (lead vocals)
* [[Ian Moss]] (lead guitar / vocals)
* [[Don Walker]] (piano / vocals)
* [[Steve Prestwich]] (drums / vocals)
* [[Phil Small]] (bass guitar / vocals)
===Additional Players===
* [[Les Kascmarek]] (bass guitar, October 1973- July 1975)
* [[Dave Blight]] (harmonica)
* [[Billy Rodgers]] (saxophone)
* [[Jimmy Sloggett]] (saxophone)
* [[Andy Bickers]] (saxophone)
* [[Renee Geyer]] (backing vocals)
* [[Vanetta Fields]] (backing vocals)
==Albums==
* ''Cold Chisel'' (1978)
* ''You're Thirteen, Your Beautiful, and Your Mine'' (EP) (1978)
* ''Breakfast at Sweethearts'' (1979)
* ''East'' (1980)
* ''Swingshift'' (1981)
* ''Circus Animals'' (1982)
* ''The Barking Spiders: Live 1983'' (1984)
* ''Twentieth Century'' (1984)
* ''Radio Songs'' (1985)
* ''Razor Songs'' (1987)
* ''Chisel'' (1991)
* ''Last Stand'' (1992)
* ''Teenage Love'' (1994)
* ''Chisel'' (Re-release)(1995)
* ''The Last Wave of Summer'' (1998)
* ''Cold Chisel: The Studio Sessions'' (1999)
* ''Ringside'' (2003)
* ''Last Stand'' (Remastered with bonus tracks) (2005)
==External links==
* [http://www.coldchisel.com.au Official website]
[[Category:Australian musical groups]]
[[Category:Australian rock music groups|Cold Chisel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Confederate States of America</title>
<id>7023</id>
<revision>
<id>42157679</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:02:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>E Pluribus Anthony</username>
<id>266462</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fmt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big>'''Confederate States of America'''</big>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style="background:#f9f9f9;"
|-
| align=center width=130 | [[Image:3rdnational.png|130px|3rd flag of the Confederate States of America]]
| align=center width=130px | [[Image:ConfederateStatesofAmericaSeal.jpg|120px|Confederate States of America Seal]]
|-
| align=center width=130 | <small>([[Flags of the Confederate States of America|3rd Flag of the Confederacy]])</small>
| align=center width=130px | <small>([[Confederate Seal]])</small>
|}
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | <small>[[motto|Motto]]:<br />'''''Deo Vindice'''''<br />([[Latin]]: With [[God]] As Our Vindicator)</small>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | <small>[[National anthem|Anthem]]: <br />[[God Save the South]] (unofficial)<br />[[Dixie (song)|Dixie]] (popular)</small>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style="background:#fff;" | [[Image:CSAlocation2.png]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]''' || [[Montgomery, Alabama]]<br><small>[[February 4]], [[1861]]&ndash;[[May 29]], [[1861]]</small><br>[[Richmond, Virginia]]<br><small>[[May 29]], [[1861]]&ndash;[[April 9]], [[1865]]</small><br>[[Danville, Virginia]]<br><small>[[April 3]]&ndash;[[April 10]], [[1865]]</small>
|-
| '''Largest city''' || [[New Orleans]]<br><small>[[February 4]], [[1861]]&ndash;[[May 1]], [[1862]] (captured)</small><br>[[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]]<br><small>[[May 1]], [[1862]]&ndash;surrender
|-
| '''[[Official language]]''' || <br>[[English language|English]] [[de facto]] nationwide
<small>Various [[European languages|European]] and [[Native American languages|Native American]] languages regionally</small>
|-
|'''[[Government]]''' <br>President<br>Vice President|| [[Federal republic]]<br>[[Jefferson Davis]]<br>[[Alexander Stephens]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total<br>&nbsp;- % water ||<small> (excl. MO & KY)</small> |
lonia'' (1977) (by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter)
#''Conan of the Isles'' (1968) (by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter)
===The [[Donald M. Grant]] editions, 1974-1989===
A series of illustrated limited editions of the Howard Conan stories only, containing one or two stories per volume. The series ran out of steam before publishing the last five of the stories and three of the fragments.
*''People of the Black Circle'' (1974)
*''The Tower of the Elephant'' (1975) (also includes "The God in the Bowl")
*''A Witch Shall Be Born'' (1975)
*''Red Nails'' (1975)
*''The Devil in Iron'' (1976) (also includes "Shadows in Zamboula")
*''Rogues in the House'' (1976) (also includes "The Frost-Giant's Daughter")
*''Queen of the Black Coast'' (1978) (also includes "The Vale of Lost Women")
*''Jewels of Gwahlur'' (1979) (also includes "The Snout in the Dark" fragment)
*''Black Colossus'' (1979) (also includes "Shadows in the Moonlight")
*''Pool of the Black One'' (1986) (also includes "Drums of Tombalku" fragment)
*''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'' (1989)
===The Berkeley editions, 1977===
Edited by Karl Edward Wagner, this series, like the Grant edition, included only the Howard Conan stories.
*''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'' (Aug. 1977)
*''The People of the Black Circle'' (Sep. 1977)
*''Red Nails'' (Oct. 1977)
===The Bantam editions, 1978-1982===
A series of pastiches continuing and supplementing the Lancer/Ace series.
#''Conan the Swordsman'' (Aug. 1978) (by L. Sprague de Camp, Lin Carter, and Bjorn Nyberg)
#''Conan the Liberator'' (Feb. 1979) (by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter)
#''Conan: The Sword of Skelos'' (May 1979) (by Andrew J. Offutt)
#''Conan: The Road of Kings'' (Oct. 1979) (by Karl Edward Wagner)
#''Conan and the Spider God'' (Dec. 1980) (by L. Sprague de Camp)
#''Conan the Rebel'' (Jul. 1980) (by Poul Anderson)
#''Conan the Barbarian'' (May 1982) (adaptation by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter of the movie of the same title)
===The Ace Maroto editions, 1978-1981===
A series of new pastiches by Andrew J. Offutt and old Howard/de Camp collaborations, all illustrated by [[Esteban Maroto]]. The Offutt pastiches, in combination with his ''Conan: The Sword of Skelos'' from the Bantam series, form a linked trilogy.
*''Conan and the Sorceror<!--sic?-->'' (Oct. 1978) (by Andrew J. Offutt)
*''Conan: The Treasure of Tranicos'' (Jul. 1980) (by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp)
*''Conan the Mercenary'' (Jan. 1981) (by Andrew J. Offutt)
*''Conan: The Flame Knife'' (Jul. 1981) by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp)
===The Tor editions, 1982-2004===
A series of new pastiches by various hands. Tor has also lately reissued most of the previous pastiche editions not originally published by Tor.
*''Conan the Invincible'' (Jun. 1982) (by Robert Jordan)
*''Conan the Defender'' (Dec. 1982) (by Robert Jordan)
*''Conan the Unconquered'' (Apr. 1983) (by Robert Jordan)
*''Conan the Triumphant'' (Oct. 1983) (by Robert Jordan)
*''Conan the Magnificent'' (May 1984) (by Robert Jordan)
* ''Conan the Destroyer'' (Jul. 1984) (adaptation by Robert Jordan of the movie of the same title)
*''Conan the Victorious'' (Nov. 1984) (by Robert Jordan)
*''Conan the Valorous'' (Sep. 1985) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan the Fearless'' (Feb. 1986) (by Steve Perry)
*''Conan the Renegade'' (Apr. 1986) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan the Raider'' (Oct. 1986) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan the Champion'' (Apr. 1987) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan the Defiant'' (Oct. 1987) (by Steve Perry)
*''Conan the Marauder'' (Jan. 1988) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan the Warlord'' (Mar. 1988) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan the Valiant'' (Oct. 1988) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan the Hero'' (Feb. 1989) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan the Bold'' (Apr. 1989) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan the Great'' (Apr. 1989) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan the Indomitable'' (Oct. 1989) (by Steve Perry)
*''Conan the Freelance'' (Feb. 1990) (by Steve Perry)
*''Conan the Formidable'' (Nov. 1990) (by Steve Perry)
*''Conan the Guardian'' (Jan. 1991) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan the Outcast'' (Apr. 1991) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan the Rogue'' (Nov. 1991) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan the Relentless'' (Apr. 1992) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan the Savage'' (Nov. 1992) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan of the Red Brotherhood'' (Feb. 1993) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan and the Gods of the Mountain'' (May 1993) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan and the Treasure of Python'' (Nov. 1993) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan the Hunter'' (Jan. 1994) (by Sean A. Moore)
*''Conan, Scourge of the Bloody Coast'' (Apr. 1994) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan and the Manhunters'' (Oct. 1994) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan at the Demon's Gate'' (Nov. 1994) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan the Gladiator'' (Jan. 1995) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan and the Amazon'' (Apr. 1995) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan and the Mists of Doom'' (Aug. 1995) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan and the Emerald Lotus'' (Nov. 1995) (by John C. Hocking)
*''Conan and the Shaman's Curse'' (Jan. 1996) (by Sean A. Moore)
*''Conan, Lord of the Black River'' (Apr. 1996) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan and The Grim Grey God'' (Nov. 1996) (by Sean A. Moore)
*''Conan and the Death Lord of Thanza'' (Jan. 1997) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan of Venarium'' (Jul. 2004) (by Harry Turtledove)
===The Gollancz editions, 2000-2001===
A new edition of Howard's original stories purporting to feature ''all'' of Howard's Conan fiction in the two volumes, and to present only Howard's writings. Includes all the classic stories, apparently in their unrevised form ("The Black Stranger" is quite different from its De Camp cognate "The Treasure of Tranicos"); uncompleted or fragmentary tales have been left in that state.
*''The Conan Chronicles, 1'' (Aug. 2000)
*''The Conan Chronicles, 2'' (2001)
===The Wandering Star/Del Rey editions, 2003-2005===
Another new illustrated edition of Howard's original stories, published by Wandering Star in the United Kingdom and Del Rey in the United States.
*''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume One (1932-1933)'' (2003; vt ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian'' 2003 US)
*''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Two (1934)'' (2004; vt ''The Bloody Crown of Conan'' (2005 US)
*''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Three (1935-1936)'' (2005; vt ''The Conquering Sword of Conan'' 2005 US)
==Other media==
===Movies===
====Conan movies====
[[Image:Conan_the_barbarian.jpg|right|frame|Movie poster for ''Conan the Barbarian'' (1982).]]
''For detailed information on the individual Conan movies, see [[Conan the Barbarian (film)]] and [[Conan the Destroyer]]''.
The film ''[[Conan the Barbarian (film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' (1982) was written by the unlikely pairing of [[Oliver Stone]] and [[John Milius]]. The script, not very faithful to Howard's original, draws material from a number of stories. It tells the story of Conan rising up in slavery and finally taking revenge on Thulsa Doom, the ruthless warlord who was responsible for the genocide of his parents and his people. Later Thulsa Doom turns into a devious cult leader, who runs a fallacious, evil religion. The intrepid, vengeful Conan, the archer Subotai, and the ravishing thief Valeria set out on a quest to save a beautiful princess and negate the power-hungry [[megalomaniac]]. The film was directed by [[John Milius]] and produced by [[Dino DeLaurentis]]. The title role was played by [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] and was his break-through as an actor.
A less popular sequel, ''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' (1984), was also made, a more typical [[fantasy]]-genre film (again, not very true to Howard's stories).
The originator of the Conan movie project and its Associate Producer, [[Edward Summer]] had originally planned for there to be a series of Schwarzenegger Conan films much like the [[James Bond]] series. Summer outlined six stories for this film series, but none were ever made. Elements from the original screenplay by Summer and [[Roy Thomas]] were utilized, but their much more authentic screen story has never been filmed in total.
====Other====
Schwarzenegger also played a muscular sword-fighter (named "Kalidor" due to licensing issues) in the Howard-inspired ''[[Red Sonja (1985 film)]].'' (1985).
A fourth film was based on the (pre) Hyborian setting, ''[[Kull the Conqueror]]'', starring [[Kevin Sorbo]] as [[Kull]], an Atlantean (the ancestor race of Conan's own people, the [[Cimmeria_(Conan)|Cimmerians]]) who, like Conan, advanced in rank in more civilized lands and became king by force, and now must contend with those who don't like his rule. This movie is better mentioned in the Conan page, as it draws next to nothing from the Kull stories, but a lot from [[The Hour of the Dragon]] .
===TV series===
Conan has appeared in a TV series (1997), played by the [[Germany|German]] bodybuilder [[Ralf Moeller]].
This short lived series, [[Conan the Adventurer]], featured a more caring Conan, and involved much less blood and gore.
===Cartoons===
Two animated series from the early '90s feature a muscle-bound Conan character.
The first animated series, also called [[Conan the Adventurer]] ([[1992]]), involved Conan chasing the serpent men across the world in an attempt to release his parents from eternal torture as living statues. It is a typical example of the action-adventure cartoon genre of the time. It should be noted that "Wrath-Amon" is possibly Thoth-Amon renamed and remodeled from the comics.
The fact is Conan the Adventurer was loosely based from the novels. Instead of a Conan who is bloody, a womanizer, thief and so on, he's much more like He-Man: a kind and caring character, an honest fellow who went to fight against the sorcerer Wrath-Amon (loosely based on Thoth-Amon) to free his parents though they were killed in the original line.
The second animated series, [[Conan and the Young Warriors]] ([[1994 |
Baseball]]. Costas has teamed with [[Isiah Thomas]] and [[Doug Collins]] for [[The NBA on NBC|basketball telecasts]] (from [[1997-98 NBA season|1997]]-[[1999-2000 NBA season|2000]]) and [[Tony Kubek]] (from [[1983 in baseball|1983]]-[[1989 in baseball|1989]]), [[Joe Morgan]] and [[Bob Uecker]] (from [[1994 in baseball|1994]]-[[2000 in baseball|2000]]) for [[MLB on NBC|baseball telecasts]]. Before becoming the studio host for ''[[NFL on NBC|The NFL on NBC]]'' in [[1984 NFL season|1984]], Costas did play-by-play with analyst [[Bob Trumpy]] for NFL games.
==Talk Show host==
Costas hosted ''Later with Bob Costas'' on NBC, [[1988 in television|1988]]-[[1994 in television|1994]], and syndicated [[radio]] program ''Costas Coast to Coast'', 1986-1996.
==Opinions==
He is a devoted baseball fan (he's been suggested as a potential [[Baseball Commissioner|commissioner]]) and wrote the best-selling ''Fair Ball: A Fan's Case for Baseball'' in [[2000 in literature|2000]]. Costas has been fairly outspoken about his disdain for Major League Baseball instituting a [[Wild_card_%28sports%29#Major_League_Baseball|wild card]]. Costas believes that it diminishes the significance of winning a divisional pennant. He prefers a three-team playoff in each league, with each league's regular season champ getting a bye to their respective championship series. Once, on the air on [[HBO]]'s ''[[Inside the NFL]]'', he mentioned that the NFL regular season counted for something, but baseball's did not.
==Olympics==
Costas has frontlined many Olympics broadcasts for [[NBC]]. They include the Olympics in [[Barcelona]] in [[1992 Summer Olympics|1992]], [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] in [[1996 Summer Olympics|1996]], [[Sydney]] in [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000]], [[Salt Lake City, Utah|Salt Lake City]] in [[2002 Winter Olympics|2002]], and [[Athens]] in [[2004 Summer Olympics|2004]]; he is currently the lead studio host for [[Turin]] in [[2006 Winter Olympics|2006]]. A personal influence on Costas has been legendary [[ABC Sports]] broadcaster [[Jim McKay]], who hosted many Olympics for [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] from the 1960s to the 1980s.
==HBO==
In [[2001 in television|2001]], Costas was hired by [[HBO]] to host a 12 week series called ''On the Record with Bob Costas''. ''On the Record with Bob Costas'' was similar to the format of the old ''Later'' program as they both concentrated on in-depth celebrity interviews. In [[2002 in television|2002]], Costas began a stint as co-host of HBO's long running series ''[[Inside the NFL]]''. In [[2005 in television|2005]], ''On the Record with Bob Costas'' was revamped to become ''Costas Now'', a monthly show that would focus more on sports and air year-round in a 9 p.m. ET/PT time slot. ''Costas Now'' is more akin to HBO's ''[[Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel]]''.
==Sub for Larry King==
In [[June 2005]], Costas was named by [[CNN]] president, [[Jonathan Klein]], as a regular substitute anchor for [[Larry King]]'s ''[[Larry King Live]]'' for one year. Costas, as well as Klein, have said that Costas is not trying out for King's position on a permanent basis. [[Nancy Grace]] was also named a regular substitute host for the show. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/06/09/entertainment/main700753.shtml]
On [[August 18]], [[2005 in television|2005]], Costas refused to host a ''Larry King Live'' episode where the subject was missing teen [[Natalee Holloway]]. Costas said he had no hard feelings about the subject, but that he was uncomfortable with it. [http://www.firstcoastnews.com/news/usworld/news-article.aspx?storyid=42748]
==Future==
Beginning in [[2006 NFL season|2006]], Costas will be scheduled to return to studio hosting duties on ''[[The NFL on NBC]]'', which is returning after a near ten year hiatus. Costas last hosted NFL telecasts for NBC in [[1992 NFL season|1992]] before being replaced by the likes of [[Jim Lampley]] and [[Greg Gumbel]].
==Personal Life==
Costas was married to Carole Randall Krumenacher, who went by "Randy," from 1983 to 2000. They had two children, son Keith, born in 1986, and daughter Taylor, born in 1989. On [[March 14]], [[2004]], Costas married Jill Sutton, who also works in the broadcast media industry.
==Trivia==
* Costas attended the same high school as [[Rosie O'Donnell]]. He later interviewed O'Donnell on ''[[Larry King Live]]'' while filling in for Larry.
*Costas once jokingly promised that if [[Kirby Puckett]] was batting over .350 by the time his child was born he would name his kid Kirby. True to his word, since Kirby was hitting better than .350, Bob gave his son, '''Keith Costas''', whose first name comes from Bob's first wife's brother, the middle name Kirby. Bob also has a daughter named Taylor, who was born three years later (1989).
*For his 40th birthday, [[Oakland Athletics]] manager [[Tony La Russa]] allowed Costas to manage the club during a spring training game.
*While broadcasting Game 1 of the [[1988 World Series]] between the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] and [[Oakland Athletics]] on [[NBC]], Costas angered many members of the Dodgers (especially the team's manager, [[Tommy Lasorda]]) by commenting that the team quite possibly had the weakest-hitting lineup in World Series history. Later, after the Dodgers had won Game 4 (en route to a 4-1 series victory), Lasorda sarcastically suggested that the MVP of the 1988 World Series should be Bob Costas.
*While calling the [[1989 in baseball|1989]] [[American League Championship Series]] between [[Oakland Athletics|Oakland]] and [[Toronto Blue Jays|Toronto]] for NBC, Costas unexpectedly came under fire by many Blue Jay fans. After the A's won the first two games, Costas said the Blue Jays had better win Game 3 (which they did, as it turned out) or "[[Elvis Presley|Elvis]] has a better chance of coming back than the Blue Jays." The Blue Jay fans decided to retaliate by displaying signs reading "'''N'''uke '''B'''ob '''C'''ostas" around the [[Rogers Centre|SkyDome]].
*Besides calling the [[1989 American League Championship Series]] for NBC, Costas also filled-in for a suddenly ill [[Vin Scully]] for Game 2 of the [[1989 National League Championship Series]].
*The first time Costas visited baseball legend [[Stan Musial]]'s St. Louis eatery, he left a $3.31 tip in homage to the Musial's lifetime batting average (.331).
*To fulfill a deal he made on ''[[The Late Late Show (CBS)|The Late Late Show]]'' with [[Craig Kilborn]], as coverage of a game resumed he sipped a glass of pink lemonade and said "Ah, that's restaurant quality lemonade."
*Bob Costas has been [http://snl.jt.org/imp.php?i=210 impersonated] several times by [[Darrell Hammond]] on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''.
*Costas appeared as himself along with his rival/counterpart [[Al Michaels]] (who now works for NBC) from [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] in the movie ''[[Baseketball]]''.
*Costas delivered the [[eulogy]] at [[Mickey Mantle]]'s [[funeral]]. In eulogizing Mantle, Costas described the baseball legend as "a fragile hero to whom we had an emotional attachment so strong and lasting that it defied logic." Costas has even carried a [[1958 in baseball|1958]] Mickey Mantle [[baseball card]] in his wallet.
*Apart from his normal sportscasting duties, Costas also announced periodic dogsled and elevator races on ''[[Late Night with David Letterman]]''.
*Costas is very loosely associated with the [[Dave, Shelly, and Chainsaw]] morning show of [[San Diego, California]], and has been known to appear frequently on that show, where, due to one of the show's in-jokes, some of the show's hosts (as well as many San Diego residents) know Costas, belovedly, as the "King of Doucheville."
*Costas filled in for [[Tom Hammond]] at the hosting desk during the [[2002_in_sports#Thoroughbred_Horse_Racing|2002]] [[Breeders' Cup]] when Hammond had to undergo open-heart surgery.
*Bob Costas anchored the pre and post-game shows for numerous World Series and [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game]]s during the 1980s (the first being for the [[1982 World Series]]). Costas didn't get a shot at doing play-by-play (as the games on NBC were previously called by [[Vin Scully]]) for an All-Star Game until [[1994 in baseball|1994]] and a World Series until [[1995 World Series|1995]] (when NBC split the coverage with [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]). It wasn't until [[1997 World Series|1997]] when Costas finally got the chance to do play-by-play for a World Series from start to finish. Costas ended up winning a [[Sports Emmy Award]] for [[Outstanding Sports Personality, Play-by-Play]].
*Costas is a regular critic of the raunchier side of pro wrestling. He condemed [[Karl Malone]] during a live NBA broadcast for participating periodically in [[World Championship Wrestling|WCW]] matches.
*The doomed football league the [[XFL]] (which ironically, was half owned by Costas' employer, NBC) featured a pre-game show in some league cities hosted by shock radio jocks [[Opie & Anthony]]. During an interview with XFL founder [[Vince McMahon]] on his HBO program ''On the Record with Bob Costas'', Costas called the pregame show an "abomination", which Opie & Anthony later mocked on their nationally syndicated radio show. When Costas' interview with McMahon turned ugly, Opie & Anthony played clips of McMahon verbally blasting Costas.
*When Costas was first hired by NBC, [[Don Ohlmeyer]], who at the time, ran NBC Sports sarcastically told the then 28 year old Costas that he looked like a 14 year old. Ohlmeyer presumably based his reaction on Costas' diminutive size and boyish, babyfaced appearance.
*Costas was name checked in a [[Ludacris]] song after he had mentioned being a fan on the late night talk show ''[[Last Call with Carson Daly]]''.
*Costas guest-voiced (as himself) on the ''[[Family Guy]]'' episode entitled ''[[The Patriot Games]]''.
*[[Jim Rome]] con |
egistries, legal users become commonly known as "registrants" or as "domain holders".
ICANN holds a complete list of domain registries in the world. One can find the legal user of a domain name by looking in the [[WHOIS]] database held by most domain registries.
For most of the more than 240 [[country code top-level domain]]s (ccTLDs), the domain registries hold the authoritative WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiry dates etc). For instance, [[DENIC]], Germany NIC holds the authoritative WHOIS to a .DE domain name.
However, some domain registries, such as [[VeriSign]], use a registry-registrar model. There are hundreds of Domain Name Registrars that actually perform the domain name registration with the end-user, such as [[eNom]]. By using this method of distribution, the registry only has to manage the relationship with the registrar, and the registrar maintains the relationship with the end-users, or 'registrants'. For .COM, .NET domain names, the domain registries, VeriSign holds a basic WHOIS (registrar and name servers etc). One can find the detailed [[WHOIS]] (Registrant, [[name server]]s, expiry dates etc) at the registrars.
Since about 2001, most [[gTLD]] registries (.ORG, .BIZ, .INFO) have adopted a so-called "thick" registry approach, i.e. keeping the authoritative [[WHOIS]] with the various registries instead of the registrars.
===Administrative contact===
A registrant usually designates an administrative contact to manage the domain name. In practice, the administrative contact usually has the most immediate power over a domain. Management functions delegated to the administrative contacts may include (for example):
* the obligation to conform to the requirements of the domain registry in order to retain the right to use a domain name
* authorisation to update the physical address, e-mail address and telephone number etc in [[WHOIS]]
===Technical contact===
A technical contact manages the name servers of a domain name. The many functions of a technical contact include:
* making sure the configurations of the domain name conforms to the requirements of the domain registry
* updating the domain zone
* providing the 24x7 functionality of the name servers (that leads to the accessibility of the domain name)
===Billing contact===
Self-explanatory, the party whom a [[NIC]] invoices.
===Name servers===
Namely the authoritative [[name server]]s that host the domain name zone of a domain name.
==Politics==
Many investigators have voiced criticism of the methods used currently to control ownership of domains. Most commonly, critics claim abuse by monopolies or near-monopolies, such as [[VeriSign]], Inc., and problems with assignment of [[top-level domain]]s. The international body [[Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers | ICANN]] (the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) oversees the domain name [[industry]].
===Truth in Domain Names Act===
In the [[United States]], the "Truth in Domain Names Act", in combination with the [[PROTECT Act of 2003|PROTECT Act]], forbids the use of a misleading domain name with the intention of attracting people into viewing a [[Internet pornography|visual depiction of sexually explicit conduct]] on the internet
==See also==
* [[cybersquatting]]
* [[domain hack]]
* [[dynamic DNS]]
* [[DNS cache poisoning]]
* [[DNSSEC]]
* [[ICANN]]
* [[Root nameserver]]
* [[DNS hosting service]]
* [[EveryDNS]]
==External links and documentation==
*[http://www.circleid.com/community/topics/view/Domain%20Name%20System/ DNS Coverage via CircleID]
*[http://bobcares.com/article5.html Understanding SOA Records]
*[http://www.domainnamewire.com Domain Name Wire]
*[http://www.linux.ie/articles/dns.php All About DNS]
*[http://www.linux.ie/articles/tutorials/dns-tsig.php Securing DNS with Transaction Signatures]
*[http://www.nap.edu/execsumm_pdf/11258.pdf ''Signposts in Cyberspace: The Domain Name System and Internet Navigation'' (PDF format)]
*[http://cr.yp.to/djbdns/forgery.html DNS Forgery]
*[http://ketil.froyn.name/poison.html DNS Poisoning, a practical example]
*[http://www.ckdhr.com/dns-loc/sites.html Sites supporting DNS LOC]
*[http://www.bind9.net/dns-links Domain Name System Links, Whitepapers, and Research]
*[http://www.dnswatch.info DNS lookups] shows recursive search process during DNS lookup
*[http://www.adminschoice.com/docs/domain_name_service.htm Setting up DNS server in unix]
*[http://www.DNSstuff.com Online DNS tools]
*[http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=KB;en-us;263558 Microsoft KB Article on IE Cache Times]
*[http://pdos.csail.mit.edu/chord/papers/ddns.pdf Serving DNS using a Peer-to-Peer Lookup Service]
*[http://distributeddns.sourceforge.net/ Distributed DNS]
*[http://www.dns.net/dnsrd/ DNS Resources Directory]
*[http://dns.kify.com/ DNS Query Tool]
*[http://www.ultradns.com/ UltraDNS]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Letterman</title>
<id>8340</id>
<revision>
<id>42160640</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:34:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>141.154.110.43</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name = David Letterman
| image = Lettermanhddesk.jpg
| caption = David Letterman at his desk on ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]''
| birth_date = [[12 April]] [[1947]]
| birth_place = [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]], [[Indiana]], [[United States|USA]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = [[Late night television|late night]] [[talk show]] host, [[comedian]], and [[television producer]]
| salary =
| networth =
| spouse =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''David Michael Letterman''' (born [[April 12]] [[1947]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Late night television|late night]] [[talk show]] host, [[comedian]], and [[television producer]]. Letterman's [[irony|ironic]], often [[Surreal humour|absurd]] comedy is heavily influenced by comedians [[Steve Allen]], [[Ernie Kovacs]], [[Johnny Carson]], and [[Regis Philbin]]. He is most known currently for being the host of his own show, ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]''.
David Letterman was born in [[Indianapolis, Indiana]]. His father, Harry Joe Letterman, was a [[Flower|florist]] who died in 1974; his mother Dorothy Letterman, a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] church secretary, is an occasional personality on his show. He has an older sister, Janice, and a younger sister, Gretchen. One of his early comedic influences was the [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] talk show host [[Paul Dixon]]. Letterman graduated from [[Ball State University]], receiving a [[B.A.]] in [[telecommunications]] in 1969. He began his broadcasting career at Ball State's student-run [[radio]] station, WAGO - AM 570 (Now known as WCRD, 91.3). A rare [[aircheck]] of Letterman on WAGO can be heard [http://www.reelradio.com/tc/index.html#dlwago69 here]. (the voice of Letterman's first wife Michelle can be heard on the clip, playing a character in a sketch)
==Early Career==
===Weather===
[[Image:Weatherdave.jpg|thumb|right|220px|David Letterman as a weatherman]]
Letterman began work as a radio talk show host and on Indianapolis television station [[WTHR]] as a local anchor and weatherman. He received recognition for his unpredictable on-air behavior, which included erasing state borders from the weather map and predicting [[hail]] stones "the size of canned hams." One night he reportedly upset his bosses when he congratulated a [[tropical storm]] on being upgraded to a [[hurricane]].
===Move to LA===
In 1975, Letterman moved to [[California]] with hopes of becoming a comedy writer and started writing material for [[sitcom]]s. He also began performing [[stand-up comedy]] at [[The Comedy Store]], a famed [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] [[comedy club]] and proving ground for young comics.
Letterman had a stint as a cast member on [[Mary Tyler Moore]]'s variety show ''[[Mary (variety show)|Mary]]'', a guest appearance on ''[[Mork & Mindy]]'' (as a parody of [[est]] leader [[Werner Erhard]]), and appearances on [[game show]]s such as ''[[The $20,000 Pyramid]]''. His dry, sarcastic humor caught the attention of talent scouts for ''[[The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson]]'', and Letterman was soon a regular guest on the show. Letterman became a favorite of Carson's and became a regular guest host for the show starting in [[1978 in television|1978]].
[[Image:Davestand.jpg|left|thumb|220px|David Letterman performing standup on ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' in 1978]]
===NBC===
====Morning Show====
Soon afterwards, Letterman was given his own morning comedy show on [[NBC]], ''[[The David Letterman Show]]''. The show was a critical success, winning two [[Emmy Award]]s, but was a ratings disappointment and was cancelled after a brief run during the summer of 1980.
====Late Night====
NBC kept Letterman under contract and tried again in a different time slot; in [[1982 in television|1982]], ''[[Late Night with David Letterman]]'' debuted on the network. Letterman's show, whic |
mb|Racing bicycles have dropped handlebars, a narrow seat, and minimal accessories.]]
On firm, flat, ground, a 70 kg man requires about 100 watts to walk at 5 km/h. That same man on a bicycle, on the same ground, with the same power output, can average 25 km/h, so energy expenditure in terms of kcal/kg/km is roughly one-fifth as much. Generally used figures are
* 1.62 kJ/(km∙kg) or 0.28 kcal/(mile∙lb) for cycling,
* 3.78 kJ/(km∙kg) or 0.653 kcal/(mile∙lb) for walking/running,
* 16.96 kJ/(km∙kg) or 2.93 kcal/(mile∙lb) for swimming.
For many people whose running might be limited by muscle and knee pain, cycling offers comparable outdoor exercise that can be enjoyed by people of a wide range of fitness levels: it is a "no-impact" sport that is easy on the body as long as the bike is properly "fit." In addition, since bicycling can also provide convenient transportation, less self-discipline may be required to keep to the activity, since it has a practical purpose. However, because of its efficiency, cycling requires a longer distance, and often greater time, than running to consume the same amount of energy.
The average "in-shape" man can produce about 3 watts/kg for more than an hour (e.g., around 200 watts for a 70 kg rider), with top amateurs producing 5 watts/kg and elite athletes achieving 6 watts/kg for similar lengths of time. Elite track sprinters are able to attain an instantaneous maximum output of around 2,000 watts, or in excess of 25 watts/kg; elite road cyclists may produce 1,600 to 1,700 watts as an instantaneous maximum in their burst to the finish line at the end of a five-hour long road race. Even at moderate speeds, most cycling energy is spent in overcoming aerodynamic [[drag (physics)|drag]], which increases with the square of speed; therefore, power needs increase approximately with the cube of speed.
Typical speeds for bicycles are 16 to 32&nbsp;[[km/h]] (10 to 20&nbsp;[[Miles per hour|mph]]). On a fast racing bicycle, a reasonably fit rider can ride at 50&nbsp;km/h (30&nbsp;mph) on flat ground for short periods. The highest speed ever officially attained on the flat, without using motor pacing and wind-blocks, is by Canadian [[Sam Whittingham]], who in 2002 set a 130.36&nbsp;km/h (81.00&nbsp;mph) record on his highly aerodynamic recumbent bicycle. This stands as the official record for all human-powered vehicles.
There has been major corporate competition to lower the weight of racing bikes through the use of advanced materials and components. Additionally, advanced wheels are available with low-friction bearings and other features to lower road resistance. In measured tests these components have almost no effect on cycling performance. For instance, lowering a bike's weight by 1 kg, a major effort considering they may weigh less than 15 kg to start with, will have the same effect over a 40 km [[time trial]] as removing a protrusion into the air the size of a pencil. For this reason more recent designs have concentrated on lowering wind resistance, using aerodynamically shaped tubing, flat spokes on the wheels, and handlebars that allow the rider to bend over into the wind. These changes can impact performance dramatically, cutting minutes off a time trial.
===Bicycle physics===
A rider stays upright on a bicycle by balancing and manipulating the handlebars to counteract gravity which will otherwise topple the bike over. Once underway, this rider effort is largely replaced by physical forces which produce a remarkable "self-steering" effect.<sup>[[#Notes|3]]</sup> These forces are sufficiently strong that a riderless bicycle going down a slope will stay upright by itself. Conversely, a bicycle whose steering fork is locked in a perfectly straight ahead position is virtually impossible to balance.
Stability is primarily created by a factor called ''trail'', produced by the geometry of the front forks. The point of contact that the front wheel makes with the ground is located behind (trails) the location where the steering axis intersects the ground. One can see the effect that trail has by simply holding a bicycle by the seat and leaning it. When the bicycle tilts to the side, front-wheel trail causes the weight of the bicycle to steer the wheel into the direction of the tilt. The forward momentum of a rolling bicycle resists the resultant change in heading, bringing the bicycle upright. The greater the amount of trail, the greater this stabilising reaction. Negative trail (rolling a bicycle backwards) results in immediate steering problems. Zero trail (as in a unicycle) requires constant rider adjustment. Positive trail - found on typical bicycles - creates positive stability by steering the contact patch back under the center of gravity of the bicycle and rider. [http://www.johnforester.com/Articles/BicycleEng/dahon.htm] [http://www.velonews.com/tech/report/articles/7322.0.html]
Stability is also produced by the [[Gyroscope|gyroscopic]] effect of the wheels, although research has shown this to be not particularly significant for bicycles. The [[angular momentum]] of the wheels and the [[torque]] applied to them by the ground generate a phenomenon called [[precession]], by which the wheels turn the bike into the direction of whichever side the bicycle is tilted. For motorcycles, with their faster and heavier wheels, this is integral to turning the bike. <sup>[[#Notes|4]]</sup>
That gyroscopic effects are unimportant at normal cycling speeds was shown by physicist and researcher into bicycle stability [[David E. H. Jones]], whose series of "URBs" ("unrideable bikes" with various modifications to the front end) included a bike which cancelled the gyroscopic effect of the front wheel by dint of attaching a second wheel to his front forks (alongside the regular wheel) whose lower edge was about an inch (25 mm) above the ground. By gearing this wheel to the regular front wheel so that it spun in the opposite direction at equal speed, the net angular momentum of both wheels together was close to zero. Jones found he could ride this bike with no difficulty, but did discover that without a rider the non-gyroscopic bike fell over much faster than a regular bike.
At higher speeds bicycles can also experience [[speed wobble|speed wobbles]] or shimmies, where the front wheel spontaneously oscillates to the left and right. While the wobbles can be easily remedied by slowing down, adjusting position, or relaxing one's grip on the handlebars, speed wobbles can be [http://www.mailtribune.com/archive/2004/0915/local/stories/01local.htm fatal].
This shimmy is often seen in shopping cart front wheels. Some otherwise minor irregularity accelerates the wheel to one side. The restoring force is applied in phase with the progress of the irregularity, and the wheel turns to the other side where the process is repeated. If there is insufficient damping in the steering the oscillation will increase until system failure. Speed changes, making the bicycle/motorcycle stiffer or lighter, or increasing the stiffness of the steering (of which the rider is the main component) can change the oscillation frequency, though only speed change is applicable in the situation.
For more information on the technical aspects of bicycles, see also:
*[[List of bicycle parts]] and [[:Category:Bicycle parts]]
<!-- *[[Bicycle brake systems]] -->
<!-- *[[Bicycle lighting]] -->
==Social and historical aspects==
[[Image:BikesInAmsterdam 2004 SeanMcClean.jpg|right|thumb|Present day: Bikes still popular in Amsterdam]]
===Economic and social implications===
Bicycle manufacturing proved to be a training ground for other industries. Building modern bicycle frames led to the development of advanced metalworking techniques, both for the frames themselves and for special components such as [[Bearing (mechanical)|ball bearings]], [[washer (mechanical)|washer]]s, and [[sprocket]]s. These techniques later enabled skilled metalworkers and mechanics to develop the components used in early [[automobile]]s and [[aircraft]]. J. K. Starley's company became the ''Rover Cycle Company Ltd.'' in the late 1890s, and then the ''[[Rover (car)|Rover]]'' auto maker. The [[Morris Motor Company]] and [[Škoda Auto|Škoda]] also began in the bicycle business, as did [[Henry Ford]] and the [[Wright Brothers]].
Some bicycle clubs and national associations became prominent advocates for improvements to roads and highways. In the [[United States]], the [[League of American Wheelmen]] was a prominent advocate for the improvement of roads in the last part of the 19th century, founding and leading the national [[Good Roads Movement]] in the US.
[[Image:WhiteBikesVeluwe.jpg|thumb|250px|left|In the Netherlands, bicycles are made available for use in national parks]]The evolution of the bicycle had less tangible effects as well, extending early to areas as diverse as fashion and politics. In the 1890s the cycling craze led to a new set of fashions, including ''bloomers'', which helped liberate women from corsets and other restrictive clothing. A British perfumer marketed ''Cycling Bouquet'', which came in a tiny vial designed to fit into a lady cyclist's purse. The diamond-frame safety bicycle gave women unprecedented mobility, contributing to their emancipation in Western nations. Sociologists suggest that bicycles enlarged the gene pool for rural workers, by enabling them to easily reach the next town and increase their ''courting radius''. In cities, bicycles helped reduce crowding in inner-city tenements by allowing workers to commute from single-family dwellings in the suburbs. They also reduced dependence on horses, and allowed people to travel into the country, since bicycles were three times as energy efficient as walking, and three to four times as fast. In North America, the political organization of bicycle enthus |
iations in Earth processes over days, months, and years.
As an example, the changes in vegetation vigor through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was most extensive in a particular region. The resulting graphic, known as a normalized vegetation index, represents a rough measure of plant health. Working with two variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation.
GIS technology and the availability of digital data on regional and global scales enable such analyses. The satellite sensor output used to generate a vegetation graphic is produced by the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer or [[AVHRR]]. This sensor system detects the amounts of energy reflected from the Earth's surface across various bands of the spectrum for surface areas of about 1 square kilometer. The satellite sensor produces images of a particular location on the Earth twice a day. AVHRR is only one of many sensor systems used for Earth surface analysis. More sensors will follow, generating ever greater amounts of data.
GIS and related technology will help greatly in the management and analysis of these large volumes of data, allowing for better understanding of terrestrial processes and better management of human activities to maintain world economic vitality and environmental quality.
In addition to the integration of time in environmental studies, GIS is also being explored for its ability to track and model the progress of humans throughout their daily routines. A concrete example of progress in this area is the recent release of time-specific population data by the [[US Census]]. In this data set, the populations of cities are shown for daytime and evening hours highlighting the pattern of concentration and dispersion generated by North American commuting patterns. The manipulation and generation of data required to produce this data would not have been possible without GIS.
==See also==
*[[Cartography]]
*[[Digital raster graphic]]
*[[Geodesy]]
*[[Geoinformatics]]
*[[Geoinformation]]
*[[Geomatics]]
*[[List of GIS software]]
*[[Open GIS Consortium]]
*[[Remote sensing]]
*[[Virtual globe]]
*[[Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing]] (TIGER), an US standard for GIS data
==Textbooks==
*Berry, J.K. 1993. "Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms and Issues in GIS". Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Books.
*Burrough, P.A. and McDonnell, R.A., 1998. Principles of geographical information systems. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 327 pp. [http://www.oup.co.uk/best.textbooks/geography/burrough/]
*Heywood, I., Cornelius, S., and Carver, S. 2002. ''An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems''. Andison Wesley Longman. 2nd edition.
*Longley, P.A., [[Michael Frank Goodchild|Goodchild, M.F.]], Maguire, D.J. and Rhind, D.W. (2005): ''Geographic Information Systems and Science''. Chichester: Wiley. 2nd edition.[http://www.wiley.com/go/longley/]
*Thurston, J., Poiker, T.K. and J. Patrick Moore. (2003):"Integrated Geospatial Technologies: A Guide to GPS, GIS, and Data Logging". Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. [http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471244090.html]
*Wise, S. 2002. "GIS Basics". London: Taylor & Francis.
*Worboys, Michael, and Matt Duckham. 2004. ''GIS: a computing perspective''. Boca Raton: CRC Press. [http://worboys.duckham.org]
*Wheatley, David and Gillings, Mark, 2002. Spatial Technology and Archaeology. The Archaeological Application of GIS. London, New York, Taylor & Francis.
==University Degree Programmes==
*[http://www.geos.ed.ac.uk/gis/ University of Edinburgh]
*[http://www.gisatucl.info/ University College London (UCL)]
==External links==
<!-- Please keep this list alphabetized. Thanks! -->
*[http://www.clearmaps.com ClearMaps.com]Links to the GIS industry.
*[http://coweeta.ecology.uga.edu/fb_new/lt_catalog.html Coweeta LTER GIS]GIS for the southern Appalachians.
*[http://www.connotea.org/tag/gis Connotea]Connotea links for GIS and Google Earth.
*[http://www.directionsmag.com/ Directions Magazine] &mdash; GIS industry news, events, discussion, etc.
*[http://www.fgdc.gov/ Federal Geographic Data Committee] &mdash; United States federal government standards agency
*[http://freegis.org Freegis.org] software overview on Free Geographic Information Systems and communication on developments, plans, infos on Free GIS Software and Free Geo-Data
*[http://www.fuerstensitze.de/1121] &mdash; German research project, working with GIS as a tool in archaeological research
*[http://www.eogeo.org/Projects/projects_wiki/FreeGISBook FreeGISBook] &mdash; WiKi project to develop a community based book and documents on free GIS programs and open standards.
*[http://www.geoconnexion.com Geoconnexion Int'l Magazine] &mdash; Geoinformation Serving the World
*[http://www.geocodeamerica.com Geocode America] : US Address Geocoding. Java/.NET/Ruby sample soap/rest apis. Free for non-commerical use
*[http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/gis_software/en/index.htm GE Energy] &mdash; GE Energy's Geospatial Asset Management
*[http://www.geoplace.com Geoplace] &mdash; free source of GIS Industry information
*[http://www.andysocial.com/wiki/index.php/Imagery Giiki Wiki GIS] &mdash; English-language wiki for Geographic Information Systems and amateur imagery/IMINT.
*[http://www.gis.com/ GIS.COM] &mdash; A portal to GIS information on the Web. The site showcases how people use GIS and geospatial technology and provides GIS users with links to resources to help them in their work.
*[http://gislounge.com/ GISLounge.com] &mdash; Articles and useful links to GIS and cartography related web resources.
*[http://www.gisuser.com GISuser.com] GIS news, jobs, articles, discussion, webmap gallery, daily newsletter, and more.
*[http://www.giscorps.org giscorps.org] &mdash; A program under URISA, GISCorps is a vehicle for GIS experts from all over the world to volunteer their time to developing economies across the globe.
*[http://en.giswiki.de GISWiki - a wiki for geoinformatics]
*[http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/toc.html NCGIA Core Curriculum in GIS] &mdash; lecture notes for educators written by the National Center for Geographic Information Analysis (NCGIA).
*[http://gis.nitle.org NITLE Initititive on GIS in Education]
*[http://www.opengis.org Open Geospatial Consortium]
*[http://www.osgeo.org/ Open Source Geospatial Foundation]
*[http://www.opensourcegis.org Open Source GIS] Master Index of Open Source GIS Software
*[http://www.planiglobe.com/ www.planiglobe.com] Interactive mapserver with country and city search, offers vector versions (Postscript, Illustrator) for download. Free usage (cc-by licence).
*[http://slashgeo.org/ slashgeo.org] &mdash; GIS ad-free non-commercial news and discussions.
*[http://www.spatiallink.org/ spatiallink_org] &mdash; Linking Spatial Professionals and Volunteers Through Search, Profile, News, Blog, Forum, Map, Chat, WIKI, WAP and Other GIS Tools
*[http://www.unigis.net UNIGIS] &mdash; worldwide consortium of universities providing postgraduate courses by distance-learning.
*[http://www.walis.wa.gov.au WALIS] &mdash; Western Australia Land Information System - Coordinating geographic information for Western Australia
*[http://gis.ednet.ns.ca/gis_uses_in_US.htm Web-based GIS: An Overview of Sites and Resources]
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[[et:Geoinfosüsteem]]
[[el:Γεωγραφικά Συστήματα Πληροφοριών]]
[[es:Sistema de Información Geográfica]]
[[fa:سامانه اطلاعات جغرافیایی]]
[[fr:Système d'information géographique]]
[[id:Sistem Informasi Geografis]]
[[it:Sistema informativo geografico]]
[[he:מערכת מידע גאוגרפית]]
[[lt:Geografinė informacinė sistema]]
[[hu:Földrajzi információs rendszer]]
[[nl:Geografisch informatiesysteem]]
[[ja:地理情報システム]]
[[no:GIS]]
[[pl:System Informacji Geograficznej]]
[[pt:Sistema de informação geográfica]]
[[ru:Геоинформационная система]]
[[sl:Geografski informacijski sistem]]
[[sv:GIS]]
[[th:ระบบสารสนเทศภูมิศาสตร์]]
[[vi:Hệ thống Thông tin Địa lý]]
[[zh:地理信息系统]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Global warming</title>
<id>12399</id>
<revision>
<id>42088722</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:25:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.232.214.127</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Instrumental_Temperature_Record.png|thumb|250px|right|Global mean surface temperatures 1856 to 2005]]
[[Image:Global Warming Map.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Mean temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980]]
'''Global warming''' is an increase in the [[Historical temperature record|average temperature]] of the [[Earth's atmosphere]] and [[ocean]]s. The term is also used for the scientific [[theory]] of ''anthropogenic global warming'', which attributes much of the recently observed and projected global warming to a human-induced intensification of the [[greenhouse effect]]. In this theory, the increased volumes of [[carbon dioxide]] and other [[greenhouse gas]]es released mainly by the burning of [[fossil fuel]]s, and, to a lesser extent, land clearing and agriculture, are the primary sources of warming. The natural greenhouse effect keeps the Earth about 33&nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]] warmer than it otherwise would be; adding carbon dioxide to an atmosphere, with no other changes, will make a planet's surface warmer. Current research is attempting to further illuminate and quantify the processes and factors that can affect temperature change, especially positive and negative [[feedback]] mechanisms.
Temperature change is just o |
<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 6,000<br />
[[Croatia]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 4,500<br />
[[Romania]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 500<br />
[[Belgium]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 25,000<br />
[[Great Britain]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 30,000<br />
[[Switzerland]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 200,000<br />
[[Germany]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 400,000<br />
[[Montenegro]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 31,000<br />
[[Norway]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 7.000<br />
[[Turkey]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; indeterminate, see text<br />
|langs=[[Albanian language|Albanian]]
|rels=[[Islam|Muslim]], [[Albanian Orthodox Church|Albanian Orthodox]], [[Roman Catholic]], [[Atheist]], other
|related=[[Arbëreshë]]<br>[[Arvanites]]<br>Other [[Indo-Europeans]]
}}
The '''Albanians''' are an [[ethnic group]] generally associated with [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] and the [[Albanian language]]. The majority of the Albanians nowadays live in the [[Albania|Republic of Albania]], [[Kosovo]] and [[Republic of Macedonia]] although there are Albanian minorities or immigrant communities in a number of other countries.
==Population==
Due to the high rate of migration of various ethnic groups throughout the [[Balkans]] in the last two decades, exact figures are difficult to obtain. A tenuous breakdown of Albanians by location is as follows:
*3,385,000 in [[Albania]] according to CIA factbook
*2,112,000 in [[Kosovo]] (the OSCE estimates)
*98,000 in [[Serbia and Montenegro]] which can be broken up as follows:
**67,000 [[Serbia]] ([[2002]] census)
**31,000 in [[Montenegro]] (according to the 2003 census; an estimated 50,000 by [http://www.albanian.com/information/countries/montenegro/index.html Albanian accounts]).
*509,000 in the [[Republic of Macedonia]] (from the 2002 census).
*more than 233,000 [http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=68624 Albanians in Italy], the majority having arrived since 1991. See also [[Arbëreshë]].
*In [[Greece]], there were more waves of immigration from Albania, from the [[14th century]] to the [[1990s]]. As such, they are divided into different groups:
**[[Cham Albanians]]; an unknown number reside in the Greek region of [[Epirus]] (''Çamëria'' in Albanian) - there were thought to be around 19,000 before the end of [[World War II]], during which many fled to Albania to avoid the impending military court sentences, a consequence of their collaboration with the Italian/German occupying forces.
**The [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christian]] Albanian minority, which is located in North-western Greece. Their number is contested, but is a minimum of 30,000.
**[[Aromanians]] or ''Arvanitovlachs'' who now self-identify as Greek, from centuries-old migrations in the Ottoman period into the region now known as Greece.
**Albanian nationals who arrived during the [[1990s]], mainly as illegal immigrants; there are as many as 700.000 [of which up to 200.000 are documented as ethnic Greeks] according to the only official state report on immigration data [http://www.mmo.gr/pdf/general/IMEPO_Final_Report_English.pdf Statistical Data on Immigrants in Greece]
*Albanians living permanently in [[Scandinavia]]:
**in [[Sweden]]: 40,000 Albanians.
**in [[Denmark]]: 8,000 Albanians.
**in [[Norway]]: 7,000 Albanians.
*In [[Turkey]], Turkish demographers have continuously mentioned numbers up to five million. However, many Albanians, who were deported from their land to Turkey, have been assimilated due to the assimilation policy of Turkish government. Turkey does not compile official census figures for Albanians.
*In [[Egypt]]: 18,000 Albanians. Mostly Tosk speakers. Many are descendants of the soldiers of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]]. Much of the former nobility of Egypt was Albanian in origin.
*In the [[United States]] 114,000 Albanians, according to the [http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf 2000 US Census(PDF)]; includes Albanians coming from Albania only.
==Culture==
===Contribution to humanity===
Albanians have played a prominent role in the development of the [[The Arts|arts]] and [[sciences]] as well as in [[religion]] and [[sport]]. Prominent individuals have included the defender of Europe during the mid-15th century [[Skenderbeg]], the writer [[Ismail Kadare]], the painter [[Ibrahim Kodra]], the composer [[Simon Gjoni]], the [[Nobel prize]] winner [[Ferid Murad]], the Olympic athlete [[Klodiana Shala]], the [[Roman Catholic]] missionary [[Mother Teresa]] and [[Pope Clement XI]].Other well known individuals include the prime minister of the [[Ottoman Empire]] [[Ferhat Pasha]] and [[Mehemet Ali (Egypt)|Mehemet Ali]] the [[viceroy]] of [[Egypt]]. [[John Belushi]] and his brother [[Jim Belushi]] were of Albanian parents who immigrated in the USA after WWII. The American actress [[Eliza Dushku]] is also born of Albanian father and Norwegian mother.
===Language===
Most Albanians speak the [[Albanian language]], a member of the [[Indo-European]] language family. There are several variants of Albanian. The two main Albanian variants are Tosk and Gheg.
Some members of the Albanian diaspora do not speak the language (mostly in the US, Canada and UK) but are still considered Albanian by ethnic origin or descent.
Non-Albanians who studied the [[Albanian language]] include prominent individuals such as [[Franz Bopp]], [[Norbert Jokl]] and [[Robert Elsie]].
===Religion===
Since the occupation by the Ottomans, the majority of Albanians have been [[Islam|Muslim]]. Most of these are [[Sunni]] Muslims but a minority (20% of total Muslims) are [[Bektashi]]. Significant numbers of Albanians are [[Albanian Orthodox Church|Albanian Orthodox]] or [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], and some have no formal religious affiliation. This rich blend of religions has rarely caused religious strife and fanaticism and today people of different religions are intermarrying without it being much of an issue. For most of its history, Albania has had a noticeable Jewish community. Most of this community was saved by the Albanian people during the Nazi occupation [http://www.juedisches-archiv-chfrank.de/kehilot/albania/alban-resc.htm]. The majority of Albanian Jews have left to settle in Israel, but a small number still remains [http://www.amyisrael.co.il/europe/albania/].
===Symbolism===
[[Image:Flag_of_Albania.svg|right|150px|thumb|Albanian flag]]
The [[flag of Albania]] depicts a double-headed [[eagle]] on a red backgound, which was raised by the Albanian national hero [[Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg]] in his Albanian rebellion against the Ottoman Turks. The Albanians are called ''Shqiptarët'' (originally ''Shqyptarët'') in the [[Albanian language]], which freely translates as "The Sons of Eagles".
==History==
The Albanians are descendents of ancient Balkan people, but the exact identification is still under debate, see [[Origin of Albanians]]. Most historians and linguists support either an [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] or [[Daco]]-[[Thracian]] origin. They were first mentioned in the Balkans in 1043 AD. [[Islam]] replaced [[Christianity]] as the majority religion during the period of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turkish rule from the [[15th century]] until 1912, though [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] and [[Catholicism|Roman Catholicism]] are also practiced. Among the poorest of Europe's nationalities, in the latter half of the [[20th century]] Albanians experienced the highest rate of natural population growth of any of [[Europe]]'s major indigenous ethnic groups, increasing their numbers from 1.5 million around 1900 and fewer than 2.5 million in 1950.
==Ethnic Albanians==
Albanian is also a term often given to what would otherwise be called an ethnic Albanian. This is usually someone who is considered by himself or others to be Albanian or of Albanian descent. Several distinguishing characteristics might be:
* Cultural connection with [[Culture of Albania|Albanian culture]]
* Speaking the [[Albanian language]]
* Having ancestors who lived in Albania or an area out of which the current Albanian state was formed (i.e. the occupied lands that were part of the [[Ottoman Empire]])
There are ethnic Albanian minorities in several [[Europe]]an countries, as well as in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]].
==Albanian Nationalism==
Both Kosovo (a [[Serbia]]n province though governed since June 1999 by [[UNMIK]], backed by [[KFOR]], a [[NATO]]-led international force) and western Macedonia have in recent years seen armed movements ([[Kosovo Liberation Army]], [[UCPMB]], [[Macedonian NLA]]) aiming either for independence, greater autonomy, or increased human and political rights.
The fate of Kosovo remains uncertain owing to the reluctance of the Albanian majority to contemplate a restoration of Serbian sovereignty and of the [[United Nations]] and NATO to separate the territory definitively from [[Serbia]] in contravention of [[:Wikisource:UN Security Council Resolution 1244|UN Security Council Resolution 1244]] from 1999.
The situation in Macedonia seems to have been resolved by giving the Albanian minority greater government representation and the right to use the [[Albanian language]] in education and government.
==See also==
*[[Demographics of Albania]]
*[[History of Albania]]
*[[History of the Republic of Macedonia]]
*[[Kosovo war]]
*[[List of Albanians]]
*[[List of Albanian-Americans]]
==External links==
*[http://www.albanian.com Home of Albanians Online]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Albania]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Kosovo]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Macedonia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Montenegro]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Serbia]]
[[Category:Indo-European peoples]]
[[bg:Албанци]]
[[bs:Albanci]]
[[cv:Албансем]]
[[de:Albaner]]
[[et:Albaanla |
t the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] [[Peshitta]] as representing the original, while most take a more critical approach to reconstructing the original text.
==== Historic editions ====
The earliest printed edition of the New Testament in Greek appeared in [[1516]] from the [[Johann Froben|Froben]] press. It was compiled by [[Erasmus|Desiderius Erasmus]] on the basis of the few recent Greek [[manuscript]]s, all of [[Wiktionary:Byzantine|Byzantine]] tradition, at his disposal, which he completed by translating from the Vulgate parts for which he did not have a Greek text. He produced four later editions of the text.
Erasmus was a deeply religious Roman Catholic, but his preference for the textual tradition represented in [[Medieval Greek|Byzantine Greek]] text of the time rather than that in the Latin Vulgate led to him being viewed with suspicion by some authorities of his Church.
The first edition with critical apparatus (variant readings in manuscripts) was produced by the printer [[Robert Estienne]] of Paris in [[1550]]. The type of text printed in this edition and in those of Erasmus became known as the ''[[Textus Receptus]]'' (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the [[Elsevier|Elzevier]] edition of [[1633]], which termed it the text ''nunc ab omnibus receptum'' ("now received by all"). On it the Churches of the [[Protestant Reformation]] based their translations into [[vernacular]] languages, such as the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Version]].
The discovery of older manuscripts, such as the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] and the [[Codex Vaticanus]], led scholars to revise their opinion of this text. [[Karl Lachmann]]’s critical edition of [[1831]], based on manuscripts dating from the fourth century and earlier, was intended primarily to demonstrate that the Textus Receptus must finally be rejected. Later critical texts are based on further scholarly research and the finding of papyrus fragments dating in some cases from within a few decades of the composition of the New Testament writings. It is on the basis of these that nearly all modern translations or revisions of older translations have, for more than a century, been made, though some still prefer the Textus Receptus or the similar "Byzantine [[Majority Text]]".
==The canonization of Scripture==
{{main|Biblical Canon}}
In Judaism it is commonly thought that the canonical status of some books was discussed between [[200 BC]] and [[100|AD 100]], though it is unclear at what point during this period the Jewish canon was decided. [[Protestants]] cite the Old Testament canon defined by the [[Council of Jamnia]] in AD 90 as their basis for not including the [[Deuterocanonical]] books, where [[Roman Catholic]]s assert that Jewish council was convened in reaction to the rise of Christianity and its use of the Greek [[Septuagint]].
To the books accepted by Judaism as Scripture, Christianity subsequently added those of the [[New Testament]], the 27-book [[Biblical canon|canon]] of which was finally fixed in the [[4th century]]. Catholicism mostly considers certain deuterocanonical books to be part of the [[Old Testament]], though Protestantism in general accepts as part of the Old Testament only the books in the canon of Judaism and uses the term [[Apocrypha]] for the deuterocanonical books. The Protestant Old Testament has a 39-book canon &mdash; the number varies from that of the books in the [[Tanakh]] because of a different method of division &mdash; while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books as part of the Old Testament. For details, see [[Books of the Bible]].
Canonicity is distinct from questions of human authorship and the formation of the books of the Bible; these questions are discussed in the entries on [[higher criticism]] and [[textual criticism]].
==Bible versions and translations==
In scholarly writing, ancient translations are frequently referred to as "versions", with the term "translation" being reserved for medieval or modern translations. Information about Bible versions is given below, while Bible translations can be found on a separate page.
The original texts of the Tanakh were in Hebrew, although some portions were in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of much of the Bible into Greek, and the [[Targum Onkelos]], an Aramaic version of the Bible. The Onkelos translation is particularly interesting in that it removes most references to God as a physical presence. This move towards a formless God was of immense importance to Jewish philosophy and religious exegesis. It was central to the philosophy of [[Maimonides]], known in Hebrew as the Rambam, the most influential Jewish thinker of the Middle Ages.
Early Christians produced translations of the Hebrew Bible into several languages; their primary Biblical text was the Septuagint. Translations were made into Syriac, [[Coptic language|Coptic]] and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.
The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible.
The ever-increasing number of variants in Latin manuscripts induced [[Pope Damasus]], in [[382]], to commission his secretary, Saint Jerome, to produce a reliable and consistent text. Jerome later took it on himself to make a completely new translation directly from the Hebrew of the Tanakh. This translation became the basis of the [[Vulgate]] Latin translation. Though he also translated Psalms from Hebrew, the earlier Septuagint-based version, slightly revised by him, is the text that was actually used in Church and is included in editions of the Vulgate. This includes the deuterocanonical books, also revised by Jerome, and became the official translation of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].
''See [[English translations of the Bible]] for more details of translations and [[Origin and Growth of the English Bible]] for a chart on how the English Bible came to be.''
==The Introduction of chapters and verses ==
{{main|Chapters and verses of the Bible}}; ''see [[Tanakh#Chapters_and_verse_numbers.2C_book_divisions|Tanakh]] for the Jewish textual tradition.''
The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Masoretic text]] contains verse endings as an important feature. According to the [[Talmud]]ic tradition, the verse endings are of ancient origin. The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called ''parashiyot'', which are indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section") or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the ''parashiyot'' is usually thematic. The ''parashiyot'' are not numbered.
In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the [[Aleppo codex]]) an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed [[Hebrew Bible]]s. In this system the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must ''always'' begin at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections ''never'' start at the beginning of a new line.
Another related feature of the Masoretic text is the division of the ''sedarim''. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the ''quantity'' of text.
The Byzantines also introduced a chapter division of sorts, called ''Kephalaia''. It is not identical to the present chapters.
The current division of the Bible into chapters and the verse numbers within the chapters have no basis in any ancient textual tradition. Rather, they are medieval Christian inventions. They were later adopted by many Jews as well, as technical references within the Hebrew text. Such technical references became crucial to medieval rabbis in the historical context of forced debates with Christian clergy (who used the chapter and verse numbers), especially in late medieval Spain. Chapter divisions were first used by Jews in a [[1330]] manuscript, and for a printed edition in [[1516]]. However, for the past generation, most Jewish editions of the complete Hebrew Bible have made a systematic effort to relegate chapter and verse numbers to the margins of the text.
The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has often elicited severe criticism from traditionalists and modern scholars alike. Critics charge that the text is often divided into chapters in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate points within the narrative, and that it encourages citing passages out of context, in effect turning the Bible into a kind of textual quarry for clerical citations. Nevertheless, even the critics admit that the chapter divisions and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.
[[Stephen Langton]] is reputed to have been the first to put the chapter divisions into a Vulgate edition of the Bible, in [[1205]]. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the [[1400s]]. [[Robert Estienne]] (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in [[1565]] (New Testament) and [[1571]] (Hebrew Bible).[http://www.fuller.edu/ministry/berean/chs_vss.htm][http://www.theexaminer.org/history/chap6.htm]
==Interesting facts==
The following list contains some of the more in |
267; <br>d&#333;ngzhì
| Family gathering
| Dec&nbsp;22
| Dec&nbsp;21
| Dec&nbsp;22
| Dec&nbsp;22
| Dec&nbsp;22
| Dec&nbsp;21
|}
==Purpose of the intercalary months==
Most people, upon using or studying the Chinese calendar, are perplexed by the intercalary month because of its seemingly unpredictable nature. As mentioned above, the intercalary month refers to additional months added to the calendar in some years to correct for its deviation from the [[astronomical year]], a function similar to that of the extra day in February in leap years.
However, because of the complex astronomical knowledge required to calculate if and when an intercalary month needs to be inserted, to most people, it is simply a mystery. This has led to a superstition that intercalary months in certain times of the year bring bad luck.
The main purpose of the intercalary month is to correct for deviations of the calendrical year from the astronomical year. Because the Chinese calendar is mainly a lunar calendar, its standard year is 354 days, whereas the [[astronomical year]] is approximately 365.25 days. Without the intercalary month, this deviation would build up over time, and the Spring festival, for example, would no longer fall in Spring. Thus, the intercalary month serves a valuable purpose in ensuring that the year in the Chinese calendar remains approximately in line with the astronomical year.
The intercalary month is inserted whenever the Chinese calendar moves too far from the stage of progression of the earth in its orbit. Thus, for example, if the beginning of a certain month in the Chinese calendar deviates by a certain number of days from its equivalent in a solar calendar, an intercalary month needs to be inserted.
The practical benefit of this system is that the calendar is able to approximately keep in pace with the solar cycle, while at the same time retaining months that roughly correspond with lunar cycles. Hence the term ''lunisolar'' calendar. The latter is important because many traditional festivals correspond to significant events in the moon's cycle. For example, the mid-autumn festival is always on a day of the full moon.
==The relevance of the calendar today==
There have been calls for reform in recent years from experts in China, because of the increasing irrelevance of the Chinese calendar in modern life. They point to the example in Japan, where during the [[Meiji Restoration]] the nation adopted the Western calendar, and simply shifted all traditional festivitives onto an equivalent date. However, the Chinese calendar remains important as an element of cultural tradition, and for certain cultural activities.
=== Practical uses ===
The original practical relevance of the lunisolar calendar for date marking has largely disappeared. Firstly, the Gregorian calendar is more accurate and more in line with both international standards and the astronomical year. Its adoption for official purposes has meant that the traditional calendar is rarely used for date marking. This, in turn, means that it is more convenient to remember significant events such as birth dates by the Gregorian rather than the Chinese calendar.
Secondly, the 24 solar terms were important to farmers who would not be able to plan agricultural activities without foreknowledge of these terms. However, the 24 solar terms (including the [[solstice]]s and [[equinox]]es) are more predictable on the Gregorian calendar than the lunisolar calendar since they are based on the solar cycle. It is easier for the average Chinese farmer to organise their planting and harvesting with the Gregorian calendar.
=== Cultural issues ===
Nevertheless, the Chinese calendar remains culturally essential. For example, most of the traditional festivals, such as [[Chinese New Year]] and the [[Mid-Autumn Festival]], traditionally occur at new moon or full moon. Furthermore, the traditional Chinese calendar, as an element of traditional culture, is invested with much cultural and nationalistic sentiment.
The calendar is still used in the more traditional Chinese households around the world to pick 'lucky dates' for important events such as weddings, funerals, and business deals. A special calendar is used for this purpose, called Huang Li, literally "Imperial Calendar", which contains auspicious activities, times, and directions for each day. The calendar follows the Gregorian dates but has the corresponding Chinese dates. Every date would have a comprehensive listing of astrological measurements and fortune elements.
Thus, while the traditional calendar could be removed without much practical effect, its sentimental and cultural significance will probably see its retention for some time yet.
==External links==
*[http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/calendar/chinese.html Rules for the Chinese Calendar]
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_stud/chinese_cal.htm The Structure of the Chinese Calendar]
* [http://www.char4u.com/chinese-zodiac-sign.php Chinese Zodiac Chart] Find your Chinese Zodiac sign based on your date of birth.
* Calendar Conversion
**[http://www.hermetic.ch/chcal/chcal.htm Chinese Calendrics] Windows software, converts all dates
**[http://www.mandarintools.com/calendar.html Gregorian-Chinese calendar converter]Online: only for the republican age (after 1912)
**[http://www.sinica.edu.tw/~tdbproj/sinocal/luso.html Two Thousand Year Chinese Calendar Converter] (in Chinese)- works for all dates from the [[Han Dynasty]] until 2100
*Pages from the [[Hong Kong Observatory]] [http://www.hko.gov.hk/contente.htm website]
**[http://www.hko.gov.hk/gts/time/24solarterms.htm The 24 Solar Terms of ''Jieqi'']
**[http://www.hko.gov.hk/gts/time/stemsandbranches.htm Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches]
**[http://www.hko.gov.hk/gts/time/conversion.htm Gregorian-Lunar Calendar Conversion Table]
*[http://wiki.wsu.edu/index.php/Chinese_Calendar_2006 Chinese Lunar Calendar 2006]
[[Category:Chinese astronomy|Calendar]]
[[Category:Korean culture|Calendar]]
[[Category:Specific calendars]]
[[da:Kinesiske kalender]]
[[de:Chinesischer Kalender]]
[[fi:Kiinalainen kalenteri]]
[[fr:Calendrier chinois]]
[[he:הלוח הסיני]]
[[id:Imlek]]
[[ja:中国暦]]
[[ka:ჩინური კალენდარი]]
[[ko:음력]]
[[pt:Calendário chinês]]
[[ru:Китайский календарь]]
[[sv:Kinesiska kalendern]]
[[vi:Lịch Trung Quốc]]
[[zh:农历]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CRM</title>
<id>6967</id>
<revision>
<id>41455295</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T13:16:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.161.254.164</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">* In [[information technology]], '''CRM''' stands for [[Customer Relationship Management]], [[CIDOC|Conceptual Reference Model]], [[Compensating Resource Manager]] and Clean Room Model.
* In [[marketing]], CRM stands either for same above and for [[Cause-Related Marketing]].
* In [[analytical chemistry]], CRM is a [[certified reference material]].
* In [[archeology]], CRM is [[Cultural Resources Management]].
* In [[aviation]], CRM is [[Crew (or Cockpit) Resource Management]].
* [[Coastal Research & Management]]
* [[CRM114]] is an efficient spamfilter
* [[Camp Rainey Mountain]] is a [[Boy Scouts of America|Boy Scout]] [[Summer Camp]] in North East Georgia
* In [[X/Open XA]], '''CRM''' is a Communication Resource Manager.
* [[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]] was an architect, designer, and watercolourist.
* In [[records management]], '''CRM''' is a [[Certified Records Manager]].
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:CRM]]
[[zh:CRM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Customer relationship management</title>
<id>6968</id>
<revision>
<id>42163296</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:04:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.227.98.69</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">
The generally accepted purpose of '''Customer Relationship Management''' (CRM) is to enable organizations to better manage their customers through the introduction of reliable systems, processes and procedures for interacting with those customers.
In today's competitive business environment, a successful CRM strategy cannot be implemented by simply installing and integrating a software package designed to support CRM processes. A holistic approach to CRM is vital for an effective and efficient CRM policy. This approach includes training of employees, a modification of business processes based on customers' needs and an adoption of relevant IT-systems (including software and maybe hardware) and/or usage of IT-Services that enable the organization or company to follow its CRM strategy. CRM-Services can even replace the acquisition of additional hardware or CRM software-licences.
The term CRM is used to describe either the software or the whole business strategy (or lack of one) oriented on customer needs. The main misconception of CRM is that it is only software, instead of whole business strategy.
Major areas of CRM focus on service automated processes, personal information gathering and processing, and self-service. It attempts to integrate and automate the various ''customer serving'' processes within a company.
== Architecture of CRM ==
There are three parts of application architecture of CRM:
# Operational - automation to the basic business processes (marketing, sales, service)
# Analytical - support to analyze customer behavior, implements [[business intelligence]] alike technology
# Collaborative - ensures the contact with customers (phone, email, fax, web, sms, post, in person)
=== Operational CRM ===
Operational CRM means supporting the so-called "[[front office]]" business processes, which include customer contact (sales, marketing and service). Tasks resulting from these processes are forwarded to employees responsible for them, as well as the information necessary for carrying out the tasks and |
anthropopathy]], [[anthropometrics]], [[anthropomancy]], [[anthropopath]], [[anthropoglot]], [[anthroponyms]], [[anthroposophical]], [[anthroponym]], [[anthropophilic]], [[anthropomorphists]], [[anthropocentrism]], [[anthropomorphics]], [[anthropoidea]], [[anthroposemiotics]], [[anthropophobia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνιέναι}}||anienai||{{polytonic|ἀνι}}-||ani-||to go up ||[[anion]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνισος}}||anisos||{{polytonic|ἀνισο}}-||aniso-||unequal, dissimilar||[[anisotropic]], [[anisometric]], [[anisometropia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἂννησον}}||annēson||{{polytonic|ἂννησ}}-||anis-||dill||[[anise]], [[aniseed]], [[anisette]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνοδος}}||anodos||{{polytonic|ἀνοδ}}-||anod-||way up||[[anode]], [[anodising]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνομος}}||anomos||{{polytonic|ἀνομ}}-||anom-||lawless||[[anomie]], [[anomoean]], [[anomophyllous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνορεξία}}||anorexia||{{polytonic|ἀνορεκ}}-||anorec-||lack of appetite||[[anorexia]], [[anorectic]], [[anorexigenic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνόρθωσις}}||anorthōsis||{{polytonic|ἀνορθω}}-||anortho-||restoration, erection||[[anorthosite]], [[anorthoclase]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνταγωνίζεσθαι}}||antagōnizesthai||{{polytonic|ἀνταγωνιζ}}-||antagōniz-||struggle against, prove a match for||[[antagonize]], [[antagonism]], [[antagonistic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντί}}||anti||{{polytonic|ἀντι}}-||anti-||opposite, counter||[[antibiotic]], [[anticyclone]], [[antidiabetic]], [[antihero]], [[antihistamine]], [[antioxidant]], [[antiseptic]], [[antistatic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντίδοτον}}||antidoton||{{polytonic|ἀντιδοτ}}-||antidot-||to give as a remedy against||[[antidote]], [[antidoting]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντινομία}}||antinomia||{{polytonic|ἀντινομ}}-||antinom-||contradiction between laws||[[antinomy]], [[antinomianism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντιπάθεια}}||antipatheia||{{polytonic|ἀντιπαθ}}-||antipath-||of opposite feelings||[[antipathetic]], [[antipathy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντίπους}}||antipous||{{polytonic|ἀντιποδ}}-||antipod-||the opposite foot, diametrically opposed||[[antipode]], [[antipodal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντισήπω}}||antisēpō||{{polytonic|ἀντισηπ}}-||antisep-||make to putrefy in turn||[[antisepsis]], [[antiseptic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντίστροφος}}||antistrophos||{{polytonic|ἀντιστροφ}}-||antistroph-||to invert||[[antistrophe]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντιτιθέναι}}||antitithenai||{{polytonic|ἀντιθ}}-||antith-||to oppose||[[antithesis]], [[antithetical]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντιφράζειν}}||antiphrazein||{{polytonic|ἀντιφρα}}-||antiphra-||to speak the opposite||[[Figure of speech|antiphrasis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντίφωνος}}||antiphonos||{{polytonic|ἀντιφων}}-||antiphon-||sounding in answer||[[antiphon]], [[anthem]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄντρον}}||antron||{{polytonic|ἀντρ}}-||antr-||cave, cavity||[[antrum]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντωνυμείν}}||antōnymein||{{polytonic|ἀντωνυμ}}-||antonym-||to have an opposite denomination||[[antonym]], [[antonymous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνυδρος}}||anhudros||{{polytonic|ἀνυδρ}}-||anhydr-||waterless, arid||[[anhydrite]], [[anhydrous]], [[anhydrobiosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνώδυνος}}||anōdunos||{{polytonic|ἀνωδυν}}-||anodyn-||waterless, arid||[[anodyne]], [[anodynes]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνοργος}}||anorgos||{{polytonic|ἀνoργ}}-||anorg-||not wrathful||[[anorgasmy]], [[anorgasmic]], [[anorgasmia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνορθος}}||anorthos||{{polytonic|ἀνoρθ}}-||anorth-||sloping, incorrect||[[anorthography]], [[anorthodox]],
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνταρκτικός}}||antarktikos||{{polytonic|ἀνταρκτικ}}-||antarctic-||antarctic [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%239514]||[[antarctic]], [[antarctica]],
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνώμαλος}}||anōmalos||{{polytonic|ἀνώμαλ}}-||anōmal-||uneven||[[anomalocarid]], [[anomalopidae]], [[anomalopus]], [[anomaluridae]], [[anomaly]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνώνυμος}}||anōnumos||{{polytonic|ἀνωνυμ}}-||anonym-||nameless||[[anonymity]], [[anonymous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνωφελής}}||anōphelēs||{{polytonic|ἀνωφελ}}-||anophel-||unprofitable, useless||[[anopheles]], [[anophelines]], [[anophelorastia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄξιος}}||axios||{{polytonic|ἀξιο}}-||axio-||worthy||[[axiological]], [[axiology]], [[axiology]], [[axiom]], [[axiomatic]], [[axiomatisation]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄξων}}||axōn||{{polytonic|ἀξο}}-||axo-<br>axi-||axis||[[axoneme]], [[axoplasm]], [[axisymmetric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀόριστος}}||aoristos||{{polytonic|ἀοριστ}}-||aorist-||indefinite||[[aoristic]], [[aorist]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀορτή}}||aortē||{{polytonic|ἀορτ}}-||aort-||the great artery||[[aortic]], [[aorta]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπαθές}}||apathēs||{{polytonic|ἀπαθ}}-||apath-||without feeling||[[apatheism]], [[apatheist]], [[apathetic]], [[apathy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἃπαξ}}||hapax||{{polytonic|ἁπαξ}}-||apax-||once||[[hapax legomenon]], [[hapaxes]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπάτη}}||apatē||{{polytonic|ἀπατ}}-||apat-||deceit||[[apatite]], [[apatosaurus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁπλούς}}||haplous||{{polytonic|ἁπλο}}-||haplo-||single|| [[haplodiploid]], [[haploid]], [[haploidisation]], [[haplorrhines]], [[Cohen Modal Haplotype|Haplotype]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπό}}||apo||{{polytonic|ἀπο}}-||apo-||away from||[[apology]], [[apostrophe]], [[apocrypha]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπόγειον}}||apogeion||{{polytonic|ἀπογει}}-||apogei-||far from the earth||[[apogee]], [[apogean]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποδεικτικός}}||apodeiktikos||{{polytonic|ἀποδεικτ}}-||apodikt-||demonstrable||[[apodictic]], [[apodictically]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποδιδώναι}}||apodidōnai||{{polytonic|ἀποδ}}-||apod-||to give back||[[apodosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπόθεμα}}||apothema||{{polytonic|ἀπόθεμ}}-||apothem-||something laid down||[[apothem]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποθέωσις}}||apotheōsis||{{polytonic|ἀποθεω}}-||apotheo-||to deify||[[apotheosis]], [[apotheosize]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποθήκη}}||apothēkē||{{polytonic|ἀποθηκ}}-||apothek-||storehouse||[[apothecary]], [[apothecium]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποκαλύπτειν}}||apokaluptein||{{polytonic|ἀποκαλυπ}}-||apocalyp-||to reveal||[[apocalypse]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποκόπτειν}}||apokoptein||{{polytonic|ἀποκoπ}}-||apokop-||to cut||[[apocopation]], [[apocopate]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποκρίνειν}}||apokrinein||{{polytonic|ἀποκριν}}-||apokrin-||to set apart||[[apocrine]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποκρύπτειν}}||apokruptein||{{polytonic|ἀποκρυπ}}-||apokrup-||to hide away||[[apocrypha]], [[apocryphal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀπόλλων}}||Appolon||{{polytonic|ἀπόλλω}}-||Apollo-||name of a god ''Gk myth.||[[Apollo]], [[Apollonian]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπολογία}}||apologia||{{polytonic|ἀπολογ}}-||apolog-||apology||[[apology]], [[apologize]], [[apologue]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπόμιξις}}||apomixis||{{polytonic|ἀπομιξ}}-||apomix-||without mixing||[[apomixis]], [[apomictic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπονευρούσθαι}}||aponeurousthai||{{polytonic|ἀπονευρ}}-||aponeur-||to become tendinous||[[aponeurosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποπλήσειν}}||apoplēssein||{{polytonic|ἀποπλη}}-||apople-||to cripple by a stroke ||[[apoplexy]], [[apoplectic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄπορος}}||aporos||{{polytonic|ἀπορ}}-||apor-||impassable||[[aporia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποστάτης}}||apostatēs||{{polytonic|ἀποστατ}}-||apostat-||defector||[[apostate]], [[apostasy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποστέλλειν}}||apostellein||{{polytonic|ἀποστ}}-||apost-||to send||[[apostle]], [[apostolic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποστρέφειν}}||apostrephein||{{polytonic|ἀποστροφ}}-||apostroph-||to turn away||[[apostrophe]], [[apostrophize]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποτρόπαιον}}||apotropaion||{{polytonic|ἀποτρo}}-||apotro-||something that averts evil||[[apotropaic]], [[apotropaically]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄπους}}||apous||{{polytonic|ἀποδ}}-||apod-||without feet||[[apodidae]], [[apodous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποφάναι}}||apophanai||{{polytonic|ἀποφα}}-||apopha-||to say no||[[apophasis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποφθέγεσται}}||apophthengesthai||{{polytonic|ἀποφθεγ}}-||apophtheg-<br>apotheg-||to speak plainly||[[apothegm]], [[apothegmatic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποφύειν}}||apophuein||{{polytonic|ἀποφυ}}-||apophy-||to send out branches||[[apophysis]], [[apophyseal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄπτερος}}||apteros||{{polytonic|ἀπτερ}}-||apter-||wingless||[[apterous]], [[Apteryx]], [[Apterygidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀράχνη}}||arakhnē||{{polytonic|ἀραχνη}}||arakhnē-||spider||[[arachnid]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄργιλλος}}||argillos||{{polytonic|ἀργιλ}}-||argil-||clay||[[argillite]], [[argillaceous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἂρης}}||Arēs||{{polytonic|ἀρεο}}-||areo-||planet Mars||[[areocentric]], [[areology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρκέειν}}||arkēein||{{polytonic|ἀρκ}}-||arc-||to ward off, to defend, to assist [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315174]<br>alt. f. L. arceo "to enclose, keep out, prevent||[[arc]], [[arcade]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρθρῖτις}}||arthritis||{{polytonic|ἀρθριτ}}-||arthrit-||inflammation of joint ||[[arthritis]], [[osteoarthritis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄρθρον}}||arthron||{{polytonic|ἀρθρο}}-||arthrο-||joint||[[arthropod]], [[arthroscopy]], [[arthropathy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄρθρωσις }}||arthrōsis||{{polytonic|ἀρθρ}}-||arthr-||articulation||[[dysarthria]], [[diarthrosis]], [[anarthrous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀριθμός}}||arithmos||{{polytonic|ἀριθμ}}-||arithm-||number||[[arithmetic]], [[logarithm]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄριστος}}||aristos||{{polytonic|ἀριστο}}-||aristo-||best||[[aristocracy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄρκτος}}||arktos||{{polytonic|ἀρκτικ}}-||arctic-||bear, the northern constellation Ursa Major||[[arctic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρκτούρος}}||arktouros||{{polytonic|ἀρκτουρ}}-||arctur-||bearward||[[arcturus]], [[arcturis]], [[arcturian]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁρμονία}}||harmonia||{{polytonic|ἁρμονι}}-||harmoni-||agreement, harmony||[[harmony]], [[harmonium]], [[harmonica]], [[harmonisation]], [[harmonics]], [[enharmonic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁρμός}}||harmos||{{polytonic|ἀρμ}}-||arm-||joint, shoulder||[[harmotome]], [[arm]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρρυθμία}}||arrhuthmia||{{polytonic|ἀρρυθμ}}-||arrythm-||lack of rhythm||[[arrhythmia]], [[arrhythmic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄρτιος}}||artios||{{polytonic|ἀρτιο}}-||artio-||even||[[artiodactyl]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρχαῖος}}||arkhaios||{{polytonic|ἀρχαιο}}-||arkhaio-||ancient||[[archaeology]], [[archetype]]
|-
|{{polytonic| |
nd Men]]'' by [[John Steinbeck]], and the [[Frank Loesser]] musical ''[[Guys and Dolls]]'' for which he won the 1951 Best Director [[Tony Award]]. Kaufman produced many of his own plays as well as those of other writers.
Kaufman was a key member of the celebrated [[Algonquin Round Table]], a circle of witty writers and show business people. From the 1920's through the 1950's Kaufman was as well known for his personality as he was for his writing. The [[Moss Hart]] autobiography ''Act One'' portrayed Kaufman as a morose and intimidating figure utterly uncomfortable with any expressions of affection between human beings -- in life or on the page. Despite the fact that Kaufman lived in the public eye alongside celebrities and journalists, he was a tireless worker, dedicated to the writing and rehearsal processes. He was particularly revered within the business as a "play doctor." Late in his life he managed to trade upon his long-developed personna by appearing as a television wag.
Of one unsuccessful comedy he wrote, "There was laughter at the back of the theatre, leading to the belief that someone was telling jokes back there." Even though he was a sometime satirist, he remarked that "Satire is what closes on Saturday night." Much of Kaufman's fame occurred due to his mastery of sharp lines such as these, generally referred to in the press as "wise cracks." However, Kaufman was more than a writer of gags. He created scripts that revealed a mastery of dramatic structure; his characters were likable and theatrically credible.
Kaufman was a pivotal figure in the development of theatrical writing in the 20th century, working with collaborators who were rooted in [[vaudeville]], in musical comedy, in film, in journalism, in prose fiction, in television, in revue, and in the commercial Broadway theatre. Despite his many collaborators, Kaufman's opus has a characteristic voice and tone. His character-driven style of comic dialogue has had lasting influences on theatrical writing in many genres.
A noted (but married) ladies' man, Kaufman found himself in the center of a scandal in [[1936]] when, in the midst of a child custody suit, the former husband of actress [[Mary Astor]] threatened to publish one of Astor's diaries purportedly containing extremely explicit details of an affair between Kaufman and the actress. The diary was eventually destroyed unread by the courts, but details of the supposed contents were published in ''Confidential'' magazine and various other scandal sheets.
He died in [[New York City]] in 1961 at the age of seventy-one.
[[Category:1889 births|Kaufman, George S.]]
[[Category:1961 deaths|Kaufman, George S.]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Kaufman, George S.]]
[[Category:People from Pennsylvania|Kaufman, George S.]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Kaufman, George S.]]
[[Category:American dramatists and playwrights|Kaufman, George S.]]
==External links==
*[http://www.dorothyparker.com/walk.html Algonquin Round Table Walking Tours]
*[http://www.algonquinhotel.com/AboutUs/round_table.htm Algonquin Round Table page at the Algonquin Hotel's web site]
*[http://www.davidpietrusza.com/Algonquin-Circle-Links.html Algonquin Circle Links]
[[no:George S. Kaufman]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gilbert N. Lewis</title>
<id>13017</id>
<revision>
<id>38477912</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T16:34:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Itub</username>
<id>426390</id>
</contributor>
<comment>link to cubical atom, mention valence book, and year of lewis structure</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:GN_Lewis_large.jpg|thumb|250px|Lewis in the Berkeley Lab]]
'''Gilbert Newton Lewis''' ([[October 23]], [[1875]]-[[March 23]], [[1946]]) was a famous [[United States|American]] [[physical chemistry|physical chemist]].
== Early life ==
Lewis was born in [[Weymouth, Massachusetts]] as the son of a [[Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]]-graduated lawyer/broker. He was a precocious child who learned to read at age three.
His family moved to [[Lincoln, Nebraska]] when he was 9. He was [[home schooling|homeschooled]] until age 9. He went to public school from age 9 to 14 and then he went to the [[University of Nebraska]], and three years later transferred to the Harvard University where he showed an interest in [[economics]], but concentrated in [[chemistry]], getting his [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] in [[1896]] and his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[1899]]. His first published work, a study of thermochemical and electrochemical properties of [[amalgam]]s, was based on his doctoral research and was published in [[1898]].
== Career ==
After earning his Ph.D., he stayed as an instructor for a year before taking a traveling fellowship, studying under the physical chemist [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] at [[Leipzig]] and [[Walther Nernst]] at [[Göttingen]]. He then returned to Harvard as an instructor for three more years, and in [[1904]] left to become superintendent of weights and measures for the Bureau of Science of the [[Philippines|Philippine Islands]] in [[Manila]]. The next year he returned to [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]] when the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) appointed him to a faculty position, in which he had a chance to join a group of outstanding physical chemists under the direction of [[Arthur Amos Noyes]]. He quickly rose in rank, becoming assistant professor in [[1907]], associate professor on [[1908]], and full professor in [[1911]]. He left MIT to become professor of physical chemistry and dean of the [[Berkeley College of Chemistry|College of Chemistry]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] in [[1912]]. Lewis Hall at Berkeley, built in 1948, was named in his honor.
In [[1908]] he published the first of several papers on [[theory of relativity|relativity]], in which he derived the [[mass]]-[[energy]] relationship in a different way from [[Albert Einstein]]'s derivation. He also introduced the thermodynamic concept of [[fugacity]] in a paper, "The osmotic pressure of concentrated solutions, and the laws of the perfect solution," ''J. Am. Chem. Soc.'' '''30''', 668-683 (1908).
On [[June 21]], [[1912]], he married Mary Hinckley Sheldon, daughter of a Harvard professor of [[Romance languages]]. They had two sons, both of whom became chemistry professors, and a daughter.
In [[1913]], he was elected to the [[National Academy of Sciences]], but in [[1934]] he resigned in a dispute over the internal politics of that institution.
In [[1916]], he formulated the idea that a [[covalent bond]] consisted of a shared pair of [[electron]]s and defined the term [[odd molecule]] when an electron is not shared. His ideas on [[chemical bond]]ing were expanded upon by [[Irving Langmuir]] and became the inspiration for the studies on the nature of the chemical bond by [[Linus Pauling]]. This year he published what became known as the [[Lewis structure]] and the [[Cubical atom]] model.
In [[1919]], by studying the [[magnetism|magnetic]] properties of solutions of [[oxygen]] in [[liquid]] [[nitrogen]], he found that O<sub>4</sub> [[molecule]]s were formed. This was the first evidence for tetratomic oxygen.
In [[1923]], he formulated the electron-pair theory of [[acid]]-[[Base (chemistry)|base]] reactions. In the so-called ''Lewis theory'' of [[acid]]s and [[base (chemistry)|base]]s, a "[[Lewis acid]]" is an ''electron-pair acceptor'' and a "[[Lewis base]]" is an ''electron-pair donor''. This year he also published his book ''Valence and the structure of atoms and molecules''.
Based on work by [[Willard Gibbs|J. Willard Gibbs]], it was known that chemical reactions proceeded to an [[Chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] determined by the [[free energy]] of the substances taking part. Lewis spent 25 years determining free energies of various substances. In [[1923]] he and [[Merle Randall]] published the results of this study and formalizing chemical [[thermodynamics]].
In [[1926]], he coined the term "[[photon]]" for the smallest unit of radiant energy.
Lewis was the first to produce a pure sample of deuterium oxide ([[heavy water]]) in [[1933]]. By accelerating [[deuteron]]s (deuterium [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]]) in [[Ernest Lawrence|Ernest O. Lawrence's]] [[cyclotron]], he was able to study many of the properties of atomic nuclei.
In the last years of his life, he established that [[phosphorescence]] of [[organic chemistry|organic]] molecules involves an excited '''triplet''' state (a state in which electrons that would normally be paired with opposite [[spin (physics)|spin]]s are instead excited to have their [[spin vector]]s in the ''same'' direction) and measured the magnetic properties of this [[triplet]] state.
During his career he published on many other subjects besides those mentioned in this article, ranging from the nature of [[light]] quanta to the [[economics]] of price stabilization.
He died at age 70 of a heart attack while working in his laboratory in Berkeley.
[[Category:1875 births|Lewis, Gilbert Newton]]
[[Category:1946 deaths|Lewis, Gilbert Newton]]
[[Category:American scientists|Lewis, G. N.]]
[[Category:Physical chemists|Lewis, G. N.]]
[[de:Gilbert Newton Lewis]]
[[es:Gilbert N. Lewis]]
[[fr:Gilbert Newton Lewis]]
[[io:Gilbert Newton Lewis]]
[[it:Gilbert Lewis]]
[[nl:Gilbert Lewis]]
[[ja:ギルバート・ルイス]]
[[nn:Gilbert Newton Lewis]]
[[pt:Gilbert Newton Lewis]]
[[ru:Льюис, Гилберт Ньютон]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Governor of Michigan</title>
<id>13018</id>
<revision>
<id>15910660</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-21T06:45:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TUF-KAT</username>
<id>8351</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of Governors of Michigan]]</text>
</revision>
|
ge>
<page>
<title>Euclidean geometry</title>
<id>9417</id>
<revision>
<id>42156861</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:53:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bcrowell</username>
<id>6286</id>
</contributor>
<comment>smaller figure</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Euklid2.jpg|thumb|Euclid]]
'''Euclidean geometry''' is the familiar kind of [[geometry]] on the plane or in three dimensions. Mathematicians sometimes use the term to encompass higher-dimensional geometries with similar properties. Euclidean geometry is named after the [[Hellenistic]] mathematician [[Euclid]] of [[Egypt]]. Euclid's text ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]'' is an early systematic treatment of this kind of geometry.
''Euclidean geometry'' sometimes means [[plane geometry]]. Plane geometry is the topic of this article and is the kind of geometry usually taught in [[secondary school]].
Euclidean geometry in three dimensions is traditionally called [[solid geometry]].
For information on [[higher dimensions]] see [[Euclidean space]].
==Axiomatic approach==
The traditional presentation of Euclidean geometry is as an [[axiomatic system]], setting out to prove all the "true statements" as [[theorem]]s in geometry from a set containing a finite number of [[axiom]]s.
The five [[postulate]]s of the ''Elements'' are as follows:
# Any two [[point]]s can be joined by a [[straight line]].
# Any [[straight line segment]] can be extended indefinitely in a straight line.
# Given any straight line segment, a [[circle]] can be drawn having the segment as [[radius]] and one endpoint as center.
# All [[right angle]]s are [[Congruence (geometry)|congruent]].
# If two lines are drawn which intersect a third in such a way that the sum of the [[inner angle]]s on one side is less than two right angles, then the two lines inevitably must intersect each other on that side if extended far enough.
[[Image:euclid-proof.jpg|thumb|448px|A proof from Euclid's elements. It is shown that, given the line segment ΑΒ, an equilateral triangle ΑΒΓ can be constructed.]]
The fifth postulate is called the [[parallel postulate]], which leads to the same geometry as the following statement (note that it is formulated for two-dimensional geometry):
:''Through a point not on a given straight line, one and only one line can be drawn that never meets the given line.''
The parallel postulate seems less obvious than the others and many geometers tried in vain to prove it from them. By 1763 at least 28 different proofs of the fifth postulate had been published, but all were found to be incorrect. {{ref|GEB}} In the [[19th century]] it was shown that this could not be done, by constructing alternative systems of [[non-Euclidean geometry]], in which where the parallel postulate is false, while the other axioms hold.
(If one simply drops the parallel postulate from the list of axioms then the result is the more general geometry called [[absolute geometry]]). One consequence of omitting the parallel postulate is that the three angles of a [[triangle]] do not necessarily add to 180°. In [[hyperbolic geometry]] the sum of the three angles are always less than 180° and can approach zero, while in [[elliptic geometry]] the sum is greater than 180°.
Relatively recently, it was realized that Euclid's five axioms are incomplete. For instance, one of his theorems is that any line segment is part of a triangle; he constructs this in the usual way, by drawing circles around both endpoints and taking their intersection as the third vertex. His axioms, however, do not guarantee that the circles actually intersect. Many revised systems of axioms were constructed, the most standard ones being [[Hilbert's axioms]], [[Birkhoff's axioms]], and [[Tarski's axioms]].
[[Alfred Tarski|Tarski]] used his axioms to show Euclidean geometry is a complete [[Decidability_%28logic%29|decidable theory]]; that is, every proposition of Euclidean geometry can be shown to be either true or false. This does not violate [[Godel's theorem]], since Euclidean geometry cannot describe a sufficient amount of arithmetic for the theorem to apply.
Euclid also had five "common notions" which can also be taken to be axioms, though he later used other properties of [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]]s.
# Things which equal the same thing also equal one another.
# If equals are added to equals, then the wholes are equal.
# If equals are subtracted from equals, then the remainders are equal.
# Things which coincide with one another equal one another.
# The whole is greater than the part.
==Modern introduction to Euclidean geometry==
Today, Euclidean geometry is usually constructed rather than [[axiom]]atized, by means of [[analytic geometry]]. If one introduces geometry this way, one can then prove the Euclidean (or any other) axioms as theorems in this particular model. This does not have the beauty of the axiomatic approach, but it is extremely concise.
===The construction===
First let us define the ''set of points'' as set of pairs of [[real number]]s <math>(x,y)</math>. Then given two points <math>P=(x,y)</math> and <math>Q=(z,t)</math> one can define distances using the following formula:
:<math>|PQ|=\sqrt{(x-z)^2+(y-t)^2}.\,</math>
This is known as the ''Euclidean [[metric space|metric]]''. All other notions as a straight line, angle, circle can be defined in terms of points as pairs of real numbers and the distances between them. For example straight line through <math>P</math> and <math>Q</math> can be defined as a set of points ''A'' such that the triangle '''APQ''' is [[mathematical degeneracy|degenerate]], i.e.
:<math>|PQ| =|PA|+|AQ| \mbox{ or } |PQ| =\pm(|PA|-|AQ|).\,</math>
==As a description of physical reality==
Euclid believed that his axioms were self-evident statements about physical reality. However, Einstein's theory of [[general relativity]] shows that the true geometry of spacetime is non-Euclidean. For example, if a triangle is constructed out of three rays of light, then in general the interior angles do not add up to 180 degrees due to gravity.
==Classical theorems==
*[[Ceva's theorem]]
*[[Heron's formula]]
*[[Nine-point circle]]
*[[Pythagorean theorem]]
*[[Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia|Tartaglia's formula]]
==See also==
*[[Interactive geometry software]]
*[[Non-Euclidean geometry]]
==External links==
* [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/euclid.html Euclid's elements], with the original Greek and an English translation on facing pages
*[http://agutie.homestead.com Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas] by Antonio Gutierrez.
*[http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/toc.html Euclid's elements]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/geometry.shtml Geometry] at [[cut-the-knot]]
[[Category:Euclidean geometry|*]]
[[Category:Elementary geometry|*]]
[[ar:هندسة إقليدية]]
[[da:Euklidisk geometri]]
[[de:Euklidische Geometrie]]
[[el:Ευκλείδεια Γεωμετρία]]
[[fa:هندسه اقليدسی]]
[[fr:Géométrie euclidienne]]
[[ko:유클리드 기하학]]
[[io:Euklidana spaco]]
[[it:Geometria euclidea]]
[[he:גאומטריה אוקלידית]]
[[nl:Postulaten van Euclides]]
[[ja:ユークリッド幾何学]]
[[pl:Geometria euklidesowa]]
[[pt:Geometria euclidiana]]
[[ro:Geometrie euclediană]]
[[fi:Euklidinen geometria]]
[[sv:Euklidisk geometri]]
[[tr:Öklid geometrisi]]
[[zh:欧几里德几何]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epic poetry</title>
<id>9418</id>
<revision>
<id>41989145</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:51:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.91.92.75</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of epic, see [[epic (disambiguation)]].''
{{Literature}}
The '''epic''' is a broadly defined [[genre]] of [[poetry]], and one of the major forms of [[narrative]] [[literature]]. It retells in a continuous narrative the life and works of a [[hero]]ic or [[mythology|mythological]] person or group of persons. In the West, the ''[[Iliad]]'', ''[[Odyssey]]'', and the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]''; and in the East, the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]], '' and ''[[Shahnama]]'' are often cited as examples of the epic genre. The composition of epic poetry, or of long poems in general, has become uncommon in the Western world since the early 20th century. The term "epic" however has been recycled to refer to prose works, films, and similar works which are characterized by great length, multiple settings, large numbers of characters, or long span of time involved. As a result of this change in the use of the word, many prose works of the past may be called "epics" which were not composed or originally understood as such.
==Oral epics or world folk epics==
The first epics are associated strongly with [[literacy|preliterate]] [[societies]] and [[oral history|oral poetic traditions]]. In these traditions, poetry is transmitted to the audience and from performer to performer by purely oral means. ''World folk epics'' are those epics which are not just [[literary]] [[masterpiece]]s but also an integral part of the [[world view]] of a people. They were originally oral [[literature]]s, which were later written down by either single author or several writers.
Studies of living oral epic traditions in the [[Balkans]] by [[Milman Parry]] and [[Albert Lord]] demonstrated the [[Parataxis|paratactic]] model used for composing these poems. What they demonstrated was that oral epics tend to be constructed in short episodes, each of equal status, interest and importance. This facilitates memorisation, as the poet is recalling each episode and using them to recreate the entire epic as they perform it.
Parry and Lord also showed that the most likely source for written texts of the epics of [[Homer]] was dictation from an oral performance.
See also [[list of world folk-epics]].
==Epics in literate societies= |
heir outlook on the dynamics of history as young men, in a series of early critiques of the [[idealist]] philosophers of their age, including ''The Holy Family'', ''The Poverty of Philosophy'', the ''1844 Paris Manuscipts'', ''The Condition of the Working Class in England'', but more especially ''The German Ideology'' and the ''Theses on Feuerbach''. An excellent bit of rhetoric in the ''Communist Manifesto'' sums up the gist of it:
"Does it require deep intuition to comprehend that man’s ideas, views, and conception, in one word, man’s consciousness, changes with every change in the conditions of his material existence, in his social relations and in his social life? What else does the history of ideas prove, than that intellectual production changes its character in proportion as material production is changed? The ruling ideas of each age have ever been the ideas of its ruling class."
After writing the ''Communist Manifesto'', Marx provided a short summary of his view in his 1859 Preface to ''A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy'', reproduced here:
"The general conclusion at which I arrived and which, once reached, became the guiding principle of my studies can be summarised as follows. In the social production of their existence, men inevitably enter into definite relations, which are independent of their will, namely [[relations of production]] appropriate to a given stage in the development of their material forces of production. The totality of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of society, the real foundation, on which arises a legal and political [[superstructure]] and to which correspond definite forms of [[social]] consciousness. The [[mode of production]] of material life conditions the general process of social, political and intellectual life. It is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social existence that determines their consciousness. At a certain stage of development, the material [[productive forces]] of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production or — this merely expresses the same thing in legal terms — with the property relations within the framework of which they have operated hitherto. From forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social [[revolution]]. The changes in the economic foundation lead sooner or later to the transformation of the whole immense superstructure. In studying such transformations it is always necessary to distinguish between the material transformation of the economic conditions of production, which can be determined with the precision of [[natural science]], and the legal, political, religious, artistic or philosophic — in short, [[ideological]] forms in which men become conscious of this conflict and fight it out. Just as one does not judge an individual by what he thinks about himself, so one cannot judge such a period of transformation by its consciousness, but, on the contrary, this consciousness must be explained from the contradictions of material life, from the conflict existing between the social forces of production and the relations of production. No social order is ever destroyed before all the productive forces for which it is sufficient have been developed, and new superior relations of production never replace older ones before the material conditions for their existence have matured within the framework of the old society. Mankind thus inevitably sets itself only such tasks as it is able to solve, since closer examination will always show that the problem itself arises only when the material conditions for its solution are already present or at least in the course of formation. In broad outline, the Asiatic, ancient, feudal and modern [[bourgeois]] modes of production may be designated as epochs marking progress in the economic development of society. The bourgeois mode of production is the last antagonistic form of the social process of production — antagonistic not in the sense of individual antagonism but of an antagonism that emanates from the individuals' social conditions of existence — but the productive forces developing within bourgeois society create also the material conditions for a solution of this antagonism. The prehistory of human society accordingly closes with this social formation."
[[Lenin]] later commented:
"This idea of materialism in sociology was in itself a stroke of genius. Naturally, for the time being it was only a hypothesis, but one which first created the possibility of a strictly scientific approach to historical and social problems. (...)
Then, however, Marx, who had expressed this hypothesis in the [1840s], set out to study the factual (nota bene) material. He took one of the social-economic formations— the system of commodity production—and on the basis of a vast mass of data (which he studied for not less than twenty five years) gave a most detailed analysis of the laws governing the functioning of this formation and its development." (V. I. Lenin, What the Friends of the People Are and How they Fight the Social Democrats (1894)).
http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1894/friends/01.htm#v01zz99h-131-GUESS
==Disclaimers==
Marx himself took care to indicate that he was only proposing a ''guideline to historical research'' (''Leitfaden'' or ''Auffassung''), and was not providing any substantive "theory of history" or "grand philosophy of history", let alone a "master-key to history". Numerous times, he and Engels expressed irritation with dilettante academics who sought to knock up their skimpy historical knowledge as quickly as possible into some grand theoretical system that would explain "everything" about history. To their great annoyance, the materialist outlook was used as an excuse for ''not'' studying history.
In the 1872 Preface to the French edition of [[Das Kapital]] Vol. 1, Marx also emphasised that "There is no royal road to science, and only those who do not dread the fatiguing climb of its steep paths have a chance of gaining its luminous summits". Reaching a scientific understanding was hard work. Conscientious, painstaking research was required, instead of philosophical speculation and unwarranted, sweeping generalisations.
But having abandoned abstract philosophical speculation in his youth, Marx himself showed great reluctance during the rest of his life about offering any generalities or universal truths about human existence or human history. The first explicit and systematic summary of the materialist interpretation of history published (''Anti-Dühring'')was written by Frederick Engels.
One of the aims of Engels's polemic ''Herr Eugen Dühring's Revolution in Science'' (written with Marx's approval) was to ridicule the easy "world schematism" of philosophers, who invented the latest wisdom from behind their writing desks. Towards the end of his life, in 1877, Marx wrote a letter to editor of the Russian paper ''Otetchestvennye Zapisky'', which significantly contained the following disclaimer:
"(...) If Russia is tending to become a capitalist nation after the example of the Western European countries, and during the last years she has been taking a lot of trouble in this direction - she will not succeed without having first transformed a good part of her peasants into proletarians; and after that, once taken to the bosom of the capitalist regime, she will experience its pitiless laws like other profane peoples. That is all. But that is not enough for my critic. He feels himself obliged to metamorphose
my historical sketch of the genesis of capitalism in Western Europe into an historico-philosophic theory of the marche generale imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself, in order that it may ultimately arrive at the form of economy which will ensure, together with the greatest expansion of the productive powers of
social labour, the most complete development of man. But I beg his pardon. (He is both honouring and shaming me too much.)"
Marx goes on to illustrate how the same factors can in different historical contexts produce very different results, so that quick and easy generalisations are not really possible. To indicate how seriously Marx took research, it is interesting to note that when he died, his estate contained several cubic metres of Russian statistical publications (it was, as the old Marx observed, in Russia that his ideas gained most influence).
Contrary to what [[Karl Popper]] later falsely alleged, Marx & Engels did not want to pose as "prophets of the course of history" and they rejected [[historicism]]. Already in their polemic ''The Holy Family'', they had stated that "History does nothing, possesses no enormous wealth, fights no battles. It is rather man, the real, living man, who does everything, possesses, fights. It is not History, as if she were a person apart, who uses men as a means to
work out her purposes, but history itself is nothing but the activity of men pursuing their purposes."
But what is true is that insofar Marx and Engels regarded historical processes as [[law]]-governed processes, the possible future directions of historical development were to a great extent ''limited'' and ''conditioned'' by what happened before. Retrospectively, historical processes could be understood to have happened by ''necessity'' in certain ways and not others, and to some extent at least, the most likely variants of the future could be specified on the basis of careful study of the known facts.
Towards the end of his life, Engels commented several times about the [[abuse]] of historical materialism.
In a letter to Conrad Schmidt dated [[August 5]] [[1890]], he stated that "And if this man (i.e. [[Paul |
anese.png|right|thumb|250px|Exclusion order posted at First and Front Streets in San Francisco, California, directing removal of persons of Japanese ancestry.]]
'''United States Executive Order 9066''' was a presidential [[Executive Order|executive order]] issued during [[World War II]] by [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] on [[February 19]], [[1942]], using his authority as [[Commander-in-Chief]] to exercise war powers.
==World War II internment==
This order authorized [[United States armed forces|U.S. armed forces]] commanders to declare areas of the [[United States]] as military areas "from which any or all persons may be excluded." It was eventually applied to one-third of the land area of the U.S. (mostly in the [[Western United States|West]]) and was used against those with "Foreign Enemy Ancestry."
The order led to the [[Japanese American internment]], in which 110,000 [[Japanese people|ethnic Japanese]] people were held in [[internment camps]] for the duration of the war. Of the Japanese interned, 62 percent were [[Nisei]] (American-born, second-generation Japanese) and the rest were [[Issei]] (Japanese immigrants and resident aliens). Losses incurred by those affected during this time were estimated in the billions of dollars.
The [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] (then [[Henry L. Stimson]]) was to assist those residents of such an area who were excluded with [[transport]], [[food]], [[shelter]], and other accommodations.
While [[Japanese American]]s were by far the most widely-affected, some [[Italian American]]s and [[German American]]s were also subjected to similar restrictions, including internment. [http://www.segreta.org/], [http://www.italians-world.org/altreitalie/22_intervista2.htm], [http://hcom.csumb.edu/segreta/internment.html]
[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/WW/quwby.html]
==Opposition==
It is notable that one of the few voices in Washington opposing internment was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]. By the time of WWII, after nearly a decade of Democrat control of Washington under President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], Hoover was one of the few [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] left with any power. His opposition to internment is ironic, considering how some labeled his career as one in opposition to civil liberties.
==Post-World War II==
Executive Order 9066 was finally rescinded by [[Gerald Ford]] on [[April 19]], [[1976]]. In [[1980]], [[Jimmy Carter]] signed legislation to create the [[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians]] (CWRIC). The CWRIC was appointed to conduct an official governmental study of Executive Order 9066, related wartime orders and their impact on Japanese Americans in the West and [[Alaska Natives]] in the [[Pribilof Islands]].
In [[1983]], the CWRIC issued its findings in ''Personal Justice Denied'', concluding that the incarceration of Japanese Americans had not been justified by military necessity. Rather, the report determined that the decision to incarcerate was based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership." Lastly, the Commission recommended legislative remedies consisting of an official [[Federal Government of the United States|Government]] apology; redress payments of $20,000 to each of the survivors; and a public education fund to help ensure that this would not happen again.
On [[August 10]], [[1988]], the [[Civil Liberties Act of 1988]], based on the CWRIC recommendations, was signed into law by [[Ronald Reagan]]. On [[November 21]], [[1989]], [[George H.W. Bush]] signed an appropriation bill authorizing payments to be paid out between [[1990]] and [[1998]]. In 1990, surviving internees began to receive individual [[reparations|redress payments]] and a letter of apology.
==See also==
{{wikisource}}
* [[War Relocation Authority]]
*''[[Korematsu v. United States]]''
*''[[Hirabayashi v. United States]]''
*''[[Ex parte Endo]]''
==External links==
* [http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=74&page=transcript Text of Executive Order No. 9066]
* [http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist9/evacorder.html Evacuation poster for San Francisco] April 1
* [http://ipr.ues.gseis.ucla.edu/images/Evacuation_Poster.pdf Evacuation poster for Los Angeles] May 3
[[Category:Legal history of the United States]]
[[Category:United States executive orders|9066]]
[[Category:1942 in law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edvard Munch</title>
<id>9779</id>
<revision>
<id>42092178</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:52:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Everyking</username>
<id>44020</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/149.76.152.124|149.76.152.124]] ([[User talk:149.76.152.124|talk]]) to last version by Sebesta</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Edvard_Munch.jpg|thumb|Self Portrait with Skeleton Arm, [[1895]]]]
'''Edvard Munch''' ([[December 12]], [[1863]] &ndash; [[January 23]], [[1944]]) was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Expressionism|expressionist]] painter and printmaker. His intense, evocative treatment of anguish greatly influenced development of German expressionism in the early [[20th century]].
''[[The Scream]]'' ([[1893]]; originally called ''Despair''), Munch's best-known painting, is regarded as an icon of existential anguish. As with many of his works, he painted several versions of it. ''The Scream'' is one of the pieces in a series titled ''The Frieze of Life'', in which Munch explored the themes of life, love, fear, death and melancholy. It was stolen from the ''Munch-museum'' in [[Oslo]], Norway, on [[August 22]], [[2004]]. There have been unsubstantiated rumors that the painting was destroyed by the thieves.
''The Frieze of Life'' themes recur throughout Munch's work, in paintings such as ''The Sick Child'' ([[1886]], portrait of his deceased sister Sophie), [[Media:Munch vampire.jpg|''Vampire'']] ([[1893]]&ndash;[[1894|94]]), [[Media:Munch Ashes.jpg|''Ashes'']] ([[1894]]), and ''The Bridge''. The latter shows limp figures with featureless or hidden faces, over which loom the threatening shapes of heavy trees and brooding houses. Munch portrayed women either as frail, innocent sufferers or as lurid, life-devouring vampires. Munch analysts say this reflects his sexual anxieties.
==Biography==
[[Image:The Scream.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''The Scream''. [[1893]]. Oil, tempera and pastel on cardboard. [[National Gallery, Oslo|Nasjonalgalleriet]].]]
Born on [[December 12]]th, [[1863]], [[Løten]], [[Norway]], Munch grew up in Christiania (now [[Oslo]]). He was related to painter [[Jacob Munch]] ([[1776]] &ndash; [[1839]]) and historian [[Peter Andreas Munch]] ([[1810]] &ndash; [[1863]]). After the death of his mother, Laura Cathrine Bjølstad, of [[tuberculosis]] in [[1868]], Munch was raised by his father, Christian Munch, until [[1889]] when his father died. Christian Munch instilled in his children a deep-rooted fear of hell by repeatedly telling them that if they sinned, in any way, they would be doomed to hell without chance of pardon. While Munch was still young, his mother, a brother and Munch's favourite sister Sophie (in [[1877]]) died. A younger sister was diagnosed with [[mental illness]] at an early age. Munch was also often ill. Of the five siblings only Andreas married, only to die a few months after the wedding. This may explain the bleakness and pessimism of much of Munch's work. He would later say, "Sickness, insanity and death were the angels that surrounded my cradle and they have followed me throughout my life." A number of modern sources have described Munch's illness as probably being [[bipolar disorder]].
In [[1879]], Munch enrolled in a technical college to study engineering, but frequent illnesses interrupted his studies. In [[1880]], he left the college to become a painter. In [[1881]], he enrolled at the Royal School of Art and Design of Kristiania. His teachers were sculptor [[Julius Middelthun]] and [[Naturalism (art)|naturalistic]] painter [[Christian Krohg]].
Munch traveled to Paris in [[1885]], and his work began to show the influence of French painters &mdash; first of the [[impressionism|impressionists]], and then of the [[postimpressionism|postimpressionists]] and of [[art nouveau]] [[design]]. While stylistically influenced by the [[postimpressionism|postimpressionists]], Munch's subject matter is [[symbolism (arts)|symbolist]] in content, depicting a state of mind rather than an external reality.
Munch maintained that the [[impressionism]] idiom did not suit his art. Interested in portraying not a random slice of reality, but situations brimming with emotional content and expressive energy, Munch carefully calculated his compositions to create a tense atmosphere.
During his career, Munch changed his idiom many times. In the [[1880s]], Munch's idiom was [[Naturalism (art)|naturalistic]], such as ''Portrait of Hans Jæger'', and partly [[Impressionism|impressionistic]] (''Rue Lafayette''). In [[1892]], Munch formulated his characteristic, and original, [[synthetism|Synthetist]] idiom as seen in ''Melancholy'' in which colour is the symbol-laden element (''[[The Scream]]'').
[[Image:Munch deathSickroom.jpg|thumb|300px|''Death in the Sickroom.'' c. [[1895]]. Edvard Munch. Oil on canvas. 59 x 66 in. [[National Gallery, Oslo|Nasjonalgalleriet]] at Oslo.]]
During the [[1890s]], Munch favoured a shallow pictorial space, and used it in his frequently frontal figures. Since he chose the poses to produce the most convincing images of states of mind and psychological conditions (''Ashes''), the figures lend to the paintings' a monumental, static quality. Munch's figures appear to play roles on a theatre stage (''Death in the Sick-Room''), even perhaps a pantomime of fixed postures |
s at the time). So:
:<math> power = \frac{work}{time} = \frac{force \times distance}{time} = \frac{(180 \mbox{ lbf})(2.4 \times 2 \pi \times 12 \mbox{ ft})}{1\ \mbox{min}}=32,572 \frac{\mbox{ft} \cdot \mbox{lbf}}{\mbox{min}}</math>
This was rounded to an even 33,000 ft·lbf/min[http://sections.asme.org/Philadelphia/sept02.htm].
Others recount that Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 pounds 100 feet (30 m) per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony and thus arrived at the 33,000 ft·lbf/min figure[http://www.i5ive.com/article.cfm/history_bizarre_mysterious/114862].
''Engineering in History'' recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute. John Desaguliers increased that to 27,500 foot-pounds per minute. "Watt found by experiment in 1782 that a 'brewery horse' was able to produce 32,400 foot-pounds per minute". James Watt and Matthew Boulton standardized that figure at 33,000 the next year[http://print.google.com/print?id=AVn_Sm56OCoC&pg=171&lpg=171&dq=smeaton&sig=6N_TJXrLqwQI-Fm7mU9ebKS1djA].
Put into perspective, a healthy human can sustain about 0.1 horsepower, and trained athletes can manage up to about 0.3 horsepower for a period of several hours. Most observers familiar with horses and their capabilities estimate that Watt was either a bit optimistic or intended to underpromise and overdeliver; few horses can maintain that effort for long. Regardless, comparison to a horse proved to be an enduring marketing tool.
===Conversion of historical definition to watts===
The historical value of 33,000 ft·lbf/min may be converted to the SI unit of watts by using the following [[conversion of units]] factors:
*1 ft = 0.3048m
* 1 lbf = ''[[gee|g]]<sub>n</sub>'' × 1 lb = 9.80665 m/s<sup>2</sup> × 1 lb × 0.45359237 kg/lb = 4.44822 kg·m/s<sup>2</sup> = 4.44822 N
*60 seconds = 1 minute
:<math>33,000 \frac{\mbox{ft} \cdot \mbox{lbf}}{\mbox{min}} \times \frac{0.3048 \mbox{ m}}{\mbox{ft}} \times \frac{4.44822 \mbox{ N}}{\mbox{lbf}} \times \frac{\mbox{min}}{60 \mbox{ s}}=745.69987158227022 \ \frac{\mbox{N} \cdot \mbox{m}}{\mbox{s}}</math>
And the [[watt]] is defined as <math>1\ \mbox{W} = 1 \frac{\mbox{N} \cdot \mbox{m}}{\mbox{s}} </math> so the historical figure of 33,000 ft·lbf/min converts exactly to the modern definition.
==References==
*H.W.Dickenson, ''James Watt - Craftsman and Engineer'', Cambridge University Press, 1936, p 145.
*Richard Shelton Kirby, et al, ''Engineering in History'', Courier Dover Publications, 1990, p 171, ISBN 0486264122
==External links==
*"[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mhorsepower.html What's the difference between horsepower and torque?]" at the [[Straight Dope]]
*"[http://www.web-cars.com/math/horsepower.html What is Horsepower?]" at [http://www.web-cars.com WebCars]
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Units of power]]
[[Category:Customary units in the United States]]
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[[cs:Koňská síla]]
[[da:Hestekraft]]
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[[es:Caballo de vapor]]
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[[fr:Cheval-vapeur]]
[[it:Cavallo vapore]]
[[he:כוח סוס]]
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[[ja:馬力]]
[[no:Hestekraft]]
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[[pt:Cavalo (unidade)]]
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[[zh:馬力]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>History of London</title>
<id>14020</id>
<revision>
<id>42078622</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:57:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UkPaolo</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[London]]''' has a history that goes back 2,000 years. During this time, it has experienced [[Black Death|plague]], devastating [[fire]], [[civil war]], aerial [[The Blitz|bombardment]], and [[terrorism|terrorist]] attacks, yet, it has still grown to become one of the financial and [[culture|cultural]] [[capital]]s of the [[world]].
See [[City of London]] for details on the historic core of London.
[[Image:towrlndn.JPG|thumb|253px|right|The [[Tower of London]].]]
==Legendary foundations and prehistoric London==
The [[Mediæval]] [[mythology]] of [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] tells that London was founded by [[Brutus of Troy]] in the [[Bronze Age]], and was known as ''Troia Nova'', or New [[Troy]], which was corrupted to ''Trinovantum''. (The [[Trinovantes]] were the tribe who inhabited the area prior to the Romans). King [[Lud son of Heli|Lud]] renamed the town ''CaerLudein'', from which London is derived. Geoffrey provides prehistoric London with a rich array of legendary kings and interesting stories.
However, despite intensive excavations, archaeologists have found no evidence of a prehistoric or major settlement in the area. There have been scattered prehistoric finds, evidence of farming, burial and traces of habitation, but nothing more substantial. It is now considered unlikely that a pre-Roman city existed, but as much of the Roman city remains unexcavated, it is still possible that some settlement may yet be discovered.
So, during the [[prehistoric]] times, London was most likely a rural area with scattered settlement. Rich finds such as the [[Battersea Shield]], found in the [[Thames]] near Chelsea, suggest the area was important; there may have been important settlements at [[Egham]] and [[Brentford]], and there was a [[hillfort]] at [[Uppall]], but no city in the area of the Roman London, the present day [[City of London]].
==Roman London==
[[Image:Antoninianus Carausius leg4-RIC 0069v.jpg|thumb|[[Carausius]] coin from Londinium mint.]]
''Londinium'' was established as a town by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] after the [[Roman invasion of Britain|invasion of 43 AD]] led by the Emperor [[Claudius]]. [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] excavation (undertaken by the Department of Urban Archaeology of the Museum of London now called [[MOLAS]]) since the 1970s has also failed to unearth any convincing traces of major settlement before c.50 &mdash; so ideas about ''Londinium'' being a military foundation around the Fort that protected [[London Bridge]] are now largely discounted.
The name ''[[Londinium]]'' is thought to be pre-Roman in origin although there is no consensus on what it means. One suggestion is that it derived from a personal name meaning 'fierce'. However, recent research by [[Richard Coates]] has suggested that the name derives from pre-Celtic Old European &mdash; ''Plowonida'' &mdash; from 2 roots, "''plew''" and "''nejd''", meaning something like "the flowing river" or "the wide flowing river". Londinium therefore means "the settlement on the wide river". He suggests that the river was called the [[Thames]] up river where it was narrower, and ''Plowonida'' down river where it was too wide to ford. For a discussion on the legends of London and Plowonida see [http://chr.org.uk/legends.htm]. The story of the settlement being named after [[Lud son of Heli|Lud]] is considered unlikely.
Archaeologists now believe that London was founded as a civilian settlement by 50 AD. A [[wood]]en drain by the side of the main [[roman road]] excavated at [[No 1 Poultry]] has been dated to 47 which is likely to be the foundation [[Calendar date |date]].
Ten years later, ''Londinium'' was sacked by the [[Iceni]] lead by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain |British]] queen [[Boudica]]. Excavation has revealed extensive evidence of destruction by fire at this date, and recently a military compound has been discovered in the City of London which may have been the headquarters of the Roman fight back against the British uprising.
The city recovered after perhaps 10 years, and reached its population height by about 120 AD, with a population of around 60,000. London became the capital of [[Roman Britain]] (Britannia) (previously the capital was the older, nearby town of [[Colchester]]). Thereafter began a slow decline; however, habitation and associated building work did not cease. By 375 London was a small wealthy community protected by completed defences. By 410 Roman [[occupation]] officially came to an end, with the citizens being ordered to look after their own defenses. By the middle of the 5th century the Roman city was practically abandoned.
==Saxon London==
After being abandoned for perhaps 150 years, its strategic position on the [[River Thames|Thames]] meant that by 600 [[Anglo-Saxon]]s had revived settlement in the area. These Saxon settlements were not in the ancient walled [[City of London]] (which was named ''Lundenburh'' = "London Fort"), but an area named [[Lundenwic]] = "London settlement" one kilometre upstream on the Thames.
Recent excavations in the [[Covent Garden]] area have uncovered extensive Anglo-Saxon settlement dating back into the 7th century. The excavations show that the settlement covered about 600,000 square metres, stretching from the present-day National Gallery site in the west to [[Aldwych]] in the east. The name "Aldwych" (from [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''ealdwīc'' = "old settlement") shows that, some time in the late 9th or early 10th century, the focus of settlement shifted from the 'Old District' back to the [[City of London]]. This may have been due to administrative changes introduced by [[Alfred the Great]] after his defeat of [[Guthrum]] and the Danes, or a move to a site easier to defend against [[Viking]] attacks.
Alfred appointed his son-in-law [[Earl Aethelred of |
e>Internal combustion engine</title>
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<ip>156.34.184.200</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Car engine}}
[[Image:Colorized car engine.jpg|thumb|A colorized [[automobile]] engine]]
The '''internal combustion engine''' is a [[heat engine]] in which [[combustion]] occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. Combustion of a [[fuel]] creates high [[temperature]]/[[pressure]] gases, which are permitted to expand. The expanding gases are used to directly move a piston, turbine blades, rotor(s), or the [[engine]] itself thus doing useful work.
Internal combustion engines can be powered by any [[fuel]] that can be combined with an [[oxidizer]] in the chamber.
By way of contrast, an [[external combustion engine]] such as a [[steam engine]] does work when the combustion process heats a separate working fluid, such as water or steam, which then in turn does work.
[[Jet engine]]s, most [[rocket]]s and many [[gas turbine]]s are all forms of the internal combustion engine, but the term ''internal combustion engine'' is most often used to refer specifically to [[reciprocating engine]]s, [[Wankel engine]]s and similar designs in which combustion is intermittent. Today, in some published discussions, ''internal combustion engine'' is abbreviated to the acronym [[ICE]].
[[Image:4-Stroke-Engine.gif|framed|right|[[Four-stroke cycle]] (or Otto cycle)]]
== History ==
=== Non-compression ===
[[Leonardo da Vinci]], in 1509, and [[Christiaan Huygens]], in 1673, described constant pressure engines. (Leonardo's description may not imply that the idea was original with him or that it was actually constructed.)
[[image:Suction_engine.JPG|thumb|150px|Demonstration of the internal combustion indirect or suction principle. This may not meet the definition of an engine, because the process does not repeat.]]
[[image:Early-gasoline-engine-models.jpg|thumb|150px|Early internal-combustion engines were used to power farm equipment.]]
[[England|English]] inventor Sir [[Samuel Morland]] used [[gunpowder]] to drive water pumps in the [[17th century]]. In 1794, [[Robert Street]] built a compression-less engine whose principle of operation would dominate for nearly a century.
The first internal combustion engine to be Applied industrially was patented by Samual Brown in 1823. It was based on what Hardenberg calls the "Leonardo cycle", which, as this name implies, was already out of date at that time. Just as today, early major funding, in an area where standards had not yet been established, went to the best showmen sooner than to the best workers.
The Italians [[Eugenio Barsanti]] and [[Felice Matteucci]] patented the first working, efficient internal combustion engine in 1854 in London (pt. Num. 1072) but did not get into production with it. It was similar in concept to the successful Otto Langen indirect engine, but not so well worked out in detail.
In 1860, [[Etienne Lenoir|Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir]] (1822 - 1900) produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine not dissimilar in appearance to a [[steam]] [[beam engine]]. This closely resembled a horizontal double acting steam engine, with cylinders, pistons, connecting-rods and fly wheel in which the gas essentially took the place of the steam. This was the first internal combustion engine to be produced in numbers.
The American [[Samuel Morey]] received a [[patent]] on [[April 1]], [[1826]] for a "Gas Or [[Vapor Engine]]".
His first (1862) engine with compression having shocked itself apart, [[Nikolaus Otto]] designed an indirect acting free piston compression-less engine whose greater efficiency won the support of Langen and then most of the market, which at that time, was mostly for small stationary engines fueled by lighting gas. In 1870 in Vienna [[Siegfried Marcus]] put the first mobile gasoline engine on a handcart.
=== Compression ===
The most significant distinction between modern internal combustion engines and the early designs is the use of compression and in particular of in-cylinder compression. The [[thermodynamic]] theory of idealized heat engines was established by [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] in France in 1824. This scientifically established the need for compression to increase the difference between the upper and lower working temperatures, but it is not clear that engine designers were aware of this before compression was already commonly used. In fact it may have mislead designers who attempted to emulate the Carnot cycle in ways that were not useful.
The first recorded suggestion of in-cylinder compression was a patent granted to William Barnet (English) in 1838. He apparently did not realize its advantages, but his cycle would have been a great advance if sufficiently developed.
Otto working with [[Gottlieb Daimler]] and [[Wilhelm Maybach]] in the 1870s developed a practical [[four-stroke cycle]] (Otto cycle) engine. The German courts, however, did not hold his patent to cover all in-cylinder compression engines or even the four stroke cycle, and after this decision in-cylinder compression became universal.
===Applications===
Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion systems. In mobile scenarios internal combustion is advantageous, since it can provide high power to weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy-density. These engines have appeared in almost all [[Automobile|car]]s, [[motorbike]]s, many [[boat]]s, and in a wide variety of [[aircraft]] and [[locomotive]]s. Where very high power is required, such as [[jet aircraft]], [[Helicopter|helicopters]] and large ships, they appear mostly in the form of [[gas turbines]]. They are also used for [[electric generator]]s and by industry.
For low power mobile and many non-mobile applications an [[electric motor]] is a competitive alternative. In the future, electric motors may also become competitive for most mobile applications. However, the high cost, weight, and poor energy density of [[Lead-acid battery|PbA]] and even [[Nickel metal hydride battery|NiMH]] [[battery (electricity)|batteries]] and lack of affordable on board electric generators such as [[fuel cell]]s has largely restricted their use to specialist applications. However recent battery advancements in lightweight [[Lithium ion battery|Li-ion]] and [[Lithium ion polymer battery|Li-poly]] chemistries are bringing safety, power density, lifespan, and cost to within acceptable or even desirable levels. For example recently [[battery electric vehicle]]s began to demonstrated 300 miles of range on Lithium, now improved power makes them appealing for [[plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]]s whose electric range is less critical having internal combustion for ''unlimited'' range.
==Operation==
All '''internal combustion engines''' depend on the [[exothermic]] chemical process of [[combustion]]: the reaction of a [[fuel]], typically with air, although other oxidisers such as [[nitrous oxide]] may be employed. Also see [[stoichiometry]].
The most common fuels in use today are made up of [[hydrocarbon]]s and are derived from [[petroleum]]. These include the fuels known as [[diesel]], [[gasoline]] and [[liquified petroleum gas]]. Most internal combustion engines designed for gasoline can run on [[natural gas]] or liquified petroleum gases without modifications except for the fuel delivery components. Liquid and gaseous [[biofuel]]s of adequate formulation can also be used.
Some have theorized that in the future [[hydrogen]] might [[Hydrogen economy|replace such fuels]]. Furthermore, with the introduction of hydrogen [[fuel cell]] technology, the use of internal combustion engines may be phased out. The advantage of hydrogen is that its combustion produces only [[water]]. This is unlike the combustion of hydrocarbons, which also produces [[carbon dioxide]], a major cause of [[global warming]], as well as [[carbon monoxide]], resulting from incomplete combustion. The big disadvantage of hydrogen in many situations is [[Hydrogen_economy#Storage|its storage]]. Liquid hydrogen has extremely low density- 14 times lower than water and requires extensive insulation, whilst gaseous hydrogen requires very heavy tankage. While hydrogen is light and therefore has a higher specific energy, the volumetric efficiency is still roughly five times lower than petrol. This is why hydrogen must be compressed if there is to be a useful amount of stored energy. Except in the case of the Hydrogen on Demand process, designed by Steven Amendola, where hydrogen is created as it is needed.
All internal combustion engines must have a means of [[ignition system|ignition]] to promote combustion. Most engines use either an [[spark plug|electrical]] or a [[compression heating ignition]] system. Electrical ignition systems generally rely on a [[lead-acid battery]] and an [[induction coil]] to provide a high voltage electrical spark to ignite the air-fuel mix in the engine's cylinders. This battery can be recharged during operation using an ''[[alternator]]'' driven by the engine. Compression heating ignition systems ([[Diesel engine]]s and [[HCCI]] engines) rely on the heat created in the air by compression in the engine's cylinders to ignite the fuel.
Once successfully ignited and burnt, the combustion products (hot [[gas]]es) have more available energy than the original compressed fuel/air mixture (which had higher [[chemical energy]]). The available energy is manifested as high [[temperature]] and [[pressure]] which can be translated into [[Mechanical work|work]] by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high pressure product gases inside the cylinders drive the engine's pistons.
Once the available energy has been removed the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a [[poppet valve|valve]] or exposing the e |
to do so. Examples of people earning a living in this way would be [[farmers]] who own their own land and related machinery, [[plumbers]] who own their own tools, software developers who own their own computer, etc. The "[[co-operative]]" approach advances beyond this individualist perspective to recognise that such property and equipment may be "co-owned" by local communities larger than a family, e.g. partners in a business.
===Guild system===
The kind of economic order envisioned by the early distributist thinkers would involve the return to some sort of [[guild]] system. The present existence of [[labor unions]] does not constitute a realization of this facet of distributist economic order, as labour unions are organized along [[Social class|class]] lines to promote class interests, whereas Guilds are mixed class syndicates comprised of both employers and employees cooperating for mutual benefit.
===Banks===
Distributism favors the elimination of the current private [[bank]] system, or in any case, its profit-making basis. This does not necessarily mean Nationalization. It does mean Governments accepting their responsibility for ensuring justice, especially in the monetary system.
==Social theory==
The pioneers of the distributist movement wrote before the Information Era; their Christian roots, however, were in the theory of the Word of God. A forthcoming Distributist research program aims to examine the theoretical implications of linguistic communication capability being the specifically human basis of society, rather than power relationships or specific institutions. Just as electrical theory is the basis for the theory of operation of specific electronic systems, so technical communication theory as it has developed is envisaged as the basic theory of operation of specific social systems. C.f. [[sociology]].
===The human family===
Distributism sees the trinitarian human [[family]] of one [[male]], one [[female]] and their [[children]] as the central and primary social unit of human ordering and the principle unit of a functioning distributist society and civilization. This unit is however the basis of a multi-generational extended family, which is embedded in socially as well as genetically inter-related communities, nations etc and ultimately in the whole human family past, present and to come. The economic system of a society should therefore be focussed primarily on the flourishing of the family unit, but not in isolation: at the appropriate level of family context, as is intended in the principle of 'subsidiarity'.
===Society of artisans===
Distributism promotes a society of [[artisans]] and culture. This is influenced by an emphasis on small business, promotion of local culture, and favoring of small production over capitalistic [[mass production]]. A society of artisans promotes the distributist ideal of the unification of capital, ownership, and production rather than what distributism sees as an alienation of man from work.
===Social security===
Distributism favors the elimination of [[social security]] on the basis that it further alienates man by making him more dependent on the Servile State. Distributists such as Dorothy Day did not favor social security when it was introduced by the United States government. This rejection of this new program was due to the direct influence of the ideas of Hilaire Belloc over American distributists.
It does not follow that social security as it exists now should be simply eliminated: that is a fallacy (or cynical mis-use) of naive "either-or" logic. Social security will remain necessary just so long as people have no other means of acquiring a livelihood. Study of time-based logic has suggested an alternative solution. If everyone is paid ''before'' they work, they thus owe a fair share of what work they can do which they can see needs doing (rather than an employer owing [token] money just to those who have done work that he has prescribed). Critics argue that in fact this removes the incentive for work from the worker, and as history has proven, severely compromises his efficiency and dedication to the job. If the wages (including trader's incomes and, elsewhere, investment finances) take the form of interest-free loans, the money will be repaid for recirculation simply by its return to the bank when it is spent. Most people would want to continue earning it in the usual way, but those not so working would be expected by their local community to be doing a sufficient share of other necessary or worthwhile work: child-rearing, education, artistic creation, appropriate recreation etc., or voluntary work in the community or natural environment. Business would no longer be for monetary profit, but to create real benefits for the community. Crime would no longer be attractive as a way of acquiring a livelihood. In short, everyone would benefit from real social security without any need for demeaning and inadequate state-run monetary "social security".
== Geopolitical theory==
===Political order===
Distributism does not favor one set of political order over another, whether it be from [[democracy]] to [[monarchism]]. Distributism does not necessarily support [[anarchism]], though some distributists, such as Dorothy Day, were also anarchists. Distributism does not support political orders that go towards extremes of [[individualism]] or [[statism]].
===Political parties===
Distributism does not attach itself to one national [[political party]] or another in any part of the world. There are some modern political parties in [[England]] which espouse distributist views.
===War===
Distributists usually use [[Just War Theory]] in determining whether a war should be fought or not. Historical positions of distributist thinkers provides insight into a distributist position on war. Both Belloc and Chesterton opposed British imperialism in general, as well as specifically opposing the [[Second Boer War]]. Cecil Chesterton fought in [[World War I]] during which G.K. Chesterton worked as a propagandist for the British government.
The [[Catholic Worker Movement]], which abides by distributist principles (esspecially in its several farming communities, which are meant to "train" families for self-subsistance), opposes all war. There are some that would suggest that such an extreme [[Pacifism]], however, is incompatible with the teachings of the Catholic Church articulated in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, among other documents.
==Influence==
===E.F. Schumacher===
Distributism is known to have had an influence on the economist [[E.F. Schumacher]], a convert to Catholicism.
===Mondragón Cooperative Corporation===
The [[Mondragón Cooperative Corporation]] based out of the [[Basque Country]] in the region of Spain and France, was founded by a Catholic priest, Father [[José María Arizmendiarrieta]], who seems to have been influenced by the same Catholic social and economic teachings that inspired Belloc, Chesterton, McNabb and the other founders of distributism. The Mondragón cooperative, however, may be considered "distributist" in the sense of valuing the ideal of the worker owning the means of production as much as possible, while some of its more international and capitalistic leanings seem to veer away from a true distributism.
==Controversy==
===Ultranationalist groups===
Controversy in the Distributist community has occurred because of associations of distributism with some [[ultranationalist]] groups. This would include groups such as the [[British National Party]] which claims to hold some distributist views. The advocacy of distributism by certain ultranationalist groups is more pronounced in [[Europe]] where distributism is seen as reflecting the values of an "old order" and a return to the "nationalistic roots" of a country. Supporters of [[national anarchism]] also advocate distributist economic models.
Many ultranationalists trace their ancestry back to [[Fascist]] movements, and may see Distributism as a version of [[Corporativism]]. There are some similarities between the two systems, notable parallels between the Corporativists' [[Corporations]] and the Distributists' Guilds. But there are fundamental differences between the two philosophies, notably the Corporativists' permissiveness towards big buisiness and big government.
Distributism and Corporativism could concievably be placed on a linear spectrum of [[Third Way]] economic models, where Distributism would be more compatible with Libertarianism and Corporativism would tend to be more compatible with [[radical centrist]] ideologies of [[Collectivism]] and [[Statism]], including but not limited to Fascism.
==Key texts==
* ''[[The Servile State]]'' by Hilaire Belloc
* ''[[An Essay on The Restoration of Property]]'' by Hilaire Belloc
* ''[[Utopia of Usurers]]'' by G.K. Chesterton
* ''[[The Outline Of Sanity]]'' by G.K. Chesterton
* ''[[What's Wrong With The World]]'' by G.K. Chesterton
==Thinkers==
* [[Hilaire Belloc]]
* [[Cecil Chesterton]]
* [[G.K. Chesterton]]
* [[Dorothy Day]]
* [[Eric Gill]]
* Fr. [[Vincent McNabb]] O.P.
* [[Arthur Penty]]
==See also==
* [[agrarianism]]
* [[corporatism]]
* [[mutualism]]
* [[personalism]]
* [[social credit]]
==External links==
===Links favourable to Distributism===
* [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext99/wwwtw10.txt What's Wrong with the World (1910)] by G. K. Chesterton
* [http://www.dur.ac.uk/martin.ward/gkc/books/Sanity.txt The Outline of Sanity (1927)] by G.K. Chesterton
* http://www.distributism.com/
* http://groups.yahoo.com/group/distributism/ Distributism Yahoo Group
* http://www.distributism.org/
* http://www.geocities.com/kevinjjonesy/distributism/
* http://www.justpeace.org/distribute.htm
* http://mdemarco.web.wesleyan.edu/gkc/distrib/
* http://distributism.blogspot.com/ "The Distributist Review" weblog
===Links unfavourable to |
best swimmer in the fleet. Yet he was not like the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages, whose sole concession to their sacred calling was to avoid the "shedding of blood" by using a mace in battle instead of a sword. Absalon never neglected his ecclesiastical duties, and even his wars were of the nature of Crusades. Moreover, all his martial energy notwithstanding, his personality must have been singularly winning; for it is said of him that he left behind not a single enemy, all his opponents having long since been converted by him into friends.
See Saxo, ''[[Gesta Danorum]],'' ed. Holder (Strassburg, 1886), books xvi.; Steenstrup, ''Danmarks Riges Historie. Oldtiden og den ældre Middelalder,'' pp. 570-735 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905).
Absalon's Testamentum, in [[Jacques Paul Migne|Migne]], ''[[Patrologia Latina]]'' 209,18.
''Absalon'' is also a variant form of the (otherwise unrelated) name [[Absalom]]. This variant spelling is best known from the title of the musical work [[Absalon fili mi]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
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[[da:Absalon]]
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<page>
<title>Adhemar of Le Puy</title>
<id>1875</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:17:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
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<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Adhemar''' (also known as '''Adémar''', '''Aimar''', or '''Aelarz''') '''de Monteil''' (d. [[August 1]], [[1098]]), one of the principal personages of the [[First Crusade]], was bishop of [[Puy-en-Velay]] from before [[1087]].
At the [[Council of Clermont]] in [[1095]], Adhemar showed great zeal for the crusade (there is evidence Urban II had conferred with Adhemar before the council) and having been named [[apostolic legate]] and appointed to lead the crusade by [[Pope Urban II]], he accompanied [[Raymond IV of Toulouse|Raymond IV]], [[count of Toulouse]], to the east. Whilst Raymond and the other leaders often conflicted with each other over the leadership of the crusade, Adhemar was always recognised as the spiritual leader of the crusade.
Adhemar negotiated with [[Alexius I Comnenus]] at [[Constantinople]], reestablished at [[Nicaea]] some discipline among the crusaders, fought a crucial role at the battle of Dorylaeum and was largely responsible for sustaining morale during the [[siege of Antioch]] through various religious rites including fasting and special observances of holy days. After the capture of [[Antioch|the city]] in June, [[1098]], and the subsequent siege led by [[Kerbogha]], Adhemar organized a procession through the streets, and had the gates locked so that the Crusaders, many of whom had begun to panic, would be unable to desert the city. He was extremely skeptical of [[Peter Bartholomew]]'s discovery in Antioch of the [[Holy Lance]], especially because he knew such a relic already existed in Constantinople; however, he was willing to let the Crusader army believe it was real if it raised their morale.
When Kerbogha was defeated, Adhemar organized a council in an attempt to settle the leadership disputes, but he died on August 1, 1098, probably of [[typhus]]. The disputes among the higher nobles went unsolved, and the march to [[Jerusalem]] was delayed for months. However, the lower-class foot soldiers continued to think of Adhemar as a leader; some of them claimed to have been visited by his ghost during the [[siege of Jerusalem (1099)|siege of Jerusalem]], and reported that Adhemar instructed them to hold another procession around the walls. This was done, and Jerusalem was taken by the Crusaders in [[1099]].
==External links==
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.html Urban's letter of December 1095 appointing Adhemar]
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Crusades]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:1098 deaths|Adhemar of Le Puy]]
[[de:Adhemar de Monteil]][[nl:Adhemar van Monteil]][[fr:Adhémar de Monteil]]
[[it:Ademaro di Monteil]]
[[pl:Ademar z Monteil]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Adhemar de Chabannes</title>
<id>1876</id>
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<timestamp>2004-06-10T12:47:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Olivier</username>
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<page>
<title>Albigenses</title>
<id>1877</id>
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<timestamp>2005-12-04T01:18:05Z</timestamp>
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<username>Tom harrison</username>
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<page>
<title>Alphonse of Toulouse</title>
<id>1878</id>
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<username>Charles Matthews</username>
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[[fi:Alphonse (Toulouse]]
[[fr:Alphonse de Poitiers]]
'''Alphonse, [[Counts of Toulouse|Count of Toulouse]] and [[Count of Poitiers|of Poitiers]]''' ([[November 11]], [[1220]] &ndash; [[August 21]], [[1271]]).
[[Image:Blason Alphonse Poitiers.png|thumb|100px|left|Coat of arms of Alphonse: Per pale azure semé-de-lis or (France ancient) dimidiating gules semé of castles or (Castile)]]
Alphonse was a son of [[Louis VIII of France|Louis VIII]], [[King of France]] and [[Blanche of Castile]]. He was a younger brother of [[Louis IX of France]] and an older brother of [[Charles I of Sicily]].
He joined the county of [[Toulouse]] to his ''[[appanage]]'' of [[Poitou]] and [[Rulers of Auvergne|Auvergne]], on the death, in September [[1249]], of [[Raymond VII of Toulouse]], whose daughter [[Joan of Toulouse]] Alphonse had married in [[1237]]. He took part in two crusades with his brother, St Louis, in [[1248]] (the [[Seventh Crusade]]) and in [[1270]] (the [[Eighth Crusade]]).
In [[1252]], on the death of his mother, Blanche of Castile, he was joint regent with [[Charles of Anjou]] until the return of Louis IX. During that time he took a great part in the negotiations which led to the [[Treaty of Paris (1259)|Treaty of Paris]] in [[1259]], under which King [[Henry III of England]] recognized his loss of continental territory to [[France]] (including [[Normandy]], [[Maine (province of France)|Maine]], [[Anjou]], and [[Poitou]]) in exchange for France withdrawing support from English rebels.
His main work was on his own estates. There he repaired the evils of the [[Albigensian Crusade|Albigensian war]] and made a first attempt at administrative centralization, thus preparing the way for union with the crown. The charter known as "Alphonsine," granted to the town of [[Riom]], became the code of public law for [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]]. Honest and moderate, protecting the middle classes against exactions of the nobles, he exercised a happy influence upon the south, in spite of his naturally despotic character and his continual and pressing need of money. He is noted for ordering the first recorded local expulsion of [[Jew]]s, when he did so in Poitou in [[1249]].
He died without heirs on his return from the [[Eighth Crusade]], in [[Italy]], probably at [[Savona]], on [[August 21]], 1271. As part of his [[bequest]], he left his lands in the [[Comtat Venaissin]] to the [[Holy See]] and it became a [[Papal States|Papal territory]] in [[1274]], a status that it retained until [[1791]].
==References==
* [[B. Ledain]], ''Histoire d'Alphonse, frère de S. Louis et du comte de Poitou sous son administration (1241-1271)'' (Poitou, 1869)
* [[E. Bourarie]], ''Saint Louis et Alphonse de Poitiers'' (Paris, 1870)
* [[A. Molinier]], ''Etude sur l'administration de S. Louis et d'Alphonse de Poitiers'' (Toulouse, 1880)
* * A. Molinier, ''Correspondance administrative d'Alphonse de Poitiers'' in the ''Collection de documents inedits pour servir à l'histoire de France'' (Paris, 1894 and 1895).
*http://www.davidsconsultants.com/jewishhistory/history.php?startyear=1240&endyear=1249 (Retrieved February 16, 2005)
==External links==
*[http://www.briantimms.com/rolls/WalfordsC1.html Coat of Arms in the Walford Roll]
{{start box}}
{{succession box two to one | before1=&mdash; | title1=[[Count of Poitiers]] | years1=1225&ndash;1271 | after=''to royal domain'' | before2=[[Raymond VII of Toulouse|Raymond VII]] | title2=[[Count of Toulouse]] | years2=1249&ndash;1271<br>''with [[Joan of Toulouse|Joan]]''}}
{{end box}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:1220 births]]
[[Category:1271 deaths]]
[[Category:Counts of Toulouse|Alphonse II]]
[[Category:French nobility|Toulouse, Alphonse of]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphonse I of Toulouse</title>
<id>1879</id>
<revision>
<id>40581250</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T16:28:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam Bishop</username>
<id>13008</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[fr:Alphonse Jourdain]]
'''Alphonse I''' ([[1103]]&ndash;[[1148]]), [[Counts of Toulouse|Count of Toulouse]], son of Count [[Raymond of Toulouse|Raymond IV]] by his third wife, [[Elvira of Castile]], was born in the castle of [[Mont-Pelerin]], [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]], in today's [[Lebanon]]. He was born while his father was on crusade, attempt |
t|frame|Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints edition)]]
The '''''Book of Mormon''''' is one of four [[sacred text]]s of [[Mormonism]], which also include the [[Bible]], ''[[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]]'', and ''[[Doctrine and Covenants]]''. Published by the first prophet of this movement, [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], in March [[1830]] in [[Palmyra (town), New York|Palmyra]], [[New York]], the belief in the truthfulness of this book stands as the central dividing doctrine of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] from other [[Christian]] faiths. Adherents to its teachings are commonly referred to as [[Mormon|Mormons]]. The book's self-declared purpose is to testify of [[Jesus]] through the writings of ancient [[prophet]]s of the [[Western Hemisphere]] who traveled there from ancient [[Israel]], probably between 600-650 BC. It asserts that it was abridged and compiled by the prophet/historian [[Mormon (prophet)|Mormon]], and his son [[Moroni (Mormonism)|Moroni]] in the [[4th century]], for "the convincing of the [[Jew]] and [[Gentile]] that [[Jesus]] is the [[Christ]], the Eternal [[God]]." Joseph Smith is said to have translated the record by divine inspiration with assistance from the [[Urim and Thummim]].
Along with the [[Bible]], which is also held to be the Word of God, the ''Book of Mormon'' is esteemed as part of the [[Biblical canon|canon]] of churches that grew out of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], founded by [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] The largest of these denominations, [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church), accepts the ''Bible'' "as far as it is translated correctly" [http://scriptures.lds.org/a_of_f/1#8 (Articles of Faith)], as well as the ''Book of Mormon'', the ''[[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]]'', and the ''[[Doctrine and Covenants]]'' as canonical scripture.
==Content==
===Title Page===
{{Template:LDS}}
The title page, translated from the last of the [[golden plates]], states:
:"The Book of Mormon - an account written by the hand of Mormon upon plates taken from the Plates of Nephi
:"Wherefore, it is an abridgment of the record of the people of Nephi, and also of the Lamanites — Written to the Lamanites, who are a remnant of the house of Israel; and also to Jew and Gentile — Written by way of commandment, and also by the spirit of prophecy and of revelation — Written and sealed up, and hid up unto the Lord, that they might not be destroyed — To come forth by the gift and power of God unto the interpretation thereof — Sealed by the hand of Moroni, and hid up unto the Lord, to come forth in due time by way of the Gentile — The interpretation thereof by the gift of God.
:"An abridgment taken from the Book of Ether also, which is a record of the people of Jared, who were scattered at the time the Lord confounded the language of the people, when they were building a tower to get to heaven — Which is to show unto the remnant of the House of Israel what great things the Lord hath done for their fathers; and that they may know the covenants of the Lord, that they are not cast off forever — And also to the convincing of the Jew and Gentile that JESUS is the CHRIST, the ETERNAL GOD manifesting himself unto all nations — And now, if there are faults they are the mistakes of men; wherefore, condemn not the things of God, that ye may be found spotless at the judgment-seat of Christ."
===Organization===
The format of ''The Book of Mormon'' is similar to the [[Bible]] in that there are separate books written by different authors who recorded the interactions of God with people. Generally the book is composed of the following books, though editorial divisions in different churches' editions vary:
*[[First Book of Nephi|First Book of Nephi: His Reign and Ministry]]
*[[Second Book of Nephi]]
*[[Book of Jacob|Book of Jacob: The Brother of Nephi]]
*[[Book of Enos]]
*[[Book of Jarom]]
*[[Book of Omni]]
*[[Words of Mormon]]
*[[Book of Mosiah]]
*[[Book of Alma|Book of Alma: The Son of Alma]]
*[[Book of Helaman]]
*[[Third Nephi|Third Nephi: The Book of Nephi, The Son of Nephi, Who Was the Son of Helaman]]
*[[Fourth Nephi|Fourth Nephi: The Book of Nephi, Who Is the Son of Nephi, One of the Disciples of Jesus Christ]]
*[[Book of Mormon (Mormon's record)|Book of Mormon]]
*[[Book of Ether]]
*[[Book of Moroni]]
The book's sequence is primarily chronological. Notable exceptions include the "Words of Mormon," which is an editorial insertion (authored by Mormon), and the "Book of Ether," which is an abridgement by Moroni of an earlier civilization's record. The books of First Nephi through Omni are first-person narratives, as are Mormon and Moroni. The remainder of the Book of Mormon is a third-person historical narrative, compiled and abridged by Mormon.
In the version published by the LDS Church ("The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ"), the book also contains a title page (written by Mormon and Moroni), a modern day introduction written by church leaders, the "Testimony of [[Three Witnesses]]," the "Testimony of [[Eight Witnesses]]," the "Testimony of the Prophet Joseph Smith" concerning the Book of Mormon, "A brief explanation about the Book of Mormon," chapter headings written by [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]] [[Bruce R. McConkie]], a "pronouncing guide" to names and places, footnotes and cross-references to the Bible, and an index.
===Investigation of the book===
The book invites the reader to make a personal investigation into the veracity of the writings. The invitation is associated with a promise that God will give an undeniable witness of its truthfulness through the [[Holy Spirit|Spirit]]. This can be found in the 10th chapter of Moroni, verses 3-5:
:"Behold, I would exhort you that when ye shall read these things, if it be wisdom in God that ye should read them, that ye would remember how merciful the Lord hath been unto the children of men, from the creation of Adam even down until the time that ye shall receive these things, and ponder it in your hearts.
:"And when ye shall receive these things, I would exhort you that ye would ask God, the Eternal Father, in the name of Christ, if these things are not true; and if ye shall ask with a sincere heart, with real intent, having faith in Christ, he will manifest the truth of it unto you, by the power of the Holy Ghost.
:"And by the power of the Holy Ghost ye may know the truth of all things."
Such a witness is a very personal event and can vary widely, depending on the individual. Of those whom claim to have received a witness, most consider it to be sacred and of great import. In Mormon circles this is most commonly referred to as "a testimony", a knowledge born of faith, prayer and spirit; and the act of telling others of the experience or the faith gained thereby is called "bearing one's testimony". A testimony is claimed to give the seeker assurance of the truth of these matters by seeking answers from God directly.
Critics refute the gaining of a testimony by arguing that the evidence against the Book of Mormon is irrefutable, that a testimony is a form of [[Brainwashing|brainwashing]] by the church and that readers are to gain a testimony and ignore scientific evidence supporting the critics attacks. However, defenders believe that Christ's praise of Peter in Matt 16:16,17 where Peter's knowledge of Christ as the Son of God comes from the Father is worthy of emulation. Further, critics give no evidence of brainwashing techniques.
===Brief narrative summary===
The following dates, people, and named authors are laid forth in the Book of Mormon.
*''1 Nephi'' begins in ancient [[Jerusalem]] around [[600 BC]], at roughly the same time as the [[Book of Jeremiah]] in the [[Bible]]. It tells the story of a [[prophet]], [[Lehi]], his family, and several others as they are led by [[God]] from Jerusalem, across the Arabian peninsula, and then to the Americas by ship. The books from ''1 Nephi'' to ''Omni'' recount the group's dealings from approximately 600 BC to about [[130 BC]], in which the community splits into two main groups, the [[Nephite]]s and the [[Lamanite]]s, and grow into separate sizeable civilizations that war with each other.
*The ''Words of Mormon'', written in AD [[385]] by [[Mormon (prophet)|Mormon]], is a short introduction to the books of ''Mosiah'', ''Alma'', ''Helaman'', ''3 Nephi'', and ''4 Nephi'', all of which he abridged from a large quantity of existing records that detailed his nation's history from the time of ''Omni'' to his own life.
*''3 Nephi'' is of particular importance because it contains an account of the [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrected]] and glorified Jesus's visit to the Americas, sometime after his 40-day ministry and ascension into heaven at [[Jerusalem]]. During his American ministry, Christ repeated much of the same doctrine and instruction given in the [[Gospels]] of the [[Bible]] and established an enlightened, peaceful society which endures several generations.
*''Mormon'' is an account of the events during Mormon's life, after the enlightened society of ''3 Nephi'' and ''4 Nephi'' deteriorated yet again into warring groups.
*''Ether'' is an abridgment of a record of an earlier people by [[Moroni (Mormonism)|Moroni]], written shortly after the death of [[Mormon (prophet)|Mormon]], his father. The account describes a group of families, headed by a man named [[Jared (Book of Mormon)|Jared]] and his unnamed brother, as it is led by [[God]] to the Americas. The [[Jaredite]] civilization existed on the American continent long before Lehi's family arrived in 600 BC, and it was much larger and more developed. Some have argued that the ri |
ject]
*[http://gopher.floodgap.com/gopher/gw?gopher.floodgap.com/0/gopher/wbgopher A document which describes the state of Gopher support for common Web browsers]
===Standards===
*[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1436.txt The Gopher Protocol (RFC1436)]
*[http://gopher.quux.org/Archives/mirrors/boombox.micro.umn.edu/pub/gopher/gopher_protocol/Gopher+/Gopher+.txt Gopher+ Extensions]
*[http://gopher.quux.org/Archives/Mailing%20Lists/gopher/gopher.2002-02?/MBOX-MESSAGE/34 URL links]
[[Category:Internet Gopher]]
[[ca:Gopher]]
[[da:Gopher]]
[[de:Gopher]]
[[es:Gopher]]
[[fr:Gopher]]
[[gl:Gopher]]
[[it:Gopher]]
[[nl:Gopher]]
[[ja:Gopher]]
[[pl:Gopher]]
[[pt:Gopher]]
[[ru:Gopher]]
[[fi:Gopher]]
[[uk:Gopher]]
[[zh:Gopher]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>General election</title>
<id>12795</id>
<revision>
<id>39988350</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T08:19:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gregorydavid</username>
<id>814656</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add [[South African general elections]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''general election''' is an [[election]] in which all members of a given political body are up for election. The term is usually used to refer to elections held for a nation's primary legislative body, as distinguished from [[by-election]]s and [[local election]]s.
The term originates in the [[United Kingdom general elections]] for the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of Commons]].
==List of general elections==
*[[Elections in Australia|Australian federal elections]]
*[[Canadian federal elections]]
*[[Elections in India|Indian general elections]]
*[[Irish general elections]]
*[[Japan general election]]
*[[Malaysian general election]]
*[[Spanish general elections]]
*[[South African general elections]]
*[[United Kingdom general elections]]
----
A '''general election''' is also a term used in opposition to '''[[primary election]]'''. In the [[United States]], primary elections serve to narrow down a field of candidates, and general elections actually elect candidates to offices. The general election is usually held on [[Election Day (United States)|Election Day]], the first Tuesday after the first Monday in [[November]].
It meets the above definition of "general election" in that the entire [[United States House of Representatives]] is elected on Election Day, though not the entire [[United States Congress]]. Prior to the [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|17th Amendment]], members of the [[United States Senate]] were not elected at all; though Senators have been elected since then, only one-third of them are up for election on any given Election Day.
==See also==
*[[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
[[Category:Elections]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genotype</title>
<id>12796</id>
<revision>
<id>40792409</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T01:21:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dharmabum420</username>
<id>658713</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.116.27.30|71.116.27.30]] to last version by 70.236.147.209</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''genotype''' is the specific genetic makeup (the specific [[genome]]) of an individual, usually in the form of [[DNA]]. Together with the environmental variation that influences the individual, It [[code for|codes for]] the [[phenotype]] of that individual. Non-hereditary mutations are not classically understood as representing the individuals' genotype. Hence, scientists and doctors sometimes talk f.e. about the (geno)type of a particular [[cancer]], thus separating the disease from the diseased. While [[codon]]s for different [[amino acid]]s may change in a random mutation (changing the sequence coding a gene)), this doesn't necessarily alter the phenotype.
Typically, one refers to an individual's genotype with regard to a particular [[gene]] of interest and, in [[polyploid]] individuals, it refers to what combination of [[allele]]s the individual carries (see [[homozygous]], [[heterozygous]]). Any given gene will usually cause an observable change in an organism, known as the phenotype. The terms genotype and phenotype are distinct for at least two reasons:
#To distinguish the source of an observer's knowledge (one can know about genotype by observing DNA; one can know about phenotype by observing outward appearance of an organism).
#Genotype and phenotype are not always directly correlated. Some genes only express a given phenotype in certain environmental conditions. Conversely, some phenotypes could be the result of multiple genotypes.
With careful [[experimental design]], researchers can use satistical methods to [[correlate]] differences in the genotypes of populations with differences in their observed [[phenotype]]. These [[association studies]] can be used to determine the genetic [[risk factor]]s associated with a [[disease]]. They may even be able to differentiate between populations who may or may not respond favorably to a particular [[drug]] treatment. Such an approach is known as [[personalized medicine]].
Inspired by the [[biology|biological]] concept and usefulness of genotypes, [[computer science]] employs simulated genotypes in [[genetic programming]] and [[evolutionary algorithm]]s. Such techniques can help [[evolution|evolve]] [[mathematics|mathematical]] solutions to certain types of otherwise difficult problems.
{{genetics-stub}}
==See also==
*[[Genetics]]
*[[Genotype-phenotype distinction]]
[[Category:Classical genetics]]
[[bg:Генотип]]
[[cs:Genotyp]]
[[da:Genotype]]
[[de:Genotyp]]
[[et:Genotüüp]]
[[es:Genotipo]]
[[fr:Génotype]]
[[hu:Genotípus]]
[[mk:Генотип]]
[[nl:Genotype]]
[[ja:遺伝子型]]
[[pl:Genotyp]]
[[pt:Genótipo]]
[[sv:Genotyp]]
[[th:ลักษณะทางพันธุกรรม]]
[[tr:Genotip]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gerard Hengeveld</title>
<id>12797</id>
<revision>
<id>42082247</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:30:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Piccadilly</username>
<id>470844</id>
</contributor>
<comment>category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gerard Hengeveld''' ([[1910]] - [[October 28]], [[2001]]) was a Dutch classical [[pianist]], music [[composer]] and educationalist. He is especially known for his compositions of study material for [[piano]]. Other compositions include two [[piano concerto]]s, a [[violin sonata]], and a [[cello sonata|sonata for cello]]. Hengeveld was an able interpreter and performer of the music of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] for piano and [[harpsichord]]. He gave regular concerts in the [[Concertgebouw]] in [[Amsterdam]]. Some of his concerts were captured on record.
Hengeveld died on 2001 at age 90 in [[Bergen, North Holland|Bergen]].
[[Category:Classical composers|Hengeveld, Gerard]]
[[Category:Dutch composers|Hengeveld, Gerard]]
[[Category:Dutch classical pianists|Hengeveld, Gerard]]
[[Category:1910 births|Hengeveld, Gerard]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Hengeveld, Gerard]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George William of Brandenburg</title>
<id>12798</id>
<revision>
<id>42141124</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:19:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Olessi</username>
<id>220894</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Copyedit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''George William''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Georg Wilhelm'') ([[13 November]] [[1595]] - [[December 1]] [[1640]]) of the [[Hohenzollern]] dynasty was [[margrave]] and [[Prince-Elector|elector]] of [[Brandenburg]] and duke of [[Ducal Prussia|Prussia]] ([[1619]]-[[1640]]). His reign was marked by ineffective governance during the [[Thirty Years' War]].
== Biography ==
=== Early life ===
Born in [[Cölln]] on the [[Spree]], George William was the son of Margrave [[John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg|John Sigismund]] and [[Anna of Prussia]]. In 1616 George William married [[Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate]]. Their only son [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]] later became known as the "Great [[Prince-Elector|Elector]]".
=== Rule ===
In 1619 George William inherited the [[Marches|March]] of Brandenburg and Ducal Prussia. During the [[Thirty Years' War]], he tried to remain neutral between the [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] forces of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] principalities. As his sister [[Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg]] was queen of [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]], George William had to maneuver between requests of assistance from his Protestant brother-in-law King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]] and his own Protestant counsellors on one side and his Catholic chancellor Count [[Adam von Schwarzenberg]] on the other.
Despite his attempts at neutrality, he was forced by Gustavus Adolphus to join the Protestant forces in [[1631]]. His rule was largely weak and ineffective however, as much of [[Brandenburg-Prussia]]'s government responsibilities were left with Schwarzenberg as the country suffered greatly during the war. Protestant and Catholic troops alike burned and plundered the region as the population was decimated. After the Swedish defeat at the [[Battle of Nordlingen]] on [[September 6]] [[1634]], George William withdrew Brandenburg from the war and signed the [[Peace of Prague]] with Emperor [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]] on [[May 30]] [[1635]]. Leaving Schwarzenberg in charge of the government, George William retreated in [[1637]] to the relatively safe region of Ducal Prussia where he lived in retirement until his death at Königsberg in 1640. He was succeeded by Frederick William.
=== Legacy ===
His great-great-grandson [[Frederick II the Great]] later wrote about him, that this w |
e vowels used by phoneticians in describing the sounds of languages. For instance, the vowel of the [[English language|English]] word "feet" can be described with reference to cardinal vowel 1, {{IPA|[i]}}, which is the cardinal vowel closest to it.
[[Vowel]] sound produced when the [[tongue]] is in an extreme position, either front or back, high or low. The current system was systematised by [[Daniel Jones (phonetician)|Daniel Jones]] in the early 20th century, though the idea goes back to earlier phoneticians, notably Ellis and Bell.
It may take much practice and training from an expert to learn to produce the cardinal vowels accurately. Three of the cardinal vowels, {{IPA|[i]}}, {{IPA|[&#593;]}} and {{IPA|[u]}} have articulatory definitions. [i] is produced with the tongue as far forward and as high in the mouth as is possible, with spread lips. {{IPA|[u]}} is produced with the tongue as far back and as high in the mouth as is possible, with pursed lips. This sound can be approximated by adoping the posture to whistle a very low note, or blow out a candle. {{IPA|[&#593;]}} is produced with the tongue as low and as far back in the mouth as possible. The other vowels are 'auditorily equidistant' between these three 'corner vowels', at four degrees of aperture or 'height': close (high tongue position), close-mid, open-mid, and open (low tongue position). The [[Ngwe]] language of [[West Africa]] has been cited as a language with a vowel system that has 8 vowels which are rather similar to the 8 primary cardinal vowels (Ladefoged 1971:67).
These degrees of aperture plus the front-back distinction define 8 reference points on a mixture of articulatory and auditory criteria. These eight vowels are known as the eight 'primary cardinal vowels', and vowels like these are common in the world's languages. The lip positions can be reversed with the lip position for the corresponding vowel on the opposite side of the front-back dimension, so that e.g. Cardinal 1 can be produced with the rounding for Cardinal 8, etc.; these are known as 'secondary cardinal vowels'. Sounds such as these are less common in the world's languages. Other vowel sounds are also recognised on the vowel chart of the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]].
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
! cardinal !! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !! [[X-SAMPA]] !! description
|-
| align="center"| 1
| align="center"| {{IPA|[i]}}
| align="center"| [i]
| [[close front unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 2
| align="center"| {{IPA|[e]}}
| align="center"| [e]
| [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 3
| align="center"| {{IPA|[&#603;]}}
| align="center"| [E]
| [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 4
| align="center"| {{IPA|[a]}}
| align="center"| [a]
| [[open front unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 5
| align="center"| {{IPA|[&#593;]}}
| align="center"| [A]
| [[open back unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 6
| align="center"| {{IPA|[&#596;]}}
| align="center"| [O]
| [[open-mid back rounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 7
| align="center"| {{IPA|[o]}}
| align="center"| [o]
| [[close-mid back rounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 8
| align="center"| {{IPA|[u]}}
| align="center"| [u]
| [[close back rounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 9
| align="center"| {{IPA|[y]}}
| align="center"| [y]
| [[close front rounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 10
| align="center"| {{IPA|[&#248;]}}
| align="center"| [2]
| [[close-mid front rounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 11
| align="center"| {{IPA|[&#339;]}}
| align="center"| [9]
| [[open-mid front rounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 12
| align="center"| {{IPA|[&#630;]}}
| align="center"| [&]
| [[open front rounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 13
| align="center"| {{IPA|[&#594;]}}
| align="center"| [Q]
| [[open back rounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 14
| align="center"| {{IPA|[&#652;]}}
| align="center"| [V]
| [[open-mid back unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 15
| align="center"| {{IPA|[&#612;]}}
| align="center"| [7]
| [[close-mid back unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 16
| align="center"| {{IPA|[&#623;]}}
| align="center"| [M]
| [[close back unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 17
| align="center"| {{IPA|[&#616;]}}
| align="center"| [1]
| [[Close central unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align="center"| 18
| align="center"| {{IPA|[&#649;]}}
| align="center"| [}]
| [[Close central rounded vowel]]
|}
In the IPA's [http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPANumberChart96.pdf number chart], the cardinal vowels have the same numbers used above, but added to 300.
==See also==
*[[list of phonetics topics]]
==Bibliography==
* Ladefoged, Peter. (1971). ''Preliminaries to linguistic phonetics''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
[[Category:Vowels]]
[[ko:&#44592;&#48376; &#47784;&#51020;]]
[[de:Hauptvokal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Columbia, Missouri</title>
<id>6719</id>
<revision>
<id>41931557</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:33:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.206.202.38</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:MOMap-doton-Columbia.png|right|Location of Columbia, Missouri]]
'''Columbia''' is a [[city]] located in [[Boone County, Missouri|Boone County]], [[Missouri]], [[USA]]. The city has an estimated [[population]] of 90,593, [[as of 2006]].
The city was founded in 1819; its name 'Columbia', from [[Christopher Columbus]], is a poetical name for the [[United States]]. The surrounding [[Metropolitan Statistical Area]] has a population of 151,129, [[as of 2005]]. Columbia is located roughly equidistant from [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] and [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] on Interstate 70.
It has the reputation of combining the quality and [[culture]] of larger [[metropolitan area]]s with the warm hospitality of the [[Midwest]]. Columbia is consistently ranked as one of the top places in the [[United States]] to live by outfits such as [[Money Magazine]] because of its excellent quality of life. The [[University of Missouri - Columbia]], the [[flagship]] [[campus]] for the [[University of Missouri System]], is located in Columbia. The city is also home to [[Stephens College]], a traditionally-[[female]] [[college]], and [http://www.ccis.edu Columbia College], which led in the past to Columbia being known by the [[nickname]] "College Town USA".
As a whole the city has a very young and active population. The [[downtown]] area is filled with businesses catering to a young population including over 75 restaurants and bars. Downtown is also host to many events including the [http://www.truefalse.org True/False Film Festival,] Art in the Park, The Blind Boone Ragtime and Early Jazz Festival, and the [http://www.discoverthedistrict.com Twilight Festivals] in June and September. The population generally supports [[progressivism|progressive]] causes, examples of this being the recent decriminilization of [[marijuana]] and the extensive city [[recycling]] programs. Politically the city leans to the [[Left-wing politics|left]], where as the surrounding rural areas are largely [[conservative]]. It is the [[county seat]] of Boone County, Missouri.{{GR|6}} The mayor of Columbia is [[Darwin Hindman]].
The city is home to:
*The [[University of Missouri - Columbia]]
*[[Booches]], [http://www.flatbranch.com Flat Branch Brewery], [http://www.thebluenote.com The Blue Note], [http://www.cherrystreetartisan.com Cherry Street Artisan], [[Grindstone Brewery]], [http://www.shakespeares.com Shakespeare's Pizza], [http://lakotacoffee.com Lakota Coffee Co.]
*[[Columbia Catholic School]]
* [[Hickman High School]], [[Rock Bridge High School]] and [http://www.columbia.k12.mo.us/dhs/ADHSHOME.HTM Douglass High School].
Numerous private schools including Columbia Independent School, Christian Fellowship Academy, Good Shepard Lutheran School, Columbia Catholic School, and Fellowship Academy. Columbia also boasts an active homeschooling community.
* [[McAlester Arboretum]]
*[http://peaceworks.missouri.org Mid-Missouri Peaceworks]
*[http://www.discoverthedistrict.com/ '''''The District'''''] Mid-Missouri's cultural and entertainment center, featuring a diversity of restaurants, bars, live music, independent films, and the Columbia spur of the trans-state [[bicycle]] and pedestrian [http://www.mostateparks.com/katytrail/index.html Katy Trail].
Famous residents include:
*[[Sam Walton]] (Hickman High School) founder of [[Walmart]]
*[[Ken Lay]] (Hickman High School & Mizzou) [[Enron]] CEO
*[['Blind' Boone]] Ragtime musician and composer
*[[Norm Stewart]], former [[Mizzou]] basketball coach
*[[Quin Snyder]], now former [[Mizzou]] basketball coach and former [[Duke University]] standout
*[[Bill Laurie]], [[St. Louis Blues (hockey)|St. Louis Blues]] owner and [[Walmart]] heir
*[[Stan Kroenke]], [[Denver Nuggets]] owner and [[Walmart]] heir
*[[Gary Pinkel]], current [[Mizzou]] football coach
*[[Carl Edwards]], [[NASCAR]] driver
*[[Gary Klatzke]], Photographer and Management guru.
*[[William Least Heat-Moon]], Author of Blue Highways and other novels.
*[[Brad Pitt]], Actor, starred in movies like A River Runs Through It and Thelma and Louise.
== Geography ==
Columbia is located at 38&deg;56'54" North, 92&deg;20'2&q |
11,854 (2004)
'''[[Country codes | Country Code]]:''' BR
----
See Also:
* [[History of Brazil|History]]
* [[Geography of Brazil|Geography]]
* [[Demographics of Brazil|Demographics]]
* [[Politics of Brazil|Politics]]
* [[Economy of Brazil|Economy]]
* [[Transportation in Brazil|Transportation]]
* [[Military of Brazil|Military]]
* [[Foreign relations of Brazil|Foreign relations]]
:''See also :'' [[Brazil]]
{{South America in topic|Communications in}}
[[Category:Communications by country|Brazil]]
[[Category:Communications in Brazil| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Brazil</title>
<id>3636</id>
<revision>
<id>41802867</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:23:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.142.146.243</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* [[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Transportation in [[Brazil]]:
== [[Railway]]s ==
<br />''total:''
27,882 km (1,122 km electrified); note - excludes urban rail
<br />''broad gauge:''
4,057 km 1.600-m gauge
<br />''narrow gauge:''
23,489 km 1.000-m gauge
<br />''dual gauge:''
336 km 1.000-m and 1.600-m gauges (three rails) (1999 est.)
<br />''standard gauge:''
10 km 1.435mm gauge - line 5 of the [[São Paulo]] so that they can use off the shelf equipment.
=== Cities with [[Metro]]s ===
* [[Belo Horizonte]]
* [[Brasília]]
* [[Porto Alegre]]
* [[Recife]]
* [[Rio de Janeiro]]
* [[São Paulo]]
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Uruguay|Uruguay]] - yes [[break-of-gauge]] 1600mm/1435mm
* [[Transportation in Argentina|Argentina]] - yes - [[break-of-gauge]] 1000m (Brazil)/1435m (Argentina)
* [[Transportation in Paraguay|Paraguay]] - no railway connection
* [[Transportation in Bolivia|Bolivia]] - yes - 1000mm gauge
* [[Transportation in Peru|Peru]] - no - 914mm & 1435mm
* [[Transportation in Colombia|Colombia]] - no - 914mm & 1435mm
* [[Transportation in Venezuela|Venezuela]] - no - 1435mm gauge
* [[Transportation in Guyana|Guyana]] - no - 1435mm & 914mm gauges mining only
* [[Transportation in Suriname|Suriname]] - no - 1435mm & 1000mm gauges
* [[Transportation in French Guiana|French Guiana]] - no railways
== [[Highway]]s ==
''See main article: ''[[Brazilian Highway System]]''
<br />''total:''
1.98 million km
<br />''paved:''
184,140 km
<br />''unpaved:''
1,795,860 km (1996 est.)
== Waterways ==
50,000 km navigable
that people are weard
== [[Pipeline]]s ==
[[crude oil]] 2,980 km; [[petroleum]] products 4,762 km; [[natural gas]] 4,246 km (1998)
== [[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s ==
[[Belem]], [[Fortaleza]], [[Ilheus]], [[Imbituba]], [[Manaus]], [[Paranagua]], [[Porto Alegre]], [[Recife]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Rio Grande, Brazil|Rio Grande]], [[Salvador, Brazil|Salvador]], [[Santos (São Paulo)|Santos]], [[Sao Sebastiao]], [[Vitoria]]
They commonly travel by pipe which means they have hot steamy sex in the pipe
== [[Merchant marine]] ==
<br />''total:''
174 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,964,808 GRT/6,403,284 DWT
<br />''ships by type:''
bulk 34, cargo 28, chemical tanker 5, combination ore/oil 9, container 10, liquified gas 10, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 59, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 11, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)
== [[Airport]]s ==
3,277 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br />''total:''
541
<br />''over 3,047 m:''
5
<br />''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
20
<br />''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
138
<br />''914 to 1,523 m:''
346
<br />''under 914 m:''
32 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br />''total:''
2,736
<br />''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
73
<br />''914 to 1,523 m:''
1,306
<br />''under 914 m:''
1,357 (1999 est.)
== National airlines ==
*[[BRA]]
*[[Gol]]
*[[OceanAir]]
*[[Pantanal]]
*[[TAM]]
*[[Varig]]
{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Brazil| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Brazil</title>
<id>3637</id>
<revision>
<id>41212412</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T20:47:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.85.27.47</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Military branches: [[Brazilian Army]], [[Brazilian Navy]] (includes naval air and marines), [[Brazilian Air Force]], [[Brazilian Federal Police]] (paramilitary)
Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
Military manpower - availability:
males age 15-49: 47,732,285 (2000 est.)
Military manpower - fit for military service:
males age 15-49: 32,029,873 (2000 est.)
Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
males: 1,830,195 (2000 est.)
Military expenditures - dollar figure: $13.408 billion (FY99)
Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.9% (FY99)
See also : Brazil
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_Brazil"
[[Category:Military of Brazil]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Brazil</title>
<id>3638</id>
<revision>
<id>40448620</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:02:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Brazil}}
Traditionally, [[Brazil]] has been a leader in the inter-American community and has played an important role in collective security efforts, as well as in economic cooperation in the Western Hemisphere. Brazil supported the [[Triple Entente]] in World War I after 1917 and the Allies in World War II after 1942. During [[World War II]], its [[Brazilian Expeditionary Force|expeditionary force]] in [[Italy]] played a key role in the Allied victory at [[Monte Cassino]]. It is a party to the [[Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance]] (Rio Treaty) and a member of the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS). Recently, Brazil has given high priority to expanding relations with its South American neighbors and is a founding member of the [[Amazon Pact]], the [[Latin American Integration Association]] (ALADI), and Mercosul ([[Mercosur]] in Spanish), an imperfect customs union including [[Argentina]], [[Uruguay]], [[Paraguay]], and Brazil. Along with [[Argentina]], [[Chile]], and the [[United States]], Brazil is one of the guarantors of the Peru-Ecuador peace process. Brazil is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in many of its specialized agencies. It has contributed troops to UN peacekeeping efforts in the Middle East, the former [[Belgian Congo]], [[Cyprus]], [[Mozambique]], [[Angola]], and more recently [[East Timor]] and [[Haiti]]. Brazil has been a member of the UN Security Council four times, most recently 1998-2000.
As Brazil's domestic economy has grown and diversified, the country has become increasingly involved in international politics and economics. The United States, western Europe, and [[Japan]] are primary markets for Brazilian exports and sources of foreign lending and investment. Brazil has also bolstered its commitment to [[nonproliferation]] through ratification of the nuclear [[Non-Proliferation Treaty]] (NPT), signing a fullscale nuclear safeguard agreement with the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA), acceeding to the [[Treaty of Tlatelolco]], and becoming a member of the [[Missile Technology Control Regime]] (MTCR) and the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]].
Recently, Brazil has been considerably reluctant to help forming the [[Free Trade Area of the Americas]] agreement, leaving more controversial issues up to the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO).
'''Disputes - international:'''
* Two short sections of boundary with Uruguay are in dispute - [[Arroio Invernada]] (Arroyo de la Invernada) area of the [[Rio Quarai]] (Rio Cuareim) and the islands at the confluence of the Rio Quarai and the [[Uruguay River]].
* [[Brazil]] declared in 1986 the sector between 28°W to 53°W (''[[Brazilian Antarctica]]'' (''Antártica Brasileira'') as its ''Zone of Interest'' ([[informal]] [[land claim|claim]]). It overlaps [[Antarctic territories|Argentine and British claims]]. [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Antarctica.html#Brazil][http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/islands_oceans_poles/antarctica_research_station.gif][http://www.fotw.net/flags/aq.html]
'''Illicit drugs:'''
Limited illicit producer of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], minor [[coca]] cultivation in the Amazon region, mostly used for domestic consumption; government has a large-scale eradication program to control cannabis; important transshipment country for [[Bolivia]]n, [[Colombia]]n, and [[Peru]]vian [[cocaine]] headed for the [[United States]] and Europe; increasingly used by traffickers as a way station for narcotics air transshipments between Peru and Colombia; upsurge in drug-related violence and weapons smuggling.
'''United Nations Politics'''
Currently [[Brazil]] is seeking permanent representation on the Security Council. They are a member of the G4, an organization comprised of [[Brazil]], [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and [[India]], all nations who are currently seeking permanent representation. According to their plan the [[UN Security Council]] would be expanded beyond the current fifteen members to include twenty-five members. This would be the first time that permanent status has been extended to a [[South American]] nation and suporters of the G4 plan suggest that this will lead to greater representation of developing nations rather than the current major powers.
==See also==
* [[History of Brazil]]
* [[Geography of Brazil]]
* [[Demographics of Brazil]]
* [[Politics of Brazil]]
* [[Economy of Brazil]]
* [[Communications in Brazil]]
* [[Transportation in Brazil]]
* [[Military of Brazil]]
* [[Brazil Antarctic Geopolitics]]
{{South Ame |
as smooth as the oiled versions. Although the exorbitant cost of servicing the Ducati's finicky engine can shock some owners, most will still agree that the improved ride quality, performance, and styling of Ducatis is worth the extra cost.
== Product History ==
Ducati now manufactures several lines of motorcycles: naked sport bikes: [[Ducati Monster]], faired sport bikes: [[800 and DS1000 Supersports]], superbike [[Ducati 749|749]] and [[Ducati 999|999]], adventure-tourer [[Multistrada 600 and DS1000]], tourers [[ST3s]], and retro-replicas [[SportClassic]].
The chief designer of Ducati motorcycles since the 1970s was the late [[Fabio Taglioni]] ([[1920]]-[[2001]]). He introduced the [[Pantah]] in 1979; its engine was updated in the 1990s in the [[SuperSport]] (SS) series.
In 1993, Miguel Angel Galuzzi introduced the [[Ducati Monster]][http://www.monsta.at/site_article_368.html] , a naked bike with exposed trellis and engine. Today the Monster accounts for almost half of the company's worldwide sales. The Monster, which has been out since 1994, has undergone the most changes of any motorcycle that Ducati has ever produced. After more than a decade of manufacturing, Ducati continues to create innovative changes to this classic motorcycle.
In [[1995]], the company introduced the [[Ducati 916]] model designed by [[Massimo Tamburini]], a water-cooled version that allowed for higher output levels and a striking new bodywork that featured aggressive lines, underseat exhausts, and a single-sided swingarm. Ducati has since ceased production of what many called the bike of the 1990s, supplanting it with the [[Ducati 749|749]] and [[Ducati 999|999]].
In [[2005]], Ducati introduced its concept motard motorcycle, the [[HyperMotard]]. The company has not announced when this bike will enter production.
{|
|-
| [[Image:Ducati 916 monoposto 800.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Ducati 916 Monoposto (1995)]]
| [[Image:Ducati monster 800.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Ducati Monster 900 (1993)]]
| [[image:Ducati HyperMotard 800.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Ducati HyperMotard Concept]]
|}
== Racing History ==
The company has enjoyed eleven [[Superbike racing|World Superbike championship]]s since the series' inception in 1988. The company also races its motorcycles in [[MotoGP]] where it returns from a hiatus of over 30 years.
[[Image:Ducati Desmosedici 800.jpg |right|thumb|150px|[[Ducati Desmosedici GP6 race bike]]]]
*World Superbike Championships
** 1990 Raymond Roche (France) Ducati 851
** 1991 Doug Polen (USA) Ducati 888
** 1992 Doug Polen (USA) Ducati 888
** 1994 [[Carl Fogarty]] (UK) Ducati 916
** 1995 [[Carl Fogarty]] (UK) Ducati 916
** 1996 [[Troy Corser]] (AUS) Ducati 916
** 1998 [[Carl Fogarty]] (UK) Ducati 996
** 1999 [[Carl Fogarty]] (UK) Ducati 996
** 2001 [[Troy Bayliss]] (AUS) Ducati 996
** 2003 [[Neil Hodgson]] (UK) Ducati 999
** 2004 [[James Toseland]] (UK) Ducati 999
== Motorcycle Design History ==
Ducati (in its various incarnations) has produced several styles of motorcycle engines, including varying the number of cylinders, type of valve actuation and fuel delivery. Ducati is best known for its "L-Twin" motor which is the powerplant in the majority of Ducati-marqued motorcycles.
On current motors, the valves are actuated by a standard valve cam shaft which is rotated by a belt driven by the motor directly. Timing is maintained by teeth on the belt which keep the cam shaft drive pulleys indexed. On older Ducati motors (prior to 1981) a solid shaft with a bevel-shaped gear on the end, mating with the valve cam shaft at 90-degrees was used. This style of valve actuation was used on all of Ducati's older engines, starting with the oldest single cylinder motorcycles.
Ducati is also famous for using [[desmodromic]] valve operation championed by engineer/designer [[Fabio Taglioni]], but on older bikes, there were many standard-type spring-closed valve engines. Ducati saved the [[desmodromic]] valve heads for its higher performance bikes as well as its race bikes. Engineer [[Fabio Taglioni]] knew that desmodromic valves do not suffer from [[valve float]] at high engine speeds, thus a desmodromic engine is capable of far higher RPMs than a similarly configured engine with traditional spring-valve heads. ''Read the entry on [[desmodromic]] valves to explain positive opening/closing of valves versus traditional spring valves.''
A quick summary of the engines with the Ducati name:
** Single cylinder, bevel actuated, spring valved: 160cc, 250cc, 350cc
** Single cylinder, bevel actuated, desmo valved: 350cc and 450cc
** Two cylinder, bevel actuated, spring valved (L-Twin): 750cc, 860cc
** Two cylinder, bevel actuated, desmo valved (L-Twin): 750cc, 860cc
** Two cylinder, chain actuated, spring valved (parallel twin): 350cc, 500cc (GTL)
** Two cylinder, chain actuated, desmo valved (parallel twin): 350cc, 500cc (GTV)
** Two cylinder, belt actuated, desmo valved (L-Twin): Almost all motors since 1984.
** Four cylinder, belt actuated, desmo valved (L-quattro): Only the Desmosedici GP6 race bike currently
** Four cylinder, bevel actuated, desmo valved (L-4): The Apollo concept motorcycle, 1200 cc.
== Company History (apart from Motorcycles) ==
[[Ducati Meccanica]] (as the company was previously known) has its marque on non-motorcycle products as well. In the 1940s, Ducati manufactured radios, cameras, and bicycle products. The [[Ducati Sogno]] [[http://www.cameraquest.com/jpg3/ducati4.jpg]] was a [[half-frame]] [[Leica]] work-alike camera which is now a very rare collectors' item.
== See also ==
[[List of Italian companies]]
[[:Category:Ducati motorcycles|List of Ducati motorcycle models]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.ducati.com The Ducati website (official)] The manufacturer's website. Current model info, including online information, history, manuals and race team info (Italian/English
*[http://www.ducatiusa.com The Ducati North America website (official)] Ducati NA information for USA and Canada.
*[http://www.ducati.com/od/ducatijapan/jp/index.jhtml Ducati of Japan website (official)] Ducati NA information for Japan (Japanese).
*[http://www.ducatisti.co.uk The UK Ducati Forum] Getting UK Ducati fans together! Forum, Gallery, Ride-outs and more.
*[http://www.duc.nu/ Duc.nu ] Ducati pictures, manuals, movies, racing and more (Dutch/English).
*[http://k.webring.com/hub?ring=ducati Ducati Webring] Created in 1996 this webring is a collective of currently 132 active Ducati related websites.
*[http://www.desmotimes.com Desmo Times] This site includes DIY information and resources for Ducati Enthusiasts to be able to maintain their own Ducatis.
*[http://www.docgb.org The Ducati Owners Club GB] The largest and oldest Ducati club worldwide, based in the UK.
*[http://www.ducatisportingclub.com The Ducati Sporting Club] Home of the UK's newest club for Ducati owners and enthusiasts.
*[http://www.ukmonster.co.uk The Monster Owners Club] UK-based club for Ducati Monster Owners
*[http://www.bevelheaven.com/~BB/phpBB2/index.php BevelHeaven - Classic Bevel Drive Ducati Forum] Ducati Singles and Twins through until 1985.
*[http://www.ducatimeccanica.com Ducati Meccanica Website] Information, photos, and resources for all classic Ducati Bevel drive motorcycles (1954 to 1985).
*[http://www.ducatimonster.org/ Ducati Monster List] USA-based Monster Owners resource and community forum site
* [http://www.wheelsofitaly.com Wheels Of Italy] Ducatis and other Italian Motorcycles
* [http://www.ducatiowners.com Ducati Owners] site and home to the largest MH900e registry
* [http://www.ducati.ms The Ducati Portal] Ducati owners discussion site, all Ducati bikes.
[[Category:Ducati]]
[[Category:Motorcycle manufacturers]]
[[de:Ducati]]
[[es:Ducati]]
[[fr:Ducati]]
[[it:Ducati]]
[[nl:Ducati]]
[[ja:ドゥカティ]]
[[fi:Ducati]]
[[sv:Ducati]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Data General Nova</title>
<id>8654</id>
<revision>
<id>42121468</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:34:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JohnJHenderson</username>
<id>635625</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */ Added sentence about founder, Herb Richman</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Data General Super Nova.jpg|thumb|288px|right|Data General SuperNova]]
The '''Data General Nova''' was a popular [[16-bit]] [[minicomputer]] built by the United States company [[Data General]] starting in 1969. The Nova packed enough power to do most simple computing tasks and was packaged into a single [[rack mount]] case. The Nova became hugely popular in science labs around the world, and eventually 50,000 would be sold. The Nova was followed by the [[Data General Eclipse|Eclipse]], which was similar in most ways but added [[virtual memory]] support and other features required by modern [[operating system]]s.
==History==
====deCastro and the Nova's origin====
[[Edson deCastro]] was the Product Manager at [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital Equipment (DEC)]] of their pioneering [[PDP-8]], a 12-bit computer generally considered by most to be the first true minicomputer. DeCastro was convinced, however, that it was possible to improve upon the PDP-8 by building a 16-bit minicomputer on a single board. [[Ken Olsen]] was not supportive of this project, so deCastro left DEC along with another hardware engineer, Richard Sogge, and a software engineer, [[Henry Burkhardt III]], to found Data General (DG) in [[1968]]. The fourth founder, [[Herbert Richman]], had been a salesman for [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] and knew the others through his contacts with Digital Equipment.
The next year DG released the 16-bit '''Nova''' at a base price of US$3,995, advertising it as «the best small computer in the world». The basic model was not very useful "out of the box", and adding RAM in the form of [[core memory]] typically brought the price up to $7,995.
The Nova's bigg |
ce="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; float:right; width:290px;"
|+ <big>'''Bermuda'''</big>
|-
|style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2"|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
|align="center" width="140px"|[[image:Bermuda_flag_large.png|125px|Flag of Bermuda]]
|align="center" width="140px"|[[Image:Bermuda coa large.jpg|100px]]
|-
|align="center" width="140px"|([[Flag of Bermuda|In Detail]])
|align="center" width="140px"|([[Coat of Arms of Bermuda|Full size]])
|}
|-
|align="center" colspan=2 style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;"|<font size="-1">''National [[motto]]: Quo Fata Ferunt<br/>([[Latin]]: Whither the Fates carry [us])''</font>
|-
|align="center" colspan=2 style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;"|[[Image:LocationBermuda.png]]
|-
|[[Official language]]||[[English language|English]]
|-
|[[Political status]]
|| [[Overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom|UK]]
|-
|[[Capital]]
|[[Hamilton, Bermuda|Hamilton]]
|-
|[[Governor of Bermuda|Governor]]
|Sir [[John Vereker (governor)|John Vereker]]
|-
|[[Premier of Bermuda|Premier]]
| [[Alex Scott]]
|-
|[[Area]]
|[[1 E7 m²|58.8 km²]] (22.7&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]])
|-
|[[Population]]
<br/>-Total(2003 [[Estimation|E]])
<br/>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|<br/>64,482<br/>1 096/km² (2,839/sq.&nbsp;mi)
|-
|[[Currency]]
|[[Bermuda dollar]] on par with [[US dollar]]
|-
|[[Time zone]]
|[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -4
|-
|[[National anthem]]
|[[God Save the Queen]]
|-
|[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]
|[[.bm]]
|-
|[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]
|[[Area code 441|1-441]]
|}
'''Bermuda''' is an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]] in the [[North Atlantic Ocean]], situated around 600 [[mile]]s (975&nbsp;km) off the coast of the [[United States]]. It consists of around 138 [[island]]s, of total area 58.8 square kilometres (27.7&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;mi). The largest island is where the capital, [[Hamilton, Bermuda|Hamilton]] is located. An [[offshore]] [[tax haven]], Bermuda has a thriving economy, with a large [[finance|financial]] sector. It was once a popular tourist destination as well.
==History==
{{main|History of Bermuda}}
Bermuda was discovered by the early [[1500s]], probably in [[1505]], although the evidence for the exact year, and the identity of the discoverer, is sketchy. It was certainly known by [[1511]], when [[Peter Martyr]] published his ''[[Legatio Babylonica]]'', which mentioned Bermuda. The discovery is attributed to a Spanish explorer, [[Juan de Bermudez]]. Both Spanish and Portuguese ships used the islands as a replenishment spot for fresh meat and water, but legends of spirits, now thought to have stemmed only from the callings of raucous birds, kept them from attempting any permanent settlement.
The island became permanently inhabited when the ''[[Sea Venture]]'', on its way to the new colony in America, was wrecked off Bermuda in 1609 (as depicted on the territory's [[Coat of Arms of Bermuda|Coat of Arms]]), and left the first colonists in possession of a new territory. (William Shakespeare's play ''[[The Tempest]]'' may have been influenced by [[William Strachey]]'s account of this shipwreck.) The land was claimed by the British Crown and control was granted to a company in order to produce tobacco for the markets in London. The islands gained the name the Somers Isles, named after Sir [[George Somers]], the captain of the ''Sea Venture''.
Soon the colony of Virginia far surpassed Bermuda in both quality and quantity of tobacco produced. After the decline of the Somers Isle Company, life petered along until a period of boat building became prevalent on the island due to the large amounts of good [[juniper]] (''Juniperus bermudiana'', Bermuda cedar) woods that grew thickly over the whole island. The [[Bermuda sloop]] became highly regarded for its speed and manoverability. Indeed, at the end of the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], the Bermuda sloop [[HMS Pickle (1800)|HMS Pickle]], one of the fastest vessels in the Royal Navy, raced back to England with news of the victory and the death of Admiral Lord Nelson.
After the [[American Revolution]], the British Royal Navy began improving the harbours and built a [[Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda|large dockyard]] on [[Ireland Island, Bermuda|Ireland Island]], in the west of the chain. Thereafter the navy used the bases as a strategic asset which later benefited the USA as well (see below).
In the early [[20th century]], as modern transport and communication systems developed, Bermuda became a popular destination for wealthy US, Canadian and British tourists. In addition, the [[tariff]] [[Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act]] enacted by the [[United States]] against its trading partners in 1930 cut off Bermuda's once-thriving agricultural export trade - primarily fresh vegetables to the US - spurring the overseas territory to develop its tourist industry, which is second behind international business in terms of economic importance to the island.
Bermuda had been a strategically important military base since the [[war of 1812]], but it became particularly important during [[World War II]], because of its central location in the north Atlantic Ocean. In 1941, the United States signed a lend-lease agreement with the United Kingdom giving the British surplus US Navy destroyers in exchange for 99-year lease rights to establish naval and air bases in Bermuda. The bases consisted of 5.8km&nbsp;² (2.25&nbsp;mi²) of land largely reclaimed from the sea. The US Naval Air Station ([[Kindley Air Force Base]]) was on [[St. David's Island, Bermuda|St. David's Island]], while the US Naval Air Station Annex was at the western end of the main island in the [[Great Sound, Bermuda|Great Sound]].
Both bases were closed on [[1 September]] [[1995]], as were British and Canadian bases on the island. Unresolved issues concerning the 1995 withdrawal of US forces - primarily related to environmental factors - delayed the formal return of the base lands to the Government of Bermuda, which finally happened in 2002.
==Politics==
{{main|Politics of Bermuda}}
Executive authority in Bermuda is invested in [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|The Queen]] and is exercised on her behalf by the [[Governor of Bermuda|Governor]]. The Governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the [[British Government]]. Defence and Foreign Affairs remain the responsibility of the United Kingdom.
The Constitution of Bermuda came into force on [[June 1]], [[1968]], amended in [[1989]] and [[2003]]. The Head of Government is the [[Premier of Bermuda|Premier]]. A cabinet is nominated by the Premier and appointed officially by the Governor. The legislative branch consists of a [[bicameral parliament]]. The Senate is the Upper House and consists of 11 members appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Premier and the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Assembly is Lower House and the 36 members are elected to serve a 5 year term.
The current Governor [[John Vereker|Sir John Vereker]], appointed on [[April 11]], [[2002]]. The Premier is currently [[Alex Scott]] following the election victory of the [[Progressive Labour Party (Bermuda)|Progressive Labour Party]] in the July 2003 elections. The [[United Bermuda Party]] serves in Opposition.
The leadership of the [[Progressive Labour Party (Bermuda)|Progressive Labour Party]] supports independence from the United Kingdom, although polls indicate that this is not supported by the population. A referendum in [[1995]] on independence, held by the [[United Bermuda Party|UBP]], was defeated.
==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Bermuda}}
[[Image:Bermuda-map.png|thumb|250px|Map of Bermuda]]
Bermuda is located roughly 580 miles (933 kilometers) off the coast of [[North Carolina]], U.S.A., in the North Atlantic Ocean. (See [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:NAmerica_w_bermuda.png map].) There are two [[Corporation|incorporated]] [[Municipal government|municipalities]] in Bermuda; the City of [[Hamilton, Bermuda|Hamilton]], and the Town of [[St. George, Bermuda|St George]]. There are also a number of localities which are sometimes termed [[village]]s, among them [[Flatts Village, Bermuda|Flatts Village]], [[Tucker's Town, Bermuda|Tucker's Town]] and [[Somerset, Bermuda|Somerset]]. Contrary to common misperception, Bermuda is not located within the tropics. The subtropical climate is obviously influenced by trade winds as any island geography would entail. Winter evenings can get decidedly cool, however summer days are rarely very hot.
*[[Subdivisions of Bermuda]]
*[[Islands of Bermuda]]
*[[Flora and fauna in Bermuda]]
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Bermuda}}
Bermuda, as an [[offshore]] [[tax haven]], has a highly developed economy focused on international business and tourism. Its per capita income is approximately equivalent to the [[United States]]. CIA data shows a [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] of $2.33 billion in [[2003]], per capita, $36,000.
Bermuda is regarded as a premier offshore business jurisdiction, with no direct taxes on personal or corporate income. The local tax system is based upon payroll and consumption taxes. Many leading international [[insurance]] companies are based in Bermuda. Bermuda is a [[Financial export| financial exporter]] both in insurance and other financial services.
Tourism is the second largest industry, with the island attracting most of its visitors from the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]].
The currency used is the [[Be |
to the [[CGI]] revolution, bluescreen was a complex, time consuming process called '''travelling matte'''. The background footage was shot first and the actor or model was filmed against a bluescreen carrying out their actions. To simply place the foreground shot over the background shot would create a ghostly image over a blue-tinged background. The actor or model must be seperated from the background and placed into a specially-made “hole” in the background footage.
The bluescreen shot was first rephotographed through a blue filter so that only the background is exposed. A special film is used that creates a black and white negative image - a black background with a man/spaceship shaped hole in the middle. This is called a '''female matte'''.
The bluescreen shot was then rephotographed, this time through a red and green filter so that only the foreground image was cast on film, creating a black sillohuette on an unexposed (clear) background. This is called a '''male matte'''.
The background image is then rephotographed through the male matte, and the bluescreen shot rephotographed through the female matte. An [[optical printer]] with two projectors, a film camera and a “beam splitter” combines the images together one frame at a time. This part of the process must be very carefully controlled to ensure the absence of “black lines”. During the 1980s, minicomputers were used to control the optical printer. For [[The Empire Strikes Back]], [[Richard Edlund]] created a '''quad optical printer''' that sped up the process considerably, and thus saved the production money. He received a special [[Academy Award]] for his innovation.
[[Petro Vlahos]] was awarded an [[Academy Award]] for his development of bluescreen techniques. His technique exploits the fact that most objects in real-world scenes have a colour whose blue colour component is similar in intensity to their green colour component. [[Zbig Rybczynski]] also contributed to bluescreen technology.
==Chroma key==
The key background color in the video signal is [[Signal processing|processed]] out and overlayed with content from a different video signal -- such as from a separate camera, a recorded video playback, or a digital source -- a process called "[[compositing]]". Both [[digital image editing|digital]] and analog techniques exist for doing this. The image replacement may be done in [[film production|production]] or in [[post-production]].
A classic example of the technique is the television news weatherman who on-screen appears to point at a map, but is in fact being recorded standing in front of a blank screen. On either sides of this screen are smaller televisions projecting a front view of the weathercaster, so they know where and when to place their hands. These early television effects were originally accomplished by a technique called [[chroma keying]], but older analog methods have been increasingly supplanted by modern [[digital compositing]] techniques.
Sometimes a television presenter's clothing will happen to have a region, such as a logo or other decoration, whose color is close enough to the chroma key being used that it gets included in the mask and the background shows through. If the production staff fail to notice this before the program goes on the air, it will then look to viewers as though there is a small hole in the body of the presenter through which the background is visible.
Towards the end of 2004, [[Drew Carey]] hosted the TV show ''[[Drew Carey's Green Screen Show]]'', where comedians act against a greenscreen background with live audience interaction. After post-production, viewers watching the show would see animation interlaced with the live acting.
==Other colours==
Yellow screens were used in the Sodium Vapour Process developed by [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]] for the film [[Song of the South]].
There are some modern screens that at first sight appear grey, but are in fact coated with tiny half-silvered glass beads to give a significant degree of [[Retroreflector|retroreflectivity]]. A ring of coloured lights (usually [[LED]]s) is placed around the camera lens, and the screen reflects this colour back to the camera. This technique reduces problems from performers casting shadows on the screen, and allows operation at low lighting levels. As the screen colour is defined by the colour of the ring light, it is easier to change the screen colour quickly, and to use a colour with a narrow range, making it easier to distinguish between the colour of the screen and colours on the subject.
Other colours are sometimes used instead of blue, including green ([[The Matrix]]), orange ([[Apollo 13 (movie)|Apollo 13]]) and red ([[Air Force One (movie)|Air Force One]]). The choice of colour depends on the subject and specific technique used. Blue is normally used for people because human skin has very little blue colour to it. The same is also true for green, so the director can choose which colour to use depending on makeup and costume. Orange screens are often used with model photography where the model contains both blue and green components.[[Image:MuseumOfScienceBoston_BlueScreenAtSpecialEffectsShow.jpg|right|thumb|300px| Demonstration of bluescreen at the Special Effects show, [[Museum of Science, Boston]]]]
==Bluescreen in the digital age==
Some films make heavy use of bluescreen and add backgrounds which are constructed entirely using [[computer-generated imaging]](CGI). In the early 2000s several movies were made using this technique, including ''[[Immortel: Ad Vitam]]'', ''[[Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow]]'', ''[[Casshern]]'', ''[[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith|Star Wars Episode III]]'' and ''[[Sin City (film)|Sin City]]''. Performances from different takes can even be composited together which allows actors to be filmed separately and then placed together in the same scene.
In the past decade, the use of green has become dominant in film special effects. The main reason for this is that green has a higher luminance value than blue, making it somewhat easier to work with. But the choice of color is up to the effects artists and the needs of the specific shot.
==See also==
*[[Film production]]
*[[Optical printer]]
*[[Matte (filmmaking)]]
*[[Rear projection effect]]
*[[Front projection effect]]
*[[Sodium vapor process]]
*[[Reverse bluescreen]]
*[[Video]]
*[[Signal processing]]
*''[[Drew Carey's Green Screen Show]]''
==External links==
* [http://www.seanet.com/~bradford/bluscrn.html The Blue Screen / Chromakey Page]
* [http://www.bluescreen.com/ Bluescreen LLC]
* [http://entertainment.howstuffworks.com/blue-screen.htm How Blue Screens Work]
* [http://www.ultimatte.com/ Ultimatte Corporation]
* [http://www.reflecmedia.com/default.aspx/ Reflecmedia Front Projection Blue or Green matting system.]
[[Category:Special effects]]
[[Category:Video and movie technology]]
[[da:Bluescreen]]
[[de:Bluescreen-Technik]]
[[is:Blátjald]]
[[ja:ブルーバック]]
[[no:Bluescreen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bipolar disorder</title>
<id>4531</id>
<revision>
<id>42069341</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:34:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Barrylb</username>
<id>165846</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ improve description</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Bipolar affective disorder |
ICD10 = F31 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|296}} |
}}
'''Bipolar disorder''', often referred to colloquially as '''manic depression''', is a [[diagnosis]] describing low ([[Clinical depression|clinically depressed]]) and high ([[manic]] or [[hypomania|hypomanic]]) mood swings significantly broad enough to interfere with an individual's ability to function on a daily basis. Such mood problems are thought to affect millions of people.
Bipolar disorder typically develops in late adolescence and early adulthood, but some people can develop symptoms as children (a condition referred to clinically as "pediatric bi-polar") or later in life. The problems are often not recognized by mental health professionals and people may suffer for years before detection and help are achieved. Bipolar Disorder can be a long-term problem that must be carefully managed throughout a person's life. People may fall at different points on a Bipolar Spectrum, however, and some may find that they only experience mood problems of a disabling nature during particular life circumstances.
The following is a quote from a sufferer of Bipolar Disorder (selected by the US biomedical organisation National Institute for Mental Health):
"Manic-depression distorts moods and thoughts, incites dreadful behaviors, destroys the basis of rational thought, and too often erodes the desire and will to live. It is an illness that is biological in its origins, yet one that feels psychological in the experience of it; an illness that is unique in conferring advantage and pleasure, yet one that brings in its wake almost unendurable suffering and, not infrequently, suicide.
"I am fortunate that I have not died from my illness, fortunate in having received the best medical care available, and fortunate of having the friends, colleagues, and family that I do."{{Ref|quote}}
[[Emil Kraepelin]] (1856-1926), a German psychiatrist who first proposed the existence of an illness he coined "manic depression", noted in his original description that intervals of acute illness, manic or depressive, were generally punctuated by relatively symptom-free intervals in which a patient was able to function normally.
To that point, there are currently three types of bipolar disorder outlined by the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-IV-TR]] and generally accepted within the medical community: Bipolar I, Bipolar II, and [[Cyclothymia]]. Like many disorders involving brain chemistry, bipolar disor |
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