text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
gregate]] its colleges and universities. But he added that increased integration could hurt [[historically black colleges]]. "It would be ironic, to say the least, if the institutions that sustained blacks during segregation were themselves destroyed in an effort to combat its vestiges," he wrote.
In ''[[Zelman v. Simmons-Harris]]'' ([[2002]]), he voted to uphold an [[Ohio]] [[education voucher|school voucher]] plan. "While the romanticized ideal of universal public education resonates with the [[Wiktionary:cognoscenti|cognoscenti]] who oppose vouchers, poor urban families just want the best education for their children, who will certainly need it to function in our [[high-tech]] and advanced society," he wrote. "As [[Thomas Sowell]] noted 30 years ago: Most black people have faced too many grim, concrete problems to be romantics."
In ''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]'' ([[2003]]), Thomas dissented from the Court's decision striking down Texas's [[sodomy laws]], stating that although he felt the laws were "uncommonly silly" and deserved to be repealed, these matters would be best left to the legislature or the public, not the courts.
In ''[[Hamdi v. Rumsfeld]]'' ([[2004]]), Thomas was the only justice who sided with the government and the Fourth Circuit's ruling, based on his view of the important security interests at stake and the President's broad war-making powers.
Thomas is frequently at odds with the majority of the court, often found at the dissenting end of many a 7-2 or 8-1 opinion. In 2003, for example, he was on the dissenting side of 21 of the 41 contested (non-unanimous) cases, making him the most frequently dissenting justice of the term, followed by Justice Scalia with 16 dissents. (Source: New York Times, 7/1/03)
==="Liberal" rulings by a conservative Justice===
In some cases, Thomas’s commitment to a textualist and originalist philosophy leads him to take a “liberal” position, even writing the occasional opinion that is more "liberal" than any other Justice on the Court. His supporters say this proves Thomas is not an ideologue or a results-oriented Justice. He applies a consistent [[Constitutional]] standard to every ruling, regardless of whether it would be considered [[ideologically]] [[liberal]] or [[conservative]].
For example, in ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=000&invol=99-166 United States v. Hubbell]'' ([[2000]]), the Court heard a case involving Bill Clinton’s friend Webster Hubbell, who had been indicted for various fraud charges based on his own documents that the government had subpoenaed. Even though the Fifth Amendment provides that no person “shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself,” the Supreme Court has, since 1976, applied the so-called “act-of-production doctrine.” Under this doctrine, a person can invoke his Fifth Amendment rights against the production of documents only where the very act of producing the documents is incriminating in itself. Thomas wrote a separate concurrence, however, examining a wide range of historical materials on the original meaning of the Fifth Amendment. He concluded that the Constitution should protect against the “compelled production not just of incriminating testimony, but of any incriminating evidence.” In other words, the government should not ever be allowed to subpoena a private person's papers and documents in order to build a criminal case against him.
Another example is ''[[Apprendi v. New Jersey]]'' ([[2000]]), in which the Court considered whether New Jersey’s hate crime statute was unconstitutional. Under this law, once the jury had decided guilt for the underlying crime, the prosecutor could obtain an increased sentence merely by proving the “hate” motive to a judge at sentencing (where the standard of proof was merely "preponderance of the evidence"). The Supreme Court held that this practice was unconstitutional, because the Constitution’s right to trial by jury requires that any factor which increases a defendant’s sentence beyond a statutory maximum has to be proven to a jury "beyond a reasonable doubt". Again, though, Thomas wrote separately. In his concurrence (which was joined by Scalia), he argued for a rule that would typically be viewed as even more "liberal": that any facts that might increase a sentence (not just those that increase it beyond the statutory maximum) should have to be proven "beyond a reasonable doubt".
Another example is ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=000&invol=96-1487 United States v. Bajakajian]'' ([[1998]]), in which Thomas and the Court's four liberals wrote the first opinion ever to strike down a federal statute as violating the Eighth Amendment’s “excessive fines” clause. The Court decided that it was an “excessive fine” under the Eighth Amendment for the government to seize $357,144 in cash from an airport traveler on his way to a foreign country. The man was not a drug courier or a money launderer, and his only crime was that he failed to report to the government that he was carrying more than $10,000 out of the country. Again in keeping with his originalist philosophy, Thomas looked to the history and origin of the Excessive Fines Clause, along with 18th-century congressional enactments and 17th-century English cases, in order to conclude that the fine was excessive in proportion to the harm that the government sustained.
Then, in ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=000&invol=99-1030 Indianapolis v. Edmond]'' ([[2000]]), the Court struck down a police program that stopped drivers and searched for drugs. The Court, however, took pains to distinguish this case from earlier roadblock cases in which it had upheld police stops to search for drunk drivers and illegal aliens. While Thomas joined Chief Justice Rehnquist's dissent (as did Justice Scalia) on the grounds that the case was controlled by the earlier roadblock cases, Thomas also wrote separately; in his short dissent, he stated that he was "not convinced" that the precedents had been correctly decided, but that since the respondents did not argue for overruling them, he was "reluctant" to overturn them. As for the roadblocks, he stated that "I rather doubt that the Framers of the [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendment]] would have considered 'reasonable' a program of indiscriminate stops of individuals not suspected of wrongdoing."
== Heritage ==
Thomas comes from the [[Gullah|Gullah/Geechee]] cultural region of coastal Georgia and is a member of this distinct African American ethnic group; he grew up speaking the Geechee language, which is a hybrid of English and various West African languages. Thomas acquired an enthusiasm for his heritage, writing about it in the December 14, 2000 issue of [[The New York Times]]:
:"When I was 16, I was sitting as the only black kid in my class, and I had grown up speaking a kind of a dialect. It's called Geechee. Some people call it Gullah now, and people praise it now. But they used to make fun of us back then. It's not standard English. When I transferred to an all-white school at your age, I was self-conscious, like we all are... So I...just started developing the habit of listening."[http://www.edu-cyberpg.com/Linguistics/GullahGeechee.html]
Thomas has stated that he wishes to write a book about the culture. [http://news.geomag.com/news/2001/06/0607_wiregullah.html]
== Sources ==
* Foskett, Ken (2004) ''Judging Thomas : The Life and Times of Clarence Thomas'', William Morrow, ISBN 0-060-52721-8
* Thomas, Andrew Peyton (2001) ''Clarence Thomas: A Biography'', Encounter Books, ISBN 1-893-55436-8
* [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/biographiescurrent.pdf Supreme court official biography] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF format]])
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A23641-2002Jul30&notFound=true Supreme Discomfort]
* [http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/122/hill/hillframe.htm An Outline of the Anita Hill and Clarence Thomas Controversy]
* [http://www.libertysoft.com/liberty/features/67carp.html Out of Scalia's Shadow]
* [http://www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/legal_entity/106/biography U.S. Supreme Court Multimedia]
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/users/yitna/ Transcripts of Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on the Nomination of Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court]
* [http://www.conceptionabbey.org/TowerTopics/TTWinter2001/CThomas2.htm A Conversation with Justice Thomas]
* Jane Mayer and Jill Abramson (1994) ''Strange Justice: The Selling of Clarence Thomas'', Houghton Mifflin Company, ISBN 0-452-27499-0
* [[David Brock|Brock, David]] (1994) ''The REAL ANITA HILL'', Touchstone, ISBN 0-029-04656-4
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317916/us53716/us62703/us10211698/us551221/us551229/us551244/ LookSmart - ''Clarence Thomas''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Government/U_S__Government/Judicial_Branch/Supreme_Court/Justices/Thomas__Clarence/ Yahoo - ''Clarence Thomas''] directory category
* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=638281 Angela Onwuachi-Willig, "Just Another Brother on the SCT?: What Justice Clarence Thomas Teaches Us About the Influence of Racial Identity"]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/31/politics/31mirth.html?ex=1137301200&en=48dac6e9f4366fa6&ei=5070, "So, Guy Walks Up to the Bar, and Scalia says..."]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.people.virginia.edu/~ybf2u/Thomas-Hill/1011a06.html October 11, 1991 evening session of U.S. supreme court confirm |
<title>Divination</title>
<id>8691</id>
<revision>
<id>42031088</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:13:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zserghei</username>
<id>464297</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the religious practice of divination. For other uses, see [[Divination (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Rhumsiki crab sorceror.jpg|thumb|300px|right|This man in [[Rhumsiki]], [[Cameroon]], tells the future by interpreting the changes in position of various objects as caused by a fresh-water crab through ''nggàm''[http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/Fdtl/Spider/].]]
'''Divination''' is the practice of ascertaining information from [[supernatural]] sources. If a distinction is to be made with [[fortune-telling]], divination has a formal or ritual and often social character, usually in a [[religion|religious]] context; while fortune-telling is a more everyday practice for personal purposes. Divination is often dismissed by [[skeptic]]s as being mere [[superstition]]: in the [[2nd century]], [[Lucian]] devoted a witty essay to the career of a charlatan, ''Alexander the false prophet'', trained by "one of those who advertise enchantments, miraculous incantations, charms for your love-affairs, visitations for your enemies, disclosures of buried treasure, and successions to estates" [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/lucian/lucian_alexander.htm], though most Romans believed in dreams and charms. However, advocates say there is plenty of [[anecdotal evidence]] for the efficacy of divination. Divination is a universal cultural phenomenon which anthropologists have observed as being present in many [[Anthropology of religion|religions]] and cultures in all ages up to the present day. However, in the [[Bible]] most forms of divination are strictly forbidden by [[God]].
[[Science|Scientific research and methods]] have made it possible to predict future events with some success, e.g., [[eclipse|eclipses]], [[meteorology|weather forecasts]] and [[volcanic]] eruptions. However, this is not divination. Strictly speaking, divination assumes the influence of some supernatural force or fate, whereas scientific predictions are made from an essentially mechanical, impersonal world-view and rely on empirical [[laws of nature So, as an operational definition, divination would be all methods of prognostication that have not been shown to be effective using scientific research.
Beyond mere explanations for anecdoctal evidence, there are some serious theories of how divination might work. One such theory is rooted in the nature of the unconscious mind, a theory which has some empirical scientific basis. Based on this theory, divination is the process by which messages from the unconscious mind are decoded. The belief in a supernatural agency or [[occult]] force as the source of these messages is what distinguishes this theory from a scientific explanation.
[[Julian Jaynes]] categorized divination according to the following types:
* '''Omens and omen texts.''' "The most primitive, clumsy, but enduring method...is the simple recording of sequences of unusual or important events." (1976:236) Chinese history offers scrupulously documented occurrences of strange births, the tracking of natural phenomena, and other data. Chinese governmental planning relied on this method of forecasting for long-range strategy. It is not unreasonable to assume that modern scientific inquiry began with this kind of divination; [[Joseph Needham]]'s work considered this very idea.
* '''Sortilege.''' This consists of the casting of lots whether with sticks, stones, bones, beans, or some other item. Modern playing cards and board games developed from this type of divination.
* '''Augury.''' Divination that ranks a set of given possibilities. It can be qualitative (such as shapes, proximities, etc.) [[Dowsing]] (a form of [[rhabdomancy]]) developed from this type of divination. The [[Roman Republic|Romans]] in classical times used [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] methods of augury such as [[hepatoscopy]] (actually a form of extispicy). [[haruspex|Haruspices]] examined the livers of sacrificed animals.
* '''Spontaneous.''' An unconstrained form of divination, free from any particular medium, and actually a generalization of all types of divination. The answer comes from whatever object the diviner happens to see or hear. Some Christians and members of other religions use a form of [[bibliomancy]]: they ask a question, rifle the pages of their holy book, and take as their answer the first passage their eyes light upon. Other forms of spontaneous divination include reading [[aura]]s and [[New Age]] methods of [[Feng Shui]] such as "intuitive" and Fuzion.
By far one of the most popular methods of divination is [[Astrology]], typically categorized as Vedic Astrology ([[Jyotish]]), [[Western Astrology]], and [[Chinese Astrology]], though besides these main three branches many other cultures also have or have had their own forms of Astrology in the past.
== Common methods of divination ==
''For a more complete list, see [[Methods of divination]]''
* [[Astrology]] (by celestial bodies)
* [[Cartomancy]] (by cards, e.g., playing cards, tarot cards, and non-tarot oracle cards; see also Taromancy)
* [[Cheiromancy]], or palmistry (by palms) where the grooves of the hand are interpreted as signs.
* [[Crystallomancy]]/[[Scrying]] (by crystals or other reflecting objects)
* [[Extispicy]] (from the exta of sacrificed animals)
* [[Geomancy]] (by earth), includes [[Feng Shui]] divination
* [[Graphology]] (by handwriting)
* [[I Ching divination]] (ancient Chinese divination using [[I Ching]]): (However, as performed by some diviners with heavy reliance on an accompanying I Ching manual, this is, in effect, also a form of [[Bibliomancy]]/[[Stichomancy]])
* [[Numerology]] (by numbers)
* [[Oneiromancy]] (by [[dreams]])
* [[Onomancy]] (by names)
* [[Ouija]] board divination
* [[Palmistry]] (by palm inspection)
* [[Phrenology]] (by the shape of one's head)
* [[Pyromancy]], or pyroscopy (by fire)
* [[Runecasting]] (by [[Runes]])
* [[Scatomancy]] (by droppings, usually animal)
* [[Taromancy]] (by specially designed cards: [[Tarot]]; see also Cartomancy)
==See also==
* [[Anthropology of religion]]
* [[Axinomancy]]
* [[Bone divination]]
* [[Dream interpretation]]
* [[Esotericism]]
* [[Futurology]]
* [[Guru]]
* ''[[I Ching]]''
* [[Ifá]]
* [[New Age]]
* [[Nostradamus]]
* [[Occultism]]
* [[Omen]] (or [[portent]])
* [[Prophet]]
* [[Runecasting]]
* [[Scrying]]
* [[Tarot]]
* [[Western mystery tradition]]
==For further reading==
===Popular===
* Robert Todd Carroll (2003). ''The Skeptic's Dictionary''. Wiley.
* [[Lon Milo Duquette]] (2005). ''The Book of Ordinary Oracles''. Weiser Books.
* [[Clifford A. Pickover]] (2001). ''Dreaming the Future: The Fantastic Story of Prediction''. Prometheus.
* Eva Shaw (1995). ''Divining the Future''. Facts on File.
* The Diagram Group (1999). ''The Little Giant Encyclopedia of Fortune Telling''. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.
===Academic===
*E. E. Evans-Pritchard, ''Witchcraft, oracles, and magic among the Azande'' (1976)
*Toufic Fahd, ''La divination arabe; études religieuses, sociologiques et folkloriques sur le milieu natif d&#8217;Islam'' (1966)
*Michael Loewe and Carmen Blacke, eds. ''Oracles and divination'' (Shambhala/Random House, 1981) ISBN 0877732140
*J. P. Vernant, ''Divination et rationalité'' (1974)
==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/astdiv Ancient Astrology and Divination on the Web] , resources on Greco-Roman and Mesopotamian divination
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/divination/ W. R. Halliday, ''Greek Divination''] (1913), a complete scanned editon of the most recent general treatment of Greek divination
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05048b.htm 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia: Divination]
*[http://www.iranian.com/Sep96/Iranica/IranicaDivine/IranicaDivine.html Encyclopedia Iranica: Divination]
*[http://tim.maroney.org/Essays/Theory_of_Divination.html Theory of Divination] by Tim Maroney, exploring different possible mechanisms
[[Category:Divination|*]]
[[Category:Prediction]]
[[da:Divination]]
[[de:Hellsehen]]
[[et:Ennustamine]]
[[fr:Divination]]
[[it:Divinazione]]
[[ja:占い]]
[[nl:Wichelarij]]
[[pt:Divinação]]
[[ru:Гадания]]
[[zh:占卜]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Doctor Strangelove, or How I Learnt to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb</title>
<id>8692</id>
<revision>
<id>15906655</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-27T23:39:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diet of Nuremberg</title>
<id>8693</id>
<revision>
<id>24677650</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-03T22:02:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Markus.t-nbg</username>
<id>473689</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Diet of Nuremberg''' is often called the '''Imperial Diet at [[Nuremberg]]'''.
There were several of them because, by the Basic Law for the Empire of [[1356]], each [[Holy Roman Emperor]] had to hold his first [[diet (assembly)|diet]] in Nuremberg after his election. There were also a number of other diets held.
[[1211]] elected [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] of Hohenstaufen emperor.
[[1356]] [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]] issued his ''[[Golden Bull]]'' - fixing how the German emperors were elected.
Important to [[Protestantism]] (and the Turks) were the:
:[[1522]] - 1st Diet of Nuremberg
:[[1524]] - 2nd Diet of Nuremberg
:[[1532]] - 3rd Diet of Nuremberg
[ |
t successful flight in [[1997]] and prospectively will reach 25 successful launches by [[2006]].
The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become NASA's main competitor in scientific space [[research]]. While ESA had relied on cooperation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances (such as tough legal restrictions on information sharing by the American [[military]]) led to decisions to rely more on itself and on cooperation with Russia. A recent press issue thus stated: <blockquote>''Russia is ESA's first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. There is a framework agreement between ESA and the government of the Russian Federation on cooperation and partnership in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, and cooperation is already under way in two different areas of launcher activity that will bring benefits to both partners.'' {{ref|russia}}</blockquote>
Most notable for its new self-confidence are ESA's own recent successful missions [[Smart-1]], a probe testing cutting-edge new space propulsion technology, the [[Mars Express]] mission as well as the development of the [[Ariane 5]] rocket.
===ESA's further goals and aims===
[[image:Venus express.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Venus Express]] was launched near the end of [[2005]]]]
ESA has ambitious space plans that may be divided into three large categories. First, ESA will maintain its scientific and research projects (e.g. tests and developments of new propulsion systems), try to find ways to reduce costs for their rocket fleet while enhancing their capacities, honour its commitments regarding the [[International Space Station|ISS]] and engage in further [[space exploration]] like the [[Venus Express]] mission that was launched in late [[2005]]. The second category has many parallels to NASA's plans and constitutes of astronomy-space missions such as the [[Planck Surveyor|Planck]] probe studying the cosmic microwave background (2007), the [[Herschel Space Observatory|Herschel]] space observatory (2006), [[Corot (astronomy)|Corot]] that will be a milestone in the search for [[exoplanets]] and is due to launch in [[June]] [[2006]] or the [[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] interferometer. [[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] will mark the last step in the ultimate goal of discovering more [[exoplanets]] and the first [[Earth]]-size [[planet]] outside our [[solar system]].
While the projects described above are more or less similar in their structure and aim as NASA's and other space agencies' plans, the ESA's [[Mars]] project is different. The [[Aurora Programme]] lays out a time table for future missions to [[Mars]], however in contrast to NASA's plans there is no emphasis on manned or unmanned [[Moon|lunar]] missions, it rather includes several ''flagship'' missions designed to develop and test technology needed for a manned [[European]] [[Mars]] mission currently planned for [[2030]]. Among these flagship missions is [[ExoMars]], a mission involving a [[Mars rover]]. Until [[2005]] [[ExoMars]] was planned to be a joint mission between NASA and ESA, however obstacles such as American technology law that prohibits sharing of classified space technology information led to ESA deciding to go for it alone. The mission is currently planned to launch in [[2011]]. An even more ambitious [[Mars]] project is the [[Mars Sample Return Mission]], that is planned as a follow-up mission to [[ExoMars]]. It will involve the first time a probe will return of samples from another planet, making it necessary to construct an ascent module that is capable of starting into Mars orbit and dock with the original probe.
==Member countries, budget and organisations==
===Member countries and strategic partners===
[[Image:ESA-members-map.png|thumb|right|300px|Member states of the European Space Agency]]
ESA comprises the national space organisations and other entities of these seventeen countries:
[[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]] and the [[United Kingdom]].{{ref|luxembourg}}
Many countries are likely to join ESA in the coming years, especially the countries who were part of the EU-enlargement in 2004. In addition ESA entered into important partnership agreements with non-member countries:
*[[Hungary]], the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Romania]][http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMI2HMVGJE_Benefits_0.html] signed the five-year Plan for European Cooperating State (PECS), that is aimed at preparing the states for full membership. Their firms can bid for and receive contracts to work on programmes. The countries can participate in almost all programmes, except for the Basic Technology Research Programme. The membership fees are much lower than with full membership.
*[[Poland]] is likely to be the next to sign PECS documents.
*Since [[January 1]], [[1979]], [[Canada]] has the special status of cooperating state with the ESA. By virtue of this accord, Canada takes part in ESA's deliberative bodies and decision-making and also in ESA's programmes and activities. Canadian firms can bid for and receive contracts to work on programmes. The accord has a provision ensuring a fair industrial return to Canada. '''See also:''' [[Canadian Space Agency]]
*ESA has entered into a major joint venture with [[Russia]] (see below).
*Since China started to invest more money into space activities, the [[Chinese Space Agency]] has sought international partnerships. ESA is, beside the [[Russian Space Agency]], one of its most important partners. Recently the two space agencies cooperated in the development of the [[Double Star Mission]].
===Relationship with the EU===
Currently, ESA is not within the structures of the [[European Union]] (EU) &mdash; note that its membership contains non-EU countries such as Switzerland and Norway. Switzerland and Norway '''are''' however, within the EU's [[EFTA]] union. There are ties between the organisations, with various agreements in place and being worked on, to establish the legal status of ESA with regard to the EU {{ref|esaeu}}. There are common goals between ESA and the EU, and ESA has an EU liaison office in Brussels. The EU in particular wishes to secure political control of Europe's space access, an issue of vital importance for Europe's political and economic role in the world.
===Budget===
[[Image:Soyuz TMA-3 launch.jpg|thumb|right|270px|European-Russian owned [[Soyuz launch vehicle]] will be launched from ESA's spaceport in [[French Guiana]] beginning in 2007]]
====Overall budget====
The budget of ESA was announced as €2.977 billion for 2005 (a ten percent increase to 2004) and is estimated for 2006 as €2.904 billion [http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMFEPYV1SD_index_0.html]. A large part of ESA's budget is invested in ESA's launch vehicles that are currently the most expensive part of ESA's activities (Twenty-two per cent of the budget goes into launch vehicles; human space flight is second in budget expenditures). In 2005, the three largest contributors, together funding two thirds of ESA's budget, are France (29.3%), Germany (22.7%) and Italy (14.2%). {{ref|esabudget}}
An important ministerial conference approved nearly all of ESA's budget requests in December 2005. The budget for the mandatory ESA program, parts of the optional program (i.e. optional for ESA's member states such as the ISS involvment) as well as important projects such as [[Aurora]] or the EU-backed [[Galileo]] navigation system have been approved. No decision has been reached with regard to ESA's involvement in the Russian [[Kliper]] project, a feasibility study worth €50 million was not approved. [http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMFEPYV1SD_index_0.html] ESA's budget will stay at about the same, however inflation-adjusted, level as 2005 throughout the next 5 years.
====Comparison to NASA====
In comparison with NASA's budget of sixteen billion [[United States dollar|dollars]] (€13 billion), ESA's budget of €3 billion superficially looks considerably less. However in order to make a true comparison between American and European funding of space related activities more factors have to be considered:
# Unlike the US, Europe maintains both ESA and national space agencies (see below). These national space agencies do have considerable budgets provided for scientific research and joint projects with ESA. For instance, the [[German Aerospace Center]] (German acronym DLR) has a separate budget for 2005 of €760 million {{ref|dlrbudget}} and the French [[CNES]]'s own budget for 2004 was €1.3 billion. Taking the budgets of all national space agencies together and adding them to ESA's figures would more than double the amount spent by Europe for space related activities.
# Some highly expensive European space projects are not within ESA's budget, such as the [[Galileo_positioning_system|Galileo]] global positioning system. Funding for this €4 billion project comes from special agreement's between EU members.
# Considerable costs are incurred by NASA in maintaining the ageing [[Space Shuttle]]. A single Space Shuttle launch costs more than $600 million and during the last decades up to one third of NASA's budget had to be invested in the Shuttle to keep it flying (for 2005, $5 billion are allocated for the Space Shuttle constituting 30% of the budget {{ref|nasabudget}}). Although ESA had plans for an own manned spacecraft such as [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]], it has never actually developed or maintained a manned launch system, rather it has paid for seats on the American and Russian spacecrafts, and therefore was and is not burdened with the costs of human space flights. In the last years ESA has become interested in the Russian built but jointly owned [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] (controlled by [[Starsem]] it is owned by [[EADS]], ESA and the Russian |
ents are traditionally commemorated yearly on [[April 24]]. Armenians and a handful of other countries worldwide have been campaigning for official recognition of the events as genocide for over 30 years, but there are also many countries who are pressured not to officially characterize the Armenian massacres as genocide.
Armenia remained preoccupied by a long conflict with [[Azerbaijan]] over [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], a mostly Armenian-populated [[enclave]] that, Armenians allege, [[Stalin]] had placed in Soviet Azerbaijan. A military conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan began in 1988, and the fighting escalated after both countries gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. By May 1994, when a [[cease-fire]] took hold, <!--ethnic WERE THEY ETHNIC OR ARMENIAN REPUBLIC FORCES>/!-->Armenian forces controlled not only [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] but also the surrounding districts of Azerbaijan proper. The economies of both countries have been hurt in the absence of a peaceful resolution.
== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Armenia}}
The Government of Armenia's stated aim is to build a Western-style [[parliamentary democracy]] as the basis of its [[form of government]]. However, international observers have questioned the fairness of Armenia's parliamentary and presidential elections and constitutional referenda since 1995, citing polling deficiencies, lack of cooperation by the [[Electoral Commission|electoral commission]], and poor maintenance of electoral lists and polling places. For the most part however, Armenia is considered one of the more pro-democratic nations in the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].
The [[unicameral parliament]] (also called the National Assembly) is controlled by a coalition of three political parties: the conservative Republican party [http://www.hhk.am], the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]], and the [[Country of Law]] party. The main opposition is composed of several smaller parties joined in the [[Justice Bloc]].
Armenians voted overwhelmingly for independence in a September 1991 referendum. [[Levon Ter-Petrossian]] was president until January 1998, when public demonstrations against his increasingly authoritarian regime and his domestic and foreign policies forced his resignation. In 1999, as the Prime Minister [[Vasgen Sarkissian|Vazgen Sargsian]], parliament Speaker [[Karen Demirchyan|Karen Demirchian]], and six other officials were killed in the attack on the National Assembly [http://www.aaainc.org/ArTW/article.php?articleID=468], the country experienced a period of political instability. President [[Robert Kocharian]] was successful in riding out the unrest, and currently rules with the support of the parliamentary coalition.
== Administrative Provinces ==
[[Image:ArmeniaNumbered.png|right|200px|Provinces of Armenia]]
Armenia is divided into 11 [[province]]s (''marzer'', singular - ''marz''):
#[[Aragatsotn]] ({{Hayeren|Արագածոտնի մարզ}})
#[[Ararat (province)|Ararat]] ({{Hayeren|Արարատի մարզ}})
#[[Armavir (province)|Armavir]] ({{Hayeren|Արմավիրի մարզ}})
#[[Gegharkunik]] ({{Hayeren|Գեղարքունիքի մարզ}})
#[[Kotayk]] ({{Hayeren|Կոտայքի մարզ}})
#[[Lori (province)|Lori]] ({{Hayeren|Լոռու մարզ}})
#[[Shirak]] ({{Hayeren|Շիրակի մարզ}})
#[[Syunik|Syunik']] ({{Hayeren|Սյունիքի մարզ}})
#[[Tavush]] ({{Hayeren|Տավուշի մարզ}})
#[[Vayots Dzor]] ({{Hayeren|Վայոց Ձորի մարզ}})
#[[Yerevan]] ({{Hayeren|Երևան}})
<br clear="all" />
== Geography ==
[[Image:Armenia map.png|thumb|Map of Armenia]]
{{main|Geography of Armenia}}
Armenia is a [[landlocked]] country in the [[Transcaucasus|southern Caucasus]]. Located between the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Caspian Sea]]s, Armenia is bordered on the north and east by [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaijan]], and on the south and west by [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]]. Though geographically in Western Asia, politically and culturally Armenia is closely aligned with Europe. Historically, Armenia has been at the crossroads between Europe and Southwest Asia, and is therefore seen as a transcontinental nation.
The Republic of Armenia, covering an area of 30,000 [[square kilometre]]s (11,600&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]), is located in the north-east of the [[Armenian Highland]] (covering 400,000 sq km or 154,000&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;mi), otherwise known as historic Armenia and considered as the original homeland of [[Armenians]].
The terrain is mostly [[mountain|mountainous]], with fast flowing [[rivers]] and few [[forests]]. The climate is highland [[Continental climate|continental]]: hot summers and cold winters. The land rises to 4,095 [[metre]]s (13,435&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) [[above sea-level]] at [[Mount Aragats]], and no point is below 400 metres (1,312&nbsp;ft) above sea level. [[Ararat|Mount Ararat]], regarded by the Armenians as a [[symbol]] of their land, is the highest mountain in the region and used to be part of Armenia until around 1915, when it fell to the Turks.
Armenia is trying to address its [[environment|environmental]] problems. It has established a Ministry of Nature Protection and introduced taxes for air and water pollution and solid waste disposal, whose revenues are used for environmental protection activities. Armenia is interested in cooperating with other members of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS, a group of 12 former [[Soviet]] republics) and with members of the international community on environmental issues. The Armenian Government is working toward closing its Nuclear Power Plant at Medzamor near [[Yerevan]] as soon as alternative energy sources are identified.
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Armenia}}
Until independence, Armenia's economy was largely [[industry]]-based – [[chemical]]s, [[electronics]], machinery, processed [[food]], [[synthetic rubber]], and [[textile]] – and highly dependent on outside resources. [[Agriculture]] contributed only 20% of net material product and 10% of employment before the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. Armenian mines produce [[copper]], [[zinc]], [[gold]], and [[lead]]. The vast majority of energy is produced with [[fuel]] imported from Russia, including [[gas]] and nuclear fuel (for its one [[nuclear power plant]]); the main domestic energy source is [[hydroelectric]]. Small amounts of [[coal]], gas, and [[petroleum]] have not yet been developed.
Like other newly independent states of the former Soviet Union, Armenia's economy suffers from the legacy of a [[centrally planned economy]] and the breakdown of former Soviet trading patterns. Soviet investment in and support of Armenian industry has virtually disappeared, so that few major enterprises are still able to function. In addition, the effects of the 1988 [[Spitak Earthquake]], which killed more than 25,000 people and made 500,000 homeless, are still being felt. The conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh has not been resolved. The closure of Azerbaijani and Turkish borders has devastated the economy, because Armenia depends on outside supplies of energy and most raw materials. Land routes through Georgia and Iran are inadequate or unreliable. [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] fell nearly 60% from 1989 until 1992–[[1993]]. The national currency, the dram, suffered hyperinflation for the first years after its introduction in 1993.
Nevertheless, the government was able to make wide-ranging economic reforms that paid off in dramatically lower inflation and steady growth. The 1994 cease-fire in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict has also helped the economy. Armenia has had strong economic growth since 1995, building on the turnaround that began the previous year, and inflation has been negligible for the past several years. New sectors, such as [[precious stone]] processing and [[jewelry]] making, [[information technology|information]] and [[communication technology]], and even [[tourism]] are beginning to supplement more traditional sectors in the economy, such as agriculture.
This steady economic progress has earned Armenia increasing support from international institutions. The [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), [[World Bank]], [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (EBRD), and other international financial institutions (IFIs) and foreign countries are extending considerable grants and loans. Loans to Armenia since 1993 exceed $1.1 billion. These loans are targeted at reducing the budget deficit, stabilizing the currency; developing private businesses; energy; the agriculture, food processing, transportation, and health and education sectors; and ongoing rehabilitation in the earthquake zone. The government joined the [[World Trade Organization]] on [[February 5]], [[2003]]. But one of the main sources of foreign direct investments remains the Armenian diaspora, which finances major parts of the reconstruction of infrastructure and other public projects. Being a growing democratic state, Armenia also hopes to get more financial aid from the Western World.
A liberal foreign investment law was approved in June 1994, and a Law on Privatization was adopted in 1997, as well as a program on state property privatization. Continued progress will depend on the ability of the government to strengthen its macroeconomic management, including increasing revenue collection, improving the investment climate, and making strides against corruption.
In the 2006 [[Index of Economic Freedom]], Armenia ranked 27th best, tied with [[Japan]] and ahead of countries like [[Norway]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]] and [[Italy]]. However, Armenia ranked very low on property rights worse than countries like Botswana, Trinidad and Tobago.[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/]
In the 2005 Transparency International Corruption Index Armenia ranked 88, Highly Corrupt.[http://www.transparency.org/policy_and_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2005]
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Armenia}}
Armenia has a population of 2,9 |
DF1". Bernievision offered the viewer several simultaneous feeds (such as super signal, on-board, top of field, backfield, highlights, pit lane, timing), which were produced with cameras, technical equipment and staff different from those used for the conventional coverage. It was introduced in many countries over the years, but was shut down after the 2002 season for financial reasons.
The year 2005 marks the end of an era, the end of the 10 cylinder powerplants which saw both normally aspirated and supercharged engines being deployed in F1 cars for more than two decades. At the end the statistics show a raw supremacy of the [[Renault F1|Renault]] [[engine|engines]] having clinched several championships as engine suppliers and their first ever Drivers and Constructors Championships in a 100% Renault car in 2005. [[Renault F1|Renault]] was innovative during this period producing out of the standard designs as the 111º 10 cylinder engine for the 2003 RS23. but not only Renault was successful, [[Ferrari]] and specially [[Honda]] enjoyed great success with multiple championships with several teams, most notable [[Team McLaren|McLaren]] and by a lesser extent [[WilliamsF1|Williams]] with whom [[Honda]] engines reached the highest levels of power in F1 history in the late 80's exceeding, in some circumstances, the 1200 bhp limit in qualifying. Other Championship winning engines are those from [[Mercedes Benz]], [[BMW]], [[Porsche]] and [[Cosworth|Ford Cosworth]].
The new 2.4 litre 8 Cylinder Formula is set to be introduced as early as the beginning of 2006 season allowing smaller teams to run rpm-limited V10 3-litre engines. The rule was added to allow [[Minardi]] to continue to operate. The buying of Minardi by [[Red Bull]], and the subsequent infusion of money, has caused some anger amongst other teams because of the potential advantage. The effects on the already low viewing figures are to be seen as the sound produced by V8 engines is expected to be different and perhaps not as loud as their V10 counterparts.
== Racing and strategy ==
{{main articles|[[Formula One racing]] and [[Formula One regulations]]}}
A Formula One Grand Prix event spans an entire weekend, beginning with two free practices on Friday, and two free practices on Saturday. [[Third driver]]s are allowed to run on Fridays for teams that finished the preceding season in 5th place or lower. After these practice sessions, a qualifying session consisting of one "flying lap" (whereby the driver is given an empty track to set his time on, with time measured from a rolling start) determines a driver's position on the starting grid for Sunday's race, with the fastest driver during qualifying given "pole position" and the slowest driver starting last.
The race begins with a warm-up formation lap, after which the cars assemble on the starting grid in the order they qualified. If a driver stalls before the parade lap, and the rest of the field passes him, then he must start from the back of the grid. As long as he moves off and at least one car is behind him, he can retake his original position. A racer may also elect to start from pit-lane if he has any last minute problems with the car. If they choose to do this, they must wait for all cars to pass pit-lane before they may begin the race.
A light system above the track then signals the start of the race. Races are a little over 300 [[kilometre]]s (180 [[mile]]s) long and are limited to two hours, though in practice they usually last about ninety minutes. Throughout the race, drivers may make one or more [[pit stop]]s in order to refuel, although they are currently not allowed to change tires unless the change is essential (for instance, due to a puncture).
The [[FIA]] awards points to the top eight drivers and their respective teams of a grand prix on a 10-8-6-5-4-3-2-1 basis (the race winner receives ten points, the first runner-up eight, and so on). The winner of the two annual championships are the driver and the team who have accumulated the most points at the end of the season.
== Drivers and constructors ==
[[Image:Schumacher (Ferrari) in practice at USGP 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Michael Schumacher]] and [[Scuderia Ferrari]] have each won their respective World Championships a record number of times.]]
{{See also|List of Formula One constructors|List of Formula One drivers|List of Formula One people|List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions|List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions}}
Formula One teams must build the chassis in which they compete, and consequently the terms "team" and "constructor" are more or less interchangeable. This requirement distinguishes the sport from series such as [[Indy Racing League|IRL]], [[Champ Cars]], and [[NASCAR]], which allow teams to purchase chassis, and "[[spec series]]" such as [[GP2 Series|GP2]], which require all cars be kept to an identical specification. In its early years, Formula One teams sometimes also built their engines, though this became less common with the increased involvement of major car manufacturers such as [[BMW]], [[DaimlerChrysler]], [[Renault]], [[Toyota]], and [[Honda]], whose large budgets rendered privately built engines less competitive (and redundant).
Early manufacturer involvement came in the form of a "factory team" (that is, one owned and staffed by a major car company), such as those of [[Alfa Romeo]], [[Ferrari]] ([[FIAT]]) or [[Renault Sport|Renault]]. Companies such as [[Coventry Climax|Climax]], [[Repco]], [[Cosworth]], [[Hart (racing)|Hart]], [[Judd (engine)|Judd]] and [[Supertec]], which had no direct team affiliation, often sold engines to teams who could not afford to manufacture them. As the manufacturers' deep pockets and engineering ability took over, these collaborations largely died out in favour of the present system in which a manufacturer supports a single team.
After having virtually disappeared by the early 1980s, factory teams made a comeback in the 1990s and 2000s, with [[Toyota]], [[Ferrari]] ([[FIAT]]), and [[Renault]] owning their own teams and [[BMW]] following suit by purchasing the former [[Sauber]] team. [[Honda]] has also recently gained control over what was once [[British American Racing]]. Others, such as [[DaimlerChrysler]], provide engines and sponsorship for privately owned teams in return for prominent advertisement on their team clothing and car livery. The only remaining commercial engine manufacturer is [[Cosworth]].
The sport's [[1950 Formula One season|1950 debut season]] saw eighteen teams compete, but due to high costs many dropped out quickly. In fact, such was the scarcity of competitive cars for much of the first decade of Formula One that [[Formula Two]] cars were admitted to fill the grids. [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] is the only still-active team which competed in 1950, and [[as of 2005]] only ten teams remain on the grid, each fielding two cars. Although teams rarely disclose information about their budgets, it is estimated that they range from US$75 million to US$500 million each.
Entering a new team in the Formula One World Championship requires a £25 million (about US$50 million) up-front payment to the [[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile|FIA]], which is then repaid to the team over the course of the season. As a consequence, constructors desiring to enter Formula One often prefer to buy an existing team: [[British American Racing|B.A.R.]]'s purchase of [[Tyrrell Racing|Tyrrell]] and [[Midland F1|Midland]]'s purchase of [[Jordan Grand Prix|Jordan]] allowed both of these teams to sidestep the large deposit.
Each car is assigned a number. The previous season's World Drivers' Champion is designated number 1, with his teammate given number 2. Numbers are then assigned according to each team's position in the previous season's World Constructors' Championship. There have been exceptions to this rule, such as in 1993 and 1994, when the current World Drivers' Champion was no longer competing in Formula One. In this case the drivers for the team of the previous year's champion are given numbers 0 and 2. The number [[13 (number)|13]] has not been used since 1974, before which it was occasionally assigned at the discretion of individual race organizers. Before 1996, only the world championship winning driver and his team generally swapped numbers with the previous champion – the remainder held their numbers from prior years, as they had been originally set at the start of the 1974 season. For many years, for example, [[Ferrari]] held numbers 27 & 28, regardless of their finishing position in the world championship. As privateer teams quickly folded in the early 1990s, numbers were frequently shuffled around, until the current system was adopted in 1996.
[[Michael Schumacher]] holds the record for having won the most Drivers' Championships (seven) and [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] holds the record for having won the most Constructors' Championships (fourteen). [[Jochen Rindt]] has the distinction of having been the only posthumous World Champion.
== Grands Prix ==
[[Image:Formula one.jpg|thumb|200px|Cars wind through the infield section of the [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]] at the [[2003 United States Grand Prix|2003]] [[United States Grand Prix]]]]
{{See also|List of Formula One Grands Prix}}
The number of Grands Prix held in a season has varied over the years. Only seven races comprised the inaugural 1950 season; over the years the calendar has more than doubled in size. Though the number of races had stayed at sixteen or seventeen since the [[1980s]], it reached nineteen in 2005.
Six of the original seven races took place in Europe; the only non-European race that counted towards the World Championship in 1950 was the [[Indianapolis 500]], which, due to lack of participation by F1 teams, since it required cars with different specifications from the other races, was later repl |
f ''Kazimierz''"). Similarly, early surnames like ''Mazur'' ("the one from [[Masovia]]") indicated geographic origin, while ones like ''Nowak'' ("the new one"), ''Bia&#322;y'' ("the pale one"), and ''Wielgus'' ("the big one") indicated personal characteristics.
In the early 16th century, geographical names became common, especially among the ''[[szlachta]]''. Initially, the surnames were in a form of "[first name] ''z'' ("of") [location]", e.g. ''[[Jan z Kolna]]'' ("John of [[Kolno]]"). Later, most surnames were changed to adjective forms, e.g. ''Jakub Wi&#347;licki'' ("James of [[Wisla|Wis&#322;a]]") and ''[[Zbigniew Olesnicki|Zbigniew Ole&#347;nicki]]'' ("''Zbigniew'' of [[Olesnica|Ole&#347;nica]]"), with masculine [[suffix]]es ''-ski'', ''-cki'' and ''-dzki'' or respective feminine suffixes ''-ska'', ''-cka'' and ''-dzka''. Names formed this way are adjectives grammatically, and therefore change their form depending on gender. ''Jan Kowalski'' and ''Maria Kowalska'' are collectively the plural ''Kowalscy''.
Names with masculine suffixes ''-ski'', ''-cki'', and ''-dzki'', and corresponding feminine suffixes ''-ska'', ''-cka'', and ''-dzka'' became associated with noble origin. Many people from lower classes successively changed their surnames to fit this pattern. This produced many ''Kowalski''s, ''Bednarski''s, ''Kaczmarski''s and so on. Today, although most Polish speakers do not know about noble associations of ''-ski'' endings, such names still sound somehow better to them.
A separate class of surnames derive from the names of [[szlachta]]s [[coat of arms|coats of arms]]. These are used either as separate names or the first part of a double-barrelled name. Thus, persons named ''Jan Nieczuja'' and ''Krzysztof Nieczuja-Machocki'' might be related. Similarly, after [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], many members of [[Polish Secret State|Polish underground organizations]] adopted their [[nom de guerre|war-time pseudonyms]] as the first part of their surnames. ''Edward Rydz'' thus became [[Marshal of Poland]] ''[[Edward Smigly-Rydz|Edward &#346;mig&#322;y-Rydz]]'' and ''Jan Nowak'' became ''[[Jan Nowak-Jezioranski|Jan Nowak-Jeziora&#324;ski]]''.
==Ashkenazi Jewish surnames==
Until a few hundred years ago, [[Ashkenazi]]m ([[Jew]]s from Northern and Eastern Europe) followed no tradition of surnames, but used patronymics within the [[synagogue]], and [[matronymic]]s in other venues. For example, a boy named ''Joseph'' of a father named ''Isaac'' would be called to the [[Torah]] as ''Joseph ben Isaac''. That same boy of a mother named ''Rachel'' would be known in business as ''Joseph ben Rachel''. A male used the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word ''ben'' ("son") and a female used ''bat'' ("daughter").
When Northern European countries legislated that Jews required "proper" surnames, Jews were left with a number of options. Many Jews (particularly in [[Austria]], [[Prussia]], and Russia) were forced to adopt [[German language|Germanic]] names. In 1781, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Joseph II of Austria]] announced an ''[[Edict of Toleration]]'' for the Jews, which established the requirement for hereditary family names. The Jews of [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] did not adopt surnames until 1785. He issued a law in 1787 which assumed that all Jews were to adopt German names. The city [[mayor]]s were to choose the name for every Jewish family. A fee was charged for names related to precious metals and flowers, while free surnames were usually connected to animals and common metals.
Many took [[Yiddish]] names derived from occupation (e.g. ''Goldschmidt'' "Gold-smith"), from their father (e.g. ''Jacobson''), or from location (e.g. ''[[Berlin]]er'', ''[[Warsaw|Warszawski]]'' or ''[[Pinsk]]er''). This makes Ashkenazi surnames similar to Scandinavian and especially Swedish ones.
Many Jews also took names of their Jewish lineage. A person of [[Kohen|Priestly (Cohanite)]] decent could take the last name related to his lineage (e.g. ''Cohen'' - Hebrew/Yiddish or ''Colons'' - Spanish). If a Jew was a descendant of the [[Levite]]s, then he could take a surname like ''Lavine'' or ''Levenson''.
<!-- When? -->In [[Prussia]], special military commissions were created to choose the names. It became common that the poorer Jews were forced to adopt derogatory, offensive or simply bizarre names. Among those created by [[Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann]] were:
* ''Ochsenschwanz'' ("[[oxtail]]")
* ''Temperaturwechsel'' ("temperature glitch")
* ''Kanalgeruch'' ("sewer stink")
* ''Singmirwas'' ("sing me something")
The [[List of Polish Jews|Jews of Poland]] adopted names much earlier. Those who were adopted by a ''[[szlachta]]'' family usually changed the name to that of the family. [[Religious conversion|Christened Jews]] usually adopted either a common Polish name or a name created after the month of their [[baptism]]. Thus, many [[Jacob Frank|Frankists]] adopted the name ''Majewski'' after the month of May in [[1759]].
Both the given names and surnames of Ashkenazim today may be completely European in origin, though many will also possess a traditional Hebrew name for use only in the [[synagogue]].
==Romania==
In [[Romania]] family names traditionally have an English-like usage: a child inherits his father's family name, and a wife takes her husband's last name. There are however exceptions and social pressure to follow this tradition is not particularly strong in most families.
Until the [[19th century]], the names were primarily of the form "[given name] [father's name] [grandfather's name]". The few exceptions are usually famous people or the nobility (boyars). The name reform introduced around 1850, had the names changed to a western style, most likely imported from France, consisting of a given name followed by a family name.
As such, the name is called ''prenume'' (French ''prénom''), while the family name is called ''nume'' or, when otherwise ambiguous, ''nume de familie'' ("family name"). Although not mandatory, middle names (Romanian ''numele mic'', literally, "small name") are common.
Historically, when the family name reform was introduced in the mid 19th century, the default was to use a [[patronym]], or a [[matronym]] when the father was dead or unknown. The typical derivation was to append the suffix ''-escu'' to the father's name, e.g. ''Anghelescu'' ("''Anghel's'' child") and ''Petrescu'' ("''Petre's'' child"). The other common derivation was to append the suffix ''-eanu'' to the name of the place of origin, especially when one came from a different region, e.g. ''Munteanu'' ("from ''Munte'') and ''Moldova'' ("from ''Moldoveanu''). These uniquely Romanian suffixes strongly identify ancestoral nationality.
There are also descriptive family names derived from occupations, nicknames, and events, e.g. ''Botezatu'' ("baptised"), ''Barbu'' ("bushy bearded"), ''Prodan'' ("foster"), ''Bălan'' ("blond"), and ''Fieraru'' ("smith").
Romanian family names remain the same regardless of the sex of the person. In contrast, most Slavic languages add the suffix ''-a'' to the family names of women.
Although given names appear before family names in most Romanian contexts, official documents invert the order, ostensibly for filing purposes. Correspondingly, Romanians often introduce themselves with their family names first, especially in official contexts, e.g. a student signing a test paper in school.
==India and Indonesia==
:''For more details on this topic, see [[Indian family name]] and [[Indonesian names]].''
Some parts of [[India]] and [[Indonesia]] have similar patronymic customs. A patronymic system is often followed in southern regions of India, wherein a wife or child takes the given name of the husband or father. Village names are also often used, but the family name is crucial in north India as it links a person to their [[caste]] and clan.
The status equality of men and women in the [[Sikh]] religion extends to unisex names. If gender clarification is required, the words ''singh'' ("lion") and ''Kaur'' ("princess") can be added to the otherwise unisex names of men and women, respectively.
==Ethiopia/Eritrea==
The patronymic custom in most of [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]] gives children the father's exact first name as their surname.
Common [[Tigrinya]] names include ''Gebrezghi'' ("worker of God"), ''Hailesellasie'' ("power of the Trinity"), ''Hailemariam'' ("power of the Virgin Mary"), ''Desta'' ("joy"), ''Abraha'' ("bright"), ''Araya'' ("example"), ''Berhane'' ("light"), ''Hagos'' ("happiness"), ''Gebremichael'' ("work of Michael"), ''Demoz'' ("salary", "gift"), and ''Tewoldeberhan'' ("son of light")
==China, Hungary, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam==
:''For more details on this topic, see [[Chinese family name]], [[Korean name#Family names]], [[Japanese name]], and [[Vietnamese name]].''
In [[China|Chinese]], [[Japan]]ese, [[Korea|Korean]], [[Vietnam|Vietnamese]], and [[Hungary|Hungarian]] cultures, the family name is placed before the given names. So the terms "first name" and "last name" are potentially confusing and should be avoided, as they do not in this case denote the given and family names respectively.
Some Chinese add an English given name in front of their Chinese name, e.g. ''[[Martin Lee Chu-ming|Martin L<small>EE</small> Chu-ming]]''. In addition, many [[Chinese American]]s have an English first name which is commonly used and a Chinese name which is used as a middle name, e.g. ' |
cipal credit for collecting and preserving the ''Qur'an''. Shi'as strongly refute the idea that Abu Bakr or Umar had anything to do with the collection or preservation of the ''Qur'an''.
==Death==
Abu Bakr died on [[August 23]], [[634]] in [[Medina]]. Shortly before his death, likely of natural causes (one tradition ascribes it to [[poison]]), he urged the Muslim community to accept [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] as his successor. The community did so, without serious incident. However, this succession is also a matter of controversy. Shi'a Muslims believe that the leadership should have been assumed by Ali ibn Abu Talib, without any recourse to shura (consultation).
Abu Bakr initially served without pay. His followers insisted that he take an official stipend. At his death, his will returned all these payments to the treasury (''Age of Faith'', Durant, p. 187).
Abu Bakr lies buried in the [[Masjid al Nabawi]] mosque in Medina, alongside Muhammad and Umar ibn al-Khattab.
==First man to adopt Islam?==
Muslim scholars agree that the first woman to adopt Islam was [[Khadijah]], Muhammad's first wife. However, there is some disagreement over the identity of the first male to convert. Some Muslim historians have claimed that it was Abu Bakr, or perhaps Muhammad's adopted son Zayd ibn Harithah. Shi'a Muslims, as well as some other Muslim historians, believe that the first male convert (after Muhammad) was Ali ibn Abi Talib. This matter is discussed at greater length in [[Identity of first male Muslim]].
==Shia view==
:''{{Main|Shia view of Abu Bakr}}
Shi'as believe that Abu Bakr, far from being a devout Muslim and wise and humble man, was a schemer who seized the Islamic state for himself, displacing the proper heir, Ali. They believe that Abu Bakr and Umar persecuted Ali, his family, and his followers, and in so doing, caused the death of Ali's wife and Muhammad's daughter, [[Fatima Zahra]], and her unborn child, [[Al Muhsin]]. For a fuller discussion, see [[Succession to Muhammad]].
==See also==
*[[Family tree of Abu Bakr ibn abu Qahafa]]
*[[Succession to Muhammad]]
==References==
* Donner, Fred -- ''The Early Islamic Conquests'', Princeton University Press, 1981.
* Watt, W. Montgomery -- ''Muhammad at Mecca'', Oxford University Press, 1953.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Caliph]]|before= --|after=[[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]]|years=632&ndash;634}}
{{end box}}
==External links==
*http://www.ymofmd.com/books/abas/chapter2.htm
*http://www.islamonline.net/English/NewHijriYear/HijrahHeroes/1426/04.shtml
* [http://www.lailahailallah.net/Khutbahs/Khutbah17.asf Sirah of Abu Bakr (Radia'Allahuanhu) Part 1] by Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya Al-Husayni Al-Ninowy.
* [http://www.lailahailallah.net/Khutbahs/Khutbah16.asf Sirah of Abu Bakr (Radia'Allahuanhu) Part 2] by Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya Al-Husayni Al-Ninowy.
[[Category:573 births]]
[[Category:634 deaths]]
[[Category:Caliphs]]
[[Category:Muslims]]
[[Category:Sahaba]]
[[ar:أبو بكر]]
[[da:Abu Bakr]]
[[de:Abu Bakr]]
[[es:Abu Bakr as-Siddiq]]
[[et:Abū Bakr]]
[[fa:ابوبکر]]
[[fi:Abu Bakr]]
[[fr:Abou Bakr]]
[[gl:Abu Bakr - ابو بكر الصديق]]
[[he:אבו בכר]]
[[id:Abu Bakar]]
[[it:Abū Bakr]]
[[ja:アブー＝バクル]]
[[ms:Saidina Abu Bakar]]
[[nl:Aboe Bakr]]
[[no:Abu Bakr]]
[[pl:Abu Bakr]]
[[pt:Abu Bakr]]
[[ru:Абу Бакр]]
[[sv:Abu Bakr]]
[[th:อะบูบักรฺ]]
[[tr:Ebu Bekir]]
[[zh:艾卜·伯克尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ambrose the Camaldulian</title>
<id>1716</id>
<revision>
<id>36939720</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T13:30:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Bringing "External links" and "See also" sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrose the Camaldulian,''' (Ambrogio Traversari) ([[1386]]-[[1439]]), was a [[theology|theologian]], born near [[Forlì]] at the village of Portico di [[Romagna]].
At the age of fourteen he entered the [[Camaldulian]] Order in the monastery of Santa Maria degli Angeli, and rapidly became a leading theologian and Hellenist. In Greek literature his master was [[Manuel Chrysoloras|Emmanuel Chrysoloras]]. He became general of the order in 1431, and was a leading advocate of the [[papacy]].
This attitude he showed clearly when he attended the [[Council of Basel]] as legate of [[Pope Eugenius IV]].
So strong was his hostility to some of the delegates that he described Basel as a western [[Babylon]]. He likewise supported the pope at [[Ferrara]] and Florence, and worked hard in the attempt to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches.
Though this cause was unsuccessful, Ambrose is interesting as typical of the new humanism which was growing up within the church. Thus while among his own colleagues he seemed merely a hypocritical and arrogant priest, in his relations with his brother humanists, such as [[Cosimo de Medici]], he appeared as the student of classical antiquities and especially of Greek theological authors.
His chief works are: -- ''Hodoeporicon'', an account of a journey taken at the pope's command, during which he visited the monasteries of Italy; translations of [[Palladius]]' ''Life of Chrysostom;'' of ''Nineteen Sermons of Ephraem Syrus''; of the St Basil ''On Virginity.'' A number of his manuscripts remain in the library of St Mark at Venice.
He died on [[October 20]] [[1439]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
==External links==
* [http://www.tertullian.org/articles/traversari_index.htm Letters] - a few letters translated into English and a portrait of him from a manuscript he copied.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ambrosians</title>
<id>1717</id>
<revision>
<id>41724977</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:33:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.40.4.119</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ambrosian Orders */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrosians''' is a term that might be applied either to members of one of the religious brotherhoods which at various times since the [[14th century]] have sprung up in and around [[Milan]] or, exceptionally to a [[16th century]] sect of [[Anabaptist Ambrosians|Anabaptists]].
==Ambrosian Orders==
Only the oldest of the Catholic Ambrosians, the Fratres S. Ambrosii ad Nemus, had anything more than a very local significance. This order is known from a bull of [[Pope Gregory XI]] addressed to the [[monk]]s of the church of St Ambrose outside Milan.
Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, certainly did not found religious orders, though he took an interest in the monastic life and watched over its beginnings in his diocese, providing for the needs of a monastery outside the walls of Milam, as Saint Augustine recounts in his ''Confessions''. Ambrose also made successful efforts to improve the moral life of women in the Milan of his time by promoting the permament institution of Virgins, as also of widows. His exhortations and other interventions have survived in various writings: ''De virginibus'', ''De viduis'', ''De virginitate'', ''De institutione virginis'', ''De exhortatione virginitatis'', and ''De lapsu virginis consecratae''. Ambrose was the only Father of the Church to leave behind so many writings on the subject and his attentions naturally enough led to the formation of communities which later became formal monasteries of women.
It is against this background that two religious orders or congregations, one of men and one of women, when founded in the Milan area during the [[13th century|13th]] and [[15th century|15th centuries]], took Saint Ambrose as their patron and hence adopted his name.
===The Order of St Ambrose===
The first of these groups was formed in a wood outside Milan by three noble Milanese, Alexander Grivelli, Antonio Petrasancta, and Albert Besuzzi, who were joined by others, including some priests. In [[1375]] [[Pope Gregory XI]] gave them the Rule of St Augustine, with set of constitutions. As a canonically recognized order they took the name "Fratres Sancti Ambrosii ad Nemus" and adopted a habit consisting of a brown tunic, scapular, and hood. The brethren elected a superior with the title of prior who was then instituted by the Archbishop of Milan. The priests of the congregation undertook preaching and other tasks of the ministry but were not allowed to accept charge parishes. In the liturgy they followed the [[Ambrosian Rite]]. Various monasteries were founded on these lines, but without any formal bond between them. In [[1441]] [[Pope Eugene IV]] merged them into one congregation called "Congregatio Sancti Ambrosii ad Nemus", made the original house the main seat, and laid down a system of government whereby a general chapter met every three years, elected the priors who stayed in office till the next chapter. There was a rector, or superior general, who was assisted by two "visitors".
Saint Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, successfully reformed their discipline, grown lax, in [[1579]]. In [[1589]] [[Pope Sixtus V]] united to the Congregation of St Ambrose the monasteries of a group known as the "Brothers of the Apostles of the Poor Life" (or "Apostolini" or "Brothers of St. Barnabas"), whose houses were in the province of Genoa and in the March of Ancona. This was an order that had been founded by Giovanni Scarpa at the end of the [[15th century]]. The union was confirmed by [[Pope Paul V]] in [[1606]], at which time the congregation added the name of St. Barnabas to its title, adopted new constitutions, divided its houses into four provinces, two of them, St Clement's and St Pancras's, being in Rome. Published works have survived from the pen of Ascanio Tasca and Michele Mulozzani, each of whom was superior-general, and of Zaccaria Visconti, Francesco-Maria Guazzi an |
and, in [[December 2002]], new amendments to the 1974 SOLAS Convention were enacted. These amendments gave rise to the International Ship and Port Security Code, which went into effect on [[1 July]] [[2004]].
The ISPS Code required most ships and port facilities engaged in international trade to establish and maintain strict security procedures as specified in ship and port specific Ship Security Plans and Port Facility Security Plans. The concept of the Code is to provide layered and redundant defenses against smuggling, terrorism, piracy, stowaways, etc.
The IMO is also responsible for publishing the [[International Code of Signals]] for use between merchant and naval vessels.
==See also==
* [[Supply Chain Security]]
==External links==
*[http://www.imo.org/home.asp International Maritime Organization home page]
[[Category:United Nations specialized agencies]]
[[Category:Water transport]]
[[da:International Maritime Organization]]
[[de:Internationale Seeschifffahrts-Organisation]]
[[nl:International Maritime Organization]]
[[no:International Maritime Organization]]
[[sv:International Maritime Organization]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Labour Organization</title>
<id>14987</id>
<revision>
<id>40982720</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T07:19:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bookandcoffee</username>
<id>149887</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm redirect note - ILO goes straight to disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Spelling: en-GB-oed (-ize) -->
<!-- Yes, the official name uses Commonwealth spelling of "Labour" and the U.S. spelling of "Organization" -->
[[Image:International Labour Org.jpg|right|thumb]]
The '''International Labour Organization (ILO)''' is a specialized agency of the [[United Nations]] to deal with [[labour (economics)|labour]] issues. Its headquarters are in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]. Founded in [[1919]], it was formed through the negotiations of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], and was initially an agency of the [[League of Nations]]. It became a UN body after the demise of the League and the formation of the UN at the end of [[World War II]]. Its current charter, the [[Declaration of Philadelphia]], was adopted in [[1944]]. Its [[secretariat]], or support staff, is known as the International Labour Office.
The organization seeks to strengthen [[worker rights]], improve [[working conditions]] and living conditions, create [[employment]], and provide information and training opportunities. ILO programmes include the [[occupational safety and health]] hazard alert system and the [[labour standards]] and [[human rights]] programmes.
Historically, one of the functions the ILO has performed has been the establishment of international standards for workers' conditions, which have then become the basis for [[trade union]] and other activism in individual countries. It is a relatively low-profile UN agency compared to some of those more active in crises, such as the [[World Health Organization]].
== International Labour Conference ==
The ILO hosts the [[International Labour Conference]] in Geneva every year in June. At the Conference, conventions and recommendations are crafted and adopted by majority decision. The Conference also makes decisions on the ILO's general policy, work programme and budget.
Each member state is represented at the International Labour Conference by four delegates: two government delegates, an employer delegate and a worker delegate. All delegates have individual voting rights, and all votes are equal, regardless of the population of the delegate's member state. The employer and worker delegates are normally chosen in agreement with the most representative national organizations of employers and workers. Usually, the worker delegates coordinate their voting, as do the employer delegates.
=== Conventions ===
The decision-making process of the ILO means that conventions need government support to be adopted. Despite this, not all governments voting for a convention end up ratifying it. For instance, after ten years, the [[Part-Time Work Convention]] adopted in 1994 had been ratified by only ten countries. On the other hand, a group of eight conventions, defined by the ILO as "fundamental", have enjoyed far wider recognition. These have all been ratified by a majority of the member states, and are known as the [[international labour standards]].
With the ratification of a convention comes a legal obligation to apply its provisions. Governments are required to submit reports detailing their compliance with the obligations of the resolutions they have ratified. Every year, the International Labour Conference's Committee on the Application of Standards examine a number of suspected breaches of ILO labour standards. Cases can cover all areas of policy and practice, e.g. [[freedom of association]], [[discrimination]], [[child labour]] and maternity protection. In recent years, one of the member states that has received the most attention is [[Myanmar]], as the country has repeatedly been criticized for its failure to guarantee fundamental worker's rights. The ILO's repeated expression of "grave concern" in this case also illustrates the organization's lack of [[sanctions|sanction]] possibilities.
=== Recomendations ===
Recommendations do not have the binding force of Conventions, and are not subject to ratification by member countries. Recommendations may be adopted at the same time as Conventions to supplement the latter with additional or more detailed provisions. The intent of these recomendations is often to more precisely detail the priciples of related Conventions.
In other cases Recommendations may be adopted separately, and address issues not covered by, or unrelated to any particular Convention.
== Child labour ==
The ILO has a specialist programme addressing child labour, the [[International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour]] (IPEC).
The ILO maintains an International Training Centre in [[Turin, Italy]].
The organization received the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1969]].[http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1969/labour-history.html]
==External links==
* [http://www.ilo.org/ Official site], including:
**[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/ilc/ International Labour Conference]
**[http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/convdisp1.htm ILO conventions]
**[http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/recdisp1.htm ILO recommendations]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[René Cassin]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1969 | after = [[Norman Borlaug]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:International Labour Organization]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners]]
[[be:Міжнародная арганізацыя працы]]
[[ca:Organització Internacional del Treball]]
[[cs:Mezinárodní organizace práce]]
[[da:International Labour Organization]]
[[de:International Labour Organization]]
[[es:Organización Internacional del Trabajo]]
[[fa:سازمان بین المللی کار]]
[[fr:Organisation internationale du travail]]
[[nl:Internationale Arbeidsorganisatie]]
[[ja:国際労働機関]]
[[no:Den internasjonale arbeidsorganisasjonen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Organizacja Pracy]]
[[pt:Organização Internacional do Trabalho]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná organizácia práce]]
[[sl:Mednarodna organizacija dela]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen työjärjestö]]
[[sv:ILO]]
[[tr:ILO]]
[[uk:Міжнародна організація праці]]
[[zh:國際勞工組織]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IAEA</title>
<id>14988</id>
<revision>
<id>15912505</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Atomic Energy Agency]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ICAO</title>
<id>14989</id>
<revision>
<id>15912506</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Civil Aviation Organization]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IMO</title>
<id>14990</id>
<revision>
<id>31450296</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-15T09:51:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hede2000</username>
<id>284384</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+da:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[three-letter abbreviation]] '''IMO''' may have several meanings, depending on context:
* "In My Opinion" - [[USENET]] and [[internet chat]] slang. Used mostly on sites like NewGrounds BBS and MySpace PMs. See also "[[IMHO]]".
* [[International Maritime Organization]]
* [[International Mathematical Olympiad]]
* [[International Meteor Organization]]
* [[International money order]]
* [[Irish Medical Organisation]] (a [[labor union]])
'''"Imo"''' ''(only first letter in capitals)'' may also refer to:
* [[Imo State, Nigeria]]
* The [[World War I]]-era [[Belgian]]-Relief ship ''[[Imo (ship)|Imo]]'' involved in a collision with the [[France|French]] munitions ship ''[[Mont Blanc (ship)|Mont Blanc]]'' in [[Halifax Harbour]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]], the result of which caused the [[Halifax Explosion]].
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[da:Imo]]
[[de:IMO]]
[[pl:IMO]]
[[zh:IMO]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ILO</title>
<id>14991</id>
<revision>
<id>33647982</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T22:31:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ILO (disambiguation)]]</text>
</r |
ter years.
Despite occasional political troubles, Clinton remained popular with the American people. In addition to his political skills, Clinton also benefited from a very strong US economy. In 1999, the United States had a projected federal budget surplus for the first time since 1969. By 1998 it was a $70 billion budget surplus. While Clinton, Congress and the private sector have all been given credit at different times, this economic success was a source of immense political strength for Clinton. The collapse of the dot-com bubble and resulting recession began in the closing months of Clinton's presidency, when attention had turned to his successors. He remained popular through and beyond the end of his terms in office.
===Legislation and programs===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
====Major legislation signed====
* [[February 5]] [[1993]] - [[FMLA|The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993]]
* [[August 10]] [[1993]] - [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993]] - Raised income tax rates; [[income tax]], top rate: 39.6%; [[corporate tax]]: 35%
* [[September 21]] [[1993]] - creation of the [[AmeriCorps]] volunteer program
* [[November 30]] [[1993]] - [[Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act|Brady Bill]]
* [[September 13]] [[1994]] - [[Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act]], part of an omnibus crime bill, the federal [[capital punishment|death penalty]] was expanded to some 60 different [[offense]]s (see [[Federal assault weapons ban]])
* 1995 - [[Executive Order 12958]], created tough new standards for the process of classifying documents.
* [[February 1]] [[1996]] - [[Communications Decency Act]]
* [[February 8]] [[1996]] - [[Telecom Reform Act]]: eliminated major ownership restrictions for radio and television groups.
* [[February 26]] [[1996]] - Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, a [[welfare reform]] bill
* [[March 14]] [[1996]] - authorized $100 million [[anti-terrorism]] agreement with [[Israel]] to track down and root out [[terrorism|terrorists]].
* [[April 9]] [[1996]] - [[Line Item Veto Act of 1996|Line Item Veto Act]]
* [[April 24]] [[1996]] - [[Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act]]
* [[August 20]] [[1996]] - [[Minimum wage]] Increase Act
* [[September 21]] [[1996]] - [[Defense of Marriage Act]], allowed states the power to refuse to recognize [[gay marriage]]s granted in other states, among other things
* [[August 5]] [[1997]] - [[Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997]]
* [[October 28]] [[1998]] - [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]
* [[October 31]] [[1998]] - [[Iraq Liberation Act]]
{{col-2}}
====Major legislation vetoed====
* [[United States budget process|national budget]]
* H.R. 1833, [[partial birth abortion]] ban
* Twice vetoed [[welfare reform]] before signing
* the [[Private Securities Litigation Reform Act]]. [[Congress]] overrode the veto, however, to enact the bill into law.
====Proposals not passed by Congress====
* [[Clinton health care plan|Health care reform]]
* [[Campaign finance reform]] (1993)
====Initiatives====
* Appointed a committee on [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] Reform and then dismissed their recommendations without ever proposing legislation.
* Tried to get [[Ehud Barak]] of [[Israel]] and [[Yasser Arafat]] of the [[Palestinian National Authority]], to agree to a final [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict|settlement agreement]].
* Initiated the [[Don't ask, don't tell]] policy toward [[gay]]s in the military, 1993.
* Reversed a ban on senior [[Sinn Féin]] politicians entering the U.S.
* Proposed a national challenge to end the racial divide in America, the [[One America Initiative]].
* [[Extraordinary rendition]], or "torture by proxy" got approval for the first time in the USA from the Clinton administration.
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
===Cabinet===
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|[[President of the United States|President]]||'''Bill Clinton'''||1993-2001
|-
|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||'''[[Al Gore]]'''||1993-2001
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||'''[[Warren M. Christopher]]'''||1993-1997
|-
| ||'''[[Madeleine K. Albright]]'''||1997-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||'''[[Lloyd Bentsen]]'''||1993-1994
|-
| ||'''[[Robert E. Rubin]]'''||1995-1999
|-
| ||'''[[Lawrence H. Summers]]'''||1999-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||'''[[Les Aspin]]'''||1993-1994
|-
| ||'''[[William J. Perry]]'''||1994-1997
|-
| ||'''[[William S. Cohen]]'''||1997-2001
|-
|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||'''[[Janet Reno]]'''||1993-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||'''[[Bruce Babbitt]]'''||1993-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||'''[[Mike Espy]]'''||1993-1994
|-
| ||'''[[Daniel R. Glickman]]'''||1994-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||'''[[Ronald H. Brown]]'''||1993-1996
|-
| ||'''[[Mickey Kantor]]'''||1996-1997
|-
| ||'''[[William M. Daley]]'''||1997-2000
|-
| ||'''[[Norman Y. Mineta]]'''||2000-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||'''[[Robert B. Reich]]'''||1993-1997
|-
| ||'''[[Alexis M. Herman]]'''||1997-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services|HHS]]||'''[[Donna E. Shalala]]'''||1993-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Education|Education]]||'''[[Richard Riley]]'''||1993-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development|HUD]]||'''[[Henry G. Cisneros]]'''||1993-1997
|-
| ||'''[[Andrew Cuomo]]'''||1997-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Transportation|Transportation]]||'''[[Federico F. Peña]]'''||1993-1997
|-
| ||'''[[Rodney E. Slater]]'''||1997-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Energy|Energy]]||'''[[Hazel O'Leary]]'''||1993-1997
|-
| ||'''[[Federico F. Peña]]'''||1997-1998
|-
| ||'''[[Bill Richardson (politician)|Bill Richardson]]'''||1998-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs|Veterans Affairs]]||'''[[Jesse Brown]]'''||1993-1997
|-
| ||'''[[Togo D. West, Jr.]]'''||1998-2000
|-
| ||'''[[Hershel W. Gober]]''' (act.)||2000-2001
|}
{{col-2}}
[[Image:ClintonAdmin.jpg|center|300px|thumb|President Clinton's First Cabinet, 1993]]
===Supreme Court appointments===
Clinton appointed the following justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]]:
* [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]] - 1993, making Clinton the first Democratic president to appoint a female Supreme Court justice.
* [[Stephen Breyer]] - 1994
{{col-end}}
===The economy===
During Clinton's tenure, the U.S. enjoyed continuous economic expansion, reductions in unemployment, and growing wealth through a massive rise in the [[stock market]]. The economic boom ended shortly before his term ended, possibly indicative of a [[stock market bubble]]. Although the reasons for the expansion are continually debated, Clinton proudly pointed to a number of economic accomplishments, including:
* More than 22 million new jobs
* Homeownership rate increase from 64.0% to 67.5%
* Lowest unemployment rate in 30 years
* Higher incomes at all levels
* Largest budget deficit in American history converted to the largest surplus of over $200 billion
* Lowest government spending as a percentage of GDP since 1974 <ref>[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy00/guide04.html Citizen's Guide to the Federal Budget: Fiscal Year 2000] - [[United States]] [[Government Printing Office]] ([[GPO]])</ref>
* Higher stock ownership by families than ever before
* 220% increase in the Dow Jones Industrial Average, 300% increase in the Nasdaq from 1993 to 2001
The reasons for this growth are hotly debated, but Clinton supporters cite his [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993|1993 tax increase]] as the reason that eventually led to the reduction in the annual budget deficits every year of his tenure. These deficit reductions stimulated consumption and consumer spending and strengthened the dollar, which encouraged foreign investment in the United States economy. [[Alan Greenspan]] supported the 1993 tax increase, which was approved by Congress without a single Republican vote. <ref>[http://www.dickinson.edu/~rudaleva/greenspan.htm Behind the Boom] - Bob Woodward, ''[[The Washington Post]]'', [[November 12]], [[2000]] </ref> Critics of Clinton point to [[Alan Greenspan]]'s strong chairmanship of the Federal Reserve, 1995 spending cuts and the Republican Party's [[Contract with America]] initiatives as alternative reasons for America's strong economic growth of the late 90's. Critics also argue that the economic recovery had already begun before Bill Clinton took office and did not pick up momentum until 1995 and 1996, after the GOP took over Congress (despite the fact that GDP growth was higher in 1994 than in either 1995 or 1996). Many economists attribute massive growth to the .com boom which just happened to come during Clinton's term, thus adding many new jobs which cannot be attributed to policies of the Clinton administration.
===Trade===
Clinton strongly supported the [[North American Free Trade Agreement|NAFTA, the North American Free Trade Agreement]]. Initiated during the tenure of his predecessor, [[George H.W. Bush]], it was passed by the [[United States Congress]] in 1993, after Clinton and Gore lobbied heavily for it.
The Clinton administration used the [[WTO]] [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] thirteen times
and prevailed in the WTO thirteen times.<ref>[http://www.onpointradio.org/shows/2005/07/20050725_b_main.asp Policing Intellectual Property Across Borders] - audio 12:40-16 |
64] – The tagged link list for Commodore 64 fans
===Archives===
*[ftp://ftp.scs-trc.net The Digital Dungeon (TDD)] – FTP site full of old and recent C64 software
*[http://www.c64.ch/ www.c64.ch] – An archive of C64 demos
*[http://www.gamebase64.com/ GameBase 64] – C64 game software information site
*[http://www.lemon64.com/ Lemon 64] – Site with general information, game reviews and a forum
*[http://www.gtw64.co.uk/ Games That Weren't 64] – Large project archive dedicated to finding and researching lost C64 games.
*[http://www.c64hq.com C64HQ] – Graphically nice site with interviews of famous C64 game creators & sceners, game- and demodownloads and more
*[http://c64.tin.at/ C64 Walkthrough Site] – Walkthrough and solution archive for C64 adventure games with discussion forum
*[http://project64.c64.org/ Project 64] – Manuals for C64/128 games and software
*[http://tapes.c64.no/ The Ultimate C64 Tape Page] – Large preservation archive of C64 cassettes. Also contains scans of cassette covers and manuals
*[http://www.c64db.com/ The C64 Internet Games Database] – over <b>30000</b> entries! After a 64 game? Then find it here!
*[http://www.the-commodore-zone.com/ The-Commodore-Zone] – Archive of C64 games, speech box, legends of the 64, discussion forum, online databases, links
===Music===
*[http://www.mini-melodies.de.vu/ Mini Melodies] – German band that produces records using C64 machines
*[http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Lakes/5147/sidplay/index.html SIDPLAY] – A [[freeware]] [[MOS Technology SID|SID]] music player (a "SID chip [[emulator]]")
*[http://hvsc.c64.org/ HVSC - High Voltage SID Collection] – Large collection of SID files which can be downloaded as a complete archive for use with SIDPLAY
*[http://c64music.blogspot.com/ C64 Music] – Commodore 64 music in the real world & other related SID stories blog
*[[Press Play on Tape]] – Danish 'C64 revival' band
*[[Mr. Pacman]] – American band that performs C64 covers & re-workings; band member Silver Ghost uses a [[Commodore SX-64|SX-64]] as a [[bass (musical term)|bass]] [[synthesizer]]
*[http://www.slayradio.org/ SLAY Radio] – Radio with live DJs playing Remixes of C64 game and demo music
*[http://remix.kwed.org/ remix.kwed.org] – Remixes of C64 game music in [[mp3]]-format
*[http://www.remix64.com/ Remix64] – Online magazine and community centre for the C64 music remixing scene
*[http://www.sidstation.com/ Sidstation by Elektron] – Swedish company Elektron makes the Sidstation, a [[synthesizer]] using the C64 SID chip, with [[midi]] support and realtime tweaking
*[http://www.treewave.com/ Tree Wave] – American band that creates original and sophisticated music and video using Commodore 64 machines and other 8-bit computers and peripherals, often for live performances.
*[[Welle:Erdball]] – German [[bitpop]] group who credit their beefed-up C64 as a band member
*[http://www.satellitesrecords.com/artists/c64.htm Kawasaki Synthesizer & Rhythm Rocker] – One of the first standalone(no additional hardware required other than C64/PC itself) music software ever written for personal computer history which became widely accepted and commercially successful. The page is provided by the author [[Ryo Kawasaki]] himself.
===History===
*[http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/c64hist/ Chronology of the Commodore 64 Computer] – By Ken Polsson
*[http://www.doyouremember.co.uk/memory.asp?memID=4023 Commodore 64 memories and memorabilia] – Fond memories written by Commodore 64 users
*[http://www.pc-history.org/comm.htm The History of the Commodore 64] – From Stan Veit's PC history website
*[http://www.dicecca.net/english/c64/ Commodore 64 Museum] – An Italian photo collection of C64s and peripherals
*[http://www.commodore.ca/products/c64/commodore_64.htm Commodore 64 history, manuals, and photos] – From Canadian-based website www.commodore.ca
*[http://www.c64trivia.co.uk/ Commodore Trivia] – A great repository of Commodore-related trivia and information
===Other===
*[http://www.protovision-online.com PROTOVISION - Creating the Future] – A crew of enthusiasts who still produce & distribute new games and hardware for the C64
*[http://rittwage.com/c64pp/ The Commodore 64 Preservation Project] – With a goal of archiving pristine versions of original Commodore 64 software, including copy protection
*[http://www.c64.sk/ C64.sk] – C64 demo scene related news (new releases, parties, etc.)
*[http://www.sics.se/~adam/contiki/ Contiki] – Contiki, an open-source multitasking operating system for the C64 written by Adam Dunkels
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/?v=gDT1m-UDVw8 - Commodore 64 Commercial (Australia)]
{{CBM computers}}
[[Category:Commodore 64|*]]
[[Category:Home computers|Comm5]]
<!-- interwiki -->
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|it}}
[[cs:C64]]
[[da:Commodore 64]]
[[de:Commodore 64]]
[[es:Commodore 64]]
[[fr:Commodore 64]]
[[hr:Commodore 64]]
[[ia:Commodore 64]]
[[it:Commodore 64]]
[[he:קומודור 64]]
[[hu:Commodore 64]]
[[nl:Commodore 64]]
[[ja:コモドール64]]
[[no:Commodore 64]]
[[nn:Commodore 64]]
[[pl:Commodore 64]]
[[fi:Commodore 64]]
[[sv:Commodore 64]]
[[tr:Commodore 64]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cartography</title>
<id>7294</id>
<revision>
<id>41866389</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:04:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Flux.books</username>
<id>494508</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cartography''' or '''mapmaking''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]] ''chartis'' = map and ''graphein'' = write) is the study and practice of making [[map]]s or [[globe]]s. Maps have traditionally been made using [[pen]] and [[paper]], but the advent and spread of [[computer]]s has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial quality maps are now made with map making [[software]] that falls into one of three main types; [[computer-aided design |CAD]], [[geographic information system | GIS]], and specialized map illustration software.
Maps function as [[visualization]] tools for spatial [[data]]. Spatial data is acquired from [[measurement]] and can be stored in a [[database]], from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally. The cartographic process rests on the premise that there is an objective reality and that we can make reliable representations of that reality by adding levels of abstraction.
== History ==
[[Image:Radkarte_MKL1888.png|thumb|World map from the [[Middle Age]]s.]]
Mapmaking involves advanced skills and attitudes, particularly the use of symbols to represent certain geographic phenomena, as well as the ability to visualize the world in an abstract and scaled down form.
Maps have been an integral part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than written words). From cave/wall partings, ancient maps of [[Babylon]] and [[Greek philosophers]], through the [[Age of Exploration]], and on into the 21st century, people have created and used maps as the essential tools to help them define, explain and navigate their way through the world (and beyond). According to some scholars, mapping represented a significant step forward in the intellectual development of human beings and it serves as a record of the advancing knowledge of the human race.
The oldest extant picture that resembles a map was created in the late [[7th millennium BCE]] in [[Anatolia]], modern [[Turkey]]. This wall painting [http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancientimages/100B.jpeg]represents a plan of an early-civilized city that prospered by trading obsidian. Whoever created this ‘mental map’ may have been encouraged by the fact that houses in [[Catal Huyuk|Çatal Hűyűk]] were clustered together and were entered via flat roofs. Therefore, it was normal for the inhabitants to view their city from a bird’s eye view. It is possible that this painting has had an effect on the map-making of later civilizations: today, almost all maps are drawn as if we are looking down from the sky instead of from the more natural horizontal or oblique perspective. Nevertheless, one of the early-survived [[Hellenic]] ‘quasi-maps’ of the [[Minoan]] civilization on Crete, the so-called “House of the Admiral” c. 1600 BCE is a wall painting representing view of a seaside community in an oblique perspective.
Predecessors of mapping could be also found in [[Babylonia]] around the [[23rd century BCE]]. An engraved map of the holy city of [[Nippur]], from the Kassite period ([[14th century BCE|14th]] &ndash; [[12th century BCE|12th centuries BCE]]) of Babylonian history, was found at Nippur [http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/NIP/PUB93/NSC/NSCFIG7.html].
The early attempts at maps were severely limited by lack of knowledge of anything other than very local features. Whereas early world maps reflected mostly religious beliefs of the form of the world. For example, the [[Babylonian]] World Map -- the earliest surviving map of the world (c. 600BCE) -- is very much Mesopotamia-centred, ignoring peoples such as the [[Persians]] and [[Egyptians]], who were well known to the Babylonians. The area shown is depicted as a circular shape surrounded by water, which fits the religious image of the world in which the Babylonians believed.
Maps were quite rare in ancient [[Egypt]]. The [[Egyptians]] seem to have preferred written words to plans. Still, what might have later influenced human mapmaking were the geometrical methods that were used for land measurements, which were stimulated by the need to re-establish the exact boundaries of properties after the annual Nile floods. The most interesting artefact that has survived from this period is the [[Turin Papyrus]], dated c. 1300 BCE. It shows the mountains east of the Nile where g |
<ip>212.138.113.13</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* In English */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ANS''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, as described below:
==In English==
* The '''ANS organization''' (the [[American Nuclear Society]])
* The '''ANS organization''' (the [[American National Standards]])
* The '''ANS organization''' (the [[American Numismatic Society]])
* The '''ANS in biology''' (the [[autonomic nervous system]])
* The [[National Rail]] code for [[Ainsdale railway station]], [[United Kingdom]]. External links: {{Sildb prim|ANS|station information}}; {{Mmukpcloc|PR8|3JP}}; {{Brldb prim|ANS|live departures and arrivals}}.
==In other languages==
* The '''ANS grammar''' ([[Algemeen Nederlandse Spraakkunst]]), the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] grammar
* The '''ANS magazine''' ([[Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad]]), a [[Dutch language|Dutch]] student magazine
* The '''ANS satellite''' ([[Astronomische Nederlandse Satelliet]]), an X-ray satellite
==In music==
* The [[ANS synthesizer]] (named after Alexander Nikolayevich [[Scriabin]]), the Russian photoelectric music instrument
* The '''''ANS'' album''', the 2003 music album by British band [[Coil (band)|Coil]]
<!--Categories, from closest/narrowest to farthest/most generic:-->
{{TLAdisambig}}
<!--In other languages, alphabetically by language (not code) name:-->
[[de:ANS]]
[[nl:ANS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alaska Panhandle</title>
<id>2936</id>
<revision>
<id>36080908</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T12:18:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kralizec!</username>
<id>182971</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[Canadian province]] to [[Provinces and territories of Canada]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Alaska Panhandle''' is the coast of the [[United States|American]] state of [[Alaska]], just west of the northern half of the [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian province]] of [[British Columbia]]. In many places, the [[international border]] runs along the crest of the [[Boundary Ranges]] of the [[Coast Mountains]] (see [[Alaska Boundary Dispute]]).
The [[Panhandle]] includes the [[Tongass National Forest]], [[Glacier Bay National Park]], [[Admiralty Island National Monument|Admiralty Island]] [[National Monument]], [[Alaska's Inside Passage]], and myriad large and small islands. The largest islands are, from North to South, [[Chichagof Island]], [[Admiralty Island]], [[Baranof Island]], and [[Prince of Wales Island]]. Major bodies of water of the Alaska Panhandle include [[Glacier Bay]], [[Lynn Canal]], [[Icy Strait]], [[Chatham Strait]], [[Stevens Passage]], [[Fredrick Sound]], [[Summer Strait]], and [[Clarence Strait]].
Wildlife includes [[brown bear]]s, [[american Black Bear|black bears]], [[wolf|wolves]], [[Sitka deer]], [[humpback whale]]s, [[orca]]s, five species of [[salmon]], [[bald eagle]]s, [[harlequin duck]]s, [[scoter]]s, and [[Marbled Murrelet|marbled murrelet]]s.
Major cities are [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]], [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]], and [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]]. Other towns are [[Petersburg, Alaska|Petersburg]], [[Wrangell, Alaska|Wrangell]], [[Metlakatla, Alaska|Metlakatla]], [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]], [[Hoonah, Alaska|Hoonah]], [[Angoon, Alaska|Angoon]], [[Kake, Alaska|Kake]], [[Craig, Alaska|Craig]], [[Klawock, Alaska|Klawock]], [[Yakutat, Alaska|Yakutat]], [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]], and [[Gustavus, Alaska|Gustavus]]. There are also many tiny (ie, less than 100 people) towns and villages, such as [[Pelican, Alaska|Pelican]], [[Tenakee Springs, Alaska|Tenakee Springs]], [[Port Protection, Alaska|Port Protection]], [[Port Frederick, Alaska|Port Frederick]], [[Port Alexander, Alaska|Port Alexander]], [[Baranof Warm Springs, Alaska|Baranof Warm Springs]], [[Elfin Cove, Alaska|Elfin Cove]], [[Excursion Inlet, Alaska|Excursion Inlet]], [[Hyder, Alaska|Hyder]], and [[Meyers Chuck, Alaska|Meyers Chuck]].
This area is the traditional homeland of the [[Tlingit]] people.
On [[August 20]], [[1902]], [[President]] [[Theodore Roosevelt]] established the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve, which formed the heart of the [[Tongass National Forest|Tongass]] [[National Forest]] that covers most of the region.
{{Alaska}}
[[Category:Geography of Alaska]]
[[Category:Panhandles]]
[[de:Alaska Panhandle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algemeen Nederlands Studentenblad</title>
<id>2937</id>
<revision>
<id>15901315</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-15T17:58:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthony DiPierro</username>
<id>34793</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad</title>
<id>2938</id>
<revision>
<id>40300066</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T17:21:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PaulHanson</username>
<id>119319</id>
</contributor>
<comment>stub</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad''''' is an independent student magazine for the [[Radboud University Nijmegen]]. Founded in 1985 by the local student union AKKU, it is now published by the Stichting Multimedia.
==External links==
* http://www.ans-online.nl/ (Flash required)
{{netherlands-stub}}
{{newspaper-stub}}
[[Category:Student magazines]]
[[Category:Dutch student societies]]
[[nl:Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alaska Interior</title>
<id>2939</id>
<revision>
<id>34476315</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T09:03:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deanshan</username>
<id>250082</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Interior fall.jpg|thumb|300px|Fall in Interior Alaska]]
The '''interior''' of [[Alaska]] makes up most of the state. It is largely wild and undeveloped.
Mountains include [[Mount McKinley]] (Denali) in the [[Alaska Range]] and the [[Wrangell Mountains]].
The largest city in the interior is [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]], Alaska's second-largest city, in the [[Tanana Valley]]. Other towns include [[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]], just south of Fairbanks, [[Eagle, Alaska|Eagle]], [[Tok, Alaska|Tok]], [[Talkeetna, Alaska|Talkeetna]], [[Glennallen, Alaska|Glennallen]], [[Delta Junction, Alaska|Delta Junction]], [[Nenana, Alaska|Nenana]], [[Anderson, Alaska|Anderson]], [[Healy, Alaska|Healy]] and [[Cantwell, Alaska|Cantwell]].
== Climate ==
Interior Alaska experiences seasonal temperature extremes. Winter temperatures in Fairbanks average -25°C (-12°F) and summer temperatures average +17°C (+61°F). Temperatures there have been recorded as low as -61°C (-82°F) in mid-winter, and as high as +34°C (+101°F) in summer.
The average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 28.7 cm (11.3 inches). Most of this comes in the form of snow during the winter. Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the [[Gulf of Alaska]], south of Alaska.
On clear winter nights, the [[aurora borealis]] can often be seen dancing in the sky. Like all subarctic regions, the months from May to July in the summer have no night, only a twilight during the night hours. The months of November - January have little daylight. Fairbanks receives an average 21 hours of daylight between May 10 and August 2 each summer, and an average of less than 4 hours of daylight between November 18 and January 24 each winter.
The interior of Alaska is largely underlined by discontinuous [[permafrost]], which grades to continuous permafrost as the [[Arctic Circle]] is approached.
{{Alaska}}
[[Category:Geography of Alaska]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>And did those feet in ancient time</title>
<id>2940</id>
<revision>
<id>41724542</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:27:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SamuelWantman</username>
<id>68446</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[Calendar Girls]] use</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''And did those feet in ancient time''''' is a [[poem]] by [[William Blake]] from the preface to his work ''[[Milton: a Poem]]'' ([[1804]]). Today it is best known as the [[hymn]] '''''Jerusalem''''', with [[music]] written by [[Hubert Parry|C. Hubert H. Parry]] in [[1916]].
The poem was published in a patriotic anthology of verse in 1916 because morale had begun to decline due to the high number of casualties in the [[First World War]] and the perception that there was no end in sight. It was little known before then. To many the poem seemed to define what Britain was fighting for and so Parry was asked to put it to music at a Fight for Right campaign meeting in London's [[Royal Albert Hall]]. The most famous version was [[orchestration|orchestrated]] by [[Sir Edward Elgar]] in [[1922]] for the Leeds Festival.
This is considered to be one of [[England]]'s most popular [[patriotism|patriotic]] songs, often being used as an alternative anthem. It is variously associated with English [[nationalism]], [[antimodernism|anti-modernism]], [[postmodernism|post-modernism]], [[socialist]] ideals, and [[Christianity]], thereby holding a rather odd position. ''Jerusalem'' is the official anthem of the [[British National Party]] and the [[British Women's Institute]], and historically was used by the [[National Union of Suffrage Societies]].
The text of the poem was inspired by the [[legend]] that [[Jesus]], while still a young man, accompanied [[Joseph of Arimathea]] to [[Glastonbury]]. Blake's biographers tell us that he believed in this legend. However, the poem's [[Theme (literature)|theme]] or [[su |
es, and in many cases did not even use the same ammunition, which made for supply difficulties. A notable weapon developed towards the end of the [[American Civil War]] by the Union, was the [[Spencer carbine]]. It had a spring powered magazine in the stock which held seven rounds. In the late 1800s it became common for a number of nations to make [[bolt-action]] rifles in both full-length and carbine versions. One of the most popular and recognizable carbines was the Winchester [[lever-action]] carbine, with several versions using [[revolver]] [[cartridge (firearms)|cartridge]]s. This made it an ideal choice for cowboys and explorers, who could carry a revolver and a carbine, both using the same ammunition. Another well-known carbine was the Spencer repeating carbine, which was one of the first firearms to use a self-contained metallic cartridge.
=== Shorter rifles, shorter carbines: World War I and World War II ===
In the decades preceding [[World War I]], the standard battle rifle used by armies around the world had been growing shorter, either by redesign or by the general issue of carbine versions instead of full-length rifles. For example, the Russian Model 1891 rifle with a 31.5 inch (800 mm) barrel was shortened to 28.75 in. (730 mm) in 1930, and to 20 in. (510 mm) in 1938; the German [[Mauser]] 98 rifles went from 29 in. (740 mm) in 1898 to 23.6 in. (600 mm) in 1935 as the ''Karabiner Kurz'' (K98k), or "short carbine". The barrel lengths in rifles used by the [[United States]] did not change between the [[bolt-action]] [[M1903]] rifle of [[World War I]] and the [[World War II]] [[M1 Garand]] rifle, but then the 24 in. (610 mm) barrel on the M1903 was short for its day. The US [[M1 Carbine]] was more of a traditional carbine in that it was significantly shorter and lighter, with an 18 in. barrel (460 mm), than the M1 Garand rifle. The M1 Carbine was not a shorter version of the [[M1 Garand]], but a wholly different design firing a smaller, less-powerful cartridge as was common in the 1800s.
=== Post-World War II ===
Based on the combat experience of WWII, the criteria used for selecting infantry weapons began to change. Unlike previous wars, which were often fought mainly from fixed lines and trenches, WWII was a highly mobile war, and often fought in cities, forests, or other areas where mobility and visibility were restricted. In addition, improvements in [[artillery]] made moving infantry in open areas even more suicidal than it had been.
The majority of enemy contacts were at ranges of less than 300 meters (325 yards), and the enemy was exposed to fire for only short periods of time as they moved from cover to cover. Most rounds fired were not aimed at an enemy combatant, but instead fired in the enemy's direction to keep them from moving and firing back (see [[suppressive fire]]). These situations did not require a heavy rifle, firing full-power rifle bullets with long-range accuracy. A less-powerful weapon would still produce casualties at the shorter ranges encountered in actual combat, and the reduced recoil would allow more shots to be fired in the short amount of time an enemy was visible. The lower-powered round would also weigh less, allowing a soldier to carry more ammunition. With no need of a long barrel to fire full-power ammunition, a shorter barrel could be used. A shorter barrel made the weapon weigh less and was easier to handle in tight spaces, and was easier to shoulder quickly to fire a shot at an unexpected target. [[Automatic firearm|Full-automatic]] fire was also considered a desirable feature, allowing the soldier to fire short bursts of three to five rounds, increasing the probability of a hit on a moving target.
The Germans had experimented with [[selective-fire]] carbines firing rifle cartridges during the early years of WW2. These were determined to be less than ideal, as the recoil of full-power rifle cartridges caused the weapon to be uncontrollable in full-automatic fire. They then developed an intermediate-power cartridge round, which was accomplished by reducing the power and the length of the standard 7.92 x 57 mm rifle cartridge to create the 7.92 x 33 mm ''Kurz'' (Short) cartridge. A selective-fire weapon was developed to fire this shorter cartridge, eventually resulting in the [[Sturmgewehr 44]], literally "Storm Gun", later translated as "[[assault rifle]]". After WWII, the USSR would adopt a similar weapon, the well-known [[AK-47]], which became the standard Soviet infantry weapon. The United States during WWII also had the [[M1 Carbine|M2 Carbine]], a selective-fire version of the [[M1]] carbine firing a 7.62x33mm cartridge. However, the semi-automatic M1 carbine was produced in a 10-to-1 ratio to the M2.
Although the [[NATO]] countries did not adopt an intermediate-power round, they continued the trend toward shorter and lighter [[magazine (firearm)|magazine]]-fed [[battle rifles]]. NATO adopted the [[7.62 NATO|7.62 x 51 mm NATO]] round, (which in reality is only slightly less powerful than the [[.30-06 Springfield]] and more powerful than the [[.303 British]]) along with several rifles such as the [[FN FAL]] and [[M14 (rifle)|M14]].
By the 1960s NATO had adopted the [[5.56 NATO|5.56 x 45 mm NATO]] cartridge. This round was even lighter and smaller than the Soviet AK-47 cartridge, but possessed higher velocity and roughly the same muzzle energy. In U.S. service, the [[M16 (rifle)|M16]] assault rifle replaced the M14 as the standard [[infantry]] weapon, although the M14 continued in use by [[designated marksmen]].
The trend was continuing; lighter carbines were being adopted as the standard infantry long rifle. What changed was that a certain amount of soldiers were now retaining longer range weapons, designated marksmen. Development of lighter assault rifles continued, with even lighter carbines keeping pace. At the same time the infantry switched to 5.56 mm weapons, carbines like the [[AK74SU]] (which fired a Warsaw pact [[5.45 x 39 mm M74|5.45 x 39 mm]] round) and [[CAR 15]] were being developed.
== Modern history ==
=== Carbine use in contemporary military forces ===
By the 1990s, the US had adopted the M4 Carbine, a derivative of the M16 family which was lighter and shorter (in overall length and barrel length) subsequently resulting in reduced range and power. In addition, due to the development of [[body armor]], support personnel required a compact weapon with more stopping power than the traditional [[pistol]], leading to the development of the [[personal defense weapon]], or PDW, which uses rounds that have better ballistics than simple pistol rounds but less power and range than full rifle rounds. Examples include the [[FN P90]] and [[HK MP7]]. Whether these ultra-light weapons will receive widespread adoption has yet to be seen; in particular, it is questionable whether their stopping power is adequate. The cartridge used by the FN P90, the [[5.7 x 28 mm]], for example, fires a 30 grain (1.9 g) armor piercing bullet at velocities of around 2300 ft/s (700 m/s). This gives similar ballistics to the high velocity loadings in the [[.22 WMR|.22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire]] round, which is generally considered wholly inadequate for defensive use. The H&K MP7 fires an even smaller 4.6 mm round with ballistics similar to the .22 WMR derived [[.17 Hornady Magnum Rimfire]]. The small diameter rounds enable the projectile to travel at the high velocity needed to penetrate [[kevlar]] armor, as a light weapon with sufficient energy to push a large caliber bullet through the armor would have prohibitive recoil. The small bullets, however, do not have much wounding power. They are generally designed to tumble after penetration, and while that works in theory, other tumbling rounds such as the [[5.56 x 45 mm]] and the [[5.45 x 39 mm]] have shown erratic performance in the field (see below).
Meanwhile, many armies are experiencing a backlash against carbines and lighter rifles in general, and are equipping selected soldiers, usually called [[Designated Marksman]], or DM, with higher power rifles. While firing more smaller bullets makes it easier to hit a target, and is good for beginner marksmen, it offers very little to more advanced marksmen. In addition, the additional range of the heavier weapons has proven to be necessary in open environments such as deserts. As a result, the focus on more highly trained soldiers equipped with, for example, 7.62 mm NATO firing rifles, such as the [[U.S. Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rifle]] variant of the [[M14]], has increased somewhat. A squad of soldiers armed with assault rifles would have a single soldier assigned as DM who would carry a battle rifle for selectively engaging long range targets. The DM differs from the sniper in that the DM is highly mobile, moving with his unit, and engages targets at ranges beyond the 300 metres (330 yd) effective range of modern assault rifles, but less than the 600 metre (650 yd) range which is the optimal engagement range for snipers.
=== Special operations forces ===
One bastion of the carbine which is unlikely to be unseated is the special operations forces of the world. Because of the need to perform fast, decisive operations, a pistol is viewed as not having enough power. A pistol is conversely very light, and aids in the speed of the operator. Consequently, carbines have gained wide acceptance among [[SOCOM]] and other communities. An example of this would be the Springfield Armory SOCOM 16, which is a 16 in (406 mm) barreled carbine chambered in [[.308 Winchester|.308 Winchester (7.62 NATO)]]. With a composite stock and lighter parts, as well as increased sight aperture or [[Advanced_Combat_Optical_Gunsight|ACOG]], the rifle maintains a high degree of accuracy for [[close quarters battle]], as well as being serviceable to ranges up to 400 yards (370 m). The rifle maintains light weight, and |
ct)|Landsberg]]
<li> [[Landshut (district)|Landshut]]
<li> [[Lichtenfels (district)|Lichtenfels]]
<li> [[Lindau (district)|Lindau]]
<li> [[Main-Spessart]]
<li> [[Miesbach (district)|Miesbach]]
<li> [[Miltenberg (district)|Miltenberg]]
<li> [[Mühldorf (district)|Mühldorf]]
<li> [[Munich (district)|Munich]] (''München'')
<li> [[Neuburg-Schrobenhausen]]
<li> [[Neumarkt (district)|Neumarkt]]
<li> [[Neustadt (Aisch)-Bad Windsheim]]
<li> [[Neustadt (Waldnaab) (district)|Neustadt (Waldnaab)]]
</ol>
| width="33%" valign="top" |
<ol start=49>
<li> [[Neu-Ulm (district)|Neu-Ulm]]
<li> [[Nürnberger Land]]
<li> [[Oberallgäu]]
<li> [[Ostallgäu]]
<li> [[Passau (district)|Passau]]
<li> [[Pfaffenhofen (district)|Pfaffenhofen]]
<li> [[Regen (district)|Regen]]
<li> [[Regensburg (district)|Regensburg]]
<li> [[Rhön-Grabfeld]]
<li> [[Rosenheim (district)|Rosenheim]]
<li> [[Roth (district)|Roth]]
<li> [[Rottal-Inn]]
<li> [[Schwandorf (district)|Schwandorf]]
<li> [[Schweinfurt (district)|Schweinfurt]]
<li> [[Starnberg (district)|Starnberg]]
<li> [[Straubing-Bogen]]
<li> [[Tirschenreuth (district)|Tirschenreuth]]
<li> [[Traunstein (district)|Traunstein]]
<li> [[Unterallgäu]]
<li> [[Weilheim-Schongau]]
<li> [[Weißenburg-Gunzenhausen]]
<li> [[Wunsiedel (district)|Wunsiedel]]
<li> [[Würzburg (district)|Würzburg]]
</ol>
|}
Independent cities:
{|
|-
| width="33%" valign="top" |
# [[Amberg]]
# [[Ansbach]]
# [[Aschaffenburg]]
# [[Augsburg]]
# [[Bamberg]]
# [[Bayreuth]]
# [[Coburg, Germany|Coburg]]
# [[Erlangen]]
# [[Fürth]]
| width="33%" valign="top" |
<ol start=10>
<li> [[Hof, Germany|Hof]]
<li> [[Ingolstadt]]
<li> [[Kaufbeuren]]
<li> [[Kempten im Allgäu|Kempten]]
<li> [[Landshut]]
<li> [[Memmingen]]
<li> [[Munich]] (''München'')
<li> [[Nuremberg]] (''Nürnberg'')
<li> [[Passau]]</ol>
| width="33%" valign="top" |
<ol start=19>
<li> [[Regensburg]]
<li> [[Rosenheim]]
<li> [[Schwabach]]
<li> [[Schweinfurt]]
<li> [[Straubing]]
<li> [[Weiden in der Oberpfalz|Weiden]]
<li> [[Würzburg]]
</ol>
|}
===Gemeinden (municipalities)===
The 71 administrative districts are on the lowest level divided into 2031 [[municipality|municipalities]] (called ''Gemeinden'', singular ''Gemeinde''). Together with the 25 independent cities (which are in effect municipalities independent of ''Landkreis'' administrations), there are a total of 2056 municipalities in Bavaria.
In 44 of the 71 administrative districts, there are a total of 215 [[unincorporated]] areas (as of January 1, 2005, called ''gemeindefreie Gebiete'', singular ''gemeindefreies Gebiet''), not belonging to any municipality, all uninhabited, mostly forested areas, but also four lakes ([[Chiemsee]] -without islands, [[Starnberger See]] -without island [[Roseninsel]], [[Ammersee]], which are the three largest lakes of Bavaria, and [[Waginger See]]).
== Dialects ==
[[Image:ChapelBavaria.JPG|thumb|A village [[chapel]] in [[Franconia]].]]
Several [[german language|German]] [[dialect]]s are spoken in Bavaria. In the administrative regions to the north the [[Franconian German|Franconian]] dialect is prevalent, in [[Swabia]] the local dialect is [[Swabian German|Swabian]], a thread of the [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialect family. In the Upper Palatinate people speak the Northern Bavarian dialect that can vary regionally. In Upper and Lower Bavaria (Middle) [[Austro-Bavarian]] is the predominant dialect.
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Bavaria]]''
A precursor to the name Bayern, was the name ''Bayuwaren'' given by the Romans to the province. A later mention was made by the [[Franks]] ca. [[520]]. [[Saint Boniface]] completed the people's conversion to Christianity in the early [[8th century]]. Bavaria resisted the [[Protestant Reformation]], and remains strongly [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]].
From about 550 to 788, the house of [[Agilolfing]] ruled the duchy of Bavaria, ending with [[Tassilo III]] who was deposed by [[Charlemagne]]. For the next 400 years numerous families held the duchy, rarely for more than three generations. The last, and one of the most important, of these dukes was [[Henry the Lion]] of the house of [[Welf]], founder of Munich.
When Henry the Lion was deposed as duke of [[Saxony]] and Bavaria by his cousin, [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]], in 1180, Bavaria was awarded as fief to the [[Wittelsbach]] family, which ruled from [[1180]] to [[1918]]. The first of several divisions of the duchy occurred in [[1255]] but in [[1506]] Bavaria was reunited and Munich became the sole capital. In [[1623]] the dukes acquired the [[elector]]al dignity.
Bavaria became a [[King of Bavaria|kingdom]] in [[1806]], and in [[1815]] the [[Rhenish Palatinate]] was annexed to it. In between 1799 and 1817 the leading minister count [[Maximilian Joseph von Montgelas|Montgelas]] followed a strict policy of modernisation and lay the foundations of administrative structres that survived even the monarchy and are (in their core) vaild until today. In 1818 a modern constitution (with the standards of the time) was passed, that established a bicameral Parliament with a House of Lords ("Kammer der Reichsräte") and a House of Commons ("Kammer der Abgeordneten"). The constitution was valid until the collapse of the monarchy at the end of the First World War.
Bavaria managed to preserve its independence by playing off the rivalries of [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]], but defeat in the [[1866]] [[Austro-Prussian War]] led to its incorporation into the [[German Empire]] in 1871. In the early [[20th century]] [[Wassily Kandinsky]], [[Paul Klee]], [[Henrik Ibsen]], and other notable artists were drawn to Bavaria, notably to the [[Schwabing]] district of Munich, but the region was devastated by [[World War I]].
[[Image:Wieskirche1998.jpg|thumb|[[Wies]].]]
[[Socialist]] premier [[Kurt Eisner]], who deposed King [[Ludwig III of Bavaria|Ludwig III]], was assassinated in [[1919]] leading to a violently suppressed communist revolt. Extremist activity on the right also increased, notably the [[1923]] [[Beer Hall Putsch]], and Munich and [[Nuremberg]] became [[Nazi]] strongholds under the [[Third Reich]]. As a manufacturing center, Munich was heavily bombed during [[World War II]] and occupied by [[United States Army|U.S. troops]].
Since [[World War II]], Bavaria has been rehabilitated into a prosperous industrial hub. A massive reconstruction effort restored much of Munich's historic core, and the city played host to the [[1972 Summer Olympics]]. More recently, state minister-president [[Edmund Stoiber]] was the CDU/CSU candidate for chancellor in the [[German federal election, 2002|2002 federal election]], and native son [[Cardinal Bishop|Cardinal]] Joseph Ratzinger was elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]] in [[2005]].
=== See also ===
:[[Bavarian Soviet Republic]]
:[[List of rulers of Bavaria]]
:[[List of Premiers of Bavaria]]
:[[Former countries in Europe after 1815]]
==Miscellaneous==
There are many famous people who were born or lived in present-day Bavaria:
*[[Pope Benedict XVI]] -- as of [[April 2005]] he is the current [[Pope]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. His baptismal name is '''Joseph Ratzinger'''.
*'''Painters''' such as [[Hans Holbein the Elder]], [[Albrecht Dürer]], [[Albrecht Altdorfer]], [[Lucas Cranach]], [[Carl Spitzweg]], [[Franz von Lenbach]], [[Franz Stuck|Franz von Stuck]] and [[Franz Marc]].
*'''Musicians''' such as [[Orlande de Lassus|Orlando di Lasso]], [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], [[Richard Wagner]], [[Richard Strauss]], [[Carl Orff]] and [[Theobald Boehm]], the inventor of the modern [[flute]].
*Modern musicians like [[Klaus Doldinger]] and [[Barbara Dennerlein]].
*'''Writers''', '''poets''' and '''playwrights''' like [[Hans Sachs]], [[Jean Paul]], [[Frank Wedekind]], [[Christian Morgenstern]], [[Oskar Maria Graf]], [[Bertolt Brecht]], [[Lion Feuchtwanger]], [[Thomas Mann]] and his sons [[Klaus Mann|Klaus]] and [[Golo Mann|Golo Mann]].
*'''Scientists''' such as the [[Nobel prize]] winner [[Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen]] and [[Werner Heisenberg]], also [[Adam Ries]], [[Joseph von Fraunhofer]], [[Georg Ohm]], [[Carl von Linde]], [[Rudolf Moessbauer]] and [[Robert Huber]].
*Well-known '''inventors''' such as [[Martin Behaim]], [[Levi Strauss]] and [[Rudolf Diesel]].
*'''Physicians''' like [[Max Joseph von Pettenkofer]], [[Sebastian Kneipp]] and the [[Neurology|Neurologist]] [[Alois Alzheimer]], who first described the [[Alzheimer's Disease]].
*'''Footballers''' like [[Franz Beckenbauer]], [[Sepp Maier]], [[Gerd Müller]], [[Paul Breitner]], [[Klaus Augenthaler]] and [[Lothar Matthäus]].
*'''Film directors''' [[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]], [[Joseph Vilsmaier]] and [[Werner Herzog]].
*[[Kaspar Hauser]]
*[[The Smith of Kochel]]
The motorcycle and automobile makers [[BMW]] (''Bayerische Motoren-Werke'', or Bavarian Motor Works) and [[Audi]], [[Grundig]] (consumer electronics), [[Siemens AG|Siemens]] (electricity, telephones, informatics, medical instruments), [[Adidas]] and [[PUMA AG|Puma]] have (or had) a Bavarian industrial base.
A famous annual festival is called ''[[Oktoberfest]]'' or ''October Festival''. It was first celebrated in 1810 as a public feast when the Bavarian crown prince Ludwig married Therese von Sachsen-Hildburghausen. The celebration originally was designed as a feast for all members of the Bavarian Nation, who should celebrate the country and the crown. It only turned to a pure matter of boozing in the 20th century and is nowadays attended rather by tourists than by Bavarians. Munich locals often despise it. It is ce |
below).
Methods of blitzkrieg operations centered on using [[Maneuver warfare|manoeuvre]] rather than [[Attrition warfare|attrition]] to defeat an opponent. The blitzkrieg thus first and foremost required a combined arms concentration of mobile assets at a focal point, armour closely supported by mobile infantry, artillery and close air support assets. These tactics required the development of specialised support vehicles, new methods of communication, new [[Military tactics|tactics]], and an effective decentralised [[command structure]]. Broadly speaking, blitzkrieg operations required the development of [[mechanised infantry]], [[self-propelled artillery]] and engineering assets that could maintain the rate of advance of the tanks. German forces avoided direct combat in favour of interrupting an enemy's [[communication|communications]], [[decision-making]], [[logistics]] and of reducing [[morale]]. In combat, blitzkrieg left little choice for the slower defending forces but to clump into defensive pockets that were [[encirclement|encircled]] and then destroyed by following German [[infantry]].
==Etymology and modern meaning==
Though "blitzkrieg" is a German word (literally "lightning war", meaning "a war as fast as a lightning"), the word did not originate from within the German military. It was first used by a [[journalist]] in the American [[newsmagazine]] [[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] describing the 1939 [[Polish September Campaign|German invasion of Poland]]. Published on [[September 25]] 1939, well into the campaign, the journalist's account reads:
:''The battlefront disappeared, and with it the illusion that there had ever been a battlefront. For this was no war of occupation, but a war of quick penetration and obliteration—Blitzkrieg, lightning war. Swift columns of tanks and armored trucks had plunged through Poland while bombs raining from the sky heralded their coming. They had sawed off communications, destroyed stores, scattered civilians, spread terror. Working sometimes 30 miles (50 km) ahead of infantry and artillery, they had broken down the Polish defenses before they had time to organize. Then, while the infantry mopped up, they had moved on, to strike again far behind what had been called the front.{{ref|TIMEety}}''
[[Military history|Military historians]] have defined blitzkrieg as the employment of the concepts of manoeuvre and combined arms warfare developed in Germany during both the [[interwar period]] and the Second World War. Strategically, the ideal was to swiftly effect an adversary's collapse through a short campaign fought by a small, professional army. Operationally, its goal was to use indirect means, such as, mobility and shock, to render an adversary's plans irrelevant or impractical. To do this, self-propelled formations of [[tanks]]; motorised infantry, engineers, artillery; and [[Ground attack aircraft|ground-attack aircraft]] operated as a [[Combined arms|combined-arms team]]. Historians have termed it a period form of the longstanding German principle of ''Bewegungskrieg'', or [[Maneuver warfare|movement war]].
"Blitzkrieg" has since expanded into multiple meanings in more popular usage. From its original military definition, "blitzkrieg" may be applied to any [[military operation]] emphasising the surprise, speed, or concentration stressed in accounts of the [[Polish September Campaign]]. During the war, the [[Luftwaffe]] [[terror bombing]]s of [[London]] came to be known as [[The Blitz]]. Similarly, ''blitz'' has come to describe the "[[Blitz (American football)|blitz]]" (rush) tactic of [[American football]], and the [[Blitz chess|blitz form of chess]] in which players are allotted very little time. Blitz or blitzkrieg is used in many other non-military contexts.
==Interwar period==
===Reichswehr===
Blitzkrieg's immediate development began with Germany's defeat in the First World War. Shortly after the war, the new [[Reichswehr]] created committees of veteran [[German General Staff|officers]] to evaluate 57 issues of the war.{{ref|1}} The reports of these committees formed doctrinal and training publications which were the standards in the Second World War. The Reichswehr was influenced by its analysis of pre-war German military thought, in particular its [[infiltration tactics]] of the war, and the manoeuvre warfare which dominated the [[Eastern Front (WWI)|Eastern Front]].
German military history had been influenced heavilly by [[Carl von Clausewitz]], [[Alfred von Schlieffen]] and [[Helmuth Graf von Moltke|von Moltke the Elder]], who were proponents of manoeuvre, mass, and envelopment. Their concepts were employed in the successful [[Franco-Prussian War]] and attempted "knock-out blow" of the [[Schlieffen Plan]]. Following the war, these concepts were modified by the Reichswehr. Its Chief of Staff, [[Hans von Seeckt]], moved doctrine away from what he argued was an excessive focus on [[encirclement]] towards one based on speed. Speed gives surprise, surprise allows exploitation if decisions can be reached quickly and mobility gives flexibility and speed. Von Seeckt advocated effecting breakthroughs against the enemy's centre when it was more profitable than encirclement or where encirclement was not practical. Under his command a modern update of the doctrinal system called "Bewegungskrieg" and its associated tactical system called "[[Auftragstaktik]]" was developed which resulted in the popularly known blitzkrieg effect. He additionally rejected the notion of mass which von Schlieffen and von Moltke had advocated. While reserves had comprised up to four-tenths of German forces in pre-war campaigns, von Seeckt sought the creation of a small, professional (volunteer) military backed by a defence-oriented [[militia]]. In modern warfare, he argued, such a force was more capable of offensive action, faster to ready, and less expensive to equip with more modern weapons. The Reichswehr was forced to adopt a small and professional army quite aside from any German plans, for the [[Treaty of Versailles]] limited it to 100,000 men.
Bewegungskrieg required a new command hierarchy that allowed military decisions to be made closer to the unit level. This allowed units to react and make effective decisions faster, which is a critical advantage and a major reason for the success of Blitzkrieg.
German leadership had also been criticised for failing to understand the technical advances of the First World War, having given [[History of the tank|tank production]] the lowest priority and having conducted no studies of the [[machine gun]] prior to that war.{{ref|2}} In response, German officers attended [[technical school]]s during this period of rebuilding after the war.
[[Infiltration tactics]] invented by the German Army during the First World War became the basis for later tactics. German infantry had advanced in small, decentralised groups which bypassed resistance in favour of advancing at weak points and attacking rear-area communications. This was aided by co-ordinated artillery and air bombardments, and followed by larger infantry forces with heavy guns, which destroyed centres of resistance. These concepts formed the basis of the [[Wehrmacht]]'s tactics during the Second World War.
On the war's Eastern Front, combat did not bog down into [[trench warfare]]. German and Russian armies fought a war of manoeuvre over thousands of miles, giving the German leadership unique experience which the trench-bound Western Allies did not have.{{ref|3}} Studies of operations in the East led to the conclusion that small and coordinated forces possessed more combat worth than large, uncoordinated forces.
===Foreign influence===
During this period, all the war's major combatants developed mechanised force theories. Theories of the Western Allies differed substantially from the Reichswehr's. British, French, and American doctrines broadly favoured a more set-piece battle, less combined arms focus, and less focus on concentration. Early Reichswehr periodicals contained many translated works, though they were often not adopted. Technical advances in foreign countries were, however, observed and used in-part by the Weapons Office. Foreign doctrines are widely considered to have had little serious influence.{{ref|14}}
Col. [[Charles de Gaulle]], in [[France]], was a known advocate of concentration of armour and aeroplanes — views that little endeared him to the French high command, but are claimed by some to have influenced [[Heinz Guderian]]. [http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article_print.php?id_article=20]
British theorists [[J.F.C. Fuller]] and [[B. H. Liddell Hart]] have often been associated with blitzkrieg's development, though this is a matter of controversy. It is argued that [[Guderian]], a critical figure in blitzkrieg's conception, drew some of his inspiration from Hart. This was based on a paragraph in the English edition of Guderian's autobiography in which he credits Hart. In opposition, it is argued that Hart, as editor of the autobiography's English edition, wrote that paragraph himself or, more broadly, that his influence on Guderian was not as significant as held. Fuller's influence is less clear. During the war, he developed plans for massive, independent tank operations and was subsequently studied by the German leadership. It is variously argued that Fuller's wartime plans and post-war writings were an inspiration, or that his readership was low and German experiences during the war received more attention.
What is clear is the practical implementation of this doctrine in a wide and successful range of scenarios by Guderian and other Germans during the war. From early combined-arms river crossings and penetration exploitations during the advance in France in 1940 to massive sweeping advances in Russia in 1942, Guderian showed a mastery and innovation that inspired many |
//www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/babtism.html Lots of articles about Infant Baptism and Believer's Baptism from a Reformed and Protestant Perspective]
*[http://www.anabaptistnetwork.com/node/view/162 Adult Baptism in the Early Church: Some evidence from Ireland]
[[Category:Baptism]]
[[Category:Anabaptism]]
[[Category:Baptist]]
[[Category:Restoration Movement]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]
[[de:Gläubigentaufe]]
[[sv:Vuxendop]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baptism</title>
<id>4298</id>
<revision>
<id>42101727</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:09:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.173.83.76</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Attention see talk}}
[[Image:Baptism - Marcellinus and Peter.jpg|frame|Baptism in early Christian art.]]
'''Baptism''' is any water purification ritual practiced in many of various [[religion]]s including [[Christianity]], [[Mandaeanism]], and [[Sikhism]], and has its origins with the [[Judaism|Jewish]] ritual of ''[[mikvah]]''. The word ''baptize'' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word βάπτειν (the infinitive; also listed as the 1st person singular present active indicative &beta;&alpha;&pi;&tau;ί&zeta;&omega;), which loosely means "to dip, bathe, or wash". To some groups it is a matter of religious conviction to assert that ''baptism'' is precisely equivalent to, ''to plunge something entirely into the water, so that the water closes over it.''
Today, baptism is most readily identified with [[Christianity]], where it symbolizes the cleansing (remission) of sins, and the union of the believer with Christ in His death, burial and resurrection so that he becomes one of [[Christ's Faithful]]. The Christian ritual of baptism traces back to the [[baptism of Jesus]] by [[John the Baptist]], who the [[Bible]] says baptized [[Jesus]], as well as many Jewish Israelites and [[Gentiles]] in the [[Jordan River]]. Baptism among [[Christian]]s is performed by ''aspersion'' (sprinkling water over the head), ''infusion'' (pouring water over the head) or full ''immersion'' (lowering the entire body into a pool of water). The choice to be baptized is made by a 'confessing believer' ([[believer's baptism|believer baptism]], or [[credobaptism]]), regardless of age, as a 'confession' or public profession of his or her [[faith]] in [[Christ]]; or on behalf of the child by his or her parents ([[paedobaptism]]) if the parents had themselves been baptized, and professed faith. Some churches practice [[credobaptism]] and some practice [[paedobaptism]], and some churches practice both. Some practice immersion, some practice pouring, and some practice sprinkling. There are differences in views about the nature and practice of Christian baptism.
[[Martin Luther]], for example, placed great importance on baptism. Luther states in ''[[Luther's Large Catechism|The Large Catechism]]'' of [[1529]],
:"To put it most simply, the power, effect, benefit, fruit, and purpose of Baptism is to save. No one is baptized in order to become a prince, but as the words say, to 'be saved.' To be saved, we know, is nothing else than to be delivered from sin, death, and the devil and to enter into the kingdom of Christ and live with him forever."
In contrast, some Baptist groups deny that baptism has any such power, but rather only testifies outwardly to the operation of God's power, which is invisible, internal, and completely 'separate' from the rite itself. Other Baptist groups teach and [[preach]] that the baptism 'ceremony' is 'meaningful and necessary'.
For Christians who baptize by pouring or sprinkling, the washing with water from above pictures the cleansing of one's [[sin|sins]] by the blood of Christ, by the Holy Spirit, who unites the baptized person to Christ in his death, and in His resurrection from the dead. It is administered from above to point to that gift of the life-giving Spirit, and to portray baptism as an act not of man, but of God. In contrast, a person baptized by immersion is enclosed under the water and brought out, to signify cleansing through death and burial with Christ, and consequent raising again in newness of life by the Holy Spirit. Baptism is a public rite, in testimony to others of the [[Divine grace|grace of God]] bestowed upon the person, and as a seal of God's promises in Christ to those who believe.
==Background in Jewish ritual==
{{main|Mikvah}}
Although the term ''baptism'' is not used to describe the Jewish rituals, the purification rites (or ''Mikvah'' - ritual bath) in [[Halakha|Jewish laws]] and tradition are where the ritual of baptism can find its origins. In the [[Tanakh]], and other Jewish texts, bathing for ritual purification was established for specified circumstances &ndash; in order to be restored to a condition of 'ritual purity'. For example, [[Jew|Jews]] who become ritually 'defiled' by contact with a corpse (according to the [[Law of Moses]]), had to use the mikvah before being alowed to participate in the Holy Temple. Immersion is required for [[Ger tzedek|converts to Judaism]] as part of their conversion. Through practices such as these, immersion in the mikveh represent purification and restoration, and qualification for full religious participation in the life of the community. (See [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] Chapter 19)
In modern times, the adherence and observance of the laws, rituals, and customs regarding the ''mikvah'' differ greatly among the [[Jewish denominations]]. Due to the destruction of the Holy Temple, these days, immersion in a Mikvah has no practical purpose; but many [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] and [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Jews do so anyway, in order to 'increase purity'. The only modern exception is that after [[menses]], women need to immerse in a ''mikvah'' in order to be permitted to her husband. For more details see [[niddah]].
==Explanation==
[[Image:Girl at catholic christening.jpg|thumb||A Catholic baptism]]
The Christian explanation of baptism as the definitive rite, by which the baptized person is indicated to be fully- qualified for participation in the life of the Church, begins with the career of [[John the Baptist]], who was the cousin of [[Jesus]]. Those who believe that John was a [[prophet]] identify baptism with his message concerning [[repentance]] in preparation for the coming of the [[Messiah]].
:"He [John] went into all the country around the [[Jordan River|Jordan]], preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of [[sin]]s. As is written in the book of the words of Isaiah the prophet: "A voice of one calling in the desert, 'Prepare the way for the Lord, make straight paths for him. Every valley shall be filled in, every mountain and hill made low. The crooked roads shall become straight, the rough ways smooth. And all mankind will see God's salvation.'" [http://bible.gospelcom.net/cgi-bin/bible?passage=Luke+3%3A3-6&x=12&y=8&NIV_version=yes&language=english Luke 3:3-6, NIV]
:"Produce fruit in keeping with repentance." [http://bible.gospelcom.net/cgi-bin/bible?passage=Luke+3%3A8&x=12&y=8&NIV_version=yes&language=english Luke 3:8, NIV]
John declared that [[repentance]] was necessary, prior to [[forgiveness]]. There must be a return to God. This implies that the stain of sin is not ineradicable, but can be removed by putting off polluting acts and returning to "the way of the Lord", all of which was symbolized in his baptism.
Christians believe that John also taught that his baptism was not finally sufficient, and that repentance would not attain to its goal of separation from sin, apart from a greater baptism which it was not in his power to give. According to the [[Gospel of Luke]], John taught, "I baptize you with water; but one comes who is stronger than I, of whom I am not worthy to untie the strap of his sandals; he will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire; his winnowing fork is in his hand to clean out his threshing floor and to gather the wheat into his storehouse, but the chaff he will burn with inextinguishable fire." ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke 3,16-17]]) Christians believe that John's baptism shows that the effort to make oneself acceptable to God by repentance would be superseded, made complete by the coming of the [[Lamb of God]] that 'takes away' (not 'covers over') sins.
According to the [[Gospel of John]], after John baptized Jesus, he testified concerning him,
:"I have seen the Spirit coming down as a dove from heaven, and it remained upon him. And I had not known him, but the one who sent me to baptize with water, that one said to me, On whomever you see the Spirit coming down and remaining upon him, this is the one baptizing with the Holy Spirit. And I have seen, and I have testified that this is the [[son of God]]." ([[Gospel of John|John 1,32-34]])
:"Behold the Lamb of God, that takes away the sins of the world."
From this point on, water baptism became identified with the followers of Jesus, who preached "Repent, for the [[kingdom of God]] is near," and explicitly identified the coming of the kingdom with his own appearing.
At the end of his recorded ministry, Jesus charged the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] to baptize "in the name of Father, Son and Holy Spirit" in the [[Great Commission]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/index.php?search=Matthew+28:19 Matthew 28:19]), which has become the common formula for baptizing. The Apostles are recorded baptizing only in the name of Jesus in the [[Book of Acts]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/index.php?search=acts+2:38;acts+8:16;acts+10:48;acts+19:5 Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5]) - a fact which figures prominently among groups who reject the [[trinitarian formula]].
==Ecumenical statement==
The [[Christian ecumenism |
ent]] system much like modern Japanese.
A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese are the five tones of [[Standard Mandarin]] applied to the syllable "ma". The tones correspond to these five [[Chinese character|characters]]:
{{Ruby notice}}
*{{Ruby|媽/妈|mā}} "mother" — '''high level'''
*{{Ruby|麻|má}} "hemp" — '''high rising'''
*{{Ruby|馬/马|mǎ}} "horse" — '''low falling-rising'''
*{{Ruby|罵/骂|mà}} "scold" — '''high falling'''
*{{Ruby|嗎/吗|ma}} question particle — '''neutral'''
{{Listen|filename=zh-pinyin_tones_with_ma.ogg|title=Listen to the tones|description=This is a recording of the four main tones. Fifth, or neutral, tone is not included.}}.
==Romanization==
[[Romanization]] is the process of transcribing a language in the Latin alphabet. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese languages; this is due to the complex history of interaction between China and the West, and to the Chinese languages' lack of phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western [[Christianity in China|Christian missionaries]] of the [[16th century]], but may have been written down by Western travelers or missionaries of earlier periods.
At present, the most common romanization system for Standard Mandarin is [[Hanyu Pinyin]], also known simply as Pinyin. Pinyin is the official Mandarin romanization system for the People's Republic of China, and the official one used in [[Singapore]] (see also [[Chinese language romanisation in Singapore]]). Pinyin is also very commonly used when teaching Mandarin in schools and universities of North America and Europe.
Perhaps the second-most common system of romanization for Mandarin is [[Wade-Giles]]. This system was probably the most common system of romanization for Mandarin before Hanyu Pinyin was developed. Wade-Giles is often found in academic use in the U.S., and until recently was widely used in Taiwan (Taipei city now officially uses Hanyu Pinyin and the rest of the island officially uses Tōngyòng Pinyin).
Here are a few examples of Hanyu Pinyin and Wade-Giles, for comparison:
<!-- Please feel free to add Yale, Postal or whatever other examples you know, but I don't know those systems. [[User:Jiawen|Jiawen]] 07:27, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC) -->
{|class="wikitable"
|+'''Mandarin Romanization Comparison'''
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Characters !! style="background:#efefef;" | Wade-Giles !! style="background:#efefef;" | Hanyu Pinyin !! style="background:#efefef;" | Notes
|-
| 中國|| Chung<sup>1</sup>-kuo²|| Zhōngguó || "China"
|-
| 北京 || Pei³-ching<sup>1</sup> || Běijīng || Capital of the People's Republic of China
|-
| 台北 || T'ai²-pei³ || Táiběi || Capital of the Republic of China
|-
| 毛澤東 || Mao² Tse²-tung<sup>1</sup> || Máo Zédōng || Former Communist Chinese leader
|-
| 蔣介石 || Chiang³ Chieh<sup>4</sup>-shih² || Jiǎng Jièshí || Former Nationalist Chinese leader
|-
| 孔子 || K'ung³ Tsu³ || Kǒng Zǐ || "Confucius"
|}
Regardless of system, tone transcription is often left out, either due to difficulties of typesetting or propriety for audience. Wade-Giles' extensive use of easily-forgotten apostrophes adds to the confusion. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with Beijing than they will be with Běijīng, and with Taipei than with T'ai²-pei³.
Regardless of romanization, the words are pronounced the same. Learning a system of romanization requires occasional deviations from the learner's own language, so, for example, Hanyu Pinyin uses "q" for very different values than an English speaker would probably be used to; the sound represented is similar to the English "ch", but pronounced further forward (an aspirated alveolo-palatal fricative, /tɕʰ/). This is a cause of confusion but is unavoidable, as Mandarin (and any language transcribed) will have phonemes different from those of the learner's own. On the other hand, this can be beneficial, since learners can immediately be made aware of the fact that they will have to learn a new pronunciation. With languages that use similar [[orthography]], the temptation to pronounce words just as in one's mother tongue can lead to great misunderstanding.
There are many other systems of romanization for Mandarin, as well as systems for Cantonese, Minnan, Hakka, and other Chinese languages.
==Other Transcriptions==
Chinese languages have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The [[phagsba]] script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciation of pre-modern forms of Chinese.
[[Zhuyin]] is still widely used in Taiwan's elementary schools. A comparison table of [[Zhuyin]] to [[Pinyin]] exists in the [[Zhuyin]] page. Syllables based on [[Pinyin]] and [[Zhuyin]] can also be compared by looking at the following pages:
*[[Pinyin table]]
*[[Zhuyin table]]
There are also at least two systems of [[cyrillization]] for Chinese. The most widespread is the [[Cyrillization of Chinese from Pinyin|Palladius system]].
==Morphology==
Chinese [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is strictly bound to a set number of [[syllable]]s with a fairly rigid construction which are the [[morpheme]]s, the smallest building blocks, of the language. Some of these single-syllable morphemes can stand alone as individual [[word (linguistics)|word]]s, but contrary to what is often claimed, Chinese is not a monosyllabic language. Most words in the modern Chinese spoken varieties are in fact multisyllabic, consisting of more than one morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more.
The confusion arises in how one thinks about the language. In the Chinese writing system, each individual single-syllable morpheme corresponds to a single character, referred to as a ''zì'' (字). Most Chinese speakers think of words as being ''zì'', but this view is not entirely accurate. Many words are multisyllabic, and are composed of more than one ''zì''. This composition is what is known as a ''cí'' (詞), and more closely resembles the traditional Western definition of a word. However, the concept of ''cí'' was historically a technical linguistic term that until only the past century, the average Chinese speaker was not aware of. Even today, most Chinese speakers think of words as being ''zì''. This can be illustrated in the following Mandarin Chinese sentence ([[romanization|romanized]] using [[pinyin]]):
:''Jīguāng, zhè liǎngge zì shì shénme yìsi?''
:激光, 這兩個字是甚麼意思?
:激光, 这两个字是什么意思?
The sentence literally translates to, "''Jī'' 激 and ''guāng'' 光, these two ''zì'' 字, what do they mean?" However, the more natural English translation would probably be, "''Laser'', this word, what does it mean?" Even though ''jīguāng'' 激光 is a single word, speakers tend to think of its constituents as being separate (Ramsey, 1987).
Old Chinese and Middle Chinese had many more monosyllabic words due to greater variability in possible sounds. The modern Chinese varieties lost many of these sound distinctions, leading to [[homonym]]s in words that were once distinct. Multisyllabic words arose in order to compensate for this loss. Most natively derived multisyllabic words still feature these original monosyllabic morpheme roots. Many Chinese morphemes still have associated meaning, even though many of them no longer can stand alone as individual words. This situation is analogous to the use of the English [[prefix]] ''pre-''. Even though ''pre-'' can never stand alone by itself as an individual word, it is commonly understood by English speakers to mean "before," such as in the words ''predawn'', ''previous'', and ''premonition''.
Taking the previous example, ''jīguāng'', ''jī'' and ''guāng'' literally mean "stimulated light," resulting in the meaning, "laser." However, ''jī'' is never found as a single word by itself, because there are too many other morphemes that are also pronounced in the same way. For instance, the morphemes that correspond to the meanings "chicken" 雞/鸡, "machine" 機/机, "basic" 基, "hit" 擊/击, "hunger" 饑/饥, and "sum" 積/积 are also pronounced ''jī'' in Mandarin. It is only in the context of other morphemes that an exact meaning of a ''zì'' can be known. In certain ways, the [[logographic]] writing system helps to reinforce meaning in ''zì'' that are homophonous, since even though several morphemes may be pronounced the same way, they are written using different characters. Continuing with the example, we have:
{| class="wikitable" align=center
|-
!Pinyin
!Traditional Characters
!Simplified Characters
!Meaning
|-
|align=center|''<font color=red>jī</font>guāng''
|align=center style="font-size:larger"|<font color=red>激</font>光
|align=center style="font-size:larger"|<font color=red>激</font>光
|laser ("<font color=red>stimulated</font> light")
|-
|align=center|''<font color=red>jī</font>qǐ''
|align=center style="font-size:larger"|<font color=red>激</font>起
|align=center style="font-size:larger"|<font color=red>激</font>起
|to arouse ("<font color=red>stimulated</font> rise")
|-
|align=center|''<font color=green>jī</font>dàn''
|align=center style="font-size:larger"|<font color=green>雞</font>蛋
|align=center style="font-size:larger"|<font color=green>鸡</font>蛋
|<font color=green>chicken</font> egg
|-
|align=center|''gōng<font color=green>jī</font>''
|align=center style="font-size:larger"|公<font color=green>雞</font>
|align=center |
[Free market]]
*[[Globalization]]
*[[Privatization]]
*[[Liberalization]]
*[[Marketization]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Libertarianism]]
*[[Paleoliberalism]]
== External links==
*[http://www.angelfire.com/rebellion/oldwhig4ever/ ''Liberalism''] by [[Friedrich Hayek]]
*[http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=pb&id=789 fraserinstitute.ca]
*[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ heritage.org]
*[[World's Smallest Political Quiz]]
==References==
*[http://www.cato.org/about/about.html Cato Institute] About the Cato Institute
*[http://www.belmont.edu/lockesmith/essay.html ''The Rise, Decline, and Reemergence of Classical Liberalism''] by Amy H. Sturgis
*Friedman, Milton. Capitalism and Freedom, University of Chicago Press, 1962.
*Friedman, Milton and Rose Friedman. Free to Choose: A Personal Statement, Harcort Brace Janovich, 1980.
*Haworth, A. (1994) ''Anti-libertarianism. Markets, philosophy and Myth'' Routledge
*Hayek, F.A., The Road to Serfdom, University of Chicago Press, 1944.
*Hayek, F.A. The Constitution of Liberty, University of Chicago Press, 1960.
*Katz, C. J., “Thomas Jefferson's Liberal Anticapitalism” American Journal of Political Science Volume 47 (2003)
[[Category:liberalism]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[es:Liberalismo clásico]]
[[nl:Klassiek-liberalisme]]
[[zh:古典自由主义]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cat</title>
<id>6678</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42155049</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:33:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.185.221.250</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Hunting and diet */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Cat breed}}
:''This article is about the domestic cat. For alternative meanings see [[cat (disambiguation)]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cat
| status = {{StatusDomesticated}}
| image = Cat_outside.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[:Images of cats|other images of cats]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Felidae]]
| genus = ''[[Felis]]''
| species = ''[[Wild Cat|F. silvestris]]''
| subspecies = '''''F. s. catus'''''
| trinomial = ''Felis silvestris catus''
| trinomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)
}}
The '''cat''', also called the '''domestic cat''' or '''house cat''', is a small [[felidae|feline]] [[carnivore|carnivorous]] [[mammal]] of the subspecies ''Felis silvestris catus''. Its most immediate pre-[[domestication]] ancestor is believed to be the [[Africa]]n [[wild cat]], ''Felis silvestris lybica''. The cat has been living in close association with [[human]]s for at least 3,500 years; the [[Ancient Egypt]]ians routinely used cats to keep [[mouse|mice]] and other rodents (mostly [[rat]]s) away from their grain (and also believed that cats were sacred to the goddess [[Bast (goddess)|Bastet]]). The history of the domestic cat may stretch back even further, as 8,000-year-old bones of humans and cats were found buried together on the island of [[Cyprus]]<ref>{{cite web | title=Speaking of Animals| url=http://www.judithstock.com/Speaking_of_Animals/History_of_Cats/history_of_cats.html| accessdate=August 15 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>.
A group of cats is referred to as a '''clowder''', while a male cat is called a '''tom''', and a female is called a '''queen''' or '''quean'''. An immature cat is called a '''[[kitten]]''' (which is also an alternate name for young rats, [[rabbit]]s, [[hedgehog]]s, [[beaver]]s, and [[squirrel]]s). In medieval England, kitten was interchangeable with [[catling]]. A cat whose [[genealogy|ancestry]] is formally registered is called a [[purebred cat]], a [[pedigreed cat|pedigree cat]], or a [[show cat]] (although not all show cats are pedigree or purebred). In strict terms, a purebred cat is one whose ancestry contains only individuals of the same breed. A pedigree cat is one whose ancestry is recorded, but may have ancestors of different breeds.
Purebreds are less than one percent of the total feline population. Cats of mixed ancestry are referred to as [[domestic longhair cat|domestic longhairs]] and [[domestic shorthair cat|domestic shorthairs]] or commonly as random-bred, moggies, mongrels, mutt-cats or alley cats. The ratio of pedigree/purebred cats to random-bred cats varies from country to country.
There are [[List of cat breeds|dozens of breeds]] of domestic cats, some [[Sphynx (cat)|hairless]] or [[Manx (cat)|tailless]], and they exist in a variety of different colors. They are skilled [[predator]]s and have been known to hunt over one thousand different [[species]] for food. They are also [[intelligence (trait)|intelligent]] animals: some are able to manipulate simple mechanisms such as lever-handled doors and [[flush toilet]]s. They communicate by calling ("meow"/"miaou"), [[purr]]ing, [[hiss]]ing, growling and gesturing. Because the domestication of the cat is relatively recent, cats may also still live effectively in the wild, often forming small [[colony (biology)|colonies]]. The cat's association with humans leads it to figure prominently in the [[mythology]] and [[legend]]s of several cultures, including the [[ancient Egypt]]ians, [[Viking]]s, and [[China|Chinese]].
==Characteristics==
===Physical===
[[Image:Cat cleaning itself.jpg|thumb|220px|A cat grooming itself]]
Cats typically weigh between 2.5 and 7&nbsp;[[kilogram|kg]] (5.5–16&nbsp;[[pound (weight)|lb]]); however, some breeds, such as the [[Maine Coon]] can exceed 11.3&nbsp;kg (25&nbsp;pounds). Some have been known to reach up to 23&nbsp;kg (50&nbsp;lb), due to overfeeding. This is very unhealthy for the cat, and should be prevented through [[dieting|diet]] and exercise (playing), especially for cats living exclusively indoors.
In captivity, indoor cats typically live 14 to 20 years, though the oldest-known cat lived to age 36.<ref>{{cite web | title=Feline Statistics | url=http://www.pawsonline.info/feline_statistics.htm | accessdate=August 15 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> Domestic cats tend to live longer if they are not permitted to go outdoors (reducing the risk of injury from fights or accidents) and if they are [[spayed or neutered]]. Spaying and neutering a cat also decreases the risk of [[testicular cancer|testicular]] and [[ovarian cancer]], and female cats spayed before their first [[estrus|heat]] or [[litter (animal)|litter]] benefit from reduced risk of [[mammary tumor|mammary cancer]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Spay and Neuter Your Pet Cats | url=http://cats.about.com/od/reproduction/a/spay_neuter.htm | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> [[Feral cat]]s living in modern [[Urbanization|urban]] environments often live only two years, or less. Feral cats in maintained colonies can live much longer; the British Cat Action Trust reported a 19-year-old feral female. The oldest feral cat was ''Mark'' who was maintained by the British charity [[Cats Protection]] and who reached 26 years of age.
Thirty-two individual muscles in the ear allow for a manner of directional hearing; <ref>{{cite web | title=At Home : Care / Health : Understanding Cats | url=http://www.hgtv.com/hgtv/ah_pets_care_health/article/0,1801,HGTV_3152_1380540,00.html | accessdate=August 15 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> the cat can move each ear independently of the other. Thus a cat can move its body in one direction and point its ears in quite another direction (such as pointing backward toward its owner). Most cats have straight [[ear]]s pointing upward. Unlike [[dog]]s, flap-eared breeds are extremely rare. ([[Scottish Fold]]s are one such exceptional [[genetic mutation]].) When angry or frightened, a cat will lay its ears back, to accompany the growling or [[hiss]]ing sounds it makes.
Cats conserve energy by [[sleep]]ing more than most animals, especially as they grow older. Daily durations of sleep are various, usually 12&ndash;16 hours, with 13&ndash;14 being the average. Some cats can sleep as much as 20 hours in a 24-hour period. The term ''cat nap'' refers to the cat's ability to fall asleep for a brief period; someone who nods off for a few minutes is said to be "taking a cat nap".
Due to their nocturnal nature, cats are often known to enter a period of increased hyperactivity and playfulness during the evening, dubbed the 'evening crazies' or 'night crazies' by some. <ref>Animal Doctor (July 9, 2002). "Dear Dr. Fox". ''The Washington Post'', p. C10.</ref> <ref>* Ring, Ken and Romhany, Paul (August 1, 1999). ''Pawmistry: How to Read Your Cat's Paws''. Ten Speed Press (Berkeley, California), p. 10. ISBN 1580081118</ref>
The temperament of a cat can vary depending on the breed and socialization. Shorter haired cats tend to be skinnier and more active, while cats with longer hair tend to be heavier and less active.
The normal [[thermoregulation|body temperature]] of a cat is between 38 and 39&nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]] (101 and 102.2&nbsp;°[[Fahrenheit|F]]).<ref>{{cite web | title=Normal Values For Dog and Cat Temperature, Blood Tests, Urine and other information in ThePetCenter.com | url=http://www.thepetcenter.com/exa/nv.html | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> A cat is considered [[febrile]] if it has a temperature of 39.5&nbsp;°C (103&nbsp;&deg;F) or greater, or [[hypothermic]] if less than 37.5&nbsp;°C (100&nbsp;&deg;F). Comparatively, humans have a normal temperature of approximately 37&nbsp;°C (97 to 100&nbsp;°F). A domestic cat's normal heart rate ranges from 140 to 220 beats per minute, and is largely dependent on how excited the cat is. For a cat at rest, the average heart rate should be between 150 and 180 bpm, depending upon level of activity.
A popular belief holds that cats always land on their |
Michael Dorris]], American author (b. [[1945]])
*[[1999]] - [[Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat]], German-born biochemist (b. [[1910]])
*[[2000]] - [[Peter Jones]], English comedian and scriptwriter (b. [[1920]])
*2000 - [[Larry Linville]], American actor (b. [[1939]])
*[[2002]] - [[Yuji Hyakutake]], Japanese astronomer (b. [[1950]])
*[[2003]] - [[Little Eva]], American singer (b. [[1943]])
*[[2005]] - [[Norbert Brainin]], Austrian violinist (b. [[1923]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Holy Saturday]] ([[2004]])
* [[Good Friday]] ([[1998]])
* [[Passover]] ([[1990]])
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/10 BBC: On This Day]
----
''There is also a song called "[[April Tenth]]" by [[Garbage (band)|Garbage]].''
----
[[April 9]] - [[April 11]] - [[March 10]] - [[May 10]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:10 April]]
[[ar:10 ابريل]]
[[an:10 d'abril]]
[[ast:10 d'abril]]
[[bg:10 април]]
[[be:10 красавіка]]
[[bs:10. april]]
[[ca:10 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 10]]
[[cv:Ака, 10]]
[[co:10 d'aprile]]
[[cs:10. duben]]
[[cy:10 Ebrill]]
[[da:10. april]]
[[de:10. April]]
[[et:10. aprill]]
[[el:10 Απριλίου]]
[[es:10 de abril]]
[[eo:10-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 10]]
[[fo:10. apríl]]
[[fr:10 avril]]
[[fy:10 april]]
[[ga:10 Aibreán]]
[[gl:10 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 10일]]
[[hr:10. travnja]]
[[io:10 di aprilo]]
[[id:10 April]]
[[ia:10 de april]]
[[ie:10 april]]
[[is:10. apríl]]
[[it:10 aprile]]
[[he:10 באפריל]]
[[jv:10 April]]
[[ka:10 აპრილი]]
[[csb:10 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:10'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 10]]
[[lb:10. Abrëll]]
[[li:10 april]]
[[hu:Április 10]]
[[mk:10 април]]
[[ms:10 April]]
[[nap:10 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:10 april]]
[[ja:4月10日]]
[[no:10. april]]
[[nn:10. april]]
[[oc:10 d'abril]]
[[pl:10 kwietnia]]
[[pt:10 de Abril]]
[[ro:10 aprilie]]
[[ru:10 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 10.]]
[[sco:10 Aprile]]
[[sq:10 Prill]]
[[scn:10 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 10]]
[[sk:10. apríl]]
[[sl:10. april]]
[[sr:10. април]]
[[fi:10. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:10 april]]
[[tl:Abril 10]]
[[tt:10. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 10]]
[[th:10 เมษายน]]
[[vi:10 tháng 4]]
[[tr:10 Nisan]]
[[uk:10 квітня]]
[[ur:10 اپریل]]
[[wa:10 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 10]]
[[zh:4月10日]]
[[pam:Abril 10]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach</title>
<id>2565</id>
<revision>
<id>15900964</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T16:39:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Albert of Prussia]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert of Prussia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Academy award</title>
<id>2567</id>
<revision>
<id>41555326</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T03:06:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rdsmith4</username>
<id>61329</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Awards]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aphelion</title>
<id>2568</id>
<revision>
<id>15900967</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-06T03:16:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[apsis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apogee</title>
<id>2569</id>
<revision>
<id>15900968</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-06T03:16:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[apsis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfred Hitchcocks Rope</title>
<id>2571</id>
<revision>
<id>19926603</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-30T16:07:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The JPS</username>
<id>158361</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rope (film)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Rope (film)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arians</title>
<id>2572</id>
<revision>
<id>15900971</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arianism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Angus</title>
<id>2573</id>
<revision>
<id>38950639</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T19:00:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mais oui!</username>
<id>394460</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clarify</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|the council area in Scotland}}
{{infobox Scotland council area|
|Council= Angus council area
|Image= [[Image:ScotlandAngus.png]]
|SizeRank= 10th
|Size= [[1 E9 m²|2,182]] [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]
|Water= ?
|AdminHQ= [[Forfar]]
|ISO= GB-ANS
|ONS= 00QC
|PopulationRank= 19th
|PopulationDate= 2004
|Population= 108,560
|PopulationDensity=50 / km&sup2;
|CouncilDetails= Angus Council<br />http://www.angus.gov.uk/
|Control= [[Scottish National Party|SNP]]
|MPs= <ul><li>[[Stewart Hosie]]<li>[[James McGovern]]<li>[[Michael Weir]]</ul>
|MSPs= <ul><li>[[Andrew Welsh]]<li>[[John Swinney]]</ul>
}}
'''Angus''' (''Aonghas'' in [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]]) is one of the 32 [[Local government in Scotland|local government]] [[council areas]] of [[Scotland]], and a [[Lieutenancy areas of Scotland|lieutenancy area]]. The [[unitary council]] area borders onto [[Aberdeenshire]], [[Perth and Kinross]] and the [[City of Dundee]]. Main industries include [[agriculture]] and [[fishing]].
Angus was historically a [[Counties of Scotland|county]] (occasionally [[anglified]] to "Forfarshire") until [[1975]] when it became a district of the [[Tayside]] [[Regions of Scotland|Region]]. In [[1996]] the region was abolished and Angus was established as a [[unitary authority]]. The former county had borders with [[Kincardineshire]] to the north-east, [[Aberdeenshire (historic)|Aberdeenshire]] to the north, [[Perthshire]] to the west. Southwards, it faced [[Fife]] across the [[Firth of Tay]].
Areas similar to that of the former county are covered by the [[Angus (UK Parliament constituency)|Angus Westminster constituency]] and [[Angus (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Angus Holyrood constituency]].
The area can be split into three geographic areas. To the north and west, the topography is mountainous. This is the area of the five Angus Glens. The area is sparsely populated and the main industry is hill-farming. In the south and east, the topography consists of rolling hills bordering the sea. The area is fairly well populated with the larger towns and the City of Dundee on the coast. In between these two areas lies Strathmore, ''the Great Valley'', a fertile agricultural area, noted for potatoes, [[Angus cattle]], and soft fruit.
==Towns and villages==
*[[Aberlemno, Angus|Aberlemno]]
*[[Arbroath, Angus|Arbroath]] -- largest town
*[[Auchmithie, Angus|Auchmithie]]
*[[Brechin, Angus|Brechin]]
*[[Bridge of Craigisla, Angus|Bridge of Craigisla]]
*[[Carmyllie, Angus|Carmyllie]]
*[[Carnoustie, Angus|Carnoustie]]
*[[Edzell, Angus|Edzell]]
*[[Farnell, Angus|Farnell]]
*[[Forfar, Angus|Forfar]] -- county town and administrative centre
*[[Friockheim, Angus|Friockheim]]
*[[Glamis]]
*[[Guthrie, Angus|Guthrie]]
*[[Inverkeilor, Angus|Inverkeilor]]
*[[Kirriemuir, Angus|Kirriemuir]]
*[[Letham, Angus|Letham]]
*[[Newbigging, Angus|Newbigging]]
*[[Memus, Angus|Memus]]
*[[Monifieth]]
*[[Monikie, Angus|Monikie]]
*[[Montrose, Angus|Montrose]]
*[[St Vigeans, Angus|St Vigeans]]
{{infobox Scotland traditional county|
|County= Angus
|Image= [[Image:AngusTraditional.png|230px]]
|SizeRank= 11th
|Size= 568,750 acres (2302 km&sup2;)
|Water= ?
|CountyTown= [[Forfar]]
|ChapmanCode=ANS
}}
==Places of interest==
*[[Aberlemno Sculptured Stones]] ([[Pictish]] symbols)
*[[Angus Folk Museum]], [[Glamis]]
*[[Arbroath Abbey]], place of signing of the [[Declaration of Arbroath]]
*[[Caledonian Railway (Brechin)]]
*[[Carnlochan NNR]] - [[National Nature Reserve]]
*[[Edzell Castle]]
*[[Glamis Castle]]
*[[Loch of Kinnordy Nature Reserve]]
*[[Montrose Basin]] Nature Reserve
{{Scotland subdivisions}}
{{Scotland traditional counties}}
[[Category:Angus| ]]
[[Category:Counties of Scotland]]
[[fr:Angus (Écosse)]]
[[no:Angus]]
[[pl:Angus]]
[[sv:Angus (grevskap)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apache (disambiguation)</title>
<id>2574</id>
<revision>
<id>40346217</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T23:31:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Qyd</username>
<id>889409</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>apache corporation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Apache''' may refer to:
''Native Americans''
* [[Apache]], Native American tribes of North America (Mexico & USA).
* [[Southern Athabascan languages]] (or Apachean languages), spoken by Apache tribes, i.e. [[Chiricahua]], [[Western Apache]] (includes White Mountain Apache, San Carlos Apache, and Tonto Apache), [[Mescalero]], [[Lipan Apache]], [[Plains Apache]] (a.k.a. Kiowa-Apache), or [[Jicarilla Apache]].
''Military''
* [[MBDA Apache]], a French missile system.
* [[AH-64 Apache]], an attack helicopter.
* [[Westland WAH-64 Apache]], a licence-built version of the AH-64 Apache for the Brit |
important in physics and chemistry are Lie groups, and their representation theory is crucial to the application of group theory in those fields. See [[Representations of Lie groups]] and [[Representations of Lie algebras]].
*''[[Linear algebraic group]]s'' (or more generally ''affine [[group scheme]]s'') &mdash; These are the analogues of Lie groups, but over more general fields than just '''R''' or '''C'''. Although linear algebraic groups have a classification that is very similar to that of Lie groups, and give rise to the same families of Lie algebras, their representations are rather different (and much less well understood). The analytic techniques used for studying Lie groups must be replaced by techniques from [[algebraic geometry]], where the relatively weak [[Zariski topology]] causes many technical complications.
*''Non-compact topological groups'' &mdash; The class of non-compact groups is too broad to construct any general representation theory, but specific special cases have been studied, sometimes using ad hoc techniques. The ''semisimple Lie groups'' have a deep theory, building on the compact case. The complementary ''solvable'' Lie groups cannot in the same way be classified. The general theory for Lie groups deals with [[semidirect product]]s of the two types, by means of general results called ''[[Mackey theory]]'', which is a generalization of [[Wigner's classification]] methods.
Representation theory also depends heavily on the type of [[vector space]] on which the group acts. One distinguishes between finite-dimensional representations and infinite-dimensional ones. In the infinite-dimensional case, additional structures are important (e.g. whether or not the space is a [[Hilbert space]], [[Banach space]], etc.).
One must also consider the type of [[field (mathematics)|field]] over which the vector space is defined. The most important case is the field of [[complex number]]s. The other important cases are the field of [[real numbers]], [[finite field]]s, and fields of [[p-adic number]]s. In general, [[algebraically closed]] fields are easier to handle than non-algebraically closed ones. The [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of the field is also significant; many theorems for finite groups depend on the order of the group not dividing the characteristic of the field.
==Definitions==
A '''representation''' of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' on a [[vector space]] ''V'' over a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K'' is a [[group homomorphism]] from ''G'' to GL(''V''), the [[general linear group]] on ''V''.
That is, a representation is a map
:<math>\rho:G \to GL(V)</math>
such that
:<math>\rho(g_1 g_2) = \rho(g_1) \rho(g_2)</math> for all <math>g_1,g_2 \in G</math>.
''V'' is called the '''representation space''' and the dimension of ''V'' is called the '''dimension''' of the representation. It is common practice to refer to ''V'' itself as the representation when the homomorphism is clear from context (and, often, even when it is not).
In the case where ''V'' is of finite dimension ''n'' it is common to choose a [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] for ''V'' and identify GL(''V'') with GL(''n'', ''K'') the group of ''n''-by-''n'' [[invertible matrix|invertible matrices]].
The '''kernel''' of a representation <math>\rho</math> of a group ''G'' is defined as the normal subgroup of ''G'' whose image under <math>\rho</math> is the identity transformation:
: <math>\ker \rho := \left\{g \in G \mid \rho(g) = id\right\}</math>
A '''faithful''' representation is one in which the homomorphism ''G'' &rarr; GL(''V'') is [[injective]]; in other words, one whose kernel is the trivial subgroup ''{e}'' consisting of just the group's identity element.
Given two ''F'' vector spaces ''V'' and ''W'', two representations
:<math>\rho_1:G \to GL(V)</math>
and
:<math>\rho_1:G\rightarrow GL(W)</math>
are said to be '''equivalent''' or '''isomorphic''' if there exists an vector space isomorphism
:<math>\alpha: W \to V</math>
so that for all ''g'' in ''G''
:<math>\alpha \circ \rho_1(g) \circ \alpha^{-1} = \rho_2(g)</math>
== Examples ==
Consider the complex number ''u'' = e<sup>2&pi;i / 3</sup> which has the property ''u''<sup>3</sup> = 1. The [[cyclic group]] ''C''<sub>3</sub> = {1, ''u'', ''u''<sup>2</sup>} has a representation &rho; on '''C'''<sup>2</sup> given by:
:<math>
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 \\
0 & 1 \\
\end{bmatrix}
\qquad
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 \\
0 & u \\
\end{bmatrix}
\qquad
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 \\
0 & u^2 \\
\end{bmatrix}
</math>
(the three matrices are &rho;(1), &rho;(''u'') and &rho;(''u''<sup>2</sup>) respectively). This representation is faithful because &rho; is a [[injective|one-to-one map]].
An isomorphic represenation for ''C''<sub>3</sub> is
:<math>
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 \\
0 & 1 \\
\end{bmatrix}
\qquad
\begin{bmatrix}
u & 0 \\
0 & 1 \\
\end{bmatrix}
\qquad
\begin{bmatrix}
u^2 & 0 \\
0 & 1 \\
\end{bmatrix}
</math>
== Reducibility ==
A subspace ''W'' of ''V'' that is fixed under the group action is called a ''subrepresentation''. If ''V'' has a non-zero proper subrepresentation, the representation is said to be ''reducible''. Otherwise, it is said to be ''irreducible''.
Under a certain assumption, representations of [[finite group]]s can be decomposed into a [[direct sum]] of irreducible subrepresentations (see [[Maschke's theorem]]). The required assumption is that the [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of the field K does not divide the size of the group. This is true for representations over the [[complex numbers]].
In the example above, the representation given is decomposable into two 1-dimensional subrepresentations (given by span{(1,0)} and span{(0,1)}).
==Generalizations==
===Set-theoretical representations===
A ''set-theoretic representation'' (also known as a [[group action]] or ''permutation representation'') of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' on a [[set]] ''X'' is given by a [[function (mathematics)|function]] &rho; from ''G'' to ''X''<sup>''X''</sup>, the [[set]] of [[function (mathematics)|function]]s from ''X'' to ''X'', such that for all ''g''<sub>1</sub>, ''g''<sub>2</sub> in ''G'' and all ''x'' in ''X'':
:<math>\rho(1)[x] = x</math>
:<math>\rho(g_1 g_2)[x]=\rho(g_1)[\rho(g_2)[x]]</math>
This condition and the axioms for a group imply that &rho;(''g'') is a [[bijection]] (or [[permutation]]) for all ''g'' in ''G''. Thus we may equivalently define a permutation representation to be a [[group homomorphism]] from G to the [[symmetric group]] S<sub>''X''</sub> of ''X''.
For more information on this topic see the article on [[group action]].
===Representations in other categories===
Every group ''G'' can be viewed as a [[category (mathematics)|category]] with a single object; [[morphism]]s in this category are just the elements of ''G''. Given an arbitrary category ''C'', a ''representation'' of ''G'' in ''C'' is a [[functor]] from ''G'' to ''C''. Such a functor selects an object ''X'' in ''C'' and a group homomorphism from ''G'' to Aut(''X''), the [[automorphism group]] of ''X''.
In the case where ''C'' is '''Vect'''<sub>''K''</sub>, the [[category of vector spaces]] over a field ''K'', this definition is equivalent to a linear representation. Likewise, a set-theoretic representation is just a representation of ''G'' in the [[category of sets]].
For another example consider the [[category of topological spaces]], '''Top'''. Representations in '''Top''' are homomorphisms from ''G'' to the [[homeomorphism]] group of a topological space ''X''.
Two types of representations closely related to linear representations are:
*[[projective representation]]s: in the category of [[projective space]]s. These can be described as "linear representations [[up to]] scalar transformations".
*[[affine representation]]s: in the category of [[affine space]]s. For example, the [[Euclidean group]] acts affinely upon [[Euclidean space]].
==See also==
*[[Character theory]]
*[[List of harmonic analysis and representation theory topics]]
[[de:Darstellungstheorie]]
[[es:Representación de grupo]]
[[pl:Reprezentacja grupy]]
[[fr:Représentation des groupes]]
[[Category:Representation theory of groups]]
[[Category:Representation theory]]
[[zh:&#34920;&#31034; (&#32676;)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GRE Physics Test</title>
<id>12696</id>
<revision>
<id>41792169</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:02:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Achoo5000</username>
<id>1009149</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* 9. Specialized topics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[Graduate Record Examination|GRE]] [[Physics]] test''' is an examination administered by the [[Educational Testing Service]]. The test attempts to determine the extent of the examinees' understanding
of fundamental principles of physics and their ability to apply them in
problem solution. Many graduate schools require applicants to take the exam and base admission decisions in part on the results. This puts pressure on undergraduate programs to teach the topics students will need to succeed on the GRE.
The scope of the test is largely that of the first three years of a standard
United States undergraduate physics curriculum, since many students who plan to continue to graduate school apply during the first half of the fourth year. It consists of approximately 100 five-choice questions covering subject areas including classical mechanics and electromagnetism, wave phenomena and optics |
e [[Pali Canon]] is the future Buddha [[Maitreya]] ([[Pāli|Pali]]: Metteyya). The Theravada tradition, i.e., the Pali Canon, speaks of no other bodhisattvas than these.
== Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism ==
In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, a bodhisattva has the compassionate determination to aid all beings on their quest for the highest state of development, full enlightenment of a Buddha. This type of motivation is known as [[bodhicitta]]. Remaining in this world of uncontrolled rebirth (''[[samsara]]''), the Bodhisattva has taken the [[bodhisattva vows|bodhisattva vow]] to achieve Buddhahood as quickly as possible and thereby be most able to teach Dharma until all beings have likewise achieved enlightenment.
Another common conception of the Bodhisattva is one who delays his own final and complete enlightenment in order to save all sentient beings out of his enormous compassion. He is on a mission to liberate all sentient beings, and only then wil he rest and complete his own enlightenment.
In brief, simply imagine the Bodhisattva as saying, "If I know how to swim, and even one other being cannot, then it is right to remain behind in this world to assist them until they know how to save themselves from drowning".
[[Mahayana]] Buddhist philosophy sometimes poses the concept of the bodhisattva in opposition to that of the ''[[Sravaka-Buddha]]'' (conventionally referred to as an [[Arhat]]). The Arhat is seen as being possessed of ultimate enlightenment, but he did not choose to save all and every other living being before passing away into [[Parinirvana]].
According to many traditions within [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, on his or her way to becoming a Buddha, the bodhisattva proceeds through ten, or sometimes fourteen, stages or ''[[bhumi]]''. Below is the list of ten bhumis and their descriptions from ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation'', a treatise by [[Gampopa]], an influential teacher of the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan]] [[Kagyu]] school. Other schools give variant descriptions.
Before a bodhisattva arrives at the first ground, he or she first must travel the first two of the five paths, which are said to correspond to words from the [[mantra]] that appears at the end of the [[Heart Sutra]]:
# the path of accumulation (''gate'')
# the path of preparation (''gate'').
The ten grounds of the bodhisattva then can be grouped into the next three paths
[[Image:MathuraBodhisattvaSide.JPG|thumb|200px|The Bodhisattva [[Maitreya]] practices in a lotus position, [[2nd century|2nd century CE]], [[Mathura]].]]
# Bhumi 1 the path of insight (''paragate'')
# Bhumi 2-7 the path of meditation (''parasamgate'')
# Bhumi 8-10 the path of no more learning (''bodhi'')
==The 10 Grounds of Buddhism==
# ''Great Joy''
#* It is said that being close to enlightenment and seeing the benefit for all [[sentient]] beings, one achieves great joy, hence the name. In this bhumi the bodhisattvas practice all virtues (''[[paramita]]''), but especially emphasizing generosity (''[[dana (Buddhism)|dana]]'').
# ''Stainless''
#* In accomplishing the second bhumi, the bodhisattva is free from the stains of immorality, therefore, this bhumi is named 'Stainless'. The emphasized virtue is moral discipline (''[[sila|śila]]'').
# ''Radiant''
#* The third bhumi is named 'Radiant', because, for a bodhisattva who accomplishes this bhumi, the light of Dharma is said to radiate from the bodhisattva for others. The emphasized virtue is patience (''[[kshanti|kṣanti]]'').
# ''Luminous''
#* This bhumi is called 'luminous', because it is said to be like a radiating light that fully burns that which opposes enlightenment. The emphasized virtue is vigor (''[[virya]]'').
# ''Very difficult to train''
#* Bodhisattvas who attain this bhumi strive to help sentient beings attain maturity, and do not become emotionally involved when such beings respond negatively, both of which are difficult to do. The emphasized virtue is meditative concentration (''[[dhyana|dhyāna]]'').
# ''Obviously Transcendent''
#* "By depending on the perfection of wisdom awareness, he [the bodhisattva] does not abide in either [[samsara|saṃsāra]] or [[nirvana|nirvāṇa]], so it is 'obviously transcendent'". The emphasized virtue is wisdom (''[[prajña]]'').
# ''Gone afar''
#* Particular emphasis is on the perfection of skillful means, or [[upaya-kaushalya]], to help others.
# ''Immovable''
#* The emphasized virtue is aspiration.
#* This, the 'Immovable' bhumi, is the bhumi at which one becomes able to choose his/her place of rebirth.
# ''Good Discriminating Wisdom''
#* The emphasized virtue is power.
# ''Cloud of dharma''
#* The emphasized virtue is the practice of primordial wisdom.
After the ten bhumis, according to Mahayana Buddhism, one attains complete enlightenment and becomes a Buddha.
[[Image: Jiuhuashan_bodhisattva_image.JPG|thumb|190px|right|Relief image of the bodhisattva [[Guan Yin]] from [[Mt. Jiuhua]] in [[China]]'s [[Anhui]] province.]]
Various traditions within Buddhism believe in certain specific bodhisattvas. Some bodhisattvas appear across traditions, but due to language barriers may be seen as separate entities. For example, [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhists]] believe in [[Chenrezig]], who is [[Avalokitesvara]] in India, [[Kuan Yin]] (other spellings: Guan Yin, Kwan Yin, Quan Yin) in China, and [[Kannon]] in Japan. A modern bodhisattva for many is the [[14th Dalai Lama]], considered by many followers of Tibetan Buddhism to be an incarnation of that same bodhisattva, the Bodhisattva of Compassion.
The bodhisattva is a popular subject in [[Buddhist art]].
The place of a bodhisattva's earthly deeds, such as the achievement of [[enlightenment (Buddhism)|enlightenment]] or the acts of [[dharma]], is known as a [[bodhimandala]], and may be a site of [[pilgrimage]]. Many temples and monasteries are famous as bodhimandalas; for instance, the island of [[Putuoshan]], located off the coast of [[Ningbo]], is venerated by Chinese Buddhists as the bodhimandala of [[Avalokitesvara]]. Perhaps the most famous bodhimandala of all is the [[bodhi tree]] under which [[Gautama Buddha|Shakyamuni]] achieved buddhahood.
Some, mainly American convert Buddhists including [[Jack Kerouac]], are recently incorporating [[Jesus]] into Buddhism by claiming he is a bodhisattva.
===Partial list of bodhisattvas===
* [[Akasagarbha]] (Ch. 虛空藏 ''Xu Kong Zang''; Jp. ''Kokūzō''; Vi. ''Hư Không Tạng'')
* [[Avalokitesvara|Avalokiteśvara]] (Ch. 觀世音 ''Guanshiyin''; Jp. ''Kanzeon''; Tib. ''Chenrezig''; Vi. ''Quán Thế Âm'')
* [[Ksitigarbha|Kṣitigarbha]] (Ch. 地藏 ''Dì cáng''; Jp. ''Jizō''; Vi. ''Ðịa Tạng'')
* [[Mahasthamaprapta]] (Ch. 大勢至 ''Da Shì Zhì''; Jp. ''Seishi''; Vi, ''Ðại Thế Chí'')
* [[Maitreya]] (Ch. 彌勒 ''Mi Le''; Jp. ''Miroku''; Vi. ''Di-lặc'')
* [[Manjusri|Mañjuśri]] (Ch. 文殊師利 ''Wen Shu''; Jp. ''Monju''; Tib. ''Jampal Yang''; Vi. ''Văn-thù-sư-lợi'')
* [[Padmasambhava]] (Ch. 蓮華生上師 ''Lianhuasheng Shang Shi''; Tib. ''Padma Jungne'' or ''Guru Rinpoche''; Vi. ''Liên Hoa Sinh'')
* [[Samantabhadra]] (Ch. 普賢 ''Pu Xian''; Jp. ''Fugen''; Tib. ''Kuntu Zangpo''; Vi. ''Phổ Hiền'')
* [[Vajrapani]] (Ch. 金剛手 ''Jin Gang Shou''; Jp. ''Shukongojin''; Tib. ''Channa Dorje''; Vi. ''Kim Cương Thủ'')
==Bodhisattva in popular culture==
*The band [[Steely Dan]] has a song entitled Bodhisattva on their [[1973 in music|1973]] album [[Countdown to Ecstasy]].
*The rap group [[The Beastie Boys]] has a song called Bodhisattva Vow on their album [[Ill Communication]].
*Patrick Swayze's character in Point Break is named Bodhisattva
==References==
* Gampopa; The Jewel Ornament of Liberation; Snow Lion Publications; ISBN 1-55939-092-1
* White, Kenneth R.; The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment: Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo; The Edwin Mellen Press, 2005; ISBN 0-88946-050-7
==External links==
{{commonscat|Bodhisattvas}}
* [http://www.katinkahesselink.net/tibet/bodhisatva.htm Various versions of the Bodhisattva Vow]
* [http://www.bswa.org Hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum.]
* [http://www.buddhism.kalachakranet.org/resources/bodhisattva_vows.html The Bodhisattva Vows as practiced in Tibetan Buddhism]
* [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/bodhisattva The Bodhisattva Ideal - Buddhism and the Aesthetics of Selflessness]
* [http://www.borobudur.tv/mendut_4.htm The group of Eight Great Bodhisattvas at Candi Mendut]
* [http://www.maniacworld.com/Chinese_Dance.html Thousand-hand Bodhisattva Dance]
<br>
{{buddhism2}}
[[Category:Buddhist terms]]
[[Category:Bodhisattvas|*]]
[[da:Bodhisattva]]
[[de:Bodhisattva]]
[[et:Bodhisatva]]
[[es:Bodhisattva]]
[[eo:Bodhisatvo]]
[[fr:Bodhisattva]]
[[it:Bodhisattva]]
[[lv:Bodisatva]]
[[nl:Bodhisattva]]
[[ja:菩薩]]
[[pl:Bodhisattwa]]
[[pt:Bodhisattva]]
[[ru:Бодхисаттва]]
[[fi:Bodhisattva]]
[[sv:Bodhisattva]]
[[vi:Bồ Tát]]
[[zh:菩萨]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Buckingham Palace</title>
<id>3969</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41887919</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:57:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.178.253.206|84.178.253.206]] ([[User talk:84.178.253.206|talk]]) to last version by Antandrus</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:Buckingham Palace, London, England, 24Jan04.jpg|350px|thumb|Buckingham Palace and the [[Victoria Memorial (London)|Victoria Memorial]]. This principal [[Facade (Architecture)|façade]] of 1850 by [[Edward Blore]] was redesigned in 1913 by Sir [[Aston Webb]].]]
'''Buckingham Palace''' is the official [[London]] residence of the [[British monarch]] (or [[sovereign]]), and the largest "working" royal palace remaining in the world. The expression "Buckingham Palace" or simply "The Palace&qu |
he cure.
By [[1780]] Mesmer had more patients than he could treat individually and he established a collective treatment known as the ''[[baquet]]''. An English physician, who observed Mesmer, described the treatment as follows:
:In the middle of the room is placed a vessel of about a foot and a half high which is called here a "baquet". It is so large that twenty people can easily sit round it; near the edge of the lid which covers it, there are holes pierced corresponding to the number of persons who are to surround it; into these holes are introduced iron rods, bent at right angles outwards, and of different heights, so as to answer to the part of the body to which they are to be applied. Besides these rods, there is a rope which communicates between the baquet and one of the patients, and from him is carried to another, and so on the whole round. The most sensible effects are produced on the approach of Mesmer, who is said to convey the fluid by certain motions of his hands or eyes, without touching the person. I have talked with several who have witnessed these effects, who have convulsions occasioned and removed by a movement of the hand...
In [[1784]], without Mesmer requesting it, [[King Louis XVI]] appointed four members of the Faculty of Medicine as commissioners to investigate animal magnetism as practiced by d'Eslon. At the request of these commissioners the King appointed five additional commissioners from the Royal Academy of Sciences. These included the chemist [[Lavoisier]], the physician [[Joseph-Ignace Guillotin]], the astronomer [[Jean Sylvain Bailly]] and the American ambassador [[Benjamin Franklin]].
The commission conducted a series of experiments aimed, not at determining whether Mesmer's treatment worked, but whether he had discovered a new physical fluid. The commission concluded that there was no evidence for such a fluid. Whatever benefit the treatment produced was attributed to "[[imagination]]." In 1785 Mesmer left Paris. His activities over the next twenty years are largely unknown.
== Trivia ==
*Among Mesmer's followers was Armand-Marc-Jacques Chastenet, [[Marquis de Puységur]] ([[1751]]-[[1825]]), who discovered induced or [[artificial somnambulism]].
*Mesmer's name is also the basis of the word ''[[mesmerization]]''.
*A "Mesmer" is a character archetype in the [[video game]] ''[[Guild Wars]]''.
==Works by Franz Mesmer==
*"''De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum''" ("''Über den Einfluss der Gestirne auf den menschlichen Körper''") (1766)
*"''Sendschreiben an einen auswärtigen Arzt über die Magnetkur''" (1775)
*"''Mesmerismus oder System der Wechsel-beziehungen. Theorie und Andwendungen des tierischen Magnetismus''" (1814)
==References==
*Henri Ellenberger, ''The Discovery of the Unconscious,'' (Basic Books, 1970).
*Frank A. Pattie, ''Mesmer and Animal Magnetism: A Chapter in the History of Medicine,'' (Edmonston Publishing, Inc, 1994).
*Darnton, Robert, ''Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France,'' (Schocken Books 1970, and Harvard University Press 1968).
*Gould, Stephen Jay, "The Chain of Reason versus the Chain of Thumbs" in '' Bully for Brontosaurus'' (Penguin, 1991)
*"Report of the Commissioners charged by the King in the examination of Animal Magnetism" (originally published 1784), English translation in ''Skeptic'' magazine of the Skeptic society, vol 4 no 3 1996.
==External links==
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20040710162753/http://www.unbf.ca/psychology/likely/readings/mesmer.htm Mesmer's 27 Propositions (Via archive.org)]
* [http://www.thebakken.org/exhibits/mesmer/ Pictorial web-exhibit] based on a handful of works from the Bakken’s extensive collection of books, pamphlets, manuscripts, and journals documenting the mesmerist movement.
[[Category:1734 births|Mesmer, Franz]]
[[Category:1815 deaths|Mesmer, Franz]]
[[Category:German astrologers|Mesmer, Franz]]
[[Category:Astrologers]]
[[Category:Hypnosis]]
[[de:Franz Anton Mesmer]]
[[es:Franz Anton Mesmer]]
[[fr:Frédéric-Antoine Mesmer]]
[[is:Franz Anton Mesmer]]
[[it:Franz Mesmer]]
[[nl:Franz Anton Mesmer]]
[[pl:Franz Anton Mesmer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Futurism/Manifesto</title>
<id>11804</id>
<revision>
<id>15909526</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-14T17:01:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zigger</username>
<id>42667</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed redirect page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Futurist Manifesto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foix-Alajouanine syndrome</title>
<id>11806</id>
<revision>
<id>40395887</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T06:43:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Crystallina</username>
<id>429935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Foix-Alajouanine syndrome''' is a [[disorder]] caused by an [[arteriovenous malformation]] of the [[spinal cord]]. The patients present with symptoms indicating spinal cord involvement ([[paralysis]] of arms and legs, numbness and loss of sensation and [[sphincter]] dysfunction) and the pathological examination reveal disseminated [[nerve cell]] death in the spinal cord and abnormally dilated and tortuous vessels situated on the surface of the spinal cord. Surgical treatment can be tried in some cases. If surgical intervention is contraindicated, [[corticosteroid]]s may be used.
{{disease-stub}}
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[Category:Neurosurgery]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ferromagnetism</title>
<id>11807</id>
<revision>
<id>40815873</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T04:55:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pollinator</username>
<id>22743</id>
</contributor>
<comment>flossing the plaque</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ferromagnetism''' is a phenomenon by which a material can exhibit a spontaneous magnetization, and is one of the strongest forms of [[magnetism]]. It is responsible for most of the magnetic behavior encountered in everyday life and (including the special case of [[ferrimagnetism]], below) is the basis for all [[permanent magnet]]s (as well as the metals that are noticeably attracted to them).
Historically, the term "ferromagnet" was used for any material that could exhibit spontaneous magnetization: a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external [[magnetic field]]. This general definition is still in common use. More recently, however, different classes of spontaneous magnetization have been identified when there is more than one magnetic ion per [[primitive cell]] of the material, leading to a stricter definition of "ferromagnetism" that is often used to distinguish it from ferrimagnetism. In particular, a material is "ferromagnetic" in this narrower sense only if ''all'' of its magnetic ions add a positive contribution to the net magnetization. If some of the magnetic ions ''subtract'' from the net magnetization (if they are partially ''anti''-aligned), then the material is "ferrimagnetic". If the ions anti-align completely so as to have zero net magnetization, despite the magnetic ordering, then it is an [[antiferromagnet]]. All of these alignment effects only occur at [[temperature]]s below a certain critical temperature, called the [[Curie temperature]] (for ferromagnets and ferrimagnets) or the [[Néel temperature]] (for antiferromagnets).
==Ferromagnetic materials==
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" align="right">
<tr><th>Material</th><th>Curie<br> temp. (K)</th></tr>
<tr><td>[[Cobalt|Co]]</td><td>1388</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Iron|Fe]]</td><td>1043</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Magnetite|FeOFe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>]]<sup>*</sup></td><td>858</td></tr>
<tr><td>NiOFe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub><sup>*</sup></td><td>858</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Copper|Cu]]OFe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub><sup>*</sup></td><td>728</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Magnesium|Mg]]OFe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub><sup>*</sup></td><td>713</td></tr>
<tr><td>Mn[[Bismuth|Bi]]</td><td>630</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Nickel|Ni]]</td><td>627</td></tr>
<tr><td>Mn[[Antimony|Sb]]</td><td>587</td></tr>
<tr><td>MnOFe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub><sup>*</sup></td><td>573</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Yttrium iron garnet|Y<sub>3</sub>Fe<sub>5</sub>O<sub>12</sub>]]<sup>*</sup></td><td>560</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Chromium|Cr]][[Oxide|O]]<sub>2</sub></td><td>386</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Manganese|Mn]][[Arsenic|As]]</td><td>318</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Gadolinium|Gd]]</td><td>292</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Dysprosium|Dy]]</td><td>88</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Europium|Eu]]O</td><td>69</td></tr>
<!-- The numbers in this table currently come from Kittel, as referenced in the text. Please don't add new numbers without adding the corresponding reference. -->
<caption align=bottom><small>A selection o |
that the U.S. would appear to the world as weak in its own hemisphere. Many military officials and cabinet members pressed for an air assault on the missile sites but Kennedy ordered a naval [[quarantine]] in which the U.S. Navy inspected all ships. He began negotiations with the Soviets and a week later, he and Soviet Premier [[Nikita Khrushchev]] reached an agreement. Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles while the U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba, and also secretly promised to remove U.S. ballistic missiles from [[Turkey]] and [[Italy]] within six months. Following this incident, which brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or since, Kennedy was more cautious in confronting the Soviet Union.
[[Image:Kennedyarms.png|thumb|left|200px|The [[coat of arms]] of John F Kennedy blazoned ''Sable three helmets in profile Or within a bordure per saltire Gules and Ermine''.]]
Arguing that "those who make peaceful revolution impossible, make violent revolution inevitable", Kennedy sought to contain [[communism]] in [[Latin America]], by establishing the [[Alliance for Progress]], which sent aid to troubled countries in the region and sought greater [[human rights]] standards in the region. He worked closely with [[Puerto Rican]] [[Governor of Puerto Rico|Governor]] [[Luis Muñoz Marín]] for the development of the Alliance of Progress, as well as developments on the autonomy of the Commonwealth of [[Puerto Rico]].
Another example of Kennedy's belief in the ability of non-military power to improve the world was the creation of the [[Peace Corps]], one of his first acts as president. Through this program, which still exists today, Americans volunteered to help underdeveloped nations in areas such as [[education]], [[farming]], [[health care]], and [[construction]].
Kennedy also used limited military action to contain the spread of communism. Determined to stand firm against the spread of communism, Kennedy continued the previous administration's policy of political, economic, and military support for the unstable [[South Vietnam|South Vietnamese]] government, which included sending military advisers and U.S. Special Forces to the area. U.S. involvement in the area continually escalated until regular U.S. forces were directly fighting the [[Vietnam War]] in the next administration.
On [[June 26]], [[1963]] Kennedy visited [[West Berlin]] and gave a public speech criticizing communism. While Kennedy was speaking, some people on the other side of the wall in [[East Berlin]] were applauding Kennedy and showing their distaste for [[Soviet]] control. Kennedy used the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] as an example of the failures of communism "[[Freedom]] has many difficulties and [[democracy]] is not perfect, but we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in." The speech is known for its famous phrase ''"[[Ich bin ein Berliner]]"''.
Troubled by the long-term dangers of [[radioactive contamination]] and [[Nuclear proliferation|nuclear weapons proliferation]], Kennedy also pushed for the adoption of a Limited or [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but does not prohibit testing underground. The United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to the Treaty. Kennedy signed the Treaty into law in August 1963, and believed it to be one of the greatest accomplishments of his administration.
On the occasion of his visit to [[Ireland]] in 1963, President Kennedy joined with Irish President [[Eamon de Valera]] to form The [[American Irish Foundation]]. The mission of this organization was to foster connections between Americans of Irish descent and the country of their ancestry. Kennedy furthered these connections of cultural solidarity by accepting a grant of [[armorial bearings]] from the [[Chief Herald of Ireland]]. {{see|The Ireland Funds}}
===Domestic policies===
[[Image:JFKMLK.jpg|thumb|left|200px|JFK in the [[Oval Office]] with various civil rights activists including [[Martin Luther King Jr]]]]
Kennedy used the term [[New Frontier]] as a label for his domestic programs. It ambitiously promised federal funding for [[education]], [[health care]] for the [[Old age|elderly]], and government intervention to halt the [[recession]]. Kennedy also promised an end to [[racial discrimination]].
The turbulent end of state-sanctioned racial discrimination was one of the most pressing domestic issues of Kennedy's era. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] had ruled in 1954 that [[racial segregation]] in public schools would no longer be permitted. However, there were many schools, especially in southern states, that did not obey this decision. There also remained the practice of segregation on buses, in restaurants, movie theaters, and other public places.
Kennedy started his fight for civil rights when he appealed to African-American voters during his campaign in 1962.
In 1962, [[James Meredith]] tried to enroll at the [[University of Mississippi]], but he was prevented by white students. Kennedy responded by sending some 400 federal marshals and 3000 troops to ensure that Meredith could enroll in his first class.
Kennedy also assigned [[United States Marshals Service|federal marshals]] to protect the [[Freedom Riders]].
Thousands of Americans of all races and backgrounds joined Kennedy in protesting racial discrimination. Kennedy supported [[racial integration]] and civil rights, and during the 1960 campaign he telephoned [[Coretta Scott King]], wife of the jailed Rev. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], which drew much black support to his candidacy. However, as president, Kennedy initially believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would only anger many Southern whites and make it even more difficult to pass civil rights laws through Congress, which was dominated by Southern Democrats, and he distanced himself from it. As a result, many civil rights leaders viewed Kennedy as unsupportive of their efforts. It is also notable that Kennedy approved warrantless wiretaps and covert surveillance of King and other civil rights leaders.
On [[June 11]], President Kennedy intervened when the Governor of Alabama, [[George Wallace]], blocked the doorway to the [[University of Alabama]] to stop two black students, [[Vivian Malone]] and [[James Hood]], from enrolling. George Wallace moved aside after being confronted by [[federal marshals]], Deputy Attorney General [[Nicholas Katzenbach]], and the Alabama [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]. That evening Kennedy gave his famous Civil Rights Address on national television and radio, applying the [[Golden Rule (ethics)|golden rule]] to U.S. race relations.[http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/johnfkennedycivilrights.htm] Kennedy proposed what would become the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].
[http://www.mass.gov/statehouse/statues/jfk_landing.htm]
[http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/39.htm]
Also on the domestic front, in 1963 Kennedy proposed a [[tax reform]] that included income [[tax cuts]], but this was not passed by the Congress until after his death in 1964. It is one of the largest tax cuts in modern U.S. history, surpassing the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] tax cut of 1981.
===Support of space programs===
[[Image:JFKNASA.jpg|thumb|right|200px|JFK looks at the spacecraft [[Mercury Atlas 6|Friendship 7]], the spacecraft that made three earth orbits, piloted by astronaut [[John Glenn]].]]
Kennedy was eager for the United States to lead the way in the [[space race]]. [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s son [[Sergei Khrushchev|Sergei]] has said that JFK approached his father twice for a 'joint venture' in space exploration in June 1961 and Autumn 1963. On the first occasion Russia was far ahead of America, and Khrushchev then said 'nyet' ("no"). Kennedy later made a speech at [[Rice University]] in September 1962, in which he said, "no nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space" and "we choose to go to the [[Moon]] in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard."[http://webcast.rice.edu/speeches/19620912kennedy.html]. On the second approach to Khrushchev, the Soviet premier was persuaded that cost sharing was beneficial, and American space technology was forging ahead - the U.S. had launched a [[geostationary orbit|geostationary]] satellite, and Kennedy had asked Congress to approve more than 22 billion dollars for [[Project Apollo]], which had the goal of landing an American man on the Moon before the end of the decade. Khrushchev agreed to a joint venture in Autumn 1963, but JFK died in November before the agreement could be formalised.
In 1969, six years after Kennedy's death, the Project Apollo goal was finally realized when [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] became the first humans to [[Moon Landing|land on the Moon]].
===Administration and Cabinet===
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''John F. Kennedy'''||align="left"|1961&ndash;1963
|-
|align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]'''||align="left"|1961&ndash;1963
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|ali |
"sculptures" have been attempted with great success. The balloon decorating industry offers everything from simple balloon columns to stunning, very large and detailed sculptures.
'''[[Water balloon]]s''' are thin, small rubber balloons intended to be easily broken. They are usually used by children, who throw them at each other, trying to get each other wet - see [[practical joke]].
==Balloons in medicine==
[[Angioplasty]] is a surgical procedure in which very small balloons are inserted into blocked or partially blocked [[blood vessel]]s near the heart. Once in place, the balloon can be inflated to clear or compress [[arterial plaque]], and to stretch the walls of the vein. A small [[stent]] can be inserted in its place to keep the vessel open after the balloon's removal. See [[myocardial infarction]].
Certain [[catheters]] have balloons at their tip to keep them from slipping out, for example the balloon of a [[Foley catheter]] is insufflated when the catheter is inserted into the [[urinary bladder]] and secures its position.
== Records ==
=== Maximum flight heights ===
'''Manned Balloon'''
The altitude record for manned balloons is 34668 metres. It was made by Malcolm D. Ross and Victor E. Prather over the Gulf of Mexico in 1961.
'''Unmanned Balloon'''
The altitude record for unmanned balloons is (1991 edition of Guinness Book) 51.8 kilometres. The vehicle was a Winzen-Balloon with a volume of 1.35 million cubic metres, which was launched in October 1972 in Chico, California, USA. This is the greatest altitude ever reached by a flying object requiring the surrounding air. Higher altitudes can only be reached by ballistic vehicles such as [[rocket]]s, [[rocket plane]]s or [[projectile]]s.
== Balloon tank ==
See [[Atlas (rocket)]].
== Usage of Balloons on other planets ==
In 1984 the Russian space probe [[Vega program|Vega]] released two [[aerobot]]s into the atmosphere of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]], from which signals were received for two days.
== Balloons in movies ==
* ''The Balloonatic'' (1923)
* ''The Wizard of Oz'' (1939)
* ''Trottie True'' (1949)
* ''Globex's messy break'' (1954)
* ''Around the World in Eighty Days'' (1956)
* ''The Red Balloon'' (1956)
* ''Stowaway in the Sky'' (1960)
* ''Mysterious Island'' (1961)
* ''Five Weeks in a Balloon'' (1962)
* ''The Great Race'' (1965)
* ''Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines, or How I Flew from London to Paris in 25 hours 11 minutes'' (1965)
* ''Charlie Bubbles'' (1967)
* ''Chitty Chitty Bang Bang'' (1968)
* ''The Great Bank Robbery'' (1969)
* ''The Muppet Movie'' (1979)
* ''The Chipmunk Adventure'' (1987)
* ''Batman'' (1989)
* ''Around the World in 80 Days'' (2004)
== See also ==
* [[Aerobot]]
* [[Balloon fetish]]
* [[Balloon mail]]
* [[Balloon animal]]
* [[Balloon modelling]]
* [[Dragon ballooning]]
* [[Radiosonde]]
* [[Rockoon]]
* [[Speech balloon]]
== External links ==
{{Commons2|Balloons}}
*[http://www.art-of-balloon-animals.ask-the-monkey.com Work of a typical balloon artist]
*[http://www.mbfloyd.com Balloon art instructions and gallery]
*[http://www.wilderdom.com/games/descriptions/gamesballoons.html Guide to Games & Activities with Balloons]
[[Category:Parties]]
[[Category:Balloons| ]]
[[de:Ballon]]
[[hu:Hőlégballon]]
[[nl:Ballon]]
[[ja:風船]]
[[pl:Balon]]
[[sv:Ballong]]
[[vi:Khí cầu]]
[[zh:气球]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bell curve</title>
<id>4787</id>
<revision>
<id>21411097</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-20T04:21:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pterodactyler</username>
<id>306418</id>
</contributor>
<comment>The Bell Curve is not primarily about race</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">* The graph of the [[probability density function]] of the [[normal distribution]] is sometimes called '''''the bell curve''''' or '''''the bell-shaped curve'''''; see [[normal distribution]].
* ''[[The Bell Curve]]'' is a [[controversial book]] that examines intelligence as a factor in US social problems.
* [[Bell curve grading]] is a method of grading examinations.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Body mass index</title>
<id>4788</id>
<revision>
<id>41681302</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T00:55:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.92.176.116</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Problems */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''body mass index''' ('''BMI''') or '''Quetelet Index''' is a [[quotient]] of body mass which takes into account both height and weight measured as '''kg/m<sup>2</sup>''', and is used as a simple means of classifying sedentary individuals into groups in relation to their body mass. Despite the fact it only takes into consideration 2 dimensions of the human body, it is only used as a quotient of an individual's body mass, which in clinical practice would be used in correlation with a body mass index chart. It was originally developed between [[1830]] and [[1850]] by the [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[polymath]], [[Adolphe Quetelet]] during the course of developing "social physics". Despite its age, is still used today by government health bodies to see trends in health and illness.
:<math>\mbox{BMI} = \frac{weight (kg) }{height (m) ^2}</math>
== Uses ==
=== Statistical device ===
[[Image:Body mass index-weightheight.jpg|thumb|left|An example of a somewhat older body mass index chart.]]
The Body Mass Index is generally used as a means of correlation between groups related by general mass and can serve as a basic means of estimating [[adipose tissue|adiposity]]. However, the duality of the Body Mass Index is, that, whilst easy-to-use as a general calculation, it is limited in how accurate and pertainant the data obtained from it can be. Generally, the Index is suitable for recognising trends within sedentary or overweight individuals because there is a smaller margin for errors {{ref|jeuken}}.
This general correlation is particularly useful for consensus data regarding obesity or various other conditions because it can be used to build a semi-accurate representation from which a solution can be stipulated, or the [[Recommended Dietary Allowance|RDA]] for a group can be calculated. Similarly, this is becoming more and more pertinent to the growth of children, due to the majority of their exercise habits. {{ref|barasi}}
The growth of children is usually documented against a BMI-measured growth chart. Obesity trends can be calculated from the difference between the child's BMI and the BMI on the chart. However, this method again falls prey to the obstacle of body composition: many children who are generally born, or grow as an [[Endomorphic|endomorph]], would be classed as obese despite body composition. Clinical professionals should take into account the child's body composition and defer to an appropriate technique such as [[densiometry]].
Although the BMI is a relatively simple and quick process for calculating overall body mass, as with any data estimation that spans masses there are likely to be anomalies and errors of ranging proportion.
=== Clinical practice ===
BMI is typically used as a means of estimating body mass, and can be calculated without the need for any equipment other than those for measuring height and weight. BMI can have a varying margin of error because it is merely a rough estimate of body mass which does not take into account factors such as body composition or muscular mass. {{ref|jeuken}}
Despite this inaccuracy, the BMI is generally regarded as accurate when calculating if a sedentary individual is classed as obese, and has been used by the [[World Health Organization|'''WHO''']] as the standard for recording obesity statistics since the early [[1980]]s. The reasoning for the use of the BMI in sedentary individuals is because body composition is thought to be a lesser factor; the use of other, more advanced body composition techniques would be seen as extraneous.
Patients who are young or elderly, underweight or have high muscular mass would create fluctuations in the accuracy of the results from using the BMI, due to differentiations in muscular mass, or bone density (within children). In such cases, any doubt would result in the practitioner deferring to other techniques as a means of attaining more accurate results. If the correct mass of an individual is essential; e.g. in the case of a calorie or energy controlled weight-gain diet, then more accurate tests such as a [[skinfold]] measurement or [[bioelectrical impedance analysis]] would be required.
=== Problems ===
The duality of the Body Mass Index is that, whilst being an easy-to-use quotient for body mass of sedentary individuals, it is a very imprecise calculation outside of sedentary groups. It is calculated using only two dimensions of the human body, due to the fact that the majority of the calculation was based on the intuition of its creator, and not through [[experimental design]]. For example; comparison of a bodybuilder and a sedentary or obese individual of the same weight and height would produce similar results, which would be designated obese; regardless of the body composition of either.
Of course, at that time was not yet known, so that Quatelet was working strictly from intuition. Unfortunately his intuition was only 2/3 correct. His equation assumes a two dimensional human body, which just isn't so. As a practical consequence, his results are too high for short people and too low for for tall people.
As a general rule, developed muscle contributes more to weight than fat; and it is through this fact that the body mass index can be readily classed as widely erroneous. It could be stipulated that long-distance or endurance athletes would be classified as underweight, despite the fact that the individual could be widely regarded as the perfect composite for their particular sport. However, with |
ergy oppose all forms of FGC) may or may not involve the removal of part of the clitoris as well as the prepuce [http://www.medsci.ox.ac.uk/gazette/volume54-1/03/].
''Type I'' circumcision is defined by the [[World Health Organisation]] as clitoridotomy and perhaps excision of part or all of the clitoris (clitoridectomy; see following section). However, some authors (e.g.., [http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2905103.html Cohen]) define type I as at least partial removal of the clitoris.
From the late [[19th century]] until the [[1950s]], it and other more invasive procedures, including excision of the clitoris and [[infibulation]] were practiced in Western countries to control female sexuality, and were advocated in the [[United States]] by groups like the [[Orificial Surgery Society]] until [[1925]]. According to Paige, doctors advocating or performing these procedures claimed that girls of all ages would otherwise engage in more [[masturbation]] and be "polluted" by the activity, which was referred to as "[[self-abuse]]" [http://www.noharmm.org/paige.htm].
Through the [[1950s]], some doctors continued to advocate clitoridotomy for hygienic reasons or to reduce masturbation. For example, C.F. McDonald wrote in a [[1958]] paper titled ''Circumcision of the Female'' [http://www.noharmm.org/circumfemale.htm],[http://www.courtchallenge.com/refs/fgm2.gif], "If the male needs circumcision for cleanliness and hygiene, why not the female? I have operated on perhaps 40 patients who needed this attention." The author describes symptoms as "irritation, scratching, irritability, masturbation, frequency and urgency," and in adults, smegmaliths causing "[[dyspareunia]] and frigidity." The author then reported that a two-year old was no longer masturbating so frequently after the procedure. Of adult women, the author stated that "for the first time in their lives, sex ambition became normally satisfied." In the U.S., the last documented clitoridotomy to reduce sexual activity occurred in [[1958]]. The procedure was performed on a 5-year-old girl, reportedly to stop her from masturbating. Justification of the procedure on hygienic grounds, or to reduce masturbation, has since declined. The view that masturbation is a cause of mental and physical illness has dissipated since the mid-20th century [http://www.afraidtoask.com/masturbate/History.htm].
A few [http://sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000160EE-E53A-1C67-B882809EC588ED9F doctors] and [http://www.tantra.co.nz/yoni/circumsision.htm others] advocate clitoridotomy of adults, promoting it as a way of increasing sexual sensitivity and [[sexual pleasure]]. One claim is that a large clitoral hood may make stimulation of the [[clitoris]] difficult. Websites promoting the practice [http://www.circlist.com/femalecirc/anatfemale.html Circlist], [http://bmezine.com bmezine] and [http://www.geocities.com/hoodectomy/hoodectomy.html The Clitoral Hood Removal Information Page] contain testimonials and two of them provide summaries of medical [http://www.geocities.com/hoodectomy/MedicalStudies.htm studies], including several finding that the majority of women reported improved sensation following the procedure (for example, 87.5% in [http://www.circlist.com/femalecirc/femalecirc.html Rathmann's] 1959 study, and 75% in Knowles', as quoted in the summary of studies mentioned previously).
An increasing number of women are requesting circumcision and [http://www.geocities.com/hoodectomy/Web.htm reporting] enhanced sexual enjoyment. Doctors who can perform this operation are [http://www.geocities.com/hoodectomy/Where.htm available] and [http://www.altermd.com/ some] have their own [http://www.drloftusplasticsurgery.com/ websites] with details of this and other procedures.
===Clitoridectomy===
'''Clitoridectomy''' means the partial or total removal of the external part of the clitoris. It was sometimes practiced in English-speaking nations in the first half of the Twentieth Century to stop masturbation. [http://www.fgmnetwork.org/articles/duffy.htm]. It is, however, quite common in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa, east-Africa, Egypt, Sudan, and the Arabian Peninsula.
''Type II'' circumcision is more extensive than ''type I'', meaning clitoridectomy and sometimes also removal of the [[labia minora]].
(There are reports that some women in certain "alternative lifestyles" communities in the United States have sought clitoridectomy because they are intrigued by the drama of the sacrifice involved with having their sensitive clitoris removed, while others seek the procedure in the hope that the pleasure in their buttocks and anal region will be greatly enhanced if the distraction of genital sensation is eliminated.)
Neurectomy, or severing of the pubic nerve to permanently numb the genitals and approximate the effect of a clitoridectomy was performed on institutionalized girls and women around the turn of the 20th Century in America and Australia, and electrical cauterization of the clitoris was reported to have been occasionally performed on mental patients in the USA to stop them from masturbating as recently as 1950.
The kind of things that sometimes happened to girls and women were documented in Alex Comfort's book, "The Anxiety Makers", Panther Edition, London, 1968:
:About 1858, Dr Isaac Baker Brown, later president of the Medical Society of London, introduced the operation of clitoridectomy for the consequences of what he coyly calls 'peripheral excitement'. These, in his view, included epilepsy, hysteria and the convulsive disorders generally. (page 109)
In 1866 Brown published a series of 48 of such cases. This caused what Comfort called an 'almighty row'. Dr Baker Brown was ejected from the Obstetrical Society. Comfort says (page 111) that 'clitoridectomy fortunately disappeared from England'. However, it was taken up in the United States:
:In 1894, we find Dr. Eyer of the St. John's Hospital, Ohio, dealing with nervousness and masturbation in a little girl by cauterizing the clitoris; this failing, a surgeon was called in to bury it with silver wire sutures - which the child tore and resumed the habit. The entire organ was then excised, with the crura. Six weeks after the operation the patient is reported as saying, 'You know there is nothing there now, so I could do nothing.' (Comfort, ibid, page 111)
Comfort says that this concern about masturbation 'did not really die out completely until the 1940s with the statistical studies of [[Kinsey]]' (Comfort, ibid, page 119)
===Infibulation===
The form of female circumcision regarded as the most severe is ''Type III'', which is also referred to as ''[[infibulation]]'' or ''pharaonic circumcision''. This is often carried out by a "gedda," or matron of the village, without [[Anaesthesia|anaesthetic]], on girls between the ages of two and six.
Infibulation replaces the [[vulva]] with a wall of flesh from the [[pubis]] to the [[anus]], except for a pencil-size opening at the inferior portion of the vulva to allow [[urine]] and [[Menstruation|menstrual blood]] to pass through. A reverse infibulation is where the opening is left in the anterior part of the vulva in front of the [[uretha]]. After excision, the labia are sewn together, and since the skin is abraded and raw after being cut, the two surfaces will join via the natural healing and scar-formation process to form a smooth surface. The girl's legs are tied together for around two weeks to prevent her from moving the wound. [http://www.cirp.org/pages/female/pieters1]
The sewn-together labia majora are slightly opened before [[sexual intercourse]] by the girl's [[Marriage|husband]] &mdash; girls will often be married at 12&ndash;16 years old &mdash; or by his female relatives, whose responsibility it is to inspect the wound every few weeks and open it some more if necessary.
During [[childbirth]], the enlargement is too small to allow vaginal delivery, and so the infibulation must be opened completely and restored after delivery. Once again, the legs are tied together to allow the wound to heal, and the procedure is repeated for each subsequent act of intercourse or childbirth. When childbirth takes place in a hospital, the surgeons may preserve the infibulation by enlarging the vagina with deep [[Episiotomy|episiotomies]]. Afterwards, the patient may insist that her vagina be closed again so that her husband does not reject her. [http://www.cirp.org/pages/female/pieters1]
This practice is reported to cause the disappearance of sexual pleasure for the women affected, as well as major medical complications, although advocates of the practice deny this, and continue to carry it out. <!--Do we have a source showing that the advocates deny whatever it is they deny?-->
===Other types of female circumcision===
Other forms are collectively referred to as ''Type IV''. This includes a diverse range of practices, including pricking the clitoris with needles, burning or scarring the genitals as well as ripping or tearing of the vagina. Type IV is found primarily among isolated ethnic groups as well as in combination with other types.
==Areas of practice==
[[Image:Fgm_map.gif|250px|thumb|right|Prevalence of female genital cutting in Africa]]
Female genital cutting is today mainly practiced in [[Africa]]n countries. It is common in a band that stretches from [[Senegal]] in West Africa to [[Somalia]] on the East coast, as well as from [[Egypt]] in the north to [[Tanzania]] in the south. In these regions, it is estimated that more than 95% of all women have undergone this procedure. It is also practiced by some groups in the Arabian peninsula [http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/femgen/fgm1.htm], especially among a minority (20%) in [[Yemen]].
Although it is practiced by African Christians, Jews and Muslims alike, it is also known to exist throughout the [[Middle |
e from 250 to 350 hp (190 to 260 kW).
The automobile motor from [[Europe]] had a bigger range, varying from 1to12 cylinders with corresponding differences in overall size, weight, piston displacement, and cylinder bores. Four cylinders and power ratings from 19 to 120 hp (14 to 90 kW) were followed in a majority of the models. Several three-cylinder, two-stroke-cycle models were built while most engines had straight or in-line cylinders. There were several V-type models and horizontally opposed two- and four-cylinder makes too. Overhead camshafts were frequently employed. The smaller engines were commonly air-cooled and located at the rear of the vehicle; compression ratios were relatively low. The 1970s and '80s saw an increased interest in improved fuel economy which brought in a return to smaller V-6 and four-cylinder layouts, with as many as five valves per cylinder to improve efficiency.
==Air-breathing engines==
[[Air-breathing engine]]s use atmospheric air to oxidise the fuel carried, rather than carrying an oxidiser, as in a [[rocket]]. Theoretically, this should result in a better [[specific impulse]] than for rocket engines.
Air-breathing engines include:
*[[Internal combustion engine]]
*[[Jet engine]]
*[[Ramjet]]
*[[Scramjet]]
*[[Pulse detonation engine]]
*[[Pulse jet]]
*[[Liquid air cycle engine]]/[[SABRE]]
==References==
* J. G. Landels, ''Engineering in the Ancient World'', ISBN 0520041275
==See also==
*[[Spacecraft propulsion]]
*[[Aircraft engine]]
*[[Air engine]]
*[[Car engine]]
*[[Electric motor]]
*[[Motorcycle engine]]
*[[External-combustion engine]]
**[[Steam engine]]
**[[Steam turbine]]
**[[Stirling engine]]
*[[Internal-combustion engine]]
**[[Controlled Combustion Engine]]
**[[Gas turbine]]
**[[Jet engine]]
**[[Rocket]]
**[[Diesel engine]]
**[[Gasoline engine]]
**[[HCCI|HCCI engine]]
**[[Radial engine]]
**[[Stelzer engine]]
**[[Orbital engine]]
**[[Wankel engine]]
**[[Quasiturbine]]
*[[Outboard motor]]
*[[Timeline of motor and engine technology]]
*[[Turbine]]
*[[Water turbine]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Engines}}
* [http://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine.htm How stuff works: Cars Engines]
* [http://www.keveney.com/Engines.html Engines working. Animation]
[[Category:Engines|*]]
[[Category:Engine technology]]
[[Category:Mechanical engineering]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[ar:محرك]]
[[cs:Motor]]
[[da:Kraftmaskine]]
[[de:Kraftmaschine]]
[[hr:Motor]]
[[fr:moteur]]
[[he:מנוע]]
[[it:Motore]]
[[ja:&#12456;&#12531;&#12472;&#12531;]]
[[nl:Motor]]
[[no:Motor]]
[[pl:silnik]]
[[ru:&#1044;&#1074;&#1080;&#1075;&#1072;&#1090;&#1077;&#1083;&#1100;]]
[[zh:&#21457;&#21160;&#26426;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extropian</title>
<id>9642</id>
<revision>
<id>15907515</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-14T07:05:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merging into Extropianism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Extropianism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economic and monetary union</title>
<id>9643</id>
<revision>
<id>41814790</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:50:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trjumpet</username>
<id>130742</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{trade bloc}}
''This article covers the general information on the topic. For information about the EMU of the [[European Union]] see [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|here]].''
An '''economic and monetary union''' is a [[single market]] with a common currency. It is to be distinguished from a mere [[currency union]] (e.g. the [[Latin Monetary Union]] in the 1800s), which does not involve a single market.
This is the fifth stage of [[economic integration]].
EMU is established through a currency-related [[trade pact]].
== List of Economic and Monetary Unions ==
===Current===
* The [[Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union]] has been in place since [[1921]], though has largely been subsumed by [[Benelux]] and the [[Eurozone]].
* The largest economic and monetary union at present is the [[Eurozone]]. The Eurozone consists of the [[European Union]] [[European Union member states|member states]] that have completed the third stage of the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]] and have adopted the [[Euro]] plus some [[Eurozone#Nations with formal agreements with the EU|non-EU members]].
===Proposed===
* Economic and monetary union of the [[Caribbean Community]]
* Economic and monetary union of the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS)
* Economic and monetary union of the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] (GCC), due in 2010
* Economic and monetary union of the [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC), due in 2016
* Economic and monetary union of the [[South American Community of Nations]] (CSN), due in 2019
* Economic and monetary union of the [[African Economic Community]] (AEC), due in 2028
==See also==
* [[Monetary Union]] (Currency Union)
==External links==
* [http://euabc.com/index.phtml?word_id=314 Economic and Monetary Union, EMU] – on the [http://euabc.com euabc.com] website
[[Category:International trade]]
[[cs:Evropská měnová unie]]
[[da:ØMU]]
[[de:Europäische Wirtschafts- und Währungsunion]]
[[ga:Limistéar an eoró]]
[[it:Unione Economica e Monetaria]]
[[nl:Economische en Monetaire Unie]]
[[sv:Ekonomiska och monetära unionen]]
[[uk:Європейський валютний союз]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Environment Agency</title>
<id>9644</id>
<revision>
<id>40363140</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:48:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{EU Agency | name=European Environment Agency
| image name=EEA agency logo.svg
| location=[[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]]
| pillar=[[European Communities]]
| signdate=[[1990]]
| establish=[[1994]]
| director=[[Jacqueline McGlade]]
| website=[http://www.eea.eu.int http://www.eea.eu.int]
}}
'''European Environment Agency''' (EEA), agency of the [[European Union]] devoted to establishing a monitoring network for the monitoring of the European environment. It is governed by a Management Board composed of representatives of the governments of member states, a [[European Commission]] representative and two scientists appointed by the [[European Parliament]], assisted by a committee of scientists.
It was established by EEC Regulation 1210/1990, as amended by EEC Regulation 933/1999; and became operational in [[1994]]. It is headquartered in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]].
As a EU body, member states of the European Union are automatically members; however the Council Regulation establishing it provided that other states may become members of it by means of agreements concluded between them and the [[European Community]].
[[As of 2004]] it has 31 members. It was the first EU body to open its membership to the 13 candidate countries (pre-[[enlargement of the EU|2004 enlargement]]). As of 2004 membership is:
* 25 EU member states
* EEA members ([[Iceland]], [[Norway]], [[Liechtenstein]])
* Candidate countries: [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Turkey]].
Negotiations on membership are in progress with [[Switzerland]].
==External links==
*[http://www.eea.eu.int Website]
[[Category:Agencies of the European Union]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations]]
[[de:Europäische Umweltagentur]]
[[es:Agencia Europea de Medio Ambiente]]
[[fr:Agence européenne pour l'environnement]]
[[pl:Europejska Agencja Środowiska]]
[[tr:Avrupa Çevre Ajansı]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EV</title>
<id>9645</id>
<revision>
<id>40665841</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T04:03:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eliseosoto</username>
<id>238494</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added Eddie Vedder</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''eV''' may mean:
* [[Electronvolt]], a unit of energy
'''e.V.''' may mean:
* ''[[Eingetragener Verein]]'', a registered club in Germany
'''EV''' may mean:
* [[Atlantic Southeast Airlines]], IATA airline designator
* [[Eaton Vance]], stock symbol for a company dealing in financial products
* Electoral Vote, a vote by a member of the [[U.S. Electoral College]]
* [[Electric vehicle]], a vehicle using an electric motor instead of an internal combustion engine
* [[Electro-Voice]], a company which makes microphones and other audio equipment
* ''Era vulgaris'', the Latin translation of [[Common Era]] (CE)
* [[Escape velocity]], the minimum velocity needed to escape the gravitational field of a planet or other body
* [[Escape Velocity (computer game)]], a role-playing computer game
* [[Exavolt]], an SI unit of electromotive force
* [[Expected value]], a basic concept in the mathematical field of probability
* [[Exposure value]], a combination of shutter speed and aperture in photography
* [[Enterprise value]], a term used in valuation of companies and investments
* [[Eddie Vedder]], frontman for the band [[Pearl Jam]]
'''Ev''' may mean:
* Ev, a fairy country which appears in the book ''[[Ozma of Oz]]''
* [[Ev Olcott]], a musician who usually just uses the name "Ev"
{{2LCdisambig}}
[[de:EV]]
[[ko:EV]]
[[it:Ev]]
[[ja:EV]]
[[pl:EV]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erlang programming language</title>
<id>9646</id>
<revision>
<id>41895983</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:05:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>149.254.120.136</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other sites */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Erlang''' is a general-purpose [[concurrent programming l |
mpleted a relay-based computer he dubbed the "Model K" (for "<b>k</b>itchen", where he had assembled it), which calculated using binary addition. Bell Labs thus authorized a full research program in late [[1938]] with Stibitz at the helm. Their [[Complex Number Calculator]], completed [[January 8]], [[1940]], was able to calculate [[complex numbers]]. In a demonstration to the [[American Mathematical Society]] conference at [[Dartmouth College]] on [[September 11]], [[1940]], Stibitz was able to send the Complex Number Calculator remote commands over telephone lines by a [[teletype]]. It was the first computing machine ever used remotely over a phone line. Some participants of the conference who witnessed the demonstration were [[John Von Neumann]], [[John Mauchly]], and [[Norbert Wiener]], who wrote about it in his memoirs.
In [[1938]] [[John Vincent Atanasoff]] and [[Clifford E. Berry]] of Iowa State University developed the [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]] (ABC), a special purpose electronic computer for solving systems of linear equations. The design used over 300 vacuum tubes for high speed and employed capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory. Though the ABC machine was not programmable, it was the first modern computer in several other respects, including the first to use binary math and electronic circuits. [[ENIAC]] co-inventor [[John Mauchly]] visited the ABC while it was still under construction in June 1941, and its influence over the design of the [[ENIAC]] is a matter of contention among computer historians. The ABC was largely forgotten until it became the focus of the lawsuit [[Honeywell v. Sperry Rand]], which invalidated the [[ENIAC]] patent.
In [[1939]], development began at IBM's Endicott laboratories on the [[Harvard Mark I]]. Known officially as the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, the Mark I was a general purpose electro-mechanical computer built with IBM financing and with assistance from some IBM personnel under the direction of [[Harvard]] mathematician [[Howard Aiken]]. Its design was influenced by the Analytical Engine. It was a decimal machine which used storage wheels and rotary switches in addition to electromagnetic relays. It was programmable by punched paper tape, and contained several calculators working in parallel. Later models contained several paper tape readers and the machine could switch between readers based on a condition. Nevertheless, this does not quite make the machine Turing-complete. The Mark I was moved to [[Harvard University]] to begin operation in May [[1944]].
[[Image:Eniac.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[ENIAC]] performed ballistics trajectory calculations with 160kW of power.]]
The US-built [[ENIAC]] (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), often called the first electronic general-purpose computer, publicly validated the use of electronics for large-scale computing. This was crucial for the development of modern computing, initially because of the enormous speed advantage, but ultimately because of the potential for miniaturization. Built under the direction of [[John Mauchly]] and [[J. Presper Eckert]], it was 1,000 times faster than its contemporaries. ENIAC's development and construction lasted from [[1941]] to full operation at the end of [[1945]]. When its design was proposed, many researchers believed that the thousands of delicate valves (i.e. vacuum tubes) would burn out often enough that the ENIAC would be so frequently down for repairs as to be useless. It was, however, capable of up to thousands of operations per second for hours at a time between valve failures.
ENIAC was unambiguously a Turing-complete device. To 'program' ENIAC, however, meant to rewire it--some say this does not even qualify as programming, otherwise any type of rebuilding some limited computer might be viewed as programming. At the time, however, unaided calculation was seen as enough of a triumph to view the ''solution of a single problem'' as the object of a program. (Improvements completed in 1948 made it possible to execute stored programs set in function table memory, which made programming less a ''one-off'' effort, and more systematic.)
All machines at that date still lacked what came to be known as the [[von Neumann architecture]].
===Colossus===
[[Image:Colossus.jpg|thumbnail|right|Colossus was used to break German ciphers during [[World War II]].]]
During [[World War II]], the British at [[Bletchley Park]] achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption machine, [[Enigma (machine)|Enigma]], was attacked with the help of electro-mechanical machines called ''[[bombe]]s''. The [[bombe]], designed by [[Alan Turing]] and [[Gordon Welchman]], after Polish ''[[Bomba (cryptography)|bomba]]'', ruled out possible Enigma settings by performing chains of logical deductions implemented electrically. Most possibilities led to a contradiction, and the few remaining could be tested by hand.
The Germans also developed a series of teleprinter encryption systems, quite different from Enigma. The [[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] machine was used for high-level Army communications, termed "[[Tunny]]" by the British. The first intercepts of Lorenz messages began in [[1941]]. As part of an attack on Tunny, Professor [[Max Newman]] and his colleagues helped specify the [[Colossus computer|Colossus]]. The Mk I Colossus was built in 11 months by [[Tommy Flowers]] and his colleagues at the [[Post Office Research Station]] at [[Dollis Hill]] in London and then shipped to [[Bletchley Park]].
[[Colossus computer|Colossus]] was the first totally ''electronic'' computing device. The Colossus used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of [[boolean logic]]al operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete. Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines in total). Details of their existence, design, and use were kept secret well into the 1970s. Winston Churchill personally issued an order for their destruction into pieces no larger than a man's hand. Due to this secrecy the Colossi were not included in many histories of computing. A reconstructed copy of one of the Colossus machines is now on display at Bletchley Park.
===Konrad Zuse's Z-series===
[[Image:Zuse Z1.jpg|thumb|250px|A reproduction of Zuse's Z1 computer.]]
Working in isolation in [[Nazi Germany]], [[Konrad Zuse]] started construction in [[1936]] of his first Z-series calculators featuring memory and (initially limited) programmability. Zuse's purely mechanical, but already binary [[Z1]], finished in [[1938]], never worked reliably due to problems with the precision of parts.
Zuse's subsequent machine, the [[Z3]], was finished in [[1941]]. It was based on telephone relays and did work satisfactorily. The Z3 thus became the first functional program-controlled computer. In many ways it was quite similar to modern machines, pioneering numerous advances, such as [[Floating Point|floating point number]]s. Replacement of the hard-to-implement decimal system (used in [[Charles Babbage]]'s earlier design) by the simpler binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. This is sometimes viewed as the main reason why Zuse succeeded where Babbage failed.
Programs were fed into [[Z3]] on punched films. Conditional jumps were missing, but since the 1990s it has been proved theoretically that Z3 was still a [[Turing machine|universal computer]] (ignoring its physical storage size limitations). In two [[1937]] [[patent]]s, [[Konrad Zuse]] also anticipated that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data - the key insight of what became known as the [[Von Neumann architecture]] and was first implemented in the later British EDSAC design ([[1949]]). Zuse also claimed to have designed the first higher-level [[programming language]], ([[Plankalkül]]), in [[1945]], although it was never formally published until [[1971]], and was implemented for the first time in [[2000]] by the [[Free University of Berlin]] -- five years after Zuse died.
Zuse suffered setbacks during [[World War II]] when some of his machines were destroyed in the course of [[Allies|Allied]] bombing campaigns. Apparently his work remained largely unknown to engineers in the UK and US until much later, although at least IBM was aware of it as it financed his post-war startup company in [[1946]] in return for an option on Zuse's patents.
==First generation von Neumann machines==
The first working [[Von Neumann architecture|von Neumann machine]] was the Manchester "Baby" or [[Small-Scale Experimental Machine]], built at the [[University of Manchester]] in 1948; it was followed in [[1949]] by the [[Manchester Mark I]] computer which functioned as a complete system using the [[Williams tube]] for memory, and also introduced [[index register]]s. The other contender for the title "first digital stored program computer" was [[EDSAC]], designed and constructed at the [[University of Cambridge]]. Operational less than one year after the Manchester "Baby", it was capable of tackling real problems. EDSAC was actually inspired by plans for EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), the successor of ENIAC; these plans were already in place by the time the ENIAC was successfully operational. Unlike the ENIAC, which used parallel processing, EDVAC used a single processing unit. This design was simpler and was the first to be implemented in each succeeding wave of miniaturization, and increased reliability.
Some view Manchester Mark I / EDSAC / EDVAC as the "Eves" from which nearly all current computers derive their architecture.
The first universal |
the user while those near the bottom are logically closer to the physical transmission of the data.
Each layer has an [[upper layer protocol]] and a [[lower layer protocol]] (except the top/bottom protocols, of course) that either use said layer's service or provide a service, respectively.
Viewing layers as providing or consuming a service is a method of [[abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]] to isolate upper layer protocols from the nitty gritty detail of transmitting bits over, say, [[ethernet]] and [[Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection|collision detection]] while the lower layers avoid having to know the details of each and every application and its protocol.
This abstraction also allows upper layers to provide services that the lower layers cannot, or choose not, to provide.
For example, IP is designed to not be reliable and is a [[best effort delivery]] protocol.
This means that all [[transport layer]] must address whether or not to provide reliability and to what degree.
UDP provides data integrity (via a [[checksum]]) but does not guarantee delivery; TCP provides both data integrity and delivery guarantee (by retransmitted until the receiver receives the packet).
===OSI model comparison===
There is some discussion about how to map the TCP/IP model onto the OSI model. Since the TCP/IP and OSI protocol suites do not match precisely, there is no one correct answer.
In addition, the OSI model is not really rich enough at the lower layers to capture the true layering; there needs to be an extra layer (the Internetworking layer) between the Transport and Network layers. Protocols specific to a particular network type, but which are run on top of the basic hardware framing, ought to be at the Network layer. Examples of such protocols are [[Address resolution protocol|ARP]] and the [[Spanning Tree Protocol]] (used to keep redundant [[Network bridge|bridge]]s idle until they are needed). However, they are local protocols and operate beneath the internetwork functionality. Admittedly, placing both groups (not to mention protocols which are logically part of the internetwork layer, but run on top of the internetwork protocol, such as [[ICMP]]) all at the same layer can be confusing, but the OSI model is not complex enough to do a better job.
The following diagram attempts to show where various TCP/IP and other protocols would reside in the original OSI model:
{| cellpadding="5" cellspacing="1"
|-
|7||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Application'''
|e.g. [[HTTP]], [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol|SMTP]], [[Simple Network Management Protocol|SNMP]], [[File transfer protocol|FTP]], [[Telnet]], [[Session Initiation Protocol|SIP]], [[Secure Shell|SSH]], [[Network File System|NFS]], [[RTSP]], [[XMPP]], [[Whois]], [[Endpoint Handlespace Redundancy Protocol|ENRP]]
|-
|6||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Presentation'''
|e.g. [[External Data Representation|XDR]], [[Abstract Syntax Notation 1|ASN.1]], [[Server message block|SMB]], [[Apple Filing Protocol|AFP]], [[NetWare Core Protocol|NCP]]
|-
|5||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Session'''
|e.g. [[Aggregate Server Access Protocol|ASAP]], [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]], [[SSH]], ISO 8327 / CCITT X.225, [[Remote procedure call|RPC]], [[NetBIOS]], [[AppleTalk|ASP]], [[Winsock]], [[Berkeley sockets|BSD sockets]]
|-
|4||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Transport'''
|e.g. [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], [[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]], [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol|SCTP]], [[Sequenced packet exchange|SPX]], [[AppleTalk|ATP]], [[IL Protocol|IL]]
|-
|3||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Network'''
|e.g. [[Internet Protocol|IP]], [[Internet control message protocol|ICMP]], [[Internet group management protocol|IGMP]], [[IPX]], [[Border Gateway Protocol|BGP]], [[OSPF]], [[Routing information protocol|RIP]], [[IGRP]], [[EIGRP]], [[Address resolution protocol|ARP]], [[RARP]], [[X.25]]
|-
|2||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Data Link'''
|e.g. [[Ethernet]], [[Token ring]], [[HDLC]], [[Frame relay]], [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]], [[Asynchronous Transfer Mode|ATM]], [[IEEE 802.11|802.11 WiFi]], [[Fiber distributed data interface|FDDI]], [[Point-to-Point Protocol|PPP]]
|-
|1||style="border:1px solid black;"|'''Physical'''
|e.g. [[wire]], [[radio]], [[fiber optic]], [[IP over Avian Carriers|Carrier pigeon]]
|}
Commonly, the top three layers of the OSI model (Application, Presentation and Session) are considered as a single Application Layer in the TCP/IP suite. Because the TCP/IP suite has a comparatively lightweight session layer, consisting of opening and closing connections under TCP and RTP and providing different port numbers for different applications under TCP and UDP, these functions may be augmented by individual applications (or libraries used by those applications). Similarly, IP is designed around the idea of treating the network below it as a black box so it can be considered as a single layer for the purposes of discussing TCP/IP.
==The layers==
The following is a description of each layer in the IP suite stack.
===The link layer===
The Link layer is not really part of the Internet protocol suite, but is the method used to pass packets from the Internet layer of one device to the Internet layer of another. This process can be controlled both in the [[software]] [[device driver]] for the [[network card]], as well as on [[firmware]] or specialist [[chipsets]]. These will perform [[data link layer|data link]] functions such as adding a [[packet header]] to prepare it for transmission, then actually transmit the frame over a [[physical layer|physical]] [[transmission medium|medium]]. On the other end, the link layer will receive data frames, strip off the packet headers, and hand the received packets to the Internet layer.
However, the link layer is not always so simple. It may also be a [[Virtual private network]] (VPN) or tunnel, where packets from the Internet layer, instead of being sent over a physical interface, are sent using a [[tunneling protocol]] and another (or the same) protocol suite. The VPN or tunnel is usually established ahead of time, and has special characteristics that direct transmission out a physical interface does not (for example, it may encrypt the data going over it). This [[recursion|recursive]] use of the protocol suite can be confusing since the link "layer" is now an entire network. But it is an elegant method for implementing often complex functions. (Though care is needed to prevent a packet that is wrapped and sent through a tunnel being repeatedly re-wrapped and sent down the tunnel again).
===The Internetwork layer===
As originally defined, the [[Network layer]] solves the problem of getting packets across a single network. Examples of such protocols are [[X.25]], and the [[ARPANET]]'s [[Host/IMP Protocol]].
With the advent of the concept of [[Internet|internetworking]], additional functionality was added to this layer, namely getting data from the source [[computer network|network]] to the destination network. This generally involves routing the packet across a network of networks, known as an [[internet]].
In the internet protocol suite, [[Internet Protocol|IP]] performs the basic task of getting packets of data from source to destination. IP can carry data for a number of different higher level protocols; these protocols are each identified by a unique ''IP Protocol Number''. ICMP and IGMP are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.
Some of the protocols carried by IP, such as [[Internet Control Message Protocol|ICMP]] (used to transmit diagnostic information about IP transmission) and [[Internet Group Management Protocol|IGMP]] (used to manage [[multicast]] data) are layered on top of IP but perform internetwork layer functions, illustrating an incompatibility between the internet and OSI models. All routing protocols, such as [[Border Gateway Protocol|BGP]], [[OSPF]], and [[Routing information protocol|RIP]] are also really part of the internetwork layer, although they might seem to belong higher in the stack.
===The transport layer===
The protocols at the [[Transport layer]] can solve problems like reliability ("did the data reach the destination?") and ensure that data arrives in the correct order. In the TCP/IP protocol suite, transport protocols also determine which application any given data is intended for.
The dynamic routing protocols which technically fit at this layer in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite (since they run over IP) are generally considered to be part of the Network layer; an example is [[OSPF]] (IP protocol number 89).
[[Transmission control protocol|TCP]] (IP protocol number 6) is a "reliable", [[connection-oriented]], transport mechanism providing a [[reliable byte stream]], which makes sure data arrives complete, undamaged, and in order. TCP tries to continuously measure how loaded the network is and throttles its sending rate in order to avoid overloading the network. Furthermore, TCP will attempt to deliver all data correctly in the specified sequence. These are its main differences from UDP, and can become disadvantageous in real-time streaming or routing applications with high [[internetwork layer]] loss rates.
The newer [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol|SCTP]] is also a "reliable", [[connection-oriented]], transport mechanism. It is record rather than byte oriented, and provides multiple sub-streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides multi-homing support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport [[SS7]] over [[Internet Protocol|IP]]), but can als |
''' - area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose;
*'''Article 2''' - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue;
*'''Article 3''' - free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the [[United Nations]] and other international agencies;
*'''Article 4''' - does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force;
*'''Article 5''' - prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes;
*'''Article 6''' - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south;
*'''Article 7''' - treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given;
*'''Article 8''' - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states;
*'''Article 9''' - frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations;
*'''Article 10''' - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty;
*'''Article 11''' - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the [[International Court of Justice]];
*'''Articles 12, 13, 14''' - deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations.
The main objective of the ATS is to ensure <cite> in the interests of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord </cite>. The treaty forbids <cite> any measures of a military nature</cite>, but not the presence of military personnel per se. It also defers the question of territorial claims asserted by some nations and not recognized by others.
=== Other agreements ===
[[Image:wiki_antarctictreaty.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Stamp, [[USA]], [[1991]]]]
Other agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments - include:
* [[Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora]] (1964) (entered into force in 1982)
* The [[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals]] (1972)
* The [[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources]] (1980)
* The [[Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities]] (1988) (although it was signed in 1988, it was subsequently rejected and never entered into force)
* The [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]] was signed [[4 October]] [[1991]] and entered into force [[14 January]] [[1998]]; this agreement prevents development and provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas. It prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research.
==Meetings==
The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly ''Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM)'' are the international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 28 of the 45 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in these meetings. These parties are the ''Consultative Parties'' and, in addition to the twelve original signatories, include 16 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there.
==Members==
[[Image:Antarctic Treaty.png|400px|center|thumb|
{{legend|brown|signatory, ''consulting'', [[Antarctic territories|territorial]] [[land claim|claim]]}}
{{legend|orange|signatory, ''consulting'', [[Antarctic Treaty System|reserved right for territorial claim]]}}
{{legend|lightgreen|signatory, ''consulting''}}
{{legend|yellow|signatory, ''acceding'' status}}
{{legend|gray|non-signatory}}]]<br clear="all" />
{|class="wikitable"
!Country!!Original signatory!!Consultative!!Acceding
|-
|[[Argentina]] [[Argentine Antarctica|''claim'']]*
|colspan="2"|[[1961-06-26]]
|
|-
|[[Australia]] [[Australian Antarctic Territory|''claim'']]
|colspan="2"|[[1961-06-23]]
|
|-
|[[Austria]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1987-08-25]]
|-
|[[Belgium]]
|colspan="2"|[[1960-07-26]]
|
|-
|[[Brazil]]
|
|[[1983-09-12]]
|[[1975-05-16]]
|-
|[[Bulgaria]]
|
|[[1998-05-25]]
|[[1978-09-11]]
|-
|[[Canada]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1988-05-04]]
|-
|[[Chile]] [[Magallanes y la Antártica Chilena|''claim'']]*
|colspan="2"|[[1961-06-23]]
|
|-
|[[People's Republic of China|China]]
|
|[[1985-10-07]]
|[[1983-06-08]]
|-
|[[Colombia]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1989-01-31]]
|-
|[[Cuba]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1984-08-16]]
|-
|[[Czech Republic]] ([[Czechoslovakia]])
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1962-06-14]]
|-
|[[Denmark]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1965-05-20]]
|-
|[[Ecuador]]
|
|[[1990-11-19]]
|[[1987-09-15]]
|-
|[[Estonia]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[2001-05-17]]
|-
|[[Finland]]
|
|[[1989-10-09]]
|[[1984-05-15]]
|-
|[[France]] [[Adélie Land|''claim'']]
|colspan="2"|[[1960-09-16]]
|
|-
|[[Germany]]<br />
''[[East Germany]]''
|
|[[1981-03-03]]<br />
''[[1987-10-05]]''
|[[1979-02-05]]<br />
''[[1974-11-19]]''
|-
|[[Greece]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1987-01-08]]
|-
|[[Guatemala]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1991-07-31]]
|-
|[[Hungary]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1984-01-27]]
|-
|[[India]]
|
|[[1983-09-12]]
|[[1983-08-19]]
|-
|[[Italy]]
|
|[[1987-10-05]]
|[[1981-03-18]]
|-
|[[Japan]]
|colspan="2"|[[1960-08-04]]
|
|-
|[[Netherlands]]
|
|[[1990-11-19]]
|[[1967-03-30]]
|-
|[[New Zealand]] [[Ross Dependency|''claim'']]
|colspan="2"|[[1960-11-01]]
|
|-
|[[North Korea]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1987-01-21]]
|-
|[[Norway]] [[Dronning Maud Land|''claim'']]
|colspan="2"|[[1960-08-24]]
|
|-
|[[Papua New Guinea]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1981-03-16]]
|-
|[[Peru]]
|
|[[1989-10-09]]
|[[1981-04-10]]
|-
|[[Poland]]
|
|[[1977-07-29]]
|[[1961-06-08]]
|-
|[[Romania]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1971-09-15]]
|-
|[[Russia]] ([[Soviet Union]])**
|colspan="2"|[[1960-11-02]]
|
|-
|[[Slovak Socialist Republic|Slovak Republic]] ([[Czechoslovakia]])
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1962-06-14]]
|-
|[[South Africa]]
|colspan="2"|[[1960-06-21]]
|
|-
|[[South Korea]]
|
|[[1989-10-09]]
|[[1986-11-28]]
|-
|[[Spain]]
|
|[[1988-09-21]]
|[[1982-03-31]]
|-
|[[Sweden]]
|
|[[1988-09-21]]
|[[1984-03-24]]
|-
|[[Switzerland]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1990-11-15]]
|-
|[[Turkey]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1996-01-25]]
|-
|[[Ukraine]]
|
|[[2004-05-27]]
|[[1992-10-28]]
|-
|[[United Kingdom]] [[British Antarctic Territory|''claim'']]*
|colspan="2"|[[1960-05-31]]
|
|-
|[[United States]]**
|colspan="2"|[[1960-08-18]]
|
|-
|[[Uruguay]]
|
|[[1985-10-07]]
|[[1980-01-11]]
|-
|[[Venezuela]]
|
|
|style="background:lightgray;"|[[1999-05-24]]
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki> Claims overlap.<br />
<nowiki>**</nowiki> Reserved the right to claim areas.
At the end of 2004, there were 45 treaty member nations: 28 consultative and 17 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory. The 20 nonclaimant nations do not recognize the claims of others.
== Legal system ==
Antarctica has no [[government]]. Various countries claim areas of it, but most countries do not recognize those claims. The area between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only land on Earth not claimed by any country.
===Argentina and Chile===
According to Argentine regulations, any crime committed within 50 [[kilometer]]s of any Argentine base is to be judged in [[Ushuaia]] (as capital of [[Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica, and South Atlantic Islands]]). In the part of [[Argentine Antarctica]] that is also claimed by Chile, the person to be judged can ask to be transferred there.
===United States===
The [[law of the United States]], including certain criminal offenses by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end, the United States now stations special deputy [[United States Marshal|U. S. Marshals]] in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence. [http://www.usmarshals.gov/history/antarctica/]
Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the [[Antarctic Conservation Act]], 16 [[U.S.C.]] section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of [[statute]]:
*the taking of native mammals or birds;
*the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals;
*entry into specially protected or scientific areas;
*the discharge or disposal of pollutants;
*the importation into the U.S. of certain items from Antarctica
Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury]], [[United States Department of Commerce|Commerce]], [[United States Department of Transportation|Transportation]], and [[United States Department of the Interior|Interior]] share enforcement responsibilities.
Public Law 95-541, the Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the [ |
P|Model 400 Beechjet]]
* [[Beechcraft 1900|Model 1900]] Commuter
* [[Beechcraft Starship|Model 2000 Starship]] [[image:NASA-2000Starship.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Beechcraft Starship|Beechcraft Model 2000 Starship]].]]
=== Military ===
* [[XA-38 Grizzly]]
* [[AT-7 Navigator]]
* [[C-6 Ute]]
* [[C-12 Huron]]
* [[C-43 Traveler]]
* [[C-45 Expeditor]]
* [[CT-128 Expeditor]]
* [[CT-134 Musketeer]]
* [[CT-145 Super Kingair]]
* [[RC-12 Guard Rail]]
* [[T-1 Jayhawk]]
* [[T-34 Mentor]]
* [[T-42 Cochise]]
* [[U-8 Seminole]]
* [[U-21 Ute]]
==External links==
* [http://www.raytheonaircraft.com/beechcraft/ Beechcraft Division web site]
* [http://www.aircraft-info.net/aircraft/propellor_aircraft/beechcraft/ Aircraft-Info.net - Beechcraft]
* [http://www.rtptv.homestead.com/rtpbeech.html RTP-TV AeroSpace Show: 1942 Beech C45 Aerobatic Video]
* [http://www.beechaeroclub.org Beech Aero Club] (Owners and Pilots Association)
* {{cite web | title=Patents owned by Beech Aircraft Corporation | work=US Patent & Trademark Office | url=http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=%2Fnetahtml%2Fsearch-adv.htm&r=0&p=1&f=S&l=50&Query=an%2F%22Beech+Aircraft%22&d=ptxt | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005}}
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:United States aircraft manufacturers]]
[[Category:Raytheon]]
[[de:Beechcraft]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Peleliu</title>
<id>4283</id>
<revision>
<id>40907364</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T20:38:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.107.158.131</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Reference */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Peleliu
|partof=[[World War II]], [[Pacific War]]
|image=[[Image:Battle of Peleliu2.jpg|300px|]]
|caption=
|date=[[September 15]], [[1944]] &ndash; [[November 25]], [[1944]]
|place=[[Peleliu]], [[Palau Islands]]
|result=American victory
|combatant1=[[United States]]
|combatant2=[[Japan]]
|commander1=[[William Rupertus]]
|commander2=[[Kunio Nakagawa]]
|strength1=2 divisions (1st Marine Division, 81st Division)
|strength2=Approximately 11,000 men
|casualties1=2,336 killed and 8,450 wounded
|casualties2=10,695 killed, 202 captured
}}
{{Campaignbox Marianas and Palaus}}
[[Image:Battle of Peleliu map.jpg|right|300px|]]
Like the bloody [[World War II]] island campaigns before it, the '''battle of Peleliu''' was a fight to capture an airstrip on a speck of coral in the western [[Pacific]]. And, as with previous island battles, the Americans would prevail, but at a higher cost than anticipated, against the determined resistance of the Japanese forces.
By the summer of 1944 victories in the Southwest and Central Pacific had brought the war even closer to [[Japan]], with American bombers now able to strike at the Japanese homeland itself. But there was disagreement by the U.S. Joint Chiefs over two proposed strategies to crush the Japanese Empire. One strategy proposed by General [[Douglas MacArthur]] called for the recapture of the [[Philippines]], followed by the capture of [[Okinawa]] then [[Taiwan|Formosa]] for an attack at the Chinese mainland. From there, the eventual invasion of Japan would come. Admiral [[Chester Nimitz]], on the other hand, favored a more direct strategy of bypassing the Philippines, but seizing Okinawa and Formosa as [[staging area]]s for the future invasion of Japan's southernmost islands.
As for Peleliu, both commanders' strategies included the invasion of this island, but for different reasons, and the [[1st Marine Division]] had already been chosen to make the assault. To settle this dispute, President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] traveled to Pearl Harbor to personally meet both commanders and hear their respective arguments. After a review of both positions, MacArthur's strategy was chosen. However, before MacArthur could retake the Philippines, the Palau Islands, Peleliu specifically, would have to be neutralized to protect his right flank. What followed was a ferocious battle lasting more than two months and costing over 12,000 lives.
The [[amphibious assault ship]] [[USS Peleliu|''Peleliu'']] was named in memory of the battle.
[[Image:Resting on Peleliu Island.jpg|none|thumbnail|200px|Two marines rest during mopping up operations on Peleliu]]
[[Image:Peleliu stare.jpg|none|200px|thumbnail|"Two-Thousand Yard Stare" by [[Tom Lea]].]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Stalingrad</title>
<id>4284</id>
<revision>
<id>42082697</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:33:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bogfjellmo</username>
<id>197310</id>
</contributor>
<comment>reverting edits by 206.208.188.199 to last version by Algebra</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Stalingrad
|partof=[[World War II]]
|image=[[Image:Stalingrad.jpg|300px|]]
|caption=
|date=[[August 21]] [[1942]] &ndash; [[February 2]] [[1943]]
|place=[[Volgograd|Stalingrad]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]]
|result=Decisive Soviet victory
|combatant1=[[Axis Powers]]
|combatant2=[[Soviet Union]]
|commander1=[[Erich von Manstein]]<br>[[Friedrich Paulus]]
|commander2=[[Georgy Zhukov]]<br>[[Vasily Chuikov]]
|strength1=500,000
|strength2=1,700,000
|casualties1=850,000 military
|casualties2=750,000+ military <br> 40,000+ civilian
}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
The '''Battle of Stalingrad''' was a major turning point in [[World War II]] and is considered the bloodiest [[battle]] in recorded [[human history]]. The battle was marked by brutality and disregard for military and [[civilian casualties]] on both sides. The battle is taken to include the German [[siege]] of the southern Russian city of [[Stalingrad]], which is today [[Volgograd]], the battle inside the city, and the Soviet counter-offensive which eventually trapped and destroyed the [[German Sixth Army]] and other [[Axis Powers|Axis]] forces in and around the city. Total casualties for both sides are estimated to be over two million. The Axis powers lost large numbers of men and equipment, and never fully recovered from the defeat. For the Soviets, who also suffered great losses during the battle, the victory at Stalingrad marked the start of the [[liberation]] of the [[Soviet Union]], leading to eventual victory over [[Nazi Germany]] in 1945.
==Background==
On [[22 June]] [[1941]] Germany and its Axis allies [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]], quickly advancing deep into Soviet territory. Having suffered defeat during the summer and autumn of 1941, Soviet forces counter-attacked in the [[Battle of Moscow]] in December 1941. The exhausted German forces, ill equipped for winter warfare and with overstretched [[supply line]]s, were stopped in their drive towards the [[capital]].
The Germans stabilized their [[Front (military)|front]] by spring 1942. Plans to launch another offensive against Moscow were discarded, however, as [[Army Group Centre]] had been too heavily weakened. Part of the German military philosophy was to attack where least expected, so that rapid gains could be made. An attack on Moscow was seen as too predictable by some, most notably [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]. Along with this, the German high command knew that time was running out for them as the [[United States]] had entered WWII following the [[Japan]]ese [[attack on Pearl Harbor]]. Hitler wanted to end the fighting on the Eastern Front or at least minimize it before the US had a chance to get deeply involved in the war in Europe.
For all of these reasons new offensives in the north and south were considered. A drive into the southern [[U.S.S.R.|USSR]] would secure control of the oil-rich [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]], as well as the [[Volga River]], a backbone of Soviet transportation from [[Central Asia]]. A German victory in the southern Soviet Union would severely damage [[Joseph Stalin| Stalin]]'s war machine and the Soviet economy. Another resource desired by Germany in this area was [[agricultural]] production.
==Operation Blau==
[[Image:Eastern_Front_1942-05_to_1942-11.png|thumb|300px|Operation Blue: German advances from [[7 May]] [[1942]] to [[18 November]] [[1942]]
{{legend|#fff8d5|to [[7 July]] [[1942]]}}
{{legend|#ffd2b9|to [[22 July]] [[1942]]}}
{{legend|#ebd7ff|to [[1 August]] [[1942]]}}
{{legend|#ccffcd|to [[18 November]] [[1942]]}}]]
[[Army Group South]] was selected for a sprint forward through the southern Russian [[steppe]]s into the [[Caucasus]] to capture vital Soviet [[oil field]]s. The summer offensive was [[Code name|code-named]] ''Fall Blau'' ("Case Blue"). It was to include the [[German Sixth Army|6th]] and 17th Armies and the 4th and 1st Panzer Armies. In 1941, Army Group South had conquered [[Ukrainian SSR|Ukraine]], and was positioned at the area of the planned offensive.
Hitler intervened however, in the strategic planning, ordering the [[Army Group]] to be split in two. Army Group South (A), under the command of [[Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist]], was to continue advancing south towards the Caucasus as planned with the 17th and 1st Panzer Armies. Army Group South (B), including [[Friedrich Paulus]]'s [[German Sixth Army|6th Army]] and [[Hermann Hoth]]'s 4th Panzer Army, was to move east towards the [[Volga River|river Volga]] and the city of [[Stalingrad]].
The capture of Stalingrad was important to Hitler for several reasons. It was a major industrial city on the [[Stream bed|banks]] of the river Volga (a vital transport route between the [[Caspian Sea]] and northern Russia). Its capture would secure the left flank of the German armies as they advanced into the Caucasus. Finally, the fact that the city bore the name of Hitler's nemesis, [[Joseph Stalin]], would make the city's capture an [[Ideology|ideological]] and [[propaganda]] coup.
Stalin also had an |
tle Mind" (4:03)
* The standard release features all five coloured fists on the cover
===2nd issue 7" single (ZTAX 22)===
# "Rage Hard (dance mix)" (4:55)
# "(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind" (4:03)
* The dance mix of Rage Hard was an edit of the "Broad Mix" from the 2nd 12" (sleeve featured the Blue fist)
* ZTAX7 came in a pop-up gatefold sleeve (with the Rage Hard fists being the pop-up) (sleeve featured the Orange fist) (ZTD22)
===12" single (12 ZTAS 22)===
"Slam Bam"
# "Rage Hard" (12:08)
# "SufferRAGEette City" (3:31)
# "(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind" (6:15)
# "['always note the sequencer...']" (:22)
* This mix is also known as "Young Person's Guide Into The 12-inch"
* This 12" was also released with a 12" x 24" poster (12 ZTAQ 22)
===2nd 12" single (12 ZTAX 22)===
"Broad"
# "Rage Hard (Broad Mix)" (8:36) (sleeve features the Yellow fist)
# "Roadhouse Blues (the full version)" (4:03)
# "(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind ('suffer brother')" (6:15)
# "['always note the sequencer...']" (:22)
* (sleeve featured the Yellow fist)
Note: 12ZTAX22 also came as a limited edition with a box designed to contain all the Rage Hard UK issues (box featured the Red fist)
===CD single (CD ZCID 22)===
# "['we have begun']" (0:07)
# "Rage Hard (Broad Mix edited)" (5:08)
# "Rage Hard (compacted)" (11:58)
# "SufferRAGEette City" (3:31)
# "(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind (excerpt)" (:18)
# "Roadhouse Blues (the short version)" (3:37)
*(sleeve featured the Purple fist)
==External links==
* [http://www.fgth.nl/FGTH-NET/rare-unreleased2/RageHard-compacted.ram Listen to ZCID 22]
[[Category:Frankie Goes To Hollywood singles]]
[[Category:1986 singles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Warriors of the Wasteland</title>
<id>11265</id>
<revision>
<id>15909025</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-06T07:05:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guanaco</username>
<id>47960</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Liverpool (album)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Watching the Wildlife</title>
<id>11266</id>
<revision>
<id>15909026</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-21T03:52:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TUF-KAT</username>
<id>8351</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>consolidating</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Liverpool (album)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Liverpool (album)</title>
<id>11267</id>
<revision>
<id>32360739</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-22T14:20:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fritz Saalfeld</username>
<id>128909</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|Assisted]] clean up: Changed length format in infobox to mm:ss (See [[WP:ALBUMS]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Album infobox | <!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Albums -->
| Name = Liverpool
| Type = Album
| Artist = [[Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]
| Cover = FrankieGoestoHollywoodLiver.jpg
| Background = orange
| Released = October 20, 1998
| Recorded =
| Genre =
| Length =
| Label =
| Producer =
| Reviews = &lt;nowiki>&lt;/nowiki>
*
|
| Last album =
| This album = Liverpool ([[1998]])
| Next album =
}}
'''''Liverpool''''' is [[Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]'s second album, released in October of [[1986]] (see [[1986 in music]]).
The album was a commercial disappointment compared to the band's previous effort, charting generally low. It did, however, hit #7 on the Swiss music charts.
==Track listing==
*"Warriors of the Wasteland" ([[Peter Gill|Gill]]/[[Holly Johnson|Johnson]]/[[Brian Nash|Nash]]/[[Mark O'Toole|O'Toole]])
*"Rage Hard" (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
*"Kill the Pain" (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
*"Maximum Joy" (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
*"Watching the Wildlife" (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
*"Lunar Bay" (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
*"For Heaven's Sake" (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
*"Is Anybody Out There?" (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
A later release includes two bonus tracks:
*"(Don't Lose What's Left) of Your Mind"
*"Sufragette City" ([[David Bowie]] [[cover version|cover]])
==Single information==
==="Warriors of the Wasteland"===
<table border=1>
<tr><td>'''Catalogue number'''</td><td align=middle>ZTAS25</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Label'''</td><td align=middle>[[ZTT Records]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Released'''</td><td align=middle>[[November 22]], [[1986]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Top [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart position'''</td><td align=middle>19</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Weeks on [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart'''</td><td align=middle>8</td></tr>
</table>
<tr><td>'''Top [[Switzerland|Swiss]] chart position'''</td><td align=middle>13</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Weeks on [[Switzerland|Swiss]] chart'''</td><td align=middle>8</td></tr>
</table>
12" mixes
* 12 Wild Disciples
* Turn of the Knife
* Attack (feat. [[Gary Moore]])
==="Rage Hard"===
<table border=1>
<tr><td>'''Catalogue number'''</td><td align=middle>ZTAS22</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Label'''</td><td align=middle>[[ZTT Records]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Released'''</td><td align=middle>[[September 6]], [[1986]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Top [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart position'''</td><td align=middle>4</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Weeks on [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart'''</td><td align=middle>7</td></tr>
</table>
<tr><td>'''Top [[Switzerland|Swiss]] chart position'''</td><td align=middle>5</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Weeks on [[Switzerland|Swiss]] chart'''</td><td align=middle>12</td></tr>
</table>
==="Watching the Wildlife"===
<table border=1>
<tr><td>'''Catalogue number'''</td><td align=middle>ZTAS26</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Label'''</td><td align=middle>[[ZTT Records]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Released'''</td><td align=middle>[[March 7]], [[1987]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Top [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart position'''</td><td align=middle>28</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Weeks on [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart'''</td><td align=middle>6</td></tr>
</table>
12" Mixes
*Hotter
*Movement 2
*Die Letzten Tage Der Menschheit
==Personnel==
*Holly Johnson - Vocals
*Betsy Cook - Vocals (bckgr)
*Barry Diament - Mastering
*Peter Gill - Drums
*Trevor Horn - Executive Producer
*Steve Lipson - Guitar, Keyboards, Producer
*Heff Moraes - Assistant Engineer
*Brian Nash - Guitar
*Richard Niles - String Arrangements, Brass Arrangement
*Mark O'Toole - Bass
*Andy Richards - Keyboards
*Peter Vetesse - Keyboards
*Anton Corbijn - Photography
==External links==
*[http://www.lyred.com/lyrics/Frankie+Goes+To+Hollywood/Liverpool/ lyrics]
[[Category:1986 albums]]
[[Category:Frankie Goes To Hollywood albums]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Fast Show</title>
<id>11271</id>
<revision>
<id>42108440</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:56:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>158.143.169.40</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Paul Whitehouse */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''The Fast Show''''' was a [[BBC]] comedy [[sketch comedy|sketch show]] programme which ran from 1994 to 2000. It also produced two national tours, the first in 1998 with the cast of the [[BBC]] spoof quiz show ''[[Shooting Stars]]'', and the second being their 'Farewell Tour' in 2002. It was very loosely structured and relied heavily on character comedy, long-[[running gag]]s, and endless [[catchphrase]]s.
Many catchphrases from the programme have entered the vernacular in Britain, and many of the comedians have now become household names there: [[Paul Whitehouse]], [[Charlie Higson]], [[Simon Day]], [[Mark Williams (actor)|Mark Williams]], [[John Thomson (actor)|John Thomson]], [[Arabella Weir]] and [[Caroline Aherne]].
The show has been released on [[video]], [[DVD]] and [[audio CD]].
==Characters==
The show featured many memorable characters, they are listed here by performer.
===Charlie Higson===
* (with Arabella Weir:) Friendly but naked newlyweds.
* '''Colin Hunt''', unfunny office practical joker.
:''Colin Hunt's office trolley, geddit?'' *whack*
:'''Note''': The writers claim Colin is based on those fans of comedy sketch shows who constantly repeat the catchphrases the next day. The name ''C. Hunt'' is also one phoneme away from a common insult applied to such people.
* '''Johnny Nice Painter''', who goes insane at the mention of the colour black.
* '''Geoffrey Norman MP''', the Tory politician who denies everything.
* '''[[Swiss Toni]]''', a car salesman who compares everything to making love to a beautiful woman.
:''Fitting a carpet is much like making love to a beautiful woman. You lay her out, pin her down and walk all over her.''
:'''Note''': Went on to star in a show of his own.
===Paul Whitehouse===
* '''[[Rowley Birkin QC]]''', drunk ol |
[[Category:Living people|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[Category:Argentine mathematicians|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[Category:21st century mathematicians|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[Category:IBM employees|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[de:Gregory Chaitin]]
[[fr:Gregory Chaitin]]
[[ja:グレゴリー・チェイティン]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goran Bregović</title>
<id>12309</id>
<revision>
<id>40917189</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T21:47:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Asav</username>
<id>162316</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* (Incomplete) list of films he did music for */ Addition to Music for Funerals...</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Goran Bregović''' (born [[March 22]], [[1950]]) is one of the most recognizable modern [[composer]]s of the [[Balkans]].
==Early life==
Goran Bregović was born in [[Sarajevo]], [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]] to a [[Bosnian Croat]] father and a [[Bosnian Serb]] mother. His father was an officer in the [[Yugoslav People's Army]]. His parents divorced and he remained living with his mother in the predominantly [[Bosniaks|Bosniak]] part of [[Sarajevo]].
Goran played [[violin]] in a [[music school]], but was thrown out of it in second grade for being untalented. His musical education was thus reduced to what his friend taught him until Goran's mother bought him his first guitar in his early teens. Bregović was to enter a [[fine art|fine arts]] school but his aunt told his mother that it was full of homosexuals. His mother sent him to a technical (traffic) school and allowed him to grow long hair as a compromise. Upon entering the school, Goran joined the school band "Izohipse" and played bass guitar. But he was kicked out of that school, too (this time for misbehaviour - he crashed a school-owned [[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]). Bregović then entered grammar school and its school band "Beštije" (again as a bass guitar player). When he was sixteen, his mother left him and went to the seaside. Goran had to take care of himself. He did that by playing [[folk music]] in a bar in [[Konjic]], working on construction sites, and selling newspapers.
On a "Beštije" gig [[Željko Bebek]] spotted him and invited him to play bass guitar in his band "Kodeksi". Goran accepted. In the summer of [[1969]] they played for tourists in hotel Splendid in [[Dubrovnik]]. After finishing their job there, they were invited to [[Naples]] to play in a night club. They accepted, but lost their employment there by playing more progressive music and refusing to play the same repertoire as in Dubrovnik, which was what the owner wanted of them. Still, they remained in Naples and continued to play the music they fancied. In next few months "Kodeksi" shifted setup so Goran moved from [[bass guitar]] to [[lead guitar]], and in the summer of [[1970]] "Kodeksi" had the following line-up: Goran Bregović, Željko Bebek, Zoran Redžić and [[Milić Vukašinović]]. All of them would eventually become members of [[Bijelo Dugme]] at some point in the future. At the time, they were largely influenced by [[Led Zeppelin]] and [[Black Sabbath]], which was the merit of Milić Vukašinović who "infected" them with that kind of music. In the fall of [[1970]] this resulted in departure of Željko Bebek who (both as [[rhythm guitar]] player and [[singer]]) wasn't needed anymore in the band. At the end of the year, Goran's mother and Zoran's brother arrived to Naples and took the band back to [[Sarajevo]].
Then in the autumn of [[1971]] Goran entered [[university]] and decided to study [[philosophy]] and [[sociology]]. He soon quit, however. In the same time Milić Vukašinović left for [[London]], so Goran and Zoran started playing in a band, named [[Jutro]] (trans. "Morning"). The band in the next few years transformed a lot and on [[January 1]], [[1974]] the band changed its name to [[Bijelo Dugme]] ("White Button").
==Bijelo Dugme==
{{main|Bijelo Dugme}}
The cult rock group [[Bijelo Dugme]] became one of the most popular groups of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]] between the late [[1970s]] and mid [[1980s]].
==After Bijelo Dugme==
[[Image:Bregovic Redzic Bebek 2005.jpg|330px|thumb|Goran Bregović, [[Zoran Redžić]] and [[Željko Bebek]] on [[2005]] [[Bijelo Dugme]] concert in [[Sarajevo]]]]
At the time Bijelo Dugme was falling apart, Goran entered the world of [[Film score|film music]]. His first project was [[Emir Kusturica]]'s ''[[Time of the Gypsies]]'' ([[1989]]) which turned out a great success (both the film and the music from it). Goran and Emir's collaboration continued, and Goran composed music (which was performed by [[Iggy Pop]]) for Emir's next film ''[[Arizona Dream]]'' ([[1993]]). His next major project, music for [[Patrice Cheraeau]]'s ''[[La Reine Margot (1994 film)|Queen Margot]]'' was again a great success, and the film won 2 awards on the 1994 [[Cannes Film Festival]]. Next year's [[Palme d'Or|Golden Palm]] went to ''[[Underground (film)|Underground]]'', for which Goran Bregović composed the music.
Bregović's music carries both [[Slavic peoples|South Slavic]] and [[Roma people|Gypsy]] themes and is a fusion of [[popular music]] with traditional [[Polyphony|polyphonic]] music from the Balkans, [[tango music|tango]] and [[brass band]]s. Although he is a very popular musician in [[Eastern Europe]], Bregović has been accused on several occasions of 'stealing' original Gypsy and [[folk music]] of the Balkans and ultimately rewriting and branding it as his own creation. In the year 2000 Bregović recorded an album ''Kayah i Bregović'' (Kayah and Bregović) with popular [[Poland|polish]] singer [[Kayah]] which sold over 650 000 copies in Poland (6 times platinium record).
In [[2005]] he took part in 3 large farewell concerts of Bijelo Dugme.
Goran Bregović currently lives in [[Paris]] with his spouse Dženana Sudžuka and their three daughters: Ema, Una and Lulu. He also has a daughter Željka (from his university days relationship with a dancer in a Sarajevo night club) who gave birth to Goran's grand daughter Bianca. He has a brother named Predrag who lives in [[New York]].
===(Incomplete) list of films he did music for===
* [[1977]] - ''Butterfly cloud'' (Leptirov oblak) - Directed by: Zdravko Randić
* [[1979]] - ''Personal Affairs'' (Lične stvari) - Directed by: Aleksandar Mandić
* [[1988]] - ''Time of the Gypsies'' (Dom za vešanje) - Directed by: [[Emir Kusturica]]
* [[1989]] - ''Kuduz'' - Directed by: [[Ademir Kenović]]
* [[1990]] - ''Silent Gunpowder'' (Gluvi barut) - Directed by: Bahrudin Čengić
* [[1991]] - ''The Serbian Girl'' (Das Serbische Mädchen) - Directed by: Peter Sehr
* [[1991]] - ''The Little One'' (Mala) - Directed by: Predrag Antonijević
* [[1991]] - ''Charuga'' (Čaruga) - Directed by: [[Rajko Grlić]]
* [[1993]] - ''[[Arizona Dream]]'' - Directed by: [[Emir Kusturica]]
* [[1993]] - ''Toxic Affair'' - Directed by: Philoméne Esposito
* [[1993]] - ''La Nuit sacrée'' - Directed by: Nicolas Klotz
* [[1993]] - ''La Nombril du monde'' - Directed by: Ariel Zeitoun
* [[1994]] - ''[[La Reine Margot (1994 film)|Queen Margot]]'' - Directed by: [[Patrice Chéreau]]
* [[1995]] - ''[[Underground (film)|Underground]]'' - Directed by: [[Emir Kusturica]]
* [[1997]] - ''A Chief in Love'' (Shekvarebuli kulinaris ataserti retsepti) - Directed by: Nana Dschordschadse
* [[1997]] - ''The Serpent's Kiss'' - Directed by: [[Philippe Rousselot]]
* [[1997]] - ''XXL'' - Directed by: Ariel Zeitoun
* [[1998]] - ''Train de Vie'' - Directed by: Radu Mihaileanu
* [[1999]] - ''The Lost Son'' - Directed by: Chris Menges
* [[1999]] - ''Tuvalu'' - Directed by: Veit Helmer
* [[2000]] - ''27 Missing Kisses'' - Directed by: Nana Dschordschadse
* [[2000]] - ''Je li jasno prijatelju?'' - Directed by: Dejan Ačimović
* [[2002]] - ''Music for Weddings and Funerals'' (Bregovic also has a part in this film)- Directed by: Unni Straume
===List of his film music albums===
* ''Arizona Dream''
* ''Underground - Soundtrack''
* ''La reine Margot - soundtrack''
* ''Time of the Gypsies / Kuduz - soundtrack''
* ''P.S.''
* ''Tales and songs from weddings and funerals''
===Studio albums ===
* [[2000]] - ''Kayah i Bregović''
==External links==
* [http://www.goranbregovic.co.yu/ Official web site]
* [http://us.imdb.com/name/nm0005975/ Complete list of Goran's works on IMDb]
* [http://www.goranbregovic.com/ International Goran Bregovic Fan Club]
[[Category:1950 births|Bregovic, Goran]]
[[Category:Film score composers|Bregovic, Goran]]
[[Category:Living people|Bregovic, Goran]]
[[Category:Musicians from Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bregovic, Goran]]
[[Category:Musicians of former Yugoslavia|Bregovic, Goran]]
[[bg:Горан Брегович]]
[[de:Goran Bregović]]
[[es:Goran Bregović]]
[[fr:Goran Bregovic]]
[[it:Goran Bregović]]
[[nl:Goran Bregović]]
[[pl:Goran Bregović]]
[[sk:Goran Bregović]]
[[sr:Горан Бреговић]]
[[fi:Goran Bregović]]
[[sv:Goran Bregović]]
[[tr:Goran Bregoviç]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gestation</title>
<id>12312</id>
<revision>
<id>41861807</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:17:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kuru</username>
<id>764407</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert: vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gestation''' is the carrying of an [[embryo]] or [[fetus]] inside a [[female]] [[viviparous]] [[animal]]. In mammals that undergo a [[mammalian pregnancy|pregnancy]], they can have one or more gestations at the same time, resulting in [[multiple birth|multiple gestations]]. In the case of multiple gestations, the organisms gestated by the mother are called ''[[twin]]s''.
For example, female [[dog]]s usua |
ampion]] |
years= 1993&ndash;1999 |
after= [[Alexander Khalifman]]
}}
{{end box}}
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.karpov.on.ru/ Karpov's official homepage] in Russian.
* [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chesscollection?cid=1001168 Karpov's Best Games at www.chessgames.com]
* [http://www.chessmaniac.com/Games/MyChessViewer/karpov.htm View 3079 Anatoly Karpov Games at www.chessmaniac.com]
* [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=20719 Karpov's profile at www.chessgames.com]
* [http://www.bobby-fischer.net/Karpov_on_fischer_11.htm Karpov on why Fischer wouldn't play him in the 1975 match] Video Clip
* [http://www.wtharvey.com/karp.html 60 Crucial Positions from His Games]
His "best" games:
* [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1067662 Anatoly Karpov vs Leonid Stein, Leningrad 1971]
* [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1068020 Stefano Tatai vs Anatoly Karpov, Las Palmas 1977]
* [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1069169 Anatoly Karpov vs Veselin Topalov, Linares 1994]
[[Category:1951 births|Karpov, Anatoly]]
[[Category:Living people|Karpov, Anatoly]]
[[Category:Chess grandmasters|Karpov, Anatoly]]
[[Category:World Chess Champions|Karpov, Anatoly]]
[[Category:Russian chess players|Karpov, Anatoly]]
[[cs:Anatolij Karpov]]
[[de:Anatoli Jewgenjewitsch Karpow]]
[[et:Anatoli Karpov]]
[[el:Ανατόλι Κάρποβ]]
[[es:Anatoli Karpov]]
[[fa:آناتولی کارپف]]
[[fr:Anatoli Karpov]]
[[it:Anatoly Karpov]]
[[he:אנטולי קרפוב]]
[[nl:Anatoli Karpov]]
[[ja:アナトリー・カルポフ]]
[[no:Anatolij Karpov]]
[[nn:Anatolij Karpov]]
[[pl:Anatolij Karpow]]
[[pt:Anatoly Karpov]]
[[ru:Карпов, Анатолий Евгеньевич]]
[[fi:Anatoli Karpov]]
[[sv:Anatolij Karpov]]
[[tr:Anatoli Karpov]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aspect ratio (disambiguation)</title>
<id>1021</id>
<revision>
<id>38283276</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T08:29:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
<id>241538</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Aspect ratio]] to [[Aspect ratio (disambiguation)]]: Redirecting main entry to [[Aspect ratio (image)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''aspect ratio''' of a two-dimensional shape is the ratio of its longest dimension to its shortest dimension.
{{Wiktionarypar|aspect ratio}}
The term is most commonly used with reference to:
*images (see [[aspect ratio (image)]])
*[[paper]] (see [[paper size]])
*the wing-plans of [[aircraft]] or [[bird]]s (see [[aspect ratio (wing)]]).
''See also'': [[Golden ratio]], [[Ratio]]
[[ja:&#12450;&#12473;&#12506;&#12463;&#12488;&#27604;]]
[[zh:&#32305;&#27243;&#27604;]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Auto racing</title>
<id>1022</id>
<revision>
<id>42102467</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:15:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brian0918</username>
<id>90640</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.168.252.90|24.168.252.90]] ([[User talk:24.168.252.90|talk]]) to last version by BlankVerse</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Auto racing''' (also known as '''automobile racing''', '''autosport''' or '''motorsport''') is a [[sport]] involving [[racing]] [[automobile]]s. '''Motor racing''' or '''motorsport''' may also mean [[motorcycle racing]], and can include [[motorboat racing]] and [[air racing]]. It is one of the world's most popular [[spectator sport]]s and perhaps the most thoroughly [[commercialization|commercialized]].
== History ==
=== The Start===
Auto racing began almost immediately after the construction of the first successful [[gasoline|petrol]]-fuelled autos. In [[1894]], the first contest was organized by Paris magazine ''[[Le Petit Journal]]'', a reliability test to determine best performance.
A year later the first real race was staged, from [[Paris]], [[France]] to [[Bordeaux]], France. First over the line was [[Émile Levassor]] but he was disqualified because his car was not a required four-seater.
An international competition began with the [[Gordon Bennett Cup in auto racing]].
The first auto race in the [[United States]], over a 54.36 mile (87.48 km) course, took place in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]] on [[November 2]], [[1895]], [[Frank Duryea]] winning in 10 h and 23 min, beating three petrol-fuelled cars and two electric. The first trophy awarded was the [[Vanderbilt Cup]].
=== City to city racing ===
[[Image:Mors.jpg||thumb|340px|Fernand Gabriel driving a Mors in Paris-Madrid 1903]]
With auto construction and racing dominated by [[France]], the French automobile club ACF staged a number of major international races, usually from or to Paris, connecting with another major city in Europe or France.
These very successful races ended in [[1903]] when Marcel [[Renault]] was involved in a fatal accident near [[Angouleme]] in the Paris-Madrid race. Eight fatalities caused the French government to stop the race in [[Bordeaux]] and ban open-road racing.
<!-- (much more on this) -->
===1910-1950===
The [[1930s]] saw the radical differentiation of racing vehicles from high-priced road cars, with [[Delage]], [[Auto Union]], [[Mercedes-Benz]], [[Delahaye]] and [[Bugatti]] constructing streamlined vehicles with engines producing up to 450 kW(612HP) with the aid of multiple superchargers. From [[1928]]-[[1930]] and again in [[1934]]-[[1936]], the maximum [[weight]] permitted was 750 kg(1654Lbs), a rule diametrically opposed to current racing regulations. Extensive use of aluminium alloys was required to achieve light weight, and in the case of the Mercedes, the paint was removed to satisfy the weight limitation, producing the famous [[Silver Arrows]].
:''See: [[Grand Prix motor racing]]''
== Categories ==
There are many categories of auto racing.
=== Single-seater racing ===
:''Main article: [[Open wheel racing]]''
[[Image:formula_one_car.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A modern Formula One car]]
Single-seater ([[open-wheel]]) racing is perhaps the most well-known form of motorsport, with cars designed specifically for high-speed racing. The wheels are not covered, and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track.
Single-seater races are held on specially designed closed circuits or street circuits closed for the event. Many single-seater races in North America are held on "oval" circuits and the [[Indy Racing League]] races mostly on ovals.
The best-known variety of single-seater racing is the [[Formula One]] World Championship, which involves an annual championship featuring major international car and engine manufacturers in an ongoing battle of technology and driver skill. Formula One is, by any measure, the most expensive sport in the world, with some teams spending in excess of 201 million US dollars per year. Formula One is widely considered to be the pinnacle of motorsports, and a seat in a Formula One car is undoubtedly the peak of any driver's racing career. In North America, the cars used in the [[American Championship Car Racing|National Championship]] (currently [[Champcars]] and the [[Indy Racing League]]) have traditionally been similar to [[F1 cars]] but with more restrictions on technology aimed at helping to control costs.
Other single-seater racing series are [[GP2 Series|GP2]] (formerly known as [[Formula 3000]] and [[Formula Two]]), [[Formula Nippon]], [[Formula Nissan]] (also known as the Telefonica World Series), [[Formula Three]], [[Formula Atlantic]], and [[A1 Grand Prix]].
There are other categories of single-seater racing, including [[kart racing]], which employs a small, low-cost machine on small tracks. Many of today's top drivers started their careers in karts.
=== Rallying ===
:''Main article: [[Rallying]]''
[[Rallying]], or rally racing, involves highly modified production cars on (closed) public roads or off-road areas run on a point-to-point format where participants and their co-drivers “rally” to a set of points, leaving in regular intervals from start points. A rally is typically conducted over a number of stages of any terrain, which entrants are often allowed to scout beforehand. The co-driver uses the "pacenotes" to help the driver complete each stage as fast as possible, reading the detailed shorthand aloud over an in-car intercom system. Competition is based on lowest total elasped time over the course of an event.
The top series is the [[World Rally Championship]] (WRC), but there also regional championships and many countries have their own national championships. Some famous rallies include the [[Monte Carlo Rally]] and [[Rally Argentina]]. Another famous event (actually best described as a "[[rally raid]]") is the [[Paris-Dakar Rally]]. There are also many smaller, club level, [[categories of rallies]] which are popular with amateurs, making up the "grass roots" of motorsports.
=== Ice Racing ===
:''Main article: [[Ice Racing]]''
=== Touring car racing===
:''Main article: [[Touring car racing]]''
[[Image:11_murphy_leads.jpg|left|170px|thumb|V8 Supercar Touring car racing]]
Touring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with production derived race cars. It often features exciting, full-contact racing due to the small speed differentials and large grids.
The [[V8 Supercars]] originally from [[Australia]], [[Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters]] originally from [[Germany]], and the [[World Touring Car Championship]] held with 2 non-European races (previously the [[European Touring Car Championship]]) are the major touring car championships conducted worldwide.
The [[Sports Car Club of America]]'s [[SPEED World Challenge]] Touring Car and GT championships are dominant in North America while the venerable [[British Touring Car Championship]] continues in [ |
Cell]]'').
* The [[tactical shooter]] emphasises tactics (''[[Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six|Rainbow Six]]'', ''[[Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon|Ghost Recon]]'' and other games based on novels by [[Tom Clancy]]; and games such as ''[[Counter-Strike]]'', ''[[America's Army]]'', ''[[Operation Flashpoint]]'' , ''[[Killzone]]'' and ''[[Tactical Ops]]'')
* [[Run and gun]] first-person shooters are fast-paced and action-focused. They often contain a large number of enemies, and allow the player to sustain unrealistic amounts of damage without dying. Many of the older FPSs such as ''[[Doom]]'' and ''[[Quake series|Quake]]'' are in this genre, as well as many more recent titles like ''[[Serious Sam]]'', ''[[BLACK]]'' and the [[Halo (video game series)|''Halo'' series]]. Some recent titles take this to the extreme. Titles like Will Rock, Nitro Family, and Painkiller concentrate on swamping you with massive amounts of potential gibbage and have usually only a nominal storyline.
* The action/adventure shooter has larger environments and a greater emphasis on puzzle-solving and exploration (''[[System Shock 2]]'', ''[[Deus Ex]]'', ''[[Metroid Prime]]'', and ''[[Half-Life]]'' being examples).
* There have also been games that blend [[Real-time strategy]] gameplay to FPSes. Some of the early pioneers were ''[[Golgotha (computer game)|Golgotha]]'' and ''[[Battlezone (computer game)|Battlezone]]''. In these games, the player appears on the field as a single unit, but is able to give commands to other units, construct new units, and control the overall strategy. Some RTS/FPS hybrids use teamplay approach where one player is the commanding officer, responsible for the strategy part, and the other team members are ordinary soldiers. Some newer examples include ''[[Natural Selection (computer game)|Natural Selection]]'' and ''[[Savage: The Battle for Newerth|Savage]]''.
The lines between these sub-genres are often blurred; games such as ''[[Perfect Dark Zero]]'' and ''[[XIII (game)|XIII]]'' include stealth elements—avoiding detection being advantageous in certain situations—in addition to action-packed sequences more typical of a "run and gun" FPS.
Many first-person shooters are designed primarily as [[multiplayer]] games, and the single-player component (if any) consists entirely of play against [[Computer game bot|bots]]. Notable examples include ''[[Quake III Arena]]'', ''[[Counter-Strike]]'', ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'' and ''[[America's Army]]''. The ''[[TimeSplitters]]'' series began as a [[Split screen (computer graphics)|split screen]] multiplayer-focused game, although its single-player modes have since become more elaborate.
The [[Massively multiplayer online first-person shooter|MMOFPS]] combines first-person shooter gameplay with a large number of simultaneous players over the Internet. ''[[World War II Online]]'' and ''[[PlanetSide]]'' are pioneers of this new sub-genre.
Some FPS games strive to increase the realism of graphics and game environments, while retaining unrealistic gameplay. As a result, in many games the player has exaggerated physical capabilities and resiliency that allow him to make manoeuvres such as "grenade jumping", which is an action that allows the player to gain an extension to normal jumps by blast effects. The extended jump is possible with other game weapons and can thus have different names: for instance, the ''[[Quake]]'' series allows "rocket jumping". Other maneuvers common in FPS games are [[straferunning]] and [[circlestrafing]].
For many, the appeal of the FPS lies in immersive frantic blasting with a touch of verisimilitude, humour, puzzle-solving, and [[claustrophobia]]. For others, the single player mode in story-oriented games can have compelling narratives which allow for added element of drama in the games.
===Game conventions===
* One of the genre conventions is that crates, barrels, and similar objects are used often to "decorate" levels, in an attempt to give the player a more detailed and interactive environment. Crates are many times used to provide a jumping boost, whilst many barrels tend to be explosive (a legacy from Doom)
* The player normally begins with a single weak weapon, ranged or not, most likely the weakest. As he progressively obtains stronger weapons, so do the enemies become more difficult, in an attempt to balance the difficulty level of the game.
* Another traditional convention lies with the necessity of pushing buttons and levers so as to open doors and allow for the progression of the player. In earlier games, the button and the door it opens would frequently be on opposite sides of the level for no logical reason. This convention has diminished somewhat in favor of scripted events, although it is still quite visible in some games
===Platforms and hardware development===
The primary platform for modern FPSs has traditionally been the [[IBM PC compatible|PC]], though there have been notable games on other platforms, and the number of releases on consoles are increasing steadily.
FPS are among the most demanding programs for computing resources, persuading many users to upgrade computers that are still suitable for more mundane tasks, such as online browsing and office work. According to [[IDC]] analyst Roger Kay, high-end games serve as a catalyst for the mainstream personal computer market. FPS games can stretch the capabilities of CPUs and the [[graphics card|graphics cards]] ([http://news.com.com/2100-1043_3-5295390.html]). The rise of the genre has been a significant driver in the market for consumer graphics cards, particularly with regard to support for [[3D acceleration|hardware acceleration of 3D graphics]]. Recently, consumer [[head-mounted display|HMDs]] have been introduced which should further drive developments in [[Virtual Reality|virtual reality]] technology and better game play by providing a more [[immersive]] experience.
===Online play and mods===
Most FPSs feature competitive and/or co-operative [[Internet|online]] [[multiplayer]] modes. Players of these games often form into teams, or "[[clan (computer gaming)|clans]]" and participate in organised tournaments and championships. Some of these contests have sufficient prize funds to allow players to turn partially or even fully professional.
Among modern video game styles, FPSs were the first genre to gain a widespread online gaming community. This was due to a deliberate policy of innovation by games developers (notably by id Software), aided by the combination of two technical factors: The relatively small number of moving objects in the game world (particularly in early games) reduces the amount of information to be transmitted across the network, and the relatively large distances between player [[avatar (virtual reality)|avatars]] (compared to, say, [[fighting game]]s) mitigates the effect of the inevitable network [[lag]]. Despite these effects, these games remain highly sensitive to network speed, and complaints about lag are still common.
Many FPS games are designed with a core [[game engine]], separate from the graphics, game rules, and [[level (computer and video games)|level]]s. This enables developers to reuse or [[license]] the core software for other games. This "plug-in" design, combined with the general-purpose nature of the PC (compared to consoles) allows amateur [[programmer]]s to add new elements to games, such as new rules, characters or weapons without having access to the underlying technology. This process is known as "[[mod (computer gaming)|modding]]", from ''mod''ification.
Indeed, it is a common characteristic of FPSs that players and enthusiasts are able to create their own levels (''see'' [[level design]]) or even change overall graphical appearance and gameplay for distribution to other fans. Normally, this distribution must be done for free in order to abide by the developer's license. This has contributed to the longevity both of the genre and of individual games. Some games even serve as a basis for [[total conversion]]s, where all of the game content is replaced, leaving only the basic game engine intact. Many games now include the software the designers used to make levels, such as ''[[UnrealEd]]'' for the [[Unreal]] series. The amount of custom levels made for a game is heavily affected by how popular the game is and the size of the community available to play the map. For example, ''[[Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory]]'' increases the potential audience for a user-created level by allowing a custom level to be downloaded when a player connects to a server, as opposed to requiring the levels to be downloaded and installed in advance.
The communities of amateur programmers around FPS games can often become recruiting grounds for development companies; [[Valve Software]] have taken this as far as recruiting the core development teams of mods and releasing their product commercially.
==History==
:''(See [[first person shooter graphics engines]] for a history of FPS graphic engines)''
The first-person shooter, as the phrase is currently understood, emerged in the early [[1990s]]. However, the modern genre is a logical extension of earlier games, particularly those involving 3D graphics. While these early games are not First-Person Shooters in the modern sense, many of them come very close in gameplay terms, and many others contained ideas which later influenced the modern genre.
===Beginnings===
It is not clear exactly when the first FPS was created. There are two claimants, ''[[Spasim]]'' and ''[[Maze War]]''. The uncertainty about which was first stems from the lack of any accurate dates for the development of ''Maze War'' &mdash; even its developer [http://www.digibarn.com/history/04-VCF7-MazeWar/stories/colley.html cannot remember exactly]. In contrast, the development of Spasim is much better documented, and the dates more certain.
The initial development of ''[[Maze War]]'' |
[[Logical Link Control]] (LLC) and [[Media Access Control]], so that the layers can be listed like this:
*[[Data link layer]]
**[[Logical Link Control|LLC Sublayer]]
**[[Media Access Control|MAC Sublayer]]
*[[Physical layer]]
The IEEE 802 family of standards is maintained by the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee (LMSC). The most widely used standards are for the Ethernet family, Token Ring, Wireless LAN, Bridging and Virtual Bridged LANs. An individual Working Group provides the focus for each area.
See its working groups:
*[[IEEE 802.1]] Higher layer LAN protocols
*[[IEEE 802.2]] [[Logical Link Control|Logical link control]]
*[[IEEE 802.3]] [[Ethernet]]
*[[IEEE 802.4]] [[Token bus]] (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.5]] [[Token Ring]]
*[[IEEE 802.6]] [[Metropolitan Area Network]]s (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.7]] Broadband LAN using Coaxial Cable (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.8]] Fiber Optic TAG (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.9]] Integrated Services LAN (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.10]] Interoperable LAN Security (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.11]] [[Wireless LAN]] ([[Wi-Fi]] certification)
*[[IEEE 802.12]] demand priority
*IEEE 802.13 (not used)
*[[IEEE 802.14]] [[Cable modem]]s (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.15]] [[Wireless PAN]]
** [[IEEE 802.15.1]] ([[Bluetooth]] certification)
*[[IEEE 802.16]] [[Broadband Wireless Access]] ([[WiMAX]] certification)
**[[IEEE 802.16|IEEE 802.16e]] (Mobile) Broadband Wireless Access
*[[IEEE 802.17]] Resilient packet ring
*[[IEEE 802.18]] Radio Regulatory TAG
*[[IEEE 802.19]] Coexistence TAG
*[[IEEE 802.20]] Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
*[[IEEE 802.21]] Media Independent Handoff
*[[IEEE 802.22]] Wireless Regional Area Network
==See also==
*[[computer network]]s.
==External links==
*[http://www.ieee802.org/ 802 Committee website]
[[Category:IEEE 802|*]]
[[da:IEEE 802]]
[[de:IEEE 802]]
[[es:IEEE 802]]
[[fi:IEEE 802]]
[[fr:IEEE 802]]
[[it:IEEE 802]]
[[ja:IEEE802]]
[[sv:IEEE 802]]
[[zh:IEEE 802]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IEEE</title>
<id>14737</id>
<revision>
<id>32848524</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-27T06:16:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Srleffler</username>
<id>252195</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rv. It's pointless to disambiguate ONE page.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IEEE 1003</title>
<id>14738</id>
<revision>
<id>15912274</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-05T02:30:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-> Single UNIX Specification</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Single UNIX Specification]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IEEE 802.11</title>
<id>14739</id>
<revision>
<id>41688684</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:54:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KelleyCook</username>
<id>480791</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* 802.11n */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''IEEE 802.11''', the [[Wi-Fi]] standard, denotes a set of [[Wireless LAN]]/WLAN standards developed by working group 11 of the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]] LAN/MAN Standards Committee ([[IEEE 802]]). The term 802.11x is also used to denote this set of standards, and is not to be mistaken for any one of its elements. There is no single 802.11x standard. The term ''IEEE 802.11'' is also used to refer to the original 802.11, which is now sometimes called "802.11legacy." For the application of these standards see [[Wi-Fi]].
[[Image:Cisco_aironet1200_b.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A Cisco Aironet 1200 Access Point]]
<!-- Do we want these images all 300px? I'm not fussy about mine, although big is nice... comment on discussion page -->
[[Image:Compaq WL200 802.11b PCI card.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Compaq 802.11b PCI card]]
The 802.11 family currently includes six over-the-air [[modulation]] techniques that all use the same protocol, the most popular (and prolific) techniques are those defined by the b, a, and g amendments to the original standard; security was originally included, and was later enhanced via the 802.11i amendment. Other standards in the family (c&ndash;f, h&ndash;j, n) are service enhancement and extensions, or corrections to previous specifications. 802.11b was the first widely accepted wireless networking standard, followed (somewhat counterintuitively) by 802.11a and 802.11g.
802.11b and 802.11g standards use the 2.40 [[gigahertz]] (GHz) band, operating under [[Part 15 (FCC rules)|Part 15]] of the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] Rules and Regulations. The 802.11a standard uses the 5 GHz band. Operating in the 2.4 [[gigahertz]] frequency band, 802.11b and 802.11g equipment can incur interference from [[microwave oven]]s, [[cordless telephone]]s, [[Bluetooth]] devices, and other appliances using the same 2.4 GHz band.
Which part of the [[radio frequency]] spectrum may be used varies between countries, with the strictest limitations in the [[USA]]<!--or so the WiFi article says-->. While it is true that in the USA 802.11a and g devices may be legally operated without a license, it is not true that 802.11a and g operate in an unlicensed portion of the radio frequency spectrum. Unlicensed (legal) operation of 802.11 a & g is covered under [[Part 15 (FCC rules)|Part 15]] of the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] Rules and Regulations. Frequencies used by channels one (1) through six (6) (802.11b) fall within the range of the 2.4 [[gigahertz]] [[Amateur Radio]] band. Licensed [[amateur radio]] operators may operate 802.11b devices under [[Part 97 (FCC rules)|Part 97]] of the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] Rules and Regulations that apply.
== Protocols ==
=== 802.11 legacy ===
The original version of the standard IEEE 802.11 released in [[1997]] specifies two raw [[Data signaling rate|data rate]]s of 1 and 2 [[mega]][[Bit rate|bits per second]] (Mbit/s) to be transmitted via [[infrared]] (IR) signals or in the [[ISM band|Industrial Scientific Medical frequency band]] at 2.4 GHz. IR remains a part of the standard but has no actual implementations.
The original standard also defines [[Carrier Sense Multiple Access]] with Collision Avoidance ([[Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance|CSMA/CA]]) as the media access method. A significant percentage of the available raw channel capacity is sacrificed (via the CSMA/CA mechanisms) in order to improve the reliability of data transmissions under diverse and adverse environmental conditions.
At least five different, somewhat-interoperable, commercial products appeared using the original specification, from companies like Alvarion (PRO.11 and BreezeAccess-II), Netwave Technologies (AirSurfer Plus and AirSurfer Pro), Symbol Technologies (Spectrum24), and Proxim (OpenAir). A weakness of this original specification was that it offered so many choices that interoperability was sometimes challenging to realize. It is really more of a "meta-specification" than a rigid specification, allowing individual product vendors the flexibility to differentiate their products. Legacy 802.11 was rapidly supplemented (and popularized) by 802.11b. Widespread adoption of 802.11 networks only occurred after 802.11b was ratified and as a result few networks ran on the 802.11 standard.
=== 802.11b ===
The 802.11b amendment to the original standard was ratified in [[1999]]. 802.11b has a maximum raw data rate of 11 Mbit/s and uses the same [[Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance|CSMA/CA]] media access method defined in the original standard. Due to the CSMA/CA protocol overhead, in practice the maximum 802.11b throughput that an application can achieve is about 5.9 Mbit/s over [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] and 7.1 Mbit/s over [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]].
802.11b products appeared on the market very quickly, since 802.11b is a direct extension of the [[Direct-sequence spread spectrum | DSSS]] (Direct-sequence spread spectrum) modulation technique defined in the original standard. Technically, the 802.11b standard uses [[Complementary code keying]] (CCK) as its modulation technique, which is a variation on [[Code division multiple access|CDMA]]. Hence, chipsets and products were easily upgraded to support the 802.11b enhancements. The dramatic increase in throughput of 802.11b (compared to the original standard) along with substantial price reductions led to the rapid acceptance of 802.11b as the definitive wireless LAN technology.
802.11b is usually used in a point-to-multipoint configuration, wherein an access point communicates via an omni-directional antenna with one or more clients that are located in a coverage area around the access point. Typical indoor range is 30 m at 11 Mbit/s and 90 m at 1 Mbit/s. With high-gain external antennas, the protocol can also be used in fixed point-to-point arrangements, typically at ranges up to eight [[kilometre|kilometer]]s (km) although some report success at ranges up to 80&ndash;120 km where [[line of sight]] can be established. This is usually done in place of costly leased lines or very cumbersome microwave communications equipment. Designers of such installations who wish to remain within the law must however be careful about legal limitations on [[effective radiated power]].
802.11b cards can operate at 11 Mbit/s, but will scale back to 5.5, then 2, then 1 Mbit/s (a.k.a Adaptive Rate Selection), if signal quality becomes an issue. Since the lower data rates use less complex and more redundant methods of encoding the data, they are less susceptible to corruption due to interference and signal attenuation. Extensions have been made to the 802.11b protocol (e.g., c |
negal]] (Republic of)
|-
| 6X
| [[Madagascar]] (Republic of)
|-
| 6Y
| [[Jamaica]]
|-
| 6Z
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|7
|-
| 7A&ndash;7I
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 7J&ndash;7N
| [[Japan]]
|-
| 7O
| [[Yemen]] (Republic of)
|-
| 7P
| [[Lesotho]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| 7Q
| [[Malawi]]
|-
| 7R
| [[Algeria]] (People's Democratic Republic of)
|-
| 7S
| [[Sweden]]
|-
| 7T&ndash;7Y
| [[Algeria]] (People's Democratic Republic of)
|-
| 7Z
| [[Saudi Arabia]] (Kingdom of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|8
|-
| 8A&ndash;8I
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 8J&ndash;8N
| [[Japan]]
|-
| 8O
| [[Botswana]] (Republic of)
|-
| 8P&ndash;8P
| [[Barbados]]
|-
| 8Q
| [[Maldives]] (Republic of)
|-
| 8R
| [[Guyana]]
|-
| 8S
| [[Sweden]]
|-
| 8T&ndash;8Y
| [[India]] (Republic of)
|-
| 8Z
| [[Saudi Arabia]] (Kingdom of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|9
|-
| 9A
| [[Croatia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 9B&ndash;9D
| [[Iran]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| 9E&ndash;9F
| [[Ethiopia]] (Federal Democratic Republic of)
|-
| 9G
| [[Ghana]]
|-
| 9H
| [[Malta]]
|-
| 9I&ndash;9J
| [[Zambia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 9K
| [[Kuwait]] (State of)
|-
| 9L
| [[Sierra Leone]]
|-
| 9M
| [[Malaysia]]
|-
| 9N
| [[Nepal]]
|-
| 9O&ndash;9T
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
|-
| 9U
| [[Burundi]] (Republic of)
|-
| 9V
| [[Singapore]] (Republic of)
|-
| 9W
| [[Malaysia]]
|-
| 9X
| [[Rwandese Republic]]
|-
| 9Y&ndash;9Z
| [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
|}
*Note 1: Series allocated to an international organization.
*Note 2: Provisional allocation in accordance with No. S19.33:
(S19.33 Between radiocommunication conferences, the Secretary-General is authorized to deal with questions relating to changes in the allocation of series of call signs, on a provisional basis, and subject to confirmation by the following conference.)
*Note 3: Three letter codes beginning with Q are for communication abbreviations, the [[Q code]]s and not used as callsign prefixes.
*Note 4: Half-series allocation.
*Note 5: The [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] operates the vast majority of its stations with call signs beginning with CB. This is through a special agreement{{fact}} with the government of [[Chile]], which is officially assigned the CB prefix.
[[category: call signs]]
[[ast:Llista de prefixos radiofónicos]]
[[es:Prefijo radiofónico]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Israeli War of Independence</title>
<id>15438</id>
<revision>
<id>15912912</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IBM PC keyboard</title>
<id>15440</id>
<revision>
<id>41370289</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:21:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbiv</username>
<id>55217</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/213.132.254.2|213.132.254.2]] ([[User talk:213.132.254.2|talk]]) to last version by SGBailey</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[IBM PC]] keyboard''' and its derivative [[computer keyboard]]s are standardized. However, during the 20 years of the PC architecture being constantly updated, several types of keyboards have been developed.
==Keyboard layouts==
The following list gives a concise overview of the PC keyboard as it has changed over the years, the changes often being made at the launch of new PC versions. For each layout, some of the most significant updates are mentioned.
*&nbsp;&nbsp;83-key&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[PC/XT]] keyboard layout &ndash; original left hand side [[function key]] (F key) columns with 10 keys F1 through F10; electronically not [[compatible]] with the later keyboard types
*&nbsp;&nbsp;84-key&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[PC/AT]] keyboard layout &ndash; the "84th key" being <[[SysRq]]> i.e. System Request; numerical block now clearly separated from main keyboard; also added indicator [[light-emitting diode|LED]]s for Caps/Scroll/Num lock
* 101-key "Enhanced" keyboard layout &ndash; additional navigation and control keys; 12 F keys in row along top, grouped F1-4, F5-8, and F9-12
* 102-key "Enhanced" keyboard layout &ndash; (additional key to the right of the left Shift key for European layouts)
* 104-key "Windows" keyboard layout &ndash; [[Windows key|Windows]](x2) and Menu keys added
* 105-key as above, but for European layouts
* 107-key "Enhanced" keyboard layout &ndash; Wake, Sleep, and Power keys added (for [[power management]])
* 124-key [[Gateway anykey]] keyboard
So-called "[[multimedia]] keyboards" may offer additional buttons to the 104 or 107 "standard" keys, often providing volume control, media player buttons, and miscellaneous user-configurable shortcuts, e.g. to email clients, web browsers, etc.
==Standard key meanings==
The PC keyboard with its various keys has a long history of evolution reaching back to [[teleprinter|teletypewriter]]s. In addition to the 'old' standard keys, the PC keyboard has accumulated several special keys over the years. Some of the additions have been inspired by the opportunity or requirement for improving user productivity with general office [[application software]], while other slightly more general keyboard additions have become de facto standards after being introduced by certain [[operating system]] or [[graphical user interface|GUI]] software vendors such as [[Microsoft]].
''See also'': [[modifier key]]
===From mechanical typewriters===
*''Shift'' selects the upper character, or select upper case of letters. The Shift key in typewriters was attached to a lever that moved the character types so that the uppercase characters could be printed in the paper.
*''Caps Lock'' selects upper case, or if shift is pressed, lower case of letters. In mechanical typewriters, it worked like the Shift key, but also used a lock to keep the Shift key depressed. The lock was released by pressing the Shift key.
*''Enter'' wraps to the next line or activates the default or selected option. ASCII keyboards had CR or "[[carriage return]]". Typewriters used a lever that, once pressed, would move the cylinder with the paper.
===From Teletype keyboards===
*''Ctrl'' shifts the value of letters and numbers from the ASCII graphics range, down into the [[ASCII]] control characters. For example, CTRL-S is XOFF (stops many programs as the print to screen) CTRL-Q is XON (resume printing stopped by CTRL-S).
*''Esc'' produces an ASCII ESC character. Older software uses it to exit menus or modes.
*''Tab'' produces an ASCII Tab character. Moves to the next tab stop.
*''~'' is a ''tilde'', an accent backspaced and printed over other letters for non-English languages. Nowadays the key does not produce a backspaceable character and is used for 'not' or 'circa'.
*''`'' is a ''grave'' accent, also formerly backspaced over letters to write non-English languages; on some systems it is used as an opening quote. The single quote ' is normally used for an acute accent.
*''^'' is a circumflex, another accent for non-English languages. Also used to indicate exponentiation where superscript is not available.
*''*'' is an asterisk, used to indicate a note, or multiplication.
*''_'' is an underline, backspaced and overprinted to add emphasis.
*| is a bar, originally used as a typographic separator for optical character recognition. Many character sets break it in the middle so it cannot be confused with the numeral "1" or the letter "l".
===Invented for the PC===
*''Windows'' is a quick way to open the "Start" menu in Windows' standard Explorer shell, and can usually be configured to behave similarly in other graphical user interfaces, for Windows and other operating systems.
*''Context menu'' brings up a context menu, similar to right-clicking.
*Function keys are the numbered keys, use varies by program, but F1 is often "help."
*Arrow keys move on the screen. When shifted, they select items.
*''Home'' moves to the start of text, usually the left side of the screen.
*''End'' moves to the end of text, usually the right-most edge of the current line.
*''Page Up'' and ''Page Down'' move through the document by pages.
*''Del'' deletes the character before the screen position, or the selected items.
*''Ins'' toggles between "insertion" and "overwrite" mode.
*''Print screen'' originally printed a text image of the screen; nowadays often takes a screenshot. In combination with Alt, it produces a different keycode, SysReq.
*''Num lock'' toggles between states for the numeric keypad. When off, it acts as arrow and navigational keys. When on, it is a 10-key similar to a standard calculator. Preferences vary so much that a favorite default for this key can often be configured in the BIOS configuration. Its continued existence on keyboards that separate out the arrow keys has mostly historical reasons.
*''Scroll lock'' is little-used. On modern software, typing text usually causes earlier text to scroll off the top of the screen or window. Some old programs could disable this and restart at the top of the window when scroll lock was pressed. The advantage is that the entire screen full of text does not shift, making it easier to read. On spreadsheets such as [[Microsoft Excel]], it locks the cell pointer on the current cell, alowing the user to use the arrow keys to move the view window around without moving the cell pointer.
*''Pause'' paused processing, and is sometimes used to pause games. In combination with Control, it produces a different k |
agram of simple distillation set-up without a fractionating column often used by chemists. Shown in use.
<br>1. heat source (a Bunsen burner here)
<br>2. distilling flask (a round bottom flask)
<br>3. distilling head
<br>4. thermometer
<br>5. condenser
<br>6. cooling water in
<br>7. cooling water out
<br>8. receiving flask collecting dripping distillate
<br>9. vacuum source
<br>10. vacuum adapter]]
[[Chemist]]s often use distillation in their work as a means of separating [[Chemical compound|compound]]s or components. See at right a diagram of a simple distillation set-up without a fractionating column often used by chemists. A distillation apparatus sometimes used by chemists is a [[rotary evaporator]] to distill (or evaporate) away [[solvent]] from a solution.
An analogous method with freezing instead of evaporation is called [[freeze distillation]]. It is not distillation, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation.
==See also==
*[[American Whiskey Trail]]
*[[Azeotrope]]
*[[Pervaporation]]
*[[Distilled beverage]]
*[[:Category:Distillation|Distillation Types]]
**[[Azeotropic Distillation]]
**[[Dry distillation]]
**[[Extractive Distillation]]
**[[Fractional distillation]] (The distillation process of petroleum)
**[[Vacuum distillation]]
**[[Steam Distillation]]
**[[Reactive distillation]]
**[[Freeze distillation]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.cheresources.com/extrdist.shtml Extractive Distillation]
*[http://www.agcom.purdue.edu/AgCom/Pubs/AE/AE-117.html Alcohol distillation]
*[http://homedistiller.org Homedistiller.org - The mother of all home distilling information websites]
*[http://homedistiller.org/wiki/index.php Alcohol Wiki at Homedistiller.org]
*[http://www.oilganic.com/essential-oils-distillation.htm Essential and Fragrance Oils Distillation]
[[Category:Distillation| ]]
[[Category:Alchemical processes]]
[[bg:Дестилация]]
[[cs:Destilace]]
[[de:Destillation]]
[[es:Destilación]]
[[fr:Distillation]]
[[it:Distillazione]]
[[he:זיקוק]]
[[lt:Distiliacija]]
[[nl:Destillatie]]
[[ja:蒸留]]
[[no:Destillasjon]]
[[pl:Destylacja]]
[[sr:Дестилација]]
[[fi:Tislaus]]
[[sv:Destillation]]
[[vi:Chưng cất]]
[[zh:蒸馏]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Hilbert</title>
<id>8302</id>
<revision>
<id>42162330</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:53:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Prosfilaes</username>
<id>49272</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add countries to cities of birth</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hilbert.JPG|thumb|right|David Hilbert]]
'''David Hilbert''' ([[January 23]], [[1862]],[[Wehlau]], [[Prussia]]&ndash;[[February 14]], [[1943]], [[Gottingen]],[[Germany]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[mathematician]], recognized as one of the most influential mathematicians of the 19th and early 20th centuries. He established his reputation as a great mathematician and scientist by inventing or developing a broad range of ideas, such as [[invariant theory]], the [[Hilbert's axioms|axiomization of geometry]], and the notion of [[Hilbert space]], one of the foundations of [[functional analysis]]. Hilbert and his students supplied significant portions of the mathematic infrastructure required for [[quantum mechanics]] and [[general relativity]]. He is one of the founders of [[proof theory]], [[mathematical logic]], and the distinction between mathematics and [[metamathematics]], and warmly defended [[Cantor]]'s set theory and transfinite numbers. A famous example of his world leadership in [[mathematics]] is his 1900 presentation of a [[Hilbert's problems|set of problems]] that set the course for much of the mathematical research of the 20th century.
==Life==
Hilbert was born in [[Wehlau]], near [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]], [[Prussia]] (now [[Znamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast|Znamensk]], near [[Kaliningrad]], [[Russia]]). He graduated from the [[lyceum]] of his native city and registered at the [[University of Königsberg]]. He obtained his doctorate in 1885, with a dissertation, written under [[Ferdinand von Lindemann]], titled ''Über invariante Eigenschaften specieller binärer Formen, insbesondere der Kugelfunctionen'' ("On the invariant properties of special [[binary form]]s, in particular the circular functions"). [[Hermann Minkowski]] was also a doctoral candidate at the same university and time, and he and Hilbert became close friends, the two exercising a reciprocal influence over each other at various times in their scientific careers.
Hilbert remained at the University of Königsberg as a professor from [[1886]] to [[1895]], when, as a result of intervention on his behalf by [[Felix Klein]] he obtained the position of Chairman of Mathematics at the [[University of Göttingen]], at that time the best research center for mathematics in the world and where he remained for the rest of his life.
==The finiteness theorem==
Hilbert's first work on invariant functions led him to the demonstration in [[1888]] of his famous ''finiteness theorem''. Twenty years earlier, [[Paul Gordan|Gordan]] had demonstrated the [[theorem]] of the finiteness of generators for binary forms using a complex computational approach. The attempts to generalize his method to functions with more than two variables failed because of the enormous difficulty of the calculations involved. Hilbert realized that it was necessary to take a completely different path. As a result, he demonstrated ''[[Hilbert's basis theorem]]'': showing the existence of a finite set of generators, for the invariants of [[quantic]]s in any number of variables, but in an abstract form. That is, while demonstrating the existence of such a set, it was not algorithmic but an [[existence theorem]].
Hilbert sent his results to the ''[[Mathematische Annalen]]''. Gordan, the house expert on the theory of invariants for the ''Mathematische Annalen'', was not able to appreciate the revolutionary nature of Hilbert's theorem and rejected the article, criticizing the exposition because it was insufficently comprehensive. His comment was:
:''This is Theology, not Mathematics!''
Klein, on the other hand, recognized the importance of the work, and guaranteed that it would be published without any alterations. Encouraged by Klein and by the comments of Gordon, Hilbert in a second article extended his method, providing estimations on the maximum degree of the minimum set of generators, and he sent it once more to the ''Annalen''. After having read the manuscript, Klein wrote to him, saying:
:''Without doubt this is the most important work on general algebra that the ''Annalen'' has ever published.''
Later, after the usefulness of Hilbert's method was universally recognized, Gordan himself would say:
:''I must admit that even theology has its merits.''
==Axiomatization of geometry==
{{For more|Hilbert's axioms}}
The text ''[[Grundlagen der Geometrie]]'' (tr.: ''Foundations of Geometry'') published by Hilbert in [[1899]] substitutes a formal set, comprised of 21 [[axiom]]s, for the traditional [[Euclidean geometry|axioms of Euclid]]. They avoid weaknesses identified in those of [[Euclid]], whose works at the time were still used textbook-fashion. Independently and contemporaneously, a 19-year-old American student named [[Robert Lee Moore]] published an equivalent set of axioms. Some of the axioms coincide, some of the axioms in Moore's system are theorems in Hilbert's and vice-versa.
Hilbert's approach signalled the shift to the modern [[axiomatic method]]. Axioms are not taken as self-evident truths. Geometry may treat of ''things'', about which we have powerful intuitions, but it is not necessary to assign any explicit meaning to the undefined concepts. The elements, such as [[point (geometry)|point]], [[line]], [[plane (geometry)|plane]], and others, could be substituted, as Hilbert says, by tables, chairs, glasses of beer and other such objects. It is their defined relationships that are discussed.
Hilbert first enumerates the undefined concepts: point, line, plane, lying on (a relation between points and planes), betweenness, congruence of pairs of points, and [[criteria of congruence of angles|congruence]] of [[angles]]. The system of axioms combines within a single set both the [[plane geometry]] and [[solid geometry]] of Euclid.
==The 23 Problems==
{{For more|Hilbert's problems}}
He put forth a most influential list of [[Hilbert's problems|23 unsolved problems]] at the [[International Congress of Mathematicians]] in [[Paris]] in 1900. This is generally reckoned the most successful and deeply considered compilation of open problems ever to be produced by an individual mathematician.
After re-working the foundations of classical geometry, Hilbert could have extrapolated to the rest of mathematics. His approach differed, however, from the later 'foundationalist' Russell-Whitehead or 'encyclopedist' [[Nicolas Bourbaki]], and from his contemporary [[Giuseppe Peano]]. The mathematical community as a whole could enlist in problems, which he had identified as crucial aspects of the areas of mathematics he took to be key.
The problem set was launched as a talk "The Problems of Mathematics" presented during the course of the Second International Congress of Mathematicians held in Paris. Here is the introduction of the speech that Hilbert gave:
:''Who among us would not be happy to lift the veil behind which is hidden the future; to gaze at the coming developments of our science and at the secrets of its development in the centuries to come? What will be the ends toward which the spirit of future generations of mathematicians will tend? What methods, what new facts will the new century reveal in the vast and rich field of mathematical thought?''
He presented fewer than half the problems at the Congress, which were published in the acts of the Congress. In a subsequent publication |
ulti-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = FDR video montage.ogg|
title = FDR video montage|
description =Collection of video clips of the president. (7.2 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item |
filename=Roosevelt Pearl Harbor.ogg|
title=FDR Pearl Harbor speech|
description=Speech given before Joint Session of Congress in entirety. (3.1 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
format=[[Vorbis]]
}}
{{multi-listen item |
filename=Roosevelt Infamy.ogg|
title="A date which will live in infamy"|
description=Section of Pearl Harbor speech with famous phrase. (168 [[Kilobyte|KB]], [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
format=[[Vorbis]]
}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1920]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1932]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1936]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1940]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1944]]
* [[History of the United States (1918-1945)]]
* [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum]] (Hyde Park, New York)
* [[Business Plot]]
* [[New Deal]]
* [[Critics of the New Deal]]
* [[Franklin Roosevelt's Second Bill of Rights]]
* [[Fala]]
* [[Timeline of environmental events]]
* [[James Roosevelt]]
==References==
===Primary sources===
* Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds.; ''Public Opinion, 1935-1946'' (1951), massive compilation of many public opinion polls from USA
* Gallup, George Horace, ed. ''The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935-1971'' 3 vol (1972) summarizes results of each poll as reported to newspapers.
* Loewenheim, Francis L. et al, eds; ''Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence'' (1975)
* Nixon, Edgar B. ed. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs'' (3 vol 1969), covers 1933-37. 2nd series 1937-39 available on microfiche and in a 14 vol print edition at some academic libraries.
* Roosevelt, Franklin D.; Rosenman, Samuel Irving, ed. ''The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (13 vol, 1938, 1945); public material only (no letters); covers 1928-1945.
*[http://www.lexisnexis.com/academic/2upa/Aph/fdrDocumentary.asp ''Documentary History of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Administration''] 20 vol. available in some large academic libraries.
*Zevin, B. D. ed.; ''Nothing to Fear: The Selected Addresses of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1932-1945'' (1946) selected speeches
===Scholarly secondary sources===
*Beasley, Maurine, et al eds. ''The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia'' (2001)
* Burns, James MacGregor. ''Roosevelt'' (1956, 1970), 2 vol; interpretive biography, emphasis on politics; vol 2 is on war years
* Freidel, Frank. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny'' (1990), One-volume scholarly biography; covers entire life
* Freidel, Frank. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (4 vol 1952-73), scholarly biography; ends in 1934.
* Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times.'' (1985).
* Goodwin, Doris Kearns. ''No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II'' (1995)
*Kennedy, David M. ''Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945.'' (1999)
*Lash, Joseph P. ''Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of Their Relationship Based on Eleanor Roosevelt's Private Papers'' (1971), history of a marriage.
* Leuchtenberg, William E. Franklin D. ''Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932-1940.'' (1963). A standard interpretive history of era.
*Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr., ''The Age of Roosevelt'', 3 vols, (1957-1960), the classic narrative history. Strongly supports FDR. Online at [http://image.ulib.org/cgi-bin/handlers/handle8?call=15522.20704 vol 2] [http://delta.ulib.org/zoom/record.html?id=15523 vol 3]
===Popular Biographies===
* Black, Conrad. ''Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom'', Public Affairs, 2003. Popular biography
* Davis, Kenneth R. ''FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny, 1982-1928'' (1972)
* Morgan, Ted, ''FDR: A biography'', Simon &amp; Schuster, New York (1985), a popular biography
* Ward, Geoffrey C. ''Before The Trumpet: Young Franklin Roosevelt, 1882-1905'' HarperCollins, 1985.
** Geoffrey C. Ward, ''A First Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt'', HarperCollins, 1992, covers 1905-1932.
===Foreign Policy and World War II===
* Beschloss, Michael R. ''The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941-1945'' (2002).
* Borg, Dorothy and Shumpei Okamoto, eds. ''Pearl Harbor as History: Japanese-American Relations, 1931-1941'' (1973)
* Burns, James MacGregor. ''Roosevelt: Soldier of Freedom'' (1970), vol 2 covers the war years.
* Clemens, Diana Shaver. ''Yalta'' (1970);
* Dallek, Robert. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945'' (2nd ed. 1995).
* Divine, Robert A. ed. ''Causes and Consequences of World War II'' (1969). debates among historians
* Heinrichs, Waldo. ''Threshold of War. Franklin Delano Roosevelt and American Entry into World War II'' (1988).
* Herring Jr. George C. ''Aid to Russia, 1941-1946: Strategy, Diplomacy, the Origins of the Cold War'' (1973)
* Hurstfield, Julian G. ''America and the French Nation, 1939-1945'' (1986)
* Kennedy, Thomas C. ''Charles A. Beard and American Foreign Policy'' (1975)
* Kimball, Warren. ''The Juggler: Franklin Roosevelt as World Statesman'' (1991)
* Langer, William and S. Everett Gleason. ''The Challenge to Isolation, 1937-1940'' (1952). Vol 1 of highly influential semi-official history
* Langer, William L. and S. Everett Gleason. ''The Undeclared War, 1940-1941'' (1953). Vol 2 of highly influential semi-official history
* Larrabee, Eric. '' Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War''. History of the how FDR handled the war
* Loewenheim, Francis L. ed. ''Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence'' (1975)
* Matloff, Maurice and Edwin M. Snell. ''Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1941-1942'' (1953). military strategy
* Morley, James William and David A. Titus. ''The Final Confrontation: Japan's Negotiations with the United States, 1941'' (1994)
* Offner, Arnold A. ''America and the Origins of World War II, 1933-1941: New Perspectives in History'' (1971)
* Prange, Gordon. ''At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor'' (1981)
* Rauch, Basil. ''Roosevelt, from Munich to Pearl Harbor: A Study in the Creation of a Foreign Policy'' (1950)
* Schaller, Michael. ''The U.S. Crusade in China, 1938-1945'' (1979)
* Schneider, James C. ''Should America Go to War? The Debate over Foreign Policy in Chicago, 1939-1941'' (1989)
* Schroeder, Paul W. ''The Axis Alliance and Japanese-American Relations, 1941'' (1958)
* Schmitz, David F. and Richard D. Challener. ''Appeasement in Europe: A Reassessment of U.S. Policies'' (1990)
* Traina, Richard P. ''American Diplomacy and the Spanish Civil War'' (1968).
* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II'' (1994). Overall history of the war; strong on diplomacy
* Wood, Bryce. ''The Making of the Good Neighbor Policy'' (1961).
* Woods, Randall Bennett. ''A Changing of the Guard: Anglo-American Relations, 1941-1946'' (1990)
===Controversial attacks===
* Moley, Raymond. ''After Seven Years'' (1939), conservative critique, by former [[brain trust]]er.
* Barnes, Harry Elmer. ''Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace: A Critical Examination of the Foreign Policy of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Its Aftermath'' (1953). "revisionist" attack on FDR
* Russett, Bruce M. ''No Clear and Present Danger: A Skeptical View of the United States Entry into World War II'' 2nd ed. (1997)
* Trifkovic, Srdja, [http://www.chroniclesmagazine.org/Chronicles/August2000/0800Trifkovic.htm ''A Tale of Two Fascists: FDR and Mussolini''] (August 2000) Chronicles magazine.
* Powell, Jim. ''FDR's Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the Great Depression.'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2003), a stinging attack on New Deal policies from the right.
==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Franklin D. Roosevelt}}
*[http://www.potus.com/fdroosevelt.html#cabinet Franklin Delano Roosevelt Cabinet Members]
* [http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/ The Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum]
** [http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/audio.html Audio Archive]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/fr32.html White House biography]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu The American Presidency Project] at [[University of California at Santa Barbara]]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php Public Papers of the Presidents: Franklin D. Roosevelt]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php State of the Union Addresses]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14683 1934], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14890 1935], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15095 1936], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15336 1937], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15517 1938], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15684 1939], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15856 1940], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16092 1941], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16253 1942], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16386 1943], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16518 1944]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php State of the Union Written Messages]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16595 1945]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/inaugurals.php Inaugural Addresses]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14473 1933], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15349 1937], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16022 1941], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16607 1945]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.ed |
Jones]], whom he considered a risk-taking self-publicist, and his 'two photographers' ([[George and Ashley Abraham]]).
==Science, magic, and sexuality==
Crowley claimed to use a [[scientific method]] to study what people at the time called "spiritual" experiences, making "The Method of Science, the Aim of Religion" the catchphrase of his magazine ''The Equinox''. By this he meant that mystical experiences should not be taken at [[face value]], but critiqued and experimented with in order to arrive at their underlying religious meaning. In this he may be considered to foreshadow Dr. [[Timothy Leary]], who at one point sought to apply the same method to [[psychedelic drug]] experiences. Yet like Leary's, Crowley's method has received little "scientific" attention outside the circle of Thelema's practitioners.
Crowley's magical and initiatory system has amongst its innermost reaches a set of teachings on sex "magick." He frequently expressed views about sex that were radical for his time, and published numerous poems and tracts combining pagan religious themes with sexual imagery both heterosexual and homosexual.
[[Sex Magick]] is the use of the sex act—or the energies, passions or arousal states it evokes—as a point upon which to focus the will or magical desire for effects in the non-sexual world. In this, Crowley was inspired by [[Paschal Beverly Randolph]], an American author writing in the [[1870s]] who wrote (in his book ''Eulis!'') of using the "nuptive moment" (orgasm) as the time to make a "prayer" for events to occur.
==Women==
During March [[1899]] Crowley met, at one of the semi-public performances of MacGregor Mathers' [[Rites of Isis]], an American [[soprano]] by the name of [[Susan Strong]] ([[3 August]], [[1870]] - [[11 March]], [[1946]]). Susan was the daughter of [[Dennis Strong]], an American Congressman and mayor of [[Brooklyn]]. She had gone to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] at the age of 21 and had enrolled in the [[Royal College of Music]], [[London]] under the tutelage of the famous Hungarian musician [[Francis Korbay]]. Crowley met up with her again in London when she sang the part of Venus in ''[[Tannhäuser (Wagner)|Tannhäuser]]'' on [[22 June]] [[1899]]. A torrid romance followed during which Susan swore to divorce her American husband and devote herself to Crowley. However on her return to the US, around October [[1899]], she apparently cooled in ardour. Crowley followed her to [[New York]] in June of the following year, but by then she was already on her way back to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] to appear in performances of the [[Royal Opera House]], [[Covent Garden]]. During [[1900]], while in Mexico City, Crowley experienced an [[epiphany (feeling)|epiphany]], during which he transcribed his play, titled ''[[Tannhäuser]]''. He attributed the inspiration of this play to his romance with Susan Strong.
==Thelema==
*''see also [[Thelema]]''
The religious or mystical system which Crowley founded, into which most of his writings fall, he named '''[[Thelema]]'''. Thelema combines a radical form of philosophical [[libertarianism]], akin in some ways to [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], with a mystical initiatory system derived in part from the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]].
Chief among the precepts of Thelema is the [[sovereignty of the individual]] will: "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law." Crowley's idea of ''will,'' however, is not simply the individual's desires or wishes, but also incorporates a sense of the person's destiny or greater purpose: what he termed the "Magick Will." Much of the initiatory system of Thelema is focused on discovering one's true will, true purpose, or [[higher self]]. Much else is devoted to an Eastern-inspired dissolution of the individual [[ego]], as a means to that end (see [[Choronzon]]).
The second precept of Thelema is "Love is the law, love under will" — and Crowley's meaning of "Love" is as complex as that of "Will". It is frequently sexual: Crowley's system, like elements of the Golden Dawn before him, sees the dichotomy and tension between the male and female as fundamental to existence, and sexual "magick" and metaphor form a significant part of Thelemic ritual.
Thelema draws on numerous older sources and, like many other [[new religious movement]]s of its time, combines "Western" and "Eastern" traditions. Its chief Western influences include the Golden Dawn and elements of [[Freemasonry]]; Eastern influences include aspects of [[yoga]], [[Taoism]], [[Kabbalah]] and [[Tantra]].
==Writings==
Within the subject of occultism Crowley wrote widely, penning commentaries on the [[Tarot]] ''([[The Book of Thoth]])'', [[yoga]] ''(Book Four)'', the [[Kabbalah]] ''(Sepher Sephiroth)'', [[astrology]] ''(The General Principles of Astrology)'', and numerous other subjects. He also wrote a Thelemic "translation" of the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'', based on earlier English translations since he knew little or no Chinese. Like the Golden Dawn mystics before him, Crowley evidently sought to comprehend the entire human religious and mystical experience in a single philosophy. He self-published many of his books, expending the majority of his inheritance to disseminate his views. Many of his fiction works, such as the "Simon Iff" detective stories and ''[[Moonchild]]'' have not received significant notice outside of occult circles. However his fictional work ''[[Diary Of A Drug Fiend]]'' has received acclaim from those involved in the field of [[substance-abuse rehabilitation|substance abuse rehabilitation]].
Crowley's most grandiose work is ''[[The Equinox]]'', a large bi-annual periodical that served as the official organ of the [[Argenteum Astrum]] (A∴A∴), and, later, the [[O.T.O.]] It was subtitled "The Review of Scientific Illuminism" and remains one of the definitive works on [[occultism]].
Crowley's other major works include:
* ''[[The Book of Lies]]''
* ''[[The Holy Books of Thelema]]''
* ''[[Konx om Pax]]''
He also wrote a short, highly readable introduction to [[yoga]] (''Eight Lectures on Yoga'') and a [[polemic]] arguing against [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s interpretation of the [[Gospels]] in his preface to ''[[Androcles and the Lion]]''. Crowley's piece was edited by [[Francis King]] and published as ''Crowley on Christ'', and shows him at his erudite and witty best.
Crowley had a peculiar sense of humour. In his ''Book Four'' he includes a chapter purporting to illuminate the Qabalistic significance of [[Mother Goose]] [[nursery rhyme]]s. ''In re'' [[Humpty Dumpty]], for instance, he recommends the occult authority "Ludovicus Carolus" -- better known as [[Lewis Carroll]]. In a footnote to the chapter he admits that he had invented the alleged meanings, to show that one can find occult "Truth" in everything. The title to chapter [[69 (number)|69]] is given as "The Way to Succeed - and the Way to Suck Eggs!" a pun, as the chapter concerns the [[69 sex position]] as a mystical act.
Many Crowley biographies relate the story of [[L. Ron Hubbard]] and [[Jack Parsons]] and their attempt to create a "moonchild" (from Crowley's novel of that name). In Crowley's own words, "Apparently Parsons and Hubbard or somebody is producing a moonchild. I get fairly frantic when I contemplate the idiocy of these louts." Clearly the admiration Hubbard had for Crowley was not reciprocated.
More famously still, he baited [[Christianity|Christians]] by naming himself [[To Mega Therion]], or "The Great Beast" of the [[Book of Revelation]].
Crowley was also a published, if minor, poet. He wrote the [[1929]] ''Hymn to Pan'' [http://www.paganlibrary.com/music_poetry/crowleys_pan_invocation.php], perhaps his most widely read and anthologized poem. Three pieces by Crowley, "The Quest [http://www.bartleby.com/236/314.html]", "The Neophyte [http://www.bartleby.com/236/315.html]", and "The Rose and the Cross [http://www.bartleby.com/236/316.html]", appear in the [[1917]] collection ''[[The Oxford Book of English Mystical Verse]]''. Crowley's unusual sense of humour is on display in ''White Stains'' [http://www.rahoorkhuit.net/library/crowley/stain.html], an [[1898]] collection of [[pornography|pornographic]] verse pretended to be "the literary remains of George Archibald Bishop, a neuropath of the Second Empire;" the volume is prefaced with a notice that says that " The Editor hopes that Mental Pathologists, for whose eyes alone this treatise is destined, will spare no precaution to prevent it falling into other hands."
==Miscellany==
*Crowley also tried to mint a number of new terms instead of the established ones he felt inadequate. For example he spelled [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] "[[magick]]" and renamed [[theurgy]] "high magick" and [[thaumaturgy]] "low magick".
*"In World War I Aleister Crowley ingratiated himself with a Hermetic sect in order to reveal to the Americans that its head was a highly dangerous German agent. In World War II it was well known in British Intelligence that many leading Nazis were interested in the occult and especially in astrology. Crowley did some work for [[MI5]], but his project for dropping occult information by leaflet on the enemy was rejected by the authorities." - Richard Deacon, Spyclopaedia
==Crowley in popular culture==
:''See [[Crowley in popular culture]]''
==See also==
* The [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]
* [[Homunculus]]
* [[Argenteum Astrum]] (A∴A∴)
* [[Ordo Templi Orientis]]
* [[William Breeze]]
* [[The Equinox]]
* [[Thoth Tarot]]
* [[Thelemapedia]]
* [[Grady McMurtry]]
* [[Jack Parsons]]
* [[Lon Milo Duquette]]
==References==
* Carroll, Robert Todd (2004). "[http:/ |
asoning. The implications of the earlier [[scientific revolution]] began to have a greater effect on everyday life and in the conscious thought of men everywhere. Increased publication and communications between like-minded people opened up new areas to question and consideration. The early works of thinkers like [[John Locke]] became the analysis of men like [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]]. The [[Deism|deist]] views of several of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]], and their views on the proper form of government have roots in this European Enlightenment, and were a source for ideas regarding [[separation of church and state]] and other liberties. In addition, the ideas of "[[social contract]]" and "[[natural rights]]", espoused by [[John Locke]], formed the basis of political reasonings.
===Road to rebellion===
After the [[French and Indian War]] and Pontiac's Rebellion, the British government sought to overhaul its expansive North American possessions. In order to make the Empire more stable and profitable, new economic and land distribution policies were implemented. Specifically, the new British policies included the understandable desire of the crown that the colonists would shoulder a greater share of the burdens of war and the cost of their own defense, as well as the curtailment of smuggling with the colonies of the West Indies, the payment of royal tariffs and the exclusive with the British homeland.
===Economic disputes, 1760-70 ===
King George wanted the colonists' money. The British national debt had risen to alarming levels during the war years and so in 1760 [[the Crown]] began a series of economic initiatives designed to extract more revenue from the colonies. These policies were 'justifiable', the reasoning went, because the colonists were enjoying the benefits of the peace that had been won.
[[Image:James Otis.gif|thumb|right|100px|James Otis]]
In theory, Great Britain already [[mercantilism|regulated the economies]] of the colonies through the [[Navigation Acts]], but widespread evasion of these laws had long been tolerated. Now, through the use of open-ended search warrants ([[Writs of Assistance]]), strict enforcement became the practice. In 1761, Massachusetts lawyer [[James Otis]] argued that the writs violated the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|constitutional rights]] of the colonists. He lost the case, but [[John Adams]] later wrote, "American independence was then and there born."
In 1763, [[Patrick Henry]] argued the [[Parson's Cause]] case. Clerical pay had been tied to the price of tobacco by Virginia legislation. When the price of tobacco skyrocketed after a bad crop in 1758, the [[House of Burgesses|Virginia legislature]] passed the Two-Penny Act to stop clerical salaries from inflating as well. In 1763, [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] vetoed the Two-Penny Act. Patrick Henry defended the law in court and argued "that a King, by disallowing Acts of this salutary nature, from being the father of his people, degenerated into a Tyrant and forfeits all right to his subjects' obedience."
In 1764, [[British Prime Minister]] [[George Grenville]]'s [[Sugar Act]] and [[Currency Act]] created economic hardship in the colonies. Protests led to the boycott of British goods, and to the emergence of the popular slogan "[[no taxation without representation]]," in which colonists argued that only their colonial assemblies, and not [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]], could levy taxes on them. [[Committee of correspondence|Committees of correspondence]] were formed in the colonies to coordinate resistance to paying the taxes. In previous years, the colonies had shown little inclination towards collective action. Grenville's policies were bringing them together.
A milestone in the Revolution occurred in 1765, when Grenville passed the [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]], as a way to finance the quartering of troops in North America. The Stamp Act required all legal documents, permits, commercial contracts, newspapers, pamphlets, and playing cards in the colonies to carry a [[stamp duty|tax stamp]].
Colonial protest was widespread. Secret societies known as the [[Sons of Liberty]] were formed in every colony, and used [[propaganda]], intimidation, and mob violence to prevent the enforcement of the Stamp Act. The furor culminated with the "[[Stamp Act Congress]]", which sent a formal protest to Parliament in October of 1765. Parliament responded by repealing the Stamp Act, but pointedly [[Declaratory Act|declared its legal authority]] over the colonies &#8220;in all cases whatsoever.&#8221;
[[Image:Boston Massacre.jpg|300px|right|thumb|This exaggerated depiction of the "[[Boston Massacre]]" by [[Paul Revere]] was designed to inflame opposition to the military occupation of Boston.]]
The sequel to the Stamp Act was not long in coming. In 1767, Parliament passed the [[Townshend Acts]], placing taxes on a number of common goods imported into the colonies, including glass, paint, lead, paper, and tea. In response, colonial leaders organized boycotts of these British imports. On [[June 10]], [[1768]], the ''Liberty'', a ship belonging to colonial merchant [[John Hancock]] and suspected of smuggling, was seized by customs officials in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. Angry protests on the street led customs officials, fearing for their safety, to report to London that Boston was in a state of insurrection.
British troops began to arrive in Boston in October of 1768. Tensions continued to mount; culminating in the "[[Boston Massacre]]" on [[March 5]], [[1770]], when British soldiers of the [[29th Regiment of Foot]] fired into an angry mob, killing five. Revolutionary agitators, like [[Samuel Adams]], used the event to stir up popular resistance, but, after the trial of the soldiers, who were defended by [[John Adams]], tensions diminished.
The Townshend Acts were repealed in 1770, after much colonial protest, and it was still theoretically possible that further bloodshed in the colonies might be avoided. However, the British government had left one tax from the Townshend Acts in place as a symbolic gesture of their right to tax the colonies&mdash;the tax on tea. For the revolutionaries, who stood firm on the principle that only their colonial representatives could levy taxes on them, it was still "one tax too many". This resulted in the [[Boston Tea Party]].
===Western land dispute===
The [[British Royal Proclamation of 1763|Proclamation of 1763]] sought to limit the conflicts between [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s and the English settlers by restricting settlement west of the [[Appalachian Mountains]]. However, groups of settlers, led for example by [[Daniel Boone]], continued to move into the region beyond the Proclamation Line and fought with the [[Shawnee]]s and other peoples inhabiting the area. Furthermore, the [[Quebec Act]] of 1774, extended [[Quebec]]'s boundaries to the [[Ohio River]], reestablished [[Civil Code of Quebec#Under the British Empire|French civil law]], and instituted toleration for [[Roman Catholic]]s in that territory, an action which horrified some colonials, who had come to New England to establish their own [[protestant]] sects. Proposals to post British regulars to man forts in the west further disquieted Americans eager to occupy Indian land.
===Crises, 1772-75===
While there were many causes of the American Revolution, it was a series of specific events, or crises, that finally triggered the outbreak of war.
[[Image:Gaspee Affair.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Burning of the ''Gaspee'']]
The first of these was the [[Gaspée Affair]]. The ''HMS Gaspée'', a British ship that had been vigorously enforcing unpopular trade regulations (the [[Navigation Acts]]), ran aground on [[June 9]], [[1772]], off of [[Narragansett Bay]] in [[Rhode Island]], while chasing the packet boat ''Hannah''. In an act of defiance that gained considerable notoriety, the ship was attacked, boarded, stripped of valuables and torched by American patriots, who later denied knowing about the entire affair.
[[Image:Boston tea party.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This 1846 lithograph has become a classic image of the Boston Tea Party.]]
The next crisis was a result of the so-called "[[Tea Act]]", passed by the British Parliament in 1773. This act allowed the [[British East India Company]] to sell [[tea]] to the [[Thirteen Colonies|British colonies]] without the usual colonial [[tax]], thereby allowing it to undercut the prices of the colonial merchants. To help pay for its colony in [[India]], the British government intended to give the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] a [[monopoly]] on tea imports to the colonies; this, however, backfired. Because many American merchants earned their living from [[smuggling]], this act would take away their livelihood. The result was widespread [[boycott]]s of tea throughout the colonies, and, eventually, to the [[Boston Tea Party]] where American colonists, believed to be the [[Sons of Liberty]], dressed up like Indians and threw crates of tea from the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] ships into the [[Boston Harbor]].
The [[Intolerable Acts]], called by the British the "Coercive Acts" or "Punitive Acts", were a series of laws, passed by the [[British Parliament]] in 1774, in response to the growing unrest in the thirteen [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]], particularly in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] with its [[Boston Tea Party]]. Enforcement of the Acts played a major role in the outbreak of the [[American Revolutionary War]] and the establishment of the [[Continental Congress|First Continental Congress]].
The Intolerable Acts included:
*[[Massachusetts Government Act]]
*[[Administration of Justice A |
a major time paradox occurred and the entire room, light bulb, changer and all was blown out of existence.''
:''Q: How many politicians does it take to change a light bulb?''
:''A: It doesn't matter how many you have, none of them will ever trust any of the others to hold the ladder steady.''
A further variation plays with the structure of the joke itself (often only making comedic sense when read as part of a list of regular lightbulb jokes). For example:
:''Q: One
:''A: How many time-travellers does it take to change a lightbulb?
== [[Geography|Geographical]] or [[ethnicity|ethnic]] variations ==
=== General all-purpose ethnic version ===
This generic usability prompted one commentator to create the "all-purpose ethnic version" which reads as follows:
:''Q: How many members of a given demographic group does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: 'N+1' &mdash; one to hold the lightbulb and N to behave in a fashion generally associated with a negative [[stereotype]] of that group.''
There is no uniformity as to the target of derision: in [[United States|America]] it has been the [[Poles|Polish people]], while in [[Great Britain]] it is the [[Ireland|Irish]] who are lampooned (in [[Wales]] it is the [[Cardigan|'Cardis']]). In [[Australia]] the [[New Zealanders]] are the target of the jokes, and in [[New Zealand]] the Australians are made fun of. The Canadians target their own [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundlanders]], or "newfies". The jokes are by no means limited to [[English language|English]]-speaking countries. For example, the [[Russia]]ns tell the same joke about the [[Moldavia]]ns, [[Chukchi (people)|Chukchi]] and [[Ukrainians]]. The Ukrainians, in turn, tell it about Russians; the [[Spain|Spanish]] make fun of the inhabitants of [[Lepe]], while the [[Colombia]]ns make fun of the inhabitants of [[Nariño]], and the rest of the [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking population laugh at the [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicians]]; the [[Brazil]]ians mock the [[Portugal|Portuguese]]; the Portuguese mock the Brazilians; the [[Norway|Norwegians]] laugh at their [[Sweden|Swedish]] neighbours, and conversely, the Swedes tell the same joke about Norwegians; the [[Germany|Germans]] target the [[East Frisia]]ns; The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[France|French]] target their [[Belgium|Belgian]] neighbours and the [[India|Indians]] target the [[Pakistan]]is. The [[Finland|Finns]] target everyone, including themselves. In [[Costa Rica]], people joke about foreigners from [[Nicaragua]].
==See also==
* [[Internet humor]]
==External links==
* [http://www.brainlock.org/fun/lbjs.htm Canonical List of Lightbulb Jokes]
* [http://www.eviloverlord.com/parodies/ Peter Anspach's Star Trek Parody Pages] &mdash; contains scripts for Star Trek Episodes of every flavour, each revolving solely around the business of changing a light bulb.
* [http://www.workinghumor.com/quickies/lightbulbs.shtml Quickies about Light Bulbs]
* [http://www.aquarianage.org/lore/jokes/litebulb.html Astrojokes &mdash; The Inevitable Lightbulb Jokes] &mdash; Contains lightbulb jokes revolving around star signs and their personalities.
* [http://www.publicradio.org/applications/formbuilder/projects/joke_machine/joke_page.php?joke_cat=Light+Bulb A Prairie Home Companion]
* [http://www.zodanet.com/lollerpedia/index.php/Jokebook:Lightbulb Lollerpedia lightbulb jokes] ''GFDL wiki''
[[Category:Humor-related lists|Lightbulb jokes]]
[[Category:Jokes]]
[[de:Glühbirnen-Witz]]
[[es:Chiste del bombillo]]
[[ja:電球ジョーク]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet humor/Long lightbulb jokes</title>
<id>15135</id>
<revision>
<id>15912633</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-27T07:48:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[lightbulb joke]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[lightbulb joke]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Honor system virus</title>
<id>15139</id>
<revision>
<id>39430625</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T02:13:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Putnamehere3145</username>
<id>820541</id>
</contributor>
<comment>To stop people from where I am from (USA) from editing the "mispelling"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Honor system viruses''' or '''signature viruses''' are not actual [[computer virus]]es but [[Internet humor|Internet jokes]] or [[Internet meme|meme]]s that are passed around voluntarily.
==Signature virus==
A signature virus is a piece of text placed in a [[signature block]] which encourages readers to copy it into their own signature block. This copying is the means of [[reproduction]] of the [[meme]], and because the text encourages its own copying it is considered to be a memetic [[virus]]. A simple example:
:I'm a signature virus. Please add me to your signature and help me spread!
It is possible for such a virus to carry a short informational [[payload]] in addition to the copying instructions. In the above example, the only payload is the [[concept]] and term "signature virus".
Signature viruses are usually copied mostly due to the humour (humor) value of the concept.
==Honor system virus==
An [[honor system]] virus claims to be an [[email]] virus, but using [[human]] rather than [[computer]] action as the substrate for its destructive and reproductive behaviours. It spreads as a simple textual email message, with text such as:
:This virus works on the honor system. Please forward this message to everyone you know, then delete all the files on your hard disk. Thank you for your cooperation.
It is a joke, not a serious virus. Because its alleged destructive behaviour requires positive action by its intended human victim, the intended victim can simply not take the instructed action (deleting their own files). Those humans who follow the virus's instruction to forward it to others can be safely presumed to have not followed the destructive part of the instructions, and to be forwarding the message deliberately so that their friends may also appreciate the joke.
The joke is based on the perceived foolishness in the design of mail programs that are susceptible to viruses. A normal email virus works by including computer instructions in an email; the mail programs in question, predominantly ones developed by [[Microsoft]], execute those instructions without an explicit request from the user. Most mail programs, in contrast, maintain a distinction between code and data, and so are immune to this type of virus. The honor system virus draws a parallel between humans and mail programs, and so makes the reader think about the human behaviours that are analogous to these mail program behaviours.
It should be noted that some serious email viruses make use of human action in their transmission. They include text that attempts to [[confidence trick|con]] the user into invoking the machine-executable part of the message. This is unlike the honor system virus not only because there is a directly machine-executable component but also because the virus attempts to mislead the human. The honor system virus is entirely straightforward and honest in its human-directed instructions, just like the computer-directed part of a normal email virus.
===Variants===
The honor system virus is also known as the [[Amish]] Computer Virus, the [[Ireland|Irish]] Computer Virus, and the [[Unix]] Computer Virus.
The "Unix Computer Virus" name refers to the [[Unix]] family of [[operating system]]s. In addition to having mail programs that lack the deficiencies that allow viruses to spread by email, they make a relatively inhospitable environment for viruses, when compared to other operating systems popular on desktop computers. Viruses do occur on [[Unix-like]] systems, but they are far less common than in other environments. A corresponding variant of the honor system virus reads thus:
:YOU HAVE RECEIVED THE UNIX VIRUS!
:This virus works on the honor system. Please randomly delete some of your files and forward this to everyone you know.
The "Discount Virus" variant apparently fooled some people into thinking they actually received a virus:
:This computer has just been infected by the Discount Virus. Due to budgetary constraints we have had to let our programming staff go. We are counting on you to use the honor system. Please erase all of the files from your hard drive and then send this message to the first 50 people on your mailing list.
==External links==
* [http://www.redhat.com/archives/redhat-install-list/2000-May/msg00805.html Virus attack on the Red Hat mailing list!]
[[Category:Computer humor]]
[[Category:Internet memes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Electrotechnical Commission</title>
<id>15144</id>
<revision>
<id>41436214</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T08:10:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>61.21.54.4</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links: */ +ja</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Electrotechnical Commission''' ('''IEC''') is an international [[standards organization]] dealing with electrical, electronic and related technologies. Some of its standards are developed jointly with [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]].
The IEC held its inaugural meeting on 26th June [[1906]], following discussions between the British [[IEE]], the American [[IEEE]] (then called IEE), and others, which began at the 1900 [[Paris International Electrical Congress]], and continued with [[Colonel]] [[R. E. B. Crompton]] playing a key role. It currently counts more than 130 countries. Sixty-five of these are members, while another 69 participate in the Affiliate Country Programme, which is not a form of members |
ally sung in the [[Irish language]], a translation of the original, it is also known by the English-language title, '''''A Soldier's Song''''', as well as '''The National Anthem of Ireland''' ('''Amhrán Náisiúnta na hÉireann'''). The lyrics of the song are by [[Peadar Kearney]] and the music by both Kearney and [[Patrick Heeney]]. It was composed in [[1907]] and was first published in ''[[Irish Freedom]]'' in [[1912]]. The [[Irish language]] version of the original was the work of [[Bulmer Hobson]].
The song is regarded by many [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] as the national anthem of the whole of [[Ireland]], and it is therefore sung, for example, at [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] matches held anywhere on the island. [[Unionists (Ireland)|Unionist]]s, however, reject this use of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'', and at international games played by the all-Ireland [[Ireland national rugby union team|Irish Rugby Football Union]] team the song ''[[Ireland's Call]]'' is sung instead of, or (in the [[Republic of Ireland]]) as well as, ''Amhrán na bhFiann''.
==History==
''Amhrán na bhFiann'' was relatively unknown until it was sung by rebels in the [[General Post Office (Dublin)|General Post Office]] (GPO) during the [[Easter Rising]] of [[1916]], and afterwards in British internment camps. The song became the official state anthem in [[1926]] when it replaced the unofficial anthem, ''[[God Save Ireland]]''.
''[[God Save the Queen|God Save the King]]'' was the official anthem of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] until the independent [[Irish Free State]] was established in [[1922]]. The continued use of ''God Save the King'' by some Irish people caused embarrassment to the new Irish state and, on one famous occasion, [[James McNeill|Governor-General James McNeill]] refused to attend a public function in [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]] when he discovered that the university intended playing the anthem during his visit. Even after the adoption of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' as the official anthem of the Irish Free State in July [[1926]], a minority continued to sing the British anthem, and to pray for the King and Queen in religious ceremonies, for a number of years.
In [[1934]], the Irish state acquired the copyright of the song for the sum of £1,200.[http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/gen121934a.html]
Controversy also surrounds the change in the wording of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' over the years. In the original translation, the first line read as ''Sinne Laochra Gaedheal'' (literally "we the heroes of Ireland"). This has since been replaced by ''Sinne Fianna Fáil'', which to some people is evidence that the anthem has been hijacked by the [[Fianna Fáil]] party.[http://www.ireland.com/newspaper/letters/2005/1101/]
In recent years, a number of Irish newspapers and columnists have proposed replacing ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' with a new national anthem, arguing that the current wording is excessively militant and anti-[[United Kingdom|British]]. Others have argued that the melody is difficult for bands to play. Problems have sometimes been witnessed at international sporting events, where either the entire song (not just the chorus that constitutes the anthem) has been played (as occurred, for example, at the [[1984 Summer Olympics|Los Angeles Olympics]]) or the right part has been played but at the wrong speed, as occurred at the [[2000 Summer Olympics|Sydney Olympics]] in [[2000]].
Some have proposed that the anthem be replaced with the Irish Rugby Football Union's song, ''Ireland's Call''. The suggestion has also been made that, as occurred in [[Germany]] after [[World War II]], the government might change the words of the anthem while keeping the original melody.
==Lyrics==
The Irish national anthem consists of the chorus only of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'', and is almost always sung in Irish. The first two lines of the anthem and the last two, played together, form the Irish ''Presidential Salute'', which is played when the [[President of Ireland]] attends official events. The chorus of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'', as used for the anthem, is given below.
===Irish version===
:Sinne Fianna Fáil
:Atá faoi gheall ag Éirinn,
:Buíon dár slua
:Thar toinn do ráinig chughainn,
:Faoi mhóid bheith saor.
:Sean-tír ár sinsear feasta
:Ní fhágfar faoin tiorán ná faoin tráill
:Anocht a théam sa bhearna baoil,
:Le gean ar Ghaeil chun báis nó saoil
:Le gunna scréach faoi lámhach na bpiléar
:Seo libh canaig Amhrán na bhFiann.
===Phonetic version===
:shin-na fee-in-na fall
:a-thaw fay yeol egg erin
:bween dar slew
:harr thin the raw ne gooin
:Fway vawid veh sair
:shawn-tier awr shinshir fasta
:nee-owg fur fay teer-awn naw feign trawl
:an nocht a hame saw varna vwail
:lay gown owr gwale cunn boss no sale
:le gunna sh-rake fay law buck naw bell air
:shull liv con-ig arawn naveen
===English version===
:Soldiers are we
:whose lives are pledged to Ireland;
:Some have come
:from a land beyond the wave.
:Sworn to be free,
:No more our ancient sireland
:Shall shelter the despot or the slave.
:Tonight we man the ''bearna baoil'' <sup>2</sup>
:In Erin's cause, come woe or weal;
:'Mid cannon's roar and rifles' peal,
:We'll chant a soldier's song.
==Complete Lyrics==
The Following is the full lyrics of Amhrán na bhFiann, in Irish and English.
===Irish lyrics===
:Seo dhibh a cháirde duan Óglaigh,
:Cathréimeach briomhar ceolmhar,
:Ár dtinte cnámh go buacach táid,
:'S an spéir go min réaltogach
:Is fonnmhar faobhrach sinn chun gleo
:'S go tiúnmhar glé roimh thíocht do'n ló
:Fé chiúnas chaomh na hoiche ar seol:
:Seo libh canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann.
:Curfá:
:Sinne Fianna Fáil
:A tá fé gheall ag Éirinn,
:buion dár slua
:Thar toinn do ráinig chugainn,
:Fé mhóid bheith saor.
:Sean tír ár sinsir feasta
:Ní fhagfar fé'n tiorán ná fé'n tráil
:Anocht a théam sa bhearna bhaoil,
:Le gean ar Ghaeil chun báis nó saoil
:Le guna screach fé lámhach na bpiléar
:Seo libh canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann.
:Cois bánta réidhe, ar árdaibh sléibhe,
:Ba bhuachach ár sinsir romhainn,
:Ag lámhach go tréan fé'n sár-bhrat séin
:Tá thuas sa ghaoith go seolta
:Ba dhúchas riamh d'ár gcine cháidh
:Gan iompáil siar ó imirt áir,
:'S ag siúl mar iad i gcoinne námhad
:Seo libh, canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann.
:Curfá
:A bhuíon nách fann d'fhuil Ghaeil is Gall,
:Sin breacadh lae na saoirse,
:Ta scéimhle 's scanradh i gcroíthe namhad,
:Roimh ranna laochra ár dtire.
:Ár dtinte is tréith gan spréach anois,
:Sin luisne ghlé san spéir anoir,
:'S an bíobha i raon na bpiléar agaibh:
:Seo libh, canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann.
:Curfá
===English lyrics===
:We'll sing a song, a soldier's song,
:With cheering rousing chorus,
:As round our blazing fires we throng,
:The starry heavens o'er us;
:Impatient for the coming fight,
:And as we wait the morning's light,
:Here in the silence of the night,
:We'll chant a soldier's song.
:Chorus:
:Soldiers are we
:whose lives are pledged to Ireland;
:Some have come
:from a land beyond the wave.
:Sworn to be free,
:No more our ancient sire land
:Shall shelter the despot or the slave.
:Tonight we man the gap of danger
:In Erin's cause, come woe or weal
:'Mid cannons' roar and rifles peal,
:We'll chant a soldier's song.
:In valley green, on towering crag,
:Our fathers fought before us,
:And conquered 'neath the same old flag
:That's proudly floating o'er us.
:We're children of a fighting race,
:That never yet has known disgrace,
:And as we march, the foe to face,
:We'll chant a soldier's song.
:Chorus
:Sons of the Gael! Men of the Pale!
:The long watched day is breaking;
:The serried ranks of Inisfail
:Shall set the Tyrant quaking.
:Our camp fires now are burning low;
:See in the east a silv'ry glow,
:Out yonder waits the Saxon foe,
:So chant a soldier's song.
:Chorus
==Footnote==
# ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' is pronounced "ow-rawn na veean"
# Meaning "gap of danger" and pronounced "vair-na vwail" ''(See article on [[Battle of New Ross 1798#Attack|Battle of New Ross]] for explanation of origin)
==External links==
{{wikisource}}
*[http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/index.asp?docID=792]Text of National Anthem published on Department of Taoiseach website
*[http://www.irishroots.org/aoh/anthem.htm] Complete Lyrics
===Media files===
* [http://www.lengua-translations.de/anthems/ireland.mid MIDI file] 7.6 KB simple sequence
* [http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/getFile.asp?FC_ID=288&docID=241 MP3 file] 1 MB anthem played by the Army Band
* [http://thetvroom.com/video-4/BE-AR-RTE1-ANTHEM-94-02.rm RealMedia file] 3.9 MB audio-visual as used on [[Radio Telefís Éireann|RTE]] television in the 1980s/90s
[[Category:National anthems]]
[[Category:Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Irish songs]]
[[cs:Irská hymna]]
[[cy:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[de:Nationalhymne der Republik Irland]]
[[es:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[fr:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[ga:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[it:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[he:המנון אירלנד]]
[[hu:Ír himnusz]]
[[nl:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[ja:アイルランドの国歌]]
[[nn:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[pl:Hymn Irlandii]]
[[pt:Hino nacional da Irlanda]]
[[ru:Гимн Ирландии]]
[[sr:Химна Ирске]]
[[fi:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[sv:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[tr:İrlanda Ulusal Marşı]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anatolia</title>
<id>854</id>
<revision>
<id>41799125</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:55:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>OrphanBot</username>
<id>621721</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing image with no copyright information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anatolia composite NASA.png|thumb|200px|right|Asia Minor lies east of the [[Bosporus]], between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.]]
'''Anatolia''' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: "Anadolu",[[Greek language|Greek]]: "Aνατολή" ''Αnatolē'' or Ανατολία ''Anatolìa'') is a region of [[Southwest Asia]] wh |
<br>''female:''
4.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2004 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
77.36 years
<br>''male:''
74.74 years
<br>''female:''
80.15 years (2004 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
1.87 children born/woman (2004 est.)
'''HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:'''
0.1% (2001 est.)
'''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS'''
2,400 (2001 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Irishman(men), Irishwoman(women), Irish (collective plural)
<br>''adjective:''
Irish
'''Major Ethnic groups:'''
Irish Celtic majority; English, Polish, Chinese, Nigerian, Latvian, Lithuanian
'''Religions:'''
[[Roman Catholic]] 88.4%, [[Church of Ireland]] 2.95%, [[Presbyterian]] 0.5%, [[Methodist]] 0.25%, [[Jewish]] 0.05% other 2.27% (2002)
'''Languages:'''
[[English language|English]] is the more commonly used language, [[Irish language|Irish]] ([[Goidelic languages|Gaelic]]) is spoken mainly in the [[Gaeltacht]] located along the western seaboard and in Dublin and other urban areas (with 340,000 in 2002 census claiming daily usage)
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
98% (1981 est.)
<br>''male:''
NA%
<br>''female:''
NA%
==See also==
*[[Republic of Ireland]]
*[[Ireland]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cso.ie/ Irish Central Statistics Office]
*[http://www.qub.ac.uk/cdda/iredb/dbhme.htm Historical Census Data]
[[Category:Demographics of Ireland| ]]
[[es:Demografía de Irlanda]]
[[pt:Demografia da República da Irlanda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of the Republic of Ireland</title>
<id>14677</id>
<revision>
<id>41491318</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:51:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guliolopez</username>
<id>262716</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ rv "See Also" edit. (Article not-notable in context of wider "Politics of Republic of Ireland")</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsRofI}}
'''Politics of the Republic of Ireland''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Ireland]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the parliament. Since long times the party system is dominated by the conservative [[Fianna Fáil]] and [[Fine Gael]] parties. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. The state is a member of the [[European Union]].
==Government==
===Constitution===
''Main article: [[Constitution of Ireland]]''
The state operates under the Constitution of Ireland, also known as Bunreacht na hÉireann, adopted in [[1937]]. The constitution falls broadly within the [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] tradition. It defines the organs of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights. The constitution may only be amended by [[referendum]]. Important constitutional referenda have concerned issues such as [[abortion]], the status of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]], divorce and the European Union.
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Ireland]]
|[[Mary McAleese]]
|
|[[11 November]] [[1997]]
|-
|[[Taoiseach]] (prime minister)
|[[Bertie Ahern]]
|[[Fianna Fáil]]
|[[26 June]] [[1997]]
|}
===Head of state===
''Main article: [[President of Ireland]]''
The head of state is the President of Ireland. In keeping with the state's [[parliamentary system]] of government the President exercises largely a ceremonial role but does possess certain reserve powers. The presidency is open to all citizens who are at least 35. They are directly elected by secret ballot under the [[Alternative Vote]]. A candidate may also be chosen by a consensus among the political parties, in which case it is unnecessary to proceed to a ballot. The President is elected to a seven year term; no candidate may serve more than two terms. In carrying out certain of her constitutional functions, the President is aided by the [[Council of State (Ireland)|Council of State]].
===Government===
''Main article: [[Irish Government]]''
Executive authority is exercised by a [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] known simply as the Government. The Government consists of the [[Taoiseach]] (prime minister), the [[Tánaiste]] (deputy prime minister) and up to thirteen other ministers. The Taoiseach is appointed by the President, after being designated by [[Dáil Éireann]] (the lower house of parliament). The remaining ministers are nominated by the Taoiseach and approved by the Dáil. The Government must enjoy the confidence of Dáil Éireann and, in the event that they cease to enjoy the support of the lower house, the Taoiseach must either resign or persuade the President to dissolve the Dáil, in which case a [[general election]] follows.
==Legislative branch==
''Main article: [[Oireachtas]]''
The parliament of the Republic of Ireland is the Oireachtas. The Oireachtas consists of the President and two houses: Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann (also known as the Senate). The Dáil is by far the dominant tier of the legislature. The President may not veto laws in most circumstances and the Senate may only delay legislation.
*'''[[Dáil Éireann]]''': The Dáil is directly elected at least once in every five years under the [[Single Transferable Vote]] form of [[proportional representation]]. Membership of the house is open to all citizens who are at least 21, and the electorate consists of adult Irish and UK citizens. It usually has around 160 to 170 members. Since the early 1990s no single party has had a majority in Dáil Éireann, meaning that [[coalition government|coalition governments]] have been the norm.
*'''[[Seanad Éireann]]''': The Senate is a largely advisory body. It consists of sixty members: eleven nominated by the Taoiseach, six elected by certain national universities, and 43 elected from special vocational panels of candidates. The Senate has the power to delay legislative proposals and is allowed 90 days to consider and amend bills sent to it by the Dáil.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|Political parties in the Republic of Ireland|Elections in the Republic of Ireland}}
A number of political parties are represented in the Dáil and [[coalition government]]s are common. Neither of the two largest parties, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, strongly identifies itself as either a left or right-wing group. The third largest party in the state is the centre-left [[Irish Labour Party|Labour Party]]. Labour is joined on the left by the [[Irish Green Party|Green Party]], [[Sinn Féin]] and the [[Socialist Party of Ireland|Socialist Party]]. The right is represented by the [[Progressive Democrats]] who, while liberal on economic policy, are left-wing on social matters. Independent TDs (MPs) also play an important role in Irish politics.
{{Irish general election, 2002}}
==Judiciary==
''Main article: [[Courts of the Republic of Ireland]]''
The Republic of Ireland is a [[common law]] jurisdiction. The judiciary consists of the [[Supreme Court of the Republic of Ireland|Supreme Court]], the [[High Court of the Republic of Ireland|High Court]] and many lower courts established by law. Judges are appointed by the President after being nominated by the Government and can be removed from office only for misbehaviour or incapacity, and then only by resolution of both houses of the Oireachtas. The final court of appeal is the Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice and seven other justices. The Supreme Court has the power of [[judicial review]] and may declare to be invalid both laws and acts of the state which are repugnant to the constitution.
==Local government==
''Main article: [[Local government in the Republic of Ireland]]''
Local government in the Republic of Ireland is governed by the Local Government Acts, the most significant of which was in 2001, which established a two-tier structure of [[local government]]. The top tier of the structure consists of 29 [[County Council]]s. Each of the Republic's 26 traditional counties have councils, with the exceptions of [[Dublin]] (with 3 councils), and [[Tipperary]] (with 2). The five largest cities ([[Dublin]], [[Cork]], [[Galway]], [[Limerick City|Limerick]], and [[Waterford]]) also have City Councils, which have the same status as County Councils.
The second tier of local government consists of the [[town]] councils. The city of [[Kilkenny]] and four other town [[borough]]s ([[Sligo]], [[Drogheda]], [[Clonmel]], and [[Wexford]]), use the title of "Borough Council" instead of "Town Council", but they have no additional responsibilities. Local government bodies have responsibility for such matters as planning, roads, sanitation, and libraries.
==North-South Ministerial Council==
''Main article: [[North-South Ministerial Council]]''
Under the [[Belfast Agreement]] (also known as the Good Friday Agreement) and Article 3 of the constitution a North-South Ministerial Council and six North-South Implementation Bodies coordinate activities and exercise a limited governmental role within certain policy areas across the whole island of [[Ireland]]. The Implementation Bodies have limited executive authority in six policy areas. Meetings of the Council take the form of meetings between ministers from both the Republic's Government and the [[Northern Ireland Executive]]. The Council is currently in abeyance.
==Northern Ireland==
[[Northern Ireland]] has been a major factor in Irish politics since the island of Ireland was [[Partition of Ireland|divided]] in [[1920]]. The creation of Northern Ireland led to conflict between northern [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] (mostly [ |
situated next to the [[River Torrens]].]]
[[Image:St Peters Cathedral.JPG|280px|right|thumb|St. Peters Cathedral, Adelaide]]
Adelaide is sometimes referred to as the 'City of Churches', although this is a reflection more on Adelaide's past than its present. Rumour has it that for every church that was built in Adelaide, a [[public house|pub]] was also built to serve the less pious. From its earliest, Adelaide attracted [[immigrant|immigrants]] from many countries, particularly German migrants escaping religious persecution. They brought with them the [[vine]] cuttings that founded the acclaimed wineries of the [[Barossa Valley]]. After the [[World War II|Second World War]] Italians, Greeks, Dutch, Polish, and possibly every other European nationality came to make a new start. An influx of Asian immigrants following the Vietnam War added to the mix. These new arrivals have blended to form a rich and diverse cuisine and vibrant restaurant culture.
Adelaide's [[The Arts|arts]] scene flourished in the 1970's under the leadership of premier [[Don Dunstan]], removing some of the more [[puritan|puritanical]] restrictions on cultural activities then prevalent around Australia. Now the city is home to events such as the Barossa Music Festival, the [[Adelaide Festival of Arts]], [[Adelaide Film Festival]], [[Adelaide Festival of Ideas]], [[Come Out]] youth arts festival, the [[Adelaide Fringe Festival|Fringe Festival]], among others. [[WOMADelaide]], Australia's premier [[world music]] event, is now annually held in the scenic surrounds of [[Adelaide Botanic Gardens|Botanic Park]], emphasising Adelaide's dedication to the arts which has prevailed since the days of Don Dunstan.
The annual [[Royal Adelaide Show]], first held in 1840, began as a simple event for the state's farmers to show off their produce. Over time, it grew into a more general commercial [[fair]] held in early September in the inner suburb of [[Wayville, South Australia|Wayville]], with [[amusement ride|carnival ride]]s, food and entertainment surrounding the more traditional agricultural exhibitions and competitions.
The [[music of Adelaide]] has produced various musicians who have achieved both national and worldwide fame. Notably the [[Adelaide Symphony Orchestra]], the [[Adelaide Youth Orchestra]], [[The Mark of Cain]], [[The Superjesus]], [[Testeagles]], [[Cold Chisel]] and [[Eric Bogle]]. American artist [[Ben Folds]] considers Adelaide his second home, epitomised in his song "Adelaide" and resides here with his Adelaide-born wife for a number of months each year. The first [[Australian Idol]] winner, [[Guy Sebastian]] hails from the Adelaide suburb of [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]] and the popular Australian hip-hop outfit [[Hilltop Hoods]] reside in [[O'Halloran Hill, South Australia|O'Halloran Hill]].
===Media===
Newspapers in Adelaide are dominated by [[News Corp]] tabloid publications. The only South Australian daily newspaper is ''[[The Advertiser (Australia)|The Advertiser]]'', published by News six days per week, while the Sunday paper is the ''[[Sunday Mail (Adelaide)|Sunday Mail]]''. There are eleven suburban community newspapers published weekly, known collectively as the ''[[Messenger Newspapers]]'', also published by a subsidiary of News Corp. A recent addition to the print medium in the city is "[[The Independent Weekly]]", providing one alternative view. Two national daily newspapers are circulated in the city - ''[[The Australian]]'' (Monday&ndash;Friday) and its weekend publication, ''The Weekend Australian'' (Saturday), also published by News Corp., and ''[[The Australian Financial Review]]'' published by [[John Fairfax Holdings|Fairfax]]. ''[[The Adelaide Review]]'' is a free paper published fortnightly and other independent magazine-style papers are published, but are not as widely available.
All of the five Australian national networks broadcast both [[Analog television|analogue]] [[PAL]] and [[widescreen]] [[Digital television|digital]] services in Adelaide. They share three transmission towers on the ridge near the summit of [[Mount Lofty]]. The two government-funded stations are ''[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]]'' and ''[[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]]''. The ''[[Seven Network]]'' and ''[[Network Ten]]'' both own their Adelaide stations ([[SAS-7]] and [[ADS-10]] respectively). Adelaide's [[NWS-9]] is affiliated with the ''[[Nine Network]]'' but is actually owned by [[Southern Cross Broadcasting]]. Adelaide also has a [[community television]] station, [[Channel 31]]. The [[Foxtel]] [[pay TV]] service is available as [[cable television]] in a few areas, as is [[satellite television]] to the entire metropolitan area. It is resold by a number of other brands, mostly telephone companies.
===Sport===
[[Image:Clipsal 500.jpg|280px|right|thumb|The annual Adelaide [[Clipsal 500]] race.]]
Adelaide hosted the [[Formula 1]] [[Australian Grand Prix]] from 1985 to 1995 on a [[Adelaide Street Circuit|street circuit]] in the city's eastern parklands. The Grand Prix became a source of pride and losing the Grand Prix to Melbourne in a surprise announcement left a void that has since been filled with the highly successful [[Adelaide 500|Clipsal 500]] [[V8 Supercar]] race event, held on a modified version of the same street circuit.
Adelaide is the home of two [[Australian Football League]] teams: the [[Adelaide Crows]] and the [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide Football Club]]. A local [[Australian Rules Football]] league, the [[South Australian National Football League|SANFL]], is made up of nine teams from around Adelaide. Adelaide's professional [[football (soccer)|soccer]] team [[Adelaide United]] play in the [[A-League]], at [[Hindmarsh Stadium]], one of the few purpose built football stadiums in Australia. The [[Adelaide 36ers]] and the [[Adelaide_Fellas | Adelaide Fellas]] play in national basketball competitions, with home games at the Distinctive Homes Dome and the [[Adelaide Thunderbirds]] play in the national netball competition, with home games at [[ETSA Park]]. Most large sporting events take place at either [[AAMI Stadium]] (formerly Football Park) or the historic [[Adelaide Oval]], home of the [[Southern Redbacks]] Cricket Team. Adelaide hosts an international cricket test every summer, along with a number of [[one day international]] cricket matches.
Adelaide has hosted the annual [[Tour Down Under]] bicycle race since 1999, an event which has gradually built an international reputation with each successive year it has been held. It is also host to the popular [[Bay to Birdwood]] run, featuring vintage and veteran cars from around the world.
==Infrastructure==
===Health===
Adelaide's first hospital was the [[Royal Adelaide Hospital]] (RAH), founded in [[1840]], it is one of the major hospitals in Adelaide and is a [[teaching hospital]] of the [[University of Adelaide]]. It has a capacity of 500 beds. Two other RAH campuses specialising in specific patient services located in the suburbs of Adelaide - the Hampstead Rehabilitation Centre in [[Northfield, South Australia|Northfield]], and the [[Glenside, South Australia|Glenside]] Campus Mental Health Service. The other two largest hospitals in the Adelaide area are the [[Women's and Children's Hospital, Adelaide|The Women's and Children's Hospital]] (305 beds), which is located on King William Road in [[North Adelaide]] and the Flinders Medical Centre (500 beds), which is located in [[Bedford Park, South Australia|Bedford Park]], [[South Australia]]. These hospitals are also associated with medical schools - the Women and Children's with the [[University of South Australia]]'s Adelaide Campus and the Flinders Medical Centre with [[Flinders University]].
===Transport===
{{Main|Transport in Adelaide}}
[[Image:Mountosmondinterechange_sefreeway.JPG|right|280px|thumb|The [[Mount Osmond, South Australia|Mount Osmond]] Interchange on the [[South Eastern Freeway]].]]
Being centrally located on the Australian mainland, Adelaide forms something of a strategic transport hub for east-west and north-south routes. The city itself has a limited [[public transport]] system, which is managed by and known as the [[Adelaide Metro]]. The Adelaide Metro consists of a contracted bus system including the [[Adelaide O-Bahn]] (a [[guided busway]]), metropolitan railways, and the historic Adelaide-[[Glenelg Tram]]. Road transport in Adelaide has historically been comparatively easier than many of the other Australian cities, with a well-defined city layout and wide multiple-lane roads from the beginning of its development. Historically, Adelaide was known as a "twenty-minute city", with commuters having being able to travel from metropolitan outskirts to the city proper in roughly twenty minutes. However, these roads are now inadequate to cope with Adelaide's growing road traffic. {{ref|20mincity}}
The [[Adelaide International Airport]], located at [[West Beach, South Australia|West Beach]], is Australia's newest and most advanced airport terminal and is designed to serve in excess of 5.4 million passengers annually. The new dual international/domestic terminal was to replace the old and ageing terminals known locally as the 'tin sheds', and incorporates new state-of-the-art features, such as glass aerobridges and the ability to cater for the new Airbus A380. The airport is designed to handle 27 aircraft simultaneously and it is capable of processing 3,000 passengers per hour.
===Utilities===
Adelaide has three major energy companies, which provide gas and electricity to the population. ETSA Utilities is the former government-owned company (sold off by the [[John Olsen|Olsen]] Government in the 1990s) and the major player in the Adelaide electicity market. There are other smaller providers, [[AGL]], [[Energy Australia]] and [[Origin Energy]] who provide services in electricity and natural gas. There has been sub |
s in outlandish fashion, such as a fairy tale in "A Gangsta's Fairytale", later rappers took this to the extreme of describing physically impossible acts of violence in an outrageously exaggerated manner.
The album spawned the hit single soulful and depressing ''Dead Homiez'' on the charts.
==Track listing==
#"Better off Dead" ([[Brian Holt]]/[[Ice Cube]])
#"The Nigga Ya Love to Hate" (Ice Cube/[[E. Sadler]])
#"Amerikkka's Most Wanted" (Ice Cube/Sadler/[[Keith Shocklee]])
#"What They Hittin' Foe" ([[Average White Band]]/Ice Cube)
#"You Can't Fade Me/JD's Gaffilin'" (Ice Cube/Sadler)
#"Once upon a Time in the Projects" (Ice Cube/[[Sir Jinx]])
#"Turn off the Radio" (D./Ice Cube/Sadler/[[Betty Shabazz]])
#"Endangered Species (Tales from the Darkside)" ([[Chuck D]]/Ice Cube/Sadler/Sir Jinx)
#"A Gangsta's Fairytale" (Ice Cube/Sadler)
#"I'm Only Out for One Thang" ([[Flavor Flav]]/Ice Cube/Sir Jinx/[[Stevie Wonder]])
#"Get off My Dick and Tell Yo Bitch to Come Here" (Ice Cube/Sadler)
#"The Drive By" (Shocklee/Sir Jinx)
#"Rollin' Wit the Lench Mob" (Ice Cube/Sadler)
#"Who's the Mack?" (Ice Cube/[[JBs]])
#"It's a Man's World" (Ice Cube/Sir Jinx/[[Yo Yo]])
#"The Bomb" (Ice Cube/Sir Jinx)
#"Endangered Species (Tales From the Darkside)(Remix)"
#"Jackin’ For Beats"
#"Get Off My Dick and Tell Yo Bitch To Come Here(Remix)"
#"The Product"
#"Dead Homiez"
#"JD’s Gaffilin’ (Part 2)"
#"I Gotta Say What Up!!!"
Tracks 17-23 are on the 2003 re-release, originally on the out-of-print 1990 EP ''Kill At Will''.
==Personnel==
#[[The Bomb Squad]] - [[Record Producer]]
#Mario Castellanos - [[Photography]]
#[[Chris Champion]] - Assistant Engineer
#[[Chuck D.]] - Performer
#[[Da Lench Mob]] - [[Vocals]] (bckgr), Producer
#[[(Ex) Cat Heads]] - Vocals (bckgr)
#[[Flavor Flav]] - Vocals, Performer
#[[Ricky Harris]] - Vocals (bckgr)
#[[Al Hayes]] - [[Bass Guitar]], [[Guitar]]
#[[Vincent Henry]] - [[Flute]], [[Saxophone]]
#[[Brian Holt]] - Vocals
#Kevin Hosmann - Art Direction
#[[Ice Cube]] - Vocals, Producer
#[[J. Dee]] - Vocals (bckgr)
#[[Tim Rollins]] - [[Piano]]
#[[E. Sadler]] - Producer
#[[Nick Sansano]] - Engineer
#Shannon - Vocals (bckgr)
#Christopher Shaw - Engineer
#[[Keith Shocklee]] - [[Scratching]]
#[[Sir Jinx]] - Vocals (bckgr), Producer
#[[Howie Weinberg]] - Mastering
#Dan Wood - Vocals (bckgr), Engineer
#[[Yo-Yo (rapper)|Yo-Yo]] - Vocals, Performer
==Chart positions==
[[Billboard Music Charts]] (North America) - album
1990 The Billboard 200 No. 19
1990 Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums No. 6
Billboard (North America) singles
1990 Amerikkka's Most Wanted Hot Rap Singles No. 1
==External links==
*[http://www.leoslyrics.com/albums/1520/ for lyrics]
[[Category:Ice Cube albums]]
[[Category:1990 albums]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Afrika Bambaataa</title>
<id>866</id>
<revision>
<id>42007869</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:40:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.186.181.23</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Discography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bambaat7a.jpg|thumb]]
'''Afrika Bambaataa''' (born [[April 10]] or [[October 4]], [[1957]] or [[1960]], though his birthdate is hotly debated; he himself refuses to comment on his age) is a DJ and community leader from the South [[Bronx]], who was instrumental in the early development of [[hip hop music|hip hop]] throughout the 1970s.
Afrika Bambaataa's birthname has been mistakenly listed as Kevin Donovan; however, Kevin Donovan was actually another man and leader of the Harlem Underground Band.
During Bambaataa's early years, he was a founding member of the Bronxdale Projects-area [[street gang]], The Savage Seven. Due to the explosive growth of the gang, it later became known as the [[Black Spades]], and Bambaataa rose to the position of Division Leader. After a life-changing visit to Africa, he changed his name to '''Afrika Bambaataa Aasim'''. Bambaataa was influenced by the depiction of the [[Zulu]] warriors attacking British troops at Rorke's Drift in the [[Michael Caine]] film ''[[Zulu (film)|Zulu]]''. He took his name, which roughly translated to "affectionate leader", from the film.
After the visit, Bambaataa decided to use his leadership to turn those involved in the gang life into something more positive to the community. This began the development of [[The Organization]], which soon later became known as the [[Zulu Nation]], a group of racially and politically aware rappers, [[B-boy]]s, [[graffiti]] artists and other people involved in hip hop culture that gained fame in the early eighties to mid nineties. By [[1977]], inspired by DJ [[Kool Herc]], Bambaataa had begun organizing [[block parties]] all around the South Bronx, and he was soon renowned as one of the best DJs in the business. In [[1980]], he produced [[Soul Sonic Force]]'s landmark single, "[[Zulu Nation Throwdown]]". In 2000 [[Rage Against The Machine]] covered Afrika's song Renegades of Funk for their album "[[Renegades (album)|Renegades]]".
In [[1982]], Bambaataa organised the very first European hip hop tour. Along with himself were rapper and graffiti artist [[Rammellzee]], Zulu Nation DJ [[Grand Mixer DXT]] (formerly Grand Mixer D.St), B-boy and B-girl crews the [[Rock Steady Crew]], and the Double Dutch Girls, as well as legendary graffiti artists [[Fab 5 Freddy]], [[Phase 2]], [[Futura 2000]], and [[Dondi]].
Also in 1982, Bambaataa became a solo artist (having produced several other singles) and released "[[Jazzy Sensation]]" on [[Tommy Boy Records]] in that year. "[[Planet Rock - The Album|Planet Rock]]", a popular single, came out that June under the name Afrika Bambaataa and the [[Soul Sonic Force]]. The song melded electronic hip hop beats with the main melody from [[Kraftwerk]]'s [[Trans-Europe Express (album)|Trans-Europe Express]], as well as portions from records by [[Ennio Morricone]] and [[Captain Sky]] - thus creating a new style of music altogether, [[electro funk]]. It influenced many styles of [[electronic music|electronic]] and [[dance music]], e.g. [[house music]] and [[techno music]]. In [[1984]], Bambaataa recorded "[[Unity]]" with [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] and released "[[World Destruction]]" under the name [[Time Zone]] (with [[John Lydon]]). [[Shango Funk Theology]], a full length album, came out under the name Shango. This was followed by "[[Funk You]]" in [[1985]] and then his formal full album debut, [[Beware (The Funk Is Everywhere)]].
Bambaataa then left Tommy Boy and signed with [[Capitol Records]], released [[The Light]] (as Afrika Bambaataa & the Family), which included aid from [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]], [[Bootsy Collins]], [[Boy George]] and [[UB40]]. [[1990-2000: Decade of Darkness]] was released in [[1991]]. It included both [[hip house]] tracks that were produced by the Italian team De Point (most of those have been collected on ZYX record's "The 12" Mixes" Compilation) as well as hip hop and electro funk tracks. On "Warlocks and Witches", Bam (as his name is often abbreviated) focused on hip hop. From the mid-1990s, Bam returned to his electro roots, collaborating with [[Westbam]] (who was named after him) and culminating in 2004's excellent album "Dark Matter Moving at the Speed of Light" which featured [[Gary Numan]] and many others.
==Discography==
{| cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" border="0" style="border:3px solid grey;"
|-
! '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Label'''
|-
| 1982 || ''[[Planet Rock (with Soul Sonic Force)]]'' || [[Tommy Boy Records |Tommy Boy Records (12")]]
|-
| 1982 || ''[[Looking For The Perfect Beat (with Soul Sonic Force)]]'' || Tommy Boy Records (12")
|-
| 1983 || ''[[Renegades Of Funk]]'' || Tommy Boy Records (12")
|-
| 1983 || ''[[Wildstyle]]'' || [[Celluloid Records (12")]]
|-
| 1984 || ''[[Frantic Situation (with Shango from the motion picture soundtrack "Beat Street")]]'' || Tommy Boy Records
|-
| 1985 || ''[[Sun City (Artists United Against Apartheid)]]'' || [[EMI]]
|-
| 1986 || ''[[Planet Rock - The Album]]'' || Tommy Boy Records (12")
|-
| 1986 || ''Beware (The Funk Is Everywhere)''
| Tommy Boy Records
|-
| 1987 || ''Death Mix Throwdown'' || Blatant
|-
| 1988 || ''The Light'' || [[EMI]] America
|-
| 1991 || ''The Decade of Darkness 1990-2000'' || [[EMI]] Records USA
|-
| 1992 || ''Don't Stop... Planet Rock (The Remix EP)'' || Tommy Boy (EP)
|-
| 1993 || "Zulu War Chant" || Profile (12")
|-
| 1993 || "What's the Name of this Nation?... Zulu" || Profile (12")
|-
| 1994 || "Feel the Vibe" || DFC (12") (with Khayan)
|-
| 1996 || "Jazzin'" by Khayan || ZYX
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Lost Generation]]'' || [[Hot]]
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Warlocks and Witches, Computer Chips, Microchips and You]]'' || [[Profile]]
|-
| 1997 || ''Zulu Groove'' || Hudson Vandam (Compilation)
|-
| 1998 || "Agharta - The City of Shamballa" || Low Spirit (12") (with Westbam)
|-
| 1999 || ''Electro Funk Breakdown'' || [[DMC]]
|-
| 1999 || ''Return to Planet Rock'' || [[Berger Music]]
|-
| 2000 || ''Hydraulic Funk'' || Strictly Hype
|-
| 2001 || ''Electro Funk Breakdown'' || DMX (Compilation)
|-
| 2001 || ''Looking for the Perfect Beat: 1980-1985'' || Tommy Boy Records (Compilation)
|-
| 2004 || ''Dark Matter Moving at the Speed of Light'' || Tommy Boy Records
|-
| 2005 || ''Metal'' || Tommy Boy Records
|-
| 2005 || ''Metal Remixes'' || Tommy Boy Records |
g each other. These areas are often refered to as the ''Fíor-Ghaeltacht'' (Fíor=True) and collectively have a population of just under 10,000, of which over 80% use the language daily{{fact}}. The highest proportions of daily Irish speakers in the community are found in [[Ros Muc, Connemara]] (over 91%){{fact}}, and around [[Bloody Foreland]] (''Cnoc na Fola'') in ''Tír Chonaill'' (88-89%){{fact}}.
==Dialects==
There are a number of distinct dialects of Irish. Roughly speaking, the three major dialect areas coincide with the provinces of [[Munster]] (''Cúige Mumhan''), [[Connacht]] (''Cúige Chonnacht'') and [[Ulster]] (''Cúige Uladh'').
===Munster dialects===
{{main|Munster Irish}}
Munster Irish is spoken in the Gaeltachtaí of Kerry (''Contae Chiarraí''), Muskerry (''Múscraí''), [[Cape Clear]] (''Oileán Cléire'') in the western part of [[County Cork]] (''Contae Chorcaí''), and the tiny pocket of Irish-speakers in An Rinn near [[Dungarvan]] (''Dún Garbháin'') in County Waterford (''Contae Phort Láirge''). The most important subdivision in Munster is that between Decies Irish (spoken in Waterford) and the rest of Munster Irish.
Some typical features of Munster Irish are:
# The use of personal endings instead of pronouns with verbs, thus "I must" is in Munster ''caithfead'', while other dialects prefer ''caithfidh mé'' (''mé'' means "I"). "I was and you were" is ''Bhíos agus bhís'' in Munster but ''Bhí mé agus bhí tú'' in other dialects.
# In front of nasals and "ll" some short vowels are lengthened while other are diphthongised.
# A copula-construction involving ''is ea'' is frequently used.
===Connacht dialects===
{{main|Connacht Irish}}
The strongest dialect of Connacht Irish is to be found in [[Connemara]] and the [[Aran Islands]]. In some regards this dialect is quite different from general Connacht Irish but since most Connacht dialects have died out during the last century Connemara Irish is sometimes seen as Connacht Irish. Much closer to the traditional Connacht Irish is the very threatened dialect spoken in the region on the border between Galway (''Gaillimh'') and Mayo (''Maigh Eo''). The Irish of [[Tourmakeady]] (''Tuar Mhic Éadaigh'') in southern Mayo (''Maigh Eo Theas'') and Joyce Country (''Dúthaigh Sheoige'') are considered the living Irish dialects closest to Middle Irish. Also, the northern Mayo dialect of Erris (''Iorras'') and [[Achill]] (''Acaill'') is in grammar and word-building essentially a Connacht dialect; but shows an affinity in vocabulary with Ulster Irish, due to large-scale immigration of dispossessed people following the [[Plantation of Ulster]].
Connemara Irish is very popular with learners, thanks to Mícheál Ó Siadhail's self-teaching textbook ''Learning Irish''. However, there are features in Connemara Irish outside the official standard—notably the preference for verbal nouns ending in -achan, such as ''lagachan'' instead of ''lagú'', "weakening". The non-standard pronunciation with lengthened vowels and heavily reduced endings give Connemara Irish its distinct sound.
The distinguishing features of this dialect include the prounouncing of 'bh' as 'w', rather than as 'v' in other parts of the country: for example 'Ni raibh' is pronounced "Ni raow" in Connacht as opposed to "Ni rev" elsewhere. In addition Connacht speakers tend to put the "we" pronoun at the end of the verb rather than with the verb itself: for example "Bhi muid" is used for 'we were' instead of "Bhiomar" elsewhere. This has become a common teaching practice in schools as it is a much easier construction of any verb in the 'we' form.
Connacht Irish tends to be more widespread than any other dialect, as most Irish teachers tend to come from there, although, obviously, there are many exceptions.
===Ulster dialects===
{{main|Ulster Irish}}
The most important of the [[Ulster]] dialects today is that of the Rosses (''na Rosa''), which has been used extensively in literature by such authors as the brothers [[Séamus Ó Grianna]] and [[Seosamh Mac Grianna]], locally known as Jimí Fheilimí and Joe Fheilimí. This dialect is essentially the same as that in Gweedore (''Gaoth Dobhair''= Inlet of Streaming Water), the same dialect used by native speaker [[Enya]] (''Eithne'') and her siblings in [[Clannad]] (''Clann as Dobhar'' = Family from the Water).
Ulster Irish sounds very different and shares several unusual features with [[Scottish Gaelic]], as well as having lots of characteristic words and shades of meanings. However, since the demise of those Irish dialects spoken natively in what is today [[Northern Ireland]], it is probably an exaggeration to see Ulster Irish as an intermediary form between Scottish Gaelic and the southern and western dialects of Irish. Indeed, Scottish Gaelic does have lots of non-Ulster features in common with Munster Irish, too.
One noticeable trait of Ulster Irish is the use of the negative participle ''cha(n)'', in place of the Munster and Connaught version ''ní''. Even in Ulster, ''cha(n)'', most typical of Scottish Gaelic, has ousted the more common ''ní'' only in easternmost dialects (including the now defunct ones once spoken in what is now Northern Ireland). The practice seems to be that ''cha(n)'' is most usually used when answering to a statement, either confirming a negative statement (''Níl aon mhaith ann'' - ''Chan fhuil, leoga'' = "It is no good" - "Indeed it isn't") or contesting an affirmative one (''Tá sé go maith'' - ''Chan fhuil!'' = "It is good" - "No, it isn't!"), while ''ní'' is preferred in answering a question (''An bhfuil aon mhaith ann?'' - ''Níl'' = "Is it any good?" - "No").
===Other regions===
The dialects of Irish native to [[Leinster]], the fourth province of Ireland, became extinct during the [[20th century]], but records of some of these were made by the [[Irish Folklore Commission]] among other bodies prior to this.
The present-day Irish of Meath (in Leinster) is a special case. It belongs to the Connemara dialect, as the Irish-speaking community in Meath is simply a group of mostly Connemara speakers who moved there in the [[1930s]], after a land reform campaign spearheaded by [[Máirtín Ó Cadhain]] (subsequently one of the greatest modernist writers in the language).
In areas outside the traditional Gaeltacht, where standard Irish was learnt in schools, this has become the "dialect" of learners of the language. What has been called "Dublin Irish" or "Gaelscoil Irish" has also arisen, that is Irish poorly learnt and heavily influenced by English. English idioms are translated directly, e.g. "Tabhair suas" for Give up when the verb "Lig" should be used. English grammar is sometimes used straight when not applicable to Irish. Often, when the speaker doesn't know a word, the English will be substituted, sometimes with "áil" affixed. "áil" is generally an ending for the verbal noun of a verb, but when added to an English word, this becomes the stem, e.g. vótáil. Many "Béarlachas"(false Irish based on English) words and phrases are used, e.g. pioc, sórt, saghas, féar plé etc. Also, typical interjection words often used in English and especially English influenced by America are used, e.g. like, man, so, etc. are used un-translated in Irish.
Students in the Eastern part of Ireland tend to pronounce the Irish words in an English way rather than in a Gaelic way. This is possibly due to teaching inconsistency. The average Irish student would have twelve or thirteen different Irish teachers, each with a varying dialect.
===Comparisons===
The differences between dialects are considerable, and have led to recurrent difficulties in defining standard Irish. Even everyday phrases can show startling dialectal variation: the standard example is "How are you?":
* Ulster: ''cad é mar atá tú?'' ("what is it as you are?" Note: ''caidé'' or ''goidé'' and sometimes ''dé'' are alternative renderings of ''cad é'')
* Connacht: ''cén chaoi a bhfuil tú?'' ("what way [is it] that you are?")
* Munster: ''conas taoí?'' ("how are you?")
* "standard Irish": Conas a tá tú ("how are you?")
In recent times, however, contacts between speakers of different dialects have become more common, and mixed dialects have originated. Nevertheless, many dialect speakers (especially Ulster) are still jealously trying to guard their own variety against influences from other dialects. Among non-native speakers, this can be seen as a quest for authenticity. Regional accents are commonly taught to non-natives and imitated: an urban non-native speaker of Irish in [[Cork]] City (''Cathair Chorcaí'') is very probably trying to emulate Coolea or Kerry dialect; one from [[Belfast]] (''Béal Feirste'') tends to speak an Irish modelled on the Rosses dialect of Donegal; and Galwegian Irish-speakers, living next door to Connemara, will do their best to sound like a Connemara native.
==Shelta==
There also exists a [[Cant (language)|cant]] called [[Shelta]], based partly on [[English language|English]] and partly Irish, in use by the [[Irish Traveller]]s.
==Linguistic structure==
The features most unfamiliar to English speakers of the language are the [[orthography]], the [[initial consonant mutation]]s, the [[Verb Subject Object]] word order, and the use of two different forms for "to be". However, initial mutations are found in other [[Celtic languages]] as well as in some [[Italian language|Italian]] and Sardinian dialects, as an independent development. They are also found in some West [[African languages]].
===Syntax===
''See main article [[Irish syntax]]''
One aspect of Irish syntax that is unfamiliar to speakers of other languages is the use of the [[copula]] (known in Irish as ''an chopail'') |
re is the indefinite article, which, as noted in the grammar section, is "'n", not "een" as in Dutch. "A book" is "'n Boek", whereas in Dutch it would be "Een boek". (Note that "'n" is still allowed in Dutch; Afrikaans uses only "'n" where Dutch uses it next to "een". When letters are dropped an apostrophe is mandatory.) Other features include the use of 's' instead of 'z', hence South Africa in Afrikaans is written as ''Suid-Afrika'', whereas in Dutch it is ''Zuid-Afrika''. (This accounts for [[.za]] being used as South Africa's [[List of Internet TLDs|internet top level domain]].) The Dutch letter 'IJ' is written as 'Y', except where it replaces the Dutch [[suffix]] ''-lijk'', as in ''waarschijnlijk = waarskynlik''. Interesting to note that the use of the hard "k" is analogous to the pronunciation in parts of Flanders, which was once part of the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]], and from whence many an [[Afrikaner]] came. Also surprising for many Dutch is the double negative, which could possibly be attributed to the French origins of many Afrikaners: ''Nie rook nie'' - No smoking; compare to the French "Ne pas fumer".
== Comparison with Dutch, German and English ==
{| cellspacing="7px"
|-
| '''AFRIKAANS''' || '''DUTCH''' || '''GERMAN''' || '''ENGLISH'''
|-
| aksie || actie/aktie || Aktion || action
|-
| asseblief || alstublieft || bitte || please
|-
| bed || bed || Bett || bed
|-
| eggenoot || echtgenoot || Ehegatte || spouse (Latin root)
|-
| goeienaand || goedenavond<br>goeienavond || guten Abend || good evening
|-
| lughawe || luchthaven<br>vliegveld || Flughafen || airport (French root)
|-
| my || mijn || mein || my
|-
| maak || maken || machen || make
|-
| oes || oogst || Ernte || harvest
|-
| oop || open || offen || open
|-
| oormôre || overmorgen || übermorgen || the day after tomorrow (lit. "overmorrow")
|-
| saam || samen || zusammen || together (compare "same")
|-
| skool || school || Schule || school
|-
| sleg || slecht || schlecht || bad (compare "slight")
|-
| vir || voor || für || for
|-
| voël || vogel || Vogel || bird, fowl
|-
| vry || vrij || frei || free
|-
| vyf || vijf || fünf || five
|-
| waarskynlik || waarschijnlijk || wahrscheinlich || probably (Latin root)
|-
| winter || winter || Winter || winter
|-
| ys || ijs || Eis || ice
|}
== Sociolinguistics ==
Afrikaans is the first language of approximately 60% of South Africa's [[Whites]], and over 90% of the "[[Coloured]]" (mixed-race) population. Large numbers of blacks, [[Asians in South Africa|Indians]], and English-speaking whites also speak it as a second language.
It is also widely spoken in [[Namibia]], where it has had constitutional recognition as a national, not official, language since independence in [[1990]]. Prior to independence, Afrikaans, along with German, had equal status as an official language. There is a much smaller number of Afrikaans speakers among [[Zimbabwe]]'s white minority, but most left the country in [[1980]].
Many South Africans living and working in [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]], the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]] are also Afrikaans speakers.
Afrikaans has been influential in the development of [[South African English]]. Many Afrikaans loanwords have found their way into South African English, such as "veld", "[[braai]]", "boomslang", and "lekker". A few words in standard English are derived from Afrikaans, such as "[[trek]]", "spoor", and, of course, [[apartheid]].
In [[1976]], high school students in [[Soweto]] began the rebellion that contributed to the end of [[apartheid]] and the whites-only government of [[South Africa]]. This has been credited to that government's decision that Afrikaans rather than English be used as the language of instruction in non-White schools. However, many historians argue that the language issue was a catalyst for the rebellion rather than the major underlying cause (which was racial oppression). Afrikaans is more widely spoken than English (and is, in fact, spoken by a majority of residents in two of South Africa's nine provinces), so most children may not have objected to the use of Afrikaans per se. Rather, it was the further directive, within the instructional language directive, that non-White (i.e., Black, Coloured and Indian) South African children be denied instruction in all but the most basic topics of mathematics, sciences, fine arts, etc., on the theory they would never need to know those subjects because they would never have the occasion to use such an education. ''See [[History of South Africa]].''
Under South Africa's multiracial [[Constitution]] of [[1994]], Afrikaans remains an official language, but there are now nine other official languages, in addition to English, with which it has equal status. The new dispensation means that Afrikaans is often downgraded in favour of English, or to accommodate the other official languages. In [[1996]], for example, the [[South African Broadcasting Corporation]] reduced the amount of [[television]] airtime in Afrikaans, while [[South African Airways]] dropped its Afrikaans name ''Suid-Afrikaanse Lugdiens'' from its livery. Similarly, South Africa's [[diplomatic mission]]s overseas now only display the name of the country in English and their host country's language, but not in Afrikaans.
Although these moves have angered many Afrikaans speakers, the language has remained strong, with Afrikaans newspapers and magazines continuing to have large circulation figures. Indeed the [[Huisgenoot]], an Afrikaans language general interest family magazine, is the magazine with the largest readership in the country. In addition, a pay-TV channel in Afrikaans called [[KykNet]] was launched in [[1999]] and an Afrikaans music channel, [[MK89]], in [[2005]]. A large number of Afrikaans books also continue to be published every year.
Although Afrikaans has diverged from Dutch over the past three centuries, it still shares 85 per cent of its vocabulary with that language, and Afrikaans speakers are able to learn Dutch within a comparatively short period of time. Native Dutch speakers pick up Afrikaans even more quickly, due to its simplified grammar. This has enabled Dutch companies to outsource their [[call centre]] operations to South Africa, thereby taking advantage of lower labour costs.
Outside of South Africa, the Afrikaans language is sometimes regarded with contempt. However, when the British design magazine [[Wallpaper*]] described Afrikaans as 'the ugliest language in the world', South African [[billionaire]] [[Johann Rupert]], responded by withdrawing advertising for brands such as [[Cartier SA|Cartier]], [[Van Cleef & Arpels]], [[Montblanc (pens)|Montblanc]] and [[Alfred Dunhill, Ltd.|Alfred Dunhill]] from the magazine [http://business.iafrica.com/news/657706.htm]. The author of the article, Bronwyn Davies, was in fact a South African.
== Afrikaans phrases ==
{{IPA notice}}
Afrikaans is a very centralised language, meaning that most of the vowels are pronounced in a very centralised (i.e. very schwa-like) way. There are a lot of different dialects and different pronunciations — but the transcription should be fairly standard.
* '''Hallo! Hoe gaan dit?''' {{IPA|[&#614;al&#601;u &#614;u xa&#721;n d&#601;t]}} Hello! How are you?
* '''Baie goed, dankie.''' {{IPA|[baj&#601; xu&#721;t danki]}} Very good, thanks.
* '''Praat jy Afrikaans?''' {{IPA|[pr&#593;&#721;t j&#601;i afrik&#593;&#721;ns]}} Do you speak Afrikaans?
* '''Praat jy Engels?''' {{IPA|[pr&#593;&#721;t j&#601;i &#603;&#331;&#601;ls]}} Do you speak English?
* '''Ja.''' {{IPA|[j&#593;&#721;]}} Yes.
* '''Nee.''' {{IPA|[ne&#721;&#601;]}} No.
* ''''n Bietjie.''' {{IPA|[&#601; biki]}} A little.
* '''Wat is jou naam?''' {{IPA|[vat &#601;s j&#601;u n&#593;&#721;m]}} What is your name?
* '''Die kinders praat Afrikaans''' {{IPA|[di k&#601;n&#601;rs pr&#593;&#721;t afrik&#593;&#721;ns]}} The children speak Afrikaans.
Two interesting sentences having the same meaning and written (but not pronounced) identically in Afrikaans and English are:
*'''My pen was in my hand''' ({{IPA|[m&#601;i p&#603;n vas &#601;n m&#601;i h&#593;nt]}})
*'''My hand is in warm water.''' ({{IPA|[m&#601;i h&#593;nt &#601;s &#601;n var&#601;m v&#593;&#721;t&#601;r]}})
== Additional information ==
* Afrikaans has a monument erected in its honour. The [[Afrikaans Language Monument]] (''Afrikaanse Taalmonument'') is located near the Western Cape Province town of [[Paarl]].
* The letters ''c, q'' and ''x'' are rarely seen in Afrikaans, and words containing them are almost exclusively borrowings from English, Greek or Latin. This is usually because words with ''c'' or ''ch'' in Dutch are [[transliteration|transliterated]] as ''k'' or ''g'' in Afrikaans. Similarly ''q'' and ''x'' are usually transliterated as ''kw'' and ''ks'', for example "equatorial" becomes ''ekwatoriaal'' and "excuse" becomes ''ekskuus''.
* Special letters used are ''è, é, ê, ë, î, ï, ô, û''. Sometimes ''ʼn'' is considered a single character.
== See also ==
*[[Aardklop]] Arts Festival, [[Potchefstroom]]
*[[Afrikaans Language Monument]]
*[[Johannes Kerkorrel]]
*[[List of Afrikaans language poets]]
*[[Taal language]]
== Reference ==
Roberge, P. T., 2002. ''Afrikaans - considering origins'', in ''Language in South Africa'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. ISBN 0-521-53383-X
== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=af}}
* [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/afri.htm List of free online resources for learners]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/s |
o set the record straight" about Al Gore and the Internet once and for all. [[Tiffany Shlain]], the awards' founder and chairwoman said, "It's just one of those instances someone did amazing work for three decades as congressman, senator and vice president and it got spun around into this political mess," Shlain said. [http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2005-05-04-gore-webby_x.htm]
In September 2005, Gore chartered two aircraft to evacuate 270 evacuees from New Orleans in the aftermath of [[Hurricane Katrina]]. [http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/wire/sns-ap-katrina-gore,1,535141.story?coll=sns-ap-nation-headlines&amp;ctrack=1&amp;cset=true] He was highly critical of the government and federal response in the days after the hurricane.
===Future===
Speaking at an economic forum in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]], in October 2005, Gore again stated that he has no intention of ever running for president again in response to questions from reporters. However, Gore said he could not rule the possibility out completely saying, "I do not completely rule out some future interest, but I do not expect to have that." When asked how the United States would have been different if he had become president, Gore stated, "We would not have invaded a country that didn't attack us," he said, referring to Iraq. "We would not have taken money from the working families and given it to the most wealthy families." "We would not be trying to control and intimidate the news media. We would not be routinely torturing people," Gore said. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/10/12/politics/main938098.shtml]
In the past few years, Gore has remained busy traveling the world speaking and participating in events mainly aimed towards global warming awareness and prevention.
On January 2006, Al Gore delivered a major speech criticising President Bush's use of domestic wiretaps. Gore stated that Bush broke the law and recommended an independent counsel investigate the matter further. Also in January 2006, Al Gore was the leading man in the Sundance global warming documentary ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]''.
Al Gore will be publishing a second book on global warming titled "An Inconvenient Truth" in April 2006.
On February 12, 2006: Former US vice-president Al Gore on Sunday said that the US government had committed ‘terrible abuses’ against Arabs living in America after 9/11 attacks, and that most Americans did not support such treatment.
“The thoughtless way in which visas are now handled, that is a mistake,” Mr Gore said at the Jeddah Economic Forum. “The worst thing we can possibly do is to cut off the channels of friendship and mutual understanding between Saudi Arabia and the United States.”
The former US vice-president told this Saudi audience, many of them educated in US universities, that Arabs in the United States had been “indiscriminately rounded up, often on minor charges of overstaying a visa or not having a green card in proper order, and held in conditions that were just unforgivable.”
“Unfortunately there have been terrible abuses and it’s wrong. I do want you to know that it does not represent the desires or wishes or feelings of the majority of the citizens of my country.”
Terrence Jeffrey of [[Human Events]] and [[Jack Kelly]] of [[RealClearPolitics.com]] however criticized Gore's comments, and pointed out that [[9/11 Commission]] (page 492) reported that [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], who planned the attacks, told interrogators most of the hijackers he selected were Saudis because they had the easiest time getting visas. [http://www.realclearpolitics.com/Commentary/com-2_17_06_JKE.html] [http://michellemalkin.com/archives/004544.htm] [[Mohammad Atta]] himself was in the United States, having overstayed his visa.
====Television network====
{{main|Current TV}}
[[Image:Current.png|right|thumb|200px|Al Gore's ''Current'' official logo.]]
On [[May 4]], [[2004]], [[INdTV]] Holdings, a company co-founded by Gore and [[Joel Hyatt]], purchased cable news channel [[NewsWorld International]] from [[Vivendi Universal]]. The new network will not have political leanings, Gore said, but will serve as an "independent voice" for a target audience of people between 18 and 34 "who want to learn about the world in a voice they recognize and a view they recognize as their own." The network was relaunched under the name [[Current TV|Current]] on [[August 1]], [[2005]].
====Investment firm====
In late 2004, it was announced that Al Gore had launched and will chair an investment firm to seek out companies taking a responsible view on big global issues like [[climate change]].
Gore's group, [[Generation Investment Management]], was created to assist the growing demand for an investment style which can bring returns by blending traditional equity research with a focus on more intangible non-financial factors such as social and environmental responsibility and corporate governance.
==2004 presidential election==
===Endorsing Dean===
[[Image:AlGoreHowardDean.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Al Gore shocked many when he did not endorse his 2000 running mate Joe Lieberman, but the outsider candidate, Howard Dean, in 2003.]]
Initially, Al Gore was touted as a logical opponent of George W. Bush in the [[2004 United States Presidential Election]]. <!-- "Re-elect Gore!" was a common slogan among many Democrats who felt the former Vice President had been unfairly cheated out of the presidency, on the grounds that he had won the popular vote and (in the opinion of many){{fact}} should have won the Electoral College vote. --> On [[December 16]], [[2002]] however, Gore announced that he would not run in 2004, saying that it was time for "fresh faces" and "new ideas" to emerge from the Democrats. When he appeared on a ''[[60 Minutes]]'' interview, Gore said that he felt if he had run, the focus of the election would be the rematch rather than the issues. Gore's former running mate, Joe Lieberman quickly announced his own candidacy for the presidency, which he had vowed he would not do if Gore ran.
Despite Gore taking himself out of the race, a handful of his supporters formed a national campaign to "[[political draft|draft]]" him into running. However, that effort largely came to an end when Gore publicly endorsed [[Governor of Vermont|Vermont Governor]] [[Howard Dean]] (over his former running mate [[Joe Lieberman]]) weeks before the first primary of the election cycle. There was still some effort to encourage write-in votes for Gore in the primaries by a different group of Gore supporters who were separate from the draft movement. Although Gore did receive a small number of votes in New Hampshire and New Mexico, that effort was halted when [[John Kerry]] pulled into the lead for the nomination. Gore's endorsement of Dean was helpful to the latter in legitimizing him in the eyes of the establishment faction of the Democratic Party, but it also led the media to dub Dean as the clear front-runner, with the result that his opponents devoted more of their emphasis to opposing him.
===Campaigning against Bush===
On [[January 15]], [[2004]], Al Gore gave a major policy address in [[New York City]] on [[climate change]] and the Bush administration's approach to the environment. Accompanied by slides and projector, Gore slammed the Bush administration's attitude towards global warming saying, "There are many who still do not believe that global warming is a problem at all. And it's no wonder: because they are the targets of a massive and well-organized campaign of disinformation lavishly funded by polluters who are determined to prevent any action to reduce the [[greenhouse gas]] [[emissions]] that cause global warming, out of a fear that their profits might be affected if they had to stop dumping so much pollution into the atmosphere."
On [[February 9]], [[2004]], on the eve of the [[Tennessee]] primary, Gore gave what many consider his harshest criticism of the president yet when he accused [[George W. Bush]] of betraying the country by using the 9/11 attacks as a justification for the invasion of Iraq. "He betrayed this country!" Mr. Gore shouted into the microphone. "He played on our fears! He took America on an ill-conceived foreign adventure dangerous to our troops, an adventure preordained and planned before 9/11 ever took place!" Gore also urged all Democrats to unite behind their eventual nominee proclaiming, "Any one of these candidates is far better than George W. Bush." In [[March 2004]] Gore, along with former Presidents [[Bill Clinton]] and [[Jimmy Carter]], united behind Kerry as the presumptive Democratic nominee.
[[Image:AlGoreSpeaking2004.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Al Gore, who just four years prior accepted his party's nomination, speaks as a party elder at the 2004 Democratic National Convention.]]
On [[April 28]], [[2004]], Gore announced that he would be donating $6 million to various Democratic Party groups. Drawing from his funds left over from his [[Al Gore presidential campaign, 2000|2000 presidential campaign]], Gore pledged to donate $4 million to the [[Democratic National Committee]]. The party's Senate and House committees would each get $1 million, and the party from Gore's home state of [[Tennessee]] would receive $250,000. In addition, Gore announced that all of the surplus funds in his "Recount Fund" from the 2000 election controversy that resulted in the Supreme Court halting the counting of the ballots, a total of $240,000, will be donated to the [[Florida]] Democratic Party.
In his speech, Gore stressed the importance of voting and having every vote counted, a point that foreshadowed the [[2004 U.S. election voting controversies]].
On [[May 26]], [[2004]], Gore gave a highly critical speech on the Iraq crisis and the [[Bush Admini |
rom a communal house and hence win a cash prize. The show, a kind of 'real life soap', was invented by [[John de Mol]] of the [[Netherlands]] and developed by his production company, [[Endemol]]. It has been a prime-time hit in almost 70 different countries, earning Endemol large sums. The show's name comes from [[George Orwell]]'s 1949 novel ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', a [[dystopia]] in which [[Big Brother (1984)|Big Brother]] is the all-seeing leader.
==Format==
Originally shown in the [[Netherlands]] in September [[1999]], and subsequently cloned across the world, the "housemates" are confined inside a specially designed house where every single point in the house is within view of a video camera, and not permitted any contact with the outside world (although some versions, like the ones from [[Philippines]], [[Mexico]], [[Germany]] or [[Spain]] have introduced in some seasons precise changes, allowing the contact with the outside in certain situations): no TV, radio, telephone, Internet or other media are available to the housemates, not even writing materials. Private chats with a psychologist are a special exception. At weekly intervals, the public is invited to vote to evict one of the contestants. The last remaining is the winner.
Besides the same living together, which is the principal axis and major attraction of the contest, this one turns concerning 4 basic props: the stripped-bare back to basics environment in which they live, the evictions system, the weekly tasks set by ''Big Brother'', and the "diary room", in which the housemates individually convey their thoughts, feelings, frustrations and their eviction nominees.
Initially, the hostel in which they had to reside for the duration of the competition was very basic. Although essential amenities such as running water, furniture and a limited ration of food were provided, luxury items were forbidden. This added an element of survival into the show, thus increasing the potential for tensions within the house. Now almost every country has a modern house for the contest, with jacuzzi, sauna, VIP suite, etc. in contraposition to other zones, or characteristics, of the house, more common, even precarious.
To fill in time, the residents have various chores to maintain the house, and are set apparently random tasks by the producers of the show, who communicate with the housemates through one (unseen) individual issuing commands, termed "Big Brother". The tasks are designed to test their team-working abilities and community spirit. The housemates have a weekly allowance with which they can buy food and other essentials. To obtain a greater allowance, they may gamble some of their initial amount on the success of the completion of tasks. Of course, their allowance is lessened if they fail to complete the weekly task.
Each week, the housemates each privately nominate a number of people who they wish to see removed from the house more than the other residents. The ones with the most nominations are then named on the television show, and viewers can vote for whom they want to be evicted.
After the votes are tallied, the "evictee" leaves the house and is interviewed on-camera by the host of the show, usually in front of a live studio audience. The last remaining housemate is declared the winner and receives a substantial sum in prize money, the amount of which has varied widely around the world.
The series is notable for involving the [[Internet]]. Although the main show, typically broadcast daily with a weekly roundup, is by necessity heavily edited, viewers can also watch a continuous, 24-hour feed from multiple cameras on the web. These websites were highly successful, even after some national series started charging for access to the video stream. In some countries, the Internet broadcasting was supplemented by updates via email, [[WAP]] and [[Short message service|SMS]]. The house is even shown live on satellite television (with a 10-15 minute delay to permit muting of unacceptable content in the UK).
Despite derision from many intellectuals and other critics, the show has been a commercial success around the world. Criticisms typically are based on the ironic aspects of [[George Orwell]]'s dystopic vision of [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]] being consciously aped by producers for public entertainment. More generally, the voyeuristic nature of the show, where contestants volunteer to surrender their privacy in return for minor celebrity status and a comparatively small cash prize, has attracted much scorn.
While any pretences to be a cultural experiment are dubious, reports of the different results of the show around the world have been mildly interesting from a pop-anthropology standpoint; i.e., in [[Spain]], the competitors designed an agreement to achieve they all were nominated automatically and annul then their power of decision inside the process of elimination in the contest. This only happened once, as afterwards, ''Big Brother'' modified its rules to prohibit this type of agreement. On the other hand, other versions have involved plotting in the vein of the most cruel soap opera. Some versions have been filled with sex-crazed housemates, whereas others decided to base the conflict within their programs around difficult or romantic personalities, as in [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], [[Thailand]], [[Philippines]] or [[Spain]]. With the passing of time, it has been demonstrated that the most successful versions were the ones that emulated a soap opera, whereas the versions where the principal attraction was sex have been eliminated, as in [[Hungary]] or [[Poland]]. The amount of sex shown on the televised versions varies from country to country depending on censorship rules, with some countries editing out all sex and nudity, and others allowing the show to border on the [[pornography|pornographic]].
One interesting development is that German scientists have discovered that former Big Brother contestants may be at risk from [[Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder]], a condition sometimes suffered by those who leave the armed forces. Indeed, in the second Polish edition, one of the housemates was taken to a psychiatric hospital, and the winner of the first season in [[Portugal]] tried to kill himself several times.
==''Big Brother'' around the world==
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse: collapse;" width="100%">
<tr valign=top>
<td width="17%">'''Region'''<td width="21%">'''Local Name'''<td width="15%">'''Channel'''<td width="15%">'''Official Website'''<td width="32%">'''Winners'''
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Africa]] {{ref 1}}<td>Big Brother<td>[[M-Net]]<td>[http://www.bigbrotherafrica.com/ Website]<td>
* Cherise Makubale ''(Zambia)''
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Argentina]]<td>Gran Hermano<td>[[Telefe]]<td>[http://granhermano.terra.com.ar/ Website]<td>
* Marcelo Corazza
* Roberto Parra
* Viviana Colmenero
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Australia]]<td>[[Big Brother (Australian TV series)|Big Brother]]<td>[[Network Ten]]<td>[http://bigbrother.3mobile.com.au Website]<td>
* Ben Williams
* Peter Corbett
* [[Regina Bird]]
* Trevor Butler
* [[Greg Mathew]] {{ref 2}}
* ''Upcoming Season''
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Belgium]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[Kanaal Twee]]<td>[http://www.bigbrother.be Website]<td>
* Steven Spillebeen
* Ellen Dufour
* Kelly Vandevenne
* Kristof van Camp
* ''Current Season''
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Brazil]]<td>[[Big Brother Brasil|Big Brother]]<td>[[Globo]]<td>[http://bbb.globo.com/ Website]<td>
* Kleber Bambam
* Rodrigo Leonel Fraga
* Dhomini Ferreira
* Cida da Silva
* Jean Wyllys
* ''Current Season''
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Bulgaria]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[NTV]]<td>[http://www.bigbrother.bg/ Website]<td>
* Zdravko Vasilev
* Miroslav Atanasov
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Canada]] <td>[[Loft Story]]<td>[[TQS]]<td>[http://www1.loftstory.tqs.ca/emissions/loft_story2/index.php Website]<td>
* Julie Lemay & Samuel Tissot {{ref 3}}
* ''Current Season''
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Central America]] {{ref 4}}<td>Gran Hermano<td><td><td>
* ''Upcoming Season''
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Colombia]]<td>Gran Hermano<td>[[Caracol TV]]<td>[http://www.granhermano.com.co Website]<td>
* Mónica Tejón
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Croatia]]<td>[[Big Brother (Croatian TV series)|Big Brother]]<td>[[RTL]]<td>[http://www.rtl.hr/bigbrother/ Website]<td>
* Saša Tkalčević
* Hamdija Seferović
* ''Upcoming Season''
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Czech Republic]]<td>Big Brother<br>Velký Bratr<td>[[TV NOVA]]<td>[http://www.nova.cz/bbm/ Website] <td>
* David Šín
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Denmark]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[TV Danmark]]<td>[http://www.bigbrother.dk Website]<td>
* Jill Liv Nielsen
* Carsten B. Berthelsen
* Johnni Madsen
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Ecuador]]<td>Gran Hermano<td>[[Ecuavisa]]<td>[http://granhermano.planetatv.com Website]<td>
* David Burbano
* ''Upcoming Season''
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[Finland]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[SubTV]]<td>[http://www.subtv.fi/bigbrother Website]<td>
* Perttu Sirviö
* ''Upcoming Season''
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[France]]<td>[[Loft Story]]<td>[[Métropole 6|M6]]<td>[http://www.loftstory.fr Website]<td>
* Christoph Mercy & Loanna Petrucciani
* Karina Delgado & Thomas Saillofest
<tr valign=top>
<td>[[German |
94;&#1080;&#1082;&#1083;&#1086;&#1087;&#1077;&#1076;&#1080;&#1103;] // &#1050;&#1086;&#1084;&#1087;&#1100;&#1102;&#1090;&#1077;&#1088;&#1088;&#1072;, &#8470;31-32 (31 &#1072;&#1074;&#1075;&#1091;&#1089;&#1090;&#1072; 2004 &#1075;&#1086;&#1076;&#1072;).
*Wikipedia has been used a few times at www.lenta.ru, a Russian news website.
http://www.lenta.ru/Search?Search=wikipedia&Errors=0&LookFor=substring&Lines=10
==Spanish==
*http://www.elimparcial.com/edicionenlinea/notas/Informatica/20040315/78287.asp
== Turkish ==
* In the germany-based Turkish/Kurdish daily newspaper ''Özgür Politika'' an article about the Turkish and the Kurdish Wikipedia apperard on 4th of July 2004 [http://www.ozgurpolitika.com/2004/07/04/hab21.html]
[[Category:Wikipedia as a media topic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Four Weddings and a Funeral</title>
<id>11223</id>
<revision>
<id>36779395</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T12:03:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adrian Buehlmann Bot</username>
<id>723279</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] rm underline in template name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Four Weddings and a Funeral |
image = Fourweddingsandafuneral.gif |
imdb_id = 0109831 |
producer = [[Duncan Kenworthy]] |
director = [[Mike Newell (director)|Mike Newell]] |
writer = [[Richard Curtis]] |
starring = [[Hugh Grant]]<br>[[Andie MacDowell]] |
music = [[Richard Rodney Bennett]] |
cinematography = |
editing = |
distributor = [[Gramercy Pictures]] |
released = [[March 9]], [[1994]] |
runtime = 117 min. |
budget = |
language = [[English language|English]] |
}}
'''''Four Weddings and a Funeral''''' is a [[1994]] [[United Kingdom|British]] [[romantic comedy film]] directed by [[Mike Newell (director)|Mike Newell]].
It featured a crowd-pleasing [[soundtrack]] of popular songs, including a [[cover version]] of "Love Is All Around" performed by [[Wet Wet Wet]], a single that remained at Number 1 in the British Charts for fifteen weeks and was then the ninth [[List of best-selling singles (UK)|biggest selling single of all time]] in Britain (now twelfth).
In [[2000]], readers of ''[[Total Film]]'' magazine voted ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' the 27th greatest comedy film of all time. In [[2004]] the same magazine named it the 34th greatest British film of all time.
==Primary cast==
*[[Hugh Grant]]: Charles
*[[Andie MacDowell]]: Carrie
*[[James Fleet]]: Tom
*[[Simon Callow]]: Gareth
*[[John Hannah (actor)|John Hannah]]: Matthew
*[[Kristin Scott Thomas]]: Fiona
*[[David Bower]]: David
*[[Charlotte Coleman]]: Scarlett
*[[Rowan Atkinson]]: Father Gerald
*[[Anna Chancellor]]: "Duckface"
==About the Film==
{{spoiler}}
The film follows the adventures of a group of friends through the eyes of a frequently tongue-tied and ''faux pas''-prone Englishman (played by Grant), who is smitten by the attractive American played by MacDowell. They keep meeting up at weddings (and the funeral of an ebullient middle-aged gay man played by Simon Callow). Featuring Rowan Atkinson in a cameo playing an inexperienced priest, and John Hannah in one of his first screen roles, the movie was appreciated by audiences for its witty [[screenplay|script]] (written by Richard Curtis) and the considerable charisma of its actors, especially Grant and MacDowell. The film had box-office revenues of more than $260 million world-wide. Wedding three (Hamish and Carrie) was notably set in a fictional Scottish castle called 'Glenthrist'.
==Awards and recognition==
===Award wins===
*[[BAFTA Award for Best Film]]
*[[César Award for Best Foreign Film]]
*[[BAFTA Award|BAFTA David Lean Award for Direction]] (Mike Newell)
*[[BAFTA Award for Best Actor]] ([[Hugh Grant]])
*[[Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy]] (Hugh Grant)
*[[BAFTA Award|BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role]] ([[Kristin Scott Thomas]])
===Award nominations===
*[[Academy Award for Best Picture]]
*[[Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy]]
*[[Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy]] ([[Andie MacDowell]])
*[[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay]] ([[Richard Curtis]])
*[[Golden Globe|Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay - Motion Picture]] (Richard Curtis)
*[[Directors Guild of America| Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures]] (Mike Newell)
==References==
*On an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', an ''[[Itchy and Scratchy]]'' cartoon was called ''Four Funerals and a Wedding''.
*In [[The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (Abridged)]], Shakespeare's comedies are grouped together under the title ''Four Weddings and a Transvestite''.
==See also==
* ''[[Notting Hill (movie)|Notting Hill]]'', also written by Curtis and starring Grant.
==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0109831|title=Four Weddings and a Funeral}}
[[Category:1994 films]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]]
[[Category:British films]]
[[Category:Romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Mike Newell]]
[[de:Vier Hochzeiten und ein Todesfall]]
[[fr:Quatre mariages et un enterrement]]
[[nl:Four Weddings and a Funeral]]
[[sv:Fyra bröllop och en begravning]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Feminist spirituality</title>
<id>11224</id>
<revision>
<id>36849404</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T21:56:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Judith Laura1</username>
<id>843400</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added mention of Goddess movement at end of second paragraph</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Feminist spirituality''' is a class of religious beliefs in which certain [[feminism|feminist]] ideas play an important role.
In the latter part of the 20th Century, feminism was influential in the rise of [[Neopaganism]] in the [[United States]], and particularly the [[Dianic tradition]]. Some feminists find the worship of an all-loving [[goddess]], rather than a [[god]], to be consonant with their views. The collective set of beliefs associated with this is sometimes known as [[thealogy]]and sometimes referred to as the [[Goddess movement]].
Others who practice feminist spirituality may instead adhere to a feminist re-interpretation of Western monotheistic traditions. In those cases, the notion of [[God]] as having a male gender is rejected, and God is not referred to using male pronouns. Feminist spirituality may also object to images of God that they perceive as authoritarian, parental, or disciplinarian, instead emphasizing "maternal" attributes such as nurturing, acceptance, and creativity.
[[Feminism]] has had a great impact on many aspects of [[religion]]. In liberal branches of Protestant Christianity, women are now ordained as clergy. In Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist [[Judaism]], women are now ordained as [[rabbi]]s and [[cantor]]s. Within these Christian and Jewish groups, women have gradually become equal to men by obtaining positions of power; their perspectives are now sought out in developing new statements of belief. These trends have been resisted within [[Islam]], conservative [[Protestantism]], [[Catholicism]] and orthodox [[Judaism]]; which forbid women from being recognized as religious clergy in the same way that men are accepted.
There is a separate article on [[God and gender]]; it discusses how monotheistic religions deal with God and gender, and how modern feminism has influenced the theology of many religions.
==See also==
*[[Spiritual feminism]]
*[[Goddess movement]]
*[[Mythopoetic]]
[[Category:Feminism]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Religious feminism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ferrari</title>
<id>11225</id>
<revision>
<id>42131459</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:54:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
<id>294180</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/155.143.23.250|155.143.23.250]] ([[User talk:155.143.23.250|talk]]) to last version by CambridgeBayWeather</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ferrari-Logo.svg|thumb|right|200px|The current Ferrari logo]]'''Ferrari''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] manufacturer of high-end [[Formula One cars]], [[Auto racing|race car]]s, [[Supercar|Exotic cars]] and high-performance [[sports car]]s formed by [[Enzo Ferrari]] in [[1929]]. At first, '''[[Scuderia Ferrari]]''' sponsored drivers and manufactured racecars; the company went into independent car production in [[1946]], eventually became '''Ferrari [[Joint stock company|S.p.A.]]''', and is now controlled by the [[Fiat]] group. The company is based in [[Maranello]], near [[Modena]], [[Italy]].
== History ==
:''See also:''
::''[[Enzo Ferrari]] for the founder's life story''
::''[[History of Ferrari]] for details on the Ferrari automobile company''
::''[[Scuderia Ferrari]] for further history of the Ferrari racing team''
=== 1929-1946 ===
[[Enzo Ferrari]] never intended to produce road cars when he formed ''Scuderia Ferrari'' in [[1929]] as a sponsor for amateur drivers headquartered in Modena. Ferrari prepared and successfully raced various drivers in [[Alfa Romeo]] cars until [[1938]], when he was officially hired by Alfa as head of their racing department.
In [[1940]], upon learning of the company's plan to absorb his beloved ''Scuderia'' and take control of his racing efforts, he quit Alfa. Because he was prohibited by contract from racing for several yea |
and Enver Hoxha Rule ===
Albanian communists and nationalists actively fought a partisan war against the Italian and German invasions in WW II. Certain smaller organizations helped the foreign invaders, but it was the [[communists]] who took over after [[World War II]]. In November [[1944]] the communists gained control of the government under the leader of the resistance, [[Enver Hoxha]] . From [[1945]] until [[1990]] Albania had one of the most repressive governments in [[Europe]]. The [[communist party]] was created in [[1941]] with the help of [[Bolshevik]] [[Communist]] Parties. All those who opposed it were eliminated.
For the many decades under his domination, Hoxha created and destroyed relationships with Belgrade, Moscow, and China, always in his personal interests. The country was isolated, first from the West (Western Europe, North America and Australasia) and later even from the communist East.
=== The Fall of Communism and Democratic Albania ===
In 1985, Enver Hoxha died and [[Ramiz Alia]] took his place. Initially, Alia tried to follow in Hoxha's footsteps, but in Eastern Europe changes had already started: [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] had appeared in the [[Soviet Union]] with new policies ([[Glasnost]] and [[perestroika]]). The Albanian totalitarian regime was under pressure from the [[United States|US]], Europe, and the anger and despair of its own people. After [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]] (the communist leader of [[Romania]]) was executed in a revolution, Alia knew he would be next if changes were not made. He signed the [[Helsinki Agreement]] (which was signed by other countries in 1975) that respected some [[human rights]]. He also allowed [[pluralism]], and even though his party won the election of 1991 it was clear that the change would not be stopped. In [[1992]] the general elections were won by the Democratic Party with 62% of the votes.
In the general elections of June, [[1996]] the Democratic Party tried to win an absolute majority and manipulated the results. In [[1997]] an epidemic of [[pyramid schemes]] sent shockwaves through the entire country's economy, and riots started. Police stations and military bases were looted of millions of weaponry, [[Kalashnikov]]s. Anarchy prevailed, and many cities were controlled by militia and less-organized armed citizens. Even US military advisors left the country for their own safety. In response to the anarchy, the Socialist Party won the early elections of [[1997]].
However, stability was far from being restored in the years after the 1997 riots. The power feuds raging inside the Socialist Party led to a series of short-lived Socialist governments. The country was flooded with refugees from neighboring [[Kosovo]] in [[1998]] and [[1999]]. In June, 2002, a compromise candidate, Alfred Moisiu, a former general and defense minister, was elected to succeed President Meidani. Parliamentary elections in July, [[2005]], brought back to power Sali Berisha, Leader of the Democratic Party, mostly owing to Socialist infighting and a series of corruption scandals plaguing the Nano government.
Since 1990 Albania has been diplomatically oriented towards the West, it was accepted to the Council of Europe and has requested membership of [[NATO]]. The work-force of Albania has continued to emigrate to Greece, Italy, Europe and North America. Corruption in the government is becoming more and more obvious. Any hope for a short and not too painful transition after Communism has long since been dashed.
== Politics ==
''Main article:'' [[Politics of Albania]]
The head of state is the president, who is elected by the ''[[Kuvendi]]'', or the Assembly of the Republic of Albania every 5 years. The main part of the Assembly's 140 members is elected every 4 years. 100 of the parliament's members are chosen by the people with a direct vote, while the other 40 members are chosen using a proportional system. The head of government is the Prime Minister who is assisted by a council of ministers. The Council of Ministers is selected by the Prime Minister (A process called "forming the government") and then approved by a simple majority (71 votes) in the Assembly.
== Administrative divisions ==
''Main articles: [[Districts of Albania]] and [[Counties of Albania]]''
Albania is divided into 12 ''qark'' (county or prefecture), which are further divided into 36 ''rrethe'' (districts). The capital city, Tiranë, has a special status. The districts are:
{|
|-
|
*<small>1</small> [[Berat District|Berat]]
*<small>2</small> [[Bulqizë District|Bulqizë]]
*<small>3</small> [[Delvinë District|Delvinë]]
*<small>4</small> [[Devoll District|Devoll]]
*<small>5</small> [[Dibër District|Dibër]]
*<small>6</small> [[Durrës District|Durrës]]
*<small>7</small> [[Elbasan District|Elbasan]]
*<small>8</small> [[Fier District|Fier]]
*<small>9</small> [[Gjirokastër District|Gjirokastër]]
*<small>10</small> [[Gramsh District|Gramsh]]
*<small>11</small> [[Has District|Has]]
*<small>12</small> [[Kavajë District|Kavajë]]
|
*<small>13</small> [[Kolonjë District|Kolonjë]]
*<small>14</small> [[Korçë District|Korçë]]
*<small>15</small> [[Krujë District|Krujë]]
*<small>16</small> [[Kuçovë District|Kuçovë]]
*<small>17</small> [[Kukës District|Kukës]]
*<small>18</small> [[Kurbin District|Kurbin]]
*<small>19</small> [[Lezhë District|Lezhë]]
*<small>20</small> [[Librazhd District|Librazhd]]
*<small>21</small> [[Lushnjë District|Lushnjë]]
*<small>22</small> [[Malësi e Madhe District|Malësi e Madhe]]
*<small>23</small> [[Mallakastër District|Mallakastër]]
*<small>24</small> [[Mat District|Mat]]
|
*<small>25</small> [[Mirditë District|Mirditë]]
*<small>26</small> [[Peqin District|Peqin]]
*<small>27</small> [[Përmet District|Përmet]]
*<small>28</small> [[Pogradec District|Pogradec]]
*<small>29</small> [[Pukë District|Pukë]]
*<small>30</small> [[Sarandë District|Sarandë]]
*<small>31</small> [[Shkodër District|Shkodër]]
*<small>32</small> [[Skrapar District|Skrapar]]
*<small>33</small> [[Tepelenë District|Tepelenë]]
*<small>34</small> [[Tiranë District|Tiranë]]
*<small>35</small> [[Tropojë District|Tropojë]]
*<small>36</small> [[Vlorë District|Vlorë]]
|
[[Image:AlbaniaNumberedDistricts.png|150px|right|Districts of Albania]]
|}
See also: [[List of cities in Albania]] (''Note: some cities have the same name as the district they are in'').
== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of Albania]]''
[[Image:Albania map.png|frame|Map of Albania]]
Albania consists of mostly [[hill]]y and [[mountain]]ous terrain, the highest mountain, Korab in the district of Dibra reaching up to 2,753 metres (9,032&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The country mostly has a continental [[climate]], with cold [[winter]]s and hot [[summer]]s.
Besides capital city [[Tirana]], with 800,000 inhabitants, the principal cities are [[Durrës]], [[Elbasan]], [[Shkodër]], [[Gjirokastër]], [[Vlorë]] and [[Korçë]]. In Albanian grammar a word can have indefinite and definite forms, and this also applies to city names: so both Tiranë and Tirana, Shkodër and Shkodra are used.
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Albania]]''
In Albania, half of the economically-active population still engaged in [[agriculture]] and a fifth works abroad.
The country has almost no exports, and imports most if its goods from Greece and Italy. Money for imports comes from financial aid and from the money that [[immigrant]]s working abroad - mostly in neighbouring Greece - bring to Albania. This is a good [[status quo]] business for both Greece and Italy.
Albania's coastline on the Ionian Sea, near the Greek tourist island of [[Corfu]], is becoming increasingly popular with foreign visitors due to its relatively unspoilt nature and good beaches. However, the tourist industry is still in its infancy.
Growth was strong 2003-05 and inflation is not a problem.
GDP(purchasing power parity): 18.05 billion
Note: Albania has a large gray economy that may be as large as 50% of official GDP. (2005 est.)
GDP (official exchange rate): 8.741 billion (2005 est.)
GDP (real growth rate): 6% (2005 est.)
GDP- composition by sector:
agriculture: 23.6%
industry: 20.5%
services: 55.9% (2005 est.)
Exports: 708 million f.o.b. (2005 est.)
Imports: 2.473 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.)
Aid per Capita: 52 US$
External Debt: 1.41 billion (2003 est.)
Defence Expenditure: (n/a)
Children in Labour Force: 1 % of children aged 10-14 work
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Albania]]''
Most of the population is ethnically Albanian (95% according to the [[CIA World Factbook]] Feb 2005), there is a [[Greece|Greek]] minority (3% of the population), this however could significally vary according to other sources, (note: in 1989, other estimates of the Greek population ranged from 1% (official Albanian statistics) to 12% (from a Greek organization) [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/al.html#People]). Many ethnic Albanians also live in the bordering countries of [[Serbia and Montenegro]] (around 1,850,000; of that, around 1,800,000 in [[Serbia]] (around 1,700,000 in its province called [[Kosovo]] (officially [[Kosovo and Metohia]]) only) and around 50,000 in [[Montenegro]]) and the [[Republic of Macedonia]] (around 500,000) although a lot of Albanians believe that the number might be higher. Also a small number of ethnic Albanians live in Greece which are called Çam. Claims over Çam numbers have ranged from 90,000 to over one 1,000,000 but are believed to be understated because Athens has not considered the local |
idth: 95%;">Venetian ambassador to England<br>Early 16th century<br>Charlotte Augusta Sneyd<br><u>Italian Relations of England</u> (p. 20)</div>
</b></font>
</div>
</div>
</div>
[[Image:Bayeuxtap1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The Norman conquest of England, as depicted in the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]]]
[[Image:Elizabeth I (Ermine Portrait).jpg|thumb|175px|right|[[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]]]
In [[1066]], [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] and the Normans [[Norman Conquest|conquered]] the existing Kingdom of England and instituted an [[Anglo-Norman]] administration and nobility who, retaining proto-French as their language for the next three hundred years, ruled as custodians over English commoners. Although the language and racial distinctions faded rapidly during the middle ages, the class system born in the Norman/Saxon divide persisted longer &mdash; arguably with traces lasting to the modern day.
While [[Old English language|Old English]] continued to be spoken by common folk, Norman feudal lords significantly influenced the language with French words and customs being adopted over the succeeding centuries evolving to a Germano‐Romance [[creole language|creole]] now known as [[Middle English]] widely spoken in Chaucer's time.
England came repeatedly into conflict with [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]], at the time an independent principality and an independent kingdom respectively, as its rulers sought to expand Norman power across the entire island of Britain. The conquest of Wales was achieved in the 13th century, when it was annexed to England and gradually came to be a part of that kingdom for most legal purposes, although in the modern era it is more usually thought of as a separate [[nation]] (fielding, for example, its own athletic teams). Norman power in Scotland waxed and waned over the years, with the Scots managing to maintain a varying degree of independence despite repeated wars with the English. Although it was on the whole only a moderately successful power in military terms, England became one of the wealthiest states in medieval Europe, due chiefly to its dominance in the lucrative [[wool]] market.
The failure of English territorial ambitions in continental Europe prompted the kingdom's rulers to look further afield, creating the foundations of the mercantile and colonial network that was to become the [[British Empire]]. The turmoil of the [[Reformation]] embroiled England in religious wars with Europe's Catholic powers, notably [[Spain]], but the kingdom preserved its independence as much through luck as through the skill of charismatic rulers such as [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. Elizabeth's successor, [[James I of England| James I]] was already king of Scotland (as James VI); and this personal union of the two crowns into the crown of Great Britain was followed a century later by the [[Act of Union 1707]], which formally unified England, Scotland and Wales into the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. This later became the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] (1801 to 1927) and then the modern state of the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] (1927 to present)
For post-unification history, see [[history of the United Kingdom]].
==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of the United Kingdom]], [[Government of England]]''
Since the promulgation of the 1284 [[Statute of Rhuddlan]] and the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]], [[Wales]] has shared a legal identity with England as the joint entity of [[England and Wales]]. The [[Act of Union 1707|Act of Union]] with the Kingdom of [[Scotland]] in 1707 created the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], subsuming England, Wales and Scotland into a single political entity. Scotland, along with Northern Ireland, retain separate legal systems. The [[Duchy of Cornwall]] and [[Duchy of Lancaster]] also retain some unique rights.
All of Great Britain has been ruled by the government of the [[United Kingdom]] since that date, although in 1999 the first elections to the newly created [[Scottish Parliament]] and [[National Assembly for Wales]] left England as the only part of the Union with no devolved assembly or parliament. As all legislation for England is passed by Parliament at Westminster there are some complaints about the ability of non-English Members of Parliament to influence purely English affairs. This apparent anomaly has been highlighted by both English and non-English politicians, often those opposed to [[devolution]], has become popularly known as the [[West Lothian question]].
Administratively, England is something of an anomaly within the UK. Unlike the other three nations, it has no local parliament or government and its administrative affairs are dealt with by a combination of the UK government, the UK parliament and a number of England-specific [[quango]]s, such as [[English Heritage]]. There are calls from an increasing number for a [[devolved English Parliament]] and from others for the dissolution of the UK and an independent England.
The current [[British Labour Party|Labour]] government favoured the establishment of regional administration, claiming that England was too large to be governed as a sub-state entity. A [[Northern England referendums, 2004|referendum]] on this issue in [[North East England]] on [[4 November]] [[2004]] decisively rejected the proposal.
Some criticised the English regional proposals for not [[decentralisation|decentralising]] enough, saying that they amounted not to devolution, but to little more than local government reorganisation, with no real power being removed from central government. The English regions would not even have had the limited powers of the [[Welsh Assembly]], much less the tax-varying and legislative powers of the [[Scottish Parliament]]. Rather, power was simply re-allocated within the region, with little new resource allocation and no real prospects of Assemblies being able to change the pattern of regional aid. Responsibility for regional transport was added to the proposals late in the process. This was perhaps crucial in the North East, where resentment at the [[Joel Barnett, Baron Barnett|Barnett Formula]], which delivers greater regional aid to adjacent [[Scotland]], was a significant impetus for the North East devolution campaign. There has also been a campaign for a Cornish assembly along Welsh lines by groups such as [[Mebyon Kernow]], which recently collected 50,000 signatures in support.
Some [[euroscepticism|eurosceptics]] believe that the establishment of English regions as administrative entities is designed to undermine the concept of English nationhood and more easily fit England into a European federal model.
Conventionally the national capital of England is London, although technically it would be more exact to call London the capital of "England and Wales" given England's lack of a distinctive political identity separate from the Principality. [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]] served as the country's first national capital until some time in the late 11th century after the [[Norman Conquest]]. The City of London became England's commercial capital, while the City of Westminster (where the Royal court was located) became the political capital. These roles have, broadly speaking, been maintained to the present day.
==Subdivisions of England==
''Main article: [[Subdivisions of England]]''
Historically, the highest level of local government in England was the [[Counties of England|county]]. These divisions had emerged from a range of units of old, pre-unification England, whether they were Kingdoms, such as [[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]] and [[Sussex]]; [[Duchy|Duchies]], such as [[Yorkshire]], [[Cornwall]] and the cities, as the county lines were usually drawn up before the [[industrial revolution]] and the mass urbanisation of England.
The solution was the creation of large [[Metropolitan Counties of England|metropolitan counties]] centred on cities. These were later broken up, with several other counties, into [[Unitary authorities in England|unitary authorities]], unifying the county and district/borough levels of government.
[[London]] is a special case, and is the one [[Regions of England|region]] which currently has a representative [[Greater London Authority|authority]] as well as a directly elected [[Mayor of London|mayor]]. The 32 [[London borough|London boroughs]] and the [[Corporation of London]] remain the local form of government in the city.
Other than [[Greater London]], the official regions are:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-4}}
*[[North East England]]
*[[North West England]]
{{col-4}}
*[[Yorkshire and the Humber]]
*[[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]]
{{col-4}}
*[[East Midlands]]
*[[East of England]]
{{col-4}}
*[[South West England]]
*[[South East England]]
{{col-end}}
Outside London the regions have very little power and are accountable to parliament, not locally elected representatives. Regional authority is placed in the hands of local assemblies appointed by the British Government.
==Geography==
''Main articles: [[Geography of the United Kingdom]], [[Geography of England]]''
[[Image:United Kingdom Satellite Image.JPG|thumb|right|A satellite view of England and Wales.]]
England comprises the central and southern two-thirds of the island of [[Great Britain]], plus offshore islands of which the largest is the [[Isle of Wight]]. It is bordered to the north by [[Scotland]] and to the west by [[Wales]]. It is closer to continental Europe than any other part of Britain, divided from France only by a 38 km (24 [[statute mile]] or 21 [[nautical mile]]) <!-- source:http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcAboutUs/ukpHistory.htm --> sea gap.
Most of England consists of rolling hills, but it is more mountainous in the north with a chain of low mountains, the [[Pennines]], dividing east |
man emperors===
Another system that is less commonly found than thought was to use the [[regnal year]] of the [[Roman emperor]]. At first, [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] would indicate the year of his rule by counting how many times he had held the office of consul, and how many times the [[Roman Senate]] had granted him [[Tribune|Tribunican]] powers, carefully observing the fiction that his powers came from these offices granted to him, rather than from his own person or the many [[legion]]s under his control. His successors followed his practice until the memory of the [[Roman Republic]] faded (late in the second century or early in the third century), when they openly began to use their regnal year.
===Indiction cycles===
Another common system was to use the [[indiction]] cycle (15 indictions made up an agricultural tax cycle, an indiction being a year in duration). Documents and events began to be dated by the year of the cycle (e.g., "fifth indiction", "tenth indiction") in the fourth century, and was used long after the tax was no longer collected. This system was used in [[Gaul]], in [[Egypt]] until the [[History of early Arab Egypt | Islamic conquest]], and in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] until its conquest in [[1453]].
===Other dating systems===
A great many local systems or [[era]]s were also important, for example the year from the foundation of one particular city, the regnal year of the neighboring [[History of Persia | Persian emperor]], and eventually even the year of the reigning [[Caliph]]. The beginning of the numbered year also varied from place to place, and was not largely standardized in [[Europe]] (except [[England]]) as [[January 1]] until the sixteenth century. The most important of these include the [[Seleucid era]] (in use until the eighth century), and the [[Spanish era]] (in use in official documents in [[Aragon]], [[Valencia]], and in [[Castile]], into the fourteenth century. In 1422, [[Portugal]] became the last country of [[western Europe]] to adopt the ''Anno Domini'' era).
== History of ''Anno Domini'' ==
Early Christians designated the year via a combination of consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating. Use of consular dating ended when the emperor [[Justinian I]] discontinued appointing consuls in the mid sixth century, shortly after he required that the use of imperial regnal dating. The last consul nominated was [[Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius]] in 541. The [[papacy]] was in regular contact throughout the [[Middle Ages]] with envoys of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] world, and had a clear idea — sudden deaths and deposals notwithstanding — of who was the [[Byzantine emperor]] at any one time.
The ''Anno Domini'' system was developed by a [[Scythia]]n monk named [[Dionysius Exiguus]] in Rome in 525, as an outcome of his work on calculating the [[computus|date of Easter]]. Byzantine chroniclers like [[Theophanes]] continued to date each year in their world chronicles on a different Judaeo-Christian basis — from the notional [[Creation (theology)|creation]] of the World as calculated by Christian scholars in the first five centuries of the Christian era. These eras, sometimes called ''[[Anno Mundi]]'', "year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, had their own disagreements. No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant. One popular formulation was that established by [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], a historian at the time of [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]]. The [[Latin]] translator [[Jerome]] helped popularize Eusebius's AM count in the West. Another formulation, dominant in the East during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, was developed by the [[Alexandria]]n monk [[Anninus of Alexandria|Anninus]].
=== Accuracy===
Almost all [[Biblical]] scholars believe that Dionysius was incorrect in his calculation, and that the date claimed for Jesus' birth was between 8 BC and 4 BC. The birth of Christ is known to have preceded the death of [[Herod the Great]] which occurred in 4 BC according to [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]].
=== Popularization ===
The first historian or chronicler to use Anno Domini as his primary dating mechanism was [[Victor of Tonnenna]], an African chronicler of the seventh century. A few generations later, the [[Anglo-Saxon]] historian [[Bede]], who was familiar with the work of Dionysius, also used Anno Domini dating in his ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People,'' finished in 731. In this same history, he was the first to use the Latin equivalent of ''before Christ'' and established the standard for historians of no [[year zero]], even though he used zero in his [[computus]]. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded Anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation, or conception, of Jesus, not his birth approximately nine months later (''[[Annunciation]] style'').
On the continent of [[Europe]], Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] by [[Alcuin]]. This endorsement by [[Charlemagne]] and [[List of Frankish Kings | his successors]] popularizing the usage of the epoch and spreading it throughout the [[Carolingian Empire]] ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence until present times.
Outside the Carolingian Empire, Spain continued to date by the [[Era of the Caesars]], or [[Spanish Era]], well into the Middle Ages, which counted beginning with 38 BC. The [[Era of Martyrs]], which numbered years from the accession of [[Diocletian]] in [[284]], who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, prevailed in the East and is still used officially by the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] and used to be used by the [[Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian]] church. Another system was to date from the [[crucifixion]] of Jesus Christ, which as early as [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]] and [[Tertullian]] was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in the occasional medieval manuscript.
Even though Anno Domini was in widespread use by the ninth century, Before Christ (or its equivalent) did not become widespread until the late fifteenth century.
== Other eras in official use ==
Some other eras were in official use in [[Modern Europe|modern times]] or are still in use in several countries alongside the current international Anno Domini era.
=== European attempts ===
* The [[French Revolution]] seriously attempted to displace the Anno Domini system by instead dating from 22 September 1792 = 1 vendémiaire an I (''an'' means year in [[French language|French]]) of the [[First French Republic]]. (''see'' [[French Revolutionary Calendar]]). Napoléon finally abolished the calendar effective [[1 January]] [[1806]], the day after 10 nivôse an XIV.
* The [[Fascism|Italian Fascists]] used the standard system along with [[Roman numerals]] to denote the number of years since the establishment of the Fascist government in [[1922]]. Therefore, 1934, for example, was Year XII. This era was abolished with the fall of fascism in Italy on [[July 25]], [[1943]]. <br> ''Both attempts ultimately failed to replace the standard calendar.''
=== Asian national eras ===
* The official [[Japanese era name|Japanese system]] numbers years from the accession of the current [[Emperor of Japan|emperor]], regarding the calendar year during which the accession occurred as the first year.
* It is still very common in [[Taiwan]] to date events via the [[Republic of China]] era, whose first year is [[1912]].
* [[North Korea]] uses a system that starts in 1912 (= [[Juche]] 1), the year of the birth of their founder [[Kim Il-Sung]]. The year 2004 was "Juche 93". ''Juche'' means ''"[[autarchy]], self-reliance"''.
* In [[Thailand]] in 1888 King [[Chulalongkorn]] decreed a National Thai Era since founding of [[Bangkok]] on 1782, April 6. In 1912 the New Year's Day was shifted to April 1. In [[1941]], the Prime Ministre [[Phibunsongkhram]] decided to count the years since B.C. 543. This is the so-called [[Thai solar calendar]] or Thailand Buddhist Era clearly relied on the western solar calendar. This is one of the versions of the [[Buddhist calendar]].
=== Religious eras ===
* In [[Israel]], the traditional [[Hebrew calendar]], using an era [[Anno mundi|dating from Creation]], is in official use.
* In the [[Islam]]ic world, traditional [[Islamic calendar|Islamic dating]] according to the ''Anno Hegiræ'' (in the year of the ''[[Hijra (Islam)|hijra]]'') era remains in use to a varying extent, especially for religious purposes.
==See also==
{{wiktionarypar2|AD|Anno Domini}}
* [[Calendar]]
* [[Calendar era]]
* [[Chronology]]
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Declercq | first = Georges
| title = Anno Domini: The origins of the Christian era
| location = Turnhout
| publisher = Brepols
| year = 2000
| id = ISBN 2503510507
}} (despite beginning with 2, it is English)
* ———. "Dionysius Exiguus and the Introduction of the Christian Era". ''Sacris Erudiri'' 41 (2002): 165–246. An annotated version of part of ''Anno Domini''.
* {{cite book
| last = Richards | first = E. G.
| title = Mapping Time
| location = Oxford
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 2000
| id = ISBN 0192862057
}}
* {{cite web
| author = John Riggs
| year = January-February 2003
| url = http://www.ucc.org/ucnews/jan03/asiseeit.htm
| title = Whatever happened to B.C. and A.D., and why?
| publisher =United Church News
| accessdate = December 19
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Philip A Cunningham
| coauthors = Arthur F Starr
| year = 1998
| title = Sharing Shalom: A Process for Local Interfaith Dialogue Between Christians and Jews
| publisher = Paulist Press
| id = ISBN 0809138352
}}
== Note ==
* {{note|gregorian}} [1] The mean year of the Gregorian calendar is 365.2425 days. This approximated the mean tropical year more than five millennia ago. The real (mean) [[tropic |
-52]]
[[de:Boeing B-52]]
[[es:B-52 Stratofortress]]
[[fr:Boeing B-52 Stratofortress]]
[[it:Boeing B-52 Stratofortress]]
[[he:B-52]]
[[hu:B-52]]
[[nl:B-52 Stratofortress]]
[[ja:B-52 (爆撃機)]]
[[no:B-52 Stratofortress]]
[[pl:Boeing B-52 Stratofortress]]
[[fi:B-52 Stratofortress]]
[[sv:Boeing B-52 Stratofortress]]
[[zh:B-52同溫層堡壘轟炸機]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Biped</title>
<id>4210</id>
<revision>
<id>42113568</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:33:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Amcbride</username>
<id>434818</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert addition of commercial link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''biped''' (BY-ped) meaning "two feet" ([[Latin]] ''bi'' = two + ''ped'' = foot) is an animal that travels across surfaces supported by two [[Leg (anatomy)|legs]].
==Bipedalism in general==
Bipedal locomotion is [[walking]], [[running]], and [[standing]] on two legs. Energy-efficient means of standing bipedally involve constant adjustment of balance, and of course these must avoid [[feedback|overcorrection]].
Efficient walking complicates these issues, as it entails tipping slightly off-balance forward and to the side, and correcting balance with the right timing.
Running is an inherently continuous process, in contrast to walking; a bipedal creature or device, when efficiently running, is in a constant state of falling forward, that is maintained as relatively smooth motion only by repeatedly "catching oneself" with, again, the right timing, but in the case of running only delaying the nearly inevitable fall for the duration of another step.
The phenomenon of "tripping" is also informative in this regard. One popular way to think of it is as having one's leg pulled out from under them. In fact, however, merely stopping the movement of one leg of a walker, and merely slowing one leg of a runner, is sufficient to amount to tripping them. They were already "falling", and preventing the tripped leg from aborting that fall is sufficient to cause bipeds to collapse to the ground.
Engineers who study bipedal walking describe it as a repeatedly interrupted fall.
==Animals and humans==
Many animals, including humans, have [[evolution|evolved]] bipedalism, with anatomical adaptations constituting the required mechanical systems and neurological adaptations the control-system ones.
As to anatomy, contrast in [[domestication|domesticated]] [[poultry]] the meaty [[drumstick (poultry)|drumstick]] and thigh, against the small and bony wing. The technique of [[weight lifting|power-lifter]]s highlights the similar difference in dimensions, even in untrained humans, between the [[muscle]]s of the thigh and the upper arm. This difference is extreme: the large muscle in the human upper arm is the [[biceps]], which bends the arm at the elbow; few people know the name of, or pay any attention to, the muscle that is used to straighten the arm (the [[triceps]]); the [[quadriceps]] and [[hamstring]] muscles of the thigh are both so crucial to bipedal activities, that each alone is much larger than even a well-developed biceps.
The famous knee jerk (or [[patellar reflex]]) emphasizes the necessary bipedal control system: the only function served by the nerves involved being connected as they are is to ensure quick response to imminent disturbance of erect posture; it not only occurs without conscious mental activity, but also involves none of the nerves which lead from the leg to the brain.
A less well-known aspect of bipedal [[neuroanatomy]] can be demonstrated in human infants who have not yet developed toward the ability to stand up. They can nevertheless run with great dexterity, provided they are supported in a vertical position and offered the stimulus of a moving treadmill beneath their feet.
Human walking is composed of several separate processes:
* rocking back and forth between feet
* pushing with the toe to maintain speed
* combined intruption in rocking and ankle twist to turn
* shortening and extending the knees to prolong the "forward fall"
===Evolution of bipedalism===
Bipedalism and associated traits can offer a species several advantages:
*Some evolutionary biologists have suggested that a crucial stage in the evolution of some or all bipeds was the ability to stand, which generally improves the ability to see (and perhaps otherwise detect) distant dangers or resources.
*In vertebrate species, for whom evolution of additional limbs would be an enormous genetic change, it can serve to free the front limbs for such other functions as manipulation (in primates) and flight (in birds).
*In some species with predominantly prone locomotion and often inability to stand erect while stationary, bipedal behavior appears only for rapid motion, "rearing up" on their hind legs.
*Humans are generally thought to have evolved bipedalism either through living on plains (the [[Savanna Theory]]), or wading like their semi-bipedal wading cousins the [[bonobo]] chimps, the lowland gorillas and [[Proboscis Monkey|proboscis monkey]]s, the [[Aquatic ape theory|Aquatic Ape Theory]], which would provide the advantage of keeping the head above water for breathing in addition to the first point.
Many animals that do not use [[bipedal locomotion]] in nature can be trained to walk on hind legs. This includes dogs, elephants, horses and pretty much every [[mammal]] or [[reptile]] that has 4 legs. Some animals can also be trained to walk on front limbs, although this method lacks any practical benefits, save for [[gymnastic]] versatility for spectacle.
Humans too, can learn to walk using their arms for aid, or solely their arms ([[handstand]]). This is unusual and requires neurological and physical adaptation like many physical movements, otherwise they can result in injury due to lack of protection by astrophied or unbalanced muscles not developed for or genetically inclined for the movement.
Primates usually use both forms of locomotion - bipedal and walking on all fours, though there has been one recorded case of a macaque switching to bipedal walking completely after recovering from a serious illness, and at least one example of a captive chimp who only walked upright, [[Oliver the chimp|Oliver]].
===Bipedal biological taxa===
Biological examples of bipedality beyond [[human]]s and other [[primate]]s are mostly [[vertebrates]]. [[Bird]]s are bipeds, whether flying or [[ratite]], and the [[ostrich]] and kin demonstrate that not even ''large'' bipeds have to be [[mammal]]s. Another mammalian group of bipeds are the [[kangaroo]]s.
The pattern of bipedality only in the form of "reared-up" running can be seen in some of the [[cockroach]]es, and in at least one genus of [[lizard]] (the [[Basiliscus (genus)|basilisk lizards]]) that can run across the surface of water.
A biped also has the ability to breath whilst it runs. Humans usually take a breath every other stride when their aerobic system is functioning. During a sprint, at which point the anaerobic system kicks in, breathing slows until the anaerobic system can no longer sustain a sprint.
Bipeds are almost exclusively [[Landform|terrestrial]] animals, perhaps because the advantages of erect motion are offset, for [[aquatic animal]]s, by the greater resistance to motion, in dense and somewhat viscous water in contrast to air, incurred by presenting a large cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of motion. Obvious exceptions to this rule include several animals which are partially bipedal, semi-aquatic mammals, including the bonobo and proboscis, and also the [[raccoon]], which does not walk on its hind feet but often stands erect, or squats in water to use its hands to manipulate food and rocks/sticks.
Another bird which exhibits a bipedal posture is the penguin, whose efficiency in water is far greater than that on land; noticeable in the way it walks.
At least two types of octopus are known to walk bipedally. This form of locomotion appears to allow them to remain somewhat camouflaged while moving quickly.
==Robots==
For nearly the whole of the [[20th century]], bipedal [[robot]]s were very difficult to construct. Robots which could move usually did so using wheels, treads, or multiple legs. Increasingly cheap and compact computing power, however, has made two-legged robots more feasible. In recent years, [[Honda]] and [[Sony]] have developed these machines.
==External links==
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/0902_040902_upright_hominid.html#main Study pushes bipedalism back 2 million years]
* [http://www.world.honda.com/HDTV/ASIMO/200412-run/index.html Video of Honda's humanoid robot Asimo running] (Dec 16 2004) (see also [[Asimo]])
* [http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~chuffard/index_files/Bipedal_octopuses.htm] Information about bipedal octopuses, with link to original paper and videos
* [http://evolution-of-man.info/combined.htm Why australopithecines became bipedal]
[[category:Transportation]]
[[Category:Robots]]
[[es:Bípedo]]
[[fr:Bipède]]
[[pt:Bípede]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bootstrapping</title>
<id>4211</id>
<revision>
<id>41959032</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:03:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>151.203.241.221</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Electronics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bootstrapping''' alludes to a [[Germany|German]] legend about [[Baron Munchhausen|Baron Münchhausen]], who was able to lift himself out of a swamp by pulling himself up by his own hair. In later versions he was using his own boot straps to pull himself out of the sea which gave rise to the term [[wiktionary:bootstrap|bootstrapping]].
In computers, this term refers to any process where a simple system activates a more complicated system. It is the problem of starting a certain sys |
Botswana table}}
[[Image:2pula.png|thumb|200px|right|1980s 2 Pula note]]
Since independence, [[Botswana]] has had the highest average economic growth rate in the world at about 9% per year from 1966 through 1999. Growth in formal sector employment has averaged about 10% per annum over Botswana's first 30 years of independence. The government has consistently maintained budget surpluses and has substantial foreign exchange reserves totalling about $6.2 [[billion]] (6.2 G$) in 1999.
Botswana's impressive economic record has been built on a foundation of diamond mining, prudent fiscal policies, international financial and technical assistance, and a cautious foreign policy. It is rated the least corrupt country in Africa, according to an international corruption watchdog, [[Transparency International]].
==Overview==
[[Agriculture]] still provides a livelihood for more than 80% of the population but supplies only about 50% of food needs and accounts for only 3% of GDP. [[Subsistence farming]] and cattle raising predominate. The sector is plagued by erratic rainfall and poor soils. [[Tourism]] is also important to the economy. Substantial [[mineral]] deposits were found in the 1970s and the mining sector grew from 25% of GDP in 1980 to 38% in 1998. Unemployment officially is 21% but unofficial estimates place it closer to 40%. The Orapa 2000 project, which will double the capacity of the country's main diamond mine, will be finished in early 2000. This will be the main force behind continued economic expansion.
==Mining==
Two large mining companies, [[Debswana]] (formed by the government and South Africa's [[De Beers]] in equal partnership) and Bamangwato Concessions, Ltd. (BCL, also with substantial government equity participation) operate in the country.
Since the early 1980s, the country has been the world's largest producer of gem diamonds. Four large diamond mines have opened since independence. De Beers prospectors discovered diamonds in northern Botswana in the early 1970s. The first mine began production at [[Orapa diamond mine|Orapa]] in [[1972]], followed by the smaller mine at [[Letlhakane diamond mine|Letlhakane]]. What has become the single-richest diamond mine in the world opened in [[Jwaneng diamond mine|Jwaneng]] in 1982. In 2002, a fourth diamond mine, [[Damtshaa diamond mine|Damtshaa]], began operations. Botswana produced a total over 30 million carats (6,000 kg) of diamonds (about 25% of worldwide production) from the three Debswana mines in 1999, and is the highest producer of diamonds by value in the world. The Orapa 2000 Expansion of the existing Orapa mine was opened in 2000.
Most (70%) of Botswana's electricity is imported from South Africa's [[Eskom]]. 80% of domestic production is concentrated in one plant, [[Morupule Power Station]] near [[Palapye]]. Debswana operates the nearby [[Morupule Colliery]] to supply coal to it.
[http://www.miningweekly.co.za/min/sector/coal/?show=75117]
BCL, which operates a copper-nickel mine at Selebi-Phikwe, has had a troubled financial history but remains an important employer. The soda ash operation at Sua Pan, opened in 1991 and supported by substantial government investment, has begun making a profit following significant restructuring.
==Tourism==
[[Tourism]] is an increasingly important industry in Botswana, accounting for almost 12% of GDP. One of the world's unique ecosystems, the [[Okavango Delta]], is located in Botswana. The country offers excellent game viewing and birding both in the Delta and in the Chobe Game Reserve -- home to one of the largest herds of free-ranging elephants in the world. Botswana's [[Central Kalahari Game Reserve]] also offers good game viewing and some of the most remote and unspoiled wilderness in southern Africa.
==Agriculture==
More than half of the population lives in rural areas and is largely dependent on subsistence crop and livestock farming. Agriculture meets only a small portion of food needs and contributes just 2.8% to GDP -- primarily through beef exports -- but it remains a social and cultural touchstone. Cattle raising dominated Botswana's social and economic life before independence. The [[Botswana Meat Commission]] has a monopoly on beef production. The national herd was about 2.5 million in the mid-1990s, though the government-ordered slaughter of the entire herd in Botswana's northwest [[Kgamiland]] District in 1995 has reduced the number by at least 200,000. The slaughter was ordered to prevent the spread of "cattle lung disease" to other parts of the country.
==Private Sector Development and Foreign Investment==
Botswana seeks to diversify its economy away from [[mineral]]s, the earnings from which have levelled off. In 1998-99, non-mineral sectors of the economy grew at 8.9%, partially offsetting a slight 4.4% decline in the minerals sector. Foreign investment and management have been welcomed in Botswana.
External investment in Botswana has grown fitfully. In the early 1990s, two American companies, Owens Corning and H.J. [[Heinz]], made major investments in production facilities in Botswana. In 1997, the St. Paul Group purchased Botswana Insurance, one of the country's leading short-term insurance providers. An American Business Council (ABC), with over 30 member companies, was inaugurated in 1995.
[[Daihatsu]] operated a car assembly plant in Botswana from 1994 to 2000.[http://www.gov.bw/economy/index.html]
Because of history and geography, Botswana has long had deep ties to the economy of South Africa. The [[Southern Africa Customs Union]] (SACU), comprising Botswana, [[Lesotho]], [[Swaziland]], and [[South Africa]], dates from [[1910]]. [[Namibia]] joined in 1990. Under this arrangement, South Africa has collected levies from customs, sales, and excise duties for all five members, sharing out proceeds based on each country's portion of imports. The exact formula for sharing revenues and the decision-making authority over duties--held, until at least 1996, exclusively by the Government of South Africa--have been increasingly controversial, and the members began renegotiating the arrangement in 1995. Following South Africa's accession to the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO--Botswana also is a member), many of the SACU duties are declining, making American products more competitive.
Botswana's currency -- the [[Botswana pula|pula]] -- is fully convertible and is valued against a basket of currencies heavily weighted toward the South African rand. Profits and direct investment can be repatriated without restriction from Botswana. The Botswana Government has eliminated all exchange controls. Despite a 12% devaluation in May 2005, the pula remains one of the strongest currencies in Africa.
[[Gaborone]] is host to the headquarters of the 14-nation [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC). A successor to the [[Southern African Development Coordination Conference]] (SADCC), which focused its efforts on freeing regional economic development from dependence on apartheid in South Africa, SADC embraced the newly democratic South Africa as a member in 1994 and has a broad mandate to encourage growth, development, and economic integration in Southern Africa. SADC's Trade Protocol, which was launched on September 1, 2000, calls for the elimination of all tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade by 2012 among the 11 signatory countries. If successful, it will give Botswana companies free access to the far larger regional market. The Regional Center for Southern Africa (RCSA), which implements the U.S. Agency for International Development's (USAID) Initiative for Southern Africa (ISA), is headquartered in [[Gaborone]] as well.
==See also==
* [[Botswana]]
* [[Economy of Africa]]
* [[Economy of South Africa]]
* [[List of Botswana companies]]
* [[List of South African companies]]
* [[South Africa]]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Botswana]]
[[Category:Economy of Botswana| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Botswana]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Botswana]]
[[zh:波札那]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Botswana</title>
<id>3617</id>
<revision>
<id>37043385</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T04:38:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ERcheck</username>
<id>514304</id>
</contributor>
<comment>dab page link repair</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Communications in Botswana'''
A [[fiber-optic]] telecommunications network has been completed in [[Botswana]] connecting all major population centers.
In addition to the government-owned newspaper and national [[radio]] network, there is an active, independent [[mass media|press]] (six weekly newspapers). Two privately owned radio stations began operations in 1999. At the end of July 2000, the government-owned Botswana Television (BTV) was launched, which is Botswana's first national television station. It began broadcasting with 3 hours of programming on weekdays and 5 on weekends, and offers news ([[Setswana]] and [[English language|English]]), entertainment, and [[sport]]s, with plans eventually to produce 60% of its programming locally. Foreign publications are sold without restriction in Botswana, and there are three commercial [[Internet service provider]]s. Two [[cellular phone]] providers cover most of the country.
'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
131,000 (September 2001), 78,000 (1998)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
270,000 (September 2001)
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''general:'' the system is expanding with the growth of mobile cellular service and participation in regional development
<br>''domestic:''
small system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relay links, and a few radiotelephone communication stations; mobile cellular service is growing fast
<br>''international:''
two international exchanges; digital microwave radio relay links to Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa; |
and's surname]''.
In the [[Middle Ages]], when a man from a lower status family married an only daughter from a higher status family, he would take the wife's family name. In the 18th and 19th centuries in Britain, bequests were sometimes made contingent upon a man changing (or hyphenating) his name, so that the name of the legator continued. Although it is now rare for English-speaking men to take the name of their wives, some men still choose to do so (especially among Canadian aboriginal groups) or, very rarely, a married couple may choose a new last name entirely.
As an alternative, the husband and wife may adopt a [[double-barrelled name]]. For instance, when John Smith and Mary Jones marry each other, they may become known as ''John Smith-Jones'' and ''Mary Smith-Jones''. However, some consider the extra length of the hyphenated names undesirable. A wife may also opt to use her maiden name for her middle name, giving her the option of referring to herself as either ''Mrs. Smith'' or ''Mary Jones Smith''.
In some jurisdictions, a woman's legal name used to change automatically upon marriage. Although women may now easily choose to change to their [[married name]], that change is no longer the default. In some places, civil rights lawsuits or constitutional amendments changed the law so that men could also easily change their married names, e.g. in [[British Columbia]].
Women in [[academia]] who have previously published articles in academic journals under their maiden name often do not change their surname after marriage, in order to ensure that they continue to receive credit for their past and future work. This practice is also common among female physicians, attorneys, and other professionals for whom continuity is important.
Spelling of names in past centuries is often assumed to be a deliberate choice by a family, but due to very low literacy rates the reality is that many families could not provide the spelling of their surname, and so the scribe, clerk, minister, or official would write down the name on the basis of how it was spoken. This results in many variations, some of which occurred when families moved to another country. The officially-recorded spellings tended to become the standard for that family.
==French-speaking countries==
French-speaking countries have many similarities to English-speaking ones in the way family names are used. In [[France]] and the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Quebec]], name change upon marriage is no longer automatic. Those who wish to change their name upon marriage must follow the same legal procedure as would be used under any other circumstance.
In France, until January 1, 2005, children were required by law to take the surname of their father. From this date, article 311-21 of the French [[Civil code]] permits parents to give their children either the name of their father, mother, or a hyphenation of both - although no more than two names can be hyphenated. In cases of disagreement the father's name applies [http://www2.cnrs.fr/presse/communique/601.htm]. This brought France into line with a 1978 declaration by the [[Council of Europe]] requiring member governments to take measures to adopt equality of rights in the transmission of family names, a measure that was echoed by the United Nations in 1979. Similar measures were adopted by [[Germany]] (1976), [[Sweden]] (1982), [[Denmark]] (1983) and [[Spain]] (1999).
Furthermore, in [[Canada|French Canada]], up until the late 1960s, children of [[Catholic]] origin were given three names at birth (usually not hyphenated): the first, Marie or Joseph, usually indicated the gender of the child. The second was usually the name of the [[godfather]] or [[godmother]], while the third and last given name was the name used in everyday situations. Thus, a child prenamed Joseph Bruno Jean on his birth or baptismal certificate would indicate the baby to be a boy, the godfather's first name to be Bruno and that the child would be called Jean (and not Joseph) for all intents and purposes of everyday life. This naming convention was in the most part dropped following the [[Quiet Revolution]] (late 1960s), and is now seen much more rarely.
==Ireland==
{{details|Irish name}}
Many surnames in Ireland of [[Irish language|Gaelic]] origin derive from ancestor's names; [[nicknames]]; or descriptive names. In the first group can be placed surnames such as ''Mac Murrough'' and ''Mac Carthy'', derived from father's names, or ''O'Brien'' and ''O'Toole'', derived from ancestral names.
Gaelic surnames derived from nicknames include ''O'[[Doherty]]'' (from ''dochartaigh'', "destroyer" or "obtrusive"), ''Garvery'' (''garbh'', "rough" or "nasty"), ''Manton'' (''mantach'', "toothless"), ''Bane'' (''bán'', "white", as in "white hair"), ''Finn'' (''fionn'', "fair", as in "fair hair"), and ''Kennedy'' (''cinnéide'', "ugly head").
In contrast to [[England]], very few Gaelic surnames are derived from place names. Among those that included in this small group, several can be shown to be [[bastardization|bastardizations]] of Gaelic personal names or surnames.
In areas where certain family names are extremely common, extra names are added that sometimes follow this archaic pattern. In [[Ireland]], for example, where ''Murphy'' is an exceedingly common name, particular Murphy families or extended families are nicknamed, so that [[Denis Murphy]]'s family were called ''The Weavers'' and Denis himself was called ''Denis "The Weaver" Murphy''. (See also [[O'Hay]].)
For much the same reason, nicknames (e.g. the ''Fada Burkes'', "the long/tall ''Burkes''"), father's names (e.g. ''John Morrissey Ned'') or mother's maiden name (''Kennedy'' becoming ''Kennedy-Lydon'') can become colloquial or legal surnames. The Irish family of de Courcy Ireland became so-named to distinguish them from their cousins who moved to France in the 17th and 18th centuries.
In addition to all this, Irish speaking areas still follow the old tradition of naming themselves after their father, grandfather, great-grandfather and so on. Examples include ''Mike Bartly Pat Reilly'' ("Mike, son of Bartholomew, son of Pat Reilly"), ''John Michel John Oge Pat Breanach'' ("John, son of Michael, son of young John, son of Pat Breanach"), ''Tom Paddy-Joe Seoige'' ("Tom, son of Paddy-Joe Seoige"), and ''Mary Bartly Mike Walsh'' ("Mary, daughter of Bartly, son of Mike Walsh"). Sometimes, the female line of the family is used, depending on how well the parent is known in the area the person resides, e.g. ''Paddy Mary John'' ("Paddy, son of Mary, daughter of John"). A similar tradition continues even in English-speaking areas, especially in rural districts.
===Irish surname prefixes===
* ''Mac'': Irish for "son", usually shortened to ''Mc'', also used in most other Gaelic languages.
* ''Mac Giolla'': Irish for "son of the devotee of a saint", or "son of a man whose name was perhaps ''Giolla Pádraig'' or ''(Mac) Giolla Bhrighde''". Similar is the use of ''St. George'' and ''St. John'' as forenames in England in the 18th and 19th century.
* ''Maol'': In Pagan times this was expressed as ''Mug'', as in the case of [[Mug Nuada]]. The literal expression of this is "slave of ''Nuada''", i.e. "devotee of ''Nuada''". In the [[Christian]] era the word ''Mael'' was used in its place for given names such as ''Mael Bridget'', ''Mael Padraig'', ''Mael Sechlainn'', and ''Mael Martain''. In later times, some of these given names evolved into surnames, e.g. ''Ó Máel Sechlainn'' and ''Mac Mael Martain''.
* ''Fitz'': a [[Norman language|Norman-French]] word derived from the [[Latin]] word ''filius'' ("son"). It was used in [[patronymic|patronymics]] by thousands of men in the early [[Normans|Norman]] period in [[Ireland]] (e.g. ''fitz Stephen'', ''fitz Richard'', ''fitz Robert'', ''fitz William'') and only on some occasions did it become used as an actual surname, the most famous example being the ''[[FitzGerald]]'' [[Earl of Kildare|Earls of Kildare]]. Yet well into the 17th and 18th century it was used in certain areas dominated by the [[Old English (Ireland)|Old English]] of [[Ireland]] in its original form, as a [[patronymic]]. [[The Tribes of Galway]] were especially good at conserving this form, with examples such as ''John fitz John Bodkin'' and ''Michael Lynch fitz Arthur'', used even as late as the early 1800's. Despite claims to the contrary, the use of ''Fitz'' in a surname never denoted illegitimacy. This misunderstanding may have originated because a number of illegitimate members of the British royal family were given such surnames: some of the illegitimate children of [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] were named ''FitzCharles'' or ''FitzRoy'' ("son of the King"); those of [[James II of England|King James II]] were named ''FitzJames''; those of [[William IV of the United Kingdom|Prince William, Duke of Clarence and St Andrews]] (later King William IV) were named ''FitzClarence''.
* ''Ó'': In Old Irish as ''ua'' ("grandson", "descendant"). E.g., the ancestor of the [[O'Brien clan]], [[Brian Boru]] (937-1014) was known in his lifetime as ''Brian mac Lorcán mac Cennéide'' ("Brian, the son of ''Lorcán'', the son of ''Cennéide''"). Not untill the time of his grandsons and great-grandsons was the name ''[[O'Brien]]'' used as a surname, used to denote descent from an illustrious [[ancestor]]. It has for some three hundred years been written as ''O<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', but in recent years the apostrophe is often dropped, bringing it into line with early medieval forms.
* ''Uí'': This is the plural of ''Ó'' and is used in reference to a kin-group or clan, e.g. ''Uí Néill'', in reference to the ''O'Neill'' |
commonly used in caving are the [[figure-of-eight loop|figure-of-eight]]- (or [[figure-of-nine loop|figure-of-nine]]-) loop, [[bowline]], [[alpine butterfly knot|alpine butterfly]], and [[Italian hitch]]. Ropes are usually rigged using [[bolt (climbing)|bolts]], [[sling]]s, and [[carabiner]]s.
Cavers carry packs filled with first-aid kits, food, extra equipment and bathroom supplies. So-called "pee bottles" are now standard and cavers are expected to carry their waste out with them. For solid waste, several zip-lock type bags (one inside the other) are used, surrounded by aluminum foil (for aesthetic reasons). These are affectionally referred to as "cave burritos."
==Safety==
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
Caves can be dangerous places; [[hypothermia]], [[falling]], [[flooding]], and physical [[exhaustion]] are the main risks. Rescue from underground is difficult and time-consuming. Full-scale cave rescues often involve the efforts of dozens of rescue workers, who may themselves be put in jeopardy in effecting the rescue.
Some common-sense rules apply:
* Always check to be sure there is no danger of flooding while you plan to be in the cave. Rainwater funneled underground can flood a cave very quickly while the surface remains clear. Factors which can influence the risk of flood include the regional rain forecast, as well as how much rain has already recently fallen in the region: if the ground is already soaked, additional rainfall will be piped much more quickly into the cave.
* Use teams of at least three cavers &ndash; four or more are best. Caving alone is particularly risky.
* Always make sure someone on the surface knows where you are caving, when to expect you, and how to contact cave rescue services if you fail to return on time.
* Use a decent light that will last long enough for the trip and a backup that will be sufficient to get you out of the cave. American cavers always recommend a minimum of three independent sources of light per person, but two lights is common practice amongst European cavers.
* Sturdy clothing and footwear, as well as a [[helmet]], are necessary to reduce the impact of abrasions, caver falls, and falling objects. Synthetic fibers and woolens, which shed water, are vastly preferred to cotton materials, which retain water and increase the risk of hypothermia. It is also helpful to have several layers of clothing, which can be shed (and stored in the pack) or added as needed. In watery cave passages, partial or full wetsuits reduce the risk of hypothermia.
* For trips of more than a short duration, it is best to carry food. A combination of quickly metabolized foods (such as fruit or sweets) and slowly metabolized foods (such as vegetable soup) is best.
* Beginning cavers should be accompanied by experienced cavers with proper respect for these safety considerations. An established caving group is a welcoming environment to meet experienced cavers, and to find out about cave trips opportunities matching the skills of the newcomer. (See "Caving around the world" below for links to different caving organizations.)
* Cave passages look different from different directions. In long or complex caves, even experienced cavers become lost. To reduce the risk of becoming lost, it is necessary to memorize the appearance of key navigational points in the cave as they are passed by the exploring party. Each member of a cave party shares responsibility for being able to remember the route out of the cave. In some caves it may be acceptable to mark a small number of key junctions with small stacks or "cairns" of rocks, or to leave a non-permanent mark such as high-visibility flagging tape tied to a projection.
* Remember that you normally have to get back out the way you came in, and going back up is harder work than coming down. Turn back before you get too tired to get out. When dealing with inexperienced cavers the leader is responsible for deciding whether a trip is suitable and how far they should go before coming back out.
* Vertical caving involves ladders or SRT ([[Single Rope Technique]]). SRT is a complex skill and requires proper training before trying it underground.
==Cave conservation==
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
[[Image:Alabama_cave_2005-04-24.km.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A vertical cave in Alabama, USA]]
The cave environment is more fragile than most people realize. And, since water that flows through a cave eventually comes out in streams and rivers, any pollution will wind up in someone's drinking water and can seriously affect the surface environment as well.
Cave-dwelling species are most fragile, and a particular species found in a cave may have lived within that cave alone, and be found nowhere else in the world. Cave-dwelling species are accustomed to a near-constant climate of temperature and humidity, and any disturbance can be disruptive to the species' life cycles. You may not even be able to see wildlife in the cave, but it is present in most caves.
[[Bat]]s are one such fragile species of cave-dwelling animal. Despite their scary reputation in fiction and in the movies, bats have much more to fear from us than we do from them. Bats are friends to humans in many ways, including their important ecological role in reducing insect pest populations, and in the pollenization of plant species. Bats are most vulnerable during the winter [[hibernation]] season, when no food supply exists on the surface to replenish the bat's store of energy should it be awakened from hibernation. If you plan to visit to a cave where bats are known to hibernate, consider scheduling your trip during the warmer months when bats are less vulnerable. Be respectful of bats when you encounter them. They are sensitive to both [[light]] and [[sound]].
It is best to educate oneself on the contents found within the caves one explores. Consider contacting the biology department of a university located in the cave region or contact the [[National Speleological Society]] and learn more about [[cave conservation and protection]] as well as [[karst]] resources.
Some cave passages may be marked with [[flagging tape]] or other indicators to show biologically, aesthetically, or archaeologically sensitive areas. Please respect these markings, and the judgement of those who placed them there, and stay on indicated trails through such passages. A beautiful floor of [[sand]] or [[silt]] may be thousands of years old, dating from the last time water flowed through the cave. Such deposits may be spoiled forever by a single mis-step. Active formations such as [[flowstone]] can be similarly despoiled with a muddy footprint or handprint. Ancient human artifacts, such as fibre products, can crumble to dust under the touch of any but the most careful archaeologist.
Organized cave groups often sponsor volunteer efforts to educate the public, and to help preserve or conserve underground wilderness. If you enjoy caving, seriously consider donations of time, money, and/or talent to these efforts.
The caver's motto: ''Take nothing but pictures. Leave nothing but footprints. Kill nothing but time. What we have now is all there will ever be.''
==Caving organizations==
===Canada===
[http://www.cancaver.ca/ Caving Canada] There is no national caving organization in Canada, despite the existence of a national publication (''the Canadian Caver'', started in 1968). Regional organizations exist in British Columbia and Quebec, and caving clubs exist in most of the provinces.
===Greece===
[http://www.zenas.gr/ SPILAIO] A greek caving portal site providing RSS Feeds with caving related news in Greek and English.
The [http://www.fhs.gr/ Hellenic Speleological Federation] is a national organisation with many caving clubs as members.
===Jamaica===
The Jamaican Caves Organisation ([http://www.jamaicancaves.org/ JCO]) carries out speleological research and exploration on the island.
===New Zealand===
The [http://www.massey.ac.nz/~sglasgow/nzss/ New Zealand Speleological Society] is a national organisation with local clubs that represents the recreational caves.
===Ireland===
The [http://www.cavingireland.org/SUI/Whatissui.htm Speleological Union of Ireland] is the official representative body for cavers in Ireland. It is also affiliated with the [http://www.cavingireland.org/ICRO/Whatisicro.htm Irish Cave Rescue Organisation] which operates in both the Republic Of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
===United Kingdom===
The [http://www.british-caving.org.uk British Caving Association] is the Governing body for Underground Exploration in the United Kingdom. It represents all those persons and groups with a genuine interest in caves, karst and associated phenomena, whether from a strictly sporting viewpoint, a scientific viewpoint, or a combination of both. The [http://bcra.org.uk/ British Cave Research Association]is a constituent body of [http://www.british-caving.org.uk British Caving Association] and promotes the study of caves and associated phenomena. The association encourages original exploration, collects and publishes speleological information, and organises education events.
===United States===
[http://www.caves.org/committee/conservation Conservation Division of the NSS] Preserving and protecting caves and karst for cavers, scientific research, and the general public is one of the most important goals of the NSS.
[http://www.caves.org/section/ccms/ Cave Conservation and Management Section of the National Speleological Society] The Conservation and Management Section provides a central clearinghouse for information, expertise and research in the field of cave conservation and management.
[http://www.webwhisper.com/tcs/default.html Tennessee Cave Survey] (TCS) TCS members are volunteers who are dedicated to the discovery, exploration, survey and mapping of the caves in Tennessee.
The [[Cave Research Foundation]] (CRF) is an American private, non-profit group de |
mergency telephone number) is almost always read "nine-one-one", while 9-11 ([[September 11, 2001 attacks|September&nbsp;11, 2001]]) is usually read "nine-eleven".
===Levels of buildings===
There are also variations in [[floor numbering]] between the U.S. and U.K. &mdash; in most countries, including the UK, the "first floor" is one above the entrance level while the entrance level is the "ground floor"; whereas normal American usage labels the entrance level as the "first floor" and does not use "ground floor." Some American buildings have a "ground floor" or another name for the entrance level, usually as part of a plan to cater to [[cosmopolitan]] persons. (This may also be the case in buildings built on hillsides or uneven ground, where the basement on one side of the structure may be at street level on the other.) Nonetheless, the rest of the floors are numbered in the usual American manner.
===Figures of speech===
Both British English and American English use the expression "I couldn't care less" to mean the speaker does not care at all. In American English, the phrase "I could care less" (without the "n't") is synonymous with this in casual usage. [[Intonation]] no longer reflects the originally [[sarcasm|sarcastic]] nature of this variant, which is not [[idiom]]atic in British English and might be interpreted as anything from nonsense to an indication that the speaker ''does'' care.
In both areas, saying "I don't mind" often means "I'm not annoyed" (for example, by someone's smoking), while "I don't care" often means "the matter is trivial or boring". However, in answering a question like "Tea or coffee?", if either alternative is equally acceptable, an American may answer "I don't care", while a British person may answer "I don't mind". Either sounds odd to the other.
===Business===
In his history of the Second World War, [[Winston Churchill]] records that differences in the interpretation of the verb "to table" caused an argument between British and American planners. The British wanted a matter ''tabled'' immediately because it was important, and the Americans insisted it should not be tabled at all because it was important. In British English, the term means "to discuss now" (the issue is ''brought to'' the table), whereas in American English it means "to defer" (the issue is ''left on'' the table).
In a similar vein, the verb "to slate" means "to schedule" in the U.S. but (informally) "to disparage" in the UK. Thus a headline such as "Third Harry Potter Film Slated" has two very different interpretations.
One usage of the word "bomb" causes similar confusion: in the U.S. "the show bombed" means it was a total failure; in the UK "the show went down a bomb" means it was a great success. The American slang phrase "the bomb," however (perhaps inspired by [[African American Vernacular English]]), almost always indicates positivity. For example, the phrase, "That show was the bomb," would mean that the show was outstanding. In this usage, the article "the" will sometimes be pronounced "da", and sometimes would be written "That show was da bomb", indicating a dialect pronunciation of the word "the".
===Education===
In the UK, a student is said to "read" or to "study" a subject, while in the U.S., a student either "studies" the subject or "majors" in it. Unlike most of the world where university students pursue a single field of study, United States universities often require a variety of courses. "To major" refers only to the student's principal course of study, while "to study" may be refer to any class being taken.
British English:
:"She read history at Oxford".
American English:
:"She majored in history at Yale."
In the UK, a student "revises" or "does revision" for an examination, while in American English, the student "studies" for it. When "taking" or "writing" the examination, a student in the UK would have that examination supervised by an "invigilator" whereas in American English it would be a "proctor" (or merely "(exam) supervisor").
In the UK, a student is said to "sit" or "take" an exam, while in the U.S., a student "takes" an exam. In the UK, a teacher "sets" an exam, while in the U.S., a teacher "writes" or "gives" an exam. The expression "he sits for" an exam also arises in British English, but only rarely in American English; American lawyers-to-be "sit for" their bar exams, and American master's and doctoral students may "sit for" their comprehensive exams, but in nearly all other instances, Americans "take" their exams.
British English:
:"I sat my Spanish exam yesterday."
:"I plan to set a difficult exam for my students, but I haven't got it ready yet."
American English:
:"I took my exams at Yale."
:"I spent the entire day yesterday writing the exam. At last, it's ready for my students."
Another source of confusion is the different usage of the word ''college''. In the U.S., this refers to a post-high school institution such as a university, whilst in the UK and most Commonwealth countries it refers primarily to a tertiary institution between high school and university (normally referred to as a "Sixth Form College" after the old name in secondary education for Years 12 and 13, the "6th form") where intermediary courses such as [[A Level]]s or [[NVQ]]s can be taken and [[GCSE]] courses can be retaken, with the interchangeability of college with high school being rare but not unknown. Americans may be surprised to hear of a 14 year old attending college in the UK, mistakenly assuming it is at the university level. It should be noted however, that in the case of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] universities, all members are also members of a college. eg one is a member of [[St. Peter's College, Oxford]] and hence the University.
In both the U.S. and UK, ''college'' can refer to some division within a university such as a "college of mathematics and science". Institutions in the U.S. that offer two to four years of post-high school education often have the word ''college'' as part of their name, while those offering more advanced degrees are called a ''university''. American students who pursue a ''bachelor's degree'' (four years of higher education) or an ''associate's degree'' (two years of higher education) are "college students" regardless of whether they attend a college or a university and refer to their educational institutions informally as ''colleges.'' However, a student who pursues a master's degree or a doctorate degree in the arts and sciences is a "graduate student." Students of advanced professional programmes are known by their field (business student, law student, journalism student).
Among high school and college students in the United States, the words ''freshman'' (or the gender neutral term ''frosh''), ''sophomore'', ''junior'' and ''senior'' refer to the first, second, third, and fourth year respectively. It is important that the context of either high school or college first be established, or else it must be stated directly (that is, "She is a high school freshman." "He is a college junior."). Many institutions in both countries also use the term "first-year" as a gender-neutral replacement for "freshman". In the UK, first year university students are often called ''freshers''; however, there are no specific names for those in other years, nor for school pupils. Graduate and professional students in the United States are known by their year of study (a "second year medical student" or a "fifth year doctoral candidate").
In the UK, the US equivalent of a ''high school'' is often referred to as a ''secondary school'' regardless of whether it is public or private. Secondary education in the United States also includes ''middle school'' or ''junior high school'', a two or three year transitional school between elementary school and high school. A ''public school'' has opposite meanings in the two countries. In the US this is a government owned institution supported by taxpayers. In the UK it is an independent institution funded by tuition. The United States uses several additional terms for specific types of secondary schools. A ''prep school'' or ''preparatory school'' is an independent school funded by tuition. A ''parochial school'' covers costs through tuition and has affiliation with a religious institution. A ''magnet school'' receives government funding and has special admission requirements. Students gain admission through superior performance on admission tests.
===Transport===
Americans refer to ''transportation,'' while British people refer to ''transport.''
Differences in terminology are especially obvious in the context of [[road]]s. The British term ''dual carriageway'', in American parlance, would be a ''divided highway''. ''Central reservation'' on a ''motorway'' in the UK would be a ''median'' on a ''freeway'' or ''expressway'' in the U.S. The one-way lanes that make it possible to enter and leave such roads at an intermediate point without disrupting the flow of traffic are generally known as ''slip roads'' in the UK, but U.S. civil engineers call them ''ramps,'' and further distinguish between ''on-ramps'' (for ente |
anities.lit.authors.shakespeare
:sci.physics.relativity
:sci.stat.math
:sci.econ
:sci.anthropology
Here are a couple of direct Google links that may be of interest:
* [http://www.google.com/groups?as_q=wikipedia&safe=images&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&lr=&num=30&as_scoring=d&hl=en Search Google groups for all mentions of Wikipedia]
* [http://www.google.com/groups?as_q=%22www.wikipedia.org%22&safe=images&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&lr=&num=30&as_scoring=d&hl=en Search specifically for mentions of English Wikipedia]
:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Best of sites links solicited</title>
<id>4145</id>
<revision>
<id>15902440</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">I've been going through the list on [http://home.mira.net/~lions/secret.htm] and am up to "Project Cool Sightings."
After that I'm going to go to [http://dir.yahoo.com/Computers_and_Internet/Internet/World_Wide_Web/Searching_the_Web/Indices_to_Web_Documents/Best_of_the_Web/Sites_of_the___/Day/] and work on that.
--[[LMS]]
:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bus</title>
<id>4146</id>
<revision>
<id>41447754</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T10:59:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wiki alf</username>
<id>303874</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.171.194.40|62.171.194.40]] ([[User talk:62.171.194.40|talk]]) to last version by 216.240.7.114</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:honoluluthebus.jpg|thumb|300px|[[TheBus]], established by Mayor Frank Fasi, is Honolulu's only public transit system. It was twice honored as ''America's Best Transit System'', before being disqualified from the [[American Public Transportation Association]] competition. Other cities felt they could not compete against Honolulu.]]
A '''bus''' is a large, motorized, [[wheel]]ed [[vehicle]] intended to carry numerous persons in addition to the [[driving|driver]]. The name is a shortened version of '''''omnibus''''', which means "for everyone".
==History==
The omnibus, the first organized [[public transit]] system, may have originated in [[Nantes, France]] in 1826, when a retired army officer who had built public baths on the city's edge set up a short stage line between the center of town and his baths. When he discovered that passengers were just as interested in getting off at intermediate points as in patronizing his baths, he shifted the stage line's focus. His new ''voiture omnibus'' ("carriage for all") combined the functions of the hired [[hackney carriage]] with the [[stagecoach]] that travelled a predetermined route from inn to inn, carrying passengers and mail. His omnibus featured wooden benches that ran down the sides of the vehicle; entry was from the rear.
Whether by direct emulation, or because the idea was in the air, by 1832 the idea had been copied in Paris, Bordeaux and Lyons. A London newspaper reported in July 4, 1829 that &#8220;the new vehicle, called the ''omnibus'', commenced running this morning from Paddington to the City&#8221;. This [[Buses in London|bus]] service was operated by [[George Shillibeer]].
In [[History of New York City|New York]], omnibus service began in the same year, when Abraham Brower, an entrepreneur who had organized volunteer fire companies, established a route along [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] starting at [[Bowling Green (New York City)|Bowling Green]]. Other American cities soon followed suit: Philadelphia in 1831, Boston in 1835 and Baltimore in 1844. In most cases, the city governments granted a private company&mdash;generally a small stableman already in the [[livery]] or freight-hauling business&mdash;an exclusive franchise to operate public coaches along a specified route. In return, the company agreed to maintain certain minimum levels of service&mdash;though one of these standards was not upholstery. The New York omnibus quickly moved into the urban consciousness. In 1831, New Yorker [[Washington Irving]] remarked of Britain's [[Reform Act 1832|Reform Act]] (finally passed in 1832): "The great reform omnibus moves but slowly."
[[Image:HDaumierOmnibus.JPG|thumb|left|240px|"Omnibus," crayon and watercolor drawing by [[Honoré Daumier]], 1864 ([[Walters Art Museum]]).]]
The omnibus had many repercussions for society, particularly in that it encouraged [[urbanization]]. Socially, the omnibus put city-dwellers, even if for only half an hour, into previously-unheard-of physical intimacy with strangers, squeezing them together knee-to-knee (''illustration, left''). Only the very poor remained excluded. A new division in urban society now came to the fore, dividing those who kept carriages from those who did not. The idea of the "carriage trade", the folk who never set foot in the streets, who had goods brought out from the shops for their appraisal, has its origins in the omnibus crush.
[[Image:Guatemala-Chicken-Buses.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|The (in)famous Chicken Buses of [[Guatemala]].]]
The omnibus also extended the reach of the North Atlantic post-[[Georgian era|Georgian]], post-[[Federal architecture|Federal]] city. The walk from the former village of [[Paddington]] to the business heart of London in the "City" was a brisk one for a young man in good condition. The omnibus offered the nearer suburbs more access to the inner city.
More intense urbanization was to follow. Within a very few years, the New York omnibus had a rival in the [[tram|streetcar]]: the first streetcar ran along [[Bowery (Manhattan)|The Bowery]], which offered the excellent improvement in amenity of riding on smooth iron rails rather than clattering over [[granite]] setts, called "Belgian blocks". The new streetcars were financed by John Mason, a wealthy banker, and built by an Irish contractor, John Stephenson. The streetcars would become even more centrally important than the omnibus in the future of urbanization.
When motorized transport proved successful after ''ca'' 1905, a motorized omnibus was for a time sometimes called an '''''autobus'''''.
==Types==
[[Image:TourBus.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Tour buses are a common tourist attraction in larger cities.]]
[[Image:CTA-articulated-bus.jpg|right|thumb|300px|An [[articulated bus]] operated by the [[Chicago Transit Authority|CTA]] in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]].]]
[[Image:GLI6080-DL3.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A [[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound]] bus.]]
[[Image:Laidlaw school bus.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Laidlaw]] School Bus.]]
[[Image:Buses in Helsinki centre.jpg|thumb|300px|Modern [[Scania AB|Scania]] buses in [[Helsinki]].]]
*[[Coach]] / Motorcoach
*[[double-decker bus|Double-decker bus]]
*[[Articulated bus]]
*[[Low-floor|Low-floor bus]]
*[[Midibus]]
*[[Minibus]]
*[[Trolleybus]]
*[[Gyrobus]]
*[[Guided bus]]
*[[Shuttle|Shuttle bus]]
*[[School bus]]
==Manufacture and Manufacturers==
{{see|:Category:Bus manufacturers|:Category:Buses}}
==Bus line operators==
{{see|List of bus companies}}
==Types of bus service==
Buses are an intrinsic part of everyday life, and play an important part in the social fabric of many countries.
===City transit===
Most urban public transportation systems in North America rely chiefly on a bus network to provide services. The largest single city bus fleet in North America is in [[Transportation in New York City|New York City]].
===Intercity travel===
Intercity bus services have become an important travel connection to smaller towns and rural areas in the [[United States]] that do not have [[airports]] or [[train]] service. A new phenomenon in intercity bus travel has been the [[Chinatown bus]].
===Tourism===
Some places have buses that resemble [[streetcar]]s in order to attract tourists or otherwise look nice (see right). A similar phenomenon is [[Duck Tours]], which uses [[DUKW]]s converted into buses/cruise boats for tour purposes.
==Buses in a social context==
===Desegregation busing===
{{main|Desegregation busing}}
In some areas of the United States, a [[Desegregation busing|forced busing]] system has been used to achieve racial [[desegregation]] of public schools. Under a busing plan, children do not necessarily go to the nearest school geographically, but to such a school where there is an appropriate mix of racial diversity.
===Buses and segregation===
{{main|Montgomery Bus Boycott}}
Bus services were also a focal point in the [[American Civil Rights Movement]] of the 1950s and 1960s in the [[United States]]. In the period after the [[American Civil War]] ended in 1865, [[racial segregation]] in public accommodations, including [[public transport]] such as rail and bus services, was enforced through [[Black Codes]] and [[Jim Crow]] laws. These were made to prevent [[African-American]]s from doing things that a [[Whites|white]] person could do. For instance, Jim Crow laws required bus drivers to enforce separate seating sections. These laws and enforcement varied among communities and states.
In 1955, after a long day of work, [[Rosa Parks]], a black seamstress, was arrested in [[Montgomery, Alabama]] for refusing to give up her seat to a white man on a public bus, bringing attention to the injustice of differential and degrading treatment based solely upon race. This incident, boycotts of bus services, other protests, and court challenges led a [[U.S. Supreme Court]] ruling banning segregation on public buses and helped lead the [[U.S. Congress]] to the pass the landmark [[1964 Civil Rights Act]] which clarified the u |
erg]], [[Germany]]) (Now [[Kaliningrad]], [[Russia]]) |
death = [[February 12]], [[1804]] ([[Königsberg]], [[Germany]]) |
school_tradition = [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] |
main_interests = [[Epistemology]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Ethics]] |
influences = [[David Hume|Hume]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Nicolas Malebranche|Malebranche]], [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[John Locke|Locke]], [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] |
influenced = [[Johann Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Hegel|Hegel]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Charles Peirce|Peirce]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]], [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], [[Jürgen Habermas|Habermas]] and many more not listed here
|
notable_ideas = [[Categorical imperative]], [[Transcendental Idealism]], [[Synthetic proposition|Synthetic a priori]], [[Noumenon]] |
}}
'''Immanuel Kant''' ([[April 22]], [[1724]] &ndash; [[February 12]], [[1804]]), was a [[German people|German]] [[philosopher]] from Königsberg (Kaliningrad) in [[East Prussia]]. Kant is often considered one of the greatest, and is one of the most influential, thinkers of [[modern Europe]] and the last major philosopher of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]].
== Kant and his philosophy ==
Kant defined the Enlightenment, in the essay "[[What is Enlightenment?|Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]", as an age shaped by the motto, "Dare to know" (latin: ''[[Sapere aude]]''). This involved thinking [[autonomy|autonomously]], free of the dictates of external [[authority]]. Kant's work served as a bridge between the [[Continental rationalism|Rationalist]] and [[Empiricism|Empiricist]] traditions of the [[18th century]]. He had a decisive impact on the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] and [[German Idealism|German Idealist]] philosophies of the [[19th century]]. His work has also been a starting point for many [[20th century]] philosophers.
The two interconnected foundations of what Kant called his "[[critical philosophy]]" of the "[[Copernican revolution]]" which he claimed to have wrought in philosophy were his [[epistemology]] (or [[theory of knowledge]]) of [[transcendental idealism|Transcendental Idealism]] and his [[moral philosophy]] of the autonomy of reason. These placed the active, rational human [[subject (philosophy)|subject]] at the center of the cognitive and moral worlds. With regard to knowledge, Kant argued that the rational order of the world as known by science could never be accounted for merely by the fortuitous accumulation of sense perceptions. It was instead the product of the rule-based activity of "synthesis". This consisted of conceptual unification and integration carried out by the mind through [[concepts]] or the "categories of the understanding" operating on perceptions within [[space and time]], which are not concepts, but forms of sensibility that are necessary conditions for any possible experience. Thus the objective order of nature and the causal necessity that operates within it are products of the mind in its interaction with what lies outside of mind (the "thing-in-itself"). With regard to [[morality]], Kant argued that the source of the [[Goodness and value theory|good]] lies not in anything outside the [[human]] subject, either in [[nature]] or given by [[God]], but rather only in a good will. A good will is one that acts in accordance with universal moral laws that the autonomous human being freely gives itself. These laws obligate people to treat other human beings as ends rather than as means to an end.
These Kantian ideas have largely framed or influenced all subsequent philosophical discussion and analysis. The specifics of Kant's account generated immediate and lasting controversy. Nevertheless, his theses that the [[mind]] itself makes a constitutive contribution to its [[knowledge]], which is therefore subject to limits that cannot be overcome, that morality is rooted in human freedom and acting autonomously is to act according to rational moral principles, and that philosophy involves self-critical activity, irrevocably reshaped philosophy.
==Biography==
====Birth and youth====
Immanuel Kant - who was baptized as "Emanuel" but later changed his name to "Immanuel" - was born in [[1724]] in [[Königsberg]], [[Germany]] (now [[Kaliningrad]], [[Russia]]). He spent his entire life in and around his hometown, the capital of [[East Prussia]] at that time. His father was a German craftsman from [[Memel]], Germany's northeasternmost city (now [[Klaipėda]], [[Lithuania]]). In his youth, Kant was a solid, albeit unspectacular, student. He was raised in a [[Pietism|Pietist]] household, a then popular [[Lutheran]] reform movement that stressed intense religious devotion, personal humility and a literal reading of [[The Bible]]. Consequently, Kant received a stern education -- strict, punitive, and disciplinary -- that favored Latin and religious instruction over mathematics and science. Kant later described this period as a time of unhappiness.
====The young scholar====
Kant enrolled in the University of Königsberg in [[1740]], at the age of 16. He studied the philosophy of [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] and [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Wolff]] under [[Martin Knutsen]], a [[rationalism|rationalist]] who was also familiar with the developments of British philosophy and science and who introduced Kant to the new mathematical physics of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]. His father's stroke and subsequent death in [[1746]] interrupted his studies. Kant became a private tutor in the smaller towns surrounding Königsberg, but continued his scholarly research. [[1749]] saw the publication of his first philosophical work, ''[[Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces]]''. Kant published several more works on scientific topics and became a university lecturer in [[1755]]. From this point on, Kant turned increasingly to philosophical issues, although he would continue to write on the sciences throughout his life. In the early 1760s, Kant produced a series of important works in philosophy. ''[[The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures]]'', a work in logic, was published in [[1762]]. Two more works appeared the following year: ''[[Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy]]'' and ''[[The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God]]''. In [[1764]], Kant wrote ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]]'' and then was second to [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in a Berlin Academy prize competition with his ''[[Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality]]'' (often referred to as "the Prize Essay"). In [[1770]], at the age of 45, Kant was finally appointed Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Königsberg. Kant wrote his ''[[Inaugural Dissertation]]'' in defense of this appointment. This work saw the emergence of several central themes of his mature work, including the distinction between the faculties of intellectual thought and sensible receptivity.
====The critical turn====
At the age of 46, Kant was an established scholar and an increasingly influential philosopher. Much was expected of him. In response to a letter from his student, [[Markus Herz]], Kant came to recognize that in the ''[[Inaugural Dissertation]]'', he had failed to account for the relation and connection between our sensible and intellectual faculties. He also credited [[David Hume]] with awakening him from "dogmatic slumber" (circa 1770). Kant would not publish another work in philosophy for the next eleven years.
Kant spent his silent decade working on a solution to the problems posed. When he emerged from his silence in [[1781]], the result was the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''. Although now uniformly recognized as one of the greatest works in the history of philosophy, this ''Critique'' was largely ignored upon its initial publication. The book was long, over 800 pages in the original German edition, and written in a dry, scholastic style. It received few reviews, and these failed to recognize the ''Critique'''s revolutionary nature. Kant was disappointed with the work's reception. Recognizing the obscurity of the original treatise, he wrote the ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in [[1783]] as a summary of its main views and he encouraged his friend, [[Johann Schultz]], to publish a brief commentary of the ''Critique of Pure Reason''.
Kant's reputation gradually rose through the [[1780]]s, sparked by a series of important works: the [[1784]] essay, "[[What is Enlightenment?|Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; [[1785|1785's]] ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (his first work on moral philosophy); and, from [[1786]], ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]''. But Kant's fame ultimately arrived from an unexpected source. In [[1786]], [[Karl Reinhold]] began to publish a series of public letters on the Kantian philosophy. In these letters, Reinhold framed Kant's philosophy as a response to the central intellectual controversy of the era: the [[Pantheism Dispute]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] had accused the recently deceased [[Lessing]] (a distinguished philosopher of the period) of [[Spinoza|Spinozism]]. Such a charge, tantamount to atheism, was vigorously denied by Lessing's friend [[Moses Mendelssohn]], and a bitter public dispute arose between them. The controversy gradually escalated into a general debate over the values of the [[Enlightenment]] and of reason itself. Reinhold maintained in his letters that Kant's ''Critique o |
g Company, Inc. October 1997: ISBN 0872200205 (paper).
* Ted Honderich ''Conservatism''
* [[Russell Kirk]]. ''The Conservative Mind''. [[Regnery Publishing]]; 7th edition (October 1, 2001): ISBN 0895261715 (hardcover).
* Jerry Z. Muller ''Conservatism''
* Robert Nisbet ''Conservatism: Dream and Reality''
* Noel O'Sullivan ''Conservatism''
* Roger Scruton ''The Meaning of Conservatism''
===External Links===
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-60 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Conservatism.
*[http://www.pnc.ro ''The National Conservatory Project'':] (in Romanian)
*[http://localhost:8888/SSK@a~F76Clr4Cj9FNtr14W2u7p2mEgPAgM,RqmBC5XFYJ0ZxuMt7Zwscg/ConservativeAlert/4// Conservative Alerts]
[[Category:Conservatism|*]]
[[cs:Konzervatismus]]
[[da:Konservatisme]]
[[de:Konservatismus]]
[[es:Conservador]]
[[et:Konservatism]]
[[fr:Conservatisme]]
[[he:שמרנות]]
[[ja:保守]]
[[lt:Konservatizmas]]
[[nl:Conservatisme]]
[[nn:Konservatisme]]
[[no:Konservatisme]]
[[pl:Konserwatyzm]]
[[pt:Conservadorismo]]
[[simple:Conservatism]]
[[sv:Konservatism]]
[[zh:保守主义]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Consociational state</title>
<id>6676</id>
<revision>
<id>37741580</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T22:23:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hairybottle</username>
<id>570500</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Political science|Political scientists]] define a '''consociational state''' as a [[state]] which has major internal divisions along ethnic, religious, or linguistic lines, yet nonetheless manages to remain stable, due to consultation among the [[elite]]s of each of its major social groups. Consociational states are often contrasted with states with [[majoritarianism|majority]] rule.
Classical examples of consociational states are [[Politics of Belgium|Belgium]], [[Politics of Switzerland|Switzerland]], [[Politics of Lebanon|Lebanon]], [[Politics of India|India]] and [[Politics of the Netherlands|the Netherlands]]
Consociational polities often have these characteristics:
*[[Coalition government|Coalition cabinet]]s, where executive power is shared between parties, not concentrated in one. Many of these cabinets are oversized, they include parties not necessary for a parliamentary majority;
*Balance of power between [[executive (government)|executive]] and [[legislative]];
*Decentralized and [[federal government]], where (regional) minorities have considerable independence;
*Asymmetric [[bicameralism]], where it is very difficult for one party to gain a majority in both houses. Normally one chamber represents regional interests and the other national interests;
*[[Proportional representation]], to allow (small) minorities to gain representation too;
*Organized and [[corporatism|corporatist]] interest groups, which represent minorities;
*A rigid [[constitution]], which prevents government from changing the constitution without consent of minorities;
*[[Judicial review]], which allow minorities to go to the courts to seek redress against laws that they see as unjust;
*Elements of [[direct democracy]], which allow minorities to enact or prevent legislation;
*Proportional employment in the public sector;
*A neutral [[head of state]], either a [[monarchy|monarch]] with only a ceremonial duties, or an indirectly elect president, who gives up party affiliation after his election;
*[[referendum|Referenda]] are only used to allow minorities to block legislation: this means that they must be a [[citizen's initiative]] and that there is no compulsory voting.
*Equality between ministers in cabinet, the [[prime minister]] is only the [[primus inter pares]];
*An independent [[central bank]], where experts and not politicians set out monetary policies.
In this view, [[Switzerland]], a country with considerable [[minority|minorities]], is a prime example of such a consensus democracy. Examples of this include: the frequent use of [[referendum|referenda]], its [[confederation|confederal]] structure, and the tradition that all large parties are included in the cabinet, creating oversized coalition governments. This can be directly linked to the many minorities Switzerland has: its population consists of both [[Protestant]]s and [[Catholic]]s; and [[French language|French]]-, [[German language|German]]-, [[Italian language|Italian]]- and [[Romansh language|Romansch]]-speaking groups.
The [[EU]] too can be seen as a consensus democracy: The parliament is bicameral: one chamber, the [[European Parliament]] is directly elected, the other the [[European Council]] consists of national ministers. The executive (the [[European Commission]]) is very weak in comparison to the legislature (especially the European Council). The Commission could be seen as an oversized coalition including (nearly) all parties in parliament.
== See also ==
* [[Confederation]]
* [[Federation]]
* [[Consensus democracy]]
[[zh:&#21327;&#21830;&#27665;&#20027;]]
[[Category:Forms of government]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Society]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical liberalism</title>
<id>6677</id>
<revision>
<id>42135363</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:29:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv unexplained deletion (if this is not vandalism, please explain)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{liberalism}}
'''Classical liberalism''' (also called '''classic liberalism''' or simply '''liberalism''') is the original form of, and is today a tendency within, [[liberalism]]. It is a political school of thought that first emerged in the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th]] centuries, upholding [[individualism]] and [[free market]] economics. Classical liberalism focuses on concepts of individual autonomy and private property, and argues that the sole legitimate function of government is to defend these. Classical liberals promote the use of precisely delineated [[constitution]]s that are difficult or impossible to modify, intended to prevent governments from assuming an [[Interventionism (politics)|interventionist]] role.
The term "classical liberalism" was coined in the [[20th century]] to refer to the general philosophy espoused by pre-[[1850]] liberals; the term refers to the philosophy itself rather than being time specific. The term was coined to avoid confusion with a modern definition of [[liberalism]] which does not accept the minimal [[statism]] philosophy. [[American liberalism]] is a key example of this. Modern [[libertarianism]] is seen by some historians as a revival of the original doctrine of liberalism, and libertarians often call themselves "classical liberals" interchangeably; likewise, those who call themselves classical liberals are sometimes referred to as libertarians.
==Introduction==
The classic liberal philosophy places a particular emphasis on the [[sovereignty of the individual]], with [[private property]] rights being seen as essential to individual liberty. It forms the philosophical basis for [[laissez-faire]] philosophy. The precepts of classic liberalism were probably best described by [[John Locke]] and [[Adam Smith]], and illuminated much of the thought at the time of the [[American revolution]]. As a result, the [[United States Constitution]] and the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] are both documents that embody many principles of classic liberalism.
[[Modern liberalism]] tends to deviate from this definition of the term "liberal" in that it espouses support of the use of the power of government to achieve a variety of desirable goals, ranging from "social justice" to "economic equality". The term ''classical liberalism'' is often used interchangeably with the term ''libertarianism''. Raimondo Cubeddu of the Department of Political Science of the University of Pisa says "It is often difficult to distinguish between "Libertarianism" and "Classical Liberalism." Those two labels are used almost interchangeably by those who we may call libertarians of a "[[minarchist]]" persuasion: scholars who, following Locke and Nozick, believe a State is needed in order to achieve effective protection of property rights." [http://www.univ.trieste.it/~etica/2003_2/] The [[Cato Institute]] briefly discusses these changes and their views on the term ''classical liberalism'', stating from their website:
:''"Classical liberal" is a bit closer to the mark, but the word "classical" connotes a backward-looking philosophy. Finally, "liberal" may well be the perfect word in most of the world--the liberals in societies from China to Iran to South Africa to Argentina are supporters of human rights and free markets--but its meaning has clearly been corrupted by contemporary American liberals."
Thus the CATO Institute[http://www.cato.org/about/about.html] sees Classical Liberals, liberals, and libertarians being from the same ideological family. Classical liberals, like those within the CATO Institute, often prefer to call themselves liberals because they see themselves as the only rightful inheritors of Liberalism.
Amy H. Sturgis Ph.D., an expert in Intellectual History, says ([http://www.belmont.edu/lockesmith/essay.html ''The Rise, Decline, and Reemergence of Classical Liberalism'']) that "Classical liberalism" includes the following:
* An ethical emphasis on the individual as a rights-bearer prior to the existence of any state, community, or society.
* The support of the right of property carried to its economic conclusion, a free-market system.
* The desire for a limited constitutional government to protect individuals' rights from others and from its own expansion
* The universal (global and ahistorical) |
Native Tribal Health Consortium and Southcentral Foundation jointly own and manage ANMC.
=== Utilities ===
A full complement of [[utilities]] is available within the Anchorage area. Two [[electric]] companies provide service, depending on where you live within the Municipality of Anchorage. They are: Municipal Light & Power (ML&P) and Chugach Electric Association.
A municipally-owned utility since 1932, ML&P supplies high-quality and reliable electric power to more than 30,000 residential and commercial customers in the Anchorage area. Chugach Electric Association is a not-for-profit, member-owned cooperative that was formed in 1948.
Most homes have [[natural gas]]-fueled heat. ENSTAR Natural Gas Company is the sole provider for Anchorage, serving some 90-percent of the city's population. While some homes in Anchorage use private [[wells]] and [[septic]] systems, the Municipality of Anchorage owns and operates the Water and Wastewater Utility serving an approximate population base of 214,000.
== Shopping and entertainment ==
Anchorage has restaurants and places to shop. Anchorage 5th Avenue Mall, located in the heart of downtown Anchorage, has 110 stores including [[Nordstrom]], [[JCPenny]], and the [[Gap]].
There is a full-size family-owned [[shopping mall]] in Anchorage: [[Dimond Center]] [http://www.dimondcenter.com] located at the intersection of East Dimond Boulevard and Old Seward Highway is the largest shopping center in Alaska, at 728,000 square feet, with 120,000 square feet of professional office space. The mall is home to over 200 stores and offices and 17 eating establishments, with an [[ice skating rink]], [[bowling alley]], [[athletic|athletic club]], [[library]], and [[cinemas|Dimond 9 Cinemas]]. The anchor stores are: [[Best Buy]], [[Gottschalks]], and [[Old Navy]]. Lodging is offered by the 109-room [[Dimond Center Hotel]] [http://www.dimondcenterhotel.com/].
The Mall at [[Sears]] located on East Northern Lights Boulevard has great shopping and food court in the center of town. The Northway Mall is located on Penland Parkway near Airport Heights and the Glenn Highway. Ship Creek Center is a place that has Alaska, Russian gifts, dining, groceries and dancing.
== Points of interest ==
There are features of Anchorage that make it unique: the large tidal range; multiple, beautiful cross-country ski trails; America's highest percentage of licensed airplane pilots (with several airports and landing strips in the city or nearby); a very low [[population density]] for a city its size; frequent small earthquakes; spring windstorms ("[[Chinook wind]]s"); active volcanoes nearby (to the southwest, in the [[Alaska Range]], volcanoes such as [[Mount Spurr]], [[Augustine Volcano]], [[Mount Redoubt (Alaska)|Mount Redoubt]], and others have coated the city with ash in recent years); its extreme youth (it was founded in 1915 but didn't grow much until the 1940s); and much else. Despite this, or perhaps because of it, Anchorage is definitely an ''American'' city, replete with a vibrant business climate, large [[shopping mall]]s, traffic congestion (one can't easily move about by foot and [[public transportation]] in the middle of winter), suburban-style subdivisions and two [[suburbs]], [[Suburb of Eagle River|Eagle River]] and [[Chugiak]], unless one counts the massive numbers of commuters who drive from as far away as the [[Matanuska Valley]] [http://www.alaskavisit.com/] communities of [[Wasilla, Alaska|Wasilla]] and [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]].
Anchorage has been named an [[All-America City Award|All America City]] in the years 1956, 1965, 1984-85 and most recently in 2002. The city won its latest award based on civic activities like the 2001 [[Special Olympics Winter Games]] [http://www.specialolympicsalaska.org/] , the [[Anchorage Youth Court]] [http://www.ayc.ak.org/], and [[Bridge Builders]] [http://www.bridgebuilders.ak.org/].
== See also ==
* [[South Central Alaska]]
* [[Neighborhoods of Anchorage, Alaska]]
* [[Port of Anchorage]]
== References ==
#{{note|census}} [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFFacts?_event=ChangeGeoContext&geo_id=05000US02020&_geoContext=01000US|04000US39|16000US3916000&_street=&county=anchorage&_cityTown=anchorage&_state=04000US02&_zip=&lang=en&_see=on&ActiveGeoDiv=geoSelect&_useEV=&pctxt=fph&pgs|=010 Anchorage, Alaska Fact Sheet] ([[United States Census Bureau]]). URL accessed on [[December 30]], [[2005]].
#{{note|Climate Records List}} [http://pafc.arh.noaa.gov/misc.php?page=climlist Anchorage Climate Records List] ([[National Weather Service]]). URL accessed on [[December 30]], [[2005]].
#{{note|temperature}} The Weather Channel (1995-2005). [http://www.weather.com/activities/other/other/weather/climo-monthly-graph.html?locid=USAK0012&from=36hr/_bottomnav_undeclared Monthly Climatolgy Graph]. URL retrieved on [[December 30]], [[2005]].
#{{note|highway project}} [http://www.muni.org/transplan/2004LRTP.cfm Municipality of Anchorage Traffic Department] (Long Range Transportation Plan). URL accessed on [[January 18]], [[2006]].
#{{note|History}} [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/History/ Anchorage Historical Highlights]. URL accessed on [[January 21]], [[2006]].
#{{note|giseis}} [http://www.giseis.alaska.edu/quakes/Alaska_1964_earthquake.html The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964]. URL accessed on [[January 21]], [[2006]].
==External links==
*[http://www.muni.org/ Municipality of Anchorage] official site
*[http://www.anchorage.net/ Anchorage Convention and Visitors Bureau]
*[http://www.alaskavisitorscenter.com Alaska Visitors Center]
*[http://www.alaska.com Alaska.com information]
*[http://lexicon.ci.anchorage.ak.us/ Anchorage Municipal Libraries]
*[http://www.muni.org/mayor/allamericacity.cfm Anchorage All-America City 2002 Information]
*[http://www.Untraveledroad.com/USA/Alaska/Anchorage/Anchorage.htm Photographic virtual tour of Anchorage.]
*[http://www.anchoragecam.com Anchorage Cam (includes camera links)]
*[http://pafc.arh.noaa.gov National Weather Service Anchorage office]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|61.1919|-149.762097}}
{{Alaska}}
[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Anchorage, Alaska| ]]
[[Category:Cities in Alaska]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Independent cities in the United States]]
[[af:Anchorage, Alaska]]
[[bg:Анкоридж]]
[[da:Anchorage]]
[[de:Anchorage]]
[[es:Anchorage]]
[[fi:Anchorage]]
[[fr:Anchorage]]
[[gl:Anchorage]]
[[hu:Anchorage]]
[[io:Anchorage, Alaska]]
[[it:Anchorage]]
[[ja:アンカレッジ]]
[[ko:앵커리지]]
[[lt:Ankoridžas]]
[[nl:Anchorage]]
[[no:Anchorage]]
[[pl:Anchorage (Alaska)]]
[[pt:Anchorage]]
[[ru:Анкоридж]]
[[sv:Anchorage]]
[[uk:Анкорідж]]
[[zh:安克拉治]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argument</title>
<id>661</id>
<revision>
<id>41817129</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:06:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DavidLevinson</username>
<id>1689</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ * [[Distinction without a difference]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|argument}}
An '''argument''' is a collected series of statements to establish a definite proposition, and may refer to:
* [[logical argument]], a demonstration of a [[deductive reasoning|proof]], or using logical reasoning for persuasion
* [[oral argument]], a verbal presentation to a judge by a lawyer
* [[verb argument]], a phrase in a sentence that qualifies a verb
* [[heuristic argument]], a proof or demonstration relying on [[experiment]]al results, or one which is not fully [[Rigour#Mathematical rigour|rigorous]]
* [[ontological argument]], a proof by intuition or reason of the existence of God
* [[political argument]], the use of logic rather than propaganda in promoting political ideas
* [[doublespeak argument]], the use of misleading or irrelevant reasoning by one side during a debate
* [[javelin argument]], a cosmological reasoning about the infinite size of the universe
* ''[[The Argument]]'', an album by the band Fugazi released in 2001
* [[argument (literature)]], the brief summary at the beginning of a section of a poem
* [[grand argument story]], a type of story that is intended to be conceptually complete
In '''[[mathematics]]''', '''argument''' may also mean:
* [[independent variable]] or input of a [[mathematical function|function]]: the argument of <math>f(x)</math> is <math>x</math>
* [[Complex number#The_complex_plane|complex argument]], the angular component &phi; of a [[complex number]] represented in [[Coordinates (mathematics)#Polar coordinates|polar coordinates]]
* [[argument principle]], a [[theorem]] in [[complex analysis]] about [[meromorphic function]]s inside and on a closed contour
* [[diagonal argument]], a type of proof over an infinite [[domain (mathematics)|domain]], used to identify the [[transfinite number|cardinal class]] of the [[real number]]s
* [[probabilistic argument]], any proof using [[probability theory]]
In '''[[Computer Science]]''', '''argument''' may also mean:
* [[argument (computer science)]], an input to a [[computer program|subprogram]] or [[procedure|subroutine]]
==See also==
* [[Category:Philosophical arguments]]
* [[Argument form]], a method of logically analyzing sentences
* [[Argumentation theory]], the science and theory of civil debates
* [[Argumentative]], a type of evidentiary objection to a question for a witness during a trial
* [[Default argument]], an actual parameter to a program that is used when no other actual parameter is provided
* [[Existence of God]], contains lists of common ontological [[Existance of God#Arguments for the existence of God|arguments for]] and [[Existance of God#Arguments against the existence of God|arguments against]] the existence of God
* [[Toulmin Model]], The model of an argument
* [[Distinction without a difference]]
{{disambig}}
[[da:Argument]]
[[de:Arg |
he power bursts in any one cell would no longer occur and the cell was turned off.
==Arguments in the controversy==
===Current understanding of nuclear processes===
Current understanding of hot [[nuclear fusion]] has shown:
* In order for fusion to occur, the [[electrostatic]] force ([[Coulomb repulsion]]) between the positively charged [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] must be overcome. Once the distance between the nuclei becomes comparable to one [[femtometre]], the attractive [[strong interaction]] takes over and the fusion may occur. However, the repulsive Coulomb interaction between the nuclei separated by several femtometres is greater than interactions between nuclei and electrons by approximately six orders of magnitude. Overcoming that requires an energy on the order of 10 MeV per nucleus, whereas the energies of chemical reactions are on the order of several electron-volts; it is hard to explain where the required energy would come from in room-temperature matter. The electrostatic environment interior to a palladium metal matrix is very different from that of a plasma, and so the possibility exists that deuterons embedded in palladium settle at points and in channels within the metal's electron orbitals which substantially increase the likelyhood of deuteron collisions.
* If the excess heat were generated by the hot fusion of two [[deuterium]] atoms, the most probable outcome would be the generation of either a [[tritium]] atom and a proton, or a <small><sup>3</sup></small>He and a [[neutron]]. The level of neutrons, tritium and <small><sup>3</sup></small>He actually observed in Fleischmann-Pons experiment have been well below the level expected in view of the heat generated, implying that hot fusion reactions cannot explain it. However, deuterons in a metal matrix have substantially less [[angular momentum]] (which is proportional to temperature and limited by interactions with the enclosing solid) than those in a plasma. This difference may explain the observed difference in [[branching ratio]]s.
* Fusion of deuterium into helium-4: if the excess heat were generated by the hot fusion of two deuterium atoms into <small><sup>4</sup></small>He, a reaction which is normally extremely rare, [[gamma ray]]s and helium would be generated. Insufficient levels of gamma rays relative to hot fusion have been observed in proportion to the heat generated. U.S. Navy researchers Stanislaw Szpak and Pamela Boss, with Jerry J. Smith from the Dept. of Energy have measured [[bremsstrahlung]] radiation consistent with very high energy alpha particles, suggesting that energy may be released as <small><sup>4</sup></small>He nuclei momentum instead of the gamma radiation observed in plasma fusion.
===Reproducibility of the result===
While some scientists have reported to have reproduced the excess heat with similar or different set-ups, they could not do it with predictable results, and many others failed. Some see this as a proof that the experiment is [[pseudoscience]], or more precisely, [[pathological science]].
Yet, it is not uncommon for a new phenomenon to be difficult to control, and to bring erratic results. For example attempts to repeat electrostatic experiments (similar to those performed by [[Benjamin Franklin]]) often fail due to excessive air [[humidity]]. That does not mean that electrostatic phenomena are fictitious, or that experimental data are fraudulent. On the contrary, occasional observations of new events, by qualified experimentalists, can in some cases be the preliminary steps leading to recognized discoveries.
The reproducibility of the result will remain the main issue in the Cold Fusion controversy until a scientist designs an experiment that is fully reproducible by simply following a [[recipe]], or that [[power generation|generates power]] continuously rather than sporadically.
===Energy source versus power store===
It has been suggested that the observed excess power output which begins after a cell is operated for a long time may be due to energy accumulated in the cell during operation. This would require a systematic error in [[calorimetry]] (in other words that the cell is drawing more power than goes out, but calorimetry incorrectly shows the two to be equal). Additionally, the amount of energy reported in some of the experiments appears to be too great compared to the small mass of material in the cell, for it to be stored by any known chemical process. Dennis Cravens, a professor of chemistry and physics at [[Eastern New Mexico University]], is working on a completely self-contained cold fusion device based on a [[Stirling engine]]. While this is in the early stages, if successful and capable of doing work on the external environment it would confirm production of excess energy without the need for measurements. [http://www.netmdc.com/%7Ephysics/]
==Continuing efforts==
[[Image:Spawar1stGenCFCell.JPG|thumb|Cold fusion cell at the US Navy Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, San Diego, CA (2005)|220px]]
There are still a number of people researching the possibilities of generating power with cold fusion. Scientists in several countries continue the research, and meet at the [[International Conference on Cold Fusion]] (see Proceedings at [http://www.lenr-canr.org/index.html www.lenr-canr.org]).
The generation of excess heat has been reported by
* Michael McKubre, director of the Energy Research Center at [[SRI International]],
* Richard A. Oriani ([[University of Minnesota]], in December 1990),
* Robert A. Huggins (at [[Stanford University]] in March 1990),
* Y. Arata ([[Osaka University]], [[Japan]]),
among others. In the best experimental set-up, excess heat was observed in 50% of the experiment reproductions. Various fusion ashes and transmutations were observed by some scientists.
Dr. Michael McKubre thinks a working cold fusion reactor is possible. Dr. Edmund Storms, a former scientist with The [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] in [[New Mexico]], maintains an international database of research into cold fusion.
Excess heat production is an important characteristic of the effect that has created the most criticism. This is understandable because calorimetry is a difficult measurement that is susceptible to systematic errors. In addition, the original measurements, as well as a few of the attempted reproduction studies, have been criticized for various errors. Nevertheless, evidence is available that is based on well-designed and well-understood precision calorimetry methods, for example Seebeck and flow calorimeters. For example, McKubre et al. {{ref_harvard|McKubre1994|McKubre 1994|}} at SRI developed a state-of-the-art flow calorimeter that was used to study many samples that showed production of significant anomalous energy. Over 30 similar studies {{ref_harvard|Storms2001|Storms 2001|}} have observed the same general behavior as was reported by these workers. Of course, all of the positive results could be caused by various errors. This possibility has been explored in many papers, which have been reviewed and summarized by Storms {{ref_harvard|Storms2000|Storms 2000|}} . Although a few of the suggested errors might have affected a few studies, no error has been identified that can explain all of the positive results, especially those using well designed methods. At this time, researchers in the field feel confident that anomalous energy is produced regardless of its source. This conclusion is important regardless of whether nuclear reactions are the source or not.
For a nuclear reaction to be proposed as the source of energy, it is necessary to show that the amount of energy is related to the amount of a nuclear product. Until the work of Miles et al. {{ref_harvard|Miles1993|Miles 1993|}}, various unexpected nuclear products had been detected but never in sufficient amounts. Miles et al. showed that helium was generated when anomalous heat was measured and that the relationship between the two measurements was consistent with the amount of energy known to result from a d-d fusion reaction. Since then five other studies {{ref_harvard|Miles2003|Miles 2003|}} have observed the same relationship. Of course, some of the detected helium could have resulted from helium known to be in normal air. Also, the heat measurements could be wrong in just the right amount every time the measurements were made. Even though these possibilities could have been used to explain one study, it is unlikely that such an advantageous combination of error can explain all of the results, especially when active efforts were made to reduce these errors. At the present time, researchers in the field believe that heat and helium are related, but the source of the helium is still to be determined. In other words, the helium may not result from d-d fusion.
[[Image:ColdFusionAutoradiograph.jpg|thumb|An autoradiograph showing the effects of tritium from a cold fusion experiment at the Neutron Physics Division, [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]], Bombay, India|220px]]
Besides helium, other nuclear products are detected in much smaller quantities. Early in the history, great effort was made to detect neutrons, an expected nuclear product from the d-d fusion reaction. Except for occasional bursts, the emission rate was found to be near the limit of detection or completely absent. This fact was used to reject the initial claim. It is now believed that the few neutrons are caused by a secondary nuclear reaction, possibily having nothing to do with the helium producing reaction. Tritium is another expected product of d-d fusion, which was sought. Too little tritium was detected so that once again the original claims were inconsistent with expectations. Nevertheless, the amount of tritium detected could not be explained by any conventional process after all of the possibilities had been compl |
]
* [http://www.factmonster.com/spot/atlantis1.html Fact Monster]
* [http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/atlantis.html Panthenon]
* [http://atlantis.haktanir.org/ Atlantis Myth or Reality]
* [http://www.atlantia.de/atlantis_english/atlantis.htm/ Atlantis - The cradle of mankind]
* See additional links at [[Location hypotheses of Atlantis]]
[[Category:Ancient mysteries]]
[[Category:Atlantis|A]]
[[Category:Fictional lost cities and towns]]
[[af:Atlantis]]
[[bg:Атлантида]]
[[ca:Atlàntida]]
[[cs:Atlantida]]
[[da:Atlantis]]
[[de:Atlantis]]
[[es:Atlántida (continente)]]
[[eo:Atlantido]]
[[fr:Atlantide]]
[[gl:Atlántida]]
[[ia:Atlantis]]
[[it:Atlantide]]
[[he:אטלנטיס]]
[[la:Atlantis]]
[[lt:Atlantida]]
[[hu:Atlantisz]]
[[nl:Atlantis (eiland)]]
[[ja:アトランティス]]
[[no:Atlantis]]
[[pl:Atlantyda]]
[[pt:Atlântida]]
[[ru:Атлантида]]
[[simple:Atlantis]]
[[sl:Atlantida]]
[[sr:Атлантида]]
[[fi:Atlantis]]
[[sv:Atlantis]]
[[vi:Atlantis]]
[[tr:Atlantis]]
[[zh:亚特兰蒂斯大陆]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Autobiography</title>
<id>2179</id>
<revision>
<id>40756476</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T20:43:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Matatigre36</username>
<id>894146</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>link for Mark Twain (and Paul Delaney, whoever that is)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For music albums named ''Autobiography'', see [[Autobiography (album)]]''
An '''autobiography''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''auton'', 'self', ''bios'', 'life' and ''graphein'', 'write') is a [[biography]] written by the subject or composed conjointly with a collaborative writer (styled "as told to" or "with"). The term dates from the late eighteenth century, but the form is much older.
Biographers generally rely on a wide variety of documents and viewpoints; an autobiography may be based entirely on the writer's memory. A name for such a work in Antiquity was an ''[[apologia]],'' essentially more self-justification than introspection. [[John Henry Newman]]'s autobiography is his ''Apologia pro vita sua.'' [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] applied the title ''[[Confessions (book)|Confessions]]'' to his autobiographical work (and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] took up the same title). Probably the most famous German autobiography is still [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s ''[[Dichtung und Wahrheit]]''.
''[[The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin]]'', the first secular biography published in the United States, served as a model for subsequent American autobiographies. [[African Americans|African American]] autobiography has developed from [[slave narrative]]s. [[Frederick Douglass]] and [[W.E.B. DuBois]] have both published several autobiographies.
A [[memoir]] is slightly different from an autobiography. Traditionally, a memoir focuses on the "life and times" of the character, while an autobiography has a narrower, more intimate focus on his or her own memories, feelings and emotions. Memoirs have often been written by politicians or military leaders as a way to record and publish an account of their public exploits. In the eighteenth century, "scandalous memoirs" were written (mostly anonymously) by prostitutes or libertines: these were widely read in France for their juicy gossip. But memoir has another meaning too. The pagan rhetor [[Libanius]] framed his life memoir as one of his [[oration]]s, not the public kind, but the literary kind that would be read aloud in the privacy of one's study. This kind of memoir refers to the idea in ancient Greece and Rome, that memoirs were like "memos," pieces of unfinished and unpublished writing which a writer might use as a memory aid to make a more finished document later on. In more recent times, memoirs are also life stories which can be about the writer and about another person at the some time.
Modern memoirs are often based on old [[diary|diaries]], [[letter]]s, and [[photograph]]s. The term "memoir" has begun to replace "autobiography" in its popular use.
Until the last 20 years or so, few people without some degree of fame tried to write and publish a memoir. But with the critical and commercial success in the United States of such memoirs ''[[Angela's Ashes]]'' and ''[[The Color of Water]]'' more and more people have been encouraged to try their hand at this genre.
[[Paul Delaney]] has coined the term "ad hoc autobiography" to describe an autobiography motivated by the desire to exploit some temporary notoriety. Such autobiographies, often written by a [[ghostwriter]], are routinely published on the lives of professional athletes and media celebrities&mdash;and to a lesser extent about politicians. Some celebrities admit to not having read their "autobiographies."
[[Mark Twain]] was probably the first popular person to include photography in his autobiography. He was specially interested and involved on the taking of the pictures to control his photographic persona.
==Notable autobiographies==
(in addition to those referenced in the article)
* [[Henry Adams]], ''[[The Education of Henry Adams]]'', 1907.
* Wallace [[Black Elk]] and John J. Neihardt, ''[[Black Elk Speaks]]'', 1931.
* [[Giacomo Casanova]], ''Histoire de ma vie'', published posthumously in 1826.
* [[Benvenuto Cellini]], ''Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini'', 1728.
* [[Thomas de Quincey]], ''[[Confessions of an English Opium-Eater]]'', 1821.
* [[Mahatma Gandhi]], ''[[The Story of My Experiments with Truth]]'', 1927 and 1929
* [[Ulysses S. Grant]], ''Memoirs'', 1885.
* [[Harriet Jacobs]], ''[[Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl]]'', 1861
* [[Helen Keller]], ''The Story of My Life'', 1903.
* [[John Stuart Mill]], ''Autobiography'', 1873.
* [[Vladimir Nabokov]], ''[[Speak, Memory]]'', 1966.
* [[Anaïs Nin]], ''[[The Diary of Anaïs Nin]]'', 1966-76.
* [[Bertrand Russell]], ''Autobiography'', 1967, 1969.
* [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], ''The Words'', 1964.
* [[Albert Schweitzer]], ''Out of My Life and Thought'', 1933.
* [[Lincoln Steffens]], ''Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens'', 1931.
* [[Gertrude Stein]], ''[[The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas]]'', 1933.
* [[Henry David Thoreau]], ''[[Walden]]'', 1854.
* [[Booker T. Washington]], ''[[Up From Slavery]]'', 1901.
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], ''Autobiography'', 1943.
* [[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]], ''[[Black Boy]]'', 1945.
* [[Malcolm X]], ''[[The Autobiography of Malcolm X]]'', 1965.
* [[William Butler Yeats]], ''Autobiography'', 1936.
* [http://mynation.net/abio Autobiography of A Dowry Law Victim].,2000
==Secondary literature==
*Barros, Carolyn A. "Autobiography: Narrative of Transformation". Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 1998.
*Buckley,Jerome Hamilton. "The Turning Key: Autobiography and the Subjective Impulse Since 1800". Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.
*Lejeune, Philippe, ''On autobiography'', Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press, 1988.
*Mostern, Kenneth: "Autobiography and Black Identity Politics: Racialization in Twentieth-Century America", New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
*Olney, James: "Memory & Narrative: The Weave of Life-Writing". Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1998.
*Pascal, Roy. "Design and Truth in Autobiography". Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960.
*Stover, Johnnie M., ''Rhetoric and resistance in black women's autobiography'', Gainesville, Fla. [u.a.] : Univ. Press of Florida, 2003
* [[Autobiographical novel]]
* [[Autobiographical comics]]
* [[Family history]]
* [[Historical document]]
[[Category:Autobiographies| ]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]
[[da:Selvbiografi]]
[[de:Autobiografie]]
[[es:Autobiografía]]
[[fr:Autobiographie]]
[[gl:Autobiografía]]
[[he:אוטוביוגרפיה]]
[[hr:Autobiografija]]
[[it:Autobiografia]]
[[ka:ავტობიოგრაფია]]
[[ko:자서전]]
[[nl:Autobiografie]]
[[pl:Autobiografia]]
[[ro:Autobiografie]]
[[sv:Självbiografi]]
[[zh:自传]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arcadius</title>
<id>2180</id>
<revision>
<id>41975314</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:05:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: la</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''See also: [[Arcadius of Antioch]], Greek grammarian of the [[2nd century]]''
[[Image:Solidus-Arcadius-RIC 1205.jpg|thumb|300px|Arcadius, holding a [[labarum]], defeating an enemy.]]
'''Flavius Arcadius''' ([[377]]/[[378]]&ndash;[[May 1]], [[408]]) was [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] in the Eastern half of the [[Roman Empire]] from [[395]] until his death.
Arcadius was the elder son of [[Theodosius I]] and [[Aelia Flaccilla]], and brother of [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]], who would become a [[Western Roman Emperor]]. His father declared him an [[Augustus]] in January, [[383]]. His younger brother was also declared an Augustus in [[393]].
As Emperors, Honorius was under the control of the Romanized Vandal ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Stilicho|Flavius Stilicho]] while Arcadius was dominated by one of his ministers, [[Rufinus (Byzantine official)|Rufinus]]. Stilicho is alleged by some to have wanted control of both emperors, and is supposed to have had Rufinus assassinated by Gothic mercenaries in 395, but definite proof of these allegations is lacking. In any case, Arcadius' new advisor [[Eutropius (Byzantine official)|Eutropius]] simply took Rufinus' place as the power behind the Eastern imperial throne. Arcadius was also dominated by his wife [[Aelia Eudoxia]], who convinced her husband to dismiss Eutropius in [[399]]. Eudoxia was strongly opposed by [[John Chrysostom]], the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], who felt that she had used her family's wealth to gain control over the emperor. Eudoxia used her influence t |
ight:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0638</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0638;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEC5</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEC5;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEC6</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEC6;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEC8</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEC8;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEC7</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEC7;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[ẓāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ẓ}}
|{{IPA|[ðˁ]}} / {{IPA|[zˁ]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0639</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0639;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEC9</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEC9;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FECA</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFECA;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FECC</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFECC;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FECB</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFECB;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[ʿayn]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ʿ}}
|{{IPA|[ʕ]}} / {{IPA|[ʔˁ]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>063A</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x063A;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FECD</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFECD;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FECE</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFECE;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FED0</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFED0;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FECF</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFECF;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[ġayn]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ġ}} (also gh)
|{{IPA|[ɣ]}} / {{IPA|[ʁ]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0641</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0641;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FED1</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFED1;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FED2</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFED2;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FED4</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFED4;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FED3</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFED3;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[fāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|f}}
|{{IPA|[f]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0642</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0642;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FED5</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFED5;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FED6</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFED6;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FED8</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFED8;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FED7</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFED7;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[qāf]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|q}}
|{{IPA|[q]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0643</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0643;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FED9</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFED9;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEDA</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEDA;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEDC</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEDC;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEDB</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEDB;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[kāf]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|k}}
|{{IPA|[k]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0644</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0644;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEDD</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEDD;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEDE</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEDE;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEE0</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEE0;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEDF</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEDF;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[lām]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|l}}
|{{IPA|[l]}}, {{IPA|[lˁ]}} (in ''Allah'' only)
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0645</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0645;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEE1</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEE1;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEE2</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEE2;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEE4</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEE4;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEE3</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEE3;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[mīm]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|m}}
|{{IPA|[m]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0646</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0646;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEE5</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEE5;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEE6</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEE6;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEE8</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEE8;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEE7</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEE7;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[nūn]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|n}}
|{{IPA|[n]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0647</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0647;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEE9</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEE9;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEEA</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEEA;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEEC</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEEC;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEEB</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEEB;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[hāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|h}}
|{{IPA|[h]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0648</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0648;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEED</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEED;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEEE</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEEE;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE" colspan="2"|—
|{{ArabDIN|[[wāw]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|w}} / {{ArabDIN|ū}}
|{{IPA|[w]}} / {{IPA|[uː]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>064A</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x064A;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEF1</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEF1;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEF2</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEF2;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEF4</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEF4;}}</font>
|style="line-hei |
ist of Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine emperor]] [[Leo III]] who after his victory over [[Arab]] besiegers in [[740]] renamed it [[Nicopolis]] ([[Greek language|Greek]] for the ''Victory City''). The [[Seljuk Turks]] changed its name to Kara Hissar (the ''black castle'') after the ancient fortress situated upon a volcanic rock 201 meters above the town.
It was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Sultan [[Beyazid I]] in [[1392]] but was lost after the invasion of [[Timur Lenk]] in [[1402]]. It was recaptured in [[1428]] or [[1429]]. During the [[Turkish War of Independence]] in the early [[1920s]] it was occupied by Greek forces. After [[1923]] it became a part of the Republic of Turkey.
Apart from the partly ruined fortress which has given the city its name, famous buildings includes the Ulu Camii (Great Mosque) and the Altigöz Bridge, both built by the Seljuks in the [[13th century]]. It is the seat of an [[Armenian Orthodox Church|Armenian]] [[bishop]].
{|class="wikitable"
|+ '''Table of population increase'''
|-
| '''Year''' || [[1911]] || [[1990]] || [[1995]] || [[2000]]
|-
| '''Population''' || 18,000 || 95,643 || 103,000 || 128,516
|}
== External links ==
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/afyon_turkey Pictures of the city]
* [http://www.turkeyforecast.com/weather/afyon/ Afyon Weather Forecast Information]
* [http://www.anatolia.luwo.be/Afyon.htm Afyon Guide and Photo Album]
{{Districts of Afyonkarahisar}}
[[Category:Cities in Turkey]]
[[de:Afyon]]
[[fr:Afyonkarahisar]]
[[gl:Afion - Afyon]]
[[tr:Afyon (il)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abaye</title>
<id>2669</id>
<revision>
<id>38059178</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T22:14:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Runcorn</username>
<id>714774</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links and references */ + death cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abaye''', ("little father") the name of a [[Babylonia]]n ''[['amora]]'', born in [[278]]. He was an [[orphan]], and was raised by his uncle, [[Rabbah bar Nachmani]], and his wife. Abaye assumed the position of head of the ''[[yeshiva]]'' of [[Pumbedita]] shortly after the retirement of his uncle. His father, Kaylil, was the brother of Rabbah bar Nachmani, a teacher at the Academy of Pumbedita. Abaye's real name was Nachmani, after his grandfather; but being left an orphan at an early age, he was adopted by his uncle, Rabbah bar Nachmani, who nicknamed him Abaye ("Little Father"), to avoid confusion with his grandfather of the same name, and thenceforth he was known as Abaye, without any other title. It is a curious fact that he perpetuated the memory of his foster-mother, probably a slave in Rabbah's household, by mentioning her name in many popular recipes and dietetic precepts, some of which seem to be based on superstitious notions. He introduced each recipe with the phrase, "My mother told me." Abaye's teachers were his uncle Rabbah and [[Joseph bar Chama]], both of whom successively became presidents of the Pumbedita Academy. When Joseph died in 333, this dignity was conferred upon Abaye, who retained it until his death some five years later. Rabbah trained him in the application of the dialectic method to halakhic problems, and Joseph, with his stores of traditional lore, taught him to appreciate the value of positive knowledge. Abaye had enormous respect for his uncle, and the ''[[Gemara]]'' records that he used to entertain his uncle by juggling.
Abaye was a master of ''[[Torah]]'' study and the art of teaching ''Torah''. He studied at the ''[[yeshiva]]'' (Torah Academy) of Pumbedita, run by his uncle. There his good friend and study-partner was [[Rava]], with whom he often engaged in debates on various aspects of [[Torah]] Law. The debates between Rava and Abaye are considered classic examples of [[Talmud]]ic discourse. Of their hundreds of recorded disputes, the Law is decided according to the opinion of [[Rava]] in all but six cases. Superior as Abaye no doubt was in his dialectic analysis of halakhic sentences, he was, nevertheless, surpassed in this regard by Raba, with whom he had been closely associated from early youth. To the disputations between these ''amoraim'' we owe the development of the dialectic method in the treatment of halakic traditions. Their debates are known as the ''Hawayot de-Abaye we-Raba'' (Debates of Abaye and Raba), the subjects of which were then considered such essential elements of Talmudic knowledge that by an anachronism they were thought to be known to [[Johanan ben Zakkai]], who lived some centuries before (''Suk.'' 28a). Their halakic controversies are scattered throughout the ''Babylonian Talmud''. With the exception of six of his decisions, the opinions of Raba were always accepted as final. Abaye was never so happy as when one of his disciples had completed the study of a Mishnah treatise. On such occasions he always gave a feast to his pupils (''Shab.'' 118b), though his circumstances were needy, and wine never appeared upon his table. His peace-loving disposition and his sincere piety are well exhibited in his maxims (''Ber.'' 17a), among which occur the following: "Be mild in speech; suppress your wrath; and maintain good-will in intercourse with your relatives as well as with others, even with strangers in the market-place."
Abaye urged his disciples to conduct themselves in such a way as to lead others to the love of God (''Yoma'', 86a). In Biblical exegesis he was one of the first to draw a distinct line between the evident meaning of the text (''peshaṭ'') and the sense ascribed to it by midrashic interpretation. He formulated the following rule, of great importance in Talmudic exegesis (''Sanh.'' 34a): "One Bible verse can be referred to different subjects, but several different Bible verses can not refer to one and the same subject."
He defended the [[apocryphal]] book ''[[Ecclesiasticus]]'' against his teacher Joseph. By quoting from it a number of edifying passages he showed that it did not belong to the heretical books which are forbidden, and even compelled his teacher to admit that quotations might with advantage be taken from it for homiletical purposes (''Sanh.'' 100b). Possessing an extensive knowledge of tradition, Abaye became a most eager disciple of [[Dimi]], the Palestinian ''amora'', who had brought to Babylonia a perfect treasury of interpretations by Palestinian ''amoraim''. Abaye considered Dimi, as a representative of the Palestinian school, a qualified Bible exegete, and used to ask him how this or that Bible verse was explained in "the West," or Palestine. Of his own interpretations of Biblical passages only a few, of a haggadic nature, are preserved; but he often supplements, elucidates, or corrects the opinions of older authorities.
Abaye was also a ''[[Kohen]]'' (a [[priest]]), descending from the family of [[Eli]], and he was caught up in the curse that was placed on that family by [[God]], that no one would ever live out his full years, because of the desecration of God’s name caused by the misdeeds of Eli’s sons, [[Chofni]] and [[Pinchas]]. Abaye’s righteous behavior staved off the curse for many years but he succumbed to [[edema]] in the year 338 or 339 at the relatively young age of sixty.
Bibliography: Lampronti, ''Paḥad Yiẓḥaḳ'', s.v.; Heilprin, ''Seder ha-Dorot'', pp. 22-25; Hamburger, ''R. B. T.'', 1883, part ii., s.v.; Kohut, ''Aruch,'' s.v. (in which is found an enumeration of all the passages of the ''Talmud'' containing Abaye's name); Bacher, ''Ag. Bab. Amor.'' s.v.; Weiss, ''Dor''; M. S. Antokolski in ''Ha-Asif,'' 1885, ii. 503-506, with Straschun's notes.
== External links and references ==
* [http://www.ou.org/about/judaism/rabbis/abaye.htm OU page on Abaye] (died in 338)
* [http://bible.tmtm.com/wiki/ABAYE_(Jewish_Encyclopedia) Jewish Encyclopedia] (died in 339)
{{Wikisource1911Enc|'Abaye}}
{{JewishEncyclopedia}}
[[Category:Talmud rabbis]]
[[Category:278 births]]
[[Category:338 deaths]]
[[he:אביי]]
[[fr:Abaye]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abba Arika</title>
<id>2670</id>
<revision>
<id>40145812</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T14:02:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ems2</username>
<id>855106</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
:''Rav redirects here. For other uses, see [[RAV (disambiguation)]].''
'''Abba Arika''' (d. [[247]]) was the [[Babylon]]ian ''[['amora]]'' of the [[3rd century]] who established at [[Sura (city)|Sura]] the systematic study of the [[rabbinic]] traditions which, using the ''[[Mishnah]]'' as text, led to the compilation of the ''[[Talmud]]''. He is commonly known as '''Rav''' (or '''Rab''').
==Overview==
His surname, '''Arika''' (English, "Long"— that is, "Tall"; it occurs only once—''Ḥul.'' 137b), he owed to his height, which, according to a reliable record, exceeded that of his contemporaries. Others, reading '''Areka,''' consider it an honorary title, "Lecturer" (Weiss, ''Dor,'' iii. 147; Jastrow, ''Dict.'' s.v.). In the traditional literature he is referred to almost exclusively as '''Rab the Master''' (both his contemporaries and posterity recognizing in him a master), just as his teacher, [[Judah HaNasi|Judah I]], was known simply as Rabbi. He is called Rabbi Abba only in the ''[[tannaitic]]'' literature (for instance, ''Tosefta'', ''Beẓah,'' i. 7), where a number of his sayings are preserved. He occupies a middle position between the ''Tannaim'' and the ''Amoraim'', and is accorded the right, rarely conceded to one who is only an '' 'amora'', of disputing the opinion of a ''tanna'' (''B.B.'' 42a and elsewhere).
Rab was a descendant of a distinguished Babylonian family which claimed to trace its origin to [[Shimei]] |
ir Federal commissions and had been appointed to senior positions in the Confederate armed forces. Many had served in the Mexican War (such as [[Jefferson Davis]]), but others had little or no military experience (such as [[Leonidas Polk]], who attended West Point but did not graduate.) The Confederate officer corps was composed in part of young men from slave-owning families, but many came from non-owners. The Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, many colleges of the south (such as the [[Virginia Military Institute]]) maintained cadet corps that were seen as a training ground for Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established in 1863, but no midshipmen had graduated by the time the Confederacy collapsed.
The rank and file of the Confederate armed forces consisted of white males with an average age between 16 and 28. The Confederacy adopted [[conscription]] in 1862, but opposition was widespread. Depleted by casualties and desertions, the military suffered chronic manpower shortages. Towards the end of the Civil War, boys as young as 12 were fighting in combat roles and the Confederacy began an all-black regiment with measures underway to offer freedom to slaves who voluntarily served in the Confederate military.
===Military leaders of the Confederate States of America===
Military leaders of the CSA (with their state of birth and highest rank) included:
[[Image:Lee220.jpg|thumb|right|General Robert E. Lee, for many, the face of the Confederate army]]
*[[Robert E. Lee]] ([[Virginia]]) - [[General]] and [[Military]] [[General-in-Chief]]
*[[Albert Sidney Johnston]] ([[Kentucky]]) - [[General]]
*[[Joseph E. Johnston]] ([[Virginia]]) - [[General]]
*[[Braxton Bragg]] ([[North Carolina]]) - [[General]]
*[[P.G.T. Beauregard]] ([[Louisiana]]) - [[General]]
*[[Samuel Cooper (general) | Samuel Cooper]] ([[New Jersey]]) - [[General]] (Adjutant General and highest ranking general in the Army)
*[[James Longstreet]] ([[South Carolina]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[Thomas J. Jackson|Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson]] ([[Virginia]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[John Hunt Morgan]] ([[Kentucky]]) - [[General]]
*[[A.P._Hill|A.P. Hill]] ([[Virginia]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[John Bell Hood]] ([[Texas]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[Wade Hampton]] ([[South Carolina]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[Nathan Bedford Forrest]] ([[Tennessee]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[J.E.B. Stuart]] ([[Virginia]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[Edward Porter Alexander]] ([[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]) - [[Brig. General]]
*[[Franklin Buchanan]] ([[Maryland]]) - [[Admiral]]
*[[Raphael Semmes]] ([[Maryland]]) - [[Rear Admiral]]
*[[French Forrest]] ([[Maryland]]) - [[Acting Assistant Secretary of the Confederate Navy]]
*[[Josiah Tattnall]] ([[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]) - [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]]
*[[Stand Watie]] ([[Indian Territory]], now [[Oklahoma]]) - [[Brigadier General]] (last to surrender)
*[[Leonidas Polk]] ([[North Carolina]]) - [[Bishop]] & [[General]]
*[[Jubal Anderson Early]] ([[Virginia]])- [[Lt. General]]
*[[Daniel Ritz]] ([[Texas]]) - [[General]]
*[[Richard Taylor (general)|Richard Taylor]] ([[Kentucky]]) - [[Lt. General]] (Son of US-President [[Zachary Taylor]])
==Significant dates==
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef; vertical-align: top;"
! State
! Flag
! Secession ordinance
! Admitted C.S.A.
! U.S. Congress<br>representation restored
! Local rule reestablished
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[South Carolina]]
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-SC}}
| [[December 20]], [[1860]]
| [[February 4]], [[1861]]
| [[July 9]], [[1868]]
| [[November 28]], [[1876]]
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Mississippi]]
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-MS}}
| [[January 9]], [[1861]]
| [[February 4]], [[1861]]
| [[February 23]], [[1870]]
| [[January 4]], [[1876]]
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Florida]]
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-FL}}
| [[January 10]], [[1861]]
| [[February 10]], [[1861]]
| [[June 25]], [[1868]]
| [[January 2]], [[1877]]
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Alabama]]
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-AL}}
| [[January 11]], [[1861]]
| [[February 18]], [[1861]]
| [[July 14]], [[1868]]
| [[November 16]], [[1874]]
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-GA}}
| [[January 19]], [[1861]]
| [[February 4]], [[1861]]
| [[July 15]], [[1870]]
| [[November 1]], [[1871]]
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Louisiana]]
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-LA}}
| [[January 26]], [[1861]]
| [[February 4]], [[1861]]
| [[July 4]], [[1868]]
| [[January 2]], [[1877]]
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Texas]]
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-TX}}
| [[February 1]], [[1861]]
| [[March 2]], [[1861]]
| [[March 30]], [[1870]]
| [[January 14]], [[1873]]
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Virginia]]
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-VA}}
| [[April 17]], [[1861]]
| [[May 7]], [[1861]]
| [[January 26]], [[1870]]
| [[October 5]], [[1869]]
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Arkansas]]
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-AR}}
| [[May 6]], [[1861]]
| [[May 18]], [[1861]]
| [[June 22]], [[1868]]
| [[November 10]], [[1874]]
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[North Carolina]]
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-NC}}
| [[May 20]], [[1861]]
| [[May 16]], [[1861]]
| [[July 4]], [[1868]]
| [[February 2]], [[1871]]
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Tennessee]]
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-TN}}
| [[June 8]], [[1861]]
| [[May 16]], [[1861]]
| [[July 24]], [[1866]]
| [[October 4]], [[1869]]
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Missouri]] <small>(legally elected government)</small>
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-MO}}
| [[October 31]], [[1861]]
| [[August 19]], [[1861]]
| n/a
| n/a
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Arizona]] <small>([[Mesilla, New Mexico|Mesilla]] government)</small>
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-AZ}}
| [[March 16]], [[1861]]
| [[February 14]], [[1862]]
| n/a
| [[Battle of Glorieta Pass|March 28, 1862]]
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Kentucky]] <small>([[Russellville, Missouri|Russellville]] government)</small>
|align="center"|{{flagicon|USA-KY}}
| [[November 20]], [[1861]]
| [[December 10]], [[1862]]
| n/a
| n/a
|}
NOTE: According to the ''New York Public Library Desk Reference'', [[Alabama]], [[Florida]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Louisiana]], [[North Carolina]] and [[South Carolina]] were all readmitted [[June 25]], [[1868]], and Georgia was readmitted a second time on [[July 15]], [[1870]].
==See also==
*[[New Confederacy]]
*[[League of the South]]
*[[Nullification Crisis|Nullification Crisis of 1832]]
*[[Flags of the Confederate States of America]]
*[[Confederate Seal|Seal of the Confederate States of America]]
*[[Military history of the Confederate States]]
*[[Stamps and postal history of the Confederate States]]
*[[Origins of the American Civil War]]
*[[American Civil War]]
*[[Border states (Civil War)|Border states]]
*[[Southern United States]]
*[[History of the Southern United States]]
*[[Slavery]]
*[[Slave state]]
*[[Robert E. Lee]]
*[[Federalism]]
*[[Confederation]]
==References==
* Richard N. Current, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Confederacy'' (4 vol 1993), 1900 pp; articles by scholars
* Faust, Patricia L. ed, ''Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War'' (1986)
* David S. Heidler et al. ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War : A Political, Social, and Military History'' (2002), 2400 pages (ISBN: 039304758X)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14877569 Steven E. Woodworth, ed. ''The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research'' (1996)] 750 pages of historiography and bibliography
--------------
===Economic & Social History===
* Ball Douglas B. ''Financial Failure and Confederate Defeat''.1991.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=55542676 Robert C. Black III, ''The Railroads of the Confederacy'' (1998)]
* Clinton Catherine, and Nina Silber, eds. ''Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War'' 1992.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96825943 Drew Gilpin Faust, ''Mothers of Invention: Women of the Slaveholding South in the American Civil War'' (1996)]
* Drew Gilpin Faust, ''The Creation of Confederate Nationalism: Ideology and Identity in the Civil War South''. 1988.
* Mark Grimsley. ''The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy toward Southern Civilians, 1861-1865'' 1995.
* Perry Carlton Lentz, ''Our Missing Epic: A Study in the Novels
about the American Civil War'' (1970)
* Mary Elizabeth Massey. ''Bonnet Brigades: American Women and the Civil War''. 1966.
* Mary Elizabeth Massey. ''Ersatz in the Confederacy'' 1952.
* Mary Elizabeth Massey. ''Refugee Life in the Confederacy'' 1964.
* Rable George C. ''Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism'' 1989.
* Ramsdell Charles. ''Behind the Lines in the Southern Confederacy''. 1944.
* Roark James L. ''Masters without Slaves: Southern Planters in the Civil War and Reconstruction'' 1977.
* Anne Sarah Rubin, ''A Shattered Nation: The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy, 1861-1868'' (2005), a cultural study of Confedeates' self images.
* James L. Sellers, "The Economic Incidence of the Civil War in the South." ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' 14 (1927): 179-191. in JSTOR
* Emory M. Thomas, ''The Confederacy as a Revolutionary Experience''. 1992.
* Peter Wallenstein . "Rich Man's War, Rich Man's Fight: Civil War and the Transformation of Public Finance in Georgia." ''Journal of Southern History'' 50 (1984): 15-43. in JSTOR
* Bell Irwin Wiley. ''Confederate Women'' 1975.
* Bell Irwin Wiley. ''The Plain Peopl |
[ko:가속도]]
[[io:Acelero]]
[[id:Percepatan]]
[[is:Hröðun]]
[[it:Accelerazione]]
[[he:תאוצה]]
[[la:Acceleratio]]
[[hu:Gyorsulás]]
[[nl:Versnelling]]
[[ja:加速度]]
[[no:Akselerasjon]]
[[nn:Akselerasjon]]
[[pl:Przyspieszenie]]
[[pt:Aceleração]]
[[ru:Ускорение]]
[[simple:Acceleration]]
[[sl:Pospešek]]
[[sr:Убрзање]]
[[fi:Kiihtyvyys]]
[[sv:Acceleration]]
[[th:ความเร่ง]]
[[vi:Gia tốc]]
[[tr:İvme]]
[[zh:加速度]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Art conservation and restoration</title>
<id>2444</id>
<revision>
<id>41269011</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T04:45:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.172.132.217</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Conservation''' is the profession devoted to the preservation of cultural property for the future. Conservation activities include examination, documentation, treatment, and preventive care, supported by research and education. (Definition taken from the Core Documents of The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works - see external links.)
Art restoration involves the cleaning, repairing, or reconstruction of art work. Ideally, any process used is reversible, departures from that ideal not being undertaken lightly. Commonly art restoration involves removing residue from [[sculpture]]s or [[painting]]s. Art restoration can sometimes be controversial due to fears that a restoration would damage a piece, or on the grounds that damage or [[residue]] forms part of the history of a given piece and should not be modified. The [[David|statue of David]] recently underwent restoration, to remove dirt that had accumulated on the statues surface.
In [[North America]], only four colleges/universities offer a major in art conservation:
* The [[University of Delaware]] (in association with [[Winterthur Museum]])
* [[Buffalo State College]], New York
* [[Queen's University, Kingston|Queen's University]], [[Ontario]]
* [[New York University]]
In addition, the [[Getty Museum]], in combination with [[UCLA]] is starting a program in Archeological Conservation, which is Art Conservation.
The opposite of art restoration is [[art destruction]].
==See also==
*[[ArtWatch International]]
==External links==
[http://aic.stanford.edu/ The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works]
[http://palimpsest.stanford.edu Conservation Online]
[[Category:Visual arts]]
[[Category:Art history]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Appalachian Dulcimer</title>
<id>2446</id>
<revision>
<id>15900857</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-18T23:01:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Secretlondon</username>
<id>21834</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Appalachian dulcimer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anton Chekhov</title>
<id>2447</id>
<revision>
<id>42161727</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:46:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palimpsester</username>
<id>230599</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chekhov 1898 by Osip Braz.jpg|thumb|right|'''Anton Pavlovich Chekhov'''. Oil on canvas by [[Osip Braz]], 1898. From the collection of the Tretyakov Gallery.]]
'''Anton Pavlovich Chekhov''' (Анто́н Па́влович Че́хов) ([[29 January]] [[1860]] &ndash; [[15 July]] [[1904]]) ([[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]]: [[17 January]] [[1860]] &ndash; [[2 July]] [[1904]]) was a major [[Russia]]n writer known primarily for his [[short story|short stories]] and [[play]]s. Many of his short stories are considered the [[apotheosis]] of the form while his plays, though few (although only four are considered major), have had a great impact on dramatic literature and performance.
Chekhov is better known in modern-day Russia for his several hundred short stories, many of which are considered masterpieces of the form. Yet his plays are also major influences on twentieth-century drama. From Chekhov, many contemporary playwrights have learned how to use mood, apparent trivialities and inaction to highlight the internal [[psychology]] of characters. Chekhov's four major plays—''[[The Seagull]]'', ''[[Uncle Vanya]]'', ''[[The Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]'', and ''[[The Cherry Orchard]]''—are frequently revived in modern productions.
==Life==
===Early life===
Anton Chekhov was born in [[Taganrog]], a small provincial port on the [[Sea of Azov]], in southern [[Russian Empire|Russia]] on January 29, [[1860]]. A son of a [[grocer]] (his father had the official rank of ''Trader of the Third [[Guild]]'' - купeц 3й гильдии) and grandson to a [[serf]] who had bought his own freedom, Anton Chekhov was the third of six children.
[[Image:Assumption_Cathedral.jpg|thumb|below|250px|The Assumption Cathedral in [[Taganrog]], [[Russia]], where Anton Chekhov was christened on February 10, 1860.]]
Anton attended a school for Greek boys in [[Taganrog]] ([[1866]]-[[1868]]), and at the age of eight he was sent to the Taganrog [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] for boys, where he proved an average pupil. Rather reserved and undemonstrative, he nevertheless gained a reputation for satirical comments, for pranks, and for making up humorous nicknames for his teachers. He enjoyed playing in amateur theatricals and often attended performances at the provincial theater. As an adolescent he tried his hand at writing short "anecdotes", farcical or facetious stories, although he is also known to have written a serious long play at this time, "Fatherless", which he later destroyed.
Anton Chekhov was in love with theater and literature from his childhood. The first performance that he attended was [[Jacques Offenbach]]'s operetta ''Elena the Beautiful'' onstage [[Taganrog Theatre|Taganrog City Theater]] on [[October 4]], [[1873]]. Anton was a thirteen years old Gymnasium student, and from that moment on, he became a great theater lover and spent there virtually all his savings. His favorite seat in the theater was at the back gallery for it was cheap (40 silver kopeeks), and because Gymnasium students needed a special authorisation to go to the theater. The permission was given not often and mostly for the weekends. Sometimes, Chekhov and other fellow students disguised themselves and even wore some makeup, spectacles or a fake beard, trying to fool the regular school staff who checked for unauthorized presence of students.
The writer's mother, Yevgeniya, was an excellent storyteller, and Chekhov is supposed to have acquired his own gift for narrative and to have learned to read and write from her. His father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, a strict [[disciplinarian]] and a religious [[zealot]], demanded from all dedication to the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the family business. In [[1875]], facing [[bankruptcy]], he was forced to escape from [[creditor]]s to [[Moscow]], where his two eldest sons were attending the university, and for the next several years the family lived in poverty.
[[Image:Chekhov house.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Chekhov Birthhouse''' in [[Taganrog]].]]
Anton stayed behind in [[Taganrog]] for three more years to finish school. He made ends meet by giving private tutoring, selling off household goods, and later, working in a clothing warehouse. In [[1879]], Chekhov completed schooling at the [[gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] and joined his family in Moscow, having gained admission to the medical school at [[Moscow State University]].
===Early writings===
In a bid to support his family, Chekhov started writing short, humorous sketches and vignettes of contemporary Russian life, many under [[pseudonym]]s such as Antosha Chekhonte (Антоша Чехонте), ''Man without the spleen'' (Человек без селезенки), and others. His first published piece appeared in the [[St Petersburg]] weekly ''Strekoza'' (Стрекоза, "Dragonfly") in March, [[1880]]. It is not known how many stories Chekhov wrote during this period, but his output was prodigious, and he rapidly earned a reputation as a satirical chronicler of Russian street life.
Nicolas Leykin, one of the leading publishers of the time and the owner of ''Oskolki'' (Осколки, "Fragments"), to which Chekhov began submitting some of his finer works, recognized the writer's talent but restricted the length of Chekhov's prose, limiting him only to sketches of a page and a half in length. Some believe that it was this limitation that developed Chekhov's trademark concise style.
Chekhov qualified as a [[physician]] in [[1884]], but continued writing for weekly periodicals and in [[1885]] began submitting to the ''Peterburgskaya Gazeta'' ("The Petersburg Gazette") longer works of a more somber nature; these were rejected by Leykin. By December 1885 he was invited to write for one of the most respected papers of St Petersburg, ''Novoye vremya'' (Новое Время, "New Times"), owned and edited by the millionaire magnate Alexey Suvorin. By [[1886]] Chekhov was becoming a well-known writer, but he still considered his writing a [[hobby]].
[[Dmitrii Grigorovich]], one of the many writers who were attracted to Chekhov's stories, persuaded him to take his talents seriously. In an immensely fruitful year Chekhov wrote over a hundred stories and published his first collection "Motley Tales" {''Pestrye rasskazy'') with support from Suvorin, and in the following year the short story collection "At Dusk" (''V sumerkakh'') won Chekhov the coveted [[Pushkin Prize]]. This would mark the beginnings of a highly productive career for the writer.
=== Mature years ===
In the late [[1880s]], Chekhov contracted [[tuberculosis]] from his patient. In [[1887]], forced by overwork and ill health, Chekhov undertook a trip to eastern [[Ukraine]]. Upon his return, he started w |
atalog|catalogues]] or [[database|databases]]===
* [http://www.ou.edu/cas/botany-micro/www-vl/ The Virtual Library of Botany]
* [http://wikisource.org/wiki/NVC-National_Vegetation_Classification%2C_UK_representative_plant_species List of major natural Plant Species in the UK, described in the National Vegetation Classification]
* [http://www.kulak.ac.be/bioweb/ High quality pictures of plants and information about them] from Catholic University of Leuven
* [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QK1xC981/ Curtis's Botanical Magazine], 1790-1856
* [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QK488xE4/ The Trees Of Great Britain and Ireland], by Henry John Elwes & Augustine Henry, 1906-1913
* [http://www.pflanzen-portal.com Botanik-Datenbank] (ger.)
{{Biology-footer}}
[[Category:Botany|*]]
[[an:Botanica]]
[[ar:علم النبات]]
[[bg:Ботаника]]
[[be:Батаніка]]
[[br:Botanik]]
[[co:Botanica]]
[[cs:Botanika]]
[[cy:Botaneg]]
[[da:Botanik]]
[[de:Botanik]]
[[et:Botaanika]]
[[es:Botánica]]
[[eo:Botaniko]]
[[eu:Botanika]]
[[fa:گیاهشناسی]]
[[fr:Botanique]]
[[fur:Botaniche]]
[[gl:Botánica]]
[[ko:식물학]]
[[ht:Etid plant]]
[[id:Botani]]
[[ia:Botanica]]
[[it:Botanica]]
[[he:בוטניקה]]
[[la:Botanica]]
[[lv:Botānika]]
[[lt:Botanika]]
[[lb:Botanik]]
[[li:Plantkónde]]
[[jbo:spaske]]
[[mk:Ботаника]]
[[nl:Plantkunde]]
[[nds:Botanik]]
[[ja:植物学]]
[[no:Botanikk]]
[[nn:Botanikk]]
[[pl:Botanika]]
[[pt:Botânica]]
[[ro:Botanică]]
[[ru:Ботаника]]
[[sa:वनस्पति विज्ञानं]]
[[sco:Botanie]]
[[simple:Botany]]
[[sk:Botanika]]
[[sl:Botanika]]
[[sr:Ботаника]]
[[fi:Kasvitiede]]
[[sv:Botanik]]
[[tl:Botanika]]
[[th:พฤกษศาสตร์]]
[[vi:Thực vật học]]
[[tr:Botanik]]
[[uk:Ботаніка]]
[[vo:Planav]]
[[zh:植物學]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bacillus thuringiensis</title>
<id>4184</id>
<revision>
<id>37287977</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T00:58:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgrey
| name = ''Bacillus thuringiensis''
| regnum = [[Bacterium|Bacteria]]
| phylum = [[Firmicutes]]
| classis = [[Bacilli]]
| ordo = [[Bacillales]]
| familia = [[Bacillaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Bacillus]]''
| species = '''''B. thuringiensis'''''
| binomial = ''Bacillus thuringiensis''
| binomial_authority = Berliner, 1915
}}
'''''Bacillus thuringiensis''''' is a [[bacterium]] that lives in the soil, in the [[caterpillar]]s of some [[moth]]s and [[butterfly|butterflies]] and also on the surface of plants. It was discovered 1901 in Japan and 1911 in Germany by Ernst Berliner (he discovered a disease called "Schlaffsucht" in caterpillars of the [[flour moth]]). It seems that it is the same organism as ''[[Bacillus cereus|B. cereus]]'', a soil bacterium, and ''[[Bacillus anthracis|B. anthracis]]'', the cause of [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]]; the three organisms only differ in their [[plasmid]]s. Like other members of the genus, all three are [[aerobe]]s capable of producing [[endospore]]s.
''B. thuringiensis'' produces crystals of [[toxin]] that are lethal to larval stages (caterpillars) of the insects which belong to orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera, but are considered harmless to most other organisms, including humans. Therefore, the spores of the bacterium and the toxic crystals (that are produced in the plasmids of the bacterium) are used in crop protection, especially in organic farming, where the use of chemical pesticides is not considered an option. This is done by spraying plants with the bacterium itself, or with an [[insecticide]] that contains the bacterial spores. The agent has been available since 1938 in France, 1950 in the USA, and was improved in the 1960s. Today different subspecies are used against the different insects, For instance, ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis]]'' is effective against [[mosquito]] larvae and some midges. Other variants used are ''B. thuringiensis kurstaki'', ''B. thuringiensis aizawa'', ''B. thuringiensis san diego,'' and ''B. thuringiensis tenebrionis''.
Another way to protect plants is to create [[transgenic plants]] that [[gene expression|express]] the [[gene]] for the bacterial toxin, as is currently done in the [[United States|USA]], [[India]], [[China]] and [[Australia]] for [[cotton]] (''Bt-cotton''), and for [[maize|corn]] (''Bt-corn'') in [[United States|USA]] and [[Canada]]. This has generated some controversy, especially regarding the ill effects Bt corn was purported to have on [[monarch butterfly]]s. The emergence of resistance in affected insects is another significant issue [http://camillapede.tripod.com/bapaper.html].
[[Category:Bacillaceae]]
[[de:Bacillus thuringiensis]]
[[fr:Bacillus thuringiensis]]
[[it:Bacillus thuringiensis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bacteriophage</title>
<id>4185</id>
<revision>
<id>15902476</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Phage]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bacteriostat</title>
<id>4186</id>
<revision>
<id>40125255</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T08:46:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>222.152.188.152</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''bacteriostat''' is a biological or chemical agent that causes [[bacteriostasis]]. It stops [[bacterium|bacteria]] from reproducing, while not necessarily harming them otherwise. Upon removal of the bacteriostat, the bacteria usually start to grow again. Bacteriostats are often used in [[plastic]]s to prevent growth of bacteria on the plastic surface. Dot
Bacteriostats commonly used in laboratory work include [[sodium azide]] and [[thimerosol]].
{{bacteria-stub}}
[[category:Microbiology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bacteriocide</title>
<id>4187</id>
<revision>
<id>40855559</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T13:10:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.44.224.27</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''bacteriocide''' or '''bactericide''' is a substance that kills [[bacterium|bacteria]] and, preferably, nothing else.
Bacteriocidal [[antibiotic]]s kill bacteria: [[bacteriostatic]] antibiotics only slow their growth or reproduction.
Penicillin is a bactericide, as are cephalosporins.
{{bacteria-stub}}
[[de:Bakterizid]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brion Gysin</title>
<id>4188</id>
<revision>
<id>41318383</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T15:03:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.36.10.152</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Bibliography */ - dates, places of publication and publishers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Brion Gysin''' ([[January 19]], [[1916]] - [[July 13]], [[1986]]) was a [[writer]] and [[painter]].
He is best known for his rediscovery of [[Tristan Tzara]]'s [[cut-up technique]] while cutting through a newspaper upon which he was trimming some mats. He did many experiments with cut-ups while living in [[Tangiers]] (where incidentally, he established with the Moroccan painter [[Mohamed Hamri]] a cafe called the 1001 Nights in order to employ members of the [[Master Musicians of Joujouka]] so that he could hear them as frequently as possible). He shared his discovery with his friend [[William S. Burroughs]], who subsequently put the cut-up technique to good use and dramatically changed the landscape of [[American literature]]. Hamri subsequently organised, with [[Brian Jones]] from [[The Rolling Stones]], the international exposure of the music of Joujouka.
Gysin helped Burroughs with the editing of several of his novels, and wrote a script for a film version of ''[[Naked Lunch]]'' which was never produced. The pair collaborated on a large manuscript for [[Grove Press]] titled ''[[The Third Mind]]'' but it was determined that it would be impractical to publish it as originally envisioned. The book later published under that title incorporates little of this material.
As a joke, he contributed a recipe for [[marijuana]] fudge to a cookbook by [[Alice B. Toklas]]; it was unintentionally included for publication, becoming famous under the name [[Alice B. Toklas brownie]]s.
A consummate innovator, Gysin altered the [[cut-up technique]] to produce what he called permutation poems in which a single phrase was repeated several times, with the words rearranged in a different order with each reiteration. A memorable example of this is "I don't dig work, man" (try it!)
Many of these permutations were derived using a random sequence generator in an early computer program written by [[Ian Sommerville]].
He also experimented with permutation on recording tape, by splicing together the sounds of a gun firing recorded at different amplitudes in the [[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]] thus producing 'Pistol Poem.' The piece was subsequently used as a theme in 1960 for the performance in Paris of [[Le Domaine Poetique]], a showcase for [[experimental]] works by people like Gysin, [[Françoise Dufrêne]], [[Bernard Heidsieck]], and [[Henri Chopin]].
He worked extensively with the noted [[jazz]] soprano saxophonist [[Steve Lacy]].
In the early '60, together with Ian Sommerville, he built what is called the [[Dreamachine]], a device meant to be viewed with the eyes closed. He is the subject of a critically-acclaimed biography, ''Nothing Is True Everything Is Permitted: The Life of Brion Gysin'', by John Geiger, and features in Geiger's book "Chapel of Extreme Experience: A short history of stroboscopic light and the Dream Machine". A monograph on Gysin was also published by Thames and Hudson. Also of interest is a co |
fm], ZMag analysis on current situation in Haiti
*[http://www.lethaitilive.org/pmwiki.php], Coalition of Organizations in US for Haiti justice
*[http://www.alterpresse.org AlterPresse], news briefs in several languages.
*[http://www.ifex.org/20fr/content/view/full/118/ IFEX] independent news
*[http://www.HavenWorks.com/world/haiti Haiti News]
*[https://listhost.uchicago.edu/mailman/listinfo/haiti-news Haiti-news list], Haitian news
*[http://news.yahoo.com/fc/World/Haiti/ Yahoo News Full Coverage]
'''History'''
*[http://www.haiti.org/keydate.htm Key Dates in Haitian History], Embassy of Haiti.
*[http://www.kreyol.com/history.html People in Haitian History], Founders and Heroes of Haiti.
*[http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/history.htm Bob Corbett's Haitian History Page], for more in-depth information about Haitian History and Literature.
*[http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/revolution/secret.htm], Napolean Secret Orders to General Leclerc
*[http://www.thediamondangle.com/marasco/negleg/trujillo.html 1937 Massacres], information about the 1937 Massacre of 18,000 Haitians by Dominican President, Rafael Trujillo.
'''Other'''
*[http://www.haitixchange.com HaitiXchange.com], Haitian, People, News, and Culture.
*[http://www.haitiinnovation.org Haiti Innovation], blog and development projects in Haiti
*[http://www.haitiaction.com Haiti Action]
*[http://www.haitipolicy.org Haiti Democracy Project]
*[http://www.travelinghaiti.com/ Haitian History, Maps and News]
*[http://www.haitisupport.gn.apc.org Haiti Support Group]
*[http://www.nchr.org National Coalition for Haitian Rights]
*[http://www.palaisnational.info/ National Palace]
*[http://www.sakapfet.com/ Sakapfet Online]
*[http://www.haiti-progres.com/eng07-06.html/ Haiti Progres]
*[http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/dir/1600014114 Yahoo Group Directory for Regional > Countries > Haiti]
*[http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/dir/1600444519 Yahoo Group Government & Politics Directory]
*[http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/dir/1600103560 Yahoo Group Directory - Haitian American]
*[http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/dir/1604146720 Yahoo Group Directory - Romance and Relationships]
*[http://kiskeyacity.blogspot.com/ Blog for Haitianists]
*[http://www.nhsai.org National Haitian Student Alliance]
*[http://www.fhsai.org Florida Haitian Student Association]
*[http://www.njhsai.org New Jersey Haitian Student Association]
*[http://www.montclair.edu/orgs/hsa Haitian Student Association at Montclair State University]
*[http://kiskeyacity.blogspot.com/2005/11/second-generation-nation-mill-polyn.html Second Generation Haitian-American (Interview)]
*[http://members.tripod.com/~HaitiPhoto/A week in the life of - Haiti Cherie...A photobook project...]
*[http://www.aanhaiti.com/aan/indexpage.asp?b=ns Autorite Aeroportuaire Nationale d'Haiti (AAN)]
* [http://thelouvertureproject.org/wiki/ The Louverture Project] - Haitian History Wiki
*[http://www.pwofansanm.org/ Pwof Ansanm] - educational iniative in Haiti
*[http://www.hastingshumanrights.org/ Hastings Human Rights Project for Haiti] - A student led project which lodged a complaint on behalf of former PM Yvon Neptune
*[http://www.ijdh.org/ Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti] - News and human rights activism for Haiti with weekly newsletter
[[Category:Haiti|Haiti]]
{{West_Indies}}
{{Caricom}}
[[Category:CARICOM member states]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[als:Haiti]]
[[an:Aití]]
[[bg:Хаити]]
[[bs:Haiti]]
[[zh-min-nan:Haiti]]
[[ca:Haití]]
[[cs:Haiti]]
[[da:Haiti]]
[[de:Haiti]]
[[et:Haiti]]
[[el:Αϊτή]]
[[es:Haití]]
[[eo:Haitio]]
[[eu:Haiti]]
[[fa:هائیتی]]
[[fr:Haïti]]
[[gl:Haití - Haïti]]
[[ko:아이티]]
[[ht:Ayiti]]
[[hr:Haiti]]
[[io:Haiti]]
[[id:Haiti]]
[[is:Haítí]]
[[it:Haiti]]
[[he:האיטי]]
[[ka:ჰაიტი]]
[[kw:Hayti]]
[[la:Haitia]]
[[lv:Haiti]]
[[lt:Haitis]]
[[hu:Haiti]]
[[ms:Haiti]]
[[na:Haiti]]
[[nl:Haïti]]
[[nds:Haiti]]
[[ja:ハイチ]]
[[no:Haiti]]
[[nn:Haiti]]
[[pl:Haiti]]
[[pt:Haiti]]
[[ro:Haiti]]
[[ru:Гаити]]
[[sq:Haiti]]
[[scn:Aiti]]
[[simple:Haiti]]
[[sk:Haiti (štát)]]
[[sl:Haiti]]
[[sr:Хаити]]
[[fi:Haiti]]
[[sv:Haiti]]
[[tl:Haïti]]
[[tt:Haiti]]
[[tr:Haiti]]
[[uk:Гаїті]]
[[zh:海地]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Haiti</title>
<id>13374</id>
<revision>
<id>42113619</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:33:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Radix99</username>
<id>903306</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed occupation link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The recorded '''history of Haiti''' began when the island of [[Hispaniola]] was discovered by [[Christopher Columbus]] in December 1492. It was at that time inhabited by the [[Arawak]] (or [[Taíno]]), a [[Native American]] people, who called the island Haiti. Columbus established a small settlement near [[Cap-Haitien]], but when he returned in 1493 the settlers had disappeared, presumably killed. He claimed the whole island for [[Spain]], and left his brother [[Bartholomew Columbus]] to found a new settlement. But the Spanish never established a firm presence in the western part of the island, and it became a base for French and English pirates. In 1664 the French claimed the western third of the island, and 1697, by the [[Treaty of Ryswick]], Spain recognised this claim....
Following the arrival of Europeans, Haiti's indigenous population suffered near-extinction, in possibly the worst case of depopulation in the Americas. This demographic collapse has been attributed by many to deliberate [[genocide]] on the part of the Spanish. The [[Catholic]] [[priest]] and contempory [[historian]] [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] wrote in his multi-volume ''[[History of the Indies]]'' (1527-61):
:There were 60,000 people living on this island (when I arrived in 1508), including the Indians; so that from 1494 to 1508, over three million people had perished from war, slavery and the mines. Who in future generations will believe this?
It is thought by many historians today that Las Casas's figures for the pre-contact levels of the Arawak population were an exaggeration and that a figure of slightly over a million original inhabitants is more likely. The high mortality in Haiti can be attributed at least in part to murder, forced labour and repression, but experience elsewhere suggests that the loss was largely the result of the unintended introduction of [[Old World]] diseases, to which the inhabitants had no resistance.
==Colonial Haiti==
Following the cession of Haiti to France, French planters established sugar and coffee plantations, making [[Saint-Domingue]], as the French portion of the island was known, the "pearl of the Antilles" &ndash; one of the richest colonies in the 18th century French empire. By the 1780s Saint-Domingue produced about 40 percent of all the sugar and 60 percent of all the coffee consumed in Europe. This single colony, roughly the size of [[Maryland]] or [[Belgium]], produced more sugar and coffee than all of Britain's West Indian colonies combined.
During this period, an estimated 790,000 African slaves were brought to work on [[sugarcane]] and [[coffee]] plantations (accounting in 1783-1791 for a third of the entire Atlantic [[slave trade]]), though inability to maintain slave numbers without constant resupply from Africa meant that at its end the population numbered only some 434,000, ruled by some 31,000 Whites.
Saint-Domingue also had the largest and wealthiest [[free_people_of_color|free population of color]] in the [[History_of_the_Caribbean|Caribbean]], a group also known as the [[Gens_de_couleur|''gens de couleur'']]. The royal census of 1789 counted roughly 25,000 such persons. Typically they were the descendants of the enslaved women that French colonists took as mistresses. Though many free people of color were former slaves, most members of this class appear not to have been free Africans, but rather people of mixed European and African ancestry.
==The Revolutionary Period==
''Main article: [[Haitian Revolution]]''
The outbreak of [[French_Revolution|revolution in France]] in the summer of 1789 had a powerful effect on the colony. While the French settlers debated how new revolutionary laws would apply to Saint-Domingue, outright [[civil war]] broke out in 1790 when the free men of color claimed they too were French citizens under the terms of the [[Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen|Declaration of the Rights of Man]].
On [[August 22]], [[1791]], slaves in the northern region of the colony staged a revolt that would eventually be known as the [[Haitian Revolution]]. The rebellion spread through the entire colony. The rebel slaves emerged as a powerful military force, eventually coming under the leadership of [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]], [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]] and [[Henri Christophe]]. By [[1800]] Toussaint was in control of nearly the whole island, and was invited to negotiate a settlement in [[1802]]. But he had been deceived by the French, and was seized then deported to France, where he died in captivity in 1803.
The indigenous army, now led by Dessalines, defeated [[Charles Leclerc]] and the army sent by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] in November 1803, and declared the former colony's independence from France, reclaiming its indigenous name of Haiti.
[[Poles]] from the [[Polish Legions]] fought in Napoleon's army. Some of them refused to fight against blacks, and the rest treated them much better than the French did; also, a few Poles (around 100) actually joined the rebels. Moreover, one of the Polish generals - [[Wladyslaw Franciszek Jablonowski]] - was black. Therefore Poles were allowed to stay and were spared the fate of other whites (About 400 of the 5280 Poles chose this option. Of the remainder, 700 returned to France and many were - after capitulation - forced to serve in British units.) 160 Poles were later given permission to leave Haiti and were sent to France at Haitian expens |
performance during the battles in northern Europe was criticised by many who considered his plans unimaginative and too rigid (including [[Gerd_von_Rundstedt|von Rundstedt]]). This overlooks the strengths and weaknesses of each side, and Montgomery's critics may sometimes fail to take note of this. He was most successful with well planned attacks with overwhelming forces, such as at [[El Alamein]] that took advantage of his Army's strengths. Montgomery's defenders attributed his caution to the fact that he commanded mostly British and Canadian forces which were limited in number and not easily replaced, which meant that he could not afford to sacrifice them needlessly. He was also determined to avoid the waste of men that he had seen in the [[World War I]]. His American counterparts, Bradley and Patton, in contrast, could call upon almost inexhaustible supplies of manpower from the United States.
==Later life==
After the war, Montgomery was created 1st [[Viscount Montgomery of Alamein]] in [[1946]]. His reputation was tarnished over two decades after his death by evidence of [[racism]] with the 1999 revelation of previously secret papers from 1947-1948 when he held the position of [[Chief of the Imperial General Staff]]. During that period he was strictly enjoined to silence about his views, which were contrary to British policy, and agents were assigned to vet his public appearances for compliance.
Montgomery was chairman of the governing body of [[St John's School]], [[Leatherhead]], [[Surrey]] from [[1951]] to [[1966]]. He promoted it, raised money for it and gave generously of his own time and wealth.
He was deputy supreme commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ([[NATO]]) forces from 1951 to 1958.
Montgomery's memoirs were considered by some to be overly critical of his wartime comrades. His friendship with [[Eisenhower]], always tenuous, was ended with their publication.
In [[1967]], Montgomery campaigned against the legalisation of [[homosexuality]] in the [[United Kingdom]] arguing that the ''[[Sexual Offences Act 1967]]'' was a "charter for buggery" and that "this sort of thing may be tolerated by the French, but we're British - thank God." Ironically, a [[2001]] book, ''The Full Monty'' ISBN 0140283757 by Montgomery's official biographer and long-time friend, [[Nigel Hamilton]], alleged that the general was a "repressed homosexual" who had "quasi love affairs" with numerous young men and boys which fell short of sexual intimacy.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4142165,00.html] However there is not any evidence to any physical relationship, and Montgomery's ten year marriage was a happy and loving one.
Montgomery died in [[1976]] and was interred in the Holy Cross Churchyard, [[Binsted]], [[Hampshire]]. His portrait (by [[Frank O. Salisbury]], [[1945]]) is in the [[National Portrait Gallery]].
==See also==
*[[Famous military commanders]]
==Quotations==
"The U.S. has broken the second rule of war. That is, don't go fighting with your land army on the mainland of Asia. Rule One is don't march on Moscow. I developed these two rules myself."
:(spoken of the [[United_States|US]] approach to the [[Vietnam War]]) Quoted in [[Alun Chalfont|Chalfont]]'s ''Montgomery of Alamein''.
==References==
* ''Alamein'', Stephen Bungay, Auram (2002)
* ''Armageddon'', Max Hastings (2004)
* ''The Battle for the Rhine 1944'', Robin Neillands (2005)
* ''On the Psychology of Military Incompetence'', Norman Dixon, Pimlico (1976)
{{commons|Bernard Montgomery}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Chief of the Imperial General Staff]] | before=[[Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke|The Lord Alanbrooke]] | after=[[William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim|Sir William Slim]] | years=1946&ndash;1948}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Viscount Montgomery of Alamein]] | years=1946&ndash;1976 | before=New Creation | after=[[David Bernard Montgomery, 2nd Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|David Bernard Montgomery]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1887 births|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:1976 deaths|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:British Field Marshals|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:British World War II people|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Recipients of Virtuti Militari|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Viscounts in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Old Paulines|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Order of Léopold recipients]]
[[cs:Bernard Law Montgomery]]
[[da:Bernard Law Montgomery]]
[[de:Bernard Montgomery]]
[[es:Bernard Law Montgomery]]
[[fr:Bernard Montgomery]]
[[hr:Bernard Law Montgomery]]
[[it:Bernard Law Montgomery]]
[[he:ברנרד לו מונטגומרי]]
[[nl:Bernard Montgomery]]
[[ja:バーナード・モントゴメリー]]
[[no:Bernard Law Montgomery]]
[[pl:Bernard Law Montgomery]]
[[pt:Bernard Montgomery]]
[[ru:Монтгомери, Бернард Лоу]]
[[sr:Бернард Монтгомери]]
[[fi:Bernard Montgomery]]
[[sv:Bernard Montgomery]]
[[zh:伯纳德·劳·蒙哥马利]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Herman Boerhaave</title>
<id>3874</id>
<revision>
<id>40360373</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:26:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Ced.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Herman Boerhaave - Project Gutenberg eText 15690.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|'''Herman Boerhaave''']]
'''Herman Boerhaave''' ([[Voorhout]], [[December 31]], [[1668]] - [[Leyden]], [[September 23]], [[1738]]) was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[humanist]] and [[physician]] of European fame. He is regarded as the founder of the clinical teaching and of the modern academic [[hospital]]. His main achievement was to demonstrate the relation of symptoms to lesions.
He was born at [[Voorhout]] near [[Leiden]]. Entering the [[University of Leiden]] he took his degree in philosophy in 1689, with a dissertation ''De distinctione mentis a corpore'', in which he attacked the doctrines of [[Epicurus]], [[Thomas Hobbes]] and [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]]. He then turned to the study of medicine, in which he graduated in 1693 at [[University of Harderwijk|Harderwijk]] in [[Gelderland]]. In [[1701]] he was appointed lecturer on the institutes of medicine at Leiden; in his inaugural discourse, ''De commendando [[Hippocrates|Hippocratis]] studio'', he recommended to his pupils that great physician as their model.
In [[1709]] he became professor of [[botany]] and medicine, and in that capacity he did good service, not only to his own university, but also to botanical science, by his improvements and additions to the [[Hortus Botanicus Leiden|botanic garden of Leiden]], and by the publication of numerous works descriptive of new species of plants. In 1714, when he was appointed rector of the university, he succeeded [[Govert Bidloo]] in the chair of practical medicine, and in this capacity he introduced the modern system of clinical instruction. Four years later he was appointed to the chair of chemistry also. In [[1728]] he was elected into the [[French Academy of Sciences]], and two years later into the [[Royal Society]] of London. In 1729 declining health obliged him to resign the chairs of chemistry and botany; and he died, after a lingering and painful illness, at Leiden.
His reputation so increased the fame of the University of Leiden, especially as a school of medicine, that it became popular with visitors from every part of Europe. All the princes of Europe sent him pupils, who found in this skillful professor not only an indefatigable teacher, but an affectionate guardian. When [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] went to Holland in [[1715]], to instruct himself in maritime affairs, he also took lessons from Boerhaave. His reputation was not confined to Europe; a Chinese mandarin sent him a letter addressed to "the illustrious Boerhaave, physician in Europe," and it reached him in due course.
==Personal Life==
On [[September 14]] [[1710]], Boerhaave married Maria Drolenvaux, the daughter of the rich merchant, Alderman Abraham Drolenvaux. They had four children, of whom one daughter, Maria Joanna, lived to adulthood [http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2404.html]. In 1722, he began to suffer from an extreme case of [[gout]], recovering the next year.
His principal works are:
*''Institutiones medicae'' (Leiden, 1708)
*''Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis'' (Leiden, 1709), on which his pupil and assistant, [[Gerard van Swieten]] (1700-1772) published a commentary in 5 vols.
*''Elementa chemiae'' (Paris, 1724).
==External links==
*Samuel Johnson's [http://www.samueljohnson.com/boerhaave.html Life of Herman Boerhaave]
*[http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/ Museum Boerhaave] in Leiden, National Museum of the History of Science and Medicine
*{{gutenberg author | id=Herman_Boerhaave | name=Herman Boerhaave}}
[[Category:1668 births|Boerhaave, Herman]]
[[Category:1738 deaths|Boerhaave, Herman]]
[[Category:Dutch physicists|Boerhaave, Herman]]
[[Category:Dutch humanists]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Boerhaave, Herman]]
[[de:Herman Boerhaave]]
[[fr:Herman Boerhaave]]
[[nl:Herman Boerhaave]]
[[sv:Hermann Boerhaave]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield</title>
<id>3875</id>
<revision>
<id>41968605</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:12:20Z</timestamp>
<contr |
{{commons|Claude Monet}}
* [http://monet.uffs.net Claude Monet Images]
* [http://www.insecula.com/recherche/default.html?type=0&mot=monet Claude Monet]
* [http://www.artofmonet.com/ Art of Monet: Web Gallery and Resource]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/monet/ Monet page at Webmuseum]
* [http://www.artist-quotes.bizblab.com/monet.htm Claude Monet Quotes]
* [http://search.famsf.org:8080/search.shtml?keywords=Monet Monet images at Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco]
* [http://www.intermonet.com/biograph/autobigb.htm Claude Monet by himself]
* [http://www.halter.net/gallery/monet-gv.html Claude Monet: A Virtual Art Gallery]
* [http://www.elrelojdesol.com/claude-monet/gallery/index.htm Claude Monet's Paintings]
[[Category:1840 births|Monet, Claude]]
[[Category:1926 deaths|Monet, Claude]]
[[Category:French painters|Monet, Claude]]
[[Category:Impressionist painters|Monet, Claude]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Monet, Claude]]
[[ar:كلود مونيه]]
[[bg:Клод Моне]]
[[ca:Claude Monet]]
[[da:Claude Monet]]
[[de:Claude Monet]]
[[el:Κλωντ Μονέ]]
[[es:Claude Monet]]
[[eo:Claude MONET]]
[[fr:Claude Monet]]
[[fy:Claude Monet]]
[[ko:클로드 모네]]
[[hr:Claude Monet]]
[[id:Claude Monet]]
[[it:Claude Monet]]
[[he:קלוד מונה]]
[[lt:Klodas Monė]]
[[li:Claude Monet]]
[[nl:Claude Monet]]
[[ja:クロード・モネ]]
[[no:Claude Monet]]
[[pl:Claude Monet]]
[[pt:Claude Monet]]
[[ro:Claude Monet]]
[[ru:Моне, Клод]]
[[sh:Claude Monet]]
[[sk:Claude Monet]]
[[sl:Claude Monet]]
[[sr:Клод Моне]]
[[fi:Claude Monet]]
[[sv:Claude Monet]]
[[vi:Claude Monet]]
[[zh:莫奈]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conectiva</title>
<id>6552</id>
<revision>
<id>41142862</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T08:35:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Elpincha</username>
<id>121288</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Conectiva''' is a company founded in [[August 28]], [[1995]], that was the pioneer in the distribution of [[Linux]] and [[Open Source]] in [[Brazilian Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[English language|English]] for all of [[Latin America]]. Besides the customized Linux distribution for the Latin American market, Conectiva develops a series of products and additional services directed to the attendance of the market demand that seeks to adopt Open Source Tools; including books, manuals, additional software like Linux Tools and embedded systems, OEM programs, applications port, training kits and the "Revista do Linux" (Linux magazine). In addition, the company provides consulting services, training and technical support in all Latin America through its own service centers and certified partners.
Conectiva is a private company, located in [[Curitiba]], [[Paraná]] in [[Brazil]].
Conectiva also provides development, customization and professional services on a worldwide basis through its team of open source software engineers. Conectiva's development team has expertise in, amongst others, the following areas: [[Linux kernel]] development, [[high availability]], [[device driver]]s, [[XFree86]], [[network protocol]]s, [[Firewall (networking)|firewalling]], [[cluster]]ing, [[performance analysis]] and [[Optimization (computer science)|optimisation]], [[filesystem]]s and [[resource management]]. Information about Conectiva's open source projects is available at http://conectiva.com/
On [[24 January]] [[2005]] it was announced that [[Mandrakesoft]] was acquiring Conectiva for 1.79 million [[euro]]s (2.3 million U.S. dollars at the time). On [[7 April]] [[2005]] Mandrakesoft announced the decision to change name of the parent company to [[Mandriva]] and their distribution name to [[Mandriva Linux]], although the Brazilian operation would not change its name from Conectiva immediately.
=== Releases ===
* Conectiva Red Hat Linux Parolin 1.0 - October/1997
* Conectiva Red Hat Linux Marumbi 2.0 - May/1998
* Conectiva Linux Guarani 3.0 - December/1998
* Conectiva Linux Server (Intel) 1.0 - April/1999
* Conectiva Linux Server (Compaq Alpha) - May/1999
* Conectiva Linux 4.0 - July/1999
* Conectiva Linux 4.2 Server - October/1999
* Conectiva Linux 5.0 - February/2000
* Conectiva Linux 5.1 Server - June/2000
* Conectiva Linux 6.0 Desktop - November/2000
* Conectiva Linux 6.0 Server - November/2000
* Conectiva Linux 7.0 Desktop - July/2001
* Conectiva Linux 7.0 Server - July/2001
* Conectiva Linux 8.0 Desktop - April/2002
* Conectiva Linux 8.0 Server - April/2002
* Conectiva Linux Enterprise Edition (UL) - November/2002
* Conectiva Linux 9 Professional - April/2003
* Conectiva Linux 9 Standard - April/2003
* Conectiva Linux 10 Desktop - July/2004
* Conectiva Linux 10 Professional - July/2004
== Conectiva Linux Live CD ==
* Conectiva Linux Live CD 0.5 - [[August 11]], [[2004]]
* Conectiva Linux Live CD 0.7 Beta 2 - [[September 10]], [[2004]]
FTP Mirrors:
* ftp://ftp.conectiva.com/
* ftp://ftp.nl.linux.org/pub/conectiva/
* ftp://ftp.polinux.upv.es/linux/distributions/conectiva/
* ftp://ftp.linux.org.uk/pub/linux/Conectiva/
[[Category:Language-specific Linux distributions]]
[[Category:Linux distributions]]
[[de:Conectiva]]
[[fr:Conectiva]]
[[it:Conectiva]]
[[pt:Conectiva]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Context free grammars</title>
<id>6553</id>
<revision>
<id>15904688</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Context-free grammar]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer Painting</title>
<id>6554</id>
<revision>
<id>15904689</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-27T16:04:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer painting]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carthage</title>
<id>6555</id>
<revision>
<id>42124154</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:55:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Americist</username>
<id>109102</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Carthaginian religious practices */ rv by 1: change may have been accurate, but broke current sentence without citation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the ancient city-state of '''Carthage''' in North Africa. For other uses of the word, see [[Carthage (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Carthage location.png|right|frame|A map of the central [[Mediterranean Sea]], showing the location of Carthage (near modern [[Tunis]]). The map also shows [[Italy]] and the islands of [[Sicily]], [[Sardinia]], and [[Corsica]].]]
'''Carthage''' (from the [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]] ''Qart-Hadasht'' "New City" (written without vowels as ''QRT HDŠT'' قرة -حدشة or קרת חדשת), was an ancient city in [[North Africa]] located on the eastern side of [[Lake Tunis]], across from the center of modern [[Tunis]] in [[Tunisia]]. It remains a popular [[tourist]] attraction.
==Founding of Carthage==
In [[814 BC]], Carthage was founded by [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] settlers from the city of [[Tyre]], bringing with them the [[city-god]] [[Melqart]]. Traditionally, the city was founded by [[Dido]] (or Elissa) (Dido fled from Tyre after her younger brother killed her husband to become the ruler), and a number of foundation myths have survived through [[Greek literature|Greek]] and [[Roman literature]]. (See [[Byrsa]] for one example.)
In 509 BC a treaty was signed between Carthage and [[Rome]] indicating a division of influence and commercial activities. It is the first known source that indicated Carthage had gained control over [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]].
By the beginning of the [[5th century BC]], Carthage was the commercial center of the region, a position it would retain until overthrown by the [[Roman Republic]]. The city had conquered the territory of the old Phoenician colonies, such as [[Hadrumetum]], [[Utica]] and [[Kerkouane]], and the [[Libya]]n tribes, spreading its control along the North African coast from modern [[Morocco]] to the borders of [[Egypt]]. Its influence had also spread into the Mediterranean, with control over [[Sardinia]], [[Malta]], the [[Balearic Islands]] and the western half of [[Sicily]]. Colonies had also been established in [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]].
[[Image:Carthage.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Ruins of Carthage]]
==Life in Carthage==
===Carthaginian commerce===
The empire of Carthage depended heavily on its trade with [[Tartessos]] and other cities of the Iberian peninsula, from which it obtained vast quantities of [[silver]] and, even more importantly, [[tin]] ore, which was essential to the manufacture of [[bronze]] objects by the civilizations of antiquity. Carthage followed trade routes already established by her parent city, Tyre. When Tartessos fell, the Carthaginian ships went directly to the primary sources of tin in the northwestern section of the Iberian peninsula and further north, in [[Cornwall]] in the [[British Isles]]. Other Carthaginian ships went down the Atlantic coast of Africa and brought back gold from [[Senegal]]. One account has a Carthaginian trading vessel exploring Nigeria, including identification of distinguishing geographic features such as a coastal [[volcano]] and an encounter with [[gorilla]]s (See [[Hanno the Navigator]]). Non-permanent trade relations were established as far west as [[Madeira]] and the [[Canary Islands]], and as far south as southern Africa.
If the epic poetry of Greece and the contemporary historians of imperial Rome record the military opposition of Carthage to the forces of the Greek city states, and later to Rome, then it is very much to the [[Greek theatre]] and Greek comedies th |
at award their own degrees. They are premier institutes in India. There are only seven of them at present.
Of late the government has been establishing [[Indian Institutes of Information Technology]] (IIITs) as specialized centres of excellence in the rapidly emerging field of Information Technology. They have been setup to educate professionals for the booming technology oriented market.
=== Singapore ===
The term "college" in [[Singapore]] is generally only used for pre-university educational institutions called "Junior Colleges", which provide the final two years of [[secondary education]] (equivalent to sixth form in English terms or grades 11-12 in the American system). Since [[1 January]] [[2005]], the term also refers to the three campuses of the [[Institute of Technical Education]] with the introduction of the "collegiate system", in which the three institutions are called [[ITE College East]], [[ITE College Central]], and [[ITE College West]] respectively.
The term "[[university]]" is used to describe higher-education institutions offering locally-conferred degrees. Institutions offering diplomas are called "[[polytechnic]]s", while other institutions are often referred to as "institutes" and so forth.
=== New Zealand ===
In [[New Zealand]] the word "college" normally refers to a newer [[Secondary education|secondary]] school for ages 13 to 17. In contrast, most older schools of the same type are "high schools", and "high schools". Also, single-sex schools are more likely to be "Someplace Boys/Girls High School", but there are also very many coeducational "high schools". There is no distinction between "high schools" and "colleges".
Some older schools are more collegiate in nature, however: [[Christ's College, Canterbury]] is still in theory organised as a body of [[fellow]]s, and was a college of the Universities of [[University of New Zealand|New Zealand]] and [[University of Canterbury|Canterbury]]. [[Wellington College (New Zealand)|Wellington College]] also enjoys its right to be named a College by virtue of its affiliation with the former University of New Zealand.
The constituent colleges of the former [[University of New Zealand]] (such as Canterbury University College) have become independent universities. Some halls of residence associated with New Zealand universities retain the name of "college", particularly at the [[University of Otago]] (which although brought under the umbrella of the University of New Zealand, already possessed university status and degree awarding powers). The institutions formerly known as "Teacher-training colleges" now style themselves "College of education".
Essentially the pattern of usage found in the United Kingdom is followed in New Zealand (refer: Royal Australasian College of Surgeons, R.A.C. of Physicians etc.).
== The non-English-speaking world ==
Some languages beyond English use words similar to "college". (French, for example, has the [[Collège de France]].) However, in other languages, confusion is most likely to arise when an American is reading something translated by someone using British conventions, or ''vice versa''.
*In [[Germany]] a ''Hochschule'' is an institute of [[tertiary education]]. "College" is a more proper term to use than a direct translation: ''Hochschule'' literally means "high school". German [[secondary education]] often takes place in an institution called in [[German language|German]] an ''Oberschule'', with its specific forms ''Hauptschule'', ''Realschule'', ''[[gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]]'', and in some [[States of Germany|states]] also ''Gesamtschule'', together with vocational secondary education in ''Berufsschule'' (in [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] called ''Berufskolleg''). The term ''Kolleg'' (literally: college) is used in some [[States of Germany|states]] for institutions of [[Adult education|adult education]] where graduates of a ''Berufsschule'' can graduate with an [[Abitur]]. A ''Graduiertenkolleg'' is a German [[Graduate school]].
*In [[Sweden]] the term "[[university college]]" is used as an official English translation for ''högskola'', a term used for independent [[List of universities in Sweden|educational institutions]] providing [[tertiary education|tertiary]], but not [[quaternary education]]. Similarly to the situation in Germany, the [[Swedish (language)|Swedish]] term ''högskola'' literally means "high school". The same term is also used for a number of institutions which function as specialized [[university|universities]] rather than as university colleges, providing quaternary education and conducting [[research]] (such as ''Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan'', the [[Royal Institute of Technology]]).
*In [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]] and other East Asian nations, colleges and universities are collectively named &#22823;&#23416; or in simplified writing &#22823;&#23398;, which is a word originally introduced by [[Confucius]] with his influential book of the same name. The original word and subsequently the book's title is most frequently translated to "[[Great Learning|The Great Learning]]". Today's pronunciation of this word is country- and sometimes region- specific and includes ''daxue'' and ''daigaku''. In Japan, ''daigaku'' is usually considered distinct from ''senmon gakkou'' (&#23554;&#38272;&#23398;&#26657;), which is more of a [[Post-secondary education|post-secondary]] ''[[Vocational education|vocational school]]''. In [[China]], the college students are selected through the annual [[National College Entrance Examination]].
*In [[Belgium]], the term '''college''' is used for institutes of [[secondary education]], more in particular for [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] schools ([[official]] secondary schools are called ''[[atheneum]]''). For [[tertiary education]], the difference is made between ''hogeschool'' (which literally means ''high school'') and [[university]]. With the current reform of higher education under the [[Bologna process]], the ''hogeschool'' institutions now offer [[professional]] [[bachelor's degree|bachelor's degrees]] (three years study in one cycle) as well as professional [[master's degree|master's degrees]] (one year study in addition to the professional bachelor's degree). Universities offer [[academic]] [[bachelor's degree|bachelor's degrees]] (three years study in one cycle) and academic [[master degree|master's degrees]] (one or two years study in addition to the academic bachelor's degree). Recent government measures have brought the ''hogeschool'' institutions to associate with an university in order to ''academize'' their curriculum and to get involved in applied research projects.
*In [[France]], '''collège''' generally refers to a ''[[middle school]]'' or ''junior high school''. However, it can also be used in a manner more similar to that of English, such as in the term ''[[electoral college]]'' or the [[Collège de France]]. The latter use, though, is not as common.
*In [[Greece]] the term college is mainly used to refer to private secondary education institutions (high schools and junior high schools), while &#928;&#945;&#957;&#949;&#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#956;&#953;&#959; (University) is the term utilized for Higher Education.
*In [[Hungary]] the term "kollégium" refers to a [[dormitory]] that may or may not be independent from an educational institution; it can also refer to a university's autonomous student organisation, dedicated to the advanced study of a certain science, topic etc, for example the [[College for Social Theory]].
*In [[the Netherlands]] the term '''college''' is used for institutes of [[secondary education]]. The term '''college''' is also used for classes or lectures at university.
*In some [[Cantons_of_Switzerland|cantons]] of the French speaking part of [[Switzerland]] and also on the border to the [[Swiss German]] speaking part (i.e. in [[Fribourg]]) the French term “Collège” (German: Kollegium) is used for the [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] (10th to 13th grade) which lends to the [[matura]]. It is also used as a name for the physical building in which obligatory education takes place (e.g., ''Le collège des coteaux'').
==See also==
*[[Career college]]
*[[Community college]]
*[[Junior College]]
*[[Residential college]]
*[[Sixth form college]]
*[[University college]]
*[[University]]
*[[List of colleges and universities]]
*[[Electoral college]]
*[[College of Cardinals]]
*[[House system]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cambridgecolleges.com CICP - English Courses and Vocational Courses to Australian and Overseas Students]
*[http://www.resumeminers.com/universities-by-degree-program.htm University Degree Programs in USA]
==References==
{{unsourced}}
[[Category:Educational stages]]
[[Category:School types]]
[[category:Colleges and universities|*]]
[[da:Seminarium]]
[[de:College]]
[[es:College]]
[[fr:Collège]]
[[ja:単科大学]]
[[yi:קאלעדזש]]
[[nl:Hogeschool]]
[[pl:college]]
[[pt:Faculdade]]
[[sv:College]]
[[th:วิทยาลัย]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chalmers University of Technology</title>
<id>5690</id>
<revision>
<id>40166089</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T17:50:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Caesar</username>
<id>83777</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* People */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University
|name =Chalmers University of Technology
|native_name =Chalmers tekniska högskola
|latin_name =
|image =[[Image:Chalmers_logo.png|225px|Logo of Chalmers University of Technology]]
|motto =Avancez
|established =[[1829]]
|type =Private Universi |
raised are you, Lord, who hallows the Sabbath."
The Aleinu prayer refers to the concept of Jews as a chosen people:
:It is our duty to praise the Master of all, to exalt the Creator of the Universe, who has not made us like the nations of the world and has not placed us like the families of the earth; who has not designed our destiny to be like theirs, nor our lot like that of all their multitude. We bend the knee and bow and acknowledge before the Supreme King of Kings, the Holy One, blessed be he, that it is he who stretched forth the heavens and founded the earth. His seat of glory is in the heavens above; his abode of majesty is in the lofty heights.
:(Translation by Philip Birnbaum, "High Holyday Prayerbook")
An earlier form of this prayer, in use during the medieval era, contained an extra sentence:
:It is our duty to praise the Master of all, to exalt the Creator of the Universe, who has not made us like the nations of the world and has not placed us like the families of the earth; who has not designed our destiny to be like theirs, nor our lot like that of all their multitude '',who carry their wooden images and pray to a God who cannot give success.''
This sentence in italics is a quote from the Bible, [[Isaiah]] 45:20. "Come, gather together, Draw nigh, you remnants of the nations! No foreknowledge had they who carry their wooden images and pray to a God who cannot give success." (New JPS) In the medieval era some within the Christian community came to believe that this line referred to Christians worshipping Jesus; they demanded that it be excised. [[Ismar Elbogen]], a historian of the Jewish liturgy, held that the early form of the prayer pre-dated Christianity, and could not possibly have referred to it.
Rabbi Reuven Hammer of [[Masorti Judaism]] comments on the excised sentence:
:Originally the text read that God has not made us like the nations who "bow down to nothingless and vanity, and pray to an impotent god," ...In the Middle Ages these words were censored, since the church believed they were an insult to Christianity. Omitting them tends to give the impression that the Aleinu teaches that we are both different and better than others. The actual intent is to say that we are thankful that God has enlightened us so that, unlike the pagans, we worship the true God and not idols. There is no inherent superiority in being Jewish, but we do assert the superiority of monotheistic belief over paganism. Although paganism still exists today, we are no longer the only ones to have a belief in one God.
:(Reuven Hammer, ''Or Hadash'', The Rabbinical Assembly, NY, 2003)
== Chosenness as superiority ==
In early medieval Europe, during a time of [[anti-Semitism|intense persecution of Jews]], the idea developed that chosenness meant that God loves Jews more than other human beings, or that Jews were in some way inherently superior to non-Jews. This philosophy was first widely taught by [[Yehuda Halevi]] in his ''[[Kuzari]]''.
A mystical version of this idea exists in parts of the [[Zohar]], one of the primary works of [[Kabbalah]], esoteric Jewish mysticism. The Zohar comments on the Biblical verse which states "Let the waters teem with swarms of creatures that have a living soul" as follows: "The verse 'creatures that have a living soul,' pertains to the Jews, for they are the sons of God, and from God come their holy souls....And the souls of the other nations, from where do they come? Rabbi Elazar says that they have souls from the impure left side, and therefore they are all impure, defiling anyone who comes near them." (Zohar commentary on Genesis)
The ''Raya Mehemna'', a somewhat later work printed with the Zohar, has a similar view. One section states: "Israel merited that God called them 'men,' as it is written 'But you My flock, the flock of My pasture, you are men,' 'If any man of you brings an offering.' Why are they called 'men'? For it is written 'And you who cling to the Lord your God'. This means you and not the other nations, and because of this 'you are men', you are called men..." (''Raya Mehemna'', commentary on Torah portion Yitro, page 86a)
This view was accepted by the founder of the [[Lubavitch]] Hasidic dynasty, Shneur Zalman of Liady, in his [[Tanya]]. A section in this book holds that non-Jewish souls come from unclean kelipot (left-over shells of the universe's creation), while Jewish souls are of a higher character. (''Tanya'', Likkutay Amarim I, 5-11 and 6a). This book is accepted as authoritative by all Lubavitch Jews. Some rabbis, including [[Adin Steinsaltz]], downplay or significantly reinterpret this passage.
Over time views of this nature became popular among a segment of the Jewish community; however, such views were rejected by the majority of the Jewish community. Today they are explicitly rejected by all Reform and Conservative Jews, and are only a small minority view within modern Orthodox Judaism. These views are rejected by communal Jewish organizations such as the B'nai Brith, American Jewish Committee and Anti-Defamation League.
The Encyclopedia Judaica states that "It would seem that the more extreme, and exclusive, interpretations of the doctrine of election, among Jewish thinkers, were partly the result of reaction to oppression by the non-Jewish world. The more the Jew was forced to close in on himself, to withdraw into the imposed confines of the ghetto, the more he tended to emphasize Israel's difference from the cruel gentile without. Only thus did his suffering become intelligible and bearable. This type of interpretation reaches its height in the Kabbalistic idea that while the souls of Israel stem ultimately from God, the souls of the gentiles are merely of base material (kelippot, "shells"). When the Jew was eventually allowed to find his place in a gentile world, the less exclusivist aspect of the doctrine reasserted itself."
== Views of chosenness by the modern Jewish denominations ==
The three largest Jewish denominations -- [[Orthodox Judaism]], [[Conservative Judaism]] and [[Reform Judaism]] -- maintain the belief that the Jews have been chosen by God for a purpose.
===Orthodox views===
[[Rabbi]] Lord [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], former Chief Rabbi of the United Synagogue of [[Great Britain]] (Modern Orthodox Judaism), describes chosenness in this way: "Yes, I do believe that the chosen people concept as affirmed by Judaism in its holy writ, its prayers, and its millennial tradition. In fact, I believe that every people - and indeed, in a more limited way, every individual - is "chosen" or destined for some distinct purpose in advancing the designs of Providence. Only, some fulfill their mission and others do not. Maybe the [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]]s were chosen for their unique contributions to art and philosophy, the [[ancient Rome|Roman]]s for their pioneering services in law and government, the [[British Empire|British]] for bringing parliamentary rule into the world, and the [[United States|American]]s for piloting democracy in a pluralistic society. The Jews were chosen by God to be 'peculiar unto Me' as the pioneers of religion and morality; that was and is their national purpose."
Rabbi [[Norman Lamm]], a leader of [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] writes that "The chosenness of Israel relates exclusively to its spiritual vocation embodied in the Torah; the doctrine, indeed, was announced at Sinai. Whenever it is mentioned in our liturgy - such as the blessing immediately preceding the Shema....it is always related to Torah or Mitzvot (''commandments''). This spiritual vocation consists of two complementary functions, described as "Goy Kadosh," that of a holy nation, and "Mamlekhet Kohanim," that of a kingdom of priests. The first term denotes the development of communal separateness or differences in order to achieve a collective self-transcendence.... The second term implies the obligation of this brotherhood of the spiritual elite toward the rest of mankind; priesthood is defined by the prophets as fundamentally a teaching vocation. ... (''The Condition of Jewish Belief: A Symposium Compiled by the Editors of Commentary Magazine'', 1966)
Some [[Haredi]] Jews hold a differing point of view. Based on teachings in the Tanya and Zohar, they hold that Jews are "exalted above" or superior to non-Jews. <!-- See the discussion in http://www.forward.com/issues/2003/03.12.19/news4b.html, though I cannot see the
"tension" mentioned towards the end. Somebody can be seen as both inferior and saved. -->
===Conservative views===
[[Conservative Judaism]], also known as [[Masorti]] Judaism, views the concept of chosenness in this way:
:Few beliefs have been subject to as much misunderstanding as the "Chosen People" doctrine. The Torah and the Prophets clearly stated that this does not imply any innate Jewish superiority. In the words of Amos (3:2) "You alone have I singled out of all the families of the earth - that is why I will call you to account for your iniquities". The Torah tells us that we are to be "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" with obligations and duties which flowed from our willingness to accept this status. Far from being a license for special privilege, it entailed additional responsibilities not only toward God but to our fellow human beings. As expressed in the blessings at the reading of the Torah, our people have always felt it to be a privilege to be selected for such a purpose. For the modern traditional Jew, the doctrine of the election and the covenant of Israel offers a purpose for Jewish existence which transcends its own self interests. It suggests that because of our special history and unique heritage we are in a position to demonstrate that a people that takes seriously the idea of being covenanted with God can not o |
'y''', h'''igh''', t'''ie''', st'''ei'''n, h'''eigh'''t, b'''uy''', '''ai'''sle, g'''ey'''ser, d'''ye''', '''eye'''
== See also ==
*[[English language]]
*[[Spelling reform]]
*[[English plural]]
*[[English verbs]]
*[[Misspelling]]
*[[Alternative political spellings]]
*[[List of unusual English words]]
*[[Longest word in English]]
*[[Shavian alphabet]]
*[[Ghoti]]
*[[Three letter rule]]
*[[List of names in English with non-intuitive pronunciations]]
*[[List of common misspellings]] &ndash; Wikipedia's own maintenance page
*[[I before e]]
*[[Silent E]]
*[[List of English words containing a Q not followed by a U]]
== External links ==
*Rules for English Spelling: [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=10015&CurriculumID=26 Adding Suffixes], [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=10016&CurriculumID=26 QU Rule], [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=10017&CurriculumID=26 i before e], [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=10018&CurriculumID=26 Silent e], [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=10021&CurriculumID=26 'er' vs. 'or']
*[http://www.espindle.org/whitepaper.pdf White Paper] Research based Tutoring of English Spelling
*[http://zompist.com/spell.html Hou tu pranownse Inglish] describes rules which predict a word's pronunciation from its spelling with 85% accuracy
[[Category:English spelling|*]]
[[Category:English language|Spelling, English]]<!--articles defining a category also belong in the immediate supercategory/s--></text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ethelred the Unready</title>
<id>10083</id>
<revision>
<id>40140477</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T12:40:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Yst</username>
<id>188517</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Corrected OE spelling: Æðelred</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Monarch Basic
| name=Ethelred the Unready
| title=King of England
| image=[[Image:EthelUn.jpg|Ethelred II]]<!--from [[Chronicles of Abingdon]]-->
| reign=[[March 18]], [[978]] - [[April 23]], [[1016]]
| date of birth=[[968]]
| place of birth=[[Wessex, England]]
| date of death=[[April 23]], [[1016]]
| place of death=[[London, England]]
| place of burial=[[Old Saint Paul's Cathedral]]
| married=[[Aelgifu|Ælgifu]]<br />[[Emma of Normandy|Emma]]
| father=[[Edgar of England|Edgar]]
| mother=[[Elfrida|Ælfthryth]]
}}
'''Ethelred the Unready''' (c. [[968]] &ndash; [[April 23]], [[1016]]), also know as '''Ethelred II''' and ''Æðelred Unræd'' was [[Kingdom of England|King of England]] ([[978]] &ndash; [[1013]], and [[1014]] &ndash; [[1016]]).
==Early life and family==
According to [[William of Malmesbury]], Ethelred defecated in the [[baptismal font]] as a child, which led St. [[Dunstan]] to prophesy that the English monarchy would be overthrown during Ethelred's reign. This story is, however, almost certainly a fabrication.
Ethelred succeeded to the throne aged about 10 following the death of his father [[Edgar of England|King Edgar]] and subsequent murder of his half-brother [[Edward the Martyr]]. His nickname "The Unready" does not mean that he was ill-prepared, but derives from the [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''unræd'' meaning "without counsel" or "indecisive". This could also be interpreted as a pun on his name, Æðelred, which may be understood to mean "noble counsel".
Ethelred married firstly to Ælflaed, daughter of Thored, the [[ealdorman]] of [[Northumbria]]; she was the mother of four sons, including [[Edmund II of England|Edmund Ironside]]. In [[997]], he remarried to Ælfgifu, daughter of ealdorman Aethelberht, who gave him two sons, Edwig and Edgar. His third and final marriage, in [[1002]], was to [[Emma of Normandy]], whose grandnephew, [[William I of England]], would later use this relationship as the basis of his claim on the throne.
==Conflict with the Danes==
England had experienced a long period of peace after the reconquest of the [[Danelaw]] in the first half of the 10th Century. However in [[991]] Ethelred was faced with a Viking fleet larger than any since Guthrum's "Summer Army" a century earlier. This fleet was led by [[Olaf Trygvasson]], a Norwegian with ambitions to reclaim his country from Danish domination. After initial military setbacks including the defeat of his Ealdorman [[Byrhtnoth]] at the [[Battle of Maldon]], Ethelred was able to come to terms with Olaf, who returned to [[Norway]] to gain his kingdom with mixed success. While this arrangement won him some respite, England faced further depredations from [[Viking]] raids. Ethelred fought these off, but in many cases followed the practice of earlier kings including [[Alfred the Great]] in buying them off by payment of what was to become known as [[Danegeld]].
Ethelred ordered the massacre of the Danes living in England on [[St Brice]]'s Day ([[November 13]]) [[1002]] (as described in the chronicles of [[John of Wallingford]]), in response to which [[Sweyn Haraldsson]] started a series of determined campaigns to conquer England. In this he succeeded, but after his victory, he lived for only another five weeks.
==Death and legacy==
In 1013, Ethelred fled to [[Normandy]], seeking protection by his brother-in-law, [[Robert the Magnificent|Robert]] of Normandy, when England was over-run by [[Sweyn Haraldsson]] of Denmark and his forces. He returned in February, [[1014]], following the death of Sweyn Haraldsson. Ethelred died on [[April 23]], [[1016]], in [[London]], where he was buried. He was succeeded by his son, [[Edmund II of England]].
Despite the steady stream of [[Viking]] attacks, Ethelred's reign was far from the disaster described by chroniclers writing well after the event. Ethelred introduced major reforms to the machinery of government in Anglo-Saxon England, and is responsible for the introduction of Shire Reeves or [[Sheriff]]s. The quality of the coinage, always a good indicator of the prevailing economic conditions, remained very high during his reign.
==References==
* Ann Williams: ''Æthelred the Unready : The Ill-Counselled King''. – London : Hambledon Press, 2003. – ISBN 1852853824
* Clemoes, Peter. ''The Anglo-Saxons: Studies Presented to Bruce Dickins'', 1959
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Edward the Martyr|Edward]]|
title=[[List of monarchs in the British Isles|King of England]]|
years=[[978]]&ndash;[[1013]]|
after=[[Sweyn I of Denmark|Sweyn]]
}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Sweyn I of Denmark|Sweyn]]|
title=[[List of monarchs in the British Isles|King of England]]|
years=[[1014]]&ndash;[[1016]]|
after=[[Edmund II of England|Edmund II]]
}}
{{end box}}
<!-- Categorization -->
[[Category:960s births]]
[[Category:1016 deaths]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]
[[de:Æthelred]]
[[es:Etelredo II el Indeciso]]
[[fr:Ethelred II d'Angleterre]]
[[he:אתלרד השני מלך אנגליה]]
[[nl:Ethelred II]]
[[ja:エゼルレッド2世 (イングランド王)]]
[[no:Ethelred II av England]]
[[pl:Etelred II Bezradny]]
[[pt:Ethelred II de Inglaterra]]
[[ru:Этельред Неразумный]]
[[sv:Ethelred II av England]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edward Elgar</title>
<id>10085</id>
<revision>
<id>40797135</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T02:03:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.90.161.113|66.90.161.113]] ([[User talk:66.90.161.113|talk]]) to last version by Robma</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edward_Elgar.jpg|right|frame|Sir Edward Elgar]]
'''Sir Edward Elgar, 1st Baronet''', [[Order of Merit|OM]], [[Royal Victorian Order|GCVO]] ([[2 June]] [[1857]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[23 February]] [[1934]]) was an [[England|English]] [[composer]]. His first [[orchestra]]l work, ''[[Enigma Variations]]'', was greeted with acclaim. He also composed [[oratorio]]s, [[chamber music]], [[symphony|symphonies]] and instrumental [[concerto]]s. His compositions also include the ''[[Pomp and Circumstance Marches]]'' of which No. 1 is often sung to the words "[[Land of Hope and Glory]]", notably at The Last Night of [[the Proms]]. He was appointed [[Master of the King's Musick]] in 1924.
==Biography==
===Early years===
Edward William Elgar was born in the small village of [[Lower Broadheath]] outside [[Worcester]], [[Worcestershire]], to William Elgar, a [[piano]] tuner and [[music]] dealer, and his wife Ann. The fourth of six children, Edward Elgar had three brothers, Henry, Frederick and Francis, and two sisters, Lucy and Susannah. His mother, Ann, had converted to [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]] shortly before Edward's birth, so Edward was baptised and brought up as a Roman Catholic.
Surrounded by sheet music and instruments in his father's shop in [[Worcester, England|Worcester]]'s High Street, the young Elgar became self-taught in music. On warm summer days, he would take manuscripts into the countryside to study them (he was a passionate and adventurous early [[bicycle|cyclist]] who learnt to cycle from the very early age of 5). Thus there began for him a strong association between music and nature. As he was later to say, "There is music in the air, music all around us, the world is full of it and you simply take as much as you require."
Having left school at the age of 15, he began work for a local [[solicitor]], but after a year embarked on a musical career, giving piano and violin lessons. At 22 he took up the post of bandmaster at the Worcester and County Lunatic Asylum in Powick, three miles south-west of Worcester. He composed here too; some of the pieces for the asylum orchestra (music in dance forms) were rediscovered and performed locally in 1996.
In many ways, his years as a young Worcestershire violinist were his happies |
Award (1982)
:*PWI Most Hated Wrestler Award (1988)
:*PWI Match of the Year Award, versus [[Killer Khan]] (1981)
:*PWI Match of the Year Award, versus [[Hulk Hogan]] (1988)
*
'''[[Wrestling Observer Newsletter]]'''
:*He is a member of the [[Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame]] (inducted in 1996)
:*1981 Feud of the Year (vs Killer Khan)
==Championship Succession==
{{start box}}
| colspan = 3 align = center | '''[[WWE Championship|WWF Championship]]'''
|-
| width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:<br/>'''[[Hulk Hogan]]'''
| width = 40% align = center | First
| width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by :<br/>'''Vacant'''
|-
| colspan = 3 align = center | '''[[WWE World Tag-Team Championship]]'''
|-
| width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:<br/>'''Demolition'''
| width = 40% align = center | First, with [[Uliuli Fifita|Haku]]
| width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by :<br/>'''Demolition'''
|-
{{end box}}
==Video games==
*[[Andore (video game character)|Andore]] from [[Capcom]]'s ''[[Final Fight]]'' series looks similar to Andre. Andore is a recurring enemy in the ''Final Fight'' series.
*In the ''[[Street Fighter III]]'' series, there is a character called [[Hugo (video game character)|Hugo]] who is a dead ringer for Andore, the aforementioned Andre-lookalike.
*Andre only appeared in one video game when he was alive; the original Wrestlemania for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]].
*André the Giant appeared as a secret character in the [[Nintendo 64]] game, [[WWF No Mercy]].
*André the Giant is featured in WWE games, such "Smackdown Vs Raw 2006" as a Legend Character.
*Andre the Giant is a featured spraypaint in the "[[Half-Life]]" series of PC videogames.
==See also==
*[[André the Giant Has a Posse]] - a well known graffiti campaign using André's likeness
==References==
# ''Tributes II'' by [[Dave Meltzer]], 2004, ISBN 1-58261-817-8, p. 68
==External links==
*[http://andrethegiant.com/ The Official Site of André the Giant]
*[http://www.wrestlingmuseum.com/pages/bios/halloffame/andrebio.html Wrestling museum biography]
*{{imdb name|id=0000764|name=André the Giant}}
<!-- Categories -->
[[Category:French professional wrestlers|André the Giant]]
[[Category:1946 births|André the Giant]]
[[Category:1993 deaths|André the Giant]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 40s|André the Giant]]
[[Category:People with gigantism|André the Giant]]
[[Category:Vintners|André the Giant]]
<!-- Translations -->
[[da:Andre the Giant]]
[[de:André the Giant]]
[[es:André René Roussimoff]]
[[fi:Andre The Giant]]
[[fr:Andre the Giant]]
[[he:אנדרה הענק]]
[[ja:アンドレ・ザ・ジャイアント]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adrastea (moon)</title>
<id>2577</id>
<revision>
<id>41366876</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:07:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nolanuss</username>
<id>379510</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>interwiki +cs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" align="right"
|+'''Adrastea'''
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#000000" | <div style="width:200px;">[[Image:adrastea.jpg]]<br /><font color="#ffffff">''This image of Adrastea was taken by [[Galileo probe|Galileo]]'s solid state imaging system between November [[1996]] and June [[1997]].''</font></div>
|-
! bgcolor="#a0ffa0" colspan="2" | Discovery
|-
! align="left" | Discovered by
| [[David Jewitt|David C. Jewitt]]<br/> [[G. Edward Danielson]]
|-
! align="left" | Discovered on
| [[July 8]], [[1979]]
|-
! bgcolor="#a0ffa0" colspan="2" | [[Orbit]]al characteristics
|-
! align="left" | Mean [[radius]]
| 128,694 [[kilometre|km]] (0.000860 [[astronomical unit|AU]])
|-
! align="left" | [[Eccentricity (orbit)|Eccentricity]]
| 0.0018
|-
! align="left" | [[Periapsis]]
| 128,460 [[kilometre|km]] (0.000859 [[astronomical unit|AU]])
|-
! align="left" | [[Apoapsis]]
| 128,930 [[kilometre|km]] (0.000862 [[astronomical unit|AU]])
|-
! align="left" | [[Sidereal period|Revolution period]]
| 0.29826 d (7 h 9.5 min)
|-
! align="left" | Orbital [[circumference]]
| 808,600 km (0.005 AU)
|-
! align="left" | Orbital [[velocity]]
| max: 31.435 km/s<br/>mean: 31.378 km/s<br/>min: 31.322 km/s
|-
! align="left" | [[Inclination]]
| 2.22° (to the [[ecliptic]])<br/>0.00° (to Jupiter's equator)
|-
! align="left" | Is a [[natural satellite|satellite]] of
| [[Jupiter]]
|-
! bgcolor="#a0ffa0" colspan="2" | Physical characteristics
|-
! align="left" | Mean [[diameter]]
| 20 km (26&times;20&times;16 km)
|-
! align="left" | Surface [[area]]
| ~5300 [[square kilometre|km<sup>2</sup>]]
|-
! align="left" | [[Volume]]
| ~4400 [[square kilometre|km<sup>3</sup>]]
|-
! align="left" | [[Mass]]
| 7.5{{e|15}} [[kilogram|kg]]
|-
! align="left" | Mean [[density]]
| 3.0 g/cm<sup>3</sup>
|-
! align="left" | Surface [[gravity]]
| 0.0066 [[Acceleration|m/s<sup>2</sup>]] (0.001 g)
|-
! align="left" | [[Escape velocity]]
| 0.011 km/s
|-
! align="left" | Rotation period
| [[synchronous rotation|synchronous]]
|-
! align="left" | [[Rotation]] velocity
| 11 km/h
|-
! align="left" | [[Axial tilt]]
| zero
|-
! align="left" | [[Albedo]]
| 0.10
|-
! align="left" | Surface [[Temperature|temp.]]
|
{| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" border="0"
|-
! min !! mean !! max
|-
| [[Kelvin|K]]
| ~122 K
| K
|}
|-
! align="left" | [[Atmospheric pressure]]
| 0 [[Pascal|kPa]]
|}
'''Adrastea''' ''(ad'-rə-stee'-ə,'' {{IPA2|ˌædrəˈstiə}}, Greek ''Αδράστεια),'' or '''Jupiter&nbsp;XV''', is the second of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s known [[natural satellite|moon]]s (counting outward from the planet). It was discovered on [[Voyager 2]] probe photographs taken in [[1979]] and received the designation '''S/1979&nbsp;J&nbsp;1''' ([http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iauc/03400/03454.html IAUC 3454]) after the discovery had been announced in ''Science'' (vol. 206, p. 951, November 23, 1979). In [[1983]] it was officially named after the mythological [[Adrastea (mythology)|Adrastea]], daughter of [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] and [[Ananke (mythology)|Ananke]].
It is the smallest of the [[inner satellites of Jupiter]].
Adrastea is the first natural satellite to be discovered through the use of images taken by an interplanetary spacecraft, rather than through telescopic photography.
Adrastea is inside Jupiter's [[planetary ring]] and may be the source of some of its material. Its orbit lies inside Jupiter's synchronous orbit radius, and as a result tidal forces are slowly causing its orbit to decay. It is also within Jupiter's [[Roche limit]], but is small enough to avoid tidal disruption.
[[Image:Adrastée FDS 20630.png|thumb|300px|left|Discovery image of Adrastea, taken on [[July 8]], [[1979]] by Voyager 2. Adrastea is the dot in the very middle, straddling the line of the Jovian rings.]]
<br clear="all">
<center>''... | [[Metis (moon)|Metis]] | '''Adrastea''' | [[Amalthea (moon)|Amalthea]] | ...''</center>
{{Jupiter_Footer}}
[[Category:Jupiter's moons]]
[[als:Adrastea (Mond)]]
[[bg:Адрастея (спътник)]]
[[bs:Adrasteja]]
[[ca:Adrastea (satèl·lit)]]
[[cs:Adrastea (měsíc)]]
[[da:Adrastea (måne)]]
[[de:Adrastea (Mond)]]
[[es:Adrastea (luna)]]
[[fr:Adrastée (lune)]]
[[hr:Adrasteja (mjesec)]]
[[it:Adrastea (astronomia)]]
[[nl:Adrastea (maan)]]
[[ja:アドラステア]]
[[nn:Jupitermånen Adrastea]]
[[pl:Adrastea (księżyc)]]
[[pt:Adrasteia]]
[[sk:Adrastea (mesiac)]]
[[sr:Адрастеа]]
[[sv:Adrastea]]
[[uk:Адрастея (супутник)]]
[[zh:木卫十五]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amalthea</title>
<id>2578</id>
<revision>
<id>41804251</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:33:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nolanuss</username>
<id>379510</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>interwiki +cs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalthea''' refers to:
*[[Amalthea (mythology)]], in Greek mythology the foster-mother of Zeus.
*[[Amalthea (moon)]] of Jupiter.
*[[113 Amalthea]] is an asteroid.
*Amalthea was the name of a ship harboring strikebreakers in Malmö, Sweden in 1908. See [[Anton Nilson]].
*Lady Amalthea is the name of a character in the fantasy novel and animated movie [[The Last Unicorn]].
{{disambig}}
[[als:Amalthea]]
[[bg:Амалтея]]
[[ca:Amaltea]]
[[cs:Amalthea]]
[[de:Amalthea]]
[[es:Amaltea]]
[[fr:Amalthée]]
[[hr:Amalthea]]
[[it:Amaltea]]
[[lt:Amaltėja]]
[[nl:Amalthea]]
[[ja:アマルテア]]
[[sv:Amalthea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ananke</title>
<id>2580</id>
<revision>
<id>39870421</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T12:46:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ananke''' has several meanings:
*[[Ananke (moon)|Ananke]] is a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].
*In [[Greek mythology]], [[Ananke (mythology)|Ananke]] was the mother of the [[Moirae]] and [[Adrasteia]].
*[[Ananke (band)|Ananke]] is the name of a [[Belgian]] [[jazz band]].
{{disambig}}
[[es:Ananké]]
[[hr:Ananke]]
[[pl:Ananke]]
[[pt:Ananke]]
[[sv:Ananke (olika betydelser)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apache HTTP Server</title>
<id>2581</id>
<revision>
<id>41626431</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:49:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
|
na (animals)|fauna]] is completely [[invertebrate]]. Such invertebrate life includes [[microscopic]] [[mite]]s, [[lice]], and [[springtail]]s. The [[midge]], just 12 [[millimeter|mm]] in size, is the largest land animal in Antarctica (other than man). The [[snow petrel]] is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica and have been seen at the [[South Pole]].
A variety of marine animals exist, and they rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes [[penguin]]s, [[blue whales]], and [[fur seal]]s. More specifically, the [[Emperor penguin]] is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica. The [[Adélie Penguin]] breeds further south than any penguin. The [[Rockhopper penguin]] has distinctive feathers around the eyes; one could call them elaborate eyelashes. [[King penguin]]s are also predominant in the Antarctic. The [[Antarctic fur seal]] was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. Antarctic krill, which congregate in large [[swarm|school]]s, is the [[keystone species]] of the [[ecosystem]] of the [[Southern Ocean]], and is an important food organism for whales, seals, [[leopard seal]]s, fur seals, [[squid]], [[icefish]], penguins, [[albatross]]es and many other birds.<ref>[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/fauna_and_flora.htm Creatures of Antarctica] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref>
The approval of the [[Antarctic Conservation Act]] brought several restrictions to the continent. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty enacted in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem.<ref name="cia" /> Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of [[Patagonian toothfish]], remains a serious problem. Particularly, the illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing with estimates of 32,000&nbsp;tonnes in 2000.<ref>BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1492380.stm Toothfish at risk from illegal catches]. Retrieved February 11, 2006.</ref><ref>Australian Antarctic Division. [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=1539 Toothfish]. Retrieved February 11, 2006.</ref>
* [http://scilib.ucsd.edu/sio/nsf/fguide/index.html Underwater Field Guide to Ross Island & McMurdo Sound, Antarctica]
==Politics==
Antarctica is considered a neutral territory in respect to politics. The [[Antarctic Treaty]], signed in 1959, and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System, regulate [[international relations]] with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only uninhabited continent. For the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all land and [[ice shelf|ice shelves]] south of the southern 60th [[circle of latitude|parallel]]. The treaty was signed by 12 countries, including the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]], and set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation, environmental protection, and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first [[arms control]] agreement established during the [[Cold War]]. The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature in Antarctica, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon. It permits the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes.<ref>Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. [http://www.scar.org/treaty/ ''Antarctic Treaty''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref>
Antarctica has no government. Various countries claim areas of it, but most countries do not recognize those claims. The area between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only land on Earth not claimed by any country.<ref name="cia" />
The only documented large-scale land military maneuver was "[[Operación 90]]", undertaken 10 years before the Antarctic Treaty by the [[Military of Argentina|Argentinian military]].<ref>Antarctica Institute of Argentina. [http://www.dna.gov.ar/INGLES/DIVULGAC/ARGANT.HTM ''Argentina in Antarctica''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref>
The [[United States military]] issues the [[Antarctica Service Medal]] to military members or civilians who perform research duty on the Antarctica continent. The medal may include a winter-over bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six-month seasons.<ref>U.S. Navy [http://www.history.navy.mil/medals/antarc.htm Antarctic Service Medal] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref>
===Antarctic territories===
{{seealso|Antarctic territories}}
[[Image:antarctica.jpg|thumb|300px||Territorial claims of Antarctica]]
{| class="wikitable"
!Flag
!Territory
!Claimant
!Claim limits
!Date
|-
|[[Image:Flag of France.svg|50px]]
|[[Adelie Land]]
|[[France]]
|142°02'E to 136°'11'E
|1924
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Argentina.svg|50px]]
|[[Argentine Antarctica]]
|[[Argentina]]
|25°W to 74°W
|1943
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|50px]]
|[[ Australian Antarctic Territory]]
|[[Australia]]
|160°E to 142°02'E and 136°11'E to 44°38'E
|1933
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Chile.svg|50px]]
|[[Antártica Chilena Province]]
|[[Chile]]
|53°W to 90°W
|1940
|-
|[[Image:Flag of the British Antarctic Territory.png|50px]]
|[[British Antarctic Territory]]
|[[United Kingdom]]
|20°W to 80°W
|1908
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Norway.svg|50px]]
|[[Dronning Maud Land]]<br>[[Peter I Island]]
|[[Norway]]
|44°38'E to 20°W<br> 68°50'S, 90°35'W
|1939<br>1929
|-
|[[Image:Flag of New Zealand.svg|50px]]
|[[Ross Dependency]]
|[[New Zealand]]
|150°W to 160°E
|1923
|}
The Argentinean, British and Chilean claims all overlap.
[[Germany]] also maintained a claim to Antarctica, known as [[New Swabia]] between 1939 and 1945. It was situated at 20°E and 10°W, overlapping Norway's claim.
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Antarctica}}
[[Image:Antarctic cod.jpg|thumb|The illegal capture and sale of the [[Patagonian toothfish]] has led to several arrests.]]
Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they exist in quantities too small to exploit. The 1991 [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]] prevents such struggle for resources. In 1998 a compromise agreement was reached to add a 50-year ban on mining until the year 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary agricultural activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 reported landing 112,934 metric tons.<ref name="cia"><ref>Santa Barbara City College Biological Sciences [http://www.biosbcc.net/ocean/AAimportance.htm Importance of Antarctica] Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref>
Small-scale tourism has existed since 1957. As of 2006 several ships transport people into Antarctica for specific scenic locations. A total of 13,571 tourists visited in the 2002-03 antarctic summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships. The average stay is about two weeks.<ref name="cia"><ref><ref>[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/political.htm Politics of Antarctica] Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref> Antarctic flights brought tourists from Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of [[Air New Zealand Flight 901]] in 1979 near [[Mount Erebus]].
==Research==
{{seealso|List of research stations in Antarctica}}
[[Image:Amundsen-Scott marsstation ray h edit.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A [[full moon]] and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, [[power plant]] in the center and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right.]]
Each year, scientists from 27 different nations conduct [[experiment]]s not reproducible in any other place in the world but the Antarctic. In the summer more than 4,000 scientists operate [[research station]]s; this number decreases to nearly 1,000 in the winter.<ref name="cia" /> The [[McMurdo Station]] is capable of housing more than a thousand scientists, visitors, and tourists.
Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. [[Geologist]]s tend to study plate tectonics in the Arctic region, meteorites from the [[outer space]], and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent [[Gondwanaland]]. [[Glaciologist]]s in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating [[ice]], [[snow|seasonal snow]], [[glacier]]s, and [[ice sheet]]s. [[Biologist]]s, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. [[Astrophysicist]]s in [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] are able to study the celestial dome and [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] because of the ozone hole and the location's dry, cold environment. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures.<ref>Antarctic Connection [http://www.antarcticconnection.com/antarctic/science/index.shtml Science in Antarctica] Retrieved February 4, 2006.</ref>
Since the 1970s an important focus of study has been the [[ozone layer]] in the [[atmosphere]] above Ant |
64]], King Saud re-organized the government of the monarchy his father, Ibn Saud, had created. Saudi Arabia's new ministries included Communication (1953) Agriculture and Water (1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and Islamic Endowments (1960), Labour and Social Affairs (1962) and Information (1963). He also put his Talal, one of his many younger brothers (by 29 years his younger) in charge of the Ministry of Transport.
In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National Council. As he proposed it, it would have been a consultative body, not a legislature. Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader popular participation in the government. Talal presented this proposal to the king when the Crown Prince was out of the country. Saud simply forwarded the proposal to the [[Ulema|ulama]] asking them whether a National Council was a legitimate institution in Islam. The idea seems to have died in committee, so to speak. It would be revived more than three decades later. A Consultative Council came into existence in 1992.
Meantime, the [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] came into existence in [[1960]]. For the first decade or more of its existence, it was ineffectual in terms of increasing revenue for member nations. But it would have its day. Tension between Faisal and Saud continued to mount until a final showdown in 1964. Saud threatened to mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal and Faisal threatened to mobilize the National Guard against Saud. It was Saud who blinked, abdicating and leaving for Cairo, later Greece. He would die there, in 1969. Faisal then became King.
In [[1967]], [[Israel]] won its whirlwind six day victory. In response, Arab leaders (including King Faisal) held a conference in [[Khartoum]] in August. They all agreed on three negative slogans with respect to Israel: “no recognition, no negotiations, no peace.” Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the “front-line states,” those that bordered the hated Zionist entity, in their struggle.
The 1967 war had other effects. It effectively closed the [[Suez canal]], it may have contributed to the revolution in Libya that put [[Muammar al-Qaddafi]] in power, and it led in [[May 1970]] to the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi Arabia through [[Syria]] to [[Lebanon]]. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of the petroleum in [[Libya]], which is a conveniently short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe.
In 1970, it was [[Occidental Petroleum]] which constituted the first crack in the wall of oil company solidarity in dealing with the oil producing nations; specifically, in this case, with the demands for price increases of the new Qaddafi government.
In October 1973, another war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as the [[Yom Kippur War]], got underway just as oil company executives were heading to [[Vienna, Austria]], site of a planned meeting with [[OPEC]] leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Libya's demands anyway, and the war strengthened the unity of their new demands.
The centrality of petroleum, the [[Arab-Israeli Conflict]] and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region.
===Two Iranian revolutions===
While the events chronicled above were underway, the [[Shah of Iran]] was pressing (what he considered to be) the [[modernization]] of his country. For example, in the ''white revolution'' of [[1963]] he abolished the [[feudal system]] of [[Real property|land]] ownership, and in the process reduced the income of some of the [[Shia]] clergy. The Shah's critics at the time said he was trying to secure his hold on power. By [[1966]], he had become more aggressive in his own dealings with the oil companies.
A decade later, the Shah decreed women's suffrage and eliminated the lunar (Islamic) calendar with the solar calendar for official use in [[1976]]. Both moves alienated Shia clerics. These were among the conditions for the Iranian revolution of [[1978]]-- [[1979]], which deposed the Shah and put [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] in power in Iran.
== Present day==
=== Reformist Islam vs. Islamism ===
<!--To be written-->
''See [[liberal movements within Islam]], [[Islamic fundamentalism]], [[Islam as a political movement]] and [[Islamism]].''
=== Islamism, the U.S. and the battle for oil wealth ===
<!--To be written-->
''See [[Islamist terrorism]], [[militant Islam]], and [[Jihad]]''
==Chronology==
{{see|Timeline of Islamic history}}
==Dynasties of Islamic Rulers==
* [[Abbadid]]
* [[Abbasid]]
* [[Aghlabid]]
* [[Almohad]]
* [[Almoravides]]
* [[Ayyubid dynasty]]
* [[Banu Isams]]
* [[Banu Salih]]
* [[Buwayhid]]
* [[Fatimid]]
* [[Ghaznavid Empire]]
* [[Hashemite]]
* [[House of Saud]] (Saudis)
* [[Khwarezmid Empire]]
* [[Mameluk dynasty]]
* [[Mughal Empire]]
* [[Ottoman Empire]]
* [[Pahlavi dynasty]]
* [[Rustamid]]
* [[Safavids]]
* [[Saffarid dynasty]]
* [[Samanid]]
* [[Seljuk Turks]]
* [[Sultanate of Malacca]]
* [[Sultanate of Rüm]]
* [[Tahirid dynasty]]
* [[Umayyad]]
==See also==
*[[Averroes]]
*[[Avicenna]]
*[[History of Europe]]
*[[History of the Balkans]]
*[[Islamic conquests]]
*[[Rise of Islam in Algeria]]
*[[Islamic Golden Age]]
*[[Islam by country]] - a list
*[[Timeline of Islamic history]]
==References and further reading==
* {{cite book | last = Lewis | first = B. | title = The Arabs in History | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0192852582 }}
* {{cite book | last = Rahman | first = F. | title = Islam & Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year = 1982 | id = ISBN 0226702847 }}
==External links==
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/islam/islamsbook.html Internet Islamic History Sourcebook]
* [http://www.sunnah.org/history/islamamr.htm A history of Islam in America]
* [http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Muslims.html History of Islam in China]
* [http://www.barkati.net/english/ Brief history of Islam]
* [http://www.barkati.net/english/chronology.htm Chronological history of Islam]
[[Category:Islamic history]]
[[Category:Jewish Islam topics]]
{{Link FA|zh}}
[[bs:Historija Islama]]
[[ca:Història de l'Islam]]
[[de:Geschichte des Islam]]
[[es:Islam clásico]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'islamisme]]
[[id:Sejarah Islam]]
[[it:Storia dell'Islam]]
[[ja:イスラム帝国]]
[[ms:Sejarah Islam]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van de islam]]
[[pt:História do Islão]]
[[tr:İslam tarihi]]
[[zh:阿拉伯帝国]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>How to</title>
<id>13307</id>
<revision>
<id>15910922</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-12T02:25:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oliver Pereira</username>
<id>5333</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[how-to]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[how-to]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hittites</title>
<id>13308</id>
<revision>
<id>41513797</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:44:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fire Star</username>
<id>43530</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Archaeological discovery */ less spin</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hattusa.king.jpg|thumb|Relief of Suppiluliuma II, last known king of the Hittite Empire]]
'''“Hittites”''' is the conventional English-language term for an ancient people who spoke an [[Indo-European language]] and established a kingdom centered in [[Hattusa]] (Hittite ''Hattushash'') where today is the village of Boğazköy in north-central [[Turkey]], through most of the second millennium BC.
The Hittite kingdom, which at its height controlled central [[Anatolia]], north-western [[Syria]] down to [[Ugarit]], and Mesopotamia down to [[Babylon]], lasted from roughly 1680 BC to about 1180 BC. After 1180 BC, the Hittite polity disintegrated into several independent city-states, some of which survived as late as around 700 BC.
The Hittite kingdom, or at least its core region, was apparently called '''Hatti''' in the reconstructed [[Hittite language]]. However, the Hittites should be distinguished from the "[[Hattians]]", an earlier people who inhabited the same region until the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, and spoke a non-Indo-European language conventionally called [[Hattic language|Hattic]].
'''Hittites''' or more recently, '''Hethites''' is also the common English name of a Biblical people (חתי or ''HTY'' in the consonant-only [[Hebrew language|Hebrew script]]), who are also called '''Children of Heth''' (בני-חת, ''BNY HT''). These people are mentioned several times in the [[Old Testament]], from the time of the [[Patriarchs (Bible)|Patriarch]]s up to [[Ezra]]'s return from [[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylonian captivity]]; see [[Hittites in the Bible]]. The archaeologists who discovered the Anatolian Hittites in the 19th century initially believed the two peoples to be the same, and many still do, but the identification is disputed.
The Hittites were also famous for their skill in building and using [[Chariot#Hittite|chariot]]s. Some consider the Hittites to be the first civilization to have discovered how to work [[iron]], and thus the first to enter the [[Iron Age]].
==Archaeological discovery==
[[Image:Hattusa.liongate.jpg|thumb|270px|Ruins of Hattusa (Lion Gate) at Boğazköy, [[Turkey]]]]
The first archaeological evidence for the Hittites appeared in tablets found at the [[Assyria]]n colony of [[Kültepe]] (ancient [[Karum Kanesh]]), containing records of trade between Assyrian merchants and a certain "land of ''[[Hatti]]''". Some names in the tablets were neither Hattic nor Assyrian, but clearly Indo-European.
The script on a monument at Boğazköy by a "People of Hattusas" discovered by [[William Wright]] in [[1884]] was found to match peculiar [[hie |
ings and his conversations with the prisoners, which he later published in the book ''[[Nuremberg Diary]]''. The following quotation was a part of a conversation Gilbert held with a dejected Göring in his cell on the evening of [[18 April]] [[1946]], as the trials were halted for a three-day [[Easter]] recess.
:"Sweating in his cell in the evening, Göring was defensive and deflated and not very happy over the turn the trial was taking. He said that he had no control over the actions or the defense of the others, and that he had never been [[anti-Semitic]] himself, had not believed these atrocities, and that several [[Jews]] had offered to testify in his behalf."
Despite claims that he was not anti-semitic, while in the prison yard at Nuremberg, after hearing a remark about Jewish survivors in Hungary, [[Albert Speer]] reported overhearing Göring say, "So, there are still some there? I thought we had knocked off all of them. Somebody slipped up again." {{ref|lastdays}}
==The personal standards of Hermann Göring==
When Göring had been promoted to the unique rank of "Reichsmarschall" on [[July 19]] [[1940]], he at once decided to choose a personal standard for himself. The design in the centre of the left side displayed a German eagle embroidered in gold-yellow thread and clutching in its talons a gold swastika standing on its point. Set behind the swastika was a pair of crossed marshal's batons. The right side displayed in the centre a large black Iron Cross. It was the so called "Großkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes" that was only bestowed on him by Hitler. Set in each of the four sections of the field was a gold-yellow Luftwaffe eagle and swastika. The basic field was light blue on both sides, that indicated that he was also the Commander-In-Chief of the German Air Force. In February 1941 he made up his mind to modify the whole design in order to look more "fashionable". The standard was used for all purposes and was carried by a personal standard-bearer.
<gallery>
Image:Hermann Göring1 (Vorderseite).jpg|1. pattern (right side)
Image:Hermann Göring1 (Rückseite).jpg|1. pattern (left side)
Image:Hermann Göring2 (Vorderseite).jpg|2. pattern (right side)
Image:Hermann Göring2 (Rückseite).jpg|2. pattern (left side)
</gallery>
==In fiction==
In [[Philip José Farmer]]'s ''[[Riverworld]]'', a [[reincarnation|reincarnated]] Göring becomes a [[missionary]] for the Church of the Second Chance, a pacifist religion.</p>
<p>[[Philip K Dick]]'s 1962 [[science-fiction]] [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] novel <i>[[The Man in the High Castle]]</i> mentions Göring, who, by 1962 is aging, morbidly obese, and the subject of much [[rumor]] and speculation regarding his indulgent lifestyle (which is seen by some as akin to that of a corrupt [[Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]). He resides in his large estate within the [[Alps]].</p>
Göring was an early foe of [[Captain America]], along with [[Adolf Hitler]].
Göring is represented by the character ''Emmanuel Giri'' in ''[[The Resistable Rise of Arturo Ui]]'' by [[Bertolt Brecht]]. The play is a parody of the rise of Hitler, largely written in exile (1941), with various scenes added afterwards. It has been translated into English by [[Ralph Manheim]] and published by [[Methuen]] modern plays.
==In film==
{{Commons|Hermann Wilhelm Göring}}
*He has been portrayed by:
**[[Jan Werich]] - [[1949 in film|1949]], ''[[Padeniye Berlina]]'' (both parts)
**[[Hein Reiss]] - [[1969 in film|1969]], ''[[Battle of Britain (film)|Battle of Britain]]''.
**[[Glenn Shadix]] - 1969, ''[[The Empty Mirror]]''.
**[[Volker Spengler]] - [[1996 in film|1996]], ''[[The Ogre (film)|The Ogre]]'', directed by [[Volker Schlöndorff]], also starring [[John Malkovich]].
**[[Brian Cox]] - [[2000 in film|2000]], ''Nuremberg'' ([[television movie]]), also starring [[Alec Baldwin]] and [[Jill Hennessy]].
**[[Chris Larkin]] - [[2003 in film|2003]], ''Hitler: The Rise of Evil'' (television movie).
**[[Mathias Gnädinger]] - [[2004 in film|2004]], ''[[Der Untergang]]''.
Footage of Göring has been included in many films, notably in the [[1935 in film|1935]] ''[[Triumph des Willens]]'' by [[Leni Riefenstahl]].
==Quotes==
{{wikiquote}}
*"Guns will make us strong, butter will only make us fat."
*"Why of course the people don't want war. Why should some poor slob on a farm want to risk his life in a war when the best he can get out of it is to come back to his farm in one piece? Naturally the common people don't want war neither in Russia, nor in England, nor for that matter in Germany. That is understood. But, after all, it is the leaders of the country who determine the policy and it is always a simple matter to drag the people along, whether it is a democracy, or a fascist dictatorship, or a parliament, or a communist dictatorship. Voice or no voice, the people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked, and denounce the peacemakers for the lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger. It works the same in any country."
==Books about Göring==
* Frischauer, Willi: ''The Rise and Fall of Hermann Goering'' (Ballantine Books 1951)
* Overy, Richard J.: ''Goering: The Iron Man'' (Routledge 1984)
* Maser, Werner: ''Hitlers janusköpfiger Paladin:die politische Biographie'', (German) (Berlin 2000) ISBN 38-6124-509-4
* Irving, David: ''Göring: Biography of Hermann Göring'' (1989) ISBN 0688066062
*[http://www.third-reich-books.com/x-567-hermann-goering-germany-reborn.htm excerpt from Hermann Göring book "Germany Reborn"]
==References==
*[[Joachim Fest|Fest, Joachim]]: ''Inside Hitler's Bunker'', Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2002 ISBN 0374135770
*[[Gustave Gilbert|Gilbert, Gustave]]: "[[Nuremberg Diary]]", originally published: New York: Farrar, Straus and Company, 1947, p. 278-279. ISBN 0306806614
*{{note|lastdays}}[[Albert Speer|Speer, Albert]]: ''[[Inside the Third Reich]]'', The Macmillan Company, 1970, p. 605. ISBN 0684829495
==External links==
*[http://www.jta.org/page_view_story.asp?intarticleid=16050&intcategoryid=5 A survivor and Nuremberg journalist recalls a surreal meeting with Goering] By Ernest W. Michel for the [[Jewish Telegrahphic Agency|JTA]] November 21, 2005
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Oberste SA-Führer|Leader of the SA]] | before=[[Hans Ulrich Klintzsche]] | after=Post vacant from 1923-1925 | years=1923}}
{{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of Prussia]] | before=[[Franz von Papen]]<br>(Reichskomissar) | after=Prussia abolished | years=1933&ndash;1945}}
{{end box}}
{{GFMofWWII}}
[[Category:1893 births|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:1946 deaths|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:Military people who committed suicide|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:Flying aces|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:Field Marshals of Nazi Germany|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:German politicians|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:German World War I flying aces|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:German World War II people|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:Luftwaffe generals and leaders|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:Nazi leaders|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:Natives of Bavaria|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:People convicted in the Nuremberg Trials|Goering, Hermann]]
[[ar:هيرمان غورينغ]]
[[cs:Hermann Göring]]
[[da:Hermann Göring]]
[[de:Hermann Göring]]
[[el:Χέρμαν Γκαίριγκ]]
[[es:Hermann Wilhelm Göring]]
[[fa:هرمان گورینگ]]
[[fr:Hermann Göring]]
[[ko:헤르만 괴링]]
[[it:Hermann Göring]]
[[he:הרמן גרינג]]
[[ka:გიორინგი, ჰერმან]]
[[nl:Hermann Göring]]
[[ja:ヘルマン・ゲーリング]]
[[no:Hermann Göring]]
[[nn:Hermann Göring]]
[[pl:Hermann Göring]]
[[pt:Hermann Göring]]
[[ru:Геринг, Герман Вильгельм]]
[[sl:Hermann Göring]]
[[fi:Hermann Göring]]
[[sv:Hermann Göring]]
[[zh:赫尔曼·戈林]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heidegger</title>
<id>13488</id>
<revision>
<id>15911093</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-13T07:09:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snoyes</username>
<id>8289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted to last edit by 217.99.96.148</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Martin Heidegger]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hegel</title>
<id>13489</id>
<revision>
<id>15911094</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-14T00:24:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snoyes</username>
<id>8289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Marrubium vulgare</title>
<id>13490</id>
<revision>
<id>41900229</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:53:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>89.51.60.252</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>commons</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Marrubium vulgare''
| image = Marrubium_vulgare0.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''Marrubium vulgare'' flowers
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Lamiales]]
| familia = [[Lamiaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Marrubium]]''
| species = '''''M. vulgare'''''
| binomial = ''Marrubium vulgare''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}
'''''Marrubium vulgare''''' ('''White Horehound''' or '''Common Horehound''') is a [[flowering plant]] in the family [[Lamiaceae]], native to [[Europe]], northern [[Africa]] and [[Asia]].
It is a greyish-leaved [[herbaceous]] [[perennial plant]], somewhat resembling [[mint]] in appearance, which grows to 25-45 cm tall. The [[leaf|leaves]] are 2-5 cm long with a densely crinkled surface, and downy-hairy. The [[flower]]s are white, borne in clusters on the upper part of the main stem
White Hore |
ge:Treasury of Athens at Delphi.JPG|thumb|The Treasury of [[Athens]], built to commemorate their victory at the [[Battle of Marathon]]]]
Other archaeologists believe that the oracle also inhaled fumes of burning bay leaves.
==Treasuries==
From the entrance of the site, continuing up the slope almost to the temple itself, is a large number of [[votive deposit|votive]] statues, and numerous treasuries. These were built by the various states &ndash; those overseas as well as those on the mainland &ndash; to commemorate victories and to thank the oracle for advice important to those victories. The most impressive is the now-restored Treasury of [[Athens]], built to commemorate the Athenians' victory at the [[Battle of Marathon]]. The Athenians had previously been given the advice by the oracle to put their faith in their "wooden walls" &ndash; taking this advice to mean their navy, they won a famous battle at [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]]. Another impressive treasury that exists on the site was dedicated by the city of [[Siphnos]], who had ammassed great wealth from their silver and gold mines and so they dedicated the [[Siphnian Treasury]].
==Tholos==
[[Image:Delphi_145.jpg|thumb|The Tholos at the sanctuary of Athena Pronaia]]
The Tholos at the sanctuary of Athena Pronaia is a circular building that was constructed between 380 and 360 B.C. It consisted of 20 Doric columns arranged with an exterior diamater of 14.76 meters, with 10 Corinthian columns in the interior. The Tholos is located approximately a half-mile (800 m) from the main ruins at Delphi. Three of the Doric colums have been restored, making it the most popular site at Delphi for tourists to take photographs.
==Modern Delphi==
The modern Delphi or Delfi or Delfoi is situated west of the archaeological site. It is passed by a major highway linking Amfissa along with Itea and Arachova. The two main streets are each one-way and narrow. Delphi also has a school, a lyceum and a square (''[[plateia]]''). The communities include [[Chrysso (Phokida), Greece|Chrysso]] which in ancient times was Crissa.
==See also==
*[[Greek art]]
==Footnotes==
* {{ent|1|Rohde1}} cf. Rohde, ''Psyche'', p.97
* {{ent|2|note2}} After investigating the site, [[archeology|archeologists]] were convinced that these vapours are only a myth, as no evidence for them could be found, and &mdash; so the then standard opinion in [[geology]] &mdash; gaseous emissions from rock only occur in conjunction with [[volcano|volcanic]] activity. However, recent [[geology|geological]] research indicates that the site of the oracle shows young [[geological fault]]s, and it seems plausible that these emitted in ancient times light [[hydrocarbon]] [[gas]]es, possibly [[ethylene]], from [[bitumen|bituminous]] [[limestone]] which do have an [[intoxicating]] effect. (de Boer et al., Geology '''29''' (2001) pp. 707; see e.g. [http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/template.cfm?name=DelphiHigh here] for a popular science coverage)
==References==
*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], ''Greek Religion'' 1985.
*Farnell, Lewis Richard, ''The Cults of the Greek States'', 1896.
*Goodrich, Norma Lorre, ''Priestesses'', 1990.
*Guthrie, William Keith Chambers, ''The Greeks and their Gods'', 1955.
*[[Manly Palmer Hall]], ''The Secret Teachings of All Ages'', 1928. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/eso/sta/sta14.htm Ch. 14 cf. Greek Oracles],[http://www.sacred-texts.com/eso/sta/index.htm www], [http://www.prs.org/secret.htm PRS]
*[http://omacl.org/Hesiod/hymns.html Homeric Hymn to Pythian Apollo]
*[[Erwin Rohde|Rohde, Erwin]], ''Psyche'', 1925.
==External links==
{{commonscat|Delphi}}
===General===
*[http://www.fokida.gr/en/dim_delfon.html Homepage of the modern municipality] (in English or Greek)
*[http://www.culture.gr/2/21/211/21110a/e211ja01.html Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Delphi]
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/oracles/ The Oracle of Delphi and Ancient Oracles], annotated guide edited by Tim Spalding
*[http://www.travel-to-arachova.com/delphi.php Delphi guide]
*[http://hellas.teipir.gr/prefectures/greek/Fokidas/Delfoi.htm Delphi] (in Greek)
*[http://www.moonspeaker.ca/Delphi/delphi.html C. Osborne , "A Short detour to Delphi and the Sibyls"]
*[http://www.livius.org/a/greece/delphi/delphi.html Livius Picture Archive: Delphi]
*[http://www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/world/med/me-elo.htm Eloise Hart, "The Delphic oracle"]
*[http://psychicinvestigator.com/demo/DELPHI.htm "The Delphic oracle"]
*[http://www.arounparnassos.com Ancient Delphi and Mount Parnassos Guide]
====Geology of Delphi====
*[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0009BD34-398C-1F0A-97AE80A84189EEDF John R. Hale, et al., "Questioning the Delphic Oracle: When science meets religion at this ancient Greek site, the two turn out to be on better terms than scholars had originally thought", in ''Scientific American'' August 2003]
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/08/0814_delphioracle.html John Roach, "Delphic Oracle's Lips May Have Been Loosened by Gas Vapors" in ''National Geographic news''], August 2001
*[http://geology.about.com/cs/odds_and_ends/a/aa081901a.htm Geology of Delphi]
*[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/inhalants/inhalants_history1.shtml ''The New York Times,'' March 19, 2002: "Fumes and Visions Were Not a Myth for Oracle at Delphi"]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Holy cities]]
[[Category:Classical oracles]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Phokida]]
[[Category:Former theatres]]
[[da:Delfi]]
[[de:Delphi]]
[[fr:Delphes]]
[[it:Delfi]]
[[he:דלפי (עיר)]]
[[nl:Delphi (Griekenland)]]
[[ja:デルポイ]]
[[pl:Delfy]]
[[ro:Delfi]]
[[ru:Дельфы]]
[[sr:Делфи]]
[[sv:Delfi]]
[[zh:德尔菲]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Digital Equipment Corporation</title>
<id>7952</id>
<revision>
<id>41702619</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T04:03:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RTC</username>
<id>4392</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:digital_dec_logo.jpg|right|The DEC logo]]
'''Digital Equipment Corporation''' was a pioneering company in the American [[computer]] industry. It is often referred to within the computing industry as '''DEC'''. (This acronym was once officially used by Digital itself<sup>[[Digital Equipment Corporation#References|<nowiki>[</nowiki>1<nowiki>]</nowiki>]]</sup>, but later discarded.) Its PDP and VAX products were arguably the most popular mini-computers for the scientific and engineering communities during the 70s and 80s. DEC was acquired by [[Compaq]], which subsequently merged with [[Hewlett-Packard]]. As of [[2005]] its product lines were still produced under the HP name. For many years its headquarters was in an old woolen mill in [[Maynard, Massachusetts]].
Digital Equipment Corporation should not be confused with [[Digital Research]]; the two were unrelated, separate entities (despite some similarities between the operating systems they produced); nor with [[Western Digital]].
== History ==
[[Image:KA10 mod end.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A "B" (blue) series Flip Chip module containing 9 transistors, 1971]]
The company was founded in [[1957]] by [[Ken Olsen]] and [[Harlan Anderson]], two engineers who had been working at [[MIT]] [[Lincoln Laboratory]] on the [[TX-2]] project. The TX-2 was a [[transistor]]-based computer using the then-huge amount of '''64K''' [[36-bit word length|36-bit words]] of [[core memory]]. When that project ran into difficulties, Olsen left to form DEC with Harlan Anderson, a colleague from his MIT days. [[Venture capital]] was provided by [[Georges Doriot]] and his [[American Research and Development Corporation]]. At the time the market was hostile to computer companies, and investors shied from their plans. Instead they started building small digital "modules" (each effectively a single component from the TX-2 design) that could be combined together to be used in a lab setting. In [[1961]] the company was making a profit, and started construction of their first computer, the [[PDP-1]] (PDP being an initialism for [[Programmable Data Processor]]).
The first modules were the free-standing "laboratory modules", placing one or two gates inside an extruded aluminum housing. These modules could be stacked up in a pre-configured 19" rack shelf that supplied power to the modules; the logic circuits were then established using [[4 mm plug|banana plug]] [[patch cord]]s installed at the front of the modules. The same circuits were then packaged as "[[system module]]s", which were used to build the PDP-1. The same circuits were then packaged as the first "R" (red) series "[[flip chip|Flip-Chip®]]" modules. Later, other module series provided additional speed, much higher logic density, and industrial I/O capabilities. Digital published extensive data about the modules in free catalogs that became very popular.
=== 8-bit computers ===
The [[VT180]] (codenamed "Robin") was a [[VT100]] terminal with a [[Zilog Z80|Z80]]-based microcomputer running [[CP/M]].
This evolved into the [[Rainbow-100]], which had both Z80 and [[8088]] CPUs and was capable of running [[CP/M]], [[CP/M-86]], and [[PC-DOS]].
=== 12-bit Computers ===
[[Image:PDP-8.jpg|thumb|220px|right|A PDP-8 on display at the [[Smithsonian]]'s [[National Museum of American History]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]. This example is from the first generation of PDP-8s, built with discrete transistors and later known as the ''Straight 8''.]]
To serve laboratories at a lower cost, DEC provided the [[Programmed Data Processor|PDP-5]], an early minicomputer in 1963.
True success followed with the introduction of the famous [[PDP-8]] in [[1964]]. It was a smaller, 12-b |
eloping long cards, it is important to know the likelihood that the opponents' cards in the suit are evenly divided between them. Generally speaking, if they hold an even number of cards, they are unlikely to be exactly divided; if the opponents have an odd number in the suit, the cards will probably be divided as evenly as possible. For example, if declarer and dummy have eight trumps between them, the opponents' trumps are probably (68% chance) divided 3-2 (one opponent with three trumps, the other with two) and trumps can be drawn in three rounds. If declarer is trying to play with a seven card trump suit, it is more likely that the outstanding trumps are divided 4-2 (48%) than that the cards are evenly divided 3-3 between the opponents (36%).
===== Basic techniques by declarer =====
When new to the game, a player should be familiar with these strategies for playing the hand:
*[[trumping]]
*[[crossruff]]
*establishing long suits
*[[finesse]]
*[[holdup (bridge)|holdup]] (mostly at NT contracts)
*managing entries
*drawing trumps
===== Advanced techniques by declarer =====
Someone who plays regularly in tournaments should be familiar with these concepts:
*counting the hand (tracking the distribution of suits and high cards in the opponents' hands using inferences from the bidding and play)
*[[coup (bridge)|coup]]
*[[duck (bridge)|duck]]
*[[dummy reversal]]
*[[endplay]]
*[[principle of restricted choice (bridge)|principle of restricted choice]]
*[[safety play]]
*[[squeeze play (bridge)|squeeze]]
===== Basic techniques by defenders =====
*opening lead
*when to lead trump
===== Advanced techniques by defenders =====
*avoiding an endplay or squeeze
*counting the hand (tracking the distribution of suits and high cards in the unseen hands using inferences from the bidding and play)
*false carding
*opening lead&mdash;using information from auction
*[[Signal (bridge)|signaling]]
*[[uppercut (bridge)|uppercut]]
== Bridge on the Internet ==
There are several free and some subscription-based servers available for playing bridge on the [[Internet]]. OKBridge<sup>[[#External links|1]]</sup> is the oldest of the still-running Internet Bridge services; players of all standards, from beginners to world champions may be found playing there. SWAN Games<sup>[[#External links|2]]</sup> is a more recent competitor. Bridge Base Online<sup>[[#External links|3]]</sup> is mostly free, and now has a much larger membership base than either of the above. Some National Contract Bridge Organizations now offer online bridge play to their members including the English Bridge Union, the Dutch Bridge Union and the Australian Bridge Federation. MSN and Yahoo! Games have several online Rubber Bridge rooms.
There are many advantages to playing Bridge online:
* The ability to choose when you play.
* The ability to choose your opponents. In a club game, you may be forced to play against pairs that are much weaker, rude, or much stronger. Playing online, you can play against opponents of nearly equal ability.
* Most servers offer an accurate player rating system. The ACBL and EBU [[masterpoints]] systems give credit for how much one has played rather than how well; most online systems have a rating system which attempts to measure one's ability without regard to the number of games played.
* There are fewer restrictions on which conventions one is allowed to use.
* You can not make inferences from partner's tone of voice or other cues available in real life. However, intentional cheating, such as [[instant messaging]] your partner, is easier.
* A detailed record of every hand may be kept, to help resolve complaints.
* It is impossible to make an illegal play by accident, as the software won't accept a play or call which does not conform to the rules.
The main disadvantage to playing online is that bridge is a social game, and many people play because they enjoy the social atmosphere of the bridge club.
== Definitions of common terms ==
''Main article: [[Contract bridge glossary]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.greatbridgelinks.com/ Great Bridge Links, online since 1995]
* [http://www.rulescentral.com/card_games/contract_bridge/search/bridge.html Official Contract Bridge Rules]
* [http://www.acbl.org/ American Contract Bridge League]
* [http://www.ebu.co.uk/ The English Bridge Union]
* [http://www.bridge.nl Dutch Bridge Bond]
* [http://www.prairienet.org/bridge Karen's Bridge Library]
* [http://dmoz.org/Games/Card_Games/Trick_Capturing/Bridge/ ODP Bridge Categories]
* [http://www.okbridge.com OKBridge]
* [http://swangames.com SWAN Games Online Bridge]
* [http://www.bridgebase.com Bridge Base Online (BBO)]
* [http://www.oghma.us Bridge Snaps]
* [http://ptaff.ca/bridge/duplicata/?lang=en_CA Duplicate scoring tables]
* [http://ptaff.ca/bridge/annexe/?lang=en_CA Rubber scoring tables]
* [http://www.ibpa.com/ International Bridge Press Association]
[[Category:Anglo-American playing card games]]
[[Category:Bridge|*]]
[[Category:Trick-taking card games]]
[[da:Bridge (kortspil)]]
[[de:Kontrakt-Bridge]]
[[eo:Briĝo]]
[[fr:Bridge]]
[[he:ברידג']]
[[hu:Bridzs]]
[[ja:コントラクトブリッジ]]
[[nl:Bridge]]
[[pl:Brydż]]
[[ru:Бридж]]
[[sv:Bridge]]
[[tr:Briç]]
[[uk:Бридж]]
[[zh:橋牌]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boat</title>
<id>3996</id>
<revision>
<id>41995450</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:45:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vanka5</username>
<id>428424</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ bg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BoatsonMiamiBeach.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Some boats in a [[harbour]] in [[Miami Beach, Florida]]]]
A '''boat''' is a [[watercraft]], usually smaller than most [[ship]]s. Some boats are commonly carried by a ship or on land using trailers.
A boat consists of one or more [[buoyancy]] structures called [[hull (ship)|hull]]s and some system of propulsion, such as a [[Propeller|screw]], [[oar]]s, [[paddle]]s, a [[setting pole]], a [[sail]], [[Paddle steamer|paddlewheels]] or a [[pump-jet|water jet]].
==Parts of a boat==
[[Image:EgyptTombOarboat.jpg|thumb|Ancient boat in an Egyptian tomb painting from about 1450 BCE]]
The roughly horizontal but cambered structures spanning the hull of the boat are referred to as the "deck". In a ship there are often several, but a boat is unlikely to have more than one. The similar but usually lighter structure which spans a raised cabin is a coarch-roof. The "floor" of a cabin is properly known as the sole but is more likely to be called the floor. (A floor is properly, a structural member which ties a frame to the keelson and keel.) The underside of a deck is the deck head. The vertical surfaces dividing the internal space are "bulkheads". Some are important parts of the vessel's structure. The front of a boat is called the bow or prow. The rear of the boat is called the stern. The right side is starboard and the left side is port.
It is somewhat risible in modern practice to call the command area of a large boat the "bridge". It is the cockpit or wheelhouse, depending on its design.
The compartments housing a toilet, and the toilet itself, are known as the "heads", and a trip to this area is a "head call".
In the old days, cordage intended for the delicate hands of a yacht's owner was of linen, later cotton. Therefore cordage used to control a sailing boat, tends to be referred to as "line" rather than rope. Most have specific names, but in general, lines used for raising things like sails and flags are "halyards" while the principal ones for adjusting the positions of the sails are called "sheets".
All the lines and wire collectively are referred to as "rigging". That which is set up in the yard and left is standing rigging. That which is adjustable in use is running rigging. For example, a forestay is standing rigging and a sheet or a halyard is part of the running rigging.
==Types of boats==
[[Image:DerelictBoatFollyIs.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Derelict: a ship's lifeboat, built of steel and rotting away in the wetlands of Folly Island, North Carolina]]
* [[Banana boat]]
* [[Bangca]]
* [[Bateau]]
* [[Barge]]
* [[Cabin Cruiser]]
* [[Canoe]]
* [[Catamaran]]
* [[Cape Islander]]
* [[Catboat]]
* [[Coble]]
* [[Coracle]]
* [[Cruising|Cruiser]]
* [[Cutter (pulling boat)]]
* [[Cutter]] (sailing boat)
* [[Dhow]]
* [[Dinghy]]
* [[Dory]]
* [[Durham Boat]]
* [[Dutch Barge]]
* [[Felucca]]
* [[Ferry]]
* [[Folding boat]]
* [[Go-fast boat]]
* [[Gondola]]
* [[Houseboat]]
* [[Inflatable boat]]
[[image:mutandbarge.jpg|thumb|250px|A sailboat (racing dinghy) and barge share the [[Mississippi River]]]]
* [[Jetboat]], [[Jetski]]
* [[Jonsboat]]
* [[Junk (sailing)|Junk]]
* [[Kayak]]
* [[Ketch]]
* [[Lifeboat]]
* [[Log boat]]
* [[Longboat]]
* [[Luxemotor]]
* [[Motorboat]]
* [[Narrowboat]]
* [[Norfolk wherry]]
* [[Outrigger canoe]]
* [[Padded V-hull]]
* [[Pinnace]]
* [[Pirogue]]
* [[Powerboat]]
[[Image:Greece-boat.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Tourist schooner in Greece]]
* [[Punt (boat)|Punt]]
* [[Raft]]
* [[Rigid-hulled inflatable boat]] (RIB)
* [[Rowboat]], rowing boat
* [[Sailboat]], sailing boat
* [[Sampan]]
* [[Schooner]]
* [[Scow]]
* [[Sharpie (boat)|Sharpie]]
* [[Skiff]]
* [[Sloop]]
* [[Submarine]]
* [[Surfboat|Surf boat]]
* [[Swift boat]]
* [[Tjalk]]
* [[Trimaran]]
* [[Tugboat]]
* [[U-boat]]
* [[Water taxi]]
* [[Whaleboat]]
* [[Yachting|Yacht]]
* [[Yawl]]
== Unusual types of boats ==
Unusual floating vehicles have been used for sports purposes as well. For example, the [[Bathtub Boat]] is used in "bathtub races" in many cities, although it originated in [[Nanaimo]], BC, Canada.
== Unusual uses of the word "Boat" ==
* Often in [[Sport rowing|rowing]] as a racing-type competitive sport, "boat" means the crew and "shell" means |
ago White Sox]] of the American League won the [[World Series]] in 2005. Police estimated 1.75 million fans turned out to cheer on the victory parade. [[U.S. Cellular Field]] is located on the city's south side on the corner of 35th and Shields; built in 1990 and originally known as '''New Comiskey Park''', it is across the street from the original [[Comiskey Park]], where the White Sox played from 1910 to 1990.
*The [[Chicago Bears]] football team has had some of the best-loved and most famous [[NFL]] personalities, including owner [[George Halas]], players [[Dick Butkus]], [[Gale Sayers]], [[Jim McMahon]], [[William Perry (football player)|William "Refrigerator" Perry]], the legendary [[Walter Payton]], and coach [[Mike Ditka]]. The Bears play in [[Soldier Field]] on the city's lakefront. In 1985 the Bears went 15-1, dominated the playoffs, and dismantled the [[New England Patriots|Patriots]] 46-10 in [[Super Bowl XX]].
*The [[Chicago Bulls]] of the [[NBA]] are arguably the most recognized basketball team in the world, thanks to the heroics of a player often cited as the best ever, [[Michael Jordan]], who led the team to six NBA championships in eight seasons in the 1990s.
*The [[Chicago Fire (soccer)|Chicago Fire]] soccer club are members of [[MLS]] and are one of its most successful and best-supported since their founding in 1997, winning one [[Major League Soccer|league]] and three [[US_Open_Cup|US Open Cups]] in that time span. After eight years at [[Soldier Field]] they will begin play at the new [[Bridgeview Stadium]] at 71st and Harlem Avenue in Summer 2006.
Broadcasting by Chicago TV station [[WGN-TV]] has helped spread the visibility of Chicago sports around the country. The city of Chicago has announced that it will bid for the [[2016 Summer Olympics]]. Chicago is the host for the [[Gay Games|2006 Gay Games]].
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Club !! Sport !! League !! Stadium !! Logo
|-
| [[Chicago Bears]]
| [[American football|Football]]
| [[National Football League]]
| [[Soldier Field]]
| [[Image:ChicagoBears 100.png|30px|Chicago Bears Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Blackhawks]]
| [[Ice hockey|Hockey]]
| [[National Hockey League]]
| [[United Center]]
| [[Image:ChicagoBlackhawks 100.png|30px|Chicago Blackhawks Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Bulls]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[National Basketball Association]]
| [[United Center]]
| [[Image:ChicagoBulls 100.png|30px|Chicago Bulls Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Cubs]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[Major League Baseball]]''':''' [[National League]]
| [[Wrigley Field]]
| [[Image:ChicagoCubs 100.png|30px|Chicago Cubs Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Fire (soccer)|Chicago Fire]]
| [[Soccer]]
| [[Major League Soccer]]
| [[Bridgeview Stadium]]
| [[Image:Chicago Fire logo.gif|30px|Chicago Fire Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Sky]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[Women's National Basketball Association]]
| [[UIC Pavilion]]
| [[Image:Sky logo.png|25px|Chicago Sky]]
|-
| [[Chicago Rush]]
| [[Arena Football]]
| [[Arena Football League]]
| [[Allstate Arena]]
| [[Image:ChicagoRush.gif|35px|Chicago Rush Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago White Sox]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[Major League Baseball]]''':''' [[American League]]
| [[U.S. Cellular Field|U.S. Cellular Field (New Comiskey Park)]]
| [[Image:ChicagoWhiteSox 100.png|30px|Chicago White Sox Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Wolves]]
| [[Hockey]]
| [[American Hockey League]]
| [[Allstate Arena]]
| [[Image:Chicago_wolves_200x200.png|35px|Chicago Wolves Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Machine]]
| [[Lacrosse]]
| [[Major League Lacrosse]]
| [[Benedictine University]]
| [[Image:568.gif|35px|Chicago Machine Logo]]
|}
'''Related topics'''
*[[1959 Pan American Games]] in Chicago
*[[Arlington Park]]
*[[Chicago Motor Speedway]]
*[[Chicago Blitz]]
*[[Chicago Enforcers]]
*[[Chicago Bruisers]]
*[[Chicago Storm]]
*[[Windy City Rollers]]
==Transportation==
[[Image:Chicago Union Station 1943.jpg|thumb|right|300px|In the Great Room at [[Union Station (Chicago)|Union Station]].]]
Chicago is considered to be the premier transportation hub in America. Much of this status stems from its geographic proximity during a time when the United States was growing quickly in population and area. The [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]], completed in 1848, allowed for transportation around the world with connecting waterways through Chicago all the way to New York and the [[Atlantic Ocean]], west to St. Louis, and south to [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. Chicago then became one of the largest grain and lumber ports in the world, with grain being sent to more established populations and lumber being sent to the forest-starved prairies where new settlers needed to build. Even today, Chicago's importance in global distribution remains, as it is the third largest inter-modal port in the world after [[Hong Kong]] and [[Singapore]].
===Streets and highways===
{{main|Streets and highways of Chicago}}
The streets of Chicago primarily follow the grid system established by the [[Chicago City Council]] in 1908 and implemented on September 1, 1909. The baselines for numbering streets and buildings are State Street (east-west numbering) and Madison (north-south numbering). Street numbers begin at "1" at the baselines and run numerically in directions indicated to the city limits. Letters, N, S,E and W indicate directions.
The City of Chicago is divided into one-mile sections which contain eight blocks to the mile (though the street grid is not entirely uniform). Each block's addresses occupy a 100-number range, making a range of 800 address numbers cover approximately one mile. There are three exceptions to the 800-to-a-mile rule: Madison (the north-south zero point) to Roosevelt at 1200 south is one mile, as is Roosevelt to Cermak at 2200 south, and Cermak to 31st Street (3100 south). The regular 800-per-mile range resumes south of 31st Street so that 39th Street (3900 south) is one mile south of 31st Street. Even-numbered addresses are on the north and west sides of streets; odd-numbered address are on the south and east sides.
Seven [[interstate highways]] run through Chicago. Segments that link to the city center are named after influential politicians, and traffic reports tend to use the names rather than interstate numbers. The named interstate segments are the Kennedy Expressway (I-90 From the 'Loop' to O'Hare International Airport), Dan Ryan Expressway (I-90/94, From South of the 'Circle Interchange' to the I-57 Split), Stevenson Expressway (I-55), Edens Expressway (I-94), Eisenhower Expressway (I-290), Bishop Ford Expressway (I-94 from the I-57 Split south), and the Chicago Skyway (I-90 when it breaks off the Dan Ryan). Interstate 57 is not named.
===Public transportation===
{{CTA}}
{{main|Mass transit in Chicago}}
The [[Chicago Transit Authority]] or CTA, operates the second largest public transportation system in the United States (to New York's [[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]) and covers the City of Chicago and 40 surrounding suburbs. The CTA operates 24 hours a day and, on an average weekday, 1.6 million rides are taken on the CTA.
CTA has approximately 2,000 buses that operate over 152 routes and 2,273 route miles. Buses provide about 1 million passenger trips a day and serve more than 12,000 posted bus stops. CTA's 1,190 rapid transit cars operate over seven routes and 222 miles of track. CTA trains provide about 500,000 customer trips each day and serve 144 stations in Chicago, [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Skokie, Illinois|Skokie]], [[Wilmette, Illinois|Wilmette]], [[Rosemont, Illinois|Rosemont]], [[Forest Park, Illinois|Forest Park]], [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]]. The elevated train is also known as the "Chicago L" or "El" to Chicagoans.
Chicago is one of the few cities in the United States that provides [[Chicago El|rapid transit service]] to two major [[airport]]s. From the downtown area the CTA's [[Blue Line (Chicago Transit Authority)|Blue Line]] takes customers to [[O'Hare International Airport]] in about 40 minutes and the [[Orange Line (Chicago Transit Authority)|Orange Line]] takes customers to [[Midway Airport]] in about 30 minutes from the [[Chicago Loop|Loop]].
[[Metra]] operates commuter rail service at over 200 stations in Chicago and its suburbs. [[Metra]] features the Electric District Main Line, which offers commutes from the Far South Suburbs to Chicago's Lakefront Attractions like [[McCormick Place]], [[Millennium Park]], [[Soldier Field]] and Museum Campus. Metra's Electric Line is [[Chicago]]'s oldest continuing commuter train (1856), sharing the railway with the South Shore Line's NICTD Northwest Indiana Commuter Rail Service, which accesses Chicago/Gary Airport.
[[Pace (transit)|Pace]] operates a primarily-suburban bus service that also offers some routes into Chicago.
===Airports===
[[Image:OHare.jpg|right|thumb|172px|The American Airlines terminal at O'Hare International Airport]]
{{main|Airports of Chicago}}
In the 20th century, Chicago held on to its status as the nation's transportation hub with the building of two airports: [[Midway Airport]], on the south side, which was superceded in the 1960s by [[O'Hare International Airport]] on the far northwest. Today, O'Hare is one of the world's busiest airports, playing an important role in domestic connections for many airlines. Both O'Hare and Midway are owned and operated by the city of Chicago. For decades Illinois has debated opening a new airport near [[Peotone, Illinois]], with no decision. For now the Gary-Chicago airport, located in nearby Gary, Indiana serves as the third Chicago land airport.
====See also====
*[[Rail stations of Chicago]]
*[[Taxis of Chicago]]
*[[Chicago Pedway]]
*[[Chicago City Railway]]
*[[Bicycling in Chicago]]
*[[Union Station (Chicago)|Union Station]]
*[[Multilevel streets in Chicago]]
==Health and medicine==
The United States has the largest [[Health care in the United States|health |
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">101,282</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,515</TD&gt;
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,887</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">776</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">390</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">328</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">86</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">33</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">34</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Italy</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,790,429</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,610,113</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,343,125</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">484,027</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">182,580</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">44,230</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">17,157</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,677</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,679</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">34</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Portugal</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">108,775</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">103,976</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">77,634</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">40,376</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">25,735</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15,650</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,973</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,477</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,274</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Azores</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35,611</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">33,995</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,274</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,768</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,739</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,512</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,431</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,361</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">37</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Portugal</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">73,164</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">69,981</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59,360</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">30,608</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15,996</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,138</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,542</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,116</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,274</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">37</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">38</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Spain</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59,362</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">49,535</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22,108</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,050</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,185</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,121</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,764</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,244</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,113</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">38</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">39</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other Southern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">472</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">132</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">39</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">40</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Eastern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,785,890</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,731,327</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,956,783</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,134,680</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">512,464</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">182,371</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">63,408</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,586</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,520</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">40</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Albania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,814</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,608</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Bulgaria</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,399</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,477</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,498</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">43</TD>
<TD></TD>
|
amp;#1089;&#1090;&#1086;&#1088;&#1080;&#1095;&#1085;&#1072; &#1074;&#1110;&#1089;&#1100;]]
[[zh:&#19990;&#32426;]]
[[simple:Centuries]]
[[he:&#1502;&#1488;&#1493;&#1514;]]
[[nah:Centuries]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christopher Columbus</title>
<id>5635</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42151358</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:56:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.188.117.13|205.188.117.13]] ([[User talk:205.188.117.13|talk]]) to last version by Mr Chuckles</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For information about the film director, see the article on [[Chris Columbus]].''
{|align="right"
|[[Image:Face Christopher Columbus.jpg|thumb|239px|No authentic contemporary portrait of Columbus has been found. This portrait of Christopher Columbus, in the Sala de los Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville, was painted by Alejo Fernández between 1505 and 1536. It is the only state sponsored portrait of the First Admiral of the Indies. Photo by Columbus Historian Manuel Rosa]]
|-
|
{| style="float:right; border:1px solid; margin:5px"
|-
! bgcolor=lightgrey | [[English Language|English]]
| bgcolor=lightblue | Christopher Columbus
|-
|| [[Latin]] || Christoferens Columbus
|-
|| [[Italian language|Italian]] || Cristoforo Colombo
|-
|| [[French language|French]] || Christophe Colomb
|-
|| [[Spanish language|Spanish]] || Cristóbal Colón
|-
|| [[Catalan language|Catalan]] || Cristòfor Colom
|-
|| [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] || Cristóvão Colombo
|-
|| [[Arabic language|Arabic]] || كريستوفر كولومبوس
|-
|| [[Chinese language| Chinese]] || 哥倫布
|-
|| [[Czech language| Czech]] || Kryštof Kolumbus
|-
|| [[Danish language|Danish]] || Christoffer Columbus
|-
|| [[Dutch language|Dutch]] || Christoffel Columbus
|-
|| [[Finnish language|Finnish]] || Kristoffer Kolumbus
|-
|| [[German language|German]] || Christoph Kolumbus
|-
|| [[Georgian language|Georgian]] || ქრისტეფორე კოლუმბი
|-
|| [[Greek language|Greek]] || Χριστόφορος Κολόμβος
|-
|| [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] || כריסטופר קולומבוס
|-
|| [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] || Kolombusz Kristóf
|-
|| [[Japanese language|Japanese]] || クリストファー コロンバス
|-
|| [[Korean language|Korean]] || 크리스토퍼 콜럼버스
|-
|| [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] || Christopher Columbus
|-
|| [[Polish language|Polish]] || Krzysztof Kolumb
|-
|| [[Romanian language|Romanian]] || Cristofor Columb
|-
|| [[Russian language|Russian]] || Христофор Колумб
|-
|| [[Persian language|Persian]] || كريستوف كولومب
|-
|| [[Turkish language|Turkish]] || Kristof Kolomb
|}
|}
'''Christopher Columbus''' ([[October 30]] [[1451]]? &ndash; [[20 May]] [[1506]]) was an [[explorer]] and [[trade]]r who crossed the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and reached the [[Americas]] on [[October 12]], [[1492]] under the flag of [[Castile]]. [[History]] places a great significance on his landing in America in 1492, with the entire period of the history of the Americas before this date usually known as [[Pre-Columbian]], and the anniversary of this event, [[Columbus Day]], is celebrated in many parts of America. Although there is evidence of [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact|Pre-Columbian trans-Atlantic Ocean European contact]], Columbus is commonly credited as "the" European discoverer of the Americas because of the profound impact his contact wrought on history. His voyage marked the beginning of the European exploration and colonization of the Americas.
It is generally assumed he was [[Genova|Genoese]], although some historians claim he could have been born in other places, from the [[Aragonese Empire|Crown of Aragón]] to the Kingdoms of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] or [[Portugal]], or in the [[Greece|Greek]] island of [[Chios]], among others. The real name of the explorer is also unknown; see the section on Columbus' national origin for a discussion of his origin and names.
==Early life==
There are various versions of Columbus' origins and life before 1476. Research today is casting doubt on the traditional account and DNA may soon prove his true origins. (''See'' [[Christopher Columbus#Columbus' national origin|Columbus' national origin]].) The account that has traditionally been supported by most historians is as follows:
It is thought that Columbus was born between [[August 26]] and [[October 31]] in the year 1451, in the Italian port city of [[Genoa]]. His father was Domenico Colombo, a woollens merchant, and his mother was Susanna Fontanarossa, the daughter of a woollens merchant. Christopher had three younger brothers, [[Bartolomeo Columbus|Bartolomeo]], Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo, and a sister, Bianchinetta.
In 1470, the family moved to [[Savona]], where Christopher worked for his father in wool processing. During this period, he studied [[cartography]] with his brother Bartolomeo. Christopher received almost no formal education; a voracious reader, he was largely self-taught.
In 1474, Columbus joined a ship of the [[Spinola Financiers]], who were Genoese patrons of his father. He spent a year on a ship bound towards [[Chios]] (an island in the [[Aegean Sea]]) and, after a brief visit home, spent a year in Chios. It is believed that this is where he recruited some of his sailors.
In 1476, a commercial expedition gave Columbus his first opportunity to sail into the Atlantic Ocean. The fleet came under attack by [[French privateers]] off the [[Cape of St. Vincent]], Portugal. Columbus' ship was burned and he swam six miles to shore.
[[Image:colombus genoa.jpg|right|thumb|Columbus monument in Genoa]]
By 1477, Columbus was living in [[Lisbon]]. Portugal had become a center for maritime activity, thanks to Infante Henrique (Prince Henry the Navigator), who commandeered the Age of Discovery. Henrique's ships sailed for [[England]], [[Ireland]], [[Iceland]], [[Madeira]], [[Azores|the Azores]], and [[Africa]]. Columbus' brother Bartolomeo worked as a mapmaker in Lisbon. At times, the brothers worked together as [[draftsmen]] and book collectors.
He became a merchant sailor with the Portuguese fleet, and sailed to Iceland via Ireland in 1477. He sailed to Madeira in 1478 to purchase sugar, and along the coasts of West Africa between 1482 and 1485, reaching the Portuguese post of [[Elmina Castle]] in the [[Gulf of Guinea]] coast.
In 1479, Christopher Columbus married Felipa Perestrello Moniz, a daughter from a noble Portuguese family with some Italian ancestry. Felipa's father, [[Bartolomeu Perestrelo]], had partaken in finding the [[Madeira Islands]] and owned one of them ([[Porto Santo Island]]), but had died when Felipa was a baby, leaving his second wife a wealthy widow. As part of his dowry, Columbus received all of Perestrello's charts of the winds and currents of the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese possessions]] on the Atlantic. Columbus and Felipa had a son, [[Diego Colón]] in 1480. Felipa died in January of 1485. Columbus later found a lifelong partner in Spain, an orphan named Beatriz Enriquez. She was living with a cousin in the weaving industry of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]]. They never married, but Columbus left Beatriz a rich woman, and directed Diego to treat her as his own mother. The two had a son, Ferdinand, in 1488. Both boys served as pages to Prince [[Juan of Aragon]], son of [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] and [[Isabella I of Castile|Isabella of Castile]], and each later contributed, with fabulous success, to the rehabilitation of their father's reputation.
==Columbus' theories==
[[Christianity|Christian]] Europe, which had long enjoyed safe passage to [[India]] and [[China]] — sources of valued goods such as [[silk]] and [[spices]] — under the [[hegemony]] of the [[Mongol Empire]] (the ''Pax Mongolica'', or "Mongol peace"), was now, after the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire, under complete economic [[blockade]] by [[Muslim]] states. In response to Muslim domination on land, Portugal sought an eastward sea route to the [[Indies]], and promoted the establishment of trading posts and later colonies along the African coast. Columbus had a different idea. By the 1480s, he had developed a plan to travel to the Indies (then construed roughly as all of south and east Asia) by instead sailing directly west across the "Ocean Sea" (the Atlantic).
It is sometimes claimed that the reason Columbus had difficulty obtaining support for his plan was that Europeans believed that the [[flat earth|Earth was flat]]. This myth can be traced to [[Washington Irving]]'s 1828 novel, ''The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus''. In fact, what was at issue was not the shape, but the circumference of the earth.
The fact that the Earth is round was evident to most people of Columbus' time, especially to sailors, explorers and navigators. Indeed, [[Eratosthenes]] (276-194 BCE) had already, in ancient Alexandrian times, accurately calculated the Earth's circumference. Most scholars accepted [[Ptolemy]]'s claim that the terrestrial landmass (for Europeans of the time, comprising Eurasia and Africa) occupied 180 degrees of the terrestrial sphere, leaving 180 degrees of water.
Columbus, however, accepted the calculations of [[Pierre d'Ailly]], that the landmass occupied 225&deg;, leaving only 135&deg; of water. Moreover, Columbus believed that 1&deg; represented a shorter distance on the earth's surface than was commonly held. Finally, he read maps as if the distances were calculated in [[Roman mile]]s (1,524 meters, or 5,000 feet), rather than in [[nautical mile]]s (1,853.99 meters, or 6,082.66 feet, at the equator). He therefore calculated the circumference of the Earth as 30,600 km (19,000 modern statute miles) at most, and the distance from t |
e end for Infocom. While relations were cordial between the two companies at first, the departure of [[James Levy]] from Activision left [[Bruce Davis]] in charge. Davis believed that his company had paid too much for Infocom and initiated a lawsuit against them to recoup some of the cost. Furthermore, he made a string of poor, heavy-handed decisions that made Infocom unprofitable. For example:
*Davis demanded they use Activision's packaging plant instead of their own in-house one, raising the cost of each package from $0.45 each to over $0.90 each. In addition, the Activision plant made numerous mistakes in packaging where the Infocom one almost never did.
*Infocom had a successful marketing approach that kept all their games in store inventories for years. Because of this, older titles sales often kept pace with sales of newer games. For example, because ''Zork'' was available for years after its initial release in [[1980]], it continued to top charts in sales well into the mid-1980s. Activision preferred to market Infocom's games the way they marketed their other titles: replacing older titles with newer ones. While this made sense for the graphically intensive games that made up the rest of Activision's catalog, since Infocom games were text based, it didn't make sense--the newer games didn't have improved ''text''. This marketing approach cut off potential revenue for numerous Infocom titles that had consistently brought in money for several years.
*Davis demanded the struggling developer must produce eight titles a year. Infocom had traditionally produced about four games per year with more staff than they currently had.
*Davis pushed Infocom to release more graphical games, but the one they did release bombed. This was, in part, due to Infocom's long-standing rule of maximum portability; a game that could display graphics on a number of different systems couldn't take advantage of the strengths of any of them.
=== The end ===
Rising costs and falling profits due to these changes and other botched ventures caused Activision to finally pull the plug on Infocom in [[1989]]. For a few years, Activision continued to market Infocom's classic games in collections (usually by genre, such as the Science Fiction collection); in 1991, they published ''[[The Lost Treasures of Infocom]]'', followed in [[1992]] by ''[[The Lost Treasures of Infocom|The Lost Treasures of Infocom II]]''. These two compilations featured nearly every game produced by Infocom before [[1988]]. (''[[Leather Goddesses of Phobos]]'' was not included in either bundle, but could be ordered via a coupon included with ''Lost Treasures II''.) In [[1996]], these were followed by ''[[Classic Text Adventure Masterpieces of Infocom]]'', a single CD-ROM which contained the works of both collections combined.
==Titles & authors==
===Interactive Fiction===
*The ''[[Zork]]'' series:
** The original Zork Trilogy (Marc Blank & Dave Lebling):
***''[[Zork I]]: The Great Underground Empire'' ([[1980]])
***''[[Zork II]]: The Wizard of Frobozz'' ([[1981]])
***''[[Zork III]]: The Dungeon Master'' ([[1982]])
** The ''Enchanter'' Trilogy:
***''[[Enchanter (computer game)|Enchanter]]'' ([[1983]], Marc Blank)
***''[[Sorcerer (computer game)|Sorcerer]]'' ([[1984]], [[Steve Meretzky]])
***''[[Spellbreaker]]'' ([[1985]], Dave Lebling)
** ''[[Beyond Zork|Beyond Zork: The Coconut of Quendor]]'' ([[1987]], [[Brian Moriarty]])
** ''[[Zork Zero|Zork Zero: The Revenge of Megaboz]]'' ([[1988]], Steve Meretzky)
**''[[Zork: The Undiscovered Underground]]'' ([[1997]], [[Michael Berlyn]] and Marc Blank)
*''[[Deadline (computer game)|Deadline]]'' (1982, Marc Blank)
*''[[Starcross (computer game)|Starcross]]'' (1982, Dave Lebling)
*''[[Suspended|Suspended: A Cryogenic Nightmare]]'' (1983, Michael Berlyn)
*''[[Infidel (computer game)|Infidel]]'' (1983, Michael Berlyn)
*''[[Planetfall]]'' (1983, Steve Meretzky)
*''[[The Witness (computer game)|The Witness]]'' (1983, [[Stu Galley]])
*''[[Cutthroats (computer game)|Cutthroats]]'' (1984, Michael Berlyn & [[Jerry Wolper]])
*''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' (1984, Steve Meretzky & [[Douglas Adams]])
*''[[Seastalker]]'' (1984, Stu Galley & [[Jim Lawrence (Cartoonist)|Jim Lawrence]])
*''[[Suspect (computer game)|Suspect]]'' (1984, Dave Lebling)
*''[[A Mind Forever Voyaging]]'' (1985, Steve Meretzky)
*''[[Wishbringer|Wishbringer: The Magick Stone of Dreams]]'' (1985, Brian Moriarty)
*''[[Ballyhoo (computer game)|Ballyhoo]]'' ([[1986]], [[Jeff O'Neill]])
*''[[Hollywood Hijinx]]'' (1986, [[Dave Anderson (game designer)|"Hollywood" Dave Anderson]])
*''[[Leather Goddesses of Phobos]]'' (1986, Steve Meretzky)
*''[[Moonmist]]'' (1986, Stu Galley)
*''[[Trinity (computer game)|Trinity]]'' (1986, Brian Moriarty)
*''[[Border Zone]]'' (1987, Marc Blank)
*''[[Bureaucracy (computer game)|Bureaucracy]]'' (1987, Infocom & Douglas Adams)
*''[[The Lurking Horror]]'' (1987, Dave Lebling)
*''[[Nord and Bert Couldn't Make Head or Tail of It]]'' (1987, Jeff O'Neill)
*''[[Plundered Hearts]]'' (1987, [[Amy Briggs]])
*''[[Stationfall]]'' (1987, Steve Meretzky)
*''[[Sherlock: The Riddle of the Crown Jewels]]'' (1988, [[Bob Bates]])
*''[[Arthur: The Quest for Excalibur]]'' ([[1989]], Bob Bates)
*''[[James Clavell's Shogun]]'' (1989, Dave Lebling)
*''[[Journey (computer game)|Journey]]'' (1989, Marc Blank)
===Other Titles===
* Graphic Adventures
**''[[Leather Goddesses of Phobos 2: Gas Pump Girls Meet the Pulsating Inconvenience from Planet X!]]'' ([[1992]], Steve Meretzky)
**''[[Return to Zork]]'' ([[1993]])
**''[[Zork: Nemesis]]'' ([[1996]])
**''[[Zork Grand Inquisitor]]'' (1997)
* [[BattleTech]] Games
**''[[BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk's Inception]]'' (1988, developed by [[Westwood Studios]])
**''[[BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk's Revenge]]'' ([[1991]], developed by Westwood Studios)
* Other Games
**''[[Fooblitzky]]'' (1985, Marc Blank, Mike Berlyn, [[Poh Lim]] & [[Paula Maxwell]])
**''[[Quarterstaff: The Tomb of Setmoth]]'' (1988, [[Scott Schmitz]], [[Ken Updike]] & Amy Briggs)
**''[[Mines of Titan]]'' (1988, [[Louis Castle]] & [[Brett Sperry]])
**''[[Tombs and Treasure]]'' (1989, developed by [[Nihon Falcom]])
**''[[Circuit's Edge]]'' (1989, developed by [[Westwood Studios]])
* Infocomics
**''Lane Mastodon vs. the Blubbermen'' (1988, Steve Meretzky)
**''Gamma Force in Pit of a Thousand Screams'' (1988, Amy Briggs)
**''ZorkQuest: Assault on Egreth Castle'' (1988, [[Elizabeth Langosy]])
**''ZorkQuest II: The Crystal of Doom'' (1988, Elizabeth Langosy)
===Collections===
*''The Zork Trilogy'' (1986; contained ''Zork I'', ''Zork II'' & ''Zork III'')
*''The Enchanter Trilogy'' (1986; contained ''Enchanter'', ''Sorcerer'' & ''Spellbreaker'')
*''[[The Lost Treasures of Infocom]]'' (1991; contained 20 of Infocom's interactive fiction games)
*''[[The Lost Treasures of Infocom|The Lost Treasures of Infocom II]]'' (1992; contained 11 interactive fiction games)
*''The Zork Anthology'' ([[1994]]; contained ''Zork I'', ''Zork II'', ''Zork III'', ''Beyond Zork'' & ''Zork Zero'')
*''The Masterpieces of Infocom'' (1996; contained 33 Infocom games plus six winners of the [[SPAG]] Interactive Fiction Contest not affiliated with Infocom)
*''Zork Special Edition'' (1997; contained ''Zork I'', ''Zork II'', ''Zork III'', ''Beyond Zork'', ''Zork Zero'', ''Return to Zork'', ''Zork: Nemesis'' & ''Planetfall'')
*''Zork Classics: Interactive Fiction'' ([[2000]])
==Legacy==
With the exception of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' and ''Shogun'', the copyrights to the Infocom games are believed to be still held by Activision. Many Infocom titles can be downloaded via the [[Internet]], legally in the case of the ''Zork'' trilogy and ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'', but in violation of the copyright in most other cases. They are available as [[Z-machine]] story files and require a Z-machine interpreter to play. Interpreters are available for most computer platforms, the most widely used being the [[Frotz]], [[Zip (interpreter)|Zip]] and [[Nitfol]] interpreters.
==Notes==
# Infocom was actually one of the very few companies (if not the only one) to release game software for the [[Commodore 128|C128]]'s native mode, contrary to most software houses' practice of only catering for the combined C64/128 market (as the C128 was compatible with the C64)
==See also==
*[[69105 (number)|69,105]], a number commonly found as an in-joke in many Infocom titles.
==External links==
*[http://www.mobygames.com/browse/games/v,1/o,100/j,22/ MobyGames' entry on Infocom]
*[http://infodoc.plover.net/ Infocom Documentation Project]
*[http://www.atarimagazines.com/compute/issue92/245_1_Interactive_Text_In_An_Animated_Age.php 1988 Interview with Joel Berez and Marc Blank]
*[http://www.infocom-if.org/ Infocom's history, games and authors]
*[http://www.if-legends.org/~pdd/infocom/fact-sheet.txt Infocom Fact-sheet]
*[http://www.csd.uwo.ca/Infocom/ INFOCOM Homepage by Peter Scheyen]&mdash;An enthusiast's home page, containing, among many other resources, a timeline of Infocom's founding, releases and eventual dissolution.
*[http://mit.edu/6.933/www/Fall2000/infocom/ ''Down From the Top of Its Game: The Story of Infocom, Inc.'']&mdash;A report from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] which offers a very detailed examination of Infocom's creative successes and marketing failures. A must-read for Infocom fans.
*[http://infocom.elsewhere.org/gallery/ The Infocom Gallery] with photos of all game boxes, feelies, instruction manuals and extra game contents
*[http://www.retrology.com/infcover.htm A gallery of Infocom box art]
*[http://www.gue-network.com GUE-Network], contains an extensive image gallery of packaging, maps, and screenshots from the games
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~pot/infocom/ Online java version of various Infocom games]
*[http://home.kc.rr |
wsitem.cfm?NewsID=4475]
==Music==
''Animaniacs'' was a very musical cartoon, with every episode featuring an original score (and in many cases, several original songs). Each group of characters had its own sub-theme in the score, and the Hip Hippos and Pinky and the Brain even had their own full [[theme song]]s.
The three Warner siblings often performed songs, including parodies of classical and folk music, often with an educational twist, listing, for example, U.S. states or American presidents. Pinky and the Brain occasionally got songs to sing as well, and the most complicated songs in the series usually went to Rita, voiced by singer [[Bernadette Peters]] (poking fun at Broadway shows in general, and [[Stephen Sondheim]]'s works in particular). Rita and Runt even took on Broadway directly with a parody of ''[[Les Misérables (musical)|Les Misérables]]'' called ''Les Miseranimals'', which aired early in the first season.
Three albums of music from the series were released: ''Animaniacs'', ‘‘Yakko’s World'', and ''Variety Pack'', and the sing-along videos, especially "Yakko's World", remained some of the best selling skit compilation VHS tapes.
The final bars of the Animaniacs theme (as well as [[Bugs Bunny]] and the WB shield) are commonly used by [[Warner Bros.]] to begin various animated series.
The song ''[[Yakko's World]]'' is perhaps their most famous.
==Games==
*[[Animaniacs (video game)|Animaniacs]] for [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super Nintendo]], [[Sega Genesis]], and [[Game Boy]]
*[[Animaniacs: The Great Edgar Hunt]] for [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], and [[Xbox]]
''Announced'' [[Animaniacs: Lights, Camera, Action!]] for Nintendo DS
==Parodies==
''Animaniacs'' often parodied popular TV shows and movies. Some of the most frequent "targets" were children's television shows and action-adventure series. For example, ''Super Strong Warner Siblings'' lampooned the 90's TV series ''[[Mighty Morphin Power Rangers]]'', featuring replicas of the "real" show's costumes and "megazord". Another parody, albeit a [[cold open]]ing rather than a full "segment", depicted the ''Animaniacs'' characters as babies in a parody of the title sequence to ''[[Rugrats]]''. Popular kids' character [[Barney & Friends|Barney]] was also represented as "Baloney", a goofy character whose upbeat personality remained unaffected by the massive amounts of abuse to which the Warners subjected him.
Another example was the parody of ''[[Friends]]'' called "Acquaintances" where the character [[Chandler Bing|Chandler]] had his sarcastic putdowns horrifically enacted upon him.
''Animaniacs'' mocked an abundance of celebrities, including the likes of [[David Hasselhoff]], [[Whoopi Goldberg]], [[Howard Stern]], [[Jaleel White]], and [[Regis Philbin]]. They have also paid tributes to now-dead celebrities, such as [[Christa McAuliffe]], who was ''supposed'' to be the first [[Teacher in Space Project|teacher in space]], but tragically, she perished in the [[1986]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster]]. They even made spoofs of various other disasters, such as the sinking of the ''[[Titanic]]''.
==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0105941|title=Animaniacs}}
* [http://www.tv.com/animaniacs/show/2077/summary.html?q=Animaniacs ''Animaniacs'' at TV.com]
* [http://www2.cruzio.com/~keeper/anibeg.html Animaniacs: In the Beginning]
* [http://members.cruzio.com/~keeper/AMLF.html Animaniacs Mega Lyrics File]
* [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/tv/animaniacs/faq/ NARF - the Nifty Animaniacs Reference File]
* [http://www2.cruzio.com/~keeper/AHEM.txt Animaniacs Handy Episode Manual]
* [http://www.disinfotainmenttoday.com/darenet/animania.htm Animaniacs Scripts] by Michael Dare
* [http://www.fortunecity.com/meltingpot/armenia/1064/DOCS/TTA_A.txt Tiny Toon Adventures references in Animaniacs]
* [http://wba.toonzone.net/voice/august/animaniacs.html Jaime J. Weinman's short article on the history of Animaniacs]
* [http://travish.forumup.org//viewforum.php?f=1&mforum=travish Animaniacs Message Board]
* Jaime J. Weinman's longer articles on Animaniacs: [http://zvbxrpl.blogspot.com/2004/06/animaniacs-part-1.html 1], [http://zvbxrpl.blogspot.com/2004/06/animaniacs-part-2.html 2]
[[Category:Animaniacs|*]]
[[Category:Kids WB shows]]
[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Animated television series]]
[[Category:Fox network shows]]
[[Category:Warner Bros. Cartoons]]
[[de:Animaniacs]]
[[es:Animaniacs]]
[[pt:Animaniacs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Unit of alcohol</title>
<id>1946</id>
<revision>
<id>38209774</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T22:48:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ZeroOne</username>
<id>88248</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Red Wine Glas.jpg|thumb|right|A glass of red wine contains about one unit of alcohol]]
In some countries a system of '''units of alcohol''' is employed for an approximate measure of the amount of [[ethanol|alcohol]] in different drinks.
== Formula ==
A unit of alcohol is equivalent to 10 [[litre|millilitre]]s (or approximately 8 [[gram]]s) of pure [[ethanol]], the active chemical ingredient in alcoholic beverages.
The number of units of alcohol in a drink can be determined by multiplying the volume of the drink (in millilitres) by its percentage [[Alcohol by volume|ABV]], and dividing by 1000.
Thus a [[pint]] (568ml) of beer at 4%&nbsp;ABV contains
<math>\frac{568 \times 4}{1000} = 2.3\mbox{ units}</math>
== Quantities ==
As a rough guide:
*A glass of [[wine]] or [[sherry]], a single measure of [[Alcoholic beverage|spirits]] and a half pint of [[beer]] each contain about ''one unit'', or 8&nbsp;g (0.25&nbsp;oz) of alcohol.
*A large glass of red or white wine or half a pint of [[cider]] contains about 12g (3/8oz), or one and a half units. However strong [[lager]] may contain as much as two units per half pint.
== Limits ==
Since 1995 the UK government has advised that regular consumption of between three and four units a day for men and between two and three units a day for women would not pose significant health risks, but that consistently drinking four or more units a day (men) or three or more units a day (women) is not advisable. The difference between genders is given due to the (typically) lower weight and water-to-body-mass-ratio of women.
==See also==
*[[Standard drink]]
[[Category:Units of measure]]
[[Category:Alcohol]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aotus</title>
<id>1947</id>
<revision>
<id>15900407</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-04T12:00:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Aotus''''' is both a plant and an animal:
*It is one of the genera for the [[Aotus (pea)|golden pea]]s in [[Fabaceae]] (bean family).
*It is the genus for the [[night monkey]]s in Aotidae.
The name means "earless" in both cases: the monkey is missing external [[ear]]s, and the pea is missing earlike bracteoles.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ally McBeal</title>
<id>1948</id>
<revision>
<id>41723868</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:18:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bookofjude</username>
<id>94969</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 40544561 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
| show_name = Ally McBeal
| image = [[Image:mcbeal.jpg]]
| caption = Ally McBeal Logo
| format = [[Dramedy]]
| runtime = 45 minutes
| creator = [[David E. Kelley]]
| starring = [[Calista Flockhart]]<br>[[Courtney Thorne-Smith]]<br>[[Greg Germann]]<br>[[Lisa Nicole Carson]]<br>[[Peter MacNicol]]<br>[[Jane Krakowski]]<br>[[Portia de Rossi]]<br>[[Lucy Liu]]<br>[[Gil Bellows]]<br>[[Barry Humphries]] (as [[Dame Edna Everage]], though uncredited)<br>[[Vonda Shepard]]
| country = [[United States|USA]]
| network = [[FOX Network|FOX]]
| first_aired = [[September 8]], [[1997]]
| last_aired = [[May 20]], [[2002]]
| num_episodes = 112
}}
[[Image:Timeallymcbeal.jpg|thumb|''[[Time]]'' magazine, [[June 29]], [[1998]]. This cover depicts pioneering women [[Susan B. Anthony]], [[Betty Friedan]], and [[Gloria Steinem]] juxtaposed with McBeal and asks "Is Feminism Dead?" It is an example of the debate which revolved around the show and how it depicted women's roles in American society in the 1990s.]]
'''''Ally McBeal''''' was an [[United States|American]] [[television]] [[dramedy]] created by [[David E. Kelley]], with [[Calista Flockhart]] in the title role as a young [[lawyer]] working in a [[fiction]]al [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] law firm named Cage & Fish, filled with similarly young lawyers whose lives and loves are highly [[melodrama]]tic. The show ran on the [[Fox Television Network|FOX]] network from [[1997]] to [[2002]].
Despite its legal environment, the show pays minimal attention to the actual practice of law. Instead it focuses on the romantic and personal lives of the main characters, though sometimes juxtaposing legal proceedings as plot devices to contrast or reinforce a character's drama. For example, bitter divorce litigation of a client might backdrop Ally's decision to break up with a boyfriend.
Particularly notable, the show frequently used vivid, dramatic fantasy visuals for a character's wishful thinking. Also, regular visits to a local, idealized [[bar (establishment)|bar]] where singer and cast member [[Vonda Shepard]] regularly performed (though occasionally handing over the microphone to the characters). Each episode generally concluded on an |
|-
| E || 500 Hz || 2300 Hz
|-
| I || 320 Hz || 3200 Hz
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"
|-
! colspan="3"| '''Vowel formants'''
|-
! Vowel
! Main formant region
|-
| U || 200 to 400 Hz
|-
| O || 400 to 600 Hz
|-
| A || 800 to 1200 Hz
|-
| E || 400 to 600 and 2200 to 2600 Hz
|-
| I || 200 to 400 and 3000 to 3500 Hz
|}
==Singer's formant==
Studies of the frequency spectrum of trained [[singing|singers]], especially male singers, indicate a clear formant around 3000 Hz that is absent in speech or in the spectra of untrained singers. It is this formant which allows singers to be heard and understood over an [[orchestra]]. This formant is actively developed through [[vocal training]], for instance through so-called ''[[voce di strega]]'' exercises.
==See also==
*[[vocoder]]
*[[linear predictive coding]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ling.lu.se/persons/Sidney/praate/whatform.html What are formants?]
*[http://ccms.ntu.edu.tw/~karchung/Phonetics%20II%20page%20nineteen.htm Formants for fun and profit]
*[http://www.geofex.com/Article_Folders/wahpedl/voicewah.htm Formants and wah-wah pedals]
[[Category:Sound]][[category:phonetics]]
[[de:Formant]]
[[eo:Formanto]]
[[fr:Formant]]
[[ja:フォルマント]]
[[nl:Formant]]
[[sv:Formant]]
[[es:Formante]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 20</title>
<id>11025</id>
<revision>
<id>41818356</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:13:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dismas</username>
<id>152983</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Births */ pipe link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=20}}
|}
'''February 20''' is the 51st day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 314 days remaining, 315 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[1472]] - [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] are returned by [[Norway]] to [[Scotland]], due to a defaulted [[dowry]] payment.
* [[1547]] - [[Edward VI of England]] is crowned [[King of England]] at [[Westminster Abbey]].
* [[1724]] - The premiere of ''[[Giulio Cesare]]'', an [[Italian language|Italian]] [[opera]] by [[George Frideric Handel]], takes place in [[London]].
* [[1725]] - The first reported case of white men [[scalping]] [[Native American (US)|Native American]]s takes place in [[New Hampshire]] colony.
* [[1792]] - The [[Postal Service Act]], establishing the [[United States Postal Service|United States Post Office Department]], is signed by President [[George Washington]].
* [[1810]] - [[Andreas Hofer]], [[Tyrol]]ean [[patriot]] and leader of [[rebellion]] against [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s forces, was [[execution (legal)|executed]].
* [[1816]] - [[Gioachino Rossini]]'s ''[[The Barber of Seville]]'' debuts at [[Largo di Torre Argentina|Teatro Argentina]], with a ''fiasco''.
* [[1835]] - [[Concepción, Chile]] is destroyed by an [[earthquake]]
* [[1864]] - [[Battle of Olustee]]
* [[1872]] - In [[New York City]] the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] opens.
* [[1873]] - The [[University of California]] opens its first [[medical school]] in [[San Francisco, California]].
* [[1901]] - The legislature of [[Hawaii]] Territory convenes for the first time.
* [[1913]] - [[King O'Malley]] drives in the first [[Surveying|survey]] peg to mark commencement of work on the construction of [[Canberra]].
* [[1921]] - The film ''[[The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (movie)|The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse]]'', starring [[Rudolph Valentino]], premieres.
* [[1931]] - [[California]] gets the go-ahead by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] to build the [[San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]].
* [[1942]] - Lieutenant [[Edward O'Hare]] becomes America's first [[World War II]] [[flying ace]].
* [[1943]] - American [[movie studio]] executives agree to allow the [[Office of War Information]] to [[Censorship|censor]] movies.
* 1943 - The [[Paricutín]] volcano begins to form in Paricutín, México.
* [[1944]] - [[World War II]]: "Big Week" begins with American bomber raids on [[Nazi]] [[aircraft]] manufacturing centers.
* 1944 - [[World War II]]: The [[United States]] takes [[Eniwetok]] Island.
* [[1952]] - [[Emmett L. Ashford]] becomes the first [[African-American]] umpire in organized [[baseball]] by being authorized to be a substitute umpire in the [[Southwestern International League]].
* 1952 - The film ''[[The African Queen]]'' opens at the Capitol Theatre in [[New York City]].
* [[1959]] - The [[Avro Arrow]] programme to design and manufacture [[supersonic]] [[fighter aircraft|jet fighters]] in [[Canada]] is cancelled by the [[John George Diefenbaker|Diefenbaker]] government amid much political debate.
* [[1962]] - [[Mercury program]]: While aboard [[Mercury Atlas 6|Friendship 7]], [[John Glenn]] orbits the [[earth]] three times in 4 hours, 55 minutes, becoming the first American to orbit the [[earth]].
* [[1965]] - [[Ranger 8]] crashes into the [[moon]] after a successful mission of photographing possible landing sites for the [[Apollo program]] [[astronaut]]s.
* [[1974]] - [[Science fiction]] writer [[Philip K. Dick]] claims he began experiencing intense [[gnostic]] [[Vision (religion)|visions]] on this date.
* [[1976]] - The [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] disbands.
* [[1987]] - [[Unabomber]]: In [[Salt Lake City, Utah|Salt Lake City]], in the [[United States|USA]], a bomb explodes in a [[computer]] store.
* [[1991]] - A gigantic statue of [[Albania]]'s long-time dictator, [[Enver Hoxha]], is brought down in the Albanian capital, [[Tirana]], by mobs of angry protesters.
* [[1992]] - [[Ross Perot]] announces his intention to run in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992 U.S. presidential election]] on [[CNN]]'s ''[[Larry King Live]]''.
* 1992 - The [[FA Premier League]] is formed and takes over as the professional league in [[England]] from season [[FA Premier League 1992-93|1992&ndash;93]].
* [[1998]] - The afternoon [[newspaper]] ''[[Nashville Banner]]'' publishes its final edition
* 1998 - American figure skater [[Tara Lipinski]] becomes the youngest gold-medalist at the [[Winter Olympics]] in [[Nagano]], [[Japan]].
* [[2001]] - [[FBI]] agent [[Robert Hanssen]] is arrested and charged with [[spying]] for [[Russia]] for 15 years.
* [[2002]] - In [[Reqa Al-Gharbiya]], [[Egypt]], a fire on a [[train]] injures over 65 and kills at least 370.
* [[2003]] - In [[Rhode Island]], in the [[United States|USA]], [[The Station nightclub fire]] kills about 100 and injures over 200.
* [[2004]] - [[Apple Computer]] begins shipping iPod minis.
* [[2005]] - [[Spain]] becomes the first country to vote in a [[Spanish referendum on the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|referendum on ratification]] of the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|proposed Constitution]] of the [[European Union]], passing it by a substantial margin, but on a low turnout.
* 2005 - [[Jeff Gordon]] wins his third [[Daytona 500]].
==Births==
*[[1631]] - [[Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds]], English statesman (d. [[1712]])
*[[1745]] - [[Henry James Pye]], English poet (d. [[1813]])
*[[1751]] - [[Johann Heinrich Voss|Johann Heinrich Voß]], German poet (d. [[1826]])
*[[1753]] - [[Louis Alexandre Berthier]], French marshal (d. [[1815]])
*[[1757]] - [[John 'Mad Jack' Fuller]], English philanthropist (d. [[1834]])
*[[1794]] - [[William Carleton]], Irish novelist (d. [[1869]])
*[[1819]] - [[Alfred Escher]], Swiss politician, railroad entrepreneur (d. [[1882]])
*[[1839]] - [[Benjamin Waugh]], American minister and founder of the NSPCC (d. [[1908]])
*[[1844]] - [[Ludwig Boltzmann]], Austrian physicist (d. [[1906]])
*1844 - [[Joshua Slocum]], Canadian seaman and adventurer (d. [[1909]])
*[[1848]] - [[Edward Henry Harriman]], American railroad executive (d. [[1909]])
*[[1887]] - [[Vincent Massey]], [[Governor-General of Canada]] (d. [[1967]])
*[[1888]] - [[Georges Bernanos]], French writer (d. [[1948]])
*[[1893]] - [[Russel Crouse]], American playwright (d. [[1966]])
*[[1901]] - [[Muhammad Naguib]], [[President of Egypt]] (d. [[1984]])
*[[1902]] - [[Ansel Adams]], American photographer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1904]] - [[Alexei Kosygin]], [[Premier of the Soviet Union]] (d. [[1980]])
*[[1912]] - [[Pierre Boulle]], French author (d. [[1994]])
*[[1914]] - [[John Charles Daly|John Daly]], South African-born broadcaster (d. [[2001]])
*[[1923]] - [[Forbes Burnham]], [[President of Guyana]] (d. [[1985]])
*[[1924]] - [[Gloria Vanderbilt]], American clothing designer and entrepreneur
*[[1925]] - [[Robert Altman]], American film director
*1925 - [[Heinz Kluncker]], German labor union leader
*[[1926]] - [[Richard Matheson]], American author
*[[1927]] - [[Roy Cohn]], American lawyer, and anti-Communist (d. [[1986]])
*1927 - [[Ibrahim Ferrer]], Cuban musician ([[Buena Vista Social Club]]) (d. [[2005]])
*1927 - [[Sidney Poitier]], American actor
*[[1931]] - [[Amanda Blake]], American actress (d. [[1989]])
*[[1934]] - [[Bobby Unser]], American race car driver
*[[1936]] - [[Marj Dusay]], American actress
*1936 - [[Larry Hovis]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1937]] - [[Robert Huber]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1937 - [[Roger Penske]], American race car driver
*1937 - [[Nancy Wilson (singer)|Nancy Wilson]], American singer
*[[1938]] - [[Richard Beymer]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Buffy Sainte-Marie]], American singer
*[[1942]] - [[Phil Esposito]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1943]] - [[Mike Leigh]], British film director
*1943 - [[Antonio Inoki]], Japanese professional wrestler
*[[1944]] - [[Willem van Hanegem]], Dutch footballer and coach
*1944 - [[Lew Soloff]], American musician ([[Blood, Sweat & Tears]])
*[[1945]] - [[Brion James]], American actor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1946]] - [[Brenda Blethyn]], English actress
*1946 - [[Sandy Duncan]], American singer and actress
|
he historical region in central Europe; for other uses, see [[Bohemia (disambiguation)]].''
'''Bohemia''' ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Čechy''; [[German language|German]]: ''Böhmen'') is a [[Historical regions of Central Europe|historical region in central Europe]], occupying the western and middle thirds of the [[Czech Republic]]. With an area of 52,750 sq. km. and 6.25 million of the country's 10.3 million inhabitants, Bohemia is bounded by [[Germany]] to the north-west, west and south-west, [[Poland]] to the north-east, the Czech province of [[Moravia]] to the east, and [[Austria]] to the south. Bohemia's borders are marked with mountain ranges such as the [[Bohemian Forest|Šumava]], the [[Ore Mountains]] or [[Giant Mountains]] as part of the [[Sudeten]] mountains.
''Note:'' In the Czech language there is no distinction between adjectives referring to Bohemia and Czechia, i.e. ''český'' means both Bohemian and Czech.
==History of Bohemia==
[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] authors provide the first clear reference to this area as '''Boiohaemum''', which is [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] for "the home of the [[Boii]]", who were a [[Celt|Celtic]] people. As part of the territory often crossed during the major [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] and [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] migrations, the area was settled from the 1st century BC by Germanic (probably [[Suebi|Suebic]]) peoples including the [[Marcomanni]]. After their migration to the south-west, they were replaced around the [[6th century]] by the Slavic precursors of today's [[Czech people|Czechs]].
[[Image:Böhmen Mähren Österreich Schlesien.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Historical map showing Bohemia proper in pink, Moravia in yellow, and Silesia in orange]]
After freeing themselves from the rule of the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] in the [[7th century]], Bohemia's Slavic inhabitants came (in the [[9th century]]) under the rule of the [[Přemyslid dynasty]], which continued until [[1306]]. With Bohemia's conversion to [[Christianity]] in the 9th century, close relations were forged with the East [[Franks|Frankish]] kingdom, then part of the so-called [[Carolingians|Carolingian]] [[empire]], later the nucleus of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] of which Bohemia was an autonomous part from the [[10th century]].
The first to use the title of "King of Bohemia" was [[Boleslav I of Bohemia|Boleslav I]] after [[940]], but his heirs again used the title of [[Duke]]. The title of [[Monarch|King]] was granted to the [[Premyslid]] dukes [[Vratislav II of Bohemia|Vratislav II]] ([[1085]]) and [[Vladislav II of Bohemia|Vladislav II]] ([[1158]]), and became hereditary ([[1198]]) under [[Ottokar I of Bohemia|Ottokar I]], whose grandson [[Ottokar II of Bohemia|Ottokar II]] (king [[1253]]-[[1278]]) founded a short-lived empire also covering modern [[Austria]]. The mid-[[13th century]] saw the beginning of substantial German immigration as the court sought to make good the losses resulting from the brief [[Mongol]] invasion of [[1241]]. In [[1346]], [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]] became King of Bohemia. In [[1348]] he founded central Europe's first university in [[Prague]]. His reign brought Bohemia to its peak both politically and in total area, resulting in his being the first King of Bohemia to be elected as [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. Under his rule, the Kingdom of the Bohemian Crown included such diverse lands as [[Moravia]], [[Silesia]], [[Upper Lusatia]] and [[Lower Lusatia]], [[Brandenburg]], an area around Nurnberg called New Bohemia, as well as [[Luxembourg|Luxemburg]] and several small towns scattered around Germany.
During the ecunemical [[Council of Constance]] in summer of [[1415]], the rector of the [[University of Prague]] and prominent reformer and religious thinker [[Jan Hus]] was sentenced to be burnt at the stake as a heretic. The verdict was passed despite that Hus was granted formal protection by the Emperor [[Sigismund of Luxemburg]] prior to the journey, and despite the fact that Hus was invited to attend the council to defend himself and the Czech positions in the religious court. With Emperor's approval, Hus was executed at the stake on the July, 6th.
It was this event, and also the [[crusade]] against [[heresy]] declared by the [[Pope]], that made the open anti-catholic sentiment present in the Bohemian lands to burst into the movement of the Husitte. The period is nowadays known as the [[Hussite Wars]].
The to a large degree popular uprising was led by a former mercenary, [[Jan Zizka]] of Trocnov, who was fifty years old at the time. Zizka took the chalice as his symbol and led a peasant Hussite army against the forces of the Holy Roman Empire. As the leader of the Hussite armies, Zizka would not lose a battle thanks to innovative tactics and weapons he had developed, such as [[howitzer]]s and fortified wagons in the [[Wagenburg]] were revolutionary in his time and established his place amongst the greatest generals of all time.
After Zizka's death, [[Prokop the Great]] took over the command for the army, and he would make the Hussite to taste victories for another ten years to a sheer terror of the Europe, until the fellow Bohemians, the Utraquists nobility destroyed the Hussite army in the [[Battle of Lipany|Lipany]], and therefore Czechs successfuly defeated its own kind.
Despite of the victory, the Bohemian utraquists were still in the position to negotiate [[freedom of religion]] in [[1436]]. This happened in the so-called Basel Compacts, declaring the Peace and Freedom between Catholics and Utraquists. But that would only last for a short period of time, because similarly as it happened already in [[1462]], once more the [[Pope Pius II]] declared the Basel Compacts to be invalid.
In 1458, [[George of Podebrady]] was elected to ascend to the Bohemian throne. He is remembered for his attempt to set up the pan-European "Christian League", which would make all the states of Europe to form some sort of community on ground of the religion. In process of making the negotiations, he appointed the [[Leo of Rozmital]] (Lev z Rozmitalu) to make tours accross the European courts and to conduct the talks, however the negotiations were not completed because George's position was in the course of time substantially damaged by the deteoriating relationships with the Pope.
In [[1609]], the Bohemian King Rudolph II, who himself was catholic was moved by the Bohemian nobility to publish Maiestas Rudolphina, which confirmed the older Confessio Bohemica of [[1575]]. Therefore Bohemia enjoyed a real religious freedom between 1436 and 1620, and in fact, it became one of the most liberal countries of the Christian world during that period of time.
In 1618, opposition to [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor]] as King of Bohemia resulted into outbreak of the [[Thirty Years' War]], and another, alternative Protestant king, [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine]] was called for the Bohemain throne. However, after the defeat in the [[Battle of White Mountain]] in [[1620]], the plans were ruined and the [[Protestant]] nobility was either expelled at large from the country to the exile, or straight-away executed.
Until the so-called "renewed constituion" (obnovené zřízení zemské, Die Verneuerte Landesordnung des Erbkönigreichs Böhaims) of 1627, the German language was established as a second official language in the Czech lands. The Czech language remained the first language in the Kingdom, but not for long.
Both the German language and the Latin were widely spoken among the ruling classes and the German language was becoming increasingly more and more dominant. Also the formal independence of Bohemia was further jeopardized when in [[1749]] the Bohemian Diet approved the so-called Pragmatic Sanction. This document included the indivisibility of the Habsburg empire and the centralization of the rule, and practically, it made the Royal Bohemian Chancellery to merge with the Austrian Chancellery.
(The pragmatic sanction document is also important for that he has approved the female succession in the ruling house.)
At the end of the 18th century, the Czech national revivalist movement, in cooperation with a part of the Bohemian aristocracy, started a campaign for restoration of the Kingdom's historic rights, whereby the Czech language was designed to become restored in the process. Coronation of Leopold II as King of Bohemia in 1792 and minor language concessions were the first modest results of the movement. The movement became stronger and more influential, and Czech politicians participated fully and actively in the 1848 revolution.
However, the revolution was not successful. The old Bohemian Diet, one of the last remnants of the independence, was dissolved. But thanks to the effort, the Czech language was rescued.
In 1861, the new, an elected Bohemian Diet was established. The renewal of the old Bohemian Crown (Kingdom of Bohemia, Margraviate of Moravia and Duchy of Silesia) became the official political program of both Czech liberal politicians and the majority of Bohemian aristocracy ("state rights program"), while parties representing the German minority and small part of the aristocracy proclaimed their loyalty to the centralistic Constitution (so-called "Verfassungstreue").
In 1867, a parallel movement in Hungary achieved an establishment of a dual Habsburg monarchy ("Austria-Hungary"), while an attempt to establish a tripartite monarchy (Austria-Hungary-Bohemia) in 1871 failed. However, the "state rights program" remained the official platform of all Czech political parties (except for social democrats) until 1918.
<!-- too long and badly written, unnecessary details for a summary, should be rewritten and moved to History of Bohemia:
Bohemia became a part of the Habsburg Lands (later - after [[1810]] - unofficially known as the Austrian Empire) in 1526 ( when the young Bohemian king, Ludvik, died |
uctor by exciting the electrons of the conducting material. This effect (the [[skin effect]]) is used in antennas. EM radiation may also cause certain molecules to absorb energy and thus to heat up; this is exploited in [[microwave oven]]s.
==Derivation==
Electromagnetic waves as a general phenomenon were predicted by the classical laws of electricity and magnetism, known as [[Maxwell's equations]]. If you inspect Maxwell's equations without sources (charges or currents) then you will find that, along with the possibility of nothing happening, the theory will also admit nontrivial solutions of changing electric and magnetic fields. (For symbol definitions see [[magnetic field]].)
:<math>\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = 0</math>
:<math>\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = -\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{B}</math>
:<math>\nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0</math>
:<math>\nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{E}</math>
<math>\mathbf{E}=\mathbf{B}=\mathbf{0}</math> is a solution, but there might be other solutions as well. Let us employ a useful identity from vector calculus.
:<math>\nabla \times \left( \nabla \times \mathbf{A} \right) = \nabla \left( \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} \right) - \nabla^2 \mathbf{A}</math>
Where <math>\mathbf{A}</math> can be any vector function. Taking the curl of the curl equations and applying the identity, we get the following.
:<math>\nabla^2 \mathbf{E} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} \mathbf{E}</math>
:<math>\nabla^2 \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} \mathbf{B}</math>
These types of equations are identified as linear wave equations with wave speed <math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu_0 \epsilon_0}}</math>. Amazingly, this speed happens to be exactly the speed of light! Maxwell's equations have unified the permittivity of free space <math>\epsilon_0</math>, the permeability of free space <math>\mu_0</math>, and the speed of light itself: <math>c = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu_0 \epsilon_0}}</math>. Before this derivation it was not known that there was such a strong [[Electromagnetic wave equation |relationship]] between light and electricity and magnetism.
But these are only two equations and we started with four, so there is still more information pertaining to these waves hidden within Maxwell's equations. Let's consider a generic vector wave for the electric field.
:<math>\mathbf{E} = \mathbf{E}_0 f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right)</math>
Here <math>\mathbf{E}_0</math> is the constant amplitude, <math>f</math> is any second differentiable function, <math> \hat{\mathbf{k}}</math> is a unit vector in the direction of propagation, and <math> {\mathbf{x}} </math>is a position vector. We observe that <math>f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right)</math> is a generic solution to the wave equation. In other words
:<math>\nabla^2 f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right) = \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial^2 t} f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right)</math>,
for a generic wave traveling in the <math>\hat{\mathbf{k}}</math> direction. The proof of this is trivial.
This form will satisfy the wave equation, but will it satisfy all of Maxwell's equations, and with what corresponding magnetic field?
:<math>\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{E}_0 f'\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right) = 0</math>
:<math>\mathbf{E} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{k}} = 0</math>
The first of Maxell's equations implies that electric field is orthogonal to the direction the wave propagates.
:<math>\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = \hat{\mathbf{k}} \times \mathbf{E}_0 f'\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right) = -\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{B}</math>
:<math>\mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{c} \hat{\mathbf{k}} \times \mathbf{E}</math>
The second of Maxwell's equations yields the magnetic field. The remaining equations will be satisfied by this choice of <math>\mathbf{E},\mathbf{B}</math>.
Not only are the electric and magnetic field waves traveling at the speed of light, but they have a special restricted orientation and proportional magnitudes, <math>\mathbf{E}_0 = c \mathbf{B}_0</math>. The electric field, magnetic field, and direction of wave propagation are all orthogonal and the wave propagates in the same direction as <math>\mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{B}</math>.
Visualizing yourself as an electromagnetic wave traveling forward, the electric field might be oscillating up and down, while the magnetic field oscillates right and left; but you can rotate this picture around with the electric field oscillating right and left and the magnetic field oscillating down and up. This is a different solution that is traveling in the same direction. This arbitrariness in the orientation, with respect to propagation direction, is known as [[polarization]].
==See also==
*[[Electromagnetic wave equation]]
*[[Electromagnetic spectrum]]
*[[Electromagnetic radiation hazards]]
*[[Radiant energy]]
*[[Light]]
*[[Electromagnetic pulse]]
*[[Control of electromagnetic radiation]]
*[[Klystron]]
*[[Helicon (physics)|Helicon]]
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Hecht | first = Eugene
| title = Optics
| edition = 4th ed.
| publisher = Pearson Education
| year = 2001
| id = ISBN 0805385665
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Serway | first = Raymond A.
| coauthors = Jewett, John W.
| title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers
| edition = 6th ed.
| publisher = Brooks/Cole
| year = 2004
| id = ISBN 0534408427
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Tipler | first = Paul
| title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics
| edition = 5th ed.
| publisher = W. H. Freeman
| year = 2004
| id = ISBN 0716708108
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Reitz | first = John
| coauthors = Milford, Frederick; Christy, Robert
| title = Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory
| edition = 4th ed.
| publisher = Addison Wesley
| year = 1992
| id = ISBN 0201526247
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Jackson | first = John David
| title = Classical Electrodynamics
| edition = 2nd ed
| publisher = John Wiley & Sons
| year = 1975
| id = ISBN 047143132X
}}
==External links==
; General
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-wavelength.htm Conversion of frequency to wavelength and back - electromagnetic, radio and sound waves]
*[http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info The Science of Spectroscopy] - supported by NASA. Spectroscopy education wiki and films - introduction to light, its uses in NASA, space science, astronomy, medicine & health, environmental research, and consumer products.
; Patents
* [[Greenleaf Whittier Pickard]] - {{US patent|876996}} - ''Intelligence intercommunication by [[magnetic wave]] component''
[[Category:Electromagnetic radiation| ]]
[[ar:موجة كهرومغناطيسية]]
[[ca:Radiació electromagnètica]]
[[cs:Elektromagnetické záření]]
[[da:Elektromagnetisk stråling]]
[[de:Elektromagnetische Welle]]
[[eo:Elektromagneta radiado]]
[[es:Radiación electromagnética]]
[[fi:Sähkömagneettinen säteily]]
[[fr:Rayonnement électromagnétique]]
[[gu:વિદ્યુત-ચુંબકીય તરંગો]]
[[hr:Elektromagnetno zračenje]]
[[hu:Elektromágneses hullám]]
[[id:Radiasi elektromagnetik]]
[[ja:電磁波]]
[[ko:전자기파]]
[[nl:Elektromagnetische straling]]
[[nn:Elektromagnetisk stråling]]
[[no:Elektromagnetisk stråling]]
[[pt:Radiação electromagnética]]
[[ru:Электромагнитное излучение]]
[[sk:Elektromagnetické žiarenie]]
[[sl:Elektromagnetno valovanje]]
[[sv:Elektromagnetisk strålning]]
[[tr:Elektromanyetik ışın]]
[[vi:Bức xạ điện từ]]
[[zh:電磁輻射]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eye (anatomy)</title>
<id>9427</id>
<revision>
<id>15907319</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-14T14:14:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tarquin</username>
<id>83</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Eye]] just in case someone lands here...</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eye]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ernest Hemingway</title>
<id>9428</id>
<revision>
<id>42144911</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:54:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rizla</username>
<id>351951</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Influence and legacy */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hemmingway.jpg|thumb|Ernest Hemingway, 1950]]
'''Ernest Miller Hemingway''' ([[July 21]], [[1899]] &ndash; [[July 2]], [[1961]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[novelist]] and [[short story author|short story writer]]. His distinctive writing style is characterized by terse [[minimalism]] and [[understatement]] and had a significant influence on the development of [[20th century|twentieth century]] [[fiction]]. Hemingway's [[protagonist]]s are typically stoics, often seen as projections of his own character--men who must show "grace under pressure." Many of his works are now considered classics in the canon of [[American literature]].
Hemingway was part of the [[1920s]] [[expatriate]] community in [[Paris]], known as "The [[Lost Generation]]," a name coined and popularized by [[Gertrude Stein]]. He led a turbulent social life, was married four times, and allegedly had various romantic relationships during his lifetime. Hemingway received the [[Pulitzer Prize]] ([[1953]]) and [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] ([[1954]]) for ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]''. He committed suicide at age sixty-one in [[1961]].
==Early life==
[[Image:ErnestHemingwayBabyPicture.gif|thumb|left|A baby picture, c. 1900 |
sh dependencies}}
[[ast:Islla de Man]]
[[zh-min-nan:Mannin]]
[[bs:Ostrvo Man]]
[[ca:Man]]
[[cs:Man]]
[[cy:Ynys Manaw]]
[[da:Isle of Man]]
[[de:Isle of Man]]
[[et:Man]]
[[el:Νήσος Μαν]]
[[es:Isla de Man]]
[[eo:Manksinsulo]]
[[fo:Mann]]
[[fr:Île de Man]]
[[fy:Man]]
[[ga:Oileán Mhanann]]
[[gv:Mannin]]
[[gd:Eilean Mhanainn]]
[[ko:맨 섬]]
[[id:Pulau Man]]
[[is:Mön (Írlandshafi)]]
[[it:Isola di Man]]
[[he:האי מאן]]
[[kw:Ynys Manow]]
[[hu:Man-sziget]]
[[nl:Man (eiland)]]
[[nds:Isle of Man]]
[[ja:マン島]]
[[no:Man]]
[[nn:Isle of Man]]
[[pl:Wyspa Man]]
[[pt:Ilha de Man]]
[[ro:Insula Man]]
[[ru:Остров Мэн]]
[[simple:Isle of Man]]
[[sk:Man (ostrov)]]
[[sl:Man]]
[[fi:Mansaari]]
[[sv:Isle of Man]]
[[uk:Мен (острів)]]
[[zh:曼島]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iberian alphabet</title>
<id>14728</id>
<revision>
<id>15912264</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-04T01:54:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Notcarlos</username>
<id>152211</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Iberian scripts]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Italic languages</title>
<id>14729</id>
<revision>
<id>40841971</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T10:13:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ningyou</username>
<id>391950</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Indo-European}}
The '''Italic''' subfamily is a member of the [[Centum]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family. Italic has two known branches:
* '''[[Osco-Umbrian languages|Sabellic]]''' including:
** [[Oscan language|Oscan]], was spoken in the south-central region of the Italian peninsula
*** [[Volscian language|Volscian]]
** [[Umbrian language|Umbrian]] (not to be confused with the modern Umbrian dialect of Italian), was spoken in the north-central region
** [[South Picene language|South Picene]], in east-central Italy
* '''[[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]]''' including:
** [[Faliscan language|Faliscan]], was spoken in the area around Falerii Veteres (modern Civita Castellana) north of the city of Rome
** [[Latin]], was spoken in west-central Italy, the Roman conquests eventually spreading it throughout the empire and beyond.
The Italic speakers were not native to Italy, but migrated into the Italian peninsula in the course of the [[2nd millennium BC]]. Archaeologically, the [[Appenine]] culture (inhumations) enters the Italian peninsula from ca. 1350 BC, east to west; the [[Iron Age]] reaches Italy from ca. [[1100 BC]], with the [[Villanovan culture]] (cremating), intruding north to south. Before the Italic arrival, Italy was populated primarily by non-Indo-European groups (perhaps including the [[Etruscans]]). The first settlement on the [[Palatine hill]] dates to ca. [[750 BC]], settlements on the [[Quirinal]] to [[720 BC]] (see [[Founding of Rome]]). The closest relatives of the Italic languages are [[Celtic languages]] see: [[Italo-Celtic]].
The Italic languages are first attested in writing from Latin inscriptions dating to the [[6th century BC|6th]] or [[5th century BC|5th]] centuries BC. The alphabets used are based on the [[Old Italic alphabet]], which is itself based on the [[Greek alphabet]]. The Italic languages themselves show minor influence from the [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] and somewhat more from the [[Ancient Greek]] languages.
As [[Roman Republic|Rome]] extended its political dominion over the whole of the Italian peninsula, so too did Latin become dominant over the other Italic languages, which ceased to be spoken perhaps sometime in the [[1st century]] AD. From so-called [[Vulgar Latin]] the [[Romance languages]] emerged.
The ancient [[Venetic language]], as revealed by inscriptions (including complete sentences) is considered by many linguists to have been very close to the Italic languages and it is sometimes even classified as Italic.
==See also==
* [[Language families and languages]]
* [[Romance languages]]
* [[Venetic language]]
==References==
* [[Ernst Pulgram]]: ''Tongues of Italy, Prehistory and History''
[[Category:Italic languages|*]]
[[af:Italiese tale]]
[[az:İtalik qrupu]]
[[ca:Llengües itàliques]]
[[de:Italische Sprachen]]
[[fr:Langues italiques]]
[[ko:이탤릭어파]]
[[hr:Italski jezici]]
[[he:שפות איטליות]]
[[lt:Italikų kalbos]]
[[hu:Italikus nyelvek]]
[[nl:Italische talen]]
[[ja:イタリック語派]]
[[pl:Języki italskie]]
[[ro:Limbile italice]]
[[ru:Италийская языковая группа]]
[[fi:Itaaliset kielet]]
[[sv:Italiska språk]]
[[vi:Nhóm ngôn ngữ gốc Ý]]
[[zh:意大利语族]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet Relay Chat</title>
<id>14730</id>
<revision>
<id>41571115</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T05:35:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ozzmosis</username>
<id>433159</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|IRC}}
{{IPstack}}<!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack -->'''Internet Relay Chat (IRC)''' is a form of [[Instant messenging|instant communication]] over the [[Internet]]. It is mainly designed for group (many-to-many) communication in discussion forums called ''channels'', but also allows one-to-one communication.
IRC was created by [[Jarkko Oikarinen]] (nickname "WiZ") in late August 1988 to replace a program called [[MUT (software)|MUT]] (MultiUser [[Talk (Unix)|talk]]) on a [[Bulletin board system|BBS]] called OuluBox in [[Finland]]. Oikarinen found inspiration in [[Bitnet Relay Chat]] which operated on the [[Bitnet|Bitnet network]].
IRC gained prominence when it was used to report on the [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991]] throughout a [[media blackout]]. It was previously used in a similar fashion by Kuwaitis during the [[Gulf War|Iraqi invasion]].
==Technical information==
IRC is an open [[network protocol|protocol]] that uses [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] and optionally [[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]]. An IRC server can connect to other IRC servers to expand the IRC network. Users access IRC networks by connecting a client to a server. There are many client and server implementations. Most IRC servers do not require users to log in, but a user will have to set a nickname before being connected .
IRC is a plaintext protocol, which means that it is fully possible (though quite inconvenient) to use IRC via a basic byte-stream client such as [[netcat]] or [[telnet]]. However, the protocol only uses a slightly modified version of [[ASCII]], and does not originally provide any support for non-ASCII characters in text, with the result that many different, incompatible character encodings (such as [[ISO 8859-1]] and [[UTF-8]]) are used.
Because most IRC implementations use an [[acyclic graph]] as their connection model, there is no redundancy, and outage of a server or a link can cause a [[netsplit]].
===Evolution===
All client-to-server IRC protocols in use today are descended from the protocol implemented in the irc2.8 version of the IRC2server, and documented in RFC 1459. Since RFC 1459 was published, the new features in the irc2.10 implementation led to the publication of several revised protocol documents; RFC 2810, RFC 2811, RFC 2812 and RFC 2813, however these protocol changes have not been widely adopted among other implementations. IRC 2.10 is most widely used on the [[IRCnet]] network. The IRC protocol was extended by Microsoft in 1998 via its [[IRCX]] protocol that solves many of the traditional problems that legacy IRC networks faced, along with some features that most users felt were 'ahead of its time'. Although many specifications on the IRC protocol have been published, there is no official specification, as the protocol remains dynamic. Virtually no clients and very few servers rely strictly on the above RFCs as a reference.
While the client-to-server protocols are at least functionally similar, server-to-server protocols differ widely (TS5, P10, and ND/CD are several widely-used and incompatible server protocols), making it very difficult to "link" two separate implementations of the IRC server. Some "bridge" servers do exist, to allow linking of, for example, 2.10 servers to TS5 servers, but these are often accompanied with restrictions of which parts of each protocol may be used, and are not widely deployed.
In its first incarnations, IRC did not have many features that are taken for granted today, such as named channels and channel operators. Channels were numbered -- channel 4 and channel 57, for example -- and the channel '''topic''' described the kind of conversation that took place in the channel. One holdover of this is that joining channel 0 causes a client to leave all the channels it is presently on: "CHANNEL 0" being the original command to leave the current channel.
The first major change to IRC, in version 2.5, was to add '''named channels''' -- "+channels". "+channels" were later replaced with "#channels" in version 2.7, numeric channels were removed entirely and channel bans (mode +b) were implemented. irc2.8 added "&channels" (those that exist only on the current server, rather than the entire network) and "!channels" (those that are theoretically safe from suffering from the many ways that a user could exploit a channel by "riding a netsplit"), and is the baseline release from which nearly all current implementations are derived.
Significant releases based on 2.8 include:
*2.8.21+CS, developed by Comstud
*2.8+th, Taner's patchset, which later became
*2.8/hybrid, originally developed by Jon Lusky ('''Rodder''') and Diane Bruce ('''Dianora'''), later joined by a large development team.
*2.9, 2.10, 2.11, ... continue the development of the original codebase, mainly for use on the [[IRCnet]] network. This development line produced |
for central tendency, the kind of calculation depending on the type of data ([[level of measurement]]) for which the central tendency is being calculated.
==A list of measures of central tendency==
*[[Arithmetic mean]] - the sum of all measurements divided by the number of observations in the data set
*[[Median]] - the middle value that separates the higher half from the lower half of the data set
*[[Mode (statistics)|Mode]] - the most frequent value in the data set
*[[Geometric mean]] - the [[Radical (mathematics) |nth root]] of the product of the data values
*[[Harmonic mean]] - the [[reciprocal]] of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the data values
*[[Generalized mean]] - the nth root of the arithmetic mean of the nth powers of the data values
*[[Weighted mean]] - an arithmetic mean that incorporates weighting to certain data elements
*[[Truncated mean]] - the arithmetic mean of data values after a certain number or proportion of the highest and lowers data values have been discarded
*[[Interquartile mean]] - a special case of the truncated mean
*[[Midrange]] - the arithmetic mean of the highest and lowest values of the data or distribution.
==See also==
*[[Average]]
*[[Mean]]
*[[Standard deviation]]
*[[Standard error (statistics)]]
*[[Summary statistics]]
*[[Statistical theory]]
*[[Probability]]
*[[Normal distribution]]
[[Category:Statistics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cartesian product</title>
<id>5795</id>
<revision>
<id>41132142</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T06:24:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Melchoir</username>
<id>454640</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[Category:Binary operations]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Cartesian product''' (or '''direct product''') of two [[set]]s ''X'' and ''Y'', denoted ''X'' × ''Y'', is the set of all possible [[ordered pair]]s whose first component is a member of ''X'' and whose second component is a member of ''Y'':
:<math>X\times Y = \{(x,y) | x\in X\;\mathrm{and}\;y\in Y\}. </math>
The Cartesian product is named after [[René Descartes]] whose formulation of [[analytic geometry]] gave rise to this concept.
For example, if set ''X'' is the 13-element set { ''A'', ''K'', ''Q'', ''J'', 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 } and set ''Y'' is the 4-element set {&spades;, &hearts;, &diams;, &clubs;}, then the Cartesian product of those two sets is the 52-element set { (''A'', &spades;), (''K'', &spades;), ..., (2, &spades;), (''A'', &hearts;), ..., (3, &clubs;), (2, &clubs;) }.
==Cartesian square and n-ary product==
The '''Cartesian square''' (or '''binary Cartesian product''') of a set <i>X</i> is the Cartesian product <i>X</i> × <i>X</i>.
An example is the 2-dimensional plane '''R''' &times; '''R''' where '''R''' is the set of [[real number]]s - all points (''x'',''y'') where ''x'' and ''y'' are real numbers (see the [[Cartesian coordinate system]]).
This can be generalized to the '''''n''-ary Cartesian product''' over ''n'' sets ''X''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''X<sub>n</sub>'':
:<math>X_1\times\ldots\times X_n = \{(x_1, \ldots, x_n)| x_1\in X_1\;\mathrm{and}\;\ldots\;\mathrm{and}\;x_n\in X_n\}.</math>
Indeed, it can be identified to (''X''<sub>1</sub> × ... × ''X<sub>n-1</sub>'') × ''X<sub>n</sub>''. It is a set of [[N-tuple|''n''-tuples]].
An example of this is the [[Euclidean space|Euclidean]] 3-space '''R''' &times; '''R''' &times; '''R''', with '''R''' again the set of real numbers.
As an aid to its calculation, a table can be drawn up, with one set as the rows and the other as the columns, and forming the ordered pairs, the cells of the table by choosing the element of the set from the row and the column.
== Infinite products ==
The above definition is usually all that's needed for the most common mathematical applications. However, it is possible to define the Cartesian product over an arbitrary (possibly [[infinite]]) collection of sets. If ''I'' is any index set, and
:<math>\{X_i\ | i \in I\}</math>
is a collection of sets indexed by ''I'', then we define
:<math>\prod_{i \in I} X_i = \{ f : I \to \bigcup_{i \in I} X_i\ |\ (\forall i)(f(i) \in X_i)\},</math>
that is, the set of all functions defined on the index set such that the value of the function at a particular index ''i'' is an element of ''X<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp;.
For each ''i'' in ''I'', the function
:<math> \pi_i : \prod_{i \in I} X_i \to X_i </math>
defined by
:<math> \pi_i(f) = f(i),\,</math>
is called the '''''ith'' projection map'''.
An ''n''-tuple can be viewed as a function on {1, 2, ..., ''n''} that takes its value at ''i'' to be the ''i''th element of the tuple. Hence, when ''I'' is {1, 2, ..., ''n''} this definition coincides with the definition for the finite case. In the infinite case this is a [[family (mathematics) | family]].
One particular and familiar infinite case is when the index set is <math>\mathbb N</math>, the [[natural numbers]]: this is just the set of all infinite sequences with the ''i''th term in its corresponding set ''X<sub>i</sub>''. Once again, trusty old <math>\mathbb R</math> provides an example of this:
:<math>\prod_{n = 1}^\infty \mathbb R =\mathbb{R}^\omega= \mathbb R \times \mathbb R \times \ldots</math>
is the collection of infinite sequences of real numbers, and it is easily visualized as a vector or tuple with an infinite number of components. Another special case (the above example also satisfies this) is when all the factors ''X<sub>i</sub>'' involved in the product are the same, being like "Cartesian exponentiation." Then the big union in the definition is just the set itself, and the other condition is trivially satisfied, so this is just the set of ''all'' functions from ''I'' to ''X.''
Otherwise, the infinite cartesian product is less intuitive; though valuable in its applications to higher mathematics.
The assertion that the Cartesian product of a [[empty set|non-empty]] collection of non-empty sets is non-empty is equivalent to the [[axiom of choice]].
== Cartesian product of functions ==
If ''f'' is a function from ''A'' to ''B'' and ''g'' is a function from ''X'' to ''Y'', their '''cartesian product''' ''f''&times;''g'' is a function from ''A''&times;''X'' to ''B''&times;''Y'' with
:<math>(f\times g)(a, x) = (f(a), g(x))</math>
As above this can be extended to [[tuple]]s and infinite collections of functions.
== Category theory ==
[[Category theory | Categorically]], the cartesian product is the [[direct product]] in the [[Category of sets]].
==See also==
* [[Binary relation]]
* [[Direct product]]
* [[Empty product]]
* [[Product (category theory)]]
* [[Product topology]]
* [[Relation (mathematics)]]
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[Category:Binary operations]]
[[bg:Декартово произведение]]
[[cs:Kartézský součin]]
[[de:Kartesisches Produkt]]
[[es:Producto cartesiano]]
[[fr:Produit cartésien]]
[[ko:곱집합]]
[[it:Prodotto cartesiano]]
[[he:מכפלה קרטזית]]
[[lt:Dekarto sandauga]]
[[nl:Cartesisch product]]
[[ja:直積集合]]
[[no:Kartesisk produkt]]
[[pl:Iloczyn kartezjański]]
[[pt:Produto cartesiano]]
[[fi:Karteesinen tulo]]
[[uk:Декартів добуток множин]]
[[zh:笛卡尔积]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Celebrity</title>
<id>5796</id>
<revision>
<id>41968451</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:11:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TigerShark</username>
<id>161478</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.142.216.140|69.142.216.140]] ([[User talk:69.142.216.140|Talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''For the 1998 movie, see [[Celebrity (film)]]. For the [[N'Sync]] album, see [[Celebrity (album)]]. For the party game, see [[Celebrity (game)]]''.
A '''celebrity''' is a person who is widely recognized (famous) in a [[society]] and commands a degree of public and media attention. The word stems from the [[Latin]] ''celebritas'', itself from the adjective ''celeber'' meaning 'famous, celebrated'.
Fame is the major prerequisite for celebrity status, but not always sufficient. There has to be a level of public interest in the person which may or may not be connected to the reason they are famous. For example a public figure such as a politician, industry leader etc. may be famous but not a celebrity unless something else triggers public and media interest (e.g. [[Virgin]] Director [[Richard Branson]] attempting to circumnavigate the globe in a balloon) Other types of fame, particularly those connected with [[mass entertainment]] are almost guaranteed to lead to celebrity even if the person deliberately avoids media attention. Examples of these are performers such as [[actors]] and [[musicians]] and [[athletes]].
[[Image:Luckmancover.jpg|thumb|[[Michael J. Fox]] a 21st century US celebrity]]
==Rise of celebrity culture==
:''Main article: [[celebrity culture]].''
The modern [[mass media]] has increased the exposure and power of celebrity. Often, celebrity carries with it immense [[social capital]] that is highly sought-after by some individuals. High-paying jobs and other social perks unavailable to most people are readily extended to celebrities, even for work not connected to the talents or accomplishments that made them famous. For example, a retired athlete might receive high "[[speaking fee]]s", or compensation for public appearances, despite his talent having been sports, not oratory.
While some [[envy]] celebrities, and many aspire to celebrity, some who have attained it are ambivalent about their status. Often, celebritie |
ort table]
*[http://kmi.open.ac.uk/projects/ceryle/doc/docs/NOTE-charents.html Character Entities for XHTML]
*[http://www.webreference.com/html/reference/character/ HTML Character Reference — HTML with Style — Webreference.com]
*[http://www.natural-innovations.com/wa/doc-charset.html HTML Document Character Set Table]
*[http://www.webmaster-toolkit.com/html-entity-chart.shtml HTML Entity Chart]
*[http://www.redbrick.dcu.ie/help/reference/html-tags/characters.html HTML Tag List: Character set and special characters]
*[http://ascii.cl/htmlcodes.htm HTML Codes - List of characters and symbols]
[[Category:HTML]]
[[nl:Character Entity Reference]]
[[zh:HTML&#23383;&#31526;&#32534;&#30721;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer/bus</title>
<id>5317</id>
<revision>
<id>15903530</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-25T22:48:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.158.106.78</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>removed extraneous text</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer_bus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer/Time-sharing</title>
<id>5318</id>
<revision>
<id>15903531</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Time-sharing]]
:''See also :'' [[Computer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer/Multitasking</title>
<id>5319</id>
<revision>
<id>15903532</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer multitasking]]
:''See also :'' [[Computer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carbon nanotube</title>
<id>5320</id>
<revision>
<id>41757064</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:58:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DanielCD</username>
<id>81016</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.182.56.6|216.182.56.6]] ([[User talk:216.182.56.6|talk]]) to last version by XLerate</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Types_of_Carbon_Nanotubes.png|thumb|330px|3D model of three types of single-walled carbon nanotubes.]]
[[Image: Kohlenstoffnanoroehre_Animation.gif |thumb|330px|This animation of a rotating Carbon nanotube shows its 3D structure.]]
'''Carbon nanotubes''' are cylindrical [[carbon]] [[molecules]] with novel properties that make them potentially useful in a wide variety of applications (e.g., nano-electronics, [[optics]], [[materials]] applications, etc.). They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique [[electricity|electrical]] properties, and are efficient conductors of [[heat]]. [[Inorganic nanotubes]] have also been synthesized.
A nanotube (also known as a buckytube) is a member of the [[fullerene]] structural family, which also includes [[Buckyball#Buckminsterfullerene|buckyballs]]. Whereas buckyballs are [[spherical]] in shape, a nanotube is [[cylinder (geometry)|cylindrical]], with at least one end typically capped with a hemisphere of the buckyball structure. Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on the order of a few [[nanometer]]s (approximately 50,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair), while they can be up to several centimeters in length. There are two main types of nanotubes: [[single-walled nanotubes]] (SWNTs) and [[multi-walled nanotubes]] (MWNTs).
Nanotubes are composed entirely of [[sp² bond]]s, similar to those of [[graphite]]. This bonding structure, stronger than the sp³ bonds found in [[diamond]], provides the molecules with their unique strength. Nanotubes naturally align themselves into "ropes" held together by [[Van der Waals force]]s. Under high pressure, nanotubes can merge together, trading some sp² bonds for sp³ bonds, giving great possibility for producing strong, unlimited-length wires through high-pressure nanotube linking. [http://www.ncnr.nist.gov/staff/taner/nanotube/interlink.pdf]
While it has long been known that [[carbon fiber]]s can be produced with a carbon arc, and patents were issued for the process, it was not until 1991 that [[Sumio Iijima]], a researcher with the [[NEC Corporation|NEC]] Laboratory in Tsukuba, Japan, observed that these fibers were hollow. This feature of nanotubes is of great interest to [[physics|physicists]] because it permits experiments in one-dimensional [[quantum physics]].
==Single-walled nanotubes==
[[Image:CNTnames.png|thumb|300px|The (''n'',''m'') nanotube naming scheme can be thought of as a vector ('''C'''<sub>h</sub>) in an infinite graphene sheet that describes how to 'roll up' to graphene sheet to make the nanotube. '''T''' denotes the tube axis, and '''a'''<sub>1</sub> and '''a'''<sub>2</sub> are the unit vectors of graphene in real space.]]
Most SWNTs have a diameter of close to 1nm, with a tube length that can be many thousands of times larger. SWNTs with length up to orders of centimeters have been produced (Zhu, et al., 2002). The structure of a SWNT can be conceptualized by wrapping a one-atom-thick layer of [[graphite]] (called [[graphene]]) into a seamless cylinder. The way the graphene sheet is wrapped is represented by a pair of indices (''n'',''m'') called the chiral vector. The integers ''n'' and ''m'' denote the number of unit [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s along two directions in the honeycomb [[crystal lattice]] of graphene. If ''m''=0, the nanotubes are called "zigzag". If ''n''=''m'', the nanotubes are called "armchair". Otherwise, they are called "chiral".
SWNTs are a very important variety of carbon nanotube because they exhibit important electric properties that are not shared by the multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT) variants. SWNTs are the most likely candidate for miniaturizing electronics past the microelectromechanical scale that is currently the basis of modern electronics. The most basic building block of these systems is the electric wire, and SWNTs can be excellent conductors. (Dekker, et al., 1999) One useful application of SWNTs is in the development of the first intramolecular field effect transistors (FETs). The production of the first intramolecular logic gate using SWNT FETs has recently become possible as well (Derycke, et al., 2001). To create a logic gate you must have both a p-FET and an n-FET. Because SWNTs are p-FETs when exposed to air and n-FETs when unexposed to oxygen, they were able to protect half of a SWNT from oxygen exposure, while exposing the other half to oxygen. The result was a single SWNT that acted as a NOT logic gate with both p and n-type FETs within the same molecule.
SWNTs are still very expensive to produce, and the development of more affordable synthesis techniques is vital to the future of carbon nanotechnology. If cheaper means of synthesis cannot be discovered, it would make it financially impossible to apply this technology to commercial-scale applications.
==Multi-walled carbon nanotubes==
Multiwalled nanotubes (MWNT) consist of multiple layers of graphite rolled in on themselves to form a tube shape. There are two models which can be used to describe the structures of multiwalled nanotubes. In the ''[[Matryoshka doll|Russian Doll]]'' model, sheets of graphite are arranged in concentric cylinders, eg a (0,8) SWNT within a larger (0,10) SWNT. In the ''[[Scroll (parchment)|Parchment]]'' model, a single sheet of graphite is rolled in around itself , resembling a scroll of parchment or a rolled up newspaper.
==Properties==
====Strength====
Carbon nanotubes are one of the strongest materials known to man, both in terms of [[tensile strength]] and [[elastic modulus]]. This strength results from the the covalent sp^2 bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms. In 2000, a SWNT was tested to have a tensile strength of 63 [[Pascal|GPa]]. In comparison, high-carbon steel has a tensile strength of approximately 1.2 GPa. CNTs also have very high [[elastic modulus]], in the order of 1 TPa [http://ipn2.epfl.ch/CHBU/papers/ourpapers/Forro_NT99.pdf]. Since carbon nanotubes have relatively low density, the strength to weight ratio is therefore truly exceptional.
Under excessive tensile strain, the tubes will undergo plastic deformation, which means the deformation is permanent. This deformation begins at strains of approximately 5% [Qian et al, 2002] and can increase the maximum strain the tube undergoes before fracture by releasing strain energy.
CNTs are not nearly as strong under compression. Due to their hollow structure, they tend to undergo buckling, when placed under compressive, torsional or bending stress.
====Dynamic properties====
Multiwalled carbon nanotubes, multiple concentric nanotubes precisely nested within one another, exhibit a striking telescoping property whereby an inner nanotube core may slide, almost without friction, within its outer nanotube shell thus creating an atomically perfect linear or rotational bearing. This is one of the first true examples of [[molecular nanotechnology]], the precise positioning of atoms to create useful machines. Already this property has been utilized to create the world's smallest rotational motor and a nanorheostat. Future applications such as a gigahertz mechanical oscillator are envisioned.
===Electrical===
Due to the symmetry and unique electronic structure of graphene, the structure of a nanotube strongly affects its electrical properties. For a given (''n'',''m'') nanotube, if 2''n'' + ''m''=3''q'' (where ''q'' is an integer), then the nanotube is [[metallic]], otherwise the nanotube is a [[semic |
] (2 Sam. 11:11); and when David fled from Jerusalem at the time of [[Absalom]]'s conspiracy, the Ark was carried along with him until he ordered [[Zadok]] the priest to return it to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15:24-29).
===In Solomon's Temple===
When [[Abiathar]] was dismissed from the priesthood by Solomon for having taken part in [[Adonijah]]'s [[conspiracy]] against David, his life was spared because he had formerly borne the Ark (1 Kings 2:26). It was afterwards placed by [[Solomon]] in the [[Temple in Jerusalem|temple]] (1 Kings 8:6-9). Solomon worshiped before the Ark after his dream in which the Lord promised him wisdom (1 Kings 3:15). In [[Solomon's Temple]], a Holy of Holies was prepared to receive the Ark (1 Kings 6:19); and when the Temple was dedicated, the Ark -- containing nothing but the two Mosaic tables of stone -- was placed therein. When the priests emerged from the holy place after placing the Ark there, the Temple was filled with a cloud, "for the glory of the Lord had filled the house of the Lord" (1 Kings 8:10-11; 2 Chron. 5:13, 14).
When Solomon married Pharaoh's daughter, he caused her to dwell in a house outside Zion, as Zion was consecrated because of its containing the Ark (2 Chron. 8:11). King Josiah had the Ark put into the Temple (2 Chron. 35:3), whence it appears to have again been removed by one of his successors.
===The Babylonians and afterwards===
When the [[Babylonia]]ns destroyed Jerusalem and plundered the temple, the Ark entered the domain of legend. Many historians suppose that the ark was probably taken away by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] and destroyed. The absence of the ark from the [[Second Temple]] was acknowledged.
==Fate of the Ark==
In contrast to the general consensus of historians (that supposes that the ark was taken away and destroyed), variant traditions about the ultimate fate of the Ark include the intentional concealing of the Ark under the [[Temple Mount]], the removal of the Ark from Jerusalem in advance of the Babylonians (this variant usually ends up with the Ark in [[Ethiopia]]), the removal of the Ark by the Ethiopian prince [[Menelik I]] (purported son of [[King Solomon]] and the [[Queen of Sheba]]), removal by Jewish priests during the reign of [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh of Judah]], possibly taken to a Jewish temple on Elephantine in Egypt, and the miraculous removal of the Ark by divine intervention (C.f. 2 Chronicles).
===Concealment===
Some believe that the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle of the Lord was hidden. This is referenced by four separate sources:
# the Mishnayot of Rabbi Hertz
# the Marble Tablets of Beirut
# the Copper Scroll
# the ancient Ben Ezra Synagogue sacred texts.
====Mishnayot====
The Mishnayot introduction included ancient records that Rabbi Hertz called the "''[[Mishnayot]]''". Hertz used the term "Mishnayot", since the text of the ''Mishnayot'' is missing from the [[Mishnah]] (''Mishna''), which is the first section of the [[Talmud]], a collection of ancient [[Rabbinic]] writings including also the [[Gemara]], "the summary", and containing the [[Jewish]] [[religious law]]. {{ref|Mock}}
The "missing" [[Mishnaic]] text in the Mishnayot is called the ''[[Massakhet Keilim]]'', written in twelve chapters. Each chapter of the Mishnayot describes vessels which were hidden under the direction of [[Jeremiah]] the Prophet by five holy men ([[Shimor HaLevi]], [[Chizkiah]], [[Tzidkiyahu]], [[Haggai]] the Prophet and [[Zechariah]] the Prophet), seven years prior to the destruction of Solomon's First Temple, because the dangers of Babylonian conquest were imminent. The Mishnayot describing this hiding was then written in Babylon during the Babylonian Captivity.
The first chapter of the Mishnayot describes the vessels that were hidden - including the ''Ark of the Covenant'' and the Tabernacle of the Lord, i.e. the Mishkan, the Tablets of [[Moses]], the altar (with cherubim) for the daily and seasonal sacrifices (the ushebtis), the [[Menorah]] (candelabra), the [[Qalal]] (copper urn) containing the Ashes of the [[Red Heifer]] (ashes from a red cow sacrificed under Moses, necessary for ritual purification of the priests), and numerous vessels of the [[Kohanim]] (priests).
The second chapter of the Mishnayot states that a list of these treasures was inscribed upon a copper tablet. This is the Copper Scroll found at Qumran.
====Marble Tablets of Beirut====
In 1952 two large marble tablets were found in the basement of a museum in [[Beirut]], stating they were the words of Shimor HaLevi, the servant of HaShem, and the writing on the tablets is the entire missing text of "Massakhet Keilim" (''Mishnayot'') including reference to the Copper Scroll.
====Copper Scroll====
The first of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] was discovered in 1947, and the famed [[Copper Scroll]] - made of pure copper - was found at [[Qumran]] in 1952. The Copper Scroll is an inventory - written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - of treasures, thought by some to be from [[Solomon]]'s First Temple, hidden before the destruction of that temple by the [[Babylonians]] and treasures which have not been seen since.
The Copper Scroll states that a silver [or alabaster?] chest, the vestments of the [[Cohen Gadol]] ([[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[High Priest]]), gold and silver in great quantities, the [[Tabernacle|Tabernacle of the Lord]] (perhaps the [[Mishkan]]) and many treasures were hidden in a desolate valley - under a hill - on its east side, forty stones deep. The Mishkan was a "portable" Temple for the ''Ark of the Covenant''. The writings in the Copper Scroll were confirmed 40 years later in the 1990s through an ancient text found in the introduction to ''Emeq HaMelekh'' ("Valley of the King(s)") -- a book published in 1648 in Amsterdam, Holland, by [[Rabbi Naftali Hertz Ben Ya’acov Elchanon]] (Rabbi Hertz).
====Ben Ezra synagogue texts====
Work in the 1990s showed that in 1896, almost one hundred years previous, [[Solomon Schechter]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] in [[England]] had acquired 100,000 pages of ancient Hebrew texts from the [[Genizah]] (repository for aged sacred Jewish texts) of the Ben [[Ezra]] [[Synagogue]] in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]. A copy of the "[[Tosefta]]" (supplement to the Mishnah) was found in these texts, included among the text on [[Keilim]] (vessels). This "Tosefta" is the same text as cited by Rabbi Hertz as his source for the Mishnayot.
== Where is it now? ==
Some have claimed to have possession or discovered the Ark.
===Middle East===
In 1989, the late [[Ron Wyatt]] claimed to have broken into a chamber while digging underground beneath Mount Moriah, also known as The Temple Mount. He claimed to have seen the ark and taken photographs. All photos came out blurry (leading to skepticism of the claim). According to Wyatt the excavations were closed off (because of private property concerns) and, to the extent of knowledge, no one has seen the ark since. Ron Wyatt was widely seen in the Biblical archeology community as an attention seeker, often announcing he had found Biblically important objects with little or no hard evidence to back up his claims.
[[Vendyl Jones]] claimed to have found the entrance to the chamber in the cave of the Column - Qumran. Here, he stated, is where the Ark was hidden prior to the destruction of the First Temple. Arutz Sheva quoted Jones stating he would reveal the ark on [[Tisha B'Av]] ([[August 14]], [[2005]]), the anniversary of the destruction of both the First and Second Temples. {{ref|Robins}} However, this did not occur. On Jones' website he states that he was misquoted and actually said it would be appropriate if he discovered the ark on Tisha B'Av. Jones is waiting for funding to explore the cave.
Modern excavations near the Temple Mount in Jerusalem have found tunnels, but digging beneath the Temple Mount is somewhat restricted. One of the most important Islamic shrines, the [[Dome of the Rock]], sits in the location where the Temple Mount in Jerusalem once stood. [[Ron Wyatt]] claimed he felt it unwise to fully excavate the Ark for a variety of reasons, including bloody ownership disputes and divine inspiration.
===Africa===
Some sources suggest that during the reign of King Manasseh (2 Chron 33) the Ark was smuggled from the temple by way of the [[Well of souls]] and taken to Egypt, eventually ending up in Ethiopia. There are some carvings on the [[Cathedral of Chartres]] that may refer to this.
[[Image:Ark_of_the_Covenant_church_in_Axum_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The Chapel of the Tablet at the [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion]] allegedly houses the original ''Ark of the Covenant''.]]
====Ethiopian Orthodox Church====
The [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] in [[Axum, Ethiopia]] claims to still possess the Ark of the Covenant. Local tradition maintains that it was brought to [[Ethiopia]] by [[Menelik I]] following a visit to his father King Solomon. Although it was once paraded before the town once each year, it is now kept under constant guard in a "treasury" near the [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion]], and only the head priest of the church is allowed to view it. Most Western historians are skeptical of this claim.
Dr Bernard Leeman, in his 2005 book "Queen of Sheba and Biblical Scholarship" (Queensland Academic Press) accepts the Ethiopian traditions. He argues that the Ge'ez narrative of the Sheba-Menelik Cycle of the Kebra Nagast supports the case that ancient Judah was in west Arabia not Palestine and that Menelik's escape with the Ark follows landmarks and place names in Asir,Yemen, and Eritrea. Secondly Leeman draws attention to the Ark culture of Arabia (detailed in Munro-Hay and Grierson's works), the "Hebrewisms" in the Ancient West Arabian language, the word for Ark in Ge'ez (which is taken from pre-Babylonia |
wasn't until the 1990 launch of [[Windows 3.0]], based on [[Common User Access]] that its popularity truly exploded. The GUI has seen major and minor redesigns since, notably the addition of [[Spatial file manager|spatial file management]] capabilities akin to the [[Macintosh Finder]] in [[Windows 95]], known as the [[Windows Explorer]]; the contentious web browser integration in [[Windows 98]]; the subsequent transition away from spatial file management more towards a single-window, task-based interface with [[Windows XP]]; and the removal of the browser integration in [[Windows Vista]].
Windows traditionally differed from other GUIs in that it encouraged using applications maximized, as evident even in this early Windows 1.01 screenshot. The users usually switch between maximized applications using Alt+Tab keyboard shortcut or by clicking on a Taskbar listing all open applications, as opposed to clicking on a partially visible window, as is more common in some other GUIs.
In 1988, Apple sued Microsoft for copyright infringement of the [[Apple Lisa|LISA]] and [[Apple Macintosh]] GUI. The court case lasted 4 years before almost all of Apple's claims were denied on a contractual technicality. Subsequent appeals by Apple were also denied, and Microsoft and Apple apparently entered a final, private settlement of the matter in 1997 as a side note in a broader announcement of investment and cooperation.
{{Clr}}
== GEOS == [[Image:GeOS_Commodore_64.gif|thumb|right|[[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] for the [[Commodore 64]] (1986)]][[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] was another very early graphical desktop system. Originally written for the 8 bit home computer [[Commodore 64]] it was later ported to IBM PC systems. It came with several application programs like a calendar and word processor, and a cut-down version served as the basis for [[America Online]]'s DOS client. Compared to the competing Windows 3.0 GUI, it could run reasonably well on simpler hardware.
Revivals were seen in the [[HP OmniGo]] handhelds, [[Brother GeoBook]] line of laptop-appliances, and the [[New Deal Office]] package for PCs. Related code found its way to earlier '[[Zoomer]]' PDAs, creating an unclear lineage to [[Palm, Inc.]]'s later work. [[Nokia]] used GEOS as a base operating system for their [[Nokia Communicator]] series, before switching to [[EPOC (computing)|EPOC]] ([[Symbian]]).
== RISC OS ==
[[Image:AcornArthur110desktopsmall.png|thumb|[[Arthur (operating system)|Arthur]] Desktop]]
[[Image:MacOSthemeonSelect.png|thumb|[[RISC OS]] Select Desktop]]
Early versions of what became called [[RISC OS]] were known as [[Arthur (operating system)|Arthur]], which was released in 1987 by Acorn Computers. RISC OS was a colour GUI operating system which used three-button mice, a taskbar (called the iconbar), and a file navigator similar to that of Mac OS. [[Acorn Computers Ltd|Acorn]] created RISC OS in the 1980s for their [[ARM architecture|ARM]]-[[central processing unit|CPU]] based computers.
The GUI of RISC OS has developed over versions of RISC OS from 1987 to the present day with version 4.39 having a great ability to customise the interface.
<br clear="all" />
== NeXTSTEP ==
[[Image:NeXTSTEP_desktop.jpg|thumb|[[NEXTSTEP|NeXTSTEP]] Desktop]]
The [[NEXTSTEP|NeXTSTEP]] user interface was used in the [[NeXT]] line of computers. NeXTSTEP's first major version was released in [[1989]]. It used [[Display PostScript]] for its graphical underpinning. The NeXTSTEP interface's most significant feature was the [[Dock (computing)|Dock]], carried with some modification into [[Mac OS X]], and had other minor interface details that some found made it easier and more intuitive to use than previous GUIs. NeXTSTEP's GUI was the first to feature opaque dragging of windows in its user interface, on a comparatively weak machine by today's standards.
<br clear="all" />
== OS/2 ==
[[Image:OS2_workplace_shell.png|thumb|[[OS/2]] Workplace Shell]]
Originally collaboratively developed by Microsoft and IBM to replace DOS, [[OS/2]] version 1.0 (released in 1987) had no GUI at all. Version 1.1 (released 1988) included Presentation Manager (PM), which looked a lot like the later Windows 3.0 UI. After the split with Microsoft, IBM developed the [[Workplace Shell]] (WPS) for version 2.0 (released in 1992), a quite radical, object-oriented approach to GUIs. Microsoft later imitated much of this in Windows 95.
<br clear="all" />
== BeOS ==
[[Image:BeOS_Desktop.png|thumb|[[BeOS]] Desktop]]
[[BeOS]] was developed on custom [[AT&T Hobbit]]-based computers before switching to [[PowerPC]] hardware by a team lead by former Apple executive [[Jean-Louis Gassée]] as an alternative to the Macintosh OS and GUI. BeOS was later ported to Intel hardware. It used an object-oriented kernel written by Be, and did not use the [[X Window System]], but a different [[GUI]] written from scratch. Much effort was spent by the developers to make it an efficient platform for multimedia applications. Be Inc. was [http://news.com.com/2102-1040_3-271718.html?tag=st.util.print acquired] by [[PalmSource, Inc.]] (Palm Inc. at the time) in 2001.
<br clear="all" />
== NeWS ==
The [[Display PostScript]]-based [[NeWS]] (Network extensible Window System) was developed by [[Sun Microsystems]]. For several years [[SunOS]] included a window system combining NeWS and the [[X Window System]]. Although NeWS was considered technically elegant by some commentators, Sun eventually dropped the product. Unlike X, NeWS was always [[proprietary software]].
== The X Window System ==
[[Image:X-Windows_Desktop.gif|thumb|[[X11]] Desktop (running the [[Window Maker]] [[window manager]]).]]
The standard windowing system in the Unix world, developed in the early 1980s, is the [[X Window System]] (commonly X11 or X). X was developed at MIT as [[Project Athena]]. Its original purpose was to allow users of the newly emerging graphic terminals to access remote graphics workstations, without regard to the workstation's operating system or the hardware. Due largely to the availability of the source code used to write X, it has become the standard layer for management of graphical and input/output devices and for the building of both local and remote graphical interfaces on virtually all [[Unix]], [[Linux]] and [[Unix-like]] operating systems.
X allows a graphical terminal user to make use of remote resources on the network as if they were all located locally to the user by running a single module of software called the X server. The software running on the remote machine is called the client application. X's network transparency protocols allow the display and input portions of any application to be separated from the remainder of the application and 'served up' to any of a large number of remote users.
In the early days of X Window development Sun Microsystems and AT&T attempted to push for a GUI standard called [[OpenLook]] in competition with [[Motif (widget toolkit)|MOTIF]]. OpenLook was a well-designed standard developed from scratch while MOTIF was a collective effort that fell into place. Many who worked on OpenLook at the time appreciate its design coherence. MOTIF prevailed in this 'religious' war and became the basis for the [[Common Desktop Environment|CDE]] (Common Desktop Environment), originally developed as proprietary software by [[Hewlett-Packard]] under the name VUE (Visual User Environment). Both X and Open MOTIF are available today as free software.
In the late [[1990]]s, there was significant growth in the Unix world, especially among the [[free software]] community. New graphical desktop movements grew up around Linux and similar operating systems, based on the X Window System. A new emphasis on providing an integrated and uniform interface to the user brought about new desktop environments, such as [[KDE]] and [[GNOME]].
==Mac OS X==
[[Image:AM_MacOSX_Panther.png|thumb|[[Mac OS X]]]][[Image:dashboardosx.png|thumbnail|left|Mac OS X with Dashboard]]
Apple released [[Mac OS X]] in [[2001]] with the [[Aqua (GUI)|Aqua]] interface. It was a new operating system built primarily on technology from NeXTStep with UI elements of the original Mac OS grafted on. Mac OS X uses a technology called [[Quartz (graphics layer)|Quartz]] for graphics rendering and drawing on-screen. Some interface features of Mac OS X are inherited from NeXTStep (such as the [[Dock (computing)|Dock]], the automatic wait cursor, or double-buffered windows giving a solid appearance and flicker-free window redraws), while others are inherited from the old Mac OS operating system (the single system-wide menu-bar). [[Mac OS X v10.3]] introduced features to improve usability including [[Exposé (Mac OS X)|Exposé]] which is designed to make finding open windows easier.
With Mac OS X v10.4, new features including Dashboard, a virtual alternate desktop for mini specific-purpose applications, and a tool called Spotlight, which provides users with an option for searching through files instead of browsing through folders were added.
<br clear=both>
==Windows Vista==
[[Image:Vista-5268-3.jpg|thumb|right|[[Windows Vista]] beta]]
[[Windows Vista]], [[Microsoft]]'s next-generation [[operating system]] - planned for release in late 2006, and currently in beta - will feature a significantly different GUI from previous [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] versions. The new user interface, dubbed [[Aero (user interface)|Aero]], is split into two modes: Windows Vista Aero and Windows Vista Basic. The Windows Vista Aero mode will use [[pixel shader]] effects - commonly used in games such as Half-Life 2 and Doom 3 to draw effects such as water - and alpha PNG transparency to draw windows and give a "Glass" effect. The Windows Vista Basic mode is like the Luna skin in Windows XP. The traditional "Classic" user interface from previous Wind |
ic Guitar and Orchestra]]. The American composers [[Glenn Branca]] and [[Rhys Chatham]] have written "symphonic" works for large ensembles of electric guitars, in some cases numbering up to 100 players. Still, like many electric and electronic instruments, the electric guitar remains primarily associated with rock and jazz music, rather than with classical compositions and performances.
==Common Brands==
*[[Fender]]
*[[Gibson_Guitar_Corporation|Gibson]]
*[[Ibanez]]
*[[Schecter]]
*[[Jackson Guitars|Jackson]]
*[[ESP Guitars|ESP]]
*[[B.C. Rich]]
*[[Dean Guitars|Dean]]
*[[PRS Guitars|PRS]]
*[[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]]
*[[Washburn Guitars|Washburn]]
*[[Peavey Guitars|Peavey]]
*[[Gretsch]]
== See also ==
*[[Guitar/synthesizer]]
==External links==
* General
**[http://www.wikiguitar.net Wiki Guitar] Wiki based Guitar Resource with tablature archive, lessons, articles, and resources.
**[http://www.axetopia.com/topics/electric_guitar.html Electric Guitar] - related resources at Axetopia
**[http://www.guitarz-for-ever.com/the-revolution-of-electric-guitars.html The Revolution of the Electric Guitar] -The Revolution of the Electric Guitar
* Music
**[http://invention.smithsonian.org/centerpieces/guitars/ Lemelson Center] - has an interactive history of the electric guitar
**[http://www.newmusicbox.org/news.nmbx?id=00400 NewMusicBox.org: Composers Toolbox: Composing for the Electric Guitar] by Nick Didkovsky © 2004
**[http://www.guitarfx.info Digital FX] - electric guitar digital/PC effects how-to's and reviews
**[http://entertainment.howstuffworks.com/electric-guitar.htm HowStuffWorks] - has a thorough article about how electric guitars work
**[http://www.guitar-poll.com/ Guitar-Poll]
**[http://www.penmachine.com/musicpages/cheapguitar2005.html Buying a good, cheap electric guitar] - one player surveys over 20 different inexpensive guitars to find one to buy.
**[http://guitar-sound.info Creating professional guitar tone] - article about guitar effects processing at PC based home recording studio
**[http://www.penmachine.com/musicpages/guitartone.html Learn about guitar tone] - a primer on electric guitar sound
* Tabs & Chords
**[http://www.guitar-tablature-guide.com Guitar Tablature Guide]
* Lessons
**[http://www.musicinstructionbooks.com/index.php Music Instruction] - Guitar instructional books, dvd's, songbooks and videos.
**[http://www.electric-guitar.co.uk Electric-Guitar.co.uk] Electric guitar lessons for all abilities and chord dictionary.
**[http://www.ilearnmusic.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=category&sectionid=6&id=73&Itemid=58 Free Guitar Lessons] --Beginner guitar lessons for free -- including tablature to the Beatles, Led Zeppelin, and other classic rock songs, chords, and more.
**[http://www.guitarlessonfeedback.com Guitar Lesson Feedback] Guitar lesson news and reviews
**[http://www.guitargearheads.com GuitarGearHeads] - Electric guitar and effects how-to's and reviews
**[http://www.guitar-players-toolbox.com/ Guitar Players Toolbox] Practical guitar playing tips, tools, and ideas.
[[Category:Amplified instruments]]
[[Category:Guitars]]
[[bg:Електрическа китара]]
[[ca:Guitarra elèctrica]]
[[cs:Elektrická kytara]]
[[de:E-Gitarre]]
[[es:Guitarra eléctrica]]
[[fr:Guitare électrique]]
[[he:גיטרה חשמלית]]
[[id:Gitar listrik]]
[[it:Chitarra elettrica]]
[[ja:エレクトリックギター]]
[[ko:전기 기타]]
[[lt:Elektrinė gitara]]
[[lv:Elektriskā ģitāra]]
[[hu:Elektromos gitár]]
[[mk:Електрична гитара]]
[[nl:Elektrische gitaar]]
[[nn:Elektrisk gitar]]
[[pl:Gitara elektryczna]]
[[pt:Guitarra elétrica]]
[[sk:Elektrická gitara]]
[[sv:Elgitarr]]
[[fi:Sähkökitara]]
[[tr:Elektro gitar]]
[[zh:电吉他]]
[[ru:Электрогитара]]
''Italic text''</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Embryo drawings</title>
<id>10273</id>
<revision>
<id>39800563</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T23:22:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PeterPerfect</username>
<id>871366</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{POV}}
{{mergeto|Ernst Haeckel}}
The term '''embryo drawings''' refers to illustrations of [[embryos]]. In particular, the term often refers to a specific series of embryo drawings produced by [[Ernst Haeckel]], with the aim of comparing embryos of different [[classes]]. These drawings are discussed herein.
==History==
[[Image:Haeckel drawings.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Ernst Haeckel]]'s [[embryo drawings]].]]
In [[1866]], [[Ernst Haeckel]] claimed that members of all [[vertebrate]] classes pass through identical embryonic stages. To illustrate this, he published drawings of embryos of various species (namely, human, rabbit, calf, hog, chick, tortoise, salamander, and fish), suggesting that the early stages of embryonic development are nearly identical for all of these classes. Haeckel argued that this was evidence for the theory of [[common descent]] in discussions of [[biology|biological]] [[evolution]], and also used his drawings to propound his now-discredited [[recapitulation theory]].
Recapitulation theory suggests that each successive stage in the development of an individual represents one of the adult forms that appeared in its evolutionary history.
Several studies in the past century have shown that while embryos of different classes certainly show similarities in their early stages, there are also differences. It has been suggested that Haeckel deliberately "fudged" his drawings in order to de-emphasize the differences, thus providing better evidence for his arguments. It has also been suggested that Haeckel simply made a mistake.
Some [[creationists]] have used biologists' rejection of the literal recapitulation theory as evidence against evolution. However, biologists and evolutionists generally hold that while recapitulation theory is discredited, this does not affect the credibility of the biological evolution theory. This is because the former is based upon the latter, therefore evidence against the former does not necessarily have any bearing on the latter. While there are accepted differences in embryonal stages across classes, there are also many similarities, which have been used as evidence in support of common ancestry. It is generally accepted that species with a common ancestor pass through similar, but not identical, stages in their embryonal development (see [[ontogeny and phylogeny]]).
===Place in textbooks===
Haeckel's drawings have been reproduced in a wide range of textbooks. In [[2000]], [[Harvard University]] professor [[Stephen Jay Gould]] commented on the continued use of Haeckel's embryo drawings in textbooks. He wrote: "We do, I think, have the right to be both astonished and ashamed by the century of mindless recycling that has led to the persistence of these drawings in a large number, if not a majority, of modern textbooks."
Modern textbooks usually contain photographs to show the similarities in embryo development among related species, and these similarities, such as [[gill]]-like structures, were first seen as evidence of the common ancestry of humans and fish. However, it has since been proven that these folds of skin are not gills. They grow into bones in the ear and glands in the throat.
==See also==
*[[Ontogeny and phylogeny]]
*[[Recapitulation theory]]
==References==
* Haeckel, E. 1899. ''Riddle of the Universe at the Close of the Nineteenth Century''. Cited at http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/haeckel.html.
* Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University, ''Evolution and Development I: Size and shape'', http://biomed.brown.edu/Courses/BIO48/30.S&S.HTML
* Myers, P.Z. 2003. ''Wells and Haeckel's Embryos''. http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/wells/haeckel.html
*Richardson, M. K. 1995. Heterochrony and the phylotypic period. Dev. Biol. 172: 412 - 421.
[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enthalpy</title>
<id>10274</id>
<revision>
<id>41970424</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:26:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bomac</username>
<id>466515</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+mk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Thermodynamic potentials}}
'''Enthalpy''' (symbolized ''H'', also called '''heat content''') is the sum of the [[internal energy]] of matter and the product of its volume and pressure. ''Etymology:'' '''enthalpy''' [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/enthalpy] is composed of the prefix ''en'' [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=e&p=5] [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=en-] , plus the Greek verb ''thalpein'', meaning ''to heat''.
Enthalpy is a quantifiable [[state function]], and the total enthalpy of a system cannot be measured directly; the ''enthalpy change'' of a [[system (thermodynamics)|system]] is measured instead. Enthalpy is a [[thermodynamic potential]], and is useful particularly for nearly-constant [[pressure]] processes, where any energy input to the system must go into [[internal energy]] or the [[mechanical work]] of expanding the system. The change in enthalpy of a system is nearly singularly meaningful for systems at constant pressure, when the change in enthalpy is equivalent to heat. Otherwise, there is no easily-interpreted meaning for this state function. Thus, change in enthalpy can only properly be stated as heat of the reaction for reactions performed at constant pressure. For a simple system, with a constant number of particles, '''the difference in enthalpy is the maximum amount of thermal energy derivable from a thermodynamic process in which the pressure is held constant.'''
Enthalpy is defined by the following equation:
:<math>H = U + PV \,</math>
where (all units given in [[SI]])
*''H'' is the enthalpy, ([[joule]])
*''U'' is the [[internal energy]], (joule)
*''P'' is the [[pressure]] of the system, ([[pascal]])
*''V'' is the [[volume]], ([[cubic m |
ustomer queries, capitalising on the ready availability of highly skilled and intelligent people in some areas.
==References==
#Kennedy I., ''Call Centres'', School of Electrical and Information Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, 2003.
#Masi D.M.B., Fischer M.J., Harris C.M., ''Numerical Analysis of Routing Rules for Call Centers'', Telecommunications Review, 1998.
== See also ==
* [[Erlang unit]]
* [[Engset calculation]]
* [[Predictive dialer]]
* [[Agent turnover]]
*[[BPO Industry]]- An Overview of the BPO ITeS Industry in India
* [[Call-center industry in the Philippines]]
[[Category:telephony]]
[[de:Callcenter]]
[[ja:コールセンター]]
[[pl:Call center]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Corrodo Gini</title>
<id>7244</id>
<revision>
<id>15905321</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Corrado Gini]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caliph</title>
<id>7245</id>
<revision>
<id>42037593</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:44:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.13.10.247</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* How the Caliphate came to an end */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}
'''Caliph''' is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the ''[[Ummah]]'', or community of [[Islam]]. It is an Anglicized/Latinized version of the Arabic word &#1582;&#1604;&#1610;&#1601;&#1577; or ''Khalīfah'' ({{Audio|Ar-khalifa.ogg|listen}}) which means "successor", that is, successor to the prophet [[Muhammad]]. Some academics prefer to transliterate the term as ''Khalīf''. The caliph has often been referred to as ''Amīr al-Mu'minīn'' (&#1571;&#1605;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1605;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606;) "Prince of the Faithful," where "prince" is used in the context of "commander."
After the first four Sunni caliphs ([[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]], [[Uthman ibn Affan]], and [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]]), the title was claimed by the [[Umayyads]], the [[Abbasids]], and the [[Ottoman Empire | Ottomans]], as well as by other, competing lineages in [[Spain]], [[Northern Africa]], and [[Egypt]]. Most historical Muslim rulers simply titled themselves [[sultan]]s or [[emir]]s, and gave token obedience to a caliph who often had very little real authority. The title has been defunct since the [[Republic of Turkey]] abolished the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] caliphate in [[1924]].
==Origins of the caliphate==
Most academic scholars agree that Muhammad had not explicitly established how the Muslim community was to be governed after his death. Two questions faced these early Muslims: who was to succeed Muhammad, and what sort of authority he was to exercise.
[[Image:Age of Caliphs.gif|225px|thumb|left|The Caliphate.]]
===Succession to Muhammad===
[[Fred Donner]], in his book ''The Early Islamic Conquests'' (1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice at the time was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and choose a leader from amongst themselves. There was no specified procedure for this [[shura]], or consultation. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir. Muhammad, if he considered the matter of succession at all, would possibly have thought that the standard procedure would apply.
This is also the argument advanced by [[Sunni]] Muslims, who believe that Muhammad's lieutenant [[Abu Bakr]] was chosen by the community and that this was the proper procedure. They further argue that a caliph is ideally chosen by election or community consensus, even though the caliphate soon became a hereditary office, or the prize of the strongest general.
[[Shi'a]] Muslims disagree. They believe that Muhammad had given many indications that he considered [[Ali|ˤAlī ibn Abī Talib]], his cousin and son-in-law, as his chosen successor. They say that Abū Bakr seized power by force and trickery. All caliphs other than ˤAlī were usurpers. ˤAlī and his descendents are believed to have been the only proper Muslim leaders, or [[imam]]s. This matter is covered in much greater detail in the article [[Succession to Muhammad]], and in the article on [[Shi'a]] Islam.
A third branch of Islam, the [[Ibadi]], believes that the caliphate rightly belongs to the greatest spiritual leader among Muslims, regardless of his lineage. They are currently an extremely small sect, found mainly in [[Oman]].
===The authority of the caliph===
''Who'' should succeed Muhammad was not the only issue that faced the early Muslims; they also had to clarify the extent of the leader's powers. Muhammad, during his lifetime, was not only the Muslim leader, but the Muslim prophet and the Muslim judge. All law and spiritual practice proceeded from Muhammad. Was his successor to have the same status?
None of the early caliphs claimed to receive divine revelations, as did Muhammad; none of them claimed to be ''an-nabī'' "a prophet". Muhammad's revelations were soon codified and written down as the [[Qur'an]], which was accepted as a supreme authority, limiting what a caliph could legitimately command.
However, there is some evidence that the early caliphs did believe that they had authority to rule in matters not specified in the Qur'an. They believed themselves to be the spiritual and temporal leaders of Islam, and insisted that implicit obedience to the caliph in all things was the hallmark of the good Muslim. The modern scholars [[Patricia Crone]] and Martin Hinds, in their book ''God's Caliph'', outline the evidence for an early, expansive view of the caliph's importance and authority. They argue that this view of the caliphate was eventually nullified (in Sunni Islam, at least) by the rising power of the [[ulema]], or Islamic scholars, clerics, and religious specialists. The ulema insisted on ''their'' right to determine what was legal and orthodox. The proper Muslim leader, in the ulema's opinion, was the leader who enforced the rulings of the ulema, rather than making rulings of his own. Conflict between caliph and ulema was a recurring theme in early Islamic history, and ended in the victory of the ulema. The caliph was henceforth limited to temporal rule. He would be considered a righteous caliph if he were guided by the ulema. Crone and Hinds argue that Shi'a Muslims, with their expansive view of the powers of the [[imamate]], have preserved some of the beliefs of early Islam. Crone and Hinds' thesis is not accepted by all scholars.
Most Sunni Muslims now believe that the caliph has always been a merely temporal ruler, and that the ulema has always been responsible for adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law ([[shari'a]]). The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believe to have followed the Qur'an and the way or [[sunnah]] of Muhammad in all things. This formulation itself presumes the Sunni ulema's view of history.
==The history of the caliphate==
Abū Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed, and the Muslim community submitted to his choice. Uthman was elected by a council of electors, but was soon perceived by some Muslims to be ruling as a "king" rather than an elected leader. Uthman was killed by rebellious soldiers. ˤAlī then took control, but was not universally accepted as caliph. He faced numerous rebellions and was assassinated after a tumultuous rule of only five years. This period is known as the Fitna, or the [[first Islamic civil war]].
One of ˤAlī's challengers was Muˤāwiyya, a relative of Uthman. After ˤAlī's death, Muˤāwiyya managed to overcome all other claimants to the Caliphate. He is remembered by history as [[Muawiyah I|Muˤāwiyya]], the founder of the [[Umayyad]] dynasty. Under Muˤāwiyya, the caliphate became a hereditary office.
Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire grew rapidly. To the West, Muslim rule expanded across [[North Africa]] and into [[Spain]]. To the east, it expanded through [[Iran]] and ultimately to [[India]].
However, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within Islam itself. Some Muslims supported prominent early Muslims like [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam|az-Zubayr]]; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banū Hisham, or his own lineage, the descendants of ˤAlī, should rule. There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays). Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hisham and Alid claims united to bring down the Umayyads in [[750]]. However, the ''Shiˤat ˤAlī'' "the Party of ˤAlī", were again disappointed when the [[Abbasid]] dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] and not from ˤAlī. Following this disappointment, the Shiˤat ˤAlī finally split from the majority Sunni Muslims and formed what are today the several Shiˤa denominations.
The Abassids would provide an unbroken line of caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. But by [[940]] the power of the caliphate under the Abassids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] (and later the [[Mamluks]] in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century), gained influence, and [[sultan]]s and [[emir]]s became increasingly independent. However, the caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world.
During the period of the Abassid dy |
*[[Break key]] / Pause key
*[[Escape key]]
*[[Menu key]]
*[[Space bar]]
*[[Numpad]]
*[[Function key]]
*[[Power management keys]]
**Power key
**Sleep key
**Wake key
==See also==
*[[Alphanumeric keyboard]]
*[[ASCII]]
*[[asdf|ASDF]]
*[[AT keyboard]]
*[[British and American keyboards]]
*[[Chiclet keyboard]]
*[[Chinese input methods for computers]]
*[[Chord keyset]]
*[[Colemak]]
*[[Das Keyboard]] (blank keyboard)
*[[Dvorak keyboard]]
*[[Enhanced keyboard]]
*[[EZ-Reach (keyboard)]]
*[[F-Lock]]
*[[GKOS keyboard]] (chorded keyboard)
*[[Home row]]
*[[Hunt and peck typing]]
*[[IBM PC keyboard]]
*[[IBM Model M Keyboard]]
*[[Keyboard layout]]
*[[Keyboard technology]]
*[[Maltron keyboard]]
*[[Membrane keyboard]]
*[[Microsoft Natural keyboard]]
*[[Optimus Keyboard]]
*[[Repetitive strain injury]]
*[[Space-cadet keyboard]]
*[[Touch typing]]
*[[Typing]]
*[[Velotype]] (chorded keyboard)
==External links==
* [http://gkos.com GKOS keyboard]
* [http://www.handykey.com/site/twiddler2.html Twiddler 2], a keyboard designed for [[wearable computing]]
* [http://www.pfu.fujitsu.com/en/hhkeyboard/ Happy Hacking keyboards] - A minimalistic keyboard designed for [[hacker]]s
* [http://www.beyondlogic.org/keyboard/keybrd.htm Interfacing the AT keyboard]
* [http://hardware.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=05/07/14/1335215&from=rss Slashdot article]- Article and discussion on OLED keyboards.
* [http://www.humanics-es.com/ergonomics.htm Ergonomics research on alternative keyboard designs]
{{Gamepad styles}}
[[Category:Computer keyboards|*]]
[[Category:Computer hardware]]
[[bs:Tastatura]]
[[ca:Teclat]]
[[cs:Počítačová klávesnice]]
[[da:Tastatur]]
[[de:Tastatur]]
[[et:Sõrmistik]]
[[es:Teclado de ordenador]]
[[eo:Klavaro]]
[[fr:Clavier informatique]]
[[gl:Teclado]]
[[ko:컴퓨터 자판]]
[[hr:Tipkovnica]]
[[id:Keyboard]]
[[it:Tastiera (informatica)]]
[[he:מקלדת מחשב]]
[[hu:Billentyűzet]]
[[nl:Toetsenbord]]
[[nds:Tastatur]]
[[ja:キーボード]]
[[no:Tastatur]]
[[pl:Klawiatura]]
[[pt:Teclado (computador)]]
[[sr:Тастатура]]
[[sv:Tangentbord]]
[[th:คีย์บอร์ด (คอมพิวเตอร์)]]
[[uk:Клавіатура]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constellation</title>
<id>5267</id>
<revision>
<id>41269829</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T04:53:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bloodshedder</username>
<id>20963</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>main template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a collection of Stars}}
[[Image:Orion_constellation_map.png|thumb|300px|[[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] is a remarkable constellation, visible from most places on the globe at one time or another during the year. The '''constellation''' of Orion is the area outlined in the dashed yellow line. [[Orion]] contains a striking and well-known star pattern that has the form of a hunter.]]
A '''constellation''' is any one of the 88 areas into which the sky - or the [[celestial sphere]] - is divided. The term is also often used, incorrectly, to denote a group of [[star]]s visibly related to each other in a particular configuration or pattern.
Some well-known constellations contain striking and familiar patterns of bright stars. Examples are [[Ursa Major]] (containing the star pattern known as the [[Big Dipper]]), [[Orion]] (containing a striking figure of a hunter), [[Leo]] (containing bright stars outlining the form of a lion) and [[Scorpius]] (a scorpion). Other constellations do not encompass any discernible star patterns, and contain only faint stars.
== Explanation ==
The [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU) divides the sky into 88 official constellations with precise [[boundaries]], so that every [[direction]] or place in the sky belongs within one constellation. In the northern celestial hemisphere, these are mostly based upon the constellations of the ancient [[ancient Greece|Greek]] tradition, passed down through the [[Middle Ages]], and contains the signs of the [[zodiac]].
The constellation boundaries were drawn up by [[Eugène Delporte]] in [[1930]], and he drew them along vertical and horizontal lines of [[right ascension]] and [[declination]]. However, he did so for the [[epoch (astronomy)|epoch]] [[B1875.0]], which means that due to [[precession]] of the equinoxes, the borders on a modern star map (eg, for epoch [[J2000]]) are already somewhat skewed and no longer perfectly vertical or horizontal. This skew will increase over the years and centuries to come.
In [[dimension|three-dimensional]] space, most of the stars we see have little or no relation to one another, but can appear to be grouped on the [[celestial sphere]] of the [[night]] [[sky]]. [[Human]]s excel at finding [[pattern]]s and throughout history have grouped stars that appear close to one another into patterns.
A star pattern may be widely known but may not recognized by the [[International Astronomical Union]]; such a pattern of stars is called an [[asterism (astronomy)|asterism]]. An example is the grouping called the [[Big Dipper]] (North America) or the [[Big Dipper|Plough]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]]).
The stars in a constellation or asterism rarely have any astrophysical relationship to each other; they just happen to appear close together in the sky as viewed from [[Earth]] and typically lie many [[light years]] apart in space. However, one exception to this is the [[Ursa Major moving group]].
The grouping of stars into constellations is essentially [[wiktionary:arbitrary|arbitrary]], and different [[culture]]s have had different constellations, although a few of the more obvious ones tend to recur frequently, e.g., [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] and [[Scorpius]].
==History of the constellations==
{{main|Former constellations}}
Our current list is based on those listed by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] astronomer, [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]], who lived in [[Alexandria]], [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Egypt]]. ([[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]], the astronomer, was not related to the [[Ptolemaic_dynasty|Greek kings of Egypt named Ptolemy]].)
In more recent times this list has been added to, to fill gaps between Ptolemy's patterns. The Greeks considered the sky as including both constellations and dim spaces between. But Renaissance star catalogs by [[Johann Bayer]] and [[John Flamsteed]] required every star to be in a constellation, and the number of visible stars in a constellation to be manageably small.
Twelve of the constellations in the southern celestial hemisphere were not observable by the Greeks, and were created by Dutch navigators [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] in the sixteenth century and first cataloged by [[Johann Bayer]].
Other proposed constellations didn't make the cut, most notably [[Quadrans Muralis]] (now part of [[Boötes]]) for which the [[Quadrantids|Quadrantid meteors]] are named. Also the ancient constellation [[Argo Navis]] was so big that it was broken up into several different constellations, for the convenience of stellar cartographers.
== Constellations in variant cultures ==
{{main|Chinese constellation}}
Chinese constellations are different from the western constellations, due to the independent development of ancient [[China|Chinese]] [[astronomy]]. Ancient Chinese skywatchers divided their night sky in a different way, but there are also similarities. The Chinese counterpart of the 12 western [[zodiac]] constellations are the 28 "Xiu" (&#23487;) or "mansions" (a literal translation).
== Star names ==
All modern constellation names are [[Latin language|Latin]] proper names or words, and some stars are named using the [[genitive]] of the constellation in which they are found. The genitive is formed using the usual rules of Latin grammar, and for those unfamiliar with that language the form of the genitive is unpredictable and must be memorized. Some examples include: Aries &rarr; Arietis; Taurus &rarr; Tauri; Gemini &rarr; Geminorum; Virgo &rarr; Virginis; Libra &rarr; Librae; Pisces &rarr; Piscium; Lepus &rarr; Leporis.
These names include [[Bayer designation]]s such as [[Alpha Centauri]], [[Flamsteed designation]]s such as [[61 Cygni]], and [[variable star designation]]s such as [[RR Lyrae]]. However, many fainter stars will just be given a catalog number designation (in each of various [[star catalog]]s) that does not incorporate the constellation name.
For more information about star names, see [[Star designation]]s and the [[list of stars by constellation]].
== See also ==
* [[List of constellations]]
* [[List of constellations by area]]
* [[Former constellations]]
* [[Chinese constellation]]
* [[lunar mansion]]
{{Zodiac}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationsByBayer}}
{{ConstellationsChangedByBayer}}
{{ConstellationsByBartsch}}
{{ConstellationsRoyerAltered}}
{{ConstellationsByHevelius}}
{{ConstellationsNLDLAltered}}
{{ConstellationsByLacaille}}
{{ConstellationsFormer}}
{{ConstellationList}}
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Constellations|Constellations}}
*[http://www.dibonsmith.com/constel.htm The Constellations]
*[http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/ Photographic Atlas of the Constellations]
*[http://celestia.sourceforge.net Celestia] free 3D realtime space-simulation (OpenGL)
*[http://stellarium.free.fr/ Stellarium] realtime sky rendering program (OpenGL)
*[http://cdsweb.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/Cat?VI/49 Strasbourg Astronomical Data Center Files on official IAU constellation boundaries] (the older NASA ADC service does not function anymore)
*[http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/ Interactive Sky Charts] (Allows navigation through the entire sky with variable star detail, optional constellation lines)
*http://www.astronomical.org/constellations/obs.html
*http://www.seds.org/Maps/Stars_en/Fig/const.html
* [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/categories/const.html Constellations Articles]
*[http://borghetto.astrofili.org/costellazioni/bo |
on of 6 fixed .50-calibre machine guns. Fourteen hundred B-25Gs and B-25Hs were built.
The last produced version, the B-25J, was somewhere between the B-25C and the B-25H. It maintained much of the fixed armament of the B-25H, but the solid nose was replaced by a ‘greenhouse’ one seen on earlier models, though 800 B-25Js were converted to a solid nose version. It also featured improved engines. A total of 4318 B-25Js were built.
The B-25 was a safe and forgiving aircraft to fly. With an engine out, 60° banking turns into the dead engine were possible and control could be easily maintained down to 145 mph (230 km/h). The tricycle landing gear made for excellent visibility while taxiing. It was also an amazingly sturdy aircraft. One well-known B-25C from [[321st Bomb Group]] was nicknamed "Patches" because its crew chief painted all [[flak]] hole patches with [[zinc chromate]]. By the end of the war, the aircraft had completed over 300 missions, was belly-landed half a dozen times, and had over 400 patched holes. The airframe was so bent that straight-and-level flight required 8° of left [[aileron]] trim and 6° of right rudder, causing the aircraft to "crab" sideways across the sky. The biggest complaint about the B-25 was the high level of noise and most pilots with significant time in the type ended up with [[hearing loss]] (Higham 1978).
An interesting characteristic of the B-25 was that its range could be extended by using one-quarter flaps. Since the aircraft typically cruised in a slight nose-high attitude, about 40 US gallons (150 l) of fuel was below the fuel pickup and thus unavailable. The flaps gave the aircraft a more level attitude thus slightly extending the range (Higham 1975).
The B-25 was occasionally called "Baker Two Bits."
== De-icing tests ==
In [[1942 in aviation|1942]], two B-25Cs were converted to test aircraft to investigate de-icing and anti-icing equipment; they were redesignated the XB-25E and XB-25F. The XB-25E (nicknamed ‘Flamin’ Maimie’) used engine exhaust gases circulated through chambers in the wing to melt ice. The XB-25F used insulated electrical coils, to heat metal surfaces. Both were tested extensively until [[1944 in aviation|1944]]; the XB-25E system was extremely reliable and more practical than the XB-25F system.
While the results of tests on the XB-25E were promising, no aircraft during World War II was built that utilised that system. It is a common method today. Most prop planes used by the [[United States Air Force]] use so-called ‘piccolo tubes’ that run along the leading edges of the wings. Hot air bled from the engine is blown through those tubes, and melts any ice that may form on the wing.
The further history of the XB-25F is unknown, but the sole XB-25E (42-32281) was scrapped.
== XB-28 ==
A descendant of the B-25 was the [[XB-28 Dragon]], meant to be a high-altitude version of the B-25. Despite this premise, the actual aircraft evolved to be little like the Mitchell. It was much more similar to the [[B-26 Marauder]].
== Units Using the B-25 ==
=== [[United States Army Air Forces]] ===
*12th Bomb Group
*17th Bomb Group
*28th Bomb Group
=== [[Royal Air Force]] ===
* Number 98 Squadron
* Number 180 Squadron
* Number 226 Squadron
* Number 305 Squadron
* Number 320 Squadron
* Number 342 Squadron
* Number 681 Squadron
* Number 684 Squadron
=== [[Royal Australian Air Force]] ===
* Number 18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron
== Variants and Design stages ==
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-2.htm B-25]'''&mdash;The first version of the B-25 delivered. It was so badly needed that no prototype stages were ordered. The first nine planes were built with constant [[dihedral]] angle. Due to low stability, the wing was redesigned so that the dihedral angle was eliminated on the outboard section. (&times;24)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-3.htm B-25A]'''&mdash;Version of the B-25 modified to make it combat ready; additions included [[self-sealing fuel tank]]s, crew armour, and an improved tail gunner station. No changes were made in the armament. Redesignated obsolete (RB-25A designation) in [[1942 in aviation|1942]]. (&times;40)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-4.htm B-25B]'''&mdash;Tail gunner eliminated; dorsal and ventral turrets added, each with a pair of .50-calibre [[machine gun]]s. The ventral turret was retractable, but the increased drag still reduced the cruise speed by 30 mph (48 km/h). 23 were delivered to the RAF as the '''Mitchell Mk I'''.(&times;120)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-5.htm B-25C]'''&mdash; Improved version of the B-25B: upgraded from [[Wright R-2600]]-9 radials to R-2600-13 radials; deicing and anti-icing equipment was added; the navigator received a sighting blister; and nose armament was increased to two .50-calibre [[machine gun]]s, one fixed and one flexible. The B-25C model was the first mass produced B-25 version; it was also used in the [[United Kingdom]] as the '''Mitchell II''', and in [[Canada]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[The Netherlands]], and [[Soviet Union|Russia]]. First mass-produced B-25. (&times;1625)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-6.htm B-25D]'''&mdash; Identical to the B-25C. The only difference was that the B-25C was made in [[Inglewood, California]] whereas the B-25D was made in [[Kansas City, Kansas]]. First flew on [[1942 in aviation|1942]] [[January 3]]. (&times;2290)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-7.htm XB-25E]'''&mdash;Single B-25C modified to test de-icing and anti-icing equipment that circulated exhaust from the engines in chambers in the leading and trailing edges and empennage. The plane was tested for almost two years, beginning in [[1942 in aviation|1942]]; while the system proved extremely effective, no planes were built that used it before the end of [[World War II]]. Many prop planes today use the XB-25E system. (&times;1, converted)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-8.htm XB-25F]'''&mdash;A modified B-25C that tested the use of insulated electrical de-icing coils mounted inside the wing and empennage leading edges as a de-icing system. The hot air de-icing system tested on the XB-25E was more practical. (&times;1, converted)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-9.htm XB-25G]'''&mdash;Modified B-25C in which the transparent nose was replaced by a solid one, with two fixed .50-calibre [[machine guns]] and a 2.95-calibre (75 mm) M4 Cannon, the largest weapon ever carried on an American bomber. (&times;1, converted)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-10.htm B-25G]'''&mdash;To satisfy the dire need for ground-attack and strafing aircraft, the B-25G was made following the success of the prototype XB-25G. The production model featured increased armour and a greater fuel supply than the XB-25G. One B-25G was passed to the British, who gave it the name '''Mitchell II''' that had been used for the B-25C. (&times;420)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-11.htm B-25H]'''&mdash;An improved version of the B-25G. It featured two more fixed .50-calibre machine guns in the nose, and four in fuselage-mounted pods; the heavy M4 cannon was replaced by a lighter 2.95-calibre (75 mm) T13E1. (&times;1000)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-12.htm B-25J]'''&mdash;The last production model of the B-25, often called a cross between the B-25C and the B-25H. It had a transparent nose, but many of the delivered planes were modified to have a solid nose. Most of its 14-18 machine guns were forward-facing for strafing missions. 316 were delivered to the [[Royal Air Force]] as the '''Mitchell III'''. (&times;4318)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-13.htm TB-25]'''&mdash;A trainer variant; most models of the B-25 were used at some point as training aircraft.
**'''TB-25D'''&mdash;Originally designated AT-24A (Advanced Trainer, Model 24, Version A). Trainer modification of B-25D. 60 AT-24s were built in total.
**'''TB-25G'''&mdash;Originally designated AT-24B. Trainer modification of B-25G. 60 AT-24s were built in total.
**'''TB-25C'''&mdash;Originally designated AT-24C. Trainer modification of B-25C. 60 AT-24s were built in total.
**'''TB-25J'''&mdash;Originally designated AT-24D. Trainer modification of B-25J. 60 AT-24s were built in total, and another 600 B-25Js were modified after the war.
**'''TB-25K'''&mdash;Hughes E1 fire-control radar trainer (Hughes). (&times;117)
**'''TB-25L'''&mdash;Hayes pilot-trainer conversion. (&times;90)
**'''TB-25M'''&mdash;Hughes E5 fire-control radar trainer. (&times;40)
**'''TB-25N'''&mdash;Hayes pilot-trainer conversion. (&times;47)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-14.htm VB-25J]'''&mdash;A number of B-25s were converted for use as staff and VIP transports. [[Henry H. Arnold]] and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] both used converted B-25Js as their personal transports.
*'''CB-25J''' - Utility transport version.
*'''ZB-25C''' -
*'''ZB-25D''' -
*'''ZXB-25E''' -
*'''PBJ-1C''' - Similar to the B-25C for the US Navy. Often fitted with airborne search radar and used in the anti-submarine role.
*'''PBJ-1D''' - Similar to the B-25D for the US Navy. Differed in having on a single .50 caliber M2 in the tail turret and beam gun positions similar to the B-25H. Often fitted with airborne search radar and used in the anti-submarine role.
*'''PBJ-1G''' - US Navy designation for the B-25G
*'''PBJ-1H''' - US Navy designation for the B-25H
*'''PBJ-1J''' - US Navy designation for the B-25J-NC (Blocks -1 through -35) with improvements in radio and other equipment. Often fitted with "pack |
age_flag = Flag of Cyprus.svg
|image_coat = Cyprus Coat of Arms.png
|image_map = LocationCyprus.png
|national_motto = None
|national_anthem = [[Hymn to Freedom|Ymnos pros tin Eleutherian]] (English: ''Hymn to Freedom'')<sup>1</sup>
|official_languages = [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
|capital = [[Nicosia|Nicosia]]
|latd=35|latm=08|latNS=N|longd=33|longm=28|longEW=E
|largest_city = [[Nicosia]]
|government_type= [[Republic]]
|leader_titles = [[President]]
|leader_names = [[Tassos Papadopoulos]] <sup>2</sup>
|area_rank = 161st
|area_magnitude = 1_E9
|area= 9,250 <sup>4<sup>
|areami² = 3,571<sup>4<sup> <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|percent_water = Negligible
|population_estimate = 818,200 <sup>5</sup>
|population_estimate_year = 2003
|population_estimate_rank = 155th
|population_census= 689,565 <sup>6</sup>
|population_census_year= 2001
|population_density = 84
|population_densitymi² = 218 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|population_density_rank = 111
|GDP_PPP_year = n/a
|GDP_PPP = $ 16,745
|GDP_PPP_rank = n/a
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $ 20,669
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = n/a
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI = 0.891
|HDI_rank = 29th
|HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font>
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = Declared<br/>Recognised
|established_dates = From the [[United Kingdom|UK]]<br/>[[16 August]] [[1960]]<br/>[[16 August]] [[1960]] <sup>3</sup>
|currency = [[Cyprus Pound]]
|currency_code = CYP
|time_zone= [[EET]]
|utc_offset= +2
|time_zone_DST= [[EEST]]
|utc_offset_DST= +3
|cctld= [[.cy]]
|calling_code = 357 <sup>7</sup>
|footnotes =1. "Ymnos pros tin Eleutherian" is also used as the national anthem of Greece.<br/>
2. The north has a separate president of the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC). <br/>
3. Not recognised by [[Turkey]], which instead recognises the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|TRNC]]. The TRNC is only recognised by Turkey<br/>
4. Of which 5,895 km&sup2; (2,276&nbsp;mi²) is in the south and 3,355 km&sup2; (1,295&nbsp;mi²) in the north<br/>
5. Number does not include approx. 230,000 inhabitants in the north<br/>
6. Number does not include any [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|TRNC]] inhabitants<br/>
7. +90-392 (a Turkish access number) is used in the north
}}
The island of Cyprus is divided into four sectors. The southern Republic of Cyprus, the unrecognised [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]], the British Sovereign Bases, and the UN controlled Green Line. The southern '''Republic of Cyprus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Κύπρος, ''Kýpros''; [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Kıbrıs''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]) represents the original [[island nation]]. Cyprus lies in the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea]], 113 [[kilometre]]s (70&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) south of [[Turkey]] and around 120 kilmetres (75&nbsp;mi) west of the [[Syria]]n coast. For information on the northern Turkish occupied sector, see the '[[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]]'.'''
==Terminology==
The name '''Cyprus''' has a somewhat uncertain [[etymology]]. One suggestion is that it comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word "κυπάρισσος (''kypa'rissos'')" meaning "[[Cupressus sempervirens|cypress]]" (''Cupressus sempervirens'') or even from the Greek name of the plant ''Lawsonia alba'' ([[henna]]), "κύπρος (kypros)". Another school suggests that it stems from the eterocyprian word for copper. Dossin, for example, suggests that it has roots to the [[Sumeria]]n word for [[copper]], "zubar" or even the word "kubar" ([[bronze]]), due to the large deposits of copper ore found on the island. Through overseas trade, the island has already given its name to the [[Classical Latin]] word for the metal, which appears in the phrase ''aes Cyprium'', "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to ''cuprum''. From there the word passed into [[Europe]]an languages as "[[copper]]" in the [[English language]], "cuivre" in [[French language|French]], "Kupfer" in [[German language|German]] and "cobre" in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].
Another probable suggestion is that it was named after the Greek goddess [[Aphrodite]] which was also called "Κυπρίς (kipris)". Note that Cyprus was the mythical birthplace of Aphrodite. [[Homer]] in his epics [[Iliad]] and [[Odyssey]] refers to the island of "Kύπρον (''kypron'')": “Μούσα μοι έννεπε έργα πολυχρύσου Αφροδίτης Κύπριδος” – “Muse sing to me the works of golden haired Aphrodite Cypridos”. It is also characteristic that in ancient times the name "Κύπρος (Cyprus)" in Greek was the first or second synthetic of names, such as: Αριστόκυπρος, Φιλόκυπρος, Κυπράνορας, Κυπροθέμης.
==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Cyprus]]''
===Prehistoric and Ancient Cyprus===
:''Main article: [[Cyprus (Prehistory)]], [[Ancient history of Cyprus]]''
There are but scanty traces of the [[Stone Age]], but the [[Bronze Age]] is characterized by a well-developed and clearly marked civilization. The people quickly learned to work the rich copper mines of the island. The [[Mycenaean|Mycen&aelig;an]] civilization seems to have reached Cyprus at around [[1600 BC|1600 B.C.]] and several Greek and Ph&oelig;nician settlements that belong to the [[Iron Age]] can be found on the island. Cyprus was invaded by [[Thothmes III]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] about [[1500 BC|1500 B.C.]], and was forced to pay tribute.
Around [[1200 BC|1200 B.C.]] begins the massive arrival of the [[Mycenaean|Mycen&aelig;an]] Greeks as permanent settlers to Cyprus, a process which lasted for more than a century. This migration is remembered in many sagas concerning how some of the Greek heroes that participated in the [[Trojan war]] came to settle in Cyprus. The newcomers brought with them their language, their advanced technology and introduced a new outlook for visual arts. Thus from [[1220 BC|1220 B.C.]] Cyprus has remained predominantly Greek in culture, language and population despite various influences resulting from successive conquests. In times Cyprus supplied the rest of the [[Greek people|Greeks]] with timber for their fleets.
In the [[6th century BC|6th century B.C.]], [[Amasis]] of [[Egypt]] conquered Cyprus, which soon fell under the rule of the [[Persian Empire|Persians]] when [[Cambyses]] conquered Egypt. In the Persian Empire, Cyprus formed part of the fifth satrapy and in addition to tribute it had to supply the Persians with ships and crews. In their new fate the Greeks of Cyprus had as companions the Greeks of [[Ionia]] (west coast of [[Anatolia]]) with whom they forged closer ties. When the Ionian Greeks revolted against [[Persia]] ([[499 BC]]) the Cypriots except for the city of [[Amathus]], joined in at the instigation of Onesilos, brother of the king of [[Salamis, Cyprus|Salamis]], whom he dethroned for not wanting to fight for independence. The Persians reacted quickly sending a considerable force against Onesilos. The [[Persians]] finally won despite Ionian help.
After their defeat, the Greeks mounted various expeditions in order to liberate Cyprus from the Persian rule, but all their efforts bore only temporary results. Eventually, [[Alexander the Great]] ([[356 BC|356]]-[[323 BC|323 B.C.)]] took the island from the Persians. Later, the [[Ptolemies]] of [[Egypt]] controlled it; finally [[Rome]] annexed it in [[58 BC|58]]-[[57 BC]]. No doubt the most important event that occurred in Roman Cyprus was the visit by Apostles [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and [[Barnabas]] accompanied by [[Mark the Evangelist|St Mark]] who came to the island at the outset of their first [[missionary]] journey in [[Anno Domini|AD]]&nbsp;45. After their arrival at [[Salamis, Cyprus|Salamis]] they proceeded to [[Paphos]] where they converted the Roman Governor [[Sergius Paulus]] to [[Christianity]]. In this way Cyprus became the first country in the world to be governed by a Christian ruler.
====Cyprus in ancient myth====
Cyprus is the legendary birthplace of the goddess of beauty, love, sex and passion, the beautiful [[Aphrodite]]. According to [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'', the goddess, who was also known as ''Kypris'' or ''the Cyprian'', emerged fully grown from the sea where the severed genitals of the god [[Uranus]] were cast by his son, [[Kronos]], causing the sea to foam (Greek: ''Aphros''). The legendary site of Aphrodite's birth from the foam is at 'Petra tou Romiou' ('Aphrodite's Rock'), a large stack in the sea close to the coastal cliffs near [[Paphos]]. Throughout ancient history, Cyprus was a flourishing centre for the cultic worship of Aphrodite.
Her birth was famously depicted by the artist [[Sandro Botticelli|Botticelli]] in ''[[The Birth of Venus (Botticelli)|The Birth of Venus]]''.
===Post-Classical and Modern Cyprus===
Cyprus became part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] after the partitioning of the [[Roman Empire]] in [[Anno Domini|AD]]&nbsp;395, and remained so for almost 800 years, though with brief perdiod of [[Arab]] domination and influence. After the rule of the rebelious Byzantine Emperor [[Isaac Comnenus]], King [[Richard I of England]] captured the island in [[1191]] during the [[Third Crusades]]. [[Guy of Lusignan]] purchased the island from Richard in [[1192]]. The [[Republic of Venice]] took control in [[1489]] after the death of the last Lusignan Queen, after which the [[Ottoman Empire]] conquered the Island in [[1570]].
Cyprus was placed under [[United Kingdom|British]] control on [[4 June]] [[1878]] as a result of the [[Cyprus Convention]], which granted control of the island to Brita |
for prototyping of applications, and sometimes even for version 1.0 implementations. Inside Apple, the QuickTime team was one of HyperCard's biggest customers.
[[Image:Hyper_beethoven.gif|thumb|206px|right|Beethoven's Ninth stack]]
A number of commercial software products were created in HyperCard, most notably the original version of the interactive game narrative ''[[Myst]]'', the Voyager Company's [[Expanded Books]], and multimedia CD-ROMs of [[Beethoven's Ninth Symphony CD-ROM]], [[the Beatles]]' ''[[A Hard Day's Night (film)|A Hard Day's Night]]'', and the Voyager ''[[MacBeth]]''.
The prototype and demo of the popular game ''[[You Don't Know Jack]]'' was written in HyperCard.
[[Activision]], until that time primarily a game company, saw HyperCard as an entry point into the business market. Changing their name to Mediagenic, they published several major HyperCard based applications, most notably [[Danny Goodman]]'s Focal Point, a personal information manager, and Reports For HyperCard, a program by Nine To Five Software that allowed users to treat HyperCard as a full-fledged database system with robust information viewing and printing features.
The HyperCard-inspired SuperCard for a while included the "Roadster" plugin that allowed stacks to be placed inside [[World Wide Web|Web]] pages and viewed by browsers with an appropriate browser plugin. There even was a Windows version of this plugin allowing computers other than Macintoshes to use the plugin.
==Legacy==
HyperCard is one of the first products that made use of and popularized the [[hypertext]] concept to a large popular base of users.
[[Jakob Nielsen (usability consultant)|Jakob Nielsen]] has pointed out that HyperCard was really only a [[hypermedia]] program since its links started from regions on a card, not text objects; actual [[HTML]]-style text [[hyperlink]]s were possible in later versions, but were awkward to implement and seldom used.
HyperCard saw a loss in popularity with the growth of the [[World Wide Web]], since the Web could handle and deliver data in much the same way as HyperCard without being limited to files on your hard disk. Interestingly, HyperCard had a significant impact on the web as it inspired the creation of both [[HTTP]] itself and [[JavaScript]] (through its influence on [[Tim Berners-Lee]]'s colleague [[Robert Cailliau]]).
[[Image:HyperCard cursor.png|left|32px|Navigation cursor]]The pointing-finger [[Cursor (computers)|cursor]] used for navigating stacks later found its way into the first web browsers, as the hyperlink cursor.
Other companies were quick to see the power of HyperCard and offer their own versions.
*'''[[SuperCard]]''' is a color version of HyperCard on the Mac with additional features, a full GUI toolkit, and now [[Mac OS X]] compatibility.
*'''[[WinPlus|Plus]]''' was a product similar to HyperCard for Windows and Macintosh.
*Asymetrix's Windows application '''[[ToolBook]]''' resembled HyperCard, and included an external converter to read HyperCard stacks.
*[[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] purchased a cross-platform clone and released it as '''[[OracleMediaObjects|OracleCard]]''', renamed '''[[Oracle Media Objects]]''', used as a [[4GL]] for database access.
*Most recently Runtime's '''[[Revolution (development environment)|Revolution]]''' incorporates all of HyperTalk (the HyperCard scripting language), and a large part of the feature set. It expands significantly on HyperCard's feature set and offers a full GUI toolkit. It runs on Macintosh, Windows, and Unix.
In addition, many of the basic concepts of the original system were later re-used in other forms. Apple built their system-wide scripting engine [[AppleScript]] on a language very similar to HyperTalk; it was recently discovered as a perfect fit for [[Desktop publishing|DTP]] [[workflow automation]] needs. AppleScript gained a graphical programming front-end called Automator in the most recent major release of [[Mac OS X]], codenamed Tiger, released in April of [[2005]]. Some see HyperCard as an ancestor to [[Visual Basic]] by [[Microsoft]]. One of HyperCard's strengths was its handling of [[multimedia]], and many multimedia systems like Macromedia [[Authorware]] are based on concepts originating in HyperCard.
[[AppWare]], originally known as '''Sirius Developer''', is sometimes seen to be similar to HyperCard, as they were both [[rapid application development]] system. AppWare was sold in the early 90s and was remarkable in that its application worked on both Windows and Mac systems.
On a less positive note, as HyperCard executed scripts in stacks immediately on opening it was also one of the first applications susceptible to [[macro virus|macro viruses]]. The Merryxmas virus was discovered in 1993 by Ken Dunham, two years before the "Concept" virus.
==Trivia==
Originally called '''WildCard''' during its development, the name was changed to HyperCard before official release due to [[trademark]] issues. The HyperCard application and its associated files retain a [[creator code]] of <code>WILD</code>, reflecting this period of development.
The last sixteen bytes of every HyperCard 2.x stack end with the [[Pascal programming language|pascal]] string "Nu är det slut &hellip;" (''That is the end &hellip;'' in [[Swedish language|Swedish]]) though this is never seen by users.
==Reference==
*[[Danny Goodman]], ''The Complete HyperCard Handbook'' (Bantam Books, 1987), ISBN 0966551427
==See also==
*[[SuperCard]]
*[[mTropolis]]: multimedia authoring using a drag-n-drop programming system
*[[Automator (software)|Automator]]: an easy-to-use script authoring environment
*[[Stagecast Creator]]: one of a number of similar "if you see this, do this" programming systems
*[[Morphic]]: a visual UI building system
==External links==
*[http://www.pantechnicon.org/ HyperCard Pantechnicon]: a living museum of everything HyperCard that allows you to take everything home with you
*[http://members.aol.com/hcheaven/links/links.html A list of HyperCard links]
*[http://scripteur.com/cormoran/as/osa/appl/hypercard/dico/objets/application.html HyperCard and AppleScript]: in [[French language|French]]
*[http://igeek.com/articles/History/VisualBASIC.txt History of Visual Basic]: a partisan article by David K. Every exploring relations between MS software and HyperCard
*[http://www.creysoft.com/xtalk Open Source xTalk Interpreter Archive]: An attempt to organize open source HyperCard/HyperTalk clones
<!-- does anyone have a better reference on this topic? -->
===HyperCard clones===
*[http://www.hyperstudio.com/ HyperStudio]: a HyperCard-like product marketed for and popular with education users
*[http://pythoncard.sourceforge.net/ PythonCard]: a modern, Open Source HyperCard clone based on the Python scripting language
*[http://www.runrev.com/ Revolution]/Dreamcard: a powerful development environment based on [http://www.metacard.com/ MetaCard] (which they acquired); imports HyperCard stacks, supports Windows, Mac, and Linux
*[http://blueapples.org/?pk=software/shortdeck ShortDeck]: a free stack based development project
*[http://www.supercard.us/ SuperCard]: one of the first HyperCard clones, which still provides excellent support for current Mac features and Multimedia; imports HyperCard stacks
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/sphere_project/ WildFire] (formerly the Sphere Project): another [[open-source]] HyperCard clone
*[http://www.toolbook.com/ ToolBook]: a versatile but Windows-only HyperCard clone, today more geared towards CBT (computer-based training).
* [http://www.FreeCard.org FreeCard]: written in Java
====Discontinued====
*[http://www.tigabyte.com/ HyperNext]: an easy to use development system aimed at beginners on both Windows and Macintosh
*[http://www.thoughtful.com/hypersense/index.html HyperSense]: another HyperCard clone, originally for [[NeXT]] but now available on [[Mac OS X]] as well as part of [http://www.redstonesoftware.com Redstone's Eggplant]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ab2/literacy/win.html WinPlus download]: a discontinued HyperCard clone for [[Microsoft Windows]]; this page offers the "viewer" version only
*[[Oracle Media Objects]]: a cross-platform (Mac/Windows) clone, discontinued in 1998
{{Apple software}}
[[Category:Domain-specific programming languages]]
[[Category:Hypertext]]
[[Category:Mac OS-only software made by Apple Computer]]
[[de:HyperCard]]
[[fr:HyperCard]]
[[it:HyperCard]]
[[nl:HyperCard]]
[[ja:HyperCard]]
[[fi:HyperCard]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Horror</title>
<id>13568</id>
<revision>
<id>41535695</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T00:24:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RlyehRising</username>
<id>472450</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fmt per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (disambiguation pages)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Horror''' may mean:
*[[Horror (emotion)]], the physical and mental sensation
*[[Horror fiction]], the general genre
*[[Horror film]], the genre in film
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Horreur]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hongkong</title>
<id>13569</id>
<revision>
<id>15911168</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-25T13:48:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Secfan</username>
<id>62238</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hong Kong]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Histology</title>
<id>13570</id>
<revision>
<id>41614103</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:55:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.6.139.11</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Staining */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Emphysema H and E.jpg|right|300px|thumb|A thin section of [[lung]] tissue stained with [[hematoxylin]] and [[eosin]]. This individual suffers from [[emphysema]].]]
'''Hi |
lopods, the brain has two regions: the supraesophageal mass and the subesophageal mass {{ref|butler}}, separated by the [[esophagus]]. The supra- and subesophageal masses are connected to each other on either side of the esophagus by the basal lobes and the dorsal magnocellular lobes {{ref|butler}}. The large optic lobes are sometimes not considered to be part of the brain proper, as the optic lobes are anatomically separate from the brain and are joined to the brain by the optic stalks. However, the optic lobes perform much of the visual processing and functionally can be considered part of the brain.
===Vertebrates===
[[Image:Brain-anatomy.jpg|right|thumb|350px|The lobes of the cerebral cortex include the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] (red), [[temporal lobe|temporal]] (green), [[occipital lobe|occipital]] (yellow), and [[parietal lobe]]s (orange). The [[cerebellum]] (blue) is not part of the telencephalon. In vertebrates a gross division into three major parts is used.]]
The [[telencephalon]] (cerebrum) is the largest section of the mammalian brain. This is the structure that is most easily visible, and is what most people associate with the "brain". In humans the fissures (sulci) and convolutions (gyri) give the brain a wrinkled appearance. In non-mammalian vertebrates that have no cerebrum, the [[metencephalon]] is the highest center in the brain. Because humans walk upright, there is a flexure, or bend, in the brain between the [[brain stem]] and the cerebrum. Other vertebrates do not have this flexure, and so comparing the locations of certain brain structures between humans and other vertebrates can be confusing.
Behind (or in humans, below) the cerebrum is the cerebellum. The cerebellum functions mainly in the control of movement and movement timing {{ref|kandel}}. It is connected via thick white matter fibers (cerebellar peduncles) to the [[pons]]{{ref|martin}}. The cerebrum and the [[cerebellum]] each consist of two hemispheres. The telencephalic hemispheres are connected by the [[corpus callosum]], another large white matter tract. An outgrowth of the telencephalon called the [[olfactory bulb]] is a major structure in many animals, but in humans and other primates it is relatively small.
Vertebrate nervous systems are distinguished by [[encephalization]] and [[symmetry (biology)#Bilateral symmetry|bilateral symmetry]]. Encephalization refers to the tendency for more complex organisms to gain larger brains through evolutionary time. Larger vertebrates develop a complex layered and interconnected neuronal circuitry. In modern species most closely related to the first vertebrates, brains are covered with gray matter that has a three-layer structure (allocortex). Their brains also contain deep brain nuclei and fiber tracts forming the white matter. Most regions of the human cerebral cortex have six layers of neurons (neocortex) {{ref|martin}}.
====Vertebrate brain regions====
(''See related article at [[List of regions in the human brain]]'')
[[Image:EmbryonicBrain.png|thumb|right|300px|Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the [[embryonic]] vertebrate brain. These regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain structures.]]
According to the hierarchy based on embryonic and evolutionary development, [[chordate]] brains are composed of the three regions that later develop into five total divisions:
*[[rhombencephalon|Rhombencephalon]] (hindbrain)
**[[myelencephalon|Myelencephalon]]
**[[metencephalon|Metencephalon]]
*[[mesencephalon|Mesencephalon]] (midbrain)
*[[prosencephalon|Prosencephalon]] (forebrain)
**[[diencephalon|Diencephalon]]
**[[telencephalon|Telencephalon]]
The brain can also be classified according to function, including divisions such as:
*[[Limbic system]]
*[[Sensory system]]s
**[[Visual system]]
**[[Olfactory system]]
**[[Gustatory system]]
**[[Auditory system]]
**[[Somatosensory system]]
*[[Muscle|Motor system]]
*[[cerebral cortex|Associative areas]]
====Humans====
{{main|human brain}}
The structure of the human brain differs from that of other animals in several significant ways. These differences have allowed for many abilities over and above those of other animals, such as advanced cognitive skills. Human encephalization is especially pronounced in the neocortex, the most complex part of the cerebral cortex. The proportion of the human brain that is devoted to the neocortex—especially to the [[prefrontal cortex]]—is larger than in all other [[animal]]s.
Humans enjoy unique neural capacities, but much of the human brain structure is shared with ancient species. Basic systems that alert the nervous system to stimulus, that sense events in the environment, and monitor the condition of the body are similar to those of the most basic vertebrates. The neural circuitry underlying human consciousness includes both the advanced neocortex and prototypical structures of the brain stem. The human brain also has a massive number of synaptic connections allowing for a great deal of [[parallel processing]].
==Neurobiology==
Despite the variance of the species in which the brain is found there are many common features in its cellular make-up, its structure, and its function. On a cellular level the brain is composed of two classes of cells, neurons and [[glia]], both of which contain several different cell types which perform different functions. Interconnected neurons form [[neural network]]s (or [[neural ensemble]]s). These networks are similar to man-made [[electrical circuit]]s in that they contain circuit elements (neurons) connected by biological wires (nerve fibers). These do not form simple one-to-one electrical circuits like many man-made circuits, however. Typically neurons connect to at least a thousand other neurons{{ref|1}}. These highly specialized circuits make up systems which are the basis of [[perception]], action, and higher cognitive function.
===Histology===
[[Image:Neuron.jpg|thumb|Diagram of basic features of a neuron.]]
Neurons are the cells that generate action potentials and convey information to other cells; these constitute the essential class of brain cells. In each brain area, input (or [[afferent]]) neurons, output (or [[efferent]]) neurons, and [[interneurons]] are typically found. Input neurons receive projections from other brain areas. Output neurons project to the other areas. [[Interneuron]]s are neurons which perform local processing and do not leave the area.
In addition to neurons, the brain contains glial cells in a roughly 10:1 proportion to neurons. Glial cells ("glia" is Greek for “glue”) form a support system for neurons. They create the insulating myelin, provide structure to the neuronal network, manage waste, and clean up nearuotransmitters. Most types of glia in the brain are present in the entire [[nervous system]]. Exceptions include the [[oligodendrocyte]]s which myelinate neural [[axon]]s (a role performed by [[Schwann cell]]s in the peripheral nervous system). The myelin in the oligodendrocytes insulates the axons of some neurons. [[White matter]] in the brain is myelinated neurons, while [[grey matter]] contains mostly cell [[soma (biology)|soma]], [[dendrite]]s, and unmyelinated portions of axons and glia. The space between neurons is filled with dendrites as well as unmyelinated segments of axons; this area is referred to as the [[neuropil]].
In mammals, the brain also contains [[connective tissue]] called the [[meninges]], a system of membranes that separate the skull from the brain. This three-layered covering is made of, from the outside in, [[dura mater]], [[arachnoid mater]], and [[pia mater]]. The arachnoid and pia are physically connected and thus often considered as a single layer, the pia-arachnoid. Below the arachnoid is the subarachnoid space which contains [[cerebrospinal fluid]], a substance that protects the nervous system. [[Blood vessel]]s enter the central nervous system through the perivascular space above the pia mater. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly, forming the [[blood-brain barrier]] which protects the brain from [[toxin]]s that might enter through the blood.
The brain is suspended in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which circulates between layers of the meninges and through cavities in the brain called [[ventricle]]s. It is important both chemically for [[metabolism]] and mechanically for shock-prevention. For example, the human brain weighs about 1-1.5 [[kilograms|kg]]. The [[mass]] and [[density]] of the brain are such that it will begin to collapse under its own weight. The CSF allows the brain to float, easing the [[stress (physics)|stress]] caused by the brain’s mass.
===Function===
Vertebrate brains receive signals through nerves arriving from the sensors of the organism. These signals are then interpreted throughout the central nervous system reactions are formulated based upon reflex and learned experiences. A similarly extensive nerve network delivers signals from a brain to control muscles throughout the body. Anatomically, the majority of afferent and efferent nerves (with the exception of the [[cranial nerves]]) are connected to the spinal cord, which then transfers the signals to and from the brain.
Sensory input is processed by the brain to recognize danger, find food, identify potential mates, and perform more sophisticated functions. [[Vision|Visual]], touch, and [[hearing (sense)|auditory]] sensory pathways of vertebrates are routed to specific nuclei of the [[thalamus]] and then to regions of the cerebral cortex that are specific to each [[sensory system]]. The [[visual system]], the [[auditory system]], and the [[somatosensory system]]. Olfactory pathways are routed to the olfactory bulb, then to various parts of the [[olfactory system]]. [[Taste]] is routed through the brainstem and then to other portions of the [[gustatory system]].
To control movement the brain has several parallel systems of muscle control. The motor s |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.