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fter the [[1911]] season, following 2 seasons with the [[Cleveland Indians|Cleveland Naps]] and a year split between the Naps and the [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Rustlers]]. His [[arm]] was as strong as ever, but, as the somewhat portly pitcher told an [[interviewer]], he could not field bunts as well as he once could, and "when the third baseman has to do my work for me, it's time to quit."
[[Image:cy_young.jpg|thumb|''Cy Young, 1911 baseball card'']]
He pitched a [[perfect game]] on [[May 5]], [[1904]], against [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia]]. In later years, he considered this game his greatest day in baseball. It was part of an astonishing performance that resulted in a record for most consecutive scoreless innings and most consecutive no-hit innings, the latter a record that still stands.
Young's longevity is nearly unique – the injury rate caused by pitching conditions at the turn of the century limited even the most talented to pitching careers that rarely lasted a single decade, let alone two. Pitchers regularly pitched entire games, there being no specialized relievers, and good pitchers were used hard. No modern pitcher ever pitches the number of innings many managed in those days. Only [[Nolan Ryan]], [[Tommy John]], and perhaps [[Satchel Paige]] primarily in the [[Negro Leagues]] have significantly surpassed Young's number of years pitched. On the other hand, it must be noted that pitchers of that era were expected to complete their games; in consequence, they paced themselves throughout the game and seldom threw as many hard pitches in the early and middle innings as today's pitchers. There was also little danger of [[home runs]] being hit and a pitcher could frequently simply throw the pitch down the center of the plate and let the batter hit the ball in play. These circumstances enabled the better pitchers of the day to put up astronomical totals (by modern standards) of complete games and innings pitched and of games won.
In [[1993]], [[Northeastern University]] unveiled a statue of Young outside one of its athletic complexes, the Cabot Center. The statue stands at roughly the spot where stood the pitcher's mound of the [[Huntington Avenue Grounds]], the home field of the Red Sox in Young's time.
In [[1999]], 88 years after his final major league appearance and 44 years after his death, he ranked Number 14 on ''[[The Sporting News]]''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was elected to the [[Major League Baseball All-Century Team]], even though he pitched in the last ten seasons of the preceding century.
==[[Baseball statistics|Career statistics]]==
<table border="true">
<tr><td>W</td><td>L</td><td>ERA</td><td>G</td><td>GS</td><td>CG</td><td>SHO</td><td>SV</td><td>IP</td><td>H</td><td>ER</td><td>HR</td><td>BB</td><td>SO</td></tr>
<tr><td>511</td><td>316</td><td>2.63</td><td>906</td><td>815</td><td>749</td><td>76</td><td>17</td><td>7356</td><td>7,092</td><td>2,147</td><td>138</td><td>1,217</td><td>2,803</td></tr>
</table>
==Interesting fact==
*The last seven batters Young faced in his career hit a [[Triple (baseball)|triple]], three [[Single (baseball)|singles]] and three [[Double (baseball)|doubles]]. He was relieved after those seven consecutive hits on [[October 6]], [[1911]] and retired after the season.
==See also==
* [[Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame]]
* [[Top 100 winning pitchers of all time]]
==External links==
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/young_cy.htm Link to Cy Young's page on the Baseball Hall of Fame website]
*[http://www.baseball-reference.com/y/youngcy01.shtml Baseball-Reference.com] career playing stats and managing record
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Boston Red Sox|Boston Red Sox manager]]|before=[[Chick Stahl]]|years=1907| after=[[George Huff (baseball)|George Huff]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:300 win club|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Boston Red Sox players|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Boston Rustlers players|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Cleveland Naps players|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Cleveland Spiders players|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:St. Louis Cardinals players|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Boston Red Sox managers|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Major league pitchers|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:19th century baseball players|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:1867 births|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:1955 deaths|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:MLB pitchers who have pitched a no-hitter|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:MLB pitchers who have pitched a perfect game|Young, Cy]]
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[[sv:Cy Young]]
[[zh:賽·揚]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Coronation Street</title>
<id>6851</id>
<revision>
<id>41923962</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:29:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pete Fenelon</username>
<id>660526</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv to previous edit - bulk deletion on previous edit.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
| show_name = Coronation Street
| image = [[Image:Coronationstreet2004.jpg|center|250px]]
| caption = The current opening credits, introduced in 2002.
| format = [[Soap opera]]
| runtime = 21 [[minute|min]] excluding advertisements
| creator = [[Tony Warren]]
| starring = [[List of characters from Coronation Street|A sizable list of regulars]]
| country = [[United Kingdom]]
| network = [[ITV1]]
| first_aired = [[December 9]], [[1960]]
| last_aired = Present
| num_episodes = 6239 as of [[1 March]] [[2006]]
| imdb_id = 0053494
|}}
'''''Coronation Street''''' is [[United Kingdom|Britain]]'s longest-running [[television]] [[soap opera]], and the UK's consistently highest-rated show. It was created by [[Tony Warren]] and first broadcast on the [[ITV]] network on Friday [[December 9]], [[1960]]. The working title of the show was ''Florizel Street'', but Agnes, a tea lady at [[Granada Television]], Manchester, (where ''Coronation Street'' is produced) remarked that "Florizel" sounded too much like a disinfectant. ''Jubilee Street'' was another option considered.
''Coronation Street'' (commonly nicknamed ''Corrie'', and to a lesser extent ''Coro St'', ''Corra'', ''CS'', or even ''Corruption Street'') is set in a fictional street in the fictional industrial town of ''Weatherfield'' which is based on [[Salford]], now part of [[Greater Manchester]] (a Coronation Street does exist in Salford). Its principal rival soap operas are [[ITV1]]'s ''[[Emmerdale]]'' and [[BBC1]]'s ''[[EastEnders]]''.
The show's iconic theme music, a brass-band throwback to the sounds of the 1940s, was written by [[Eric Spear]] and has been only slightly modified since the show's beginning.
''Coronation Street'' can be seen on [[ITV1]] on Sunday, Monday, Wednesday and Friday at 7:30 p.m. There is also an extra episode on Monday night at 8:30 p.m.
Granada and ITV executives, as well as the people in charge of distributing the show overseas, have called (and still call, [[as of 2006]]) ''Coronation Street'' the world's longest-running soap opera. The [[Guinness Book of Records]] recognises [[United States|American]] soap opera ''[[Guiding Light]]'' as the world's longest-running soap opera, with over fifty years on television and an extra fifteen on radio.
==Background to Coronation Street==
[[Image:enamarthaatbar.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Ena Sharples and Martha Longhurst, fighting over who was first at the Snug bar.]]
Originally broadcast live, it is now pre-recorded, usually four to six weeks in advance of broadcast. Whereas rival British soap operas are known either for their gritty gloom (''[[EastEnders]]'') or their cutting, sharp one-liners (''[[Emmerdale]]''), ''Coronation Street'' is known on occasions for its light, almost camp humour, though it has tackled some controversial topics and storylines ''(see [[Most controversial storylines of Coronation Street]] for details)''.
The "Street" is based in a terraced row of seven working-class houses (for some years, six, with a garden in the place of the seventh) with a public house, or pub, and a corner shop at each end.
According to the storyline, the Street was built in 1902, and named after that year's big national event, the coronation of King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]]. The Street is located between Rosamund Street and Viaduct Street. The architecture of the Street was based on Archie Street, Salford, which appeared in the programme's original opening credits. The Street itself was originally a set built inside a studio, with the houses reduced in scale. This was awkward for the actors, who had to walk more slowly than normal to appear in scale with the set.
[[Image:Roversbar.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Rovers set, shown just before opening time, from 1970. From left to right: Betty Turpin, Hilda Ogden, Annie Walker and Jack Walker.]]
In 1968, Granada decided to build an outside set. All interactions on the outside street were previously filmed on a soundstage. This new set was built on some old railway sidings near the Granada Studios, and coincided with a storyline of the demolition of Ellison's Raincoat Factory and the Mission Hall and the subsequent building of maisonettes opposite the terrace.
To usher in the erection of the new set, a special-effects-laden storyline involving a train wreck was filmed; the viewers did not know if Ena Sharples was dead under the rubble. In the early 1970s roofs and back yards were ad |
than two.
* Attractive - Games are usually well illustrated and have quality board and pieces. Bright coloring, and wood or metal components are not unusual. This does often raise the price (typically between [[USD | US$]]20 and US$50).
Another common feature, though not central to actual play, is that the designer is clearly credited - The person or people who devised the game are often prominently mentioned on the box, or at least in the rule book. Top designers enjoy considerable following among enthusiasts of German games. For this reason, the name "Designer games" is often offered as a description of the genre.
== Game designers ==
* [[Reiner Knizia]] is probably the most famous and prolific of the German game designers, having designed over 200 published games. Recurring mechanisms in his games include auctions ([[Ra (board game)|Ra]] and ''[[Modern Art (game)|Modern Art]]''), tile placement (''[[Tigris and Euphrates]]'') and intricate scoring rules (''[[Samurai (board game)|Samurai]]''). He has also designed many card games such as ''[[Lost Cities]]'' or ''[[Blue Moon]]'', and the cooperative game ''[[The Lord of the Rings (board game)|The Lord of the Rings]]''.
* [[Wolfgang Kramer]], unlike Knizia, often works with other game designers. Some of his most well known titles include ''[[El Grande]]'', ''[[Tikal (board game)|Tikal]]'', ''[[Princes of Florence]]'' and ''[[Torres]]''. His games often have some sort of "action point" system, and include some geometric element.
* [[Klaus Teuber]] is most famous for designing ''[[The Settlers of Catan]]'' and many related games. Other games to his credit include ''[[Adel Verpflichtet]]'', ''[[Entdecker]]'', and ''[[Löwenherz]]''.
* [[Sid Sackson]] predates the German game movement, but he is often included with other designers because his style of game design is similar. (''[[Acquire]]'', ''[[Can't Stop]]'', ''[[Kohle, Kies & Knete]]'')
* [[William Attia]] (''[[Caylus (game)|Caylus]]'')
* [[Richard Breese]] (''[[Aladdin's Dragons]]'', ''[[Keythedral]]'', ''[[Reef Encounter]]'')
* [[Kris Burm]] (''[[Batik (game)]]'', ''[[Gipf]]'', ''[[Zertz]]'', ''[[Dvonn]]'', ''[[Tamsk]]'', ''[[Yinsh]]'', ''[[P%C3%BCnct]]'')
* [[Leo Collovini]] (''[[Clans (board game)|Clans]]'', ''[[Carolus Magnus]]'', ''[[Cartagena (board game)|Cartagena]]'', ''[[Doge]]'', ''[[The Bridges of Shangri-La]]'', ''[[Magna Grecia]]'', ''[[Inkognito]]'')
* [[Franz-Benno Delonge]] (''[[Big City]]'', ''[[Manila (game)]]'', ''[[Dos Rios]]'', ''[[TransAmerica]]'', ''[[Fjord (board game)|Fjord]]'')
* [[Rudiger Dorn]] (''[[The Traders of Genoa]]'', ''[[Louis XIV (game)|Louis XIV]]'', ''[[Goa (board game)|Goa]]'')
* [[Stefan Dorra]] (''[[For Sale]]'', ''[[Pick Picnic]]'', ''[[Medina]]'', ''[[Tonga Bonga]]'', ''[[Linie 1]]'', ''[[Turn the Tide]]'', ''[[Intrige]]'')
* [[Bruno Faidutti]] (''[[Citadels]]'', ''[[Mystery of the Abbey]]'',''[[Terra (game)]]'')
* [[Friedemann Friese]] (''[[Power Grid]]'', ''[[Fearsome Floors]]'', ''[[Fresh Fish]]'')
* [[Dirk Henn]] (''[[Alhambra]]'', ''[[Atlantic Star]]'', ''[[Metro]]'', ''[[Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Timbuktu]]'')
* [[Philippe Keyaerts]] (''[[Evo (board game)|Evo]]'', ''[[Vinci (board game)|Vinci]]'')
* [[Alan R. Moon]] (''[[Capitol (game)|Capitol]]'', ''[[Elfenland]]'', ''[[Union Pacific (game)|Union Pacific]]'', ''[[Ticket to Ride (board game)|Ticket to Ride]]'')
* [[Paul Randles]] (''[[Pirate's Cove]]'', ''[[Key Largo (board game)|Key Largo]]'')
* [[Alex Randolph]] (''[[Twixt]]'', ''[[Raj]]'', ''[[Geister]]'', ''[[Enchanted Forest]]'', ''[[Inkognito]]'', ''[[Ricochet Robots]]'')
* [[Michael Schacht]] (''[[Web of Power]]'', ''[[Dschunke]]'', ''[[Industria]]'', ''[[Hansa]]'')
* [[Karl-Heinz Schmiel]] (''[[Attila]]'', ''[[Die Macher]]'')
* [[Andreas Seyfarth]] (''[[Manhattan (game)|Manhattan]]'', ''[[Puerto Rico (game)|Puerto Rico]]'')
* [[Daniel Stahl]] (''[[Pirate's Cove]]'')
* [[Klaus-Jürgen Wrede]] (''[[Carcassonne (game)|Carcassonne]]'')
== Companies ==
There are many German companies producing board games, such as [[Hans im Glück]] and [[Goldsieber]]. Often times German producers will try to establish a line of similar games, such as [[Kosmos (game publisher)|Kosmos]]'s two-player card game series or [[Alea (game publisher)|Alea]]'s big box line. The rights to sell the game in English are often sold to separate companies. Some try to change the game as little as possible, such as [[Rio Grande Games]]. Others, including [[Mayfair Games]], substantially change the visual design of the game.
== Awards ==
The most prestigious German board game award is the [[Spiel des Jahres]] ("game of the year"). The award is very family oriented. Shorter, more approachable games such as [[Ticket to Ride (board_game)|Ticket to Ride]] and [[Elfenland]] are usually preferred by the committee that gives out the award. In contrast, the [[Deutscher Spiele Preis]] ("German game prize") is often awarded to games that are more complex and strategic, such as [[Puerto Rico (game)|Puerto Rico]]. Many years, however, there is one game with broad enough appeal to win both awards.
== Influence over related genres ==
The German-style genre of board game has been so influential in Western game design theory as to have set in place new, and more stringent, requirements to which players hold games. Although still commercially successful, old favorites such as ''Monopoly'' and ''Risk'' have fallen out of favor as game-players become more aware of the other options that are available.
''[[Magic: The Gathering]]'', released in the USA by [[Richard Garfield]], was a landmark game that emerged in [[1993]], shortly before the popularization of German design concepts. Because nothing like ''Magic'' had been done before on such a large scale, many of the cards were not well-balanced with one another and the game required adjustment. The German school of design was heavily influential on the evolution of this dynamic game, which evolved into what would later be termed a "resource game".
Many related card games exist, designed with similar goals in mind. However, because card games usually involve luck incidental from [[shuffling]] they are often considered lighter in nature, even though many of them involve quite a bit of skill. Among the most famous of the German card games is ''[[Bohnanza]]'', a game which relies on trading to introduce a strategic element.
== External links ==
*[http://www.spiel-des-jahres.com/cms/front_content.php?idcat=33 Spiel des Jahres website (English)], with information about the German Game of the Year awards
*[http://www.boardgamegeek.com/ BoardGameGeek] an on-line community for board-gamers, with user-submitted photographs, and other information about boardgames, especially German-style games
*[http://www.thedicetower.com/ The Dice Tower], a weekly podcast about board games including German-style games (see also [[The Dice Tower]])
*[http://www.brettboard.dk Brett and Board] with information on German-style games (has not been updated in some time)
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?q=rec.games.board rec.games.board] usenet newsgroup
*[http://www.luding.org/ Luding.org] - boardgame database with over 15000 english and german reviewed games
*[http://www.brettspielwelt.de/ www.brettspielwelt.de] with many German games to be played online
[[Category:Board games]]
[[Category:Board game designers|*]]
[[da:German games]]
[[de:Autorenspiel]]
[[ja:DoI6TunoBo-6DoGe-6Mu]]
[[nl:Designer game]]
[[zh:******************]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grand unification theory</title>
<id>12610</id>
<revision>
<id>42081204</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:21:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RJFJR</username>
<id>141808</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Current status */ wikilink neutrino oscillation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}
{{expert}}
{{Cosmology}}
'''Grand unification''', '''grand unified theory''', or '''GUT''' is a [[theory]] in [[physics]] that unifies what are considered three "fundamental" [[gauge theory|gauge]] symmetries: [[hypercharge]], the [[weak force]], and [[quantum chromodynamics]]. Grand unification is based on the idea that at extremely high energies, all symmetries have the same gauge [[coupling constant|coupling]] strength, which is consistent with the speculation that they are really different manifestations of a single overarching gauge symmetry.
Thus far, physicists have been able to merge [[electromagnetism]] and the [[weak nuclear force]] into the [[electroweak force]], and work is being done to merge electroweak and [[quantum chromodynamics]] into a QCD-electroweak interaction. Beyond grand unification, there is also speculation that it may be possible to merge [[gravity]] with the other three gauge symmetries into a [[theory of everything]].
The coining of the widely-used [[acronym]] GUT has been attributed to the [[Harvard University ]] theorist [[Dimitri Nanopoulos]] in a paper published in 1978.
==Motivation==
There is a general aesthetic among high energy physicists that the more symmetrical a theory is, the more "beautiful" and "elegant" it is. According to this aesthetic, the [[Standard Model]] gauge group, which is the [[direct product]] of three groups ([[modulo]] some [[finite group]]) is "ugly". Also, reasoning in analogy with the 19th-century unification of [[electricity]] with [[magnetism]] into [[electromagnetism]], and especially the success of the [[electroweak theory]], which utilizes the idea of [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]] to unify electromagnetism with the [[weak interaction]], people wondered if it might be possible to unify all three groups in a similar manner. Physicists feel that three independent gauge coupling constants and a huge number of Yukawa coupling coefficients require far too many free parameters, and that |
[[sport]]s, including [[football]] (in all its forms, including [[football (soccer)|soccer]]), and [[Rugby football|rugby]], involve kicking a ball or other object with the foot.
==Measurement==
The foot provides a convenient way to measure short distances on the ground, by placing one foot directly in front of the other; this led to the adoption of the [[foot (unit of length)|foot as a unit of length]].
<br clear=all />
==Parts of the foot==
[[Image:Foot-bones.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|The bones in the human foot]]
===Parts of the foot===
* [[heel]]
* [[instep]]
* [[sole]]
* [[ball (anatomy)|ball]]
* five [[toe]]s- big, pointer,middle, ring, pinky toes
* toe nails
===Disorders of the feet===
* [[athlete's foot]]
* [[bunion]]
* [[callus]]
* [[flat feet]]
* wart
==See also==
* [[foot fetishism]]
* [[foot binding]]
* [[footwear]]
* [[hosiery]]
* [[reflexology]]
* [[paw]]
* [[podiatry]]
* [[barefoot]]
== External links==
* [http://www.acfas.org/ American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons]
* [http://www.apma.org/ American Podiatric Medical Association]
* [http://www.abps.org/ American Board of Podiatric Surgery]
* [http://www.aapsm.org/ American Academy of Podiatric Sports Medicine]
* [http://www.aofas.org/educational.asp American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society]
* http://www.podiatrytoday.com/podtd/
* http://www.epodiatry.com/foot_problems.htm
* http://www.barefooters.org/
* http://www.unshod.org/pfbc/
* http://www.foothealthcare.com/html/articles/allabout.htm
{{human anatomical features}}
[[Category:Foot|*]]
[[cy:Troed]]
[[da:Fod]]
[[de:Fuß]]
[[es:Pie (anatomía)]]
[[eo:Piedo]]
[[fr:Pied (anatomie)]]
[[it:Piede (anatomia)]]
[[nl:Voet (anatomie)]]
[[ja:&#36275;]]
[[nds:Foot]]
[[pt:Pé]]
[[simple:Foot]]
[[fi:Jalka]]
[[sv:Fötter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fallout shelter</title>
<id>11493</id>
<revision>
<id>42125720</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:07:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cadmium</username>
<id>537120</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:fallout_shelter.jpg|thumb|A sign pointing to an old fallout shelter in [[New York City]].]]
A '''fallout shelter''' is a [[civil defense]] measure intended to reduce casualties in either a [[nuclear war]] or a serious [[nuclear accident]].
* Weapons [[nuclear fallout]] is [[Radioactive contamination|radioactive]] dust created when a [[nuclear weapon]] explodes. The explosion vaporizes any material within the fireball, including the ground if it is nearby. Much of this material is exposed to neutrons from the explosion, absorbs them, and becomes radioactive. When this material condenses in the cloud, it forms dust and light sandy material that resembles ground [[pumice]]. The fallout emits both [[beta particles]] and [[gamma rays]]. Much of this highly radioactive material then falls to earth, subjecting anything within the line of sight to radiation, a significant [[radioactive contamination|hazard]]. A fallout shelter is designed to allow its occupants to avoid exposure to harmful fallout until radioactivity has lowered to a safer level.
* The bulk of the [[radioactivity]] in nuclear accident fallout is more long-lived than that in weapons fallout, a good table of the [[nuclide]]s such as that provided by the [[Korean]] Atomic Energy Research Institute includes the [[fission]] yeilds of the different nuclides from this data it is possible to calculate the isotropic mixture in the fallout (due to [[fission products]] in bomb fallout). The mixture of radioisotopes present in used power reactor fuel can be more complex because neutron activation of fission products is possible, a good example of this is the [[cesium]] isotropic signature. In terms of activity (Bq or [[curies]]) it is the case that the activity in a power reactor fuel one hour after shutdown tends to be more long lived because the majority of the shortlived fission products will have had time to decay.
:: An example:
:::Imagine that some [[fissile]] material is used in a [[bomb]], and that in 10<sup>12<sup> fissions an equal number of <sup>131<sup>I and <sup>137<sup>Cs atoms are formed. Becuase the <sup>131<sup>I has such a short half life when comapired with the <sup>137<sup>Cs, the activity ratio of <sup>131<sup>I to <sup>137<sup>Cs will be very much in favour of the <sup>131<sup>I one hour after the fission event.
:::Imagine that a lump of fuel in a power reactor undergoes 10<sup>12<sup> fissions, which will generate a given amount of <sup>131<sup>I, if the reactor was run at a constant power for one year then the majorty of the <sup>131<sup>I will have had time to decay. However the vast majorty of the <sup>137<sup>Cs atoms will not have had time to decay. So the <sup>131<sup>I to <sup>137<sup>Cs ratio is more in favour of <sup>137<sup>Cs than the mixture formed
== Different types of radiation emitted by fallout ==
=== Alpha ===
In the vast majority of accidents and in all [[atomic bomb]]s the threat due to beta and gamma emitters is far greater than that posed by the small amount of alpha emitters in the fallout. The alpha radiation can be very harmful, but only if they are ingested or inhaled. The particles can be blocked easily by a sheet of paper.
=== Beta ===
It is likely that even a light structure will give good protection against most beta emitters, it is important to note that small particles of fallout can cause [[radiation burns|localised radiation injuries]] known as beta burns. It is thought that if a person entering a fallout shelter was to change their [[shoes|footware]] and leave their outer clothing outside the main area then the persons inside will be protected from these beta burns. The beta rays are more penatrating than alpha rays, but internal exposure will tend to do less damage becuase the [[LET]] is lower.
Three centimeters of aluminum can block the beta emmisions from even a high energy beta emitter such as <sup>90<sup>Sr, while a lower energy beta emitter such as [[tritium]] or <sup>14<sup>C will be stopped by even more thin objects.
=== Gamma ===
These are not a charged particle, and are thus it is more able to pass through objects and may pose a large threat to a person in a fallout shelter. Most of the design of a fallout shelter is intended to protect against gamma rays. Their intensity can be reduced by dense materials such as [[lead]], [[steel]], [[concrete]] or packed earth.
== Protection offered by the solid walls and roof of a structure ==
It is important to note that the fallout from either a weapon or an accident is a complex mixture of many radioisotopes. For weapons fallout the photon energy is assumed to be the same as the gamma rays from <sup>60<sup>[[cobalt|Co]]. Below is shown a graph on which it is shown how at different times after the start of the [[Chernobyl]] accident different radioisotopes were responsible for the majority of the dose, it has been assumed that no chemical separation occured during the transport of radioactivity to the site where the fallout fell (this in real life is not true), no decontamination or removal of fall out (eg weathering) occurs.
=== No shielding ===
[[Image:Airdosechernobyl2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The contributions made by the different isotopes to the dose (in air) caused in the contaminated area in the time shortly after the accident. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html] and the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual'.]]
Using the data for the source term (radioactive release) from [[Chernobyl]], and other literature data it is possible to estimate how much protection a wall of concrete will offer in the event of a Chernobyl like accident. These calculations are for a room with no windows, or doors. The radioactivity dust on the roof, and the windows and doors will make the estimation of the protection factor more difficult.
=== 10 cm concrete shielding ===
What can be seen in these graphs is that as the thickness of the wall is increased the protection factor increases. The protection factor is the ratio of the dose rate suffered by a person inside the shelter divided by the dose rate in the open. It is important to note that the protection factor changes as a function of time. This is because some of the shortlived isotopes such as Zr-95/Nb-95 generate very high energy gamma photons, while the longer lived Cs-137 have a lower photon energy.
It is also important to note that as the wall is made thicker the average gamma photon energy for those photons which pass through the wall becomes higher. So each additional layer of concrete has a smaller effect on the dose rate.
[[Image:Isotopeshareofgammadosewith10cmconcreteatchernobyl.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The contributions made by the different isotopes to the dose (in air) caused in the contaminated area in the time shortly after the accident with '''10 cm of concrete sheilding'''. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html], the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual' and 'Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry']]
[[Image:Protectionfactorchernobyl10cm.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The protection factor provided by '''10 cm of concrete sheilding''' where the source is the idealised chernobyl fallout. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html], the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual' and 'Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry']]
=== 20 cm concrete shielding ===
[[Image:Isotopeshareofgammadosewith20cmconcreteatchernobyl.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The contributions made by the different isotopes to the dose (in air) caused |
trations and investigations, in addition to being fundamental to experimental design.
==See also==
*[[Judgment]]
==References==
Plutchik, Robert (1983) ''Foundations of Experimental Research'' Harper's Experimental Psychology Series.
[[Category:Evidence]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cross-examination</title>
<id>7203</id>
<revision>
<id>39535767</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T03:39:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BDAbramson</username>
<id>196446</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{EvidenceLaw}}
:''See [[Structure of policy debate]] for cross-examination in [[policy debate]].''
In [[law]], '''cross-examination''' is the interrogation of a [[witness]] called by one's opponent. It is preceded by [[direct examination]] and may be followed by a [[redirect (law)|redirect]].
In the United States, the cross-examining [[lawyer|attorney]] is typically not permitted to ask questions which do not pertain to the facts revealed in direct examination. This is called going beyond the scope of the direct examination. Unlike in direct examinations, however, [[leading question]]s are typically permitted in a cross-examination, since the witness is presumed to be sympathetic to the opposing side.
See also [[testimony]].
[[Category:Criminal procedure]]
[[Category:Civil procedure]]
[[Category:Evidence]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]
[[de:Kreuzverhör]]
{{law-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Celtic mythology</title>
<id>7205</id>
<revision>
<id>42107470</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:49:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Whateley23</username>
<id>241971</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Books on Celtic mythology */ there is already a bibliography, and the Matthewses are not a reliable source</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" width="300" align="right"
!align="left" bgcolor="slategray" colspan="2"|Topics in Celtic mythology
|-align="center"
!align="left" bgcolor="paleturquoise"|Creation
|align="left"|<small>[[Beira (mythology)|Beira]]</small>
|-align="center"
!align="left" bgcolor="cadetblue"|Ancient Celtic or Gaulish deities
|align="left"|<small>[[Abandinus]], [[Abellio]], [[Abnoba]], [[Adsullata]], [[Aericura]], [[Agrona]], [[Alaunus]], [[Alisanos]], [[Ambisagrus]], [[Ancamna]], [[Andarta]], [[Andraste]], [[Anextiomarus]], [[Arduinna]], [[Arnemetia]], [[Artio]], [[Arvernus]], [[Aufaniae]], [[Aveta]], [[Belatu-Cadros]], [[Belenus]], [[Belisama]], [[Borvo]], [[Brigantia (goddess)|Brigantia]], [[Britannia]], [[Buxenus]], [[Camma]], [[Camulus]], [[Cernunnos]], [[Clota]], [[Cocidius]], [[Condatis]], [[Contrebis]], [[Coventina]], [[Damara (goddess)|Damara]], [[Damona]], [[Dea Matrona]], [[Dea Sequana]], [[Dis Pater (mythology)|Dis]], [[Epona]], [[Esus]], [[Fagus (Celtic God)|Fagus]], [[Grannus]], [[Hooded Spirits]], [[Icaunus]], [[Leucetios]], [[Lugus]], [[Luxovius]], [[Maponos]], [[Matres]], [[Nantosuelta]], [[Nantosuetta]], [[Nemetona]], [[Nemausus]], [[Nodens]], [[Ogmios]], [[Robur]], [[Rosmerta]], [[Rudianos]], [[Sabrina]], [[Segomo]], [[Sequana]], [[Sirona]], [[Smertios]], [[Sucellos]], [[Sul]], [[Tamesis]], [[Taranis]], [[Teutates]], [[Toutatis]], [[Verbeia]], [[Vosegus]]
|-align="center"
!align="left" bgcolor="darkblue"|Creatures
|align="left"|<small>[[Áes Sídhe]], [[An Slua Sídhe]], [[Ankou]], [[bánánach]], [[Banshee]], [[Baobhan sith]], [[Bean Nighe]], [[Boggart]], [[Cait Sidhe]], [[Caoránach]], [[Cath Palug]], [[Cath Puluc]], [[Ceffyl-Dwr]], [[Cirein crôin]], [[copóg Phádraig]], [[Cu Sith]], [[Cŵn Annwn]], [[Daoine maite]] [[Dobhar-chu]], [[Donn Cuailnge]], [[Each uisge]], [[Finnbhennach]], [[Hinkypunk#Will o' the wisp#Hinkypunk|Hinkypunk]] [[Kelpie]], [[Knucker]], [[Leanan sídhe]], [[Nix]], [[Nuckalavee]], [[Puck (mythology)|Pwca]], [[Red Cap]], [[Sídhe]], [[Sluagh]], [[Y Ddraig Goch]]
|-align="center"
!align="left" bgcolor="green"|Irish mythological characters
|align="left"|<small>[[Abartach]], [[Abhean]], [[Aengus]], [[Aoi Mac Ollamain|Ai]], [[Aibell]], [[Aimend]], [[Aine]], [[Airmed]], [[Anann]], [[Badb]], [[Balor]], [[Banba]], [[Beag]], [[Bebhionn]], [[Bechuille]], [[Birog]], [[Boann]], [[Bodb]], [[Bodb Dearg]], [[Brea]], [[Breg]], [[Bres]], [[Brigid]], [[Bronach]], [[Buarainech]], [[Caer Ibormeith|Caer]], [[Cailleach]], [[Canola (Celtic mythology)|Canola]], [[Carman]], [[Cenn Cruaich]], [[Cessair]], [[Cethlenn]], [[Cethlion]], [[Cian]], [[Cliodhna]], [[Creidhne]], [[Corb]], [[Crom Cruach]], [[Cú Roí mac Daire]], [[Dagda]], [[Danu (Irish goddess)|Danu]], [[Dian Cecht]], [[Edain]], [[Elatha]], [[Etain]], [[Ethlinn]], [[Ethne]], [[Eri]], [[Ériu]], [[Fand]], [[Fionnuala]], [[Fodla]], [[Goibniu]], [[Lir]], [[Luchtaine]], [[Lugh]], [[Macha]], [[Manannan mac Lir]], [[Miach]], [[Midir]], [[Mog Ruith]], [[Morrigan]], [[Murigen]], [[Neit]], [[Nemain]], [[Niamh]], [[Nuada]], [[Ogma]], [[Plor na mBan]], [[Sheila-na-gig]], [[Tailtiu]], [[Tethra]], </small>
|-align="center"
!align="left" bgcolor="green"|Irish kings, heroes and other mortals
|align="left"|<small>[[Cailte]], [[Conall Cernach]], [[Conchobar]], [[Conan Mac Moirna]], [[Conan Maol]], [[Conn of the Hundred Battles]], [[Cormac mac Airt]], [[Cuchulainn]], [[Cumhail]], [[Dechtere]], [[Deirdre]], [[Diarmait]], [[Emer]], [[Ferdiad]], [[Fergus mac Roich]], [[Fionn mac Cumhail]], [[Lughaid Stronghand]], [[Medb]], [[Oisin]], [[Osgur]]</small>
|-align="center"
!align="left" bgcolor="red"|Welsh mythological characters
|align="left"|<small>[[Amaethon]], [[Arawn]], [[Arianrhod]], [[Avalloc]], [[Beli]], [[Blodeuwedd]], [[Bran the Blessed]], [[Branwen]], [[Caswallawn]], [[Ceridwen]], [[Cigva]], [[Creiddylad]], [[Culhwch]], [[Cŵn Annwn]], [[Cyhiraeth]], [[Dewi]], [[Dôn]], [[Dwyn]], [[Dylan Eil Ton]], [[Efnisien]], [[Elen]], [[Eurosswydd]], [[Govannon]], [[Gwenn Teir Bronn]], [[Gwydion]], [[Gwyn ap Nudd]], [[Hafgan]], [[Llew Llaw Gyffes]], [[Llyr]], [[Lud (god)|Lud]], [[Mabon]], [[Manawydan]], [[Math ap Mathonwy]], [[Modron]], [[Nisien]], [[Ogyruan]], [[Olwen]], [[Penarddun]], [[Pryderi]], [[Pwyll]], [[Rhiannon]], [[Taliesin]]
|-align="center"
!align="left" bgcolor="cadetblue"|Scottish mythological characters
|align="left"|<small>[[Alastir]], [[Dia Griene]], [[Inghean Bhuidhe]], [[Lasair]], [[Latiaran]], [[Ossian]], [[Shoney]],
|-align="center"
!align="left" bgcolor="deepskyblue"|Locations
|align="left"|<small>[[Annwn]], [[Mag Mell]], [[Sidh]], [[Tir na n-Og]]</small>
|-align="center"
!align="left" bgcolor="deepskyblue"|Weapons
|align="left"|<small>[[Fragarach]], [[Gae Bulg]], [[Spear Luin]]</small>
|-align="center"
!align="left" bgcolor="deepskyblue"|Worship
|align="left"|<small>[[Beltane]], [[Imbolc]], [[Lughnasadh]], [[Samhain]]</small>
|}
[[Celtic mythology]] is the [[mythology]] of [[Celtic polytheism]], the apparent religion of the [[Iron Age]] [[Celts]]. Like other [[Iron Age]] Europeans, the early [[Celts]] maintained a [[polytheistic]] mythology and religious structure. Among Celtic peoples in close contact with Rome, such as the [[Gaul]]s and [[Celtiberians]], their mythology did not survive the [[Roman empire]], their subsequent conversion to [[Christianity]], and the loss of their Celtic languages. Ironically it is through contemporary Roman and Christian sources that what we do know of their beliefs has come down to us. In contrast, those Celtic peoples who maintained either their political or linguistic identities (such as the [[Gaels]] and [[Brythonic]] tribes of the [[British Isles]]) did transmit at least vestigial remnants of the mythologies of their Iron Age forebears, which were often recorded in written form during the [[Middle Ages]].
==Historical sources==
Because of the scarcity of surviving materials bearing written [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]], it is surmised that the pagan Celts were not widely literate&mdash; although a written form of Gaulish using the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] and [[Old Italic alphabet|North Italic]] alphabets were used (as evidenced by votive items bearing inscriptions in Gaulish and the [[Coligny Calendar]]). Caesar attests to the literacy of the Gauls, but also wrote that their priests, the [[druids]], were forbidden to use writing to record certain verses of religious significance (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 6.14) while also noting that the Helvetii had a written census (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 1.29).
Rome introduced a more widespread habit of public inscriptions, and broke the power of the druids in the areas it conquered; in fact, most inscriptions to [[deity|deities]] discovered in [[Gaul]] (modern [[France]]), [[Roman Britain|Britain]] and other formerly (or presently) Celtic-speaking areas post-date the Roman conquest.
And although early Gaels in Ireland and parts of modern [[Wales]] used the [[Ogham]] script to record short inscriptions (largely personal names), more sophisticated literacy was not introduced to Celtic areas not conquered by Rome until the advent of [[Christianity]]; indeed, many Gaelic myths were first recorded by Christian [[monks]], albeit without most of their original religious meanings.
===Julius Caesar’s comments on Celtic Religion and their significance===
The classic entry about the Celtic gods of Gaul is the section in [[Julius Caesar]]'s ' |
p hierarchically from smaller units (phrases, periods, sections, and movements). Structural levels are distinguished by [[Schenkerian analysis]].
===Emotional content===
As with many fine art forms, classical music often aspires to communicate a quality of emotion which has a transcendent quality, expressing universals of the human condition. They argue that this deeper reserve of expression allows classical music to reach what has been called the "sublime" in art. Examples often cited in this argument are religious works such as the [[Mass (music)|Masses]] of Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven or Dvo&#345;ák, or in works such as Beethoven's setting of [[Friedrich Schiller]]'s poem, ''[[Ode to Joy]]'', in the 9th symphony, which has often been used as a celebratory work at moments of national liberation or celebration, as in the [[Japan|Japanese]] practice of performing it to observe the New Year.
===Instruments===
Classical and popular music are distinguished to some extent by their choice of instruments. For the most part, the instruments used in common practice classical music are non-electrical and were invented prior to the mid-19th century (often, much earlier), and codified in the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th]] centuries. They consist of the instruments found in an [[orchestra]], together with a few other solo instruments (such as the [[piano]], [[harpsichord]], [[organ (music)|organ]]). The [[electric guitar]] and [[electric violin]] play an extremely prominent role in popular music, but naturally play no role in classical music, and only appear occasionally in the classical music of the 20th and 21st centuries. Both classical and popular musicians have experimented for the last several decades with electrical or electronic instruments (for instance, the [[synthesizer]] or electronic tape), and instruments from other cultures (such as the [[gamelan]]).
It must be noted that all the bass instruments didn't exist until the Renaissance (in Medieval Music, instruments are divided in two categories: outdoor/church, which sound loud, and indoor instruments).
Also, many instruments which are associated today with popular music used to have important roles on early classical music, such as bagpipes, vilhuelas, hurdy-gurdys and some woodwind instruments. On the other hand, the acoustic guitar, for example, which used to be associated with popular music, started to gain prominence on classical music since the 19th century, what culminated in the 20th century, and today has a prestige it never had before.
Finally, it is important to know that the manners that a classical instrument is tuned may vary drastically according to the period from which the instrument is typical and the period in which the piece was composed. See [[musical tuning]].
===Permanence===
One criterion that might be said to distinguish classical music is staying power. For instance, some of the works of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J. S. Bach]] are now almost 300 years old, yet they continue to be widely performed.
Bach had many contemporaries whose music was mediocre at best, and today their music is forgotten, surviving perhaps in libraries. The repertoire of classical music is skewed toward works recognized as excellent by listeners over long periods of time.
===Influences between classical and popular music===
Classical music has always been influenced by or taken material from popular music. Examples include [[Erik Satie]], [[Kurt Weill]]'s ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'', and [[postminimalism]], as well as much [[postmodern music|postmodern]] classical music. Even Brahms used popular themes, as in the student drinking songs that found their way into his ''[[Academic Festival Overture]]''.
Musical influence flows the other way as well, from classical music to popular music: one notable example is the "[[Hooked on Classics]]" series of recordings made by the [[Royal Philharmonic Orchestra]] in the early 1980s.
===Classical music and folk music===
Composers of classical music have often made use of [[folk music]], that is, music created by untutored musicians, spread by word of mouth. Often, they have done so with an explicit nationalist ideology; in other cases they have simply mined folk music for thematic material. See: [[European Classical Composers Noted for Use of Folk Music]]
== Commercial uses of classical music==
Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (that is, either in advertising or in the soundtracks of movies made for entertainment). In television commercials, several loud, bombastically rhythmic orchestral passages have become cliches, particularly the opening "O Fortuna" of [[Carl Orff]]'s [[Carmina Burana]]; other examples in the same vein are the [[Dies Irae]] from the [[Verdi]] Requiem, and excerpts of [[Aaron Copland]]'s "Rodeo".
Similarly, movies often revert to standard, cliched snatches of classical music to represent refinement or opulence: probably the most-often heard piece in this category is Mozart's [[Eine kleine Nachtmusik]].
== Classical music in education ==
Throughout history, parents have often made sure that their children receive classical music training from a young age. Early experience with music provides the basis for more serious study later. Some instruments, such as the violin, are almost impossible to learn to play at a professional level if not learned in childhood. Some parents pursue music lessons for their children for social reasons or in an effort to instill a useful sense of self-discipline; lessons have also been shown to increase academic performance. Some consider that a degree of knowledge of important works of classical music is part of a good general education.
The 1990s marked the emergence in the United States of research papers and popular books on the so-called [[Mozart effect]]: a temporary, small elevation of a Mozart listener's scores on certain tests. The popularized version of the controversial theory was expressed succinctly by a New York Times music columnist: "researchers have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter." Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day, and in [[1998]] the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 a year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the original researchers commented "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs."
''See also'':
*[[Mozart effect]]
*[[Orff Schulwerk]]
*[[Suzuki method]]
== Related genres ==
*[[Film music]]
*[[Electronic art music]]
*[[Indian classical music]]
*[[Video game music]]
== Composers of classical music ==
*[[List of classical music composers]]
== Terms of classical music ==
For terms relating specifically to the performance of classical music, see the [[Musical terminology]].
==Literature==
*Norman Lebrecht, ''When the Music Stops: Managers, Maestros and the Corporate Murder of Classical Music'', Simon & Schuster 1996
==External links==
*[http://www.classiccat.net/ Classic Cat] &ndash; A directory of free classical MP3.
*[http://www.classical.net/ Classical.net] &ndash; review, database and mailing-list resource
*[http://www.classicalarchives.com/ ClassicalArchives] &ndash; music, artists, composers, [[MIDI]] files
*[http://www.chopinmusic.net/forum ChopinMusic Forum] &ndash; a community of romantic music lovers
*[http://www.download-latest-online-music.com/free-classical-music-downloads.html European Classical Music] &ndash; chronology and free downloads
*[http://www.musicweb-international.com MusicWeb International] &ndash; CD reviews, composer articles, timelines, concert and book reviews
*[http://thegclef.blogspot.com The G Clef] All about Indian and European classical music. Also fine information on Classical Guitar and Recorder.
* [http://www.violinmp3.com/ ViolinMP3.com] Violin Information website, containing several classical music resources and composer guides
[[Category:Classical music| ]]
[[Category:European music|Classical music]]
[[af:Europese klassieke musiek]]
[[da:Klassisk musik]]
[[de:Klassische Musik]]
[[es:Música clásica]]
[[eo:Klasika muziko]]
[[fr:Musique classique]]
[[ko:&#49436;&#50577; &#44256;&#51204;&#51020;&#50501;]]
[[he:&#1502;&#1493;&#1505;&#1497;&#1511;&#1492; &#1511;&#1500;&#1488;&#1505;&#1497;&#1514;]]
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[[it:Musica classica]]
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[[pl:Muzyka powa&#380;na]]
[[pt:Música clássica]]
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[[zh:欧洲古典音乐]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conventional insulinotherapy</title>
<id>6105</id>
<revision>
<id>34106939</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-06T13:33:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Krashlandon</username>
<id>750649</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Conventional insulinotherapy''' is a therapeutic regimen for
[[diabetes mellitus]] treatment.
It can be contrasted with [[intensive insulinotherapy]].
This is an older method that is still in use in a proportion of cases.<br>
Insulin injections of a mixture of rapid and intermediate acting Insulin are
performed once or twice daily. Frequent estimations of blood glucose is n |
dominance in the software tools market. Some people thought that competition from Microsoft was to blame.
Others felt that [[Philippe Kahn]] spread his company's resources too thinly over too many projects, in an attempt to battle Microsoft on many fronts. During Kahn's tenure, Borland introduced a number of then-obscure computer concepts that seemed to be promoted before the market was ready for them. The continued focus on pushing these technologies drained Borland's resources just when other companies were ready to capitalize on the growing acceptance of these new ideas.
Still others believed that a change in market conditions contributed to Borland's fall from prominence. Philippe Kahn had focused on marketing to computer programmers. In the 1980's, companies had few people who understood the growing personal computer phenomenon, and so most technical people were given free reign to purchase whatever software they thought they needed. Borland had done an excellent job marketing to those with a highly technical bent. By the mid-1990's, however, companies were beginning to ask what the return was on the investment they had made in this loosely controlled PC software buying spree. Company executives were starting to ask questions that were hard for technical folks to answer, and so corporate standards began to be created. This required new kinds of marketing and support materials from software vendors, but Borland under Kahn was slow to realize that the market had changed. Rival software companies such as Microsoft did a much better job of recognizing the changing market and supplying the information that corporations were seeking.
In the middle of 1993 Borland removed Object Vision from the market due to poor sales.
Kahn's personality was also a bit too colorful for many corporate executives to take. The Board of Directors fired Kahn in 1995. <ref name="KahnFired">{{cite web | author=Tomas Kellner | title=Survivor | work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] | url=http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2001/0709/128.html | accessdate=30 August | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>
The [[Delphi programming language|Delphi 1]] rapid application development ([[RAD]]) environment was launched in 1995, under the leadership of [[Anders Hejlsberg]].
==The Inprise years==
In November 1997, Borland acquired [[Visigenic]], a middleware company that was focused on implementations of [[CORBA]].
On [[April 29]], [[1998]], Borland refocused its efforts on targeting enterprise applications development, and went through a name change to [[Inprise]] Corporation (the name came from the slogan ''Integrating the Enterprise''). The idea was to integrate Borland's tools, Delphi, [[C++Builder]], and [[JBuilder]] with enterprise environment software, including Visigenic's implementations of CORBA, [[Visibroker]] for C++ and Java, and the new emerging product, [[Application Server]].
For a number of years (both before and during the Inprise name) Borland suffered from serious financial losses and very poor public image. When the name was changed to Inprise, many thought Borland had gone out of business.
In October 1996, Paradox and Quattro Pro were sold to [[Corel]]. Corel also purchased [[WordPerfect]] to complete the acquisition of the software bundle previously known as Borland Office for Windows. The bundle of WordPerfect, Paradox and Quattro Pro is now sold as Corel Office.
dBase was sold in 1999, as Inprise decided to concentrate on software development tools.
In 1999, in the middle of Borland's identity crisis, [[Dale L. Fuller]] replaced CEO [[Del Yocam]]. At this time Fuller's title was "interim president and CEO." The "interim" was dropped a few years later.
A proposed merger between Inprise and Corel was announced in February 2000, aimed at producing [[Linux]] based products, however the scheme was abandoned when Corel's shares fell.
[[InterBase|InterBase 6.0]] was made available as an [[open source]] product in July 2000.
==Borland reborn in name and fame==
The Borland name (Borland Software Corporation) replaced Inprise in [[January 2001]].
Under the Borland name and a new management team headed by President and CEO [[Dale L. Fuller]], a now-smaller and profitable Borland continues work on Delphi, and created a version of Delphi and C++Builder for Linux, both under the name [[Kylix programming tool|Kylix]]. This brought Borland's expertise in [[Integrated Development Environment]]s to the Linux platform for the first time. Kylix was launched in 2001.
Plans to spin off the [[InterBase]] division as a separate company were abandoned after Borland and the people who were to run the new company could not agree on terms for the separation. With the reenergized division under new management, Borland stopped open source releases of InterBase and has developed and sold new versions at a fast pace.
Borland made a commitment to the technology of [[web services]] releasing Delphi 6 as the first Integrated Development Environment to support web services. Now all of their current development platforms support web services.
[[CSharpBuilder|C#Builder]] was released in 2003 as a native [[C Sharp programming language|C#]] development tool, competing head-on with [[Visual Studio .NET]]. As of the 2005 release, C#Builder, Delphi for Win32, and Delphi for .NET have been combined into a single IDE called "Borland Developer Studio" (though the combined IDE is still popularly known as "Delphi"). Supporting web services and now .NET is doing a lot to bolster Borland's image in the industry. With their consistent profitability, in late 2002 Borland purchased design tool vendor TogetherSoft and tool publisher [[Starbase Corporation|Starbase]], makers of the [[StarTeam]] configuration management tool and the [[CaliberRM]] requirements management tool. The latest releases of [[JBuilder]] and [[Delphi programming language|Delphi]] integrate these tools to give developers a broader set of tools for development.
The rounded-out set of product offerings legitimized Borland's new claim to the Application Lifecycle Management (ALM) market, with tools spanning the software development chain from requirements, through design and development, to testing and deployment. In 2004 Borland rolled out its Software Delivery Optimization (SDO) marketing tagline, pitching the idea that SDO encompassed ALM in addition to higher-level software manufacturing concepts like portfolio management and estimation tools.
Former CEO Dale Fuller resigned in July 2005 but remained on the board of directors. Former COO Scott Arnold took the title of interim president and chief executive officer until [[November 8]], [[2005]], when it was announced that [[Tod Nielsen]] would take over as CEO effective [[November 9]], [[2005]]. <ref>http://biz.yahoo.com/ap/051108/borland_software_ceo.html</ref>
In October 2005, Borland acquired Legadero, in order to add its IT Management and Governance (ITM&G) suite, called Tempo, to the Borland product line.
On [[February 8]] [[2006]] Borland announced the divestiture of their IDE division, including [[Delphi]], [[JBuilder]], and [[InterBase]]. At the same time they announced the planned acquisition of [[Segue (company)|Segue Software]], a maker of software test and quality tools, in order to concentrate on Application Lifecycle Management (ALM).
==Current products==
Borland's current product line includes:
* [[C++Builder]]
* [[CaliberRM]]
* [[Delphi programming language|Delphi]]
* [[JBuilder]]
* [[Optimizeit Suite]]
* [[InterBase]]
* [[JDataStore]]
* [[Borland Enterprise Studio]], for C++, Mobile and Java
* [[Borland Enterprise Server]]
* [[StarTeam]]
* [[Borland Together|Together]]
* [[Kylix programming tool|Kylix]]
==Old software, no longer actively sold==
Programming tools:
*[[CodeWright]]
*[[CSharpBuilder|C#Builder]] (Now part of [[Delphi programming language|Delphi]])
*[[Turbo Pascal]]
*[[Turbo Assembler]]
*[[Turbo Debugger]]
*[[Turbo Profiler]]
*[[Turbo C]]
*[[Turbo BASIC]]
*[[Turbo Prolog]]
*[[Turbo C++]]
*[[Borland C++]]
*[[Object Vision]]
*[[Turbo Modula-2]]
Utilities:
*[[SideKick]]
Applications:
*[[Borland Reflex|Reflex]]
*[[Sprint (word processor)|Sprint]]
*[[Quattro Pro]]
*[[Borland Paradox|Paradox]]
*[[DBASE|dBase]]
==References==
<references />
==External links==
* [http://www.borland.com/ Borland Software Corporation].
* [http://bdn.borland.com/ Borland Developer Network].
* [http://cc.borland.com/ Borland Code Central].
* {{cite web
| url = http://community.borland.com/article/0,1410,20283,00.html
| work = Borland History
| title = Will The Real Frank Borland Please Stand Up?
| author = David Intersimone
}}
[[Category:Borland]]
[[Category:Companies listed on NASDAQ]]
[[Category:Computer companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Software companies]]
[[cs:Borland]]
[[da:Borland Software Corporation]]
[[de:Borland]]
[[es:Borland]]
[[fi:Borland]]
[[fr:Borland]]
[[he:בורלנד]]
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[[zh:Borland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Buckminster Fuller</title>
<id>4031</id>
<revision>
<id>42017078</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:13:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.186.4.98</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Secondary literature */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bfullerstamp.jpg|right|frame|In the [[United States|U.S.]] [[postage stamp]] commemorating '''Buckminster Fuller''' and his contributions to [[architecture]] and [[science]], some of his inventions are visible. Most notably, his head is shaped after one of his [[geodesic dome]]s. Other elements, such as futuristic [[automobile|car]]s, other craft and [[radar]] dishes are also present.]]
'''Richard Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller''' ([[July 12]], [[1895]] – [[July 1]], |
als|Shakti Sthal]]. After her death, anti-Sikh [[pogroms]] engulfed [[New Delhi]] and spread across the country, killing thousands and leaving tens of thousands homeless.
==The Nehru-Gandhi Family==
[[Rajiv Gandhi]] entered politics in February 1981 and became Prime Minister on his mother's death, later (May 1991) himself meeting a similar fate, this time at the hands of Sri Lankan [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE) militants. Rajiv's widow, [[Sonia Gandhi]], a native Italian, led a novel Congress-led coalition to a surprise electoral victory in the 2004 [[Lok Sabha]] elections, evicting [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] and his National Democratic Alliance (NDA) from power.
Sonia Gandhi controversially declined the opportunity to assume the office of Prime Minister but remains in control of the Congress political apparatus; Dr. [[Manmohan Singh]], notably a Sikh and a Nehru-Gandhi family loyalist, now heads the nation. Rajiv's children, [[Rahul Gandhi]] and [[Priyanka Gandhi]], have also entered politics. Sanjay Gandhi's widow, [[Maneka Gandhi]], who had a falling out with Indira after Sanjay's death, as well as his son, [[Varun Gandhi|Varun]], are active in politics as members of the main opposition [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] party.
Indira's story mirrors the afflictions suffered by many leaderships in third world nations. Nepotism, rigging of elections, theft from the national exchequer to win local elections.
Though frequently called '''The Nehru-Gandhi Family''', Indira was in no way related to the Mahatma. Though Mahatma was a family friend, Gandhi in her name comes from her marriage to Feroze Gandhi, a Parsi.
==Legacy==
Until this day, Indira's legacy as Prime Minister remains mixed. She was a strong, forceful personality and her reign was popular with some segments of India's population, especially the left. Her phrase "poverty is the greatest pollutor" in her remarkable speech at the first UN World Environmental Conference in Stockholm in 1972 set her (and India at the time) apart in attempting to harmonise environmental and developmental concerns in developing countries. In her early struggles to gain control of the Congress party, she transformed Indian politics by appealing directly to the people and subverting the established structure of Congress. The inadvertent result of this was fragmentation of the political hierarchy, resulting in the later rise of parties such as the [[Bahujan Samaj Party|BSP]] and the [[Samajwadi Party]], allowing previously marginalised communities to gain political representation.
Some suggest that Indira, despite her heavy-handed tactics and mistakes, was vital for India's democracy and unity, citing the faith in democracy of hundreds of millions of people united only in poverty and ignorance depended upon iconic leaders and guardians. It is suggested that the only viable alternative for India was to trade democracy for a dictatorship in view of the national insecurity and economic deprivation that defined the 1960s for India. Unfortunately, Indira's hard-nosed, zero-tolerance approach left serious divisions in India.
==External links==
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6000976 Indira Gandhi's Gravesite]
== References ==
<references/>
* http://www.vepachedu.org/Nehrudynasty.html
* [[Ved Mehta]], ''A Family Affair: India Under Three Prime Ministers'' (1982) ISBN 0195031180
* Katherine Frank, ''Indira: the life of Indira Nehru Gandhi'' (2002) ISBN 039573097X
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of India]] | before=[[Gulzarilal Nanda]] | after=[[Morarji Desai]] | years=[[19 January]], [[1966]] &ndash; [[24 March]], [[1977]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of India]] | before=[[Choudhary Charan Singh]] | after=[[Rajiv Gandhi]] | years=[[15 January]], [[1980]] &ndash; [[31 October]], [[1984]]}}
{{end box}}
{{Prime Ministers of India}}
[[Category:1917 births|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:1984 deaths|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Assassinated politicians|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Bharat Ratna recipients|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Debaters|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress]]
[[Category:Female heads of government|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Firearm deaths|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Former students of Somerville College, Oxford|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Indian women|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Politics of India|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Political families of India]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of India|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Women in war|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[bs:Indira Gandhi]]
[[ca:Indira Gandhi]]
[[cy:Indira Gandhi]]
[[da:Indira Gandhi]]
[[de:Indira Gandhi]]
[[et:Indira Gandhi]]
[[es:Indira Gandhi]]
[[eo:Indira GANDHI]]
[[eu:Indira Gandhi]]
[[fa:ایندیرا گاندی]]
[[fr:Indira Gandhi]]
[[hi:इंदिरा गाँधी]]
[[hr:Indira Gandhi]]
[[it:Indira Gandhi]]
[[he:אינדירה גנדי]]
[[lt:Indira Gandi]]
[[hu:Indira Gandhi]]
[[mr:इंदिरा गांधी]]
[[nl:Indira Gandhi]]
[[nds:Indira Gandhi]]
[[ja:インディラ・ガンジー]]
[[no:Indira Gandhi]]
[[pl:Indira Gandhi]]
[[pt:Indira Gandhi]]
[[ru:Ганди, Индира]]
[[sa:इन्दिरा गान्धी]]
[[sk:Indira Gándhiová]]
[[sr:Индира Ганди]]
[[fi:Indira Gandhi]]
[[sv:Indira Gandhi]]
[[ta:இந்திரா காந்தி]]
[[tr:İndira Gandhi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intergovernmentalism</title>
<id>15180</id>
<revision>
<id>24736900</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-04T16:10:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.159.136.211</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Intergovernmentalism''' is a theory of decision-making in [[international organization]]s, where power is possessed by the [[member-state]]s and decisions are made by [[unanimity]]. Independent [[appoint]]ees of the [[government]]s or elected representatives have solely advisory or implementational functions. Intergovernmentalism is used by most international organizations today.
An alternative method of decision-making in international organizations is [[supranationalism]].
Intergovernmentalism is also a theory on European integration which rejects the idea of [[neofunctionalism]]. The theory, initially proposed by Stanley Hoffmann ([http://www.gov.harvard.edu/Faculty/Bios/Hoffmann.htm biography]) suggests that national governments control the level and speed of [[European integration]]. Any increase in power at supranational level, he argues, results from a direct decision by governments. He believed that integration, driven by national governments, was often based on the domestic political and economic issues of the day. The theory rejects the concept of the spill-over effect that neofunctionalism proposes. He also rejects the idea that supranational organisations are on an equal level (in terms of political influence) as national governments.
==See also==
* [[Federation]].
* [[Continental Union]].
* [[European Union]].
* [[Mundialization]].
[[Category:Federalism]]
[[Category:European Union]]
[[de:intergovernmental]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Individualism</title>
<id>15181</id>
<revision>
<id>42061617</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:18:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.121.30.30</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Opposing views */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Individualism''' is a moral, political, and social philosophy, which emphasizes individual [[liberty]], the primary importance of the [[individual]], and the "virtues of self-reliance" and "personal independence". Individualism embraces opposition to [[authority]], and to all manner of controls over the individual, especially when exercised by the political [[state]] or "[[society]]." It is thus directly opposed to ''[[collectivism]]'', which advocates subordination of the individual to the will of the society or community. It is often confused with "[[egoism]]," but an individualist need not be an egoist.
==Political individualism==
In political philosophy, the individualist theory of [[government]] holds that the state should take a merely defensive role by protecting the liberty of each individual to act as he wishes as long he does not infringe on the same liberty of another. This contrasts with collectivist political theories, where, rather than leaving the individual to pursue his own ends, the state ensures that the individual serves the interests of society when taken as a whole. It also contrasts with fascism, where the individual is required to serve the interests of the state. The term has also been used to describe "individual initiative" and "freedom of the individual" in general, perhaps best described by the French term "laissez faire," a verb meaning "to let [the people] do" [for themselves what they know how to do].
In practice, individualists are chiefly concerned with protecting individual autonomy by opposing encroachment by the state. They pay particular attention to protecting the liberties of the minority against transgressions by the majority and see the individual as the smallest minority. For example, individualists oppose democratic systems unless constitutional protections exist that preserve individual liberty of individuals from being diminished by the interests of the majority. These concerns encompass both civil and economic liberties. One typical concern is the concentration of commercial and industrial enterprise in the hands of the state, and the municipality. The principles upon which this opposition is based are mainly two: that popularly-elected representatives are not likely to have the qualifications, or the sense of responsibility, required for dealing with the multitudinous enterprises, and the large sums of public money involved in civic administration; and that the "health of the state" depends upon the exertions of individuals for their personal benefit (who, &qu |
wned by [[Disneyland, Inc.]], of which [[Walt Disney Productions]], Western Publishing and ABC each owned shares. After the park was a clear success Western acceeded to a request to sell its share in the enterprise back to Disney. But ABC refused the same request initially, feeling the profit potential of the park was too lucrative to sell. It wasn't until 1960 that Walt Disney Productions acquired ABC's share of the theme park. Disney's displeasure at ABC's actions partly motivated the [[Walt Disney anthology series]] moving to NBC in 1961.
===1955: Opening day===
[[Image:Disneyland aerial view in 1956.jpg|right|250px|thumb|An aerial view of Disneyland, 1956]]
Disneyland Park was opened to the public on Monday, [[July 18]], [[1955]]. However. a special "International Press Preview" event was held on Sunday, [[July 17]], [[1955]], which was only open to invited guests and the media. The Special Sunday events, including the dedication were televised nationwide and anchored by three of Walt Disney's friends from Hollywood: [[Art Linkletter]], [[Bob Cummings]], and [[Ronald Reagan]].
The event did not go smoothly. The park was overcrowded as the by-invitation-only affair was plagued with counterfeit tickets. All major roads nearby were congested. The summer temperature was over 110 degrees Fahrenheit, and a plumbers' strike left many of the park's drinking fountains dry. The asphalt that had been poured just the night before was so soft that ladies' high-heeled shoes sank in. Vendors ran out of food. A gas leak in Fantasyland caused Adventureland, Frontierland, and Fantasyland to close for the afternoon. Parents were throwing their children over the shoulders of crowds to get them onto rides such as the Dumbo Flying Elephants.
The park got such bad press for the event day that Walt Disney invited members of the press back for a private "second day" to experience the true Disneyland, after which Walt held a party in the [[Disneyland Hotel]] for them. Walt and his 1955 executives forever referred to the first day as "Black Sunday," although [[July 17]] is acknowledged by Disney as the official opening day. On [[July 17]] every year, cast members wear pin badges stating how many years it has been since [[July 17]], [[1955]]. For example, in 2004 they wore the slogan ''"The magic began 49 years ago today"''.
On Monday, [[July 18]], crowds started to gather in line as early as 2 a.m., and the first person to buy a ticket and enter the park was David MacPherson. Walt Disney decided to have a photo taken with two children, Michael Schwartner and Christine Vess instead, and the photo of the three always carries a caption along the lines of "Walt Disney with the first two guests of Disneyland." MacPherson, Schwartner and Vess all received lifetime passes to every single Disney-owned park in the world.
===Disneylands around the world===
{{main|Walt Disney Parks and Resorts}}
[[Image:Disneyland plaque.jpg|thumb|250px|Plaque at the entrance that embodies the intended spirit of Disneyland by Walt Disney: to leave reality and enter fantasy]]
Despite the problems on the opening day, Disneyland was clearly an enormous success. It attracted visitors worldwide in unprecedented volume. Soon, even as they refined and developed Disneyland, Walt and Roy were also planning an expansion of the concept to other locations.
The [[Walt Disney World Resort]] in [[Lake Buena Vista]], [[Florida]] was built with Walt's hatred of the cheap motels and amusements that popped up around Disneyland in mind. It is the largest private-owned vacation destination, and the most popular vacation destination in the world although the yet-to-open [[Dubai Land]] in the [[United Arab Emirates]] is twice the size. Walt Disney World opened in [[1971]] under the guidance of [[Roy O. Disney]]. Since its opening, with one theme park and two hotels, the resort has grown into four theme parks, two water parks, twenty-three hotels and a retail, dining and entertainment district.
In [[1983]] the first international Disney theme park opened: [[Tokyo Disneyland Park]] in [[Japan]]. Tokyo Disneyland Park is now part of the [[Tokyo Disney Resort]], and has a sister theme park [[Tokyo DisneySea]]. Tokyo Disneyland Park and Tokyo DisneySea are owned by a Japanese corporation, [[Oriental Land Company]]. The Walt Disney Company receives royalties based on revenues and maintains creative control.
In [[1992]] Euro Disney opened in [[France]], and is now the [[Disneyland Resort Paris]] with two theme parks.
On [[September 12]], [[2005]], the [[Hong Kong Disneyland Resort]] was opened in [[Hong Kong]]. Hong Kong Disneyland Resort is owned jointly by the Hong Kong Government and the Walt Disney Company.
===1990s transition: theme park becomes resort===
In the 1990s, major construction began to transform Disneyland from a theme park into a vacation resort. The Walt Disney Company purchased land surrounding the park that was once the site of low-budget motels and trailer courts, and dug up its original "Hundred-Acre Parking Lot". On this land, [[Disney's California Adventure Park]] and [[Downtown Disney (California)|Downtown Disney]] opened in [[2001]]. The [[Disney's Grand Californian Hotel|Grand Californian Hotel]], patterned after the [[Arts and Crafts movement]] of the early [[20th century]], extends into Disney's California Adventure Park and allows paying guests to enter that park through the hotel itself.
Most of the resort's parking today is handled by the six-level "Mickey and Friends" parking garage. With six levels and 10,250 parking spaces, it was for a short time the largest parking structure in the world. Propane-powered trams bring visitors to the entrance plaza between the two parks. There are also some smaller, off-property lots with regular shuttle service to the parks, and most nearby hotels offer regular shuttle service as well.
The park's management team of the mid-1990s was a tremendous source of contention to many Disneyland fans and employees. Headed by executives [[Cynthia Harriss]] and [[Paul Pressler]], each with a retail [[marketing]] background, Disneyland's focus gradually changed from attractions to merchandising. The leaders came under increasing criticism for a host of cost cutting initiatives and profit boosting schemes.
Under their direction, few new attractions were built and many were closed down. Shops that once carried a variety of items themed to their locations now carried general Disney character products. Themed [[restaurants]] and shops were closed and replaced by outdoor vending carts which caused crowds to clog walkways. The decision to remodel Tomorrowland, derided by some fans, was attributable to Pressler, as was the closure of a great many popular attractions within the area. Dewitt "T" Irby, a retired U.S. Army officer hired as facilities manager, was blamed for the destruction of much of the tooling and attraction components in storage in the backstage areas in an effort to streamline operations as recommended by outside consultants.
After nearly a decade of deferred maintenance, Walt Disney's original theme park was showing visible signs of neglect. Paint was peeling off buildings and roofs were literally disintegrating from age, especially the [[thatched]] roofs in Fantasyland. Light bulbs, which were once replaced before they burned out, not only were run to burnout but were so numerous as to make the facades they outlined look almost toothless. Fans of the park decried the perceived decline in customer value and park quality and railed for the dismissal of the management team.
===Disneyland in the 21st century===
In 2003, both Harriss and Pressler stepped down to take over operations of national clothing retailer [[The Gap (clothing retailer)|The Gap]]. Irby stepped down the following year.
[[Matt Ouimet]], formerly the president of the [[Disney Cruise Line]], was promoted to assume leadership of the Disneyland Resort in late 2003. Shortly afterward, he selected [[Greg Emmer]] as Senior Vice President of Operations. Emmer is a long-time Disney cast member who had worked at Disneyland in his youth prior to moving to Florida and holding multiple executive leadership positions at the [[Walt Disney World Resort]]. Praised by Disney fan sites for his success at Disney Cruise Line, Ouimet quickly set about reversing negative trends, especially with regards to cosmetic maintenance and a return to the original [[infrastructure]] maintenance schedule, in hopes of restoring the good safety record of the past. Much like Walt Disney himself, Ouimet and Emmer can often be seen walking the park during business hours with members of their staff. They wear cast member name badges, queue in line for attractions and welcome comments from guests.
Disneyland Park hosted its 500-millionth guest in [[2004]].
===Fiftieth anniversary===
In 2004, the park undertook a number of major renovation projects in preparation for its fiftieth anniversary celebration. Many classic attractions (often ones neglected during Paul Pressler and Cynthia Harriss' times as Disneyland Resort President) have been restored, probably most notably [[Space Mountain]], [[Jungle Cruise]], and [[Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room]], which has received a complete restoration of its 40-year-old soundtrack.[[Image:50thDisney.png|right|Official marketing logo]]
In 2005, the entire [[Walt Disney Company]] celebrated Disneyland Park's 50th anniversary, marketed as the "[[Happiest Homecoming on Earth]]." The official celebration began on [[May 5]], with a dedication from [[Michael Eisner]], [[Bob Iger]], and [[Art Linkletter]]. On [[July 15th]], [[2005]], Disneyland Park became the first 'location' to get a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]].
The actual anniversary day ([[July 17]]) was an event marked more by the fans' enthusiasm than by the company's recognit |
y is told through the eyes of a [[narrator]] named after the writer himself, but it centres on the sinister figure Vaughan, a &ldquo;former TV-scientist, turned nightmare angel of the expressways&rdquo;. Gathering around Vaughan, is a group of alienated people, all of them former crash-victims, who follow him in his pursuit to re-enact the crashes of celebrities, and experience what the narrator calls &ldquo;a new sexuality, born from a perverse technology.&rdquo; Vaughan&rsquo;s ultimate fantasy is to die in a head-on collision with movie star [[Elizabeth Taylor]], who was at the height of her popularity at the time the novel was written (in [[1971]]).
==Analysis==
The book explores themes such as the transformation of human psychology by modern technology, and [[consumer culture]]'s fascination with [[celebrities]], [[disaster media]] and technological commodities. The human characters in the novel are cold and passionless, unable to get sexually excited unless some kind of technology is involved (typically architecture and cars). The gruesome damage inflicted on car-crash victims is not seen as shocking, but as the liberation of new sexual possibilities, that have yet to be explored, such as in one scene where a man and a woman have sex in a car that was involved in an accident, but rather than have [[sexual intercourse|vaginal sex]], he penetrates a wound on her thigh that she received in a crash.
Finally, the book asks why we, as an enlightened society, accept such a &ldquo;perverse technology&rdquo; &ndash; that kills a vast amount of people yearly &ndash; as such an integral part of our culture.
Writes Ballard in the foreword: &ldquo;Do we see, in the car-crash, the portents of a nightmare marriage between technology, and our own sexuality? &hellip; Is there some deviant logic unfolding here, more powerful than that provided by reason?&rdquo;
==Quotes==
&ldquo;After having &hellip; been constantly bombarded by road-safety propaganda, it was almost a relief to find myself in a real accident.&rdquo;
&ldquo;Trying to exhaust himself, Vaughan devised an endless almanac of terrifying wounds and insane collisions: The lungs of elderly men punctured by door-handles; the chests of young women impaled on steering-columns; the cheek of handsome youths torn on the chromium latches of quarter-lights. To Vaughan, these wounds formed the key to a new sexuality, born from a perverse technology. The images of these wounds, hung in the gallery of his mind, like exhibits in the museum of a slaughterhouse.&rdquo;
[[Category:1973 books]]
[[Category:J. G. Ballard novels]]
[[fr:Crash]]
[[ja:&#12463;&#12521;&#12483;&#12471;&#12517;&#65288;&#26144;&#30011;&#65289;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>C programming language</title>
<id>6021</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41401802</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T02:13:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stevenj</username>
<id>7918</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* C99 */ clarify that lack of support has mainly been from vendors mostly focused on C++ (e.g. Microsoft, Borland)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:K&R_C.jpg|thumb|right|''[[The C Programming Language (book)|The C Programming Language]]'', [[Brian Kernighan]] and [[Dennis Ritchie]], the original edition that served for many years as an informal specification of the language]]
The '''C programming language''' is a standardized [[imperative programming|imperative]] [[computer programming|computer]] [[programming language]] developed in the early 1970s by [[Dennis Ritchie]] for use on the [[Unix]] [[operating system]]. It has since spread to many other operating systems, and is one of the most widely used programming languages. C is prized for its efficiency, and is the most popular programming language for writing [[system software]], though it is also used for writing [[Application software|application]]s. It is also commonly used in [[computer science]] [[education]], despite not being designed for novices.
==Philosophy==
C is a relatively minimalistic [[programming language]]. Among its design goals was that it be straightforwardly compilable by a single pass compiler — that is, that just a few [[machine language]] instructions would be required for each of its core language elements, without extensive [[Runtime|run-time support]]. A single pass compiler is one that can compile a source program without having to search backwards in the source file. This is why a prototype is required if a call to a function appears before its definition. It is quite possible to write C code at a low level of abstraction analogous to [[assembly language]]; in fact C is sometimes referred to (and not always pejoratively) as "high-level assembly" or "portable assembly".
In part due to its relatively low level and modest feature set, C compilers can be developed comparatively easily. The language has therefore become available on a very wide range of platforms (probably more than for any other programming language in existence). Furthermore, despite its low-level nature, the language was designed to enable (and to encourage) [[machine-independent]] programming. A standards compliant and [[porting|portably]] written C program can therefore be compiled for a very wide variety of computers.
C was originally developed (along with the [[Unix|Unix operating system]] with which it has long been associated) by programmers and for programmers, with few users other than its own designers in mind. Nevertheless, it has achieved very widespread popularity, finding use in contexts far beyond its initial [[System programming|systems-programming]] roots.
C has the following important features:
* A simple [[core language]], with important functionality such as math functions and file handling provided by sets of [[Library (computer science)|library routines]] instead
* Focus on the [[procedural programming]] paradigm, with facilities for programming in a [[Structured programming|structured style]]
* A [[type system]] which prevents many operations that are not meaningful
* Use of a [[preprocessor]] language, the [[C preprocessor]], for tasks such as defining [[macro]]s and including multiple [[source code]] files
* Low-level access to [[computer memory]] via the use of [[pointer]]s
* A minimalistic set of keywords
* [[Parameter (computer science)|Parameter]]s that are passed by value. Pass-by-reference semantics may be simulated by explicitly passing [[pointer]] values.
* Function pointers and static variables, which allow for a rudimentary form of [[Closure (computer science)|closures]] and [[Polymorphism (computer science)|runtime polymorphism]]
* Lexical variable [[scope (programming)|scope]]
* [[Record (computer science)|Record]]s, or user-defined aggregate datatypes (<code>struct</code>s) which allow related data to be combined and manipulated as a whole
Some features that C lacks that are found in other languages include:
* [[Garbage collection (computer science)|Automatic garbage collection]]
* Language support for [[object-oriented programming]], although the original implementations for C++ was a preprocessor that translated C++ into C source code.
* [[Closure (computer science)|Closures]]
* [[Nested function]]s, though [[GCC]] has this feature as an extension.
* Compile-time polymorphism in the form of function [[overloading]], [[operator overloading]], and there is only rudimentary language support for [[generic programming]]
* Native support for [[multithreading]] and [[computer networks|networking]] <!-- Better link than computer networks? -->
Although the list of useful features C lacks is long, this has in a way been important to its acceptance, because it allows new compilers to be written quickly for it on new platforms, keeps the programmer in close control of what the program is doing, and allows solutions most natural for the particular platform. This is what often allows C code to run more efficiently than many other languages. Typically only hand-tuned assembly language code runs faster, since it has full control of the machine, but advances in C compilers and new complexity in modern [[Central processing unit|processors]] have gradually narrowed this gap.
In some cases, a missing feature can be approximated within C. For example, the original implementation of C++ consisted of a preprocessor that translated the C++ syntax into C source code. Most object oriented functions include a special pointer, usually named "this", which refers to the current object. By passing this pointer as a function argument in C, the same functionality can be performed in C. For example, in C++ one might write:
stack.push(val);
while in C, one would write:
push(stack,val);
where the ''stack'' argument of C is a pointer to a '''struct''' which is equivalent to the ''this'' pointer of C++, which is a pointer to an object.
==History==
===Early developments===
The initial development of C occurred at [[AT&T]] [[Bell Labs]] between 1969 and 1973; according to Ritchie, the most creative period occurred in 1972. It was named "C" because many of its features were derived from an earlier language called "[[B programming language|B]]".
Accounts differ regarding the origins of the name "B": [[Ken Thompson]] credits it as being a stripped down version of the [[BCPL]] programming language, but he had also created a language called [[Bon (programming language)|Bon]] in honor of his wife Bonnie.
There are many legends as to the origin of C and its related operating system, [[Unix]], including:
* The development of C was the result of the programmers' desire to play [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/spacetravel |
dustrial revolution of watch making as early as 1850 in developing the [[American System of Watch Manufacturing]] by Interchangeable Parts at the [[Waltham Watch Company]], which is at the base of today's worldwide manufacturing methods. The American [[Hamilton Watch Company]] harnessed [[mass production]] to produce chronometers in quantity for the [[US Navy]] during [[World War II]].
==Mechanical chronometers==
The crucial problem was to find a resonator that remained unaffected by the motions of a ship at sea. The [[balance wheel]] solved that problem. Balance wheels for chronometers used bi-metallic strips to move small weights toward and away from the center of the wheel, in order to adjust the period of the balance wheel for the temperature of the chronometer. Solid balance-wheels of low-expansion steel alloys such as [[invar]] give results nearly as good, but are more susceptible to magnetism.
The other crucial problem was that the energy of most spring materials changes with temperature. A special alloy of low-expansion nickel-steel ([[elinvar]]) was eventually developed, just to solve this problem. Additionally, balance-wheel springs had to be given a special oval shape. The recipes for "observatory quality" steel balance-springs have been lost because of low production volumes. The original manufacturers (such as Hamilton Watch) are out of business. Some horologists claim that carbon composite springs have comparable qualities, and are nonmagnetic, as well.
The [[escapement]] drives the balance wheel, usually from a [[gear]] train. It is the part that ticks. Escapements have a locking state and a drive state. In the locking state, nothing moves. The motion of the balance wheel switches the escapement to drive, when the escapement pushes against the wheel (supplies an impulse) for a brief part of the wheel's cycle.
The escapement is the part of a clock most prone to wear, because it moves the fastest. The efficiency of an escapement's design, that is, how much energy is converted into resonant motion, directly affects the accuracy of a clock, and how long a clock can operate between windings.
A chronometer's escapement is usually designed to minimize the energy and time required to unlock the escapement, so that it affects the resonant frequency of the oscillator as little as possible.
Another way of making a clock more efficient is to use ruby as [[jewel bearing]]s for the axes and the parts of the escapement that make repeated contact. It could be thought that ball bearings might be used to good effect at the pivots of clocks and watches, but tests seem to show that they do not perform well under the stop-start conditions typical of mechanical timepieces. Ruby is hard-wearing, can take a high polish, and has a low co-efficient of friction with polished hard steel. Synthetic ruby can also be produced very cheaply nowadays, making it the best material for horological bearing surfaces. Lately, ceramics have been experimented with as a new material for chronometer parts subject to high wear rates.
===Complications===
In horology terms, a [[Complication (horology)|complication]] in a mechanical watch is a special feature that causes the design of the watch movement to become more complicated. Examples of complications include:
* [[Tourbillon]]
* [[Perpetual Calendar]]
* [[Minute repeater]]
* [[Equation of time]]
* [[Power reserve]]
* [[Lunar phase|Moon phases]]
* [[Double chronograph]]
==Today==
[[quartz clock|Quartz clocks]] and [[atomic clock|atomic clocks]] have made mechanical clock-chronometers obsolete for time standards used scientifically and/or industrially, although some custom watchmakers can still produce them. The techniques used to mass-produce mechanical clock-chronometers are now lost.
Nevertheless, in Switzerland nowadays, over 1,000,000 Officially Certified Chronometers certificates, mostly for mechanical wrist-chronometers (wrist-[[watch]]) with sprung balance oscillator, are being delivered each year, upon having been submitted to the COSC's most severe tests, each singly identified by an officially recorded individual [[serial number]].
== See also ==
* [[Clock]]
* [[Clockmaker]]
* [[COSC]]
* [[Horology]]
* [[Jewel]]
* [[Railroad chronometers]]
* [[Watch]]
* [[Watchmaker]]
* [[Webb C. Ball]]
== External links==
* [http://www.awi-net.org/ American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute]
* [http://fhs.ch/en/ Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry]
[[Category:Clocks]]
[[Category:Navigational equipment]]
[[cs:Chronometr]]
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[[pl:Chronometr]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>CPU design</title>
<id>7597</id>
<revision>
<id>41627675</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:00:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dyl</username>
<id>87759</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert incorrect edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A CPU generally has these components:
# Datapaths (such as [[ALU]]s and [[pipelines]])
# Logic which controls the datapaths
# memory components such as register files, caches
# clock circuitry such as clock drivers, [[PLL]]s, clock distribution networks
# pad transceivers circuitry
# logic gate cell [[library (electronics)|library]] which is used to implement the logic
CPUs designed for high performance markets might require custom designs for
each of these items to achieve frequency, power-dissipation and chip-area goals.
CPUs designed for lower performance markets might lessen the implementation burden by:
* acquiring some of these items by purchasing them as [[intellectual property]]
* use control logic implementation techniques ([[logic synthesis]] using CAD tools) to implement the other components - datapaths, register files, clocks
Common logic implementation techniques used in CPU design include:
* unstructured random logic
* [[finite state machines]]
* [[microprogramming]] (common from 1965 to 1985, no longer common except for CISC CPUs)
* [[programmable logic array]] (common in the 1980s, no longer common)
A CPU design project generally has these major tasks:
* architectural study and performance modeling
* [[register transfer level|RTL]] (eg. logic) design and verification
* [[circuit design]] of speed critical components (caches, registers, ALUs)
* [[logic synthesis]] or logic-gate-level design
* [[static timing analysis|timing analysis]] to confirm that all logic and circuits will run at the specified operating frequency
* physical design including [[floorplanning]], [[place and route]] of logic gates
* checking that RTL, gate-level, transistor-level and physical-level representatations are equivalent
* checks for [[signal integrity]], [[design rule checking|chip manufacturability]]
As with most complex electronic designs, the logic verification effort (proving that the design does
not have bugs) now dominates the project schedule of a CPU.
Key CPU architectural innovations include [[CPU cache|cache]], [[virtual memory]], [[instruction pipelining]], [[superscalar]], [[CISC]], [[RISC]], [[virtual machine]], [[emulators]], [[microprogram]], and [[stack (computing)|stack]].
== Goals of CPU design ==
The first CPUs were designed to do mathematical calculations faster and more reliably than human "computers".
Each successive generation of CPU might be designed to achieve some of these goals:
* higher performance levels of a single program or thread
* higher throughput levels of multiple programs/threads
* less power consumption for the same performance level
* lower cost for the same performance level
* smaller die-area to allow higher levels of integration within one VLSI chip (multiple CPUs or other components)
* greater connectivity to build larger, more parallel systems
* more specialization to aid in specific targeted markets
Because there are too many programs to test a CPU's speed on all of them, [[benchmark (computing)|benchmark]]s were developed.
The most famous benchmarks are the SPECint and SPECfp benchmarks developed by [[Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation]] and the [[ConsumerMark]] benchmark developed by the Embedded Microprocessor Benchmark Consortium [http://eembc.org/].
Some important measurements include:
* Most consumers pick a computer architecture (normally [[Intel]] [[IA32]] architecture) to be able run a large base of pre-existing pre-compiled software. Being relatively uninformed on computer benchmarks, most of them pick a particular CPU based on operating frequency.
* System designers building [[parallel computing|parallel computers]], such as [[Google_search_technology#Current_Hardware | Google]], pick CPUs based on their speed per watt of power, because the cost of powering the CPU outweighs the cost of the CPU itself. [http://www.eembc.org/benchmark/consumer.asp?HTYPE=SIM][http://news.com.com/Power+could+cost+more+than+servers,+Google+warns/2100-1010_3-5988090.html]
* Some system designers building parallel computers pick CPUs based on the speed per dollar.
* System designers building [[real-time computing]] systems want to guarantee worst-case response. That is easier to do when the CPU has low [[interrupt latency]] and when it has deterministic response. ([[DSP]])
* Computer programmers who program directly in assembly language want a CPU to support a full featured [[instruction set]].
<!-- ... Are there other measures of "goodness", "figures of merit", that I'm missing here? -->
Some of these measures conflict.
In particular, many design techniques that make CPU run faster make the "performance per watt", "performance per dollar", and "deterministic response" much worse, and vice versa.
== History of general purpose CPUs ==
=== 1950s: early designs ===
Each of the computer designs of the early 1950s was a unique design; there were no upwa |
[[Shenyang]], [[China]]. BMW has established a joint venture with Chinese manufacturer Brilliance to build BMW 3 Series and 5 Series vehicles for the local market.
===Rolls-Royce===
In the early 1990s, BMW and [[Rolls-Royce]] Motors began a joint venture that would see the new [[Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph]] and [[Bentley Arnage]] adopt BMW engines.
In 1998, both BMW and [[Volkswagen]] tried to purchase Rolls-Royce Motors. [[Volkswagen]] outbid BMW and bought the company for £430 million, but BMW outflanked its German rival. Although Volkswagen had bought rights to the "Spirit of Ecstasy" mascot and the shape of the radiator grille, it lacked rights to the Rolls-Royce name. [[Rolls-Royce plc]] (the aero-engine business) retained the rights over the Rolls-Royce [[trademark]] and wished to strengthen its existing business partnership with BMW which extended to the [[Rolls-Royce Deutschland|BMW Rolls-Royce]] joint venture. Consequently, BMW was allowed to acquire the rights to the grille and mascot, and licensed the name and "RR" logo after [[2003]] for £40 million. Volkswagen was permitted to build Rolls-Royces at its [[Crewe]] factory only until 2003, but quickly shifted its emphasis to the Bentley brand.
In the meantime, BMW was faced with the need to build a new factory and develop a new model. The new factory at [[Goodwood]] produced the new [[Rolls-Royce Phantom]], unveiled on [[January 2]], [[2003]], and officially launched at the [[Detroit Auto Show]] on [[January 5]], [[2003]]. The model, priced around US$330,000, has experienced disappointing sales worldwide.
==Models==
===Current and near future products===
The current BMW model lineup is split into what they call "Series", traditionally identified by a single digit - e.g. the 3 Series.
In 2004 BMW announced plans to make odd-numbered models [[Sedan (car)|sedans]] and [[estate car|estates]] or wagons (BMW calls its estates/wagons Touring models), while even-numbered models will be two-door [[coupe]]s and [[cabriolet]]s. This convention started informally in 1976 with the introduction of the [[BMW 6 Series|6 Series]] and later continued in 1989 with the [[BMW 8 Series|8 Series]], but died off when the latter was discontinued in 1999. This practice was revived as the [[BMW Z4|Z4]] replaced the aging [[BMW Z3|Z3]] roadster in 2003 and continues as the new [[BMW 6 Series|6 Series]] augments the existing [[BMW 5 Series]].
Coupe versions of the [[BMW 3 Series|3 Series]] sedans have always been named 3 Series vehicles, as well. The company had considered renaming future 2-door derivatives of the 3 Series as 4 Series cars, but this plan has reportedly been shelved.
[[Image:95 318ti.jpg|thumb|250px|The 1995 BMW 3 Series Compact]]
The M letter was used prior to the shift to Series-named cars to designate special "Motorsport" models, beginning with the [[BMW M1|M1]] supercar. Later the M letter was used as a prefix to top-of-the-range models which had received special treatment by the BMW Motorsport division. The first such car was the M535i of 1979. As these models started gaining popularity the Motorsport division was split into a separate company. [[BMW M]] GmbH now makes sporty models based on the production cars with very extensive chassis and engine upgrades. The M3 and M5 are based respectively on the 3 and 5 Series and are recognised by enthusiasts all over the world as truly excellent sports cars while retaining the practicality of the models they extend.
With the advent of the [[Sport utility vehicle|SUV]], BMW also added the X5 - and in 2004 the X3 - to their model range to capitalize on this growing market. BMW calls its SUV models ''Sports Activity Vehicles''. A possible future V Series will offer [[Multi-purpose vehicle|MPV]] practicality for large families, similar to the [[Renault]] Scenic.
* [[BMW 1 Series|1 Series]]: a small car launched in autumn [[2004]] in Europe; autumn 2006 in the USA. It is the only [[rear wheel drive]] vehicle in its class. A coupe has been announced for 2006, and there are concepts of a hatchback and a minivan. Plans to label these variants as ''2 Series'' have reportedly been scrubbed.
* [[BMW 3 Series|3 Series]]: the successor to the 2002; a compact entry-level luxury sedan, now in its fifth generation (E90). The E90 line (starting with the 2006 model year) is available now in the United States. The E90 is currently available in the 325i (with a detuned 3.0 L I6 engine producing 215 bhp) and the 330i (with a 3.0 L I6 engine producing 255 bhp) as well as the AWD-versions of these 2 models, named 325xi and 330xi. Currently the 3 series coupe and convertible is only available in the fourth generation E46 body style (with a 2.5 L I6 producing 184 bhp for the 325ci/cic and a 3.0 L I6 producing 225 bhp for the 330ci/cic) until the middle of 2006 when the E90 coupes will be available. Also available is the [[all wheel drive]] Touring (wagon) model, the 325xiT. Other models, including diesel models, are available outside of the United States.
** [[BMW M3|M3]]: The motorsport division's race-inspired version of the 3 Series. Currently available only in the fourth generation E46 body style and with a 3.2 L engine producing 333 bhp. A new revision is expected in 2007 with a 400 horsepower V8.
* [[BMW 5 Series|5 Series]]: a midsize sports/[[Personal luxury car|luxury sedan]]. This series has is available with three different engines: the 525i with the same engine as the 325i, the 530i with the same engine as the 330i, and the 545i with a 4.4 L V8 producing 325 bhp. For the 2006 model year, the 545i will be phased out in favour of the 550i, with a 4.8 L V8 producing 360 bhp. Other models, including diesel models, are available outside of the United States.
**[[BMW M5|M5]]: The motorsport division's version of the 5 Series. The new M5 (E60) is powered by an [[Formula One|F1]]-inspired V10 engine, producing 507 bhp and is mated with a 7-speed Sequential Manual Gearbox (SMG) transmission.
* [[BMW 6 Series|6 Series]]: The coupe verson of the 7 series, the 6 series is currently available only in the 650i version with a 4.8 L V8 producing 360 bhp.
** [[BMW M6|M6]]: A high performance version of the 6 Series. Developed by BMW's M Division, it is powered by the same 5.0 L V10 507 bhp engine seen in the BMW M5. It is currently avaliable in Europe and is coming to America soon.
* [[BMW 7 Series|7 Series]]: a full-size, executive-class, luxury car competing with the [[Mercedes-Benz S-Class]], [[Audi A8]], and [[Jaguar XJ]]. The 7 series comes in the 750i and 750Li with the same engine as the 550i, and in the 760i and 760Li, with a 6.0 L V12 producing 438 bhp. The 760Li is also made in a bulletproof version for clients who need extra protection.
* [[BMW X3|X3]]: a small SUV with emphasis on practicality and affordability
* [[BMW X5|X5]]: BMW's first SUV (called SAV or Sports Activity Vehicle by BMW) competing against the [[Porsche Cayenne]] and [[Mercedes M-Class]].
* [[BMW Z4|Z4]]: a two-seater roadster and [[coupe]] that succeeded the [[BMW Z3|Z3]]. Available in 2.5 L and 3.0 L models.
**[[BMW M Z4 |M Z4]] The BMW M Z4 coupe is planned for production as a 2006 model.
* [[BMW Z10|Z10]]: A [[2 plus 2|2+2]] [[coupe]] to succeed the [[BMW Z8|Z8]], to be produced in [[2008]]
===Out of production===
* [[BMW M1|M1]]: a [[1970s]] mid-engine sports car, designed in conjunction with [[Lamborghini]]. As Lamborghini went into bankruptcy the production was shifted to the German Karmanwerke.
* [[BMW Z3|Z3]]: a compact two-seater roadster.
** M coupé and roadster: high-performance hard-top and soft-top versions of the Z3, very popular with enthusiasts
* [[BMW 8 Series|8 Series]]: a fast, high-technology coupe of the [[1990s]] meant to replace the older 6 Series.
* [[BMW Z1|Z1]]: a late [[1980s]] two-seater with innovative modular construction; only 8,000 were made. Best known for the feature of the vertically sliding doors.
* [[BMW Z8|Z8]]: flagship sports car; design based on the classic 507 roadster from the [[1950s]]. Only 5000 were built, the last 500 being a special edition built by Alpina but sold directly from BMW. This exciting roadster was built on a aluminium space frame design.
* [[BMW Z9|Z9]] concept car designed by Adrian van Hooydonk marked a departure from BMW's traditional conservative style, and has caused some controversy among BMW enthusiasts.
===Classics===
BMW made many cars over the years which have had great impact on the world of motoring.
* Dixi, 3/20, 303, 309, 315, 319, 320, 321, 325, 326, 327, [[BMW 328|328]], 329, 335
* [[Isetta]], [[BMW 600|600]], [[BMW 700|700]]
* 501, 502, 503, [[BMW 507|507]]
* 3200 CS, 2000 CS
* [[BMW New Six|New Sixes]] (2500/2800/Bavaria/2.5/2.8/3.0/3.3) - Predecessor to today's [[BMW 7 Series|7 Series]]
* [[BMW New Class|New Class]] (1500/1502/1600/1800/1802/2000/2002) - Acknowledged as the first modern sports saloon and the predecessor to BMW's core product, the [[BMW 3 Series|3 Series]]
===Series Generations===
Internally, BMW associates an "e-code" for each generation of a series ("E" stands for ''Entwicklung'', [[German language|German]] for ''development'' or ''evolution''). These "chassis codes" only change to signify a major redesign of a series, or the introduction of a new series.
* [[BMW E3]] - (1968-1977) 2.5, 2.8, 3.0, 3.3 "New Six" sedans
* [[BMW E9]] - (1969-1975) 2800CS, 3.0CS, 3.0CSL "New Six" coupés
* [[BMW E12]] - (1972-1981) 5 Series
* [[BMW E21]] - (1975-1983) 3 Series
* [[BMW E23]] - (1977-1986) 7 Series
* [[BMW E24]] - (1976-1989) 6 Series
* [[BMW E26]] - (1978-1981) M1
* [[BMW E28]] - (1981-1988) 5 Series
* [[BMW E30]] - (1982-1991) 3 Series
* [[BMW E31]] - (1990-1999) 8 Series
* [[BMW E32]] - (1986-1994) 7 Series
* [[BMW E34]] - (1988-1995) 5 Series
* [[BMW E36]] - (1991-1999) 3 Series/Z3 (as ''E36/7'') (1999 model as M3 only)
* [[BMW E38]] - (1994-2001) 7 Ser |
he world who test HIV-positive, so the addition of one nearly 70-year-old academic is not likely to make much difference in this debate.
===Duesberg claims that retroviruses like HIV must be harmless to survive===
Peter Duesberg argues that [[retroviruses]] like HIV must be harmless to survive, because after reverse transcription of their RNA to DNA, they depend on [[cell division]] to replicate. They cannot replicate in [[neuron]]s, for example, because these cells do not divide (after the age of one year). The normal mode of proliferation of retroviruses is from mother to child, thus implying the survival of the infected mother and the child for decades. Humans carry more than 300 different harmless retroviruses in their DNA, all of whose genomes are very similar to the HIV genome.
Due to the dependence of retroviruses on cell division, researchers in the 1970s suspected that they might be a cause of [[cancer]]. It was one of the major achievements of [[Peter Duesberg]]'s career in the 1980s to show this not to be the case.
== Common views of Duesberg and his opponents ==
'''[[Nitrite inhalants]]''' ("[[Poppers]]") are dangerous drugs -- ''independently'' of the HIV-AIDS discussion. Nitrites cause [[methemoglobinemia]] and have been observed to be [[mutagenic]], [[carcinogenic]] and immunosuppressive in animals and humans. They have an effect on both the humoral and cellular immunity.
HIV research found that they stimulate viral replication and secretion of viral proteins involved in [[Kaposi's sarcoma]] growth.
Thus, both sides agree that [[Nitrite inhalants]] (and other drugs) at least ''accelerate'' the development of [[Kaposi's sarcoma]] and other AIDS-defining diseases, i.e. that Nitrites are a [[cofactor]] -- but they don't agree on Nitrites or other drugs being the ''main'' cause of AIDS or Kaposi's sarcoma.
== Opponents of the Duesberg hypothesis ==
The current consensus in the scientific community is that the Duesberg hypothesis has been refuted by the huge mass of available evidence, showing that [[Koch's postulates]] have been fulfilled by HIV, that virus numbers in the blood [[correlation|correlate]] with disease progression and that a plausible mechanism for HIV's action has been proposed.
In the 9 December, 1994 issue of ''Science'' (Vol. 266, No. 5191), Duesberg's methods and claims were evaluated and found that:
* it is abundantly evident that HIV causes disease and death in [[hemophiliac]]s (Cohen, 1994a)
* HIV fulfills [[Koch's postulates]] (Cohen, 1994b)
* the AIDS epidemic in [[Thailand]] cited by Duesberg as confirming his theories in fact is evidence tending to confirm the role of HIV in AIDS. (Cohen, 1994c)
* AZT and illicit drug use, contrary to Duesberg's claims, do not cause an immune deficiency to or similar to that seen in AIDS (Cohen, 1994d)
===Opponents claim immune collapse caused by HIV's effects, not drugs===
Indeed, the vast majority of people with AIDS never received antiretroviral drugs, including those in developed countries prior to the licensure of [[AZT]] in [[1987]], and people in developing countries today where very few individuals have access to these medications ([http://www.unaids.org/html/pub/publications/fact-sheets04/fs_treatment_en_pdf.pdf UNAIDS, 2003]).
As with medications for any serious diseases, antiretroviral drugs can have toxic side effects. However, there is no evidence that antiretroviral drugs cause the severe immunosuppression that typifies AIDS, and abundant evidence that antiretroviral therapy, when used according to established guidelines, can improve the length and quality of life of HIV-infected individuals.
In the mid-1980s, [[clinical trial]]s enrolling patients with AIDS found that AZT given as single-drug therapy conferred a modest (and short-lived) survival advantage compared to [[placebo]]. Among HIV-infected patients who had not yet developed AIDS, placebo-controlled trials found that AZT given as single-drug therapy delayed, for a year or two, the onset of AIDS-related illnesses. Significantly, long-term follow-up of these trials did not show a prolonged benefit of AZT, but also never indicated that the drug increased disease progression or mortality. The lack of excess AIDS cases and death in the AZT arms of these placebo-controlled trials effectively counters the argument that AZT causes AIDS ([http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/hivaids/23.htm NIAID, 1995]).
Subsequent clinical trials found that patients receiving two-drug combinations had up to 50 percent increases in time to progression to AIDS and in survival when compared to people receiving single-drug therapy. In more recent years, three-drug combination therapies have produced another 50 percent to 80 percent improvements in progression to AIDS and in survival when compared to two-drug regimens in clinical trials ([http://www.hivatis.org/guidelines/adult/AA_040705.pdf HHS, 2005]). Use of potent anti-HIV combination therapies has contributed to dramatic reductions in the incidence of AIDS and AIDS-related deaths in populations where these drugs are widely available, an effect which clearly would not be seen if antiretroviral drugs caused AIDS (Palella et al., 1998; Mocroft et al., 1998; Mocroft et al., 2000; Vittinghoff et al., 1999; Detels et al., 1998; de Martino et al., 2000; Hogg et al., 1999; Schwarcz et al., 2000; Kaplan et al., 2000, McNaghten et al., 1999).
===Opponents claim current AIDS definitions supported by best science===
Early definitions of AIDS did not include any reference to the cause. The changes were made as the weight of evidence accumulated and consensus was developed.
For this aspect of the debate, a particularly relevant feature of AIDS is the relentless decline of immune system function. Without anti-HIV drug therapy, the collapse of the immune system is essentially unstoppable, although it may proceed in an uneven fashion. By contrast, a person who receives chemotherapy for cancer can expect to have severely depressed immune system function for a time after treatment ends, and then to recover to normal or near-normal stages. Assuming no further need for chemotherapy, this person may expect essentially normal immune function for the rest of his or her life.
AIDS patients, however, do not recover significantly from downturns in immune function; in the absence of HIV suppression, their immune system eventually collapses. The natural course of AIDS is the long-term and essentially irreversible loss of immune system function. Other than HIV infection, which Duesberg proponents reject, there are very few known causes of chronic immune system failure, notably most forms of leukemia and a few rare genetic disorders, and these cases are both uncommon and not in the Duesberg hypothesis' risk groups of intravenous drug users and male homosexuals.
Although proponents of the Duesberg hypothesis assert the existence of HIV-negative people with long-term immune system failure (other than due to known causes, like leukemia), they have yet to publish case studies on any such individuals or to work with any medical centers to have other known causes excluded. Instead, they merely state that they believe such people to exist, because it is the logical outcome of their ideas, without producing a single case to support the assertion.
Importantly, there is nothing about the datasets that forces researchers to pay attention to the HIV status of a participant; in fact, studies show intriguing differences in AIDS behaviors based on factors other than HIV infection. For example, hemophiliacs who acquired HIV through contaminated blood products were less likely to develop certain opportunistic infections (and more likely to die of liver failure) than people who acquired HIV through sexual contact. Duesberg, however, rejects both the existing data and the challenge to present proof himself.
===Opponents claim AIDS in Africa is also caused by HIV===
The Duesberg proponents say that AIDS in Africa is the result of poor sanitation and malnutrition, not HIV. Opponents note the following facts:
* AIDS in Africa has increased during the last two decades, and so has the prevalence of HIV.
* Sanitation and nutrition, on the other hand, have noticeably improved since the 1980s, when the Ethiopian famine was prominent in the news.
* AIDS in Africa largely kills sexually active working-age adults.
* The groups that have HIV are the ones dying from AIDS. For example, in areas where surveys show 50% of people with HIV are women, that area will show that 50% of people dying from AIDS are women. In areas where 20% of HIV+ people use recreational drugs, then 20% of the people dying from AIDS use recreational drugs.
If the Duesberg hypothesis is right, one wonders why AIDS kills so many otherwise healthy adults in Africa at the same time that health has improved among the children and the elderly, who are normally the most vulnerable to poor sanitation and malnutrition, and least vulnerable to sexually transmitted diseases.
===Opponents claim that nearly all HIV-positive people will develop AIDS===
Duesberg claims as support for his idea that many drug-free HIV+ people have not yet developed AIDS; other scientists note that many other drug-free HIV+ people have developed AIDS, and that if they wait long enough, it is very likely that nearly all of the HIV+ people will develop AIDS. Mainstream scientists also note that drug-using HIV-negative people do not seem to suffer from immune system collapse.
==Quotations==
Warren Winkelstein Jr., a Berkeley AIDS researcher, characterized Duesberg's continued publicizing of his theory as "irresponsible, with terribly serious consequences".
Helene Gayle, who was associate director of the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) office in Washington, D.C., characterized Duesberg's message as "very damaging" to AIDS prevention projects.
Martin Delaney, of [[Proj |
l Harris]]
| years=1847 – 1849}}
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[[Category:1809 births|Lincoln, Abraham]]
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[[Category:Welsh-Americans|Lincoln, Abraham]]
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[[ja:エイブラハム・リンカーン]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aristotle</title>
<id>308</id>
<revision>
<id>42134476</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:21:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dpbsmith</username>
<id>21036</id>
</contributor>
<comment>I don't think Ayn Rand has quite the same stature as Alexander the Great and Thomas Aquinas</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
<!-- Philosopher Category -->
region = Western philosophers |
era = [[Ancient philosophy]] |
color = #B0C4DE |
<!-- Image and Caption -->
image_name = Aristoteles Louvre.jpg |
image_caption = Aristotle, [[marble]] copy of [[bronze]] by [[Lysippos]] |
<!-- Information -->
name = Αριστοτέλης, Aristotelēs |
birth = [[384 BC]] |
death = [[March 7]] [[322 BC]] |
school_tradition = [[Materialism]] and [[Empiricism]] |
main_interests = [[Politics]], |
influences = [[Plato]], |
influenced = [[Alexander the Great]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] |
notable_ideas = [[Golden mean (philosophy)|The Golden mean]], Rule of the Superior, Reason > Passion, |
}}
'''Aristotle''' ({{lang-grc|{{{polytonic|Αριστοτέλης}}}}} Aristotelēs [[384 BC]] &ndash; [[March 7]], [[322 BC]]) was an [[ancient Greek]] [[philosopher]], who studied with [[Plato]] and taught [[Alexander the Great]]. He wrote books on many subjects, including [[physics]], [[poetry]], [[zoology]], [[logic]], [[rhetoric]], [[government]], and [[biology]].
Aristotle, along with Plato and [[Socrates]], is generally considered one of the most influential of [[Ancient philosophy|ancient Greek philosophers]]. They transformed [[Presocratic]] [[Greek philosophy]] into the foundations of [[Western philosophy]] as we know it. The writings of Plato and Aristotle founded two of the most important schools of [[Ancient philosophy]].
Aristotle valued knowledge gained from the senses and in modern terms would be classed among the modern [[empiricist]]s (see [[materialism]] and [[empiricism]]). He also achieved a "grounding" of dialectic in the Topics by allowing interlocutors to begin from commonly held beliefs (''[[Endoxa]]''); his goal being non-contradiction rather than [[Truth]]. He set the stage for what would eventually develop into the empiricist version of [[scientific method]] centuries later. Although he wrote dialogues early in his career, no more than fragments of these have survived. The works of Aristotle that still exist today are in [[treatise]] form and were, for the most part, unpublished texts. These were probably lecture notes or texts used by his students, and were almost certainly revised repeatedly over the course of years. As a result, these works tend to be eclectic, dense and difficult to read. Among the most important ones are ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics]] (or [[Ontology]])'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[De Anima]] (On the Soul)'' and ''[[Poetics]]''.
These works, although connected in many fundamental ways, are very different in both style and substance.
Aristotle is known for being one of the few figures in history who studied almost every subject possible at the time. In science, Aristotle studied [[anatomy]], [[astronomy]], [[economics]], [[embryology]], [[geography]], [[geology]], [[meteorology]], [[physics]], and [[zoology]]. In philosophy, Aristotle wrote on [[aesthetics]], [[ethics]], [[government]], [[metaphysics]], [[politics]], [[psychology]], [[rhetoric]] and [[theology]]. He also dealt with [[education]], foreign customs, [[literature]] and [[poetry]]. His combined works practically constitute an [[encyclopedia]] of Greek knowledge.
== Biography ==
===Early life and studies at the Academy===
[[Image:Bust of Aristotle.jpg|thumb|A [[bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Aristotle is a nearly ubiquitous ornament in places of high culture in the [[Western world|West]].]]
Aristotle was born at [[Stageira]], a [[apoikia|colony]] of [[Andros]] on the [[Macedon]]ian peninsula of [[Chalcidice]] in [[384 BC]]. His father, Nicomachus, was court physician to King [[Amyntas III of Macedon]]. It is believed that Aristotle's ancestors held this position under various kings of the Macedons. As such, Aristotle's early education would probably have consisted of instruction in [[medicine]] and [[biology]] from his father. About his mother, Phaestis, little is known. It is known that she died early in Aristotle's life. When Nicomachus also died, in Aristotle's tenth year, he was left an [[orphan]] and placed under the guardianship of his uncle, [[Proxenus of Atarneus]]. He taught Aristotle [[Greek language|Greek]], [[rhetoric]], and [[poetry]] (O'Connor ''et al.'', [[2004]]). Aristotle was probably influenced by his father's medical knowledge; when he went to [[Athens]] at the age of 18, he was likely already trained in the investigation of natural phenomena.
From the age of 18 to 37 Aristotle remained in Athens as a pupil of [[Plato]] and distinguished himself at the ''[[Academy]]''. The relations between Plato and Aristotle have formed the subject of various legends, many of which depict Aristotle unfavourably. No doubt there were divergences of opinion between Plato, who took his stand on sublime, idealistic principles, and Aristotle, who even at that time showed a preference for the investigation of the facts and laws of the physical world. It is also probable that Plato suggested that Aristotle needed restraining rather than encouragement, but not that there was an open breach of friendship. In fact, Aristotle's conduct after the death of Plato, his continued association with [[Xenocrates]] and other [[Platonists]], and his allusions in his writings to Plato's doctrines prove that while there were conflicts of opinion between Plato and Aristotle, there was no lack of cordial appreciation or mutual forbearance. Besides this, the legends that reflect Aristotle unfavourably are traceable to the [[Epicureans]], who were known as slanderers. If such legends were circulated widely by [[patristic]] writers such as [[Justin Martyr]] and [[Gregory Nazianzen]], the reason lies in the exaggerated esteem Aristotle was held in by the early [[Christianity|Christian]] [[heretic]]s, not in any well-grounded historical tradition.
===Aristotle as philosopher and tutor===
After the death of Plato ([[347 BC]]), Aristotle was considered as the next head of the Academy, a position that was eventually awarded to Plato's nephew. Aristotle then went with Xenocrates to the court of [[Hermias]], ruler of [[Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]], and married his niece and adopted daughter, Pythia. In [[344 BC]], Hermias was murdered in a rebellion, <!--''(or a Persian attack?)''--> and Aristotle went with his family to [[Mytilene]]. It is also reported that he stopped on [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]] and briefly conducted biological research. Then, one or two years later, he was summoned to Pella, the Macedonian capital, by King [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor of [[Alexander the Great]], who was then 13.
[[Plutarch]] wrote that Aristotle not only imparted to Alexander a knowledge of ethics and politics, |
ne]]
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<title>Graphics Programs</title>
<id>12358</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Graphics_program]]
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<page>
<title>Gopher</title>
<id>12359</id>
<revision>
<id>36594887</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T03:46:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bastique</username>
<id>97711</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Article is on requests. 11 articles refer to [[Gopher Tortoise]]... this article should link to it.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|gopher|gofer}}
'''Gopher''' is:
* [[Gopher (animal)]], including:
** True gopher, i.e. [[pocket gopher]] or member of [[Geomyidae]], native to North America
** [[Richardson's Ground Squirrel]], a species of ''Spermophilus''
** Ground squirrel, in a loose general sense, [[Sciuridae#Ground squirrel|Sciuridae]]
** The [[Gopher Tortoise]], ''Gopher Tortoise|Gopherus polyphemus''
* Media characters
** [[Gopher (Disney)]]- a character in the Disney version of Winnie the Pooh.
** Character played in ''Wonderland'' by [[Michael Pitt]]
* Member of various groups, including:
** [[Golden Gophers]], University of Minnesota sports teams
** [[Gopher Gang]], early 20th-century New York
** [[CF Pachuca]], soccer team whose Spanish nickname means "gophers"
* Military hardware:
** [[SA-13 Gopher]] missile
** [[SS Gopher State (T-ACS-4)]], ship
* [[Gopher protocol]], for the distributed [[hypertext]] protocol
* A [[Gofer]] ("''go-fer'' " [go-for, to fetch]), or errand-runner
{{disambig}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Graphics file formats</title>
<id>12360</id>
<revision>
<id>24815950</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T15:08:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
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<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Graphics file format summary]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gnome</title>
<id>12361</id>
<revision>
<id>41842628</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:28:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.97.166.114</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Reference underpants gnomes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the mythical creatures. For alternate meanings see [[Gnome (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Nisse_d_apres_nature_ill_jnl_fal.png|thumb|right|a gnome]]
A '''gnome''' is a [[Mythology|myth]]ical creature characterized by its small stature and subterranean lifestyle. According to [[Paracelsus]], gnomes are the most important of the [[elemental]] spirits of the [[classical element]] [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], and they move as easily through the earth as humans walk upon it. The sun's rays turn them into stone. In other traditions, they are simply small, mischievous [[Sprite (creature)|sprites]] or [[goblin]]s. Some sources claim they spend the daytime as toads instead of in stone.
Often featured in Germanic [[fairy tale]]s, including those by the [[Brothers Grimm]], the gnome often resembles a gnarled old man living deep underground and guards buried treasure. Because of this, [[Swiss banking|Swiss bankers]] are sometimes disparagingly referred to as the [[Gnomes of Zürich]]. Gnomes feature in the legends of many of central, northern and eastern [[Europe]]an lands by other names: a ''kaukis'' is a [[Prussia|Prussian]] gnome, and ''barbegazi'' are gnome-like creatures with big feet in the traditions of [[France]] and [[Switzerland]]. In [[Iceland]], gnomes (''[[vættir]]'') are so respected that roads are re-routed around areas said to be inhabited by them. Further east, ''[[tengu]]'' are sometimes referred to as winged gnomes.
Individual gnomes are not very often detailed or featured as characters in stories, but in [[Germanic folklore]], [[Rübezahl]], lord over the [[underworld]], was sometimes referred to as a mountain gnome. According to some traditions, the gnome king is called [[Gob]].
[[Rudolf Steiner]], and other [[theosophist]]s before him, lectured at length on gnomes, and especially their supportive role in the development of plant life (and biodynamic agriculture). [[Rupert Sheldrake]] has written a good deal about [[morphogenic field]]s, an idea [[Terry Pratchett]] used in his ''[[Discworld]]'' books many times.
The word ''gnome'' is said to derive from the [[New Latin]] ''gnomus'' and ultimately from the [[Greek language |Greek]] ''gnosis'', meaning knowledge. According to myth, gnomes hoarded secret knowledge just as they hoarded treasure.
==Garden gnomes==
[[Image:lamport-gnome-replica-amoswolfe.jpg|right|thumb|A replica of Lampy the Lamport gnome.]]
[[Image:Garden gnome with wheelbarrow-20051026.jpg|right|125px|thumb|A typical garden gnome.]]
The first ''garden gnomes'' were introduced to the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1847]] by Sir Charles Isham, when he brought 21 [[terracotta]] figures back from a trip to [[Germany]] and placed them as ornaments in the gardens of his home, [[Lamport Hall]] in [[Northamptonshire]]. Only one of the original batch of gnomes survives: ''Lampy'' as he is known, is on display at Lamport Hall, and is insured for one million [[pound Sterling|pounds]].
Garden gnomes have become a popular [[lawn ornament|accessory]] in many gardens, although they are not loved by all. They are often the target of [[prank]]s: people have been known to return garden gnomes "to the wild", most notably [[France|France's]] ''"Front de Liberation des Nains de Jardins"'' and Italy's ''"MALAG"'' ([[Garden Gnome Liberation Front]]). Some kidnapped garden gnomes have been sent on trips around the world (the [[travelling gnome prank]]).
A sub-culture exists among those who collect garden gnomes, which is frequently lampooned in popular culture.
Garden gnomes were made in various poses and pursuing various pastimes, such as fishing or gardening. More recently, garden gnomes have been depicted indulging in [[indecent exposure]] or having [[sexual intercourse|sex]].
:See also [[plastic flamingos]].
==Gnomic Culture==
*The [[Nome King]] (spelled without the silent "G") and his nome subjects nearly transformed [[Dorothy Gale]] and her friends into bric-a-brac in ''[[Ozma of Oz]]'', the third book in [[L. Frank Baum]]'s ''[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]]'' series. The character appeared several times in later [[The Oz books|books in the series]].
*The Gnome From Nome, a book by Serendipity Books.
* [http://www.myspace.com/gnome_invasion Gnomie's Grand Adventure] Visit Gnomie, the worlds most kick ass Gnome. He's swinger, a drinker, a brawler, and a lover.
*''[[The Gnome Mobile]]'' was a [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] movie.
*[[J. R. R. Tolkien]] used the word ''gnome'' in his early work "[[The Book of Lost Tales]]" for a fictional people later called [[Ñoldor]]. He dropped the term in his published works, since he found the gnomes of folklore to be so unlike his High Elves as to confuse his readers. "Gnomes" also refer to the [[Valar]].
*''[[David the Gnome]]'' was a [[1985]] childrens animated series, directed by [[Harvey Weinstein]]. It was narrated by [[Christopher Plummer]] and featured the voice of [[Tom Bosley]] as the kindly main character, [[David the Gnome|David]].
*[[Gnomes (Discworld)|Gnomes]] are one of several races on [[Terry Pratchett|Terry Pratchett's]] [[Discworld (world)|Discworld]], where they are also called [[goblins]]. The [[Nac Mac Feegle]] are sometimes considered an ethnic subgroup of gnomes.
*Terry Pratchett has also written a trilogy called ''[[The Bromeliad]]'' in which a race of "nomes" explore the world beyond their home, and keep discovering it to be bigger than they thought.
*The [[Shannara]] novels by [[Terry Brooks]] include the savage Spider Gnomes and the kindly Healer Gnomes.
*[[Gnome (Dungeons & Dragons)|Gnomes]] are a prominent race in the ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'' [[role-playing game]] and in novels based on the game's worlds, such as ''[[Dragonlance]]''.
* One of the eight [[Elemental spirits (Seiken Densetsu)| Elemental Spirits]] of the [[Seiken Densetsu|Mana/Seiken Densetsu]] video game series is called Gnome.
*In the [[Palladium Fantasy Role-Playing Game]], gnomes are a race of diminutive faeries who have lost their natural magic. They live in subterranean homes, and once had a great republic, but it was destroyed in that world's Elf-Dwarf war.
*In [[David Brin]]'s novel ''Earth'', a major nuclear war is described in which many nations attack [[Switzerland]] in an effort to reclaim money from the "gnomes" (bankers): money that has been illegally smuggled out of ailing developing nations and hidden in numbered Swiss bank accounts.
*The British children's comic ''[[The Beano]]'' featured a character called ''[[Gordon Gnome]]'' in [[1988]], who was a garden gnome living next to a pond.
*''[[Gordon the Garden Gnome]]'' is an animated [[BBC]] series which first aired in [[2005]]. This gnome is not related to the earlier Beano character.
*''Gnomes'' and ''Secrets of the Gnomes'' by [[Wil Huygen]] and [[Rien Poortvliet]] are illustrated guidebooks to the fictional creatures, and resulted in the spin-off [[animated series]] ''[[David the Gnome]]''. These are originally written in Dutch, where gnomes are called ''kabouters''.
*In some computer games, including ''[[EverQuest]]'', ''[[Horizons: Empire of Istaria |
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after=[[Gregory of Cappadocia]]<br>[[Peter II of Alexandria|Peter II]]}}
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[[Category:298 births]] [[Category:373 deaths]] [[Category:Coptic Saints]] [[Category:Saints]] [[Category:Patriarchs of Alexandria]] [[Category:Theologians]] [[Category:Egyptian people|Athanasius]] [[Category:Doctors of the Church]] [[Category:Church Fathers]]
[[de:Athanasius der Große]]
[[el:Μέγας Αθανάσιος]]
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[[hu:Nagy Szent Atanáz]]
[[it:Sant'Atanasio]]
[[ja:アタナシオス (アレクサンドリアの)]]
[[la:Athanasius Alexandrinus]]
[[nl:Athanasius]]
[[no:Athanasius av Alexandria]]
[[pl:Atanazy Wielki]]
[[pt:Atanásio de Alexandria]]
[[sk:Atanáz]]
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[[zh:亚他那修]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Azores</title>
<id>3226</id>
<revision>
<id>41836125</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:33:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>131.36.116.37</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right width=300px
|+<big>'''Região Autónoma dos Açores'''</big><br>(Autonomous Region of the Azores)
|-
| style=background:#efefef; align=center colspan=2 |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | {{border|[[Image:Flag of the Azores.svg|150px|Flag of Azores]]}}
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Azr.png|150px|Arms of Azores]]
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Flag of the Azores|In detail]]
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Coat of arms of the Azores|In detail]]
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=border-bottom:3px solid gray; | [[Image:AzoresUniversityOfTexas.jpg|250px|Shaded relief map of the Azores from 1975]]<br><font size=-1>''Location''
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=border-bottom:3px solid gray; | <font size=-1>''[[Motto]] of the autonomous region:<br>'''Antes morrer livres que em paz sujeitos'''''</font><br><small>''([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: To die free rather than to be subjugated in peace)''</small></font>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 |
|-
| [[language|Official language]]
| [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|-
| [[Capital]]s
| [[Ponta Delgada]] (Presidency of the autonomous government),<br>[[Angra do Heroísmo]] (Supreme Court),<br>[[Horta]] (Legislative Assembly)
|-
| Other [[town]]s
| [[Praia da Vitória]], [[Ribeira Grande]]
|-
| [[Area]]
| 2333 km²
|-
| [[Population]] <br>&nbsp;- Total ([[2001]]) <br>&nbsp;- [[Density]]
| <br>241 763 hab. <br>104 hab./km²
|-
| Number of Town [[Council]]s
| 19
|-
| Highest point
| [[Pico mountain]], [[Pico Island]] (2351 m)
|-
| [[Presidents of the regional government of the Azores|President]]
| [[Carlos Manuel Martins do Vale César|Carlos César]]
|-
| [[Self-governance|Autonomy]]
| [[1976]]
|-
| [[Currency]]
| [[Euro]]'''¹'''
|-
| [[Time zone]]
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -1 (in [[Summer]] UTC)
|-
| [[Anthem]]s
| [[A Portuguesa]] (national)<br>[[Hino dos Açores]] (local)
|-
| [[Holiday]]
| [[Azores Day]]
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | ('''¹''') Before 1999: [[Portuguese escudo]]
|}
The '''Azores''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: '''''Açores''''', [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'so.ɾɨʃ}}/ or /{{IPA|ɐ.'so.ɾʃ}}/) are an [[archipelago]] of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[island]]s in the middle of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], about 1,500 km from [[Lisbon]] and about 3,900 km from the east coast of [[North America]].
The nine Azorean Islands extend for more than 600 km, and lie in a northwest-southeast direction. The vast extension of the islands defines an immense [[Exclusive Economic Zone|exclusive economic zone]] of 1.1 million km². The westernmost point of this area is 3,380 km from the North American continent. All of the islands have volcanic origins, though Santa Maria also has some reef contribution. The mountain of Pico on [[Pico Island]], at 2,351 m in altitude, is the highest in all of Portugal. The Azores are actually the tops of some of the tallest mountains on the planet, as measured from their base at the bottom of the ocean. The islands are an [[autonomous region]] of [[Portugal]].
Though it is commonly said that the archipelago is named after the [[goshawk]] (''Açor'' in Portuguese), because it was supposed to be a common bird at the time of the discovery, it actually never existed on the islands. Some historians indicate the archaic Portuguese word "azures" (the plural of blue) because of the colour of the islands when seen from afar. Most, however, insist that the name is derived from birds, pointing to a local subspecies of the [[common buzzard|buzzard]] (''Buteo buteo''), as the animal the first explorers erroneously identified as goshawks.
== History ==
[[image:Azores old map.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Old map of Azores Islands]]
In [[1427]], one of the captains sailing for [[Henry the Navigator]] discovered the Azores, p'''ossibl'''y [[Gonçalo Velho]], but this is not certain. The [[colonization]] of the then-unoccupied islands started in [[1439]] with people mainly from the continental provinces of [[Algarve]] and [[Alentejo]]; in the following centuries settlers from other European countries arrived, most notably from Northern [[France]] and the [[Flanders]]. In [[1583]], [[Philip II of Spain]] as king of Portugal, sent his combined Iberian fleet to clear the French traders from the Azores, decisively hanging his [[prisoners-of-war]] from the yardarms and contributing to the "[[Black Legend]]". The Azores were the second-to-last part of the Portuguese empire to resist Philip's reign over Portugal ([[Macau]] being the last).
The [[1820]] civil war, in Portugal, had strong repercussion in the Azores. In [[1829]], in [[Vila da Praia]], the [[liberalism|liberal]]s won over the [[Political absolutism|absolutists]], making [[Terceira Island]] the main headquarters of the new Portuguese regime and also where the Council of Regency (''Conselho de Regência'') of [[Mary II of Portugal]] was established.
Beginning in [[1868]], [[Portugal]] issued its stamps overprinted with "AÇORES" for use in the islands. Between [[1892]] and [[1906]], it also issued separate stamps for the three administrative districts of the time.
From [[1938]] to [[1978]], the archipelago was divided into three districts, quite equivalent (except in area) to those in the Portuguese mainland. The division was quite arbitrary, and didn’t follow the natural island groups, rather reflecting the location of each district capital on the three main cities (neither of each on the western group).
'''Angra''' consisted of Terceira, São Jorge, and Graciosa, with the capital at [[Angra do Heroísmo]] on Terceira.
'''Horta''' consisted of Pico, Faial, Flores, and Corvo, with the capital at [[Horta (Azores)|Horta]] on Faial.
'''Ponta Delgada''' consisted of São Miguel and Santa Maria, with the capital at [[Ponta Delgada]] on São Miguel.
In [[1976]] the Azores became an Autonomous Region (Região Autónoma dos Açores) and the Azorean districts were suppressed.
== Politics ==
Since becoming a Portuguese Autonomous Region, the executive section of the local authority has been located in Ponta Delgada, the legislative in Horta and the judicial in Angra do Heroísmo. The President of the Regional Government is [[Carlos César]]. The Azores is considered to have one of the most uncorrupt government bodies in the world today.
== Municipalities ==
[[Image:Pasture fields in The Azores.jpg|thumb|Pasture fields in The Azores]]
The Azores are divided into 19 municipalities (''concelhos''); each municipality is further divided into parishes (''freguesias''). The Azores have a total of 156 parishes.
There are also 5 cities: [[Ponta Delgada]] and [[Ribeira Grande]] on São Miguel Island; [[Angra do Heroísmo]] and [[Praia da Vitória]] on Terceira, and [[Horta (Azores)|Horta]] on Faial.
Santa Maria
* [[Vila do Porto]]
São Miguel
* [[Lagoa]], [[Nordeste]], [[Ponta Delgada]], [[Povoação]], [[Ribeira Grande]] and [[Vila Franca do Campo]]
Terceira
* [[Angra do Heroísmo]] and [[Praia da Vitória|Vila da Praia da Vitória]]
Graciosa
* [[Santa Cruz da Graciosa]]
São Jorge
* [[Calheta]] and [[Velas]]
Pico [[Image:Pico.jpg|thumb|right|Pico viewed from Faial]]
* [[Lajes do Pico]], [[Madalena]] and [[São Roque do Pico]]
Faial
* [[Horta]]
Flores
* [[Lajes das Flores]] and [[Santa Cruz das Flores]]
Corvo
* [[Corvo]]
== Geography ==
{| align=right border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align:left; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! style="background:#efefef; text-align:center" colspan=2 |'''Azorean Islands by Size'''
|-
! style="background:#efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray; text-align:center" | '''Island'''
! style="background:#efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray; text-align:center" | Area</br>(km²)
|-
|[[São Miguel Island]]
| align=right | 759
|-
|[[Pico Island]]
| align=right | 446
|-
|[[Terceira Island]]
| align=right | 403
|-
|[[São Jorge Island]]
| align=right | 246
|-
|[[Faial Island]]
| align=right | 173
|-
|[[Flores Island, Portugal|Flores Island]]
| align=right | 143
|-
|[[Santa Maria Island]]
| align=right | 97
|-
|[[Graciosa Island]]
| align=right | 62
|-
|[[Corvo Island]]
| align=right | 17
|}
The [[archipelago]] is spread out in the area of the [[Circle of latitude|parallel]] that passes through Lisbon (39º, 43'/39º, 55' North Latitude), giving it a moderate climate, with mild annual oscillation. The Azores lie in the [[Palearctic ecozone]], forming a unique [[biome]] among the world's [[Temperate broadl |
as a part of American culture.
== Claims by Chick Publications ==
{{main|Claims by Chick Publications}}
Chick's tracts and other publications make many controversial claims. Some are typical of conservative Protestant beliefs &mdash; for instance, Chick claims that [[evolution]] is a fraud [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0055/0055_01.asp], [[homosexuality]] is sinful [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/5003/5003_01.asp], and [[abortion]] is murder [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/1009/1009_01.asp]. Others are controversial even within conservative Protestantism.
In particular, Chick's tracts make frequent reference to a vast [[Satanism|Satanic]] conspiracy controlling many of the world's organisations and institutions. Religions other than fundamentalist Protestantism are generally presented as instruments of Satanism; Chick claims that the [[King James Version of the Bible]] is the only recorded word of God, and all other editions are corrupt[http://www.chick.com/information/bibleversions]. [[Christian ecumenism]] is rejected as a ploy to corrupt true Christianity by encouraging acceptance of corrupted beliefs.
=== Catholicism ===
A recurring theme in Chick's tracts is the role of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], which he presents as one of the most powerful and insidious branches of this conspiracy. According to Chick the Catholic Church is the 'Great Whore' referred to in the [[Book of Revelation]], and will bring about a Satanic [[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]] [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0094/0094_01.asp][http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0030/0030_01.asp] before it is destroyed by Jesus Christ.
Drawing on the dubious claims of [[Alberto Rivera]], Chick claims that the Catholic Church helped to mold [[Islam]] as a tool to lure people away from Christianity [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0062/0062_01.asp], that it infiltrates and attempts to destroy or corrupt all other religions and churches [http://www.chick.com/reading/comics/0112/0112_fourpages.asp?PG=17], and that it uses various means including seduction, framing, and murder to silence its critics [http://www.chick.com/reading/comics/0112/0112_fourpages.asp?pg=21]. He accuses Catholicism of supporting ideologies such as [[Nazi]]sm and [[Communism]], and using the [[Holocaust]] to persecute opponents of the Catholic Church [http://www.chick.com/bc/1989/holocaustorinquisition.asp?FROM=Catholicpage][http://www.chick.com/reading/books/153/153_06.asp].
=== Occultism ===
Various forms of [[occult]]ism are also presented as part of a Satanic conspiracy. Most forms of [[fantasy]] and presentations of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] &mdash; including [[Harry Potter]] [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/5012/5012_01.asp], [[Dungeons and Dragons]] [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0046/0046_01.asp], and [[Halloween]] celebrations [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0011/0011_01.asp] &mdash; are portrayed as an attempt to draw children into [[Witchcraft]], represented as a tool of Satan.
==Criticisms of Chick Publications==
Some people consider the claims made by Chick's publications &ndash; and especially the cartoon tracts &ndash; to be offensive and even absurd. All of these claims are found in other Christian publications, but the tracts' blunt - many would say threatening and inflammatory- language and wide distribution make them particularly prominent as targets for criticism.
His critics also accuse Chick of misrepresentation &mdash; for instance, Chick's tract [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0055/0055_01.asp Big Daddy] accuses evolutionary scientists of circular reasoning in dating geological strata by the fossils they contain, with nothing in the tract to inform its readers that the usual technique is in fact [[radiometric dating]]. (This technique is mentioned elsewhere on Chick's site[http://www.chick.com/bc/1987/evolution.asp], but not in that tract.)
Chick's claims about Catholic, Masonic, Satanic, etc., conspiracies are based in large part on the testimony of people who claim to have been members of these groups before converting to [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Christianity, most prominently Rivera and Schnoebelen. Many of Chick's critics consider these sources to be frauds or fantasists, yet many Christian supporters acknowledge these claims as legitimate. Further discussion of these controversies may be found in the articles on [[Alberto Rivera]], [[William Schnoebelen]], and [[John Todd (evangelist)|John Todd]].
Many Christians, including many mainstream [[Protestant]]s and [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]]s, consider Chick Publications' views to be misrepresentations or distortions of general Christian or evangelical views, and as such find them offensive and embarrassing. Among other issues, many Protestants reject Chick's [[King-James-Only Movement|King James Only]] stance and hence do not support those of Chick's assertions that rely on the King James Version being the only 'true Bible'.
==Response to criticisms of Chick Publications==
Many [[fundamentalist]] Protestants, both past [http://www.aloha.net/~mikesch/gesu.htm] and present, agree with at least some of Chick Publications's more controversial claims [http://www.chick.com/information/general/statementoffaith.asp]. Some reject Chick's Roman Catholic conspiracy theories but accept other claims promoted in his tracts (e.g. 'turn or burn'), and so offer qualified agreement with Chick's beliefs. Some anti-[[cult]] organizations view Chick's website and publications as a valuable source of material on groups they see as cults[http://www.missionresources.com/cult.html].
Jack Chick claims that cartoons are a more effective medium for witnessing than conventional text based tracts. Some of the characteristics often seen as failings of his tracts - for instance, their simplistic messages - can also be viewed as strengths, making them more appealing to readers who are unsympathetic to more conventional forms of evangelism. There seems to be an interest in reading Chick Publications's cartoon tracts among those who would never hold his views, making them an effective medium for transmitting the [[Gospel]]. Chick Publications are used by [[apologetics]] ministries [http://www.spreadhisword.org/jil/] and for [[witness|witnessing]].
Chick's more controversial claims are usually accompanied by supporting references to the [[Bible]], other books (often also published by Chick), and historical facts; debate commonly focuses on the reliability of these sources and of Chick's representation of them.
Some Christians have suggested that several of his theories have been substantiated by [[United Nations]] world policies and current political and social climates in this new [[millennium]]. This is motivated by their [[religious right]] views and adherence to [[dispensationalism]], leading them to view the UN as part of a conspiracy leading to one-world government under an anti-Christ, based on a literal interpretation of Revelation 13.
Some Christians see Jack Chick as persecuted, and claim (drawing on Biblical passages) that persecution is a sign of legitimacy. Chick claims that many threats have been made on his life because of the revealing nature of his writings.
==Notable tracts==
:''Main article: [[Chick Publications tracts]]''
A number of Chick Publications are well-known. ''Dark Dungeons'', which claims that [[Dungeons and Dragons]] is a lure for Satanism, is famous for inspiring many parodies. ''This Was Your Life'' is about a man who is judged by God and is sent to [[Hell]]. The tracts ''Somebody Loves Me'' and ''Trust Me'' are mainly visual, with few words. ''The King of Kings'' tells major Bible stories in comic form.
== See also ==
*[[Claims by Chick Publications]]
*[[King-James-Only Movement]]
*[[Catholic Bible Contradictions]]
== External links ==
===Chick Publications===
* [http://www.chick.com The official website of Chick Publications]
===Negative===
* [http://www.catholic.com/library/sr_chick_tracts_p5.asp Catholic Answers] a serious and detailed response to the claims of Chick Publications against Roman Catholics
* [http://www.bismikaallahuma.org/index.php/articles/the-mysterious-statue-at-hazor-the-allah-of-the-muslims Muslim Response To Jack Chick]
* [http://www.positiveatheism.org/mail/eml8960.htm Is Jack Chick Satirizing His Own Followers?]
* [http://tricktracts.skatoolaki.com/ Trick Tracts]
* [http://www.jhuger.com/tract/dtr/index.php Dead to Rights], a famous Chick tract parody.
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Opposing_Views/Christianity/Evangelists/Jack_Chick/ Category at Open Directory Project]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/hallo_ev3.htm A report that suggests that Chick Publications spreads misinformation about Halloween]
===Positive===
* [http://www.jesus-is-lord.com/chick.htm Jack Chick] a testimony from someone who claims to be saved by Jack Chick's cartoon tracts
* [http://members.aol.com/monsterwax/chick.html Jack T. Chick Museum of Fine Art]
* [http://www.tractministry.com/wordless_tracts.html World Christian Tract Ministry] a ministry that supports distribution of Jack Chick's tracts
* [http://www.born-again-christian.info/tracts.htm Born Again Christian Info] positive summaries of the cartoon tracts
* [http://www.faithdefenders.com/about/cc.html Faith Defenders] books are offered for sale from Chick Publications and an anti-muslim point of view is expressed
* [http://members.aol.com/christiancomics1/Chick.html Christian Comics Pioneer] a positive discussion of the comics is offered
* [http://www.kjv1611.org/whatsnew/light_of_the_world.htm review of Light of the World] review of one of Chick publication's most popular DVDs
* [http://www.cuttingedge.org/ Cutting Edge]
* [http://members.tripod.com/monsterwax/battlecry.html Decades of Battle Cry Newpaper headlines]
* [http://www.beliefnet.com/story/33/story_3388_1.html explains Jack Chick's motiva |
he]]; [[ThyssenKrupp]]; [[Volkswagen]]
== High Tech & Fine Mechanics ==
[[Deutsche Telekom]]; [[SAP]]; [[Siemens AG|Siemens]]
== Chemical Industry and Pharmaceuticals ==
[[BASF]]; [[Bayer]]; [[Beiersdorf]]; [[Degussa]]; [[Henkel]]; [[Merck KGaA|Merck]]
== Tourism ==
[[Fair]] [[universities]] [[trade]]; [[Lufthansa]]; [[TUI AG|TUI]]
== Financial Services ==
[[Allianz]]; [[Commerzbank]]; [[Deutsche Bank]]; [[Dresdner Bank]]; [[Munich Re]]
== Trade ==
The [[United States]] is Germany's second-largest trading partner, and U.S.-German trade has continued to grow strongly. Two-way trade in goods and services totalled $88 billion in 2000. U.S. exports to Germany were $29.2 billion while U.S. imports from Germany were twice as high, $58.7 billion. At $29.5 billion, the U.S. [[trade deficit]] with Germany is the United States' fourth-largest, after the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Japan]], and [[Canada]]. Major U.S. export categories include [[aircraft]], electrical equipment, telecommunications equipment, data processing equipment, and motor vehicles and parts. German export sales are concentrated in motor vehicles, machinery, chemicals, and heavy electrical equipment. Much bilateral trade is intra-industry or intra-firm.
[[Aldi]]; [[Deutsche Post]]; [[Lidl]]; [[Metro AG|Metro]]
== Investments ==
Germany follows a [[liberalism|liberal]] policy toward foreign investment. From [[1995]] to [[1999]], annual average flows of U.S. direct investment in Germany were $3.4 billion, while those of German investors in the United States reached $21 billion. Americans accounted for 18% of all foreign direct investment in Germany during 1998-99, the third-largest source after [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. In terms of cumulative position (historical cost basis), German investment in the United States was valued at $111 billion in 1999, having more than doubled since 1995, while U.S. investment in Germany was worth just under $50 billion, having grown just 12% since 1995.
Despite persistence of structural rigidities in the labour market and extensive government regulation, the economy remains strong and internationally competitive, not least because of its highly skilled work force. Although production costs are high, Germany is still an export powerhouse. Additionally, Germany is strategically placed to take advantage of the rapidly growing central European countries. The current government has addressed some of the country's structural problems, with important tax, [[social security]], and financial-sector reforms. In the future, Germany faces further fundamental (and perhaps even more sweeping) economic adjustments to boost growth and job creation.
At the start of 2005, the seasonally adjusted number of registered unemployed persons initially showed another sharp increase. The considerable rise in the unemployment figures is largely due to the fact that former recipients of income support who now receive the new class-II unemployment benefit are registered as unemployed. This means that people who used to be numbered among the latent manpower reserve are now shown as registered unemployed persons. In particular, the labour-market statistics now include more unemployed young, older and low-skilled people. The unemployment rate peaked at [http://www.forbes.com/business/2005/03/08/cz_0308oxan_germany.html 12.6%] in March [[2005]], although it has gradually declined since then. Also, There are considerable regional differences in unemployment rates within Germany. The unemployment rate in eastern Germany, at 20.7%, is almost twice as high as the western figure of 10.4%, ''see'': [http://www.europa.eu.int/eures/main.jsp?catId=2641&acro=lmi&lang=en&countryId=DE&regionId=DE-NAT.com Job mobility portal of the European Union].
==Other statistics==
<!-- if possible, use the German government's destatis.de as source -->
'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
17.6% of GDP (2004)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
* ''lowest 10%:'' 3.6%
* ''highest 10%:'' 25.1% (1997)
'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
28.3 (2000)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
potatoes, wheat, barley, sugar beets, fruit, cabbages; cattle, pigs, poultry
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2.2% (2004 est.)
'''Electricity:'''
* ''production:'' 560 [[TWh]] (2003)
* ''consumption:'' 519.5 TWh (2003)
* ''exports:'' 53.8 TWh (2003)
* ''imports:'' 45.8 TWh (2003)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
* ''fossil fuel:'' 61.8%
* ''hydro:'' 4.2%
* ''other:'' 4.1% (2001)
* ''nuclear:'' 29.9%
'''Oil:'''
* ''production:'' 74,100 barrel/day (2003)
* ''consumption:'' 2.891 million barrel/day (2003)
* ''exports:'' 12,990 barrel/day (2003)
* ''imports:'' 2.135 million barrel/day (2003)
* ''proved reserves:'' 395.8 million barrel ([[1 January]] [[2004]])
'''Natural gas:'''
* ''production:'' 21 billion m³ (2003)
* ''consumption:'' 99.55 billion m³ (2003)
* ''exports:'' 7.731 billion m³ (2003)
* ''imports:'' 85.02 billion m³ (2003)
* ''proved reserves:'' 293 billion m³ ([[1 January]] [[2004]])
'''Private financial assets:'''
€4.07 trillion (2004)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery, vehicles, chemicals, metals and manufactures, foodstuffs, textiles
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery, vehicles, chemicals, foodstuffs, textiles, metals
'''Reserves of foreign exchange & gold:'''
$96.84 billion (2003)
'''Debt - external:'''
NA
'''Economic aid - donor:'''
ODA, $5.6 billion (1998)
'''Exchange rates:'''
*Euro:
:July 2005: 1.20 [[USD]] = 1 [[Euro|EUR]]
:January 2000: 0.99 [[USD]] = 1 [[Euro|EUR]]
:[[1999]]: 0.94 [[USD]] = 1 [[Euro|EUR]]
*Deutsche Mark:
:January 1999 1.69 [[USD]] = 1 [[DEM]]
:[[1998]] 1 [[USD]] = 1.76 [[DEM]]
:[[1997]] 1 [[USD]] = 1.73 [[DEM]]
:[[1996]] 1 [[USD]] = 1.50 [[DEM]]
:[[1995]] 1 [[USD]] = 1.43 [[DEM]]
==See also==
*[[Taxation in Germany]]
*[[German model]]
*[[Ordoliberalism]]
*[[Common Agricultural Policy]]
*[[Economy of Europe]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.oecd.org/germany/ OECD's Germany country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/germany/ OECD Economic Survey of Germany]
*[http://www.destatis.de/e_home.htm Federal Statistical Office Germany]
*[http://www.germany-info.org/relaunch/business/trends/trends.html German Embassy, Economic Trends]
*[http://www.tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de/811.0.html Federal Foreign Office] - Facts about Germany
*[http://www.acus.org/docs/0508-Germany_Future_Transatlantic_Economy.pdf Germany and the Future of the Transatlantic Economy, Policy Bulletin by the Atlantic Council of the U.S.]
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/economy_finance/publications/economic_papers/2002/ecp170en.pdf Germany’s growth performance in the 1990’s] - Published by the [[European Commission]] and dealing with the influence of the reunification on German growth rates
{{EU countries}}
{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Germany|!]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]
[[de:Wirtschaft Deutschlands]]
[[es:Economía de Alemania]]
[[fr:Économie de l'Allemagne]]
[[he:כלכלת גרמניה]]
[[lt:Vokietijos ekonomika]]
[[nl:Economie van Duitsland]]
[[pt:Economia da Alemanha]]
[[vi:Kinh tế Đức]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Germany</title>
<id>11931</id>
<revision>
<id>39184369</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T07:58:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>222.153.86.27</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Instrumental in founding the [[Universal Postal Union]], Germany early on set standards for international communications and the development of an integrated internal system, which has developed with technological advances from land mail ([[Turn und Taxis]]), to [[Telegraphy|telegraph]], to modern-day telephone and [[satellite]] communications.
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' NA; 46.5 million main lines are installed (July 1999)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' ca. 65 million (March 2003)
'''Telephone system:''' [[Germany]] has one of the world's most technologically advanced telecommunications systems. As a result of intensive capital expenditures since reunification, the formerly backward system of the eastern part of the country has been modernized (becoming the world's best, except in comparison with metropolitan systems) and integrated with that of the western part.
Germany is served by an extensive domestic system of automatic telephone exchanges connected by modern networks of [[fiber-optic cable]], [[coaxial cable]], [[microwave]] radio relay, and a domestic [[satellite]] system. [[Cellular telephone]] service is widely available and includes roaming service to many foreign countries.
international: satellite earth stations - 14 [[Intelsat]] (12 [[Atlantic Ocean]] and 2 [[Indian Ocean]]), 1 [[Eutelsat]], 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region), 2 Intersputnik (1 Atlantic Ocean region and 1 Indian Ocean region); 7 submarine cable connections; 2 HF radiotelephone communication centers; tropospheric scatter links
'''Radio [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:''' AM 51, FM 767, shortwave 4 (1998)
'''Radios:''' 77.8 million (1997)
'''Television broadcast stations:''' 9,513 (including repeaters) (1998)
'''Televisions:''' 51.4 million (1998)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 625 (1999)
'''Internet Users:'''
47,182,628 (2004)
'''[[Country code]]:''' DE
==External links==
*[http://www.deutschepost.de/dpag?xmlFile=828&lang=de_EN Deutsche Post]
*[http://www.telekom3.de/en-p/home/cc-startseite.html Deutsche Telekom]
[[Category:Communications in Germany| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Germany</title>
<id>11932</id>
<revision>
<id>38741251</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T08:38:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.134.61.23</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Metros */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Road & Automotive Transport== |
lso emphasised their legal identity. The law classifies a corporation either as a [[corporation sole]] (one person) or as a [[corporation aggregate]] (any other number).
Examples include (the link gives the legal name; the nickname appears in brackets with the nature of the corporation)
*[[Bank of England|The Governor and Company of the Bank of England]] (Bank of England &mdash; corporation aggregate)
*[[University of Cambridge|The Chancellor Masters and Scholars of the University of Cambridge]] (Cambridge University &mdash; corporation aggregate)
*[[Harvard College|The President and Fellows of Harvard College]] (Harvard College &mdash; corporation aggregate)
*[[New Zealand|Her Majesty the Queen in Right of New Zealand]] (New Zealand Government &mdash; corporation sole)
*The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (corporation sole)
*[[Christ Church, Oxford|The Dean, Chapter and Students of the Cathedral Church of Christ in Oxford of the Foundation of King Henry VIII]] (Christ Church, Oxford &mdash; corporation aggregate)
Using strict definitions, universities and [[college]]s count as corporations since they merely comprise groups of people.
===Development of modern commercial corporations===
[[Image:Vereinigte Ostindische Compagnie (VOC)share.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[bond]] issued by the [[Dutch East India Company]], dating from [[7 November]] [[1623]], for the amount of 2,400 [[florin]]s]]
Early corporations of the commercial sort were formed under frameworks set up by governments of [[state]]s to undertake tasks which appeared too risky or too expensive for individuals or governments to embark upon. The alleged oldest commercial corporation in the world, the [[Stora Kopparberg]] [[mining]] community in [[Falun]], [[Sweden]], reportedly obtained a [[charter]] from [[monarch|King]] [[Magnus II of Sweden|Magnus Eriksson]] in [[1347]]. Many European nations chartered corporations to lead colonial ventures, such as the [[Dutch East India Company]], and these corporations came to play a large part in the history of [[corporate colonialism]].
In the [[United States]], government chartering began to fall out of vogue in the mid-1800s. Corporate law at the time was focussed on protection of the public interest, and not on the interests of corporate shareholders. Corporate charters were closely regulated by the states. Forming a corporation usually required an act of legislature. Investors generally had to be given an equal say in corporate governance, and corporations were required to comply with the purposes expressed in their charters. Many private firms in the 19th century avoided the corporate model for these reasons ([[Andrew Carnegie]] formed his steel operation as a [[limited partnership]], and [[John D. Rockefeller]] set up [[Standard Oil]] as a [[trust]]). Eventually, state governments began to realize the greater corporate registration revenues available by providing more permissive corporate laws. [[New Jersey]] was the first state to adopt an "enabling" corporate law, with the goal of attracting more business to the state. [[Delaware]] followed, and soon became known as the most corporation-friendly state in the country; even today, most major public corporations are set up under Delaware law.
The 20th century saw a proliferation of enabling law across the world, which some argue helped to drive economic booms in many countries before and after [[World War I]] (the advantage to the overall economy of enabling laws must, however, be viewed in light of the success of Carnegie Steel and Standard Oil, the economic stimulus of the war, the flourishing of the automotive sector, and other major economic drivers). Starting in the 1980s, many countries with large state-owned corporations moved toward [[privatization]], the selling of publicly-owned services and enterprises to private, normally corporate, ownership. [[Deregulation]] - reducing the public-interest regulation of corporate activity - often accompanied privatization as part of an ideologically [[laissez-faire]] policy. Another major postwar shift was toward development of [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]]s, in which large corporations purchased smaller corporations to expand their industrial base. [[Japan]]ese firms developed a horizontal conglomeration model, the [[keiretsu]], which was later duplicated in other countries as well. While corporate efficiency (and profitability) skyrocketed, small shareholder control was diminished and [[Board of directors|director]]s of corporations assumed greater control over business, contributing in part to the [[hostile takeover]] movement of the 1980s and the accounting scandals that brought down [[Enron]] and [[WorldCom]] following the turn of the century.
More recent corporate developments include [[downsizing]], [[contracting-out]] or out-sourcing, [[off-shoring]] and scoping down activities to [[core business]], as [[information technology]], global trade regimes, and cheap fossil fuels enable corporations to reduce and [[externalize]] labour costs, transportation costs and transaction costs, and thereby maximize profits.
For a history of corporations that is “pro-corporate”, see John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Company: a Short History of a Revolutionary Idea (New York: Modern Library, 2003). For a history of corporations that is “critical”, see Joel Bakan, The Corporation. The pathological pursuit of profit and power (Toronto: Viking Canada, 2004).
==Types of corporations==
===For-profit and non-profit===
''Main article: [[non-profit organization]]''
In modern economic systems, the corporate conventions of [[governance]] commonly appear in a wide variety of business and [[Non-profit organization|non-profit]] activities. Though the laws governing these creatures of [[statute]] often differ, the courts often interpret provisions of the law that apply to profit-making enterprises in the same manner (or in a similar manner) when applying principles to non-profit organizations &mdash; as the underlying structures of these two types of entity often resemble each other.
===Closely-held and public===
The institution most often referenced when the word "corporation" is used, as in the title of the movie ''[[The Corporation]]'', is a '''public''' or '''publicly traded''' corporation, the shares of which are traded on a public market (e.g., the New York Stock Exchange or Nasdaq) designed specifically for the buying and selling of shares of stock of corporations by and to the general public. Most of the largest businesses in the world are publicly traded corporations. However, the majority of corporations are said to be '''closely held''', '''privately held''' or '''close corporations''', meaning that no ready market exists for the trading of ownership interests. Many such corporations are owned and managed by a small group of businesspeople or companies, although the size of such a corporation can be as vast as the largest public corporations.
The affairs of publicly traded and closely held corporations are similar in many respects. The main difference in most countries is that publicly traded corporations have an additional burden of complying with securities laws, which (especially in the U.S.) grant further rights to stockholders to protect them from fraud or unfairness in connection with the sale and purchase of stock. The publicly traded corporation must usually follow much more stringent disclosure requirements, and sometimes additional procedural obligations in connection with major transactions (e.g. mergers) or events (e.g. elections of directors).
===Multinational corporations===
Following on the success of the corporate model at a national level, many corporations have become transnational or [[multinational corporation]]s: growing beyond national boundaries to attain sometimes remarkable positions of power and influence in the process of [[globalisation | globalising]].
The typical "transnational" or "multinational" may fit into a web of overlapping ownerships and directorships, with multiple branches and lines in different regions, many such sub-groupings comprising corporations in their own right. Growth by expansion may favour national or regional branches; growth by [[acquisition]] or [[merger]] can result in a plethora of groupings scattered around and/or spanning the globe, with structures and names which do not always make clear the structures of ownership and interaction.
In the spread of corporations across multiple continents, the importance of [[corporate culture]] has grown as a unifying factor and a counterweight to local national sensibilities and cultural awareness.
==National features==
There are various [[types of corporations]] throughout the world.
===United States===
In the [[United States]], several corporate forms exist; the name of "corporation" generally applies to a [[business]], run for profit, to which one of the [[states of the United States]] has granted a [[corporate charter]]. American corporations often charter as a [[Delaware Corporation]] in [[Delaware]], which charges no tax on activities outside the state and has courts experienced in [[commercial law]]. Corporations set up for [[privacy]] or asset protection often charter in [[Nevada]], which allows setting them up with no record of who owns them. The federal [[government of the United States]] usually does not grant corporate charters, except for some special instances such as [[Amtrak]] and [[Freddie Mac]] and banks and credit unions which opt not to receive charters from their home states.
Historically, most [[U.S. state]]s issued charters for fixed lengths of time (for example, a manufacturing corporation might receive a charter good for 40 years), and only by an act of the legislature. Some individuals believed corporations should remain [[accountability|accountable]] to the government and used these limited cha |
in a good-natured and sometimes moving interpretation for which Landau received an [[Academy Award]] for best supporting actor. Lugosi's son, [[Bela Lugosi, Jr.]] initially disapproved of his father's portrayal in the film, despite never having seen it, but after a long correspondance with Martin Landau, Lugosi Jr. was persuaded to view the film in Landau's company. Lugosi Jr. declared that Landau had 'honored' his father with his portrayal and the actor and the late star's son became friends as a result.
Contrary to Burton's film, Lugosi did not receive top billing for ''Plan 9''. Instead he was listed as a guest-star, below [[Tor Johnson]], [[Vampira]] and Kenne Duncan.
==See also==
*[[List of Films of Bela Lugosi|Index of Films of Bela Lugosi]]
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000509|name=Béla Lugosi}}
*[http://www.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&sql=B43690 Bela Lugosi] at the [[All Movie Guide]]
*[http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=846&format=movie&theme=guide Watch Bela Lugosi in White Zombie (1932)]
*[http://www.movie-monsters.co.uk/dracula.html Bela Lugosi in Dracula (1931)]
*[http://www.lugosi.de/ A Bela_Lugosi Fan Site]
*[http://ic1.deviantart.com/fs8/i/2005/308/1/0/1931_Dracula__2005_tribute__by_shok75.jpg A remake of the 1931 poster - fan art]
[[Category:1882 births|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:1956 deaths|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:Hungarian stage actors|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:Hungarian silent film actors|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:American silent film actors|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:American film actors|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:Mystery Science Theater 3000|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:Hungarian-Americans|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[de:Bela Lugosi]]
[[es:Béla Lugosi]]
[[fr:Bela Lugosi]]
[[ja:ベラ・ルゴシ]]
[[nl:Bela Lugosi]]
[[no:Bela Lugosi]]
[[pl:Bela Lugosi]]
[[pt:Bela Lugosi]]
[[sv:Bela Lugosi]]
[[fi:Bela Lugosi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bride of the Monster</title>
<id>5035</id>
<revision>
<id>41369518</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:18:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Willsloan</username>
<id>994684</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Film |
name = Bride of the Monster |
image = Bride.jpg |
director = [[Ed Wood, Jr.]] |
producer = [[Donald E. McCoy]]<br>[[Tony McCoy (actor)|Tony McCoy]]<br>[[Ed Wood, Jr.]] |
writer = [[Ed Wood, Jr.]]<br>[[Alex Gordon]] |
starring = [[Tony McCoy]]<br>[[Bela Lugosi]]<br>[[Loretta King]] |
movie_music = [[Frank Worth]] |
distributor = [[Banner Pictures]] |
released = [[11 May]], [[1956]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
runtime = 68 min. |
language = [[English language|English]] |
imdb_id = 0047898 |
music = |
awards = |
budget = |
}}
Originally known as ''Bride of the Atom'', '''''Bride of the Monster''''' is a [[1955 in film|1955]] [[science fiction film]] starring [[Bela Lugosi]] in a traditional [[mad scientist]] role. It was produced, directed and co-written by [[Edward D. Wood, Jr.]]. A [[sequel]], entitled ''[[Night of the Ghouls]]'', was made in [[1959]] but went unreleased for decades.
==Plot==
Lugosi's character, Dr. Eric Vornoff, is experimenting with [[atomic energy]] in a primitive laboratory in his mansion. His goal is to create an army of mutated supermen to do his bidding. Newspaper reporter Janet Lawton (a role originally intended for [[Dolores Fuller]] but given to [[Loretta King]]) starts investigating, as do the local police. Meanwhile, an East German "monster hunter", Professor Strowksi (George Becwar), is creeping around trying to persuade Dr. Vornoff to return to their homeland.
==Themes==
Lugosi's character says at one point: "One is always considered mad, if one discovers something that others cannot grasp". It has been argued by commentators on the film that it is actually meaningful as a criticism of standard views and ideas. It has also been suggested that the phrase expresses both Wood's and Lugosi's bitterness at the lack of appreciation for their work. According to some, this is a good example of the theory that the problem with Wood's movies was not necessarily his ideas in themselves, but rather their poor execution.
The closing comment by the heroes, after Vornoff's demise in the hands of his own creation, "He tampered in God's domain", is typical of the view in science fiction films that science is bad, even destructive. (Because executive producer Donald E. McCoy disagreed with the use of atomic power, he only agreed to finance the film if Wood changed the script to end with an atomic explosion as a warning against atomic weapons.)
==Myths about the film==
[[Image:Lugosi Octopus.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Lugosi and the octopus]]
Some sources say Wood stole the mechanical [[octopus]] (originally used for the [[John Wayne]] film ''Wake of the Red Witch'') from a props storage vault at [[Republic Pictures|Republic Studios]]. Other sources insist Wood legitimately rented the octopus, along with some cars, from Republic. Regardless, its inner mechanism was missing, and Lugosi "struggled" with it by moving its arms around in an effort to make it seem alive.
It is sometimes claimed, such as in the book ''[[The Golden Turkey Awards]]'', that Lugosi's character declares his manservant Lobo ([[Tor Johnson]]) "as harmless as kitchen" (''sic'' - p.178) This allegedly misspoken line is often cited as evidence of either Lugosi's failing health/mental faculties, or as further evidence of Wood's incompetence as a director. However, a viewing of the film itself reveals that Lugosi said this line correctly, the exact words being, "Don't be afraid of Lobo; he's as gentle as a kitten."
Rudolph Grey's book ''Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood Jr.'' contains anecdotes regarding the making of this film. Grey notes that participants in the original events sometimes contradict one another, but he relates each person's information for posterity regardless.
==Legacy==
The shooting of this movie is re-enacted in [[Tim Burton]]'s [[Ed Wood (movie)|''Ed Wood'']].
==Trivia==
This film is part of what Wood aficionados refer to as "The Kelton Trilogy", a trio of films featuring [[Paul Marco]] as "Officer Kelton", a whining, reluctant policeman. The other two films are ''[[Night of the Ghouls]]'' and ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]''.
The television program ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' mocked ''Bride of the Monster'' in one episode. Johnson, in the character of Lobo, also appeared in ''The Unearthly'', a non-Wood film which appeared years after ''Bride of the Monster'' but which had been featured on ''MST3K'' a year before ''Bride'' was. Johnson also appeared in a third ''MST3K'' movie, ''The Beast of Yucca Flats''. The character of Lobo appeared again in ''Bride'''s sequel, ''[[Night of the Ghouls]]'', which was never MSTed.
==References==
* Grey, Rudolph. ''Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood Jr.''. 1992, Feral House. ISBN 0922915040.
* Medved, Michael, and Harry Medved. ''The Golden Turkey Awards''. 1980, Putnam. ISBN 039950463X.
* Sloan, Will. (April 2005). "Can Your Heart Stand the Shocking Facts About Kelton the Cop A/K/A Paul Marco?" Filmfax, p. 88-89
==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0047898|title=Bride of the Monster}}
*{{Movie-Tome|id=50288|title=Bride of the Monster}}
[[Category:1955 films]]
[[Category:Science fiction films]]
[[Category:MST3K movies]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ed Wood]]
[[Category:Public domain films]]
[[Category:Mad science]]
[[de:Die Rache des Würgers]]
[[fr:Bride of the Monster]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Berry paradox</title>
<id>5036</id>
<revision>
<id>38216973</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T23:34:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deville</username>
<id>364144</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Finite]] to [[Finite set]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Berry paradox''' is the apparent contradiction that arises from expressions such as the following:
:''The smallest positive [[integer]] not nameable in under eleven words.''
We can argue that this phrase specifies a unique integer as follows: there are [[Finite set|finite]]ly many phrases of fewer than eleven words. Some of these phrases denote a unique integer: For example, "one hundred thirty six", "the smallest prime number greater than five hundred million" or "ninety raised to the [[centillion]]<sup>th</sup> power". On the other hand, some of these phrases denote things which are not integers: For example "Tony Blair" or "Miguel de Cervantes." In any case, the set '''A''' of integers that can be uniquely specified in under eleven words is finite. Since '''A''' is finite, not every positive integer can be in '''A'''. Thus by [[well-ordering]] of the integers, there is a smallest positive integer that is not in '''A'''.
But the Berry expression itself is a specification for that number in only ten words!
This is clearly [[paradox|paradoxical]], and would seem to suggest that "nameable in under eleven words" may not be well-defined. However, using programs or proofs of bounded lengths, it is possible to construct an analogue of the Berry expression in a formal mathematical language, as has been done by [[Gregory Chaitin]]. Though the formal analogue does not lead to a logical contradiction, it |
n from [[sin]], or spiritual [[death]], is conditional. Entrance to the highest Heavenly Kingdom, the "Celestial Kingdom" (See [http://scriptures.lds.org/1_cor/15/40 1 Corinthians 15:40]), is only granted to those who accept Jesus through [[baptism]] into the Church by its [[priesthood]] authority, follow Church doctrine, and live righteous lives. Faith alone, or faith without works, (i.e. dead faith), is not considered sufficient to attain exaltation. (See [http://scriptures.lds.org/james/2/26 James 2:26].)
[[Exaltation]] is the reward which Latter-day Saints believe is given to the righteous; including those whose first opportunity to hear the gospel is in the afterlife (and as soon as their temple work is done for them). Through the process of exaltation, a person can eventually become like Jesus Christ, or as it is expressed in scripture, a joint-heir with Him {See [http://scriptures.lds.org/rom/8/17 Romans 8:17].)
For Church members, the kingdoms of glory, as follows, are congruent with Christ's words in the New Testament: "In my house there are many mansions..."
The ''[[Celestial Kingdom]]'' (whose glory is compared to the brightness of the [[sun]] in the sky, as its inhabitants have all truth and light) is where the righteous will live with God and with their families. This kingdom includes multiple degrees of glory, the highest of which is exaltation. Those who have had the ordinances of eternal marriage, which is performed in [[Temple (Mormonism)|Temples]], and baptism may be exalted if they are found worthy by God. Accountable individuals must be baptized and repent to gain entrance to the Celestial Kingdom; Latter-day Saints profess that all children who die before the age of accountability automatically inherit a celestial glory.
Those good people who are not valiant in following Jesus or who do not accept the Gospel do not qualify for exaltation and will be consigned to the ''[[Terrestrial Kingdom]]'' (whose glory is compared to the brightness of the [[moon]] in the sky). This kingdom is one of great glory, but without the presence of God the Father. An ultimate willingness to keep the "law of carnal commandments" (the [[Ten Commandments]]) is considered essential to enter this kingdom.
Murderers, other criminals, and the like who do not accept the Atonement of [[Jesus]] Christ will eventually spend eternity with people of like intent in the ''[[Telestial Kingdom]]'', and their glory will be as that of the stars in the night sky. This is also considered a kingdom of glory and has been described as being much better than earthly life. All those who do not qualify for a higher degree of glory will automatically enter this kingdom unless they deny the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]], a sin it is believed very few people are able to commit.
Those few people who do, after gaining a full knowledge of the Gospel, willfully deny and contend against the Holy Ghost, are believed to inherit no glory. Most members of the Church refer to this place as [[Outer Darkness]]; this is not to be confused with traditional Christianity's definition of the term. An individual so banished is called a [[Son of Perdition]]. Forgiveness is not possible for these souls, though they will be resurrected. There is debate within the church as to whether or not a female is a capable of committing the sins necessitating inheritance of a kingdom without glory.{{citeneeded}}
Before people dwell eternally in their assigned kingdom of glory, they go through resurrection and Judgement.
The ''Book of Mormon'' defines the Resurrection and Judgement as follows:
<blockquote>
The spirit and the body shall be reunited again in its perfect form; both limb and joint shall be restored to its proper frame, even as we now are at this time; and we shall be brought to stand before God, knowing even as we know now, and have a bright recollection of all our guilt.
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
Now, this restoration shall come to all, both old and young, both bond and free, both male and female, both the wicked and the righteous; and even there shall not so much as a hair of their heads be lost; but every thing shall be restored to its perfect frame, as it is now, or in the body, and shall be brought and be arraigned before the bar of Christ the Son, and God the Father, and the Holy Spirit, which is one Eternal God, to be judged according to their works, whether they be good or whether they be evil. (Alma 11:43-44)
</blockquote>
Joseph Smith taught, “The Doctrines of the Resurrection of the Dead and the Eternal Judgment are necessary to preach among the first principles of the Gospel of Jesus Christ.” (''Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith'', 149).
=== Scriptures ===
Under the Church's doctrine of [[continuous revelation|continuing revelation]] (see [[Articles of Faith]] number 9), the Church has an open scriptural [[biblical canon|canon]] which thus far includes the [[Bible]] (the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Version]] in [[English language|English]]-speaking countries), ''The [[Book of Mormon]]: Another Testament of [[Jesus]] Christ,'' ''The [[Doctrine and Covenants]],'' and ''The [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]],'' including ''The [[Articles of Faith]].'' These scriptural writings comprise the [[Standard Works|Standard Works of the Church]]. This belief in additional scriptural canon makes the church unique among Christian religions.
Many of the pronouncements of [[General authority|general authorities]], particularly the president of the Church, are also often viewed as uncanonized scripture&mdash;particularly official written pronouncements signed by the [[First Presidency]] and/or the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], such as "[[The Family: A Proclamation to the World]]" ([[1995]]), which defined the Church's vision of the ideal family (which resembles the typical nuclear family), and "The Living Christ" ([[2000]]), which commemorated the birth of Jesus. Latter-day Saints are also encouraged to accept the most recent statements from prophets and general authorities as modern-day scripture. Latter-day Saints are encouraged to pray to know the truthfulness of the doctrine contained in their various scriptures, especially if they have trouble living a certain principle.
English-speaking members typically use the [[King James Version]] of the Bible; Joseph Smith also translated a version of the Bible, known as the [[Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible]] (or Inspired Version), and although this Bible translation is not generally used by members of the Church, <!--(because the copyright is owned by The Community of Christ, previously called the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints)-Copyrights have expired, so this statement is not accurate. Joseph Smith was not going through the Bible starting with page 1 and correcting it. He actually was doing this translation by subject. Therefore one verse in The Community of Christ's JST Bible may be correct, while the two surrounding verses may still be flawed. (CORRECTION: The Church does not use the JST of the Bible because it was never completed - See Comment by clicking 'Edit this Page')--> the Bible issued by the Church contains cross references to the Joseph Smith Translation (JST), as well as an appendix containing major excerpts from it. Though it is part of the canon and members believe the Bible to be the word of God, the Church also acknowledges that numerous omissions and mistranslations occured in even the earliest known manuscripts, although the relative majority of what remains is believed to be correct. These errors have led to incorrect interpretations of the meaning of certain passages.
The introduction of ''The Book of Mormon'' describes the book as follows:
:"The Book of Mormon is a volume of holy scripture comparable to the Bible. It is a record of God&#8217;s dealings with the ancient inhabitants of [[the Americas]] and contains, as does the Bible, the fullness of the everlasting [[gospel]]. The book was written by many ancient prophets by the spirit of prophecy and revelation. Their words, written on gold plates, were quoted and abridged by a prophet-historian named Mormon. The record gives an account of two great civilizations. One came from Jerusalem in 600 B.C.E., and afterward separated into two nations, known as the [[Nephite]]s and the [[Lamanite]]s. The other came much earlier when the Lord confounded the tongues at the [[Tower of Babel]]. This group is known as the [[Jaredite]]s. After thousands of years, all were destroyed except the Lamanites, and they are the principal ancestors of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indians]].
:The crowning event recorded in the Book of Mormon is the personal ministry of Jesus Christ among Nephites soon after his [[resurrection]]. It puts forth the doctrines of the gospel, outlines the plan of salvation, and tells men what they must do to gain peace in this life and eternal salvation in the life to come."
According to his record, [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] translated the Book of Mormon by the power of God through the [[Urim and Thummim]]. Eleven witnesses signed testimonies of its divine authenticity, which are now included in the preface to the Book of Mormon. [[Three Witnesses|Three witnesses]] testified to having seen an angel present the gold plates, and to having heard God bear witness to its truth. [[Eight Witnesses|Eight]] others stated that they had handled the plates when [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] showed them to them.
''The Doctrine and Covenants'' is a collection of revelations, policies, letters, and statements from Church presidents, starting with Joseph Smith. This record contains Church doctrine as well as direction on Church government.
''The Pearl of Great Price'' contains: (1) excerpts from Joseph Smith&#8217;s translation of Genesis, cal |
merican cuisine]], [[Cuisine of South America]]''
* [[Cuisine of Argentina|Argentina]]
* [[Bolivian cuisine|Bolivia]]
* [[Cuisine of Brazil|Brazil]]
* [[Colombian cuisine|Colombia]]
* [[Cuisine of Costa Rica|Costa Rica]]
* [[Cuisine of Cuba|Cuba]]
* [[Cuisine of Mexico|Mexico]]
* [[Cuisine of Nicaragua|Nicaragua]]
* [[Paraguayan cuisine|Paraguay]]
* [[Peruvian cuisine|Peru]]
* [[Cuisine of El Salvador|El Salvador]]
* [[Cuisine of Uruguay|Uruguay]]
* [[Cuisine of Venezuela|Venezuela]]
* [[Cuisine of the Andes|Andes Region]]
* [[Native American cuisine|Native American]]
== Cuisines of Europe ==
''See also: [[Cuisine of Europe]]''
===Cuisines of Northern Europe ===
* [[Cuisine of Austria|Austrian]]
* [[Cuisine of Belgium|Belgium]]
* [[British cuisine|British]]
** [[Modern British cuisine|Modern British]]
* [[Cuisine of Denmark|Denmark]]
* [[Cuisine of Germany|Germany]]
* [[Cuisine of Finland|Finland]]
* [[French cuisine|French]]
** [[Provencal cuisine|Provencal]]
* [[Cuisine of Norway|Norway]]
* [[Cuisine of Hungary|Hungary]]
* [[Polish cuisine|Polish]]
* [[Russian cuisine|Russian]]
* [[Slovak cuisine |Slovakia]]
* [[Cuisine of Sweden|Sweden]]
=== Cuisines of the Mediterranean ===
''See also: [[Cuisine of the Mediterranean]]''
* [[Cuisine of Portugal|Portugal]]
* [[Cuisine of Spain|Spain]]
** [[Cuisine of Catalonia|Catalonia]]
* [[Cuisine of Italy|Italy]] excluding Sicily
* [[Cuisine of Sicily|Sicily]]
* [[Cuisine of Lebanon|Lebanon]]
* Cuisines of the [[Balkans]]
** [[Cuisine of Albania|Albania]]
** [[Bulgarian cuisine|Bulgaria]]
** [[Cuisine of Croatia|Croatia]]
** [[Cuisine of Greece|Greece]]
** [[Romanian cuisine|Romania]]
** [[Cuisine of Turkey|Turkey]]
** [[Cuisine of Serbia|Serbia]]
* [[Cuisine of Armenia|Armenia]]
== Cuisines of Africa ==
''See also: [[Cuisine of Africa]]''
* [[Cuisine of West Africa|West Africa]]
* [[Cuisine of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]
* [[Cuisine of Morocco|Morocco]]
* [[Cuisine of South Africa|South Africa]]
* [[Cuisine of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
== Cuisines of the Middle East ==
''See also: [[Cuisine of the Middle East]]''
* [[Arab cuisine|Arab]]
* [[Assyrian cuisine|Assyrian]]
* [[Kashrut|Kosher]]
* [[Cuisine of Lebanon|Lebanon]]
* [[Persian cuisine|Persia]]
== Cuisines of the Indian Subcontinent ==
Cuisines of the [[Indian subcontinent]] includes cuisines from the peninsular region of South Asia, which includes India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, usually also Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan. One characteristic component of the cuisines of these regions is rice and curry dishes.
''See also: [[Cuisine of India]]''
* '''India'''
** ''North Indian cuisines''
*** [[Punjabi_cuisine|Punjabi cuisine]]
*** [[Cuisine of Kashmir|Kashmiri cuisine]]
*** [[Benarasi_cuisine|Benarasi cuisine]]
** ''South Indian cuisines''
*** [[Kerala_cuisine|Kerala cuisine]]
*** [[Andhra_cuisine|Andhra cuisine]]
*** [[cuisine_of_Karnataka|Karnataka cuisine]]
*** [[Tamil_cuisine|Tamil cuisine]]
** ''West Indian cuisines''
*** [[Maharashtrian_cuisine|Maharashtrian cuisine]]
*** [[Malvani_cuisine|Malvani cuisine]]
*** [[Goan|Goan cuisine]]
*** [[Rajasthani_cuisine|Rajasthani Cuisine]]
*** [[Gujarati_cuisine|Gujarati cuisine]]
** ''East Indian Cuisines''
*** [[Bengali_cuisine|West Bengali Cuisine]]
*** [[Assamese_cuisine|Assamese cuisine]]
*** [[Cuisine_of_Bihar|Bihari Cuisine]]
*** [[Oriya_cuisine|Oriya Cuisine]]
*** [[Anglo-Indian_cuisine|Anglo-Indian Cuisine]]
* '''Bangladesh'''
**[[Bengali cuisine|Bangladeshi cuisine]]
* '''Pakistan'''
** [[Cuisine of Pakistan|Pakistani cuisine]]
* '''Sri Lanka'''
** [[Cuisine of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan cuisine]]
== Cuisines of East Asia ==
''See also: [[Cuisine of Asia]]''
* [[Cuisine of Cambodia|Cambodia]]
* [[Cuisine of China|China]]
** [[Chinese Buddhist cuisine|Chinese Buddhist]]
** [[Cantonese cuisine|Cantonese]]
** [[Chiuchow cuisine|Chiuchow]]
** [[Hakka cuisine|Hakka]]
** [[Hunan cuisine|Hunan]]
** [[Chinese Islamic cuisine|Islamic]]
** [[Mandarin cuisine|Mandarin]]
** [[Shanghai cuisine|Shanghai]]
** [[Szechuan cuisine|Szechuan]]
** [[Taiwanese cuisine|Taiwanese]]
* [[Cuisine of Indonesia|Indonesia]]
* [[Cuisine of Japan|Japan]]
* [[Cuisine of Korea|Korea]]
* [[Cuisine of Laos|Laos]]
* [[Cuisine of Malaysia|Malaysia]]
** [[Penang cuisine|Penang]]
** [[Ipoh cuisine|Ipoh]]
* [[Cuisine of Mongolia|Mongolia]]
* [[Cuisine of Philippines|The Philippines]]
* [[Cuisine of Singapore|Singapore]]
* [[Cuisine of Thailand|Thailand]]
* [[Cuisine of Tibet|Tibet]]
* [[Cuisine of Vietnam|Vietnam]]
== Cuisines of Oceania ==
* [[Cuisine of Australia|Australia]]
*[[Cuisine of Hawaii|Hawaii]]
* [[Cuisine of Fiji|Fiji]]
* [[New Zealand cuisine|New Zealand]]
* [[Cuisine of Polynesia|Polynesia]]
* [[Nauruan cuisine|Nauru]]
== Non-regional cuisines ==
* [[Fast food]], and its nemesis [[Slow food]] which preserves regional cuisines
* [[Fusion cuisine|Fusion]]
* [[Jewish cuisine|Jewish]]
* [[Raw food diet]]
* [[Vegan cuisine|Vegan]]
* [[Vegetarian cuisine|Vegetarian]]
== See also ==
* [[Wikipedia Cookbook]]
* [[Cooking]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.recipes4ever.com Recipes and Food]
{{Wikibookspar|Cookbook|Cuisine of India}}
{{Wikibookspar|Cookbook|Cuisine of Lebanon}}
[[Category:Cuisine|*]]
* [http://www.toque-et-verre.com/ La Toque & le Verre - OnLine] (french) La cuisine des chefs
[[bn:&#2480;&#2472;&#2509;&#2471;&#2472;&#2474;&#2509;&#2480;&#2467;&#2494;&#2482;&#2496;]]
[[de:Kochkunst]]
[[eo:Kuirarto]]
[[es:Gastronomía]]
[[fr:Cuisine]]
[[io:Koquarto]]
[[it:Cucina]]
[[ja:&#26009;&#29702;]]
[[ko:&#50836;&#47532;]]
[[li:Kaokkuns]]
[[zh:&#28921;&#39274;]]
[[nl:Kookkunst]]
[[pl:kulinaria]]
* [http://www.homestyle-recipes.com/ Crock Pot Cuisine]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catholics</title>
<id>6657</id>
<revision>
<id>15904781</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-17T18:29:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dogface</username>
<id>18290</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Roman Catholic Church]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>October 2003</title>
<id>6658</id>
<revision>
<id>41157833</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T12:01:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pcb21</username>
<id>7320</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
[[October]] [[2003]] : [[January 2003|January]] - [[February 2003|February]] - [[March 2003|March]] - [[April 2003|April]] - [[May 2003|May]] - [[June 2003|June]] - [[July 2003|July]] - [[August 2003|August]] - [[September 2003|September]] - '''October''' - [[November 2003|November]] - [[December 2003|December]]
==Events==
<table align="right" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px solid #000000; margin-left: 8px"><tr><td style="background-color: #fff5f5; padding-top: 0.4em; padding-bottom: 0.3em; padding-left: 8px; padding-right: 8px">
'''See also:'''
*[[Japan general election, 2003|Japan general election]]
*[[2003 - 2004 occupation of Iraq timeline|Iraq timeline]]
*[[Politics of Liberia|Liberian crisis]]
*[[North Korea nuclear weapons program|North Korea crisis]]
*[[Hutton Inquiry]]
*[[Bloody Sunday (Northern Ireland 1972)|Bloody Sunday Inquiry]]
*[[Road map for peace]]
*[[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
*[[U.S. presidential election, 2004|U.S. Presidential Election]]
*[[Same-sex marriage in Canada|Same-sex marriage]]
*[[SCO v. IBM Linux lawsuit|SCO v. IBM]]
*[[War on Terrorism]]
*[[Afghanistan timeline October 2003]]
*[[2003 Rugby Union World Cup]]
</table>
{{:October 31, 2003}}
{{:October 30, 2003}}
{{:October 29, 2003}}
{{:October 28, 2003}}
{{:October 27, 2003}}
{{:October 26, 2003}}
{{:October 25, 2003}}
{{:October 24, 2003}}
{{:October 23, 2003}}
{{:October 22, 2003}}
{{:October 21, 2003}}
{{:October 20, 2003}}
{{:October 19, 2003}}
{{:October 18, 2003}}
{{:October 17, 2003}}
{{:October 16, 2003}}
{{:October 15, 2003}}
{{:October 14, 2003}}
{{:October 13, 2003}}
{{:October 12, 2003}}
{{:October 11, 2003}}
{{:October 10, 2003}}
{{:October 9, 2003}}
{{:October 8, 2003}}
{{:October 7, 2003}}
{{:October 6, 2003}}
{{:October 5, 2003}}
{{:October 4, 2003}}
{{:October 3, 2003}}
{{:October 2, 2003}}
{{:October 1, 2003}}
{{Events by month links}}
[[Category:2003|*2003-10]]
[[af:Oktober 2003]]
[[de:Oktober 2003]]
[[et:Oktoober 2003]]
[[el:Οκτώβριος 2003]]
[[es:Octubre de 2003]]
[[fr:Octobre 2003]]
[[nl:Oktober 2003]]
[[ja:「最近の出来事」2003年10月]]
[[pl:Październik 2003]]
[[sk:Október 2003]]
[[th:ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2546]]
[[fi:Lokakuu 2003]]
[[zh:2003年10月]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Codec</title>
<id>6660</id>
<revision>
<id>42023845</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:40:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Amckern</username>
<id>280880</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* [[Comparison]]'s */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of '''codec''', see [[Codec (disambiguation)]].
'''Codec''' is a [[portmanteau]] of either ''''Co'''mpressor-'''Dec'''ompressor', ''''Co'''der-'''Dec'''oder', or ''''Co'''mpression/'''Dec'''ompression algorithm' which describes a device or [[computer program|program]] capable of performing [[Program transformation|transformation]]s on a [[data]] stream or [[signal (information theory)|signal]].
Codecs encode a stream or signal for transmission, storage or encryption and decode it for viewing or editing. Codecs are often used in [[Video teleconference|videoconferencing]] and [[streaming media]] solutions. A video camera's [[Analog-to-digital converter|ADC]] converts its analog signals into digital signals, which are then passed through a [[video codec|video compressor]] for digital transmission. A receiving device then runs the signal through a video |
er hijacked planes, and organized a brief assault to retake the cockpit - it is believed the hijackers crashed the plane into the [[Pennsylvania]] farmland rather than cede control of the plane. All aboard died.
==External links==
* [http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
* [http://www.portal.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2001/09/23/widen23.xml Report that an Ahmed al-Nami is still alive]
{{Template:911hijack}}
[[Category:1977 births|Nami, Ahmed]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Nami, Ahmed]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11, 2001 attacks|Nami, Ahmed]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian terrorists|Nami, Ahmed]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ahmed al-Haznawi</title>
<id>3222</id>
<revision>
<id>40602798</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T19:33:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sherurcij</username>
<id>120909</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The Attack */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AAlhaznawi.JPG|right|frame|2001 Visa application photo]]
'''Ahmed Ibrahim al-Haznawi''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: &#1575;&#1581;&#1605;&#1583; &#1575;&#1576;&#1585;&#1575;&#1607;&#1610;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1586;&#1606;&#1575;&#1608;&#1610;) was named by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] as one of the [[Organizers of the September 11, 2001 attacks|hijackers]] of [[United Airlines flight 93]] as part of the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]].
==History==
Born October 11th 1980, Al-Haznawi was from the [[al Bahah province]] of [[Saudi Arabia]], an isolated and underdeveloped area, and shared the same tribal affiliation with fellow hijackers [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]], and [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]]. This group is noted as being some of the more religiously observant of the hijackers. Al-Haznawi left home in [[1999]], saying he was going to fight in [[Chechnya]] against the [[Russia]]ns. It is unknown whether he ever went to Chechnya or not. His family lost contact with him in late [[2000]].
From November 27 through December 27th, al-Haznawi is in [[Saudi Arabia]] for [[Ramadan]]. It is thought that during this trip, he may have initially told [[Saeed Alghamdi|Saeed]] and [[Hamza Alghamdi]] about the operation.
Some time late in 2000, al-Haznawi traveled to the [[United Arab Emirates]], where he purchased [[traveler's cheques]] presumed to have been paid for by [[Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi]]. Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including [[Majed Moqed]], [[Saeed Alghamdi]], [[Hamza Alghamdi]], [[Wail al-Shehri]] and [[Ahmed al-Nami]].
[[image:Alhaznawi_video_aljazeera.jpg|left|frame|Al-Haznawi appeared in an [[al-Qaida]] video, pledging to give his life to [[martyr]]dom.]]
Ahmed al-Haznawi appeared on a videotape from [[Al-Qaida]] that was aired on [[Al Jazeera]] on [[April 16]], [[2002]]. It is not known when the tape was made. In it, he talked about his plans to bring the "bloodied message" to America.
On [[June 8]], [[2001]], he arrived in [[Miami, Florida]] with fellow hijacker [[Wail al-Shehri]]. He was one of 9 hijackers to open a [[SunTrust]] bank account with a cash deposit around June of 2001, and on [[July 10]]th obtained a Florida driver's license, later obtaining another copy on [[September 7]] by filling out a change-of-address form. Five other suspected hijackers also receive duplicate Florida licenses in 2001, and others had licenses in different states. Some have speculated that this was to allow multiple persons to use the same identity.[http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sfl-worldtrade-suspectprofiles.story]
==The Attack==
On [[September 11]], al-Haznawi boarded flight 93, and although he was selected for additional security and screened, he was able to board the flight without incident. Due to the flight's delay, the pilot and crew were notified of the previous hijackings that day and were told to be on the alert. Within minutes, Flight 93 was hijacked as well.
At least two of the cellphone calls made by passengers indicate that all the hijackers they saw were wearing red bandanas - an oddity in Islam where the colour red is frowned upon for men to wear, but possibly signifying an allegiance to the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]]. The calls also indicated that one of the men had tied a box around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside - it is not known which hijacker this was.
Passengers on the plane heard through phone calls the fates of the other hijacked planes. A passenger uprising resulted in the plane crashing into [[Pennsylvania]], killing everyone aboard.
After the attacks, al-Haznawi's brother Ahmad Ibrahim told the [[Arab News]] that the photograph being published bore no resemblance to his brother[http://web.archive.org/web/20030616131506/http://arabview.com/article.asp?artID=98]
==Trivia==
Al-Haznawi once sought treatment at Holy Cross Hospital in [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]] for a "skin [[lesion]]". Some allege that this was caused by cutaneous [[anthrax]], which would show, according to them, that those responsible for the September 11 attacks also committed the [[2001 anthrax attacks]]. But an FBI spokesman said "Exhaustive testing did not support that anthrax was present anywhere the hijackers had been," and "nothing new has in fact developed."[http://www.cnn.com/2002/US/03/23/anthrax/?related][http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,673048,00.html]
==External links==
*[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
* [http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/04/15/terror.tape/ Bin Laden tape with Haznawi]
* [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:PoGBRoW2ayAJ:www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_567316.html+&hl=en/ Another link of Bin Laden tape with Haznawi]
{{Template:911hijack}}
[[Category:1980 births|Haznawi, Ahmed]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Haznawi, Ahmed]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11, 2001 attacks|Haznawi, Ahmed]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian terrorists|Haznawi, Ahmed]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A. I.</title>
<id>3223</id>
<revision>
<id>15901584</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Artificial intelligence]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agglutinative language</title>
<id>3224</id>
<revision>
<id>40777848</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T23:23:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joziboy</username>
<id>959047</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Examples of agglutinative languages */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Agglutination}}
{{Linguistic typology topics}}
An '''agglutinative language''' is a [[language]] in which the [[word]]s are formed by joining [[morpheme]]s together. This term was introduced by [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] in [[1836]] to classify languages from a [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] point of view. It was derived from the [[Latin]] verb ''agglutinare'', which means "to glue together."
An agglutinative language is a form of [[synthetic language]] where each [[affix]] typically represents one unit of meaning (such as "diminutive", "past tense", "plural", etc.), and bound morphemes are expressed by affixes (and not by internal changes of the root of the word, or changes in stress or tone). Besides, and most importantly, in an agglutinative language affixes do not become fused with others, and do not change form conditioned by others.
Synthetic languages which are not agglutinative are called [[fusional language]]s; they sometimes combine affixes by "squeezing" them together, often changing them drastically in the process, and joining several meanings in one affix (for example, in the Spanish word '''comí''' ''I ate'', the suffix -'''í''' carries the meanings of indicative [[grammatical mood|mood]], past [[grammatical tense|tense]], first person singular [[subject (grammar)|subject]] and perfect [[grammatical aspect|aspect]]).
''Agglutinative'' is sometimes used as a synonym for [[synthetic language|synthetic]], although it technically is not. When used in this way, the word embraces [[fusional language]]s and [[inflected language]]s in general. The distinction between an agglutinative and a fusional language is often not sharp. Rather, one should think of these as two ends of a continuum, with various languages falling more toward one end or the other. In fact, a synthetic language may present agglutinative features in its open lexicon but not in its case system: for example, [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]].
Agglutinative languages tend to have a high rate of affixes/morphemes per word, and to be very regular. For example, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] has only three irregular verbs (and not ''very'' irregular), [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]] only two. [[Georgian language|Georgian]] is an exception; not only is it highly agglutinative (there can be simultaneously up to 8 morphemes per word), but there are also significant number of irregular verbs, varying in degrees of irregularity.
==Examples of agglutinative languages==
Examples of agglutinative languages are the [[Altaic languages]] (see [[Turkish language|Turkish]]), [[Basque language|Basque]], the [[Dravidian languages]], the [[Uralic languages]], [[Inuktitut]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Zulu language|Zulu]], [[Malay language|Malay]], the [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast]], [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest]] and [[South Caucasian languages|South Caucasian]] lang |
ta]], [[Chicago Cubs]], 1B
|-
| [[1946]]
| [[Ted Williams]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Stan Musial]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 1B
|-
| [[1947 in baseball|1947]]
| [[Joe DiMaggio]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Bob Elliott (baseball)|Bob Elliott]], [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]], 3B
|-
| [[1948]]
| [[Lou Boudreau]], [[Cleveland Indians]], SS
| [[Stan Musial]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], OF
|-
| [[1949 in baseball|1949]]
| [[Ted Williams]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Jackie Robinson]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], 2B
|-
| [[1950 in baseball|1950]]
| [[Phil Rizzuto]], [[New York Yankees]], SS
| [[Jim Konstanty]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], P
|-
| [[1951 in baseball|1951]]
| [[Yogi Berra]], [[New York Yankees]], C
| [[Roy Campanella]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], C
|-
| [[1952 in baseball|1952]]
| [[Bobby Shantz]], [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]], P
| [[Hank Sauer]], [[Chicago Cubs]], OF
|-
| [[1953 in baseball|1953]]
| [[Al Rosen]]†, [[Cleveland Indians]], 3B
| [[Roy Campanella]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], C
|-
| [[1954 in baseball|1954]]
| [[Yogi Berra]], [[New York Yankees]], C
| [[Willie Mays]], [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]], OF
|-
| [[1955 in baseball|1955]]
| [[Yogi Berra]], [[New York Yankees]], C
| [[Roy Campanella]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], C
|-
| [[1956 in baseball|1956]]
| [[Mickey Mantle]]†, [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Don Newcombe]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], P
|-
| [[1957 in baseball|1957]]
| [[Mickey Mantle]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Hank Aaron]], [[Atlanta Braves|Milwaukee Braves]], OF
|-
| [[1958 in baseball|1958]]
| [[Jackie Jensen]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Ernie Banks]], [[Chicago Cubs]], SS
|-
| [[1959 in baseball|1959]]
| [[Nellie Fox]], [[Chicago White Sox]], 2B
| [[Ernie Banks]], [[Chicago Cubs]], SS
|-
| [[1960 in baseball|1960]]
| [[Roger Maris]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Dick Groat]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], SS
|-
| [[1961 in baseball|1961]]
| [[Roger Maris]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Frank Robinson]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], OF
|-
| [[1962 in baseball|1962]]
| [[Mickey Mantle]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Maury Wills]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], SS
|-
| [[1963 in baseball|1963]]
| [[Elston Howard]], [[New York Yankees]], C
| [[Sandy Koufax]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], P
|-
| [[1964 in baseball|1964]]
| [[Brooks Robinson]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], 3B
| [[Ken Boyer]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], 3B
|-
| [[1965 in baseball|1965]]
| [[Zoilo Versalles]], [[Minnesota Twins]], SS
| [[Willie Mays]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[1966 in baseball|1966]]
| [[Frank Robinson]]†, [[Baltimore Orioles]], OF
| [[Roberto Clemente]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], OF
|-
| [[1967 in baseball|1967]]
| [[Carl Yastrzemski]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Orlando Cepeda]]†, [[St Louis Cardinals]], 1B
|-
| [[1968 in baseball|1968]]
| [[Denny McLain]]†, [[Detroit Tigers]], P
| [[Bob Gibson]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], P
|-
| [[1969 in baseball|1969]]
| [[Harmon Killebrew]], [[Minnesota Twins]], 3B
| [[Willie McCovey]], [[San Francisco Giants]], 1B
|-
| [[1970 in baseball|1970]]
| [[Boog Powell]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], 1B
| [[Johnny Bench]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], C
|-
| [[1971 in baseball|1971]]
| [[Vida Blue]], [[Oakland Athletics]], P
| [[Joe Torre]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], 3B
|-
| [[1972 in baseball|1972]]
| [[Dick Allen]], [[Chicago White Sox]], 1B
| [[Johnny Bench]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], C
|-
| [[1973 in baseball|1973]]
| [[Reggie Jackson]]†, [[Oakland Athletics]], OF
| [[Pete Rose]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], OF
|-
| [[1974 in baseball|1974]]
| [[Jeff Burroughs]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], OF
| [[Steve Garvey]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], 1B
|-
| [[1975 in baseball|1975]]
| [[Fred Lynn]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Joe Morgan]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], 2B
|-
| [[1976 in baseball|1976]]
| [[Thurman Munson]], [[New York Yankees]], C
| [[Joe Morgan]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], 2B
|-
| [[1977 in baseball|1977]]
| [[Rod Carew]], [[Minnesota Twins]], 1B
| [[George Foster (baseball player)|George Foster]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], OF
|-
| [[1978 in baseball|1978]]
| [[Jim Rice]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Dave Parker (baseball player)|Dave Parker]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], OF
|-
| [[1979 in baseball|1979]]
| [[Don Baylor]], [[California Angels]], DH
| [[Keith Hernandez]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 1B<br />[[Willie Stargell]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], 1B
|-
| [[1980 in baseball|1980]]
| [[George Brett (baseball)|George Brett]], [[Kansas City Royals]], 3B
| [[Mike Schmidt]]†, [[Philadelphia Phillies]], 3B
|-
| [[1981 in baseball|1981]]
| [[Rollie Fingers]], [[Milwaukee Brewers]], P
| [[Mike Schmidt]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], 3B
|-
| [[1982 in baseball|1982]]
| [[Robin Yount]], [[Milwaukee Brewers]], SS
| [[Dale Murphy]], [[Atlanta Braves]], OF
|-
| [[1983 in baseball|1983]]
| [[Cal Ripken, Jr.]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], SS
| [[Dale Murphy]], [[Atlanta Braves]], OF
|-
| [[1984 in baseball|1984]]
| [[Willie Hernandez]], [[Detroit Tigers]], P
| [[Ryne Sandberg]], [[Chicago Cubs]], 2B
|-
| [[1985 in baseball|1985]]
| [[Don Mattingly]], [[New York Yankees]], 1B
| [[Willie McGee]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], OF
|-
| [[1986 in baseball|1986]]
| [[Roger Clemens]], [[Boston Red Sox]], P
| [[Mike Schmidt]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], 3B
|-
| [[1987 in baseball|1987]]
| [[George Bell (baseball player)|George Bell]], [[Toronto Blue Jays]], OF
| [[Andre Dawson]], [[Chicago Cubs]], OF
|-
| [[1988 in baseball|1988]]
| [[Jose Canseco]]†, [[Oakland Athletics]], OF
| [[Kirk Gibson]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], OF
|-
| [[1989 in baseball|1989]]
| [[Robin Yount]], [[Milwaukee Brewers]], OF
| [[Kevin Mitchell (baseball player)|Kevin Mitchell]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[1990 in baseball|1990]]
| [[Rickey Henderson]], [[Oakland Athletics]], OF
| [[Barry Bonds]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], OF
|-
| [[1991 in baseball|1991]]
| [[Cal Ripken, Jr.]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], SS
| [[Terry Pendleton]], [[Atlanta Braves]], 3B
|-
| [[1992 in baseball|1992]]
| [[Dennis Eckersley]], [[Oakland Athletics]], P
| [[Barry Bonds]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], OF
|-
| [[1993 in baseball|1993]]
| [[Frank Thomas (AL baseball player)|Frank Thomas]]†, [[Chicago White Sox]], 1B
| [[Barry Bonds]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[1994 in baseball|1994]]
| [[Frank Thomas (AL baseball player)|Frank Thomas]], [[Chicago White Sox]], 1B
| [[Jeff Bagwell]]†, [[Houston Astros]], 1B
|-
| [[1995 in baseball|1995]]
| [[Mo Vaughn]], [[Boston Red Sox]], 1B
| [[Barry Larkin]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], SS
|-
| [[1996 in baseball|1996]]
| [[Juan González]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], OF
| [[Ken Caminiti]]†, [[San Diego Padres]], 3B
|-
| [[1997 in baseball|1997]]
| [[Ken Griffey, Jr.]]†, [[Seattle Mariners]], OF
| [[Larry Walker]], [[Colorado Rockies]], OF
|-
| [[1998 in baseball|1998]]
| [[Juan González]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], OF
| [[Sammy Sosa]], [[Chicago Cubs]], OF
|-
| [[1999 in baseball|1999]]
| [[Iván Rodríguez]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], C
| [[Chipper Jones]], [[Atlanta Braves]], 3B
|-
| [[2000 in baseball|2000]]
| [[Jason Giambi]], [[Oakland Athletics]], 1B
| [[Jeff Kent]], [[San Francisco Giants]], 2B
|-
| [[2001 in baseball|2001]]
| [[Ichiro Suzuki]], [[Seattle Mariners]], OF
| [[Barry Bonds]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[2002 in baseball|2002]]
| [[Miguel Tejada]], [[Oakland Athletics]], SS
| [[Barry Bonds]]†, [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[2003 in baseball|2003]]
| [[Alex Rodriguez]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], SS
| [[Barry Bonds]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[2004 in baseball|2004]]
| [[Vladimir Guerrero]], [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim Angels]], OF
| [[Barry Bonds]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[2005 in baseball|2005]]
| [[Alex Rodriguez]], [[New York Yankees]], 3B
| [[Albert Pujols]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 1B
|}
†''Denotes unanimous decision.''
==See also==
[[The Sporting News Most Valuable Player Award]].
[[Category:Baseball awards and trophies|Most Valuable Player]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>MLB Rookie of the Year Award</title>
<id>3859</id>
<revision>
<id>41696336</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:02:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.170.67.92</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* American and National League winners (1949-present) */ fixed alternating colors</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Major League Baseball]], the '''Rookie of the Year Award''' is given to the top [[rookie]] [[baseball]] player in the [[American League|American]] and [[National League|National]] Leagues.
From 1940-1946, the Chicago chapter of the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) selected a rookie of the year. In [[1947]], they invited all members of the BBWAA to vote. Coincidentally, [[1947]] was the year in which [[Jackie Robinson]] endured the toughest rookie year in baseball history. Fittingly, he won the award. Orginally the award was known as the J. Louis Comiskey Memorial Award. In [[1987]], in honor of the 40th year since Jackie Robinson broke the color line, it became known as the Jackie Robinson Award.
The award has come under scrutiny in recent years with the awarding to rookie [[Japan]]ese players with prior experience in Japan. While rookies to Major League Baseball, players like [[Hideo Nomo]], [[Kazuhiro Sasaki]], [[Ichiro Suzuki]], and [[Hideki Matsui]] were already tested professionals before coming to the [[United States]]. Some baseball writers questioned what the definition of ''rookie'' really is. Currently, there is no age restriction or restriction on experience outside of the Major Leagues.
Only two players, both in the American League, have been named Rookie of the Year and [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP]] in the same year&mdash;[[Fred Lynn]] in [[1975]] and [[Ichiro Suzuki]] in [[2001]].
__NOTOC__
==What qualifies as a |
(sponge)
*''[[Ottoia]]'' ([[priapulid]] worm)
*[[Canadapsis]] (arthropod)
*[[Perspicaris]] (arthropod)
*[[Leanchoilia]] (arthropod)
*''[[Hallucigenia]]'' (phylum [[Onychophora]])
*''[[Ctenorhabdotus capulus|Ctenorhabdotus]]'' ([[Ctenophora]])
===Species assigned to a group of extinct taxa===
*[[Haplophrentis]] (phylum [[Hyolitha]])
*''[[Marella]]'' (arthropod)
*[[Olenoides]] (trilobite)
*[[Naraoia]] (trilobite)
===Species of uncertain classification===
*''[[Amiskwia]]''
*''[[Anomalocaris]]''
*''[[Dinomischus]]''
*''[[Nectocaris]]''
*''[[Odontogriphus]]''
*''[[Opabinia]]''
*''[[Wiwaxia]]''
==Further reading==
*Simon Conway Morris, ''The Crucible of Creation: The Burgess Shale and the Rise of Animals'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998 (paperback 1999) ISBN 0198501978 (hbk), ISBN 0192862022 (pbk)
*Richard Fortey, ''Trilobite: Eyewitness to Evolution'', Flamingo, 2001. ISBN 0006551386
*Stephen Jay Gould, ''Wonderful Life: Burgess Shale and the Nature of History'', Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0099273454
==External links and resources==
*[[Body form]]
*[http://www.burgess-shale.bc.ca/ The Burgess Shale Geoscience Foundation] - official web site
*[http://www.washington.edu/burkemuseum/bshale/index.html The Burgess Shale - Evolution's Big Bang] - Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture web pages resourcing an exhibition devoted to the Burgess Shale
*[http://tabla.geo.ucalgary.ca/%7Emacrae/Burgess_Shale Burgess Shale Fossils]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20050217.shtml The Cambrian Explosion] - BBC Radio 4 broadcast, ''In Our Time'', [[17 February]] [[2005]], hosted by Melvyn Bragg (includes links to resource pages)
[[Category:Yoho National Park]]
[[Category:Geography of British Columbia]]
[[Category:Paleontology]]
[[Category:Cambrian]]
[[de:Burgess-Schiefer]]
[[es:Burgess Shale]]
[[fr:Schistes de Burgess]]
[[ja:&#12496;&#12540;&#12472;&#12455;&#12473;&#38913;&#23721;]]
[[nl:Burgess shale]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BBC/Radio 1</title>
<id>3424</id>
<revision>
<id>15901758</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-23T02:44:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed 'see also' from redirect page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[BBC Radio 1]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BBC/Online</title>
<id>3425</id>
<revision>
<id>15901759</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-26T20:29:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aldie</username>
<id>901</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[BBCi]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[BBCi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Björk</title>
<id>3426</id>
<revision>
<id>41836494</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:36:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.105.121.190</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Family Tree/Greatest Hits */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band
| band_name = Björk
| image = [[Image:Bjork Hurricane.jpg|250px]]
| caption =
| years_active = [[1977]]&mdash;present
| origin = [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]]
| music_genre = [[Pop music|Pop]], [[trip-hop]], [[alternative rock]], [[jazz]], [[ambient music]], [[electronica]], [[folk music|folk]]
| record_label = One Little Indian, Elektra
}}
'''Björk Guðmundsdóttir''' {{IPA2|'pjœr̥k 'kvʏðmʏnsto&#650;ht&#618;r}}, (born [[November 21]], [[1965]] in [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]]) is an [[Iceland]]ic [[singer/songwriter]] and [[composer]], (formerly the lead singer with [[The Sugarcubes]]) with a great expressive range and an interest in many kinds of music including [[popular music|popular]], [[trip-hop]], [[alternative rock]], [[jazz]], [[ambient music]], [[electronica]], [[folk music|folk]], and [[European classical music|classical music]].
== Early career ==
Björk's musical career began at the age of eleven, when she began studying classical [[piano]] in elementary school. One of her instructors submitted a recording of Björk singing [[Tina Charles]]' song "I Love to Love" to Radio One, an Iceland radio station. The recording was aired nationally; upon hearing it, a representative of the record label Fálkinn contacted Björk with a record contract offer. With the help of her stepfather, who played guitar, she recorded her eponymous debut in [[1977]]. This album featured several Icelandic children's songs, and covers of popular songs such as [[the Beatles]]' ''[[The Fool on the Hill]]'', sung in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]. It became a smash hit in Iceland, though it was virtually unknown elsewhere.
[[Punk rock|Punk]] music began to have an influence on Björk; at the age of fourteen, she formed the all-girl punk band Spit and Snot, shortly followed by a [[jazz fusion]] group called Exodus in [[1979]]. In 1980, she graduated from music school at the age of fifteen, and in 1981, she and Exodus bassist Jakob Magnússon formed another band, [[Tappi Tíkarrass]] (which means "Cork the Bitch's Ass" in Icelandic), and released an extended single, [[Bítið Fast í Vítið]] in the same year. Their album [[Miranda (Tappi Tíkarrass)|Miranda]] was released in 1983.
Björk next collaborated with [[Einar Örn Benediktsson]] and [[Einar Melax]] from [[Purrkur Pillnikk]], and [[Guðlaugur Óttarsson]], [[Sigtryggur Baldursson]] and [[Birgir Mogensen]] from Þeyr. After writing songs and rehearsing for two weeks, they (under the name [[KUKL]] which means "sorcery" in Icelandic) found they worked well together, and decided to continue, developing a sound that some have described as resembling [[Goth music]]. Björk began to show indications of what would become her trademark singing style, punctuated with howls and shrieks.
KUKL toured Iceland with [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[anarchist]] band [[Crass]], and later visited the UK in a series of performances with [[Flux of Pink Indians]]. The band produced two albums as a result of these collaborations: ''The Eye'' in 1984, and ''Holidays in Europe'' in 1986, both on [[Crass Records]]. In the summer of 1986, several members of KUKL went on to form a band called [[Pukl]] but soon changed the name to The Sugarcubes.
== Popularity ==
<!--[[Image:Björk performing at the Olympics in Athens.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Björk singing during the [[2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony]] in [[Athens]].]]-->
=== The Sugarcubes ===
The [[Sugarcubes]]' first single, "Ammæli" (or "Birthday" in [[English language|English]]), became a huge hit in the [[UK]]. They gained a significant [[cult following]] in the [[United States|US]] and [[UK]], and calls from record companies began coming in. Eventually the band signed with [[One Little Indian]] in the UK and with [[Elektra Records]] in the [[United States]], and recorded their first album, ''[[Life's Too Good]]'', in [[1988 in music|1988]]. The album propelled them into international stardom &mdash; the first Icelandic rock band to achieve such popularity. While with the Sugarcubes, Björk participated in a number of side projects. She recorded ''[[Gling-Gló]]'', a collection of popular jazz and original work, with the [[bebop]] group [[Trio Guðmundar Ingólfssonar]], released in Iceland. Björk also contributed vocals to [[808 State]]'s album ''Ex:El'', a collaboration which cultivated her interest in [[house music]].
=== Solo career / Debut ===
Tensions steadily mounted between Björk and [[Einar Örn]], however, and by [[1992]] the Sugarcubes dissolved. Björk moved to London and began thinking about a solo career; to this end, she began working with producer [[Nellee Hooper]], who had produced for [[Massive Attack]], among others. Their partnership produced Björk's first international solo hit, "Human Behaviour". Her solo debut album, simply entitled ''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]'', was released in June of [[1993 in music|1993]] to positive reviews; it was named album of the year by [[NME]], and eventually went [[platinum album|platinum]] in the United States. ''Debut'' was a mix of songs Björk had written since she was a teenager as well as newer lyrical collaborations with Hooper.
The success of ''Debut'' enabled her to collaborate with other artists on one-off tracks; she worked with [[David Arnold]] on "Play Dead", the theme to the [[1993 in film|1993]] film ''[[The Young Americans]]'' (which appeared as a bonus track on a re-release of ''Debut''), two songs on [[Tricky]]'s ''Nearly God'' project, also appeared on a track on the [[1997]] album ''Not For Threes'' by [[Plaid (band)|Plaid]], which was released on the cult [[Warp Records]] label, and even wrote the song, "[[Bedtime Story]]", for [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]].
=== Post ===
Björk returned to the studio during 1994 to work on her next solo album with Nellee Hooper, [[Tricky]], [[Graham Massey]] of [[808 State]], and electronic music producer [[Howard Bernstein|Howie B]]. The album, ''Post'', contained songs based on Björk's relationships and songs about love (one of her favorite subjects), as well as some angry and confrontational material. Like "Debut," it was a collection partly made up of songs she had written in past years.
{| align="right"
|-
! style="background:#ffdead;"|Music Samples
|-
|[[Media:Crying.ogg|"Crying"]] <small>from [[Debut (album)|Debut]] ([[Image:Crying.ogg|info]])</small>
|-
|[[Media:Isobel.ogg|"Isobel"]] <small>from [[Post (album)|Post]] ([[Image:Isobel.ogg|info]])</small>
|-
|[[Media:Hunter.ogg|"Hunter"]] <small>from [[Homogenic]] ([[Image:Hunter.ogg|info]])</small>
|-
|[[Media:Unison.ogg|"Unison"]] <small>from [[Vesperti |
]'' film. Spielberg told Lucas how he wanted to direct a [[James Bond]] film. Lucas responded that he had something better than that.
Spielberg wanted Indiana to be a James Bond-like figure that got into difficult situations and worked his way out. Upon requests by Spielberg and Lucas the costume designer was given the task to make the character have a distinctive recognizable silhouette through the style of the hat (much like [[Dick Tracy]]). After examining many hats, the designers chose an urban version of the classic [[Australia]]n [[fedora (hat)|fedora]], the [[Akubra]]. The original fedora for the movie trilogy was constructed by Mr. Swales of Herbert Johnson Hatters in [[London]], [[England]]. Although multiple hats were used throughout the movies, the distinctive profile of the fedoras remained the same. Today, the collection of props and clothing from the films, especially the fedora, has become a subculture/hobby for aficianados of the Indiana Jones franchise. Other elements of the outfit include the jacket, the bag, which was a modified [[World War II]] gas mask bag; and the whip.
Indy's revolver is a .38/200 calibre Webley Mk IV, but he is also seen with the .45ACP Colt M1911A1, the 9mm [[Browning Hi-Power]], the Webley Mk VI, and the Smith & Wesson New Century (both in .455 Webley calibre) in the movies, as well as a .45 ACP Smith & Wesson Hand Ejector 2nd model. [http://www.indygear.com/gear/guns.shtml]
[[Tom Selleck]] was the first choice for the role, but couldn't get out of a television series commitment ([[Magnum, P.I.]]), so Lucas went with Harrison Ford, who he had worked with previously on ''[[American Graffiti]]'' and his ''[[Star Wars]]'' films.
Many people have been called the real-life inspiration of the Indiana Jones character. Probably the most cited person is famous [[paleontologist]] [[Roy Chapman Andrews]]. Another person cited as a possible inspiration is the Italian [[archaeologist]] and circus [[strongman (strenth athlete)|strongman]] [[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]] (1778&ndash;1823). Religious archaeologist [[Vendyl Jones|Vendyl "Texas" Jones]] claims that he was the inspiration, citing his names (he notes that his first name trimmed becomes Endy &mdash; very similar to Indy), but this claim has reportedly been denied by Spielberg. Other candidates include explorer [[Gene Savoy]] [http://umanitoba.fitdv.com/new/articles/article.html?artid=383], [[Yale University]] historian and explorer [[Hiram Bingham III]] and [[University of Chicago]] archeologist Robert Braidwood [http://maroon.uchicago.edu/news/articles/2003/01/21/obituary_robert_and_.php]. Another very strong candidate is the famed adventurer and anthropologist Schuyler Jones. [http://www.harrisliterary.com/jones.html] However, the most likely inspiration was the fictional character [[Allan Quatermain]].
The character was originally named Indiana Smith, but Spielberg disliked the name and Lucas casually suggested "Indiana Jones". The name was thus changed early in the production of ''Raiders of the Lost Ark''. The origin of the name "Indiana" is the same in the real world as in the fiction: It was the name of an [[Alaskan malamute]] Lucas had in the 1970s (the same dog was also the inspiration for [[Chewbacca]]). His name is also said to be derived from the character "Nevada Smith," played by [[Steve McQueen]] in the [[1966]] film of the [[Nevada Smith|same name]].
Spielberg also admitted that an important inspiration for the style and atmosphere of the adventures of Indiana Jones were the adventures of the Belgian comic character [[Tintin]] by [[Hergé]].
== Portrayers ==
*[[Corey Carrier]] (Chapters 1-5) (ages 9-11)
*[[River Phoenix]] (Chapter 25) (age 13)
*[[Sean Patrick Flanery]] (Chapters 6-22) (ages 17-21)
*[[Harrison Ford]] (Chapter 20, Chapters 23-26) (ages 36-39, 50)
*[[George Hall (actor)|George Hall]] (Chapters 1-22) (age 93)
== DVD release ==
=== TV films ===
The DVDs for Chapters 1-22 are expected to be released sometime in 2007, according to a statement by series producer, [[Rick McCallum]] of [[Lucasfilm]]. The company has already put in two years of work on creating these DVDs, so as to have bonus features for each movie.
McCallum expects there to be 22 ''Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'' DVDs in all, 3 of which have been completed. The discs will include some 66 historical featurettes, now in production. Work has been ongoing for about 18 months on the ''Young Indy'' DVDs, with about another 18 months worth of work yet to be done. If all goes well, the plan is to tie the DVD release to the theatrical debut of Indy IV.
=== Theatrical films ===
[[Image:IndyDVD's.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The 2003 DVD release of Chapters 23-25.]]
Chapters 23-25 of the Indiana Jones series (''The Temple of Doom'', ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', and ''The Last Crusade'', respectively) were released on DVD as a boxed set of all three films plus a fourth disc of bonus materials in 2003.
'''Features'''
*Available Subtitles (US edition): English, Spanish, French
*Available Audio Tracks (US edition): English (Dolby Digital 5.1), Spanish (Dolby Digital 2.0 Surround), French (Dolby Digital 2.0 Surround)
*Contains all three films in their original format (2.35:1 anamorphic widescreen aspect ratio or in Pan and Scan format), restored and digitally remastered
'''Bonus disc features'''
*A new, feature-length documentary of the making of the trilogy
*From the Lucasfilm Archives:
**''The Stunts of Indiana Jones''
**''The Sound of Indiana Jones''
**''The Music of Indiana Jones''
**''The Light and Magic of Indiana Jones''
*Original trailers
*Weblink to exclusive content including dozens of behind-the-scenes photos, an animatic sequence from Raiders and a PC game preview
== References ==
*"[http://www.indianajones.com/raiders/bts/news/news20030923.html Making ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'']." September 23, 2003. [http://www.indianajones.com/ IndianaJones.com].
== See also ==
*[[Tomb Raider]]/[[Lara Croft]]
*[[Relic Hunter]]
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.indianajones.com/ IndianaJones.com; the official Indiana Jones site]
*[http://www.theraider.net TheRaider.net; the primary fan site of the series]
*[http://indianajones.wikicities.com The Indiana Jones Wiki]
*[http://www.theindyexperience.com The Indy Experience]
*[http://www.indyfan.com/ IndyFan.com a popular Indy fan site]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game_group/sheet/gameGroupId,80/ Moby Games' list of Indiana Jones video games]
*[http://www.indygear.com/ IndyGear.com, a site that details where to procure the Fedora, Jacket, and Bullwhip synonymous with Indiana Jones]
*[news:alt.movies.indiana-jones alt.movies.indiana-jones] ([[Usenet]] newsgroup)
*[http://www.indy-net.co.uk/ Indy-Net.co.uk] - UK-based fan site
*[http://www.seedwiki.com/wiki/chronology_central/indiana_jones.cfm?wpid=183410 Chronology Central's Indiana Jones page] - Site contains a chronological reading/viewing order listing for all of the Indiana Jones films, episodes, novels, comic books and video games in the Indiana Jones continuity.
*[http://www.indyville.net IndyVille] Finnish Indiana Jones fansite
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<page>
<title>Invent</title>
<id>14815</id>
<revision>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Invention]]
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<title>Is interstellar space travel possible</title>
<id>14816</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Interstellar travel]]
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<title>Interstellar space travel</title>
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<title>Irrational number</title>
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<username>Grue</username>
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<comment>/* History */ ''</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''irrational number''' is any [[real number]] that is not a [[rational number]], i.e., one that cannot be written as a ratio of two [[integer]]s, i.e., it is not of the form
:<math>\frac{a}{b}</math>
where ''a'' and ''b'' are integers and ''b'' is not zero. It can readily be shown that the irrational numbers are precisely those numbers whose expansion in any given base (decimal, binary, etc) never ends and never enters a periodic pattern, but no [[mathematician]] takes that to be a ''definition''. [[Almost all]] real numbers are irrational, in a sense which is defined more precisely below.
Som |
proponents of minimalism include William Riker, Adam Przeworksi, and [[Richard Posner]].
A second view is called the aggregative conception of democracy. It holds that government should be a system that produces laws and policies that conform to the vector-sum of citizens’ preferences. A good democratic government is one that produces laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter &mdash; with half to his left and the other half to his right. [[Anthony Downs]] laid out this view in his 1957 book ''An Economic Theory of Democracy''. <ref>[[Anthony Downs]], (1957). ''An Economic Theory of Democracy''. Harpercollins College. ISBN 0060417501.</ref>
A third conception, [[deliberative democracy]], is based on the notion that democracy is government by discussion. Deliberative democrats contend that laws and policies should be based upon reasons that all citizens can accept. The political arena should be one in which leaders and citizens make arguments, listen, and change their minds.
[[Participatory democracy]], a fourth conception, holds that citizens should participate directly, not through their representatives, in making laws and policies. Proponents of participatory democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies.
===Political legitimacy and democratic culture===
All forms of government depend on their [[Legitimacy (political science)|political legitimacy]], that is, their acceptance by the population. Without that, they are little more than a party in a [[civil war]], since their decisions and policies will be resisted, probably by force. Apart from those with anti-statist objections, such as [[anarchism|anarchists]] and [[Libertarianism|libertarians]], most people are prepared to accept their governments as necessary. Failure of political legitimacy in modern states is usually related to [[separatism]] and ethnic or religious conflicts, rather than political differences. However there are historical examples, notably the [[Spanish Civil War]], where the population split along political lines.
In a democracy, a high degree of political legitimacy is necessary, because the [[elections|electoral process]] periodically divides the population into 'winners' and 'losers'. A successful democratic political culture implies that the losing parties and their supporters accept the judgment of the voters, and allow for the peaceful transfer of power - the concept of a "[[loyal opposition]]". Ideally political competitors may disagree, but acknowledge the other side's legitimate role, and ideally society encourages tolerance and civility in public debate. This form of political legitimacy implies that all sides share common fundamental [[values]]. Voters must know that the new government will not introduce policies they find totally abhorrent. Shared values, rather than democracy as such, guarantee this.
Free elections alone are not sufficient for a country to become a true democracy; the culture of the country's political institutions and [[civil service]] must also change. This is an especially difficult cultural shift to achieve in nations where transitions of power have historically taken place through violence. There are various examples, such as [[Revolutionary France]], modern [[Uganda]] and [[Iran]], of countries that were able to sustain democracy only in limited form until wider cultural changes occurred to allow true majority rule.
===Comparison of direct and representative democracy===
The definition of the word "democracy" from the time of ancient Greece up to now has not been constant. In contemporary usage, the term "democracy" refers to a government chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative.
There is another definition of democracy, particularly in constitutional theory and in historical usages and especially when considering the works of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]]. According to this usage, the word "democracy" refers solely to [[direct democracy]], whilst a [[representative democracy]] where representatives of the people govern in accordance with a constitution is referred to as a republic. This older terminology retains some popularity in United States [[Political conservatism|conservative]] and [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian]] debate.
The original framers of the [[United States Constitution]] were notably cognizant of what they perceived as a danger of majority rule in oppressing freedom of the individual. For example, [[James Madison]], in [[Federalist Papers|Federalist Paper No. 10]] advocates a [[republic]] over a democracy precisely to protect the individual from the majority. <ref>James Madison, ([[November 22]], [[1787]]). [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Federalist_No._10 "The Federalist No. 10 - The Utility of the Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection (continued)"], ''Daily Advertiser''. [[New York]]. Republished by [[Wikisource]].</ref> However, at the same time, the framers carefully created democratic institutions and major [[open society]] reforms within the United StatesConstitution and the [[United States Bill of Rights]]. They kept what they believed were the best elements of democracy, but mitigated by a balance of power and a layered federal structure.
Modern definitions of the term "republic", however, refer to any [[state]] with an elective [[head of state]] serving for a limited term, in contrast to most contemporary [[hereditary monarchy|hereditary monarchies]] which are representative democracies and [[constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchies]] adhering to [[parliamentarism]]. Older [[elective monarchy|elective monarchies]] are also not considered to be republics.
==Liberal democracy==
{{main|Liberal democracy}}
In common usage, ''democracy'' is often understood to be the same as ''liberal democracy''. The minimal characteristics of democracy (listed above) are not generally considered to make a democracy 'liberal'. In practice, the term now denotes a collection of defining criteria, some of which are unrelated to each other. They are sometimes presented as a list of demands, to be fulfilled during a [[democratisation]] process. Note that many liberal democracies have emergency powers which can make them temporarily less liberal, if applied (by the executive, parliament, or via referenda).
Liberal democracy is, strictly speaking, a form of [[representative democracy]] where the [[political power]] of the government is moderated by a [[constitution]] which protects the [[right]]s and [[political freedom|freedoms]] of individuals and [[minority|minorities]] (also called constitutional liberalism). The constitution therefore places constraints on the extent to which the [[majoritarianism|will of the majority]] can be exercised. Usually, the executive and parliament are constitutionally subject to the [[rule of law]], but some liberal democracies allow no judicial review of constitutionality. Theorists consider these to be the most important 'liberal' element of liberal democracy, but the term is widely used for other elements. In any case, institutional protection for specific minority rights limits the democratic power of the ''majority'', on those specific issues, and can not in itself resolve a conflict between the two groups. Democracies without protection of minority rights are now often called [[illiberal democracy|illiberal democracies]].
The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of [[liberalism]]. It is merely a reference to the fact that the initial framework for modern liberal democracy was created by liberals of the late [[18th century|18th]] and early [[19th century|19th]] centuries. Since then, many non-liberals have given their support to liberal democracy - and, indeed, contributed to its growth.
Liberal democracy is sometimes the [[de facto]] form of government, while other forms are technically the case; for example, [[Canada]] has a [[Canadian monarchy|monarchy]], but is in fact ruled by a democratically elected [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]]. In the United Kingdom, the sovereign is the hereditary monarch, but the de facto (legislative) sovereign is the people, via their elected representatives in Parliament, hence a democracy.
===Preconditions and structure===
Although they are not a system of government as such, it is now common to include aspects of society among the defining criteria of a liberal democracy. The presence of a [[middle class]], and a broad and flourishing [[civil society]] are often seen as pre-conditions for liberal democracy.
Western support for democratisation is almost always associated with support for a [[market economy]]. In western countries, they do seem inseparable, but that is a geographically and historically limited view. [[China]], which is certainly not a liberal democracy, has a free market economy. The emergence of [[capitalism]] pre-dates the emergence of democracy, which leads some theorists to conclude that there is a historical sequence at work, and that market economics is not only a precondition, but will ultimately ''ensure'' the transition to democracy, in countries such as China. However, many [[Marxism|Marxists]] and [[socialism|socialists]] say that [[capitalism]] and true democracy are at best unrelated and at worst contradictory.
The most [[liberalism|liberal]] of the many criteria now used to define liberal democracy, or simply "democracy", is the requirement for political [[pluralism]], which is usually defined as the presence of multiple and |
can often spend more time there than they would have in prison (had they been convicted). In ''[[Foucha v. Louisiana]]'' ([[1992]]) the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled that a person could not be held "indefinitely".
===Psychosis and schizophrenia===
In practice, a finding of "not guilty by reason of insanity" almost always requires that the defendant have been in a state of active [[psychosis]] (at the time the law was broken) and usually such findings involve a [[diagnosis]] of [[paranoia|paranoid]] [[schizophrenia]]. The use of the insanity defense in cases of [[psychopathy]] is rare and almost uniformly unsuccessful.
===Incompetency, intoxication, and mental illness===
The concept of insanity is different from the concept of incompetency. Incompetency denotes the inability of a defendant to understand the charges against them and to participate in their defense, and relates to the defendant's state of mind at the time of trial. A trial cannot proceed if a defendant has been found incompetent, unless the defendant later becomes competent.
In the [[United States]], a trial in which the insanity defense is invoked typically involves the testimony of [[psychiatrist]]s who will argue that the defendant is or is not insane. If there is agreement between the prosecution and defense that the defendant is insane then typically a jury trial is waived and a trial occurs in front of a judge in which evidence is presented and a judgment rendered. If there is disagreement between the prosecution and defense, each will typically present expert witnesses to a jury which will decide whose witnesses to believe.
The legal concept of insanity is different from the [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] concept of [[mental illness]]. Frequently, a person whose mental illness is not under dispute will be determined sane as the court will argue that despite a "mental illness" the defendant should still be held responsible; such a ruling is known as either a '''Guilty but Mentally Ill''' ('''GBMI''') or a '''Guilty but Insane''' verdict. [[Michigan]] ([[1975]]) was the first state to pass a GBMI verdict. Sometimes a person without mental illness can be found to be insane; for example, a person who is acting under the influence of a drug that was involuntarily administered (though voluntary intoxication has been rejected by most jurisdictions as a defence to crime). (See: [[involuntary intoxication]])
==History of the insanity defense==
The concept of defense by insanity has existed since [[ancient history|ancient]] [[ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[Roman Empire|Rome]]. The first complete transcript of an insanity trial dates [[1724]]. [[Edward II of England|Edward II]], under English Common law, declared that a person was insane if their mental capacity was no more than that of a "Wild Beast". However, in the United States, the pioneer in the insanity defense could be credited to New Hampshire Chief Justice, Charles Cogswell Doe. In ''[[Ford v. Wainwright]]'' ([[1975]]) the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] ruled that insane [[prison]]ers cannot be [[execution (legal)|executed]]. The insanity plea was legalized in the [[United States]] with the [[M'Naghten Rules]], which came as a direct result of the attempted assassination of [[Britain|British]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Robert Peel]] in [[1843]]. The insanity plea can be used if "at the time of the commission of the acts constituting the offense, the defendant as a result of a severe mental disease or defect, was unable to appreciate the nature and quality of the wrongfulness of his acts." The key is that the defendant could not appreciate the nature of his actions ''during'' the commission of the crime, not before or after.
One novel use of the insanity defense occurred in the case of [[Lee Boyd Malvo]] who plead not guilty by reason of insanity in the [[Beltway sniper shootings]]. Many legal experts believe that the purpose of raising the defense was not to gain an acquittal but to allow the defense to introduce otherwise inadmissible evidence about Malvo's upbringing, his relationship with [[John Allen Muhammad]], and his mental state. This evidence was intended to gain the jury's sympathy so that they would not invoke the [[death penalty]], and was successful at doing so.
==Controversy over the insanity defense==
There are many different interpretations of "insane" and many different notions of how to deal with insane individuals.
In the US ([[1982]]), the insanity defense came under increasing criticism following the acquittal of [[John Hinckley, Jr.]], who attempted to assassinate [[Ronald Reagan|President Reagan]]. Critics of the defense argue that it relies too much on opinion and/or "permits" behavior by one group which is forbidden to another. “If you commit a big crime then you are crazy, and the more heinous the crime, the crazier you must be. Therefore you are not responsible, and nothing is your fault”
Some opponents of the insanity defense, including [[Thomas Szasz]], believe that psychiatry itself emerged as a way to justify mercy, of making persons "exceptional" and thus not deserving of the harsh punishment we would as a society wish to dole out to people who had extremely selfish or widely shared rationales for their actions. Since extreme selfishness ("self-absorption") or broadly shared resentments (e.g. envy of the rich, hatred of another ethnic group) are somewhat infectious behaviors, some argue that [[schizophrenia]] and other "mental illness" were defined into existence to protect those whose motives and behaviors were not so infectious, and whose offenses were thus unlikely to be repeated by others. The cost of this system of mercy, however, was to classify the [[psychiatrist]] and [[patient]] in an ongoing [[unequal-power relationship]]. See [[myth of mental illness]] and [[antipsychiatry]]).
In ancient Rome, Latin tribes held various religious beliefs that included considering the insane to be divinely blessed, and therefore beyond the reach of human jurisdiction. It is alleged that insanity as an excuse was introduced in the ancient Roman legal system based upon this tradition. Some modern critics claim that this precedent precludes the insanity defense's validity in a modern secular state like the [[United States]] with a [[Constitutional]] doctrine of [[Separation of church and state]].
The public tends to believe that the insanity defense is used more often than it actually is, possibly because insanity-defense cases tend to be of a high-profile nature. The insanity plea is used in the U.S Criminal Justice System in less than 1% of all [[criminal]] cases, and only one fourth of those defendants are found "not guilty by reason of insanity". 60-70% of all insanity pleas are not in [[murder]] cases.
Some US courts have begun to ban the use of the insanity defense and a [[1994]] [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] ruling upheld the right of [[Montana]] to do so. [[Idaho]] and [[Utah]] have also banned this defense.
==Rules of appreciation==
In this section, various rules applied in [[United States]] jurisdiction with respect to insanity defenses are discussed.
===The M'Naghten Rules===
The ''[[M'Naghten Rules]]'' (1843) 10 C & F 200, state, ''inter alia'', that a person may be "insane" if "...at the time of the committing of the act, the party accused was labouring under such a defect of reason, arising from a disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing, or, if he did know it, that he did not know what he was doing was wrong." These rules are, [[as of 2005]], in force in the majority of [[common law]] jurisdictions.
===The irresistible impulse===
There is also an idea of an [[irresistible impulse]], which argues that a person may have known an act was illegal; but, because of a mental impairment, they couldn't control their actions. In [[1994]], [[Lorena Bobbitt]] was found not guilty of the felony of "malicious wounding" (the equivalent of [[mayhem]]), when her defense argued that an irresistible impulse led her to cut off her husband's penis. In the late nineteenth century some states and federal courts in the United States, dissatisfied with the M'Naghten rule, adopted the irrestible impulse test. This test, which had first been used in Ohio in 1834, emphasized the inablility to control one's actions. A person who committed a crime during an uncontrollable "fit of passion" was considered insane and not guility under this test.
===The Durham rule===
The ''Durham Rule'' or "product test" was set forth by the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]] in [[1954]] and states that "... an accused is not criminally responsible if her unlawful act was the product of mental disease or defect". After the [[1970s]], US jurisdictions have tended to not recognize this argument as it places emphasis on "mental disease or defect" and thus on testimony by psychiatrists and is argued to be somewhat ambiguous.
===The Insanity Defense Reform Act (US)===
The Insanity Defense Reform Act, enacted by Congress in 1984 in response to the verdict in the Hinckley trial, and codified at Title 18, U.S. Code, Section 17, states that a person accused of a crime can be adjudged not guilty by reason of insanity if "the defendant, as a result of a severe mental disease or defect, was unable to appreciate the nature and quality or the wrongfulness of her acts."
===The Substantial Capacity Test===
The [[Substantial Capacity Test]] was defined by the [[American Law Institute]], in its [[Model Penal Code]]. This argues that insanity should be defined as a lack of substantial capacity to control one's behavior. Substantial capacity is defined as: &qu |
:Giosuè Carducci]]
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[[no:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[pl:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[ro:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[ru:Кардуччи, Джозуэ]]
[[sk:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[fi:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[sv:Giosuè Carducci]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glue</title>
<id>13033</id>
<revision>
<id>41106829</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T02:14:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>201.28.111.2</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Historically, '''glue''' only refers to protein colloids prepared from animal tissues. The meaning has been extended to any type of glue-like substances that are used to attach one material to another.
:''See '''[[adhesive]]'''.''
Specific substances to which "glue" may refer include:
* [[Animal glue]]s
* [[Cyanoacrylate]] ("Super Glue", "Crazy Glue")
* [[Polyvinyl acetate]] (PVA) &mdash; white glue and yellow Carpenter's glue (Elmer's glue, Titebond, Lepage)
* [[Epoxy]] resins
* [[Mucilage]]
* [[Casein]] glue
* [[Rubber cement]]
* [[Canada balsam]]
* [[Postage stamp gum]]
* [[Scale model]] glue (sometimes called "airplane glue") - used for building [[polystyrene]] [[model aircraft]], etc.
== Other meanings ==
* ''Glue'' is the title of a novel, see [[Glue (book)|''Glue'' (book)]].
[[Category:Matter]]
[[Category:Soft matter]]
[[Category:Adhesives]]
{{disambig}}
[[pt:cola]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geyser</title>
<id>13034</id>
<revision>
<id>41947327</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:38:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.30.57.202</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''In British English, "geyser" can also refer to the [[water heating]] system.''
[[Image:Clepsydra Geyser at Fountain Paint Pot in Yellowstone-750px.JPG|250px|thumb|right|Clepsydra Geyser in Yellowstone]]
A '''geyser''' is a type of [[hot spring]] that erupts periodically, ejecting a column of hot [[water]] and [[steam]] into the air. The name ''geyser'' comes from ''[[Geysir]]'', the name of an erupting spring at [[Haukadalur]], [[Iceland]]; that name, in turn, comes from the [[Iceland|Icelandic]] verb ''gjósa'', "to gush".
The formation of geysers requires a favourable [[hydrogeology]] which exists in only a few places on Earth, and so they are fairly rare phenomena. About 1000 exist worldwide, with about half of these in [[Yellowstone National Park]], [[USA]] ([[Glennon, J.A.]] 2005). Geyser eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing mineral deposition within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby hot springs, earthquake influences, and human intervention (Bryan, T.S. 1995).
Erupting fountains of liquefied [[nitrogen]] have been observed on [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]]'s moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]. These phenomena are also often referred to as ''geysers''. On Triton, the geysers appear to be driven by solar heating instead of geothermal energy. The [[nitrogen]], liquefied by a kind of [[greenhouse effect]], may erupt to heights of 8&nbsp;km.
==Eruptions==
Geyser activity, like all [[hot spring]] activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by [[magma]]. The [[geothermal (geology)|geothermal]]ly heated water then rises back toward the surface by [[convection]] through porous and fractured rock. Geysers differ from noneruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water.
[[Image:white dome geyser eruption.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Eruption of White Dome Geyser in Yellowstone]]
As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, convective cooling of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a [[pressure cooker]], allowing the water in the reservoir to become [[superheating|superheated]], i.e. to remain [[liquid]] at temperatures well above the [[boiling point]].
Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins; steam bubbles rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water underneath. With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into [[steam]], boiling violently throughout the column. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser.
Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; [[Strokkur]] in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while [[Grand Geyser]] in the [[USA]] erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8-12 hours.
==Types of geyser==
[[Image:Vixen Geyser at Norris Geyser Basin in Yellowstone-750px.JPG|300px|thumb|right|Vixen Geyser in Yellowstone]]
There are two types of geyser; ''Fountain geysers'' erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and ''cone geysers'' which erupt from cones or mounds of siliceous sinter (also known as [[geyserite]]), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. [[Old Faithful Geyser|Old Faithful]], perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser.
The intense transient forces inside erupting geysers are the main reason for their rarity. There are many volcanic areas in the world that have [[hot spring]]s, [[mud pot]]s and [[fumarole]]s, but very few with geysers. This is because in most places, even where other necessary conditions for geyser activity exist, the rock structure is loose, and eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers.
Most geysers form in places where there is volcanic [[rhyolite]] rock which dissolves in hot water and forms [[mineral]] deposits called siliceous sinter, or [[geyserite]], along the inside of the plumbing systems. Over time these deposits cement the rock together tightly, strengthening the channel walls and enabling the geyser to persist.
Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they can 'die'. Many geysers have been destroyed by people throwing litter and debris into them; others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by [[geothermal power]] plants. The [[Geysir|Great Geysir of Iceland]] has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes humanly-induced---often on special occasions---by the addition of [[surfactant]]s to the water. Inducing eruptions at Geysir is no longer done, as the forced eruptions were damaging the geyser's special plumbing system. Following an [[earthquake]] in [[Iceland]] in 2000 the geyser became somewhat more active again. Initially the geyser erupted about eight times a day. As of July 2003, Geysir erupts several times a week.
[[Image:Grand prismatic spring.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Hyperthermophiles produce some of the bright colors of [[Grand Prismatic Spring]], Yellowstone National Park]]
:''Main article: [[Thermophile]], [[Hyperthermophile]].''
The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]]) in the form of [[thermophiles|thermophilic]] [[prokaryote]]s. No known [[eukaryote]] can survive over 60 °C (140 °F).
In the 1960s, when the research of '''biology of geysers''' first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around 73 °C (163 °F) - the upper limit for the survival of [[cyanobacteria]], as the structure of key cellular [[protein]]s and [[DNA|deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around 55 °C (131 °F).
However, the observations proved that it actually is possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria prefer even temperatures higher than boiling point of [[water (molecule)|water]]. Dozens of such bacteria are known nowadays. [[Thermophile]]s prefer temperatures from 50 to 70 °C whilst [[hyperthermophile]]s grow better at temperatures as high as 80 to 110 °C. As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable [[tool]]s, that are important in [[medicine]] and [[biotechnology]], for example in manufacturing [[antibiotic]]s, [[plastic]]s, [[detergent]]s (by the use of heat-stable enzymes [[lipase]]s, [[pullulanase]]s and [[protease]]s), and fermentation products (for example [[ethanol]] is produced). The fact that such bacteria exist also stretches our imagination about life on other [[celestial body|celestial bodies]], both inside and outside of [[solar system]]. Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is ''[[Thermus aquaticus]]''.
==Numbers and distribution==
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:308px;">
{| style="background:none;" cellspacing="0"
|[[image:geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg|150px|]]
|[[image:geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg|150px|]]
|-
|<div class="thumbcaption">1. Steam rises from heated water</div>
|<div class="thumbcaption">2. Pulses of water swell upward</div>
|-
|[[image:geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg|150px|]]
|[[image:geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg|150px|]]
|-
|<div cla |
refuted the statements and demanded more than [[United States dollar|$]]10 million in damages for defamation in two lawsuits. After rumors of Debbie dropping the suit, she and Marshall reached a settlement in [[2001]] for $25,000, with over $23,000 of it going to Debbie's former attorney Fred Gibson by a court order.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1446458/08082001/eminem.jhtml] A request for reconsideration of the settlement by Debbie was denied by a judge.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1444814/06272001/eminem.jhtml] Marshall's resentful reflections on the case can be heard on the song "Marshall Mathers" (''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'', [[2000]]) in the lyrics "my fuckin' bitch mom is suing for 10 million/ she must want a dollar for every pill I've been stealin'" and the self-censored line "your attorney Fred Gibson's a faggot".
With Marshall's rise to stardom, new disputes arose between him and his wife, centered around Kim's dissatisfaction over the graphic fictional account of Marshall murdering her and dumping her body in a lake in the songs "'97 Bonnie & Clyde" (''The Slim Shady LP'', 1999) and "Kim" (''The Marshall Mathers LP'', 2000). The tension between the couple came to a climax when Marshall witnessed Kim kissing another man, one John Guerrera, outside the Hot Rocks Café in Warren on [[June 4]], 2000. Highly disgruntled, Marshall threatened John with an unloaded [[9 mm caliber|9 mm]] [[Semi-automatic firearm|semi-automatic gun]] and proceeded to [[Pistol-whipping|pistol-whip]] him.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1436562/06072000/eminem.jhtml] Guerrera is mentioned in "[[Sing For The Moment]]" on ''The Eminem Show'', with the exact lyric being "you're full of shit too, Guerrera, that was a ''fist'' that hit you!" In addition, it was soon revealed that the previous day, Marshall was involved in a heated dispute in [[Red Oak, Michigan|Red Oak]], [[Michigan]] with Douglas Dail, an associate of the rap group [[Insane Clown Posse]], with whom Marshall had an ongoing [[Hip hop rivalries|rivalry]]. On the ''[[Marshall Mathers LP]]'', on the track "Marshall Mathers," Eminem calls ICP's Shaggy 2 Dope and Violent Jay "Faggot 2 Dope," and "Silent Gay." Furthermore, the Ken Kaniff skit on this album features the character (played by Eminem) being fellated by the ICP pair. During the confrontation, Marshall was observed to be holding a gun, which he kept pointed at the ground.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1436572/06092000/eminem.jhtml] Being taken into police custody during the Hot Rocks Café incident, Marshall was charged with [[misdemeanor|misdemeanor]] charges of brandishing a firearm in public, [[assault]] with a dangerous weapon, and two counts of [[Concealed carry (USA)|concealed]] [[weapon possession]], in two separate trials for the two incidents. After a [[plea bargain]] in the John Guerrera case, which concluded on [[April 10]], 2001, Marshall pleaded guilty to weapon possession in exchange for the assault charges being dropped, receiving two years of [[probation]],[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1442685/04112001/eminem.jhtml] and was ordered to pay $100,000 in damages at the conclusion of the case evaluation in 2002.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1453345/04092002/eminem.jhtml] In the Dail case, he pleaded ''[[nolo contendere]]'' to the charges of firearm possession and brandishing, receiving one year of probation, enforced concurrently with the sentence from the first case.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1444843/06282001/eminem.jhtml] He would later recount the former incident in the song "Soldier" (''The Eminem Show'', 2002) and the preceding [[interlude]] "The Kiss".
While the trials were in the beginning stages, things were only getting worse for Marshall, when on [[July 7]], 2000, Kim attempted suicide in the couple's [[Sterling Heights, Michigan]] home by [[Self-harm|cutting her wrists]]. Marshall talks about this incident from Hailie's point of view in the song "When I'm Gone" from the CD ''Curtain Call: The Hits''.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1436675/07102000/eminem.jhtml] This prompted Marshall to file for [[divorce]] a few months later,[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1436827/08172000/eminem.jhtml] which was promptly countered by Kim with a lawsuit that sought to deny Marshall custody of their daughter and $10 million in defamation damages.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1123331/08222000/eminem.jhtml] Within weeks, however, they settled the lawsuit, and agreed to [[joint custody]] of their daughter, with Kim gaining physical [[Child custody|custody]] of Hailie, granting Marshall "liberal visitation rights".[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1436870/08312000/eminem.jhtml] By the end of the year, the couple reconciled, agreeing to dismiss divorce claims and live together.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1424555/12142000/eminem.jhtml] Marshall mentions [Kim's] suicide attempt and the Hot Rocks Café incident on the [[Xzibit]] song "Don't Approach Me" (''[[Restless (Xzibit album)|Restless]]'', 2000), criticizing the amount of media coverage of the events and the public attention to his life in general.
The reconciliation, however, would not last, as Kim filed for divorce in 2001, which was finalized in October of that year, granting joint physical and legal custody of Hailie to both parties, as well as requiring Marshall to make [[child support]] payments.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1449902/10102001/eminem.jhtml] There was further turbulence in their relationship when Kim was sentenced to 2 years of probation for [[felony]] [[cocaine]] possession in [[2003]]. This was not her first such incident, as she had previously faced similar charges in 2001, although they were eventually dropped.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1473473/07012003/eminem.jhtml] The incident was not to be her last, however, as she was sentenced to 30 days in jail in 2004, after failing a [[drug test]] for cocaine while still on probation.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/3484927.stm] Marshall makes numerous references to Kim's cocaine use on the ''Encore'' album, including the quotes "you're a fucking cokehead slut" and "mama developed a habit" in the songs "Puke" and "Mockingbird" respectively. Their relationship since their divorce was subject to many contradictive rumors and statements in Marshall's music and remained in an indecisive "on-again, off-again" state for a long time.
===The aftermath===
Marshall was no stranger to drugs and alcohol, as suggested by a large number of his songs, including "Drug Ballad" (''The Marshall Mathers LP'', 2000) and "These Drugs" (''[[Devil's Night (album)|Devil's Night]]'' Bonus Disc, 2001), which are dedicated to his drug use in their entirety. The song "I'm Shady" (''The Slim Shady LP'', 1999) even includes the explanatory line "well, I do take pills (''[[ecstasy (drug)|ecstasy]] or prescription drugs''), don't do [[methamphetamine|speed]] / don't do crack, don't do [[cocaine|coke]] / I do smoke weed / don't do [[heroin|smack]] / I do do [[psychedelic mushroom|shrooms]], do drink beer / I just wanna make a few things clear". Later tracks, including the aforementioned "These Drugs" and "Kill You" (''The Marshall Mathers LP'', 2000) additionally suggest cocaine use, although he has never been in a law enforcement incident involving drugs. However, with the sentence of two years of probation taking effect in 2001, during which he was subject to mandatory regular drug testing, his recreational drug use was put to an end. This fact is supported with references to his drug use in his music, which all but disappeared after 2001, and comments by band mate [[Proof (rapper)|Proof]], who states that Marshall "sobered up".[http://www.vh1.com/news/articles/1452709/03012002/eminem.jhtml] However, with rising pressures and workload in his professional career, Marshall found it difficult to get the rest he wanted, and turned to [[Zolpidem|Ambien]] [[Sedative|sleeping pills]] for relief. His use of the drug eventually became so severe, that in [[August 2005]], he cancelled the European leg of his ongoing tour, and checked into a [[drug rehabilitation]] clinic for treatment. <!-- This needs a source-->
The decline of Marshall's drug use during his probation was in line with the growing demands for responsibility in his role as a parent to Hailie. In addition, he is also known to take care of the daughter of Kim's twin sister Dawn, Alaina "Laney", whom he mentions in the song "Mockingbird" (''Encore'', 2004), referring to himself as her "daddy" and stating "it's almost like [Laney and Hailie] are sisters now". He also cares for his younger half-brother Nathan, who makes appearances in the [[music video]]s for "The Way I Am" (''The Marshall Mathers LP'', 2000) and "Without Me" (''The Eminem Show'', 2002). Marshall currently resides with the aforementioned members of his extended family in [[Clinton Charter Township, Michigan|Clinton Charter Township]], [[Michigan]] in the outskirts of [[Detroit]].
=== Remarriage ===
Eminem remarried Kim on [[January 14]], 2006 in Michigan. Eminem's best man was long time friend and [[D12 (hip-hop group)|D12]] member [[Proof (rapper)|Proof]], while Kim's maid of honor was their daughter Hailie. They walked down the aisle to Eminem's song "Mockingbird" which was a tribute to Hailie and his niece Alaina. Guests at the wedding were [[50 Cent]] and his [[G-Unit]] crew, as well as D12. Kim's mother attended the wedding while Eminem's mother did not. <!-- This needs a source-->
==Early career==
Interested in rap from a young age, Mathers began performing as early as thirteen, later gainin |
hat through the course of their evolution, human beings evolved a universal human capacity to classify experiences, and to encode and communicate them [[symbol|symbolically]]. Since human individuals learned and taught these symbolic systems, the systems began to develop independently of biological evolution (in other words, one human being can learn a belief, value, or way of doing something from another, even if the two humans do not share a biological relationship). That this capacity for symbolic thinking and social learning stems from human evolution confounds older arguments about [[nature versus nurture]]. Thus [[Clifford Geertz]] (1973: 33 ff.) has argued that human physiology and neurology developed in conjunction with the first cultural activities, and Middleton (1990: 17 n.27) concluded that human "'instincts' were culturally formed".
People living apart from one another develop unique cultures, but elements of different cultures can easily spread from one group of people to another. Culture changes dynamically and people can (must?) teach and learn culture, making it a potentially rapid form of [[adaptation (biology)|adaptation]] to change in physical conditions. Anthropologists view culture as not only as a product of biological evolution but as a supplement to it, as the main means of human adaptation to the world.
This view of culture as a symbolic system with adaptive functions, and one which varies from place to place, led anthropologists to conceive of different cultures as defined by distinct patterns (or structures) of enduring, arbitrary, conventional sets of [[meaning]], which took concrete form in a variety of artifacts such as [[Mythology|myth]]s and [[ritual]]s, [[tool]]s, the design of housing, and the planning of villages. Anthropologists thus distinguish between '''material culture''' and '''symbolic culture''', not only because each reflects different kinds of human activity, but also because they constitute different kinds of data that require different methodologies. Since at lest the 1980s, many archaeologists ([[Ian Hodder]], for example) have argued that these two types of culture cannot be separated but that much of a societiy's symbolic culture is communicated and expressed through its material culture.
This view of culture, which came to dominate between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], implied that each culture had bounds and demanded interpretation as a whole, on its own terms. There resulted a belief in [[cultural relativism]]; the belief that one had to understand an individual's actions in terms of his or her culture; that one had to understand a specific [[cultural artifact]] (a [[ritual]], for example) in terms of the larger [[symbolic]] system of which it forms a part.
Nevertheless, the belief that culture comprises symbolical codes and can thus pass via teaching from one person to another meant that cultures, although bounded, would change. Cultural change could result from [[invention]] and [[innovation]], but it could also result from contact between two cultures. Under peaceful conditions, contact between two cultures can lead to people "borrowing" (really, learning) from one another ([[diffusion (anthropology)|diffusion]] or [[transculturation]]). Under conditions of violence or political inequality, however, people of one society can "steal" cultural artifacts from another, or impose cultural artifacts on another ([[acculturation]]). [[Diffusion of innovations]] theory presents a research-based model for how, when and why people adopt new ideas.
All human societies have participated in these processes of diffusion, [[transculturation]], and [[acculturation]], and few anthropologists today see cultures as bounded. Modern anthropologists argue that instead of understanding a cultural artifact in terms of its own culture, one needs to understand it in terms of a broader history involving contact and relations with other cultures.
In addition to the aforementioned processes, migration on a major scale has characterized the world, particularly since the days of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]. Phenomena such as [[colonialism|colonial expansion]] and forced migration through [[slavery]] became prominent. As a result, many societies have become culturally heterogeneous. Some anthropologists have argued nevertheless that some unifying cultural system bound heterogeneous societies, and that it offers advantages to understand heterogenous elements as [[subcultures]]. Others have argued that no unifying or coordinating cultural system exists, and that one must understand heterogeneous elements together as forming a [[multicultural]] society. The spread of the doctrine of [[multiculturalism]] has coincided with a resurgence of [[identity politics]], which involve demands for the recognition of social subgroups' cultural uniqueness.
[[Sociobiological theory|Sociobiologists]] argue that observers can best understand many aspects of culture in the light of the concept of the ''[[meme]]'', first introduced by [[Richard Dawkins]] in his 1976 book ''[[The Selfish Gene]]''. Dawkins suggests the existence of units of culture - ''memes'' - roughly analogous to ''genes'' in [[evolutionary biology]]. Although this view has gained some popular currency, anthropologists generally reject it.
===Culture as patterns of products and activities===
In the early 20th century, [[cultural anthropology|anthropologists]] understood culture to refer not to a set of discrete products or activities (whether material or symbolic) but rather to underlying [[pattern]]s of products and activities. Moreover, they assumed that such patterns had clear bounds (thus, some people confuse "culture" with the society that has a particular culture).
Geertz distinguishes between ''culture'' and ''social system'': "&hellip;the former is an ordered system of meanings and symbols in terms of which social interaction takes place; &hellip;the latter&hellip; [is] the pattern of social interaction itself." (Keiser, 1969:viii)
In the case of smaller societies, in which people merely fell into categories of [[ageing|age]], [[gender]], household and descent group, anthropologists believed that people more-or-less shared the same set of values and conventions. In the case of larger societies, in which people undergo further categorization by region, [[race]], [[ethnicity]], and [[social class|class]], anthropologists came to believe that members of the same society often had highly contrasting values and conventions. They thus used the term [[subculture]] to identify the cultures of parts of larger societies. Since subcultures reflect the position of a segment of society ''vis a vis'' other segments and the society as a whole, they often reveal processes of [[domination]] and [[resistance movement|resistance]].
The 20th century also saw the popularization of the idea of [[corporate culture]] - distinct and malleable within the context of an employing [[organization]] or of a [[workplace]].
===Culture as symbols===
The symbolic view of culture, the legacy of Clifford Geertz (1973) and Victor Turner (1967), holds symbols to be both the practices of social actors and the context that gives such practices meaning. Anthony P. Cohen (1985) writes of the "symbolic gloss" which allows social actors to use common symbols to communicate and understand each other while still imbuing these symbols with personal significance and meanings. Symbols provide the limits of cultured thought. Members of a culture rely on these symbols to frame their thoughts and expressions in intelligible terms. In short, symbols make culture possible, reproducible and readable. They are the "webs of significance" in Weber's sense that, to quote Pierre Bourdieu (1977), "give regularity, unity and systematicity to the practices of a group...".
===Culture as stabilizing mechanism===
Modern cultural theory also considers the possibility that (a)
culture itself is a product of stabilization tendencies inherent
in evolutionary pressures toward self-similarity and self-cognition of societies as wholes, or [[tribalism]]s. See
[[Steven Wolfram]] "[[A new kind of science]]" on iterated simple algorithms from genetic unfolding, from which the concept of culture as an operating mechanism can be developed, and [[Richard Dawkins]] "[[The extended phenotype]]" for discussion of genetic and [[memetic]] stability over time, through [[negative feedback]] mechanisms, such as [[Wikipædia]].
==Cultural change==
Cultures, by predisposition, both embrace and resist [[change]] dependence of culture traits. For example, men and women have complementary roles in many cultures. One sex might desire changes that affect the other, as happened in the second half of the 20th century in [[western culture]]s.
Cultural change can come about due to the environment, to inventions (and other internal influences), and to contact with other cultures. For example, the end of the last [[ice age]] helped lead to the invention of [[agriculture]], which in its turn brought about many cultural innovations.
In [[diffusion (anthropology)|diffusion]], the form of something moves from one culture to another, but not its meaning. For example, [[hamburger]]s, mundane in the United States, seemed exotic when introduced into China. "Stimulus diffusion" refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention in another. [[Diffusions of innovations]] theory presents a research-based model for why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products.
"Acculturation" has different meanings, but in this context refers to replacement of the traits of one culture with those of another, such as happened to certain [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes and to many indigenous peoples across the globe during the proc |
Tower under construction in 1976]]
''CN'' is the official acronym of the Canadian National Railway, but following the railway's decision to divest non-core freight railway assets during the lead-up to the company's privatization in [[1995]], the CN Tower was transferred to the [[Canada Lands Company]] (CLC), a federal [[Crown corporation]] responsible for [[real estate]] development. Since the citizens of Toronto wished to retain the name ''CN Tower'', the acronym ''CN'' now officially stands for ''Canada's National'' rather than the original ''Canadian National''.
[[Image:CNTowerLookingStraightUp.JPG|thumb|180px|left|CN Tower, looking directly up from ground level]]
From [[1997]] to [[January 2004]], [[TrizecHahn Corporation]] managed the building and instituted several expansion projects including a $26 million entertainment expansion and revitalization that included the addition of two new elevators (to a total of six) and the relocation of the staircase from the cityside (north side) shaft to inside the core of the building.
At 342 m (1,122 feet) is the [[glass floor|Glass Floor]] and Outdoor Observation Deck, the Glass Floor is 23.8 square meters (256 square ft.) and can withstand the weight of 4,137 kPa (600 pounds per square inch) or 14 large [[hippopotami]].
At 346 m (1,136 feet) is the Horizons Cafe and the Indoor Observation Deck, and at 351 m (1,150 feet) is the 360 Restaurant, which rotates once every 72 minutes. The restaurant has a minimum purchase requirement and a vast wine selection.
[[Image:Toronto-Canada-skyline-night.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Toronto Skyline at night]]
The Space Deck, a small enclosed platform elevated high above the main observation floor, is located at 447 m (1,465 feet), and is the highest public observation deck in the world. From its top, it's possible on a clear day to see approximately 100-120km away and even see an outline of the city of [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]] across [[Lake Ontario]] in the [[United States]].
==Size comparisons==
In [[1995]], the CN Tower was declared one of the modern [[Seven Wonders of the World#Modern Wonders|Seven Wonders of the World]] by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]. It also belongs to the [[World Federation of Great Towers]]. The following year, the [[Guinness Book of World Records]] officially changed the CN Tower's classification to "World's Tallest Building and Free-Standing Structure" and it retains that title to this day.
There are also many guyed towers taller than the CN Tower, the current tallest being the [[KVLY-TV mast|KVLY-TV tower]] in [[North Dakota]] at 628 m (2,063 feet) tall (see [[List of masts]]), but these are guy-wire supported structures and not classified as free-standing. The [[Petronius Compliant Tower]] (an [[oil platform]]) at 645 m (2,116 feet), is a taller free-standing structure, however all but its top is under water. If built, a 1,000 m tower for a solarthermic power station in Australia will break the record. The [[Burj Dubai]], slated for completion in [[2008]], would according to present claims by its developers, also become a taller free-standing land structure than CN Tower. See [[World's tallest structures]] for further analysis of the tallest man-made structures.
The builders of the CN Tower did not expect that it would hold the tallest structure record for twenty-nine years. Previous record holders had quickly been supplanted. Several rivals have been proposed and most schemes collapsed. In part this is because of the development of cable television soon after the tower was built which greatly reduced the need for such broadcasting centres, especially in urban areas. Only in cities are there enough tourists to make such a tower viable as a tourist attraction.
==Trivia==
*The CN Tower is 20 meters taller than [[Moscow]]'s [[Ostankino Tower]].
*The CN Tower is struck by lightning over 76 times a year.
*The CN Tower has a wind tolerance level of 420km/h (260 mph).
*The elevators go at over 22km/h (15 mph) taking 58 seconds and 61 seconds to reach the Lookout (indoor observation deck) and 360 restaurant levels respectively.
*The CN Tower is almost twice as tall as the [[Eiffel Tower]].
*It is the tallest member of the [[World Federation of Great Towers]].
*The Glass Floor can withstand a weight of 600lbs per sq inch (109 kg per sq cm) or the equivalent to 14 adult [[hippopotami]].
*In winds of 120mph the tower sways 1.07 m (3 1/2 ft) from centre at the Antenna, 0.46 m (1 1/2 ft) from centre at the SkyPod, and 22.9 cm (9 inches) from centre at the Main Pod.
*A [[Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation|Sikorsky]] [[Sikorsky Skycrane|skycrane]] [[helicopter]] nicknamed 'Olga' was used to lower the communications antenna into place on the tower.
*The CN Tower is able to withstand an earthquake of 8.5 on the Richter Scale.
*In 1979, Norman Alexander and Joe Squire hauled a 440 lb. piano up the stairs in 7 1/2 hours.
*On [[July 23]], [[1999]] [[Ashrita Furman]] became the fastest person to go up the CN Tower using a [[Pogo stick]].
*In 2001, a group of [[environmentalist]]s illegally scaled the tower to place a banner protesting the policies of [[United States]] [[President of the United States of America|President]] [[George W. Bush]] on the tower.
*The tower is the only [[landmark]] from Canada that appears in the [[City-building game|city-building]]/[[simulation]] [[computer game]]s ''[[SimCity 3000]]'' and ''[[SimCity 4]]''.
*The amount of cement used in the CN Tower is enough to build a sidewalk from Toronto to [[Kingston, Ontario|Kingston]] (about 250 km away)
==See also==
* [[List of towers]]
* [[List of masts]]
* [[List of skyscrapers]]
* [[Tallest structures in Canada]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cntower.ca/ Official site of the CN tower]
* [http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=49675 Guinness entry for the CN Tower]
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~hnetten/tallest.html What is the tallest building in the world?]
* [http://maps.google.ca/maps?ll=43.641987,-79.387110&spn=0.005891,0.005789&t=k&hl=en Google Satellite Image]
* [http://www.googleearthhacks.com/dlfile567/CN-Tower---Toronto,-Canada.htm Google Earth placemark file for the CN tower]
{{Toronto landmarks}}
{{Supertall}}
[[Category:Towers in Canada]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Toronto]]
[[de:CN Tower]]
[[es:Torre CN]]
[[Fa:برج ملی کانادا]]
[[fi:CN Tower]]
[[fr:Tour CN]]
[[io:Turmo nacionala di Kanada]]
[[he:מגדל סי אן]]
[[nl:CN Tower]]
[[ja:CNタワー]]
[[pl:CN Tower]]
[[pt:Torre CN]]
[[sv:CN Tower]]
[[vi:Tháp CN]]
[[ta:சி.என் கோபுரம்]]
[[zh:加拿大国家电视塔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chain rule</title>
<id>6113</id>
<revision>
<id>40252078</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T06:29:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.78.228.114</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Higher derivatives */ added fourth derivative</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Calculus}}
In [[calculus]], the '''chain rule''' is a [[formula]] for the [[derivative]] of the composition of two [[function (mathematics)|function]]s.
In intuitive terms, if a [[variable]], ''y'', depends on a second variable, ''u'', which in turn depends on a third variable, ''x''; then, the rate of [[change]] of ''y'' with respect to ''x'' can be [[computation|computed]] as the [[product (mathematics)|product]] of the rate of change of ''y'' with respect to ''u'' [[multiplication|multiplied by]] the rate of change of ''u'' with respect to ''x''.
Suppose, for example, that one is climbing a mountain at a rate of 0.5 [[kilometre per hour|kilometres per hour]]. The [[temperature]] is lower at higher elevations; suppose the rate by which it decreases is 6 °F per kilometre. If one multiplies 6 °F per kilometre by 0.5 kilometre per hour, one obtains 3 °F per hour. This calculation is a typical chain rule application.
In [[algebra|algebraic]] terms, the '''chain rule''' (of one variable) states that if the function ''f'' is [[differentiable]] at ''g''(''x'') and the function ''g'' is differentiable at ''x'', that is we have <math>f \circ g = f(g(x))</math>. Then
:<math>
\frac {df} {dx} = \frac {d} {dx} f(g(x)) = f'(g(x)) g'(x).
</math>
Alternatively, in [[Leibniz notation]], the chain rule can be expressed as:
:<math>
\frac {df}{dx} = \frac {df} {dg} \frac {dg}{dx}
</math>
where <math>\frac {df} {dg}</math> indicates ''f'' depends on ''g'' as if it were a variable.
In [[Integral|integration]], the counterpart to the chain rule is the [[substitution rule]].
==The general power rule==
The [[Calculus with polynomials|general power rule]] (GPR) is derivable, via the Chain Rule.
===Example I===
Consider <math>f(x) = (x^2 + 1)^3</math>. <math>f(x)</math> is comparable to <math>h(g(x))</math> where <math>g(x) = x^2 + 1</math> and <math>h(x) = x^3</math>; thus,
:{|
|-
|<math>f'(x) </math>
|<math>= 3(x^2 + 1)^2(2x) </math>
|-
|
|<math>= 6x(x^2 + 1)^2.</math>
|}
===Example II===
In order to differentiate the [[trigonometric functions|trigonometric]] function
:<math>f(x) = \sin(x^2),</math>
one can write <math>f(x) = h(g(x))</math> with <math>h(x) = \sin x</math> and <math>g(x) = x^2</math>. The chain rule then yields
:<math>f'(x) = 2x \cos(x^2)</math>
since <math>h'(g(x)) = \cos (x^2)</math> and <math>g'(x) = 2x</math>.
== Chain rule for several variables ==
The chain rule works for functions of several variables as well. For example, if we have a function <math>f(u(x, y), v(x, y))</math> where
:<math>u(x, y) = 3x + y^2</math> and <math>v(x, y) = \sin(xy)</math>, and if <math>f=u+v</math>,
then
:<math>{\partial f \over \partial x}={\partial f \over \partial u}{\partial u \over \par |
mall>1</small></sup> [[#Whitlock|Whitlock]] [http://www.nuclearfaq.ca/cnf_sectionA.htm#candu_control A. CANDU Nuclear Power Technology A.12 How are CANDU reactors controlled?] ''Shutdown System 2 (SDS 2), in most CANDU designs, works by high-pressure injection of a liquid poison (gadolinium nitrate) into the low-pressure moderator.''
*<sup><small>2</small></sup> [[#Whitlock|Whitlock]] [http://www.nuclearfaq.ca/cnf_sectionA.htm#e A. CANDU Nuclear Power Technology A.3 What is "heavy water"?] ''"reactor-grade" heavy water, nominally 99.75 wt% deuterium content.''
*<sup><small>3</small></sup> [[#CCNR|CCNR]]
==References==
*<div id="Whitlock">Whitlock:{{cite web|
url=http://www.nuclearfaq.ca|title=Canadian Nuclear FAQ|
work=The Canadian Nuclear FAQ by Dr. Jeremy Whitlock|accessdate=March 5|accessyear=2005}}
</div>
*<div id="CCNR">CCNR: {{cite web|
url=http://www.ccnr.org/aecl_mox_plans.html|
title=Using Weapons-Derived Plutonium Fuel in CANDU Reactors|
work=Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility|accessdate=March 5|accessyear=2005}}
</div>
==See also==
*[[Nuclear power in Canada]]
*[[List of nuclear reactors]]
==External links==
*[http://www.candu.org/ CANDU Owner's Group]
*[http://www.candu.org/candu_reactors.html A history of the CANDU reactor]
*[http://cantech.candu.org/ CanTeach - Educational and Reference Library on Candu Technology]
*[http://www.opg.com/default2.asp Ontario Power Generation]
*[http://www.brucepower.com/ Bruce Power]
*[http://www.nbpower.com/en/ New Brunswick Power]
*[http://www.hydroquebec.com/ Hydro Quebec]
*[http://www.aecl.ca/ Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]
*[http://www.nuclearsafety.gc.ca/ Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission]
*[http://www.cns-snc.ca/ Canadian Nuclear Society]
*[http://www.cna.ca/ Canadian Nuclear Association]
*[http://www.nuclearfaq.ca Canadian Nuclear FAQ]
[[Category:Nuclear power reactor types]]
[[Category:Science and technology in Canada]]
[[de:CANDU-Reaktor]]
[[fr:Réacteur CANDU]]
[[hu:CANDU]]
[[ja:CANDU炉]]
[[ro:CANDU]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Czar Nicholas II</title>
<id>7476</id>
<revision>
<id>15905541</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-08T18:13:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing the redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nicholas II of Russia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cuitláhuac</title>
<id>7477</id>
<revision>
<id>36641575</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T13:59:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Valentinian</username>
<id>256198</id>
</contributor>
<comment>stub</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cuitláhuac''' was the [[Aztec]] ruler ([[Tlatoani]]) of the city of [[Tenochtitlán]] from June to October [[1520]].
He succeeded his brother [[Moctezuma II]], who was, at the time, being held prisoner by [[Hernán Cortés]]' [[Spain|Spanish]] ''[[conquistador]]s''. He oversaw the major Aztec victory of [[1 July]], [[1520]], called by the Spaniards ''[[Battle_of_Tenochtitlan#Battle_Of_Tacuba|La Noche Triste]]'' ("Night of Sorrow"), in which 400 conquistadors and thousands of their [[mesoamerican]] allies were killed.
Cuitláhuac died of [[smallpox]] during the [[siege of Tenochtitlan]] (October 1520) and was succeeded on the throne by his nephew [[Cuauhtémoc]].
[[Cuitláhuac, Veracruz]], is a municipality named for the Aztec ruler. Modern-day [[Mexico City]]'s [[Mexico City metro|metro system]] also has a [[Metro Cuitláhuac|Cuitláhuac station]] named in his honour.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
title=[[Hueyi Tlatoani|Tlatoani of Tenochtitlán]]|
years=1520|
before=[[Moctezuma II]]|
after=[[Cuauhtémoc]]}}
{{end box}}
{{mexico-bio-stub}}
{{pre-Columbian-stub}}
{{royal-stub}}
[[Category:Aztec history]]
[[Category:1520 deaths]]
[[Category:Mexican emperors]]
[[de:Cuitláuac]]
[[fr:Cuitláhuac]]
[[es:Cuitláhuac]]
[[ja:クィトラワク]]
[[nl:Cuitlahuac]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cuauhtémoc</title>
<id>7478</id>
<revision>
<id>41634669</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:01:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rune.welsh</username>
<id>240649</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv, the date is legitimate</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cuahtemoc.jpg|thumb|250px|Cuauhtémoc tortured by [[Hernán Cortéz]]]]
:''This article is about the Aztec Emperor named Cuauhtémoc. For the [[Mexican Navy|Mexican Naval]] training ship or the [[brewery]] of the same name, please see [[Cuauhtémoc (ship)]] or [[Cervecería Cuauhtémoc]].''
'''Cuauhtémoc''' (c. [[1502]]&ndash;[[February 28]], [[1525]]) (also '''Cuauhtemotzin''' or '''Guatimozin'''; also written Cuauhtemoc without the diacritical mark) was the last [[Aztec]] ruler ([[Tlatoani]]) of [[Tenochtitlán]] and the last "Aztec Emperor". The name means "descending eagle", from [[Nahuatl]] ''cuauhtli'' (eagle) and ''temoc'' (descent); by extension it can be interpreted as "setting sun".
Cuauhtémoc took power in [[1520]] as successor of [[Cuaitláhuac]] and was a nephew of the emperor [[Moctezuma II]], and his young wife was one of Moctezuma's daughters. He ascended to the throne as his city was being besieged by the Spanish and devastated by an epidemic of [[smallpox]]. He was about 18 years of age at the time. Probably after the [[The Massacre in the Main Temple, Tenochtitlán|killings in the main temple]], there were few Aztec captains available to take the position.
On [[August 13]], [[1521]], Cuauhtémoc went to call for reinforcements from the countryside to aid the falling Tenochtitlán, after eighty days straight of urban warfare against the Spanish. Of all the Nahuas, only Tlatelolcas remained loyal, and the surviving Tenochcas looked for refuge in [[Tlatelolco]] where even women took part in the battle. Cuauhtémoc was captured while crossing [[Lake Texcoco]] in disguise. He surrendered to [[Hernán Cortés]] along with the surviving ''pillis'' (nobles), and offered him his knife and asked to be killed.
Cuauhtémoc was tortured by having his feet put to a fire, along with Tetlepanquetzal, the Tlatoani of Tacuba and the ''Cihuacóatl'' (counselor) Tlacotzin, but even so they refused to divulge information about the treasures the Spanish coveted. Cortés took him on his trip to [[Honduras]], perhaps because he feared Cuauhtémoc could lead an insurrection. Some Indian chronicles record that Cuauhtémoc had tried to warn other towns of the intentions of the conquerors along the way to Honduras, but he was denounced because they were also afraid of the Aztecs. [[Bernal Díaz del Castillo]] described a more elaborate version of a conspiracy. Cortés eventually ordered Cuauhtémoc hanged on [[28 February]] [[1525]] along with Teltepanquetzaltzin. Tlacotzin became a puppet tlatoani under the Spanish, but eventually he also was executed.
The modern-day [[Mexico|Mexican]] town of [[Ixcateopan]] in [[Guerrero]] state is home to an [[ossuary]] purportedly containing Cuauhtémoc's remains.
Many places in Mexico are named in honour of Cuauhtémoc. These include [[Ciudad Cuauhtémoc]] in [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] and the [[Cuauhtémoc, D.F.|Cuauhtémoc]] borough of the [[Mexican Federal District]]. There is also a [[Metro Cuauhtémoc|Cuauhtémoc station]] on the [[Mexico City metro]] and the Monterrey [[Metrorrey]]. Cuauhtémoc is also a popular [[given name]] for Mexican boys, one of the few non-Spanish given names to be so.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
title=[[Hueyi Tlatoani|Tlatoani of Tenochtitlán]]|
years=1520&ndash;1521|
before=[[Cuitláhuac]]|
after=[[Diego Velázquez Tlacotzin]]'''<br />''puppet under Spanish rule'''&nbsp;}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1502 births]]
[[Category:1525 deaths]]
[[Category:Aztec history]]
[[Category:Executed royalty members]]
[[Category:Mexican emperors]]
[[da:Cuauhtémoc]]
[[de:Cuáutemoc]]
[[es:Cuauhtémoc]]
[[fr:Cuáutemoc]]
[[it:Cuauhtémoc]]
[[ja:クアウテモック]]
[[nl:Cuauhtemoc]]
[[pl:Cuauhtemoc]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Comic book collecting</title>
<id>7479</id>
<revision>
<id>41708537</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T05:14:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Clawson</username>
<id>100822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Comic book collecting''' is the result of an interest in antiquity, and [[nostalgia]], as is all [[collecting]] by its very nature. The [[comic book]] was brought into the [[pop culture]] arena by, most notably, [[Superman]] and [[Batman]]. Since the introduction of Superman there has been a surge in comic characters, books and companies entering into the industry. The industry is dominated by top competitors [[Marvel Comics]] (producers of [[Spider-Man]], [[X-Men]], [[Daredevil]], [[Fantastic Four]], [[Avengers (comics)|The Avengers]], and the [[Hulk (comics)|Hulk]]) and [[DC Comics|DC Comics]] (producers of Superman, [[Green Lantern]], [[Wonder Woman]], [[The Flash]] and ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|The Sandman]]'').
Comic book collecting is like all other collecting; while most collectors do so for personal interest in the enormous capabilities of the medium and the vast casts of characters, a few also collect exclusively for profit. Partly to cater for this market, but also in response to the collectors&#8217; drive to protect and preserve their collections (such as for insurance purposes), [[price guide]]s began to be published, notably [[Overstreet]] and The [[Comics Buyer's Guide]], which further developed the sense of a comics value by assigning a grading to the comics |
amp;nbsp;- [[2005]] est.<br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|[[List of countries by population|Ranked 210th]] <br> 56,375 <br>0.025/km²
|-
|'''Political Status''' || Autonomous province of the Kingdom of Denmark. Home rule was established in [[1979]].
|-
|'''[[Currency]]''' || [[Danish krone]]
|-
|'''[[GDP]]''''''PPP''' || $ 1.1 Billion ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|190]])
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] 0 to -4
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Nunarput utoqqarsuanngoravit]]<br>[[Nuna asiilasooq]]
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.gl]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling code]]''' || 299
|-
| colspan=2 align=right style="padding: 0 5px 0 5px" |
|}
:''For the town in [[New Hampshire]], see [[Greenland, New Hampshire]].''
'''Greenland''' ([[Kalaallisut language|Greenlandic]]: ''Kalaallit Nunaat'', meaning "Land of the Greenlanders"; [[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Grønland'', meaning "Greenland") is a self-governed [[Denmark|Danish]] territory. An [[Arctic]] [[island nation]] located in the [[continent]] of [[North America]], both [[physical geography|geographically]] and [[ethnicity|ethnically]]; politically and historically, however, Greenland is closely associated with [[Europe]]. The [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Iceland]] lie to Greenland's Southeast; the [[Greenland Sea]] to the East; the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the North; [[Baffin Bay]] and [[Canada]] to the West. Greenland is the [[List of islands by size|world's largest]] [[island]], and is the [[List of countries by area|largest]] [[dependent territory]] by area in the world. It also contains the world's largest [[national park]]. About 81 percent of its surface is covered by [[ice]], known as the Greenlandic ice cap. Nearly all Greenlanders live along the [[fjords]] in the south-west of the island, which has a milder climate. Most Greenlanders have both [[Kalaallit]] ([[Inuit]]) and [[Scandinavian]] ancestry, and speak [[Kalaallisut language|Greenlandic]] (Kalaallisut) as their first language. Greenlandic is spoken by about 50,000 people, which is more than all the other [[Eskimo-Aleut languages]] combined. A minority of [[Dane|Danish]] migrants with no Inuit ancestry speak [[Danish language|Danish]] as their first language. Both languages are official, with the West Greenlandic dialect forming the basis of the official form of Greenlandic.
There is an on-going diplomatic [[sovereignty]] dispute between [[Canada]] and Greenland (represented internationally by [[Denmark]]) over the tiny [[Hans Island]].
Greenland was one of the [[Norway|Norwegian]] Crown colonies until [[1814]], when it formally became a [[Denmark|Danish]] colony, although Norway and Denmark had been in a [[personal union]] for centuries (see [[Denmark-Norway]]). Greenland became an integral part of the Kingdom of Denmark in [[1953]]. It was granted [[devolution|home rule]] (''hjemmestyre'') by the [[Folketing]] (Danish parliament) on [[May 1]] [[1979]]. The law went into effect the following year. The [[Queen of Denmark]], [[Margrethe II of Denmark|Margrethe II]], remains Greenland's [[Head of state]].
== History ==
{{main|History of Greenland}}
Greenland was home to a number of [[Dorset (culture)|Paleo-Eskimo]] cultures in [[prehistory]], the latest of which - the [[Dorset (culture)|Early Dorset]] culture - disappeared around the year [[200]]. Hereafter, the island seems to have been without humans for some eight centuries.
[[Iceland|Icelandic]] settlers found the land uninhabited when they arrived ca. [[982]]. They established three settlements near the very Southwestern tip of the island, where they thrived for the next few centuries, disappearing after over 450 years of habitation.
The name Greenland comes from those [[Scandinavia]]n settlers. In the [[Norse saga]]s, it is said that [[Erik the Red|Eiríkur Rauði]] (Erik the Red) was exiled from [[Iceland]] for murder. He, along with his extended family and [[thrall|slaves]], set out in [[ship]]s to find the land that was rumored to be to the northwest. After settling there, he named the land ''Grænland'' ("Greenland") in order to attract more people to settle there. The [[fjords]] of the Southern part of the island were lush and had a warmer climate at that time, possibly due to what was called the [[Medieval Warm Period]]. These remote communities thrived and lived off farming, hunting and trading with the motherland, and when the Scandinavian monarchs converted their domains to [[Christianity]], a bishop was installed in Greenland as well. The settlements seem to have coexisted relatively peacefully with the [[Inuit]], who had migrated southwards from the Arctic islands of North America around [[1200]]. In [[1261]], Greenland became part of the Kingdom of Norway. Norway in turn entered into the [[Kalmar Union]] in 1397 and later of the [[personal union]] of [[Denmark-Norway]].
After almost five hundred years, the settlements simply vanished, possibly due to famine during the [[15th century]] in the [[Little Ice Age]], when climatic conditions deteriorated, and contact with Europe was lost. Bones from this late period were found to be in a condition consistent with malnutrition. Some believe the settlers were wiped out by [[Bubonic plague|plague]] or exterminated by Inuits. Other historians have speculated that [[Basque]] or [[English people|English]] [[pirate]]s or [[Slave_trade#Slavery_in_North_Africa|slave traders]] from the [[Barbary Coast]] contributed to the extinction of the Greenlandic communities.
[[Denmark-Norway]] reasserted its latent claim to the colony in 1721. The island's ties with [[Norway]] were severed by the [[Treaty of Kiel]] of [[1814]], through which [[Sweden]] gained control over mainland Norway while Denmark retained all of their common overseas possessions (which at that time included small territories in [[India]], [[West Africa]] and the [[West Indies]], as well as lands in northwestern [[Europe]]).
[[Norway]] occupied and claimed parts of (then uninhabited) Eastern Greenland in the [[1920s]], claiming that it constituted [[Terra nullius]]. Norway and Denmark agreed to settle the matter at the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]] in [[1933]], where Norway lost.
Greenland was also called Gruntland ("Ground-land") on early maps. Whether Green is an erroneous transcription of Grunt ("Ground"), which refers to shallow bays, or vice versa, is not known.
During World War II, Greenland was on its own, the connection to Denmark having been cut on [[April 9]], [[1940]] when Denmark was occupied by [[Germany]]. Through the [[cryolite]] from the mine in [[Ivigtut]], Greenland was able to pay for goods bought in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. The manner in which Greenland had been run prior to the war was altered.
The [[Sirius Patrol]], guarding the Northeastern shores of Greenland using [[dog sled]]s, was founded in 1941 and participated in defeating the Germans, which gave Denmark a better position in the postwar turmoil. In 1953 Greenland was made an equal part of the Danish Kingdom. In 1979 Greenland took one step further when home rule was granted.
During the War [[Eske Brun]] was governor and ruled the Island via a 1925-law concerning the governing of the Island where, under extreme circumstances, the governors could take control. The other governor Aksel Svane was transferred to the [[USA]] as leader of the supply to Greenland commission.
== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Greenland}}
Greenland's [[Head of State]] is the [[List of Danish monarchs|Danish Monarch]], currently [[Margrethe II]]. The Queen's government in Denmark appoints a ''Rigsombudsmand'' ([[High commissioner]]) representing the Danish government and monarchy.
Greenland has a 31 member elected [[parliament]]. The [[head of government]] is the [[Prime Minister of Greenland|Prime Minister]], who is usually the leader of the majority party in Parliament.
It is notable that Greenland is not part of the [[European Union]] (having left the predecessor of EU - European Community in 1985), despite Denmark itself being a member state.
== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Greenland}}
[[Image:Greenland eastcoast.jpg|thumb|left|South-east coast of Greenland]]
[[Image:Greenland big.png|thumb|Map of Greenland]]
The total area of Greenland measures 2 099 988 km², of which the [[Greenland ice sheet]] covers 1 799 992 km² (85,7%). The coastline of Greenland is 24,430 miles long (39,330 km), about the same length as the Earth's circumference at the [[Equator]].
All [[List of towns in Greenland|towns and settlements of Greenland]] are situated along the ice-free coast, with the population being concentrated along the Western coast. Of the 18 municipalities, 15 are in [[West Greenland]] ([[Aasiaat]], [[Ilulissat]], [[Kangaatsiaq]], [[Qasigiannguit]], [[Qeqertarsuaq]], [[Upernavik]], [[Uummannaq]] in the northern part, [[Maniitsoq]], [[Nuuk]], [[Paamiut]], [[Sisimiut]] in the central part, and [[Ivittuut]], [[Nanortalik]], [[Narsaq]], [[Qaqortoq]] in the southern part), 2 in East Greenland ([[Ammassalik]], [[Ittoqqortoormiit]]) and 1 in North Greenland ([[Qaanaaq]]). Northeastern Greenland, part of North and East Greenland, is not part of any municipality, but is the site of the world's largest national park, [[Northeast Greenland National Park]]. ''See [[Subdivisions of Greenland]].''
At least four scientific expedition stations and camps had been established in the ice-covered central part of Greenland (indicated as pale blue in the map to the right), on the ice sheet: [[Eismitte]], [[North Ice]], North GRIP Camp and The Raven Skiway. Currently, there is a year-round station, [[Summit Camp]], on the [[ice sheet]], established in 1989. The radio station [[Jørgen Brøndlund Fjord]] was, until 1950, the northernmost permanent outpost of the world.
The extreme north of Greenlan |
ncreasing centralisation is counter-balanced by two points.
First, some member states have a domestic tradition of strong regional government. This has led to an increased focus on regional policy and the [[Region (EU)|European regions]]. A [[Committee of the Regions]] was established as part of the [[Treaty of Maastricht]].
Second, EU policy areas cover a number of different forms of co-operation.
*Autonomous decision making: member states have granted the [[European Commission]] power to issue decisions in certain areas such as [[EU competition law|competition law]], [[State Aid]] control and [[EU liberalisation|liberalisation]].
*Harmonisation: member state laws are harmonised through the [[European Union legislative procedure|EU legislative process]], which involves the [[European Commission]], [[European Parliament]] and [[Council of the European Union]]. As a result of this [[European Union Law]] is increasingly present in the systems of the member states.
*Co-operation: member states, meeting as the [[Council of the European Union]] agree to co-operate and co-ordinate their domestic policies.
The tension between EU and national (or sub-national) competence is an enduring one in the development of the European Union. ''(See also [[European Union#Intergovernmentalism and supranationalism|Intergovernmentalism ''vs.'' supranationalism]] (above), [[Eurosceptic|Euroscepticism]].)''
All prospective members must enact legislation in order to bring them into line with the common European legal framework, known as the ''[[Acquis|Acquis Communautaire]]''. (See also [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA), [[European Economic Area]] (EEA) and [[Single European Sky]].)
<small>See [[International Organizations in Europe|table of states]] participating in some of the initiatives.</small>
===Single market===
Many of the policies of the EU relate in one way or another to the development and maintenance of an effective [[single market]]. Significant efforts have been made to create harmonised standards &ndash; which are designed to bring economic benefits through creating larger, more efficient markets.
The power of the single market reaches beyond the EU borders, because to sell within the EU, it is beneficial to conform to its standards. Once a non-member country's factories, farmers and merchants conform to EU standards, much of the cost of joining the union has already been sunk. At that point, harmonising domestic laws in order to become a full member is relatively painless, and may create more wealth through eliminating the customs costs.
The single market has both internal and external aspects:
====Internal policies====
[[Image:Euro banknotes.jpg|300px|right|Euro banknotes]]
*[[Free trade]] of goods and services among member states (an aim further extended to three of the four [[EFTA]] states by the [[European Economic Area]], EEA)
*A common [[EU competition law]] controlling anti-competitive activities of companies (through antitrust law and merger control) and member states (through the State Aids regime).
*The [[Schengen treaty]] allowed removal of internal border controls and harmonisation of external controls between its member states. This excludes the UK and Ireland, which have derogations, but includes the non-EU members [[Iceland]] and [[Norway]]. Switzerland also voted via referendum in 2005 to become part of the Schengen zone.
*Freedom for citizens of its member states to live and work anywhere within the EU with their spouses and children, provided they can support themselves (also extended to the other EEA states and Switzerland).
*Free movement of [[financial capital|capital]] between member states (and other EEA states).
*Harmonisation of government regulations, corporations law and [[trademark]] registrations.
*A single currency, the [[euro]] (excluding the [[United Kingdom|UK]], and [[Denmark]], which have derogations). [[Sweden]], although not having a specific opt-out clause, has not joined the ERM II, voluntarily excluding itself from the monetary union.
*A large amount of environmental policy co-ordination throughout the Union.
*A [[Common Agricultural Policy]] and a [[Common Fisheries Policy]].
*Common system of indirect [[taxation]], the [[VAT]], as well as common customs duties and excises on various products.
*Funding for the development of disadvantaged regions (structural and cohesion funds).
*Use of [[SI]] strictly put on. All other using of systems of capacity, temperature, mass, and height/depth are prohibited (Troy, Customary etc.) See "Restriction Problems" on this page [not found]
====External policies====
*A common external [[Customs (tax)|customs]] tariff, and a common position in international trade negotiations.
*Funding for programmes in candidate countries and other [[Eastern Europe]]an countries, as well as aid to many developing countries, through its Phare and Tacis programmes.
* The establishment of a single market European Energy Community by means of the [[Energy Community South East Europe Treaty]].
===Co-operation and harmonisation in other areas===
*Freedom for citizens of the EU to vote in local government and [[European Parliament]] elections in any member state.
*Co-operation in criminal matters, including sharing of [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] (through [[EUROPOL]] and the [[Schengen Information System]]), agreement on common definition of [[crime|criminal offences]] and expedited [[extradition]] procedures.
*A [[Common Foreign & Security Policy (EU)|common foreign policy]] as a future objective, however this has some way to go before being realised. The divisions between the member states (in the [[letter of eight]]) and then-future members (in the [[Vilnius letter]]) during the run up to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] highlights just how far off this objective could be before it becomes a reality.
*A [[European Security and Defence Policy|common security policy]] as an objective, including the creation of a 60,000-member [[European Rapid Reaction Force]] for [[peacekeeping]] purposes, an EU [[military]] staff and an EU [[satellite]] centre (for intelligence purposes).
*Common policy on asylum and immigration.
*Common funding of research and technological development, through four-year Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development. The [[Sixth Framework Programme]] is running from 2002 to 2006.
==Economy==
[[Image:EU-GDP-Population.png|thumb|right|Population and GDP per capita of EU member states and candidates.]]
{{main|Economy of the European Union}}
If considered a single unit, the European Union has the largest economy in the world with a [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|2004 GDP]] of 11,723,816 million USD using [[Purchasing_power_parity|PPP]] equivalence. The [[Economy of the European Union|EU economy]] is expected to grow further over the next decade as more countries join the union - especially considering that the new states are usually poorer than the EU average, and have the capacity to grow at a high rate. However, it is estimated that the eurozone will only grow around 0.3 per cent (Q2 2005) [http://www.eubusiness.com/Finance/050831114912.e6x23dfu 1], while other [[Industrialisation|industrialised]] nations will grow faster, such as the [[United States]], which is estimated to grow three times as much at around 3.2%(Q2 2005). The [[European Council]] published on [[17 November]] [[2005]] that the economy of the European Union will have grown approximately 1.5% in 2005. The eurozone however, will have grown 1.3% in 2005. The European Council is hopeful that the European Union will grow further in 2006 and in 2007 (2.1% 2006 2.4% 2007). Germany, the largest economy in the EU, will grow about: 0.8% 2005, 1.2% 2006 and 1.6% 2007. After extremely slow growth, it seems that the EU will grow again in the next couple of years.
[http://www.neatideas.com/gdp.htm 2]
EU member states have agreed a programme called [[Lisbon Strategy|Agenda 2010]] which aims at making "the EU the world's most dynamic and competitive economy" by 2010.
===Standard of living===
Below is a table and three graphs showing, respectively, the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]), the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] (PPP) per capita and the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] (nominal) per capita for the European Union and for each of its 25 member states. This can be used as a rough gauge to the relative standards of living among member states. The two future members [[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]] (set for [[1 January]] [[2007]]) are also included in the table, as are the official candidates and [[Enlargement of the European Union#Potential candidate countries|officialy recognised potential candidates]]. The data set is for the year 2006 and graphs are for the year 2004. All 2006 data are '''projections'''.
[[Image:EU-GDP-PPP-pc-map.png|thumb|300px|right|GDP (PPP) per capita 2006 showing countries above and below EU average]]
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"
|-
! Member Countries
! GDP (PPP)<br><small>millions of<br>[[international dollar|int. dollars]]</small>
! GDP (PPP)<br>per capita<br><small>int. dollars</small>
! GDP (nominal)<br>per capita<br><small>int. dollars</small>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | '''{{EU-List}}'''
| '''12,918,581'''
| '''28,114'''
| '''29,291'''
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{LUX}}
| 32,475
| 70,044
| 74,436
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{IRL}}
| 175,140
| 42,082
| 50,252
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{DNK}}
| 195,581
| 36,083
| 46,734
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{AUT}}
| 279,281
| 34,256
| 38,006
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{BEL}}
| 338,130
| 32,469
| 35,310
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{FIN}}
| 168,348
| 32,154
| 36,753
|-
| style=&q |
acteristic of the blues. The last bar of the chord progression is usually accompanied by a [[turnaround]] making the transition to the beginning next progression.
[[Shuffle rhythm]] is often vocalized as "''dow'', da ''dow'', da ''dow'', da" or "''dump'', da ''dump'', da ''dump'', da"{{ref|hamburger}} as it consists of uneven eight notes. On a guitar this may be done as a simple steady bass or may add to that stepwise quarter note motion from the fifth to the seventh of the chord and back. An example is provided by the following [[tablature]] for the first four bars of a blues progression in E:{{ref|shuffle}}{{ref|savidge}}
<div style="font-size: 75%">
E7 A7 E7 E7
E |-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
B |-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
G |-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
D |-------------------|2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4|-------------------|-------------------|
A |2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4|0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0|2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4|2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4|
E |0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0|-------------------|0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0|0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0|
</div>
==History==
===Origins===
{{main|Origins of the blues}}
Blues has evolved from the spare music of poor black laborers into a wide variety of complex styles and subgenres, spawning regional variations across the United States and, later, Europe, Africa and elsewhere. What is now considered "blues" as well as modern "[[country music]]" arose at approximately the same time and place during the nineteenth century in the southern United States. Recorded blues and country can be found from as far back as the 1920s, when the popular record industry developed and created marketing categories called "[[race music]]" and "[[hillbilly music]]" to sell music by and for blacks and whites, respectively. At the time, there was no clear musical division between "blues" and "country," except for the race of the performer, and even that sometimes was documented incorrectly by record companies.{{ref|bluescountry}} While blues emerged from the culture of African-Americans, blues musicians have since emerged world-wide. Studies have situated the origin of "black" spiritual music inside slaves' exposure to their masters' [[Hebrides |Hebridean]]-originated gospels. African-American economist and historian [[Thomas Sowell]] also notes that the southern, black, ex-slave population was acculturated to a considerable degree by and among their Scots-Irish "[[redneck]]" neighbors. However, the findings of Kubik and others also clearly attest to the essential Africanness of many essential aspects of blues expression.
Much has been speculated about the social and economical reasons for the appearance of the blues.{{ref|nicholls}} The first appearance of the blues is not well defined and is often dated between 1870 and 1900. This period coincides with the [[Emancipation|emancipation]] of the slaves and the transition from slavery to sharecropping and small-scale agricultural production in the southern United States. Several scholars characterize the development, which appeared at the turn of the century, as a move from group performances to a more individualized style. They argue that the development of the blues is strongly related to the newly acquired freedom of the slaves. According to [[Lawrence Levine]],{{ref|levine}} "there was a direct relationship between the national ideological emphasis upon the individual, the popularity of [[Booker T. Washington]]'s teachings, and the rise of the blues. Psychologically, socially, and economically, Negroes were being acculturate in a way that would have been impossible during slavery, and it is hardly surprising that their secular music reflected this as much as their religious music did."
===Prewar blues===
Flush with the success of appropriating the [[ragtime]] craze for commercial gain, the American [[sheet music]] publishing industry wasted no time in pursuing similar commercial success with the blues. In 1912, three popular blues-like compositions were published, precipitating the [[Tin Pan Alley]] adoption of blues elements: "Baby Seals' Blues" by [[Arthur Seals]], "Dallas Blues" by [[Hart Wand]] and "[[Memphis Blues]]" by [[W. C. Handy]] {{ref|1912}}. Handy, a formally trained musician, composer and arranger was a key popularizer of blues. Handy was one of the first to transcribe and then orchestrate blues in an almost symphonic style, with bands and singers. He went on to become a very popular composer, and billed himself as the "Father of the Blues", though it can be debated whether his compositions are blues at all;{{ref|Handypseudoblues}} they can be described as a fusion of blues with ragtime and jazz, a merger facilitated using the Latin [[habanera]] rhythm that had long been a part of ragtime.{{ref|habanera}} Extremely prolific over his long life, Handy's signature work was the ''[[Saint Louis Blues (music)|St. Louis Blues]]''.
[[Image:Blindblake.jpg|thumb|left|175px|[[Blind Blake]] was an influential blues singer and guitarist known as the "King of Ragtime Guitar".]]
In the 1920s, the blues became a major element of African American and American popular music in general, reaching "white" audience via Handy's work and the classic female blues performers. It evolved from informal performances to entertainment in theaters, for instance within the [[Theater Owners Bookers Association]], in [[nightclub]]s, such as the [[Cotton Club]], and [[juke joint]]s, for example along [[Beale Street]] in Memphis. This evolution led to a notable diversification of the styles and to a clearer cut between blues and jazz. Several record companies, such as the [[American Record Corporation]], [[Okeh Records]], and [[Paramount Records]], began to record African American music. As the recording industry grew, so did, in the African American community, the popularity of country blues performers like [[Charlie Patton]], [[Leadbelly]], [[Blind Lemon Jefferson]], [[Lonnie Johnson]], [[Son House]] and [[Blind Blake]]. Jefferson was one of the few country blues performers to record widely, and may have been the first to record the [[slide guitar]] style, in which a guitar is fretted with a knife blade, the sawed-off neck of a liquor bottle, or other implement. The slide guitar went on to become an important part of the [[Delta blues]].{{ref|LemonJefferson}} When blues recordings were first made, in the 1920s, there were two major divisions: a traditional, rural [[country blues]], and a diverse set of more polished city or urban blues.
Country blues performers were often unaccompanied, or performed with only a banjo or guitar, and were often improvised. There were many regional styles of country blues in the early 20th century, a few especially important. The (Mississippi) Delta blues was a rootsy style, often accompanied by [[slide guitar]] and [[harmonica]], and characterized by a spare style and passionate vocals. The most influential performer of this style is usually said to be [[Robert Johnson]],{{ref|RJohnson}} who was little recorded but combined elements of both urban and rural blues in a unique manner. Along with Robert Johnson, major artists of this style were his predecessors [[Charley Patton]] and [[Son House]]. The southeastern "delicate and lyrical" [[Piedmont blues]] tradition, based on an elaborated [[fingerpicking]] guitar technique, was represented by singers like [[Blind Willie McTell]] and [[Blind Boy Fuller]].{{ref|Piedmontblues}} The lively [[Memphis blues]] style, which developed in the '20s and '30s around [[Memphis, Tennessee]], was mostly influenced by [[jug band]]s, such as the [[Memphis Jug Band]] or the [[Gus Cannon| Gus Cannon's Jug Stompers]]. They used a large variety of unusual instruments such as [[washboard]], [[fiddle]], [[kazoo]] or [[mandolin]]. Representative artists in this style include [[Sleepy John Estes]], [[Robert Wilkins]], [[Joe McCoy]] and [[Memphis Minnie]]. Memphis Minnie was a major female blues artist of this time. She was famous for her virtuoso guitar style. The pianist [[Memphis Slim]] also began his career in Memphis, but his quite distinct style was smoother and contained some swing elements. Many blues musicians based in Memphis moved to Chicago in the late thirties or early forties and participated in the urban blues movement, straddling the border between the country and electric blues.
[[Image:Bessiesmith.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[Bessie Smith]] was a very famous early blues singer.]]
City blues was much more codified and elaborate.{{ref|countrycity}} [[classic female blues|Classic female urban]] or [[vaudeville]] blues singers were extremely popular in the 1920s, among them [[Mamie Smith]], [[Gertrude Ma Rainey|Gertrude "Ma" Rainey]], [[Bessie Smith]], and [[Victoria Spivey]]. Though more a vaudeville performer than a blues artist, Mamie Smith was the first African- American to record a blues in 1920. Her success was such that 75,000 copies of "Crazy Blues" sold in its first month.{{ref|Harrison}} Ma Rainey, was called the "Mother of Blues." According to Clarke,{{ref|SmithRainey}} both Rainey and Bessie Smith used a "method of singing each song around centre tones, perhaps in order to project her voice more easily to the back of a room" and Smith "would also choose to sing a song in an unusual key, and her artistry in bending and stretching notes with her beautiful, powerful contralto to accommodate her own interpretation was unsurpassed". Urban male performers included some of the most popular black musicians of the era, such [[Tampa Red]], [[Big Bil |
f volts. Such materials are used in [[motion sensor]]s, where the tiny rise in temperature from a warm body entering the room is enough to produce a measurable voltage in the crystal.
In turn, pyroelectricity is seen most strongly in materials which also display the [[ferroelectric effect]], in which a stable electric dipole can be oriented or reversed by applying an electrostatic field. Pyroelectricity is also a necessary consequence of ferroelectricity. This can be used to store information in [[ferroelectric capacitor]]s, elements of [[ferroelectric RAM]].
The most common such materials are [[lead zirconate titanate]] and [[barium titanate]]. Aside from the uses mentioned above, their strong piezoelectric response is exploited in the design of high-frequency [[loudspeaker]]s, [[transducer]]s for [[sonar]], and actuators for [[atomic force microscope|atomic force]] and [[scanning tunneling microscope]]s.
====Positive thermal coefficient====
Increases in temperature can cause [[crystallite|grain boundaries]] to suddenly become insulating in some semiconducting ceramic materials, mostly mixtures of [[heavy metals|heavy metal]] [[titanate]]s. The critical transition temperature can be adjusted over a wide range by variations in chemistry. In such materials, current will pass through the material until [[joule heating]] brings it to the transition temperature, at which point the circuit will be broken and current flow will cease. Such ceramics are used as self-controlled [[heating element]]s in, for example, the rear-window defrost circuits of most automobiles.
At the transition temperature, the material's [[dielectric]] response becomes theoretically infinite. While a lack of temperature control would rule out any practical use of the material near its critical temperature, the dielectric effect remains exceptionally strong even at much higher temperatures. Titanates with critical temperatures far below room temperature have become synonymous with "ceramic" in the context of ceramic [[capacitor]]s for just this reason.
== Processing of ceramic materials ==
Non-crystalline ceramics, being glasses, tend to be formed from melts. The glass is shaped when either fully molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like viscosity, by methods such as blowing to a mould. If later heat-treatments cause this class to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is known as a [[glass-ceramic]].
Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories - either make the ceramic in the desired shape, by reaction in situ, or by forming powders into the desired shape, and then [[sintering]] to form a solid body. A few methods use a hybrid between the two approaches.
=== In situ manufacturing ===
The most common use of this method is in the production of cement and concrete. Here, the dehydrated powders are mixed with water. This starts hydration reactions, which result in long, interlocking crystals forming around the aggregates. Over time, these result in a solid ceramic.
The biggest problem with this method is that most reactions are so fast that good mixing is not possible, which tends to prevent large-scale construction. However, small-scale systems can be made by deposition techniques, where the various materials are introduced above a substrate, and react and form the ceramic on the substrate. This borrows techniques from the semiconductor industry, such as [[Chemical vapor deposition|chemical vapour deposition]], and is very useful for coatings.
These tend to produce very dense ceramics, but do so slowly.
=== Sintering-based methods ===
The principles of [[sintering]]-based methods is simple. Once a roughly held together object (called a "green body") is made, it is baked in a kiln, where [[diffusion]] processes cause the green body to shrink. The pores in the object close up, resulting in a denser, stronger product. The firing is done at a temperature below the melting point of the ceramic. There is virtually always some [[porosity]] left, but the real advantage of this method is that the green body can be produced in any way imaginable, and still be sintered. This makes it a very versatile route.
There are thousands of possible refinements of this process. Some of the most common involve pressing the green body to give the densification a head start and reduce the sintering time needed. Sometimes organic [[binder (material)|binders]] such as [[polyvinyl alcohol]] are added to hold the green body together; these burn out during the firing (at 200-350°C). Sometimes organic [[lubricant]]s are added during pressing to increase densification. It is not uncommon to combine these, and add binders and lubricants to a powder, then press. (The formulation of these organic chemical additives is an art in itself. This is particularly important in the manufacture of high performance ceramics such as those used by the billions for [[electronics]], in [[capacitor]]s, [[inductor]]s, [[sensor]]s, etc. The specialized formulations most commonly used in electronics are detailed in the book "Tape Casting," by R.E. Mistler, et al., Amer. Ceramic Soc. [Westerville, Ohio], 2000.) A comprehensive book on the subject, for mechanical as well as electronics applications, is "Organic Additives and Ceramic Processing," by D. J. Shanefield, Kluwer Publishers [Boston], 1996.
A slurry can be used in place of a powder, and then cast into a desired shape, dried and then sintered. Indeed, traditional [[pottery]] is done with this type of method, using a plastic mixture worked with the hands.
If a mixture of different materials is used together in a ceramic, the sintering temperature is sometimes above the melting point of one minor component - a ''liquid phase'' sintering. This results in shorter sintering times compared to solid state sintering.
== Other applications of ceramics ==
In the early 1980s, [[Toyota]] researched production of an [[adiabatic]] ceramic engine which can run at a temperature of over 6000 °F (3300 °C). Ceramic engines do not require a cooling system and hence allow a major weight reduction and therefore greater fuel efficiency. [[Fuel efficiency]] of the engine is also higher at high temperature.
In a conventional metallic engine, much of the energy released from the fuel must be dissipated as [[waste heat]] in order to prevent a meltdown of the metallic parts.
Despite all of these desirable properties, such engines are not in production because the manufacturing of ceramic parts in the requisite precision and durability is difficult. Imperfection in the ceramic leads to cracks, which can lead to potentially dangerous equipment failure. Such engines are possible in laboratory settings, but mass-production is infeasible with current technology.
Work is being done in developing ceramic parts for [[gas turbine]] [[heat engine|engines]]. Currently, even blades made of [[superalloy|advanced metal alloys]] used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful limiting of operating temperatures. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, giving aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of fuel.
Since the late 1990s highly specialized ceramics, usually based on [[boron carbide]], formed into plates and lined with [[Dyneema|Spectra]], have been used in [[bulletproof vest|ballistic armored vests]] to repel large-caliber [[rifle]] fire. Such plates are known commonly as [[small-arms protective insert]]s (SAPI). Very similar technology is used for armoring of [[cockpit]]s of some military airplanes, because of the low weight of the material.
Recently, there have been advances in ceramics which include bio-ceramics, such as dental implants and synthetic bones. Hydroxyapatite, the natural mineral componet of bone, has been made synthetically from a number of biological and chemical sources and can be formed into ceramic materials. Orthopedic implants made from these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues in the body without rejection or inflammatory reactions. Because of this, they are of great interest for gene delivery and tissue engineering scaffolds. Most Hydroxyapatite ceramics are very porous and lack mechanical strength and are used to coat metal orthopedic devices to aid in forming a bond to bone or as bone fillers. They are also used as fillers for orthopedic plastic screws to aid in reducing the inflammation and increase absorption of these plastic materials. Work is being done to make strong-fully dense nano crystalline Hydroxapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic natural bone mineral. Ultimately these ceramic materials may be used as bone replacements or with the incorperation of protein collagens, synthetic bones.
==References==
ASTM Standard C 242-01 “''Standard Terminology of Ceramic Whitewares and Related Products''”
==See also==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [[Ceramics (art)]]
* [[Ceramic forming techniques]]
* [[Porcelain]]
==External links==
*[http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=2123 Advanced Ceramics] – The Evolution, Classification, Properties, Production, Firing, Finishing and Design of Advanced Ceramics
*[http://www.ceramics-directory.com/ Ceramics Directory] – International Ceramics Directory of Companies and Organizations
[[Category:Ceramic materials| ]]
[[bg:&#1050;&#1077;&#1088;&#1072;&#1084;&#1080;&#1082;&#1072;]]
[[ca:Ceràmica]]
[[cs:Keramica]]
[[da:Keramik]]
[[de:Keramik]]
[[el:Κεραμικά Υλικά]]
[[es:Cerámica]]
[[fi:Keraami]]
[[fr:Céramique]]
[[he:&#1511;&#1512;&#1502;&#1497;&#1511;&#1492;]]
[[ja:&#12475;&#12521;&#12511;&#12483;&#12463;&#12473;]]
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[ |
nse - a phenomenon which gained a lot of notoriety after 2005 local elections - also contributed to those trends. Croatian public appears to prefer strong personalities with populist tendencies - like [[Boris Mikšić]], [[Milan Bandić]] and [[Branimir Glavaš]] - to well-established parties or any particular ideology.
The alienation from Croatian political mainstream has also manifested itself in the dramatic rise of [[Euroscepticism]] among general public.
== See also ==
* [[List of political parties in Croatia]]
* [[Foreign relations of Croatia]]
* [[Military of Croatia]]
[[Category:Politics of Croatia| ]]
[[hr:Politika Hrvatske]]
[[pl:Ustrój polityczny Chorwacji]]
[[pt:Política da Croácia]]
[[nl:Politiek en overheid van Kroatië]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Croatia</title>
<id>5578</id>
<revision>
<id>40856143</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T13:16:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Ced. Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">__FORCETOC__
==History==
In an [[economics|economy]] traditionally based on agriculture and livestock, peasants comprised more than half of the [[Croatia]]n population until after [[World War II]]. Pre-1945 industrialization was slow and centered on textile mills, sawmills, brickyards, and food-processing plants.
Rapid [[industrialization]] and diversification occurred after World War II. [[Decentralization]] came in 1965, allowing growth of certain sectors, like the [[tourism|tourist industry]]. Profits from Croatian industry were used to develop poorer regions in the former Yugoslavia. This, coupled with [[austerity program]]s and [[hyperinflation]] in the 1980s, led to discontent in both Croatia and Slovenia that fueled the independence movement.
Before the dissolution of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], the Republic of Croatia, after [[Slovenia]], was the most prosperous and industrialized area, with a per capita output perhaps one-third above the Yugoslav average. Privatization under the new Croatian Government had barely begun when war broke out. As a result of the Croatian war of independence, the economic infrastructure sustained massive damage in the period 1991-92.
By the end of the [[1990s]], Croatia faced considerable economic problems stemming from:
* the legacy of longtime communist mismanagement of the economy;
* damage during the internecine fighting to bridges, factories, power lines, buildings, and houses;
* the large refugee and displaced population, both Croatian and Bosnian
* the disruption of economic ties; and
* mishandled privatization
Inflation and unemployment rose and the [[kuna (currency)|kuna]] fell, prompting the national bank to tighten [[fiscal policy]]. A new banking law passed in December 1998 gave the central bank more control over Croatia's 53 remaining commercial banks. Croatia is dependent on international debt to finance the deficit. A recently issued [[Euro]]-denominated bond was well received, selling $300 million, which helped offset economic losses from the Kosovo crisis.
Despite the successful value-added tax program, planned privatization of state controlled businesses, and a revised budget with a 7% across that board cut in spending, the government still projected a $200 million deficit for 1999.
Western aid and investment, especially in the tourist and oil industries, is helping restore the economy. The government has been successful in some reform efforts &mdash; partially macroeconomic stabilization policies &mdash; and it has normalized relations with its creditors.
The [[recession]] that began at the end of [[1998]] continued through most of [[1999]], and GDP in 1999 was flat. [[Inflation]] remained in check and the kuna was stable. However, consumer demand was weak and industrial production decreased. Structural reform lagged and problems of payment arrears and a lack of banking supervision continued.
Due to the upcoming elections, the HDZ government promised two salary increases to public-sector employees before the end of the year which increased the fiscal deficit.
The death of President [[Franjo Tuđman|Tuđman]] in December 1999, and the defeat of his ruling Coatian Democratic Union or HDZ party in parliamentary and presidential elections in January 2000 ushered in a new government committed to economic reform and halting the economic decline.
The [[Ivica Račan|Račan]] government carried out a large number of structural reforms and with tourism as the main factor, the country emerged from recession in 2000. Due to overall increase in stability, the economic rating of the country improved and [[interest rate]]s dropped. As a result of [[coalition]] politics and resistance from the unions and the public, many reforms are still overdue, especially in the legal system.
Unemployment reached a peak of circa 22% in late [[2002]] due to many overdue bankruptcies. It has since been steadily decreasing, powered by growing industrial production and rising [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] rather than only seasonal changes (tourism). The GDP rose to the level it had in 1990 only [[2003]].
Most economic indicators remained positive in this period, except for the external [[debt]]. The [[Croatian National Bank]] had to take steps to curb further growth of indebtedness of local banks with foreign banks (commonly the same foreign banks that own the local ones). The dollar debt figure is quite adversely affected by the [[Euro|EUR]]/[[USD]] ratio &mdash; over a third of the increase in debt since 2002 is due to currency value changes.
Any negative trends in the large EU economies such as [[Economy of Germany|Germany]] or [[Economy of Italy|Italy]] also have a negative impact on Croatia as they are its biggest trade partners.
The country has applied for membership in the [[European Union]]. During the accession, it is expected that agricultural policy will be the biggest stumbling block, as with other recent applicant countries.
By early [[2005]], the foreign debt of the Government declined in growth, and was surpassed in size by the foreign debt of the banking sector, prompting further interventions by the [[Croatian National Bank|national bank]].
==Economic indicators==
''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2005.''
'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $50.33 billion (2004 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
3.7% (2004 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $11,200 (2004 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br />''agriculture:''
8.2%
<br />''industry:''
30.1%
<br />''services:''
61.7% (2004 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
1.71 million (2004 est.)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 2.7%, industry 32.8%, services 64.5% (2004)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
13.8% (2004 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
<br />''national absolute:''
11%
<br />''internationally comparable:''
4.8%
(2003 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br />''lowest 10%:''
3.4%
<br />''highest 10%:''
24.5%
(2003 est.)
'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
29 (1998)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.5% (2004 est.)
'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
28.6% of GDP (2004 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br />''revenues:''
$14.14 billion
<br />''expenditures:''
$15.65 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2004 est.)
'''Public debt:'''
41.7% of GDP (2004 est.)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[wheat]], [[maize|corn]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[sunflower]] seed, [[barley]], [[alfalfa]], [[clover]], [[olive]]s, [[citrus]], [[grape]]s, [[soybean]]s, [[potato]]es; [[livestock]], [[dairy products]]
'''Industries:'''
[[chemical industry|chemical]]s and [[plastic]]s, machine tools, fabricated [[metal]], electronics, [[pig iron]] and rolled [[steel]] products, [[aluminium]], [[paper]], [[wood]] products, construction materials, [[textiles]], shipbuilding, [[petroleum]] and petroleum refining, [[food]] and beverages; [[tourism]]
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2.7% (2004 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
12.51 GWh (2002)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br />''fossil fuel:''
33.6%
<br />''hydro:''
66%
<br />''nuclear:''
0%
<br />''other:''
0.4% (2001)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
15.2 GWh (2002)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
406 GWh (2002)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
3,966 GWh (2002)
'''Oil - production:'''
21,000 barrel/day (3,338 m³/d) (2004 est.)
'''Oil - consumption:'''
89,000 barrel/day (14,000 m³/d) (2001 est.)
'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
93.6 million barrel (14,900,000 m³) ([[1 January]] [[2002]])
'''Natural gas - production:'''
1.76 km³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - consumption:'''
2.84 km³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - exports:'''
0 m³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - imports:'''
1.08 km³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - proved reserves:'''
34.36 km³ (January 2002 est.)
'''Current account balance:'''
$-1.925 billion (2004 est.)
'''Exports:'''
$7.845 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
transport equipment, [[textiles]], [[chemicals]], foodstuffs, fuels
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Italy]] 23.1%,
[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] 14.7%,
[[Germany]] 11.5%,
[[Austria]] 9.6%,
[[Slovenia]] 7.7%,
(2004)
'''Imports:'''
$16.7 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery, transport and electrical equipment, chemicals, fuels and lubricants, foodstuffs
'''Imports - partners:'''
Italy 17.3%,
Germany 15.7%,
Slovenia 7.1%,
Austria 7.1%,
[[Russia]] 7%
[[France]] 4.3%,
(2004)
'''Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:'''
$8.563 billion (2004 est.)
'''Debt - external:'''
$26.4 billion (2004 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
ODA $166.5 million (2002)
'''Currency:'''
[[Croatian kuna|kuna]] (HRK)
' |
[[Chevy Chase]]. He also played Captain Herrera in [[Sam Peckinpah]]'s 1969 western, [[The Wild Bunch]].
In 1973 he acted and directed ''Calzónzin Inspector'', a movie based on a Mexican comic called ''Los Supermachos'', of great Mexican cartoonist [[Rius]], although Rius disapproved the movie. The movie is about two indigenous Mexicans who are confused for government inspectors from the capital by the corrupt mayor of a small town, and is an humorous political critique, aimed squarely at then ruling party [[Partido Revolucionario Institucional|PRI]] and its [[cacique|caciques]], in a time when freedom of speech in regard to political matters was highly restricted.
There are at least two versions of the movie, the shorter one having some scenes deleted, the most notable one shows the killing of a renegade farmer by a policeman shooting at his back.
A notable movie was ''El rincón de las vírgenes'' (Mexico, 1972), "The Virgins' Corner" where he plays the helper to a fake mystical doctor travelling town to town, remembering their travels when a group of women intend to propose the doctor for sainthood. The movie is set in the 1920's in rural Mexico.
In December 2004 the Santa Fe Film Festival bestowed its Luminaria Award for lifetime achievement in cinema to Alfonso Arau as a cornerstone to its five-day festival. Jon Bowman, executive director of the Santa Fe Film Festival said, "Arau is truly a renaissance artist, with a deep and innate understanding of all phases of the cinematic medium."
==External links==
*[http://aarau.8m.com Alfonso Arau Web Site]
*{{imdb name|id=0000778|name=Alfonso Arau}}
*[http://www.tvtome.com/tvtome/servlet/PersonDetail/personid-165003/ Alfonso Arau TV Tome Guide]
*[http://santafefilmfestival.com/ Santa Fe Film Festival]
[[Category:1932 births|Arau, Alfonso]]
[[Category:Living people|Arau, Alfonso]]
[[Category:Mexican film directors|Arau, Alfonso]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfonso Cuarón</title>
<id>1247</id>
<revision>
<id>40408375</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T09:19:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tskoge</username>
<id>174597</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv. [[Wikipedia:External links|MoS]] and simple math</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image: Acuaron.jpg|200px|thumb|Alfonso Cuaron]]'''Alfonso Cuarón Orozco''' (born [[November 28]], [[1961]] in [[Mexico City]], [[Mexico]]) is a Mexican [[film director]].
Alfonso Cuarón grew up in the city as well; he went on to study both filmmaking and philosophy at the [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]]. After graduating, Cuaron began working in television in Mexico, first as a technician and then as a director. Cuaron's television work led to assignments as an assistant director for several [[Latin American]] film productions (including ''[[Gaby: A True Story]]'' and ''[[Romero]]''), and in 1991, he landed his first big-screen directorial assignment.
''[[Solo con tu pareja]]'' was a dark comedy about a womanizing businessman who learns he's contracted [[AIDS]]; the film was a massive hit in Mexico, and was enthusiastically received around the world. Director [[Sydney Pollack]] was impressed enough with ''[[Solo con tu pareja]]'' that he hired Cuaron to direct an episode of ''[[Fallen Angels]]'', a series of neo-noir stories produced for the Showtime premium cable network in 1993; other directors who worked on the series included [[Steven Soderbergh]], [[Jonathan Kaplan]], [[Peter Bogdanovich]], and [[Tom Hanks]].
In 1995, Cuarón released his first feature film produced in the United States, ''[[A Little Princess (1995 film)|A Little Princess]]'', an adaptation of [[Frances Hodgson Burnett]]'s classic novel. Cuaron's next feature was also a literary adaptation, a modernized version of [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[Great Expectations]]'' starring [[Ethan Hawke]], [[Gwyneth Paltrow]], and [[Robert De Niro]].
Cuarón's next project found him making a severe left turn; shot in [[Mexico]] with a Spanish-speaking cast, ''[[Y tu mamá también]]'' was a funny, provocative, and controversial road comedy about two sexually obsessed teenagers who take an extended road trip with an attractive woman in her thirties. The film's open portrayal of sexuality and frequent rude humor, as well as the politically and socially relevant asides, made the film an international hit and a major success with critics.
He also directed the third film in the successful ''[[Harry Potter]]'' series, ''[[Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (movie)|Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban]]''. Cuarón has faced criticism amongst the more puritanical Potter fans for "ruining" the Prisoner of Azkaban film; given that the first two instalments, helmed by [[Chris Columbus]], had adhered stringently to the books, Cuarón's rather more individualistic film (which brought with it a far darker tone, costume changes, omitted subplots and other changes to the accepted continuity) came as something of a shock to many fans. However, author [[J.K. Rowling]] has said that this movie is so far her personal favorite from the series, and remained the most critically lauded of the blockbuster series.
His next feature will be ''[[The Children of Men (film)|The Children of Men]]'' an adaptation of the [[P.D. James]] novel of the [[The Children of Men|same name]].
== Filmography ==
* ''[[The Children of Men (film)|The Children of Men]]'' (2006)
* ''[[Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (movie)|Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Y tu mamá también]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Great Expectations (film)|Great Expectations]]'' (1998)
* ''[[A Little Princess (1995 film)|A Little Princess]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Solo con tu pareja]]'' (1991)
== External link ==
* {{imdb name|id=0190859|name=Alfonso Cuarón}}
[[Category:1961 births|Cuaron, Alfonso]]
[[Category:Living people|Cuaron, Alfonso]]
[[Category:Mexican film directors|Cuaron, Alfonso]]
[[Category:UNAM alumni|Cuaron, Alfonso]]
[[Category:People from Mexico City|Cuaron, Alfonso]]
[[Category:Writing Original Screenplay Oscar Nominee|Cuaron, Alfonso]]
[[de:Alfonso Cuarón]]
[[es:Alfonso Cuarón]]
[[fr:Alfonso Cuarón]]
[[ja:&#12450;&#12523;&#12501;&#12457;&#12531;&#12477;&#12539;&#12461;&#12517;&#12450;&#12525;&#12531;]]
[[no:Alfonso Cuarón]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arthur Meighen</title>
<id>1251</id>
<revision>
<id>41683017</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:08:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Habsfannova</username>
<id>90869</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Opposition leader */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
| name=Rt. Hon. Arthur Meighen
| image=ArthurMeighenheadshot.jpg
| country=Canada
| term=[[July 10]], [[1920]] &ndash; [[December 29]], [[1921]]<br>[[June 29]], [[1926]] &ndash; [[September 25]], [[1926]]
| before=[[Robert Laird Borden|Robert Borden]]<br>[[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]]
| after=[[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]]
| date_birth=[[June 16]], [[1874]]
| place_birth=[[Anderson, Ontario|Anderson]], [[Ontario]]
| date_death=[[August 5]], [[1960]]
| place_death=[[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]
| party=[[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]], [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Unionist]]
}}
'''Arthur Meighen''', [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada|PC]] , [[Queen's Counsel|QC]] , [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] , [[Doctor of Laws|LL.D]] ([[June 16]], [[1874]] – [[August 5]], [[1960]]) was the ninth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] from [[July 10]], [[1920]], to [[December 29]], [[1921]], and [[June 29]] to [[September 25]], [[1926]]. He was the first Prime Minister from [[Western Canada]] and the only, so far, from the Province of [[Manitoba]]. Both of his terms were brief, and the second was unprecedented and arose partially out of conflicts between the [[Governor General of Canada]] and Meighen's rival, [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]].
==Background==
Meighen was born in [[Anderson, Ontario|Anderson]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. He graduated from the [[University of Toronto]], earning a B.A. in [[Mathematics]] in [[1896]]. In [[1904]] he married [[Isabel J. Cox]] ([[1882]] - [[1985]]) with whom he had two sons and one daughter. In 1990, one of his grandsons, [[Michael Meighen]] was appointed to the [[Canadian Senate]] on the recommendation of Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]].
Meighen experimented in several professions, including those of teacher, lawyer and businessman, before becoming involved in politics as a member of the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservatives]]. In public, Meighen was a top class debater, and was known for his sharp wit.
==Cabinet==
He was first elected to the [[Canadian House of Commons]] in [[1908]], defeating incumbent [[John Crawford]] in the [[Manitoba]] riding of [[Portage La Prairie]]. He was re-elected in 1908 and [[1911]], and again in 1913 after being appointed [[Solicitor-General]] (at the time, newly appointed Ministers had to seek re-election).
Meighen served as Solicitor-General from [[June 26]], [[1913]], until [[August 25]], [[1917]], when he was appointed [[Minister of Mines]] and [[Secretary of State for Canada]]. In 1917, he was mainly responsible for implementing [[Conscription Crisis of 1917|conscription]]. Noteworthy was the government's decision to give votes to conscription supporters (soldiers and their families), while denying that right to potential opponents of conscription such as immigrants. He was again shifted on [[October 12]], [[1917]], this time to the positions of [[Minister of the Interior]] and [[Superintendent of Indian Affairs]].
As Minister of the Interior, he steered the largest piece of legislation ever enacted in the British Commonwealth through Parlia |
ogical data processing|data processing]] techniques. Some archaeologists refer to such portrayals as "[[pseudoarchaeology]]".
Nevertheless, archaeology has profited from its portrayal in the mainstream media. Many practitioners point to the childhood excitement of [[Indiana Jones]] films and [[Tomb Raider games]] as the inspiration for them to enter the field. Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support, the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed. Without a strong public interest in the subject, often sparked by significant finds and celebrity archaeologists, it would be a great deal harder for archaeologists to gain the political and financial support they require.
In the UK, popular archaeology programmes such as ''[[Time Team]]'' and ''[[Meet the Ancestors]]'' have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provision for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did. However, the move towards being more professional has meant that volunteer places are now relegated to unskilled labour, and even this is less freely available than before. Developer-funded excavation necessitates a well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately, observing the necessary [[health and safety]] and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern [[construction|building site]] with tight deadlines. Certain charities and [[local government]] bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial [[training excavations]] and archaeological holiday tours.
Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies. Anyone looking to get involved in the field without having to pay to do so should contact a local group.
===Pseudoarchaeology===
''Main article: [[Pseudoarchaeology]]''.
Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of [[processual archaeology]], or the specific critiques of it contained in [[Post-processual archaeology|Post-processualism]].
An example of this type is the writing of [[Erich von Däniken]]. His ''[[Chariots of the Gods]]'' (1968), together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations. This theory, known as [[palaeocontact theory]], is not exclusively Däniken's nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.
===Looting===
Looting of archaeological sites by people in search of [[hoard|hoards]] of buried treasure is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian [[pharaoh|pharaohs]] were looted in antiquity. The advent of archaeology has made ancient sites objects of great scientific and public interest, but it has also attracted unwelcome attention to the works of past peoples. A brisk commercial demand for artefacts encourages looting and the [[illicit antiquities]] trade, which smuggles items abroad to private collectors. Looters damage the integrity of a historic site, deny archaeologists valuable information that would be learnt from excavation, and are often deemed to be robbing local people of their heritage.
The popular consciousness often associates looting with poor [[Third World]] countries. Many are former homes to many well-known ancient civilizations but lack the financial resources or political will to protect even the most significant sites. Certainly, the high prices that intact objects can command relative to a poor farmer's income make looting a tempting financial proposition for some local people. However, looting has taken its toll in places as rich and populous as the United States and Western Europe as well. Abandoned towns of the ancient [[Sinagua]] people of [[Arizona]], clearly visible in the desert landscape, have been destroyed in large numbers by treasure hunters. Sites in more densely populated areas farther east have also been looted. Where looting is proscribed by law it takes place under cover of night, with the [[metal detector]] a common instrument used to identify profitable places to dig.
===Public outreach===
Motivated by a desire to halt '''looting''', curb '''pseudoarchaeology''', and to secure greater public funding and appreciation for their work, archaeologists are mounting '''public-outreach campaigns'''. They seek to stop looting by informing prospective artefact collectors of the provenance of these goods, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting and the danger that it poses to science and their own heritage. Common methods of public outreach include press releases and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation.
The final audience for archaeologists' work is the public and it is increasingly realised that their work is ultimately being done to benefit and inform them. The putative social benefits of local heritage awareness are also being promoted with initiatives to increase civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects and better interpretation and presentation of existing sites.
===Descendant peoples===
In the United States, examples such as the case of [[Kennewick Man]] have illustrated the tensions between [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s and archaeologists which can be summarised as a conflict between a need to remain respectful towards burials sacred sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artefacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present. To an archaeologist, the past is long-gone and must be reconstructed through its material remains; to indigenous peoples, it is often still alive.
As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]] (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of [[indigenous peoples]] likely to be descended from those under study.
Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites in order to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.
While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.
====Repatriation====
A new trend in the heated controversy between [[First Nations]] groups and scientists is the [[repatriation]] of native [[artifacts]] to the original descendants. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when a community members and elders from a number of the 10 [[Algonquian]] nations in the [[Ottawa]] area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation in [[Kanawagi, Quebec]], to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years.
The ceremony marked the end of a journey spanning thousands of years and many miles. The remains and artifacts, including [[beads]], [[tools]] and [[weapons]], were originally excavated from various sites in the [[Ottawa Valley]], including [[Morrison]] and the [[Allumette Islands]]. They had been part of the [[Canadian Museum of Civilization]]’s research collection for decades, some since the late 1800s. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional [[redcedar]] and [[birchbark]] boxes lined with redcedar chips, [[muskrat]] and [[beaver pelts]].
Now, an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 90 boxes of various sizes are buried. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement (source: [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/SO05/indepth/archaeology.asp Canadian Geographic Online]).
==See also==
*[[List |
hound was traditionally used in the manufacture of cough remedies and hard candy.
<gallery>
Image:Marrubium vulgare.jpg|foliage of young plants
Image:Horehound bug.jpg|Horehound bug, a common [[insect]] that feeds on White Horehound
</gallery>
== External links ==
{{commons|Marrubium vulgare}}
* [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/h/horwhi33.html White Horehound]
[[Category:Herbs]]
[[Category:Lamiaceae]]
[[Category:Medicinal herbs and fungi]]
[[nl:Malrove]]
[[fi:Hurtanminttu]]
[[de:Andorn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hyperthyroidism</title>
<id>13492</id>
<revision>
<id>41941773</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:56:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Hyperthyroidism |
ICD10 = E05 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|242}}, {{ICD9|775.3}} |
}}
'''Hyperthyroidism''' (or "overactive [[thyroid]] gland") is the clinical [[syndrome]] caused by an excess of circulating free [[thyroxine]] (T4) or free [[triiodothyronine]] (T3), or both.
==Causes==
Major causes in humans are:
* [[Graves' disease]] (the most common etiology with 70-80%)
* [[Toxic thyroid adenoma]]
* [[Toxic multinodular goitre]]
Other causes of [[hyperthyroxinemia]] (high blood levels of thyroid hormones) are not to be confused with true hyperthyroidism and include subacute and other forms of [[thyroiditis]] (inflammation). Thyrotoxicosis (symptoms caused by hyperthyroxinemia) can occur in both hyperthyroidism and thyroiditis. When it causes acutely increased metabolism, it is sometimes called "thyroid storm".
==Signs and symptoms==
Major clinical features in humans are [[weight loss]] (often accompanied by a ravenous [[appetite]]), [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], weakness, hyperactivity, irritability, [[apathy]], [[clinical depression|depression]], [[polyuria]], and sweating. Additionally, patients may present with a variety of symptoms such as [[palpitations]] and [[arrhythmia]]s (notably [[atrial fibrillation]]), [[dyspnea]], loss of [[libido]], [[nausea]], [[vomiting]], and [[diarrhea]]. In the elderly, these classical symptoms may not be present and they may present only with fatigue and weight loss leading to apathetic hyperthyroidism
Neurological manifestations are [[tremor]], [[Chorea (disease)|chorea]], [[myopathy]], and [[periodic paralysis]]. [[Stroke]] of cardioembolic origin due to coexisting [[atrial fibrillation]] may be mentioned as one of the most serious complications of hyperthyroidism.
As to other autoimmune disorders related with thyrotoxicosis, an association between thyroid disease and [[myasthenia gravis]] has been well recognised. The thyroid disease, in this condition, is often an autoimmune one and approximately 5% of patients with myasthenia gravis also have hyperthyroidism. Myasthenia gravis rarely improves after thyroid treatment and relation between two entities is yet unknown. Some very rare neurological manifestations that are reported to be dubiously associated with thyrotoxicosis are [[pseudotumor cerebri]], [[amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]] and a [[Guillain-Barré syndrome|Guillain-Barré]]-like syndrome.
== Diagnosis ==
A diagnosis is suspected through blood tests, by measuring the level of TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) in the blood. If TSH is low, there is likely to be increased production of T4 and/or T3. Measuring specific [[antibody|antibodies]], such as anti-TSH-receptor antibodies in Graves' disease, may contribute to the diagnosis. In all patients with hyperthyroxinemia, [[scintigraphy]] is required in order to distinguish true hyperthyroidism from thyroiditis.
== Treatment ==
The major and generally accepted modalities for treatment of hyperthyroidism
in humans are:
===Surgery===
[[Surgery]] (to remove the whole thyroid or a part of it) is not extensively used because most common forms of hyperthyroidism are quite effectively treated by the radioactive iodine method. However, some Graves' disease patients who cannot tolerate medicines for one reason or another or patients who refuse radioiodine opt for surgical intervention. The procedure is relatively safe - some surgeons are even treating partial thyroidectomy on an out-patient basis.
===Radioiodine===
In [[Radioiodine]] ([[radioiodine treatment|treatment]]) therapy, radioactive iodine is given orally (either by pill or liquid) on a one-time basis to ablate a hyperactive gland. The iodine given for ablative treatment is different from the iodine used in a scan. Radioactive iodine is given after a routine iodine scan, and uptake of the iodine is determined to confirm hyperthyroidism. The radioactive iodine is picked up by the active cells in the thyroid and destroys them. Since iodine is only picked up by thyroid cells, the destruction is local, and there are no widespread side effects with this therapy. Radioactive iodine ablation has been safely used for over 50 years, and the only major reasons for not using it are pregnancy and breast-feeding.
Often, due to the difficulty of picking the correct dose, the treatment results in an opposite condition - [[hypothyroidism]]. However, that is usually easily treated by the administration of [[levothyroxine]], which is a pure synthetic form of T4.
===Thyrostatics===
[[Thyrostatics]] are drugs that inhibit the production of thyroid hormones, such as [[methimazole]] (Tapazole®) or PTU ([[propylthiouracil]]). Thyrostatics are believed to work by inhibiting the iodination of thyroglobulin by thyroperoxidase.
If too high a dose is used in pharmacological treatment, patients can develop symptoms of [[hypothyroidism]]. Hypothyroidism is also a very common result of surgery or radiation treatment as it is difficult to gauge how much of the thyroid gland should be removed. Supplementation with [[levothyroxine]] may be required in these cases.
==Veterinary medicine==
In [[veterinary medicine]], ''hyperthyroidism'' is one of the most common endocrine conditions affecting older domesticated [[cat]]s. The disease has become significantly more common since the first reports of feline hyperthyroidism in the [[1970s]]. In cats, it is almost always caused by a benign thyroid [[adenoma]].
The most common presenting symptoms are: rapid [[weight loss]], [[rapid heart rate]], [[vomiting]], [[diarrhoea]], [[increased water consumption]] and [[increased urine production]].
The same three treatments used with humans are also options in treating feline hyperthyroidism (surgery, radioiodine treatment, and anti-thyroid drugs). Drugs must be given to cats for the remainder of their lives, but may be the least expensive option, especially for very old cats. Radioiodine treatment and surgery often cure hyperthyroidism. Some veterinarians prefer radioiodine treatment over surgery because it does not carry the risks associated with [[anesthesia]]. Radioiodine treatment, however, is not available in all areas. [http://www.winnfelinehealth.org/health/hyperthyroidism.html]
==See also==
*[[Carbimazole]]
*[[hypothyroidism]]
==References==
*[http://www.winnfelinehealth.org/health/hyperthyroidism.html Winn Feline Foundation: Article on feline hyperthyroidism]
==External links==
* [http://www.mediprimer.com/Endocrinology/hyperthyroidism/ Hyperthyroidism Primer]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000356.htm NIH/Medline Plus]
* [http://www.merck.com/mrkshared/mmanual/section2/chapter8/8d.jsp Merck]
* [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hyperthyroidism/DS00344 Mayo Clinic]
* [http://www.emedicine.com/MED/topic1109.htm eMedicine]
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''History of Great Britain''' (volume 1) is a book by [[David Hume]] published in 1754.
For topics on the '''History of Great Britain''', see [[History of Britain]].
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sometimes at war with Rome, but also engaged in complex and long-term trade relations, military alliances, and cultural exchanges with Rome as well.
The [[Cimbri]] and [[Teutoni]] incursions into Roman Italy were thrust back in 101 BC. These invasions were written up by Caesar and others as presaging of a Northern danger for the Empire, a danger that should be controlled. In the Augustean period there was &mdash; as a result of Roman activity as far as the Elbe River &mdash; a first definition of the "Germania magna": from Rhine and Danube in the West and South to the Vistula and the Baltic Sea in the East and North.
Caesar's wars helped establish the term Germania. The initial purpose of the Roman campaigns was to protect Transalpine Gaul by controlling the area between the Rhine and the Elbe. In 9 AD a revolt of their subject Germanics headed by [[Arminius]] (along with a decisive defeat of Quintilius [[Varus]] in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest|Teutoburg Forest]]) ended in the withdrawal of the Roman frontier to the Rhine. At the end of the 1st century two provinces west of the Rhine called [[Germania inferior]] and [[Germania superior]] were established. Important medieval cities like [[Aachen]], [[Cologne]], [[Trier]], [[Mainz]], [[Worms]] and [[Speyer]] were part of these Roman provinces.
The ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' by [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus]], an [[ethnographic]] work on the diverse group of Germanic tribes outside of the Roman Empire, is our most important source on the Germanic peoples of the 1st century.
===Migration Period===
:''Main article: [[Migration Period]]''
[[Image:Karte völkerwanderung.jpg|thumb|300px|2nd to 5th century migrations.]]
During the [[5th century]], as the Roman Empire drew toward its end, numerous Germanic tribes, under pressure from invading Asian peoples and/or population growth and [[climate change]], began migrating en masse in far and diverse directions, taking them to [[England]] and as far south through present day [[Continental Europe]] to the [[Mediterranean]] and northern [[Africa]]. Over time, this wandering meant intrusions into other tribal territories, and the ensuing wars for land escalated with the dwindling amount of unoccupied territory. Wandering tribes then began staking out permanent homes as a means of protection. Much of this resulted in fixed settlements from which many, under a powerful leader, expanded outwards. A defeat meant either scattering or merging with the dominant tribe, and this continued to be how [[nation]]s were formed. In [[Denmark]] the [[Jutes]] merged with the [[Danes]], in [[Sweden]] the [[Geats]] merged with the [[Swedes]]. In England, for example, we now most often refer to the [[Anglo-Saxons]] rather than the two separate tribes.
=== Role in the Fall of Rome ===
Some of the Germanic tribes are frequently blamed in popular depictions of the [[fall of the Roman Empire]] in the late [[5th century]]. Professional [[historiography|historians]] and [[archaeology|archaeologists]] have since the [[1950s]] shifted their interpretations in such a way that the Germanic peoples are no longer seen as ''invading'' a decaying empire but as being ''co-opted'' into helping defend territory the central government could no longer adequately administer. Individuals and small groups from Germanic tribes had long been recruited from the territories beyond the ''[[limes]]'' (i.e., the regions just outside the Roman Empire), and some of them had risen high in the command structure of the army. Then the Empire recruited entire tribal groups under their native leaders as officers. Assisting with defense eventually shifted into administration and then outright rule, as Roman of government passed into the hands of Germanic leaders. [[Odoacer]], who deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]], is the ultimate example.
The presence of successor [[state]]s controlled by a [[nobility]] from one of the Germanic tribes is evident in the [[6th century]] - even in Italy, the former heart of the Empire, where [[Odoacer]] was followed by [[Theodoric the Great]], king of the [[Ostrogoths]], who was regarded by Roman citizens and Gothic settlers alike as legitimate successor to the rule of [[Rome]] and [[Italy]].
=== Conversion to Christianity ===
{{main|Germanic Christianity}}
The [[Ostrogoths]], [[Visigoths]], and [[Vandals]] were [[Christianized]] while they were still outside the bounds of the Empire; however, they converted to [[Arianism]] rather than to orthodox [[Catholicism]], and were soon regarded as [[heresy|heretics]]. The one great written remnant of the [[Gothic language]] is a translation of portions of the [[Bible]] made by [[Ulfilas]], the [[missionary]] who converted them. The [[Lombards]] were not converted until after their entrance into the Empire, but received Christianity from Arian Germanic groups.
The [[Franks]] were converted directly from [[paganism]] to [[Catholicism]] without an intervening time as Arians. Several centuries later, Anglo-Saxon and Frankish missionaries and warriors undertook the conversion of their [[Saxon people|Saxon]] neighbours. A key event was the felling of [[Thor's Oak]] near [[Fritzlar]] by [[Boniface]], apostle of the Germans, in [[723]]. Eventually, the conversion was forced by armed force, successfully completed by [[Charlemagne]], in a series of campaigns (the [[Saxon Wars]]), that also brought Saxon lands into the Frankish empire.
=== Assimilation ===
"Germanic" as understood today is a linguistic term. For this reason, not all peoples that largely descend from the ancient Germanic peoples, genetically, are Germanic speakers today. Germanic peoples were often quick to [[Assimilation (sociology)|assimilate]] into foreign cultures. Established examples include the Romanized [[Norsemen]] in [[Normandy]], and the societal elite in [[Kievan Rus'|medieval Russia]] among whom many were the descendants of Slavified Norsemen (a theory, however, contested by some Slavic scholars in the former Soviet Union, who name it the ''[[Normanist theory]]).''
[[Great Britain]] is similarly considered an example of assimilation, where elements of the Germanic tribes called the [[Angles]], [[Saxons]], and [[Jutes]] merged with [[Celts]] and [[Norman French|French-speaking]] Norsemen.
[[Scotland]] is historically a country of mixed Germanic and [[Celts|Celtic]] culture and settlement; while the [[Scottish Highlands]] and [[Galloway]] were until recently more Celtic and akin to Celtic [[Ireland]] in its culture and [[Scottish Gaelic]] language, the [[Scottish Lowlands]] share their culture and language closely with its neighbour to the south and other Germanic peoples, speaking the [[Scots language]]. The [[Orkney Islands]] and [[Shetland Islands]], though a part of Scotland, were historically [[Scandinavia]]n in culture, though they no longer speak their native language [[Norn language|Norn]] as an influx of [[Lallans]] speaking lowland Scots resulted in its displacement.
[[Ireland]] is also a country of mixed Germanic and Celtic culture, but for different reasons than Scotland. As with Scotland, Ireland had much [[Scandinavia]]n settlement, both in [[Viking]] and [[Anglo-Norman]] colonies. Through centuries of [[United Kingdom|British]] dominance, many parts of Ireland gradually developed a character that was more British than native Celtic, particularly in [[Ulster]] and [[Leinster]].
[[France]] saw a great deal of Germanic settlement, and even its namesake the [[Franks]] were a Germanic people. Entire regions of France (such as [[Alsace]], [[Burgundy]] and [[Normandy]]) were settled heavily by Germanic peoples, contributing to their unique regional cultures and [[dialect]]s. But most of the languages spoken in France today are [[Romance languages]], while the people have a heavy [[Gallic]] substratum that predates Latin and Germanic settlement.
[[Portugal]] and [[Spain]] also had a great measure of Germanic settlement, due to the [[Visigoths]] and the [[Suevi]] ([[Quadi]] and [[Marcomanni]]), who settled permanently. The [[Vandals]] ([[Silingi]] and [[Hasdingi]]) were also present, before moving on to [[North Africa]], where they were absorbed into the local population. Many [[List_of_Spanish_words_of_Germanic_origin|words in Spanish]] come from their genetically decents and other Germanic tribes also.
[[Italy]], especially the area north of the city of [[Rome]], has also had a history of heavy Germanic settlement. Germanic tribes such as the [[Visigoths]], [[Vandals]], and [[Ostrogoths]] had successfully invaded and sparsely settled [[Italy]] in the 5th century AD. Most notably, in the 6th century AD, the Germanic tribe known as the [[Lombards]] entered and settled primarily in the area known today as [[Lombardy]]. The [[Normans]], a partially Germanic people, also conquered and ruled [[Sicily]] and parts of southern Italy for a time.
== See also ==
* [[Confederations of Germanic Tribes]]
* [[List of Germanic peoples]]
* [[Maratha Clan System]]
== Further reading ==
*Beck, Heinrich and Heiko Steuer and Dieter Timpe, eds. ''Die Germanen. Studienausgabe. Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde.'' Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter 1998. Xi + 258 pp. ISBN 3-11-016383-7.
*Collins, Roger. ''Early medieval Europe. 300-1000.'' 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Macmillan 1999. XXV + 533 pp. ISBN 0-333-65807-8.
*Geary, Patrick J. ''Before France and Germany. The creation and transformation of the Merovingian world.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press 1988. Xii + 259 pp. ISBN 0-195-04458-4.
*Geary, Patrick J. ''The Myth of Nations. The Medieval Origins of Europe.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press 2002. X + 199 pp. ISBN 0-691-11481-1.
*Herrmann, Joachim. Griechische und lateinische Quellen zur Frühgeschichte Mitteleuropas bis zur Mitte des 1. Jahrtausends unserer Zeitrechnung. I. Von Homer bis Plutarch. 8. Jh. v. u. Z. bis 1. Jh. v. u. Z. II. Tacitus-Germania. III. Von Tacitus bis Ausoniu |
ntral European Time|CET]] |
utc_offset_DST= +1 does not observe |
cctld= [[.dz]] |
calling_code = 213 |
footnotes =
}}
The '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية''') , or '''Algeria''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''الجزائر'''), is a presidential state in [[north Africa]], and the second largest country on the [[Africa]]n continent, [[Sudan]] being the largest. It is bordered by [[Tunisia]] in the northeast, [[Libya]] in the east, [[Niger]] in the southeast, [[Mali]] and [[Mauritania]] in the southwest, and [[Morocco]] as well as a few kilometers of its annexed territory, [[Western Sahara]], in the west. [[Constitution of Algeria|Constitutionally]], it is defined as an [[Islam]]ic, [[Arab]], and [[Amazigh]] (Berber) country. The name Algeria is derived from the name of the city of [[Algiers]], from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''al-jazā’ir'', which translates as ''the islands'', referring to the four islands which lay off that city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525.
==History==
{{main|History of Algeria}}
Algeria has been inhabited by [[Berber]]s (or Amazigh) since at least [[10,000 BC]]. From [[1000 BC]] on, the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] became an influence on them, establishing settlements along the coast. Berber kingdoms began to emerge, most notably [[Numidia]], and seized the opportunity offered by the Punic Wars to become independent of Carthage, only to be taken over soon after by the [[Roman Republic]] in 200 BC. As the western [[Roman Empire]] collapsed, the Berbers became independent again in much of the area, while the [[Vandals]] took over parts until later expelled by the generals of the [[Byzantine Emperor]], [[Justinian I]]. The [[Byzantine Empire]] then retained a precarious grip on the east of the country until the coming of the [[Arab]]s in the [[8th century]].
[[Image:Roman Arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria 04966r.jpg|thumb|left|Roman arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria]]
After some decades of fierce resistance under leaders such as [[Kusayla]] and [[Kahina]], the Berbers adopted [[Islam]] ''en masse'', but almost immediately expelled the [[Caliphate]] from Algeria, establishing an [[Ibadi]] state under the [[Rustamid]]s. Having converted the [[Kutama]] of [[Kabylie]] to its cause, the [[Shia]] [[Fatimid]]s overthrew the Rustamids, and conquered Egypt. They left Algeria and Tunisia to their [[Zirid]] vassals; when the latter rebelled and adopted [[Sunni]]sm, they sent in a populous [[Arab]] tribe, the [[Banu Hilal]], to weaken them, thus incidentally initiating the [[Arabization]] of the countryside. The [[Almoravid]]s and [[Almohad]]s, Berber dynasties from the west founded by religious reformers, brought a period of relative peace and development; however, with the Almohads' collapse, Algeria became a battleground for their three [[successor state]]s, the Algerian [[Zayyanid]]s, Tunisian [[Hafsid]]s, and Moroccan [[Merinid]]s. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, [[Spain]] started attacking and taking over many coastal cities, prompting some to seek help from the [[Ottoman Empire]].
Algeria was brought into the Ottoman Empire by [[Khair ad Din|Khair ad-Din]] and his brother [[Aruj]], who established Algeria's modern boundaries in the north and made its coast a base for the [[Privateer|corsairs]]; their privateering peaked in Algiers in the 1600s. Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the [[First Barbary War|First]] and [[Second Barbary War]] with the [[United States]]. On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the [[France|French]] invaded Algiers in 1830; however, intense resistance from such personalities as [[Emir Abdelkader]], [[Ahmed Bey]] and [[Lalla Fatma N'Soumer|Fatma N'Soumer]] made for a slow conquest of Algeria, not technically completed until the early 1900s when the last [[Tuareg]] were conquered.
[[Image:Constantine Algerien 002.jpg|thumb|left|Constantine, Algeria 1840]]
Meanwhile, however, the French suppressed slavery and made Algeria an integral part of France, a status that would end only with the collapse of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]]. Tens of thousands of settlers from France, Italy, Spain, and Malta moved in to farm the Algerian coastal plain and occupy the most prized parts of Algeria's cities, benefiting from the French government's confiscation of communally held land. People of European descent in Algeria (the so-called ''[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]''), as well as the native Algerian Jews, were full French citizens starting from the end of the 19th century; by contrast, the vast majority of Muslim Algerians (even veterans of the French army) remained outside of French law, possessing neither French citizenship nor the right to vote. Algeria's social fabric was stretched to breaking point during this period: literacy dropped massively, while land confiscation uprooted much of the population.
In 1954, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] (FLN) launched the [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[Algerian War of Independence]]; after nearly a decade of urban and rural warfare, they succeeded in pushing France out in 1962. Most of the 1,025,000 ''[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]'', as well as 91,000 ''[[harki]]s'' (pro-French Muslim Algerians serving in the French Army), together forming about 10% of the population of Algeria in 1962, fled Algeria for France in just a few months in the middle of that year.
[[Image:TheBattleofAlgiers.png|thumb|right|''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' is a movie about the [[Algerian War of Independence]].]]
Algeria's first president, the FLN leader [[Ahmed Ben Bella]], was overthrown by his former ally and defense minister, [[Houari Boumédiènne]] in 1965. Under Ben Bella the government had already become increasingly socialist and dictatorial, and this trend continued throughout Boumedienne's government; however, Boumedienne relied much more heavily on the army, and reduced the sole legal party to a merely symbolic role. Agriculture was collectivised, and a massive industrialization drive launched. Oil extraction facilities were nationalized and this increased the state's wealth, especially after the 1973 oil crisis, but the Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, bringing hardship when the price collapsed in the 1980s. In foreign policy Algeria was a member and leader of the 'non-aligned' nations. A dispute with Morocco over the [[Western Sahara]] nearly led to war. Dissent was rarely tolerated, and the state's control over the media and the outlawing of political parties other than the FLN was cemented in the repressive constitution of 1976. Boumédienne died in 1978, but the rule of his successor, [[Chadli Bendjedid]], was little more open. The state took on a strongly bureaucratic character and corruption was widespread.
The modernization drive brought considerable demographic changes to Algeria. Village traditions underwent significant change as urbanization increased, new industries emerged, agriculture was substantially reduced, and education, a rarity in colonial times, was extended nationwide, raising the literacy rate from less than 10% to over 60%. Improvements in healthcare led to a dramatic increase in the birthrate (7-8 children per mother) which had two consequences: a very youthful population, and a housing crisis. The new generation struggled to relate to the cultural obsession with the war years and two conflicting protest movements developed: left-wingers, including Berber identity movements, and Islamic 'intégristes'. Both protested against one-party rule but also clashed with each other in universities and on the streets during the 1980s. Mass protests from both camps in autumn 1988 forced Benjedid to concede the end of one-party rule, and elections were announced for 1991.
In December 1991, the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] won the [[Algerian National Assembly elections, 1991|first round]] of the country's first multiparty elections. The military then canceled the second round, forced then-president Bendjedid to resign, and banned the Islamic Salvation Front. The ensuing conflict engulfed Algeria in the violent [[Algerian Civil War]]. More than 100,000 people were killed, often in unprovoked massacres of civilians. The question of who was responsible for these massacres remains controversial among academic observers; many were claimed by the [[Armed Islamic Group]]. After 1998, the war waned, and by 2002 the main guerrilla groups had either been destroyed or surrendered, taking advantage of an amnesty program, though sporadic fighting continued in some areas. Elections resumed in 1995, and in 1999, after a series of short-term leaders representing the military, [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]], the current president, was elected. The issue of Berber language and identity increased in significance, particularly after the extensive [[Kabyle]] protests of 2001 and the near-total boycott of local elections in [[Kabylie]]; the government responded with concessions including naming of [[Tamazight]] (Berber) as a national language and teaching it in schools.
==Politics==
{{main|Politics of Algeria}}
The head of state is the [[President of Algeria|President of the republic]], who is elected to a 5-year term, renewable once. Algeria has [[universal suffrage]]. The President is the head of the Council of Ministers and of the High Security Council. He appoints the [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] who is also the head of government. The Prime Minister appoints the Council of Ministers.
The Algerian [[parliament]] is bicameral, consisting of a lower chamber, the National People's Assembly (APN), with 380 members and an upper chamber, the Council of Nation, with 144 members. The APN is elected every 5 years.
Throughout the 1960's, Algeria supported many independence movements in sub-S |
milies. Some [[Nepal]]is residing in Hong Kong are [[Gurkha]]s, who chose to stay after their service to Britain, and their descendants. More than 15,000 [[Vietnam]]ese, who came to Hong Kong as [[refugee]]s, have become permanent residents, the majority of whom survive on casual work. Around 140,000 [[Filipinos in Hong Kong|Filipinos]] work in Hong Kong as domestic helpers and housekeepers, often known locally as ''[[amah]]s'', or ''feiyungs'', with other such workers coming from Thailand and Indonesia. On Sundays and public holidays, thousands of these workers, the majority of whom are women, gather in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]] to socialise. There are also a number of [[Europe]]ans, [[North America]]ns, [[Japan]]ese, and [[Korea]]ns, largely working in Hong Kong's financial sector.
The top three sources of migration to Hong Kong are the [[Philippines]] (132,770), [[Indonesia]] (95,460), and the [[United States]] (31,330).
Hong Kong is the fifth largest [[metropolitan area]] of the [[List of cities in China|PRC by population]]. Considered as a dependency, Hong Kong is one of the [[List of countries by population density|most densely populated countries/dependencies in the world]], with an overall density of more than 6,200 people per km². Hong Kong has a [[fertility rate]] of .94 children per woman {{ref|.94}}, one of the lowest in the world, and far below the 2.1 children per woman required to maintain an even population level. However, population is continuously growing due to immigration of about 45,000 people per year from mainland China.
Despite the population density, Hong Kong was reported {{ref|reported}} to be one of the [[environmentalism|greenest]] cities in Asia. The majority of people live in [[Apartment|flats]] in [[Skyscraper|high-rise buildings]]. The rest of the open spaces are often covered with parks, woods and shrubs. About 60 % of the land {{ref|60percent}} is designated as [[country park|Country Park]]s and [[nature reserve|Nature Reserve]]s. [[Hiking]] and [[camping]] are popular outdoor activities in Hong Kong's hilly country parks. The irregular and long [[coast]]line of Hong Kong also provides many bays and fine [[Beaches of Hong Kong|beach]]es for its inhabitants. Environmental concern and awareness is growing, however, as Hong Kong also ranks as one of the most (air-)polluted cities in the world. Estimates are that 70-80% of the city's air pollution comes from other parts of the [[Pearl River Delta]].
==Education==
[[Image:Hong Kong Central Library.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The [[Hong Kong Central Library]] building located in [[Causeway Bay]].]]
{{main|Education in Hong Kong}}
A former [[United Kingdom|British]] colony, Hong Kong's [[education]] system is roughly based upon [[Education in the United Kingdom|that of the United Kingdom]], and in particular, the [[Education in England|system used in England]].
However, at the higher education levels, the trend beginning from the mid-1990s has been a shift to an American model for Hong Kong's universities. In particular, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, which started its operations in 1989 and moved to its current Clear Water Bay campus in the early 1990s, was established on the American model of higher education.
Hong Kong's public schools are operated by the [[Education and Manpower Bureau|Education and Manpower Bureau of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region]]. [http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=4369&langno=1]
The system features a non-compulsory three-year [[kindergarten]], followed by a compulsory six-year primary education, three-year junior [[secondary education]]; a non-compulsory two-year senior secondary education leading to the [[Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination]]s and a two-year [[matriculation]] course leading to the [[Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination]]s. A new “3+3+4” senior secondary curriculum, consisting of a three-year junior secondary, three-year senior secondary and four-year undergraduate academic system, will be implemented from 2009 onwards. There are also [[Tertiary education|tertiary institutions]] offering various Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral degrees, other [[Higher Diploma|higher diploma]]s, and [[associate degree]] courses.
In general, three types of comprehensive schools exist in Hong Kong. There are government schools, which are relatively rare; and subsidised schools (government-aided schools, grant schools), run by charitable (often [[Christianity|Christian]], but [[Buddhist]], [[Taoist]], [[Islam]]ic and [[Confucian]] as well) organisations with government funding, to which most students go. Most [[private school]]s are run by Christian organisations as well; where admissions are based more on academic merit than on financial resources. Outside this system are the schools under the [[Direct Subsidy Scheme]] (DSS) and private [[international school]]s, which provide an alternative to the high-pressured mainstream education in exchange for much higher tuition fees.
==Culture==
[[Image:Victoria harbour hk.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Aberdeen Harbour]] and jetty where one can catch a [[sampan]] to the floating restaurant.]]
{{main|Culture of Hong Kong}}
Hong Kong is often described as a city where East meets West. This is reflected in all aspects of the culture, but especially in its [[shopping]], [[nightlife]], and [[Eating|dining]].
A popular destination for shoppers from around the world, Hong Kong has everything to offer from the latest European fashion to traditional Chinese wares. Malls, department stores, and designer boutiques offer an amazing contrast to the bustling open-air [[Stanley Market]] and [[Jade Market]] shopping areas. Every district in Hong Kong has old-fashioned stores that sell [[Chinese herbal medicine]]. The largest concentration of these shops is along [[Bonham Strand]] and [[Bonham Strand West]] in [[Sheung Wan]], where all types of pills, plants, and dried animals are for sale.
Hong Kong has an active nightlife centred around two major entertainment districts, [[Lan Kwai Fong]] (Central) and [[Wanchai]]. Both areas are frequented by expats and locals alike. For a more quiet evening, a trip to [[Victoria Peak]] offers a spectacular view of the city. There is also a promenade along the [[Tsim Sha Tsui]] waterfront, which is popular among young Chinese couples. Shopping, a form of entertainment for the people of Hong Kong, is even done at nightime as evident in the [[Temple Street Night Market]].
The city's cosmopolitan flavour can also be seen in the wide variety of cuisines available. While different varieties of Chinese selections, especially seafood, are most popular, there also many European, American, Japanese, Korean, and other restaurants. Ethnic dishes served in ''[[cha chaan teng]]'' and ''[[dai pai dong]]'' are also popular. The people of Hong Kong take their food seriously and many top chefs make their way to the city to show off their talents to these discriminating diners.
The world famous [[Hong Kong International Dragonboat Festival]], now known as the Circus Capital Stanley Dragon Boat Championships, is a [[Dragon Boat Festival|celebration]] of community that is televised globally.
==Religion==
[[Image:DSCN1984.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Hung Shing Temple]] in [[Wan Chai]]]]
{{main|Religion in Hong Kong}}
Hong Kong enjoys a high degree of religious freedom, a right enshrined and protected through its constitutional document, the Basic Law. The majority of Hong Kong's population practices [[ancestor worship]] due to the strong [[Confucianism|Confucian]] influence. A sizable [[Christianity|Christian]] community of around 500,000 exists, forming about 10% of the total population; roughly equally divided between [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]]s and [[Protestant]]s. There are also followers of [[Buddhism]] or [[Taoism]]. There are also estimated 70,000 [[Islam|Muslim]]s, between 2,000 and 3,000 [[Jew]]s, and a few [[Hinduism|Hindu]]s; [[Sikhism|Sikh]]s and [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]]s are also represented. Apart from offering religious instructions, many major religious bodies have established schools and provided [[social welfare]] facilities.
Hong Kong's religious beliefs are tied to the region's early role as a [[fishing]] community. [[Tin Hau]], the protector of seafarers, has been honoured with several [[Places of worship in Hong Kong|temples]] throughout Hong Kong for at least 300 years. [[Hung Shing]], another protector of seafarers, has also been honoured for centuries<!-- how many centuries? rather unclear... -->. Hong Kongers, especially elder generations, go to Taoist or Buddhist temples to appease the deities and, usually, to ask for compassion or good fortune. Gifts of [[food]], and in particular [[fruit]], are presented, and [[incense]] and [[paper]] offerings are burnt in respect.
With the transfer of Hong Kong to the PRC, there was significant concerns over [[freedom of religion|religious freedom]] in Hong Kong. So far, this has proved mostly unfounded - despite the banning of the [[Falun Gong]] movement by [[Beijing]] in 1999, adherents are still free to practice in Hong Kong. Similarly, the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] is free to appoint its own bishops in Hong Kong, unlike on mainland China, where the only approved 'Catholic' institution is the [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association]], which bishops and priests are appointed by Beijing (though there is also an unofficial and illegal part of the Catholic church that maintains contact with the Vatican). A significant issue in the normalisation of ties between the PRC and the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] is Beijing's insistence that the Vatican drops its diplomatic ties with the [[Political status of Taiwan|ROC]].
Although freedom of religion remains true in Hong Kong, it remains a volatile issue for many, as any threat will have lasting implications for the perceived freedoms in Hong Kong.
|
by [[Kylie Minogue]] (2001), "I Don't Understand It" by [[Ultra Nate]] (2001), "Crying at the Discoteque" by [[Alcazar]]
(2001), "Love Foolosophy" by [[Jamiroquai]] (2001), "Murder on the Dancefloor" by [[Sophie Ellis-Bextor]] (2001), and "Love Invincible" by [[Michael Franti and Spearhead]] (2003) that channeled classic disco music.
Most recently, [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] has used disco themes in her latest album, ''[[Confessions on a Dancefloor|Confessions on a Dance Floor]]'' (2005). Her single "[[Hung Up]]", notably samples ABBA's "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)".
==Radio==
Currently, most radio stations that play dance music or '70s-era music will play this music and related forms such as [[funk]] and [[Philadelphia soul]] at some point in their playlists; both major satellite radio companies also have disco music stations in their lineup. However, dance music stations in general are not known for having high ratings.
==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
* [[List of disco artists (A-K)]], [[List of disco artists (L-Z)]]
* [[Saturday Night Fever]] - 1977 film about New York's disco sub-culture starring [[John Travolta]].
*[[Disco orchestration]].
==Sources==
* Michaels, Mark (1990). ''The Billboard Book of Rock Arranging''. ISBN 0823075370.
* Jones, Alan and Kantonen, Jussi (1999). ''Saturday Night Forever: The Story of Disco''. Chicago, Illinois: A Cappella Books. ISBN 1556524110.
* Brewster, Bill and Broughton, Frank (1999) ''Last Night a DJ Saved my Life: the History of the Disc Jockey'' Headline Book Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0747262306
* Lawrence, Tim (2004). ''Love Saves the Day: A History of American Dance Music Culture, 1970-1979 ''. Duke University Press. ISBN 0822331985.
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[[he:דיסקו]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Double stops</title>
<id>7967</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-02-25T02:07:24Z</timestamp>
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<username>Deltabeignet</username>
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<comment>oops</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Double stop]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Danube</title>
<id>7969</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:22:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TimBentley</username>
<id>531594</id>
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<minor />
<comment>fix links to dab page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''For other uses of "Danube", see [[Danube (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_river | river_name = Danube
| image_name = Danube at Budapest, Margit Bridge.jpg
| caption = The Danube at [[Budapest]]
| origin = [[Black Forest]] ([[Schwarzwald-Baar]], [[Baden-Württemberg|Baden-Württemberg]], [[Germany]])
| mouth = [[Black Sea]] ([[Romania]] and [[Ukraine]])
| basin_countries = [[Romania]] (28.9%), [[Hungary]] (11.7%), [[Austria]] (10.3%), [[Serbia and Montenegro|Serbia and Montenegro]] (10.3%), [[Germany]] (7.5%), [[Slovakia]] (5.8%), [[Bulgaria]] (5.2%), [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (4.8%), [[Croatia]] (4.5%), [[Ukraine]] (3.8%), [[Czech Republic|Czech Republic]] (2.6%), [[Slovenia]] (2.2%), [[Moldova]] (1.7%), [[Switzerland]] (0.32%), [[Italy]] (0.15%), [[Poland]] (0.09%), [[Albania]] (0.03%)
| length = 2,888 km ¹
| elevation = 1,078 m ²
| discharge = 30 km before [[Passau]]: 580 m&sup3;/s<br />[[Vienna]]: 1,900 m&sup3;/s<br />[[Budapest]]: 2,350 m&sup3;/s<br />[[Belgrade]]: 4,000 m&sup3;/s<br/>just before [[Danube Delta|Delta]]: 6,500 m&sup3;/s
| watershed = 817,000 km&sup2;
}}
The '''Danube''' ({{lang-de|Donau}}, [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''Dunaj'', {{lang-hu|Duna}}, [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''Dunav'', [[Serbian language|Serbian]]: ''Дунав''/''Dunav'', [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: ''Дунав'', {{lang-ro|Dunăre}}, {{lang-uk|Дунай/Dunay}}, [[Latin language|Latin]]: ''Danuvius''', [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Tuna'') is [[Europe]]'s second-longest [[river]] (after the [[Volga River|Volga]]).
It rises in the [[Black Forest]] in [[Germany]] as two smaller rivers &ndash; the [[Brigach]] and the [[Breg]] &ndash; which join at [[Donaueschingen]], and it is from here that it is known as the Danube, flowing south-eastwards for a distance of some 2850 km (1771 miles) before emptying into the [[Black Sea]] via the [[Danube Delta]] in [[Romania]].
The Danube has been an important international waterway for centuries, as it remains today. Known to history as one of the long-standing frontiers of the [[Roman Empire]], the river flows through &ndash; or forms a part of the borders of &ndash; ten countries: [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Croatia]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Moldova]], and [[Ukraine]].
The Danube flows through the following large cities:
*[[Ulm]] - [[Germany]]
*[[Ingolstadt]] - [[Germany]]
*[[Regensburg]] - [[Germany]], capital of [[Upper Palatinate]]
*[[Passau]] - [[Germany]]
*[[Linz]] - [[Austria]], capital of [[Upper Austria]]
*[[Krems]] - [[Austria]]
*[[Vienna]] - capital of [[Austria]], where the Danube floodplain is called the [[Lobau]]
*[[Bratislava]] - capital of [[Slovakia]]
*[[Budapest]] - capital of [[Hungary]]
*[[Vukovar]] - [[Croatia]]
*[[Novi Sad]] - capital of the [[Serbia and Montenegro|Serbian-Montenegrin]] province of [[Vojvodina]]
*[[Belgrade]] - the capital of [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
*[[Drobeta-Turnu Severin]] - [[Romania]]
*[[Vidin]] - [[Bulgaria]]
*[[Ruse, Bulgaria|Ruse]] - Bulgaria
*[[Brăila]] - [[Romania]]
*[[Galaţi]] - [[Romania]]
*[[Tulcea]] - [[Romania]]<br>
<br>
==Tributaries==
The Danube's tributary rivers reach into seven other countries. Some Danubian tributaries are important rivers in their own right, navigable by barges and river boats of shallow draught. Ordered from source to mouth, the main tributaries are:
:[[Iller]] - [[Lech River|Lech]] - [[Regen River|Regen]] (entering at [[Regensburg]]) - [[Isar]] - [[Inn River|Inn]] (entering at [[Passau]]) - [[Enns River|Enns]] - [[Morava River, Central Europe|Morava]] - [[Leitha]] - [[Váh]] (entering at [[Komárno]]) - [[Hron]] - [[Ipel]] - [[Sió]] - [[Drava]] - [[Vuka]] - [[Tisza]] - [[Sava]] (entering at [[Belgrade]]) - [[Tamiš]] - [[Velika Morava]] - [[Caraş River|Caraş]] - [[Jiu River|Jiu]] - [[Iskar]] - [[Olt River|Olt]] - [[Vedea River|Vedea]] - [[Argeş River|Argeş]] - [[Ialomiţa River|Ialomiţa]] - [[Siret River|Siret]] - [[Prut River|Prut]]
==Modern navigation==
The Danube is navigable by ocean ships from the Black Sea to [[Braila|Brăila]], in [[Romania]] and by river ships to [[Kelheim]]; smaller craft can navigate further upstream to [[Ulm]], in Germany. About 60 of its tributaries are also navigable. See [[Danube-Black Sea Canal]].
Since the construction of the German [[Rhine-Main-Danube Canal]] in [[1992]], the river has been part of a trans-European waterway from [[Rotterdam]] on the [[North Sea]] to [[Sulina]] on the Black Sea (3500 km). In 1994 the Danube was declared one of ten [[Pan-European corridors|Pan-European transport corridors]], routes in Central and Eastern Europe that required major investment over the following ten to fifteen years. The amount of goods transported on the Danube increased to about 100 million tons in [[1987]]. In [[1999]], transport on the river was made difficult by the NATO bombing of 3 bridges in [[Serbia and Montenegro]]. The clearance of the debris was finished in [[2002]]. The temporary pontoon bridge that hampered navigation was finally removed in 2005.
At the [[Iron Gate (Danube)|Iron Gate]], the Danube flows through a [[gorge]] that forms part of the boundary between [[Serbia]] and [[Romania]]; it contains two [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] [[dams]], [[Đerdap]] I and [[Đerdap]] II.
The [[Danube-Black Sea Canal]] shortens the distance to the Black Sea by 400 km and another canal in Romania, while the [[Danube-Bucharest Canal]] (unfinished) is supposed to link Danube to [[Bucharest]]. In Serbia and Montenegro there is Dunav-[[Tisa]]-Dunav channel as well.
[[Image:Danubemap.JPG|thumb|right|290px|A map showing the Danube]]
==The Danube delta==
:''Main article [[Danube Delta]]''.
The Danube Delta has been a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] since 1991. Its wetlands (on the [[Ramsar list of wetlands of international importance]]) support vast flocks of migratory birds, including the endangered [[Pygmy Cormorant]] (''Phalacrocorax pygmaeus''). Rival canalization and drainage scheme threaten the delta: see [[Bastroe Channel]].
==Geology==
Although the headwaters of the Danube are relatively small today, geologically, the Danube is much older than the [[Rhine]], with which its catchment area competes in today's southern Germany. This has a few interesting geological complications. Since the Rhine is the only river rising in the [[Alps]] mountains which flows north towards the [[North Sea]], an invisible line divides large parts of southern Germany, which is sometimes referred to as the [[European Watershed]].
However, before the last [[ice age]] in the [[Pleistocene]], the Rhine started at the southwestern tip of the Black Forest, while the waters from the Alps that today feed the Rhine were carried east by the so-called ''Urdonau'' (original Danube). Parts of this ancient river's bed, which was much larger than today's Danube, can still be seen in (now waterless) canyons in today' |
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storians/index.shtml International News Service for Historians] (is not dedicated to the Classics only, but very useful, especially for book reviews).
*[http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/ The Online Medieval and Classical Library]
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Digital Library]
*[http://pomoerium.com/index.htm Pomoerium Classics]
*[http://www.tlg.uci.edu/ Thesaurus Linguae Graecae]
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/ Wiki Classical Dictionary]
[[Category:Classical studies]]
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'''Chemistry''' (derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''kimia'', [[alchemy]], where ''al'' is Arabic for ''the'') is the [[science]] that deals with the [[Chemical property|properties]] of organic and inorganic [[chemical substance|substance]]s and their interactions with other [[organic compound|organic]] and [[inorganic]] substances. In the study of [[matter]], chemistry also investigates the movement of [[electron]]s (see [[energy]], [[physics]], [[biology]]). Because of the diversity of matter, which is mostly composed of different combinations of [[atom|atoms]], chemists often study how atoms of different [[chemical element]]s interact to form [[molecules]] and how molecules interact with each other.
[[Image:Chemistry.jpg|right|thumb|Multicolored chemicals are frequent hallmarks of chemistry ]]
==Introduction==
Chemistry is often called the central science because it connects other sciences together, such as [[physics]], [[biology]] or [[geology]]. Chemistry encompasses many specific specialized sub-disciplines that often overlap with significant portions of other sciences. Sub-disciplines, however, are very specific -- to chemistry, for example, they allow the manufacturing and testing of stronger materials, the synthesis of [[pharmaceuticals]] to treat disease, and determination of the mechanisms behind life processes.
A fundamental component of chemistry is that matter is involved. Chemistry may involve the interaction of matter with matter, or, involve matter with non-material phenomena such as energy. Most central and traditional to chemistry is the interaction of one [[chemical substance|substance]] with another such as in a [[chemical reaction]] where one substance or substances is transformed into another. This may involve [[electromagnetic radiation]] (as in [[photochemistry]]) where a chemical reaction is driven by the stimulation of light. However the chemical reaction is only part of a larger field that also studies matter in other ways. Chemical spectroscopists for example study the interaction of light with matter often without any reaction occuring.
[[Scientists]] who profess chemistry are known as [[chemists]]. According to contemporary chemists all ordinary matter consists of [[atom|atoms]] or the sub atomic components that make up atoms. Atoms may be combined to produce more complex forms of matter such as [[ion|ions]], [[molecule]]s or [[crystal]]s. The structure of the world we commonly experience and the properties of the matter we commonly interact with is determined by properties of chemical substances and their interactions. [[Steel]] is hard because its atoms are bound together in a crystalline lattice. Wood burns because it can react spontaneously with [[oxygen]] in a chemical reaction above a certain [[temperature]]. [[Water]] is a [[liquid]] at room temperature because its molecules move about more than in a solid but less than in a gas. One can see because of the interaction of light with molecules called [[proteins]] in the back of one's eye.
With such a large area of study, it is impossible to know everything about chemistry and very difficult to summarize the field concisely. Even the most knowledgeable, experienced chemist only knows a very narrow area of chemistry better than others, though most chemists have a general knowledge of many areas of chemistry. Chemistry is divided into many areas of study called sub-disciplines in which chemists specialize. The chemistry taught at the high school or early college level is often called "general chemistry" and is intended to be an introduction to a wide variety of fundamental concepts and to give the student the tools to continue on to more advanced subjects. Many concepts presented at this level are often incomplete and technically inaccurate, yet they are of extraordinary utility. Chemists regularly use these simple, elegant tools and explanations in their work because the best solution possible is often so overwhelmingly difficult and the true solution is usually unobtainable.
The science of chemistry is historically a recent development but has its roots in [[alchemy]] which has been practiced for millennia throughout the world. The word chemistry is directly derived from the word alchemy; however, the etymology of alchemy is unclear (see [[alchemy]]).
==History of chemistry==
''Main article'': [[History of chemistry]]
The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of [[combustion|burning]]. [[Fire]] was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of [[iron]] and [[glass]]. After [[gold]] was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the [[protoscience]] called [[Alchemy]]. Alchemists discovered many chemical [[processes]] that led to the development of modern chemistry. Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by [[Antoine Lavoisier]] with his law of [[Conservation of mass]] in 1783. The [[discoveries of the chemical elements]] has a long history culminating in the creation of the [[periodic table]] by [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]. The [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery in the past 100 years.
==Chemical phenomena==
A chemical phenomenon is a phenomenon that is describable by chemistry and involves [[chemical substance|substances]] and [[energy]]. Chemical phenomena are associated with a change in the properties of the substance as a result of a chemical reaction.
[[Fire]] is undoubtedly the most spectacular chemical phenomenon. Chemists strive to explain all known chemical phenomena, to discover others and group chemical phenomena into classes with common causes or effects. For example, substances that react with oxygen to produce other substances are said to undergo oxidation; similarly a group of substances called [[acid]]s or [[alkali]]s can react with one another to neutralize each other's effect, a phenomenon known as [[neutralization]]. [[chemical substance|Substances]] can also be [[chemical decomposition|dissociated]] or synthesized from other substances by various different chemical [[processes]]. A chemical reaction is often accompanied by evolution or absorption of energy, this phenomenon is studied under a subdiscipline of chemistry called [[chemical thermodynamics]]/ [[thermochemistry]]. Similarly certain substances emit light without being heated, a phenomenon known as [[phosphorescence]].
==Subdisciplines of chemistry==
Chemistry typically is divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.
*[[Analytical chemistry]] is the [[analysis]] of material samples to gain an understanding of their [[chemical composition]] and [[structure]]. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdiciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.
*[[Biochemistry]] is the study of the [[chemical compound|chemicals]], [[chemical reaction]]s and chemical [[interaction]]s that take place in living [[organism]]s. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related f.e. in [[medicinal chemistry]].
*[[Inorganic chemistry]] is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of [[organometallic chemistry]].
*[[Organic chemistry]] is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and [[chemical reaction|reactions]] of [[organic compound]]s.
*[[Physical chemistry]] is the study of the physical basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include [[chemical thermodynamics]], [[chemical kinetics]], [[electrochemistry]], [[statistical mechanics]], and [[spectroscopy]]. Physical chemistry has large overlap with [[molecular physics]]. Physical chemistry involves the use of [[calculus]] in deriving equations.
*[[Theoretical chemistry]] is the study of chemistry via theoretical reasoning (usually within [[mathematics]] or [[ |
ent of the United States" could be imprisoned for up to two years. It was also illegal to "write, print, utter, or publish" anything critical of the president or Congress. (It was notable that the Act did not prohibit criticism of the Vice-President. Jefferson held the office of Vice-President at the time the Act was passed so the law left him open to attack.) While it appears harsh to current Americans, the act was actually much more lenient than the traditional British law of [[seditious libel]]. For instance:
*The act required the defamatory words to be false, and it permitted the defendant to plead truth as a defense, unlike traditional seditious libel law, in which truth actually made the offense greater ("The greater the truth, the greater the libel."). In other words, as long as someone uttered or published the truth, he could not be convicted under the Sedition Act.
*The act required the defendant to know of the defamatory words' falsity. In other words, someone who uttered a falsehood believing it to be the truth could not be convicted.
*The act allowed the use of a jury to determine both the facts and the law in the case, unlike traditional seditious libel.
Despite these modifications, however, Jeffersonians denounced the Sedition Act as a violation of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] of the [[United States Bill of Rights]], which granted the right of [[free speech]]. Although the Federalists hoped the Act would muffle the opposition, Democratic-Republicans still "wrote, printed, uttered and published" their criticisms of the Federalists. Indeed, they strongly criticised the act itself, and used it as an election issue. The act expired when the term of President Adams ended in 1800.
[[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] opposed the Acts, and drafted the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]] in protest, calling on the states to, in effect, veto federal legislation.
Ultimately the Acts backfired against the Federalists; President Adams himself never supported the laws or used them. No aliens were actually deported, and only ten people were ever convicted of sedition.
Although the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] never ruled on the validity of any of the Alien and Sedition acts, subsequent mentions of the Sedition Act in particular in Supreme Court opinions have assumed that it was unconstitutional. For example in the seminal Free Speech case of ''[[New York Times v. Sullivan]]'', the Court declared, "Although the Sedition Act was never tested in this Court, the attack upon its validity has carried the day in the court of history." 376 U.S. 254, 276 (1964).
==See also==
* [[Alien Act of 1705]] in England
* [[Alien Registration Act]] of 1989
* [[Sedition Act of 1861]]
* [[Sedition Act of 1918]]
==References==
* Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, ''The Age of Federalism'' (1995), the standard scholarly history of 1790s.
* Miller, John Chester. ''Crisis in Freedom: The Alien and Sedition Acts'' (1951)
* Rehnquist, William H. ''Grand Inquests: The historic Impeachments of Justice Samual Chase and President Andrew Johnson'' (1994); Chase was impeached and acquitted for his conduct of a trial under the Sedition act.
* Rosenfeld, Richard N. ''American Aurora: A Democratic-Republican Returns: The Suppressed History of Our Nation's Beginnings and the Heroic Newspaper That Tried to Report It'' (1997)
* Smith, James Morton. ''Freedom's Fetters: The Alien and Sedition Laws and American Civil Liberties'' (1967).
* Stone, Geoffrey R.''Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime from The Sedition Act of 1798 to The War on Terrorism'' (2004).
* Wright, Barry. "Migration, Radicalism, and State Security: Legislative Initiatives in the Canadas and the United States c.1794–1804" in ''Studies in American Political Development,'' Volume 16, Issue 01, April 2002, pp 48-60
==External links==
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Alien.html Alien and Sedition Acts and related resources at the Library of Congress]
* [http://lexrex.com/enlightened/laws/alien_sedition.html Full text of Alien and Sedition Acts]
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{distinguish2|[[Antimony|Anti'''m'''o'''n'''y]], a [[chemical element]]}}
'''Antinomy''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] &alpha;&nu;&tau;&iota;-, against, plus &nu;&omicron;&mu;&omicron;&sigmaf;, law, literally, the mutual incompatibility, real or apparent, of two laws) is a term used in [[logic]] and [[epistemology]], which, loosely, means a [[paradox]] or unresolvable contradiction.
The term acquired a special significance in the philosophy of [[Immanuel Kant]], who used it to describe the equally rational but contradictory results of applying to the universe of pure thought the categories or criteria of understanding proper to the universe of sensible perception or [[experience]] (phenomena). Reason cannot here play the role of establishing rational truths because it goes beyond possible experience and is applied to the sphere of that which [[transcendence (philosophy)|transcends]] it.
These antinomies are four--two mathematical, two dynamical--connected with
# the limitation of the universe in respect of space and time,
# the theory that the whole consists of indivisible atoms (whereas, in fact, none such exist),
# the problem of freedom in relation to universal causality,
# the existence of a universal being
about each of which pure reason contradicts the empirical, as thesis and antithesis.
This was part of Kant's critical program of determining limits to [[science]] and [[philosophy|philosophical]] inquiry. Kant claimed to solve these contradictions by saying, that in no case is the contradiction real, however really it has been intended by the opposing partisans, or must appear to the mind without critical enlightenment. It is wrong, therefore, to impute to Kant, as is often done, the view that human reason is, on ultimate subjects, at war with itself, in the sense of being impelled by equally strong arguments towards alternatives contradictory of each other. The difficulty arises from a confusion between the spheres of phenomena and noumena. In fact no rational cosmology is possible.
It can also be argued that antinomies do not highlight limitations in the power of logical reasoning. This is because the conclusion that there is a limitation is (supposedly) derived from the antinomy by logical reasoning; therefore any limitation in the validity of logical reasoning imposes a limitation on the conclusion that there is a limitation on logical reasoning. (This is an argument by [[self-reference]].) In short, in terms of the validity of logical reasoning as a whole, antinomies are self-isolating: they are like scattered discontinuities within the field of logic, incapable of casting doubt on anything else but themselves.
This carefree position is incompatible with the [[principle of explosion]]. In [[mathematical logic]], antinomies are patently not ''self-isolating'', and are usually seen as disasters for the [[formal system]] in which they arise (as [[Russell's paradox]] in [[Frege]]'s work).
== See also ==
* [[Interesting number paradox]]
* [[Richard's paradox]]
* [[Ship of Theseus]]
* [[Sorites paradox]]
== References ==
* John Watson, ''Selections from Kant'' (trans. Glasgow, 1897), pp. 155 foll.
* W. Windelband, ''History of Philosophy'' (Eng. trans. 1893)
* H. Sidgwick, ''Philos. of Kant'', lectures x. and xi. (Lond., 1905)
* F. Paulsen, ''I. Kant'' (Eng. trans. 1902), pp. 216 foll.
* {{1911}}
{{FOLDOC}}
== External links==
* [http://www.emis.de/cgi-bin/zmen/ZMATH/en/quick.html?first=1&maxdocs=3&type=html&an=0724.03003&format=complete Logic of antinomies]
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<comment>/* See also */ [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Anti-intellectualism''' describes a sentiment of hostility towards, or mistrust of, [[intellectuals]] and intellectual pursuits. This may be expressed in various ways, such as an attack on the merits of [[science]], [[education]], or [[literature]].
[[Image:nast-intellect.png|thumb|300px|[[Political cartoon]]ist [[Thomas Nast]] contrasts an intellectual with a [[boxing|prize-fighter]].]]
Anti-intellectuals often seek to frame themselves as champions of the 'ordinary people', and as advocates of [[egalitarianism]] against [[elitism]], especially what they perceive as [[academic elitism]]. These critics argue from a perception that educated people form a [[social class]] by virtue of their education: that members of this class tend to talk chiefly to one another, and as such are remote from other points of view, and also that members of the intellectual elite tend to dominate [[politics|political]] discourse.
Anti-intellectualism can also be used as a term used to critic |
e-harrison/index.htm George Harrison Songs]
*[http://www.lyricsdir.com/george-harrison-lyrics.html George Harrison Lyrics]
*[http://www.guitarz-for-ever.com/guitarist-george-harrison.html Guitarist George Harrison]
* http://www.geocities.com/shakin_stacks/georgeharrison.txt
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<title>Gas giant</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to an astronomical phenomenon. For the rock band, see [[Gas Giants]]''
A '''gas giant''' (sometimes also known as a '''Jovian planet''' after the planet [[Jupiter]]) is a large [[planet]] that is not primarily composed of [[Rock (geology)|rock]] or other solid [[matter]]. Gas giants may have a rocky or metallic core&mdash;in fact, such a core is thought to be required for a gas giant to form&mdash;but the majority of its mass is in the form of [[gas]] (or gas compressed into a liquid state), mainly [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]]. Unlike rocky planets, which have a clearly defined difference between atmosphere and surface, gas giants do not have a well-defined surface; their atmospheres simply become denser toward the core. Thus, terms such as [[diameter]], [[surface area]], [[volume]], surface [[temperature]] and surface [[density]] may refer only to the outermost layer visible from space.
[[Image:Gas giants large.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Jovian planets|From top: Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, and Jupiter (sizes not to scale).]]
There are four gas giants in our [[solar system]]: [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]], [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]], [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]], and [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]]. Uranus and Neptune may be considered as a separate subclass of giant planets, 'ice giants', or 'Uranian planets', as they are mostly composed of [[ice]], [[rock (geology)|rock]] and gas, unlike the "traditional" gas giants Jupiter or Saturn. However, they share the same qualities of the lack of the solid surface; their differences stem from the fact that their proportion of hydrogen and helium is lower, due to their greater distance from the Sun.
==Common features==
The four solar system gas giants share a number of features. All have atmospheres that are mostly hydrogen and helium and that blend into the liquid interior at pressures greater than the [[critical pressure]], so that there is no clear boundary between atmosphere and body. They have very hot interiors, ranging from about 5000 [[kelvin|K]] for Neptune to over 20,000 K for Jupiter. This great heat means that, beneath their atmospheres, the planets are most likely entirely [[liquid]]. Thus, when discussions refer to a "rocky core", one should not picture a ball of solid [[granite]], or even, at 20,000 K, liquid granite. Rather, what is meant is a region in which the concentration of heavier elements such as iron and silicon is greater than that in the rest of the planet.
All four planets rotate relatively rapidly, which causes wind patterns to break up into east-west bands or stripes. These bands are prominent on Jupiter, muted on Saturn and Neptune, and barely detectable on Uranus.
Finally, all four are accompanied by elaborate systems of [[planetary ring|rings]] and [[natural satellite|moon]]s. Saturn's rings are the most spectacular, and were the only ones known before the [[1970s]]. [[As of 2004]], Jupiter is thought to have the most moons, with more than sixty.
==Jupiter and Saturn==
Jupiter and Saturn consist almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, and they are so large that this is true even though both are thought to have several Earth masses of heavier elements. Their interiors consist of liquid [[metallic hydrogen]], a form of hydrogen distinguished by the fact that it conducts electricity. Both planets have magnetic fields oriented fairly close to their axes of rotation.
==Uranus and Neptune==
Uranus and Neptune have distinctly different interior compositions, with the bulk of their interiors thought to consist of a mixture (or layered assortment) of rock, [[water]], [[methane]], and [[ammonia]]. Both have magnetic fields that are sharply inclined to their axes of rotation.
==Terminology==
The term was coined by the science fiction writer [[James Blish]]. Arguably it is a somewhat of a misnomer, since throughout most of the volume of these planets, there is no distinction between liquids and gases, since all the components (other than solid materials in the core) are above the [http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Chemistry/Miscellenous/Helpfile/LiquidandSolid/PhaseDiagrams/PhaseDiagrams.htm critical point], so that the transition between gas and liquid is smooth. Jupiter is an exceptional case, having metallic hydrogen near the center, as explained above, but much of its volume is hydrogen, helium and traces of other gases above their critical points. The observable atmospheres of any of these planets (at less than unit [[optical depth]]) are quite thin compared to the planetary radii, only extending perhaps one percent of the way to the center. Thus the observable portions are gaseous (in contrast to Mars and Earth, which have gaseous atmospheres through which the crust may be seen.
The rather misleading term has caught on because planetary scientists typically use 'rock', 'gas', and 'ice' as shorthands for classes of elements and compounds commonly found as planetary constituents, irrespective of what [[phase of matter|phase]] they appear in. In the outer solar system, hydrogen and helium are "gases"; water, methane, and ammonia are "ices"; and silicates are rock. When deep planetary interiors are considered, it may not be far off to say that, by "ice" astronomers mean [[oxygen]] and [[carbon]], by "rock" they mean [[silicon]], and by "gas" they mean [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]].
The alternative term "Jovian planet" refers to the Roman god [[Jupiter]]&mdash;a form of which is ''Jovis'', hence ''Jovian''&mdash;and was intended to indicate that all of these planets were similar to Jupiter. However, the many ways in which Uranus and Neptune differ from Jupiter and Saturn have led some to use the term only for the latter two.
With this terminology in mind, some astronomers are starting to refer to Uranus and Neptune as "Uranian planets" or "'''ice giants'''", to indicate the apparent predominance of the "ices" (in liquid form) in their interior composition.
==Extrasolar gas giants==
Because of the limited techniques currently available to detect [[extrasolar planet]]s, all of those found to date have been of a size associated, in our Solar system, with gas giants. The smallest found, as of September 2004, is comparable in mass to Neptune, and many have masses several times that of Jupiter. Because they are inferred to share more in common with Jupiter than with the other gas giant planets, some have claimed that "Jovian planet" is a more accurate term for them. Many of the extrasolar planets are much closer to their parent stars and hence much hotter than gas giants in the solar system, making it possible that some of those planets are a type not observed in our solar system. Considering the relative abundances of the elements in the universe (approximately 90% hydrogen), it would be surprising to find a predominantly rocky planet more massive than Jupiter. On the other hand, previous models of planetary system formation suggested that gas giants would be inhibited from forming as close to their stars as have many of the new planets that have been observed.
[[Image:Géantes gazeuses (1 px = 1000 km).jpg|thumb|center|550px|The solar system's four gas giants against the Sun's limb, to scale]]
The upper mass limit of a gas giant planet is approximately 70 times that of Jupiter (around 0.08 times the mass of the [[Sun]]). Above this point, the intense heat and pressure at the planet's core begin to induce [[nuclear fusion]] and the planet ignites to become a [[red dwarf]]. Interestingly there appears to be a mass gap between the heaviest gas giant planets detected (about 10 times the mass of Jupiter) and the lightest red dwarfs. This has led to suggestions that the f |
t while organisms exhibit equilibrium, their physiological state is not necessarily static. Many organisms exhibit endogenous fluctuations in the form of [[circadian rhythm | circadian]] (period 20 to 28 hours), ultradian (period <20 hours) and infradian (period > 28 hours) rhythms. Thus even in homeostasis, body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate and most metabolic indicators are not always at a constant level, but vary predictably over time.
=== Mechanisms of homeostasis: feedback ===
''Main article:'' [[Feedback]]
When a change of variable occurs, there are two main types of feedback to which the system reacts:
*''[[Negative feedback]]'' is a reaction in which the system responds in such a way as to reverse the direction of change. Since this tends to keep things constant, it allows the maintenance of homeostasis. For instance, when the concentration of [[carbon dioxide]] in the human body increases, the [[lung]]s are signaled to increase their activity and expel more carbon dioxide. [[Thermoregulation]] is another example of negative feedback. When body temperature rises (or falls), receptors in the skin and the [[hypothalamus]] sense a change, triggering a command from the brain. This command, in turn, effects the correct response, in this case a decrease in body temperature.
*In ''[[positive feedback]]'', the response is to amplify the change in the variable. This has a destabilizing effect, so does not result in homeostasis. Positive feedback is less common in naturally occurring systems than negative feedback, but it has its applications. For example, in [[nerve]]s, a [[threshold potential|threshold electric potential]] triggers the generation of a much larger [[action potential]]. (See also [[leverage points]].) [[Blood clotting]] and events in [[childbirth]] are other types of positive feedback.
Sustainable systems require combinations of both kinds of feedback. Generally with the recognition of divergence from the homeostatic condition positive feedbacks are called into play, whereas once the homeostatic condition is approached, negative feedback is used for "fine tuning" responses. This creates a situation of "metastability", in which homeostatic conditions are maintained within fixed limits, but once these limits are exceeded, the system can shift wildly to a wholly new (and possibly less desirable) situation of homeostasis. Such [[catastrophe theory|catastrophic]] shifts may occur with increasing nutrient load in clear rivers suddenly producing a homestatic condition of high [[eutrophication]] and [[turbidity]], for instance.
== Ecological homeostasis ==
Ecological homeostasis is found in a ''' ''[[climax community]]'' ''' of maximum permitted [[biodiversity]], given the prevailing ecological conditions.
In disturbed [[ecosystem]]s or [[sub-climax]] [[biological community|biological communities]] such as the island of [[Krakatoa]], after its major erruption in [[1883]], the established stable homeostasis of the previous [[forest]] climax ecosystem was destroyed and all life eliminated from the island. Krakatoa, in the years after the erruption went through a sequence of ecological changes in which successive groups of new plant or animal species followed one another, leading to increasing biodiversity and eventually culminating in a re-established climax community. This ''' ''[[ecological succession]]'' ''' on Krakatoa occurred in a number of sereal stages, in which a ''"[[sere]]"'' is defined as "a stage in a sequence of events by which succession occurs". The complete chain of seres leading to a climax is called a ''"[[prisere]]"''. In the case of Krakatoa, the island as reached its climax community with eight hundred different species being recorded in 1983, one hundred years after the erruption which cleared all life off the island. Evidence confirms that this number has been homeostatic for some time, with the introduction of new species rapidly leading to elimination of old ones.
The evidence of Krakatoa, and other disturbed or virgin ecosystems shows that the initial colonisation by '''pioneer or [[R strategy]] species''' occurs through positive feedback reproduction strategies, where species are [[weeds]], producing huge numbers of possible offspring, but investing little in the success of any one. Rapid [[boom and bust]] [[Pestilence|plague]] or [[pest]] cycles are observed with such species. As an ecosystem starts to approach climax these species get replaced by more sophisticated climax species which through negative feedback, adapt themselves to specific environmental conditions. These species, closely controlled by '''[[carrying capacity]], follow [[K strategies]]''' where species produce fewer numbers of potential offspring, but invest more heavily in securing the reproductive success of each one to the microenvironmental conditions of its specific [[ecological niche]].
It begins with a pioneer community and ends with a climax community. This climax community occurs when the ultimate vegetation has become in equilibrium with the local environment.
Such ecosystems form nested communities or "[[heterarchies]]", in which homeostasis at one level, contributes to homeostatic processes at another [[holon (philosophy)|holon]]ic level. For example, the loss of leaves on a mature rainforest tree gives a space for new growth, and contributes to the [[leaf litter]] and [[soil]] [[humus]] build-up upon which such growth depends. Equally a mature rainforest tree reduces the sunlight falling on the forest floor and helps prevent invasion by other species. But trees too fall to the forest floor and a healthy forest [[glade]] is dependent upon a constant rate of forest regrowth, produced by the fall of logs, and the recycling of forest nutrients through the respiration of termites and other [[insect]], [[fungi|fungal]] and [[bacteria]]l decomposers. Similarly such forest glades contribute ecological services, such as the regulation of [[microclimate]]s or of the [[hydrological cycle]] for an [[ecosystem]], and a number of different ecosystems act together to maintain homeostasis perhaps of a number of [[river]] [[catchments]] within a [[bioregion]]. A diversity of bioregions similarly makes up a stable homeostatic biological region or [[biome]].
In the [[Gaia hypothesis]], [[James Lovelock]] stated that the entire mass of living matter on Earth (or any planet with life) functions as a vast homeostatic [[superorganism]] that actively modifies its planetary environment to produce the environmental conditions necessary for its own survival. In this view, the entire planet maintains homeostasis. Whether this sort of system is present on Earth is still open to debate. However, some relatively simple homeostatic mechanisms are generally accepted. For example, when atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise, certain plants are able to grow better and thus act to remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When sunlight is plentiful and atmospheric temperature climbs, the [[phytoplankton]] of the ocean surface waters thrive and produce more [[dimethyl sulfide]], DMS. The DMS molecules act as [[cloud condensation nuclei]] which produce more clouds and thus increase the atmospheric [[albedo]] and this feedsback to lower the temperature of the atmosphere. As scientists discover more about Gaia, vast numbers of positive and negative feedback loops are being discovered, that together maintain a metastable condition, sometimes within very broad range of environmental conditions.
== Biological homeostasis ==
Homeostasis is one of the fundamental characteristics of living things. It is the maintenance of the internal environment within tolerable limits.
The internal environment of a living organism's body features body fluids in multicellular animals. The body fluids include [[blood plasma]], [[tissue fluid]] and [[intracellular fluid]]. The maintenance of a [[Steady state (biochemistry)|steady state]] in these fluids is essential to living things as the lack of it harms the genetic material.
With regard to any [[parameter]], an organism may be a '''conformer''' or a '''regulator'''. Regulators try to maintain the parameter at a constant level, regardless of what is happening in its environment. Conformers allow the environment to determine the parameter. For instance, [[endotherm]]ic [[animal]]s maintain a constant body temperature, while [[ectotherm]]ic animals exhibit wide variation in body temperature.
This is not to say that conformers may not have [[behavior]]al [[adaptation (biology)|adaptation]]s that allow them to exert some control over the parameter in question. For instance, [[reptile]]s often sit on [[sun]]-heated [[Rock (geology)|rock]]s in the morning to raise their body temperatures.
An advantage of homeostatic regulation is that it allows the organism to function more effectively. For instance, [[ectotherm]]s tend to become sluggish at low temperatures, whereas endotherms are as active as always. On the other hand, regulation requires energy. One reason [[snake]]s are able to eat just once a week is that they use much less energy for maintaining homeostasis.
=== Homeostasis in the human body ===
All sorts of factors affect the suitability of the [[human]] body fluids to sustain life; these include properties like [[temperature]], [[salinity]], and [[acidity]], and the concentrations of nutrients such as [[glucose]], various [[ion]]s, [[oxygen]], and wastes, such as [[carbon dioxide]] and [[urea]]. Since these properties affect the chemical reactions that keep bodies alive, there are built-in physiological mechanisms to maintain them at desirable levels.
Homeostasis is not the ''reason'' for these ongoing unconscious adjustments. It should be thought of as a general characterization of many normal processes in concert, not their proximal cause. Moreover, there are numero |
t;br />[[Sigourney Weaver]],<br />[[Alan Rickman]],<br />[[Tony Shalhoub]]|
distributor = [[Dreamworks Pictures]]|
released = [[December 23]][[1999]] ([[Canada]])<br />[[December 25]][[1999]] ([[United States|USA]])|
runtime = 102 min. |
language = English |
imdb_id = 0177789 |
music = |
awards = |
budget = $45,000,000 (estimated) |
tagline = The show has been cancelled...but the adventure is just beginning. |
}}
'''''Galaxy Quest''''' is a [[1999]] [[film|motion picture]] written by [[Robert Gordon (screenwriter|Robert Gordon]] and [[David Howard]] and directed by [[Dean Parisot]], starring [[Tim Allen]], [[Sigourney Weaver]], [[Alan Rickman]], and [[Tony Shalhoub]].
The movie is about the washed-up stars of a [[1978]] - [[1982]] TV series called ''Galaxy Quest'' (a parody of the original ''[[Star Trek]]'' series). In ''Galaxy Quest'', they actors were the crew of the [[NSEA Protector]]. They now find themselves in a real intergalactic adventure, thanks to some highly intelligent extraterrestrials (from "Thermia") who, having no concept of [[fiction]] or even [[lies|false]], believe the show to be a series of "historical documents." Not knowing that all of the show's [[technology]] was the product of special effects, the aliens sought to emulate it, managing to actually create the Protector exactly as shown on the show.
The movie won the [[Hugo Award]] for [[Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation|Best Dramatic Presentation]] in the year [[2000]], beating the four other nominees: ''[[Being John Malkovich]]'', ''[[The Iron Giant]]'', ''[[The Matrix]]'', and ''[[The Sixth Sense]]''.
Portions of the movie were filmed in [[Goblin Valley State Park]], [[Utah]], [[United States|USA]].
The DVD release of the film included an alternate audio track in which dialogue from the film is overdubbed with alien gibberish.
== Plot summary ==
{{Spoilers}}
Between 1978 and 1982, the adventures of the crew of the ''NSEA Protector'' thrilled audiences of ''Galaxy Quest'', a ''Star Trek''-like cult science fiction television show. Unfortunately for the actors playing that crew, it's now eighteen years later, and they're now washed-up hasbeens, reduced to convention appearances in front of over-obsessed fans and opening shopping malls to pay the bills. Variously resentful, embittered and resigned about their fates, the only one who gains any sort of pleasure out of the adoration aimed at them by their doting fans is Jason Nesmith, the egomaniacal star and 'Captain' of the crew, who laps up their enthusiasm - yet even he is unhappy, deep down aware that he is resented by his other stars and largely considered a laughing stock by many of his fans.
At one convention, Jason is approached about what he thinks is a personal solo appearance by a group of even-more-unusual-than-usual fans; everything goes to normal (although seems remarkably realistic) until, having cursorily ordered the destruction of the video representation of the 'evil alien overlord' Sarris, he leaves - and when he finds himself shooting through the galaxy in a rubber transportation suit, only then does he realise that everything is real. It transpires that the 'fans' are Thermians, a pleasant and peaceful alien race who, having received twenty-year old transmissions of ''Galaxy Quest'' from Earth, have interpreted the show as 'historical documents' and have structured their entire society around the 'teachings' of the show, going so far as to build an exact replica of the ''NSEA Protector''.
Jason, naturally, loves the idea of being the hero to a ''real'' alien race, and ropes his reluctant fellow actors into joining him as his 'crew'. Unfortunately, just as the ''Protector'' is real, so to are the dangers it must fact - and Sarris, not just a character, is a terrifyingly real nemesis, an evil and ruthless warlord engaged in a genocidal war of annihilation with the Thermians. The actors, in order to help their alien friends, must therefore adopt their roles on the show for real...
== Galaxy Quest and Star Trek ==
The movie parodied everything from the technology of ''Star Trek'' to the ''Star Trek'' [[convention]]s. The [[parody]] is mostly friendly (some Star Trek fans refer to it good-humoredly as "the best Star Trek movie ever made"), and was widely appreciated by [[science fiction]] fans.
As an acknowledged homage to ''Star Trek'', there are a variety of correspondences between the world of ''Galaxy Quest'' and the world of ''Star Trek''. The television program within the film, ''Galaxy Quest'', is set around the starship ''[[NSEA Protector]],'' an instrument of the '''National Space Exploration Agency'''; thinly veiled replicas of the ''USS Enterprise NCC-1701'' and '''Starfleet''', respectively.
A promotional website was set up by the film production company. It was intentionally designed to look like a poorly constructed fan website, with "screen captures" and poor [[HTML]] coding. This was a reference to the countless similar websites devoted to ''Star Trek''.
Despite the overarching similarities to ''Star Trek'', the film has more original dramatic and comedic merit than many spoof comedies, if it is to be considered one. For instance, [[Mel Brooks]]' ''[[Spaceballs]]'', while a broad-hitting spoof of mostly ''[[Star Wars]]'', with a few jabs at ''Star Trek'', may deliver less to a viewer not already familiar with ''Star Wars''. Conversely, most of the plot, themes, and subplots of ''Galaxy Quest'' can be followed and appreciated by those who know little to nothing about ''Star Trek'', although [[Trekkie]]s will usually either have a richer appreciation or a deeper dissatisfaction with the film, as a neutral response may be difficult to find in such circles.
===Cast===
* '''Commander/Captain Peter Quincy Taggart''' (both titles are used), played by '''Jason Nesmith''' ([[Tim Allen]]), is an almost perfect analogue of [[James T. Kirk]]/[[William Shatner]]; Taggart has a reputation for losing his shirt at the flimsiest excuse, rolling on the ground during combat, and making pithy speeches at the drop of a hat, while Nesmith is an egomaniac who regards himself as the core of Galaxy Quest, and tells fans to 'get a life', possibly parodying [[William Shatner|William Shatner's]] famous appearance on [[Saturday Night Live]], in which he tells fans to do the same thing.
*'''Dr. Lazarus of Tev'Meck''', played by '''Sir Alexander Dane''' ([[Alan Rickman]]), is a member of an alien species renowned for logic; he is deeply intelligent and has psionic abilities. Additionally, he has a non-standard weapon and a repeated catchphrase ("by Grabthar's hammer, you shall be avenged!"). In these regards, he parodies [[Spock]] and possibly [[Worf]]. He also has quite interesting toilet facilities designed for his anatomy. Sir Alexander Dane is a tired ex-[[Royal Shakespeare Company|RSC]] actor who resents his typecasting; in this regard he combines elements of [[Leonard Nimoy]] and a rather skewed portrayal of [[Patrick Stewart]] (or possibly a reference to [[Alec Guinness]]). Lazarus' speeches often reflect a pseudo-religious bent, in the manner of [[Benjamin Sisko]], [[Kira Nerys]] and [[Chakotay]].
*'''Lieutenant Tawny Madison''', played by '''Gwen DiMarco''' ([[Sigourney Weaver]]), is the Computer Officer of the Protector, and performs communications duties. Essentially her job boils down to listening to and then directly repeating orders to and information from the ship's computer (she is also the only person who can talk to the computer). She also wears a highly form-fitting uniform. In this manner she is similar to [[Uhura]] and [[Deanna Troi]]. The physical representation of the character is very similar to [[Dr. Crusher|Beverly Crusher]] and the name Gwen DiMarco recalls the actress playing Crusher, [[Gates McFadden]]. Gwen herself, at least in the semi-canonical promotional material for the film, sees herself as a trailblazer, and defends the importance of her admittedly "stupid job" - her pronouncements are similar to some of [[Nichelle Nichols]].
*'''Tech Sergeant Chen''', played by '''Fred Kwan''' ([[Tony Shalhoub]]) is the Chief Engineer ('Tech Sergeant') and Transporter ('Digital Conveyor') Operator. He is similar in appearance to [[Pavel Chekov]] and has a similar delivery; his name, [[Chen]], is a common [[Chinese language|Chinese]] name, even though he has an apparent [[European]] ancestry. This may parody the often muddled national identities of ''Star Trek''. For instance, ([[Noonien Soong]] has a puzzlingly Chinese/[[Korean name|Korean]] name, but is demonstrably neither). Alternatively, it may be a reference to the old Hollywood practice of using Eastern Europeans to play East Asian characters. His dialogue and role in the film also parody [[Montgomery Scott]]. This is made amusing due to the fact that the actor Fred Kwan is a stoned, burnt-out ex-hippie who treats every situation with incredible mellowness, in contrast to Scotty's often frantic warnings of impending doom.
*'''Lieutenant Laredo''', played by '''Tommy Webber''' ([[Daryl Mitchell]]), is the very young 'boy wonder' helmsman, much disliked by fans. In this respect, he is similar to [[Wesley Crusher]]. He is also the only non-alien minority member of the crew, parodying [[Token character|token black]] characters like [[Uhura]], [[Geordi LaForge]], and [[Tuvok]]. Ironically, the character of Webber, now roughly in his twenties, takes a relatively minor role in the movie's [[Screenwriting|third act]], making Webber himself a token black.
*'''Crewman Number 6/Security Chief 'Roc' Ingersol''', played by '''Guy Fleegman''' ([[Sam Rockwell]]), begins the story as an occasional [[Redshirt (character)|redshirt]] who is played by a 'Questerian' ([[Trekkie]]) and small-time actor who still lives with his mother. His new pers |
ock of [[Mexico City]], sometimes mixed with [[chocolate]] or [[puffed grain|puffed rice]], and its use has spread to [[Europe]] and [[North America]]. Besides [[protein]], [[Amaranth grain|amaranth grain]] provides a good source of [[dietary fiber]] and [[dietary mineral]]s such as [[iron]], [[magnesium]], [[phosphorus]], [[copper]], and especially [[manganese]].
'''Amaranth greens''', also called '''Chinese spinach''', '''hinn choy''' or '''yin tsoi''' ({{zh-sp|s=苋菜|p=xiàncài}}), '''callaloo''', '''tampala''', or '''quelite''', are a common leaf vegetable throughout the tropics and in many warm temperate regions. They are a very good source of [[vitamin]]s including [[vitamin A]], [[vitamin B6]], [[vitamin C]], [[riboflavin]], and [[folate]], and dietary minerals including [[calcium]], [[iron]], [[magnesium]], [[phosphorus]], [[potassium]], [[zinc]], [[copper]], and [[manganese]]. However their moderately high content of [[oxalic acid]] inhibits the absorption of calcium, and also means that they should be avoided or eaten in moderation by people with [[kidney]] disorders, [[gout]], or [[rheumatoid arthritis]].
The flowers of the Hopi Red Dye amaranth were used by the Hopi Indians as the source of a deep red dye. This dye has been supplanted by a coal tar dye known as [[Red No. 2]] in North America and E123 in the [[European Economic Community|E.E.C.]], also known as amarynth.
The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as ''A. caudatus'' (love-lies-bleeding), a native of [[India]] and a vigorous, hardy annual with dark purplish [[flower]]s crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, ''A. hypochondriacus'' (prince's feather), has deeply-veined lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes.
Amaranths are recorded as food plants for some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Nutmeg (moth)|The Nutmeg]] and various case-bearers of the genus ''[[Coleophora]]'': ''C. amaranthella'', ''C. enchorda'' (feeds exclusively on ''Amaranthus''), ''C. immortalis'' (feeds exclusively on ''Amaranthus''), ''C. lineapulvella'' and ''C. versurella'' (recorded on ''A. spinosus'').
== Myth, legend and poetry ==
'''Amaranth''', or Amarant (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''amarantos'', unwithering), a name chiefly used in poetry, and applied to Amaranth and other plants which, from not soon fading, typified immortality. Thus, in [[John Milton|Milton's]] [[Paradise Lost]], iii. 353:
<blockquote>
:"Immortal amarant, a flower which once
:In paradise, fast by the tree of life,
:Began to bloom; but soon for man's offence
:To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows,
:And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life,
:And where the river of bliss through midst of heaven
:Rolls o'er elysian flowers her amber stream:
:With these that never fade the spirits elect
:Bind their resplendent locks."
</blockquote>
The progessive metal band, Opeth, refers to Amaranth in the extent of immortallity in the song Blackrose Immortal:
<blockquote>
:"Lullaby of the crescent moon took you
:Mesmerized, its kaleidoscopic face
:Granted you a hollow stare
:Another soul within the divine herd
:I have kept it
:The amaranth symbol
:Hiddin inside the golden shrine
:Until we rejoice in the meadow
:Of the end
:When we both walk the shadows
:It will set ablaze and vanish
:Black rose immortal"
</blockquote>
The original spelling is ''amarant''; the more common spelling ''amaranth'' seems to have come from a [[folk etymology]] assuming that the final syllable derives from the Greek word ''anthos'' ("flower"), common in botanical names.
In ancient [[Greece]] the amaranth (also called chrusanthemon and elichrusos) was sacred to Ephesian [[Artemis]]. It was supposed to have special healing properties, and as a symbol of
immortality was used to decorate images of the gods and tombs. In legend, [[Amarynthus]] (a form of Amarantus) was a hunter of Artemis and king of [[Euboea]]; in a village of Amarynthus, of which he was the eponymous hero, there was a famous temple of Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia (Strabo x. 448; Pausan. i. 31, p. 5).
''Amaranth'' is also the name of the otherworldly pantheon that amuses itself by toying with individuals' luck in [[Tim Lebbon]]'s novella "The Unfortunate".
"Amaranth" is also the name of a long [[Sapphic]] poem by the great [[imagiste]] [[H.D.]], and is based on [[Sappho]]'s fragment 131.
In [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]]'s [[Vampire: The Dark Ages]] [[book]]s and [[role-playing game]]s, ''Amaranth'' is the medieval name of what then was widely known as ''[[Diablerie]]'' (consuming the blood and soul of another vampire).
''Amarantine'' is the name of a 2005 album and single by Irish vocal artist [[Enya]].
"Love-Lies-Bleeding" is the title of a 2005 play by [[Don DeLillo]].
== Selected species ==
* ''Amaranthus acanthochiton'' (Greenstripe)
* ''Amaranthus acutilobius'' (Sharplobe Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus albus'' (White Pigweed, Prostrate Pigweed, Pigweed Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus arenicola'' (Sandhill Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus australis'' (Southern Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus bigelovii'' (Bigelow's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus blitoides'' (Mat Amaranth, Prostrate Amaranth, Prostrate Pigweed)
* ''Amaranthus blitum'' (Purple Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus brownii'' (Brown's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus californicus'' (California Amaranth, California Pigweed)
* ''Amaranthus cannabinus'' (Tidal-marsh Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus caudatus'' (Loves-lies-bleeding, Pendant Amaranth, Tassel Flower, Quilete)
* ''Amaranthus chihuahuensis'' (Chihuahuan Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus chlorostachys''
* ''Amaranthus crassipes'' (Spreading Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus crispus'' (Crispleaf Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus cruentus'' (Purple Amaranth, Red Amaranth, Mexican Grain Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus deflexus'' (Large-fruit Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus dubius'' (Spleen Amaranth, Khada Sag)
* ''Amaranthus fimbriatus'' (Fringed Amaranth, Fringed Pigweed)
* ''Amaranthus floridanus'' (Florida Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus greggii'' (Gregg's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus hybridus'' (Smooth Amaranth, Smooth Pigweed, Red Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus hypochondriacus'' (Prince-of-Wales-feather, Princess Feather)
* ''Amaranthus leucocarpus''
* ''Amaranthus lineatus'' (Australian Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus lividus''
* ''Amaranthus mantegazzianus'' (Quinoa de Castilla)
* ''Amaranthus minimus''
* ''Amaranthus muricatus'' (African Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus obcordatus'' (Trans-Pecos Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus palmeri'' (Palmer's Amaranth, Carelessweed)
* ''Amaranthus paniculus'' (Reuzen Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus polygonoides'' (Tropical Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus powelii'' (Green Amaranth, Powell Amaranth, Powell Pigweed)
* ''Amaranthus pringlei'' (Pringle's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus pumilus'' (Seaside Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus quitensis'' (Ataco, Sangorache)
* ''Amaranthus retroflexus'' (Red-root Amaranth, Redroot Pigweed, Common Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus rudis'' (Tall Amaranth, Common Waterhemp)
* ''Amaranthus scleropoides'' (Bone-bract Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus spinosus'' (Spiny Amaranth, Prickly Amaranth, Thorny Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus standleyanus''
* ''Amaranthus thunbergii'' (Thunberg's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus torreyi'' (Torrey's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus tricolor'' (Joseph's-coat)
* ''Amaranthus tuberculatus'' (Rough-fruit Amaranth, Tall Waterhemp)
* ''Amaranthus viridis'' (Slender Amaranth, Green Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus watsonii'' (Watson's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus wrightii'' (Wright's Amaranth)
== References and external links ==
{{Commonscat|Amaranthus}}
* Lenz, ''Botanik der alt. Greich. und Rom.'' Botany of old. (1859)
* J. Murr, ''Die Pflanzenwelt in der griech. Mythol.'' Plants in Greek Mythology. (1890)
* [http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/images/thumbnails/html/amaranthus_hybridus_thumbnails.htm Amaranthus hybridus]
* [http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/images/thumbnails/html/amaranthus_spinosus_thumbnails.htm Amaranthus spinosus]
* [http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/images/600max/html/starr_010520_0109_amaranthus_viridis.htm Amaranthus viridis]
* [http://flora.huh.harvard.edu:8080/flora/browse.do?flora_id=1&taxon_id=101257 Flora online : Flora of North America]
* [http://amaranth.twoday.net/topics/Amaranthus+Info/ Amaranthus Info]
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/amaranth.html Alternate Field Crops Manual]
<gallery>
Image:Amaranthus caudatus1.jpg|Loves-lies-bleeding (Amaranthus caudatus)
Image:Amaranthus.hybridus1web.jpg|Green Amaranth (''A. hybridus'')
Image:Seabeach Amaranth.jpg|Seabeach amaranth (''A. pumilus''), an [[endangered species]] of amaranth
Image:Illustration Amaranthus retroflexus0.jpg|Red-root Amaranth (''A. retroflexus'') - from Thomé, ''Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz'' 1885
Image:Amaranthus.spinosus1web.jpg|Spiny Amaranth (''Amaranthus spinosus'')
Image:Amaranthus spinosus c.jpg|Callaloo (''Amaranthus spinosus "calaloo"'')
Image:Amaranthus.viridis1web.jpg|Green Amaranth (''Amaranthus viridis'')
</gallery>
[[Category:Caryophyllales]]
[[Category:Cereals]]
[[Category:Grains]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
[[Category:Underutilized crops]]
[[cs:Laskavec]]
[[de:Amarant (Lebensmittel)]]
[[eo:Amaranto nutraĵa]]
[[es:Amaranto]]
[[fr:Amarante]]
[[it:Amaranto (alimento)]]
[[nl:Amarant (geslacht)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>African lily</title>
<id>1543</id>
<revision>
<id>37287116</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T00:52:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = African Lily
| image = Agapanthus africanus.jpg
| image_widt |
ent between the Afghan factions as well as provide humanitarian aid, this despite increasing Taliban restrictions upon UN personnel and agencies.
== Illicit drugs == In 2000, Afghanistan was the world's largest illicit [[opium]] producer, surpassing [[Myanmar]] (potential production in 1999 - 1,670 metric tons; cultivation in 1999 - 515 km&sup2, a 23% increase over 1998); a major source of [[hashish]]; increasing number of [[heroin]]-processing laboratories being set up in the country; major political factions in the country profit from drug trade.
== Diplomatic Representation ==
Prior to the 2001 invasion by US forces, only three countries recognized the [[Taliban]] as the legitimate government of Afghanistan: [[Pakistan]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]]. Following the [[September 11 attacks]], all three countries broke ties with the Taliban following their refusal to hand [[Osama bin Laden]] over to the United States.
Following the establishment of an interim government, most countries resumed diplomatic ties with Afghanistan.
==References==
* {{CIAfb}}{{-}}
* {{StateDept}}
==External links==
*[http://www.embassyofafghanistan.org Embassy of Afghanistan in Washington,DC]
*[http://www.unama-afg.org United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan]
*[http://afghanistan.usembassy.gov United States Embassy in Kabul]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Afghanistan| ]]
[[Category:Wikipedia articles in need of updating]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Feudal Polish crown</title>
<id>11289</id>
<revision>
<id>26542128</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-26T17:13:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Appleseed</username>
<id>404133</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of Polish monarchs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Floccinaucinihilipilification</title>
<id>11291</id>
<revision>
<id>39792537</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T22:23:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>161.97.202.60</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|floccinaucinihilipilification}}
'''Floccinaucinihilipilification''' is the act or habit of esteeming or describing something as worthless, or making something to be worthless by said means.
"Floccinaucinihilipilification" is also the title of a 1996 recording from the Chicago-area music group [[Panicsville]] released on [[Nihilist Records]].
At 29 letters, it is the [[longest word in English|longest non-technical word]] in the first edition of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', which presents it "as enumerated in a well-known rule from the Eton Latin Grammar". The ''OED'' dates its first use in literature at [[1741]] in [[William Shenstone]]'s ''Works in Prose and Verse'': "I loved him for nothing so much as his flocci-nauci-nihili-pili-fication of money".
Though the ''OED'' gives no specifics on its [[derivation]], the word is said to have been invented as an erudite joke by a student of [[Eton College]], who, upon consulting a [[Latin]] textbook, found four words connoting 'nothing' or 'worthless', combined them, and added verb endings:
*''floccus'', -''i'' a wisp or piece of wool, used [[idiom]]atically as ''flocci non facio'' ("I don't care [one thread]")
*''naucum, -i'' a trifle
*''nihilum, -i'' nothing; something valueless
*''pilus, -i'' a hair; a bit or a whit; something small and insignificant
In fact, as given in the first edition of the ''OED'', the word includes four sets of [[quotation mark]]s and is presented thus:
:''' "Flocci" "nauci" "nihili" "pili" fication'''
It is often spelled with hyphens, and has even spawned the [[back formation]]s ''floccinaucical'' (inconsiderable or trifling) and ''floccinaucity'' (a thing of small importance). The ''OED'' appears to have overlooked ''floccinaucinihilipilificatious'', which has one letter more than the nominal form, and means "small" or "insignificant."
The word is sometimes misspelled as floccinaucinihilipi'''p'''ification or flocci'''p'''au'''s'''inihilipilification.
==Pronunciation==
A number of pronunciations have been suggested for this word, including the following (shown in [[IPA chart for English|IPA]]):
*{{IPA|/ˌflɒ.kɪˌnɒ.kɪˌnɪ.hɪ.lɪˌpɪ.lɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/}}
*{{IPA|/ˌflɒ.ksɪˌnɔːsɪˌnaɪ.ɪl.ɪˌpɪl.ɪf.ɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/}}
*{{IPA|/ˌflɑ.tʃi.ˌnaʊ.tʃi.nɪˌhɪ.liˌpɪ.li.faɪ'kæ.ʃən/}}
*{{IPA|/ˌflɑ.sɪˌnɑ.si.n&#601;.hɪl.&#601;.pɪl.&#601;.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/}}
*{{IPA|/ˌflɒk.siˌnoʊ.siˌnaɪ.hil.i.ˌpɪl.i.fɪ.keɪ.ʃən/}}.
==Noted Occurrences==
{{wikiquote}}
* The word is used in a humorous [[Geico]] commercial, in which a judge was struggling to say the word for a child to spell in a [[spelling bee]].
* Jo Brand on the "QI" show - [[BBC Four]] Episode 4/11 - Aired Thursday 25th August 10:30pm.
* 1995 Daily Press Briefing by Mike McCurry, President Clinton's Press Secretary
* Used in feminine genitive form of floccinaucinihilipilificatrix by Capt. Z. John Carter when referring to his mother-in-law, Hilda Mae Burroughs, in ''[[The Number of the Beast (novel)|Number of the Beast]]'' by [[Robert A. Heinlein]]. The same author also used the masculine genitive form in ''Puppetmasters'' earlier in his career.
* Used in the BBC quiz show, ''[[Catchword (TV Series)|Catchword]]'' as the player using the longest word in some rounds got a bonus.
== See also ==
* [[Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia]]
* [[Antidisestablishmentarianism]]
* [[Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious]]
* [[Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis]]
[[Category:Long words]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Felony</title>
<id>11293</id>
<revision>
<id>41726082</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:50:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Acerperi</username>
<id>173184</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimLaw}}
A '''felony''', in many [[common law]] legal systems, is the term for a "very serious" [[crime]], whereas [[misdemeanor|misdemeanors]] are considered to be less serious offenses.
Crimes which are commonly considered to be felonies include, but are not limited to: [[assault|aggravated assault]], [[arson]], [[burglary]], [[murder]], and [[rape]]. Those who are convicted of a felony are known as '''felons'''. Originally, felonies were crimes for which the punishment was either [[capital punishment|death]] or [[forfeiture]] of [[property]]. Nowadays, felons can receive punishments which range in severity; from [[probation]], to [[prison|imprisonment]], to [[execution (legal)|execution]]. In the [[United States]] felons often receive additional punishments such as the loss of [[Voting rights|voting rights]], exclusion from certain lines of work, prohibition from obtaining certain licenses, exclusion from purchase/possession of [[firearms]] or [[ammunition]], and ineligibility to run for or be elected to public office. In addition, some [[state]]s consider a felony conviction to be grounds for an uncontested [[divorce]].
The distinction between a felony and misdemeanor has been abolished by some common law jurisdictions (e.g. [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/ca195882/s322b.html Crimes Act 1958 (Vic., Australia) s. 332B(1)], [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s580e.html Crimes Act 1900 (NSW., Australia) s. 580E(1)]); other jurisdictions maintain the distinction, notably those of the [[United States]]. Those jurisdictions which have abolished the distinction generally adopt some other classification, e.g. in [[Canada]] and [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]] and the [[United kingdom]] the crimes are divided into [[summary offence]]s and [[indictable offence]]s.
==The United States==
In many jurisdictions of the United States, a felony is any offense carrying a potential penalty of more than one year in prison. An offense carrying a lesser sentence is usually a misdemeanor. In [[Massachusetts]], on the other hand, a felony is any offense which carries ''any'' prison time.[http://www.mass.gov/legis/laws/mgl/274-1.htm] Some states have done away with the felony/misdemeanor classification. For example, [[New Jersey]] designates offenses as first degree through fourth degree. A third degree offense is punishable by six months to eighteen months in [[jail]].
U.S. jurisdictions retaining the distinction between a felony and a misdemeanor sometimes divide felonies into classes, e.g. class A felony, class B felony, etc.
A civil sanction imposed on U.S. citizens convicted of a felony includes the loss of competence to serve on a grand or petit [[jury]] or to vote in elections even after release from prison. While controversial, these disabilities are explicitly sanctioned by the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]{{fact}}, a [[Reconstruction]]-era amendment that deals with permissible state regulation of voting rights. However the convicted person may regain his ability to serve as a juror and vote as part of a general restoration of [[civil rights]] following completion of sentence. In addition, convicted felons are prohibited by federal law from possessing firearms, a sanction which is ''not'' usually remitted upon completion of sentence, but which may be annulled by a [[pardon]] of the offense.
Theoretically, federal law allows persons convicted of felonies in a federal [[United States district court]] to apply to have their record expunged after a certain period of time with a clean record. However, the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] has refused to fund the federal agency mandated with handling the applications of convicted felons to have their record expunged. This means that, in practice, federal felons cannot have their records expunged.< |
s|eggs]] that the chickens produced so as not to waste food, and for this reason the [[Spain|Spanish]] dish [[hornazo]] (traditionally eaten on and around Easter) contains hard-boiled eggs as a primary ingredient.
[[Image:Sorbische_Ostereier.jpg|thumb|left|210px|[[sorbs|Sorbian]] Easter eggs]]
Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life in Poland and other Slavic countries' [[folklore|folk]] traditions. A [[batik]]-like decorating process known as [[pisanka]] produces intricate, brilliantly-colored eggs. The celebrated [[Fabergé egg|Fabergé]] workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter eggs for the Russian Imperial Court. A 27-foot (9 m) sculpture of a pisanka stands in Vegreville, Alberta.
There are many other decoration techniques and numerous traditions of giving them as a token of friendship, love or good wishes. A tradition exists in some parts of Britain of rolling painted eggs down steep [[hill]]s on Easter Sunday. In the U.S., such an [[Easter egg roll]] (unrelated to an [[eggroll]]) is often done on flat ground, pushed along with a [[spoon]]. The most well-known egg roll is done at the [[White House]]. An [[Easter egg hunt]] is a common festive activity, where eggs are hidden outdoors (or indoors if in bad weather) for children to run around and find. This may also be a [[contest]] to see who can collect the most eggs.
When boiling hard-cooked eggs for Easter, a nice tan colour can be achieved by boiling the eggs with [[onion]] skin.
[[Deep frying|Deep-fried]] chocolate Easter eggs are sold around Easter time in [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[fish and chips]] shops. The idea was invented in a northeastern Scottish takeaway as a sequel to the extremely popular deep-fried [[Mars Bar]].
==See also==
* [[egg decorating]]
==External links==
*[http://www.vegreville.com/tp2.html The Vegreville Easter Egg]
[[Category: Easter traditions]]
[[Category:Egg]]
[[da:Påskeæg]]
[[de:Osterei]]
[[fr:Œuf de Pâques]]
[[io:Paskala ovo]]
[[nl:Paasei]]
[[nn:Påskeegg]]
[[ru:Пасхальное яйцо]]
[[sl:Pirh]]
[[fi:Pääsiäismuna]]
[[sv:Påskägg]]
[[uk:Писанка]]
[[zh:复活节彩蛋]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Easter</title>
<id>9325</id>
<revision>
<id>42043753</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:09:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wayward</username>
<id>184087</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.110.216.127|82.110.216.127]] ([[User talk:82.110.216.127|talk]]) to last version by Wayward</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Holiday |
|holiday_name=Easter
|image=Russian Resurrection icon.jpg
|caption=[[16th century]] [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] icon of the Resurrection of [[Jesus]] [[Christ]].
|observedby=most [[Christians]], although many non-Christians observe secular practices, especially in Australia, Canada, UK and the US
|color1=white
|color2=white
|color3=white
|date=the first Sunday after the first full moon of spring
|date2006=[[April 16]] ([[Western Christianity|Western]])<br />[[April 23]] ([[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]])
|date2007=[[April 8]]
|date2008=[[March 23]] ([[Western Christianity|Western]])<br />[[April 27]] ([[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]])
|date2009=[[April 12]] ([[Western Christianity|Western]])<br />[[April 19]] ([[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]])
|date2010=[[April 4]]
|observances=[[Prayer]], Whipping ([[Czech Republic]])
|celebrations=Religious (church) services, [[Easter egg]] hunts, gifts ([[United States of America|USA]])
|type=Religious
|significance=Celebrates the death and resurrection of [[Jesus]] as the basis for the salvation of humankind
|relatedto=[[Passover]], a [[Judaism|Jewish]] holiday of similar origins, [[Christmas]], which honors the birth of Jesus, [[Septuagesima]], [[Quinquagesima]], [[Shrove Tuesday]], [[Ash Wednesday]], [[Lent]], [[Palm Sunday]], [[Good Friday]], and [[Holy Saturday]] which lead up to Easter, and [[Ascension]], [[Pentecost]], [[Whit Monday]], [[Trinity Sunday]], and [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]] which follow it
}}
'''Easter''' is the most important religious [[holiday]] of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[liturgical year]], observed in March, April, or May to celebrate the [[resurrection]] of [[Jesus]], which Christians believe occurred after his death by [[crucifixion]] in AD 27-33 (see [[Good Friday]]). ''Easter'' can also refer to the season of the church year, lasting for fifty days, which follows this holiday and ends at [[Pentecost]]. {{see|Eastertide}}
==Nature and development==
In most languages of Christian societies, other than [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]] and some [[Slavic languages|Slavic languages]], the holiday's name is derived from ''Pesach'', the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name of [[Passover]], a Jewish holiday to which the Christian Easter is intimately linked. Easter depends on Passover not only for much of its symbolic meaning but also for its position in the calendar; the [[Last Supper]] shared by Jesus and his [[disciples]] before his crucifixion is generally thought of as a Passover [[seder]], based on the chronology in the [[Synoptic Gospels]]. The [[Gospel of John]] has a different chronology which has Christ's death at the time of the slaughter of the Passover lambs, which may have been for theological reasons but which is regarded by some scholars as more historically likely given the surrounding events. This would put the Last Supper slightly before Passover, on 14 [[Nisan]] of the [[Hebrew calendar]]. According to the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]], "In fact, the Jewish feast was taken over into the Christian Easter celebration."
The English and German names, "Easter" and "Ostern", are not etymologically derived from ''Pesach'' and are instead related to ancient names for the month of April, [[Eostremonat]] and Ostaramanoth respectively. According to the 8th century [[Christian]] [[monk]] and [[historian]] [[Bede]], this month was dedicated to the [[Paganism|pagan]] [[fertility goddess]] [[Eostre]]. The [[Easter Bunny]] is often identified as a remnant of this fertility festival, although there is no evidence of any link.
{{christianity}}
===Easter in the early Church===
The observance of any special holiday throughout the Christian year is believed by some to be an innovation postdating the early church. The ecclesiastical historian [[Socrates Scholasticus]] (b. 380) attributes the observance of Easter by the church to the perpetuation of local custom, "just as many other customs have been established", stating that neither [[Jesus]] nor his apostles enjoined the keeping of this or any other festival. However, when [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.ii.viii.xxiii.html read in context,]this is not a rejection or denigration of the celebration—which, given its currency in Scholasticus' time would be surprising—but is merely part of a defense of the diverse methods for computing its date. Indeed, although he describes the details of the Easter celebration as deriving from local custom, he insists the feast itself is universally observed.
Perhaps the earliest extant primary source referencing Easter is a 2nd century [http://www.preteristarchive.com/Books/0150_melito_pascha.html Paschal homily] by [[Melito of Sardis]], which characterizes the celebration as a well-established one.
According to a number of ecclesiastical historians, primarily [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], bishop [[Polycarp]] of Smyrna, by tradition a disciple of [[John the Evangelist]], disputed the computation of the date with bishop [[Pope Anicetus|Anicetus]] of Rome in what is now known as the [[Quartodecimanism]] controversy. Anicetus became bishop of the church of Rome in the mid second century (c.&nbsp;A.D.&nbsp;155). Shortly thereafter, Polycarp visited Rome and among the topics discussed was when the pre-Easter fast should end. Those in [[Anatolia|Asia]] held strictly to the computation from the [[Hebrew calendar]] and ended the fast on the 14th day of [[Nisan]], while the Roman custom was to continue the fast until the Sunday following. Neither Polycarp nor Anicetus was able to convert the other to his position&mdash;according to a rather confused account by [[Sozomen]], both could claim Apostolic authority for their traditions[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.iii.xii.xix.html]&mdash;but neither did they consider the matter of sufficient importance to justify a [[schism]], so they parted in peace leaving the question unsettled. However, a generation later bishop [[Pope Victor I|Victor]] of Rome excommunicated bishop Polycrates of [[Ephesus]] and the rest of the Asian bishops for their adherence to 14 Nisan. The excommunication was rescinded and the two sides reconciled upon the intervention of bishop [[Irenaeus]] of Lyons, who reminded Victor of the tolerant precedent that had been established earlier. In the end, a uniform method of computing the date of Easter was not formally settled until the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325 (''see below''), although by that time the Roman timing for the observance had spread to most churches.
A number of early bishops rejected the practice of celebrating Easter, or more accurately Passover, on the first Sunday after Nisan 14. This conflict between Easter and Passover is often referred to as the "Paschal Controversy". The bishops dissenting from the newer practice of Easter favored adhering to celebrating the festival on Nisan 14 in accord with the Biblical Passover and the tradition passed on to them by the Apostles. The problem with Nisan 14 in the minds of some in the Western Church (who wished to further associate Sunday and Easter) is that it was calcuated by the moon and could fall on any day of the week.
An early example of this tension is found written by Theophilus of Caesarea (c. 180 A.D.; 8.774 & |
tify a continuing practice in present and future societies." (New York Times Magazine)</blockquote>
A result of these controversies has been his work "Genes, Mind and Culture: The coevolutionary process" (1981) coauthored with Charles Lumsden. This very mathematical work has been popularized in "Promethean fire: reflections on the origin of mind" (1983). The paradigm of coevolutionary process takes its place in the history of modern science and anthropology.
===Ecology===
{{Sectcleanup}}
Wilson has also studied the [[mass extinction]]s of the [[20th century]] and their relationship to [[modern society]]. He explains:
<blockquote>Now when you cut a [[forest]], an ancient forest in
particular, you are not just removing a lot of big [[tree]]s and a few
[[bird]]s fluttering around in the [[canopy (forest)|canopy]]. You are drastically imperiling a vast array of [[species]] within a few square miles of you. The number of these species may go to tens of thousands.</blockquote>
<blockquote>Many of them are still unknown to science, and science has not yet discovered the key role undoubtedly played in the maintenance of that [[ecosystem]], as in the case of [[fungi]], [[microorganism]]s, and many of the [[insect]]s.</blockquote>
and adds:
<blockquote>Let us get rid immediately of the notion that all you have to do is keep a little patch of the [[old growth]] somewhere, and then you can do whatever you want with the rest. That is a very dangerous and false notion.</blockquote>
He concludes:
<blockquote>Had people taken the alert signals seriously, as intelligent people must, this 1992 book [The Diversity of Life] would have set the basis for a new level of discussions on the environment and the current ongoing worldwide biotic holocaust exterminating species at the rate of one every 20 minutes. People might be working on solutions by now instead of still wallowing in ignorance. The facts are clearly and well laid out. The evidence is presented, the theories and data explained at length, at a reasonable cost in paperback (or free from the public lending library). Eight years later people are still presenting in public flawed paradigms (perhaps deliberately) to excuse their gluttonous behaviour which is crushing the planetary life-support systems.</blockquote>
: – E. O. Wilson 2000
==Main works==
* Nature Revealed: Selected Writings 1949-2006, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. ISBN 0801883296
* ''[[The Theory of Island Biogeography]]'', [[1967]], Princeton University Press (2001 reprint), ISBN 0691088365 - with Robert H. MacArthur
* ''[[Insect Societies]]'', [[1971]], Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674454901
* ''[[Sociobiology: The New Synthesis]]'' [[1975]], Belknap Press, ISBN 0674816218
* ''[[Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, Twenty-fifth Anniversary Edition]]'', [[2000]], Belknap Press, ISBN 0674000897
* ''[[On Human Nature]]'', [[1978]], Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674634411 - Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize]]
* '' [[Genes, Mind and Culture: The coevolutionary process]]'', [[1981]], Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-34475-8
* '' [[Promethean fire: reflections on the origin of mind]]'', [[1983]], Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-71445-8
* ''[[Biophilia]]'', [[1984]], Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674074416
* [[Success and Dominance in Ecosystems: The Case of the Social Insects]], [[1990]], [[Inter-Research]], ISSN 0932-2205
* ''[[The Ants]]'', [[1990]], Belknap Press, ISBN 0674040759 - Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize]], with [[Bert Hölldobler]]
* ''[[The Diversity of Life]]'', [[1992]], Belknap Press, ISBN 0674212983
* ''[[The Biophilia Hypothesis]]'', [[1993]], Shearwater Books, ISBN 1559631481 - with Stephen R. Kellert
* ''[[Journey to the Ants|Journey to the Ants: A Story of Scientific Exploration]]'', [[1994]], Belknap Press, ISBN 0674485254 - with Bert Hölldobler
* ''[[Naturalist (book)|Naturalist]]'', [[1994]], Shearwater Books, ISBN 1559632887
* ''[[In Search of Nature]]'', [[1996]], Shearwater Books, ISBN 1559632151 - with Laura Simonds Southworth
* ''[[Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge]]'', [[1998]], Knopf, ISBN 0679450777
* ''[[The Future of Life]]'', [[2002]], Knopf, ISBN 0679450785
* ''[[Pheidole in the New World: A Dominant, Hyperdiverse Ant Genus]]'', [[2003]], Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674002938
*''From So Simple a Beginning: Darwin's Four Great Books''. 2005, W. W. Norton.
===Awards===
Among Wilson's many other awards for his works are two [[Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction|Pulitzer Prizes]] for his 1978 ''On Human Nature'' and 1991 ''[[The Ants]]'' (with [[Bert Hölldobler]]), the [[Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement]] and the [[Nierenberg Prize]].
==See also==
*[[Sociobiology]]
*[[Biodiversity]]
*[[Westermarck effect]]
*[[Green economics]]
*[[Evolutionary psychology]]
*[[Human behavioral ecology]]
*[[Dual inheritance theory]]
*[[List of publications on evolution and human behavior]]
*[[Bertrand Russell]]
*[[Richard Machalek]]
*[[Laura Simonds Southworth]]
*[[Barry Lopez]]
*[[Bert Hölldobler]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://athome.harvard.edu/dh/wilson.html "On the Relation of Science and Humanities"], Harvard@Home lecture.
*[http://dir.salon.com/people/feature/2000/04/22/eowilson/index.html "Living in Shimmering Disequilibrium"], interview with Salon.
*[http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/wilson01.html Essay on "Science and Idealogy"]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4137503,00.html "Darwin's natural heir" profile in ''The Guardian'' February 2001]
*[http://www.booktv.org/ram/history/1205/btv121705_1.ram "Edward O. Wilson on "From So Simple a Beginning: The Four Great Books of Charles Darwin""], BookTV lecture stream
[[Category:1929 births|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Living people|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:American entomologists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:American zoologists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:American naturalists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Myrmecologists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Eagle Scouts|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biologists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:People from Alabama|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Wilson, E. O.]]
[[Category:Premature obituaries|Wilson, Edward]]
[[Category:Ethologists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Humanists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[da:Edward Osborne Wilson]]
[[de:Edward Osborne Wilson]]
[[es:Edward Osborne Wilson]]
[[fr:Edward Osborne Wilson]]
[[nl:Edward Osborne Wilson]]
[[pl:Edward Osborne Wilson]]
[[pt:Edward_O._Wilson]]
[[zh:艾德華·威爾森]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edwin Armstrong</title>
<id>10315</id>
<revision>
<id>42110630</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:11:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>ced</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EdwinHowardArmstrong.jpg|thumb|Edwin Howard Armstrong]]
'''Edwin Howard Armstrong''' ([[December 18]], [[1890]] &ndash; [[January 31]], [[1954]]) was an American [[electrical engineer]] and [[inventor]]. He received an undergraduate degree in electrical engineering from [[Columbia University]]. Edwin Armstrong was one of the most prolific inventors of the radio era, with a vision that was ahead of his time.
Armstrong was the inventor of the [[FM]] radio. He also invented the [[Regenerative circuit]] (invented while he was a junior in college at Collumbia University, and [[patent]]ed 1914), the Super-regenerative circuit (patented 1922), and the [[Superheterodyne receiver|Super Heterodyne]] receiver (patented 1918). Many of Armstrong's inventions were ultimately claimed by others in patent lawsuits. Armstrong's life is both a story about the great inventions he brought about, and the tragedy wherein those inventions' rights were claimed by others.
In particular, the regenerative circuit, which Armstrong [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=1113149.WKU.&OS=PN/1113149&RS=PN/1113149 patented in 1914], was subsequently patented by [[Lee De Forest]] in 1916; De Forest then sold the rights to his patent to [[AT&T]]. Between 1922 and 1934, Armstrong found himself embroiled in a patent war, between himself, [[RCA]], and [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]] on one side, and De Forest and AT&T on the other. This patent lawsuit was the longest ever litigated to its date, at 12 years. Armstrong won the first round of the lawsuit, lost the second, and stalemated in a third. Before the [[United States Supreme Court]], De Forest was granted the regeneration patent in what is today widely believed to be a misunderstanding of the technical facts by the Supreme Court.
Even as the regeneration-circuit lawsuit continued, Armstrong created another momentous invention: [[frequency modulation]] ([[FM]], [[patent]]ed in [[1933]]). Rather than varying the amplitude of a radio wave to create sound, Armstrong's method varied the frequency of the wave instead. [[FM radio]] receivers proved to generate a much clearer sound, free of static, than the [[AM radio]] dominant at the time.
In proving the utility of FM technology, Armstrong successfully lobbied the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] to create an FM radio band, between 42 and 49 MHz.
In the early 1940s, shortly before and during U.S. involvement in [[World War II]], Armstong then helped to market a small number of high powered FM radio stations in the [[New E |
the latter and wife of the former.
==Successor nations?==
Many nations have tried to assert themselves as ethnic or cultural successors to the Huns. The [[Bulgaria]]n khans, for instance, believed to have been descended from [[Attila]]. Indeed, the language of [[Volga Bulghars]], currently known as the [[Chuvash language]], is the most divergent of all the [[Turkic languages]], which testifies to its separate existence for centuries before the dissolution of the proto-Turkic unity happened.
The [[Magyars]] also have laid claims to the Hunnish heritage. Considering that the Huns that invaded Europe represented a loose coalition of various peoples, it is not entirely out of question that the Magyars were present among those ethnic groups as well.
In [[2005]], a group of about 2,500 Hungarians petitioned the government to be a recognized minority of direct descendants of Attila. It was a failed bid but gained a publicity for the group, which had been formed in the early 1990s and and appears to represent a special Hun(garian)-centric brand of mysticism. The self-proclaimed Huns are not known to possess more special knowledge about Hun culture or language than would be available from historical and modern-mystical Hungarian sources. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4435181.stm]
==Historiography==
The term "Hun" has been also used to describe peoples with no historical connection to what scholars consider "Hun".
On [[July 27]], [[1901]], during the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in China, [[Kaiser]] [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] gave the order to "make the name 'German' remembered in China for a thousand years, so that no [[Chinaman]] will ever again dare to even squint at a German". This speech, wherein Wilhelm invoked the memory of the [[5th century|5th-century]] Huns, coupled with the [[Pickelhaube]] or spiked [[helmet]] worn by German forces until [[1916]], that was reminiscent of ancient Hun (and Hungarian) helmets, gave rise to the later derogatory English usage of the latter term for their German enemy during [[World War I]]. This usage was reinforced by [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] propaganda throughout the war, prompting hatred of the Germans by invoking the idea that they were brutal savages.
[[Irish Republicanism|Irish Republicans]] have been known to refer to [[United Kingdom|British]] security forces as "Huns", notably in songs such as "London's Derry" which begins ''Come on out ye British Huns come on out without your guns.'' This spreads too, to association football (soccer) where fans of Celtic F.C. often refer to fans of Glasgow Rangers F.C as "the huns" because of their British associations. There is another possible origin of the "Hun" nickname for Rangers, that after a riot after a friendly match in England the name was given to Rangers fans by an English Newspaper after the destruction carried out was reminiscent of the Somme. [http://irelandsown.net/londonsderry.html]
==See also==
*[[Hunnic language]]
*[[List of Hunnish rulers]]
==Further reading==
* J. Otto Mänchen-Helfen (ed. Max Knight): ''The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture'' (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1973)
* J. Otto Mänchen-Helfen: ''Huns and Hsiung-Nu'' (published in ''Byzantion'', vol. XVII, 1944-45, pp. 222-243)
* J. Otto Mänchen-Helfen: ''The Legend of the Origin of the Huns'' (published in ''Byzantion'', vol. XVII, 1944-45, pp. 244-251)
* E. A. Thompson: ''A History of Attila and the Huns'' (London, Oxford University Press, 1948)
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Eurasian nomads]]
[[Category:History of Hungary]]
[[Category:Huns]]
[[Category:Migration Period]]
[[Category:Turkic peoples]]
[[bg:Хуни]]
[[ca:Huns]]
[[da:Hunnerne]]
[[de:Hunnen]]
[[eo:Hunoj]]
[[es:Hunos]]
[[et:Hunnid]]
[[fi:Hunnit]]
[[fr:Huns]]
[[gl:Hunos]]
[[he:הונים]]
[[it:Unni]]
[[ja:フン族]]
[[ko:훈족]]
[[nl:Hunnen]]
[[no:Hunnerne]]
[[pl:Hunowie]]
[[pt:Huno]]
[[ro:Huni]]
[[ru:Гунны]]
[[sl:Huni]]
[[sv:Hunner]]
[[tr:Hunlar]]
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[[uk:Гуни]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hangover</title>
<id>13522</id>
<revision>
<id>41205742</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T19:54:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.21.131.93</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cures */ m</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''hangover''' or '''veisalgia''' is the unpleasant physical effects following heavy consumption of [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] or the use of drugs. The most common reported characteristics of a hangover are feelings of extreme thirst ([[dehydration]]), feelings of being more tired than usual, [[nausea]] and [[headache]]s.
== Symptoms ==
An [[ethanol|alcohol]] hangover is associated with a variety of [[symptoms]] that may include dehydration, tiredness, headache, nausea, weakness, difficulty concentrating, anxiety, irritability, sensitivity to light and noise and trouble sleeping.
== Causes ==
Hangovers are multi-causal. [[Ethanol]] has a [[dehydration|dehydrating]] effect (such substances are known as [[diuretic]]s), which causes headaches, dry mouth, and [[lethargy]]. Dehydration causes the brain to shrink away from the skull slightly. This triggers pain sensors on the outside surface of your brain which causes the headache. This can be mitigated by drinking plenty of [[water]] during and after consumption of alcohol. Alcohol is also a metabolic poison, and its impact on the stomach lining probably accounts for nausea.
Another factor contributing to a hangover is the conversion of alcohol to [[acetaldehyde]] by the [[liver]] by the [[enzyme]] [[alcohol dehydrogenase]]. This metabolite is probably more toxic than alcohol.
Finally there are various nervous effects. The removal of the depressive effects of alcohol in the brain probably account for the light and noise sensitivity.
It is also thought that the presence of other alcohols (such as [[methanol]] and [[fusel oil]]s), by-products of the [[fermentation|alcoholic fermentation]] also called [[congener]]s, exaggerates many of the symptoms; this probably accounts for the mitigation of the effects when distilled alcohol, particularly vodka, is consumed.
The amount of [[congeners]] in the drink may also have an effect. Red wines have more congeners than white wines, and some people note less of a hangover with white wine.
Some people believe that [[sugar]] (often found in sweet [[cocktail]]s) worsens hangovers.
[[Nicotine]] poisoning can often worsen hangovers, as smokers tend to smoke much more than usual while under the influence of alcohol.
Genetics also plays a part, as some people seldom, if ever, suffer hangover symptoms no matter how much they drink.
The [[psychosomatic]] nature of hangovers shouldn't be ignored either. If people expect a hangover, they tend to feel one.
== Cures ==
Common folk medicine has a wide variety of hangover cures. Indeed there appear to be nearly as many ways of curing hangovers as there are of getting drunk in the first place. Essentially all of these hangover cures have one major thing in common, which is that they are nowhere near as effective at curing a hangover as alcoholic drinks are at getting you drunk. A good hangover cure should replace essential nutrients lost by the body while counteracting the influence of residual poisons; very few cures do both at once.
A popular rhyme goes "Liquor before beer, you're in the clear. Beer before liquor, never been sicker."
Among the more common proposed cures are:
* drinking a sports drink (not an energy drink) such as [[Powerade]] or [[Gatorade]], usually watered-down a bit to rehydrate and replenish lost nutrients in the body
* drinking a large amount of water ''before'' going to bed, and during the night, for rehydration (a little water is much better than none)
* eating mineral-rich foods, like [[pickle]]s or canned fish
* drinking pickle juice, the solution in which cucumbers were pickled, in the morning (a staple hangover remedy in Poland)
* eating anything substantial, especially before going to bed, to "soak up" the alcohol in the stomach (pizza, sandwich)
* drinking some (not too strong) coffee (although caffeine itself may induce dehydration)
* orange juice, which is rich in [[vitamin C]]
* cabbage leaves or tomato juice
* [[Irn Bru]], is commonly regarded as a remedy in Scotland and the UK.
* [[cysteine]], which is available as the over-the-counter supplement [[N-acetylcysteine]] (NAC), is known to assist in processing acetaldehyde, best taken while already drinking and/or before going to bed. (Egg yolk is also rich in cysteine, and it is notable that many hangover folk remedies or morning-after breakfasts incorporate eggs.)
* The later stages of the consumption of alcohol cause more of a negative effect than the first; by consuming more alcohol the body begins processing the newer alcohol bringing a temporary relief from the effects of a hangover (see [[hair of the dog]])
* taking a vitamin B1 ([[thiamin]]) supplement before going to bed
* The [[Ulster fry|Ulster Fry]] (popular in Northern Ireland), an [[Irish Breakfast]] or a [[Breakfast Roll]], a meal that is an all day breakfast.
* [[Coca Cola]], otherwise known as "Black Aspirin" (popular in Australia), also "The Red Ambulance" (Ireland); the caffeine, bubbles and sugar can be easier to hold down than pure water.
* Taking a shower and oscillating between extreme cold and hot temperatures
* day/night cold and flu tablets
In [[2003]], the fad hangover cure was a Russian pill, sold in Russia as [[Antipokhmelin]] (Anti-Hangover), and marketed as [[RU-21]] in the USA. It is also known as the KGB pill due to its supposed use by the [[KGB]] to allow spies to keep a clear head while drinking.
More recently, a 2004 clinical study suggested that taking [[prickly pear]] (''Opuntia ficus in |
se levels to rise, though not to levels which cause acute hyperglycemic symptoms, is not a sensible choice. Several large, well designed, [[clinical trial|long term studies]] have conclusively shown that diabetic complications decrease markedly, linearly, and consistently as blood glucose levels approach 'normal' patterns over long periods. In short, if a diabetic closely controls blood glucose levels (ie, on average, both over days and weeks, and avoiding too high peaks after meals) the rate of diabetic complications goes down. If glucose levels are very closely controlled, that rate can even approach 'normal'. The chronic diabetic complications include [[cerebrovascular accident]]s (CVA or stroke), heart attack, blindness (from proliferative diabetic [[retinopathy]]), toehr vascular damage, nerve damage from [[diabetic neuropathy]], or kidney failure from [[diabetic nephropathy]]. These studies have demonstrated ''beyond doubt'' that, if it is possible for a patient, so-called [[intensive insulinotherapy]] is superior to [[conventional insulinotherapy]]. However, close control of blood glucose levels (as in intensive insulinotherapy) does require care and considerable effort, for [[hypoglycemia]] is dangerous and can be fatal.
A good measure of long term diabetic control (over approximately 90 days in most people) is the serum level of [[glycosylated hemoglobin]] ([[HbA1c]]). A shorter term integrated measure (over two weeks or so) is the so-called 'fructosamine' level, which is a measure of similarly glyclosylated proteins (chiefly albumin) with a shorter half life in the blood. There is a commercial meter available which measures this level in the field.
===Abuse===
There are reports that some patients abuse insulin by injecting larger doses that lead to mild hypoglycemic states. This is extremely dangerous. Severe acute or prolonged hypoglycemia can result in brain damage or death.
On [[July 23]], [[2004]], news reports claim that a former spouse of a prominent international track athlete said that, among other drugs, the ex-spouse had used insulin as a way of 'energizing' the body. The intended implication would seem to be that insulin has effects similar to those alleged for some [[steroid]]s. This is not so; eighty years of insulin use has given no reason to believe it to be in any respect a performance enhancer for non diabetics. Improperly treated diabetics are, to be sure, more prone than others to exhaustion and tiredness, and in some of these cases, proper administration of insulin can relieve such symptoms. However, insulin is not, chemically or clinically, a steroid, and its use in non diabetics is dangerous and always an abuse outside of a well-equipped medical facility. However, while not strictly performance increasing, its ability to shuttle nutrients into the cells is a sought after effect from athletes trying to increase muscle mass.
However, when properly administered, insulin can restore body metabolism to something sufficiently close to normal to allow athletes to return to their former performance levels. Examples include [[Bill Talbert]], the best male tennis player in the world for an extended time, [[Gary Hall Jr.]] the Olympic champion swimmer, [[Bobby Clarke]], an NHL Hall of Famer, at least one young professional Tour golfer, etc. Performance in other fields can also be maintained. Examples include [[Jerry Garcia]] of the [[Grateful Dead]], and [[David Crosby]], of [[Crosby, Stills & Nash]].
==Timeline==
*1922 Banting and Best use bovine insulin extract on human
*1923 [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] produces commercial quantities of bovine insulin
*1923 Hagedorn founds the Nordisk Insulinlaboratorium in Denmark forrunner of [[Novo Nordisk]]
*1926 [[Nordisk]] receives Danish charter to produce insulin as a non profit
*1936 Canadians D.M. Scott and A.M. Fisher formulate zinc insulin mixture and license to [[Novo]]
*1936 Hagedorn discovers that adding protamine to insulin prolongs the effect of insulin
*1946 Nordisk formulates Isophane® porcine insulin aka Neutral Protamine Hagedorn or [[NPH insulin]]
*1946 [[Nordisk]] crystallizes a protamine and insulin mixture
*1950 [[Nordisk]] markets [[NPH insulin]]
*1953 [[Novo]] formulates Lente® porcine and bovine insulins by adding zinc for longer lasting insulin
*1973 Purified monocomponent (MC) insulin is introduced
*1978 [[Genentech]] produces human insulin in ''Escheria coli'' bacteria using recombinant DNA
*1981 [[Novo Nordisk]] chemically and enzymatically converts bovine to human insulin
*1982 [[Genentech]] human insulin approved
*1983 [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] produces recombinant human insulin, Humulin®
*1985 Axel Ullrich sequences the human insulin receptor
*1988 [[Novo Nordisk]] produces recombinant human insulin
*1996 [[Eli Lilly and Company|Lilly]] Humalog® "lyspro" insulin analogue approved
*2004 [[Aventis]] [[Lantus]]® "glargine" insulin analogue approved
*2006 [[Novo Nordisk]] "detemir" up for approval in USA, being researched in Nunnery Wood High, Worcester, England
==See also==
* Anatomy and physiolologye
** [[Glucagon]]
** [[Pancreas]]
** [[Islets of Langerhans]]
** [[Endocrinology]]
* Forms of diabetes mellitus
** [[Diabetes mellitus]]
** [[Diabetes mellitus type 1]]
** [[Diabetes mellitus type 2]]
* Treatment
** [[Diabetic coma]]
** [[Intensive insulinotherapy]]
** [[Insulin pump]]
** [[Conventional insulinotherapy]]
== References ==
* Gerald M Reaven, Ami Laws, ''Insulin Resistance: The Metabolic Syndrome X'', ISBN 0896035883
* Jack L Leahy, William T Cefalu, ''Insulin Therapy'', ISBN 0824707117
* Sudhesh Kumar, Stephen O'Rahilly, ''Insulin Resistance: Insulin Action and Its Disturbances in Disease'', ISBN 0470850086
* Ann Ehrlich, Carol L Schroeder, ''Medical Terminology for Health Professions'', ISBN 0766812979
* Draznin, ''Molecular Biology of Diabetes: Autoimmunity and Genetics; Insulin Synthesis and Secretion'', ISBN 0896032868
* {{note|exubera}} FDA approval of ''Exubera'' inhaled insulin http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/news/2006/NEW01304.html
== External links ==
*[http://nist.rcsb.org/pdb/molecules/pdb14_1.html Insulin: entry from protein databank]
*[http://www.med.uni-giessen.de/itr/history/inshist.html The History of Insulin]
*[http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic/insulinlispro.htm Insulin Lispro]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Inductor</title>
<id>14896</id>
<revision>
<id>42038131</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:51:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rtdrury</username>
<id>172514</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Formulae */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''inductor''' is a [[passive]] electrical device employed in [[Electrical network|electrical circuits]] for its property of [[inductance]]. An inductor can take many forms.
[[Image:Inductors-photo.JPG|thumb|right|370px|Inductors]]
==Physics==
=== Overview ===
Inductance (measured in [[Henry (inductance)|henrys]]) is an effect which results from the [[magnetic field]] that forms around a current carrying [[Conductor (material)|conductor]]. [[Current (electricity)|Electrical current]] flowing through the inductor creates a magnetic field which has an associated electromotive field which opposes the applied voltage. This counter [[electromotive force]] (emf) is generated which opposes the change in voltage applied to the inductor and current in the inductor resists the change but does rise. This is known as inductive reactance. It is opposite in phase to capacitive reactance. Inductance can be increased by looping the conductor into a coil which creates a larger magnetic field.
=== Stored energy ===
The [[energy]] (measured in [[joule]]s, in [[SI]]) stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the current flowing through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic field. This is given by:
:<math> E_\mathrm{stored} = {1 \over 2} L I^2 </math>
where ''L'' is inductance and ''I'' is the current flowing through the inductor.
===Hydraulic model===
As electrical current can be modeled by fluid flow, much like water through pipes; the inductor can be modeled by the flywheel effect of a turbine rotated by the flow. As can be demonstrated intuitively and mathematically, this mimics the behavior of an electrical inductor; current is the integral of voltage, in cases of a sudden interruption of flow it will generate a high pressure across the blockage, etc. Magnetic interactions such as transformers, however, are not modeled.
== In electric circuits ==
While a capacitor resists changes in voltage, an inductor resists changes in current. An ideal inductor would offer no resistance to [[direct current]], however, all real-world inductors have non-zero [[electrical resistance]].
In general, the relationship between the time-varying voltage ''v''(''t'') across an inductor with inductance ''L'' and the time-varying current ''i''(''t'') passing through it is described by the [[differential equation]]:
:<math>v(t) = L \frac{di(t)}{dt}</math>
When a sinusoidal [[alternating current]] (AC) flows through an inductor, a sinusoidal alternating voltage (or [[electromotive force]] (emf) ) is induced. The amplitude of the emf is equal to the amplitude of the current and to the frequency of the sinusoid by the following equation. The [[Phase (waves)|pha |
rritory]]. Nearly all are now also British citizens as a result of the British Overseas Territories Act 2002. It is possible to hold BOTC and British citizenship simultaneously.
* [[British Overseas citizen]]s (BOC)
:BOCs are those former CUKCs who did not qualify for either British citizenship or British Dependent Territories citizenship. Most of these derived their status as CUKCs from former colonies, such as [[Malaysia]] and [[Kenya]].
* [[British subject]]s
:British subjects (as defined in the 1981 Act) are those British subjects who were not CUKCs or citizens of any other Commonwealth country. Most of these derived their status as British subjects from [[British India]] or [[Ireland]].
* [[British protected person]]s (BPP)
:BPPs derive from those parts of the [[British Empire]] which were not officially part of the Crown's dominions, but were instead [[protectorate]]s or [[protected state]]s with nominally independent rulers under the "protection" of the British Crown.
* [[British National (Overseas)|British Nationals (Overseas)]] (BNO)
:The status of BNO did not originally exist under the 1981 scheme, but was created by the Hong Kong Act 1985 and the British Nationality (Hong Kong) Order 1986. BNOs are those former [[Hong Kong]] BDTCs who applied for the status of BNO prior to the handover of Hong Kong to the [[People's Republic of China]]. Hong Kong BDTCs who did not apply to become BNOs, and who did not gain [[Chinese nationality law|PRC nationality]] after the handover, became BOCs if they did not have any other nationality.
Of the various classes of British nationality, all except British citizenship and British Overseas Territories citizenship are residual categories. This means that they will become extinct with the passage of time, as they can only be passed down to the national's children in exceptional circumstances, e.g. if the child would otherwise be [[Stateless person|stateless]]. There is, consequently, little provision for the acquisition of these classes of nationality by people who do not already have them.
==British nationality and Hong Kong==
''Main article: [[British nationality and Hong Kong]]''
Most former BDTCs by virtue of a connection with the former dependent territory of Hong Kong will now either be British Nationals (Overseas) (with or without citizenship of the [[People's Republic of China]]), British Overseas citizens, or solely citizens of the PRC (The deadline for registering as a British National (Overseas) passed in 1997).
In some cases, former BTDCs from Hong Kong have been able to acquire British citizenship (BC) under special legislation passed in 1990, 1996 and 1997. In other cases, some former Hong Kong BDTCs hold British citizenship as a matter of entitlement or through acquisition under normal rules.
Most of these British nationals (BC and BNO) aforementioned have been recognized by the [[People's Republic of China]] as its citizens before and after the handover of Hong Kong. These PRC citizens of Hong Kong origin have been categorised differently from other PRC nationals from [[Macau]] and [[Mainland China]]. See the articles [[HKSAR passport]] and [[Home Return Permit]].
== Acquisition of British citizenship ==
British Citizenship can be acquired in the following ways:
# ''[[lex solis]]'': By birth in the United Kingdom to a parent who is a British citizen at the time of the birth, or to a parent who is settled in the United Kingdom
# ''[[lex sanguinis]]'': By descent if one of the parents is a British citizen otherwise than by descent (for example by birth, adoption, registration or naturalisation in the United Kingdom)
# By naturalisation
# By registration
# By adoption
[http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/ind/en/home/applying/british_nationality/advice_about_nationality.html? Leaflets and advice] which give information about how British citizenship and other kinds of British nationality can be held, applied for or renounced are available from the Home Office Immigration and Nationality Directorate. Information is also available on [http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/ind/en/home/applying/british_nationality/advice_about_nationality/bn5_-_provisions_for.html provisions for reducing statelessness].
Persons acquiring citizenship by method (2) are called citizens by descent, while citizens acquiring citizenship by methods (1), (3) or (5) are called citizens otherwise than by descent. British citizens by registration, method (4), may be either, depending on the circumstances. Only citizens otherwise than by descent can pass on their citizenship to their children born outside the UK automatically; citizens by descent can only pass on citizenship to their non-UK born children by registering them.
=== British citizenship by birth in the United Kingdom ===
A child born in the UK to a parent who is a British citizen or 'settled' in the UK is automatically a British citizen by birth
* only ''one'' parent must meet this requirement, either the father or the mother.
* "settled" status usually means the parent is resident in the United Kingdom and holds Indefinite Leave to Remain (ILR) or Right of Abode. Irish citizens are automatically deemed to hold ILR.
* For children born before [[2 October]] [[2000]], most parents from EU or EEA states were considered "settled" automatically. From that date this applies only in exceptional cases for those not from the Republic of Ireland.
* if only the father meets this requirement, the parents must be married. Marriage subsequent to the birth is normally enough to confer British citizenship from that point.
* where the father is not married to the mother, the Home Office will usually register the child as British provided an application is made and the child would have been British otherwise. The child must be aged under 18 on the date of application.
* where a parent subsequently acquires British citizenship or "settled" status the child can be registered as British provided he or she is still aged under 18
* if the child lives in the UK until age 10 there is a lifetime entitlement to register as a British citizen. The immigration status of the child and its parents is irrelevant.
* Special provisions may apply for the child to acquire British citizenship if a parent is a British Overseas citizen or British subject, or if the child is stateless.
Before 1983, birth in the UK was sufficient to confer British nationality irrespective of the status of parents, with an exception only for children of diplomats and enemy aliens. This exception did not apply to most visiting forces, so, in general, children born in the UK before 1983 to visiting military personnel (eg US forces stationed in the UK) are British citizens by birth.
=== British Citizenship by descent ===
Rules for acquiring British citizenship by descent depend on when the person was born.
==== From 1983 ====
A child born outside the UK on or after [[1 January]] [[1983]] will automatically acquire British citizenship ''by descent'' if ''either'' parent is a British citizen ''otherwise than by descent'' at the time of the birth.
* only ''one'' parent needs to be British ''otherwise than by descent'' - either the father or the mother.
* an unmarried father cannot pass on British citizenship automatically. Although if the parents marry subsequent to the birth the child normally will become a British citizen at that point if ''legitimated'' by the marriage and the father was eligible to pass on British citizenship
* failing the above the child can be registered as British if it would have been British if parents were married and application is made before the child is 18.
* where the parent is a British citizen ''by descent'' additional requirements apply. In the most common scenario, normally the parent is expected to have lived in the UK for three years and apply for the child to be registered as a British citizen within 12 months of the birth.
* For British nationality purposes the Isle of Man and Channel Islands are treated as though they were part of the UK.
* Before [[21 May]] [[2002]], British Overseas Territories were treated as 'overseas' for nationality purposes. The exception was the Falkland Islands. For children born on or after [[21 May]] [[2002]] in a British Overseas Territory (other than the Sovereign Base Areas of Cyprus) there is an entitlement to British citizenship on the same basis as UK born children.
* Children born overseas to parents on ''Crown Service'' are normally granted British citizenship ''otherwise than by descent''. In other words, their status is the same as it would have been had they been born in the UK.
* In exceptional cases, the Home Secretary may register an child of parents who are British ''by descent'' as a British citizen under discretionary provisions, for example if the child is stateless.
==== Prior to 1983 ====
Prior to 1983, as a general rule British nationality could only be transmitted from the father through one generation only, and parents were required to be married. See [[History of British nationality law]].
With effect from [[30 April]] [[2003]], a person born outside the UK to a British mother may be entitled to register as a British citizen ''by descent'' if that person was born between [[8 February]] [[1961]] and [[31 December]] [[1982]]. However those with permanent resident status in the UK, or entitled to Right of Abode, may instead prefer to seek ''naturalisation'' as a British citizen which gives transmissible British citizenship ''otherwise than by descent''.
=== British citizenship by adoption ===
A child adopted by a British citizen only acquires British citizenship ''automatically'' if:
* the adoption order is made by a court in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands, Isle of Man or Falkland Islands on or after [[1 January]] [[1983]], or in another British Overseas Territory on or after [[21 May]] [[2002]]; or
* it is a Conv |
", "It's All Over Now Baby Blue", and "It's Alright Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" have justifiably been fixtures in Dylan's live performances for most of his career.
That summer, Bob Dylan stoked the drama of his legacy by performing his first electric set (since his high school days) with a pickup group drawn mostly from the [[Paul Butterfield Blues Band]] at the [[Newport Folk Festival]]. Dylan had appeared at Newport twice before in 1963 and 1964. Two wildly divergent accounts of the crowd's response in 1965 survive to this day. The settled fact is that Dylan, met with a mix of cheering and booing, left the stage after only three songs. As one version of the legend has it, the boos were from the outraged folk fans Dylan alienated with his electric guitar. An alternative account has it that audience members were upset by poor sound quality and a surprisingly short set. Whatever sparked the crowd's disfavor, Dylan soon reemerged and sang two much better received solo acoustic numbers, "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue" and "Mr. Tambourine Man." Nevertheless, the import of the appearance at Newport worked its way into the awareness of this restless generation: thoughtful acoustic music was no longer enough even for tradition-aware singers like Dylan; times were indeed "a changin" and electricity was needed to express those changes.
===Creative height, crash===
The single "[[Like a Rolling Stone]]" was a U.S. and U.K. hit, cementing his reputation as a lyricist; at over six minutes, devoid of a bridge, the song also helped to expand the limits of hit radio. (In 2004, [[Rolling Stone]] listed it at #1 on its list of the 500 greatest songs of all time.) Its signature sound, with a full, jangling band and a simple organ riff, would characterize his next album, ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]'' (titled after the road that led from his native Minnesota to the musical hotbed of [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]; and referencing any number of [[blues]] songs; e.g., [[Fred McDowell|Mississippi Fred McDowell]]'s "61 Highway"). The songs were in the same vein as the hit single, surreal litanies of the grotesque flavored by [[Mike Bloomfield]]'s blues guitar, a tight rhythm section and Dylan's obvious enjoyment of the sessions. The closing song, "[[Desolation Row]]", is a lengthy apocalyptic vision with references to many figures of [[Western culture]].
[[Image:Music blonde on blonde.jpg|thumb|150px|A successful mix of [[Folk music]], [[Rock and Roll]] and Dylan's own brand of surrealism, ''[[Blonde on Blonde]]'' (1966) is often considered to be one of the finest recordings of American popular music.]]
In support of the record, Dylan was booked for two U.S. concerts and set about assembling a band. [[Mike Bloomfield]] was unwilling to leave the Butterfield Band, so Dylan mixed [[Al Kooper]] and [[Harvey Brooks]] from his studio crew with bar-band stalwarts [[Robbie Robertson]] and [[Levon Helm]], best known for backing [[Ronnie Hawkins]]. In August 1965 at Forest Hills Auditorium, the group was heckled from an audience who, Newport notwithstanding, still demanded the acoustic troubadour of previous years; their reception on September 3rd at the [[Hollywood Bowl]] was more uniformly favorable.
Neither Kooper nor Brooks wanted to tour with Dylan, and he was unable to lure his preferred band, a crew of west coast musicians best known for backing [[Johnny Rivers]], featuring guitarist [[James Burton]] and drummer [[Mickey Jones]], away from their regular commitments. Dylan then hired Robertson and Helm's full band, [[The Band|The Hawks]], for his tour group, and began a string of studio sessions with them in an effort to record the follow-up to ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]''.
Dylan secretly married [[Sara Lownds]] on [[November 22]], [[1965]]; their first child, Jesse Byron Dylan, was born on January 6, 1966. Dylan and Lownds had four children in total: [[Jesse Dylan| Jesse]], Anna, Samuel, and [[Jakob Dylan|Jakob]] (born [[December 9]], [[1969]]). Dylan also adopted Sara Lownds' first daughter Maria Lownds (born October 21st, 1961) from a prior marriage. In the 1990's, the youngest of the pair's children, [[Jakob Dylan]], became well known as the lead singer of the band [[The Wallflowers]]. [[Jesse Dylan]] is a film director and a very successful businessman.
Dylan and Lownds divorced in July 1977, though they reportedly remained in regular contact for many years and, by some accounts, even to the present day.
While Dylan and the Hawks met increasingly receptive audiences on tour, their studio efforts floundered. At John Hammond's suggestion, producer [[Bob Johnston]] brought Dylan to [[Nashville]] to record, surrounding him with a cadre of top-notch session men. Only Robertson and Kooper came down from [[New York City]] to play more limited roles. The Nashville sessions brought out what Dylan would later call "that thin wild mercury sound" and a classic record often viewed as one of the greatest in American popular music, ''[[Blonde on Blonde]]'' (1966).
Dylan undertook an ambitious "world tour" of [[Australia]] and [[Europe]] in the spring of 1966. Each show was split into two parts: in the first half Dylan performed solo, accompanying himself on [[acoustic guitar]] and [[harmonica]]; in the second half, backed by [[the Hawks]] he played fully-charged electric music. This jarring switch chafed at many fans, who jeered and slowly handclapped. The tour culminated in an infamously raucous confrontation with his audience at the Manchester [[Free Trade Hall]] in [[England]] (officially released on CD in 1998). At the climax of the concert, one fan, angry with Dylan's electric sound, shouted; "[[Judas]]!" from the audience, and Dylan responded, "I don't believe you! You're a liar!" before turning to the band and exhorting them to "Play fuckin' loud!" as they launched into the last song of the night—"[[Like a Rolling Stone]]".
After his European tour, Dylan returned to [[New York]], but the pressures on him continued to increase: his publisher was demanding a finished [[manuscript]] of the poem/novel ''[[Tarantula (book)|Tarantula]]'' and manager [[Albert Grossman]] had already scheduled a grueling summer/fall concert tour. On [[July 29]], [[1966]], while Dylan rode his Triumph 500 [[motorcycle]] in [[Woodstock, New York]], its brakes locked, throwing him to the ground. Though the extent of his injuries were never fully disclosed, it was confirmed that he indeed broke his [[neck]]. Whether through necessity or [[opportunism]], Dylan used an extended convalescence to escape the pressures of [[stardom]].
Once Dylan was well enough to resume creative work, he began editing footage into ''[[Eat the Document]]'', a rarely exhibited follow-up to ''Dont Look Back''. In [[1967 in music|1967]] he began recording music with the Hawks at his home and, legendarily, the basement of the Hawks' nearby "Big Pink". The relaxed atmosphere yielded renditions of many of Dylan's favored old and new songs and some newly written pieces. These originals, at first compiled as demos for other artists to record, began to circulate on their own merits. Columbia belatedly released selections from them in 1975 as ''[[The Basement Tapes]]''. Later in 1967, the Hawks (soon to be rechristened as [[The Band]]) independently recorded the album ''[[Music From Big Pink]]'', thus beginning a long and successful recording and performing career of their own.
Unsurprisingly, Dylan's new music reflected by his changed lifestyle. In December 1967, he released his first album since the motorcycle crash called ''[[John Wesley Harding (album)|John Wesley Harding]]''. The album was a quiet, contemplative record of shorter songs, set in a landscape which drew on both the [[American West]] and the [[Old Testament]]. The sparse structure and instrumentation, coupled with lyrics which took the Judeo-Christian tradition seriously, marked a departure not only from Dylan's own work but from the escalating psychedelic fervor of the 1960s musical culture.It included "[[All Along the Watchtower]]", with lyrics derived from the [[Book of Isaiah]] (21:5–9). The song was later immortalized by [[Jimi Hendrix]] in a version that Dylan himself has acknowledged as definitive.
[[Woody Guthrie]] died in October 1967, and Dylan made his first public appearances in 18 months at a pair of Guthrie memorial concerts the following January.
Dylan's next release, ''[[Nashville Skyline]]'' ([[1969 in music|1969]]), was virtually a mainstream country record featuring instrumental backing by [[Nashville]] musicians, a mellow-voiced, contented Dylan, a duet with [[Johnny Cash]], and the hit single "[[Lay Lady Lay]]". Dylan appeared on Cash's new television show and then gave a high-profile performance at the [[Isle of Wight]] rock festival (after rejecting overtures to appear at the [[Woodstock]] event far closer to his home).
===The 1970s===
In the early 1970s, critics charged Dylan's output was of varied and unpredictable quality. "What is this shit?" ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine writer and Dylan loyalist [[Greil Marcus]] notoriously asked, upon first listening to [[1970 in music|1970]]'s ''[[Self Portrait]]''. In general, ''Self Portrait'', a double LP including few original songs, was poorly received. Later that year, Dylan released ''[[New Morning]]'', considered by some as a return to form. His unannounced appearance at [[George Harrison|George Harrison's]] [[1971 in music|1971]] [[Concert for Bangladesh]] was widely praised, but reports of a new album, a television special, and a return to touring came to nothing.
In 1972, Dylan signed onto [[Sam Peckinpah]]'s film ''[[Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid]]'', providing the [[Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid (album)|songs]] and taking a role as "A |
;the virtual". (The coinage refers not to the "virtual reality" of the computer age, but to Proust's definition of the past: "real without being actual, ideal without being abstract.") While Deleuze's virtual ideas superficially resemble Plato's forms and Kant's categories, they are not originals or models, nor are they abstract conditions of possible experience; instead they are the conditions of real experience, the internal difference in itself. "The concept they [the conditions] form is identical to its object."{{ref|Desert_Islands}} A Deleuzean idea is not a wraith-like abstraction of an experienced thing, it is a real system of differential relations that creates actual spaces, times, and sensations {{ref|Dialogues}}.
Thus Deleuze, alluding to Kant and [[Schelling]], at times refers to his philosophy as a ''transcendental empiricism''. In Kant's [[transcendental idealism]], experience only makes sense when organized by intellectual categories (such as space, time, and causality). Taking such intellectual concepts out of the context of experience, according to Kant, spawns seductive but senseless metaphysical beliefs. (For example, extending the concept of causality beyond actual experience results in unverifiable speculation about a first cause.) Deleuze inverts the Kantian arrangement: experience exceeds our concepts by presenting novelty, and this raw experience of difference is the actualization of an idea, unfettered by our prior categories.
Simultaneously, Deleuze claims that being is univocal, i.e., that it has only one sense. Deleuze borrows the doctrine of [[ontological univocity]] from the medieval philosopher [[John Duns Scotus]]. In medieval disputes over the nature of God, many eminent theologians and philosophers (such as [[Thomas Aquinas]]) held that when one says that "God is good", God's goodness is only analogous to human goodness. Scotus argued to the contrary that when one says that "God is good", the goodness in question is the exact same sort of goodness that is meant when one says "Jane is good". That is, God only differs from us in degree, and properties such as goodness, power, reason, and so forth are univocally applied, regardless of whether one is talking about God, a man, or a flea.
Deleuze adapts the doctrine of univocity to claim that being is, univocally, difference. "With univocity, however, it is not the differences which are and must be: it is being which is Difference, in the sense that it is said of difference. Moreover, it is not we who are univocal in a Being which is not; it is we and our individuality which remains equivocal in and for a univocal Being."{{ref|Difference_and_Repetition}} Here Deleuze echoes Spinoza, who maintained that everything that exists is a modification of the one [[substance]], [[God]] or [[Nature]]. For Deleuze, the one substance is an always differentiating [[process]], an origami cosmos, always folding, unfolding, refolding. Deleuze summarizes this ontology in the paradoxical formula "[[monism]] = pluralism".{{ref|A_Thousand_Plateaus}}
''Difference and Repetition'' is Deleuze's most sustained and systematic attempt to work out the details of such a metaphysics, but like ideas are expressed in his other works. In ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'' (1962), for example, reality is a play of forces; in ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1972), a "[[body without organs]]"; in ''What Is Philosophy?'' (1991), a "plane of immanence" or "chaosmos".
===Epistemology===
Deleuze's unusual metaphysics entails an equally atypical [[epistemology]], or what he calls a transformation of "the image of thought". According to Deleuze, the traditional image of thought, found in philosophers such as [[Aristotle]], [[Descartes]], and [[Husserl]], misconceives of thinking as a mostly unproblematic business. Truth may be hard to discover -- it may require a life of pure theorizing, or rigorous computation, or systematic doubt -- but thinking is able, at least in principle, to correctly grasp facts, forms, ideas, etc. It may be practically impossible to attain a God's-eye, [[neutral point of view]], but that is the ideal to approximate: a disinterested pursuit that results in a determinate, fixed truth; an orderly extension of common sense. Deleuze rejects this view as papering over the metaphysical flux, instead claiming that genuine thinking is a violent confrontation with reality, an involuntary rupture of established categories. Truth changes what we think; it alters what we think is possible. By setting aside the assumption that thinking has a natural ability to recognize the truth, Deleuze says, we attain a "thought without image", a thought always determined by problems rather than solving them. "All this, however, presupposes codes or axioms which do not result by chance, but which do not have an intrinsic rationality either. It's just like theology: everything about it is quite rational if you accept sin, the immaculate conception, and the incarnation. Reason is always a region carved out of the irrational -- not sheltered from the irrational at all, but traversed by it and only defined by a particular kind of relationship among irrational factors. Underneath all reason lies delirium, and drift."{{ref|Desert_Islands_2}}
Deleuze's peculiar readings of the history of philosophy stem from this unusual epistemological perspective. To read a philosopher is no longer to aim at finding a single, correct interpretation, but is instead to present a philosopher's practical attempt to grapple with the problematic nature of reality. Likewise, rather than seeing philosophy as a simple pursuit of truth, reason, or universals, Deleuze redefines philosophy as the [[Concept#Gilles Deleuze's definition of Philosophy|creation of concepts]]. For Deleuze, concepts are not solutions to problems, but constructions that define a range of thinking. Instead of asking, "is it true?" or "what is it?", Deleuze proposes that better questions would be "what does it do?" or "how does it work?"
===Values===
In ethics and politics, Deleuze again echoes Spinoza, albeit in a resoundingly Nietzschean key. In a classical [[liberalism|liberal]] model of society, morality begins from individuals, who bear abstract [[natural rights]] or duties set by themselves or a God. Following his rejection of any metaphysics based on identity, Deleuze sees the notion of an individual as an arresting or halting of differentiation (as the word "individual" itself suggests). Guided by the ethical [[naturalism]] of Spinoza and Nietzsche, Deleuze instead seeks to understand individuals and their moralities as products of the organization of pre-individual desires and powers. In the two volumes of ''Capitalism and Schizophrenia'', Deleuze and Guattari describe history as a congealing and regimentation of "[[desiring-production]]" (a concept combining features of [[Freud]]ian drives and [[Marxist]] [[labor (economics)|labor]]) into the modern individual (typically neurotic and repressed), the nation-state (a society of continuous control), and capitalism (an anarchy domesticated into infantilizing commodification). Deleuze, following Marx, acknowledges capitalism's liberating destruction of traditional codes and hierarchies, but regularly inveighs against its homogenization of all values to the aims of the market.
But how does Deleuze square his pessimistic diagnoses with his ethical naturalism? Deleuze claims that standards of value are internal or "immanent": to live well is to fully express one's power, to go the limits of our potential, rather than to judge what exists by transcendent standards. The fault with modern society lies in its suppression of difference and its alienation of persons from what they can do. We must overturn established identities and affirm reality, which is a flux of change and difference, and so become all that we can become -- though we cannot know what that is in advance. The pinnacle of Deleuzean practice, then, is creativity. "Herein, perhaps, lies the secret: to bring into existence and not to judge. If it is so disgusting to judge, it is not because everything is of equal value, but on the contrary because what has value can be made or distinguished only by defying judgment. What expert judgment, in art, could ever bear on the work to come?" {{ref|Critical_and_Clinical}}
== Bibliography ==
By Gilles Deleuze:
*''Empirisme et subjectivité'' (1953). Trans. ''Empiricism and Subjectivity''.
*''Nietzsche et la philosophie'' (1962). Trans. ''Nietzsche and Philosophy''.
*''La philosophie critique de Kant'' (1963). Trans.''Kant's Critical Philosophy''.
*''Proust et les signes'' (1964, 2nd ed. 1970). Trans. ''Proust and Signs''.
*''Le Bergsonisme'' (1966). Trans. ''Bergsonism''.
*''Présentation de Sacher-Masoch'' (1967). Trans. ''Masochism: Coldness and Cruelty''.
*''Différence et répétition'' (1968). Trans. ''[[Difference and Repetition]]''.
*''Spinoza et le problème de l'expression'' (1968). Trans. ''Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza''.
*''Logique du sens'' (1969). Trans. ''The Logic of Sense''.
*''Spinoza - Philosophie pratique'' (1970, 2nd ed. 1981). Trans. ''Spinoza: Practical Philosophy''.
*''Dialogues'' (1977, 2nd ed. 1996, with Claire Parnet). Trans. ''Dialogues''.
*''Superpositions'' (1979).
*''Francis Bacon - Logique de la sensation'' (1981). Trans. ''Francis Bacon: Logic of Sensation''.
*''Cinéma I: L'image-mouvement'' (1983). Trans. ''Cinema 1: The Movement-Image''.
*''Cinéma II: L'image-temps'' (1985). Trans. ''Cinema 2: The Time-Image''.
*''Foucault'' (1986).
*''Le pli - Leibniz et le baroque'' (1988). Trans. ''The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque''.
*''Périclès et Verdi: La philosophie de Francois Châtelet'' ( |
pect/geolex/ GeoLex - The Lexicon of Geocaching] Comprehensive listing of the terms and abbreviations used in the geocaching world, and their meanings.
* [http://geocaching.gpsgames.org/history/ Geocaching history]
* [http://www.geocachingpolicy.info/ Geocaching Policy website] Public land policies regarding Geocaching and related activities (Out Of Date)
* [http://www.geocreed.info/ The Geocachers' Creed] A voluntary set of principles for placing and hiding geocaches
* [http://www.cacheopedia.com/ Cacheopedia] A wiki site specifically for geocaching articles, safety guides, reviews, etc.
[[Category:GPS]]
[[Category:Hobbies]]
[[Category:Outdoor locating games]]
[[Category:Internet object tracking]]
[[cs:Geocaching]]
[[da:Geocaching]]
[[de:Geocaching]]
[[es:Geocaching]]
[[eo:Geokaŝludado]]
[[fr:Geocaching]]
[[nl:Geocaching]]
[[ja:ジオキャッシング]]
[[no:Geocaching]]
[[pl:Geocaching]]
[[pt:Geocaching]]
[[ru:Геокэшинг]]
[[fi:Geokätkentä]]
[[sv:Geocaching]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geographical mile</title>
<id>12534</id>
<revision>
<id>22533136</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-04T08:28:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Glenn</username>
<id>9232</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+da</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''geographical mile''' is a unit of length determined by 1 [[minute|minute of arc]] along the [[Earth]]'s [[equator]], approximately equal to 1855 [[metre]]s (6087.15 international [[foot (unit of length)|feet]]).
The unit is not used much; it is closely related to the [[nautical mile]], which was originally determined as 1 minute of arc along a [[great circle]] of the Earth and is nowadays defined to be exactly 1852 metres.
The [[Denmark|Danish]] and [[Germany|German]] '''geographical mile''' (''mil'' and ''Meile'') is 4 minutes of arc, and was defined as approximately 7421.5 metres by the astronomer [[Ole Rømer]] of [[Denmark]]. In [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]], this 4 minute geographical mile was mainly used at sea (''sjømil''), up to the beginning of the 20th century.
==See also==
*[[Medieval weights and measures]] for details of the geographical [[league]] of [[France]]
*[[conversion of units]]
*[[mile]] for the various other miles in use
[[Category:Units of length]]
[[da:Geografisk mil]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Golden Heroes</title>
<id>12535</id>
<revision>
<id>38680111</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T23:00:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Genesis</username>
<id>72450</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added infobox</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title= Golden Heroes
|image=
|caption=
|designer= [[Simon Burley]], [[Peter Haines]]
|publisher= [[Games Workshop]]
|date= 1982 ''(amateur)''<br>1984 ''([[Games Workshop]])''
|genre= [[Superhero]] fiction
|system= Custom
|footnotes=
}}
'''Golden Heroes''' is a [[superhero]] [[role-playing game]] that was originally written and published on an amateur basis in [[1982]]. [[Games Workshop]] then published a more complete version in [[1984]].
It was written by [[Simon Burley]] and [[Peter Haines]] and was illustrated by a whole group of artists who were working for [[2000 AD (comic)|2000 AD]] at the time.
Published in a box the rules books features fake [[bar code]]s and [[comics code]] approval badges.
The character generation system is legendary with players rolling completely random characters. A character can only keep his full set of powers if he can justify them all in a plausible origins story.
The system really strives to recreate comics, with the actions occurring in "frames" and a lot of classic comics assumptions being written into the rules.
The game is also now known as Squadron UK, which is available for free (minus the original artwork).
==External links==
* [http://members.aol.com/squadronuk/SquadronUK/ Squadron UK Homepage]
{{rpg-stub}}
[[Category:Superhero role-playing games]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genetive</title>
<id>12536</id>
<revision>
<id>15910218</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Genitive case]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guangzhou</title>
<id>12537</id>
<revision>
<id>41279771</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T06:32:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.129.75.70</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Chinese|eng=Guangzhou|simp=广州|trad=廣州|pinyin=Guǎngzhōu|wg=Kuang-chou|yale=Gwóngjaū|jp=Gwong2zau1|bopomofo=ㄍㄨㄤˇ ㄓㄡ}}
{{ZHdot|Guangzhou}}
:''"Canton, China" redirects here. For a province in [[China]], see [[Guangdong]]''.
'''Guangzhou''' is the capital of [[Guangdong]] [[Province of China|Province]] in southern [[China]]. The city was formerly known internationally as '''Canton City''' or simply '''Canton''', after a [[French language]] transliteration of the city name in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]]. It is a port on the [[Pearl River (China)|Pearl River]], which is [[navigable river|navigable]] to the [[South China Sea]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city population was 9.94 million making it the most populous city in the province and the fifth most populous in China.
==Name==
The Chinese abbreviation of Guangzhou is Sui (穗; pinyin: sùi; Jyutping: seoi6; Yale: seuīh) or sometimes GZ. This city has the nicknames of Wuyangcheng (city of five rams), Yangcheng (city of rams), Huacheng (city of flowers), or Suicheng. The city can also be refered to as the WuMengCheng (City of Wood Wools), a reference to a tall, native tree that produces wool fiber in its gorgeous red blossoms.
"Canton" was the convenient [[French language|French]] [[romanisation]] for [[Europeans]] who during the colonial period generally did not understand ideographic characters (see [[exonym and endonym]]). When the term "Canton" is pronounced in French it provides a closer oral rendering of the name in its original [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]]. Guangzhou is a [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] pronunciation of the Han ideographs.
==Geography==
Guangzhou is located at 112°57'E to 114°3'E and 22°26'N to 23°56'N. The city is part of the [[Pearl River Delta]].
[[Image:Guangzhou citic plaza.jpg|left|thumb|250px|CITIC Plaza]]
[[Image:Canton pagoda de las flores.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Temple of the Six Banyan Trees]]
===Administrative divisions===
[[Image:Guangzhou map2005.jpg|thumb|270px|right|Guangzhou jurisdiction (in yellow)]]
Guangzhou is a [[sub-provincial city]]. It has direct jurisdiction over ten [[District of China|districts]] and two [[county-level city|county-level cities]].
;District
*[[Yuexiu|Yuexiu District]]
*[[Liwan|Liwan District]]
*[[Haizhu|Haizhu District]]
*[[Tianhe|Tianhe District]]
*[[Baiyun|Baiyun District]]
*[[Huangpu, Guangzhou|Huangpu District]]
*[[Huadu|Huadu District]]
*[[Panyu|Panyu District]]
*[[Nansha|Nansha District]]
*[[Luogang|Luogang District]]
As of [[April 28]], [[2005]], the districts of [[Dongshan, Guangzhou|Dongshan]] and [[Fangcun]] have been abolished and merged into [[Yuexiu]] and [[Liwan]] respectively; at the same time the district of [[Nansha]] is established out of parts of [[Panyu]], and the district of [[Luogang]] is established out of parts of [[Baiyun]], [[Tianhe]], [[Huangpu, Guangzhou|Huangpu]], and [[Zengcheng]].
==History==
It is believed that the first city built at the site of Guangzhou was Panyu (番禺; the locals pronounced this in Cantonese as ''Poon Yu'') founded in 214 BC. The city has been continuously occupied since that time. Panyu was expanded when it became the capital of the [[Nanyue]] Kingdom (南越) in 206 BC.
The [[Han Dynasty]] annexed Nanyue in 111 BC, and Panyu became a provincial capital and remains so until this day. In 226 AD, the city became the seat of the Guang Prefecture (廣州; Guangzhou). Therefore, "Guangzhou" was the name of the prefecture, not of the city. However, people grew accustomed to calling the city Guangzhou, instead of Panyu.
[[Image:Situationskrtchen von Kanton, Makao, Hongkong.jpg|thumb|250px|1888 German map of Hong Kong, Macau, and Canton (now Guangzhou)]]
[[Arabs]] ¹ and [[Iran|Persia]]ns sacked Guangzhou (known to them as '''Sin-Kalan''') in AD 758, ² according to a local Guangzhou government report on [[October 30]] [[758]], which corresponded to the day of ''Guisi'' (癸巳) of the ninth [[Chinese calendar|lunar]] month in the first year of the [[Chinese era name|''Qianyuan'' era]] of [[Emperor Suzong of Tang China|Emperor Suzong]] of the [[Tang Dynasty]]. ³
During the Northern Song Dynasty, a celebrated poet called Su Shi visited Guangzhou's [[Temple of the Six Banyan Trees|Baozhuangyan Temple]] and wrote the inscription "Liu Rong" (Six Banyan Trees) because of the six banyan trees he saw there. It has since been called the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees.
In 1711, the [[British East India Company]] established a trading post in Guangzhou. The [[Qianlong Emperor]] restricted foreign traders to a district in Guangzhou under the [[Canton System]] in 1760.
Guangzhou was one of the five Chinese [[treaty ports]] opened by the [[Treaty of Nanking]] (signed in 1842) at the end of the [[First Opium War]] between [[United Kingdom]] and [[China]]. The other ports were [[Fuzhou]], [[Xiamen]], [[Ningbo]] and [[Shanghai]].
In 1918, "Guangzhou" became the official name of the city, when an urban council was established in Guangzhou. Panyu became a county's name south of Guangzhou. In both 1930 and 1953, Guangzhou was promoted to the status of a Municipality, but each promotion was cancelled within the year. Japanese troops occupied Guangzhou between [[October 12]], [ |
was perhaps the first Mennonite scholar to define ''Anabaptists'' that way in his 1960 Oxford dissertation. This represents a rejection of the previous standard held by Mennonite scholars such as Bender and Friedmann.
Another method of categorization acknowledges regional variations, such as Swiss Brethren (Grebel, Manz), Dutch Anabaptism (Menno, Philips), and South German Anabaptism (Hübmaier, Marpeck).
Historians and sociologists have made further distinctions between radical Anabaptists, who were prepared to use violence in their attempts to build a [[New Jerusalem]], and their pacifist brethren, later broadly known as [[Mennonites]]. Radical Anabaptist groups included the Münsterites, who occupied and held the German city of [[Münster]] in 1534-[[1535]], and the [[Batenburgers]], who persisted in various guises as late as the 1570s.
==Zwickau prophets and the Peasants' War==
{{main articles|[[Thomas Muentzer]] and [[Peasants' War]]}}
On [[December 27]], [[1521]], [[Zwickau prophets|three "prophets"]], influenced by and in turn influencing [[Thomas Muentzer]], appeared in [[Wittenberg]] from [[Zwickau]]: Thomas Dreschel, Nicolas Storch and Mark Thomas Stübner. The crisis came in the so-called Peasants' War in South [[Germany]] in 1525. In its origin a revolt against feudal oppression, it became, under the leadership of Muentzer, a war against all constituted authorities, and an attempt to establish by revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality and the community of goods.
==The Münster Rebellion==
{{main articles|[[Münster Rebellion]] and [[Münster]]}}
A second and more determined attempt to establish a theocracy was made at Münster in [[Westphalia]] (1532-1535), led by [[Bernhard Rothmann]], [[Bernhard Knipperdolling]], [[Jan Matthys]] and [[John of Leiden]].
==Miscellany==
The first leaders of the movement in Zürich &mdash; [[Conrad Grebel]], [[Felix Manz]], [[George Blaurock]], [[Balthasar Hubmaier|Balthasar Hübmaier]] &mdash; were men learned in Greek, Latin and Hebrew.
In English history frequent reference is made to the Anabaptists during the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century | 17th centuries]], but there is no evidence that any considerable number of native Englishmen ever adopted the principles of the Münster sect. Many of the followers of Muentzer and Bockelson seem to have fled from persecution in [[Germany]] and the Netherlands to be subjected to a [[persecution]] scarcely less severe in England. The mildest measure adopted towards these refugees was banishment from the kingdom, and a large number suffered at the stake. Their [[Christology]] and negative attitude towards the state rather indicate, as in the case of [[John Wyclif]], [[Jan Hus]] and the [[Fraticelli]] ([[Brethren]]), an affinity to the [[Cathar|Cathars]] and other medieval sects. But this affiliation is hard to establish.
The earliest Anabaptists of Zürich allowed that the [[Picardi]] or [[Waldensian | Waldensians]] had, in contrast with [[Rome]] and the [[Reformation | Reformers]], truth on their side, yet did not claim to be in their succession; nor can it be shown that their adult baptism derived from any of the older Baptist sects, which undoubtedly lingered in parts of Europe. Later on Hermann Schyn claimed descent for the peaceful Baptists from the Waldensians, who certainly, as the records of the Flemish [[inquisition]], collected by P. Fredericq, prove, were widespread during the 15th century over north [[France]] and Flanders. It would appear from the way in which Anabaptism sprang up everywhere independently, as if more than one ancient sect took in and through it a new lease of life. [[Albrecht Ritschl|Ritschl]] discerned in it the leaven of the Fraticelli or [[Franciscan Tertiaries]].
In [[Moravia]], if what Alexander Rost related be true, namely that they called themselves [[Apostel | Apostolici]], and went barefooted healing the sick, they must have at least absorbed into themselves a sect of whom we hear in the 12th century in the north of Europe as deferring baptism to the age of 30, and rejecting oaths, prayers for the dead, relics and invocation of saints.
The Moravian Anabaptists, says Rost, went bare-footed, washed each other's feet (like the Fraticelli), had all goods in common, worked everyone at a handicraft, had a spiritual father who prayed with them every morning and taught them, dressed in black and had long graces before and after meals. Zeiler also in his ''German Itinerary'' (1618) describes their way of life. [[The Lord's Supper]], or bread-breaking, was a commemoration of the [[Passion]], held once a year. They sat at long tables, the elders read the words of institution and prayed, and passed a loaf round from which each broke off a bit and ate, the wine being handed round in flagons. Children in their colonies were separated from the parents, and lived in the school, each having his bed and blanket. They were taught reading, writing and summing, cleanliness, truthfulness and industry, and the girls married the men chosen for them.
On [[April 12]], [[1549]], certain [[London]] Anabaptists brought before a commission of bishops asserted:
<blockquote>"That a man regenerate could not sin; that though the outward man sinned, the inward man sinned not; that there was no [[Trinity]] of Persons; that [[Christ]] was only a holy prophet and not at all God; that all we had by Christ was that he taught us the way to heaven; that he took no flesh of the Virgin, and that the baptism of infants was not profitable." </blockquote>
One of the most notable features of the early Anabaptists is that they regarded any true religious reform as involving social amelioration. The socialism of the 16th century was necessarily Christian and Anabaptist. [[Lutheranism]] was more attractive to grand-ducal patriots and well-to-do burghers than to the poor and oppressed and disinherited. The Lutherans and Zwinglians never converted the Anabaptists. In Austrian-controlled territories, the [[Jesuits]] had somewhat better success in persuading or coercing many [[Hutterites]] to rejoin the Roman Catholic Church.
Social scientist Robert Cialdini (see [[Mind Control]]) notes that early Anabaptists were unusual among doomsday groups because rather than disintegrating in the face of ''false'' doomsday predictions, Anabaptists were able to grow and prosper through extraordinarly effective recruitment efforts. He notes that: <blockquote> "When the Dutch Anabaptists saw their prophesied year of destruction, 1533, pass uneventfully, they became rabid seekers after converts, pouring unprecedented amounts of energy into the cause. One extraordinarily eloquent missionary, Jakob van Kampen, is reported to have baptized 100 persons in single day. So powerful was the snowballing social evidence in support of the Anabaptist position that it rapidly over-whelmed the ''disconfirming'' physical evidence and turned two-thirds of Holland's great cities into adherents". </blockquote> He theorizes that groups of 'true believers' suddenly shift from secret conspirators to zealous missionaries precisely when direct disconfirmation of their beliefs renders them ''least'' convincing to ''outsiders'' because publicity and recruitment provide the only remaining hope, that, through ''social'' evidence, "their threatened but treasured beliefs would become ''truer''". Few contemporary doomsday groups are as successful as these early Anabaptists were at actually ''gaining'' new converts in the face of false physical evidence.
==Persecutions and migrations==
[[Image:Dirk.willems.rescue.ncs.jpg|thumb|Dirk Willems saves his pursuer.]]
Much historic [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Protestant]] literature has represented the Anabaptists as groups who preached false doctrine and led people into apostasy. That negative historiography remained popular for about four centuries. The Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorted to torture and other types of physical abuse, in attempts both to curb the growth of the movement and bring about the ''salvation'' of the heretics (through recantation). The Protestants under [[Ulrich Zwingli|Zwingli]] were the first to persecute the ''Reformation'' Anabaptists. Felix Manz became the first martyr in 1527. On [[May 20]], 1527, Catholic authorities executed Michael Sattler. King Ferdinand declared drowning (called the ''third baptism'') "the best antidote to Anabaptism". It has been said that a "16th century man who did not drink to excess, curse, or abuse his workmen or family could be suspected of being an Anabaptist and thus persecuted." [http://www.ctlibrary.com/6274] Estep estimates that thousands died in Europe in the sixteenth century.
Thieleman J. van Braght's ''[[Martyrs Mirror]]'' describes the persecution and execution of thousands of Anabaptists, such as [[Dirk Willems]], in Austria, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and other parts of Europe between 1525 and 1660. Continuing persecution in [[Europe]] was largely responsible for the mass immigrations to North America by Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites.
==Anabaptists today==
Several existing denominational bodies may be legitimately regarded as the successors of the Continental Anabaptists &mdash; Amish, Baptists, Brethren, Hutterites, Mennonites, Bruderhof Communities and Quakers. Some writers prefer to distinguish institutionally lineal descendants ([[Amish]], [[Hutterite]]s, [[Mennonite]]s) and spiritual descendants ([[Baptist]]s, [[Brethren]], the [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof Communities]], and [[Seventh Day Adventists]]; the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] share the distinction of also being a [[peace church]]). Nevertheless, some historical connections have been demonstrated for all of these spiritual descendants, though perhaps not as clearly as the notable instituti |
tion against the superhero genre's abandonment of its innocence, Moore and artists Stephen R. Bissette, Rick Veitch and John Totleben conceived ''[[1963 (comic)|1963]]'', a series of comics pastiching Marvel's early output.
Tapping into the early issues of ''[[Spider-Man]]'', ''[[Doctor Strange]]'', ''[[Iron Man]]'', ''[[Fantastic Four]]'', and the ''[[Avengers (comics)|Avengers]]'', Moore wrote the comics according to the styles of the time, including the period's sexism and pro-capitalist propaganda, which, though played seriously, appeared quaint to a 90s audience. There was also a large streak of self-promotion, a satire of the bombastic Marvel editorial columns and policies of [[Stan Lee]].
The series was to have concluded with an annual in which the heroes travel to the 1990s to meet the prototypical grim, ultra-violent [[Image Comics]] characters. The ''1963'' heroes would have been shocked at their descendants, even the change in art from four colors to gray shading would have been commented upon. The annual never appeared due to disputes within Image and the creative team.
Following ''1963'', Moore worked on [[Jim Lee]]'s ''[[Wildcats (comics)|WildC.A.T.s]]'' and a number of [[Rob Liefeld]]'s titles, including ''[[Supreme (comics)|Supreme]]'', ''[[Youngblood]]'' and ''[[Glory (comics)|Glory]]'', retooling sometimes rudimentary and derivative characters and settings into more viable series. In Moore's hands, ''Supreme'' became an inventive post-modern homage to superhero comics from the 1940s on, and the Superman comics of the [[Mort Weisinger]] era in particular.
===America's Best Comics===
[[Image:League.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Cover art for the collected edition of ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'' by [[Kevin O'Neill (comics)|Kevin O'Neill]].]]
After working on Jim Lee's comic ''WildC.A.T.s'', Moore created the ABC ([[America's Best Comics]]) line, an entirely new group of characters to be published by Lee's company [[Wildstorm]]. Before publication, however, Lee sold Wildstorm to DC, and Moore found himself in the uncomfortable position of working for DC again. The line included:
*''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'', a team-up book featuring characters from [[Victorian era]] [[pulp fiction]] such as [[H. Rider Haggard]]'s [[Allan Quatermain]], [[H. G. Wells]]' [[The Invisible Man|Invisible Man]], [[Jules Verne]]'s [[Captain Nemo]], [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s [[The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde|Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]], and Wilhelmina Murray from [[Bram Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]'', drawn by [[Kevin O'Neill (comics)|Kevin O'Neill]];
*''[[Tom Strong]]'', a post-modern superhero story drawing on and politicizing pre-Superman characters such as [[Doc Savage]] and [[Tarzan]] and subtly implicating their moral absolutism in a program of [[fascism]], drawn by [[Chris Sprouse]] and others;
*''[[Top 10 (comic)|Top 10]]'', a deadpan but hysterical [[police procedural]] set in a city where everyone, from the police and criminals to the civilians and even pets, has super-powers, costumes and secret identities, drawn by [[Gene Ha]] (finished art) and [[Zander Cannon]] (layouts). The series ended after twelve issues, but spawned two spin-offs: the miniseries ''[[Smax]]'', drawn by Cannon, and ''[[Top 10: The Forty-Niners]]'', a graphic novel drawn by Ha;
*''[[Promethea]]'', a superheroine explicitly from the realms of the imagination, which also explores Moore's ideas about [[consciousness]], [[mysticism]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[écriture féminine]] and the [[Kabbalah]], drawn by [[J.H. Williams III]];
*''[[Tomorrow Stories]]'', an anthology series with a regular cast of characters such as [[Cobweb (comics)|Cobweb]], [[First American]], [[Greyshirt]], [[Jack B. Quick]], and [[Splash Brannigan]].
===Disputes with DC and Marvel Comics===
As noted above, Moore had a long-standing dispute with DC Comics, and he was unhappy that his deal with Wildstorm unexpectedly placed him in the DC "family." Wildstorm attempted to placate him by forming an editorial "firewall" to insulate Moore from DC's corporate offices. However, various incidents continued to irritate Moore. ''League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'' #5 contained an authentic vintage advertisement for a "[[Marvel Comics|Marvel]]"-brand [[douche]], which caused DC executive [[Paul Levitz]] to order the entire print run destroyed and reprinted without the advertisement.
In 2002, [[Marvel Comics]]' editor-in-chief, [[Joe Quesada]], attempted to persuade Moore to contribute new work (Moore had already contributed to Marvel's [[9/11]] tribute comic, ''Heroes''). Quesada had spent a lot of time courting contributors who had previously had problems with the company. Moore was suitably impressed by Quesada's claim that the company he had once known had now changed, and that the problems (Marvel US had printed some of Moore's [[Marvel UK]] ''Doctor Who Weekly'' strips without his permission) he'd had previously would not happen again.
This resulted in Moore's approving a trade paperback collection of his ''Captain Britain'' work with Alan Davis, on the understanding that he would receive full credit for his characters. Unfortunately, Moore's credit was omitted due to a printing error, and this led him to declare that he would no longer consider working for Marvel, despite Quesada having apologised publicly and ensured that later editions were corrected.
===Reactions to film adaptations===
Film adaptations of Moore's work also proved controversial. With ''[[From Hell]]'' and ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'', Moore was content to allow the filmmakers to do whatever they wished and removed himself from the process entirely. "As long as I could distance myself by not seeing them," he said, he could profit from the films while leaving the original comics untouched, "assured no one would confuse the two. This was probably naïve on my part."{{ref|gutters}}
Trouble arose when producer Martin Poll and screenwriter Larry Cohen filed a [[lawsuit]] against [[20th Century Fox]], alleging that the film ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'' plagiarized their script entitled ''Cast of Characters.'' Although the two scripts bear many similarities, most of them are elements that were added for the film and do not originate in Moore's comics. According to Moore, "they seemed to believe that the head of 20th Century Fox called me up and persuaded me to steal this screenplay, turning it into a comic book which they could then adapt back into a movie, to camouflage petty larceny." Moore testified in court hearings, a process so painful that he surmised he would have been better treated having "sodomised and murdered a busload of children after giving them heroin." Fox's settlement of the case insulted Moore, who interpreted it as an admission of guilt.
Moore's reaction was to divorce himself from the film world: he would refuse to allow film adaptations of anything to which he owned full copyright. In cases where others owned the rights, he would withdraw his name from the credits and refuse to accept payment, instead requesting that the money go to his collaborators (i.e. the artists). This was the arrangement used for the film ''[[Constantine (movie)|Constantine]]''.
The last straw came when producer [[Joel Silver]] misquoted Moore at a press conference for the upcoming ''V for Vendetta'' film, produced by [[Warner Brothers]] (which also owns DC Comics). Silver stated that producer [[Wachowski brothers|Larry Wachowski]] had talked with Moore, and that "he [Moore] was very excited about what Larry had to say."{{ref|vpress}} Moore, who claims that he told Wachowski "I didn't want anything to do with films... I wasn't interested in Hollywood," demanded that DC and Warner Brothers issue a retraction and apology for Silver's "blatant lies." No retraction or apology appeared, and in response Moore announced his departure from Wildstorm/DC/Warner Bros. ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: Dark Dossier,'' a hardcover graphic novel, will be his last work for the publisher. Future installments of ''LoEG'' will be published by [[Top Shelf Productions]] and [[Knockabout Comics]]. Moore has also stated that he wishes his name to be "[[Alan Smithee]]d" from comic work that he does not own.{{ref|smithee}}
===Current work===
Moore currently has several titles being produced under the auspices of his own line of comics, America's Best. Comics under this banner have included the Eisner-Award winning Top 10 as well as The League of Extraordinary gentlemen, Tom Strong, Supreme, Promothea and Tomorrow Stories.
===Awards and recognition===
His work has won him several awards, including a 1985 [[Jack Kirby Award]] for Best Single Issue for ''Swamp Thing Annual'' #2 with John Totleben and Steve Bissette, the 1985, 1986 and 1987 Jack Kirby Awards for Best Continuing Series for ''Swamp Thing'' with Totleben and Bissette, the 1985 and 1986 Jack Kirby Awards for Best Writer for Swamp Thing, the 1987 Jack Kirby Award for Best Writer for ''Watchmen'', the 1987 Jack Kirby Finite Series (completed in 1986) Award for ''Watchmen'' with Dave Gibbons, the 1987 Jack Kirby award for Best Writer/Artist (Single or Team) for ''Watchmen'' with Gibbons, the Comics' Buyer's Guide Award for Favorite Writer in 1996, 2000, and 2001.
He received the [[Harvey Award]] for Best Writer for 1988 (for Watchmen), for 1995 and 1996 (for ''From Hell''), for 1999 (for his body of work, including ''From Hell'' and ''Supreme''), for 2000 (for ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen''), and for 2001 and 2003 (for ''Promethea'').
In addition, he received nominations for the 1985 Jack Kirby Award for Best Single Issue for ''Swamp Thing'' #32 with [[Shawn McManus]], the 1985 Jack Kirby Award for Best Single issue for ''Swamp Thing'' #34 with John Totleben and Steve Bi |
th Sinai)
*[[Giza|El Gizah]] (Giza)
*[[Kafr ash Shaykh Governorate|Kafr El Shaykh]]
*[[Matruh]]
*[[Al Minufiyah|Al-Monufiyah]]
*[[Al Minya|Al-Minya]]
<td>
*[[Al Qahirah]] (Cairo)
*[[Al Qalyubiyah]]
*[[Qina]]
*[[Shamal Sina']] (North Sinai)
*[[Ash Sharqiyah Governorate|Al Sharqiyah]]
*[[Suhaj]]
*[[Suez|Al-Suways]] (Suez)
*[[Al Wadi al Jadid|El Wadi El-Gedid]] (New Valley)
*[[Al Uqsur|Luqsur]] (Luxor)
</table>
==Foreign relations==
{{main|Foreign relations of Egypt}}
[[Image:modern_cairo2.jpg|thumb|right|Modern Cairo]]Geography, population, history, military strength, and diplomatic expertise give Egypt extensive political influence in the Middle East. Cairo has been a crossroads of Arab commerce and culture for millennia, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.
The [[League of Arab States]] headquarters is in Cairo. The Secretary General of the League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister [[Amr Moussa]] is the present Secretary General of the Arab League.
Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.
Egypt is on good terms with all of its neighbours, and was the first Arab nation to make peace with Israel. It has a territorial dispute with Sudan over the [[Hala'ib Triangle]].
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Egypt}}
[[Image:Egypt south of Cairo.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Egyptian countryside, south of Cairo.]]Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than 5 million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Gulf area like [[UAE]], and [[Europe]]. The [[United States]] as well has a large population of Egyptian immigrants.
The completion of the [[Aswan High Dam]] in 1971 and the resultant [[Lake Nasser]] have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the [[agriculture]] and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly-growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.
The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure, much financed from U.S. [[foreign aid]] (since 1979, an average of 2.2 billion dollars per year). Egypt is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Economic conditions are starting to improve considerably after a period of stagnation due to the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the [[IMF]] has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.
==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Egypt}}
Egypt is the second most populous country in [[Africa]], at about 77,500,000 people. Nearly all the population is concentrated along the banks of the [[River Nile|Nile]], notably [[Alexandria]] and [[Cairo]], and in the Delta and near the [[Suez Canal]]. Approximately 94% of the population adheres to [[Islam]] and most of the remainder to [[Christianity]] (primarily the [[Coptic Christian|Coptic Orthodox]] denomination).
The Egyptians are a fairly homogeneous people. [[North African]] and Eastern [[Mediterranean]] influences are more predominant in the north, while the south which bears the same influences is also home to people who are related to [[Nubians]] and Africans further southeast such as Ethiopians. The bulk of modern Egyptian society still maintains a homogenous genetic tie to ancient Egyptian society, which has always been rural and quite populous compared to neighboring countries. The Egyptian people have spoken only languages from the Afro-Asiatic family (previously known as Hamito-Semitic) throughout their history starting with Old Egyptian to modern [[Egyptian Arabic]].
Ethnic minorities include a small number of Bedouin Arab nomads in the Sinai and eastern and western deserts, as well as some Nubians clustered along the Nile in Upper (southern) Egypt who are estimated to be about 0.8% of the population. Egypt also hosts some 90,000 refugees and asylum seekers, made up mostly of 70,000 Palestinian refugees and 20,000 Sudanese refugees. The once-vibrant Jewish community in Egypt has virtually [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|disappeared]], with only a small number remaining in Egypt and those who visit on religious occasions. Several important Jewish archeological and historical sites also remain.
==Religion==
{{main|Religion in Egypt}}
[[Image:monastry3.jpg|thumb|right|Over six million Egyptians follow the [[Christianity|Christian]] faith as members of the [[Coptic Church]]]]
According to the constitution, any new legislation must implicitly agree with Islamic (Arabic: الإسلام) laws. Egypt is predominantly Muslim, covering about 94% of the population, most belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. Christians represent about 6% of the population, primarily the [[Coptic Christian|Coptic]] denomination, though other Christian groups are present, including standard [[Roman Catholics]], [[Greek Orthodox]], and [[Armenian Orthodox]], in [[Alexandria]] and [[Cairo]], whose adherents are mainly descendants of [[Italy|Italian]], [[Greece|Greek]], and [[Armenians|Armenian]] immigrants. <BR>
There are also some few, small Jewish communities that are numbered as few as 300 Egyptians.<BR>
<BR>
There are also many who consider themselves as atheists, agnostics, and skeptics, although their numbers can not be identified.<BR>
<BR>
The mainstream [[Hanafi]] school of [[Sunni]] Islam is largely organised by the state, through ''Wizaret Al-Awkaf'' (Ministry of Religious Affairs). ''Al-Awkaf'' controls all mosques and Muslim clerics. [[Imams]] are trained in Imam vocational schools and at [[Al-Azhar University]]. The department supports Sunni Islam and has commissions authorised to give ''Fatwa'' judgements on Islamic issues. <BR>
<BR>
Egypt also hosts two major religious institutions. [[Al-Azhar University]] is the oldest Islamic institution for higher studies (founded around 970 CE), with its corresponding mosque [[Al-Azhar]]. Egypt also has a strong Christian heritage as it is the home of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] headed by the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]], which has a following of approximately 50 million Christians worldwide.
==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Egypt}}
[[Image:EgyptianDesert.JPG|thumb|right|A great part of Egypt's landmass is desert.]]
Egypt is bordered by [[Libya]] on the west, [[Sudan]] on the south, and on [[Israel]] on the northeast. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a [[transcontinental nation]], it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between [[Africa]] and [[Asia]], which in turn is traversed by a navigable waterway (the [[Suez Canal]]) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the [[Indian Ocean]] via the [[Red Sea]].
Towns and cities include [[Alexandria]], one of the great ancient cities, [[Aswan]], [[Asyut]], [[Cairo]], the modern Egyptian capital, [[El-Mahalla El-Kubra]], [[Giza]], the site of the Pyramid of Khufu, [[Hurghada]], [[Luxor]], [[Kom Ombo]], [[Port Safaga]], [[Port Said]], [[Sharm el Sheikh]], Shubra-El-Khema, [[Suez]], where the Suez Canal is located, [[Zagazig]], and [[Al-Minya]].
Deserts: Egypt includes parts of the [[Sahara Desert]] and of the [[Libyan Desert]]. These deserts were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt, and they protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from harm.
[[oasis|Oases]] include: [[Bahariya Oasis]], Dakhleh Oasis, Farafra Oasis, [[Kharga Oasis]], [[Siwa Oasis]]. An oasis is a fertile or green area in the midst of a desert.
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Egypt}}
[[Image:Cairo.jpg|thumb|left|Egypt's capital [[Cairo]] is the largest city in [[Africa]] and the [[Middle East]]]]Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. The Egyptian [[Academy of the Arabic Language]] is responsible for regulating the [[Arabic Language]] (Arabic:اللغة العربية ) throughout the world.
Egypt also hosts two major religious institutions. [[Al-Azhar University]] (Arabic: جامعة الأزهر ) is the oldest [[Islam|Islamic]] institution for higher studies (founded around 970 CE), with its corresponding mosque Al-Azhar. The head of Al-Azhar is traditionally regarded as the supreme leader of Sunni Muslims all over the world. Egypt also has a strong Christian heritage as evidenced by the existence of the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Orthodox Church]] headed by the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]], which has a following of approximately 50 million Christians worldwide (one of the famous Coptic Orthodox Churches is Saint Takla Haimanot Church in Alexandria http://www.St-Takla.org).
Though considered a low-income country, Egypt has a thriving media and arts industry, with more than 30 satellite channels and more than 100 motion pictures produced each year. To bolster its media industry, especially with the keen competition from the [[Persian Gulf states]] and Lebanon, it has built a large media city that it has promoted as the "Hollywood of the East." Egypt is the only Arab country with an [[opera]] house.
Some famous Egyptians include:
*[[Saad Zaghlul]] (leader of first modern Egyptian revolution)
*[[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] (former president)
*[[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] (former Secretary General of the United Nations)
*[[Naguib Mahfouz]] (Nobel Prize-winning novelist)
*[[Umm Kulthum]] (singer)
*[[Omar Sharif]] (actor)
*[[Ahmed H. Zewail|Ahmed Zewail]] (Nobel Prize-winning chemist)
*[[Mohamed ElBaradei]] (Head of the International Atomic Energy Agency and Winner of the 2005 Nobel Peace Prize)
*[[Anwa |
mplemented using a variety of [[protocol stack]] architectures, [[computer bus]]es or combinations of media and protocol layers, incorporating one or more of:
* [[ARCNET]]
* [[AppleTalk]]
* [[Asynchronous Transfer Mode|ATM]]
* [[Bluetooth]]
* [[DECnet]]
* [[Ethernet]]
* [[Fiber distributed data interface|FDDI]]
* [[Frame relay]]
* [[HIPPI]]
* [[FireWire|IEEE 1394]] aka FireWire, iLink
* [[IEEE 802.11]]
* [[IEEE-488]]
* [[Internet Protocol|IP]]
* [[IPX]]
* [[Myrinet]]
* [[QsNet]]
* [[RS-232]]
* [[Sequenced packet exchange|SPX]]
* [[System network architecture|System Network Architecture]]
* [[Token Ring]]
* [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]]
** [[TCP Tuning]] for discussion of improving performance of same
* [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]]
* [[User datagram protocol|UDP]]
* [[X.25]]
For a list of more see [[Network protocol]]s.
For standards see [[IEEE 802]].
==Suggested topics==
Further reading for acquiring an in-depth understanding of computer networks include:
* [[Communication theory]]
===Layers===
{| class="prettytable"
|-
! [[OSI model]] || [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP model]]
|-
|
* [[Application layer]]
|rowspan=3 | Application layer
|-
|
* [[Presentation layer]]
|-
|
* [[Session layer]]
|-
|
* [[Transport layer]]
|| Transport layer
|-
|
* [[Network layer]]
** [[Routing]]
|| Internet Layer
|-
|
* [[Data link layer]]
** [[Switching]]
|rowspan=2| Network Access Layer
|-
|
* [[Physical layer]]
|}
===[[Data transmission]]===
====[[Wire]]d transmission====
* [[Public switched telephone network]]
** [[Modem]]s and dialup
* [[Dedicated line]]s &ndash; [[leased line]]s
* [[Time-division multiplexing]]
* [[Packet switching]]
* [[Frame relay]]
* [[Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy|PDH]]
* [[Ethernet]]
* [[RS-232]]
* [[Optical fiber]] transmission
** [[Synchronous optical networking]]
** [[Fiber distributed data interface]]
====[[Wireless]] transmission====
* Short range
** [[Bluetooth]]
* Medium range
** [[IEEE 802.11]]
* Long range
** [[Satellite]]
** [[Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service|MMDS]]
** [[SMDS]]
** [[Mobile phone]] data transmission ([[channel access method]]s)
*** [[Code division multiple access|CDMA]]
*** [[Cellular digital packet data|CDPD]]
*** [[Global system for mobile communications|GSM]]
*** [[Time division multiple access|TDMA]]
** [[Paging (telecommunications)|Paging]] networks
*** [[DataTAC]]
*** [[Mobitex]]
*** [[Motient]]
===Other===
* [[Computer networking device]]
** [[Network card]]
* [[Naming scheme]]s
* [[Network monitoring]]
==See also==
*[[Computing]]
* [[Minimum spanning tree]]
** [[Graph theory]]
** [[Prim's algorithm]]
*** [[Robert C. Prim]]
*** [[Vojtěch Jarník]]
*** [[Joseph Kruskal]]
*[[ARPANET]]
*[[BITNET]]
*[[Internet]]
** Internet networks:
*** [[Internet backbone|Backbone]]
*** [[SITA and eQuant]]
*** [[Transit]]
*** [[Stub network|Stub]]
*[[Ambient network]]
==References==
* [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]], "Computer Networks" (ISBN 0133499456).
* [[List of important publications in computer science#Computer networks| Important publications in computer networks]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-921/networking.htm Networking and Microcomputers]
* [http://www.elook.org/computing/network.htm Network &ndash; eLook Computing Reference] &ndash; defines what a network is and provides leading links
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1993/k-12.htm Networking: K-12]
* [http://www.techbooksforfree.com/networking.shtml Open source and non-copyrighted books on networking available for free download]
* Prof. Rahul Banerjee's [http://discovery.bits-pilani.ac.in/rahul/PDFversions/Complete-InetBook-PHI-2003-Secure.pdf free e-book on Internetworking Technologies] deals with the foundations of major internetworking architectures (chapters 4&ndash;9)
* [http://www.netfilter.org/documentation/HOWTO//networking-concepts-HOWTO.html Easy Network Concepts] (Linux kernel specific)
[[Category:Computer networks| ]]
[[Category:Information technology]]
[[Category:Networks]]
[[ar:شبكة كمبيوتر]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tiān-náu bāng-lō·]]
[[ca:Xarxa informàtica]]
[[cs:Počítačová síť]]
[[da:Datanet]]
[[de:Rechnernetz]]
[[et:Arvutivõrk]]
[[eo:Komputila reto]]
[[es:Red de ordenadores/computadoras]]
[[fa:شبكه رایانهای]]
[[fr:Réseau informatique]]
[[ia:Rete de computatores]]
[[it:Rete informatica]]
[[he:רשת מחשבים - מונחים]]
[[ku:Tor]]
[[lv:Datortīkli]]
[[lt:Kompiuterių tinklas]]
[[hu:Számítógép-hálózat]]
[[nl:Computernetwerk]]
[[ja:コンピュータ・ネットワーク]]
[[nb:Datanett]]
[[pl:Sieć komputerowa]]
[[pt:Rede de computadores]]
[[ru:Компьютерная сеть]]
[[sq:Rrjeti kompjuterik]]
[[simple:Computer network]]
[[fi:Tietokoneverkko]]
[[sv:Datornätverk]]
[[ta:கணினி வலையமைப்பு]]
[[tl:Network ng kompyuter]]
[[th:เครือข่ายคอมพิวเตอร์]]
[[vi:Mạng máy tính]]{{Link FA|vi}}
[[tr:Bilgisayar ağları]]
[[zh:计算机网络]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clarke's three laws</title>
<id>5653</id>
<revision>
<id>40996135</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T10:25:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phaunt</username>
<id>165565</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Arthur C. Clarke]] formulated the following three "[[adage|law]]s" of [[prediction]]:
#''When a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible, he is almost certainly right. When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong.''
#''The only way of discovering the limits of the possible is to venture a little way past them into the impossible.''
#''Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.''
==Origins==
Clarke's Law, later the first of the three laws, was proposed by Arthur C. Clarke in the essay "Hazards of Prophecy: The Failure of Imagination", in ''Profiles of the Future'' (1962).
The second law is offered as a simple observation in the same essay; its status as Clarke's Second Law was conferred on it by others.
In a revised edition of ''Profiles of the Future'' (1973), Clarke acknowledged the Second Law and proposed the Third in order to round out the numbers, adding "As three laws were good enough for Newton, I have modestly decided to stop there." Out of those three laws, the Third Law is the most known and widely cited.
==Corollaries==
Other writers have since proposed [[corollary|corollaries]] (not all of them actually corollaries, technically speaking) to Clarke's laws:
*''[[Isaac Asimov]]'s Corollary to Clarke's First Law'': When, however, the lay public rallies round an idea that is denounced by distinguished but elderly scientists and supports that idea with great fervor and emotion &mdash; the distinguished but elderly scientists are then, after all, probably right. ("Asimov's Corollary", ''[[The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction|F&SF]]'', Feb. 1977)
*''[[Gregory Benford]]'s Corollary to Clarke's Third Law'': Any technology distinguishable from magic is insufficiently advanced. (''[[Foundation's Fear]]'', 1997)<br>Alternative version: ''Benford's Modified Clarke Law'': Any technology that does not appear magical is insufficiently advanced.[http://www.edge.org/q2004/index.html#benford]
*''[[Eric S. Raymond|Raymond]]'s Second Law'': Any sufficiently advanced system of magic would be indistinguishable from a technology.[http://www.edge.org/q2004/index.html#raymond]
*Rosenbaum's Corollary (formed in response to Harry Potter); "Any magic, sufficiently debased, is indistinguishable from technology."
*''[[Bruce Sterling|Sterling]]'s Corollary to Clarke's Third Law'': Any sufficiently advanced garbage is indistinguishable from magic.[http://www.edge.org/q2004/page7.html#sterling]
*[[Dave Langford|Langford]]'s application of Clarke's Third Law to science fiction: Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from a completely ad-hoc plot device. ("A Gadget Too Far", ''[[New Worlds (magazine)|New Worlds 2]]'', 1992)
*[[Aaron Allston]]'s corollary to Clarke's Third Law; "Any sufficiently badly-written science is indistinguishable from magic."
*[[Richard Factor]]'s corollary to Clarke's Third Law; "Any sufficiently advanced technology [of communication] is indistinguishable from noise."
*[[Michael Shermer]]'s 'Last Law' takes after Clarke's Third Law; "Any sufficiently evolved extraterrestrial intelligence is indistinguishable from God."
* [[Vernon Schryver]]'s play on Clarke's Third Law and [[Hanlon's Razor]]; "Any sufficiently advanced incompetence is indistinguishable from malice." [http://groups.google.com/group/news.admin.net-abuse.email/msg/f9f67dca7591a860?hl=en&]
* Often attributed to [[Andy Finkel]] - "Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from a rigged demo."
Sometimes referred to as one of Clarke's Laws is [[Amara's law]], stating that "We tend to overestimate the effect of a technology in the short run and underestimate the effect in the long run," which was put forth by [[Roy Amara]] of [[The Institute for the Future]].
==References in other works==
*[[Terry Pratchett]] refers to the law in his ''[[Discworld]]'' books by having wizard [[Ponder Stibbons]] state that "Any sufficiently advanced magic is indistinguishable from technology."
==See also==
* [[Isaac Asimov]]'s [[Three Laws of Robotics]]
* [[Adages named after people]]
* [[First contact (anthropology)]]
* [[SETI]]
* [[Futures studies]]
==External links==
*[http://groups.google.com.au/groups?selm=1991Nov13.122855.10634%40sq.sq.com The origins of the Three Laws]
*[http://freefall.purrsia.com/ff300/fv00255.htm Humorous corollary to Clarke's Third Law] (from the [[webcomic]] ''[[Freefall (webcomic)|Freefall]]'')
*[http://www.edge.org/q2004/ "What's Your Law?"] (lists some of the corollaries)
*[http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/nonfiction/dlnw.ht |
gainst Ortega were somewhat overshadowed by those against [[Arnoldo Aleman]], who defeated Ortega in 1996 and was still president in 2001. However, Ortega was then confronted with other scandals. His stepdaughter, [[Zoilamérica Narváez]], made public allegations that he sexually abused her. Entities in the United States, most notably [[Jeb Bush]], ran large ads in Nicaraguan newspapers associating Ortega with international [[terrorism]].
Ortega has long been accused of [[caudillo|caudillismo]] (anti-democratic politico-military populism) and excessively authoritarian leadership. Prominent Sandinistas including [[Sergio Ramirez]] and [[Herty Lewites]] have left the party or have been expelled for dissenting to Ortega’s power. Many such dissenters support a small splinter group, the [[Sandinista Renewal Movement]] (the Movimiento Renovador Sandinista or “MRS”), although this party eventually chose to support Ortega’s candidacy in the 2001 election. More recently, journalist [[Carlos Guadamuz]] was murdered for their reporting critical of Ortega. Others have received death threats, including the well-known political cartoonist [[Manuel Guillén]]. There is no clear evidence that Ortega was directly involved in any such incidents. [http://www.ifex.org/fr/content/view/full/67620/]
Daniel Ortega was instrumental in creating the controversial strategic pact between the FSLN and the [[Constitutional Liberal Party]] (Partido Liberal Constitucionalista, PLC). This alliance of Nicaragua's two major parties has changed the structure of the government and minimized the participation of other parties. ''"El Pacto,"'' as it is known in Nicaragua, is said to have personally benefited former presidents Ortega and Aleman greatly, while constraining current president Bolaños.
Ortega continues to lead the Sandinista party, which holds 43 seats in the Nicaraguan Parliament, making it the country's second largest party. Presidential elections are due in November 2006, and public opinion polls [[as of 2005]] suggest Ortega will be one of a few leading candidates. [[Herty Lewites]] &mdash; also running for president &mdash; has suggested that Ortega's pact with Aleman has given Ortega ''de facto'' control of the bodies responsible for administering the election, and thus that Ortega will be even more formidable than polls indicate.
==External links==
*[http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/18/interviews/ortega/ CNN Cold War: Interview with Daniel Ortega]
*[http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0915/p01s04-woam.html?s=yaht ''The Christian Science Monitor'', September 15, 2005, profile of Daniel Ortega]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Junta of National Reconstruction]]|
title=[[President of Nicaragua]]|
after=[[Violeta Chamorro|Violeta Barrios de Chamorro]]|
years=1985&ndash;1990
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1945 births|Ortega, Daniel]]
[[Category:Living people|Ortega, Daniel]]
[[Category:Presidents of Nicaragua|Ortega, Daniel]]
[[de:Daniel Ortega]]
[[es:Daniel Ortega]]
[[fr:Daniel Ortega]]
[[nl:Daniel Ortega]]
[[fi:Daniel Ortega]]
[[sv:Daniel Ortega]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Destroyer</title>
<id>8779</id>
<revision>
<id>42079700</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:06:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the warship. For other meaning, see [[destroyer (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:destroyer.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|250px|[[USS Lassen (DDG-82)|USS ''Lassen'']], an [[Arleigh Burke class destroyer|''Arleigh Burke''-class]] destroyer]]
In [[navy|naval]] terminology, a '''destroyer''' is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance [[warship]] intended to escort larger vessels in a [[Naval fleet|fleet]] or [[battle group]] and defend them against smaller, short-range attackers (originally [[torpedo boat]]s, later [[submarine]]s and [[aircraft]]). At the beginning of the [[21st century]], destroyers are the heaviest [[surface combatant]]s in general use, with only two nations (the [[United States]] and [[Russia]]) operating [[Cruiser (warship)|cruiser]]s and none operating [[battleship]]s.{{ref|1}} Modern destroyers are equivalent in tonnage and drastically superior in firepower to cruisers of the [[World War II]] era, capable of carrying [[nuclear missile]]s able to destroy cities in a very small volley.
==Genesis of the destroyer==
The destroyer originated in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Japan]] in the last years of the [[1880s]], and became firmly established after the [[Chilean Civil War]] of [[1891]] and in the [[Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)|Sino-Japanese War (1894&ndash;1895)]]. In those conflicts, a new type of ship proved to be devastatingly effective&mdash;the swift, small [[torpedo-boat]] invented by [[John Ericsson]]. These small boats had speed greater than that of the larger ships, and could dash in close to them, loose their [[torpedo]]es, and dash away.
While normally a small, short-range boat of this sort would be easily destroyed long before getting into range, they could be operated within a fleet with larger ships as long as the fleet was close to base. In this case the defending force had to choose which set of targets to attack: the larger ships which they were built to counter, or the smaller torpedo boats which were charging in to attack. Yet this one-two punch cost almost nothing to the attacker, as the small torpedo boats were very inexpensive.
The world's navies recognized the need for a counter weapon and developed the ''torpedo-boat destroyer''. The basic idea was to have a screen of ships that were as fast as the torpedo boats, but armed with guns instead of torpedoes. They would operate at a distance from the main fleet of [[capital ships]] to keep the torpedo-boats from ever getting into [[torpedo]] firing range.
However it was clear even at the time that this concept had problems of its own. The ship would indeed be capable of holding off an attack by torpedo boats (which typically have no guns of their own), but while operating away from the fleet they would be easy targets for any other capital ship. Thus they were often given torpedoes of their own.
Another problem was that the torpedo-boats were short ranged and thus easy and cheap to produce. However the destroyers had the problem of needing to operate as a screen for the fleet. This required them to have the speed and range of the [[battleships]], so destroyers were often much larger than the boats they were designed to counter.
===First designs===
[[Image:Kotaka.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]'s ''[[Japanese warship Kotaka|Kotaka]]'' ([[1887]])]]
The first effective design of a torpedo-boat destroyer emerged in [[1885]] with the Japanese [[Japanese warship Kotaka|''Kotaka'']], which ''"was the forerunner of torpedo-boat destroyers that appeared a decade later"'' (Kaigun, David C. Evans). Designed upon Japanese specifications and ordered to the British [[Yarrow shipyards]] in [[1885]], she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in [[1887]]. She was armed with four 1-pounder (37 mm) quick-firing guns and four [[torpedo]] tubes, reached 19 knots, and at 203 tons, was the largest torpedo boat yet designed. In her trials in [[1889]], ''Kotaka'' demonstrated that she could go beyond a role of coastal defense, and was capable of following larger ships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for the ''Kotaka'', ''"considered Japan to have effectively invented the destroyer"'' (Howe).
[[Image:ContratorpederoDestructor.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Spanish Navy]]'s ''Destructor'' (1886)]]
Almost immediately after the order of the ''Kotaka'' was placed, [[Fernando Villaamil]] of the [[Spanish Navy]] also placed an order for a torpedo-boat destroyer in November 1885, with the British builder James and George Thompson, of [[Clydebank]], also nearby the Yarrow shipyards. The ship, named ''Destructor'', was laid down at the end of the year, launched in 1886, and commissioned in 1887, thereby becoming the first torpedo-boat destroyer to be completed. Her displacement was 380 tons, and she was equipped with triple expansion engines generating 3,800 HP, for a maximum speed of 22.6 knots. She was armed with one 90 mm [[Hontoria]] cannon, four 57 mm [[Nordenfeldt]] cannon, two 37 mm [[Hotchkiss]] guns and 3 Schwartzkopff torpedo tubes. Her complement was 60 men.
[[Image:HMS Havock (1893).jpg|thumb|250px|[[Havock class destroyer|HMS ''Havock'' ]] ([[1893]]).]]
The next effective design of torpedo boat destroyer, with the range and speed to keep up with battleships, was the [[Havock class destroyer|''Havock'' class]] of two ships of the [[Royal Navy]], developed in 1892 under the newly appointed Third Sea Lord Rear Admiral [[John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher|"Jackie" Fisher]], and launched in [[1893]]. The ''Havock'' had a 240 tons displacement, a speed of 27 knots, and was armed with a single 12-pounder (76 mm) gun, three 6-pounders (57 mm), and three 46 cm torpedo tubes.
The [[United States]] commissioned its first destroyer, [[USS Bainbridge (DD-1)|USS ''Bainbridge'']], Destroyer No. 1, in [[1902]].
The torpedo boat destroyer later on took over the role of the smaller torpedo boats, performing torpedo attacks on fleets, such as the devastating Japanese attack on the Russian fleet in [[Battle of Port Arthur|Port Arthur]] at the opening of the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in 1904, and attacks in the Pacific theatre of [[World War II]].
==World War I==
Torpedo Boat destroyers grew in size and effectiveness in the early part of the 20th century. Innovations such as [[turbine propulsion]], oil-fired rather than coal-fired boilers, and longer ranged "heater" torpedoes led to ef |
tively rapid development of modern [[Israel]]i Hebrew.
==Basic Hebrew alphabet==
:''See main article [[Hebrew alphabet]]''
===Consonants===
''Note: dagesh and mappiq symbols, the dots in otherwise identical letters, are often omitted in writing. For instance, &#64305; is often written as &#1489;. The use or omission of such marks is usually consistent throughout any given context.''
*&#1488; &nbsp; alef &nbsp; silent (traditionally, {{unicode|/&#660;/}} when before a vowel)
*&#64305; &nbsp; bet &nbsp; /b/
*&#1489; &nbsp; vet &nbsp; /v/ (/b/ among Egyptian Jews)
*&#1490; &nbsp; ghimel &nbsp; /g/ ({{unicode|/&#611;/}} among [[Yemenite Jew|Teimanim]], [[Mizrahi Jew|Mizrachim]] and some [[Sephardi]]m)
*&#64306; &nbsp; gimel &nbsp; /g/ ({{unicode|/dʒ/}} among some Teimanim)
*&rsquo;&#1490; &nbsp; djimel &nbsp; {{unicode|/&#676;/}} (used only in [[loanword]]s)
*&#1491; &nbsp; dhalet &nbsp; /d/ (/ð/ among Teimanim, Mirahim and some Sephardim)
*&#64307; &nbsp; dalet &nbsp; /d/
*&#1492; &nbsp; he &nbsp; /h/, silent in word-final position.
*&#64308; &nbsp; he &nbsp; silent (traditionally /h/; the dot in the middle is called [[mappiq]], not [[dagesh]])
*&#1493; &nbsp; vav &nbsp; /v/ (/w/ among Teimanim and some Mizrahim)
*&#1494; &nbsp; zayin /z/
*&rsquo;&#1494; &nbsp; zhayin &nbsp; {{unicode|/&#658;/}} (used only in loanwords)
*&#1495; &nbsp; chet &nbsp; /x/ ({{unicode|/&#7717;/}} among Oriental Hebrew speakers)
*&#1496; &nbsp; tet &nbsp; /t/ ({{unicode|/t&#820;/}} among Teimanim)
*&#1497; &nbsp; yod &nbsp; /j/
*&#1499; &nbsp; xaf &nbsp; /x/
*&#1498; &nbsp; xaf sofit &nbsp; /x/
*&#64315; &nbsp; kaf &nbsp; /k/
*&#64314; &nbsp; kaf sofit &nbsp; /k/
*&#1500; &nbsp; lamed &nbsp; /l/
*&#1502; &nbsp; mem &nbsp; /m/
*&#1501; &nbsp; mem sofit &nbsp; /m/
*&#1504; &nbsp; nun &nbsp; /n/
*&#1503; &nbsp; nun sofit &nbsp; /n/
*&#1505; &nbsp; samex &nbsp; /s/
*&#1506; &nbsp; ayin &nbsp; silent, like &#1488; ({{unicode|/&#661;/}} among Oriental Hebrew speakers)
*&#1508; &nbsp; fe &nbsp; /f/
*&#1507; &nbsp; fe sofit &nbsp; /f/
*&#64324; &nbsp; pe &nbsp; /p/
*&#64323; &nbsp; pe sofit&nbsp; /p/
*&#1510; &nbsp; tzadi &nbsp; {{unicode|/&#678;/}}
*&#1509; &nbsp; tzadi sofit &nbsp; {{unicode|/&#678;/}}
*&rsquo;&#1510; &nbsp; tshadi &nbsp; {{unicode|/&#679;/}} (used only in loanwords)
*&#1511; &nbsp; qof &nbsp; /k/ (pronounced /q/ by many Israelis as well as speakers hailing from the Arab world, /g/ by some Teimanim)
*&#1512; &nbsp; reish &nbsp; {{unicode|/&#641;/}} (/r/ among Oriental Hebrew speakers)
*&#64298; &nbsp; shin &nbsp; {{unicode|/&#643;/}}
*&#64299; &nbsp; sin &nbsp; /s/
*&#1514; &nbsp; thav &nbsp; /t/ (/&theta;/ among Teimanim, Mizrahim and some Sephardim, /s/ by some Ashkenazim)
*&#64330; &nbsp; tav &nbsp; /t/
===Vowels===
*&#1456; &nbsp; sh'va &nbsp; (silent), {{IPA|/&#603;/}} (traditionally {{IPA|/&#601;/}}) (depending on position in word, and position of word in phrase)
*&#1460; &nbsp; {{unicode|&#7717;}}iriq &nbsp; /i/
*&#1461; &nbsp; tzeire &nbsp; {{IPA|/&#603;/}} (traditionally {{IPA|/e/}})
*&#1462; &nbsp; segol &nbsp; {{IPA|/&#603;/}}
*&#1457; &nbsp; chataf segol &nbsp; {{IPA|/&#603;/}} (traditionally also {{IPA|/&#601;/}})
*&#1463; &nbsp; patach &nbsp; {{IPA|/a/}}
*&#1458; &nbsp; chataf patach &nbsp; {{IPA|/a/}} (traditionally also {{IPA|/&#601;/}})
*&#1464; &nbsp; qamatz &nbsp; {{IPA|/a/}}, (according to complex stress rules, this vowel is sometimes pronounced /o/ as well. In positions where it is pronounced /a/ in "Standard Modern Israeli Hebrew", it is pronounced {{IPA|/&#596;/}} by some Ashkenazim and Teimanim)
*&#1459; &nbsp; chataf qamatz &nbsp; {{IPA|/o/}}
*&#1467; &nbsp; qubutz &nbsp; {{IPA|/u/}}
*&#1474; &nbsp; {{unicode|&#7717;olam &#7717;aser}} {{IPA|/o/}}
*&#64309; &nbsp; shuruq &nbsp; {{IPA|/u/}}
*&#59393; &nbsp; {{unicode|&#7717;olam}} &nbsp; {{IPA|/o/}}
==Notes on writing==
# The [[phoneme]] /v/ is represented by two letters: vet (&#1489;, unemphasized bet) and vav (&#1493;). Although modern Hebrew pronunciation does not differentiate between the two, the latter is historically weaker due to its being a semi-vowel (/w/).
# The phoneme /k/ is represented by two letters: kaf (&#1499;) and quf (&#1511;). Although modern Israeli Hebrew pronunciation doesn't differentiate between the two, the latter is pronounced by some speakers like an Arabic /[[voiceless uvular plosive|q]]/.
# The phoneme /t/ is represented by two letters: tet (&#1496;) and tau (&#1514;, compare to the [[Greek language|Greek]] theta &#952; and tau &#964;). As mentioned earlier, the former was once pronounced with emphasis. However, it seems that the letter ''tau'', when intervocalic and non-doubled (i.e. without dagesh) once represented a [[voiceless interdental fricative|fricative]] phoneme {{IPA|/&#952;/}}. For example, what in Modern Hebrew sounds as "Beit Lexem" was transcribed (through Greek, which is ill-equipped to represent /h/) into English from Old Hebrew as "Bethleem", also demonstrating note nr. 5. The traditional Ashkenazi pronunciation of tau without dagesh as "s" appears to be a continuation of this former distinction.
# Similar to Modern [[Arabic language|Arabic]], old Hebrew had the phonemes {{IPA|/&#678;/}} and /t/ (written by the letter tet) emphasized. Currently, the only community of Hebrew-speakers which expresses this in speech are [[Yemenite Jew]]s, whose Hebrew is much-influenced by Arabic phonetics (or rather ''not'' influenced by [[Yiddish]] and other European languages); however the emphasis led to several types of phonetic change that still exist. The exact nature of the emphatic feature is a matter of debate; the most commonly suggested possibilities are pharyngealization (as in Arabic) and glottalization (as in [[Geez language|Ethiopic]]).
# In the speech of Ashkenazi modern Hebrew speakers, the phoneme /x/ is represented by two letters: xet (&#1495;) and khaf (&#1499;). Xet is presumed to historically have been a [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]] (like Arabic &#1581;). The voiceless pharyngeal fricative pronunciation {{unicode|/&#7717;/}} is found in the speech of many Teimanim, Mizrachim and Sephardim, who, like Ashkenazim, pronounce khaf as /x/.
[[Category:Hebrew language]]
[[Category:Language phonologies]]
[[he:&#1492;&#1490;&#1497;&#1497;&#1514; &#1492;&#1506;&#1489;&#1512;&#1497;&#1514;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry Moore</title>
<id>13848</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42070933</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:51:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Solipsist</username>
<id>49943</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>larger revert to last version by DaiTengu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the sculptor. For the governor of [[New York]], see [[Henry Moore (governor)]].''
[[Image:HenryMoore RecliningFigure 1951.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Sculpture-Reclining Figure (1951)|''Reclining Figure'' (1951) outside the [[Fitzwilliam Museum]], [[Cambridge]], is characteristic of Moore's sculptures, with an abstract female figure intercut with voids. There are several bronze versions of this sculpture, but this one is made from painted plaster.]]
'''Henry Spencer Moore''' [[Order of Merit|OM]] [[Companion of Honour|CH]], ([[30 July]] [[1898]] &ndash; [[31 August]] [[1986]]) was a [[Britain|British]] [[artist]] and [[Sculpture|sculptor]]. The son of a mining engineer, born in the [[Yorkshire]] town of [[Castleford]], Moore became well known for his large-scale [[abstract art|abstract]] cast bronze and carved marble sculptures. Substantially supported by the British art establishment, Moore helped to introduce a particular form of [[modernism]] into Britain.
His ability to satisfy large-scale commissions made him exceptionally wealthy towards the end of his life. However, he lived frugally and most of his wealth went to endow the [[Henry Moore Foundation]], which continues to support education and promotion of the arts.
His signature form is a pierced reclining figure, first influenced by a [[Toltec]]-[[Maya civilization|Maya]] sculpture known as "[[Chac Mool]]", which he had seen as a [[plaster cast]] in [[Paris]] in [[1925]]. Early versions are pierced conventionally as a bent arm reconnects with the body. Later more abstract versions are pierced directly through the body in order to explore the concave and convex shapes. These more extreme piercings developed in parallel with [[Barbara Hepworth]]'s sculptures. Hepworth first pierced a torso after misreading a review of one of Henry Moore's early shows.
[[Image:Henry Moore, Three Piece Reclining Figure Draped (1976), MIT Campus - detail.JPG|thumb|right|180px|''Three Piece Reclining Figure Draped'' (1976), [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].]]
==Sculpture==
[[Image:arch-moore-hiroshima.jpg|left|thumb|220px|Sculpture &ndash; The Arch (1969)|''The Arch'', (1969) bronze, situated outside the [[Hiroshima City Museum of Contemporary Art]], [[Japan]].]]
Moore is best known for his abstract monume |
e HBO television series ''[[Six Feet Under]]'', the US version of [[Queer as Folk (U.S.)|Queer as Folk]], a 2005 episode of the CBS television series ''[[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]]'', and is mentioned and talked about in the 2005 [[George Carlin]] HBO Special ''[[Life is Worth Losing]]''. In the movie "Life As A House" the main character Sam (Hayden Christensen) is depicted indulging in autoerotic asphyxiation in the first few scenes.
== External links ==
* http://www.silentvictims.org/
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/8/newsid_2538000/2538165.stm BBC News story about the death of Stephen Milligan]
* [http://216.239.41.104/search?q=cache:hcGyRuuPeagJ:www.cwu.edu/~jenkinsa/Autoerotic_Asphyxia_Page.html+%22autoerotic+asphyxiation%22+dictionary+OR+glossary+OR+words+OR+terms+OR+lexicon&hl=en&lr=lang_en&ie=UTF-8 Information on the practice of autoerotic asphyxia]
[[Category:Masturbation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Red Cross</title>
<id>1886</id>
<revision>
<id>42033751</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:49:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UW</username>
<id>358956</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert - no overall relevance</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Poster-red-cross-volunteer-for-victory.jpg|thumb|202px|A WWII-era poster encouraged American women to volunteer for the Red Cross as part of the war effort.]]
The '''American Red Cross''' (chartered as the '''American National Red Cross''') is a humanitarian organization that provides emergency assistance, disaster relief and education inside the [[United States]], as part of the [[International Federation of the Red Cross]].
Today, in addition to domestic [[disaster relief]], the American Red Cross offers compassionate services in five other areas: community services that help the needy; support and comfort for [[military]] members and their families; the collection, processing and distribution of lifesaving [[blood]] and blood products; educational programs that promote health and safety; and international relief and development programs.
Governed by [[volunteers]] and supported by community [[donations]], the American Red Cross is a nationwide network of nearly 1,000 chapters and Blood Services regions dedicated to saving lives and helping people prevent, prepare for and respond to [[emergencies]]. More than a million Red Cross volunteers and 30,000 employees annually mobilize relief to families affected by more than 67,000 disasters, train almost 12 million people in lifesaving skills and exchange more than a million emergency messages for U.S. military service personnel and their families. The Red Cross is also the largest supplier of blood and blood products to more than 3,000 hospitals across the nation and also assists victims of international disasters and conflicts at locations worldwide.
The American Red Cross is headquartered in [[Washington, D.C.]]. Jack McGuire serves as interim president following the resignation of [[Rear Admiral]] Marsha J. Evans ([[United States Navy|USN]], ret.), in December, 2005. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/13/international/13cnd-cross.html?ex=1292130000&en=b1afad6cb3ef7854&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss]
[[Image:Lawn1917.jpg|thumb|202px|WWI Red Cross rally at the [[University of Virginia]], May 1917.]]
[[Image:AmRedCross.jpg|thumb|202px|The headquarters of the American Red Cross in [[Washington, D.C.]] was built in 1917 and dedicated "in memory of the heroic women of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]".]]
== Founders ==
The American Red Cross was established on [[May 21]], [[1881]] by [[Clara Barton]], who became the first president of the organization. Barton first organized a meeting on [[May 12]] of that year at the home of [[United States Senate|Sen.]] [[Omar D. Conger]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]], [[Michigan|MI]]) [http://www.redcross.org/museum/history/charter.asp]. Fifteen were present at this first meeting, including Barton, Conger, and [[United States House of Representatives|Rep.]] [[William Lawrence (Ohio)|William Lawrence]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]], [[Ohio|OH]]) (who became the first vice-president [https://www.trianglearc.org/ARCweb/FD/2001ballreview.htm],[http://www.co.logan.oh.us/museum/Logan_County_History/body_logan_county_history.html]).
[[Jane Delano]] (1862-1919) was the founder of the [[American Red Cross Nursing Service]].
=== Clara Barton ===
[[Clara Barton]] (1821-1912) had already had a career as a teacher and federal bureaucrat when the [[American Civil War]] broke out. (She started teaching around the age of 15 or 16.) After working tirelessly on [[humanitarian]] work during and after the conflict, on advice of her doctors, in 1869, she went to Europe for a restful vacation. There, she saw and became involved in the work of the [[International Red Cross]] during the [[Franco-Prussian War]], and determined to bring the organization home with her to America.
When Clara Barton began the organizing work in the U.S. in 1873, no one thought the country would ever again faced an experience like the Civil War. However, Barton was not one to lose hope in the face of the bureaucracy, and she finally succeeded during the administration of President [[Chester A. Arthur]] on the basis that the new American Red Cross organization could also be available to respond to other types of crisis.
As Barton expanded the original concept of the Red Cross to include assisting in any great national disaster, this service brought the United States the "Good Samaritan of Nations" label in the International Red Cross. Barton naturally became President of the American branch of the society, known officially as the American National Red Cross. [[John D. Rockefeller]] gave money to create a national headquarters in [[Washington, DC]], located one block from the [[White House]].
Clara Barton led one of the group's first major relief efforts, a response to the Great Fire of 1881 ([[Thumb Fire]]) in the Thumb region of Michigan, which occurred on Sept 4-6, 1881. Over 5000 were left homeless. The next major disaster dealt with was the [[Johnstown Flood]] which occurred on [[May 31]], [[1889]]. Over 2,209 people died and thousands more were injured in or near [[Johnstown, Pennsylvania]] in one of the worst disasters in United States history. She resigned from the American Red Cross in [[1904]].
== Red Cross biomedical services ==
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===Blood===
The American Red Cross supplies roughly 45% of the [[blood donation|donated blood]] in the United States. Independent community-based blood centers supply 45% and 10% is collected directly by hospitals. In December of 2004, the American Red Cross completed their largest blood processing facility in the United States in [[Pomona, California]] on the campus grounds of the [[Cal Poly Pomona|California State Polytechnic University, Pomona]]. The Red Cross has had several controversies surrounding their blood program in which the center mishandled donated blood.
===Tissue services===
For more than twenty years, the American Red Cross provided [[allograft]] tissue for [[transplant]] through its Tissue Services Program. It cared for thousands of donor families who gave the gift of [[tissue donation]] and helped more than 1 million transplant recipients in need of this life saving or life-enhancing gift of tissue. At the end of January 2005, the American Red Cross ended its Tissue Services program in order to focus on its primary missions of Disaster Relief and Blood Services.
===Plasma services===
A leader in the [[Blood plasma|plasma]] industry, the Red Cross provides more than one quarter of the nation's plasma products. Red Cross Plasma Services seeks to provide the American people with plasma products which are not only reliable and cost-effective, but also as safe as possible.
In February [[1999]], the Red Cross completed its "Transformation," a $287 million program that: re-engineered Red Cross Blood Services' processing, testing and distribution system; and established a new management structure.
===Nucleic Acid Testing===
On [[March 1]], [[1999]], the American Red Cross became the first U.S. blood banking organization to implement a [[Nucleic Acid Testing]] (NAT) study. This process is different from traditional testing because it looks for the [[genetics|genetic]] material of [[HIV]] and [[hepatitis C]] (HCV), rather than the body's response to the disease.
The NAT tests for HIV and HCV have been licensed by the [[FDA]]. These tests are able to detect the genetic material of a transfusion-transmitted virus like HIV without waiting for the body to form antibodies, potentially offering an important time advantage over current techniques.
===Leukoreduction===
A person's own [[leukocytes]] (white blood cells) help fight off foreign substances such as [[bacteria]], [[viruses]] and abnormal cells, to avoid sickness or disease. But when transfused to another person, these same leukocytes do not benefit the recipient. In fact, these foreign leukocytes in transfused [[red blood cells]] and [[platelets]] are often not well tolerated and have been associated with some types of transfusion complications.
The Red Cross is moving toward system-wide universal prestorage leukocyte reduction to improve patient care.
===Research===
The Red Cross operates the [[Jerome H. Holland Laboratory]], based in [[Rockville, Maryland]]. Each year, the Red Cross invests more than $25 million in research activities at the Holland Laboratory and in the field.
===Cellular therapies===
One techniq |
lity to alternate feet on each step, leading into more complex steps
*Spins - Following a circular pattern around the pad
*Crossovers - In alternating feet per step, the one foot must hit an arrow on the opposite of its original position
*Gallops - A set of 1/4th and 1/16th or 1/4th and 1/12th (or eighth note triplets) notes in rapid succession
*Triplets - One beat divided into 3 equal 1/16th notes.
*Trills - Alternating on two steps that must be hit repeatedly in rapid succession.
*Jackhammers (also called jacks) - Steps on one arrow that must be hit rapidly.
Songs with 10 foot step patterns are considered the most difficult, including runs of up to 10 arrows a second for 10-20 seconds and complicated rhythm patterns. Four songs have earned the distinction as "Flashing 10 Footers", testing the player even further with complex step patterns (such as a 40 second stream of crossovers at 290BPM). The term "Flashing 10 Footer" borrows from [[Beatmania IIDX]], in which the highest difficulty rating is seven stars, and the most difficult have seven flashing stars.
Most music in DDR has 3 or 4 separate step patterns with increasing difficulty and are called difficulty "modes". In 1st-5th Mix, the difficulty modes are known as "Basic," "Trick" and "Maniac." Starting with Dance Dance Revolution 6th Mix: DDRMAX, these modes are called "Light," "Standard" and "Heavy."
Certain new music in DDR 7th Mix: DDRMAX 2 is only available in "oni mode" courses (explained later) and have only one set of dance steps. This music becomes playable in regular game mode for DDR Extreme with the exact same steps and are labeled as "Challenge" steps.
In DDR Extreme, a "Beginner" step set is introduced to all music with "Light," "Standard" and "Heavy" step modes. These steps are very easy to step to so that beginning players can learn how to play. Depending on the music, this can lead to a song with 4-5 different step difficulties.
Many songs include ''Freeze Arrows'' (first introduced in "Dance Dance Revolution 6th Mix: DDRMAX") which require the foot to remain on the appropriate pad arrow until the scrolling arrow's "tail" has disappeared. Also, most songs have double arrows, or pairs of arrows that must be pressed at the same time. Sometimes the scrolling arrows will stop completely to match a gap in the music, and resume unexpectedly. Players may also introduce modifiers, such as distorting the patterns of the steps (shuffle, reverse, right and left) and changing the scroll speed of the arrows (first introduced in "DDRMAX")
===Other modes===
Several other gameplay modes have appeared throughout the ''DDR'' series.
Nonstop Mode, introduced in ''[[Dance Dance Revolution 3rdMIX]]'', allows the player to play several songs in a row, with no rest period inbetween. The player chooses a particular Nonstop course to play, each course containing a predetermined order of songs. In ''3rdMIX'', the number of songs played is dependent on operator settings, but the mode later reappeared in ''DDR EXTREME'' with a fixed number of four songs.
''[[DDRMAX: Dance Dance Revolution 6thMIX|DDRMAX]]'' introduced a more challenging variant of Nonstop mode, known as Challenge Mode or "Oni" Mode (referring to "demon" or "hell" in the [[Japanese language]]). In Challenge Mode, a player chooses a predetermined set of songs, similar to Nonstop mode. These courses range from five to ten songs(for the exception of the Oni Course "Ultimate 12" which has 12 of the most hardest songs depending on which mix it is) in arcade versions, and can reach upwards of twenty in home releases. Unlike Nonstop mode, a Dance Gauge is not used to determine whether the player continues to the next song. Instead, a battery divided into three segments is displayed at the top of the screen, with one segment disappearing every time the player scores less than a "Great" judgment, or receives an "N.G." on a freeze arrow. If one of these errors is made while the battery is empty, the player immediately fails the course. The battery is replenished upon successful completion of each song, although the amount given back is dependent on the unique settings of each course.
Another "Challenge Mode", unrelated to the "Oni" Challenge Mode, is only featured in certain home releases. Gameplay consists of several "challenges" that may be attempted one at a time. In each challenge, the player must complete a certain song or section of a song while meeting certain conditions, sometimes with various gameplay modifiers applied to the song. For example, some challenges may require the player to not hit Up and Down arrows, play one set of steps with the wrong song playing, or play with the music reduced to half speed. Challenges are grouped into several sets within each game, depending on their difficulty. This mode was renamed "Mission Mode" in later console releases in Japan, and "Dance Master" mode in the US.
Endless Mode is also exclusive to home versions, and similar to Nonstop Mode, allows the player to play through numerous songs one after another. However, Endless Mode continues to queue up songs indefinitely, until the player quits or the Dance Gauge is depleted. The song order is random, but options are available to limit the songs to a certain difficulty or category. The player may also choose to have a break stage appear after a certain number of completed songs. After Konami was forced to cease their arcade operations, all later DDR releases had the Endless Mode added by default into all mixes.
Event Mode is another exclusive to home versions where there is no set number of stages. After a person completes or fails a song, the game goes back to the song selection screen. (Standard game mode in all the [[Xbox]] versions of the DDR games is set to Event Mode)
==Game versions==
''Dance Dance Revolution'' has been released in many forms, in arcades and on various [[video game console]]s. Although the majority of these releases have been limited to Japan, localized versions of the game have been released in [[Europe]], [[North America]], [[Korea]], and other areas of [[Asia]], to varying degrees of success. Japanese versions have also found their way outside the country through importing and [[bootlegging]], especially in North America. According to popular fansite "DDRFreak", as of September 2005, more than 2100 arcade DDR machines exist in the [[United States]], with over 25% of them located in [[California]].
===Arcade machines===
A standard ''Dance Dance Revolution'' [[video arcade|arcade]] machine consists of two parts, the [[arcade cabinet|cabinet]] and the dance platform. The cabinet has a wide bottom section, which houses large floor speakers and glowing [[neon lamp]]s. Above this sits a narrower section that contains the [[computer display|monitor]], and on top is a lighted marquee graphic, with two small speakers and flashing lights on either side. The wide base of the machine creates horizontal ledges on either side of the monitor, which may be used to mount cardboard displays that ship with the game, or to store player possessions.
Below the monitor are two sets of buttons, each consisting of two triangular yellow "Select" buttons, pointing left and right, and a middle rectangular green button labeled "Decide". These buttons are mounted on a raised plate, which forms a small lip between the monitor and the buttons. The "Select" buttons are used to scroll player options or songs, while the "Decide" button confirms a player's choice. On many ''DDR'' machines, players may often use tokens or other personal items to form an organized system of the players' order. "Coin lines", as they are commonly called, clearly shows the order of prospective players, so as to eliminate confusion. Some machines are even equipped with [[PlayStation]] [[memory card]] slots located below the buttons, to store player scores and to play "edits", or, a custom-created step pattern for a player's chosen song.
On the floor in front of the cabinet is a raised metal [[dance platform]], divided into two "pads". Each pad consists of nine 11-inch squares in a 3×3 matrix: four arrow panels for input (up, down, left, right), and five neutral metal squares. There are four pressure-activated sensors underneath each arrow panel, one placed at each edge, along with neon lights underneath the sensor that light up when the sensor detects a player's input. Mounted to the pad behind each player is a metal bar, resembling an upside down "U", which is commonly used to assist in balance.
''[[Dance Dance Revolution Solo]]'' machines have smaller cabinets, and only one dance pad, which includes "Up-Right" and "Up-Left" arrows, in addition to those previously mentioned. Interestingly enough, there is no metal bracket surrounding the "Up R/L" arrows, which can make stepping difficult for a player not used to the extra arrows. Solo machines generally do not come with a bar, but all have the option for one to be installed at a later time.
The rare ''Dance Dance Revolution Karaoke Mix'' also has one dance pad, as well as a smaller screen, and a microphone to allow the player to dance and sing simultaneously. Similar functionality will be available in the upcoming ''[[Karaoke Revolution Party]]'', being released on the [[PlayStation 2]], [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], and [[Xbox]].
Although some evidence suggested that DDR EXTREME would be the final arcade release in Japan (this has never been officially stated), on [[January 25]], [[2006]], a new arcade release was announced for North America, [[Dance Dance Revo |
FM</sup> - a 520STFM with 1&nbsp;MiB of RAM and a built-in double-sided floppy disk
* Mega ST (MEGA2, MEGA4) - 1040 with 2 or 4&nbsp;MiB of RAM, respectively, in a much improved "[[pizza box]]" case with a detached keyboard. These models included the BLiTTER chip, but the OS ROM was not upgraded and the extra GEM functionality needed to be booted from disk.
* 520ST<sup>E</sup> and 1040ST<sup>E</sup> - a 520STFM/1040STFM with enhanced sound, the BLiTTER chip, and a 4096-color palette, in the older 1040 style all-in-one case
* [[Atari MEGA STE|Mega STE]] - same hardware as 1040STE except for a faster 16-MHz processor, in the TT case
* STacy - A [[portable computer|portable]] (but definitely not [[laptop]]) version of the ST. Originally designed to operate on 12 standard [[C cell]] flashlight batteries for portability, when Atari finally realized how quickly the machine would use up a set of batteries (especially when rechargeable batteries of the time supplied insufficient power compared to the intended alkalines), they simply glued the lid of the battery compartment shut, and soon discontinued the machine.
* ST Book (later version portable ST), vastly more portable than the STacy, but sacrificing several features in order to achieve this - notably the backlight, and internal floppy disc drive. Files were meant to be stored on a small amount (1 MiB - though you could fit a lot into 1 and a half floppies back then) of internal flash memory 'on the road' and transferred using serial or parallel links, memory flashcards or external (and externally powered) floppy disc to a 'real' desktop ST once back indoors. The screen is highly reflective for the time, but still hard to use indoors or in low light (the idea of a switchable green LED backlight seeming not to have inspired the Atari technical department as it did many wristwatch manufacturers), it is fixed to the 640x400 1-bit mono mode (not even greyscale emulation of colour in low res is offered), and no external video port was provided. For its limitations, it gained some popularity as being the most utterly portable 'real' computer of the day (slim, light, quiet, reliable, and with a long battery life, even by today's standards for all 5), particularly amongst musicians already used to using the original computer and perhaps having lugged a STacy or even a full ST + Monitor + accessories rig on tour.
== Other models ==
* [[Atari TT|Atari TT030]] &mdash; new machine based on the [[Motorola 68030]] processor running at 32 MHz, in yet another new case design with a detached keyboard. Capable of high screen resolutions with better colour palletes and addressing more memory, with optional onboard hard drive (slotting onto the base as a second, smaller box). Popular with CAD and DTP communities of the time for its sheer graphical capability (it's high resolution only recently having become a common size on modern PCs) and processing speed.
* [[Atari Falcon|Atari Falcon 030]] &mdash; another 68030 based (albeit only 16 MHz) machine like the TT, but in the 1040-style case (yet again) with further upgrades to the graphics and sound, a [[Motorola 56000]] [[digital signal processor|DSP]] for CD-quality sound recording and processing, multitasking OS (on disk) and a [[LocalTalk]] port for networking.
* Medusa 040, Medusa 060, Hades 040, Hades 060 &mdash; 3rd-party Falcon/TT compatible machines manufactured by [[Medusa Computer Systems]].
* Atari ABAQ, or [[Atari Transputer Workstation]] &mdash; A standalone machine containing modified ST hardware and up to 17 transputers capable of massively parallel operations for tasks such as ray tracing.
* Atari Portfolio, a pocket-calculator sized PC XT (as seen being used by John Connor in the film ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]''), and forerunner to modern PDAs. Designed to easily link up and transfer data with STs using a parallel cable and simple software.
(Also: several Atari PCs - though there was talk of it, none were released with dual PC and ST operating capability onboard, possibly because the ST would have embarrassed the outdated hardware Atari chose to put in their budget IBM clones)
There were also some unreleased prototypes: [http://www.atari-explorer.com/protos-falcon040.html Falcon 040] (''external link'') (based on a [[Motorola 68040]], new case and slots), ST Pad (A4 (Letter paper) sized pen-operated portable ST computer, handheld and with an unlit monochrome LCD screen derived from the ST Book, forerunner of modern tablet PCs), and the STylus (Apple Newton-style palmtop).
== Trivia ==
The standard 8x8 pixel graphical character set for the ST (the main in-ROM "font" for GEM, and text-mode TOS operations) contains, following all the standard numbers, letters, symbols and accented characters, four unusual characters. These can be placed together in a square, forming a basic but recognisable facsimile of the face of [[J. R. "Bob" Dobbs]], the supposed founder of the [[Church of the Subgenius]].
Jack Tramiel chose to include the [[Hebrew alphabet]] with ST's ROM character set because of his Jewish heritage.
== See also ==
*[[List of Atari ST games]]
*[[Atari ST demos]] &mdash; The [[demoscene]] on the Atari ST.
== External links ==
*[http://atari-ste.anvil-soft.com Atari STE fanpage]
===History===
*[http://www.atarimagazines.com/startv3n1/threeyearsofst.html "3 Years With the ST" article]
===General===
*http://www.atarilegend.com
*http://www.atari-forum.com
*http://www.atarihq.com
*http://www.atari.org
*http://www.atari-history.com
*http://www.atarihistory.de
*http://www.atari.st
===The machines===
*[http://yescrew.real-atarian.net/eng/atari.htm Atari Gallery] &ndash; Descriptions of the various ST models; courtesy of ''[http://yescrew.real-atarian.net YesCREW]''
===Free Emulators===
*http://steem.atari.org
*http://saint.atari.org
*http://stonx.sourceforge.net
*http://hatari.sourceforge.net
(there are also commercial emulators)
===Software===
*http://www.umich.edu/~archive/atari/ &mdash; The Atari section of the [[University of Michigan]] software archives.
*[http://users.pandora.be/tos4ever/utsi.htm Ultimate TOS Software Index]
*[http://www.medcalcsoftware.com/legacysoftware/atari/ 3D-Calc freeware spreadsheet for Atari ST]
===Hardware===
*[http://www.hardwarebook.net/connector/userinput/atarimousejoy.html HwB: Atari Mouse/Joy Connector]
===3rd-party manufacturers===
*[http://www.kingx.com/kingx/medusa/thes.html Medusa Computer Systems] &mdash; Manufacturers of the Medusa 040, Medusa 060, Hades 040, Hades 060.
===Lists of links===
*[http://www.doitarchive.de/link.htm Atari Web Links]
[[Category:Home computers]]
[[Category:Personal computers]]
[[Category:Atari ST]]
[[de:Atari ST]]
[[es:Atari ST]]
[[fr:Atari ST]]
[[hr:Atari ST]]
[[it:Atari ST]]
[[pl:Atari ST]]
[[fi:Atari ST]]
[[sv:Atari ST]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>List of Artificial Intelligence projects</title>
<id>2142</id>
<revision>
<id>40533808</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T06:36:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ralf Klinkenberg</username>
<id>966841</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of current and past [[artificial intelligence]] projects.
* [[CCortex]] A planned 20-billion neuron simulation of the Human Cortex and peripheral systems.
* [[MIT Cog project | Cog]], MIT's robot baby.
* [[Cyc]] a knowledge base with vast collection of facts about the real world and logical reasoning ability.
* [[Eurisko]], a language for solving problems which consists of heuristics, including heuristics for how to use and change its heuristics. Developed in [[1978]] by Douglas Lenat.
* [[Mindpixel]] "The Planet's Largest Artificial Intelligence Effort"
* [[Novamente]] "The Novamente AGI System is designed to be a pure learning machine, with the capability to learn how to perceive, cognize, act and interact based on experience. Novamente's design philosophy stresses cognitive sophistication and conceptual correctness over immediate behavioral and programmatical benefit."
* [[SHRDLU]], an early natural language understanding computer program developed in [[1968]]-[[1970]]. It understood orders like "find a block which is taller than the one you are holding and put it into the box".
* [[Adaptive AI]] "a2i2 is a commercial Artificial General Intelligence development effort. A small team located in LA, company formed in 2001."
* [[CodeSimian programming language]] is a [[programming language]] specialized in building [[artificial intelligence]].
* [[Chinook]] was declared the Man-Machine World Champion in [[checkers|checkers (draughts)]] in 1994.
* [[Deep Blue]], a chess-playing computer, beat [[Garry Kasparov]] in a famous match in 1997.
* [[InfoTame]], a text analysis search engine developed by the KGB for automatically sorting millions of pages of communications intercepts.
* [[SYSTRAN]] translation system are widely used in [[Alta Vista]], [[Google]] etc., although results are not yet comparable with human translators.
* [[Open Mind Common Sense]], a project to build a large common sense knowledge base from the contributions of thousands of people across the Web.
==External links==
* [http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/infolab Start] is a natural language answering system.
* [http://www.bitesizeinc.net/index.php/ainebot.html Ainebot] is an AI chatbot project based on A.L.I.C.E.
* [http://www.adaptiveai.com AdaptiveAI.com] a2i2 website.
* [http://www.ad.com/ Artificial Development] - Artificial Development is building CCortex. With a planned 20 billion neurons and 20 trillion connections, CCortex will be up to 10.000 times larger than any previous attempt to replicate primary characteristics of Human Intelligence.
* [http://mind.sourceforge.n |
y of hygienic, dietary, medicinal, religious, and recreational reasons. While infrequent consumption of ethanol in small quantities may be harmless or even beneficial, larger doses result in a state known as [[drunkenness]] or intoxication and, depending on the dose and regularity of use, can cause acute respiratory failure or death and with chronic use has medical repercussions.
Other alcohols are substantially more poisonous than ethanol, partly because they take much longer to be metabolized, and often their metabolism produces even more toxic substances. Methanol, or ''wood alcohol'', for instance, is oxidized by [[alcohol dehydrogenase]] [[enzyme]]s in the liver to the poisonous [[formaldehyde]], which can cause blindness or death.
An effective treatment to prevent formaldehyde toxicity after methanol ingestion is to administer ethanol. This will bind to alcohol dehydrogenase, preventing methanol from binding and thus acting as a [[substrate]]. Any formaldehyde will be converted to [[formic acid]] and excreted before it causes damage.
== Preparation of alcohols ==
=== Laboratory ===
Several methods exist for the preparation of alcohols in the laboratory.
* Primary [[Alkyl halide]]s react with aqueous [[Sodium hydroxide|NaOH]] or [[Potassium hydroxide|KOH]] mainly to primary alcohols in [[nucleophilic aliphatic substitution]]. (Secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination (alkene) product instead).
* [[Aldehydes]] or [[ketone]]s are [[reduction|reduced]] with [[sodium borohydride]] or [[lithium aluminium hydride]]. (after an acidic workup)
* [[Alkenes]] engage in a [[acid]] catalysed [[hydration reaction]] using concentrated [[sulfuric acid]] as a catalyst which gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols.
* The [[hydroboration-oxidation]] and [[oxymercuration-reduction]] of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis.
* [[Grignard reagent]]s react with [[carbonyl]] groups to secondary and tertiary alcohols
The formation of a secondary alcohol via reduction and hydratation is shown:
[[Image:alcohol_prep.gif|center|350px|Preparation of a secondary alcohol]]
=== Industrial ===
Industrially alcohols are produced in several ways.
* by [[fermentation]] using [[glucose]] produced from sugar from the [[hydrolysis]] of [[starch]], in the presence of yeast and temperature of less than 37°C to produce ethanol. For instance the conversion of [[invertase]] to [[glucose]] and [[fructose]] or the conversion of [[glucose]] to [[zymase]] and [[ethanol]].
* By direct [[hydration reaction|hydration]]: using [[ethene]] or other alkenes from [[cracking]] of fractions of distilled [[crude oil]]. Uses a catalyst of [[phosphoric acid]] under high temperature and pressure.
* [[Methanol]] is producted from water gas: It is manufactured from [[Syngas|synthesis gas]], where [[carbon monoxide]] and 2 equivalents of hydrogen gas are combined to produce [[methanol]] using a [[copper]], [[zinc oxide]] and [[aluminium oxide]] catalyst at 250°C and a pressure of 50-100 atm.
== Reactions of alcohols ==
=== Deprotonation ===
Alcohols can behave as weak acids, undergoing deprotonation. The deprotonation reaction to produce an [[alkoxide]] salt is either performed with a strong base such as [[sodium hydride]] or [[butyllithium|''n''-butyllithium]], or with sodium or potassium metal.
: 2 R-OH + 2 [[Sodium hydride|NaH]] &rarr; 2 R-O<sup>-</sup>Na<sup>+</sup> + [[Hydrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]]&uarr;
: 2 R-OH + 2[[Sodium|Na]] &rarr; 2R-O<sup>&minus;</sup>Na<sup>+</sup>
: e.g. 2 [[Ethanol|CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>-OH]] + 2 Na &rarr; 2 CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-O<sup>&minus;</sup>Na<sup>+</sup>
Water is similar in [[pKa|pK<Sub>a</sub>]] to many alcohols, so with [[sodium hydroxide]] there is an equilibrium set up which usually lies to the left:
: R-OH + [[Sodium hydroxide|NaOH]] <=> R-O<sup>-</sup>Na<sup>+</sup> + H<sub>2</sub>O (equilibrium to the left)
It should be noted, though, that the bases used to deprotonate alcohols are strong themselves. The bases used and the alkoxides created are both highly moisture sensitive chemical reagents.
=== Nucleophilic substitution ===
The [[hydroxyl|OH]] group is not a good [[leaving group]] in [[nucleophilic substitution]] reactions, so neutral alcohols do not react in such reactions. However if the oxygen is first protonated to give R&minus;OH<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup>, the leaving group ([[water_(molecule)|water]]) is much more stable, and nucleophilic substitution can take place. For instance, tertiary alcohols react with [[hydrochloric acid]] to produce tertiary [[alkyl halide]]s, where the [[hydroxyl group]] is replaced by a [[chlorine]] atom. If primary or secondary alcohols are to be reacted with [[hydrochloric acid]], an activator such as [[zinc chloride]] is needed. Alternatively the conversion may be performed directly using [[thionyl chloride]].<sup>[1]</sup>
[[Image:Alcohol_reaction_examples.gif|550px|Some simple conversions of alcohols to alkyl chlorides]]
Alcohols may likewise be converted to alkyl bromides using [[hydrobromic acid]] or [[phosphorus tribromide]], for example:
: 3 R-OH + PBr<sub>3</sub> &rarr; 3 RBr + H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>3</sub>
In the [[Barton-McCombie deoxygenation]] an alcohol is deoxygenated to an [[alkane]] with [[organotin|tributyltin hydride]] or a [[organoborane|trimethylborane]]-water complex in a [[radical substitution]] reaction.
=== Dehydration ===
Alcohols are themselves nucleophilic, so R&minus;OH<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup> can react with ROH to produce [[ether]]s and water in a [[dehydration reaction]], although this reaction is rarely used except in the manufacture of [[diethyl ether]].
More useful is the E1 [[elimination reaction]] of alcohols to produce [[alkene]]s. The reaction generally obeys [[Zaitsev's Rule]], which states that the most stable (usually the most substituted) alkene is formed. Tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature, but primary alcohols requre a higher temperature.
This is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce [[ethene]]:
[[image:DehydrationOfAlcoholWithH-.png|550px]]
=== Esterification ===
To form an [[ester]] from an [[alcohol]] and a [[carboxylic acid]] the reaction, known as [[Fischer esterification]], is usually performed at [[reflux]] with a [[catalyst]] of concentrated [[sulfuric acid]]:
: R-OH + R'-COOH <math>\Leftrightarrow</math> R'-COOR + H<sub>2</sub>O
In order to drive the equilibrium to the right and produce a good [[yield_(chemistry)|yield]] of ester, water is usually removed, either by an excess of H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> or by using a [[Dean-Stark apparatus]]. Esters may also be prepared by reaction of the alcohol with an [[acid chloride]] in the presence of a base such as [[pyridine]].
Other types of ester are prepared similarly- for example [[tosyl]] (tosylate) esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with p-[[toluenesulfonyl]] chloride in pyridine.
=== Oxidation===
Primary alcohols generally give [[aldehyde]]s or [[carboxylic acid]]s upon [[organic oxidation|oxidation]], while secondary alcohols give [[ketone]]s. Traditionally strong [[Redox|oxidants]] such as the [[dichromate]] ion or [[potassium permanganate]] are used, under acidic conditions, for example:
:3 [[Isopropanol|CH<sub>3</sub>-CH(-OH)-CH<sub>3</sub>]] + [[Potassium dichromate|K<sub>2</sub>Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>]] + 4 [[Sulfuric acid|H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>]] &rarr; 3 [[Acetone|CH<sub>3</sub>-C(=O)-CH<sub>3</sub>]] + Cr<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub> + K<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + 7 [[Water_(molecule)|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
Frequently in [[aldehyde]] preparations these reagents cause a problem of over-oxidation to the [[carboxylic acid]]. To avoid this, other reagents such as [[Pyridinium chlorochromate|PCC]], [[Dess-Martin periodinane]], [[2-Iodoxybenzoic acid]], [[TPAP]] or methods such as [[Swern oxidation]] are now preferred.
Alcohols with a [[methyl]] group attached to the alcohol carbon can also undergo a [[haloform reaction]] (such as the [[iodoform reaction]]) in the presence of the [[halogen]] and a base such as sodium hydroxide.
Tertiary alcohols resist oxidation, but can be oxidised by reagents such as 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone.
== See also ==
* [[Alcohol as a fuel]]
* [[Alcoholic beverage]]
* [[Effects of alcohol on the body]]
* [[Transesterification]]
* [[Sugar alcohol]]s
* [[Fatty alcohol]]s
== References ==
* [http://sci-toys.com/ingredients/alcohol.html Sci-toys website explanation of denatured alcohol designations]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.french-paradox.net/fpbksb1.html What Is Alcohol, Anyway?] Interesting information about alcohols.
[[Category:Alcohol|*]]
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geodesy, called
[[physical geodesy]].
== Geoid and reference ellipsoid ==
The [[geoid]] is essentially the figure of the Earth abstracted from its topographic features. It is an idealized equilibrium surface of sea water, the mean sea level surface in the absence of currents, air pressure variations etc. and continued under the continental masses. The geoid, unlike the ellipsoid, is irregular and too complicated to serve as the computational surface on which to solve geometrical problems like point positioning. The geometrical separation between
it and the reference ellipsoid is called the geoidal undulation [[wiktionary:Undulate|Wiktionary - Entry on Undulate]]. It
varies globally between <math>\pm</math> 110 m.
A [[reference ellipsoid]], customarily chosen to be the same size (volume)
as the geoid, is described by its semi-major axis (equatorial
radius) <math>a</math> and flattening
<math>f</math>. The quantity <math>f = (a-b)/a</math>, where <math>b</math> is the semi-minor axis
(polar radius), is a purely geometrical one. The mechanical
ellipticity of the earth (dynamical flattening, symbol <math>J_2</math>) is determined to high precision by
observation of satellite orbit perturbations. Its relationship with the geometric flattening is indirect. The relationship depends on the internal density distribution, or, in simplest terms, the degree of central concentration of mass.
The 1980 Geodetic Reference System ([[GRS80]])
posited a 6,378,137 m semi-major axis and a 1:298.257 flattening. This
system was adopted at the XVII General Assembly of the International
Union of Geodesy and Geophysics ([[IUGG]]). It is essentially the basis for geodetic positioning by the Global Positioning System and is thus in extremely widespread use also outside the geodetic community.
The numerous other systems which have been used by diverse countries for their maps and charts are gradually dropping out of use as more and more countries move to global, geocentric reference systems using the GRS80 reference ellipsoid.
== Coordinate systems in space ==
The locations of points in three-dimensional space are most
conveniently described by three [[cartesian coordinate system|cartesian]] or rectangular coordinates,
<math>X, Y</math> and <math>Z</math>. Since the advent of satellite
positioning, such coordinate sytems are typically ''geocentric'': the
<math>Z</math> axis is aligned with the Earth's (conventional or
instantaneous) rotation axis.
Before the satellite geodesy era, the coordinate systems associated
with geodetic datums attempted to be geocentric, but their origins
differed from the geocentre by hundreds of metres, due to regional
deviations in the direction of the [[plumbline]] (vertical). These regional geodetic datums, such as [[ED50]] (European Datum 1950) or [[NAD83]] (North American Datum 1983) have ellipsoids associated with them that are regional 'best fits' to the [[geoid]]s within their areas of validity, minimising the deflections of the vertical over these areas.
It is only because
[[GPS]] satellites orbit about the geocentre, that this point becomes
naturally the origin of a coordinate system defined by satellite geodetic means, as the satellite positions in space are themselves computed in such a system.
Geocentric coordinate systems used in geodesy can be divided naturally into two classes:
# [[Inertial]] reference systems, where the coordinate axes retain their orientation relative to the [[fixed star]]s, or equivalently, to the rotation axes of ideal [[gyroscopes]]; the <math>X</math> axis points to the [[vernal equinox]]
# Co-rotating, also ECEF ("Earth Centred, Earth Fixed"), where the axes are attached to the solid body of the Earth. The <math>X</math> axis lies within the [[Greenwich meridian|Greenwich]] observatory's [[Meridian (geography)|meridian]] plane.
The coordinate transformation between these two systems is described to good approximation by (apparent) [[sidereal time]], which takes into account variations in the Earth's axial rotation ([[day|length-of-day]] variations). A more accurate description also takes [[polar motion]] into account, a phenomenon currently closely monitored by geodesists.
=== Coordinate systems in the plane ===
In [[surveying]] and [[mapping]], important fields of application of geodesy, two general types of coordinate systems are used in the plane:
# Plano-polar, in which points in a plane are defined by a distance <math>s</math> from a specified point along a ray having a specified direction <math>\alpha</math> with respect to a base line or axis;
# Rectangular, points are defined by distances from two perpendicular axes called <math>x</math> and <math>y</math>. It is geodetic practice — contrary to the mathematical convention — to let the <math>x</math> axis point to the North and the <math>y</math> axis to the East.
Rectangular coordinates in the plane can be used intuitively with respect to one's current location, in which case the <math>x</math> axis will point to the local North. More formally, such coordinates can be obtained from three-dimensional coordinates using the artifice of a [[map projection]]. It is ''not'' possible to map the curved surface of the Earth onto a flat map surface without deformation. The compromise most often chosen — called a [[conformal]] projection — preserves angles and length ratios, so that small circles are mapped as small circles and small squares as squares.
An example of such a projection is UTM ([[Universal Transverse Mercator]]). Within the map plane, we have rectangular coordinates <math>x</math> and <math>y</math>. In this case the North direction used for reference is the ''map'' North, not the ''local'' North. The difference between the two is called ''meridian convergence''.
It is easy enough to "translate" between polar and rectangular coordinates in the plane: let, as above, direction and distance be <math>\alpha</math> and <math>s</math> respectively, then we have
:<math>
\begin{matrix}
x &=& s \cos \alpha,\\
y &=& s \sin \alpha.
\end{matrix}
</math>
The reverse translation is slightly more tricky.
==Heights==
In geodesy, point or terrain ''[[height]]s'' are "above [[sea level]]", an irregular, physically defined surface.
Therefore a height should ideally ''not'' be referred to as a
coordinate. It is more like a physical quantity, and though it can be
tempting to treat height as the vertical coordinate <math>z</math>, in
addition to the horizontal coordinates <math>x</math> and <math>y</math>, and
though this actually is a good approximation of physical reality in
small areas, it becomes quickly invalid in larger areas.
Heights come in the following variants:
# [[Orthometric height]]s
# [[Normal height]]s
# [[Geopotential number]]s
Each have their advantages and disadvantages. Both orthometric and normal heights are heights in metres above sea level, whereas geopotential numbers are measures of potential energy (unit: <math>m^2 s^{-2}</math>) and not metric. Orthometric and normal heights differ in the precise way in which mean sea level is conceptually continued under the continental masses. The reference surface for orthometric heights is the [[geoid]], an equipotential surface approximating mean sea level.
''None'' of these heights are in any way related to '''geodetic''' or '''ellipsoidial''' heights, which express the height of a point above the [[reference ellipsoid]]. Satellite positioning receivers typically provide ellipsoidal heights, unless they are fitted with special conversion software based on a model of the [[geoid]].
== Geodetic [[datum]]s ==
Because geodetic point coordinates (and heights) are always obtained in a system that has been constructed itself using real observations, we have to introduce the concept of a ''geodetic datum'': a physical realization of a coordinate system used for describing point locations. The realization is the result of ''choosing'' conventional coordinate values for one or more ''datum points''.
In the case of height datums, it suffices to choose ''one'' datum point: the reference bench mark, typically a tide gauge at the shore. Thus we have vertical datums like the NAP ([[Normaal Amsterdams Peil]]), the North American Vertical Datum 1988 (NAVD88), the Kronstadt datum, the Trieste datum, etc.
In case of plane or spatial coordinates, we typically need several datum points. A regional, ellipsoidal datum like [[ED50]] can be fixed by prescribing the undulation of the [[geoid]] and the deflection of the vertical in ''one'' datum point, in this case the [[Helmert Tower]] in [[Potsdam]]. However, an overdetermined ensemble of datum points can also be used.
Changing the coordinates of a point set referring to one datum, to make them refer to another datum, is called a ''datum transformation''. In the case of vertical datums, this consists of simply adding a constant shift to all height values. In the case of plane or spatial coordinates, datum transformation takes the form of a similarity or ''Helmert transformation'', consisting of a rotation and scaling operation in addition to a simple translation. In the plane, a [[Helmert transformation]] has four parameters, in space, seven.
===A note on terminology===
In the abstract, a coordinate system as used in mathematics and geodesy is, e.g., in [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] terminology, referred to as a ''coordinate system''. International geodetic organizations like the [[IERS]] (International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service) speak of a ''reference system''.
When these coordinates are realized |
o provides several achievement and high score (honor) awards.
The [[Bowling Proprietors Association of America]] (BPAA), founded in 1932, serves the interests of bowling center owners. The BPAA includes more than 3,300 bowling centers among its membership. For many years, the BPAA has run the BPAA United States Open tournament (commonly referred to as the "U.S. Open"), orginally call the BPAA-All Star Tournament.
==[[Ten-pin bowling]] technology==
:''For the machine which sets bowling pins, see [[pinsetter]].''
The behavior of a rolling ball on a surface is controlled by several factors, the most obvious being the bowler's delivery. In the delivery, the bowler can advantageously use or fight (intentionally or unintentionally) the force of [[gravity]]. After the ball is on the surface of the lane, a complex interaction of friction, [[Gyroscope|gyroscopic]] [[inertia]] and gravity becomes a factor that can range from subtle to perhaps amazing. These environmental influences can be segregated as either lane conditions or ball characteristics.
Both are regulated by the [[United States Bowling Congress|USBC]], as are the pin characteristics. Technological changes, throughout the history of the sport, often required new regulations, and this continues today, often with great debate. The controversies usually involve scoreability. While low scoring can be a problem, it is the increasing frequency and degree of higher scoring that irks the [[Purist|purists]], who say that it is spoiling the integrity of the sport. Among advanced players, there is little argument about whether technological changes have enabled higher scoring (it has). Yet there are those who have seen their scores decline, often due to not changing their technique or balls. Some argue that it unfairly effects competition. Many advanced bowlers continually buy new improved bowling balls to try to obtain an advantage over their opponents, and all have access, at least as far as their bank accounts can go.
Historically, up until the late 1960s, the USBC honor awards (for 300 games, 800 series, etc.) were rarely won genuine treasures. As things started to change, an organization named "The Foundation" comprised of experienced lane maintenance experts and many distinguished bowlers, including members of the [[Professional Bowlers Association]] (PBA) and the United States Bowling Congress (USBC) Halls of Fame, was founded in [[1966]] with the goal of addressing these serious issues. The Foundation members at that time made the statement that under the current environment in bowling they "could no longer guarantee a lane condition that would be accepted by the contestants, coaches and observers as fair and equitable." In [[1989]], Bob Strickland wrote that bowlers know it is possible to bowl bad but score good, or worse, to bowl good but score bad. It can be confusing to players as they learn the game. For more experienced players, notably older ones who have locked themselves into some technique that no longer works as well, it can become quite frustrating.
In the early 1970s the first [[plastic]] balls became widely available, just a few years after the first [[urethane]] coatings were applied to the old wood lanes. Those and subsequent changes have been altering the physical scoring factors. These and the ever present opportunity to use lane oiling patterns to make targeting easier, is a cause for concern. Honor scores have increased by several thousand percent on a per capita basis in the 25 year time period from 1980 - 2005. The USBC, for various reasons, has not been able to regulate these changes well enough to protect the integrity of their honor score award program. So they have cheapened their intrinsic value and created other workarounds.
In response to the view that higher scoring lane conditions are spoiling the integrity of the sport, the USBC introduced in 2000 the Sport Bowling Program which offers a different optional league certification. It understandably requires higher bowler fees, and the USBC provides a separate set of honor awards. In "Sport Bowling," lane conditions are more highly regulated and controlled than in traditional leagues and the oiling patterns used are generally more even with regards to volume and ratios of oil across the surface of the lane. "Sport Bowling" conditions are also used at the major championships of professional bowling (the U.S. Open, the USBC Masters, the PBA World Championship, and the PBA Tournament of Champions).
One of the most [[Controversy|contentious]] issues that has arisen is whether there should be a Standard Ball for the sport of bowling, or at least whether significant restrictions should be imposed on bowling ball technology. Other considerations have been noted with regards to the weight of the bowling pins, lane oiling techniques, and with the construction materials and techniques used to build bowling lanes.
A bowling ball is not an absolutely uniform [[sphere]] - the gripping holes (and sometimes a balance hole) alone make that impossible. Bowling ball materials, during the history of the USBC, have evolved from wood, to rubber, to plastic, to urethane, to reactive urethane, to particle, and to [[epoxy]]. Wood balls are now just museum pieces. Rubber balls are almost as hard to find - you may still see them offered to casual bowlers at bowling centers, from their racks for those who don't own their own ball. Bowling balls have been constructed with a core made of one material, a spherical coverstock ("cover" or "shell") and a "pancake" weight block of denser material intended to compensate for the gripping holes.
In the early 1970s, people began experimenting with the hardness of the plastic balls, notably PBA member Don McCune, who invented the "soaker" - a plastic ball he softened "in the garage" with chemicals. These and balls subsequently manufactured with the resulting softer cover came under USBC scrutiny because of the increased scoring. A ball hardness rule was established, which barred some of the softer balls.
At some point in ball making and drilling the USBC introduced ball balance regulations to prevent people from taking advantage. It was possible to drill the grip at a location relative to the weight block so that it would achieve some effect, such as to help the bowler make it roll earlier or hook more.
Prior to about 1990, the USBC "static" ball balance regulations were adequate. The core was usually a uniform sphere centered inside the ball. Then competition among ball manufacturers motivated the production of balls designed to offer more than the "static balance" tricks. Materials and [[Manufacturing|fabrication]] changes have since allowed the assembly of balls whose interior components have a much greater range of [[density]], thereby offering a new ball choice that, in physics terms, involves the moment of inertia of a solid sphere. Eventually, "dynamic balance" regulations had to be adopted.
In order to continue this discussion, a systematic description of ball rotation must be introduced. For various formulaic purposes, physicists divide rotation into three components, assigning portions to x, y and z axes that are mutually perpendicular. For bowling, the x-axis can be assigned to a line that is parallel to the foul line, the y-axis to the line parallel to the boards, and the z-axis to the vertical. Forward-roll is rotation about the x-axis, side-roll is rotation about the y-axis and mid-roll (or spin) is rotation about the z-axis. The pure full-roller delivery is a combination of forward- and side-roll only. Semi-rollers include spin. Spinners may have very little side roll. In a very strict physics sense, a ball may be delivered with rotation, but usually not in a roll, because that would imply complete [[Traction (engineering)|traction]]. The technique of the great majority of bowlers involves a delivery that starts the ball in a skid that evolves into a roll that hooks into the pins.
It has been known since before the 1960s that a "full-roller" type of delivery does not hook as well as "3/4 rollers" on oily lanes. On successive rotations, the "full roller" repeatedly contacts the lane on the same full circumferential circle, on which the oil accumulates, making it harder for the side-roll to find traction and create hooking action. The "full-roller" had been the dominant choice before the changes in lane coatings and oil. The "semi-roller" is now preferred (it may also be called "3/4 roller" or by other slang terms). With a 3/4-roller a bowler puts the ball into a rotation whose contact ring is smaller, and on successive rotations enlarges (subsequent examination of the ball often shows a flaring of the circles of oil). This is because at every spot along the circle friction reduces the rotation, and that includes the spin component, causing rotation on a continually larger circle. This has the effect of bringing relatively dry ball surface in contact with the lane, increasing traction for both forward-roll and side-roll. It probably goes without saying why bowlers often wipe oil off the ball.
Another effect of ball imbalance (either static or dynamic) is the ability to introduce gyroscopic effects on the rotation. The component of imbalance along the rotation axis provides a leverage that can change the orientation of the axis on its horizontal plane, an action physicists call precession. It is basically the same thing as a spinning toy top "going around in a circle." In the case of a rotating bowling ball, as it moves along the lane, there is only time for its total rotation axis to move along a short arc, but this is enough to reorient the total rotation so that some of the forward-roll becomes side-roll, increasing the side-roll provided in th |
n in the February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a 'united front' policy. [http://melior.univ-montp3.fr/ra_forum/en/people/berry_david/fascism_or_revolution.html] In Spain, the [[CNT]] initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the ruling class responded with an attempted coup, and the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936-39) was underway.
In reponse to the army rebellion [[Anarchism in Spain|an anarchist-inspired]] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of the major [[city]] of [[Barcelona]] and of large areas of rural Spain where they [[collectivization|collectivized]] the land. But even before the eventual fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the [[Stalinists]]. The CNT leadership often appeared confused and divided, with some members controversially entering the government. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives, and persecuted both [[POUM|dissident marxists]] and anarchists.
Since the late 1970s anarchists have been involved in fighting the rise of [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]] groups. In Germany and the United Kingdom some anarchists worked within [[militant]] [[anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] groups alongside members of the [[Marxist]] left. They advocated directly combating fascists with physical force rather than relying on the state. Since the late 1990s, a similar tendency has developed within US anarchism. ''See also: [[Anti-Racist Action]] (US), [[Anti-Fascist Action]] (UK), [[Antifa]]''
==Religious anarchism==
[[Image:LeoTolstoy.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Leo Tolstoy|Leo Tolstoy]] 1828-1910]]
{{main articles|[[Christian anarchism]] and [[Anarchism and religion]]}}
Most anarchist culture tends to be [[secular]] if not outright [[militant athiesm|anti-religious]]. However, the combination of religious social conscience, historical religiousity amongst oppressed social classes, and the compatibility of some interpretations of religious traditions with anarchism has resulted in religious anarchism.
[[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchists]] believe that there is no higher authority than [[God]], and oppose earthly authority such as [[government]] and established churches. They believe that Jesus' teachings were clearly anarchistic, but were corrupted when "Christianity" was declared the official religion of Rome. Christian anarchists, who follow Jesus' directive to "turn the other cheek", are strict [[pacifism|pacifists]]. The most famous advocate of Christian anarchism was [[Leo Tolstoy]], author of ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'', who called for a society based on compassion, nonviolent principles and freedom. Christian anarchists tend to form [[experimental communities]]. They also occasionally [[tax resistance|resist taxation]]. Many Christian anarchists are [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]] or [[veganism|vegan]]{{fact}}.
Christian anarchy can be said to have roots as old as the religion's birth, as the [[early church]] exhibits many anarchistic tendencies, such as communal goods and wealth. By aiming to obey utterly certain of the Bible's teachings certain [[anabaptism|anabaptist]] groups of sixteenth century Europe attempted to emulate the early church's social-economic organisation and philosophy by regarding it as the only social structure capable of true obediance to Jesus' teachings, and utterly rejected (in theory) all earthly hierarchies and authority (and indeed non-anabaptists in general) and violence as ungodly. Such groups, for example the [[Hutterites]], typically went from initially anarchistic beginnings to, as their movements stabalised, more authoritarian social models.
[[Chinese Anarchism]] was most influential in the 1920s. Strands of Chinese anarchism included [[Tai-Xu]]'s [[Buddhist Anarchism]] which was influenced by Tolstoy and the [[well-field system]].
[[Neopaganism]], with its focus on the environment and equality, along with its often decentralized nature, has lead to a number of neopagan anarchists. One of the most prominent is [[Starhawk]], who writes extensively about both [[spirituality]] and [[activism]].
==Anarchism and feminism==
[[Image:Goldman-4.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Emma Goldman]]]]
{{main|Anarcha-Feminism}}
Early [[French feminism|French feminists]] such as [[Jenny d'Héricourt]] and [[Juliette Adam]] criticised the [[mysogyny]] in the anarchism of [[Proudhon]] during the 1850s.
Anarcha-feminism is a kind of [[radical feminism]] that espouses the belief that [[patriarchy]] is a fundamental problem in society. While anarchist feminism has existed for more than a hundred years, its explicit formulation as ''anarcha-feminism'' dates back to the early 70s<ref>[http://www.anarcha.org/sallydarity/Anarcho-FeminismTwoStatements.htm Anarcho-Feminism - Two Statements - Who we are: An Anarcho-Feminist Manifesto]</ref>, during the [[second-wave feminism|second-wave]] feminist movement. Anarcha-feminism, views [[patriarchy]] as the first manifestation of hierarchy in human history; thus, the first form of oppression occurred in the dominance of male over female. Anarcha-feminists then conclude that if feminists are against patriarchy, they must also be against all forms of [[hierarchy]], and therefore must reject the authoritarian nature of the state and capitalism. {{fact}}
Anarcho-primitivists see the creation of gender roles and patriarchy a creation of the start of [[civilization]], and therefore consider primitivism to also be an anarchist school of thought that addresses feminist concerns. [[Eco-feminism]] is often considered a feminist variant of green anarchist feminist thought.
Anarcha-feminism is most often associated with early 20th-century authors and theorists such as [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Voltairine de Cleyre]], although even early first-wave feminist [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] held proto-anarchist views, and William Godwin is often considered a feminist anarchist precursor. It should be noted that Goldman and de Cleyre, though they both opposed the state, had opposing philosophies, as de Cleyre explains: "Miss Goldman is a communist; I am an individualist. She wishes to destroy the right of property, I wish to assert it. I make my war upon privilege and authority, whereby the right of property, the true right in that which is proper to the individual, is annihilated. She believes that co-operation would entirely supplant competition; I hold that competition in one form or another will always exist, and that it is highly desirable it should." In the [[Spanish Civil War]], an anarcha-feminist group, "Free Women", organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas.
In the modern day anarchist movement, many anarchists, male or female, consider themselves feminists, and anarcha-feminist ideas are growing. The publishing of Quiet Rumors, an anarcha-feminist reader, has helped to spread various kinds of anti-authoritarian and anarchist feminist ideas to the broader movement. Wendy McElroy has popularized an individualist-anarchism take on feminism in her books, articles, and individualist feminist website.<ref>[http://www.ifeminists.net I-feminists.net]</ref>
==Anarcho-capitalism==
[[Image:Murray Rothbard Smile.JPG|thumb|left|150px|[[Murray Rothbard]] (1926-1995)]]
{{main|Anarcho-capitalism}}
Anarcho-capitalism is a predominantly United States-based theoretical tradition that desires a stateless society with the economic system of [[free market]] [[capitalism]]. Unlike other branches of anarchism, it does not oppose [[profit]] or capitalism. Consequently, most anarchists do not recognise anarcho-capitalism as a form of anarchism.
[[Murray Rothbard]]'s synthesis of [[classical liberalism]] and [[Austrian economics]] was germinal for the development of contemporary anarcho-capitalist theory. He defines anarcho-capitalism in terms of the [[non-aggression principle]], based on the concept of [[Natural Law]]. Competiting theorists use egoism, [[utilitarianism]] (used by [[David Friedman]]), or [[contractarianism]] (used by [[Jan Narveson]]). Some [[minarchism|minarchists]], such as [[Ayn Rand]], [[Robert Nozick]], and [[Robert A. Heinlein]], have influenced anarcho-capitalism.
Some anarcho-capitalists, along with some right-wing libertarian historians such as David Hart and [[Ralph Raico]], considered similar philosophies existing prior to Rothbard to be anarcho-capitalist, such as those of [[Gustave de Molinari]] and [[Auberon Herbert]] <ref>[[Gustave de Molinari|Molinari]], Gustave de. ''[http://praxeology.net/MR-GM-PS.htm Preface to "The Production of Security"]'', translated by J. Huston McCulloch, Occasional Papers Series #2 (Richard M. Ebeling, Editor), New York: The Center for Libertarian Studies, May 1977.</ref><ref name="david-hart"/><ref>[[Ralph Raico|Raico]], Ralph [http://www.mises.org/story/1787 ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century''] Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS (2004).</ref> Opponents of anarcho-capitalists dispute these claims.<ref>McKay, Iain; Elkin, Gary; Neal, Dave ''et al'' [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/append11.html Replies to Some Errors and Distortions in Bryan Caplan's "Anarchist Theory FAQ" version 5.2] ''An Anarchist FAQ Version 11.2'' Accessed February 20, 2006.</ref>
The place of anarcho-capitalism within anarchism, and indeed whether it is a form of anarchism at all, is highly controversial. For more on this debate see ''[[Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism]]''.
==Anarchism and the environment==
{{seealso|Anarcho-primitivism|Green anarchism|Eco-anarchism|Ecofeminism}}
Since the late 1970s anarchists in Anglophon |
gs of other [[religion]]s also tend to discourage death penalty as the means of vengeance but accept it as the means of deterrent and prevention, while the question of the effectiveness of incarceration as a substitute remain outside of the theological question.
==Methods of execution==
{{see also|List of methods of capital punishment}}
Some jurisdictions still practising capital punishment restrict its use to a small number of criminal offences, principally [[murder]], [[treason]] and equated mortal sins such as [[apostasy]].
Historically&mdash;and still today under certain systems of law&mdash;the death penalty was applied to a wider range of offences, including [[robbery]] or [[theft]] and kidnapping. It has also been frequently used by the military for crimes including [[looting]], [[insubordination]], and [[mutiny]]. Armies based on [[conscription]] have used death penalty as means of motivation (see [[coercion]]) and keeping [[discipline]].
[[image:chair.jpg|left|thumb|[[Electric chair]] as used for [[electrocution]]s. The electric chair was developed in the late 1880s by a [[dentist]] with support from [[Thomas Edison]] (who had a financial interest in having [[direct current]] used in providing electricity, whereas the electric chair uses [[alternating current]]) and is still in use today.]]
Even in ancient times, methods of execution were sometimes chosen so that the extent of suffering during execution was related to the perceived seriousness of the crime or the class and status of the criminal. Roman citizens might be allowed to commit suicide while low class persons might be [[crucifixion|crucified]].
In [[medieval Europe]], the method of execution often depended on the [[social class]] of the condemned. The nobility were usually [[beheading|beheaded]] in as painless and honourable a method as possible, generally with either sword or an axe (which occasionally failed horribly). Those in the working class, [[serf]]s, peasants, and possibly the [[bourgeoisie]] were usually executed publicly, by a more gruesome and painful method, such as the wheel or being [[hung, drawn and quartered]] . In Scandinavia, the noblemen were beheaded with a sword, and commoners with an axe. Specific crimes sometimes warranted specific methods of execution: suspected [[witchcraft]], religious [[heresy]], [[atheism]], or [[homosexuality]] were typically punished by burning at the stake. Unsuccessful [[regicide]]s generally merited a horrible death. A wide range of offences could be punished by death, including robbery and theft, even if nobody was physically harmed in the action.
[[image:Robert-damiens.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Damiens]]
Such methods of execution continued into the modern era. In [[1757]] in [[France]], [[Robert-François Damiens]] suffered a horrible but customary execution for his attempted [[regicide]] against King [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]]. His hand, holding the weapon used in the regicide attempt, was burnt, and his body was wounded in several places. Then, molten [[lead]] and other hot liquids were poured on the wounds. He was then drawn and quartered, and what remained of his body was burnt at the stake. Inhumane methods of execution and class inequalities were abolished in France during the [[French Revolution]], which imposed the [[guillotine]], seen as a painless and instantaneous method of execution, for all. However, during The Terror, other forms of execution, such as massed cannon fire and mass drownings, were also used.
==Notes==
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# {{note|survey}} Survey of research findings: Roger Hood, The Death Penalty: A World-wide Perspective, Oxford, Clarendon Press, third edition, 2002, p. 230)
# {{note|head}} [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=capital Etymology of "capital"]
# {{note|feud1}} e.g.: {{cite journal | author=Peter Waldmann | title= Rachegewalt: Zur Renaissance eines für überholt gehaltenen Gewaltmotivs in Albanien und Kolumbien | journal=Zürcher Beiträge zur Sicherheitspolitik und Konfliktforschung | year=1999 | volume=54 | issue= | pages= 141&ndash;160 | url=http://cms.isn.ch/public/docs/doc_828_290_de.pdf }} - article covers general work in the area of blood feuds and then discusses the resurgence of the blood feud in Albania and Columbia; also: {{cite journal | author=Jonas Grutzpalk | title= Blood Feud and Modernity: Max Weber’s and Émile Durkheim’s Theories | journal=Journal of Classical Sociology | year= | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages= 115&ndash;134 | url=http://club.fom.ru/books/grutzpark04_3.pdf }}
# {{note|waldmann}} Translated from Waldmann, ''op.cit.'', p.147.
# {{note|feudok}} Grutzpalk, ''op.cit.'', p.117.
# {{note|feud2}} Examples of detailed studies of particular feud systems are: {{cite journal | author=Monalinda E. Doro | title= Case Studies on Rido: Conflict Resolution among Meranao in Baloi, Lanao del Norte | journal= | year=2005 | volume= | issue= | pages= &ndash; | url=http://www.asiafoundation.org/pdf/PH_conflict/MAC_Exec_Summary8.pdf }} - ''rido'' is the local term for blood feud; the location named is in the Philippines on the island of Mindanao; also: {{cite journal | author=John Lindow | title= Bloodfeud and Scandinavian Mythology | journal=Alvíssmál | year=1994 | volume=4 | issue= | pages= 51&ndash;68 | url=http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~alvismal/4feud.pdf}}
# {{note|thing}} Lindow, ''op.cit.'' (primarily discusses Icelandic ''things'').
# {{note|subat}} [[2 Corinthians]] 5:14-15 and [[1 Peter]] 2:24.
# {{note|gen22}} [[Genesis]] 22.
# {{note|1593}} {{cite book | first=Keith | last=Brown | year=1986 | title=Bloodfeud in Scotland 1573–1625: Violence, Justice and Politics in an Early Modern Society | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Edinburgh: John Donald | id= | url= | authorlink= }}, p.29, quoted in: Lindow, ''op.cit.''
# {{note|kanun}} e.g.: University College London News (2004), [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news-archive/archive/2004/october-2004/latest/newsitem.shtml?04100102 Research on blood feuds in Albania and Kosovo]; {{News reference |firstname=Majlinda |lastname=Mortimer |pages= |title=Blood feuds blight Albanian lives |date=[[23 September]] [[2005]] |org=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4273020.stm }}
# {{note|kanun2}} e.g.: UK Home Office, [http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/ind/en/home/laws___policy/country_information/operation_guidance.Maincontent.0002.file.tmp/Albania%20v5.0%20January%202006.pdf Operational Guidance Note: Albania] ([[12 January]] [[2006]]), esp. pp.4-5: "As a result of blood feuds in 2004, 670 families were self-imprisoned, 650 families accepted legal procedures instead of personal vendettas for resolving the conflict, 54 families were living under protection outside the country and 160 children were prevented from attending school due to fear of revenge, of which 73 were considered to be in serious danger. These figures showed a decrease over 2003 when 1,370 families were reported to be self-imprisoned at home and 711 children prevented from attending school due to fear of revenge."
# {{note|schabas}} {{cite book | first=William | last=Schabas | year= | title=The Abolition of the Death Penalty in International Law | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 052181491X| url= | authorlink= }}
# {{note|mich-hist}} [http://teacher.deathpenaltyinfo.msu.edu/c/about/history/history.PDF Michigan State University and Death Penalty Information Center]
# {{note|mich-hist2}} [http://teacher.deathpenaltyinfo.msu.edu/c/about/history/history.PDF Michigan State University and Death Penalty Information Center]
# {{note|cadams1}} [http://calebadams.org/sermon.htm Sermon preached before the execution of Caleb Adams]
# {{note|cadams1}} [http://calebadams.org/address.htm Caleb Adams' life-story as told by a local pastor]
# {{note|cadams1}} [http://calebadams.org/news_article.htm Article from the ''Connecticut Courant''] ([[December 1]] [[1803]])
# {{note|juv1}} Death Penalty Information Center, [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=27&did=206 "Recent Developments in the Juvenile Death Penalty"].
# {{note|juv2}} Rob Gallagher, [http://users.bestweb.net/~rg/execution/JUVENILE.htm Table of juvenile executions in British America/United States, 1642-1959].
# {{note|juv3}} Death Penalty Information Center, [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=27&did=206 "Recent Developments in the Juvenile Death Penalty"]; Death Penalty Information Center, [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=45&did=536 "International Perspectives on the Death Penalty"], citing "As China Signs Rights Treaty, It Holds Activist", ''New York Times'' ([[October 6]] [[1998]]).
# {{note|juv4}} UNICEF |
ardware, and thus was only suitable for larger, more expensive machines. Windows NT would not work for private users because of its resource demands; moreover, its GUI was simply a copy of Windows 3.1's, which was inferior to the OS/2 Workplace Shell, so there was not a good reason to propose it as a replacement to Windows 3.1.
However, the same features made Windows NT perfect for the [[local area network|LAN]] server market (which in 1993 was experiencing a rapid boom, as office networking was becoming a commodity), as it enjoyed advanced network connectivity options, and the efficient [[NTFS]] file system. Windows NT version 3.51 was Microsoft's stake into this market, a large part of which would be won over from Novell in the following years.
One of Microsoft's biggest advances initially developed for Windows NT was new 32-bit API, to replace the legacy 16-bit [[Windows API]]. This API was called [[Win32]], and from then on Microsoft referred to the older 16-bit API as [[Win16]]. Win32 API had three main implementations: one for Windows NT, one for [[Win32s]] (which was a subset of Win32 which could be used on Windows 3.1 systems), and one for Chicago. Thus Microsoft sought to ensure some degree of compatibility between the Chicago design and Windows NT, even though the two systems had radically different internal architectures.
== Windows 95 ==
[[Image:Am windows95 desktop.png|thumbnail|300px|A typical Microsoft Windows 95 desktop]]
After [[Windows 3.1x|Windows 3.11]], Microsoft began to develop a new version of the operating system code-named Chicago. Chicago was designed to be fully 32-bit and support pre-emptive multitasking, like OS/2 and Windows NT, that would improve its stability as opposed to the notoriously unstable 3.11. Many parts of the operating system's core were rewritten; others went through an elaborate overhaul. Win32 [[API]] was adopted as the standard external interface, Win16 compatibility being preserved through various measures and tricks. A new GUI was not originally planned as part of the release, although elements of the Cairo user interface were borrowed and added as other aspects of the release (notably Plug and Play) slipped.
Microsoft did not change all of the Windows code to 32-bit; parts of it remained 16-bit (albeit not directly using [[real mode]]) for reasons of compatibility, performance and development time. This, and the fact that the numerous design flaws had to be carried over from the earlier Windows versions, eventually began to impact on the operating system's efficiency and stability.
Microsoft marketing adopted [[Windows 95]] as the product name for Chicago when it was released on [[August 24]], [[1995]]. Microsoft had a double gain from its release: first it made it impossible for consumers to use a cheaper, non-Microsoft DOS; secondly, although traces of DOS were never completely removed from the system, and a version of DOS would be loaded briefly as a part of the [[bootstrap]] process, Windows 95 applications ran solely in 386 Enhanced Mode, with a flat 32-bit address space and [[virtual memory]]. These features made it possible for Win32 applications to address up to 2 [[gigabyte]]s of virtual RAM (with another 2GB reserved for the operating system), and (at least in theory) prevented them from corrupting the memory space of other Win32 applications. In this respect the functionality of Windows 95 moved closer to Windows [[NT]], although Windows 95/98/ME did not support more than 512 [[megabyte]]s of physical RAM without obscure system tweaks.
[[IBM]] continued to market OS/2, producing later versions in OS/2 3.0 and 4.0 (also called Warp). Responding to complaints about OS/2 2.0's high demands on computer hardware, version 3.0 was significantly optimized both for speed and size. Before Windows 95 was released, OS/2 Warp 3.0 was even shipped preinstalled with several large German hardware vendor chains. However, with the release of Windows 95, OS/2 began to lose marketshare.
It is probably impossible to nail down a specific reason why OS/2 failed to gain much marketshare. While OS/2 continued to run Windows 3.1 applications, it lacked support for anything but the [[Win32s]] subset of Win32 API (see above). Unlike Windows 3.1, IBM did not have access to the source code for Windows 95 and was unwilling to commit the time and resources to emulate the moving target of the Win32 API. IBM also introduced OS/2 into the [[United States v. Microsoft]] case, blaming unfair marketing tactics on Microsoft's part, but many people would probably agree that IBM's own marketing problems and lack of support for developers contributed at least as much to the failure.
Microsoft released 5 Versions of Windows 95:
*Windows 95 Original Release
*Windows 95 A - included Windows 95 Service Pack 1 [[Slipstream (computing)|slipstreamed]] into the installation.
*Windows 95 B - ([[OSR2]]) included several major enhancements, [[Internet Explorer]] (IE) 3.0 and full [[File Allocation Table|FAT32]] file system support.
*Windows 95 B USB - [[OSR2.1]], included basic [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] support.
*Windows 95 C - ([[OSR2.5]]) included all the above features, plus IE 4.0. This was the last 95 version produced.
OSR2, OSR2.1, and OSR2.5 were not released to the general public, rather, they were available only to [[Original equipment manufacturer|OEM]]s that would preload the OS onto computers. Some companies sold new hard drives with OSR2 preinstalled (officially justifying this as needed due to the hard drive's capacity).
== Windows NT 4.0==
[[Image:Nt4server.png|right|thumb|300px|Windows NT 4.0 Server Desktop]]
Originally developed as a part of its effort to introduce Windows NT to the workstation market, Microsoft released [[Windows NT 4.0]], which featured the new Windows 95 interface on top of the Windows NT kernel (a patch was available for developers to make NT 3.51 use the new UI, but it was quite buggy; the new UI was first developed on NT but Windows 95 was released before NT 4.0).
Windows NT 4.0 came in four flavors:
*Windows NT 4.0 Workstation
*Windows NT 4.0 Server
*Windows NT 4.0 Server, Enterprise Edition (includes support for 8-way [[SMP]] and [[clustering]])
*Windows NT 4.0 Terminal Server
{{Clr}}
== Windows 98 ==
[[Image:Word 6.0 on Win98SE.png|thumb|right|300px|Windows 98SE with the "Jungle" theme, and a couple of the programs from Microsoft Office 4.3 running.]]
On [[June 25]], [[1998]], Microsoft released [[Windows 98]], which was widely regarded as a minor revision of Windows 95. It included new hardware drivers and the [[File Allocation Table|FAT32]] file system to support disk partitions larger than the 2 GB allowed by Windows 95. [[USB]] support was far superior to the token, sketchy support provided by the [[Original equipment manufacturer|OEM]] editions of Windows 95. It also controversially integrated the [[Internet Explorer]] browser into the Windows GUI and Windows Explorer file manager, prompting the opening of the [[United States v. Microsoft]] case, dealing with the question whether Microsoft was abusing its hold on the PC operating system market to push its products in other areas.
In [[1999]], Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an interim release whose most notable feature was the addition of [[Internet Connection Sharing]] (a brand name for a form of [[network address translation]]), which allowed several machines on a LAN to share a single [[internet connection]]. Hardware support through device drivers was increased. Many minor issues were found and fixed which make it, according to many, the most stable version of Windows on the Win9x kernel.
{{Clr}}
== Windows Millennium Edition (Me) ==
[[Image:WindowsME.png|right|thumb|300px|Windows Millennium Edition Desktop]]
In September 2000, Microsoft introduced [[Windows Me]] (Millennium Edition), which upgraded Windows 98 with enhanced multimedia and Internet features. It also introduced the first version of ''System Restore'', which allowed users to revert their system state to a previous "known-good" point in the case of system failure. System Restore was a notable feature that made its way into Windows XP. The first version of [[Windows Movie Maker]] was introduced as well.
Windows Me was conceived as a quick one-year project that served as a stopgap release between Windows 98 and Windows XP. As a result, Windows Me was not acknowledged as a unique OS along the lines of 95 or 98. Windows Me was widely and sometimes unfairly criticised for serious stability issues and for lacking [[real mode]] DOS support, to the point of being referred to as the "Mistake Edition".
{{Clr}}
== Windows 2000 ==
[[Image:Windows2000.png|right|thumb|300px|Windows 2000 Desktop]]
{{main|Windows 2000}}
[[Image:Wlogo.png|left|thumb|Windows logo, as of circa 2000]]
Microsoft released Windows 2000, known during its development cycle as "NT 5.0", in February 2000. It was successfully deployed both on the server and the workstation markets. Windows 2000, claimed by some to be the best Windows version to date, incrorporated a number of features, in particular the user interface, from Windows 98. Windows 2000 also introduced [[Active Directory]], a near-complete replacement of NT 4's [[Windows Server domain]] model, which built on industry-standard technologies like [[Domain Name System|DNS]], [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] and [[Kerberos]] to connect machines to one another. [[Terminal Services]], previously only available as a separate edition of NT 4, was expanded to all server versions.
While Windows 2000 could upgrade a computer running Windows 98, Microsoft did not see Windows 2000 as a product designed for home users; instead, a continuation of the Windows 95/98 product line was shipped shortly after Windows 2000 called Windows Me.
Windows 2000 came in five editions:
*Windows 2000 Professional
*Windows 2000 Server
*Windows 200 |
[[manganese nodule]]s, contain varying amounts of [[manganese]], [[cobalt]], [[copper]] and [[nickel]]. They occur as potato-sized lumps scattered about on the surface of the ocean floor, mainly in the central [[Pacific Ocean]] but with some deposits in the [[Indian Ocean]]. During the first half of 2001, the Authority signed exploration contracts with seven entities, giving them exclusive rights to explore for nodules in specific areas, under terms spelled out in the regulations. These contractors submitted their first set of annual reports to the Authority in 2002; none indicated any serious interest in commercial exploitation.
The Authority began work in August 2002 on another set of regulations, covering polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich crusts--rich sources of such minerals as copper, iron, zinc, silver and gold, as well as cobalt. The sulphides are found around volcanic hot springs, especially in the western Pacific Ocean, while the crusts occur on oceanic ridges and elsewhere at several locations around the world. This task is likely to take several years.
In addition to its legislative work, the Authority organizes annual workshops on various aspects of seabed exploration, with emphasis on measures to protect the marine environment from any harmful consequences. It disseminates the results of these meetings through publications.
The Authority has a budget of slightly more than $5 million a year and a staff of nearly 40 people. Contrary to early hopes that seabed mining would generate extensive revenues for both the exploiting countries and the Authority, no technology has been developed for gathering deep-sea minerals at costs that can compete with land-based mines. The general consensus is that economic mining of the ocean depths is decades away. In addition, the United States, with some of the most advanced ocean technology in the world, has not yet ratified the Law of the Sea Convention and is thus not a member of the Authority.
==External links==
* [http://www.isa.org.jm ISA]
* [http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)]
[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:Law of the sea]]
[[Category:Mining law and governance]]
[[de:Meeresbodenbehörde]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Industry Standard Architecture</title>
<id>15029</id>
<revision>
<id>41757828</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:04:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.110.76.98</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Industry Standard Architecture''' (in practice almost always shortened to '''ISA''') is a [[computer bus]] standard for [[IBM compatible]]s.
bus architecture]]. The modern 16-bit standard was introduced in [[1984]]. Designed to connect peripheral cards to the [[motherboard]], the protocol also allows for [[bus mastering]] although only the first 16 [[megabyte|MB]] of main memory is available for direct access. The 8-bit bus ran at 4.77 MHz, while the 16-bit bus operated at 8 MHz. In reference to the XT bus, it is sometimes referred to as the '''AT bus architecture'''. It was also available on some non-IBM compatible machines such as the short-lived [[AT&T]] Hobbit and later [[PowerPC]] based [[BeBox]].
[[Image:Isa1.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Five [[16-bit]] and one [[8-bit]] ISA slots on a [[motherboard]]]]
In [[1987]], IBM moved to replace the ISA bus with their proprietary [[Micro Channel Architecture]] (MCA) in an effort to regain control of the PC architecture, and the PC market. The system was far more advanced than ISA, and computer manufacturers responded with the [[Extended Industry Standard Architecture]] (EISA) and later, the [[VESA Local Bus]] (VLB). In fact, VLB used some parts originally intended for MCA due to the fact that component manufacturers already had the ability to manufacture it. Both were compatible expansions of the ISA standard. Neither became extraordinarily popular, however, and were soon succeeded by [[Intel]]'s 32-bit [[Peripheral Component Interconnect]] (PCI).
Users of ISA-based machines had to know special information about the hardware they were adding to the system. While a handful of devices were essentially "[[plug-n-play]]," this was rare. Users frequently had to configure two or three things when adding a new device, such as the [[IRQ]] line, [[I/O address]], or [[Direct memory access|DMA]] channel. MCA had done away with this complication, and PCI actually incorporated many of the ideas first explored with MCA (though it was more directly descended from EISA).
This trouble with configuration eventually led to the creation of '''ISA PnP''', a [[plug-n-play]] system that used a combination of modifications to hardware, the system [[BIOS]], and [[operating system]] software to automatically manage the nitty-gritty details. In reality, ISA PnP turned out to be a major headache much of the time, and didn't become well-supported until the architecture was in its final days. This was a major contributor to the use of the phrase "plug-n-pray."
PCI slots were the first physically-incompatible expansion ports to directly squeeze ISA off of the [[motherboard]]. At first, motherboards were largely ISA, including a few PCI slots. By the mid-[[1990s]], the two slot types were roughly balanced, and ISA slots soon were in the minority on consumer systems. [[Microsoft]]'s [[PC 98]] specification recommended that ISA slots be removed entirely, though the system architecture still required ISA to be present in some vestigial way internally to handle the [[floppy drive]], [[serial port]]s, etc. ISA slots remained for a few more years, and it was even possible to see systems with an [[Accelerated Graphics Port]] (AGP) sitting near the [[central processing unit]], an array of PCI slots, and one or two ISA slots near the end.
It is also notable that PCI slots are "rotated" compared to their ISA counterparts&mdash;PCI cards were essentially inserted "upside-down," allowing ISA and PCI connectors to squeeze together on the motherboard. Only one of the two connectors can be used in each slot at a time, but this allowed for greater flexibility.
==8-bit ISA (XT bus architecture)==
The '''XT bus architecture''' is an eight-[[bit]] [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]] [[Computer bus|bus architecture]] used by [[Intel]] [[Intel 8086|8086]] and Intel [[Intel 8088|8088]] systems in the [[IBM PC]] and [[IBM PC XT]] in the [[1980s]]. It predates the 16-bit ISA architecture used on [[IBM PC AT]] machines.
The XT bus has four [[Direct memory access|DMA]] channels, of which three are brought out to the expansion slots. Of these three, two are normally allocated to machine functions:
{| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"
! DMA channel !! Expansion !! Standard function
|-
| 0 || No || dynamic [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] refresh
|-
| 1 || Yes ||align="left"| add-on cards
|-
| 2 || Yes ||align="left"| [[floppy disk]] controller
|-
| 3 || Yes ||align="left"| [[hard disk]] controller
|}
== Technical data ==
''' 8 bit ISA or XT bus architecture'''
[[Image:XT_Bus_pins.png|right|300px]]
{| class="wikitable"
| bus width || 8 Bit
|-----
| compatible with || 8 bit ISA
|-----
|[[pin]]s || 62
|-----
| Vcc || +5 V, -5 V, +12 V, -12 V
|-----
| clock || 4.77 MHz
|}
{{clear}}
'''16 bit ISA'''
[[Image:ISA_Bus_pins.png|right|300px]]
{| class="wikitable"
| bus width || 16 Bit
|-----
| compatible with || 8 bit ISA, 16 bit ISA
|-----
|[[pin]]s || 98
|-----
| Vcc || +5 V, -5 V, +12 V, -12 V
|-----
| clock || 8.33 MHz
|}
==Current use==
Apart from specialized industrial use, ISA is all but gone today. Even where present, system manufacturers often shield customers from the term "ISA bus," referring to it instead as the "legacy bus" (see [[legacy system]]). The [[PC/104]] bus, used in industrial and embedded applications, is a derivative of the ISA bus, utilizing the same signal lines with different connectors. The [[LPC bus]] has replaced the ISA bus as the connection to the legacy I/O devices on recent motherboards.
== See also ==
* [[Extended Industry Standard Architecture]] (EISA)
* [[Micro Channel architecture]] (MCA)
* [[NuBus]]
* [[VESA Local Bus]] (VESA)
* [[Peripheral Component Interconnect]] (PCI)
* [[Accelerated Graphics Port]] (AGP)
* [[PCI Express]] (PCIe)
* [[PC/104]]
* [[LPC bus]]
== References ==
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:Computer buses]]
[[Category:IBM hardware]]
[[Category:IBM PC compatibles]]
[[Category:Motherboard]]
[[de:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[es:Bus ISA]]
[[eo:ISA]]
[[fr:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[gl:ISA]]
[[it:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[he:ISA]]
[[nl:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[ja:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[pl:ISA (komputery)]]
[[pt:ISA]]
[[ru:ISA]]
[[sk:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[fi:ISA]]
[[sv:ISA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</title>
<id>15030</id>
<revision>
<id>42064742</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:47:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jensbn</username>
<id>90579</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added SAR, TAR, AR4 links (they have had separate articles for a while now, content should be migrated)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''IPCC directs here. For other uses see [[IPCC (disambiguation)]]''.
[[Image:UNFCC Logo.gif|right|frame|IPCC is science authority for the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|UNFCCC]] ]]
The '''Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change''' (IPCC) was established in [[1988]] by two [[United Nations]] organizations, the [[World Meteorological Organiz |
ornia|Marysville]] until [[April 1]], [[1885]] (see below).
* [[July 16]] [[1877]]: Start of the [[Great Railroad Strike of 1877]] when railroad workers on strike in [[Martinsburg, West Virginia]], derail and loot a train; [[United States President]] [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] calls in Federal troops to break the strike.
* [[November 18]] [[1883]]: A system of one-hour standard [[time zone]]s for American railroads was first implemented. The zones were named Intercolonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. Within one year, 85% of all cities having populations over 10,000, about 200 cities, were using [[standard time]].
* [[April 1]] [[1885]]: Central Pacific is leased to [[Southern Pacific]].
* [[June 30]] [[1888]]: Listed by ICC as a "non-operating" subsidiary of Southern Pacific.
* [[July 29]] [[1899]]: Central Pacific is reorganized as the "Central Pacific Railway".
* [[June 30]] [[1959]]: Central Pacific is formally merged into the Southern Pacific.
==Predecessor Railroads==
* [[California Pacific Railroad]]
==References==
* {{cite book
| title = Nothing Like It In The World; The men who built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863-1869
| authorlink = Stephen E. Ambrose | last = Ambrose | first = Stephen E.
| year = 2000
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| id = ISBN 0-684-84609-8
}}
==External links==
*[http://CPRR.org Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum]
[[Category:Defunct railroad companies of the United States]]
[[Category:California railroads]]
[[Category:Nevada railroads]]
[[Category:Utah railroads]]
[[Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communist rule in Afghanistan</title>
<id>7736</id>
<revision>
<id>15905790</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-26T10:18:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eclecticology</username>
<id>372</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clairvoyance</title>
<id>7737</id>
<revision>
<id>42090011</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:35:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tailpig</username>
<id>312490</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 42089317 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:<span class="dablink">'' "Second Sight" redirects here. For the video game , see [[Second Sight (video game)]].''</span>
'''Clairvoyance''' is defined as a form of [[extra-sensory perception]] whereby a person perceives distant objects, persons, or events, including "seeing" through [[opaque]] objects and the detection of types of [[Odic force|energy]] not normally perceptible to humans (i.e. [[radio]] waves). Typically, such perception is reported in visual terms, but may also include auditory impressions (sometimes called ''clairaudience'') or kinesthetic impressions.
The term clairvoyance is often used broadly to refer to all forms of ESP where a person receives information through means other than those explainable by current science. Perhaps more often, it is used more narrowly to refer to reception of present-time information not from another person, there being other terms to refer to other forms: [[telepathy]] referring to reception of information from another person (i.e. presumably mind-to-mind); and [[precognition]] referring to gaining information about places and events in the future. The term ''clairsentience'' is often used in reference to psi phenomena falling under this broader context.
As with all psi phenomena, there is wide disagreement and controversy within the sciences and even within parapsychology as to the existence of clairvoyance and the validity or interpretation of clairvoyance related experiments (see [[Parapsychology]]).
==Clairvoyance through history==
There have been anecdotal reports of clairvoyance and claims of clairvoyant abilities on the part of some throughout history in most cultures. Often these have been associated with religious figures, offices, and practices. For example, ancient Hindu religious texts list clairvoyance as one of the [[siddhi]]s, skills that can be acquired through appropriate meditation and personal discipline. But a large number of anecdotal accounts of clairvoyance are of the spontaneous variety among the general populace. For example, many people report instances of "knowing" in one form or another when a loved one has died or was in danger before receiving notification through normal channels that such events have taken place. Similar presentiments that are not eventually fulfilled are soon forgotten, however. While anecdotal accounts do not provide scientific proof of clairvoyance, such common experiences continue to motivate research into such phenomena.
Clairvoyance was one of the phenomena reported to have been observed in the behavior of ''[[sleepwalking|somnambulists]]'', people who were mesmerized and in a trance state (nowadays equated with hypnosis by most people) in the time of [[Franz Anton Mesmer]]. The earliest recorded report of somnambulistic clairvoyance is credited to the Marquis de Puysegur, a follower of Mesmer, who in 1784 was treating a local dull-witted peasant named Victor Race. During treatment, Victor reportedly would go into trance and undergo a personality change, becoming fluent and articulate, and giving diagnosis and prescription for his own disease as well as those of other patients, and forgetting everything when he came out of the trance state. All this is in a manner reminiscent of the reported behaviors of the 20th century psychic [[Edgar Cayce]]. It is reported that although Puysegur used the term 'clairvoyance', he did not attribute any of this to the paranormal since he accepted mesmerism as one of the natural sciences.
Clairvoyance was in times following a reported ability of some mediums during the spiritualist period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and was one of the aspects studied by members of the [[Society for Psychical Research]] (SPR). Psychics of many descriptions have claimed clairvoyant ability up to the present day.
While experimental research into clairvoyance began with SPR researchers, experimental studies became more systematic with the efforts of [[Joseph Banks Rhine|J. B. Rhine]] and his associates at Duke University, and such research efforts continue to the present day. Perhaps the best-known study of clairvoyance in recent times was the US government-funded [[Remote Viewing|remote viewing]] project at SRI/SAIC during the 1970s through the mid-1990s.
Results of some parapsychological studies, such as the remote viewing studies, suggest that clairvoyance does not exist - the original "remote viewing" study was discontinued by the Stanford Research Institute due to lack of evidence. However there are as yet no satisfactory experiments designed that cleanly separate the various manifestations of ESP. Some parapsychologists have proposed that our different functional labels (clairvoyance, telepathy, precognition) all refer to one basic underlying mechanism, although there is not yet any satisfactory theory for what that mechanism would be.
Clairvoyance as a term has its origins from the French word claire, which means "clear", and voyance, "seeing". It literally means 'clear seeing' in French.
There is ongoing criticism and debate of all these results in the literature.
== Training ==
Current thinking in clairvoyant circles posits that most are born with clairvoyant abilities but then start to turn them off as children are brought up to adhere to demonstrable social norms. Numerous institutes offer training courses that attempt to revive the abilities present in those early years.
* [[anomalous cognition]]
* [[James Randi Educational Foundation|James Randi's $1,000,000 Challenge]]
* [[parapsychology]]
* [[pseudoscience]]
* [[Retroactive clairvoyance]]
* [[Precall]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ghostfinders.co.uk www.GhostFinders.co.uk]
* [http://www.csicop.org/genx/ganzfeld/index.html The Best Case for ESP?]
* [http://www.boundary.org/ Boundary Institute]
* [http://www.psychichorizons.com/ Psychic Horizons]
* [http://www.aesclepion.net/ Aesclepion ]
* [http://www.berkeleypsychic.com/ Berkeley Pscyhic Institute]
* [http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/magen120.htm Clairvoyance (esoteric perspective)]
[[Category:Esoteric cosmology]]
[[Category:Paranormal phenomena]]
[[Category:New Age]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[da:Clairvoyance]]
[[de:Hellsehen]]
[[fr:Divination]]
[[pl:Jasnowidzenie]]
[[pt:Clarividência]]
[[sv:Klärvoajans]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chiropractic</title>
<id>7738</id>
<revision>
<id>42027937</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:31:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Encephalon</username>
<id>368662</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation; general clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Totally disputed}}
{{TOCright}}
'''Chiropractic''', or '''chiropractic care''', is a system of health care with an underlying principle that health problems can be prevented and treated using [[spinal adjustment]]s in order to correct spinal dysfunction, or [[Vertebral subluxation|subluxation]]s.
Some chiropractors infer a causal relationship between nerve interference or compression at the spine and subsequent problems in more distant parts or [[organ system]]s regulated by the nerve. Practitioners of chiropractic are called ''chiropractors'', and in the [[United States of America]] they receive the degree ''Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.)'' and are referred to as [[Doctor (title)|"doctor"]]. Chiropr |
shmarim ||align=center| nishmarot
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Hif'il'' ||align=center| קטנ ||align=center| מַקְטִין ||align=center| מַקְטִינָה ||align=center| מַקְטִינִים ||align=center| מַקְטִינוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Shrinks (something)
|-
| align=center| k-t-n ||align=center| maktin ||align=center| maktina ||align=center| maktinim ||align=center| maktinot
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Huf'al'' ||align=center| קטנ ||align=center| מֻקְטָן ||align=center| מֻקְטֶנֶת ||align=center| מֻקְטָנִים ||align=center| מֻקְטָנוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Is shrunken by
|-
| align=center| k-t-n ||align=center| muktan ||align=center| muktenet ||align=center| muktanim ||align=center| muktanot
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pi'el'' ||align=center| גדל ||align=center| מְגַדֵּל ||align=center| מְגַדֶּלֶת ||align=center| מְגַדְּלִים ||align=center| מְגַדְּלוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Raises, grows (something)
|-
| align=center| g-d-l ||align=center| m'gadel ||align=center| m'gadelet ||align=center| m'gadlim ||align=center| m'gadlot
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pu'al'' ||align=center| גדל ||align=center| מְגוּדָּל ||align=center| מְגוּדֶּלֶת ||align=center| מְגוּדָּלִים ||align=center| מְגוּדָּלוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Is raised
|-
| align=center| g-d-l ||align=center| m'gudal ||align=center| m'gudelet ||align=center| m'gudalim ||align=center| m'gudalot
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Hitpa'el'' ||align=center| בטל ||align=center| מִתְבַּטֵּל ||align=center| מִתְבַּטֶּלֶת ||align=center| מִתְבַּטְּלִים ||align=center| מִתְבַּטְּלוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Belittles oneself, loafs
|-
| align=center| b-t-l ||align=center| mitbatel ||align=center| mitbatelet ||align=center| mitbatlim ||align=center| mitbatlot
|-
|+ Example conjugations in the present tense.
|}
====Past tense====
A verb in the past tense (עָבָר ''avar'') agrees with its subject in person (first, second, or third) and number, and in the second-person singular and plural and third-person singular, gender.
{|class="wikitable"
! rowspan=3| Form ||rowspan=3| Root ||colspan=5| Singular ||colspan=4| Plural
|-
! rowspan=2| I ||colspan=2| You ||rowspan=2| He ||rowspan=2| She ||rowspan=2| We ||colspan=2| You ||rowspan=2| They
|-
! M || F || M || F
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pa'al'' ||align=center| שמר ||align=center| שָׁמַרְתִּי ||align=center| שָׁמַרְתָּ ||align=center| שׁמַרתְּ ||align=center| שָׁמַר || align=center| שָׁמְרָה ||align=center| שָׁמַרְנוּ ||align=center| שְׁמַרתֶּם ||align=center| שְׁמַרתֶּן ||align=center| שָׁמְרוּ
|-
| align=center| sh-m-r ||align=center| shamarti ||align=center| shamarta ||align=center| shamart ||align=center| shamar ||align=center| shamra ||align=center| shamarnu ||align=center| shmartem ||align=center| shmarten ||align=center| shamru
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Nif'al'' ||align=center| שמר ||align=center| נִשְׁמַרְתִּי ||align=center| נִשְׁמַרְתָּ ||align=center| נִשְׁמַרְתְּ||align=center| נִשְׁמַר || align=center| נִשְׁמְרָה ||align=center| נִשְׁמַרְנוּ ||align=center| נִשְׁמַרְתֶּם ||align=center| נִשְׁמַרְתֶּן ||align=center| נִשְׁמְרוּ
|-
| align=center| sh-m-r ||align=center| nishmarti ||align=center| nishmarta ||align=center| nishmart ||align=center| nishmar ||align=center| nishm'ra ||align=center| nishmarnu ||align=center| nishmartem ||align=center| nishmarten ||align=center| nishm'ru
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Hif'il'' ||align=center| קטנ ||align=center| הִקְטַנְתִּי ||align=center| הִקְטַנְתָּ ||align=center| הִקְטַנְתְּ ||align=center| הִקְטִין || align=center| הִקְטִינָה ||align=center| הִקְטַנּוּ ||align=center| הִקְטַנְתֶּם ||align=center| הִקְטַנְתֶּן ||align=center| הִקְטִינוּ
|-
| align=center| k-t-n ||align=center| hiktanti ||align=center| hiktanta ||align=center| hiktant ||align=center| hiktin ||align=center| hiktina ||align=center| hiktanu ||align=center| hiktantem ||align=center| hiktanten ||align=center| hiktinu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Huf'al'' ||align=center| קטנ ||align=center| הֻקְטַנְתִּי ||align=center| הֻקְטַנְתָּ ||align=center| הֻקְטַנְתְּ ||align=center| הֻקְטַן || align=center| הֻקְטְנָה ||align=center| הֻקְטַנּוּ ||align=center| הֻקְטַנְתֶּם ||align=center| הֻקְטַנְתֶּן ||align=center| הֻקְטְנוּ
|-
| align=center| k-t-n ||align=center| huktanti ||align=center| huktanta ||align=center| huktant ||align=center| huktan ||align=center| hukt'na ||align=center| huktanu ||align=center| huktantem ||align=center| huktanten ||align=center| hukt'nu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pi'el'' ||align=center| גדל ||align=center| גִּדַּלְתִּי ||align=center| גִּדַּלְתָּ ||align=center| גִּדַּלְתְּ ||align=center| גִּדֵּל || align=center| גִּדְּלָה ||align=center| גִּדַּלְנוּ ||align=center| גִּדַּלְתֶּם ||align=center| גִּדַּלְתֶּן ||align=center| גִּדְּלוּ
|-
| align=center| g-d-l ||align=center| gidalti ||align=center| gidalta ||align=center| gidalt ||align=center| gidel ||align=center| gidla ||align=center| gidalnu ||align=center| gidaltem ||align=center| gidalten ||align=center| gidlu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pu'al'' ||align=center| גדל ||align=center| גֻּדַּלְתִּי ||align=center| גֻּדַּלְתָּ ||align=center| גֻּדַּלְתְּ ||align=center| גֻּדַּל || align=center| גֻּדְּלָה ||align=center| גֻּדַּלְנוּ ||align=center| גֻּדַּלְתֶּם ||align=center| גֻּדַּלְתֶּן ||align=center| גֻּדְּלוּ
|-
| align=center| g-d-l ||align=center| gudalti ||align=center| gudalta ||align=center| gudalt ||align=center| gudal ||align=center| gudla ||align=center| gudalnu ||align=center| gudaltem ||align=center| gudalten ||align=center| gudlu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Hitpa'el'' ||align=center| בטל ||align=center| הִתְבַּטַּלְתִּי ||align=center| הִתְבַּטַּלְתָּ ||align=center| הִתְבַּטַּלְתְּ ||align=center| הִתְבַּטֵּל || align=center| הִתְבַּטְּלָה ||align=center| הִתְבַּטַּלְנוּ ||align=center| הִתְבַּטַּלְתֶּם ||align=center| הִתְבַּטַּלְתֶּם ||align=center| הִתְבַּטְּלוּ
|-
| align=center| b-t-l ||align=center| hitbatalti ||align=center| hitbatalta ||align=center| hitbatalt ||align=center| hitbatel ||align=center| hitbatla ||align=center| hitbatalnu ||align=center| hitbataltem ||align=center| hitbatalten ||align=center| hitbatlu
|-
|+ Example conjugations in the past tense.
|}
Personal pronouns are not necessary in the past tense and are often dropped, although colloquially they are sometimes used in the third person.
====Future tense====
A verb in the future tense (עָתִיד ''atid'') agrees with its subject in person and number, and in the second- and third-person singular, gender. The second-person singular masculine and third-person singular feminine forms are identical for all verbs in the future tense. Historically, there were separate feminine forms for the second- and third-person plural (with a נָה- ''nah'' ending, as in תְּשַׁמֵּרְנָה ''tishmarnah'' or תִּגְדַּלְנָה ''tigdalnah''), but these are nowadays considered very archaic.
{|class="wikitable"
! rowspan=3| Form ||rowspan=3| Root ||colspan=5| Singular ||colspan=5| Plural
|-
! rowspan=2| I ||colspan=2| You ||rowspan=2| He ||rowspan=2| She ||rowspan=2| We ||rowspan=2| You ||rowspan=2| They
|-
! M || F
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pa'al'' || align=center| שמר ||align=center| אֶשְׁמוֹר ||align=center| תִּשְׁמוֹר ||align=center| תִּשְׁמְרִי ||align=center| יִשְׁמוֹר ||align=center| תִּשְׁמוֹר ||align=center| נִשְׁמוֹר ||align=center| תִּשְׁמְרוּ ||align=center| יִשְׁמְרוּ
|-
| align=center| sh-m-r ||align=center| eshmor ||align=center| tishmor ||align=center| tishmeri ||align=center| yishmor ||align=center| tishmor ||align=center| nishmor ||align=center| tishmeru ||align=center| yishmeru
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Nif'al'' || align=center| שמר ||align=center| אֶשָּׁמֵר ||align=center| תִּישָּׁמֵר ||align=center| תִּישָּׁמְרִי ||align=center| יִישָּׁמֵר ||align=center| תִּישָּׁמֵר ||align=center| נִישָּׁמֵר ||align=center| תִּישָּׁמְרוּ ||align=center| יִישָּׁמְרוּ
|-
| align=center| sh-m-r ||align=center| eshamer ||align=center| tishamer ||align=center| tishamri ||align=center| yishamer ||align=center| tishamer ||align=center| nishamer ||align=center| tishamru ||align=center| yishamru
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Hif'il'' || align=center| קטנ ||align=center| אַקְטִין ||align=center| תַּקְטִין ||align=center| תַּקְטִינִי ||align=center| יַקְטִין ||align=center| תַּקְטִין ||align=center| נַקְטִין ||align=center| תַּקְטִינוּ ||align=center| יַקְטִינוּ
|-
| align=center| k-t-n ||align=center| aktin ||align=center| taktin ||align=center| taktini ||align=center| yaktin ||align=center| taktin ||align=center| naktin ||align=center| taktinu ||align=center| yaktinu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Huf'al'' || align=center| קטנ ||align=center| אוֹקְטַן ||align=center| תּוֹקְטַן ||align=center| תּוֹקְטְנִי ||align=center| יוֹקְטַן ||align=center| תּוֹקְטַן ||align=center| נוֹקְטַן ||align=center| תּוֹקְטְנוּ ||align=center| יוֹקְטְנוּ
|-
| align=center| k-t-n ||align=center| uktan ||align=center| tuktan ||align=center| tukteni ||align=center| yuktan ||align=center| tuktan ||align=center| nuktan ||align=center| tuktenu ||align=center| yuktenu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pi'el'' ||align=center| גדל ||align=center| אֲגַדֵּל ||align=center| תְּגַדֵּל ||align=center| תְּגַדֵּלִי ||align=center| יְגַדֵּל ||align=center| תְּגַדֵּל ||align=center| נְגַדֵּל ||align=center| תְּגַדְּלוּ ||align=center| יְגַדְּלוּ
|-
| align=center| g-d-l ||align=center| agadel ||align=center| t'gadel ||align=center| t'gadli ||align=center| y'gadel ||align=center| t'gadel ||align=center| n'gadel ||align=center| t'gadlu ||align=center| y'gadlu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pu'al'' ||align=center| גדל ||align=center| אֲגוֹדַּל ||align=center| תְּגוֹדַּל ||align=center| תְּגוֹדְּלִי ||align=center| יְגוֹדַּל ||align=center| תְּגוֹדַּל ||align=center| נְגוֹדַּל ||align=center| תְּגוֹדְּלוּ ||align=center| יְגוֹדְּלוּ
|-
| align=center| g-d-l ||align=center| ugudal ||align=center| tugudal ||align=center| tugudli ||align=center| yugudal ||align=center| tugudal ||align=center| nugudal ||align=center| tugudlu ||align=center| yugudlu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Hitpa'el'' ||align=center| בטל ||align=center| אֶתְבַּטֵּל ||align=center| תִּתְבַּטֵּל ||align=center| תִּתְבַּטְּלִי ||align=cente |
position in the face of the abuse. The Drill Instructor then promotes Pvt. Joker to squad leader, not because of his answer, but for standing by his beliefs in the face of adversity.
==Music==
All of the music used in the film was written and recorded before 1968, as to be accurate to the time period the film is set in. The music included in the film is as follows:
* Hello Vietnam - Performed by [[Johnny Wright]]
* [[These Boots Are Made for Walkin']] - Performed by [[Nancy Sinatra]]
* Wooly Bully - Performed by [[Sam the Sham & the Pharaohs]]
* Surfin' Bird - Performed by [[The Trashmen]]
* The Marines Hymn - Performed by [[The Goldmen]]
* Chapel of Love - Performed by [[The Dixie Cups]]
* Paint it Black - Performed by [[The Rolling Stones]]
* [[Mickey Mouse Club]] Television Theme
==Quotes==
*'''Private Joker''' (narration): Parris Island, South Carolina...the United States Marine Corps Recruit Depot. An eight-week college for the phony-tough and the crazy-brave.
*'''Gunnery Sergeant Hartman''' (addressing new recruits): If you ladies leave my island, if you survive recruit training you will be a weapon, you will be a minister of death, praying for war. But until that day, you are pukes! You are the lowest form of life on Earth. You are not even human fucking beings! You are nothing but unorganized, grab-asstic pieces of amphibian shit! Because I am hard, you will not like me. But the more you hate me, the more you will learn. I am hard, but I am fair! There is no racial bigotry here! I do not look down on niggers, kikes, wops or greasers — here you are all equally worthless! And my orders are to weed out all non-hackers who do not pack the gear to serve in my beloved Corps!
*'''Joker''': I wanted to see exotic Vietnam, the jewel of Southeast Asia. I wanted to meet interesting and stimulating people of an ancient culture and...kill them. I wanted to be the first kid on my block to get a confirmed kill.
==Trivia==
* Stanley Kubrick provided the voice of Murphy, the soldier on the other end of the radio communication in the latter part of the film.
* [[Vivian Kubrick]], his daughter, had an uncredited guest role as a News Camera Operator at the Mass Grave.
* Abigail Mead contributes several tracks to the film's score - She does not exist, It is the working name for Stanley Kubrick's daughter [[Vivian Kubrick]].
* Ermey was originally hired to give another actor hired to play Gunnery Sergeant Hartman the basics of giving a realistic performance as a Marine Drill Instructor, but was quickly hired in the actor's place after the director grew impressed with him.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0093058|title=Full Metal Jacket}}
* [http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0065.html ''Full Metal Jacket'' screenplay]
* [http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/13662/an_analysis_of_background_movement.html Essay on ''Full Metal Jacket'']
{{Stanley Kubrick Films}}
[[Category:1987 films]]
[[Category:Drama films]]
[[Category:Films based on non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Films directed by Stanley Kubrick]]
[[Category:Vietnam War films]]
[[Category:Warner Bros. films]]
[[de:Full Metal Jacket (Film)]]
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[[he:מטאל ג'אקט]]
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[[ja:フルメタル・ジャケット]]
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[[sv:Full Metal Jacket]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flirting</title>
<id>11702</id>
<revision>
<id>41825761</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:10:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.253.17.21</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the activity of flirtation. For the movie, see [[Flirting (film)]].''
'''Flirting''' is a form of human interaction, usually expressing a [[human sexuality|sexual]] or [[romantic love|romantic]] interest in the other person. It can consist of [[conversation]], [[body language]], and/or brief physical contact. It may be one-sided or mutual.
It is sometimes used as a means of expressing interest and gauging the other person's interest in [[dating]] or sexual activity. In this context it is often an important early part of [[courtship]], which can continue into [[long term relationship]]s such as [[marriage]]. Alternatively, it may simply be a prelude to [[casual sex]] with no continuing relationship.
In other situations, it may be done simply for immediate entertainment, with no intention of developing any further relationship. This type of flirting sometimes faces disapproval from others, either because it can be misinterpreted as more serious, or it may be viewed as "cheating" if the person is already in a romantic relationship with someone else.
People who flirt may speak and act in a way that suggests greater [[intimacy]] than is generally considered appropriate to the [[personal relationship|relationship]] (or to the amount of time the two people have known each other), without actually saying or doing anything that breaches any serious social norms. One way they accomplish this is to communicate a sense of playfulness or irony. [[Double entendre]]s, with one meaning more formally appropriate and another more suggestive, may be used.
Flirting may consist of stylized gestures, language, [[body language]], [[Posture|postures]], and [[physiology|physiologic signs]], some of which are also part of [[foreplay]]. Among these, at least in [[Western society]], are:
* [[Eye contact]]
* Casual [[touch]]es
* [[Footsie (erotic)|Footsie]], the 'feet under the table' practice
* [[Smile|Smiling]] suggestively
* "[[proteans|Protean]]" signals, such as touching one's hair
* Sending and receiving notes, [[poetry|poems]], [[mixtape]]s, or written [[music]]
* Friendly [[teasing]]
* [[Wink]]ing
* Constant glances
The etymology of the verb "to flirt" comes from the old French "Conter fleurette", which means "to (try to) seduce" by the dropping of flower leaves. This expression is no longer used in French, but the English [[gallicism]] ''to flirt'' has made its way and has now become an [[anglicism]].
[[Category:Sexual attraction]]
[[Category:Intimate relationships]]
[[Category:Sex moves]]
==External links==
*[http://www.sirc.org/publik/flirt.html SIRC Guide to Flirting]
*[http://www.webster.edu/depts/artsci/bass/faculty/mm1985.htm Nonverbal Courtship Patterns In Women: Context and Consequences]
*[http://cms.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19990101-000033.html Psychology Today - Flirting Fascination] Reviews several studies on flirting
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[[ru:Флирт]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Franklin Schaffner</title>
<id>11705</id>
<revision>
<id>40503681</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T01:07:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Azucar</username>
<id>291480</id>
</contributor>
<comment>ja</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Franklin James Schaffner''' ([[May 30]], [[1920]] &ndash; [[July 2]], [[1989]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[film director]].
The son of missionaries, Schaffner was born in [[Tokyo, Japan]] and raised in that country. He returned to the [[United States]] and graduated from [[Franklin and Marshall College]] in [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]], where he was active in drama. He studied law at [[Columbia University]] in [[New York City]] but his education was interrupted by service with the [[United States Navy]] in [[World War II]] during which he served with American [[amphibious]] forces in [[Europe]] and [[North Africa]]. In the latter stages of the war he was sent to the [[Pacific]] [[Far East]] to serve with the [[Office of Strategic Services|United States Office for Strategic Services]].
Returning home after the war, he found work in the television industry with ''March of Time'' and then joined the [[CBS]] network. He won directing [[Emmy]]s for his work on the original 1954 [[CBS]] teleplay, ''[[Twelve Angry Men]]''. Schaffner earned two more Emmy awards for his work on the 1955 television play, "The Caine Mutiny Court Martial for Ford Star Jubilee." He won his fourth Emmy Award for his work on the series, ''[[The Defenders]]''.
In 1960, he directed the [[stage play]] "Advise and Consent." His first [[Hollywood]] [[motion picture]] was praised and he directed the influential hit ''[[Planet of the Apes (1968 movie)|Planet of the Apes]]''. His next film, ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'' was a major success for which he won the [[Academy Award for Directing]] and the [[Director's Guild of America|Director's Guild of America for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures]]. [[Jerry Goldsmith]] composed the [[film score|scores]] for a number of his later films, including ''Planet of the Apes'', ''Papillon'' and ''The Boys from Brazil''.
Schaffner married Helen Jane Gilchrist in 1948. The couple had two children.
Schaffner was elected President of the Directors Guild of America in 1987.
Schaffner passed away in 1989 and was interred in the [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]] in the [[Westwood, Los Angeles, California|Westwood Village]] area of [[Los Angeles, California]].
==Filmography==
*''[[Woman of Summer]]'' (1963)
*''[[The Best Man]]'' (1964)
*''[[The War Lord]]'' (1965)
*''[[The Double Man]]'' (1967)
*''[[Planet of the Apes (1968 movie)|Planet of the Apes]]'' (1967)
*''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'' (1969)
*''[[Nicholas and Alexandra]]'' (1971)
*''[[Papillon (film)|Papillon]]'' (1973)
*''[[Islands in the Stream]]'' (1976)
*''[[The Boys from Brazil]]'' (1978)
*''[[Sphinx (movie)|Sphinx]]'' (1980)
*''[[Yes, Giorgio]]'' (1982)
*''[[Lionheart (film)|Lionheart]]'' (1987)
*''[[Welcome Home]]'' (1989).
[[Category:1920 births|Schaffner, Franklin]]
[[Category:1989 deaths|Schaffner, Franklin]]
[[Category:Be |
cessible by paved road and is set aside as a [[nature preserve]]. A continuous section is available from beds that are clearly Precambrian into beds that are clearly Cambrian. The boundary is set at the first appearance of a complex trace fossil [[Trichophycus pedum]] that is found worldwide. The Fortune Head GSSP is unlikely to be washed away or built over. Trichophycus pedum is less than ideal as a marker fossil as it is not found in every Cambrian sequence, and it is not assured that it is found at the same level in every exposure. But no other fossil is known that would be preferable. There is no [[radiometric dating|radiometrically datable]] bed at the boundary at Fortune Head, but there is one slightly above the boundary in similar beds not very far away.
Once a GSSP boundary has been agreed upon, a "golden spike" is driven into the geologic section to mark the precise boundary for future geologists (though in practice the "spike" need neither be golden or an actual spike). The first stratigraphic boundary was defined in 1977 by identifying the [[Silurian]]-[[Devonian]] boundary with a bronze plaque at a locality called Klonk, northeast of the village of Suchomastyin in the [[Czech Republic]]. GSSPs are also sometimes referred to as '''Golden Spikes'''.
==GSSAs==
Because defining a GSSP depends on finding well-preserved geologic sections and identifying key events, this task becomes more difficult as one goes farther back in time. Before 630 million years ago, boundaries on the geologic timescale are defined simply by reference to fixed dates, known as [[Global Standard Stratigraphic Age]]s.
==External links==
*[http://www.stratigraphy.org/over.htm The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)]: overview
==Reference==
*Hedberg, H.D., (editor), ''International stratigraphic guide: A guide to stratigraphic classification, terminology, and procedure'', New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1976
[[Category:Geologic time scale]]
[[Category:Stratigraphy]]
[[it:GSSP]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gabrielle DAnnunzio</title>
<id>12453</id>
<revision>
<id>15910139</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-23T16:07:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gianfranco</username>
<id>918</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gough Whitlam</title>
<id>12454</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>39702160</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T06:25:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>OrphanBot</username>
<id>621721</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing image with no source information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
| name=Hon Gough Whitlam
| image=truthofthematter.jpg
| country=Australia
| term=[[5 December]], [[1972]]&ndash;[[11 November]], [[1975]]
| before=[[William McMahon]]
| after=[[Malcolm Fraser]]
| date_birth=[[11 July]] [[1916]]
| place_birth=[[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]]
| party=[[Australian Labor Party|Labor]]
}}
'''Edward Gough Whitlam''', AC, QC (born [[11 July]] [[1916]]), known as '''Gough Whitlam''' (pronounced ''Goff''), [[Australia]]n politician and 21st [[Prime Minister of Australia]], was the only Australian Prime Minister to be dismissed by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]. Whitlam remains one of the most controversial figures in Australian political history. Whitlam was dismissed by Sir [[John Kerr]], Governor-General of Australia on the 11th of November 1975.
His supporters praise his erudition and his reformist zeal, while his detractors view his government as chronically inept and unstable. Despite this, fans and foes alike acknowledge his mastery of public speaking; he is famed for his rapier wit and is widely considered one of the leading parliamentary performers of his generation. The manner of his dismissal is something that still arouses intense passion and debate.
Whitlam was born in [[Kew, Victoria|Kew]], a [[Melbourne]] suburb. His father, [[Fred Whitlam]], was a federal public servant who served as Solicitor-General. Whitlam senior's involvement in human rights issues was a powerful influence on his son. Whitlam was educated at [[Sydney]]'s [[Knox Grammar]] and at [[Canberra Grammar School]], where he became friends with [[Francis James]], later a prominent journalist.
Whitlam then studied law at the [[University of Sydney]]. During the [[World War II|Second World War]] he served as a navigator with the [[Royal Australian Air Force]], reaching the rank of flight-lieutenant. He completed his studies after the war and was admitted to the [[New South Wales]] bar in 1947.
In 1942 he married Margaret Dovey, daughter of Judge [[Bill Dovey]], and had three sons and a daughter. Margaret Whitlam is known for having a sardonic wit equal to that of her husband and is a published author as well as a former champion swimmer. One of their sons, [[Nicholas Whitlam]], became a prominent banker and a controversial figure in his own right. Another son, [[Tony Whitlam]], was briefly a federal MP.
==Early career==
Whitlam's impetus to become involved in politics was the Chifley government's post-war referendum to gain increased powers for the federal government. He joined the [[Australian Labor Party]] in 1945 and in 1950 was a Labor candidate for the [[New South Wales Legislative Assembly]]: a contest he was later grateful he didn't win. When [[Hubert Lazzarini]], the sitting member for the safe Federal electorate of [[Division of Werriwa|Werriwa]], died in 1952, Whitlam was elected to the House of Representatives at the by-election on [[29 November]] [[1952]].
Noted since his schooldays for his erudition, eloquence and incisive wit, Whitlam soon became one of the ALP's star performers. Widely acknowledged as one of the best political speakers and parliamentary debaters of his time, he was also one of the few in the ALP who could hold his own against the wily [[Robert Menzies]] on the floor of the House.
After the electoral success of the [[John Curtin|Curtin]] and [[Ben Chifley|Chifley]] years, the 1950s were a grim and divisive time for Labor. The [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]]-[[National Party of Australia|Country Party]] coalition government of Robert Menzies gained power in the election of 1949 and ruled for a record 23 years. Chifley died in June 1951. His replacement, [[H.V. Evatt|Dr H.V. Evatt]], lacked Chifley's conciliatory skills.
Whitlam admired Evatt greatly, and was a loyal supporter of his leadership, through a period dominated by the Labor split of 1955, which resulted in the Catholic right wing of the party breaking off to form the [[Democratic Labor Party]] (DLP). In 1960, having lost three elections, Evatt resigned, to be replaced by [[Arthur Calwell]], with Whitlam winning the election for deputy over veteran Labor MP [[Eddie Ward]]. Calwell came within a handful of votes of winning the 1961 election, but progressively lost ground from that time on.
The ALP, having been founded as a party to represent the working classes, still regarded its parliamentary representatives as servants of the party as a whole, and required them to comply with official party policy. This led to the celebrated ''Faceless Men'' picture of 1963, which showed Calwell and Whitlam waiting outside a [[Canberra]] hotel for the decision of an ALP Federal Conference. Prime Minister Menzies, in the November 1963 election campaign, used it to great advantage, drawing attention to "the famous outside body, thirty-six 'faceless men' whose qualifications are unknown, who have no electoral responsibility."
Whitlam was quick to respond, and spent years struggling for party reform&#8212;at one stage, dubbing his opponents "the 12 witless men"&#8212;and eventually succeeded in having the secretive Labor Party National Conference turned into an open public forum, with state representatives elected in proportion to their membership, and with both state and federal parliamentary leaders being automatic members.
Through the 1960s, Whitlam's relationship with Calwell and the right wing of the party remained uneasy. Whitlam opposed several key Labor policies, including [[nationalisation]] of industry, refusal of state aid to religious schools, and Calwell's continued support for the [[White Australia Policy]]. His stances brought him into direct conflict with the ALP leadership on several occasions and he was almost expelled from the party in 1966 because of his stand on the school aid issue.
In January of that year, Menzies finally retired. His successor as Liberal Party leader, [[Harold Holt]], led the coalition to a landslide election victory in November on a pro-American, pro-[[Vietnam War]] policy. This crushing defeat prompted Calwell to step down in early 1967. Gough Whitlam then became Leader of the Opposition, narrowly defeating his rival, [[Jim Cairns]].
==Opposition leader==
Whitlam swiftly made his mark on the ALP, bringing his campaign for internal reform to fruition, and overhauling or discarding a series of Labor policies that had been enshrined for decades. The [[White Australia Policy]] was dropped, Labor no longer opposed state aid, and the air of working-class puritanism that attended the Labor Party of the 1950s gave way to one that was younger, more optimistic, more socially liberal, more intellectual, and decidedly middle-class.
One of the first Australian politicans to realise and fully exploit the power of television as a political tool, Whitlam proved himself a formidable campaigner, winning two by-elections and then a 17-seat swing in the 1969 election, falling only four seats short of a majority. |
d due to [[1994 baseball strike|player strike]].''
|-
| [[1995 American League Championship Series|1995]]
| [[Cleveland Indians]] || [[Seattle Mariners]]
| align="center" | 4-2 || [[Orel Hershiser]], Cleveland
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[1996 American League Championship Series|1996]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Baltimore Orioles]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 4-1
| [[Bernie Williams]], New York
| Aided by [[Jeffrey Maier]], [[Derek Jeter]] hit a game-tying home run in Game 1, then Williams hit the walk-off shot in extra innings.
|-
| [[1997 American League Championship Series|1997]]
| [[Cleveland Indians]] || [[Baltimore Orioles]]
| align="center" | 4-2 || [[Marquis Grissom]], Cleveland
| A home run by [[Tony Fernandez]] propelled Cleveland to its second pennant in three years.
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[1998 American League Championship Series|1998]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Cleveland Indians]]
| align="center" | 4-2 || [[David Wells]], New York
|-
| [[1999 American League Championship Series|1999]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Boston Red Sox]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 4-1 || [[Orlando Hernández]], New York
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[2000 American League Championship Series|2000]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Seattle Mariners]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 4-2 || [[David Justice]], New York
| Justice's towering homer off [[Arthur Rhodes]] in Game 6 ensured the first [[Subway Series]] since 1956. [[Roger Clemens]] one-hit Seattle in Game 3.
|-
| [[2001 American League Championship Series|2001]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Seattle Mariners]]
| align="center" | 4-1 || [[Andy Pettitte]], New York
| [[Alfonso Soriano]] hit a walk-off home run in Game 4.
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[2002 American League Championship Series|2002]]
| [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim Angels]]&dagger; || [[Minnesota Twins]]
| align="center" | 4-1 || [[Adam Kennedy]], Anaheim
| The series MVP hit three home runs in the deciding Game 5 despite swatting just 7 in the regular season.
|-
| [[2003 American League Championship Series|2003]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Boston Red Sox]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 4-3 || [[Mariano Rivera]], New York
| [[Aaron Boone]] hit an 11th-inning blast off [[Tim Wakefield]] to cap off an exciting Game 7. Often called the best game in the [[Yankees-Red Sox Rivalry]], it may be better known for [[Grady Little]] refusing to pull ace [[Pedro Martinez]] from the game. Another highlight was the Game 3 brawl.
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[2004 American League Championship Series|2004]]
| [[Boston Red Sox]]&dagger; || [[New York Yankees]]
| align="center" | 4-3 || [[David Ortiz]], Boston
| Boston becomes the first baseball team in history to win a series after losing the first three games.
|-
| [[2005 American League Championship Series|2005]]
| [[Chicago White Sox]] || [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Los Angeles Angels]]
| align="center" | 4-1 || [[Paul Konerko]], Chicago
| After [[Neal Cotts]] worked 2/3 of an inning in a Game 1 loss, the Sox, aided by a controversial [[Doug Eddings]] call, pitched 4 complete games in a row.
|}
&dagger;''Denotes wild-card team (since 1995).''
==References==
<!-- Tips for referencing:
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For Books, use:
{{Book reference | Author=Lincoln, Abraham; Grant, U. S.; & Davis, Jefferson | Title=Resolving Family Differences Peacefully | Publisher=Gettysburg: Printing Press | Year=1861 | Editor=Stephen A. Douglas | ID=ISBN 0-12-345678-9}}
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[[Category:Baseball playoffs and champions]] [[Category:American League Championship Series|*]]
[[Category:1969 establishments]]
{{ALCS}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American League Division Series</title>
<id>3862</id>
<revision>
<id>40983328</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T07:27:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TMC1982</username>
<id>96890</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Major League Baseball]], the '''American League Division Series''' ('''ALDS''') determines which two teams from the [[American League]] will advance to the [[American League Championship Series]]. The ALDS consists of two best-of-five series, featuring the three division winners and a [[wild card (sports)|wild-card]] team.
The Division Series was created after the [[1993 in baseball|1993]] season when Major League Baseball restructured each league into three divisions, but they were first played in [[1995 in baseball|1995]] due to [[1994 baseball strike|the cancellation of the 1994 playoffs]]. Incidentally, because of a [[1981 baseball strike|players' strike]] in [[1981 in baseball|1981]], a split-season format forced a divisional playoff series that year, where the [[New York Yankees]] won the Eastern Division series over the [[Milwaukee Brewers]] (who were in the American League until [[1998 in baseball|1998]]) in five games while the [[Oakland Athletics]] swept the [[Kansas City Royals]] in three games in the Western Division.
Typically, the wild-card team is assigned to play the division winner with the best winning percentage in one series, and the other two division winners play the other series. However, if the wild-card team and the division winner with the best record are from the same division, the wild-card team plays the division winner with the second-best record, and the remaining two division winners play. In any event, the two series winners move on to the best-of-seven ALCS.
Since the ALDS's inception, several pairs of opponents have met more than once. The [[Cleveland Indians]] and the [[Boston Red Sox]] played in [[1995 in baseball|1995]], [[1998 in baseball|1998]], and [[1999 in baseball|1999]], and the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] played the [[New York Yankees]] in [[1996 in baseball|1996]], [[1998 in baseball|1998]], and [[1999 in baseball|1999]]. Also, three matchups have occurred twice, all including the Yankees; they played the [[Oakland Athletics]] in [[2000 in baseball|2000]] and [[2001 in baseball|2001]], the [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim-LA Angels]] in [[2002 in baseball|2002]] and [[2005 in baseball|2005]], and the [[Minnesota Twins]] in [[2003 in baseball|2003]] and [[2004 in baseball|2004]].
There is currently no award for Division Series Most Valuable Player.
==ALDS results (1994-present)==
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="3"
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
! Year
! Winner
! Loser
! Wins
! Losses
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| 1994
| colspan="5" align="center" | ''Not held due to [[1994 baseball strike|player strike]].''
|-
| [[1995 American League Division Series|1995]]
| [[Cleveland Indians]] || [[Boston Red Sox]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|-
|
|| [[Seattle Mariners]] || [[New York Yankees]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 2
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[1996 American League Division Series|1996]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
|
|| [[Baltimore Orioles]]&dagger; || [[Cleveland Indians]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|-
| [[1997 American League Division Series|1997]]
| [[Baltimore Orioles]] || [[Seattle Mariners]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|-
|
|| [[Cleveland Indians]] || [[New York Yankees]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 2
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[1998 American League Division Series|1998]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
|
|| [[Cleveland Indians]] || [[Boston Red Sox]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|-
| [[1999 American League Division Series|1999]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|-
|
|| [[Boston Red Sox]]&dagger; || [[Cleveland Indians]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 2
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[2000 American League Division Series|2000]]
| [[Seattle Mariners]]&dagger; || [[Chicago White Sox]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
|
|| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Oakland Athletics]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 2
|-
| [[2001 American League Division Series|2001]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Oakland Athletics]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 2
|-
|
|| [[Seattle Mariners]] || [[Cleveland Indians]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 2
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
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e goddesses Rhiannon, in Wales, and [[Macha]], who was mostly worshipped in [[Ulster]].
Polytheistic peoples rarely care to keep their pantheons in the neat and tidy order in which scholars would like to find them.
==Temples==
[[Image:Celtic_Knot_two-part_circle.jpg|thumb|A classic Celtic knot pattern]]
[[Image:Triskele-hollow-triangle.png|thumb|One form of decorative spiral triskelion]]
Often it is said that the Celtic peoples built no [[temple]]s, and worshipped only outside in groves of trees. Archaeology has long shown this is untrue, with various temple structures throughout the Celtic world being known. With the Roman conquest of parts of the Celtic world a distinct type of Celto-Roman temple called a ''fanum'' also was developed. This was distinguished from a Classical temple by having an ambulatory on all four sides of the central [[cella]].
==Celtic worship==
The early Celts considered some trees to be sacred.
The importance of trees in Celtic religion is shown by the fact that the very name of the [[Eburonian]] tribe contains a reference to the yew tree, and that names like [[Mac Cuilinn]] (son of holly) and [[Mac Ibar]] (son of yew) appear in Irish myths.
Roman writers stated that the [[Celts and human sacrifice|Celts practiced human sacrifice]] on a fairly large scale and there is peripheral support for this in Irish sources; however, most of this information is secondhand or hearsay.
There are only very few recorded archaeological discoveries which substantiate the sacrificial process and thus most contemporary historians tend to regard human sacrifice as rare within Celtic cultures.
There was also a [[warrior]] cult that centered on the severed heads of their enemies.
The Celts provided their dead with weapons and other accoutrements, which indicates that they believed in an afterlife.
Before burial, they also severed the dead person's head and shattered the skull, perhaps to prevent the ghost from wandering.
== The druids ==
The [[druids]], who have been romanticised in modern literature, were the largely hereditary class of [[priest]]s responsible for transmitting and practicing the mythological and religious traditions of the Celtic peoples. (The role of the druids may be compared to those of the Indian [[Brahmin]] caste or the Iranian [[magi]], and like them specialised in the practices of magic, sacrifice and augury. Because of the similarities among these classes among divergent branches of [[Indo-European]] descendant cultures, it has been proposed that the role stems back to a similar class among the [[proto-Indo-Europeans]].
The druids were particularly associated with [[oak]] trees and mistletoe (a [[parasite|parasitic]] herb that commonly grows on oak trees); perhaps they used the latter to brew medicines or hallucinogenic concoctions. To help understand the meaning, the word druid is often believed to come from the root word meaning "oak", although this probable [[proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]] root may have had the general meaning of solidity.
[[Bard]]s, on the other hand, were those who sang the songs recalling the tribal warriors' deeds of bravery as well as the genealogies and family histories of the ruling strata among Celtic societies.
The Celtic culture was not a historical culture, in the sense that prior to contact with Mediterranean civilizations, the Celtic peoples recorded no written history. However, Celtic peoples did maintain an often intricate spoken history committed to memory and transmitted by bards. Similar to other pre-literate cultures (see, for example, the [[Vedas]] of India, which were transmitted for centuries solely by memorization in an archaic form of [[Sanskrit]] that had not been spoken as a vernacular for hundreds of years), bards facilitated the memorization of such materials by the use of [[poetry|poetic]] meter and rhyme.
In addition, there may have been a class of "seers" or "prophets".
[[Strabo]] calls them vates, from a Celtic word meaning "inspired" or "ecstatic". It is therefore possible that Celtic society had, in addition to the ritualistic and thaumaturgical religion of the druids, a shamanic element of ecstatic communication with the underworld.
===Significance of prophecy in Druidic ritual===
Diodorus remarks upon the importance of prophets in Druidic ritual: &#8216;These men predict the future by observing the flight and calls of birds and by the sacrifice of holy animals: all orders of society are in their power&#8230;and in very important matters they prepare a human victim, plunging a dagger into his chest; by observing the way his limbs convulse as he falls and the gushing of his blood, they are able to read the future.&#8217; These Graeco-Roman comments are supported to some extent by archaeological excavations. At Ribemont in Picardy, France, there were revealed pits filled with human bones and thigh bones deliberately fixed into rectangular patterns. This shrine is believed to have been razed to the ground by Julius Caesar while he was subduing Gaul. At a bog in Lindow, Cheshire, England was discovered a body which may also have been the victim of a druidic ritual. The body is now on display at the British Museum, London.
==Modern remnants==
The indigenous Celtic beliefs and ways have had a large impact on the modern Celtic cultures. Mythology based on (though, not identical to) the pre-Christian religion was common place knowledge in Celtic speaking cultures up to today, though it is now dwindling. Additionally, many unofficial saints are believed in, such as Brìd in Scotland (Brighid in Ireland), which have the same names as known deities. Various rituals involving acts of pilgrimage to sites such as hills and sacred wells which are believed to have curative or otherwise beneficial properties are still performed.
Based on evidence from the European continent, various figures which are still known in folklore in the Celtic countries up to today or take part in post-Christian mythology can be known to have also been worshipped in those areas that did not have records before Christianity.
Some of these are:
*Lugh in Ireland, Lugus in Gaul, and Llew in Wales
*Brighid or Bríd in Ireland, Brigindo in Gaul, and possibly Brigantia in Britain
*Maponos in Britain and Gaul, Mabon in Wales, and a likely related god Aengus Mac Óg in Ireland
*Núadha in Ireland and Nodens in Britain
*Badhbh Catha in Ireland and Cathubodua in Gaul
Differences in the names are accounted by diversion within the languages of the different groups.
===Druidism?===
Often the religious systems of the Celtic peoples are called "[[Druidry]]" or "[[Druidism]]". This is very much a misnomer, suggesting only the Druids were involved in religion, or that they had a distinct religion. This is akin to suggesting that Catholicism is Bishopry. The Druids existed as a functional part within a larger framework, as priests for instance. There are now numerous systems which have either been made up whole, or attempt to revive Celtic beliefs, and more often a mix of both called "Druidism". A problem with calling an attempt at reviving Celtic beliefs Druidism however is that, again, it would be like calling a revived Catholicism Bishopry or Judaism Rabbiry. Doing so goes beyond simply misnaming the religion but suggests a fundementally wrong (ahistorical) structure, such as a religion which consists entirely of priest figures, or is different somehow from people they serve. Since the religious system of the [[Celts]] was indisputably [[polytheistic]], the religion is more accurately termed [[Celtic polytheism]].
Some people of the modern Celtic cultures, and others descended from them in the Celtic diaspora, are attempting to revive what they regard as their indigenous religion.
The modern religion of [[Wicca]] created in the 20th century from numerous heterogenous sources is sometimes mistakenly believed to be a Celtic religion, although any relationship thereto is based on modern borrowing of discrete facets derived from recent historical and archaelogical findings.
==See also==
* [[Irish mythology]]
* [[Druidism]]
* [[Gundestrup cauldron]]
* [[Triskele]]
* [[Celts]], [[Gaul]]s
* [[Partholon]]
* [[Kelpie]]
==References==
*de Vries, Jan, ''Keltische Religion'' (1961)
*Duval, Paul-Marie, ''Les Dieux de la Gaule'', new ed. updated and enlarged (1976).
*Ellis, Peter Berresford, ''Dictionary of Celtic Mythology'' (Oxford Paperback Reference), Oxford University Press, (1994): ISBN 0195089618
*Green, Miranda J. ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'' New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992. ISBN 0500279756.
*MacCana, Proinsias. ''Celtic Mythology''. New York: Hamlyn, 1970. ISBN 0600006476.
*Mac Cana, Proinsias, ''The Learned Tales of Medieval Ireland'' (Irish Literature - Studies), Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies (1980): ISBN 1855001209
*MacKillop, James. ''Dictionary of Celtic Mythology''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0192801201.
*Matthews, John. ''Classic Celtic Fairy Tales''. Blandford Books, 1997. ISBN 0713727837.
*Monaghan, Patricia. ''The Red-Haired Girl from the Bog: The Landscape of Celtic Myth and Spirit.'' New World Library, 2002. ISBN 1577311906.
*O'Rahilly, Thomas F. ''Early Irish History and Mythology'' (1946, reissued 1971)
*Rhys, John, ''Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by Celtic Heathendom'' 3rd ed. (1898, reprinted 1979).
*Sjoestedt, M. L. ''Gods and Heroes of the Celts''. 1949; translated by Myles Dillon. repr. Berkeley, CA: Turtle Press, 1990. ISBN 1851821791.
*Stercks, Claude, ''Éléments de cosmogonie celtique'' (1986)
*Vendryès, Joseph, Ernest Tonnelat, and B.-O. Unbegaun ''Les Religions des Celtes, des Germains et des anciens Slaves'' (1948).
*Wood, Juliette ''The Celts: Life, Myth, and Art'' Thorsons Publishers (2002): ISBN 0007640595
==External links==
*[http://www.timelessmyths.com/c |
by 68.39.174.238</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Endocytosis''' is a process whereby [[cell (biology)|cells]] absorb material ([[molecule]]s or other cells) from outside by engulfing it with their [[cell membrane]]s. It is used by cells (especially [[protist]]s) because most substances important to them are [[polar molecule|polar]] and consist of big molecules, and thus cannot pass through the highly [[hydrophobic]] plasma membrane.
Endocytosis is the opposite of [[exocytosis]], and always involves the formation of a [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]] from part of the cell membrane.
There are three types of endocytosis:
*[[Phagocytosis]] (literally, ''cell-eating'') is the process by which cells ingest large objects, such as prey cells or large chunks of dead organic matter. The membrane folds around the material, and vesicles are sealed off into large [[vacuole]]s. [[Lysosome]]s then merge with the vacuoles, turning them into a digestive chamber. The products of the digestion are then released into the [[cytosol]]. [[Macrophage]]s are cells of the [[immune system]] that specialize in the destruction of [[antigen]]s ([[bacteria]], [[virus]]es and other foreign particles) by phagocytosis.
*[[Pinocytosis]] (literally, ''cell-drinking'') is the [[invagination]] of the cell membrane to form a pocket filled with [[extracellular fluid]] (and molecules within it). The pocket then pinches off to form a [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]], and the vesicle ruptures to release its contents into the [[cytosol]].
*[[Receptor-mediated endocytosis]] is similar to pinocytosis, except it is prompted by the binding of a large extracellular [[molecule]] - such as a [[protein]] - to a [[Receptor_(biochemistry)|receptor]] on the cell membrane. These receptors are often associated with the cytosolic protein [[clathrin]], which is coating the membrane, forming a pit. When the receptors bind their target molecules, the pit deepens until a clathrin-coated vesicle is released into the cytosol.
[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[cs:Endocytóza]]
[[de:Membrantransport]]
[[fr:Endocytose]]
[[he:אנדוציטוזה]]
[[ja:エンドサイトーシス]]
[[pl:Endocytoza]]
[[sl:Endocitoza]]
[[sr:Ендоцитоза и егзоцитоза]]
[[fi:Endosytoosi]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Ezra Abbot</title>
<id>10118</id>
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<timestamp>2005-11-02T20:47:45Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Moved to Category:Biblical scholars</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ezra Abbot''' ([[April 28]], [[1819]], [[Jackson, Maine]] - [[March 21]], [[1884]],[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]) was an [[United States|American]] biblical scholar.
He graduated from [[Bowdoin College]] in [[1840]]. In [[1847]], at the request of Prof. Andrews Norton, he went to Cambridge, where he was principal of a public school until [[1856]]. He was assistant librarian of [[Harvard University]] from [[1856]] to [[1872]], and planned and perfected an alphabetical card catalogue, combining many of the advantages of the ordinary dictionary catalogues with the grouping of the minor topics under more general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic catalogue. From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor of [[New Testament]] Criticism and Interpretation in the [[Harvard Divinity School]].
Abbot's studies were chiefly in [[Oriental languages]] and textual criticism of the New Testament, though his work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive list of writings (5300 in all) on the doctrine of the future life, appended to W. R. Alger's ''History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages'' ([[1862]]), and published separately in [[1864]].
Abbot's publications, though always of the most thorough and scholarly character, were to a large extent dispersed in the pages of reviews, dictionaries, concordances, texts edited by others, [[Unitarian]] controversial treatises, etc. However, he took a more conspicuous and personal part in the preparation (with [[Baptist]] scholar Horatio B. Hackett) of the enlarged American edition of Dr. (afterwards Sir) William Smith's ''Dictionary of the Bible'' ( [[1867]]-[[1870]]), to which he contributed more than 400 articles, as well as greatly improving the bibliographical completeness of the work. He was an efficient member of the American revision committee for the Revised Version ([[1881]]-[[1885]]) of the [[King James Bible]], and helped prepare Caspar Rene Gregory's Prolegomena to the revised [[Greek language|Greek]] New Testament of Tischendorf.
His principal single work, representing his scholarly method and conservative conclusions, was ''The Authorship af the Fourth Gospel: External Evidences'' ([[1880]]; 2nd ed. by J. H. Thayer, with other essays, [[1889]]), originally a lecture. In spite of the compression due to its form, this work was up to that time probably the ablest defence, based on external evidence, of the Johannine authorship, and certainly the most complete treatment of the relation of [[Justin Martyr]] to this gospel.
Though a layman, Abbot received the degree of S. T. D. from Harvard in [[1872]], and that of D.D. from [[Edinburgh]] in [[1884]].
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbot, Ezra}}
[[Category:1819 births|Abbot, Ezra]]
[[Category:1884 deaths|Abbot, Ezra]]
[[Category:Biblical scholars|Abbot, Ezra]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Edwin Abbott Abbott</title>
<id>10119</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:09:45Z</timestamp>
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<username>Eixo</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edwin Abbott Abbott.jpg|frame|Edwin Abbott Abbott]]
'''Edwin Abbott Abbott''' ([[December 20]], [[1838]] &ndash; [[1926]]), [[England|English]] [[schoolmaster]] and [[theology|theologian]], is best known as the author of the [[mathematics|mathematical]] [[satire]] ''[[Flatland]]'' ([[1884]]). Abbott was the eldest son of [[Edwin Abbott]] ([[1808]]&ndash;[[1882]]), headmaster of the Philological School, Marylebone, and his wife, Jane Abbott ([[1806]]&ndash;[[1882]]). His parents were first cousins.
He was educated at the [[City of London School]] and at [[St John's College, Cambridge|St John's College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], where he took the highest honours in [[classics]], [[mathematics]] and [[theology]], and became [[fellow]] of his college. In [[1862]] he took orders. After holding masterships at [[King Edward's School, Birmingham]], and at [[Clifton College]], he succeeded [[G. F. Mortimer]] as headmaster of the [[City of London School]] in [[1865]] at the early age of twenty-six. He was [[Hulsean lecturer]] in [[1876]].
His most famous work, ''[[Flatland]]: a romance of many dimensions'' (1884), Abbott wrote under the pseudonym of A. Square. The book has seen many editions, the sixth edition of 1953 being reprinted by Princeton University Press in 1991 with an introduction by Thomas Banchoff. Flatland is an account of the adventures of A Square in Lineland and Spaceland. In it Abbott tries to popularise the notion of multidimensional geometry but the book is also a clever satire on the social, moral, and religious values of the period.
He retired in [[1889]], and devoted himself to literary and theological pursuits. Dr. Abbott's liberal inclinations in theology were prominent both in his educational views and in his books. His ''[[Shakespearian Grammar]]'' ([[1870]]) is a permanent contribution to English [[philology]]. In [[1885]] he published a life of [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]]. His theological writings include three anonymously published religious romances - ''[[Philochristus]]'' ([[1878]]), ''[[Onesimus]]'' ([[1882]]), and ''[[Sitanus]]'' ([[1906]]).
More weighty contributions are the anonymous theological discussion ''The Kernel and the Husk'' ([[1886]]), ''Philomythus'' ([[1891]]), his book ''The Anglican Career of [[John Henry Newman|Cardinal Newman]]'' ([[1892]]), and his article "The Gospels" in the ninth edition of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', embodying a critical view which caused considerable stir in the English theological world. He also wrote ''St Thomas of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles'' ([[1898]]), ''Johannine Vocabulary'' ([[1905]]), ''Johannine Grammar'' ([[1906]]). ''[[Flatland]]'' was published in [[1884]].
==Reference==
* [[Dictionary of National Biography]].
==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbott, Edwin Arrott}}
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Abbott.html Biography of Abbott]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Edwin_Abbott_Abbott|name=Edwin Abbott Abbott}}
*[http://www.eldritchpress.org/eaa/FL.HTM Online text of Flatland]
*{{iblist name|id=359|name=Edwin Abbott Abbott}}
*{{ibdof name|id=497|name=Edwin Abbott Abbott}}
*{{isfdb name|id=Edwin_A._Abbott|name=Edwin Abbott Abbott}}
[[Category:1838 births|Abbott, Edwin Abbott]]
[[Category:1926 deaths|Abbott, Edwin Abbott]]
[[Category:Alumni of St. John's College, Cambridge|Abbott, Edwin Abbott]]
[[Category:English teachers|Abbott, Edwin Abbott]]
[[Category:English science fiction writers|Abbott, Edwin Abbott]]
[[Category:English theologians|Abbott, Edwin Abbott]]
[[Category:Old Citizens|Abbott, Edwin Abbott]]
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<page>
<title>Emma Abbott</title>
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<id>38024967</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T18:01:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>151.203.124.143</ip>
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<comment>misspelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EmmaAbbott.jpg|thumbnail|300px|right|Emma Abbott]]
'''Emma Abbott''' ([[December 9]], |
a dB value is meaningless unless the reference value (equivalent to 0&nbsp;dB) is clearly stated. For example, the [[gain]] of an [[antenna (radio)|antenna]] system can only be given with respect to a reference antenna (generally a perfect [[Isotropic radiator|isotropic antenna]]); if the reference is not stated, the dB gain value is not usable.
=== Optics ===
In an [[optical link]], if a known amount of [[Optics|optical]] power, in [[dBm]] (referenced to 1 mW), is launched into a [[Optical fiber|fibre]], and the losses, in dB (decibels), of each [[component]] (e.g., connectors, splices, and lengths of fibre) are known, the overall link [[loss]] may be quickly calculated by simple addition and subtraction of decibel quantities.
=== Telecommunications ===
In telecommunications, decibels are commonly used to measure [[signal-to-noise ratio]]s and other ratio measurements.
Decibels are used to account for the gains and losses of a signal from a transmitter to a receiver through some medium (free space, wave guides, coax, fiber optics, etc.) using a [[Link Budget]].
=== Seismology ===
Earthquakes were formerly measured on the [[Richter magnitude scale|Richter scale]], which is expressed in bels. (The units in this case are always assumed, rather than explicit.) The more modern [[moment magnitude scale]] is designed to produce values comparable to those of the Richter scale.<!--but perhaps is unitless, since it is not based on a base 10 log of an amplitude-->
== Typical abbreviations ==
=== Absolute measurements ===
==== Electric power ====
; [[dBm]] ''or'' dBmW : dB(1 mW) — power measurement relative to 1 milliwatt.
; [[dBW]] : dB(1 W) — same as dBm, with reference level of 1 [[watt]].
==== Electric voltage ====
; dBu ''or'' dBv : dB(0.775 V) — (usually [[root mean square|RMS]]) [[volt]]age [[amplitude]] referenced to 0.775 volt. Although dBu can be used with any impedance, dBu = dBm when the load is 600Ω. dBu is preferable, since dBv is easily confused with dBV. The "u" comes from "unloaded".
; dBV : dB(1 V) — (usually RMS) voltage amplitude of a signal in a [[wire]], relative to 1 volt, not related to any impedance.
==== Acoustics ====
; dB(SPL) : dB(Sound Pressure Level) — relative to 20 micropascals (&mu;Pa) = 2×10<sup>−5</sup> Pa, the quietest sound a human can hear. This is roughly the sound of a mosquito flying 3 metres away. This is often abbreviated to just "dB", which gives some the erroneous notion that a dB is an absolute unit by itself.
==== Radio power ====
; dBm : dB(mW) — power relative to 1 [[milliwatt]].
; dB&mu; ''or'' dBu : dB(&mu;V/m) — [[electric field strength]] relative to 1 [[microvolt]] per [[metre]].
; dBf : dB(fW) — power relative to 1 [[femtowatt]].
; dBW : dB(W) — power relative to 1 [[watt]].
; dBk : dB(kW) — power relative to 1 [[kilowatt]].
==== Note regarding absolute measurements ====
The term "measurement relative to" means so many dB greater, or smaller, than the quantity specified.
Examples:
*&nbsp;3&nbsp;dBm means 3&nbsp;dB greater than 1&nbsp;mW.
*−6&nbsp;dBm means 6&nbsp;dB less than 1&nbsp;mW.
*&nbsp;0&nbsp;dBm means no change from 1&nbsp;mW, in other words 0&nbsp;dBm ''is'' 1&nbsp;mW.
=== Relative measurements ===
; [[dB(A)|dB(A), dB(B), and dB(C)]] weighting : These symbols are often used to denote the use of different [[frequency weighting]]s, used to approximate the human ear's [[response]] to sound, although the measurement is still in dB (SPL). Other variations that may be seen are dB<sub>A</sub> or dBA. According to ANSI standards, the preferred usage is to write L<sub>A</sub> = x dB, as dBA implies a reference to an "A" unit, not an A-weighting. They are still used commonly as a shorthand for A-weighted measurements, however.
; dBd : dB(dipole) — the forward gain of an [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]] compared to a half-wave [[dipole]] antenna.
; dBi : dB(isotropic) — the forward gain of an antenna compared to an idealized [[isotropic]] antenna.
; [[dBFS]] ''or'' dBfs : dB([[full scale]]) — the [[amplitude]] of a signal (usually audio) compared to the maximum which a device can handle before [[clipping]] occurs. In digital systems, 0 dBFS would equal the highest level (number) the processor is capable of representing. (Measured values are negative, since they are less than the maximum.)
; dBr : dB(relative) — simply a relative difference to something else, which is made apparent in context. The difference of a filter's response to nominal levels, for instance.
; [[dBrn]] : dB above [[reference noise]].
; dBC : dB relative to carrier — in [[fiber optics|fiberoptic]] [[telecommunication]]s, this indicates the relative levels of noise or sideband peak power, compared to the optical carrier power.
== Reckoning ==
Decibels are handy for mental calculation, because adding them is easier than multiplying ratios.
First, however, one has to be able to convert easily between ratios and decibels.
The most obvious way is to memorize the logs of small primes, but there are a few other tricks that can help.
=== Round numbers ===
The values of coins and banknotes are round numbers. The rules are:
#One is a round number
#Twice a round number is a round number: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64
#Ten times a round number is a round number: 10, 100
#Half a round number is a round number: 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25
#The tenth of a round number is a round number: 5, 2.5, 1.25, 1.6, 3.2, 6.4
Now 6.25 and 6.4 are approximately equal to 6.3, so we don't care. Thus the round numbers between 1 and 10 are these:
Ratio 1 1.25 1.6 2 2.5 3.2 4 5 6.3 8 10
dB 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
This useful approximate table of logarithms is easily reconstructed or memorized.
=== The 4 &rarr; 6 energy rule ===
To one decimal place of precision, 4.x is 6.x in dB (energy).
Examples:
* 4.0 &rarr; 6.0 dB
* 4.3 &rarr; 6.3 dB
* 4.7 &rarr; 6.7 dB
=== The "789" rule ===
To one decimal place of precision, x &rarr; (&frac12; x + 5.0 dB) for 7.0 &le; x &le; 10.
Examples:
* 7.0 &rarr; &frac12; 7.0 + 5.0 dB = 3.5 + 5.0 dB = 8.5 dB
* 7.5 &rarr; &frac12; 7.5 + 5.0 dB = 3.75 + 5.0 dB = 8.75 dB
* 8.2 &rarr; &frac12; 8.2 + 5.0 dB = 4.1 + 5.0 dB = 9.1 dB
* 9.9 &rarr; &frac12; 9.9 + 5.0 dB = 4.95 + 5.0 dB = 9.95 dB
* 10.0 &rarr; &frac12; 10.0 + 5.0 dB = 5.0 + 5.0 dB = 10 dB
=== −3 dB &asymp; ½ power ===
A level difference of ±3 dB is roughly double/half power (equal to a ratio of 1.995). That is why it is commonly used as a marking on sound equipment and the like.
Another common sequence is 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 ... . These [[preferred number]]s are very close to being equally spaced in terms of their logarithms. The actual values would be 1, 2.15, 4.64, 10 ... .
The conversion for decibels is often simplified to: "+3 dB means two times the power and 1.414 times the voltage", and "+6 dB means four times the power and two times the voltage ".
While this is accurate for many situations, it is not exact. As stated above, decibels are defined so that +10 dB means "ten times the power". From this, we calculate that +3 dB actually multiplies the power by 10<sup>3/10</sup>. This is a power ratio of 1.9953 or about 0.25% different from the "times 2" power ratio that is sometimes assumed. A level difference of +6 dB is 3.9811, about 0.5% different from 4.
To contrive a more serious example, consider converting a large decibel figure into its linear ratio, for example 120 dB. The power ratio is correctly calculated as a ratio of 10<sup>12</sup> or one trillion. But if we use the assumption that 3 dB means "times 2", we would calculate a power ratio of 2<sup>120/3</sup> = 2<sup>40</sup> = 1.0995 × 10<sup>12</sup>, giving a 10% error.
=== 6 dB per bit ===
In [[digital audio]], each [[bit]] offered by the system doubles the (voltage) resolution, corresponding to a 6 dB ratio. For instance, a 16-bit (linear) audio format offers an approximate theoretical maximum of (16 × 6) = 96 dB, meaning that the maximum signal (see ''0 dBFS'', above) is 96 dB above the [[quantization noise]].
=== dB cheat sheet ===
As is clear from the above description, the dB level is a [[logarithmic]] way of expressing power ratios. The following tables are cheat-sheets that provide values for various dB levels.
===== Commonly used dB values =====
{| class="wikitable"
!dB level!!Ratio
|-
| −30 dB ||1/1000
|-
| −20 dB ||1/100
|-
| −10 dB ||1/10
|-
| −3 dB ||0.5 (approx.)
|-
|3 dB ||2 (approx.)
|-
|10 dB ||10
|-
|20 dB ||100
|-
|30 dB ||1000
|-
|}
===== Other dB values =====
{| class="wikitable"
!dB level!!Ratio
|-
| −9 dB ||1/8 (approx.)
|-
| −6 dB ||1/4 (approx.)
|-
| −1 dB ||0.8 (approx.)
|-
|1 dB ||1.25 (approx.)
|-
|6 dB ||4 (approx.)
|-
|9 dB ||8 (approx.)
|-
|}
== See also ==
*[[Equal-loudness contour]]
*[[ITU-R 468 noise weighting]]
*[[Noise (environmental)]]
*[[Signal noise]]
*[[Sound pressure level]]
*[[Weighting filter]]&mdash;discussion of '''dBA'''
*[[Decibel magazine]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/dB.html What is a decibel?]
*[http://www.lindos.co.uk/cgi-bin/FlexiData.cgi?SOURCE=Articles Lindos Electronics Audio Articles]
*[http://www.sizes.com/units/decibel.htm Description of some abbreviations]
*[http://www.uoguelph.ca/HR/ehs/policies/10-01.pdf Noise Control and Hearing Conservation]
*[http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iii/otm_iii_5.html Noise Measurement OSHA 1]
*[http://www.environmental-center.com/articles/article138/article138.htm Noise Measurement OSHA 2]
*[http://www.jimprice.com/prosound/db.htm Understanding dB]
*[ |
elts|Celtic]] people that the Romans referred to as [[Gaul]]s, although there were also other linguistic/ethnic groups in France at this time, such as the [[Iberians]] in southern France and [[Spain]], the [[Ligurians]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coast, [[Greeks|Greek]] colonies such as [[Massalia]] (i.e. present-day [[Marseille]]), [[Phoenicians|Phoenician]] outposts, and the [[Vascons]] on the Spanish/French border.
Although in the past many Frenchmen liked to refer to their descent from Gallic ancestors (''nos ancêtres les Gaulois''), perhaps fewer than 200 words with a Celtic etymological origin remain in French today (largely place and plant names and words dealing with rural life and the earth). Perhaps the most prominent of those are the names of the country's main rivers ([[Seine]], [[Rhône]], [[Loire]], etc.) which originate from Gallic roots through their Latin and Greek renderings. In the reverse direction, some words for Gallic objects which were new to the Romans and for which there were no words in Latin were imported into Latin – for example, clothing items such as ''les braies'' (Gallic trousers). Latin quickly became the [[lingua franca]] of the entire Gallic region for mercantile, official and educational purposes, yet it should be remembered that this was [[Vulgar Latin]], the colloquial dialect spoken by the Roman army and its agents and not the literary dialect of [[Cicero]].
===The Franks===
From the third century on, Western Europe was invaded by [[Germanic tribe|Germanic]] tribes from the east, and some of these groups settled in Gaul. For the history of the French language, the most important of these groups are the [[Franks]] in northern France, the [[Alemanni]] in the German/French border, the [[Burgundians]] in the [[Rhone]] valley and the [[Visigoth]]s in the [[Aquitaine]] region and Spain. These Germanic-speaking groups had a profound effect on the Latin spoken in their respective regions, altering both the pronunciation and the syntax. They also introduced a number of new words: perhaps as much as 15% of modern French comes from Germanic words, including many terms and expressions associated with their social structure and military tactics.
===Langue d'Oïl===
The medieval Italian poet [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], writing in Latin in his ''[[De vulgari eloquentia]]'', classified the Romance languages into three groups: "''nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil''" ("some say oc, others say si, others say oïl"), thereby defining ''oïl languages'' (in northern France); ''oc languages'' (in southern France) and ''si languages'' (in [[Italy]] and [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]]). Modern linguists typically divide the languages spoken in medieval France into three geographical subgroups: [[Languages of Oïl|Langue d'oïl]] and [[Occitan language|Langue d'oc]] are the two major groups; the third group, [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]], is considered a transitional language between the two other groups. The Oïl&ndash;Oc divide may be broadly compared to the divide illustrated by the use of "yes" in [[English language|English]] and "aye" in [[Scots language|Scots]].
The Romance language group in the north of France is that of the langue d'oïl, the languages which use ''oïl'' (in modern usage, ''oui'') for "yes". These languages, like [[Picard language|Picard]], [[Walloon language|Walloon]], [[Francien]] and [[Norman language|Norman]], were influenced by the [[Germanic languages]] spoken by the Frankish invaders. From the time period [[Clovis I]] on, the Franks extended their rule over northern Gaul. Over time, the French language developed from either the Oïl language found around [[Paris]] (the Francien theory) or from a standard administrative language based on common characteristics found in all Oïl languages (the [[lingua franca]] theory). Oïl derives from the Latin ''hoc ille'' ("that is it").
Langue d'oc, the languages which use ''oc'' for "yes", is the language group in the south of France and northern [[Spain]]. These languages, such as [[Gascon language|Gascon]] and [[Provençal language|Provençal]], have relatively little Frankish influence. Oc/òc derive from the Latin ''hoc''.
Modern French has two words for "yes", ''oui'' and ''si''; the latter is used to contradict negative statements or respond to negative questions. ''Si'' derives from Latin ''sic'' ("thus"), and is cognate to the word for "yes" in Spanish, Italian, and Catalan.
===Foreign language groups===
The early middle ages also saw the influence of other linguistic groups on the dialects of France:
From the [[5th century|5th]] to the [[8th century|8th]] centuries, Celtic-speaking peoples from southwestern Britain ([[Wales]], [[Cornwall]], [[Devon]]) travelled across the [[English Channel]], both for reasons of trade and as a result of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] invasions of England. They established themselves in [[Brittany|Bretagne]] (Brittany). Their language was a dialect of the [[Brythonic languages]], which has been named [[Breton language|Breton]] in more recent centuries. It is part of the larger [[Celtic language]] family, though the modern dialects reflect a noticeable influence from French in their vocabulary.
From the [[6th century|6th]] to the [[7th century|7th]] centuries, the Vascons crossed over the [[Pyrenees|Pyrénées]], a mountain range in the south of France. Their presence influenced the [[Occitan language]] spoken in southwestern France, resulting in the dialect called [[Gascon language|Gascon]].
Scandinavian [[Vikings]] invaded France from the [[9th century]] onwards and established themselves in what would come to be called [[Normandy|Normandie]] (Normandy). They took up the [[oïl languages|langue d'oïl]] spoken there and contributed many words to French related to maritime activities, amongst other things.
With their [[Norman conquest|conquest]] of England in [[1066]], the [[Normans]] brought [[Norman language|their language]]. The dialect that developed there as a language of administration and literature is referred to as [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]]. Anglo-Norman served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce in England from the time of the conquest until [[1362]], when the use of [[History of the English Language#Period of French Domination|English]] became dominant again. Because of the Norman Conquest, the [[English language]] has borrowed a considerable amount of its vocabulary from French.
The [[Arab]] peoples also supplied many words to French around this time period, including words for luxury goods, [[spices]], trade stuffs, sciences and [[mathematics]].
===Modern French===
For the period up to around [[1300]], some linguists refer to the [[oïl languages]] collectively as [[Old French]] (''ancien français''). The earliest extant text in French is the [[Oaths of Strasbourg]] from [[842]]; Old French became a [[literary language]] with the ''[[chanson de geste|chansons de geste]]'' that told tales of the [[paladin]]s of [[Charlemagne]] and the [[hero]]es of the [[Crusade]]s.
By the [[Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts]] in [[1539]] King [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] made French the [[official language]] of administration and court proceedings in France, ousting the [[Latin]] that had been used before then. With the imposition of a standardised chancery dialect and the loss of the declension system, the dialect is referred to as [[Middle French]] (''moyen français''). Following a period of unification, regulation and purification, the French of the [[17th century|17th]] to the [[18th century|18th centuries]] is sometimes referred to as [[Classical French]] (''français classique''), although many linguists simply refer to French language from the 17th century to today as [[Modern French]] (''français moderne'').
The foundation of the [[Académie française]] (French Academy) in [[1634]] by [[Cardinal Richelieu]] created an official body whose goal has been the purification and preservation of the French language. This group of 40 members is known as the Immortals, not, as some erroneously believe, because they are chosen to serve for the extent of their lives (which they are), but because of the inscription engraved on the official seal given to them by their founder Richelieu&mdash;"À l'immortalité" ("to the Immortality (of the French language)"). The foundation still exists and contributes to the policing of the language and the adaptation of foreign words and expressions. Some recent modifications include the change from ''software'' to ''logiciel'', ''packet-boat'' to ''paquebot'', and ''riding-coat'' to ''redingote''. The word ''ordinateur'' for ''computer'' was however not created by the Académie, but by a linguist appointed by [[IBM]] (see [[:fr:ordinateur]]).
From the 17th to the [[19th century|19th centuries]], France was the leading power of Europe; thanks to this, together with the influence of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], French was the [[lingua franca]] of educated Europe, especially with regards to the arts, literature, and [[diplomacy]]; monarchs like [[Frederick II of Prussia]] and [[Catherine the Great]] of Russia could both speak and write in French.
Through the Académie, public education, centuries of official control and the role of media, a unified official French language has been forged, but there remains a great deal of diversity today in terms of regional accents and words. For some critics, the "best" pronunciation of the French language is considered to be the one used in Touraine (around [[Tours, France|Tours]] and the [[Loire River]] valley), but such value judgments are fraught with problems, and with the ever increasing loss of lifelong attachments to a specific region and the growing importance of the national media, the futu |
'Ynys Môn'') centred on magical lakes, but what was taught there, or at other centers, is conjecture. Of the Druids' oral literature (sacred songs, formulas for prayers and incantations, rules of divination and magic) not one verse has survived, even in translation, nor is there even a legend that can be called purely Druidic, without a Roman and/or Christian overlay or interpretation.
===Roman sources===
[[Image:Julius caesar.jpg|thumb|150px|Julius Caesar, author of the ''Gallic Wars'']]
[[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]'s ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' gives the fullest account of the Druids. Caesar notes that all men of any rank and dignity in Gaul were included either among the Druids or among the nobles, indicating that they formed two classes. The Druids constituted the learned priestly class, and as guardians of the unwritten ancient customary law they had the power of executing judgments, among which exclusion from society was the most dreaded. Druids were not a hereditary caste, though they enjoyed exemption from military service as well as from payment of taxes. The course of training to which a novice had to submit was protracted.
All instruction was communicated orally, but for ordinary purposes, Caesar reports that the Gauls had a written language in which they used Greek characters. In this he probably draws on earler writers; by the time of Caesar, [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] had moved from the Greek script to the Latin script.
As a result of this prohibition — and of the decline of Gaulish in favour of Latin — no druidic documents, if there ever were any, have survived. "The principal point of their doctrine", says Caesar, "is that the soul does not die and that after death it passes from one body into another" (see [[metempsychosis]]). This observation led several ancient writers to the unlikely conclusion that the Druids may have been influenced by the teachings of the Greek philosopher [[Pythagoras]]. Caesar also notes the druidic sense of the guardian spirit of the tribe, whom he translated as ''Dispater,'' with a general sense of ''Father [[Hades]].'' However, linguistically ''Dis Pater'' is related to [[Jupiter]] (Jovis Pater), from [[Indo-European]] word [[Dyeus]].
Writers such as [[Diodorus]] and [[Strabo]], with less firsthand experience than Caesar, were of the opinion that the Celtic priestly order or class included Druids, [[Bard]]s and [[Vates]] (soothsayers).
[[Pomponius Mela]] is the first author who says that the Druids' instruction was secret, and was carried on in caves and forests. Certain groves within forests were sacred, and the Romans and Christians alike cut them down and burned the wood. [[Human sacrifice]] has sometimes been attributed to Druidism. While this may be Roman propaganda, human sacrifice was an old European inheritance and the Gauls may have offered human sacrifices, whether of criminals or, to judge from Roman reports, of war captives.
It was also claimed by Roman writers that a general assembly of the order was held once every year within the territories of the [[Carnutes]] in Gaul.
Cicero remarks on the existence among the Gauls of augurs or soothsayers, known by the name of Druids; he had made the acquaintance of one Divitiacus, an Aeduan. Diodorus asserts, on unnamed sources, that a sacrifice acceptable to the Celtic gods had to be attended by a Druid, for they were the intermediaries. He also claims that before a battle they often threw themselves between two armies to bring about peace.
Druids were seen as essentially non-Roman: a prescript of [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] forbade Roman citizens to practise Druidical rites. In [[Strabo]] we find the Druids still acting as arbiters in public and private matters, but they no longer dealt with cases of murder. Under [[Tiberius]] the Druids were suppressed by a decree of the Senate, but this had to be renewed by [[Claudius]] in 54 CE. In Pliny their activity is limited to the practice of medicine and sorcery. According to him, the Druids held the mistletoe in the highest veneration and groves of oak were their chosen retreats. In what is probably a fanciful extension of this story, Pliny claims that the mistletoe was cut with a golden knife by a priest clad in a white robe, two white bulls being sacrificed on the spot.
[[Tacitus]], in describing the attack made on the island of Mona ([[Anglesey]] or ''Ynys Môn'' in Welsh) by the Romans under Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being awestruck on landing by the appearance of a band of Druids, who, with hands uplifted to the sky, poured forth terrible imprecations on the heads of the invaders. The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame such fears, according to the Roman historian; the Britons were put to flight, and the sacred groves of Mona were cut down.
After the 1st century CE the continental Druids disappeared entirely and were referred to only on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for one instance, apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a race of Druids.
===Early Druids in Britain and Ireland===
The story of [[Vortigern]] as reported by [[Nennius]] provides one of the very few glimpses of Druidic survival in Britain after the Roman conquest: unfortunately, Nennius is noted for mixing fact and legend in such a way that it is now impossible to know the truth behind his text. For what it is worth, he asserts that, after being excommunicated by [[Germain of Auxerre|Germanus]], the British leader Vortigern invited twelve Druids to assist him.
In Irish literature the Druids are frequently (and reliably) mentioned, and their functions in the island seem to correspond fairly well to those they performed in Gaul (the Modern [[Irish language|Irish]] word for "magic", ''draíocht'', derives from [[Old Irish]] ''druídecht''). Even in very early times, however, the [[bards]] usurped many of the duties of the Druids and finally supplanted them with the spread of Christianity.
The most important Irish documents are contained in [[manuscripts]] of the [[12th century]], but many of the texts themselves go back as far as the [[8th century|8th]]. In these stories Druids usually act as advisers to kings. Once again legendary elements crept in: they were said to have the ability to foretell the future ([[Bec mac Dé]], for example, predicted the death of [[Diarmaid mac Cearbhaill]] more accurately than three Christian saints) and there is little reference to their religious function. They do not appear to form any corporation, nor do they seem to be exempt from military service.
In the [[Ulster Cycle]], [[Cathbad]], chief Druid at the court of [[Conchobar mac Nessa|Conchobar]], king of [[Ulaid|Ulster]], is accompanied by a number of youths (100 according to the oldest version) who are desirous of learning his art. Cathbad is present at the birth of the famous tragic heroine [[Deirdre]], and prophesies what sort of a woman she will be, and the strife that will accompany her, although Conchobar ignores him. The following description of the band of Cathbad's Druids occurs in the epic tale, the ''[[Táin Bó Cuailnge|Táin bó Cuailnge]]'': The attendant raises his eyes towards heaven and observes the clouds and answers the band around him. They all raise their eyes towards heaven, observe the clouds, and hurl spells against the elements, so that they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire are driven towards the camp of the men of Ireland. We are further told that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak before the Druids had spoken.
Before setting out on the great expedition against Ulster in ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', [[Medb]], queen of [[Connacht]], consults her Druids regarding the outcome of the war. They hold up the march by two weeks, waiting for an auspicious omen. Druids also have magical skills: when the hero [[Cúchulainn]] returned from the land of the fairies after having been enticed thither by a fairy woman named [[Fand]], whom he is now unable to forget, he is given a potion by some Druids, which banishes all memory of his recent adventures and which also rids his wife [[Emer]] of the pangs of jealousy.
[[Image:Collinaditara.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Hill of Tara in County Meath, Ireland, legendary seat of the High Kings.]]
More remarkable still is the story of [[Étain]]. This lady, now the wife of [[Eochaid Airem]], [[High King of Ireland]], was in a former existence the beloved of the god [[Midir]], who again seeks her love and carries her off. The king has recourse to his Druid Dalgn, who requires a whole year to discover the haunt of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of yew inscribed with [[ogham]] characters.
In other texts the Druids are able to produce insanity. [[Mug Ruith]], a legendary druid of [[Munster]], wore a hornless bull's hide and an elaborate feathered headdress and had the ability to fly and conjure storms.
==Social and religious influence==
The Druids' influence was as much social as religious. They not only performed roles similar to modern [[priest]]s, but were often the [[philosopher]]s, [[scientist]]s, lore-masters, [[teacher]]s, [[judge]]s and counsellors to the [[monarch|king]]s. The Druids linked the Celtic peoples with their numerous gods, the lunar calendar and the sacred natural order. They were suppressed in Gaul and Britain after the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquests, but retained their influence in Ireland until the coming of Christianity. The Druids' roles were then assumed by the [[bishop]] and the [[abbot]], who were usually not the same individual, however, and might find themselves in direct competition.
Nevertheless, much traditional rural religious practice can still be discerned from Christian interpretations and survives in practices like [[Halloween]] observances, [[corn dollies]] and other harvest rituals, the myths of [[Puck (mythology)|Puck]], [[woodwose]]s, "lucky" and " |
02
==Track listing==
# Down to the Wire &ndash; 2:25
# Burned &ndash; 2:14
# Mr. Soul &ndash; 2:41
# Broken Arrow &ndash; 6:13
# Expecting to Fly &ndash; 3:44
# Sugar Mountain &ndash; 5:43
# I Am a Child &ndash; 2:17
# The Loner &ndash; 3:50
# The Old Laughing Lady &ndash; 5:35
# Cinnamon Girl &ndash; 2:59
# Down by the River &ndash; 8:58
# Cowgirl in the Sand &ndash; 10:01
# I Believe in You &ndash; 3:27
# After the Gold Rush &ndash; 3:45
# Southern Man &ndash; 5:31
# Helpless &ndash; 3:34
# Ohio &ndash; 2:56
# Soldier &ndash; 2:28
# Old Man &ndash; 3:21
# A Man Needs a Maid &ndash; 3:58
# Harvest &ndash; 3:08
# Heart of Gold &ndash; 3:06
# Star of Bethlehem &ndash; 2:46
# The Needle and the Damage Done &ndash; 2:02
# Tonight's the Night, Pt. 1 &ndash; 4:41
# Tired Eyes &ndash; 4:33
# Walk On &ndash; 2:40
# For the Turnstiles &ndash; 3:01
# Winterlong &ndash; 3:05
# Deep Forbidden Lake &ndash; 3:39
# Like a Hurricane &ndash; 8:16
# Love Is a Rose &ndash; 2:16
# Cortez the Killer &ndash; 7:29
# Campaigner &ndash; 3:30
# Long May You Run &ndash; 3:48
==Charts==
'''Album''' - [[Billboard_magazine|Billboard]]
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2 width="250px"
!align="left"|Year
!align="left"|Chart
!align="left"|Position
|-
|align="left"|1977
|align="left"|Pop Albums
|align="left"|43
|-
|}
{{compilation-album-stub}}
[[Category:Neil Young albums]] [[Category:1977 albums]] [[Category:Compilation albums]] [[Category:Greatest hits albums]] [[Category:Triple albums]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demeter</title>
<id>8230</id>
<revision>
<id>40201662</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T22:49:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Silence</username>
<id>84942</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Demeter (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|left|145px|Demeter, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] goddess of the harvest.]] -->
{{otheruses1|the grain goddess Demeter}}
[[Image:Cosmè Tura 005.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Ceres (Demeter), allegory of August: detail of a fresco by [[Cosimo Tura]], Palazzo Schifanoia, Ferrara, 1469-70]]
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Demeter.png|thumb|200px|right|Hellenistic cult statue of Demeter from her sanctuary at [[Knidos]], now in the [[British Museum]].]] -->
'''Dêmêtêr''' (or '''Demetra''') (DEH-MEH-ter) (&Delta;&eta;&mu;&eta;&tau;&eta;&rho;, "mother-goddess" or perhaps "distribution-mother") is the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[goddess]] of [[agriculture]], the pure nourisher of youth and the green earth, the health-giving cycle of life and death, and preserver of [[marriage]] and the sacred law. She is invoked as the "bringer of [[season]]s" in the [[Homeric hymn]], a subtle sign that she was worshiped long before the Olympians arrived. The Homeric Hymn to Demeter has been dated to sometime around the Seventh Century BC.{{ref|Nilsson1}} She and her daughter [[Persephone]] were the central figures of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] that also predated the Olympian pantheon.
The Roman equivalent is [[Ceres]].
Demeter is easily confused with [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] or [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]], and with [[Cybele]]. The goddess's [[epithet]]s reveal the span of her functions in Greek life. Demeter and Kore ("the maiden") are usually invoked as ''to theo'' ('"The Two Goddesses"), and they appear in that form in Linear B graffiti at Mycenaean [[Pylos]] in pre-[[History of Hellenistic Greece|Hellenic]] times. A connection with the goddess-cults of [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[Crete]] is quite possible.
It has been reported that [[Isocrates]] in his Panegyricus wrote that the greatest gifts which Demeter gave the Athenians were corn, which made man different from wild animals, and the Mysteries which give man higher hopes in this life and the afterlife.{{ref|Nilsson2}}
== Titles and functions ==
In various contexts, Demeter is invoked with many epithets:
*'''Potnia''' ("mistress" in the ''[[Homeric Hymns|Homeric Hymn]] to Demeter'')
*'''Chloe''' ("the green shoot", Pausanias 1.22.3, for her powers of fertility and eternal youth)
*'''Anesidora''' ("sending up gifts" from the earth Pausanias 1.31.4, as Demeter)
*'''Malophoros''' ("apple-bearer" or "sheep-bearer", Pausanias 1.44.3)
*'''Kidaria''' (Pausanias 8.13.3),
*'''Chthonia''' ("in the ground", Pausanias 3.14.5)
*'''Erinys''' ("implacable", Pausanias 8.25.50)
*'''Lusia''' ("bathing", Pausanias 8.25.8)
*'''Thermasia''' ("warmth", Pausanias 2.34.6)
*'''[[Cabiri|Kabeiraia]]''', a pre-Greek name of uncertain meaning
*'''Thesmophoros''' ("giver of customs" or even "legislator", a role that links her to the even more ancient goddess [[Themis]]. This title was connected with the [[Thesmophoria]], a festival of secret women-only rituals in [[History of Athens|Athens]] connected with marriage customs.)
[[Theocritus]] remembered an earlier role of Demeter:
:''For the Greeks Demeter was still a poppy goddess''
:''Bearing sheaves and poppies in both hands.'' &mdash; ''Idyll'' vii.157
In a clay statuette from Gazi (Heraklion Museum, Kereny 1976 fig 15), the Minoan poppy goddess wears the seed capsules, sources of nourishment and narcosis, in her diadem. "It seems probable that the Great [[Mother Goddess]], who bore the names Rhea and Demeter, brought the poppy with her from her Cretan cult to [[Eleusinian mysteries|Eleusis]], and it is certain that in the Cretan cult sphere, opium was prepared from poppies" (Kerenyi 1976, p 24).
In honor of Demeter of Mysia a seven-day festival was held at Pellené in [[Arcadia]] (Pausan. 7. 27, 9). It lasted for seven days. Pausanias passed the shrine to Demeter at Mysia on the road from [[Mycenae]] to [[Argos]] but all he could draw out to explain the archaic name was a myth of an eponymous Mysius who venerated Demeter.
Major sites for the [[cult (religion)|cult]] of Demeter were not confined to any localized part of the Greek world: there were sites at Eleusis, in Sicily, Hermion, in Crete, Megara, Celeae, Lerna, Aegila, Munychia, Corinth, Delos, Priene, Akragas, Iasos, Pergamon, Selinus, Tegea, Thorikos, Dion, Lykosoura, Mesembria, Enna, and Samosthrace.
She was associated with the [[Roman mythology|Roman]] goddess [[Ceres (god)|Ceres]]. When Demeter was given a genealogy, she was the daughter of [[Cronos]] and Rhea, and therefore the elder sister of [[Zeus]]. Her priestesses were addressed with the title [[Melissa]].
Demeter taught mankind the arts of agriculture: sowing seeds, ploughing, harvesting, etc. She was especially popular with rural folk, partly because they most benefited directly from her assistance, and partly because rural folk are more conservative about keeping to the old ways. Demeter herself was central to the older religion of Greece. Relics unique to her cult, such as votive clay pigs, were being fashioned in the Neolithic. In Roman times, a sow was still sacrificed to Ceres following a death in the family, to purify the household.
== Demeter and Poseidon ==
Demeter and [[Poseidon]]'s names are linked in the earliest scratched notes in [[Linear B]] found at Mycenaean [[Pylos]], where they appear as PO-SE-DA-WO-NE and DA-MA-TE in the context of sacralized lot-casting. The 'DA' element in each of their names is seemingly connected to an [[Indo-European]] root relating to distribution of land and honors (compare Latin ''dare'' "to give"). Poseidon (his name seems to signify "consort of the distributor") once pursued Demeter, in her archaic form as a mare-goddess. She resisted Poseidon, but she could not disguise her divinity among the horses of King [[Onkios]]. Poseidon became a stallion and covered her. Demeter was literally furious ("Demeter Erinys") at the assault, but washed away her anger in the River [[Ladon]] ("Demeter Lousia"). She bore to Poseidon a [[Persephone|Daughter]], whose name might not be uttered outside the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]], and a steed named Arion, with a black mane. In [[Arcadia]], Demeter was worshiped as a horse-headed deity into historical times.
''Disagreement:''
The etymology of "Demeter" is well attested as "Deus Mater", or ''Divine Mother'' or ''God Mother''. The root "De" is the same as found in "Zeus", "Deus", and "Theos", all of which are cognates. The "-us" suffix may denote masculine gender, as with the translation of "Yeshua" into Greek as "Ieso''us''", or with Odysse''us'' and Achille''us'', etc.
Edit: "Zeus" and "Theos" are not real cognates. Greek "Zeus", Sanskrit "Dyaús" and Latin genitive "Iovis" all derive from the same Proto-Indo-European root *Di&#275;us. The Greek "Theos" doesn't fit in this cognate set, in fact, the etymology of the word is still unclear. (cf. Beekes, 1995)
== Demeter's Relationship With Persephone ==
The central myth of Demeter, which is at the heart of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] is her relationship with [[Persephone]], her daughter and own younger self. In the Olympian pantheon, Persephone became the consort of [[Hades]] (Roman [[Pluto (god)|Pluto]], the underworld god of wealth). Persephone became the goddess of the underworld when Hades abducted her from the earth and brought her into the underworld. She had been playing with some [[nymph]]s (or [[Leucippe]]) whom Demeter |
nd]] in the central [[Pacific]], which is named in his honour. Founder of the [[Windlesham House School]] at [[Brighton]], [[England]].
Malden was born in [[Putney]], [[Surrey]], son of Jonas Malden, a surgeon. He entered British naval service at the age of 11 on [[22 June]] [[1809]]. He served nine years as a volunteer 1st class, [[midshipman]], and [[mate]], including one year in the [[English Channel]] and [[Bay of Biscay]] ([[1809]]), four years at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and in the [[East Indies]] (1809-14), two and a half years on the North American and West Indian stations ([[1814]]-16), and a year and a half in the [[Mediterranean]] (1817-18). He was present at the capture of [[Mauritius]] and [[Java (island)|Java]], and at the battles of [[Battle of Baltimore|Baltimore]] and [[Battle of New Orleans|New Orleans]].
He passed the examination in the elements of [[mathematics]] and the theory of [[navigation]] at the [[Royal Naval College]] on 2-[[4 September]] [[1816]], and became a 1st Lieutenant on [[1 September]] [[1818]]. In eight years of active service as an officer, he served two and a half years in a surveying ship in the Mediterranean (1818-21), one and a half years in a surveying sloop in the English Channel and off the coast of [[Ireland]] (1823-24), and one and a half years as Surveyor of the frigate ''Blonde'' during a voyage (1824-26) to and from the [[Sandwich Islands]] ([[Hawaii]]). In Hawaii he discovered and surveyed harbours which, he noted, were "said not to exist by Captains Cook and Vancouver." On the return voyage he discovered and explored uninhabited Malden Island in the central Pacific on [[30 July]] [[1825]]. After his return he left active service but remained at half pay. He served for several years as [[hydrographer]] to [[William IV of the United Kingdom|King William IV]].
Malden married Frances Cole, daughter of Rev. William Hodgson Cole, rector of [[West Clandon]] and Vicar of [[Wonersh]], near [[Guildford]], [[Surrey]], on [[8 April]] [[1828]]. He became the father of seven sons and a daughter.
From [[1830]]-36 he took pupils for the Royal Navy at [[Ryde]], [[Isle of Wight]]. He purchased the school of [[Henry Worsley]] at [[Newport, Isle of Wight|Newport]], Isle of Wight, in December [[1836]], reopened it as a [[preparatory school]] on [[20 February]] [[1837]], and removed it to Montpelier Road in Brighton in December [[1837]]. He built the Windlesham House School at Brighton in [[1844]], and conducted the school until his death there in [[1855]].
[[Category:1797 births|Malden, Charles Robert]]
[[Category:1855 deaths|Malden, Charles Robert]]
[[Category:Royal Navy officers|Malden, Charles Robert]]
[[Category:Natives of Surrey|Malden, Charles Robert]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CPD</title>
<id>6094</id>
<revision>
<id>42137154</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:44:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Crotalus horridus</username>
<id>273594</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added [[Committee on the Present Danger]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''CPD''' can refer to any of the following:
* [[Cable Price Downer]]
* [[Capacitance power dissipation]]
* [[Congress of People's Deputies]] AKA [[Congress of Soviets]]
* [[Centre for Professional Development]]
* [[Cephalo-pelvic disproportion]]
* [[Chicago Police Department]]
* [[Chronic pulmonary disease]]
* [[Chrysler-Plymouth-Dodge]]
* [[Collaborative Product Development]]
* [[Collection processing dissemination]]
* [[Commission on Presidential Debates]]
* [[Committee on the Present Danger]]
* [[Common picture display]]
* [[Contact potential difference]]
* [[Continuing Professional Development]]
* [[Cost per Day]]
* [[Cram, Pass and Dump]]
* [[Cycles Per Degree]]
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chechnya</title>
<id>6095</id>
<revision>
<id>41841253</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:17:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Usedbook</username>
<id>9183</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Geography */ link: northern border with Stavropol Krai</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}
{{Federal subject of Russia|
EnNm=Chechen Republic|
RuNm=Чеченская республика|
OfNm1=Нохчийн Республика<br>|
OfNm2=&nbsp;|
OfNm3=&nbsp;|
FSFlag=[[Image:Flag of Chechnya.svg|140px|Flag of Chechen Republic]]|
FSCoA=[[Image:Chechnya coa.png|110px|Coat of arms of Chechen Republic]]|
FlagLnk=Flag of Chechnya|
CoALnk=Coat of arms of Chechnya|
FSMap=[[Image:RussiaChechnya2005.png]]|
FSCtrWhat=Capital|
FSCtrNm=[[Grozny]]|
AreaRnk=78th|
TotArea=15,500|
WaterPrcnt=negligible|
PopRnk=49th|
PopQty=1,103,686|
PopCtDate=[[2002]]|
PopDens=71.2|
PolStatLnk=Republics of Russia|
PolStatNm=Republic|
FedDistrNm=[[Southern Federal District]]|
EcRegNm=North Caucasus|
CadNo=20|
LangLangs=s|
OfLangs=[[Russian language|Russian]], [[Chechen language|Chechen]]|
HeadTtl=President|
HeadNm=[[Ali Alkhanov|Ali Dadashevich Alkhanov]]|
ViceTtl=Chairman of the Government|
ViceNm=[[Ramzan Kadyrov|Ramzan Akhmadovich Kadyrov]]|
LegiNm=[[Parliament of Chechnya]]|
FSAnthem=[[Anthem of the Chechen Republic]]}}
The '''Chechen Republic''' ({{lang-ru|Чече́нская Респу́блика}}; [[Chechen language|Chechen]]: Нохчийн Республика/Noxçiyn [Nokhchiyn] Respublika), or, informally, '''Chechnya''' (Russian: Чечня́; Chechen: Нохчичьо/Noxçiyçö/Nokhchiycho), sometimes referred to as '''[[Ichkeria]]''', '''Chechnia''', or '''Chechenia''', is a [[Federal subjects of Russia|federal subject]] of [[Russia]] (a [[republic]]). Bordering [[Stavropol Krai]] to the northwest, the republic of [[Dagestan]] to the northeast and east, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] to the south, and the republics of [[Ingushetia]] and [[North Ossetia]] to the west, it is located in the [[Northern Caucasus]] mountains, in the [[Southern Federal District]].
During the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] in [[1991]], the government of the republic declared independence as the '''[[Chechen Republic of Ichkeria]]'''. [[As of 2005]], their independence has not been recognized by any state. On [[September 6]] [[1991]], militants of [[National Congress of Chechen People]] (NCChP), headed by [[Dzhokhar Dudayev]], stormed a session of the [[Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic|Chechen-Ingush ASSR]] parliament, killing the chief of the PCUS of Grozny, [[Vitali Kutsenko]], severely injuring several other parliamentaries, and effectively dissolving the government of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR.
This situation, as well as the economic importance of Chechnya due to several oil and gas pipelines on its territory{{fact}}, and the fact that constitutionally Chechnya, unlike Soviet Socialist Republics, did not have the right to secede{{fact}}, has led to armed conflicts between the forces of the self-declared government and the Russian Federal army.
Chechen officials claim that between 1994 and 2004 over 200,000 people were killed in Chechnya, including more than 20,000 children,[http://www.mosnews.com/news/2004/11/19/civiliandeath.shtml] and further that ethnic Chechens comprise only one quarter of this number [http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/08/b23f8d99-f15d-4b40-882c-975598c29ae3.html]. They do not account for the remainder of those killed.
Insurgent sources claim that federal forces have killed more than 250,000 people in Chechnya, including 42,000 children [http://www.chechnya-mfa.info/print_news.php?func=detail&par=123]. Independent sources put the number of civilians killed at 180,000 [http://www.peaceinchechnya.org/background/bg_chechkosovo.pdf].
According to official population census number of Chechens in Russia in 2002 is 1,360,253 persons (in 1989 - 898,999 persons) (source :[http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/html/TOM_14_24.htm results of census from Federal Service of the state statistics of Russia])
The official death toll for federal troops is more than 10,000{{fact}}, although insurgent sources claim the real figure is closer to 40,000{{fact}}. The Committee of Soldiers Mothers, the human rights NGO puts the death toll at 14,000 and 11,000 in the first and second Chechen wars, respectively [http://www.cdi.org/russia/245-14.cfm].
==History==
{{main|History of Chechnya}}
[[Image:Chechenya gorge.jpg|thumb|250px|A mountain view in Chechnya, from a photograph taken ca. 1912.]]
===Early history===
Chechnya is a region in the Northern [[Caucasus]] which has constantly fought against foreign rule, beginning with the [[Ottoman Turks]] in the 15th century. Eventually the Chechens converted to [[Islam]] and tensions began to die down with the Turks; however, conflicts with their Christian neighbours such as [[Georgian people|Georgians]] and [[Cossacks]], as well as with the Buddhist [[Kalmyk people|Kalmyks]] intensified. The Russian [[Terek Cossack Host]] was established in lowland Chechnya in [[1577]] by free Cossacks resettled from Volga to Terek River. In [[1783]], Russia and the eastern Georgian kingdom of [[Kartl-Kakheti]] (which was devastated by Turkish and Persian invasions) signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, according to which Kartl-Kakheti received protection by Russia. In order to secure communications with Georgia and other regions of the Transcaucasia, the Russian Empire began spreading her influence into the Caucasus mountains. The current resistance to Russian rule began during the late [[18th century]] ([[1785]]-[[1791]]) as a result of Russian expansion into territories formerly under the dominion of [[Turkey]] and [[Persia]] (see also the [[Russo-Turkish Wars]] and [[Russo-Persian War, 1804-13]]), under [[Mansur Ushurma]] -- a Chechen [[Naqshbandi]] ([[Sufi]]) Sheikh -- with wavering support from other North Caucasusian tribes (it was not uncommon for tribal khans to change sides in the conflict several times in the same year). Mansur hoped to establish a [[Transcaucasus]] Islamic state u |
'Fourier-Bessel series'', where a function is expanded in the basis of the functions ''J''<sub>&alpha;</sub>(''x'' ''u''<sub>&alpha;,m</sub>) for fixed &alpha; and varying ''m''. (An analogous relationship for the spherical Bessel functions follows immediately.)
Another orthogonality relation is the ''closure equation'':
:<math>\int_0^\infty x J_\alpha(ux) J_\alpha(vx) dx = \frac{1}{u} \delta(u - v)</math>
for &alpha; > -1/2 and where &delta; is the [[Dirac delta function]]. For the spherical Bessel functions the orthogonality relation is:
:<math>\int_0^\infty x^2 j_\alpha(ux) j_\alpha(vx) dx = \frac{\pi}{2u^2} \delta(u - v)</math>
for &alpha; > 0.
Another important property of Bessel's equations, which follows from [[Abel's identity]], involves the [[Wronskian]] of the solutions:
:<math>A_\alpha(x) \frac{dB_\alpha}{dx} - \frac{dA_\alpha}{dx} B_\alpha(x) = \frac{C_\alpha}{x},</math>
where ''A''<sub>&alpha;</sub> and ''B''<sub>&alpha;</sub> are any two solutions of Bessel's equation, and ''C''<sub>&alpha;</sub> is a constant independent of ''x'' (which depends on &alpha; and on the particular Bessel functions considered). For example, if ''A''<sub>&alpha;</sub> = ''J''<sub>&alpha;</sub> and ''B''<sub>&alpha;</sub> = ''Y''<sub>&alpha;</sub>, then ''C''<sub>&alpha;</sub> is 2/&pi;. This also holds for the modified Bessel functions; for example, if ''A''<sub>&alpha;</sub> = ''I''<sub>&alpha;</sub> and ''B''<sub>&alpha;</sub> = ''K''<sub>&alpha;</sub>, then ''C''<sub>&alpha;</sub> is -1.
(There are a large number of other known integrals and identities that are not reproduced here, but which can be found in the references.)
== References ==
* Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, eds., ''[[Handbook of Mathematical Functions]] with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables'' (Dover: New York, 1972)
** [http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_355.htm Chapter 9] Bessel Functions of integer order
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_358.htm Section 9.1] J, Y (Weber) and H (Hankel)
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_374.htm Section 9.6] Modified (I and K)
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_379.htm Section 9.9] Kelvin functions
** [http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_435.htm Chapter 10] Bessel Functions of fractional order
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_437.htm Section 10.1] Spherical Bessel Functions (j, y and h)
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_443.htm Section 10.2] Modified Spherical Bessel functions (I and K)
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_445.htm Section 10.3] Riccati-Bessel Functions
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_446.htm Section 10.4] Airy functions
* George B. Arfken and Hans J. Weber, ''Mathematical Methods for Physicists'' (Harcourt: San Diego, 2001).
* Frank Bowman, ''Introduction to Bessel Functions'' (Dover: New York, 1958) ISBN 0486604624.
* G. N. Watson, ''A Treatise on the Theory of Bessel Functions, Second Edition'', (1966) Cambridge University Press.
* G. Mie, "Beiträge zur Optik trüber Medien, speziell kolloidaler Metallösungen", ''Ann. Phys. Leipzig'' '''25'''(1908), p.377.
* Hong Du, "Mie-scattering calculation," ''Applied Optics'' '''43''' (9), 1951-1956 (2004).
[[Category:Special functions]]
[[Category:Special hypergeometric functions]]
[[de:Besselsche Differentialgleichung]]
[[fr:Fonction de Bessel]]
[[it:Funzioni di Bessel]]
[[ja:&#12505;&#12483;&#12475;&#12523;&#38306;&#25968;]]
[[pl:Funkcje Bessela]]
[[sl:Besslova funkcija]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Backpacking</title>
<id>4701</id>
<revision>
<id>38651352</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T19:26:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Squib</username>
<id>367231</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Backpacking''' refers to:
{{wiktionarypar|backpacking}}
* [[Backpacking (wilderness)]]: hiking and camping overnight in backcountry with one's gear carried in a backpack
* [[Backpacking (travel)]]: low-cost, generally urban, travel with minimal luggage and frugal accommodations
* [[Backpacker (Hip-Hop)]]: a pop-culture subgroup
{{disambig}}
[[de:Rucksacktourismus]]
[[ja:&#12496;&#12483;&#12463;&#12497;&#12483;&#12461;&#12531;&#12464;]]
[[nl:Rugzaktoerisme]]
[[pl:Backpacking]]
[[pt:Mochileiro]]
[[zh:&#32972;&#21253;&#23458;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brahui language</title>
<id>4702</id>
<revision>
<id>39741377</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T15:16:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Krsont</username>
<id>637274</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Brahui''' [[language]] is mainly spoken in [[Balochistan, Pakistan]], although also in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iran]] by the [[Brahui]]. It reportedly [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=brh] has about two million speakers in [[Pakistan]] (1998), and a tenth that number elsewhere. In Pakistan it is mainly spoken in the [[Kalat]] region of Balochistan.
Although it is a [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] language, it has been heavily influenced by other languages spoken in the area and shares few words with the Dravidian languages spoken in southern [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]].
Brahui is generally considered to be a remnant of a formerly more widespread Dravidian language family that was reduced during the [[Indo-Aryan migration]]. It is also sometimes speculated that Brahui might be a direct legacy of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]].
== External links==
*[http://www.brahui.com/ A site by Shafique-Ur-Rehman about Brahui language ]
*[http://www.southasiabibliography.de/Bibliography/Dravidian/Brahui___Birouhi/brahui___birouhi.html partial bibliography of scholarly works on Brahui]
*[http://www.wordgumbo.com/dr/bra/erengbra.htm English to Brahui word list]
[[Category:Dravidian languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Languages of Iran]]
[[Category:Languages of Pakistan]]
[[de:Brahui (Sprache)]]
[[fr:Brahui]]
[[id:Bahasa Brahui]]
[[fi:Brahuin kieli]]
[[sv:Brahui]]
{{lang-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bob Dylans Debut</title>
<id>4703</id>
<revision>
<id>15902963</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bob Dylan]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bestiality</title>
<id>4704</id>
<revision>
<id>41219671</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T21:44:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mego'brien</username>
<id>920752</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv redundancy to leb 72.59.25.67</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|Bestiality}} '''Bestiality''' may refer to:
* [[Bestial sign]] - [[astrological]] signs that represent [[animal|animals]].
* [[Animal behaviour|Bestial instinct]] - the [[instinct]] of [[animal|animals]].
* [[zoophilia|Bestial sexuality]] (aka [[Zoophilia]]) - [[Sexual orientation]] or [[sexual activity]] between [[human|humans]] and [[fictional]] [[humanoid|humanoids]] or between [[human|humans]] and [[animal|animals]].
* Sexual activity, that is characterized by raw, unlimited, brutish practices (to be classified as F65.8 in WHO's ICD-10)
{{disambiguation}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benjamin Tucker</title>
<id>4705</id>
<revision>
<id>41629111</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:13:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RJII</username>
<id>141644</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Summary */ this is not true. It's not the absolute number, but the proportion.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BenjaminTucker.jpg|thumb|right|Benjamin Ricketson Tucker]]
'''Benjamin Tucker''' ([[April 17]], [[1854]] &ndash; [[June 22]], [[1939]]) was the leading proponent of [[American individualist anarchism]] in the [[19th century]].
==Summary==
'''Benjamin Ricketson Tucker''''s contribution to [[American individualist anarchism]] was as much through his [[publishing]] as his own writing. In editing and publishing the anarchist periodical ''[[Liberty (19th century magazine)|Liberty]]'', Tucker both filtered and integrated the theories of such European thinkers as [[Herbert Spencer]] and [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] with the thinking of American individualist activists, [[Lysander Spooner]], [[William B. Greene]] and [[Josiah Warren]], as well as the ideas of the [[Free thinker|free thought]] and [[free love]] movements in order to produce a rigorous system of philosophical- or [[individualist anarchism]] that he called ''Anarchistic-Socialism''. [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secGint.html]
Tucker shared with the advocates of free love and free thought a disdain for prohibitions on non-invasive behavior and religiously-based legislation, but he saw the poor condition of American workers as a result of four state-maintained [[monopoly|monopolies]]:
# the money monopoly,
# the land monopoly,
# tariffs, and
# patents.
His focus for several decades became the state's economic control of how trade could take place, and what currency counted as legitimate. He saw interest and profit as a form of exploitation, claiming that while not directly examples of [[coercion]] (or "invasion" as Tucker preferred to say), they were nevertheless made possible by banking monopoly, which was in turn maintained thr |
in ''M''.
For any two Cauchy sequences (''x''<sub>''n''</sub>)<sub>''n''</sub> and (''y''<sub>''n''</sub>)<sub>''n''</sub> in ''M'', we may define their distance as
: d(''x'',''y'') = lim<sub>''n''</sub> d(''x''<sub>''n''</sub>,''y''<sub>''n''</sub>).
(This limit exists because the real numbers are complete.)
This is only a [[pseudometric]], not yet a metric, since two different Cauchy sequences may have the distance 0.
But "having distance 0" is an [[equivalence relation]] on the set of all Cauchy sequences, and the set of equivalence classes is a metric space, the completion of ''M''. The original space is embedded in this space via the identification of an element ''x'' of ''M'' with the equivalence class of sequences converging to ''x'' (i.e. the equivalence class containing the sequence with constant value ''x''). This defines an [[isometry]] onto a dense subspace, as required.
[[Georg Cantor|Cantor]]'s construction of the real numbers is a special case of this; the real numbers are the completion of the rational numbers using the ordinary absolute value to measure distances.
By using different notions of distance on the rationals, one obtains different incomplete metric spaces whose completions are the [[p-adic number|''p''-adic number]]s.
If this completion procedure is applied to a [[normed vector space]], one obtains a [[Banach space]] containing the original space as a dense subspace, and if it is applied to an [[inner product space]], one obtains a [[Hilbert space]] containing the original space as a dense subspace.
== Topologically complete spaces ==
Note that completeness is a property of the ''metric'' and not of the ''[[topology]]'', meaning that a complete metric space can be [[homeomorphic]] to a non-complete one.
An example is given by the real numbers, which are complete but homeomorphic to the open interval (0,1), which is not complete.
Another example is given by the [[irrational number]]s, which are not complete as a subspace of the real numbers but are homeomorphic to '''N'''<sup>'''N'''</sup> (a special case of an example in ''Examples'' above).
In [[topology]] one considers ''topologically complete'' (or ''completely metrizable'') spaces, spaces for which there exists at least one complete metric inducing the given topology.
Completely metrizable spaces can be characterized as those spaces which can be written as an [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] of countably many open subsets of some complete metric space.
Since the conclusion of the [[Baire category theorem]] is purely topological, it applies to these spaces as well.
== Generalizations ==
It is also possible to define the concept of completeness for [[uniform space]]s using Cauchy ''[[net (topology)|net]]s'' instead of Cauchy ''sequences''.
If every Cauchy net has a limit in ''X'', then ''X'' is called complete.
One can also construct a completion for an arbitrary uniform space similar to the completion of metric spaces.
The most general situation in which Cauchy nets apply is [[Cauchy space]]s; these too have a notion of completeness and completion just like uniform spaces.
A topological space may be completely [[uniformisable]] without being completely [[metrisable]]; it is then still not topologically complete.
[[Category:Metric geometry]]
[[de:Vollständiger Raum]]
[[fr:Espace complet]]
[[he:&#1502;&#1512;&#1495;&#1489; &#1502;&#1496;&#1512;&#1497; &#1513;&#1500;&#1501;]]
[[it:Spazio completo]]
[[ja:&#23436;&#20633;]]
[[pl:Przestrze&#324; zupe&#322;na]]
[[ru:&#1055;&#1086;&#1083;&#1085;&#1086;&#1077; &#1087;&#1088;&#1086;&#1089;&#1090;&#1088;&#1072;&#1085;&#1089;&#1090;&#1074;&#1086;]]
[[fi:täydellisyys]]
[[zh:&#23436;&#22791;&#31354;&#38388;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Amazing Criswell</title>
<id>7833</id>
<revision>
<id>40070643</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T22:44:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.204.163.4</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Criswell.gif|right|frame|American psychic The Amazing Criswell, infamous for his eccentric predictions and appearances in the films of [[Ed Wood]], rising from his signature coffin.]]
'''Jeron Criswell King''' ([[August 18]], [[1907]] – [[October 4]], [[1982]]) born '''Jeron Criswell Konig''', and known by his stage-name '''The Amazing Criswell''', was an [[United States of America|American]] [[parapsychology|psychic]] who was famous for his wildly inaccurate predictions. Criswell was born with the last name of Konig but later changed it to King and often represented it as his middle name, frequently credited as '''Jeron King Criswell'''.
Criswell found cinematic infamy in the movies of [[Ed Wood, Jr.|Ed Wood]], including ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]'' and ''[[Orgy of the Dead]]''. He was portrayed in the [[biopic]] ''[[Ed Wood (movie)|Ed Wood]]'' by [[Jeffrey Jones]], in which it is suggested that Criswell was simply a showman and never claimed to be a real psychic. However, those who knew him, such as actress and fellow ''Plan 9'' alumna [[Maila Nurmi]] (Vampira), have disputed this. According to writer Charles A. Coulombe, whose family rented an apartment from the psychic, Criswell had told Coulombe's father that he "had the gift, but … lost it when I started taking money for it."
Criswell was a flamboyant figure, best remembered for his spitcurled hair, his stentorian speaking style, and his sequined tuxedo. He was the possessor of a [[coffin]], in which he claimed to sleep, and which found its way into a later Ed Wood film, the pornographic ''[[Necromania]]'' from [[1971]].
== Predictions ==
[[Image:Criswellpredicts.jpg|right|frame|Criswell's 1968 book ''Criswell Predicts''.]]
Criswell's predictions were nationally syndicated. Additionally, the psychic appeared on the television show ''Criswell Predicts'' on KLAC Channel 13 in Los Angeles, as well as being kinescoped for syndication on other television stations. Criswell's announcer, Bob Shields, would eventually be the judge on ''Divorce Court.'' Criswell was notorious for wearing his heavy pancake makeup outside the studio.
Criswell authored several books of predictions, including [[1968]]'s ''Criswell Predicts: From Now to the Year 2000.'' In this book, the author claimed that [[Denver]] would be struck by a ray from space that would cause all metal to adopt the qualities of [[rubber]], leading to horrific accidents at amusement parks. He also predicted an outbreak of mass [[cannibalism]] and the [[end of the world]], which he set as happening on [[August 18]], [[1999]].
Criswell's most famous prediction was made on American television in March [[1963]], when he predicted that [[John F. Kennedy]] would not run for reelection in [[1964]] because [[John F. Kennedy assassination|something]] was going to happen to him in November 1963.
== Private Life ==
Criswell was married to a former [[speakeasy]] dancer named [[Halo Meadows]], who once appeared on ''[[You Bet Your Life]]'', and who Coulombe describes as "quite mad": "Mrs. Criswell had a huge standard [[poodle]] (named 'Buttercup') which she was convinced was the [[reincarnation]] of her cousin Thomas. She spent a great deal of time [[sunbathing]] … which, given her size, was not too pleasing a sight."
Criswell was longtime friends with actress [[Mae West]], once predicting her impending rise to the position of President of the United States, whereupon she, Criswell, and showman [[Liberace]] would ride a rocket to the moon. West used Criswell as her personal psychic, as well as lavishing him with gifts of homecooked food, dropped off via chauffeur. The food was often then eaten by Criswell and Nurmi, who refused any direct contact with West after a many-decade-old unpleasant experience with the film actress. Additionally, West was known to sell Criswell her old luxury cars for $5. For her [[1955]] album ''The Fabulous Mae West,'' she recorded a song about the psychic, titled, appropriately enough, "Criswell Predicts."
Criswell was reputedly [[homosexuality|homosexual]], and was a habitué of The Gold Cup, a defunct [[Los Angeles]] coffee shop at the corner of Las Palmas and [[Hollywood Boulevard]] that served as an informal meeting place for homosexual encounters.
==Quotes==
* "Greetings, my friends. We are all interested in the future, for that is where you and I are going to spend the rest of our lives. And remember, my friends, future events such as these will affect you in the future." - ''Plan 9 From Outer Space''
* "The past is not a window into the future. ''I'' am the only window into the future." - syndicated column.
==External links==
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0188186/ The IMDb entry on Criswell]
* [http://avclub.com/content/node/22973 "Criswell Predicts"] - ''[[The Onion]]'' A.V. Club, [[August 11]], [[1999]]
* [http://www.evil-pumpkin.com/jake/criswell/ A fan's Criswell tribute page]
[[Category:1907 births|Amazing Criswell]]
[[Category:1982 deaths|Amazing Criswell]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chain reaction</title>
<id>7834</id>
<revision>
<id>37776299</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T02:08:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nuno Tavares</username>
<id>157549</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>pt:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This is about chain reactions in [[chemistry]] and [[physics]]. For other uses, see [[Chain reaction (disambiguation)]]}}
A '''chain reaction''' is a sequence of [[reaction]]s where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactio |
ne aspect of the broader subject of [[climate change]]. The [[scientific opinion on climate change]], as expressed by the [[UN]] [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) and explicitly endorsed by the national science academies of the [[G8]] nations, is that the average global temperature has risen <!-- The following is an approximate 95% confidence interval, please DO NOT replace by 0.4-0.8 -->0.6 ± 0.2&nbsp;°C since the late 19th century, and that it is likely that "most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is [[Attribution of recent climate change|attributable to human activities]]" [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm]. A [[list of scientists opposing global warming consensus|small minority of qualified scientists]] contest the view that humanity's actions have played a significant role in increasing recent temperatures. Uncertainties do exist regarding how much climate change should be expected in the future, and a hotly contested political and public debate exists over what actions, if any, should be taken in light of global warming.
Based on basic science, observational sensitivity studies, and the [[General circulation model|climate model]]s referenced by the IPCC, temperatures may increase by 1.4 to 5.8&nbsp;°C between [[1990]] and [[2100]] [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/309/5731/100.pdf]. This is expected to result in other climate changes including rises in [[sea level rise|sea level]] and changes in the amount and pattern of [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]]. Such changes may increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as [[flood]]s, [[drought]]s, [[heat wave]]s, and [[hurricane]]s, change [[agricultural]] yields, cause [[glacier retreat]], reduced summer streamflows, or contribute to biological [[extinction]]s. Although warming is expected to affect the number and magnitude of these events, it is very difficult to connect any particular event to global warming.
== Overview ==
{{Sidebar|'''Terminology'''
'Global warming' is a specific case of the more general term '[[climate change]]' (which can also refer to cooling, such as in [[Ice age]]s). Furthermore, the term is in principle neutral as to the causes, but in common usage, 'global warming' generally implies a human influence. Note, however, that the [[UNFCCC]] uses 'climate change' for human caused change and 'climate variability' for non-human caused change [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/518.htm]. Some organizations use the term 'anthropogenic climate change' for human induced changes.
See also: [[Glossary of climate change]]
}}
The [[scientific consensus]] on global warming is that the [[Earth]] is warming, and that humanity's [[greenhouse gas]] emissions are making a significant contribution. This consensus is summarized by the findings of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC). In the [[TAR (IPCC)|Third Assessment Report]], the IPCC concluded that "most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is [[Attribution of recent climate change|attributable to human activities]]". This position was recently supported by an international group of science academies from the [[G8]] countries and [[Brazil]], [[People's Republic of China]] and [[India]] [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/displaypagedoc.asp?id=13057].
The global temperature on both land and sea has increased by 0.6 ± 0.2&nbsp;°C over the past century [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/figspm-1.htm]. At the same time, the volume of atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]] has increased from around 280 [[parts per million]] in 1800 to around 315 in 1958 and 367 in 2000, a 31% increase over 200 years. Other greenhouse gas emissions have also increased. Future carbon dioxide levels are expected to continue rising due to ongoing fossil fuel usage, though the actual trajectory will depend on uncertain economic, sociological, technological, and natural developments. The IPCC [[Special report on emissions scenarios]] gives a wide range of future carbon dioxide scenarios [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/123.htm], ranging from 540 to 970 parts per million by 2100.
[[General circulation model|Climate model]]s, driven by estimates of increasing carbon dioxide and to a lesser extent by generally decreasing [[sulfate|sulphate]] [[particulate|aerosols]], predict temperatures will increase by between 1.4 and 5.8&nbsp;°C in the period 1990 to 2100 [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/339.htm]. Much of this uncertainty results from not knowing future carbon dioxide emissions, but there is also uncertainty about the accuracy of climate models. [[Climate commitment studies]] predict that, even if levels of greenhouse gases and solar activity were to remain constant, the global climate is committed to 0.5&nbsp;°C of warming &mdash; some model results are as high as 1.0&nbsp;°C &mdash; over the next one hundred years due to the lag in warming caused by the oceans. Note that although most studies focus on the period up to 2100, warming would be expected to continue past then, since CO2 has a long average atmospheric lifetime [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=134].
Although the combination of scientific consensus and economic incentives were enough to persuade the [[List of Kyoto Protocol signatories|governments of more than 150 countries]] to ratify the [[Kyoto Protocol]], there are issues about just how much greenhouse gas emissions warm the planet. Some politicians, including [[President of the United States]] [[George W. Bush]] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/06/AR2005070602298.html], [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister of Australia]] [[John Howard]] [http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5744,17747938%255E30417,00.html], and public intellectuals such as [[Bjørn Lomborg]] [http://www.newsweekly.com.au/articles/2001dec01_lomborg.html] and [[Ronald Bailey]] [http://reason.com/rb/rb061301.shtml] have argued the cost of [[mitigation of global warming|mitigating global warming]] is too large to be justified. However, some segments of the [[business position on climate change|business community]] have accepted both the reality of global warming and its attribution to anthropogenic causes, as well as the need for actions such as [[carbon emissions trading]] and [[carbon tax]]es.
==Warming of the Earth==
{{See also|Temperature record of the past 1000 years}}
[[Image:2000_Year_Temperature_Comparison.png|thumb|250px|right|Two millennia of temperatures according to different reconstructions, each smoothed on a decadal scale. The unsmoothed, annual value for 2004 is also plotted for reference.]]
Relative to 1860-1900 the global temperature on both land and sea has increased by [[Instrumental temperature record|0.75&nbsp;°C]]. Temperatures in the lower [[troposphere]] have increased between [[Satellite temperature measurements|0.12 and 0.22&nbsp;°C per decade]] since 1979. Over the past one or two thousand years before 1850, world temperature is believed to have been relatively stable, with various fluctuations, which are possibly local, such as the [[Medieval Warm Period]] or the [[Little Ice Age]].
Based on estimates by [[NASA]]'s [[Goddard Institute for Space Studies]], 2005 was the warmest year since reliable wide-spread instrumental measurements became available in the late 1800s, beating the previous record set in 1998 by a few hundredths of a degree Celsius. Similar estimates prepared by the [[World Meteorological Organization]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s [[Climatic Research Unit]] concluded that 2005 was still only the second warmest year behind 1998. [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=231]
Depending on the time frame, different [[temperature record]]s are available. These are based on different data sets, with different degrees of precision and reliability. An approximately global [[instrumental temperature record]] begins in about 1860; contamination from the [[urban heat island]] effect is believed to be small. A longer-term perspective is available from various proxy records for recent millennia; see [[temperature record of the past 1000 years]] for a discussion of these records and their differences. The [[attribution of recent climate change]] is clearest for the most recent period of the last 50 years, for which the most detailed data is available. [[Satellite temperature measurements]] of the tropospheric temperature date from 1979.
==Causes of global warming==
{{main articles|[[Attribution of recent climate change]] and [[Scientific opinion on climate change]]}}
[[Image:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr-2.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Carbon dioxide]] during the last 400,000 years and the rapid rise since the [[Industrial Revolution]]; changes in the Earth's orbit around the Sun ([[Milankovitch cycles]]) are believed to be the pacemaker of the 100,000 year. [[ice age]] cycle]]
[[Image:Co2-temperature-plot.png|thumb|right|250px|Covariation of atmospheric [[Carbon dioxide]] and global temperature during the last 650,000 years]]
The climate system varies both through natural, "internal" processes as well as in response to variations in external "forcing" from both human and non-human causes, including [[solar activity]], and volcanic emissions as well as [[greenhouse gas]]es. Climatologists accept that the earth has warmed recently but the [[attribution of recent climate change|cause or causes of this change]] is somewhat more controversial, especially outside the scientific community.
Atmospheric scientists know that adding [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) or [[methane]] (CH<sub>4</sub>) to an atmosphere, with no other changes, will tend to make a planet's surface warmer. Indeed, greenhouse gases create a natural [[greenhouse effect]] without which temperatures on Earth would be an estimated 30&nbsp; |
as been popularized in the book ''[[Evasion_(book)|Evasion]]'', published by [[Crimethinc]].
==Further Reading==
* ''Art and Science of Dumpster Diving'' by [[John Hoffman]]; ISBN 1559500883
* ''Travels with Lizbeth'' by [[Lars Eighner]] (contains a chapter on the topic); ISBN 0449909433
* ''Dumpster Diving: The Advanced Course'' by John Hoffman (brings dumpster diving into the computer era) [[Paladin Press]] 2002; ISBN 158160369X
* ''The Simple Life'', Berkeley Press (contains a chapter by Hoffman on dumpster diving)
* ''[[Steal This Book]]!'' by [[Abbie Hoffman]] (speaks briefly on dumpster diving in the Free Food chapter)
* ''[[Evasion_(book)|Evasion]]'', [[Crimethinc]] Far East, an autobiography detailing one anarchist's [[shoplifting]]- and dumpster-diving-supported travels
* ''Mongo: Adventures in Trash'' by Ted Botha; ISBN 1582344523
== External links ==
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Ohiodumpsterdivers/ Ohio Dumpster Divers]
* [http://www.dumpsterworld.com/ The Dumpster Diving Forum]
* [http://www.dumpsterdiving.net/ Dumpster Diving] forums and gallery.
* [http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?dumpster+diving Jargon File definition]
* [http://members.aol.com/TheDumpsterLady/thedumpsterlady.htm The Dumpster Lady's FAQ]
* [http://uk.dir.yahoo.com/Recreation/Hobbies/Skip_Diving/ Skip Diving in the Yahoo Hobbies directory]
* See also the [[Usenet]] newsgroup, [http://groups.google.com/groups?group=alt.dumpster alt.dumpster]
* [http://freegan.info/ Freeganism and info on dumpster diving]
* [http://www.emoware.org/dumpster-diving.asp A dumpster diving blog]
[[Category:Cryptographic attacks]]
[[Category:Waste]]
[[Category:Hobbies]]
[[de:Containern]]
[[fi:Roskisdyykkaus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Digital synthesizer</title>
<id>8247</id>
<revision>
<id>35475192</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T00:48:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.176.106.60</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''digital synthesizer''' is a [[synthesizer]] that uses [[digital signal processing]] (DSP) techniques to make musical sounds.
The very earliest digital synthesis experiments were made with general-purpose computers, as part of academic research into sound generation.
Early commercial digital synthesizers used simple hard-wired digital circuitry to implement techniques such as [[additive synthesis]] and [[FM synthesis]].
Other techniques, such as [[wavetable synthesis]] and [[physical modeling]], only became possible with the advent of high-speed microprocessor and digital signal processing technology. One of the earliest commercial digital synthesizers was the [[Synclavier]].
Some digital synthesizers now exist in the form of "[[Software_synthesizer|softsynth]]" software that synthesizes sound using conventional PC hardware, though they require careful programming and a fast CPU to get the same [[latency]] response as their dedicated equivalents. In order to reduce latency, some professional [[sound card]] manufacturers have developed specialized digital signal processing hardware. Dedicated digital synthesizers frequently have the advantage of onboard accessibility, with switchable front panel controls to peruse their functions, whereas software synthesizers trump their dedicated counterparts with their additional functionality, against the handicap of a [[computer mouse|mouse]]-driven control system.
Digital synthesizers are generally more flexible than [[analog synthesizer]]s, though aficionados claim that an analog synthesizer develops a personal sonic character as it ages.
== External links ==
* [http://psycle.pastnotecut.org Psycle] a freely downloadable modular software synthesizer and sequencer/tracker (open source and totally free)
* [http://www.buzzmachines.com/ Buzz], a freely downloadable modular software synthesizer (gratis but proprietary)
* [http://sound.media.mit.edu/mpeg4/ MPEG-4 Structured Audio], an MPEG standard for synthesizing sounds
[[Category:Electronic music instruments]]
[[Category:Synthesizers]]
[[ja:&#12487;&#12472;&#12479;&#12523;&#12471;&#12531;&#12475;&#12469;&#12452;&#12470;&#12540;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drug of abuse</title>
<id>8248</id>
<revision>
<id>27186913</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-02T20:26:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jfdwolff</username>
<id>46555</id>
</contributor>
<comment>it should have been a redirect, as per Laurel Bush on 31/10</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[drug abuse]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Definition of music</title>
<id>8249</id>
<revision>
<id>41974547</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:59:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.211.179.110|68.211.179.110]] ([[User talk:68.211.179.110|talk]]) to last version by Siroxo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This article discusses the '''definition of music'''. [[Music]] is an art, entertainment, or other human activity which involves organized and audible sound, though [[definition]]s may vary.
== Overview ==
Defining music is as difficult as defining [[art]] or any other subjective phenomenon. It is a problem that has been tackled at various times by [[philosophy|philosophers]], [[Lexicography|lexicographers]], [[composer]]s, [[teacher]]s, [[semiotics|semioticians]] or semiologists, [[Linguistics|linguists]] and other scientists, students, and various other [[musician]]s.
The elements of music often have an implicit concept of time, pitch, and energy. The presence or lack of these elements can be used to classify music. They can be organized into units with interrelated rhythm, harmony, and melody. Organizing musical [[sound]] is part of [[musical composition|composition]] and [[improvisation]]. Music can invoke or convey a sense of motion in time.
==Etymology==
The word itself comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''mousikê (tekhnê)'' by way of the Latin ''musica''. It is ultimately derived from ''mousa'', the Greek word for [[muses|muse]]. In ancient Greece, the word ''mousike'' was used to mean any of the arts or sciences governed by the Muses.
Later, in Rome, ''ars musica'' embraced [[poetry]] as well as what we now think of as music. Our current understanding of music as being something which is abstract and has nothing to do with language (but something which may be combined with it in song) is relatively modern.
In the European [[Middle Ages]], [[musica]] was part of the mathematical [[quadrivium]] - [[arithmetic]]s, [[geometry]], [[astronomy]] and [[musica]]. The concept of musica was split into three major kinds: [[musica universalis]], [[musica mundana]], [[musica instrumentalis]]. Of those, only the last - musica instrumentalis - referred to music as performed sound.
[[Musica universalis]] referred to the order of the [[universe]], as [[god]] had created it in "measure, number and weight". The proportions of the [[sphere]]s of the planets and stars (which at the time were still thought to revolve around the earth) were perceived as a form of music, without necessarily implying that any [[sound]] would be heard - music refers strictly to the mathematical proportions. From this concept later resulted the romantic idea of a music of the spheres.
[[Musica mundana]] designated the proportions of the [[human body]]. These were thought to reflect the proportions of the Heavens and as such, to be an expression of god's greatness. To Medieval thinking, all things were connected with each other - a mode of thought that finds its traces today in the [[occult sciences]] or [[esoteric thought]] - ranging from [[astrology]] to believing certain [[minerals]] have certain beneficiary effects.
[[Musica instrumentalis]], finally, was the lowliest of the three disciplines and referred to the manifestation of those same mathematical proportions in sound - be it sung or played on instruments. The polyphonic organization of different melodies to sound at the same time was still a relatively new invention then, and it is understandable that the mathematical or physical relationships in [[frequency]] that give rise to the [[musical interval]]s as we hear them, should be foremost among the preoccupations of Medieval musicians.
==Music in other languages==
The languages of many cultures do not include a word for or that would be translated as ''music''. [[Inuit]] and most [[North American Indian]] languages do not have a general term for music, and in [[Africa]] there is no term for music in [[Tiv]], [[Yoruba]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]], [[Efik]], [[Birom]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Idoma]], [[Eggon]] or [[Jarawa]]. Many other languages have terms which only partly cover what Europeans mean by the term ''music'' (Schafer). The [[Mapuche]] of [[Argentina]] do not have a word for ''music'', but they do have words for instrumental versus improvised forms (''kantun''), European and non-Mapuche music (''kantun winka''), ceremonial songs (''öl''), and ''tayil'' (Robertson 1976: 39).
In [[Czech language|Czech]], ''hudba'' is instrumental music and only by implication [[vocal music]]. Some languages in West Africa have no term for music but the speakers do have the concept (Nettl, 1989).
''Musiqi'' is the [[Persian language|Persian]] word for the science and art of music, ''muzik'' being the sound and performance of music (Sakata 1983), though some things European influenced listeners would include, such as [[Koran]] chanting, are excluded. Actually, there are varying degrees of "musicness"; Koran chanting and [[Adhan]] is not considered music, but classical improvised song, classical instrumental metric composition, and popular dance mus |
ngary]], April 28 1999 || v Azerbaijan, March 26, 2005
|-
| [[Wayne Rooney]] || [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] || 29 (11) || v [[Australia national football team|Australia]], February 12 2003 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Darius Vassell]] || [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]] || 22 (6) || v [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], February 13 2002 || v Poland, September 8 2004
|-
| [[Jermain Defoe]] || [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] || 16 (1) || v [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]], March 31 2004 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Peter Crouch]] || [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] || 5 (1) || v [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]], May 31 2005 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Andy Johnson]] || [[Crystal Palace F.C.|Crystal Palace]] || 2 (0) || v [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], February 9 2005 || v N. Ireland, September 7 2005
|-
| [[Darren Bent]] || [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]] || 1 (0) || v [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]], March 1 2006 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|}
==Player records==
{{main|England national football team records}}
===Most capped England players===
{{main|List of England international footballers}}
As of [[March 1]], [[2006]], the ten players with the most caps for England are:
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="3" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!#
!Name
!Career
!Caps
!Goals
|-
|1
|align="left"|[[Peter Shilton]]
|1970-1990
|125
|0
|-
|2
|align="left"|'''[[Bobby Moore]]'''
|1962-1973
|108
|2
|-
|3
|align="left"|'''[[Bobby Charlton|Sir Bobby Charlton]]'''
|1958-1970
|106
|49
|-
|4
|align="left"|[[Billy Wright (footballer)|Billy Wright]]
|1946-1959
|105
|3
|-
|5
|align="left"|[[Bryan Robson]]
|1980-1991
|90
|26
|-
|6
|align="left"|[[David Beckham]]*
|1996-
|87
|16
|-
|7
|align="left"|[[Kenny Sansom]]
|1979-1988
|86
|1
|-
|8
|align="left"|[[Ray Wilkins]]
|1976-1986
|84
|3
|-
|9
|align="left"|[[Gary Lineker]]
|1984-1992
|80
|48
|-
|10
|align="left"|[[John Barnes (footballer)|John Barnes]]
|1983-1995
|79
|11
|}
Members of the 1966 World Cup-winning team are in bold. * denotes a player still playing or available for selection.
''For a longer list of players with 25 caps or more, see [[List of England international footballers]].''
===Top England goalscorers===
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="3" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!#
!Player
!Career
!Goals (Caps)
|-
|1
|style="text-align:left;"| '''[[Bobby Charlton|Sir Bobby Charlton]]'''
|1958-70
|49 (106)
|-
|2
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Gary Lineker]]
|1984-92
|48 (80)
|-
|3
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Jimmy Greaves]]
|1959-67
|44 (57)
|-
|4
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Michael Owen]]*
|1998-now
|35
|-
|5
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Tom Finney|Sir Tom Finney]]
|1946-58
|30 (76)
|-
|=
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Nat Lofthouse]]
|1950-58
|30 (33)
|-
|=
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Alan Shearer]]
|1992-2000
|30 (63)
|-
|8
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Viv Woodward]]
|1903-11
|29 (23)
|-
|9
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Steve Bloomer]]
|1895-1907
|28 (23)
|-
|10
|style="text-align:left;"|[[David Platt]]
|1989-96
|27 (62)
|-
|11
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Bryan Robson]]
|1979-91
|26 (90)
|-
|12
|style="text-align:left;"|'''[[Geoff Hurst|Sir Geoff Hurst]]'''
|1966-72
|24 (49)
|-
|13
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Stan Mortensen]]
|1947-53
|23 (25)
|-
|14
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Tommy Lawton]]
|1938-48
|22 (23)
|-
|15
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Mick Channon]]
|1972-77
|21 (46)
|-
|=
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Kevin Keegan]]
|1972-82
|21 (63)
|-
|17
|style="text-align:left;"|'''[[Martin Peters]]'''
|1966-74
|20 (77)
|-
|18
|style="text-align:left;"|[[George Camsell]]
|1929-36
|18 (9)
|-
|=
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Dixie Dean]]
|1927-32
|18 (16)
|-
|=
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Johnny Haynes]]
|1954-62
|18 (56)
|-
|=
|style="text-align:left;"|'''[[Roger Hunt]]'''
|1962-69
|18 (34)
|}
Members of the 1966 World Cup-winning team are in bold. * denotes a player still playing or available for selection.
===England captains===
{{main|List of England national football team captains}}
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="3" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!#
!Player
!England career
!Captain '''(Total Caps)'''
|-
|1
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Billy Wright (footballer)|Billy Wright]]
|1946-59
|90 (105)
|-
|=
|style="text-align:left;"|'''[[Bobby Moore]]'''
|1962-73
|90 (108)
|-
|3
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Bryan Robson]]
|1980-91
|65 (90)
|-
|4
|style="text-align:left;"|[[David Beckham]]*
|2000-Present
|51 (87)
|-
|5
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Alan Shearer]]
|1992-2000
|34 (63)
|-
|6
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Kevin Keegan]]
|1972-82
|31 (63)
|-
|7
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Emlyn Hughes]]
|1969-80
|23 (62)
|-
|8
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Bob Crompton]]
|1902-14
|22 (41)
|-
|=
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Johnny Haynes]]
|1954-1962
|22 (56)
|-
|10
|style="text-align:left;"|[[Eddie Hapgood]]
|1933-39
|21 (30)
|}
Members of the 1966 World Cup-winning team are in bold. * denotes a player still playing or available for selection.
==England managers==
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="3" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!Manager
!England career
!Played
!Won
!Drawn
!Lost
!GF<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
!GA<sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>
!Win %
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Walter Winterbottom|Sir Walter Winterbottom]]
|[[1946]]-[[1962]]
|139
|78
|33
|28
|383
|196
|56.11%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Alf Ramsey|Sir Alf Ramsey]]
|[[1963]]-[[1974]]
|113
|69
|27
|17
|224
|98
|61.06%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Joe Mercer]] ([[Caretaker manager (football)|caretaker]])
|[[1974]]
|7
|3
|3
|1
|9
|7
|42.85%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Don Revie]]
|[[1974]]-[[1977]]
|29
|14
|8
|7
|49
|25
|48.27%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Ron Greenwood]]
|[[1977]]-[[1982]]
|55
|33
|12
|10
|93
|40
|59.99%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Bobby Robson|Sir Bobby Robson]]
|[[1982]]-[[1990]]
|95
|47
|30
|18
|151
|60
|49.47%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Graham Taylor (football manager)|Graham Taylor]]
|[[1990]]-[[1993]]
|38
|18
|13
|7
|62
|32
|47.36%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Terry Venables]]
|[[1994]]-[[1996]]
|23
|11
|11
|1
|35
|13
|47.82%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Glenn Hoddle]]
|[[1996]]-[[1999]]
|28
|17
|6
|5
|42
|13
|60.71%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Howard Wilkinson]] (caretaker)
|[[1999]]
|1
|0
|0
|1
|0
|2
|0.00%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Kevin Keegan]]
|[[1999]]-[[2000]]
|18
|7
|7
|4
|26
|15
|38.88%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Howard Wilkinson]] (caretaker)
|[[2000]]
|1
|0
|1
|0
|0
|0
|0.00%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Peter John Taylor|Peter Taylor]] (caretaker)
|[[2000]]
|1
|0
|0
|1
|0
|1
|0.00%
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|[[Sven-Göran Eriksson]]<sup>[[#Notes|3]]</sup>
|[[2001]] - Present
|61
|36
|15
|10
|115
|59
|59.02%
|}
===Notes===
#GF = Goals for
#GA = Goals against
#Accurate up to and including [[1st March]] [[2006]].
==Home stadium==
For the first 50 years of its existence, the England team played its home matches at different venues all around the country; for the first few years it used [[cricket]] grounds, before later moving on to football clubs' stadiums. England played their first match at [[Wembley Stadium]] in [[1924]], the year after it was completed, against [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]], but for the next 27 years would only use Wembley as a venue for Scotland matches; other opposition were still entertained at club grounds around the country.
In May [[1951]], [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] became the first team other than Scotland to be entertained at Wembley, and by [[1960]] nearly all of England's home matches were being played there. Between [[1966]] and [[1995]], England did not play a single home match anywhere else.
England's last match at Wembley before its demolition and reconstruction was against [[Germany national football team|Germany]] on [[October 7]], [[2000]], a game which England lost 1-0. Since then the team has played at 14 different venues around the country, with [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]] having been the most often used. The FA have ruled that when the new Wembley is completed in mid-[[2006]], England's travels will end, and the team will play all of their home matches there until at least [[2036]]. The main reason for this is financial. The FA did not own the old Wembley stadium, but it does own the new one, and has taken on debts of hundreds of millions of pounds to pay for it. Thus it needs to maximise the revenue from England matches, and does not wish to share it with the owners of other grounds.
==100 Greatest Sporting Moments==
In 2002, England featured three times in Channel 4's [[100 Greatest Sporting Moments]]:
* The 5-1 win over Germany in the 2001 World Cup Qualifer was ranked 2nd.
* The 4-2 World Cup Final win over Germany in 1966 was ranked 3rd.
* The 4-1 win over Holland in Euro '96 was ranked 25th.
==See also==
* [[England's 50 Greatest Goals]]
* [[England women's national football team]]
* [[England national under-21 football team]]
* [[Argentina and England football rivalry]]
* [[United Kingdom national football team]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.thefa.com/England/ Official website at the FA's website]
*[http://www.england-expe |
is a member of '''parliament'''.'' (Speech to the electors of Bristol, [[3 November]] [[1774]])
* "Young man, there is America - which at this day serves for little more than to amuse you with stories of savage men, and uncouth manners; yet shall, before you taste of death, show itself equal to the whole of that commerce which now attracts the envy of the world." (''Speech on Concilliation with America, [[22 March]] [[1775]]'')
* "The use of force alone is but '''temporary'''. It may subdue for a moment; but it does not remove the necessity of subduing again: and a nation is not governed which is perpetually to be conquered." Ib.
* "All protestantism, even the most cold and passive, is a sort of dissent. But the religion most prevalent in our northern colonies is a refinement on the principle of resistance: it is the dissidence of dissent, and the protestantism of the Protestant religion." Ib.
* "I do not know the method of drawing up an indictment against an whole people." Ib.
* "A state without the means of change is without the means of its conservation."
* "They defend their errors as if they were defending their inheritance."
* "Custom reconciles us to everything."
* [''On whether America should belong to Britain''] "If we have equity, wisdom, and justice, it will belong to this country; if we have it not, it will not belong to this country."
* "It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw the Dauphiness, at Versailles; and surely never lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch, a more delightful vision. I saw her just above the horizon, decorating and cheering the elevated sphere she just began to move in, - glittering like the morning star, full of life, and splendour, and joy... . Little did I dream that I should have lived to see disasters fallen upon her in a nation of galant men, in a nation of men of honour, and of cavaliers. I thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with insult. But the age of chivalry is gone. That of sophisters, economists, and calculators, has succeeded; and the glory of Europe is extinguished for ever." (Reflections on the Revolution in France)
* "In my course I have known, and, according to my measure, have co-operated with great men; and I have never yet seen any plan which has not been mended by the observations of those who were much inferior in understanding to the person who took the lead in the business."
* "Make the Revolution a parent of settlement, and not a nursery of future revolutions."
* "Neither the few nor the many have a right to act merely by their will, in any matter connected with duty, trust, engagement, or obligation."
* "Nobody made a greater mistake than he who did nothing because he could do only a little."
* "When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall one by one, an unpitied sacrifice in a contemptible struggle."
* "[[Jacobin|Jacobinism]] is the revolt of the enterprising talents of a country against its property."
* "The true danger is when liberty is nibbled away, for expedients, and by parts."
* "Your representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and he betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your opinion."
* "The only thing necessary for evil to triumph is for good men to do nothing."
It was Burke who first referred to the "great unwashed masses of humanity".
The quotation most often attributed to Burke ("The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing", along with its many variants) is allegedly not from his writings.
This quote may have been adapted from these lines of Burke's in his [[Thoughts on the Cause of Present Discontents]] (1770):
"When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall one by one, an unpitied sacrifice in a contemptible struggle."
See [http://www.tartarus.org/~martin/essays/burkequote.html] and [http://www.tartarus.org/~martin/essays/burkequote2.html]. The quotation is similar in sentiment to a quotation of John Philpot Curran ([[1750]] - [[1817]]), ascribed to a ''Speech on the Right of Election of Lord Mayor of Dublin'', [[10 July]] [[1790]]: "The condition upon which God hath given liberty to man is eternal vigilance; which condition, if he break, servitude is at once the consequence of his crime, and the punishment of his guilt."
== Summary ==
<timeline>
ImageSize = width:450 height:450
PlotArea = left:50 right:0 bottom:10 top:10
DateFormat = yyyy
Period = from:1725 till:1800
TimeAxis = orientation:vertical
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1725
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1725
PlotData=
color:red mark:(line,black) align:left fontsize:S
shift:(25,0) # shift text to right side of bar
# there is no automatic collision detection, fontsize:XS
# so shift texts up or down manually to avoid overlap shift:(25,-10)
at:1729 text:Born in Dublin
at:1743 text:Joins Trinity College
at:1750 text:Enters Middle Temple
at:1756 text:Publishes treatise On the Sublime and Beautiful
at:1765 text:Becomes friend of Rockingham
at:1775 text:Enters Parliament and engages in American controversy, ~ publishes speech on Conciliation with America
at:1782 text:Paymaster of Forces and P.C.; ~ joined coalition of Fox and North
from:1787 till:1794 shift:(25,6) text:Leads in prosecution of W. Hastings
at:1790 text:Publishes Reflections on French Revolution; ~ breaks with Fox party
at:1796 text:Publishes Letter on a Regicide Peace
at:1797 shift:(25,5) text:Dies
</timeline>
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Paymaster of the Forces]] | before=[[Richard Rigby]] | after=[[Isaac Barré]] | years=1782}}
{{succession box | title=[[Paymaster of the Forces]] | before=[[Isaac Barré]] | after=[[William Wyndham Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville|William Wyndham Grenville]] | years=1783&ndash;1784}}
{{end box}}
==See also==
*[[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham]]
*[[Charles James Fox]]
*[[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Edmund+Burke | name=Edmund Burke}}
* [http://www.constitution.org/eb/burke.htm Text of ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'']
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/burke/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://aniceday.eotalk.com The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke]
* [http://www.fundacionburke.org Spanish foundation based on Burke's thoughts]
==References==
*{{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}
*[[Conor Cruise O'Brien]], 1992. ''The Great Melody: A Thematic Biography of Edmund Burke''. ISBN 0226616517
*[[Russell Kirk]], 1992 (1953). ''The Conservative Mind: From Burke to [[T.S. Eliot|Eliot]],'' 7th ed.
*[http://www.bootlegbooks.com/Reference/PhraseAndFable/data/1261.html BREWER: THE DICTIONARY OF PHRASE AND FABLE]
<!--[[image:edmund_burke.jpg|thumb|right|Edmund Burke]]-->
[[Category:1729 births|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:1797 deaths|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:18th century philosophers|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:British MPs|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:Early modern philosophers|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:Historians of the French Revolution|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:Irish people|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:Irish politicians|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:People associated with Trinity College, Dublin|Burke, Edmund]]
[[bn:এডমান্ড বার্ক]]
[[cy:Edmund Burke]]
[[da:Edmund Burke]]
[[de:Edmund Burke]]
[[es:Edmund Burke]]
[[fr:Edmund Burke]]
[[he:אדמונד ברק]]
[[ja:エドマンド・バーク]]
[[nl:Edmund Burke]]
[[nn:Edmund Burke]]
[[no:Edmund Burke]]
[[pl:Edmund Burke]]
[[pt:Edmund Burke]]
[[sk:Edmund Burke]]
[[sv:Edmund Burke]]
[[zh:埃德蒙·伯克]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Early music</title>
<id>10033</id>
<revision>
<id>41738735</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:37:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hyacinth</username>
<id>17171</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Notation and performance */ what, ibid</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{European art music eras}}
'''Early music''' is [[European classical music]] before the [[Classical music era]] and after [[Ancient music]]. The common range given is from the end of [[Ancient music]] to the beginning of the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] era in about 1600, and so roughly corresponds with the [[Europe]]an [[Middle Ages]] period.
==Post-Antiquity==
For information on early music post-Antiquity, see the following articles:
*[[Medieval music]] (roughly 1000-1450)
*[[Renaissance music]] (roughly 1450-1600)
*[[Baroque music]] (roughly 1600-1750)
==Authentic performance==
The term "early music" is closely associated with the concept of [[authentic performance]]. The authentic performance movement began with the performance of early music, and in general, the earlier the music, the more likely it is that its performers will show an interest in authentic performance as it becomes more difficult for the reason listed below and others.
==Notation and performance==
According to Margaret Bent (1998), Early [[music notation]], "is under-prescriptive by our standards; when translated into modern form it acquires a prescriptive weight that overspecifies and distorts its original openness." Before about 1600, written music did not consistently state which instruments are used when. A century earlier, people who wrote down music did not always specify whether lines of [[polyphony]] wer |
nd]] (1241-1286), king of [[Scotland]]
*[[Alexander III of Macedon]], also known as Alexander the Great
{{hndis}}
[[es:Alejandro III]]
[[fr:Alexandre III]]
[[it:Alessandro III]]
[[pl:Aleksander III]]
[[ru:Александр III (значения)]]
[[zh:亚历山大三世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander Aetolus</title>
<id>1605</id>
<revision>
<id>41172601</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T14:57:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander Aetolus''', of [[Pleuron]] in [[Aetolia]], Greek poet and man of letters, the only representative of Aetolian poetry, flourished about [[280 BC]].
When living in [[Alexandria]] he was commissioned by [[Ptolemy Philadelphus]] to arrange the tragedies and satyric dramas in the library; some ten years later he took up his residence at the court of [[Antigonus II Gonatas|Antigonus Gonatas]], king of [[Macedon]]ia.
His reputation as a tragic poet was so high that he was allotted a place in the [[Alexandrian Pleiad|Alexandrian tragic ''Pleiad'']]; we only know the title of one play (''Astragalistae.'') He also wrote short epics, epigrams and elegies, the considerable fragments of which show learning and eloquence.
==References==
*[[Augustus Meineke|Meineke]], ''Analecta Alexandrina'' (1853)
*[[Theodor Bergk|Bergk]], ''Poetae Lyrici Graeci''
*[[Auguste Couat]], ''La Poésie alexandrine'' (1882).
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]
[[hu:Alexandrosz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander Jannaeus</title>
<id>1606</id>
<revision>
<id>32027788</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-19T23:28:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BPK2</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlexanderJannaeus.gif|thumb|300px|Coin of '''Alexander Jannaeus''' (103-76 BC).
<br>'''Front:''' [[Seleucid]] anchor, with Greek legend "King Alexander".
<br>'''Back:''' Eight-spoked wheel or star-within a diadem, with Hebrew letters between the spokes "Yehonatan the King".]]
'''Alexander Jannaeus''' (also known as '''Alexander Jannai/Yannai'''), king of [[Judea]] from ([[103 BCE]] to [[76 BCE]]), son of [[John Hyrcanus]], inherited the throne from his brother [[Aristobulus]], and appears to have married his brother's widow, ''Shlamtzion'' or ''Shlomtzion'' or "Shelomit", also known as [[Salome Alexandra]], according to the Biblical law of Yibum ("levirate marriage"), although [[Josephus]] is inexplicit on that point.
His likely full Hebrew name was Jonathan; he may have been the High Priest Jonathan, rather than his great-uncle of the same name, who established the [[Masada]] fortress. Under the name King Yannai, he appears as a wicked tyrant in the [[Talmud]], reflecting his conflict with the [[Pharisee]] party. He is among the more colorful historical figures little known, however, outside specialized history, although the impact of him and his widow on the subsequent development of Judaism and Christianity is substantial.
==Civil war against the Pharisees==
[[Image:WillemSwiddeAlexanderJannaeus.jpg|thumb|300px|The excution of the Pharisees by Alexander Jannaeus, showing the King and his Court feasting during the executions. Engraving by Willem Swidde, 17th century.]]
An avid supporter of the aristocratic [[Hellenism|Hellenist]] faction known as the [[Sadducees]], his reign was constantly challenged by opponents, among them a brother with a rival claim to the throne, and the populist urban-based [[Pharisee]] party.
At the beginning of his reign Alexander Jannaeus halted the suppression of the Pharisees and the Sages for a while, under the influence of his wife Salome Alexandra (said to be the sister of the great Jewish sage Shimon ben Shetach). This gave him time and resources to increase his power and prestige by extending the territory under his rule through war and conquest. As his power grew, however, he enlisted foreign soldiers to suppress his own people and eliminate the Pharisees.
One year during the Jewish holiday of Sukkot, Alexander Jannaeus, while officiating as the High Priest (Kohen Gadol) at the Temple in Jerusalem, demonstrated his support of the Sadducees by denying the law of the water libation. The crowd responded with shock at his mockery and showed their displeasure by pelting Alexander with the etrogim (citrons) that they were holding in their hands. Unwittingly, the crowd had played right into Alexander's hands. He had intended to incite the people to riot and his soldiers fell upon the crowd at his command. The soldiers slew more than 6,000 people in the Temple courtyard.
A civil war started, in which the Pharisees allied with the [[Seleucids]] king [[Demetrius III Eucaerus|Demetrius III]] against Alexander Jannaeus. He first retreated, but then managed to oust his rivals thanks to popular support against the Seleucid invasion of Judea. During the civil war, Alexander Jannaeus suppressed his rivals brutally, killing his brother and many leading Pharisees. ''The New Century Book of Facts'' writes:
:''"It is said that 50,000 perished in this civil strife. He quelled a revolt at Jerusalem by slaughtering 6,000. On his return from a short exile into which he had been driven by the Pharisees, he caused 800 rebels to be crucified before him and their wives and children slaughtered ([[86 BC|86 B.C.]])."''
==Alliance with the Essenes==
[[Image:JonathanQumran.gif|thumb|150px|[[Dead Sea scrolls|Dead Sea Scroll]] from Qumran, with a prayer to Alexander Jannaeus.]]
Alexander Jannaeus may have been in close relation with the monastic [[Essenes]] at some point, who were probably allies during his fight against the Pharisees. A piece from the [[Dead Sea scrolls]] from [[Qumran]] appears to be an homage to him:
:''"holy city/ for king Jonathan/ and all the congregation of your people/ Israel/ who are in the four/ winds of heaven/ peace be (for) all/ and upon your kingdom/ your name be blessed"'' (Transcription and translation by E. Eshel, H. Eshel, and A. Yardeni)
Alexander Jannaeus showed considerable competence as a military leader, repelling invaders and expanding the country's borders to the west and south. He was defeated by [[Ptolemy Lathyrus]] in [[Galilee]]; made an alliance with [[Cleopatra]] and drove Ptolemy out. By the end of his rule, the borders of his state would exceed that of David and extend to Gaza and far into Jordan.
Upon his death, he was succeeded as monarch by his wife [[Salome Alexandra]], known also and better as [[Shlomzion]], and succeeded as [[High Priest]] by his son John [[Hyrcanus II]].
==Coinage==
The coinage of Alexander Jannaeus is characteristic of the early Jewish coinage in that it avoided human or animal representations, in opposition to the surrounding Greek, and later Roman types of the period. Jewish coinage instead focused on symbols, either natural, such as the [[palm tree]], the [[pomegranate]] or the star, either man-made, such as the temple, the [[Menorah]], trumpets or [[cornucopia]].
[[Image:JanaeusCoinPhoto.JPG|thumb|300px|Coin of Alexander Jannaeus ([[103 BC]] to [[76 BC]]).<br>
'''Obv:''' [[Seleucid]] anchor and Greek Legend: BASILEWS ALEXANDROU "King Alexander".<br>
'''Rev:''' Eight-spoke wheel or star within diadem. Hebrew legend inside the spokes: "Yehonatan the King".]]
Alexander Jannaeus was the first of the Jewish kings to introduce the "eight-ray star" or "eight-spoked wheel" symbol, in his [[bronze]] "Widow's mite" coins, in combination with the wide-spread [[Seleucid]] numismatic symbol of the anchor. These coins are thought to be the ones referred to in the [[Bible]] in Luke 21:1-4:
:''"and Jesus sat over against the treasury, and beheld how the people cast money into the treasury; and many that were rich cast in much. And He called unto him His disciples, and saith unto them, Verily I say unto you, that this poor widow hath cast more in, than all they which have cast into the treasury: For all they did cast in of their abundance; but she of her want did cast in all that she had"''
Depending on the make, the star symbol can be shown with straight spokes connected to the outside circle, in a style rather indicative of a wheel. On others, the spokes can have a more "flame-like" shape, more indicative of the representation of a star within a diadem.
It is not clear what the wheel or star may exactly symbolize, and interpretations vary, from the morning star, to the sun or the heavens. The influence of some [[Persians|Persian]] symbols of a star within a diadem, or the eight-spoked [[Buddhist]] wheel have also been suggested. The star cannot be a representation of the star of the birth of [[Jesus]], due to the anteriority of the coins by close to a century. On balance, the eight-spoked Macedonian star (a variation of which is the [[Vergina Sun]]), emblem of the royal [[Argead dynasty]] and the ancient kingdom of [[Macedon|Macedonia]], within a Hellenistic [[Diadem (personal wear)|diadem]] symbolizing royalty (many of the coins depict a small knot with two ends on top of the diadem), seem to be the most probable source for this symbol.
{{start box}}
{{succession box one to two|before=[[Aristobulus|Aristobulus I]]|title1=[[Hasmonean|King of Judaea]]|title2=[[List of High Priests of Israel|High Priest of Jerusalem]]|years1=103&ndash;76 BC|years2=103&ndash;76 BC|after1=[[Salome Alexandra]]|after2=[[Hyrcanus II]]}}
{{end box}}
==References==
* "Jewish symbols on ancient Jewish coins" Paul Romanoff, New York American Israel Numismatic Association, 1971.
* This article incorporates some content from the public dom |
uide] (in English)
* [http://www.ceara.com.br Ceará and Fortaleza tourism information] (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.donabrasil.com Dona Brasil] on cooking, culture and travel (in English and Dutch)
* [http://www.colonialvoyage.com/ Dutch Portuguese Colonial History] Dutch Portuguese Colonial History: history of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil. Language Heritage, lists of remains, maps.
* [http://www.gringoes.com Gringoes.com] Useful portal based in Sao Paulo, Brazil (in English)
* [http://www.easyportuguese.com EasyPortuguese]-- Learn the Portuguese spoken in Brazil.
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Brazil Ethnologue Languages of the World] - Languages of Brazil
* [http://www.maria-brazil.org Maria-Brazil] - The first Brazilian pop-culture web site produced in the USA. Note: The section ''Maria's Cookbook'' is widely praised (site in English)
* [http://www.pernambuco.com.br Recife and Porto de Galinhas tourism information] (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.travel-impressions.de/brazil/mix/baiana.htm Photos of People and Sights]
* [http://www.rioforpartiers.com/ Rio For Partiers] - Award winning travel guide to Rio de Janeiro and [http://www.salvadorforpartiers.com/ Salvador]
* [http://www.sonia-portuguese.com sonia-portuguese] Learning Portuguese
* [http://www.thebraziliansound.com The Brazilian Sound] Brazilian music & culture (in English)
* [http://www.thowra.com/brasil.html Travelling in Brazil] (in English)
* [http://www.nossa.com Brazil Information] - information about Brazil and the Portuguese language.
* [http://www.portoseguro.tur.br Porto Seguro Bahia tourism information] (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.v-brazil.com Virtual Brazil] - Information about Brazilian culture, economy and tourism (in English)
* [http://www.zmaxmiez-jpn.net/untitled4.html Viva Brasil!] All about Brazilian Culture
* [http://www.brazilbrazil.com/braznam.html Hy-Brazil] Origins of the name Brazil
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.rio-online.com Rio-Online.com] - City Information Rio de Janeiro
{{South America}}
[[Category:Brazil| ]]
[[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]]
[[Category:South American countries]]
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[[ar:برازيل]]
[[an:Brasil]]
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[[da:Brasilien]]
[[de:Brasilien]]
[[et:Brasiilia]]
[[el:Βραζιλία]]
[[es:Brasil]]
[[eo:Brazilo]]
[[eu:Brasil]]
[[fr:Brésil]]
[[ga:An Bhrasaíl]]
[[gd:Breasail]]
[[gl:Brasil]]
[[ko:브라질]]
[[ht:Brezil]]
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[[lt:Brazilija]]
[[li:Braziel]]
[[hu:Brazília]]
[[mk:Бразил]]
[[ms:Brazil]]
[[na:Brazil]]
[[nl:Brazilië]]
[[nds:Brasilien]]
[[ja:ブラジル]]
[[no:Brasil]]
[[nn:Brasil]]
[[oc:Brasil]]
[[pl:Brazylia]]
[[pt:Brasil]]
[[ro:Brazilia]]
[[rm:Brasil]]
[[qu:Brasil]]
[[ru:Бразилия]]
[[sq:Brazili]]
[[scn:Brasili]]
[[simple:Brazil]]
[[sk:Brazília]]
[[sl:Brazilija]]
[[sr:Бразил]]
[[fi:Brasilia]]
[[sv:Brasilien]]
[[tl:Brazil]]
[[ta:பிரேசில்]]
[[th:ประเทศบราซิล]]
[[vi:Brasil]]
[[tr:Brezilya]]
[[uk:Бразилія]]
[[yi:בראַזיליע]]
[[zh:巴西]]
[[fiu-vro:Brasiilia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bratislava</title>
<id>3384</id>
<revision>
<id>42081183</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:21:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.197.118.171</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
[[Image:Logo of Bratislava.png|left|[[City Logo]].]]
[[Image:Bratis.Erb1.jpg|200px|right]]
<!--ARTICLE'S INFOBOX -- SCROLL DOWN SEVERAL LINES FOR ARTICLE'S SUMMARY-->
{{Infobox Slovak town |
subject_name = Bratislava |
slovak_region = [[Bratislava Region]] |
slovak_district = Bratislava I-V|
coordinates = [http://kvaleberg.com/extensions/mapsources/index.php?params=48_9_N_17_7_E_ 48°9'&nbsp;N, 17°7'&nbsp;E][[Geographic references | <sup>5</sup>]] |
altitude = 126-514 |
population = 428,672 |
area = 367.59 |
car_plate = BA
}}
<!--//END OF INFOBOX-->
'''Bratislava''' (until [[1919]]: ''Prešporok'' in [[Slovak language|Slovak]], ''Pressburg'' in [[German language|German]] and [[English language|English]], ''Pozsony'' in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], ''Požun'' in [[Croatian language|Croatian]]) is the [[capital]] of [[Slovakia]] and the country's largest city, with a population of some 450,000. Bratislava lies on the River [[Danube River|Danube]], at Slovakia's borders with [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]], and relatively close to the border with the [[Czech Republic]]. It is only 50 km (45-65 minutes by train) from [[Vienna]]. The [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]] mountain range begins within the territory of the city with the ''Malé Karpaty'' (or [[Little Carpathians]]) mountains (part of the Carpathians).
Bratislava is the seat of the Slovak presidency, parliament and government. The city is home to universities, a relatively large number of museums, and to theatres and other cultural institutions (for example, the famous [[Slovak Philharmonic Orchestra]]).
Historically, the town has been influenced by several nations (among others, Austria, Hungary, and Slovakia). Shortly before [[World War I|WWI]], it partly functioned as a relaxation place for people from Vienna, the two cities were even connected by a high-speed [[tram]] (since 1914). As is common for former cities of Austria-Hungary, Bratislava had other names, out of which the following ones were the only used or official forms before the end [[World War I]] (1919):
* ''Preßburg'' or ''Pressburg'', its old [[German language|German]] name, ''Pressburg'' in modern German orthography. This was also the primary name used in English until 1919 (written as ''Pressburg'').
* ''Pozsony'', its name in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] (still used in Hungarian today)
* ''Prešporok'', its old [[Slovak language|Slovak]] name
* ''Požun'' its old [[Croatian language|Croatian]] name
==Basic data==
Bratislava is located on both banks of the [[Danube]] river, at the foot of and in the [[Little Carpathians]], directly at the [[Austria]]n and [[Hungary|Hungarian]] borders
Climate of the city is mild. The annual average temperature is 9.9 °C, annual hours of sunshine is 1976.4 and average annual rainfall is 527.4 mm according to [[1993]] data.
== History==
''See also: [[History of Bratislava]] (includes the development of the '''ethnic structure''' and '''important personalities''')''
*[[Neolithic]] Age: the first permanent settlement of the region now known as Bratislava begins with the [[Linear Ceramics Culture]]
*[[400 B.C.]]-[[50 B.C.]]: [[Celt]]s were settled here. From [[125 B.C.]] on they had an important [[oppidum]] (fortified town) with a [[Mint (coin)|mint]] here.
*[[1st century]] &ndash; [[5th century]]: the border of the [[Roman Empire]] ([[limes|Limes Romanus]]) runs right through the middle of today's town; many Roman (e.g. "Gerulata") and Germanic settlements
*[[6th century]]-[[8th century]]: first [[Slavs]] (500 A.D.- today) and [[Avarians]] ([[560s]] - [[8th century]])
:[[623]]-[[658]]: part of King [[Samo]]'s Empire
*late [[8th century]] &ndash; [[833]]: part of the [[Great Moravia|Nitrian principality]] (Principality of [[Nitra]])
*[[833]] &ndash; [[907]]: part of [[Great Moravia]]
*[[907]] &ndash; [[1918]]: part of [[Hungary]] (with short interruptions) and the captital of [[Bratislava county|Bratislava Comitus]]:
:[[1536]]-[[1784]]: capital of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] (whose territory consisted until 1699 of today's Slovakia and parts of today's Western Hungary, because the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] ruled [[Budapest|Buda]] at that time); the Kingdom of Hungary was part of the [[Habsburg]] (i. e. Austrian) Monarchy from [[1526]] to [[1918]]
:[[1542]]-[[1848]]: meeting place of the Hungarian Diet (with short interruptions)
:[[1563]]-[[1830]]: coronation town for Hungarian kings ([[St. Martin's Cathedral]] (picture below))
:since the [[18th century]]: a center of the [[Slovaks|Slovak]] national movement
*[[1919]]-[[1939]]: part of [[Czechoslovakia]]; official new name becomes "Bratislava"- instead of "Prešporok" ([[Slovak language|Slovak]]) /"Pressburg" ([[German language|German]])/ "Pozsony" ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]) in 1919
*[[1939]]-[[1945]]: the capital of [[Slovakia]]
*[[1945]]-[[1992]]: part of [[Czechoslovakia]] again:
:[[1969]]-[[1992]]: the capital of the [[Federal State]] of Slovakia within [[Czechoslovakia]]
*since [[1993]]: the capital of [[Slovakia]]
=== Names of the city ===
The main known '''names''' of the town were as follows:
: 805/7 (maybe): [[List of Latin place names in Europe#Cities and towns in Slovakia|Wratisslaburgium]] ([[Latin]] ''Pisonium'' or ''Posonium'')
: late [[9th century]](?): Braslava (?)(assumed medieval [[Slavic language|Slavic]] form, probably after a Slav prince [[Braslav]])
:around 850 : Istropolis ([[Greek language|Greek]], stems from the [[christianisation]] period, has been later used by king [[Matthias Corvinus]])
:907: Brezalauspurc(h) (the first sure name; found in the Salzburg Annals; according to some sources derived from Braslava&mdash;see above; according to newer sources: derived from the name Predslav, the 3rd son of [[Svätopluk]] - see also after 1001; note that "P" and "B" are very often interchanged in Austrian and Bavarian local and family names as Bavarian accent does not differentiate between them)
:after [[1001]]: Preslav(v)a Civitas ([[Latin]]) (this name has been found only recently on coins)
:[[1002]]: Poson ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] form, probably after the [[9th century]] Slav prince Božan)
:[[1042]]: Brezesburg
:[[1045]]: Bosenburg
|
ffect]]. This provided a reliable and long-lasting source of electricity unaffected by the cold space environment and high radiation fields such as those encountered in Jupiter's magnetosphere.
Each RTG, mounted on a 5-metre long boom, carried 7.8 kilograms (17.2 lb) of <sup>238</sup>Pu [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/messenger/oldmess/RTG.html]. Each RTG contained 18 separate heat source modules, and each module encased four pellets of plutonium dioxide, a [[ceramic]] material resistant to fracturing. The modules were designed to survive a range of hypothetical accidents: launch vehicle explosion or fire, re-entry into the atmosphere followed by land or water impact, and post-impact situations. An outer covering of [[graphite]] provided protection against the structural, thermal, and eroding environments of a potential re-entry. Additional graphite components provided impact protection, while [[iridium]] cladding of the fuel cells provided post-impact containment. The RTGs produced about 570 watts at launch. The power output initially decreased at the rate of 0.6 watts per month and was 493 watts when Galileo arrived at Jupiter.
As the launch of Galileo neared, anti-nuclear groups, concerned over what they perceived as an unacceptable risk to the public safety from Galileo's RTGs, sought a court injunction prohibiting Galileo's launch. In fact, RTGs had been safely used for years before in planetary exploration. The [[Lincoln Experimental Satellite]]s 8/9, launched by the U.S. [[Department of Defense]], had 7% more plutonium on board than Galileo, and the two [[Voyager spacecraft]] each carried 80% as much plutonium as Galileo did.
After the Challenger accident, a study considered additional shielding and eventually rejected it, in part because such a design significantly increased the overall risk of mission failure and only shifted the other risks around (for example, if a failure on orbit had occurred, additional shielding would have significantly increased the consequences of a ground impact) [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/messenger/oldmess/RTG.html].
===Instrumentation overview===
Scientific instruments to measure fields and particles were mounted on the spinning section of the spacecraft, together with the main [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]], power supply, the propulsion module and most of the [[galileo computer]]s and control electronics. The sixteen instruments, weighing 118 kg altogether, included [[magnetometer]] sensors mounted on an 11 m boom to minimize interference from the spacecraft; a [[Plasma physics|plasma]] instrument for detecting low energy charged particles and a plasma wave detector to study waves generated by the particles; a high energy particle detector; and a detector of cosmic and Jovian [[dust]]. It also carried the Heavy Ion Counter, an engineering experiment added to assess the potentially hazardous charged particle environments the spacecraft flew through, and an added Extreme [[Ultraviolet]] detector associated with the UV spectrometer on the scan platform.
The despun section's instruments included the camera system; the near [[infrared]] mapping spectrometer to make multi-spectral images for atmospheric and moon surface chemical analysis; ultraviolet spectrometer to study gases; and photo-polarimeter radiometer to measure radiant and reflected energy. The camera system was designed to obtain images of Jupiter's satellites at resolutions from 20 to 1,000 times better than [[Voyager program|''Voyager'']]'s best, because ''Galileo'' flew closer to the planet and its inner moons and because the [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]] sensor in ''Galileo'''s camera was more sensitive and had a broader color detection band than the [[vidicon]]s of ''Voyager''.
===Instrumentation details===
The following information was taken directly from NASA's Galileo [http://galileo.jpl.nasa.gov/resources.cfm legacy site].
====Despun section====
[[Image:Galileo_spacecraft_instrumentation_high_detail.gif|thumb|right|350px|Highly detailed diagram of ''Galileo'' instruments and subsystems.]]
=====Solid State Imager (SSI)=====
The SSI is an 800 by 800 pixel solid state camera consisting of an array of silicon sensors called a "charge coupled device" ([[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]). The optical portion of the camera is built as a [[Cassegrain telescope]]. Light is collected by the primary mirror and directed to a smaller secondary mirror that channels it through a hole in the center of the primary mirror and onto the CCD. The CCD sensor is shielded from [[radiation]], a particular problem within the harsh Jovian magnetosphere. The shielding is accomplished by means of a 10 mm thick layer of [[tantalum]] surrounding the CCD except where the light enters the system. An eight position filter wheel is used to obtain images at specific wavelenghts. The images are then combined electronically on Earth to produce color images. The spectral response of the SSI ranges from about 0.4 to 1.1 micrometres. The SSI weighs 29.7 kilograms and consumes, on average, 15 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/ssi.html] SSI Imaging Team site:[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/sepo/]
=====Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS)=====
The NIMS instrument is sensitive from 0.7 to 5.2 [[micrometre]] wavelength [[IR]] light, overlapping the wavelength range of SSI. The telescope associated with NIMS is all reflective (uses mirrors and no lenses) with an aperture of 229 mm. The spectrometer of NIMS uses a grating to disperse the light collected by the telescope. The dispersed spectrum of light is focused on detectors of [[indium]] [[antimonide]] and [[silicon]]. The NIMS weighs 18 kilograms and uses 12 watts of power on average. [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/nims.html] NIMS Team site:[http://jumpy.igpp.ucla.edu/~nims/]
=====Ultraviolet Spectrometer / Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS/EUV)=====
The [[Cassegrain telescope]] of the UVS has a 250 mm aperture and collects light from the observation target. Both the UVS and EUV instruments use a ruled [[grating]] to disperse this light for spectral analysis. This light then passes through an exit slit into [[photomultiplier]] tubes that produce pulses or "sprays" of electrons. These electron pulses are counted, and these count numbers are the data that are sent to Earth. The UVS is mounted on the scan platform and can be pointed to an object in inertial space. The EUV is mounted on the spun section of the spacecraft. As Galileo spins, the EUV observes a narrow ribbon of space perpendicular to the spin axis. The two instruments combined weigh about 9.7 kilograms and use 5.9 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/euv.html] EUV Team site:[http://lasp.colorado.edu/galileo/]
=====Photopolarimeter-Radiometer (PPR)=====
The PPR has seven radiometry bands. One of these uses no filters and observes all the radiation, both solar and thermal. Another band lets only solar radiation through. The difference between the solar- plus-thermal and the solar-only channels gives the total thermal radiation emitted. The PPR also measured in five broadband channels that span the spectral range from 17 to 110 micrometres. The radiometer provides data on the temperatures of the Jovian satellites and Jupiter's atmosphere. The design of the instrument is based on that of an instrument flown on the Pioneer Venus spacecraft. A 100 mm aperture reflecting telescope collects light, directs it to a series of filters, and, from there, measurements are performed by the detectors of the PPR. The PPR weighs 5.0 kilograms and consumes about 5 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/ppr.html] PPR Team site:[http://www.lowell.edu/users/ppr/]
====Spun section====
=====Dust Detector Subsystem (DDS)=====
The Dust Detector Subsystem (DDS) was used to measure the mass, electric charge, and velocity of incoming particles. The masses of dust particles that the DDS can detect go from 10<sup>-16</sup> to 10<sup>-7</sup> grams. The speed of these small particles can be measured over the range of 1 to 70 kilometers per second. The instrument can measure impact rates from 1 particle per 115 days (10 megaseconds) to 100 particles per second. These particles will help determine dust origin and dynamics within the [[magnetosphere]]. The DDS weighs 4.2 kilograms and uses an average of 5.4 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/dds.html] DDS Team site:[http://www.mpi-hd.mpg.de/dustgroup/galileo/galileo.html]
=====Energetic Particles Detector (EPD)=====
The energetic particles detector (EPD) is designed to measure the numbers and energies of ions and electrons whose energies exceed about 20 [[keV]] (3.2 fJ). The EPD can also measure the direction of travel of such particles and, in the case of ions, can determine their composition (whether the ion is [[oxygen]] or [[sulfur]], for example). The EPD uses silicon solid state detectors and a [[time-of-flight]] detector system to measure changes in the energetic particle population at Jupiter as a function of position and time. These measurements will tell us how the particles get their energy and how they are transported through Jupiter's magnetosphere. The EPD weighs 10.5 kilograms and uses 10.1 watts of power on average.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/epd.html] EPD Team site:[http://sd-www.jhuapl.edu/Galileo_EPD/]
=====Heavy Ion Counter (HIC)=====
The HIC is really a repackaged and updated version of some parts of the flight spare of the [[Voyager program|Voyager]] Cosmic Ray System. The HIC detects heavy [[ion]]s using stacks of single crystal silicon wafers. The HIC can measure heavy ions with energies as low as 6 MeV (1 pJ) and as high as 200 MeV (32 pJ) per nucleon. This range includes all atomic substances between [[carbon]] and [[nickel]]. The HIC and the EUV share a communications link and, theref |
'' and ''W'' be vector spaces over the same base field ''F''. If ''f'' is a member of ''V''* and ''g'' a member of ''W''*, then ''b''(''v'', ''w'') = ''f''(''v'')''g''(''w'') defines a bilinear operator ''V'' &times; ''W'' &rarr; ''F''.
* The [[cross product|cross product]] in '''R'''<sup>3</sup> is a bilinear operator '''R'''<sup>3</sup> &times; '''R'''<sup>3</sup> &rarr; '''R'''<sup>3</sup>.
* Let ''B'' : ''V'' &times; ''W'' &rarr; ''X'' be a bilinear operator, and ''L'' : ''U'' &rarr; ''W'' be a [[linear operator]], then (''v'', ''u'') &rarr; ''B''(''v'', ''Lu'') is a bilinear operator on ''V'' &times; ''U''
* The [[zero function|null map]], defined by <math>B(v,w) = o</math> for all (''v'',''w'') in ''V''×''W'' is the only map from ''V''×''W'' to ''X'' which is bilinear and linear at the same time. Indeed, if (''v,w'')&isin;''V''×''W'', then if ''B'' is linear, <math>B(v,w)= B(v,o)+B(o,w)=o+o</math> if ''B'' is bilinear.
==See also==
* [[Tensor product]]
* [[Multilinear map]]
* [[Sesquilinear form]]
[[Category:Multilinear algebra]]
[[de:Bilinearform]]
[[he:&#1514;&#1489;&#1504;&#1497;&#1514; &#1489;&#1497;&#1500;&#1497;&#1504;&#1488;&#1512;&#1497;&#1514;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blind Blake</title>
<id>4366</id>
<revision>
<id>37149263</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T01:11:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Revolución</username>
<id>274482</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[Category:Jacksonvillians]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:blindblake.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Blind Blake]]
''' "Blind" Blake''' (born Arthur Blake, circa [[1893]], [[Jacksonville, Florida]]; died: circa [[1933]]) was an influential [[blues]] singer and [[guitarist]]. He is often called "The King Of Ragtime Guitar".
Blind Blake recorded about 80 tracks for [[Paramount Records]] in the late [[1920s]] and early [[1930s]]. He was one of the most accomplished [[guitar]]ists of his genre with a surprisingly diverse range of material. His complex and intricate fingerpicking has inspired [[Reverend Gary Davis]], [[Jorma Kaukonen]], [[Ry Cooder]], [[Ralph Mctell]] and many others. He is most known for his distinct guitar sound that was comparable in sound and style to a [[ragtime]] piano.
Very little is known about his life. His birthplace was listed as Jacksonville, Florida by Paramount Records but even that is in dispute. Nothing is known of his death. Even his name is not certain. The copyright submissions for his songs use some variation on '''Blind Arthur Blake''' although there is a suggestion that his real name was '''Arthur Phelps'''.
His first recordings were made in [[1926]] and his records sold well. His first solo record was ''Early Morning Blues'' with ''West Coast Blues'' on the B-side. Both are excellent examples of his style. Blake made his last recordings in 1932, the end of his career aided by Paramount's bankruptcy. It is often said that the later recordings have much less sparkle and, allegedly, Blind Blake was drinking heavily in his later years. It is likely that this lead to his early death.
It should be noted that on a few records where white jazz guitarist [[Eddie Lang]] sat in with [[African American]] groups, the [[record label|record companies]] listed Lang as "Blind Blake". Most of those recordings, principally with Lonnie Johnson gave Lang the name Blind Willy Dunn.
There is only one photograph of Blind Blake in existence.
[[Category:1893 births|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:1933 deaths|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:African American musicians|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:American blues singers|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:American guitarists|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:American male singers|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:Blind musicians|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:Jacksonvillians|Blake, Blind]]
[[de:Blind Blake]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brian Lara</title>
<id>4367</id>
<revision>
<id>41624160</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:28:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen Turner</username>
<id>132007</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix ungrammatical edits</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Cricketer |
flag = West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png |
nationality = West Indian |
country = West Indies |
country abbrev = WI |
name = Brian Lara |
picture = cricket_no_pic.png |
batting style = Left-handed batsman (LHB) |
bowling style = [[leg spin|leg break]] [[googly]] (LBG) |
tests = 121 |
test runs = 11204 |
test bat avg = 53.86 |
test 100s/50s = 31/46 |
test top score = 400* |
test overs = 10 |
test wickets = 0 |
test bowl avg = ''n/a'' |
test 5s = 0 |
test 10s = 0 |
test best bowling = ''n/a'' |
test catches/stumpings = 148/0 |
ODIs = 259 |
ODI runs = 9359 |
ODI bat avg = 41.41 |
ODI 100s/50s = 19/57 |
ODI top score = 169 |
ODI overs = 8.1 |
ODI wickets = 4 |
ODI bowl avg = 15.25 |
ODI 5s = 0 |
ODI best bowling = 2/5 |
ODI catches/stumpings = 148/0 |
date = 29 November |
year = 2005 |
source = http://www.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/WI/L/LARA_BC_04001982/
}}
'''Brian Charles Lara''' (born [[May 2]], [[1969]]) ([[List of nicknames used in cricket|nicknamed]] "The Prince"} is a [[West Indian cricket team|West Indian]] [[cricketer]]. Lara is acknowledged as one of the world's greatest [[Batsman|batsmen]], having several times topped the [[Test cricket|Test]] batting [[LG ICC cricket ratings|rankings]] and being the current world record holder for the [[List of Test cricket triple centuries|highest individual innings score]].
Lara has shown an almost unparalleled ability to build massive [[innings]], and holds several world records for high scoring. He has the highest individual score in both [[first-class cricket]] (501 [[not out]] for [[Warwickshire County Cricket Club|Warwickshire]] against [[Durham County Cricket Club|Durham]] in 1994) and [[Test cricket]] (400 not out for the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]] against [[English cricket team|England]] in 2004). He also holds the record for the highest total number of runs in a Test career, after overtaking [[Allan Border]] in November 2005. He is the only man to have reclaimed the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in 1994, a record that stood until [[Matthew Hayden]]'s 380 against [[Zimbabwean cricket team|Zimbabwe]] in 2003. His 400 not out also made him the second player after [[Donald Bradman|Don Bradman]] to score two Test triple-centuries, and the second after [[Bill Ponsford]] to score two first-class quadruple-centuries. He has scored eight double centuries in Test cricket, second only to Bradman's twelve.
Lara captained the West Indies from [[1997]] to [[1999]]. He was reappointed as captain against the touring [[Australian cricket team|Australians]] in [[2003]], and struck 110 in his first Test match back in charge, showing signs of him returning to his best. In September 2004, West Indies won the ICC Champions Trophy in England under his captaincy and seemed to have finally started their comeback from years of poor performance.
In March 2005, Lara, along with six other senior players, was dropped by the West Indies Cricket Board from the West Indies team over their personal [[Cable & Wireless (Caribbean)|Cable & Wireless]] sponsorship deals, which clashed with the Cricket Board's main sponsor, [[Digicel]]. The issue was resolved after the first Test of the series against the touring [[South African cricket team|South African team]]. Lara returned to the team for the second Test (and scored a huge first innings score of 196), but in the process lost his captaincy indefinitely to the newly-appointed [[Shivnarine Chanderpaul]]. In the next Test, against the same opponents, he scored a majestic 176 in the first innings, which was hailed by many as one of his best innings in recent years. After an indifferent one day series against South Africa, he once again established himself as one of the leading batsmen of the modern era when he scored his first Test century against the visiting Pakistanis in the first Test at [[Kensington Oval]], [[Bridgetown]], [[Barbados]].
==Biography==
Brian was born in Cantaro, [[Santa Cruz, Trinidad and Tobago|Santa Cruz]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. He is 10th in a family of 11 children. His dad Bunty Lara passed away in 1988. His mother Pearl Lara suffered from cancer and died in January 2002. He is also the father of an eight-year-old daughter called Sydney with Trinidadian model [[Leasel Rovedas]].
From an early age, Lara showed precocious talent. His father Bunty and one of his older sisters were first to recognize young Brian's exceptional batting talents and enrolled him in the local Harvard Coaching Clinic only at the age of six for weekly coaching sessions on Sundays. As a result, Lara had a very early education in proper batting techniques.
Lara's first school was St. Josephs Roman Catholic primary. Then he went to San Juan secondary, but played no cricket there. A year later, fourteen years old, he moved on to Fatima College. He moved in with his fellow Trinidadian Test player [[Michael Carew]] in [[Woodbrook, Trinidad and Tobago|Woodbrook]], [[Port of Spain]] (a 20 minute drive from Santa Cruz). Michael's dad [[Joey Carew]] was very instrumental in his cricketing & personal career development. Michael got Lara his first job at the [[House of Angostura|Angostura Ltd.]] in Marketing department. Lara played in Trinidad and Tobago junior soccer and table tennis sides, but cricket was always the path to recognition in Trinidad in those times. Lara wanted to emulate his idols: [[Gordon Greenidge]], [[Viv Richards]] and the left-handed [[Roy Fredericks]].
Lara began his cricket career while at |
in German with some English texts]
* [http://health.dailynewscentral.com/content/view/0001478/31//alcohol_tolerance_genetic.html Alcohol Tolerance May Be Genetic] health.dailynewscentral.com
* [http://www.lifewisewa.com/pdfs/012695.pdf CAGE Questionnaire (PDF)]
* [http://www.alcoholics-anonymous.org/ Alcoholics Anonymous]
* [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/DrinkTooMuch.html Drink Too Much?]
* [http://www.drugrehab101.com/directory.html Alcohol treatment centers]
* [http://www.unhooked.com/ LifeRing Secular Recovery]
* [http://www.nicd.us/ NICD: Alcoholism/addiction resources, treatment locator, family assistance and help]
* [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/Controversies/1109212610.html Alcoholics can Drink in Moderation]
==References==
# Tonnesen H, Hejberg L, Frobenius S, Andersen JR. Erythrocyte mean cell volume--correlation to drinking pattern in heavy alcoholics. Acta Med Scand. 1986;219(5):515-8. ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=3739755&dopt=Abstract Medline abstract])
# Schwan R, Albuisson E, Malet L, Loiseaux MN, Reynaud M, Schellenberg F, Brousse G, Llorca PM. The use of biological laboratory markers in the diagnosis of alcohol misuse: an evidence-based approach. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004 Jun 11;74(3):273-9. ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15194205 Medline abstract])
# Ewing, John A. “Detecting Alcoholism: The CAGE Questionnaire” JAMA 252: 1905-1907, 1984
# U.S Supreme Court, Traynor v Turnage, 485 U.S 353 (1988) at 535-550
# 253 U.S Appellate District Court at 132-133
[[Category:Alcohol_abuse]]
[[Category:Drinking culture]]
[[Category:Social stigma]]
[[ca:Alcoholisme]]
[[cs:Alkoholismus]]
[[da:Alkoholisme]]
[[de:Alkoholkrankheit]]
[[es:Alcoholismo]]
[[eo:Alkoholismo]]
[[fr:Alcoolisme]]
[[ko:술 중독]]
[[is:Alkóhólismi]]
[[it:Alcolismo]]
[[he:אלכוהוליזם]]
[[jv:Alkoholisme]]
[[nl:Alcoholisme]]
[[ja:アルコール依存症]]
[[no:Alkoholisme]]
[[pl:Alkoholizm]]
[[pt:Alcoolismo]]
[[ru:Алкоголизм]]
[[sk:Alkoholizmus]]
[[sl:Alkoholizem]]
[[fi:Alkoholismi]]
[[sv:Alkoholism]]
[[vi:Chứng nghiện rượu]]
[[tr:Alkolizm]]
[[zh:酗酒]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>African Regional Intellectual Property Organization</title>
<id>2966</id>
<revision>
<id>39591331</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T14:34:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.173.88.59</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[Africa]]n Regional [[Intellectual Property]] Organization''' ('''ARIPO'''), formerly '''African Regional Industrial Property Organization''', is an intergovernmental international organization established to enable cooperation between African states in [[patent]] and other industrial property matters. It has the capacity to hear applications for patents and registered [[trademark]]s in its member states who are parties to the Harare (patents) and Banjul (marks) protocols. It has the [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]] ST.3 code AP.
Its 15 member states are mostly [[English language|English]]-speaking countries.
The name of the organization changed from ''African Regional Industrial Property Organization'' to ''African Regional Intellectual Property Organization'' in 2005.
==See also==
* ''[[Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle]]'' (OAPI)
==External links==
*[http://www.aripo.org Official website]
*[http://www.aripo.wipo.net/membership.html List of members]
{{africa-stub}}
[[Category:Intellectual property organizations]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle</title>
<id>2968</id>
<revision>
<id>15901346</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-13T07:25:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Edcolins</username>
<id>51336</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>ARIPO changed its name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle''''' or '''OAPI''' ([[English language|English]]: '''African Intellectual Property Organization''') is an [[intellectual property organization]], headquartered in [[Cameroon]]. The organisation was created by [[Bangui]] Agreement of [[March 2]], [[1977]].
Its 16 member states are mostly [[French language|French]]-speaking countries.
==See also==
* [[African Regional Intellectual Property Organization]] (ARIPO)
==External links==
*[http://www.oapi.wipo.net/ Official website]
*[http://www.oapi.wipo.net/en/about/history.html History and list of members states]
*[http://www.oapi.wipo.net/en/textes/pdf/accord_bangui.pdf Bangui Agreement]
{{africa-stub}}
[[Category:Intellectual property organizations]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aurora borealis</title>
<id>2969</id>
<revision>
<id>15901347</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-12T20:11:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Curps</username>
<id>44727</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aurora (astronomy)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aurora australis</title>
<id>2970</id>
<revision>
<id>42131137</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:51:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kingboyk</username>
<id>411305</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirect, most if not all incoming links (including from a featured picture listed on the FRONT PAGE) are for the aurora, not the boat. A 2 entry dab is not necessary imho.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aurora (astronomy)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abstraction in object-oriented programming</title>
<id>2971</id>
<revision>
<id>15901349</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-02T00:41:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TakuyaMurata</username>
<id>6707</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge it to abstraction in computer science</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[abstraction (computer science)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abstraction</title>
<id>2972</id>
<revision>
<id>39912483</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T19:52:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rodasmith</username>
<id>291611</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the concept of '''abstraction''' in general. For other senses of the word "abstract", see [[abstract]].}}
<!--
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An '''abstraction''' is an idea, conceptualization, or word for the collection of qualities that identify the [[#Referents|referent]] of a word used to describe [[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]] [[Object (philosophy)|objects]] or [[phenomenon|phenomena]]. For example, the abstraction ''applehood'' could be the collection of qualities that might characterize the referent of the word "apple" in the phrase "the apple on the table".
==Thought process==
In [[philosophy|philosophical terminology]], ''abstraction'' is the [[Thinking|thought process]] wherein [[idea]]s are distanced from [[Object (philosophy)|object]]s.
Abstraction uses a [[strategy]] of simplification, wherein formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective [[communication]] about things in the abstract requires an [[intuitive]] or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient.
[[Image:JerryFelix.JPG|right|thumb|100px|Cat on Mat ''(picture 1)'']]
For example, many different things can be [[red]]. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces (as in ''picture 1'', to the right). The property of ''[[red]]ness'' and the [[relation]] ''[[Sitting|sitting-on]]'' are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual diagram ''graph 1'' identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and their nine labels), whereas the ''picture 1'' shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph.
''Graph 1'' details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For example the arrow between the ''agent'' and ''CAT:Elsie'' depicts an example of an ''[[is-a]]'' relationship, as does the arrow between the ''location'' and the ''MAT''. The arrows between the [[gerund]] ''SITTING'' and the [[noun]]s ''agent'' and ''location'' express the [[diagram]]'s basic relationship; ''"agent is SITTING on location"''; ''Elsie'' is an instance of ''CAT''.
[[Image:Cat-on-mat.GIF|thumb|250px|[[Conceptual graph]] for A Cat sitting on the Mat ''(graph 1)'']]
Although the description ''sitting-on'' (graph 1) is more abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat (picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in [[Douglas R. Hofstadter]]'s illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach]]'' (1979):
<blockquote>
(1) a publication
:(2) a newspaper
::(3) ''The San Francisco Chronicle''
:::(4) the May 18 edition of the ''Chronicle''
::::(5) my copy of the May 18 edition of the ''Chronicle''
:::::(6) my copy of the May 18 edition of the ''Chronicle'' as it was when I first picked it up (as contrasted with my copy as it was a few days later: in my fireplace, burning)
</blockquote>
An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/scientist might seek to learn ab |
de>s ? write(find("the"))</code>
is a short form of the examples shown earlier. In this case the ''subject'' of the <code>find</code> function is placed outside the parameters in front of the question-mark. Icon functions are deliberately (as opposed to automatically) written to identify the subject in parameter lists and allow them to be pulled out in this fashion.
==Other structures==
Icon strings are simply lists of characters, similar to their partners in C. Icon also allows the user to easily construct their own lists (or ''arrays''):
<code>aCat := ["muffins", "tabby", 2002, 8]</code>
The items within a list can be of any sort, including other structures. To quickly build larger lists, Icon includes the <code>list</code> generator; <code>i := list(10, "word")</code> generates a list containing 10 copies of "word".
Like arrays in other languages, Icon allows items to be looked up by position; <code>weight := aCat[4]</code>. Also remember the bang-syntax, <code>every write(!aCat)</code> will print out four lines, each with one element. Icon includes stack-like functions, <code>push</code> and <code>pop</code> to allow them to form the basis of stacks and queues.
Icon also includes functionality for sets and tables (known as ''hashes'', ''associative arrays'', ''dictionaries'', etc.), but the syntax for creating them is not as nice as a list:
<code>
symbols := table(0)
symbols["there"] := 1
symbols["here"] := 2
</code>
This code creates a table that will use zero as the default value of any unknown key. It then adds two items into it, with the keys "there" and "here", and values 1 and 2. Note that most modern scripting languages combine lists and tables into a single feature, allowing the user to look up items by position or name, if it has one. This change would seem to clean up the Icon syntax as well.
== References ==
The definitive work is ''The Icon Programming Language'' (third edition) by Griswold and Griswold, ISBN 1-57398-001-3.
It is out of print but can be [http://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/books.htm downloaded] in PDF form.
== See also ==
*[[Unicon programming language]] (a descendant)
==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Programming:Icon}}
* [http://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/index.htm Icon homepage]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:SNOBOL programming language family]]
[[Category:Text-oriented programming languages]]
[[Category:Public domain software]]
[[ko:아이콘 프로그래밍 언어]]
[[ja:Icon言語]]
[[pl:Icon]]
[[pt:Icon]]
[[ru:Icon]]
[[sv:Programspråket Icon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iconology</title>
<id>14802</id>
<revision>
<id>15912335</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-27T23:16:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gtrmp</username>
<id>38984</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merged into [[iconography]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[iconography]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indian massacres</title>
<id>14804</id>
<revision>
<id>41967075</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:00:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.74.168.116</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* List of massacres */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In the long history of the [[British colonization of the Americas|English colonization of North America]], the term "'''Indian massacre'''" was often used to describe mass killings of [[European-American]]s ("whites") by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] ("Indians"), and, less frequently, mass killings of American Indians by whites. In theory, ''massacre'' applied to the killing of [[civilian]] [[noncombatant]]s or to the summary execution of [[prisoners-of-war]]. In practice, the label was often haphazardly applied, rarely without [[bias]], and was sometimes used to describe an overwhelming (though [[laws of war|lawful]]) military defeat. Similarly, massacres were sometimes mislabeled "[[battle]]s" in an attempt to give legitimacy to what would today be considered a [[war crime]].
Determining how many people died in these massacres overall is difficult. In the book ''The Wild Frontier: Atrocities during the American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee'', amateur historian William M. Osborn sought to tally every recorded [[atrocity]] in the area that would eventually become the continental [[United States]], from first contact ([[1511]]) to the closing of the frontier ([[1890]]), and determined that 9,156 people died from atrocities perpetrated by Native Americans, and 7,193 people died from atrocities perpetrated by whites. Osborn defines an atrocity as the murder, torture, or mutilation of civilians, the wounded and prisoners. Different definitions would obviously produce different totals. For example, Osborn does not count Indian deaths on the [[Trail of Tears]] (because these were allegedly unintentional), but he does count several episodes of post-mortem mutilation, even of combatants killed in open battle. Osborn's exact total of 16,349 killed on both sides can therefore be disputed.
Neither side stands out as being more merciful or humane than the other. Both sides collected [[scalping|scalps]] and scrota as trophies. Both sides raped. Both sides would promise safe conduct to defeated enemies or non-combatants, and then massacre them as soon as they let their guard down. Both sides attacked easy targets (such as peaceful-- even friendly--villages and settlements) as retaliation for hostile acts by totally unrelated war bands and militia units.
==List of massacres==
Here is a list of the larger or more widely known events, named as massacres, in North America:
*[[March 22]], [[1622]] - [[Jamestown Massacre]] - Powhatans kill 347 English settlers throughout the Virginia colony.
*[[May 26]], [[1637]] - In the [[Pequot War]], English colonists, with [[Mohegan]] and [[Narragansett (tribe)|Narragansett]] allies, attack a large [[Pequot]] village on the Mystic River in what is now [[Connecticut]] and kill perhaps 500 villagers.
*[[February 8]], [[1690]] - French and [[Iroquois]] destroy [[Schenectady]], NY, killing 60, including 10 women and 12-17 children.
*[[February 29]], [[1704]] - [[Deerfield Massacre]] - Deerfield, [[Massachusetts]] - As an action during [[Queen Anne's War]], a force comprised of [[Abenaki]], [[Kanienkehaka]], [[Wyandot]], and [[Pocumtuck]] Indians, led by a small contingent of French-Canadian miltia, sacked the town of Deerfield, Massachutsetts, killing fifty-six civilians and taking dozens more as captives.
*August [[1757]] - 70-180 British and colonial prisoners killed by Indian allies of the French after the fall of [[Fort William Henry]].
*[[July 3]], [[1778]] - [[Wyoming Valley Massacre]] - Occurred during the [[American Revolutionary War]] - although the great majority of those killed were in legitimate battle, a number of those that had surrendered were killed by natives allied to the [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] forces. For [[propoganda]] purposes, the entire battle was claimed as a massacre by [[Patriot (American Revolution)|rebels]].
*[[August 31]], [[1778]] - [http://www.americanrevolution.org/ind3.html Stockbridge Indian Massacre] - a battle of the [[American Revolutionary War]] that was claimed as a massacre by rebels for propoganda purposes.
*[[November 11]], [[1778]] - [[Cherry Valley Massacre]], New York - over 30 settlers killed.
*[[March 8th]], [[1782]] - [[Gnadenhutten massacre]] - in the final stages of the [[American Revolutionary War]], nearly 100 noncombatant Christian [[Lenape|Delaware (Lenape)]] Indians (mostly women and children) are killed one at a time (with a hammer blow to the head) by Pennsylvania militiamen.
*[[January 22nd]], [[1813]] - [[River Raisin Massacre]] - 30-60 Kentucky militia killed after surrendering.
* [[August 30]], [[1813]] - [[Fort Mims Massacre]] - A band of [[Red Sticks]], one of several warring factions of the [[Creek people|Creek]] Nation (see [[Creek Civil War]]), retaliates for his defeat at the [[Battle of Burnt Corn]] by sacking a militia post at [[Fort Mims]], [[Alabama]]. Over four hundred civilians were killed by the Indians, taking some 250 scalps. This action precipitated the [[Creek War]].
* [[Spring (season)|Spring]] [[1817]] - [[Battle of Claremore Mound]] - [[Cherokee]] Indians wiped out Chief Clermont's band of [[Osage]] Indians at [[Claremore Mound]], [[Indian Territory]].
*[[April 22]], [[1818]] - [[Chehaw]] Affair - United States troops attack a non-hostile village during [[Seminole Wars|First Seminole War]], killing an estimated ten to fifty men, women, and children.
*[[May 20]], [[1832]] - [[Indian Creek Massacre]] - American Indians, mainly [[Potawatomi]], killed fifteen men, women and children and kidnapped two girls.
*August 1-2 [[1832]] - [[Black Hawk War]] - about 300 men, women, and children are slaughtered at the [[Battle of Bad Axe]], in [[Wisconsin]] by white soldiers.
*[[Spring (season)|Spring]] [[1833]] - [[Cutthroat Gap Massacre]] - [[Osage]] Indians wiped out the [[Kiowa]] village of Chief Islandman in [[Indian Territory]].
*[[May 19th]], [[1836]] - [[Fort Parker Massacre]] - 6 men killed by a mixed group of Native Americans in [[Limestone County, Texas]]
*[[October 5]], [[1838]] - [[Killough Massacre]] - 18 members of the Killough extended family, one of the last massacres in Texas
*[[November 29th]] [[1847]] - [[Whitman massacre]] in [[Walla Walla, Washington]]
*[[August 17th]] [[1854]] - Kaibai Creek, California - 42 [[Winnemem Wintu]] men, women, and children are killed by white settlers
*[[August 17th]] [[1855]] - [[Grattan Massacre]], [[Brule]] [[Sioux]] in [[Nebraska Territory]].
*[[February 26] |
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