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Summary Party| |party = Rock 'n' Roll Loony Party |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 2,634 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = ''N/A'' }} {{Template:Election Summary Party| |party = National Front (UK) |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 2,484 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = 0.0% }} {{Template:Election Summary Party| |party = Workers Party (Ireland) |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 2,352 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = 0.0% }} {{Template:Election Summary| |party = [[Neath Port Talbot Ratepayers Association|Neath Port Talbot Ratepayers]] |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 1,960 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = ''N/A'' }} {{Template:Election Summary Party| |party = Northern Ireland Unionist Party |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 1,794 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = ''N/A'' }} {{Template:Election Summary Party| |party = Socialist Party (England and Wales) |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 1,454 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = 0.0% }} {{Template:Election Summary| |party = [[Reform 2000 Party|Reform 2000]] |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 1,418 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = ''N/A'' }} {{Template:Election Summary| |party = [[Isle of Wight Party|Isle of Wight]] |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 1,164 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = ''N/A'' }} {{Template:Election Summary| |party = [[Muslim Party|Muslim]] |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 1,150 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = ''N/A'' }} {{Template:Election Summary Party| |party = Communist Party of Britain |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 1,003 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = 0.0% }} {{Template:Election Summary| |party = [[New Britain Party|New Britain]] |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 888 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = 0.0% }} {{Template:Election Summary| |party = [[Free Party]] |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 832 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = ''N/A'' }} {{Template:Election Summary| |party = [[Leeds Left Alliance|Left Alliance]] |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 770 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = ''N/A'' }} {{Template:Election Summary| |party = [[New Millennium Bean Party]] |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 727 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = ''N/A'' }} {{Template:Election Summary Party| |party = Workers Revolutionary Party |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 607 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = 0.0% }} {{Template:Election Summary| |party = [[Tatton Group|Tatton]] |seats = 0 |gain = 0 |loss = 0 |net = 0 |votes = 505 |votes % = 0.0 |seats % = 0.0 |plus/minus = ''N/A'' }} |} ''Total votes cast: 26,368,204. All parties with more than 500 votes shown.'' ''The seat gains reflect changes on the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 general election result]]. Two seats had changed hands in by-elections in the intervening period. These were as follows:'' * ''[[Romsey]] from [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] to [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]. This seat stayed Liberal Democrat in 2001.'' * ''[[South Antrim (constituency)|South Antrim]] from [[Ulster Unionist Party|Ulster Unionists]] to [[Democratic Unionist Party|Democratic Unionists]]. This seat reverted to the Ulster Unionists in 2001.'' {{British elections}} ==See also== * [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2001]] * [[2001 UK foot and mouth crisis]] ==Manifestos== *[http://www.labour-party.org.uk/manifestos/2001/2001-labour-manifesto.shtml Labour (Ambitions for Britain)] *[http://www.conservative-party.net/manifestos/2001/2001-conservative-manifesto.shtml Conservative (Time for Common Sense)] *[http://www.libdemmanifesto.com/2001/2001-liberal-manifesto.shtml Liberal Democrat (Freedom, Justice, Honesty)] *[http://www.ukip.org.uk/manifestos/2001/ UK Independence Party] ==External links== *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/vote2001/ BBC News: Vote 2001] - in depth coverage. [[Category:2001 elections]] [[Category:United Kingdom general elections|2001]] [[de:Britische Unterhauswahlen 2001]] [[sv:Parlamentsvalet i Storbritannien 2001]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Biblical canon</title> <id>3976</id> <revision> <id>42158853</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:14:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Guanaco</username> <id>47960</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>clean up and bypass unambiguous redirects using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Biblical canon''' is an exclusive list of [[book]]s written during the formative period of the [[Judaism|Jewish]] or [[Christianity|Christian]] [[faith]]s; the leaders of these communities believed these books to be inspired by [[God]] or to express the authoritative history of the relationship between God and his people (although there may have been secondary considerations as well). There are [[Judaism and Christianity|differences between Christians and Jews]], as well as between different [[List of Christian denominations|Christian traditions]], over which books meet the standards for canonization. The different criteria for, and the process of, canonization for each community dictates what members of that community consider to be their [[Bible]]. At this time, all of the below canons are considered to be ''closed''; that is, most adherents of the various groups do not think that additional books can be added to their Bible. By contrast, an ''open'' canon would be a list of books which is considered to be open to additional books, should they meet the other criteria. Each of the canons described below was considered open for a time before being closed. Generally, the closure of the canon reflects a belief from the faith community that the formative period of the religion has ended, and that texts from that period can be collected into an authoritative body of work. Certain Christian churches (such as the [[Latter-day Saints]]) which accept a Bible as part of their formally adopted sacred [[literature]] may also include other works in the totality of their canon, but they generally do not consider those other works to be part of their Bible. See [[Sacred text]] for examples. The relationship between the closing of the canon and beliefs about the nature of [[revelation]] may be subject to different interpretations. Some believe that the closing of the canon signals the end of a period of divine revelation; others believe that revelation continues even after the canon is closed, either through individuals or through the leadership of a divinely sanctioned religious institution. Among those who believe that revelation continues after the canon is closed, there is further debate about what kinds of revelation is possible, and whether the revelation can add to established [[theology]]. ==Canonic texts in Jewish and Christian traditions== Traditionally more open to discussion and editorial interpretation is the concept of a '''canonic text''', that is, a single, authoritative text for each of the books in the canon, one which depends on editorial selections from among manuscript traditions that had been independent of one another. Significant separate manuscript traditions in the canonic [[Hebrew Bible]] are represented in the [[Septuagint]] translation's variants from the [[Masoretic|Masoretic text]] that was established through the Masoretes' scholarly collation of varying manuscripts, and in the independent manuscript traditions that are represented by the [[Dead Sea scrolls]]. Additional, otherwise unrecorded texts for ''Genesis'' and the early chapters of ''Exodus'' lie behind the [[Book of Jubilees]]. These, and the Dead Sea Scrolls themselves, emphasize that even canonic Hebrew texts did not possess any single hard and fast ''authorized'' manuscript tradition, in the first centuries BCE. [[New Testament]] Greek and Latin texts presented enough significant differences that a manuscript tradition arose of presenting ''diglot'' texts, with Greek and Latin on facing pages. [[Jerome]]'s [[Vulgate]] was a successful attempt at establishing a canonic text, one that passed without challenge until the [[Humanism|humanist]] textual inquiries of the 15th and 16th centuries. == Jewish canon == :''See also:'' [[Tanakh]] The [[Jew]]s recognize the twenty-four books of the [[Hebrew Bible]] as the Tanakh. Evidence suggests that the process of canonization of the Tanakh occurred between [[200 BCE]] and [[200|200 CE]]. The first suggestion of a Jewish Canon comes in the [[2nd century BCE]]. The book of [[2 Maccabees]], itself not a part of the Jewish canon, describes [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] (around [[400 BCE]]) as having &quot;founded a library and collected boo
n Starling]]s, and [[House Finch]]es are similarly widespread. Other birds have long been used by humans to perform tasks. For example, [[Rock Dove|Homing pigeons]] were used to carry messages before the advent of modern instant communications methods (many are still kept for sport). [[Falcon]]s are still used for hunting, while [[cormorant]]s are employed by fishermen. [[Chicken]]s and [[pigeon]]s are popular as experimental subjects, and are often used in [[biology]] and [[comparative psychology]] research. As birds are very sensitive to toxins, the [[Canary]] was used in [[coal mines]] to indicate the presence of poisonous gases, allowing miners sufficient time to escape without injury. Colorful, particularly tropical, birds (e.g., [[Parrot (family)|parrot]]s, and [[mynah]]s) are often kept as [[pet]]s although this practice has led to the illegal [[smuggling|trafficking]] of some endangered species; [[CITES]], an international agreement adopted in 1963, has considerably reduced trafficking in the bird species it protects. Bird diseases that can be contracted by humans include [[psittacosis]], [[salmonellosis]], [[campylobacteriosis]], Newcastle's disease, mycobacteriosis (avian [[tuberculosis]]), [[avian influenza]], [[giardiasis]], and [[cryptosporidiosis]]. ==Trivia== *To preen or groom their feathers, birds use their bills to brush away foreign particles. *The birds of a region are called the '''[[avifauna]]'''. *Few birds use chemical defences against predators. [[Tubenose]]s can eject an unpleasant [[stomach oil|oil]] against an aggressor, and some species of [[pitohui]], found in [[New Guinea]], secrete a powerful [[neurotoxin]] in their feathers. *The [[Latin]] word for bird is '''avis'''. The recent [[Avian_flu|avian flu]] outbreaks are named so after the adjectival form. ==See also== * [[Anting (bird activity)|Anting]] * ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' * [[Avian pallium]] * [[Bird flight]] * [[Bird hybrid]] * [[Bird intelligence]] * [[Bird observatory]] * [[Bird migration]] * [[Bird ringing]] (banding) * [[Bird skeleton]] * [[Birdfeeding]] * [[Birding]] * [[Carinatae]] * [[Conservation status]] * [[The biology of eggs|Egg biology]] * [[Extinct birds]] * [[List of birds]] * [[List of regional bird lists|regional and country bird lists]] * [[Longisquama]] * [[Oology]] * [[Ornithology]] * [[Prehistoric bird]]s Bird families and [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] discussion are given in [[list of birds]] and [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]]. == References and external links == {{sisterlinks|Bird}} {{Wikispecies|Aves}} {{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Aves}} &lt;!-- Please note Wikipedia is not a repository of links! Only include major international, non-commercial external links --&gt; *[http://www.bsc-eoc.org/avibase/avibase.jsp?lang=EN&amp;pg=home Avibase - The World Bird Database] *[http://www.bird-hybrids.com/engine.php?LA=En Bird Hybrids Database - Search by bird name, use Sibley classification] *[http://www.i-o-c.org/IOComm/index.htm International Ornithological Committee] *[http://www.birdlife.org/ Birdlife International] - Dedicated to bird conservation worldwide; has a database with about 250,000 records on endangered bird species *[http://birdingonthe.net/ Birdingonthe.net] *[http://www.surfbirds.com/ Surfbirds Birdwatching and World Birding] *[http://worldtwitch.com/ Worldtwitch - rare bird news around the world] *[http://www.birdforum.net/ BirdForum] {{Link FA|bg}} {{Link FA|sl}} [[Category:Chordates]] [[Category:Birds|*]] [[Category:Ornithology]] [[af:Voël]] [[ast:Páxaru]] [[bg:Птици]] [[bo:བྱ་]] [[ca:Ocell]] [[chr:ᏥᏍᏆ]] [[cs:Ptáci]] [[cy:Aderyn]] [[da:Fugl]] [[de:Vögel]] [[et:Linnud]] [[es:Ave]] [[eo:Birdoj]] [[fa:پرنده]] [[fr:Oiseau]] [[fy:Fûgels]] [[gl:Paxaro]] [[ko:새]] [[hr:Ptice]] [[io:Ucelo]] [[id:Burung]] [[is:Fugl]] [[it:Aves]] [[he:עופות]] [[kw:Edhen]] [[ku:Çûk]] [[la:Avis]] [[lt:Paukščiai]] [[li:Veugel]] [[hu:Madár]] [[ms:Burung]] [[nah:Tototl]] [[nl:Vogels]] [[nds:Vagel]] [[ja:鳥類]] [[no:Fugler]] [[nn:Fugl]] [[pl:Ptaki]] [[pt:Aves]] [[ru:Птицы]] [[scn:Aceddi]] [[simple:Bird]] [[sk:Vták]] [[sl:Ptič]] [[sr:Птице]] [[fi:Linnut]] [[sv:Fåglar]] [[ta:பறவை]] [[th:นก]] [[vi:Chim]] [[tr:Kuşlar]] [[uk:Птахи]] [[zh:鸟]] [[chy:Ve'kese]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>...Baby One More Time</title> <id>3411</id> <revision> <id>41650127</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:18:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kenzo91</username> <id>1007424</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Track listing */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the album. For the song see &quot;[[...Baby One More Time (song)]].&quot;}} {{Album infobox | Name = …Baby One More Time | Type = [[Album (music)|Album]] | Artist = [[Britney Spears]] | Cover = BritneySpears-BabyOneMoreTime.jpg | Background = Orange | Released = [[January 12]], [[1999]] &lt;small&gt;([[U.S.]])&lt;/small&gt;| Recorded = [[1998]] | Genre = [[Pop music|Pop]] | Length = 42:20 | Label = [[Jive Records|Jive]] | Producer = [[Max Martin]] | Reviews = &lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;''[[All Music Guide|AMG]]'' (4/5) [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:u0jm7i51g71r~T1 Link]&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;''[[Rolling Stone]]'' (2/5) [http://www.rollingstone.com/reviews/album?id=106495 link]&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;''[[New Musical Express|NME]]'' (1/10) [http://www.nme.com/reviews/853.htm link]&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;| *''[[All Music Guide]]'' (4/5) [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:mu508q9mbtm4~T1 link] | Last album = -| This album = '''''…Baby One More Time'''''&lt;br&gt;(1999) | Next album = ''[[Oops!... I Did It Again]]''&lt;br&gt;(2000) |}} '''''...Baby One More Time''''' is the [[debut album]] from [[United States of America|American]] [[pop music|pop]] [[singer]] [[Britney Spears]]. It was released on [[January 12]], [[1999]], in the U.S. and was principally produced by [[Max Martin]] and [[Rami]] (and was largely composed by the former). The [[...Baby One More Time (song)|title track]], which is her most successful single to date, is generally considered Spears' [[signature song]]. Although she herself had very minimal artistic input with this record, it is her best-selling album both in the U.S. and internationally and propelled the then-seventeen-year-old to superstardom during the year of its release. Although the critical response to the album was lukewarm, ''...Baby One More Time'' was a huge commercial success. It debuted at number one in both the U.S. and [[Canada]], and reached the top ten in many other countries. The record has been certified [[RIAA certification|14x Platinum]] in the U.S. (making it one of the top fifty best-selling albums of all-time domestically) and has sold over twenty-five million copies worldwide. ==Track listing== # &quot;[[...Baby One More Time (song)|…Baby One More Time]]&quot; # &quot;[[(You Drive Me) Crazy]]&quot; # &quot;[[Sometimes]]&quot; # &quot;Soda Pop&quot; # &quot;[[Born to Make You Happy]]&quot; # &quot;[[From the Bottom of My Broken Heart]]&quot; # &quot;I Will Be There&quot; # &quot;I Will Still Love You&quot; (with Don Philip) # &quot;Thinkin' About You&quot; # &quot;E-Mail My Heart&quot; # &quot;The Beat Goes On&quot; # &quot;I'll never stop loving you&quot; * # &quot;Autumn goodbye&quot; * # &quot;[[...Baby One More Time (song)|…Baby One More Time]]&quot; (Davidson Ospina radio mix)* # &quot;[[...Baby One More Time (song)|…Baby One More Time]]&quot; (Boy Wunder radio mix)* * Tracks 13-14-15-16: New edition/Japanese standard edition bonus tracks ==Personnel== * Daniel Boom - [[Audio engineer|Engineer]] * Jimmy Bralower - Drum Programming * Larry Busacca - [[Photography]] * Andreas Carlsson - [[Vocals]] (bckgr) * Tom Coyne - Mastering * Nikki Gregoroff - [[Vocals]] (bckgr) * [[Nana Hedin]] - [[Vocals]] (bckgr) * Andy Hess - [[Bass guitar|Bass]] * Tim Latham - [[Audio engineer|Engineer]], Mixing * Tomas Lindberg - [[Bass guitar|Bass]] * Per Magnusson - [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboards]], Programming, [[Record producer|Producer]] * [[Max Martin]] - [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboards]], Programming, [[Vocals]] (bckgr), [[Record producer|Producer]], [[Audio engineer|Engineer]], Mixing * Charles McCrorey - [[Audio engineer|Assistant Engineer]] * Andrew McIntyre - [[Electric guitar]] * Jackie Murphy - Art Direction, Design * Dan Petty - [[Acoustic guitar]], [[Electric guitar]] * Doug Petty - [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboards]] * Don Philip - Performer * Albert Sanchez - [[Photography]] * Britney Spears - [[Vocals]], Vocals (bckgr) * Aleese Simmons - [[Vocals]] (bckgr) * Chris Trevett - [[Audio engineer|Engineer]], Mixing * Eric Foster White - [[Bass guitar|Bass]], Arranger, [[Electric guitar]], [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboards]], [[Record producer|Producer]], [[Audio engineer|Engineer]], Drum Programming, Mixing ==Charts== Britney still hold the record for 'The Highest International Female Singer Sales' in Indonesia. The album itself reached 3x Platinum in Indonesia, and the released-singles were topped Indonesia Chart, except 'From The Bottom Of My Broken Heart'. In 2000, She's nominated for 'Best Female', 'Best Song', 'Best Pop Song', 'Best New Artist', 'Most Popular Artist' in Indonesia Magazine Music Awards and won those all, but she failed to get 'Best Album' award. And Britney holds record for the most-winning artist in Indonesia Magazine Music Awards.{{fact}}&lt;!-- Please remove entire paragraph if still uncited on 2006-01-30--&gt; By this album, Britney managed as the first international female singer that sold albums more than 3x Platinum in Indonesia, and the first female singer that topped the chart with 4 first singles from a debut album.{{fact}}&lt;!-- Please remove entire paragraph if still uncited on 2006-01-30--&gt; {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; !align=&quot;left&quot;|Chart (1999) !align=&quot;left
Please see [[food writing]] for some authors of books on cookery, food, and the history of food. * [[Three Component Meal]] * [[Cooking weights and measures]] (includes conversions and equivalencies common in cooking) * [[International food terms]] - useful when reading about food and recipes from different countries * [[Food and cooking hygiene]] * [[Food preservation]] * [[Food writing]] * '''[[List of cookbooks]]''' The standard book for basic cooking, &quot;learn how to cook&quot;, etc. * [[List of food preparation utensils]] including [[Cooking pan|saucepans]], frying pans, [[wok]]s and many others. * [[Cuisine]] * [[Recipe]] * [[Nutrition]] For recipes, see the [[list of recipes]] and the [[list of cocktails]]. Also see [[staple (cooking)]]. == External links == *[http://ahappyhousewife.blogspot.com/ The Happy Housewife] *[http://thehappyhousewifesrecipes.blogspot.com/ The Happy Housewife's Recipes] *[http://ridaas.org/food-search Food Search Engine.] Search recipes and cooking books *[http://www.dontcookalone.com/ Don't Cook Alone - Find a cooking partner, exchange recipes] Don't Cook Alone *[http://www.theworldrecipes.com/ Recipes from around the world.] *[http://www.reluctantgourmet.com/ Cooking Guide for Home Cooks.] *[http://punjabirecipes.gurudwara.net Authentic Punjabi Recipes] *[http://www.studentrecipes.com/ Quick and easy recipes for the lazy student] *[http://www.healthy-quick-meals.com/ Quick healthy recipes] *[http://www.healthdiaries.com/eatthis/ Healthy Recipes] *[http://www.spanishliquidgold.com/search.php?q=cooking+classes Cooking classes] *[http://www.momslilgreentin.com Family Recipes] *[http://www.gti.net/mocolib1/kid/food1.html Culinary history timeline] *[http://www.elook.org/recipes/ Recipes] *[http://www.foodgeeks.com/recipes/ Foodgeeks.com Recipes] *[http://www.visualrecipes.com Visual Recipes] *[http://www.foodnboozelog.com/ Food and booze] Food cooking recipes and methods *[http://www.mediterrasian.com/delicious_recipes.htm Mediterranean and Asian recipes] *[http://www.pygmies.info/food.html African Pygmies cooking] Food preparation in the rain forest *[http://www.ratemycookingkungfu.com/ Photos of home cooking] *[http://www.realcajunrecipes.com/ RealCajunRecipes.com - includes Photo Album of Cajun Cooking] *[http://www.turkishcookbook.com Binnur's Turkish Cookbook] Delicious, healthy and easy-to-make Turkish recipes. *[http://www.goosto.com Goosto.com] Recipes Search Engine. *[http://www.yummycrockpotrecipes.com YummyCrockPotRecipes.com Recipes] *[http://www.foodtv.com FoodTV.com: Extensive Online Recipe Collection from the Food Network] *[http://www.findmearecipe.com Find Me a Recipe] Searchable database of over 100,000 recipes. *[http://gourmetfood.about.com Gourmet Cooking, Recipes, &amp; Techniques] *[http://www.culinarychef.com CulinaryChef.com] An award-winning culinary source for the family, professional cooks, culinary chefs, and for those who enjoy fine eating since 1999. *[http://www.stayfitalways.com/cookingtips.php Techniques of Cooking] Cooking Tips for a Healthy Diet. *[http://www.chefstoqueculinaire.net Chefs Toque Culinaire] Culinary Resource Online. [[Category:Cooking| ]] [[Category:Hobbies]] [[Category:Survival skills]] [[ar:&amp;#1591;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1582;]] [[cs:Kucha%C5%99sk%C3%A9_um%C4%9Bn%C3%AD]] [[bg:&amp;#1043;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1086;]] [[bn:&amp;#2480;&amp;#2472;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2471;&amp;#2472;]] [[bs:Kuharstvo]] [[de:Kochen]] [[eo:Kuirado]] [[el:&amp;#924;&amp;#945;&amp;#947;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#961;&amp;#953;&amp;#954;&amp;#942;]] [[fa:&amp;#1570;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1662;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1740;]] [[fr:Technique culinaire]] [[ga:Cócaireacht]] [[he:&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;]] [[ja:&amp;#35519;&amp;#29702;]] [[lt:Kulinarija]] [[nl:Kookkunst]] [[no:Matlaging]] [[oc:Cosina]] [[pl:Kulinaria]] [[pt:Culinária]] [[ro:Buc&amp;#259;t&amp;#259;rie]] [[ru:Кулинария]] [[simple:Cooking]] [[sr:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1114;&amp;#1077;]] [[sv:Matlagning]] [[tl:Pagluluto]] [[ta:சமையல்]] [[zh:&amp;#28921;&amp;#39274;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cancer Coast</title> <id>5356</id> <revision> <id>15903568</id> <timestamp>2004-09-26T23:46:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SimonP</username> <id>1591</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Cancer cluster]] per vfd</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cancer cluster]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Collectable card game</title> <id>5359</id> <revision> <id>15903570</id> <timestamp>2004-06-16T23:57:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Collectible card game]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Card game</title> <id>5360</id> <revision> <id>42053837</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:04:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Atlant</username> <id>124135</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert vandal</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about games played with cards. For the pricing game, please see [[Card Game (The Price is Right pricing game)]].'' [[Image:Klondike (solitare).png|thumb|300px|right|The Klondike Solitaire game that comes with [[wikibooks:Using GNOME | Gnome]].]] A '''card game''' is any [[game]] using [[playing card]]s, either traditional or game-specific. &lt;!--This article will describe the general mechanics of card games: that is, those rules which are so widely known that they are often omitted in rules of card games, because the author assumes that &quot;everyone&quot; knows them. The statements given here are general ones. There are countless exceptions to them. Indeed, it would be possible to suffix almost every statement in this section with the words &quot;an exception is provided by the game of such-and-such&quot;. They should therefore not be taken as rules; rather they should be used as default rules if you are trying to play a game from an incomplete set of rules which omits the general mechanics.--&gt; == Seating of players == When a card game is played, the players arrange themselves in a circle around a horizontal surface on which the cards will be played. This surface is usually a table, although any flat surface can be used. The players face inwards, and are approximately evenly spaced (so that they cannot see each other's hand of cards). == The pack or deck == A card game is played with a pack of cards intended for that game. The pack consists of a fixed number of pieces of printed cardboard known as ''cards''. The cards in a pack are identical in size and shape. Each card has two sides, the ''face'' and the ''back''. The backs of the cards in a pack are indistinguishable. The faces of the cards in a pack may all be unique, or may include duplicates, depending on the game. In either case, any card is readily identifiable by its face. The set of cards that make up the pack will be known to all of the players using that pack. ''Pack'' is British English; ''deck'' is U.S. English. They mean the same thing. Although many games have special packs of cards, a certain pack is known as the standard deck, and is used in a wide variety of games. It consists of 52 cards, each card having a [[suit (cards)|suit]] (one of spades, hearts, diamonds and clubs) and a rank (a number between 2 and 10, or one of jack, queen, king and ace). For any combination of one suit and one rank, there is exactly one card in the standard deck having that suit and rank. In addition to games that use the standard deck, there are also games that use some modification of the standard deck, for example excluding all cards of rank lower than some rank, or adding a special card, joker, to the standard deck. Many European regions have their own variants of the standard deck having different names and imagery for suits, or having a different set of ranks in the cards. There are also some card games that require multiple standard decks. In this scenario, a &quot;deck&quot; refers to a set of 52 cards or a single deck, while a &quot;pack&quot; refers to the collection of &quot;decks&quot; as a whole. == The deal == Dealing is done either clockwise or counterclockwise. If this is omitted from the rules, then it should be assumed to be: * clockwise for games from North America, North and West Europe and Russia; * counterclockwise for South and East Europe and Asia, also for Swiss games and all [[Tarot (game)|Tarot games]]. A player is chosen to deal. That person takes all of the cards in the pack, stacks them together so that they are all the same way up and the same way round, and [[shuffle]]s them. There are various techniques of shuffling, all intended to put the cards into a random order. During the shuffle, dealer holds the cards so that he or she and the other players cannot see any of their faces. [[Shuffle|Shuffling]] should continue until the chance of a card remaining next to the one that was originally next to is small. In practice, many dealers do not shuffle for long enough to achieve this. After the shuffle, the dealer offers the deck to another player to ''[[cut (playing cards)|cut the deck]]''. If the deal is clockwise, this is the player on her right; if counter-clockwise, it is the player on her left. The invitation to cut is made by placing the pack, face downward, on the table near the player who is to cut: who then lifts the upper portion of the pack clear of the lower portion and places it alongside. The formerly lower portion is then replaced on top of the formerly upper portion. The dealer then ''deals'' the cards. This is done by dealer
be cured by [[antibiotics]] such as [[Metronidazole]]. ==See also== * [[Vulvovaginal disorders]] * [[Sexually transmitted diseases]] ==External links== * [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/vaginitis.htm Vaginitis/Vaginal infection fact sheet from the [[National Institute of Allergies and Infections]]] [[Category:Gynecology]] [[sr:Вагиноза]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bud Selig</title> <id>4582</id> <revision> <id>41309858</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T13:10:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rebelguys2</username> <id>406178</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>&quot;In regards to&quot; --&gt; &quot;in regard to&quot;, per [[Wikipedia:Elements of Style improvement project]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ph hist comm mug selig.jpg|right]] '''Allan Huber &quot;Bud&quot; Selig''' (born [[July 30]], [[1934]] in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]) is the current [[Baseball commissioner|Commissioner of Baseball]], having been formally appointed on [[July 2]], [[1998 in baseball|1998]] after having served as acting commissioner since [[1992 in baseball|1992]]. He was previously the team owner and administrator of the [[Milwaukee Brewers]]. On [[August 21]], [[2004 in baseball|2004]], Selig's contract was extended for three years by [[Major League Baseball]], extending his term to [[December 31]], [[2007]]. Selig is a resident of [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]] and owned used car dealerships before entering baseball. ==Early life== Born in Milwaukee, Selig played baseball as a child but quit because he was unable to hit a [[curveball]]. Selig received a bachelor's degree in American History and Political Science from the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] in [[1956]]. After serving two years in the armed forces, Selig returned to Milwaukee and began working in the automobile business with his father. As a young man, Selig watched the old [[Milwaukee Brewers minor league|Milwaukee Brewers minor league team]] and the [[Chicago Cubs]] of the [[National League]]. Bud soon became a Braves fan when the National League franchise moved to his home town of Milwaukee from Boston in [[1953 in baseball|1953]]. Selig was heartbroken and devastated when he learned that the Braves were going to leave Milwaukee in favor of Atlanta. Prior to [[1965 in baseball|1965]], when the Braves left Milwaukee, Selig became the team's largest public stockholder. ==Milwaukee Brewers owner== Selig vowed to return Major League Baseball to Milwaukee shortly after the Braves left. He started his quest by founding the organization &quot;Teams, Inc.&quot; The group, which later changed its name to &quot;The Brewers&quot;, arranged for several [[Chicago White Sox]] games to be played in Milwaukee in [[1968 in baseball|1968]]. Selig went as far as attempting to purhase the White Sox (with the intention of moving them to Milwaukee) in [[1969 in baseball|1969]]. He reached an agreement to buy the club, but the [[American League]] vetoed the sale, preferring to keep an American League team in Chicago to compete with the crosstown [[Chicago Cubs|Cubs]]. In [[1970 in baseball|1970]] he responded to the [[1965]] departure of the [[Atlanta Braves|Milwaukee Braves]] to [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] by purchasing the bankrupt [[Seattle Pilots]] franchise, moving them to his hometown and renaming the team the [[Milwaukee Brewers]]. During Selig's tenure as club president, the Brewers appeared in the [[1982 World Series]] (under the leadership of future [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Famers]] [[Robin Yount]] and [[Paul Molitor]]) but have since failed to make another appearance in the Series. Under Selig's watch, the Brewers also won seven &quot;Organization of the Year&quot; awards. Upon his assumption of the Commissioner's role, Selig transferred his ownership interest in the Brewers to his daughter [[Wendy Selig-Prieb]] in order to remove any technical conflicts of interest, though it was widely presumed he maintained some hand in team operations. Although the team has been sold to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] investor [[Mark Attanasio]], questions remain regarding Selig's past involvement. Selig's defenders point to the poor management of the team after Selig-Prieb took control as proof that Selig was not working behind the scenes. ==Actions as Commissioner== While hailed by some baseball's owners as a visionary who has salvaged the sport, he is vilified by many fans and some in the media, primarily for labor-related issues but also for considering changes that have met with disfavor, particularly placing advertising on player uniforms and on the field. As '''Executive Council Chairman''' (Selig's official title while serving as &quot;acting commissioner&quot; from 1992-1998) and Commissioner, new stadiums have opened in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Arizona]], [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]], [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]], [[Denver, Colorado|Colorado]], [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[San Diego, California|San Diego]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] and [[Arlington, Texas|Arlington]] (with a new facility in [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] set to open in [[2006 in baseball|2006]]). In [[2002 in baseball|2002]], Selig announced that he would start enforcing the 60/40 rule (asset/debt ratio) despite his Brewers being at 100/97 just five years before. Under Selig, Major League Baseball also saw the consolidation of the administrative functions of the [[American League|American]] and [[National League]] into the Commissioner's Office in [[2000 in baseball|2000]]. The last official presidents of the NL and AL were [[Leonard Coleman]] and Dr. [[Gene Budig]] respectively. Selig suspended [[Marge Schott]] for a year in [[1993 in baseball|1993]] for repeated prejudicial remarks and actions. The same year [[George Steinbrenner]] was reinstated from a lifelong suspension that was instituted by Selig's predecessor [[Fay Vincent]]. [[Pete Rose]] has claimed that he applied for reinstatement over the years and received no such consideration. Incidentally, Bud Selig was a close friend of the late [[A. Bartlett Giamatti|Bart Giamatti]], who was the commissoner when Rose first got banned from baseball in [[1989 in baseball|1989]]. As acting commissioner, he presided over the [[1994 in baseball|1994]] players [[1994 baseball strike|strike]] and resulting cancellation of the [[World Series]] (the first time it had not been staged since [[1904 World Series|1904]]). Ever since the days of the 1994 work stoppage, some fans have accused Selig of being little more than a puppet for the owners rather than a true leader. During his tenure the game avoided a second work stoppage in [[2002 in baseball|2002]], seen the implementation of [[interleague play]], divisional realignment (oddly enough, the subject that resulted in the ouster of Selig's predecessor Fay Vincent), and the addition of a third round of post-season play. On [[September 11]], [[2001]], Selig ordered all baseball games postponed for a week because of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|terror attacks on New York and Washington]]. The games were postponed not only out of respect and mourning for the victims, but also out of concern for the safety and security of fans and players. Selig was heavily criticized for staging [[contraction]] hearings on the [[Minnesota Twins]] and the [[Montreal Expos|Montréal Expos]] less than 48 hours after the dramatic conclusion of the [[2001 World Series]]. This action, among others, led to Selig (along with former Expos owner [[Jeffrey Loria]]) being charged with racketeering and conspiring with Loria to deliberately defraud the Expos minority owners. If found guilty the league could have been liable for $300 million in punitive damages. Selig was eager to settle the case because the judge had previously ruled that the Expos could not be moved or contracted until the case was over. The case eventually went to arbitration and was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum. An embarrassing moment during Bud Selig's tenure came during the 2002 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Game]] in Selig's hometown of Milwaukee. The game was tied 7-7 in the bottom of the 11th inning. Unfortunately, the managers ran out of pitchers, and Selig felt that he had no option other than to call the game a tie. In [[2005 in baseball|2005]], he faced [[U.S. Congress|Congress]] on the issue of [[Anabolic steroids|steroids]], saying that he only became aware of this problem in [[1998 in baseball|1998]] around the time of [[Mark McGwire]]'s home run record. However, per [[ESPN]], he forgot that MLB and the owners had a meeting about this issue as far back as [[1993 in baseball|1993]]. He also implied that the [[Major League Baseball Players Association|MLBPA]] was the real culprit to any steroid use reform. Since the Congressional hearings in early 2005, Selig has put forth a much more strict proposal for steroid testing to replace the current system. This proposal also makes Selig the first major sports commissioner to propose the banning of [[amphetamines]], which, some say, are more of a problem in baseball than steroids themselves. On [[July 1]], [[2005]], Selig suspended [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] pitcher [[Kenny Rogers (baseball player)|Kenny Rogers]] for 20 games and fined him $50,000. Rogers got in trouble when on [[June 29]], [[2005]], he angrily shoved two cameramen, knocking a camera to the ground. One of the reporters then resumed filming and Rogers shoved him again, this time kicking the camera after it had been knocked to the ground a second time. While an appeal of his suspension was pending, Rogers appeared at the [
ss complexity than a brute-force search: [[differential cryptanalysis]] (DC), [[linear cryptanalysis]] (LC), and [[Davies' attack]]. However, the attacks are theoretical and are infeasible to mount in practice; these types of attack are sometimes termed [[certificational weakness]]es. * ''Differential cryptanalysis'' was discovered in the late 1980s by [[Eli Biham]] and [[Adi Shamir]], although it was known earlier to both IBM and the NSA and kept secret. To break the full 16 rounds, differential cryptanalysis requires 2&lt;sup&gt;47&lt;/sup&gt; [[chosen plaintext]]s. DES was designed to be resistant to DC. * ''Linear cryptanalysis'' was discovered by Mitsuru Matsui, and needs 2&lt;sup&gt;43&lt;/sup&gt; [[known plaintext]]s (Matsui, 1993); the method was implemented (Matsui, 1994), and was the first experimental cryptanalysis of DES to be reported. There is no evidence that DES was tailored to be resistant to this type of attack. A generalisation of LC — ''multiple linear cryptanalysis'' — was suggested in 1994 (Kaliski and Robshaw), and was further refined by Biryukov et al (2004); their analysis suggests that multiple linear approximations could be used to reduce the data requirements of the attack by at least a factor of 4 (i.e. 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; instead of 2&lt;sup&gt;43&lt;/sup&gt;). A similar reduction in data complexity can be obtained in a chosen-plaintext variant of linear cryptanalysis (Knudsen and Mathiassen, 2000). Junod (2001) performed several experiments to determine the actual time complexity of linear cryptanalysis, and reported that it was somewhat faster than predicted, requiring time equivalent to 2&lt;sup&gt;39&lt;/sup&gt;–2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; DES evaluations. * ''Improved Davies' attack'': while linear and differential cryptanalysis are general techniques and can be applied to a number of schemes, Davies' attack is a specialised technique for DES, first suggested by Davies in the eighties, and improved by Biham and Biryukov (1997). The most powerful form of the attack requires 2&lt;sup&gt;50&lt;/sup&gt; [[known plaintext]]s, has a computational complexity of 2&lt;sup&gt;50&lt;/sup&gt;, and has a 51% success rate. There have also been attacks proposed against reduced-round versions of the cipher, i.e. versions of DES with fewer than sixteen rounds. Such analysis gives an insight into how many rounds are needed for safety, and how much of a &quot;security margin&quot; the full version retains. [[Differential-linear cryptanalysis]] was proposed by Langford and Hellman in 1994, and combines differential and linear cryptanalysis into a single attack. An enhanced version of the attack can break 9-round DES with 2&lt;sup&gt;15.8&lt;/sup&gt; known plaintexts and has a 2&lt;sup&gt;29.2&lt;/sup&gt; time complexity (Biham et al, 2002). ===Minor cryptanalytic properties=== DES exhibits the [[complementation property]], namely that :&lt;math&gt;E_K(P)=C \Leftrightarrow E_\overline{K}(\overline{P})=\overline{C}&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; is the bitwise complement of &lt;math&gt;x.&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;E_K&lt;/math&gt; denotes encryption with key &lt;math&gt;K.&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; denote plaintext and ciphertext blocks respectively. The complementation property means that the work for a [[brute force attack]] could be reduced by a factor of 2 (or a single bit) under a [[chosen-plaintext attack|chosen-plaintext]] assumption. DES also has four so-called ''[[weak key]]s''. Encryption (''E'') and decryption (''D'') under a weak key have the same effect (see [[involution]]): :&lt;math&gt;E_K(E_K(P)) = P&lt;/math&gt; or equivalently, &lt;math&gt;E_K = D_K&lt;/math&gt; There are also six pairs of ''semi-weak keys''. Encryption with one of the pair of semiweak keys, &lt;math&gt;K_1&lt;/math&gt;, operates identically to decryption with the other, &lt;math&gt;K_2&lt;/math&gt;: :&lt;math&gt;E_{K_1}(E_{K_2}(P)) = P&lt;/math&gt; or equivalently, &lt;math&gt;E_{K_2} = D_{K_1}&lt;/math&gt; It is easy enough to avoid the weak and semiweak keys in an implementation, either by testing for them explicitly, or simply by choosing keys randomly; the odds of picking a weak or semiweak key by chance are negligible. DES has also been proved not to be a [[group (mathematics)|group]], or more precisely, the set &lt;math&gt;\{E_K\}&lt;/math&gt; (for all possible keys &lt;math&gt;K&lt;/math&gt;) under [[functional composition]] is not a group, nor &quot;close&quot; to being a group (Campbell and Wiener, 1992). This was an open question for some time, and if it had been the case, it would have been possible to break DES, and multiple encryption modes such as Triple DES would not increase the security. ==See also== * [[Symmetric key algorithm]] * [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] * [[Skipjack (cipher)|Skipjack]] ==References== * Ehrsam etl a., Product Block Cipher System for Data Security, {{US patent|3,962,539}}, Filed Feb. 24, 1975 * Eli Biham, Adi Shamir, Differential Cryptanalysis of the Data Encryption Standard, Springer Verlag, 1993. ISBN 0-387-97930-1, ISBN 3-540-97930-1. * Eli Biham, Alex Biryukov: An Improvement of Davies' Attack on DES. J. Cryptology 10(3): 195-206 (1997) * Eli Biham, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller: Enhancing Differential-Linear Cryptanalysis. ASIACRYPT 2002: pp254–266 * Eli Biham: A Fast New DES Implementation in Software [http://cryptome.org/cracking-des.htm Cracking DES: Secrets of Encryption Research, Wiretap Politics, and Chip Design], [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] * A.Biryukov, C.De Canniere, M.Quisquater, &quot;On Multiple Linear Approximations&quot;, CRYPTO 2004 (to appear); [http://www.esat.kuleuven.ac.be/~abiryuko/mla.pdf preprint (PDF)]. * Keith W. Campbell, Michael J. Wiener: DES is not a Group. CRYPTO 1992: pp512–520 * Don Coppersmith. (1994). The data encryption standard (DES) and its strength against attacks. ''IBM Journal of Research and Development'', '''38'''(3), 243–250. [http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/383/coppersmith.pdf] * Witfield Diffie, Martin Hellman, &quot;Exhaustive Cryptanalysis of the NBS Data Encryption Standard&quot; IEEE Computer 10(6), June 1977, pp74-84 * [[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]], &quot;Cracking DES: Secrets of Encryption Research, Wiretap Politics and Chip Design&quot;, 1998, O'Reilly, ISBN 1565925203. * [http://crypto.junod.info/sac01.html Pascal Junod, &quot;On the Complexity of Matsui's Attack. Selected Areas in Cryptography&quot;, 2001, pp199-211]. * Burton S. Kaliski Jr., Matthew J. B. Robshaw: Linear Cryptanalysis Using Multiple Approximations. CRYPTO 1994: pp26–39 * Lars R. Knudsen, John Erik Mathiassen: A Chosen-Plaintext Linear Attack on DES. FSE 2000: pp262–272 * Susan K. Langford, Martin E. Hellman: Differential-Linear Cryptanalysis. CRYPTO 1994: 17–25 * [[Steven Levy]], [[Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government Saving Privacy in the Digital Age]], 2001, ISBN 0140244328. * Mitsuru Matsui: Linear Cryptanalysis Method for DES Cipher. EUROCRYPT 1993: pp386-397 * Mitsuru Matsui: The First Experimental Cryptanalysis of the Data Encryption Standard. CRYPTO 1994: pp1-11 * National Bureau of Standards, Data Encryption Standard, FIPS-Pub.46. National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington D.C., January 1977. ==External links== * [http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips46-3/fips46-3.pdf FIPS 46-3: The official document describing the DES standard] (PDF); [http://www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs/fip46-2.htm An older version in HTML.] * [http://www.eff.org/Privacy/Crypto/Crypto_misc/DESCracker/ The EFF DES cracker project] * [http://www.cs.ut.ee/~helger/crypto/link/block/des.php Helger Lipmaa's links for DES] * [http://www.aci.net/kalliste/des.htm A worked example of the DES algorithm] * [http://www.cs.eku.edu/faculty/styer/460/Encrypt/JS-DES.html A Javascript DES calculator showing intermediate values] * [http://www.quadibloc.com/crypto/co0402.htm John Savard's description of DES] * [http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/users/wwwb/cgi-bin/tr-get.cgi/1997/CS/CS0891.ps A Fast New DES Implementation in Software - Biham] * [http://www.darkside.com.au/bitslice/ Bit slice implementation of DES] * [http://eprint.iacr.org/2004/057.ps.gz On Multiple Linear Approximations] {{Block_ciphers}} [[Category:Block ciphers]] [[Category:Free ciphers]] [[Category:National Security Agency]] [[da:Data Encryption Standard]] [[de:Data Encryption Standard]] [[es:DES]] [[eo:DES]] [[fr:Data Encryption Standard]] [[ko:DES]] [[id:Data Encryption Standard]] [[it:Data Encryption Standard]] [[he:DES]] [[nl:Data Encryption Standard]] [[ja:DES]] [[no:DES]] [[nn:DES]] [[pl:DES]] [[pt:DES]] [[ru:DES]] [[sl:DES]] [[fi:DES]] [[sv:Data Encryption Standard]] [[zh:DES]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DeMoivresFormula</title> <id>7979</id> <revision> <id>15906011</id> <timestamp>2002-10-09T14:05:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[De Moivre's formula]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[De Moivre's formula]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Double-hulled tanker</title> <id>7983</id> <revision> <id>41885082</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:16:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.8.15.105</ip> </contributor> <comment>Cite law requiring DHTs. Could be used to beef up the article a bit...</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''double-hulled tanker''' is a large [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]] [[ship]] used for transporting [[liquid]]s (usually [[petroleum]]). The ship has two hulls to prevent the liquid cargo from spilling; if the outer hull is breached, the inner hull keeps the transported substance in place. Double-hulled tankers were required under 46 USC § 3703a after the [[Exxon Valdez oil spill]]. The [
puter]] ==Further reading== * Harvey G. Cragon, ''From Fish to Colossus: How the German Lorenz Cipher was Broken at Bletchley Park'' (Cragon Books, Dallas, 2003; ISBN 0974304506) &amp;ndash; A detailed description of the cryptanalysis of Tunny, and some details of Colossus (contains some minor errors) * Ted Enever, ''Britain's Best Kept Secret: Ultra's Base at Bletchley Park'' (Sutton Publishing, Gloucestershire, 1999; ISBN 0750923555) &amp;ndash; A guided tour of the history and geography of the Park, written by one of the founder members of the Bletchley Park Trust * Tony Sale, ''The Colossus Computer 1943&amp;ndash;1996: How It Helped to Break the German Lorenz Cipher in WWII'' (M.&amp;M. Baldwin, Kidderminster, 2004; ISBN 0947712364) &amp;ndash; A slender (20 page) booklet, containing the same material as Tony Sale's website (see below) * Michael Smith, ''Station X'', 1998. ISBN 0330419293. ==References== * [[William Chandler|W. W. Chandler]], ''The Installation and Maintenance of Colossus'' (''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]'', Vol. 5 (No. 3), 1983, pp. 260&amp;ndash;262) * [[Allen Coombs|Allen W. M. Coombs]], ''[http://www.ivorcatt.com/47d.htm The Making of Colossus]'' (''Annals of the History of Computing'', Vol. 5 (No. 3), 1983, pp.253-259) * Jack Copeland, ''[http://www.ccse.kfupm.edu.sa/~mfk/Assets/589-assets/colossus.pdf Colossus: Its Origins and Originators]'' (''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]'', 26(4), October&amp;ndash;December 2004, pp. 38&amp;ndash;45). * Jack Copeland, ''Colossus and the Dawning of the Computer Age'', in ''Action This Day'', 2001, ISBN 0593049829. * [[I. J. Good]], ''Early Work on Computers at Bletchley'' (''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]'', Vol. 1 (No. 1), 1979, pp. 38&amp;ndash;48) * [[I. J. Good]], ''Pioneering Work on Computers at Bletchley'' (in Nicholas Metropolis, J. Howlett, Gian-Carlo Rota, (editors), ''A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century'', Academic Press, New York, 1980) * [[Tommy Flowers|T. H. Flowers]], ''[http://www.ivorcatt.com/47c.htm The Design of Colossus]'' (''Annals of the History of Computing'', Vol. 5 (No. 3), 1983, pp. 239&amp;ndash;252) * D C Horwood, A technical description of COLOSSUS I, August 1973, PRO HW 25/24. * [[Brian Randell]], ''Colossus: Godfather of the Computer'', 1977 (reprinted in ''The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers'', [[Springer-Verlag]], New York, 1982) * [[Brian Randell]], ''[http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pubs/books/papers/133.pdf The COLOSSUS]'' (in ''A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century'') * Albert W. Small, [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/documents/small/smallix.htm ''The Special Fish Report''] (December, 1944) describe the operation of Colossus to break Tunny messages ==Other meanings== There was a fictional computer named ''Colossus'' in the movie [[Colossus: The Forbin Project]]. Also see [[List of fictional computers]]. ==External links== * [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/index.htm Tony Sale's Codes and Ciphers] Contains a great deal of information, including: ** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/virtualbp/fish/colossus.htm Colossus, the revolution in code breaking] ** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/index.htm Lorenz Cipher and the Colossus] *** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/colossus.htm The machine age comes to Fish codebreaking] *** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/rebuild.htm The Colossus Rebuild Project] *** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/mk2.htm The Colossus Rebuild Project: Evolving to the Colossus Mk 2] *** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/colwalk/colossus.htm Walk around Colossus] A detailed tour of the replica Colossus &amp;ndash; make sure to click on the &quot;More Text&quot; links on each image to see the informative detailed text about that part of Colossus ** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lectures/ieee.txt IEEE lecture] &amp;ndash; Transcript of a lecture Tony Sale gave describing the reconstruction project * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3754887.stm BBC news article reporting on the replica Colossus] [[Category:Cryptanalytic devices]] [[Category:World War II British electronics]] [[Category:Early computers]] [[Category:English inventions]] [[da:Kolos]] [[de:Colossus]] [[es:Colossus]] [[hr:Colossus (računalo)]] [[id:Komputer Colossus]] [[it:Colossus]] [[nl:Colossus]] [[ja:Colossus]] [[pl:Colossus]] [[pt:Colossus]] [[fi:Colossus]] [[sv:Colossus]] [[tr:Colossus bilgisayarı]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Canadian Shield</title> <id>6230</id> <revision> <id>40233390</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T03:21:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pollinator</username> <id>22743</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.11.107.54|69.11.107.54]] ([[User talk:69.11.107.54|talk]]) to last version by Wiki alf</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Canadianshield.gif|right|thumb|Canadian Shield]] The '''Canadian Shield''' is a large [[craton]] in eastern and central [[Canada]] and adjacent portions of the [[United States]], composed of bare [[Rock (geology)|rock]] dating to the [[Precambrian]] [[Era (geology)|Era]] (between 4.5 billion and 540 million years ago). It is also called the '''Precambrian Shield''', '''Laurentian Shield''', or '''Laurentian Plateau'''. ==Regional extent== Other than the [[Greenland]] section, the Shield is approximately circular, with [[Hudson Bay]] in the middle. It covers much of Greenland; [[Labrador]]; most of [[Quebec]] north of the [[Saint Lawrence River|St. Lawrence River]]; much of [[Ontario]] outside the southern peninsula between the [[Great Lakes]]; the [[Adirondack Mountains]] of northern [[New York]]; parts of [[Michigan]], [[Wisconsin]], and [[Minnesota]]; the central portion of [[Manitoba]] away from Hudson Bay and the [[Great Plains]]; northern [[Saskatchewan]]; a small portion of north-eastern [[Alberta]]; and the mainland northern Canadian territories to the east of a line extended north from the Saskatchewan/Alberta border ([[Northwest Territories]] and [[Nunavut]]). In total it covers approximately 8 million square kilometers. The underlying rock structure does include Hudson Bay and the submerged area between North America and Greenland, but by some definitions may not be part of the Shield due to not being on the surface. ==Geology== [[Image:North america craton nps.gif|thumb|Canadian Shield is exposed part of [[North American craton]] or ''[[Laurentia]]''.]] Such a large area of exposed, old rock requires some explanation. The current [[geomorphology|surface expression]] of the Shield is one of very thin soil lying on top of the [[bedrock]], with many bare outcrops. This arrangement was caused by severe [[glacier|glaciation]] during the last [[ice age]], which covered the Shield and scraped the rock clean. The multitude of rivers and lakes in the entire region is caused by the [[watershed]]s of the area being so young and in a state of sorting themselves out with the added effect of [[post-glacial rebound]]. The Shield was originally an area of very large [[mountain]]s and much [[volcanic]] activity, but over the millennia the area was eroded to its current [[topography|topographic]] appearance of relatively low relief. Mountains have deep roots and float on the denser [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] much like an [[iceberg]] at [[sea]]. As mountains erode, their roots rise and are eroded in turn. The rocks that now form the surface of the Shield were once far below the earth's surface. The high pressures and temperatures at those depths provided ideal conditions for [[mineralization]]. The [[North American craton]] is the bedrock forming the heart of the North American continent and the Canadian Shield is the largest exposed part of the craton's bedrock. ==Mining and economics== The Shield is one of the world's richest areas in terms of [[mineral]] [[ore]]s. It is filled with substantial deposits of [[nickel]], [[gold]], [[silver]], and [[copper]]. Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is [[Greater Sudbury, Ontario]]. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the [[Sudbury Basin]] is an ancient [[meteorite]] [[impact crater]]. The Shield, particularly the portion in the [[Northwest Territories]], has recently been the site of several major [[diamond]] discoveries. The [[kimberlite]] pipes in which the diamonds are found are of relatively recent origin, and one theory of their origin suggests that the Shield was at some time in the past above a [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] in Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] (much like the one that formed [[Hawaii]], but under land rather than ocean). The spot lifted the surrounding landscape as the continent drifted over it, forming the pipes in various locations. The line of subsurface mountains that runs from the eastern seaboard of the [[United States]] nearly to [[Europe]] before culminating in the [[Challenger Seamount]] would, if run backwards in time, follow a path that matches what is suggested. The Shield is also covered by vast [[boreal forest]]s that support an important [[logging]] industry. [[Category:Geography of Canada]] [[Category:Geography of Michigan]] [[Category:Geography of Minnesota]] [[Category:Geography of New York]] [[Category:Geography of Wisconsin]] [[Category:Regional geology]] [[Category:Cratons]] [[de:Kanadischer Schild]] [[fr:Bouclier canadien]] [[ja:カナダ楯状地]] [[sv:Kanadensiska skölden]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Comic book</title> <id>6231</id> <revision> <id>41559123</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:40:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Canucktoons</username> <id>886000</id> </contributor>
tp://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001454/ |- |||[[December 1978|4-5 December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Germany}} Helmut Schmidt||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001424/ |- |1979||[[March 1979|12-13 March]]||{{flag|France}} [[Paris]]||{{flag|France}} [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001458/ |- |||[[June 1979|21-22 June]]||{{flag|France}} [[Strasbourg]]||{{flag|France}} Valéry Giscard d'Estaing||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001394/ |- |||[[November 1979|29-30 November]]||{{flag|Ireland}} Dublin||{{flag|Ireland}} [[Jack Lynch]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001402/ |- |1980||[[April 1980|17-18 April]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Italy}} [[Francesco Cossiga]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001413/ |- |||[[June 1980|12-13 June]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Venice]]||{{flag|Italy}} Francesco Cossiga||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001393/ |- |||[[December 1980|1-2 December]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Luxembourg}} [[Pierre Werner]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001415/ |- |1981||[[March 1981|23-24 March]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Maastricht]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Dries van Agt]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001419/ |- |||[[June 1981|29-30 June]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Netherlands}} Dries van Agt||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001417/ |- |||[[November 1981|26-27 November]]||{{flag|UK}} London||{{flag|UK}} [[Margaret Thatcher]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001411/ |- |1982||[[March 1982|29-30 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Wilfried Martens]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001431/ |- |||[[June 1982|28-29 June]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} Wilfried Martens||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001429/ |- |||[[December 1982|3-4 December]]||{{flag|Denmark}} Copenhagen||{{flag|Denmark}} [[Poul Schlüter]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001441/ |- |1983||[[March 1983|21-22 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Germany}} [[Helmut Kohl]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001432/ |- |||[[June 1983|17-19 June]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Stuttgart]]||{{flag|Germany}} Helmut Kohl||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001396/ |- |||[[December 1983|4-6 December]]||{{flag|Greece}} [[Athens]]||{{flag|Greece}} [[Andreas Papandreou]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001437/ |- |1984||[[March 1984|19-20 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|France}} [[François Mitterrand]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001433/ |- |||[[June 1984|25-26 June]]||{{flag|France}} [[Fontainebleau]]||{{flag|France}} François Mitterrand||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001448/ British rebate agreed |- |||[[December 1984|3-4 December]]||{{flag|Ireland}} Dublin||{{flag|Ireland}} [[Garret FitzGerald]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001400/ |- |1985||[[March 1985|29-30 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Italy}} [[Bettino Craxi]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001434/ |- |||[[June 1985|28-29 June]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Milan]]||{{flag|Italy}} Bettino Craxi||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001421/ |- |||[[December 1985|2-3 December]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Luxembourg}} [[Jacques Santer]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001416/ |- |1986||[[June 1986|26-27 June]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} The Hague||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Ruud Lubbers]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001449/ |- |||[[December 1986|5-6 December]]||{{flag|UK}} London||{{flag|UK}} Margaret Thatcher||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001409/ |- |1987||[[June 1987|29-30 June]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} Wilfried Martens||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001430/ |- |||[[December 1987|4-5 December]]||{{flag|Denmark}} Copenhagen||{{flag|Denmark}} Poul Schlüter||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001442/ |- |1988||[[February 1988|11-13 February]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Germany}} Helmut Kohl||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001426/ |- |||[[June 1988|27-28 June]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Hanover]]||{{flag|Germany}} Helmut Kohl||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001422/ |- |||[[December 1988|2-3 December]]||{{flag|Greece}} [[Rhodes]]||{{flag|Greece}} Andreas Papandreou||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001483/ |- |1989||[[June 1989|June]]||{{flag|Spain}} [[Madrid]]||{{flag|Spain}} [[Felipe González]]|| |- |||[[December 1989|December]]||{{flag|France}} Strasbourg||{{flag|France}} [[François Mitterrand]]|| |- |1990||[[June 1990|June]]||{{flag|Ireland}} Dublin||{{flag|Ireland}} [[Charles Haughey]]|| |- |||[[October 1990|October]]||{{flag|Italy}} Rome||{{flag|Italy}} [[Giulio Andreotti]]|| |- |||[[December 1990|December]]||{{flag|Italy}} Rome||{{flag|Italy}} Giulio Andreotti|| |- |1991||[[June 1991|June]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Jacques Santer|| |- |||[[December 1991|December]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} Maastricht||{{flag|Netherlands}} Ruud Lubbers||See [[Treaty of Maastricht]] |- |1992||[[June 1992|June]]||{{flag|Portugal}} [[Lisbon]]||{{flag|Portugal}} [[Aníbal Cavaco Silva]]|| |- |||[[October 1992|October]]||{{flag|UK}} [[Birmingham]]||{{flag|UK}} [[John Major]]|| |- |||[[December 1992|December]]||{{flag|UK}} [[Edinburgh]]||{{flag|UK}} John Major|| |- |1993||[[June 1993|June]]||{{flag|Denmark}} Copenhagen||{{flag|Denmark}} [[Poul Nyrup Rasmussen]]||See [[Copenhagen criteria]] |- |||[[October 1993|October]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Jean-Luc Dehaene]]|| |- |||[[December 1993|December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} Jean-Luc Dehaene|| |- |1994||[[June 1994|June]]||{{flag|Greece}} [[Corfu]]||{{flag|Greece}} Andreas Papandreou||Signing of the Treaty of the 1995 &lt;br&gt;Accession of [[Austria]], [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]] &lt;br&gt;(and [[Norway]] which later fails to ratify and stays out of the EU) |- |||[[December 1994|December]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Essen, Germany|Essen]]||{{flag|Germany}} Helmut Kohl|| |- |1995||[[June 1995|June]]||{{flag|France}} [[Cannes]]||{{flag|France}} [[Jacques Chirac]]|| |- |||[[December 1995|December]]||{{flag|Spain}} Madrid||{{flag|Spain}} Felipe González|| |- |1996||[[March 1996|March]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Turin]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Lamberto Dini]]|| |- |||[[June 1996|21-22 June]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Florence]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Romano Prodi]]|| |- |||[[December 1996|13-14 December]]||{{flag|Ireland}} Dublin||{{flag|Ireland}} [[John Bruton]]|| |- |1997||[[June 1997|16-17 June]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Amsterdam]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Wim Kok]]||See [[Treaty of Amsterdam]] |- |||[[November 1997|20-21 November]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Luxembourg}} [[Jean-Claude Juncker]]||Special council on Employment |- |||[[December 1997|12-13 December]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Jean-Claude Juncker|| |- |1998||[[June 1998|15-16 June]]||{{flag|UK}} [[Cardiff]]||{{flag|UK}} [[Tony Blair]]|| |- |||[[December 1998|11-12 December]]||{{flag|Austria}} [[Vienna]]||{{flag|Austria}} [[Viktor Klima]]|| |- |1999||[[March 1999|25-26 March]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Berlin]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Gerhard Schröder]]|| |- |||[[June 1999|3-4 June]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Cologne]]||{{flag|Germany}} Gerhard Schröder|| |- |||[[October 1999|15-16 October]]||{{flag|Finland}} [[Tampere]]||{{flag|Finland}} [[Paavo Lipponen]]|| |- |||[[December 1999|10-11 December]]||{{flag|Finland}} [[Helsinki]]||{{flag|Finland}} Paavo Lipponen|| |- |2000||[[March 2000|23-24 March]]||{{flag|Portugal}} Lisbon||{{flag|Portugal}} [[António Guterres]]||See [[Lisbon Strategy]] |- |||[[June 2000|19-20 June]]||{{flag|Portugal}} [[Santa Maria da Feira]]||{{flag|Portugal}} António Guterres|| |- |||[[October 2000|13-14 October]]||{{flag|France}} [[Biarritz]]||{{flag|France}} Jacques Chirac||Informal European council |- |||[[December 2000|7-9 December]]||{{flag|France}} [[Nice]]||{{flag|France}} Jacques Chirac||See [[Treaty of Nice]] |- |2001||[[March 2001|23-24 March]]||{{flag|Sweden}} [[Stockholm]]||{{flag|Sweden}} [[Göran Persson]]|| |- |||[[June 2001|15-16 June]]||{{flag|Sweden}} [[Gothenburg]]||{{flag|Sweden}} Göran Persson|| |- |||[[September 2001|21 September]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Guy Verhofstadt]]||Emergency council - Terrorism |- |||[[October 2001|19 October]]||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Ghent]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Guy Verhofstadt||Informal council |- |||[[December 2001|14-15 December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Laeken]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Guy Verhofstadt||See [[Laeken European Council]] |- |2002||[[March 2002|15-16 March]]||{{flag|Spain}} [[Barcelona]]||{{flag|Spain}} [[José María Aznar|José María Aznar López]]|| |- |||[[June 2002|21-22 June]]||{{flag|Spain}} [[Seville]]||{{flag|Spain}} José María Aznar López|| |- |||[[October 2002|24-25 October]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Denmark}} [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]]|| |- |||[[December 2002|12-13 December]]||{{flag|Denmark}} Copenhagen||{{flag|Denmark}} Anders Fogh Rasmussen|| |- |2003||[[February 2003|17 February]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Greece}} [[Costas Simitis]]||Extraordinary council - Iraq |- |||[[March 2003|20-21 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Greece}} Costas Simitis|| |- |||[[April 2003|16-17 April]]||{{flag|Greece}} Athens||{{flag|Greece}} Costas Simitis||Informal council - Signing of the [[Treaty of Accession 2003]] |- |||[[June 2003|20 June]]||{{flag|Greece}} [[Thessaloniki]]||{{flag|Greece}} Costas Simitis|| |- |||[[October 2003|4 October]]||{{flag|Italy}} Rome||{{flag|Italy}} [[Silvio Berlusconi]]||Extraordinary council to begin IGC on EU Constitution |- |||[[October 2003|16-17 October]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Italy}} Silvio Berlusconi|| |- |||[[December 2003|12-13 December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Italy}} Silvio Berlusconi|| |- |2004||[[March 2004|25-26 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Ireland}} [[Bertie Ahern]]|| |- |||[[June 2004|17-18 June]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Ireland}} Bertie Ahern|| |- |||[[November 2004|4-5 November]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Jan Peter Balkenende]]|| |- |||[[December 2004|16-17 December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Netherlands}} Jan Peter
ônde Matôrom'' (by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (Chatterjee)) were actually composed in highly refined Shadhubhasha. However, Shadhubhasha is not spoken in commonplace settings and confined to literary and formal contexts. Choltibhasha (literally, &quot;the current or running language&quot;) comprises the standard pronunciation of Bangla and thus serves as the basis for the [[orthography]] of most Bangla writing today. It is modeled on the form of the dialect spoken in the Shantipur region in [[Nadia district]], [[West Bengal]] &lt;ref name=&quot;morshed&quot;&gt; Morshed, Abul Kalam Manjoor, [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/D_0212.htm Article on Bangla dialects], [[Banglapedia]]&lt;/ref&gt; and districts bordering on the lower reaches of the [[Hooghly River]]. However, a variety of regional dialects is to be found. ===Dialects=== While the standard form of Bangla does not show much variation across the Bengali-speaking areas of South Asia, the regional variants of Bangla are vastly dissimilar from one another. Spoken Bangla stretches across what is called a [[dialect continuum]], where neighboring dialects tend to be very similar, while speakers of dialects from opposite ends of the continuum would not be able to understand one another. Bangla is typically divided into eight major dialect groups: Western, Southwestern, West-Central, Northern, Bahe, Eastern, Ganda, and Vanga. Kharia Thar and Mal Paharia are closely related to Western Bangla dialects, but are typically classified as separate languages. Similarly, Rajbangshi and Hajong are considered separate languages, although they are very similar to Northern Bangla dialects. [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]], closely related to Eastern Bangla, is often considered a separate language. Chittagonian and [[Chakma]] are heavily influenced by the neighboring [[Tibeto-Burman languages]], and are also typically considered separate languages from Bangla. During standardization of Bangla in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]], the cultural elite were mostly from West Bengal, especially [[Kolkata]] (formerly [[Calcutta]]). To this day, the accepted standard language in both West Bengal and [[Bangladesh]] is based on the West-Central dialect of the 19th century Kolkata elite. This has helped create a state of diglossia in most of Bangladesh, with many speakers familiar with or fluent in both the regional dialect of their community and the standard West-Central dialect used in the media. ==Writing system== ''Main article: [[Bengali script]]'' Bangla is written in the Bangla [[abugida|alphasyllabary]] (also called ''syllabic alphabet'' or ''abugida''), a [[Brahmic family|Brahmic]] script similar to the [[Devanagari]] alphasyllabary used for [[Hindi]], [[Sanskrit]], and many other [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]] languages. The Bangla alphasyllabary is a [[cursive]] script with 12 [[vowel]] characters and 52 [[consonant]] characters. As in all alphasyllabaries, every consonant in the Bangla script can come with what is called an &quot;embedded&quot; or &quot;inherent&quot; vowel sound. For example, the simple letter ম can represent the consonant ['''m'''] in a word like কম [kɔ'''m'''] &quot;less&quot;. However, in another word, the same letter ম can represent the sequences ['''mɔ'''] or ['''mo'''], as in মত ['''mɔ'''t̪] &quot;opinion&quot; and মন ['''mo'''n] &quot;mind&quot;, respectively, with no added symbol for the vowels ['''ɔ'''] or ['''o''']. If the consonant sound is followed by some other vowel sound in the pronunciation, this can be written by writing a variety of vowel diacritics above, below, before, after, or around the consonant they belong to. Vowels not associated with a consonant (for example, vowels at the beginning of a word) are written with separate symbols. To emphatically indicate that a consonant is not pronounced with the embedded vowel, an extra [[diacritic]] may be added below the consonant. [[consonant cluster|Consonant clusters]] are typically indicated by [[Ligature (typography)|ligating]] two or more consonant symbols. The Bangla spelling system is based on a much older version of the language, and thus does not take into acount some sound mergers that have occurred in the spoken language. For example, the alphabet has two letters for the sound [dʒ] and three for the sound [ʃ]. Conversely, a number of letters now have more than one pronunciation; the letter এ can represent either the low vowel [æ] or the high-mid vowel [e]. Furthermore, many letters and diacritics have become &quot;silent letters&quot; in the spoken language. The word for &quot;health&quot;, for example, is written 'swasthyô', but pronounced [ʃast̪ʰo]. With these minor inconsistencies and redundancies, the Bangla script cannot be described as entirely [[phonemic orthography|phonemic]]. This same script, with a few small modifications, is also used for writing [[Assamese]]. Other related languages in the region also make use of the Bangla alphabet. [[Meithei|Meithei (Manipuri)]], a [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] language used in the Indian state of [[Manipur]], was written in the Bangla alphasyllabary for centuries, until the 1980s, when Meetei Mayek (the Meithei alphasyllabary) returned to daily usage. For centuries, the [[Sylheti]] language used a different script, based on the Devanagari alphasyllabary. This script, called Sylheti Nagori, has now fallen out of use, as most speakers of Sylheti have adopted the Bangla script. ==Sounds== The [[phoneme|phonemic]] inventory of Bangla consists of 29 consonants and 14 vowels, including the seven [[nasalization|nasalized vowels]]. An approximate [[phonetics|phonetic]] scheme is set out below in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]. {| style=&quot;align:center; width:60%;&quot; |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+Vowels !&amp;nbsp;||Front||Central||Back |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !High |{{IPA|i}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|u}} |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !High-mid |{{IPA|e}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|o}} |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Low-mid |{{IPA|æ}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|ɔ}} |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Low |&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|a}}||&amp;nbsp; |} | {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+Consonants !&amp;nbsp;||Labial||Dental||Apico-&lt;br /&gt;Alveolar||Apico-&lt;br /&gt;Postalveolar||Lamino-&lt;br /&gt;Postalveolar||Velar||Glottal |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Voiceless&lt;br&gt;stops |{{IPA|p}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|p&amp;#688;}}||{{IPA|t&amp;#810;}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|t&amp;#810;&amp;#688;}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|&amp;#648;}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|&amp;#648;&amp;#688;}}||{{IPA|&amp;#679;}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|&amp;#679;&amp;#688;}}|| {{IPA|k}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|k&amp;#688;}}||&amp;nbsp; |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Voiced&lt;br&gt;stops |{{IPA|b}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|b&amp;#688;}}||{{IPA|d&amp;#810;}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|d&amp;#810;&amp;#688;}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|&amp;#598;}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|&amp;#598;&amp;#688;}}||{{IPA|&amp;#676;}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|&amp;#676;&amp;#688;}}||{{IPA|ɡ}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|ɡ&amp;#688;}}||&amp;nbsp; |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Voiceless&lt;br&gt;fricatives |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|s}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|&amp;#643;}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|h}} |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Nasals |{{IPA|m}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|n}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|&amp;#331;}}||&amp;nbsp; |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Liquids |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|l}}, {{IPA|r}}|||{{IPA|&amp;#637;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp; |} |} == Phonology == For the purposes of consistent [[transliteration]], the following [[Romanization]] scheme is used throughout this article along with other Wikipedia articles related to the Bengali language. The tables below correspond to the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] transcriptions used above. {| style=&quot;align:center; width:60%;&quot; |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+'''Vowels''' !&amp;nbsp;||Front||Central||Back |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !High |i||&amp;nbsp;||u |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !High-mid |e||&amp;nbsp;||o |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Low-mid |ê||&amp;nbsp;||ô |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Low |&amp;nbsp;||a||&amp;nbsp; |} | {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+'''Consonants''' !&amp;nbsp;||Labial||Dental||Apico-&lt;br /&gt;Alveolar||Apico-&lt;br /&gt;Postalveolar||Lamino-&lt;br /&gt;Postalveolar||Velar||Glottal |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Voiceless&lt;br&gt;stops |p&lt;br/&gt;ph||t&lt;br/&gt;th||&amp;nbsp;||ţ&lt;br/&gt;ţh||ch&lt;br/&gt;chh||k&lt;br/&gt;kh||&amp;nbsp; |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Voiced&lt;br&gt;stops |b&lt;br/&gt;bh||d&lt;br/&gt;dh||&amp;nbsp;||đ&lt;br/&gt;đh||j&lt;br/&gt;jh||g&lt;br/&gt;gh||&amp;nbsp; |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Voiceless&lt;br&gt;fricatives |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||s||&amp;nbsp;||sh||&amp;nbsp;||h |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Nasals |m||&amp;nbsp;||n||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||ng||&amp;nbsp; |-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; !Liquids |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||l, r||ŗ||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp; |} |} === Stress === Bangla words are virtually all [[trochee|trochaic]]; the primary [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] falls on the initial [[syllable]] of the word, while secondary stress often falls on all odd-numbered syllables thereafter, giving strings such as ['''shô'''-ho-'''jo'''-gi-'''ta'''] &quot;cooperation&quot;, where the '''boldface''' represents primary and secondary stress. The first syllable carries the greatest stress, with the third carrying a somewhat weaker stress, and all following odd-numbered syllables carrying very weak stress. Adding [[prefix|prefixes]] to a word typically shifts the stress to the left; for example, while the word ['''shob'''-bho] &quot;civilized&quot; carries the primary stress on the first syllable ['''shob'''], adding the [[negation|negative]] prefix [ô-] creates ['''ô'''-shob-bho
[acre]] = 160 square perches or 43,560 square feet = 4046.8564224 square metres :[[square mile]] = 640 acres = 2.5899881103 square kilometres Old European area units, still in used in some private matters (e.g. land sale advertisements) :square [[fathom]]or fahomia in some sources = 3.5967 square metres :[[cadastral]] moon(acre) = 1600� square fathoms = 5755 square metres The article [[Orders of magnitude]] links to lists of [[orders of magnitude (area)|objects of comparable surface area]]. ==Useful formulas== *Area of a [[rectangle]] (and, in particular, a [[square (geometry)|square]]): [[length]] &amp;times; [[width]] *Area of a [[triangle]]: [[½]] &amp;times; [[base]] &amp;times; [[height]] *Area of a [[disk (mathematics)|disk]]: [[pi|&amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[radius|r]]² *Area of an [[ellipse]]: [[pi|&amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[semi-major axis|a]] &amp;times; [[semi-minor axis|b]] *Area of a [[sphere]]: 4 &amp;times; [[pi|&amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[radius|r]]² = &amp;pi; &amp;times; [[diameter|d]]² (which is the first [[derivative]] of the [[formula]] for [[volume]] of a [[sphere]]) *Area of a [[trapezoid]]: If a and b are the two parallel sides and h is the distance (height) between the parallels, the area formula is as below: :&lt;math&gt;A=\frac{1}{2}(a+b)h&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;A=\frac{h(a+b)}{2}&lt;/math&gt; *Total surface area of a [[right circular cylinder]]: 2 &amp;times; [[pi| &amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[radius|r]] &amp;times; ([[height|h]] + [[radius|r]]) *Lateral surface area of a [[right circular cylinder]]: 2 &amp;times; [[pi| &amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[radius|r]] &amp;times; [[height|h]] *Total surface area of a [[right circular cone]]: [[pi| &amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[radius|r]] &amp;times; ([[slant height|l]] + [[radius|r]]) *Lateral surface area of a [[right circular cone]]: [[pi| &amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[radius|r]] &amp;times; [[slant height|l]] &lt;!--The total surface area and lateral surface area of a right circular cylinder and cone formulae were taken from R.S. Aggarwal's Mathematics for Class 8--&gt; &lt;!-- a table of areas&lt;-&gt;diameters isn't exactly very relevant here. and statements of currents are meaningless without information on the cable type ambient temperature and installation conditions. ==Cross sectional area (CSA) of electrical wire== Rough figures for the cross sectional area of copper conductor: CSA (mm²) diameter (mm) current (A) 1.0 2.8 13 1.5 3.5 17 2.5 4.2 24 4.0 4.8 32 6.0 5.4 41 10.0 6.8 55 16.0 8.0 74 25.0 9.8 97 --&gt; [[Category:Area|*]] [[als:Fläche]] [[ar:مساحة]] [[bg:Площ]] [[be:Плошча]] [[ca:Àrea]] [[cs:Povrch]] [[da:Areal]] [[de:Fläche]] [[et:Pindala]] [[el:Έκταση]] [[eo:Areo]] [[fa:مساحت]] [[fi:Pinta-ala]] [[fo:Vídd]] [[fr:Superficie]] [[gu:ક્ષેત્રફળ]] [[he:שטח]] [[hr:Površina]] [[ia:Superficie]] [[io:Areo]] [[is:Flatarmál]] [[ja:面積]] [[ka:ფართობი]] [[ko:면적]] [[la:Area]] [[lv:Platība]] [[lt:Plotas]] [[li:Oppervlak]] [[mg:Velarantany]] [[nl:Oppervlakte]] [[nn:Flatevidd]] [[no:Areal]] [[pl:Powierzchnia]] [[pt:Área]] [[ru:Площадь]] [[simple:Area]] [[sl:Površina]] [[sv:Ytmått]] [[th:พื้นที่]] [[uk:Площа]] [[vi:Diện tích]] [[zh:面积]] [[zh-min-nan:Bīn-chek]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Astronomical unit</title> <id>1210</id> <revision> <id>41421590</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T05:16:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeffrey O. Gustafson</username> <id>158658</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* History */ punctpov</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''astronomical unit''' ('''AU''' or '''au''' or '''a.u.''' or sometimes '''ua''') is a unit of [[distance]], approximately equal to the [[mean]] distance between [[Earth]] and [[Sun]]. The currently accepted value of the AU is 149 597 870 691 ± 30 metres (about 150 million kilometres or 93 million miles). The symbol &quot;ua&quot; is recommended by the [[Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]] [http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter4/table7.html], but in the United States and other anglophone countries the reverse usage is more common. The [[International Astronomical Union]] recommends &quot;au&quot; [http://www.iau.org/IAU/Activities/nomenclature/units.html] and [[international standard]] [[ISO 31-1]] uses &quot;AU&quot;. == The distance == Earth's [[orbit]] is not a [[circle]] but an [[ellipse]]; originally, the AU was defined as the [[length]] of the [[semimajor axis]] of said orbit. For greater precision, the International Astronomical Union in [[1976]] defined the AU as the distance from the Sun at which a [[test particle|particle]] of negligible [[mass]], in an unperturbed circular orbit, would have an [[orbital period]] of 365.256 898 3 days (a [[Gaussian year]]). More accurately, it is the distance such that the heliocentric [[gravitational constant]] (the product GM&lt;sub&gt;&amp;#9737;&lt;/sub&gt;) is equal to (0.017 202 098 95)² AU³/d². ==History== [[Aristarchus of Samos]] estimated the distance to the Sun to be about 20 times the distance to the moon, whereas the true ratio is about 390. His estimate was based on the angle between the half moon and the sun, which he estimated as 87&amp;deg;. According to [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] in the ''[[Praeparatio Evangelica]]'', [[Eratosthenes]] found the distance to the sun to be &quot;σταδιων μυριαδας τετρακοσιας και οκτωκισμυριας&quot; (literally &quot;of stadia myriads 400 and 80000&quot;). This has been translated either as 4,080,000 [[stadia]] (1903 translation by [[E. H. Gifford]]), or as 804,000,000 stadia (edition of [[Edouard des Places]], dated 1974-1991). Using the Greek stadium of 185 metres, the former translation comes to a far-too-low 755,000 km, whereas the second translation comes to a very accurate 149 million km. At the time the AU was introduced, its actual value was very poorly known, but planetary distances in terms of AU could be determined from heliocentric geometry and [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]]. The value of the AU was first estimated by [[Jean Richer]] and [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] in [[1672]]. By measuring the [[parallax]] of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] from two locations on the Earth, they arrived at a figure of about 140 million kilometers. A somewhat more accurate estimate can be obtained by observing the [[transit of Venus]]. This method was devised by [[Edmond Halley]], and applied to the transits of Venus observed in [[1761]] and [[1769]], and then again in [[1874]] and [[1882]]. Another method involved determining the constant of [[aberration of light|aberration]], and [[Simon Newcomb]] gave great weight to this method when deriving his widely accepted value of 8.80&quot; for the [[solar parallax]] (close to the modern value of 8.794 148&quot;). The discovery of the [[near-Earth asteroid]] [[433 Eros]] and its passage near the Earth in [[1900]]&amp;ndash;[[1901]] allowed a considerable improvement in parallax measurement. More recently very precise measurements have been carried out by [[radar]] and by [[telemetry]] from [[space probe]]s. While the value of the astronomical unit is now known to great precision, the value of the mass of the Sun is not, because of uncertainty in the value of the [[gravitational constant]]. Because the gravitational constant is known to only five or six significant digits while the positions of the planets are known to 11 or 12 digits, calculations in celestial mechanics are typically performed in solar masses and astronomical units rather than in kilograms and kilometres. This approach makes all results dependent on the gravitational constant. A conversion to [[SI]] units would separate the results from the gravitational constant, at the cost of introducing additional uncertainty by assigning a specific value to that unknown constant. It is known that the mass of the Sun is very slowly decreasing, and therefore the orbital period of a body at a given distance is increasing. This implies that the AU is getting smaller (by about one centimetre per year) over time. == Examples == The distances are approximate mean distances. It has to be taken into consideration that the distances between [[astronomical object|celestial bodies]] change in [[time]] due to their [[orbit]]s and other factors. * The [[Earth]] is 1.00 ± 0.02 AU from the [[Sun]]. * The [[Moon]] is 0.0026 ± 0.0001 AU from the Earth. * [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] is 1.52 ± 0.14 AU from the Sun. * [[Jupiter]] is 5.20 ± 0.05 AU from the Sun. * [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] is 39.5 ± 9.8 AU from the Sun. * [[90377 Sedna]]'s orbit ranges between 76 and 942 AU from the Sun; Sedna is currently ([[as of 2006]]) about 90 AU from the Sun. * As of November 2005, [[Voyager 1]] (the farthest [[human]]-made object) is 97 AU from the Sun. * The mean diameter of the [[Solar system]], including the [[Oort cloud]], is approximately 10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; AU. * [[Proxima Centauri]] (the nearest [[star]]) is ~268 000 AU away from the Sun. * The mean diameter of [[Betelgeuse]] is 2.57 AU. * The distance from the Sun to the centre of the [[Milky Way]] is approximately 1.7×10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; AU. Some conversion factors: * 1 AU = 149 597 870.691 ± 0.030 km &amp;#8776; 92 955 807 miles &amp;#8776; 8.317 [[light-year|light minutes]] &amp;#8776; 499 [[light-second]]s * 1 [[light-second]] &amp;#8776; 0.002 AU * 1 [[light-minute]] &amp;#8776; 0.120 AU * 1 [[light-hour]] &amp;#8776; 7.214 AU * 1 [[light-day]] &amp;#8776; 173 AU * 1 [[light-year]] &amp;#8776; 63 241 AU * 1 [[parsec|pc]] &amp;#8776; 206 265 AU == See also == * [[Conversion of units]] * [[Light year]] * [[Orders of magnitude]] * [[Parsec]] == References == * E. Myles Standish. &quot;Report of the I
favourites as well as some new names like [[Manoel de Oliveira]], [[Raul Ruiz|Raúl Ruíz]], [[Hou Hsiao-Hsien]], [[Youssef Chahine]], and [[Maurice Pialat]]. More recent writers have included [[Serge Daney]], Serge Toubiana, Thierry Jousse, Antoine de Baecque, Charles Tesson and [[Franck Nouchi]], [[Andre Techine]], [[Léos Carax]], [[Olivier Assayas]], [[Danièle Dubroux]], and [[Serge Le Peron]]. In [[1998]], the Editions de l'Etoile (the company publishing ''Cahiers'') was acquired by the press group ''[[Le Monde]]''. ==External links== *[http://www.cahiersducinema.com Official website] *[http://www.archives-cahiersducinema.com/ Archives] *[http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~ejohnson/critics/cahiers.html Top 10 list] (for years 1951, 1955&amp;ndash;1968, 1981&amp;ndash;2002) [[Category:Film criticism]] [[Category:Film magazines]] [[Category:Film theory]] [[Category:French magazines]] [[de:Cahiers du cinéma]] [[eo:Cahiers du Cinéma]] [[fr:Les Cahiers du cinéma]] [[it:Les Cahiers du cinéma]] [[lb:Cahiers du Cinéma]] [[ja:カイエ・デュ・シネマ]] [[pt:Cahiers du Cinéma]] [[zh:电影手册]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cartzonna</title> <id>7766</id> <revision> <id>15905816</id> <timestamp>2003-06-12T17:06:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Anome</username> <id>76</id> </contributor> <comment>redirecting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Gavoi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Circuit Park Zandvoort</title> <id>7767</id> <revision> <id>30033588</id> <timestamp>2005-12-03T18:39:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FG42</username> <id>395347</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved [[Circuit Zandvoort]] to [[Circuit Park Zandvoort]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Circuit Park Zandvoort''' is a motor [[circuit (racing)|racing circuit]] located near the town of [[Zandvoort]], in the [[Netherlands]], near the [[North Sea]] coast line. Although there were some races at Zandvoort before [[World War II|WW II]], a real circuit was not built until after the war, mainly designed by [[John Hugenholz]]. The first event was held in [[1949]], as the Zandvoort Grand Prix. The following year, the race was called the Dutch Grand Prix, and it was included in the [[Formula One]] World Championship in [[1952]]. In [[1985]], the Dutch Grand Prix was held for the last time, as part of the circuit had to be remodelled because of new buildings. Currently the circuit is again bidding to be included in the Formula One World Championship. The major event that is currently held at the circuit is the [[Marlboro Masters]], where [[Formula 3]] cars of several national racing series compete with each other. The most famous corner in the circuit is the ''Tarzanbocht'' (Tarzan corner) which provides excellent overtaking opportunities. This corner is reportedly named after a local character who had earned the nickname of [[Tarzan]] and only wanted to give up his vegetable garden in the dunes if the track's designers named a nearby corner after him. In the history of the circuit, several fatal accidents have occurred: among them those of [[Piers Courage]] during the [[1970]] Dutch Grand Prix, and [[Roger Williamson]] died in [[1973]]. The older 'Classic' Zandvoort circuit layout is modeled in detail and can be driven in the [[Grand Prix Legends]] racing simulation for X86-based pc's. ''See also:'' [[List of Formula One circuits]] ==External links== *{{nl icon}} [http://www.circuit-zandvoort.nl/ Circuit Zandvoort homepage] [[Category:Sports venues in the Netherlands]] [[Category:Formula One circuits|Zandvoort]] [[Category:Motor racing venues in Europe]] [[nl:Circuit Park Zandvoort]] [[sv:Circuit Park Zandvoort]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Crete Senesi</title> <id>7768</id> <revision> <id>41829181</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:36:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ian Spackman</username> <id>774227</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Linked to [[Monte Oliveto Maggiore]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Crete Senesi''' refers to an area of the [[Italy|Italian]] region of [[Tuscany]] to the south of [[Siena]]. It consists of a range of hills and woods among villages and includes the ''[[comuni]]'' of [[Asciano]], [[Buonconvento]], [[Monteroni d'Arbia]], [[Rapolano Terme]] and [[San Giovanni d'Asso]]. ''Crete senesi'' are literally ‘clays of Siena’ and the distinctive gray colouration of the soil gives to the landscape an appearance often descibed as lunar. Perhaps the most notable edifice of this area is the monastery [[Monte Oliveto Maggiore]]. ==External links== *[http://www.terresiena.it/page.asp?cat=cretesenesi&amp;par=&amp;id_codicearea=cs&amp;lang=en Terre di Siena: Crete Senesi] *[http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/italy-tuscany/lacrete/ Photographs of the Crete Senesi] *[http://tuscany.podtravels.tv/category/siena/crete-senesi/ Videos of the Crete Senesi] {{Italy-geo-stub}} [[Category:Italy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Corporatism</title> <id>7769</id> <revision> <id>41418967</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:51:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GilliamJF</username> <id>506179</id> </contributor> <comment>dab welfare</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Fascism}} Historically, '''corporatism''' or '''corporativism''' (Italian ''corporativismo'') is a [[political system]] in which legislative power is given to civic assemblies that represent economic, industrial, agrarian, and professional groups. Unlike [[pluralism]], in which many groups must compete for control of the state, in corporatism, certain unelected bodies take a critical role in the decision-making process. These corporatist assemblies are not the same as contemporary business [[corporations]] or incorporated groups. The word &quot;corporatism&quot; is derived from the [[Latin]] word for body, ''corpus''. This original meaning was not connected with the specific notion of a [[business]] corporation, but rather a general reference to anything collected as a body. Its usage reflects medieval European concepts of a whole society in which the various components each play a part in the life of the society, just as the various parts of the body serve specific roles in the life of a body. According to various theorists, corporatism was an attempt to create a &quot;modern&quot; version of feudalism by merging the &quot;corporate&quot; interests with those of the state. (Also see [[neofeudalism]].) [[Political science|Political scientists]] may also use the term corporatism to describe a practice whereby an [[authoritarian]] [[state]], through the process of [[licensing]] and regulating officially-[[incorporation (business)|incorporated]] social, religious, economic, or popular organizations, effectively co-opts their leadership or circumscribes their ability to challenge state authority by establishing the state as the source of their [[legitimacy]]. This usage is particularly common in the area of [[East Asia]] studies, and is sometimes also referred to as ''state corporatism''. In Italian Fascism, this non-elected form of state 'officializing' of every interest into the state was professed to better circumvent the marginalization of singular interests as would happen by the unilateral end condition inherent in the democractic voting process. Which would better instead recognize or 'incorporate' every divergent interest as it stands alone into the state &quot;organically&quot;, thus being the inspiration behind their use of the term [[Totalitarian]], perceivable to them as not meaning a coercive system but described distinctly as without coercion in the 1932 [[Doctrine of Fascism]] as thus; ''&quot;…(The state) is not simply a mechanism which limits the sphere of the supposed liberties of the individual…&quot;'' &amp; ''&quot;…Neither has the Fascist conception of authority anything in common with that of a police ridden State…&quot;'' but rather clearly connoting ''&quot;…Far from crushing the individual, the Fascist State multiplies his energies, just as in a regiment a soldier is not diminished but multiplied by the number of his fellow soldiers…&quot;'' This prospect in Italian Fascist Corporativism claimed to be the direct heir of [[Georges Sorel]]'s [[Anarcho-syndicalism]]. Wherein each interest was to form as its own entity with separate organizing parameters according to their own standards, only however within the corporative model of Italian Fascism each was supposed to be incorporated through the auspices &amp; organizing ability of a statist construct. This was by their reasoning the only possible way to achieve such a function, i.e. when resolved in the capability of an indissolvable state. Contemporary popular usage of the term is more pejorative, especially when used as the shorter form ''corporatism'' (''corporativism'' usually implies only the Italian construct indicating public rather than private organizing), emphasizing the role of [[business]] corporations in government decision-making at the expense of the public. The power of business to affect government legislation through [[lobbying]] and other avenues of influence in order to promote their interests is usually seen as detrimental to those of the public. In this respect, corporatism may be characterized as an extreme form of [[regulatory capture]], and is also termed [[corporatocracy]]. If there is substantial military-corporate collaboration it is often called militarism or the [[military-industrial complex]]. Some contemporary political scientists and sociologists use the term ''neo-corporatism'' to describe a process of bargaining between labor, capital, and government identified as occurr
he control of the two communities (the communal chambers). State education was based on nationalisation of existing community supported schools from the colonial period. Thus following 1974 the Cypriot system follows the Greek system in the south, in other words providing their students with an [[apolytirion]], and the Turkish system in the north. A large number of students after sitting for A-levels and/or SATs study abroad, mainly in English speaking countries such as the [[USA|US]] or UK, but also in other European destinations such as [[France]] and [[Germany]]. Traditionally the communist party [[AKEL]] provided scholarships for its members to study in [[Eastern Europe]]. Eastern European countries, especially [[Bulgaria]] and [[Hungary]], are still popular destinations for students. Students from [[Turkey]] also study at universities in northern Cyprus, boosting economically the North Cyprus Turkish Republic. ==Personalities== * [[Archbishop Makarios]] ([[1913]]-[[1977]]), Archbishop, first President of the Republic of Cyprus * [[Dr Fazil Kucuk]] ([[1906]]-[[1984]]) was the first and only Turkish Cypriot Vice President of the 1960 Republic of Cyprus. * [[Stelios Haji-Ioannou]] (also known as [[Stelios]]) (b.[[1967]]), Businessman, founder of [[Easyjet]] * [[Anna Vissi]] (b.[[1957]]), popular singer * [[Yiannos Kranidiotis]] (died [[1999]] in air-accident), Greek politician, deputy [[Minister]] of State * [[Marcos Baghdatis]] (b.[[1985]]), tennis player, Baghdatis became the ITF World Junior Tennis Champion in [[2003]] and joined the ATP professional tour later in that year. Runner-up in Australian Open 2006. Ranked 27th in the world. *[[Michalis Konstantinou]] football player for [[Olympiakos CFP]] and all-time leading goalscorer for [[Cyprus national football team]]. *[[Mustafa Halilsoy]] one of the prominent physicist in the field of Physics of Gravitational Waves [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_q=&amp;num=100&amp;btnG=Search+Scholar&amp;as_epq=&amp;as_oq=&amp;as_eq=&amp;as_occt=any&amp;as_sauthors=Mustafa+Halilsoy&amp;as_publication=&amp;as_ylo=1970&amp;as_yhi=2005&amp;as_allsubj=some&amp;as_subj=phy&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=] ==Educational Institutes/Universities/Colleges== *[http://www.ucy.ac.cy University of Cyprus] *[http://www.tucy.ac.cy Technical University of Cyprus] *[http://www.mlsi.gov.cy/mlsi/hti/hti.nsf/dmlindex_en/dmlindex_en?OpenDocument Higher Technical Institute] (taught in English) situated in Nicosia *[http://www.cycollege.ac.cy Cyprus College] (taught in English) situated in Nicosia *[http://www.intercollege.ac.cy/ Intercollege] (taught in English) situated in Nicosia and Larnaca *[http://www.fit.ac.cy/ The Frederick institute] (taught in English) situated in Nicosia and Limassol *[http://www.philips.ac.cy/ Philips College] (taught in English/Greek) situated in Nicosia *[http://www.ac.ac.cy/ Americanos College] (taught in English/Greek) situated in Nicosia *[[Eastern Mediterranean University]] (taught in English) situated in Famagusta ==Miscellaneous== * [[Communications in Cyprus]] * [[Holidays in Cyprus]] * [[List of Cypriots]] * [[Military of Cyprus]] * [[Music of Cyprus]] * [[Alexander the Great]] * [[Transportation in Cyprus]] *[[Greek History]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Cyprus}} '''Government''' * [http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/ Republic of Cyprus] * [http://www.kypros.org/Constitution/English/index.htm Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus] * [http://www.moi.gov.cy/moi/pio/pio.nsf/index_en/index_en?opendocument# Press and Information Office] * [http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/cyphome/govhome.nsf/0/AC8717AD3CF09FC1C2256FC8003AFBD8?OpenDocument&amp;languageNo=1 Religious Groups in Cyprus] * [http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/index_en/index_en?OpenDocument Statistical Service of the Republic of Cyprus] '''Banks''' * [http://www.offshoreincorporation101.com/cyprus-banks.html Banks in Cyprus Directory] '''General information''' * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cy.html CIA World Factbook - ''Cyprus''] * [http://www.state.gov/p/eur/ci/cy/ US State Department - ''Cyprus''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Cyprus/ Open Directory Project - ''Cyprus''] directory category '''Tourism information''' * [http://www.visitcyprus.org.cy/ Cyprus Tourism Organisation] {{Europe}} {{Southwest_Asia}} {{Asia}} {{Middle_East}} {{Mediterranean}} {{EU_countries}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} {{Non-Aligned Movement}} [[Category:Cyprus| ]] [[Category:Middle Eastern countries]] [[Category:Southwest Asian countries]] [[Category:European Union member states]] [[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Bicontinental countries]] [[Category:Phoenician colonies]] [[Category:Hellenistic colonies]] [[Category:Former British colonies]] [[Category:Island nations]] {{Link FA|ja}} [[af:Ciprus]] [[ar:قبرص]] [[an:Chipre]] [[ast:Chipre]] [[bg:Кипър]] [[zh-min-nan:Ku-pí-lō·]] [[be:Кіпр]] [[bn:সাইপ্রাস]] [[bs:Kipar]] [[ca:Xipre]] [[cs:Kypr]] [[cy:Cyprus]] [[da:Cypern]] [[de:Zypern]] [[et:Küpros]] [[el:Κύπρος]] [[es:Chipre]] [[eo:Kipro]] [[eu:Zipre]] [[fo:Kýpros]] [[fr:Chypre]] [[fy:Syprus]] [[ga:An Chipir]] [[gl:Chipre - Κύπρος]] [[ko:키프로스]] [[hy:Կիպրոս]] [[io:Chipro]] [[id:Siprus]] [[is:Kýpur]] [[it:Cipro]] [[he:קפריסין]] [[kw:Kyproes]] [[la:Cyprus]] [[lv:Kipra]] [[lt:Kipras]] [[lb:Zypern]] [[hu:Ciprus]] [[ms:Cyprus]] [[na:Cyprus]] [[nl:Cyprus]] [[nds:Zypern]] [[ja:キプロス]] [[no:Kypros]] [[nn:Kypros]] [[os:Кипр]] [[pl:Cypr (państwo)]] [[pt:Chipre]] [[ro:Cipru]] [[ru:Кипр]] [[sq:Qiproja]] [[sh:Cipar]] [[simple:Cyprus]] [[sk:Cyprus (štát)]] [[sl:Ciper]] [[sr:Кипар]] [[fi:Kypros]] [[sv:Cypern]] [[th:ประเทศไซปรัส]] [[tr:Kıbrıs]] [[uk:Кіпр]] [[zh:賽普勒斯]] [[fiu-vro:Küprüs]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cyprus/History</title> <id>5594</id> <revision> <id>15903796</id> <timestamp>2002-04-27T17:50:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LA2</username> <id>445</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Cyprus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Cyprus</title> <id>5595</id> <revision> <id>41640795</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:57:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>194.42.22.4</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cy-map.png|right|thumb|350px|Map of Cyprus]] '''[[Cyprus]]''' is an [[island]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the third biggest in Meditteranean Sea, and is near the [[Middle East]] (and is sometimes included in the region geographically), south of [[Turkey]]. The physical setting for life on the island is dominated by the mountain masses and the central plain they encompass, the [[Mesaoria]]. The [[Troodos Mountains]] cover most of the southern and western portions of the island and account for roughly half its area. The narrow [[Kyrenia Mountains|Kyrenia Range]], extending along the northern coastline, occupies substantially less area, and elevations are lower. The two mountain systems run generally parallel to the [[Taurus Mountains]] on the Turkish mainland, whose silhouette is visible from northern Cyprus. Coastal lowlands, varying in width, surround the island. It is situated at the north-eastern end of the East Mediterranean basin at a distance of 380 km north of [[Egypt]], 105 km west of [[Syria]] and 75 km south of [[Turkey]]. The [[Greece|Greek mainland]] is some 800 km to the west. The nearest [[Greek islands]] are [[Rhodes]] and [[Karpathos]], 380 km to the west. The [[latitude]] of Cyprus is 34° 33’ - 35° 34’ north and its longitude 32° 16’ - 34° 37’ east '''Geographic coordinates:''' {{coor d|35|N|33|E|}} ==Terrain== [[image:cyprus.arp.750pix.jpg|300px|thumb|This image, acquired by [[Terra (satellite)|NASA's Terra satellite]] on [[30 January]] [[2001]], shows the three distinct geologic regions of the island. In the central and western part of the island is the Troodos Massif, a mountain range whose surface layer is mostly basaltic lava rock, and whose maximum elevation is 1953 m (6407 ft). Running in a thin arc along the northeast margin of the island is Cyprus's second mountain range, a limestone formation called the Kyrenia Range. The space between these ranges is home to the capital [[Nicosia]], visible as a grayish-brown patch near the image's center.]] The rugged [[Troodos]] Mountains, whose principal range stretches from Pomos Point in the northwest almost to Larnaca Bay on the east, are the single most conspicuous feature of the landscape. Intensive uplifting and folding in the formative period left the area highly fragmented, so that subordinate ranges and spurs veer off at many angles, their slopes incised by steep-sided valleys. In the southwest, the mountains descend in a series of stepped foothills to the coastal plain. While the Troodos Mountains are a massif formed of molten igneous rock, the Kyrenia Range is a narrow limestone ridge that rises suddenly from the plains. Its easternmost extension becomes a series of foothills on the [[Karpass Peninsula]]. That peninsula points toward Asia Minor, to which Cyprus belongs geologically. Even the highest peaks of the Kyrenia Range are hardly more than half the height of the great dome of the Troodos massif, [[Mount Olympus (Cyprus)|Mount Olympus]] (1,952 meters), but their seemingly inaccessible, jagged slopes make them considerably more spectacular. [[United Kingdom|British]] writer [[Lawrence Durrell]], in Bitter Lemons, wrote of the Troodos as &quot;an unlovely jumble of crags and heavyweight rocks&quot; and of the Kyrenia Range as belonging to &quot;the world of [[Gothic_art|Gothic]] [[Europe]], its lofty crags studded with crusader castles.&quot; Rich copper deposits were discovered in antiquity on the slopes of the Troodos. Geologists speculate that these deposits may have originall
== * [[Texture (music)]] * [[Homophony]] * [[Monophony]] * [[Polyphony]] * [[Counterpoint]] {{Music-theory-stub}} [[de:Homofonie]] [[eo:Homofonio]] [[fr:homophonie]] [[zh:&amp;#20027;&amp;#35843;&amp;#38899;&amp;#20048;]] [[Category:Musical texture]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historic list of cities of Europe</title> <id>14120</id> <revision> <id>40894031</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T18:49:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kelisi</username> <id>173996</id> </contributor> <comment>link update</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The biggest towns in [[Europe]] in [[1700]] (population in brackets) :&lt;br&gt; * [[London]] (500,000) * [[Paris]] (400,000) * [[Naples]] (215,000) * [[Amsterdam]] (180,000) * [[Moscow]] (150,000) * [[Venice, Italy|Venice]] (138,000) * [[Rome]] (130,000) * [[Milan]] (120,000) * [[Madrid]] (100,000) * [[Vienna]] (100,000) * [[Sarajevo]] (80,000) * [[Gdańsk]] (77,000) The biggest towns in Europe in [[1800]] (population in brackets) :&lt;br&gt; * [[London]] (1,000,000) * [[Paris]] (600,000) * [[Naples]] (426,000) * [[Moscow]] (400,000) * [[Vienna]] (240,000) * [[Amsterdam]] (220,000) * [[St. Petersburg, Russia|Saint Petersburg]] (200,000) * [[Dublin]] (200,000) * [[Lisbon]] (180,000) * [[Berlin]] (172,000) * [[Warsaw]] (120,000) [[1792]] :''See also :'' [[History of Europe]] [[Category:History of Europe|Cities]] [[sl:Zgodovinski seznam mest v Evropi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hertz</title> <id>14121</id> <revision> <id>41985720</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:26:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Xee</username> <id>140091</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Explanation */ s/random/aperiodic/</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also the car rental company, [[The Hertz Corporation]], and [[Hertz (disambiguation)]].'' The '''hertz''' (symbol: Hz) is the [[SI]] unit of [[frequency]]. It is named in honor of the [[Germany|German]] physicist [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]] who made important scientific contributions to [[electromagnetism]]. In English, &quot;hertz&quot; is used in both singular and plural. ==Definition== One hertz is defined as one cycle per [[second]]. :1 Hz = 1 s&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; ==SI multiples== {{SI multiples|unit=hertz|symbol=Hz}} ==Explanation== One hertz simply means &quot;one per [[second]]&quot; (1 / s); 100&amp;#160;Hz means &quot;one hundred per second&quot;, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event &amp;ndash; for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1&amp;#160;Hz, or a human heart might be said to [[heart rate|beat]] at 1.2 Hz. Frequency of aperiodic events, such as radioactive decays, is expressed in [[becquerel]]s. To avoid confusion, periodically varying angles are typically ''not'' expressed in hertz, but rather in an appropriate angular unit such as radians per second. A disc rotating at 1 revolution per minute (RPM) can thus be said to be rotating at 0.105&amp;nbsp;rad/s ''or'' 0.017&amp;nbsp;Hz, where the latter reflects the number of ''complete'' revolutions per second. The name '''hertz''' was adopted by the [[CGPM]] (''Conférence générale des poids et mesures'') in 1960, replacing the previous name for the unit, ''cycles per second'' (cps), along with its related multiples, primarily ''kilocycles'' (kc) and ''megacycles'' (Mc). Hertz largely replaced cycles in common use by 1970. &lt;!--- See the Talk page before putting this apparent garbage back in: ==Deeper Explanation== Hertz (Hz) is a basic measurement of sound but is scientifically the name of high-low noise frequencies forming by the content of the electromagnetism the frequency contains. The lower the hertz, the deeper the level of noise, the higher the hertz, the louder (high-pitched) level of noise. The amount of content a frequency contains is summed by it's abundance of geometric pulsations the frequency holds. Therefore, the higher the pulsations, the more tighter the sound waves are bonded together. The lower the pulsations, the less the waves are bonded. Tight bonds create loud, high-pitched frequencies which do not travel far. Weak bonds create low frequencies that travel further because there would be more sound waves since they would not be bonded together as the tighter waves. ---&gt; ==See also== *[[Acoustics]] *[[Electromagnetic spectrum]] *[[Radio frequency]] *[[Wavelength]] *[[Orders of magnitude (frequency)]] [[Category:SI derived units]] [[Category:Units of frequency]] [[ar:هيرتز]] [[bg:Херц]] [[ca:Hertz]] [[cs:Hertz]] [[da:Hertz]] [[de:Hertz (Einheit)]] [[et:Herts]] [[es:Hercio]] [[eo:Herco]] [[eu:Hertz]] [[fi:Taajuus]] [[fr:Hertz]] [[gl:hertz]] [[ko:헤르츠]] [[ia:Hertz]] [[id:Hertz]] [[it:Hertz]] [[he:הרץ]] [[nl:Hertz]] [[ja:ヘルツ (単位)]] [[nn:hertz]] [[no:hertz]] [[pl:Herc]] [[pt:Hertz]] [[ro:hertz]] [[ru:Герц (единица измерения)]] [[sk:hertz]] [[sl:Hertz]] [[sr:Херц]] [[sv:Hertz]] [[tr:Hertz]] [[zh:赫兹]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heroic couplet</title> <id>14123</id> <revision> <id>40023047</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T15:48:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>138.87.163.171</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''heroic couplet''' is a traditional form for [[English literature|English]] [[poetry]], commonly used for epic and narrative poetry; it refers to poems constructed from a sequence of rhyming pairs of [[iambic pentameter]] lines. A frequently-cited example illustrating the use of heroic couplets is this passage from ''Cooper's Hill'' by [[John Denham (poet)|John Denham]], part of his description of the [[River Thames|Thames]]: :O could I flow like thee, and make thy stream&lt;br&gt; :My great example, as it is my theme!&lt;br&gt; :Though deep, yet clear, though gentle, yet not dull,&lt;br&gt; :Strong without rage, without o'erflowing full. The term &quot;heroic couplet&quot; is sometimes reserved for couplets that are largely ''closed'' and self-contained, as opposed to the [[enjambment|enjambed]] couplets of poets like [[John Donne]]. The greatest masters of the heroic couplet in English, thus defined, are generally considered to be [[John Dryden]] and [[Alexander Pope]]. Major poems in the closed couplet, apart from the works of Dryden and Pope, are [[Samuel Johnson]]'s ''[[The Vanity of Human Wishes]]'', [[Oliver Goldsmith]]'s ''[[The Deserted Village]]'', and [[John Keats]]'s ''[[Lamia]]''. The form was immensely popular in the 18th century. The looser type of couplet, with occasional enjambment, was one of the standard verse forms in medieval narrative poetry, largely because of the influence of the [[Canterbury Tales]]. English heroic couplets, especially in Dryden and his followers, are sometimes varied by the use of the occasional [[alexandrine]], or hexameter line, and triplet. Often these two variations are used together to heighten a climax. The breaking of the regular pattern of rhyming pentameter pairs brings about a sense of [[poetic closure]]. Here are three examples from Book IV of Dryden's translation of the ''[[Aeneid]]''. ''Triplet'' :Nor let him then enjoy supreme command; :But fall, untimely, by some hostile hand, :And lie unburied on the barren sand! :(ll. 890-892) ''Alexandrine'' :Her lofty courser, in the court below, :Who his majestic rider seems to know, :Proud of his purple trappings, paws the ground, :And champs the golden bit, and spreads the foam around. :(ll. 190-193) ''Alexandrine and Triplet'' :My Tyrians, at their injur’d queen’s command, :Had toss’d their fires amid the Trojan band; :At once extinguish’d all the faithless name; :And I myself, in vengeance of my shame, :Had fall’n upon the pile, to mend the fun’ral flame. :(ll. 867-871) [[Category:Poetic form]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Henry II of Saxony</title> <id>14124</id> <revision> <id>15911701</id> <timestamp>2004-06-11T16:41:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Henry X, Duke of Bavaria]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Homosexuals</title> <id>14126</id> <revision> <id>15911703</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Homosexuality]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Höðr</title> <id>14127</id> <revision> <id>40699316</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T11:27:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Haukurth</username> <id>16226</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Gesta Danorum */ Modern names for geographical entitites that still exist</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Loki and Hod.jpg|right|frame|[[Loki]] tricks Höðr into shooting [[Baldr]].]] '''Höðr''' (often anglicized as '''Hod'''{{ref|name}}) is the blind brother of [[Baldr]] in [[Norse mythology]]. Guided by [[Loki]] he shot the [[mistletoe]] missile which was to slay the otherwise invulnerable Baldr. According to the [[Prose Edda]] and the [[Poetic Edda]] the goddess [[Frigg]] made everything in existence swear never to harm Baldr, except for the mistletoe which she found too young to demand an oath from. The gods amused themselves by trying weapons on Baldr and seeing them fail to do any harm. [[Loki]], upon finding out about Baldr's one weakness, made a missile from mistletoe, and helped Höðr shoot it at Baldr. After this [[Odin]] and the [[giantess]] [[Rindr]] gave birth to [[Váli (son of Odin)|Váli]] who grew to adulthood
wed by their descendants. One of the trees that had lived until the 1800s may be seen, petrified, near the assembly house. A tree planted in 1860 to replace it died in [[2004]] and was in turn replaced; the sapling which had been set to become the official Gernikako Arbola is also sick so the tree will not be replaced until the earth around the site has been refreshed. A hermitage was built besides the tree to double as an assembly place, followed by the current house of assembly (Casa de Juntas), built in 1826. [[Image:GernikakoArbola.jpg|left|200px|thumb|The Gernika oak.]] The Lords of Biscay, upon receiving their title, would come to Guernica to swear that they would respect the Biscayne freedoms. Later the lordship became attached to the title of [[King of Castile]]. [[Image:GuernicaGernikara.jpg|right|200px|thumb|A tiled wall in Gernika claims ''Guernica Gernikara'', &quot;The Guernica (painting) to Gernika.&quot;]] Outside the Basque lands the city is best known as the scene of an early instance of [[strategic bombing|aerial bombing]] by the [[Nazi Germany|German]] ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' ([[Condor Legion]]) on [[April 26]], [[1937]], during the [[Spanish Civil War]] (''see [[Bombing of Guernica]]''). The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of [[Francisco Franco]] to overturn the [[Second Spanish Republic|Spanish Republic]]an government. The town was devastated, though the Biscayne assembly and the Gernikako Arbola survived. Pablo Picasso painted his famous &quot;Guernica&quot; painting to commemorate the horrors of the bombing. Because of its symbolic value, the current Autonomy Act of the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] was approved in Guernica and every [[Lehendakari]] (Basque President) takes his oath there. The Guernica estuary or [[Urdaibai]] is a [[Biosphere Reserve]]. It is also home to the [[Gernika Jai Alai]], one of the main courts for the [[jai alai]] sport. ==See also== *[[Municipal elections in Gernika-Lumo]] ==External links== {{Wikiquotepar|Bombing of Guernica}} *[http://www.gernika-lumo.net/in_index.asp Official site] in English, Basque and Spanish *[http://www.mala.bc.ca/~lanes/english/hemngway/picasso/guernica.htm Image of ''Guernica''] *[http://www.aestheticrealism.org/GUERNICA_dk.htm Painter and art educator Dorothy Koppelman writes on &quot;Aesthetic Realism and Picasso's Guernica: For Life&quot;] * [http://www.euskomedia.org/euskomedia/SAunamendi?idi=en&amp;op=7&amp;voz=GERNIKA-LUMO GERNIKA-LUMO in the Bernardo Estornés Lasa - Auñamendi Encyclopedia (Euskomedia Fundazioa)] Information available in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] [[Category:Bizkaia]] [[Category:Spanish Civil War]] [[da:Guernica]] [[de:Gernika]] [[eo:Gerniko]] [[es:Guernica (Vizcaya)]] [[fr:Guernica]] [[it:Guernica]] [[nl:Guernica]] [[pl:Guernica]] [[pt:Guernica]] [[fi:Guernica]] [[sv:Guernica]] {{Bizkaia}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>God Defend New Zealand</title> <id>12647</id> <revision> <id>42096665</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:28:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Moink</username> <id>32750</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.176.160.41|198.176.160.41]] ([[User talk:198.176.160.41|talk]]) to last version by Tailpig</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''&quot;God Defend New Zealand&quot;''' is one of the [[national anthem]]s of [[New Zealand]], together with &quot;[[God Save the Queen]]&quot;. Although they both have equal status, only &quot;God Defend New Zealand&quot; is used, and most New Zealanders would be unaware that the country has two national anthems. The [http://www.cultureandheritage.govt.nz/ New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage] has responsibility for the national anthems. ==History== The words for &quot;God Defend New Zealand&quot; were written as a [[New Zealand literature|poem]] in the 1870s by [[Thomas Bracken]]. A competition to compose music for the poem was held in 1876, with a prize of ten [[British coin Guinea|guineas]]. The winner of the competition was [[John Joseph Woods]], who composed the melody in a single sitting the evening after finding out about the competition. The song became increasingly popular during the 19th century and early 20th century, and in 1940 the New Zealand government bought the copyright and made it New Zealand's national hymn in time for that year's centennial celebrations. In 1976 a petition was presented to parliament asking for it to be made the national anthem, and, with the permission of Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]], it became the country's second national anthem on [[21 November]] [[1977]]. An alternative official arrangement for massed singing by [[Maxwell Fernie]] was announced by the [[New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs|Minister of Internal Affairs]] on [[1 June]] [[1978]]. While being used as New Zealand's national anthem at the [[British Empire Games]] from [[1950]] onward, it was first used at the Olympic Games in 1972 ([[Munich]]). ==Lyrics== &quot;God Defend New Zealand&quot; has five verses, each in [[English language|English]] and translated into [[Maori language|M&amp;#257;ori]]. Commonly, only the first verse is sung, in English or in M&amp;#257;ori, followed by the same verse in the other language. The second and last English verses may also be sung, but the third and fourth are rarely used. ===English lyrics=== God of Nations at Thy feet, &lt;br&gt; In the bonds of love we meet, &lt;br&gt; Hear our voices, we entreat, &lt;br&gt; God defend our free land. &lt;br&gt; Guard Pacific's triple star, &lt;br&gt; From the shafts of strife and war, &lt;br&gt; Make her praises heard afar, &lt;br&gt; God defend New Zealand. Men of ev'ry creed and race, &lt;br&gt; Gather here before Thy face, &lt;br&gt; Asking Thee to bless this place, &lt;br&gt; God defend our free land. &lt;br&gt; From dissension, envy, hate, &lt;br&gt; And corruption guard our State, &lt;br&gt; Make our country good and great, &lt;br&gt; God defend New Zealand. Peace, not war, shall be our boast, &lt;br&gt; But, should foes assail our coast, &lt;br&gt; Make us then a mighty host, &lt;br&gt; God defend our free land. &lt;br&gt; Lord of battles, in Thy might, &lt;br&gt; Put our enemies to flight, &lt;br&gt; Let our cause be just and right, &lt;br&gt; God defend New Zealand. Let our love for Thee increase, &lt;br&gt; May Thy blessings never cease, &lt;br&gt; Give us plenty, give us peace, &lt;br&gt; God defend our free land. &lt;br&gt; From dishonour and from shame, &lt;br&gt; Guard our country's spotless name, &lt;br&gt; Crown her with immortal fame, &lt;br&gt; God defend New Zealand. May our mountains ever be &lt;br&gt; Freedom's ramparts on the sea, &lt;br&gt; Make us faithful unto thee, &lt;br&gt; God defend our free land. &lt;br&gt; Guide her in the nations' van, &lt;br&gt; Preaching love and truth to man, &lt;br&gt; Working out Thy Glorious plan, &lt;br&gt; God defend New Zealand. Copyright on the English lyrics for &quot;God Defend New Zealand&quot; expired in 1948, 50 years after the death of the author. There is some discussion, with no official explanation, of the meaning of &quot;Pacific's triple star&quot;. Unofficial explanations range from New Zealand's three biggest islands ([[North Island|North]], [[South Island|South]], and [[Stewart Island/Rakiura]]), to the three stars on the [[Speight's]] beer logo. A possibility is that Bracken was referring to [[Alpha Centauri]], the brightest triple-star system in the southern constellation of Centaurus, which contains the fourth-brightest star in the sky. ===M&amp;#257;ori lyrics=== E Ihow&amp;#257; Atua,&lt;br&gt; O ng&amp;#257; iwi m&amp;#257;tou r&amp;#257;&lt;br&gt; &amp;#256;ta whakarongona;&lt;br&gt; Me aroha noa&lt;br&gt; Kia hua ko te pai;&lt;br&gt; Kia tau t&amp;#333; atawhai;&lt;br&gt; Manaakitia mai&lt;br&gt; Aotearoa &amp;#332;na mano t&amp;#257;ngata&lt;br&gt; Kiri whero, kiri m&amp;#257;,&lt;br&gt; Iwi M&amp;#257;ori P&amp;#257;keh&amp;#257;,&lt;br&gt; R&amp;#363;peke katoa,&lt;br&gt; Nei ka tono ko ng&amp;#257; h&amp;#275;&lt;br&gt; M&amp;#257;u e whakaahu k&amp;#275;,&lt;br&gt; Kia ora m&amp;#257;rire&lt;br&gt; Aotearoa T&amp;#333;na mana kia t&amp;#363;!&lt;br&gt; T&amp;#333;na kaha kia &amp;#363;;&lt;br&gt; T&amp;#333;na rongo hei pak&amp;#363;&lt;br&gt; Ki te ao katoa&lt;br&gt; Aua rawa ng&amp;#257; whawhai&lt;br&gt; Ng&amp;#257; tut&amp;#363; a tata mai;&lt;br&gt; Kia tupu nui ai&lt;br&gt; Aotearoa Waiho tona takiw&amp;#257;&lt;br&gt; Ko te ao m&amp;#257;rama;&lt;br&gt; Kia whiti t&amp;#333;na r&amp;#257;&lt;br&gt; Tai&amp;#257;whio noa.&lt;br&gt; Ko te hae me te ngangau&lt;br&gt; Meinga kia kore kau;&lt;br&gt; Waiho i te rongo mau&lt;br&gt; Aotearoa T&amp;#333;na pai me toit&amp;#363;&lt;br&gt; Tika rawa, pono p&amp;#363;;&lt;br&gt; T&amp;#333;na noho, tana t&amp;#363;;&lt;br&gt; Iwi n&amp;#333; Ihow&amp;#257;.&lt;br&gt; Kaua m&amp;#333;na whakam&amp;#257;;&lt;br&gt; Kia hau te ingoa;&lt;br&gt; Kia t&amp;#363; hei tauira;&lt;br&gt; Aotearoa At least two M&amp;#257;ori versions have been produced. The first was by Thomas H. Smith of Auckland, a judge in the Native Land Court, on request of Governor [[George Edward Grey]] in 1878, and the second (above) by former M&amp;#257;ori Language Commissioner, Professor [[Timoti Karetu|Timoti S. Kāretu]], commissioned in 1979. This latter translation is under New Zealand Crown copyright until 2079. Copyright information is at [http://www.cultureandheritage.govt.nz/copy-right.html http://www.cultureandheritage.govt.nz/copy-right.html]. ==Media== {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item|filename=God_Defend_New_Zealand_instrumental.ogg|title=Instrumental|description=Recording by the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} ==External links== *[http://www.nationalanthems.info/nz.htm M
ns to promote faith in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. One of the most important musical centers was Venice, which had both secular and sacred patronage available. One of the important transitional figures would come out of the drive to revive Catholicism against the growing doctrinal, artistic and social challenge mounted by Protestantism: Giovanni Gabrieli. His work is largely considered to be in the &quot;High Renaissance&quot; style. However, his innovations became to be considered foundational to the new style. Among these are instrumentation (labeling instruments specifically for specific tasks) and the use of dynamics. The demands of religion were also to make the text of sacred works clearer, and hence there was pressure to move away from the densely layered polyphony of the Renaissance, to lines which put the words front and center, or had a more limited range of imitation. This would create the demand for a more intricate weaving of the vocal line against backdrop, or [[homophony]]. Monteverdi became the most visible of a generation of composers who felt that there was a secular means to this &quot;modern&quot; approach to harmony and text, and in 1607 his opera [[Orfeo]] would be the landmark which demonstrated the welter of effects and techniques that were associated with this new school, called ''[[seconda prattica]]'', to distinguish it from the older style or ''[[prima prattica]]''. Monteverdi was a master of both, producing precisely styled motets that extended the forms of [[Marenzio]] and [[Giaces de Wert]]. But it is his new style pieces which were to be the most visible changes to the Baroque. These included features which are recognizable even to the end of the baroque period, including use of idiomatic writing, virtuoso flourishes and what Stanley Sadie calls &quot;a thorough going&quot; use of new techniques. This musical language would prove to be international, as [[Heinrich Schütz]] (1585&amp;ndash;1672) a German composer who studied in Venice, would adopt it to the liturgical needs of the Elector of Saxony, and serve as the choir master in Dresden. [[Girolamo Frescobaldi]] (1583&amp;ndash;1643). ===Middle Baroque music (1654&amp;ndash;1707)=== The most influential middle Baroque composers include [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] (1632&amp;ndash;1687), [[Arcangelo Corelli]] (1653&amp;ndash;1713), [[Dieterich Buxtehude]] (1637&amp;ndash;1707) and [[Henry Purcell]] (1659&amp;ndash;1695). ===Late Baroque music (1707&amp;ndash;1760)=== Leading figures of the late Baroque include [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]] (1685&amp;ndash;1750), [[George Frideric Handel]] (1685&amp;ndash;1759), [[Georg Philipp Telemann]] (1681&amp;ndash;1767), [[Domenico Scarlatti]] (1685&amp;ndash;1757), [[Antonio Vivaldi]] (1678&amp;ndash;1741) and [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]] (1683&amp;ndash;1764). === The Baroque's influence on later music === ====Transition to the Classical era (1740&amp;ndash;1780)==== The phase between the late Baroque and the early [[Classical music era#Beginnings of the Classical style (1730-1760)| Classical era]], with its broad mixture of competing ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics and &quot;worldview&quot;, goes by many names. It is sometimes called &quot;[[Galant]]&quot;, &quot;Rococo&quot;, or &quot;pre-Classical&quot;, or at other times, &quot;early Classical&quot;. It is a period where composers still working in the Baroque style are still successful, if sometimes thought of as being more of the past than the present&amp;mdash;Bach, Handel and Telemann all compose well beyond the point at which the homophonic style is clearly in the ascendant. Musical culture was caught at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new. This is one of the reasons [[C.P.E. Bach]] was held in such high regard: he understood the older forms quite well, and knew how to present them in new garb, with an enhanced variety of form; he went far in overhauling the older forms from the Baroque. The practice of the Baroque era was the norm against which new composition was measured, and there came to be a division between sacred works, which held more closely to the Baroque style from, secular, or &quot;profane&quot; works, which were in the new style. Especially in the Catholic countries of central Europe, the Baroque style continued to be represented in sacred music through the end of the eighteenth century, in much the way that the ''stile antico'' of the Renaissance continued to live in the sacred music of the early 17th century. The masses and oratorios of Haydn and Mozart, while Classical in their orchestration and ornamentation, have many Baroque features in their underlying contrapuntal and harmonic structure. The decline of the baroque saw various attempts to mix old a new techniques, and many composers who continued to hew to the older forms well into the 1780's. Many cities in Germany continued to maintain performance practices from the Baroque into the 1790's, including [[Leipzig]]. In England, the enduring popularity of Handel ensured the success of Avison, Boyce, and Arne&amp;mdash;among other accomplished imitators&amp;mdash;well into the 1780s. By this time it was though of as an older style, and was required for graduation from the burgeoning number of [[music school|conservatories]] of music, and for compositions written for the sacred context. ==== Influence of Baroque composition and practice after 1760 ==== Because Baroque music was the basis for pedagogy, it retained a stylistic influence even after it has ceased to be the dominant style of composing or of music making. Even as baroque practice, for example the thoroughbass, fell out of use, it continued to be part of musical notation. In the early 19th century, scores by Baroque masters were printed in complete edition, and this led to a renewed interest in the &quot;strict style&quot; of counterpoint, as it was then called. With Felix Mendelssohn's revival of Bach's choral music, the Baroque style became an influence through the 19th century as a paragon of academic and formal purity. Throughout the 19th century, the fugue in the style of Bach held enormous influence for composers as a standard to aspire to, and a form to include in serious instrumental works. The 20th century would name the Baroque as a period, and begin to study its music. Baroque form and practice would influence composers as diverse as [[Arnold Schoenberg]], [[Max Reger]], [[Igor Stravinsky]] and [[Béla Bartók]]. The early 20th century would also see a revival of the middle Baroque composers such as Purcell and Vivaldi. There are several instances of contemporary pieces being published as &quot;rediscovered&quot; Baroque masterworks. Some examples of this include a viola concerto written by Henri Casadesus but attributed to Handel, as well as several pieces attributed by [[Fritz Kreisler]] to lesser-known figures of the Baroque such as Pugnani and Padre Martini. Today, there is a very active core of composers writing works exclusively in the Baroque style, an example being [[Giorgio Pacchioni]]. Various works have been labeled &quot;[[neo-Baroque]]&quot; for a focus on imitative polyphony, including the works of Giacinto Scelsi, Paul Hindemith, Paul Creston and Martinu, even though they are not in the Baroque style proper. Musicologists attempted to complete various works from the Baroque, most notably Bach's [[The Art of Fugue]]. Because the Baroque style is a recognized point of reference, implying not only music, but a particular period and social manner, Baroque styled pieces are sometimes created for media, such as film and television. Composer Peter Schickele [[parody|parodies]] classical and Baroque styles under the pen name [[PDQ Bach]]. Baroque performance practice had a renewed influence with the rise of &quot;Authentic&quot; or [[Historically Informed Performance]] in the late 20th century. Texts by [[Quantz]] and [[Leopold Mozart]] among others, formed the basis for performances which attempted to recover some of the aspects of baroque sound world, including one on a part performance of works by Bach, use of gut strings rather than metal, reconstructed [[harpsichord]]s, use of older playing techniques and styles. Several popular ensembles would adopt some or all of these techniques, including the [[Anonymous 4]] and the [[Academy of Ancient Music]], as well as established groups such as Boston's [[Handel and Haydn Society]]. This movement would then attempt to apply some of the same methods to classical and even early romantic era performance. == List of Baroque genres == ====Vocal==== * [[Opera]] ** [[Zarzuela]] ** [[Opera seria]] ** [[Opera comique]] ** [[Opera-ballet]] * [[Masque]] * [[Oratorio]] * [[Passion]] * [[Cantata]] * [[Mass (music)]] * [[Anthem]] * [[Monody]] * [[Chorale]] ====Instrumental==== * [[Concerto grosso]] * [[Fugue (music)|Fugue]] * [[Suite]] ** [[Allemande]] ** [[Courante]] ** [[Sarabande]] ** [[Gigue]] ** [[Gavotte]] ** [[Menuet]] * [[Sonata (music)|Sonata]] ** [[Sonata da camera]] ** [[Sonata da chiesa]] ** [[Trio sonata]] * [[Partita]] * [[Canzona]] * [[Sinfonia]] * [[Fantasia (music)|Fantasia]] * [[Ricercar]] * [[Toccata]] * [[Prelude (music)|Prelude]] * [[Chaconne]] * [[Passacaglia]] * [[Chorale prelude]] ==See also== *[[List of Baroque composers]] *[[Neo-Baroque]] *[[Post-Baroque]] * [[Hendrik Bouman]], a contemporary composer writing in Baroque style. ==External links== *[http://plato.acadiau.ca/courses/musi/callon/2233/ch-comp.htm Renaissance &amp;amp; Baroque Chronology] *[http://www.chopinmusic.net/forum/composer.php#baroque Library and Recordings of Baroque Composers] *[http://www.baroquemusic.org/ baroquemusic.org] *[http://www.culturekiosque.com/klassik/features/fa1baroq.htm Guide to Baroque period musical instruments] ==Sources and further reading== *Schulenberg, David. ''Music of the Baroque''. New York: Oxford UP,
ually high during the peak of summer. Temperatures exceeding 34C (93F) occur but not with regularity. It might be noted that the climate of the lower city is in general much more sheltered and milder than on top of &quot;the mountain&quot;, which has a shorter growing season and, in winter, more [[snowsquall]]s. Summer rains can be heavy but in general severe weather is rare, one notable exception occurred [[November 13]], [[2005]] when a tornado that lifted off a school gymnasium roof injuring two students. [[Environment Canada]] confirmed a F1 tornado struck the area, this was the latest date in any year that a confirmed [[Tornado]] touched down in Canada. ==Demographics== According to the mid-2001 census, the population estimates there were 662 401 people residing in Hamilton, located in the province of [[Ontario]], of whom 48.8 % were male and 51.2 % were female. Children under five accounted for approximately 5.8 % of the resident population of Hamilton. This compares with 5.8 % in Ontario, and almost 5.6 % for [[Canada]] overall. In mid-2001, 14.2 % of the resident population in Hamilton were of retirement age (65 and over for males and females) compared with 13.2 % in [[Canada]], therefore, the average age is 37.8 years of age comparing to 37.6 years of age for all of Canada. In the five years between 1996 and 2001, the population of Hamilton grew by 6.1 %, compared with an increase of 6.1 % for [[Ontario]] as a whole. Population density of Hamilton averaged 482.9 people per square kilometre, compared with an average of 12.6, for Ontario altogether. At the time of the [[census]] in May 2001, the resident population of the Hamilton city authority had 490 268 people, but had 662 401 when encompassing the Greater Hamilton Area compared with a resident population in the [[province]] of [[Ontario]] of 11,410,050 people. ===Racial Breakdown=== Throughout the city, historic [[Ireland|Irish]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] influences are evident especially among street, names, city sectors, and racial make-up. According to [[Statcan]], over 1 in 3 Hamiltonians have [[British Isles]] origin. Ever since the 1800's and early 1900's, the city of Hamilton had massive increase in population mostly due to British and Irish settlers. However, large waves of other [[Europeans]] came in due to the world wars as well as economic prospects, in the burgeoning steel industry. Even though Hamilton is largely White, the ethnic communities are diverse and include descendants of original [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Irish people|Irish]] settlers, as well as [[Italian people|Italian]], [[Germany|German]], [[France|French]], [[Hungary|Hungarian]], [[Poles|Polish]], and eastern Europeans who settled during the city's early 20th-century industrial boom. This Metropolitan has the largest concentration of [[Serbians]] in [[Ontario]]. The eastern side of the city contains a large [[Asian]] community and the area has in recent years has seen exponential growth due to immigration. *[[White]]: 582,355 or 90.7% *[[Asian]]: 13,780 or 2.1% *[[Black]]: 10,830 or 1.6% *[[Chinese people|Chinese]]: 8,455 1.2% *[[mixed race]]: 6,760 or 1.0% * (based on single responses) The fastest growing groups in the city is the [[Asian]], [[mixed race]], and [[Poles|Polish]]. Many immigrants from [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] are often settling, not in the [[city centre]], but in suburban communities of Hamilton, like the community of [[Stoney Creek]]. The [[mixed race]] population is quickly growing because interracial marriages especially between [[Whites]], and [[Blacks]] are increasingly common. ===Religious Groups=== [[Christianity]] is the main religion in Hamilton. [[Protestantism]] is barely ahead of [[Catholicism]] and is expected to decline, while [[Roman Catholicism]] has strengthened due to mostly Eastern European and [[Filipino people|Filipino]] population growth. *[[Protestant]]: 242,940 or 37.0% *[[Roman Catholic]]: 232,435 or 35.4% *other [[Christian]]: 32,760 or 5.0% *[[Muslim]]: 12,880 or 1.9% *[[Buddhist]]: 4,725 or 0.6% ===Old Hamilton=== The term &quot;old city of Hamilton&quot; is used throughout this article to describe the city before amalgamation in 2001, which then had 331,100 residents. Downtown began and remains around Gore Park and the intersection of King and James Streets. Central Hamilton extends from the base of the Mountain north to Barton Street, west to Chedoke Creek or Dundurn Street, and east to approximately Wentworth Street or Sherman Avenues. West Hamilton or the west end begins at Dundurn Street or Chedoke Creek. East Hamilton or the east end begins at approximately Ottawa Street or Kenilworth Avenue. North Hamilton or the north end begins at Barton Street or the [[Canadian National Railways|CN]] tracks. As city limits expanded to include the Mountain, the [[retronym]] for the city below the Escarpment became the Lower City (now often just referred to as downtown). The east/west divide line for the mountain is Upper James Street, and the east/west divide line for downtown is James Street. The south Mountain begins at approximately Limeridge Road or the [[Lincoln Alexander|Lincoln M. Alexander Expressway]]. For other former municipalities of Hamilton-Wentworth Region, before amalgamation, please consult: [[Stoney Creek|City of Stoney Creek]], [[Dundas, Ontario|Town of Dundas]], [[Flamborough, Ontario|Town of Flamborough]], [[Ancaster, Ontario|Town of Ancaster]] and [[Glanbrook|Township of Glanbrook]]. They have all maintained their identities as neighbourhoods and municipal government [[ward (politics)|wards]] in new Hamilton. ==Attractions== [[image:hamilton-copps.jpg|295px|thumb|Copps Coliseum]] Despite its reputation as a blue-collar, lunch-bucket town, Hamilton has a large variety of historical, cultural and educational attractions in addition to more conventional or lowbrow ones. ===Historical attractions=== [[image:Hamilton_dec05_2005.JPG|300px|thumb|A view of Hamilton's downtown looking east near the [[Hamilton Spectator]].]] * [http://www.warplane.com/ Canadian Warplane Heritage], static and flying museum, Mount Hope airport * [[Dundurn Castle]], including the Hamilton Military Museum and Dundurn Park, west end * [http://www.city.hamilton.on.ca/culture-and-rec/MUSEUMS/steam/default.asp Hamilton Museum of Steam and Technology], east end * [[Royal Hamilton Light Infantry]] Heritage Museum, downtown * [http://www.city.hamilton.on.ca/culture-and-rec/MUSEUMS/whitehern/default.asp Whitehern Historic House &amp; Garden], downtown * [http://www.fwio.on.ca/Contribute/erland_lee/erland_lee.asp/ Erland Lee House], birthplace of Women's Institutes, Upper Stoney Creek * [http://www.battlefieldhouse.ca/ Battlefield House Museum], Stoney Creek ===Cultural attractions=== * [http://www.artgalleryofhamilton.on.ca/ Art Gallery of Hamilton], downtown * [http://www.mcmaster.ca/museum/ McMaster Museum of Art], west end * [http://www.hecfi.on.ca/hp/hamplace.htm/ Ron V. Joyce Centre for the Performing Arts at Hamilton Place], downtown * [http://www.theatreaquarius.org/ Theatre Aquarius], downtown * [http://www.web.net/~owahc/ Ontario Workers Arts and Heritage Centre], north end * [http://www.hamiltontheatre.com/ Hamilton Theatre Inc], musical theatre * [http://www.hamilton.ca/culture-and-rec/MUSEUMS/children's/default.asp Hamilton Children's Museum], east end * [http://www.greenventure.ca Green Venture EcoHouse], east end * [http://www.brottmusic.com Brott Music Festival] Hamilton, Dundas, Ancaster, Burlington * [http://www.nationalacademyorchestra.com National Academy Orchestra of Canada] Hamilton, Dundas, Ancaster, Burlington ===Outdoor attractions=== {{seealso|Hamilton Conservation Authority}} * [http://www.hamiltonwaterfront.com/ Hamilton Waterfront], Hamilton Harbour * [http://www.hamiltonnature.org/localspecies/waterfalls_intro.htm Hamilton's 66 Waterfalls], Along Escarpment * [[Royal Botanical Gardens, Ontario|Royal Botanical Gardens]], west end [http://www.rbg.ca/] * [http://www.conservationhamilton.ca/parks/visit/westfield.asp Westfield Heritage Centre], Flamborough * [[Bruce Trail]], Stoney Creek, Hamilton, Dundas, Flamborough * [http://www.city.hamilton.on.ca/Parks/Trails/HamBran.asp Hamilton to Brantford Rail Trail], Hamilton, Dundas, Ancaster * [http://www.conservationhamilton.ca/parks/visit/dundas_valley.asp Dundas Valley Conservation Area], Dundas ===Educational attractions=== * [[McMaster University]], west end [http://www.mcmaster.ca/] * [[Mohawk College]], Mountain [http://www.mohawkcollege.ca/homepage.html/] * [[Hillfield Strathallan College]], Mountain [http://www.hillstrath.on.ca/] * [http://www.redeemer.on.ca/ Redeemer University College], south-west Mountain * [http://www.dvsa.ca/ Dundas Valley School of Art], Dundas * [http://georgespvanier.csdcso.on.ca/ École secondaire Georges-P.-Vanier], west end * [http://pavillondelajeunesse.csdcso.on.ca/ École élémentaire Pavillon de la jeunesse] * [[Columbia International College]] [http://www.cic-TotalCare.com], west end ===Popular attractions=== (see also '''Sports''' below) * [http://www.hessvillage.com/ Hess Village], a popular summer patio hangout. Many bars, clubs and restaurants feature live music and attractions all year round. Hess Street, downtown. * [[African Lion Safari]], Flamborough * [http://www.flamborodowns.com/ Flamboro Downs], [[horse racing]] as well as [[car racing]], Flamborough * [http://www.footballhof.com Canadian Football Hall of Fame], downtown * [http://www.hamrca.on.ca/parks/visit/confederation.asp Confederation Park], featuring water park, east end, Stoney Creek ==Economy and environment== ===Industrial economy and environment=== By the [[1940s]], the ecological cost of [[pollution]] had taken its toll on Hamilton: heavy metals made fish from the Bay inedible, air pollution made breathing difficult and industrial dumps (notably the Lax lands) contaminated land. People recognized there was a problem, but two dec
i Coastal Defense Force]]. Iraq is currently rebuilding its [[military]] after the [[2003 Invasion of Iraq]]. ==History== The [[Iran-Iraq War]] ended with [[Iraq]] supporting the largest military of the [[Middle East]], with more than 70 [[army]] [[division (military)|division]]s and over 700 aircraft within its [[air force]]. Losses during the invasion of [[Kuwait]] and the subsequent ejection of Iraqi forces from Kuwait by a [[United Nations]] coalition resulted in the reduction of Iraq's ground forces to 23 divisions and the air force to less than 300 aircraft. Military and economic sanctions prevent Iraq from rebuilding its military power, however, Iraq still maintained a standing military of about 375,000 troops. It was during the late 80's until 1991 the worlds 4th biggest, only beaten by USA, Soviet Union and China. In the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], Iraq had an arsenal of chemical and biological weapons. [[UN weapons inspectors]] probably destroyed all of them. During new [[disarmament of Iraq|weapons inspections]] in [[2003]], United Nations weapons inspectors led by [[Hans Blix]], searched Iraqi sites again, but found no new weapons. In late [[2003]], an [[United States|American]]-led [[military alliance|coalition]] [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invaded]] and [[U.S.-led occupation of Iraq|occupied]] Iraq. After a year-long investigation by an American weapons inspections team, headed by [[David Kay]], found that no large stockpiles of weapons of mass destruction (though a clandestine network of laboratories did exist). ===Order of battle (pre-2003)=== Before [[January 10]], [[2003]], the Iraqi Army fielded at least 11 [[infantry]], 3 [[mechanized]], and 3 [[tank|armored]] divisions. In addition, the [[Iraqi Republican Guard]] fielded 3 [[tank|armored]] divisions, 2 [[mechanized]] divisions, and 1 motorized infantry division, while the [[Iraqi Republican Guard|Special Republican Guard]] fielded 6 brigades, including two tank brigades and an anti-aircraft brigade.. *[[Iraqi Republican Guard|Republican Guard]] (RG)-- 80-100,000 troops located along the [[Tigris]], to the north and south of [[Baghdad]] *[[Iraqi Republican Guard|Special Republican Guard]] (SRG) -- 15-20,000 troops located along the Tigris, just south of Baghdad *[[Iraqi Regular Army|Regular Army]] -- 375,000 troops located primarily in eastern Iraq *Iraqi [[Special forces|Special Forces]] -- Six brigades *[[Fedayeen Saddam]] and other paramilitary forces ====Iraq equipment==== Number of equipment as of 2003 is presented inside parenthesis. '''Tanks (Total: 2,200)''' The Iraqi tank forces consist mainly of old [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] gear. The Type-69/59 are [[China|Chinese]] copies of the Soviet T-55/54 tanks. (see [[List of Soviet tanks]]) *[[T-72]] (700) *[[T-62]] (500) *[[T-55|T-55/54]] (500) *[[Type 69/79|Type-69]] (350) *[[Type 59|Type-59]] (150) '''AIFV/APCs (Total: 3,800)''' *[[Panhard AML|AML-60/-90]] (300+) *[[BMP-1|BMP-1/-2]] (900) *BRDM-2 (1300+) *EE-9 (600+) *EE-3 (300+) *FV-601 (100+) *FV-701 (90+) *[[PT-76]] (100) *[[MT-LB]] (1,500+) *YW-531 (1,000+) '''Towed Artillery (Total: 1,900)''' *M-56 105 mm *D-74 122 mm *D-30 122 mm (100+) *M-1938 122 mm (400+) *M-46 130 mm *Type-59-1 130 mm *M-1937 152 mm *M-1943 152 mm *[[G5 howitzer|G-5 155 mm]] (100+) *[[GC-45 howitzer|GHN-45 155 mm]] (200+) *M-114 155 mm '''Self-Propelled Artillery (Total: 150)''' *[[2S1 122 mm|2S1 SP 122 mm]] *2S3 SP 152 mm *[[M109 howitzer|M-109A1/A2 SP 155 mm]] *AUF-1 SP 155 mm (85+) *Majnoon SP 155 mm *[[Al-Fao|Al Fao SP 210 mm]] '''Multiple Rocket Launchers (Total: 200)''' *BM-21 MRL 122 mm *ASTROS II MRL 127 mm (60+) *BM-13/-16 MRL 132 mm *ASTROS SS-30 MRL 180 mm *Ababeel-50 MRL 262 mm (50+) *ASTROS SS-60 300 mm '''Surface-to-Surface Missiles''' *Frog-7 (50) *[[Scud|Scud-B]] (27?) *[[Al Abbas]] *[[Al Hussein]] *[[Al-Samoud_2|Al Samoud]] '''Fighters''' The J-7 is a Chinese copy of the MiG-21. *[[Dassault Mirage F1]] *[[Sukhoi Su-22|Su-20/Su-22]] *[[Sukhoi Su-25]] *[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21]] *[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23]] *[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25]] *[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-29]] *[[J-7]] '''Surface-to-Air Missiles''' *Crotale *Roland *[[SA-2 Guideline]] *SA-3 *[[SA-7|SA-7 Grail]] *SA-6 *SA-9 ==Statistics== '''Military branches:''' [[Army]], [[Navy]], [[Air Force]], [[Air Defense Force]], [[Border Guard Force]] (Historical - [[Republican Guard]], [[Fedayeen Saddam]]) '''Military manpower - military age:''' 18 years of age '''Military manpower - availability:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 5,674,990 (2000 est.) '''Military manpower - fit for military service:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 3,176,826 (2000 est.) '''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:''' &lt;br&gt;''males:'' 266,736 (2000 est.) '''Military expenditures - dollar figure:''' $NA '''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:''' NA% == Current order of battle == === [[New Iraqi Army]] === 1 Div: Fallujah (aka IIF) -1 Bde -2 Bde -3 Bde -4 Bde 2 Div: Mosul -1 Bde -2 Bde -3 Bde -4 Bde 3 Div: Yethrib -1 Bde -2 Bde -3 Bde 4 Div: Tikrit -1 Bde -2 Bde -4 Bde 5 Div: Balad -1 Bde -2 Bde -(3 Bde forming) 6 Div: Bagdad (Div certified) -1 Bde -2 Bde -3 Bde -5 Bde 7 Div: West Al Anbar Province -1 Bde -2 Bde -(3 Bde forming) 8 Div: Al Kut (Div certified) -1 Bde -2 Bde -3 Bde 9 Mech Div: Taji (77 T72/10 T55/32 MTLB/100 BMP1/(180 M113 enr)) -1 Mech Bde -2 Arm Bde -(3 Mech Bde planned) 10 Div: Basrah -1 Bde -2 Bde -(3 Bde forming) Division unidentified or independent units: SOF Bde (36 Cdo Bn, CT Bn, Support Bn) 1 Cdo Bde 2 Bde 3 Bde 4 Bde 40 Bde 41 Bde 201 Bn 202 Bn 203 Bn 205 Bn === [[Iraqi Air Force]] === * '''[[Iraqi 2nd Squadron]]''' * '''[[Iraqi 3rd Squadron]]''' * '''[[Iraqi 4th Squadron]]''' * '''[[Iraqi 23rd Squadron]]''' * '''[[Iraqi 70th Squadron]]''' === [[Iraqi Coastal Defense Force]] === * '''[[Iraqi Patrol Boat Squadron]]''' * '''[[Iraqi Naval Infantry Regiment]]''' * '''[[Iraqi Riverine Patrol Service]]''' ==References and Links== * [[Iraq]] * [[New Iraqi Army]] * [[2003 invasion of Iraq|US plan to invade Iraq]] * [[Iraqi production and use of weapons of mass destruction]] * [http://www.csis.org/features/iraq.htm Information on Iraqi military] [[Category:Military of Iraq|*]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of Iraq</title> <id>14672</id> <revision> <id>35558781</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T17:16:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.119.142.162</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''This information is seriously out of date and gives nothing on the foreign policy of post-Saddam Iraq. Please update... ''' (I don't know the outdated template.) [[Iraq]]i-[[Iran]]ian relations have remained cool since the end of the [[Iraq-Iran War]] in [[1988]]. Outstanding issues from that war, including prisoner of war exchanges and support of armed opposition parties operating in each other’s territory, remain to be solved. Iraq’s relations with the Arab world have been extremely varied. [[Egypt]] broke relations with Iraq in [[1977]], following Iraq’s criticism of President [[Anwar Sadat]]’s peace initiatives with [[Israel]]. In 1978, [[Baghdad]] hosted an [[Arab League]] summit that condemned and ostracized Egypt for accepting the [[Camp David accords]]. However, Egypt’s strong material and diplomatic support for Iraq in the war with Iran led to warmer relations and numerous contacts between senior officials, despite the continued absence of ambassadorial-level representation. Since 1983, Iraq has repeatedly called for restoration of Egypt’s “natural role” among Arab countries. In January 1984, Iraq successfully led Arab efforts within the OIC to restore Egypt’s membership. However, Iraqi-Egyptian relations were broken in 1990 after Egypt joined the UN coalition that forced Iraq out of Kuwait. Relations have steadily improved in recent years, and Egypt is now one of Iraq’s main trade partners (formerly under the [[Oil-for-Food Programme]]). Relations with [[Syria]] have been marred by traditional rivalry for pre-eminence in Arab affairs, allegations of involvement in each other’s internal politics, and disputes over the waters of [[Euphrates River]], oil transit fees, and stances toward [[Israel]]. Syria broke relations after Iraq invaded [[Kuwait]] in 1990 and joined other Arab countries in sending military forces to the coalition that forced Iraq out of Kuwait. Relations remained cool until [[Bashar al-Asad]] became President of Syria in 2000. Economic ties based on illicit oil smuggling have strengthened, but politically the relationship remains distant. Iraq’s relations with [[Jordan]] have improved significantly since 1980, when Jordan declared its support for Iraq at the outset of the Iran-Iraq war. Jordan’s support for Iraq during the Gulf War resulted in a further improvement of ties. Relations have cooled since the current King of Jordan took office in 2000, but remain good. Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990 resulted in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and most [[Gulf states]] severing relations with Baghdad and joining the [[United Nations]] coalition that forced Iraqi forces out of Kuwait during the [[Gulf War]]. Iraq’s refusal to implement [[UN Security Council Resolutions]] and continued threats toward Kuwait have resulted in relations remaining cool. Iraq participated in the Arab-Israeli wars of 1948, 1967 and 1973, and traditionally has opposed all attempts to reach a peaceful settlement between Israel and the Arab States. Israel attacked Iraq’s nuclear research reactor under construction near Baghdad in July
ethnologists argued that different groups had the capability of inventing similar beliefs and practices independently. Some of those who advocated &quot;independent invention&quot;, like [[Lewis Henry Morgan]], additionally supposed that similarities meant that different groups had passed through the same stages of [[cultural evolution]]. [[20th century]] anthropologists largely reject the notion that all human societies must pass through the same stages in the same order. Some 20th century ethnologists, like [[Julian Steward]], have instead argued that such similarities reflected similar adaptations to similar environments (see [[cultural evolution]]). Others, like [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], have argued that apparent patterns of development reflect fundamental similarities in the structure of human thought (see [[structuralism]]). In the 20th century most socio-cultural anthropologists turned to the study of [[ethnography]], in which an anthropologist actually lives among another society for a considerable period of time, simultaneously [[participant observation|participating in and observing]] the social and cultural life of the group. [[Bronislaw Malinowski]] (who conducted [[fieldwork]] in the [[Trobriand Islands]] and taught in England) developed this method, and [[Franz Boas]] (who conducted fieldwork in [[Baffin Island]] and taught in the [[United States]]) promoted it. Although 19th century ethnologists saw &quot;diffusion&quot; and &quot;independent invention&quot; as mutually exclusive and competing theories, most ethnographers quickly reached a consensus that both processes occur, and that both can plausibly account for cross-cultural similarities. But these ethnographers pointed out the superficiality of many such similarities, and that even traits that spread through diffusion often changed their meaning and functions as they moved from one society to another. Accordingly, these anthropologists showed less interest in comparing cultures, generalizing about human nature, or discovering universal laws of cultural development, than in understanding particular cultures in those cultures' own terms. Such ethnographers and their students promoted the idea of &quot;[[cultural relativism]]&quot;, the view that one can only understand another person's beliefs and behaviors in the context of the culture in which he or she lived. In the early 20th century socio-cultural anthropology developed in different forms in [[Europe]] and in the United States. European &quot;social anthropologists&quot; focused on observed social behaviors and on &quot;social structure&quot;, that is, on [[relationship]]s among social [[role]]s (e.g. husband and wife, or parent and child) and social [[institution]]s (e.g. [[anthropology of religion|religion]], [[economic anthropology|economy]], and [[political anthropology|politics]]). American &quot;cultural anthropologists&quot; focused on the ways people expressed their view of themselves and their world, especially in [[symbol]]ic forms (such as [[art]] and [[Mythology|myth]]s). These two approaches frequently converged ([[kinship]], for example, and [[leadership]] function both as a symbolic systems and as social institutions), and generally complemented one another. Today almost all socio-cultural anthropologists refer to the work of both sets of predecessors, and have an equal interest in what people do and in what people say. == Contemporary Theory and Methods == Today ethnography continues to dominate socio-cultural anthropology. Nevertheless, many contemporary socio-cultural anthropologists have rejected earlier models of ethnography that treated local cultures as bounded and isolated. These anthropologists continue to concern themselves with the distinct ways people in different locales experience and understand their [[personal life | lives]], but they often argue that one cannot understand these particular ways of life solely in the local context; one must analyze them (they say) in the context of regional or even global political and economic relations. Notable proponents of this approach include [[Arjun Appadurai]], [[James Clifford]], [[Jean Comaroff]], [[John Comaroff]], [[James Ferguson (cultural anthropologist)|James Ferguson]], [[Akhil Gupta]], [[George Marcus]], [[Sidney Mintz]], [[Michael Taussig]], [[Marcus Tremble]], [[Joan Vincent]], and [[Eric Wolf]]. A growing trend in anthropological research and analysis is the use of multi-sited ethnography, discussed in George Marcus's article &quot;Ethnography In/Of the World System: the Emergence of Multi-Sited Ethnography&quot; [http://cio.ceu.hu/extreading/CIO/Marcus_on_multi_locale_fieldwork.html]. Looking at culture as embedded in macro-constructions of a global social order, multi-sited ethnography uses traditional methodology in various locations both spacially and temporally. Through this methodology greater insight can be gained when examining the impact of world-systems on local and global communities. Also emerging in multi-sited ethnography are greater interdisciplinary approaches to fieldwork, bringing in methods from cultural studies, media studies, science and technology studies, and others. In multi-sited ethnography research tracks a subject across spatial and temporal boundaries. For example, a multi-sited ethnography may follow a &quot;thing,&quot; such as a particular commodity, as it transfers through the networks of global capitalism. Multi-sited ethnography may also follow ethnic groups in diaspora, stories or rumours that appear in multiple locations and in multiple time periods, metaphors that appear in multiple ethnographic locations, or the biographies of individual people or groups as they move through space and time. It may also follow conflicts that transcend boundaries. Multi-sited ethnographies, such as [[Nancy Scheper-Hughes]]'s ethnography of the international black market for the trade of human organs [http://eth.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/5/1/29]. In this research she follows organs as they transfer through various legal and illegal networks of capitalism, as well as the rumours and urban legends that circulate in impoverished communities about child kidnapping and organ theft. Sociocultural anthropologists have increasingly turned their investigative eye on to [[western culture | &quot;Western&quot; culture]]. For example, [[Philippe Bourgois]] won the [[Margaret Mead Award]] in 1997 for ''In Search of Respect'', a study of the entrepreneurs in a Harlem crack-den. Also growing more popular are ethnographies of professional communities, such as laboratory researchers, Wall Street investors, law firms, or IT computer employees [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/expand?pub=infobike://mcb/161/1995/00000008/00000003/art00003&amp;unc=]. == See also == * [[Ernest Gellner]] * [[Dual inheritance theory]] * [[Human behavioral ecology]] * [[Hunter-gatherers]] * [[Nomad]]s * [[Symbolic anthropology]] [[Category:Anthropology]] [[Category:Human sciences]] [[Category:Cultural anthropology|*]] [[Category:Culture]] [[Category:Humanities occupations]] [[bs:Kulturalna antropologija]] [[be:Культурная антрапалёгія]] [[da:Socialantropologi]] [[de:Ethnologie]] [[eo:Etnologio]] [[fr:Ethnologie]] [[ko:문화 인류학]] [[it:Antropologia culturale]] [[lb:Ethnologie]] [[nl:Culturele antropologie]] [[ja:文化人類学]] [[pl:Antropologia kulturowa]] [[pt:Antropologia cultural]] [[fi:Kulttuuriantropologia]] [[sv:Socialantropologi]] [[ta:பண்பாட்டு மனிதவியல்]] [[zh:文化人类学]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Conversion of units</title> <id>5390</id> <revision> <id>41323047</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T15:55:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GilliamJF</username> <id>506179</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Length */ dab chain</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">This article lists '''conversion factors''' between a number of [[units of measurement]]. ==Conversion techniques== The simplest way to convert from one unit to another is to carry through the units themselves in the mathematical operation. To illustrate this process, consider the following examples. You would like to convert 6 feet into metres. Consulting the table below and finding that one foot is exactly 0.3048 metre, you can now perform the mathematical conversion: &lt;center&gt;6 ft × 0.3048 m/ft = 1.8288 m&lt;/center&gt; Notice that the &quot;foot&quot; units canceled out, leaving only metres, the desired result. (Since 0.3048 metre per foot have infinite precision, the precision of the answer is determined by the precision of the 6 ft figure; if, for example, you are defining the fathom, expressing it with 5 significant figures is correct. But if the 6 ft figure is a measurement, the result needs to be rounded appropriately.) Say your height is 183 centimetres, and you wish to convert this into inches: &lt;center&gt;183 cm / (2.54 cm/in) = 72.0 in&lt;/center&gt; To check our answer, we convert this result back into feet: &lt;center&gt;72 in / (12 in/ft) = 6.0 feet&lt;/center&gt; which confirms the earlier result. Multiple units can be manipulated in the same fashion: &lt;center&gt;7 mi/s × 1.609344 km/mi × 3600 s/h = 40,000 km/h&lt;/center&gt; Thus, Earth escape velocity is about 7 miles per second, or 40,000 kilometres per hour. Notice that since the calculation started with one significant figure (the 7), the answer also has one significant figure (the 4 in 40,000). Deciding whether to multiply or divide is determined by looking at the units and deciding which ones you want to &quot;get rid&quot; of. In the conversion just above, if we had divided by 3600 s/h instead of multiplying, the result would have come out in kilometre-hours per square second, clearly an incorrect and meaningless result. ==See also== * [[Units conversion by factor-label]] == Rounding of results == An important thing to remember is that the process of mak
als necessary to express each number up to 999 (one through nine, ten through ninety, one hundred through nine hundred). The mystical Hebrew numeric system notes that the missing final five letters of the numeral system match exactly with the five '''sofit'' (word-final) alternate forms of the Hebrew letters. Another use is that words which have the same numerical value, share the same qualities, and reveal still other aspects of the Divine. ==Code== The basic translation code is as follows: {| border |- !Decimal !Hebrew !Glyph |- |[[1 (number)|1]] |''Aleph'' | &amp;#1488; |- |[[2 (number)|2]] |''Bet'' | &amp;#1489; |- |[[3 (number)|3]] |''Gimmel'' | &amp;#1490; |- |[[4 (number)|4]] |''Daled'' | &amp;#1491; |- |[[5 (number)|5]] |''He'' | &amp;#1492; |- |[[6 (number)|6]] |''Vav'' | &amp;#1493; |- |[[7 (number)|7]] |''Zayin'' | &amp;#1494; |- |[[8 (number)|8]] |''Het'' | &amp;#1495; |- |[[9 (number)|9]] |''Tet'' | &amp;#1496; |- |[[10 (number)|10]] |''Yod'' | &amp;#1497; |- |[[20 (number)|20]] |''Kaf'' | &amp;#1499;, &amp;#1498; |- |[[30 (number)|30]] |''Lamed'' | &amp;#1500; |- |[[40 (number)|40]] |''Mem'' | &amp;#1502;, &amp;#1501; |- |[[50 (number)|50]] |''Nun'' | &amp;#1504;, &amp;#1503; |- |[[60 (number)|60]] |''Samekh'' | &amp;#1505; |- |[[70 (number)|70]] |''Ayin'' | &amp;#1506; |- |[[80 (number)|80]] |''Pe'' | &amp;#1508;, &amp;#1507; |- |[[90 (number)|90]] |''Tsadik'' | &amp;#1510;, &amp;#1509; |- |[[100 (number)|100]] |''Kof'' | &amp;#1511; |- |[[200 (number)|200]] |''Resh'' | &amp;#1512; |- |[[300 (number)|300]] |''Shin'' | &amp;#1513; |- |[[400 (number)|400]] |''Tav'' | &amp;#1514; |} Some Kabbalistic uses of ''gematria'' recognize differing values for the final forms and assign multiples of [[1000 (number)|1000]] for letters that are drawn larger than those adjacent to them. {|border |- !Decimal !Hebrew !Glyph |- |[[500 (number)|500]] |''Kaf'' |&amp;#1498; |- |[[600 (number)|600]] |''Mem'' |&amp;#1501; |- |[[700 (number)|700]] |''Nun'' |&amp;#1503; |- |[[800 (number)|800]] |''Pe'' |&amp;#1507; |- |[[900 (number)|900]] |''Tsadik'' |&amp;#1509; |} ==See also== * [[Jewish mysticism]] * [[Kabbalah]] * [[Notaricon]] * [[Temurah]] * [[Mysticism]] * [[Metaphysics]] * [[Hebrew language]] * [[Hebrew numerals]] * [[Hebrew alphabet]] * [[Mathers table]] * [[Numerology]] * The [[Bible Code]] is another method for extracting hidden meaning from the Hebrew Bible. * [[Theomatics]] * [[Abjad numerals]] ==External links== &lt;!--Please do not insert links to yet another calculator without discussing its merits on the talk page--&gt; * [http://baraksh.co.il/webgim WebGim - An interactive Gematria calculator, which includes results from Torah verses. (Hebrew)] * [http://hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/Unit_Eight/Hebrew_Gematria/hebrew_gematria.html Introduction to Hebrew Gematria Methods] [[Category:Hebrew alphabet]] [[Category:Judaism]] [[Category:Kabbalah]] [[Category:Mysticism]] [[Category:Numerology]] [[es:Gematría]] [[fr:Gematria]] [[he:גימטריה]] [[pl:Gematria]] [[sl:Gematrija]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Grateful Dead</title> <id>12542</id> <revision> <id>41858531</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:45:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>4.18.30.2</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band | band_name = The Grateful Dead | image = [[Image:gdead2.jpg|230px]] | years_active = [[1965]] &amp;ndash; [[1995]] | status = Dissolved | country = [[San Francisco]], [[California]], [[USA]] | music_genre = [[Psychedelic music|Psychedelic rock]], [[Country rock]], [[Folk rock]] | record_label = [[Warner Brothers Records]] (1965-1972)&lt;br /&gt;[[Grateful Dead Records]] (1973-1976)&lt;br /&gt;[[Arista Records]] (1977-1989)&lt;br&gt;[[Rhino Records]] (Remasters) (2001-present) | current_members = [[Jerry Garcia]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Bob Weir]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Phil Lesh]] &lt;br /&gt;[[Bill Kreutzmann]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mickey Hart]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Tom Constanten]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Keith Godchaux]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Donna Jean Godchaux]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Brent Mydland]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vince Welnick]] }} The '''Grateful Dead''' was an [[United States|American]] [[psychedelia]]-influenced [[Rock (music)|rock]] band. Formed in [[1965]] in [[San Francisco]] from the remnants of another band, &quot;''Mother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions'',&quot; the Grateful Dead were known for their unique and [[eclectic]] songwriting style&amp;#8212;which fused elements of rock, [[folk music]], [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]], [[blues]], [[country music|country]], and [[jazz]]&amp;#8212;and for live performances of long [[musical mode|modal]] [[Improvisation#Music|jams]]. Some of the band's fans followed the band from [[concert]] to concert for years. These so-called [[Deadhead]]s were renowned for their dedication to the band's [[music]]. Many followers referred to the band simply as '''The Dead'''. The Grateful Dead's career began under the name &quot;''The Warlocks''&quot; in [[Palo Alto, California]], but as another band was already recording under that name (interestingly, it was the future [[Velvet Underground]]), the band had to change its name in order to get a recording contract. After meeting their new manager [[Rock Scully]], they moved to the Haight-Ashbury section of San Francisco. Many bands from this area, such as [[Jefferson Airplane]], [[Big Brother &amp; the Holding Company]], and [[Carlos Santana|Santana]], went on to national fame, giving San Francisco an image as a center for the [[hippie]] [[counterculture]] of the era. (Also see entry for the [[San Francisco Sound]].) Of these bands, the Grateful Dead had members with arguably the highest level of musicianship, including [[banjo]] and [[guitar]] player [[Jerry Garcia]], blues musician [[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan|&quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]], the classically trained [[Phil Lesh]] and drummer [[Bill Kreutzmann]] {{ref|musicianlybackground}}. The Grateful Dead most embodied &quot;all the elements of the San Francisco scene and came, therefore, to represent the counterculture to the rest of the country&quot; {{ref|SanFrancisco}}. The name &quot;Grateful Dead&quot; was chosen from a dictionary. Some claim it was a Funk &amp; Wagnalls, others an Oxford Dictionary, but according to Phil Lesh, in his biography (pp. 62), ''&quot;...Jer ''(Garcia)'' picked up an old [[Britannica]] World Language Dictionary...(and)...In that silvery elf-voice he said to me, 'Hey, man, how about the Grateful Dead?'&quot;'' The Grateful Dead became the de facto resident band of [[Ken Kesey]]'s [[Merry Pranksters]], with the early sound heavily influenced by Kesey's [[LSD]]-soaked [[Acid Test]]s, as well as [[R&amp;B]]. Their musical influences varied widely with input from the [[psychedelic music]] of the era, combined with [[blues]], [[jazz]], [[rock and roll]], and [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]]. These various influences were distilled into a diverse and psychedelic whole that made the Grateful Dead &quot;the pioneering Godfathers of the [[jam band]] world.&quot; {{ref|experimental}}. ==Membership== De facto [[bandleader]] '''[[Jerry Garcia]]''' was the [[lead guitarist]] for the band—-although he was often seen both by the public and the media as '[[leader]]' or a primary spokesperson for the Grateful Dead, he was reluctant to be seen that way, especially since Garcia and the other group members saw themselves as equal participants and contributors to their [[collective]] musical and creative output. Jerry was a native of [[San Francisco]] and grew up in the [[Excelsior District]]. One of the main influences on his musical style was [[bluegrass music]], and Garcia also performed-—on [[banjo]], his other great instrumental love-—in the bluegrass band [[Old and in the Way]] with [[mandolin]]ist [[David Grisman]]. Classically-trained trumpeter [[Phil Lesh]] played [[bass guitar]]. [[Bob Weir]], the youngest original member of the group, played [[rhythm guitar]]. [[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]] played [[Hammond organ|keyboards]], [[harmonica]] and was also a group [[Singer|vocalist]] until shortly before his death in [[1973]] at the age of 27. All of the previously mentioned Grateful Dead members shared in [[Singer|vocal]] performance of songs, although none of them had a particularly strong or tuneful voice. [[Bill Kreutzmann]] played [[drum]]s, and in [[1968]] was joined by a second drummer, [[New York]] native [[Mickey Hart|Mickey Hart]], who also played a wide variety of other [[Percussion instrument|percussion]] instruments. Hart quit the Grateful Dead in [[1971]], embarrassed by the financial misdealings of his father, Dead money manager [[Lenny Hart]], and leaving Kreutzmann once again as the sole percussionist. Hart rejoined the Dead for good in [[1975]]. [[Tom Constanten|Tom &quot;TC&quot; Constanten]] played keyboards alongside Pigpen from [[1968]] to [[1970]]. Two years later, in late [[1971]], Pigpen was joined by another keyboardist, [[Keith Godchaux]], who played [[grand piano]] alongside Pigpen's [[Hammond organ|Hammond B-3 organ]]. In early [[1972]], Keith's wife, [[Donna Jean Godchaux]], joined the Dead as a backing vocalist. Keith and Donna left the band in [[1979]], and [[Brent Mydland]] joined as keyboardist and vocalist. [[Keith Godchaux]] died in a car accident in [[1980]]. [[Brent Mydland]] was the keyboardist for the Dead for 11 years until his [[death]] in [[1990]]. He became the third Dead keyboardist to die. Almost immediately, former [[Tubes]] keyboardist [[Vince Welnick]] joined on keyboards and vocals. For a year and a half, Welnick was often joined by special guest [[Bruce Hornsby]] on piano. [[Robert Hunter (lyricist)|Robert Hunter]] and [[John Perry Barlow]] were the band's primary [[lyricist]]s. [[Owsley Stanley|Owsley &quot;Bear&quot; Stanley]] was the Grateful Dead's
benefiting from voucher funds arises from the non-[[labor union|union]] status of their staffs and their limited overhead because of their exemption from laws protecting those with disabilities and the like. Government regulations aimed at making the private schools act like &quot;good citizens&quot; threaten to make them be exactly like the public schools. ==Implementations== In [[Chile]], there is a voucher system in which the State pays directly to private schools based on recruitment. The schools show consistently better results in standarized testing than state schools (municipal), with 35% of children studying in such schools. However, while studying this system, Dr. Martin Carnoy of Stanford, Patrick J. McEwan and others have found that when controls for the student's background (parental income and education) are introduced, the difference in performance between public and private subsectors is not significant. Alejandra Mizala and Pilar Romaguera (University of Chile) have found that there is greater variation within each subsector than between the two. School choice also exists in the [[Netherlands]], [[Sweden]], [[Spain]], [[Poland]] and a few other countries, generally supported by political parties ranging from the Right to the Center-Left, and were sometimes introduced by the Center-Left itself (in the Netherlands). It should be stressed that not all voucher programs are alike, so that those introduced by the Left may differ in many ways from those of the Right. Since the context in which the plan is introduced affects outcomes, it can be hard to generalize from either successes or failures. However, the policy has remained deeply unpopular in other countries. In the UK, The Conservative Party proposed such a policy during the 2005 general election. It was blamed by many for their subsequent defeat after being the subject of an negative election broadcast (similar to an &quot;attack ad&quot;) by the winning Labour party. ===United States=== The school voucher question in the United States received a considerably amount of judicial review in the early 2000s. A program authorized by the state of [[Ohio]] in the city of [[Cleveland]] was challenged in court on the grounds that it violated the federal constitutional principle of separation of church and state, and the [[Ohio Constitution]]'s guarantee of religious liberty. These claims were rejected by the [[Ohio Supreme Court]], but the federal claims were upheld by [[United States District Court for the Northern District of Ohio|the local federal district court]] and by the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit|Sixth Circuit appeals court]].[http://edreform.com/school_choice/supreme_court_ruling.htm] The fact that nearly all of the families using vouchers attended Catholic schools in the Cleveland area was cited in the decisions.[http://archives.cnn.com/2002/LAW/06/27/scotus.school.vouchers/] In a 2002 ruling in the case ''Zelman v. Simmons-Harris'', the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] ruled in a 5-4 vote that the Ohio program was Constitutional. The justices cited the private choice made by the parents and affirmed that the ultimate purpose (improving elementary education) was secular. The Florida Supreme Court on January 5, 2006 struck down laws that allowed for school vouchers in Florida. Political support for school vouchers in the United States is mixed. On the left/right spectrum, conservatives are more likely to support vouchers. According to the [[National Education Association]] (NEA), a U.S. teachers union and the largest [[labor union]] in the country, &quot;(U.S.) Voters, for the last 30 years, have rejected vouchers every time they've been proposed&quot;[http://www.nea.org/vouchers/vouchervotes.html]. However, some state legislatures have enacted voucher laws. [[As of 2006]], the federal government operates the largest voucher program, for evacuees from the region affected by [[Hurricane Katrina]].[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5159138] ==References== {{cleanup-references}} *[http://www.nea.org/vouchers/vouchervotes.html Voters Repeatedly Reject Vouchers], National Education Association. *[http://www.honestedu.org/misc/vouchers.php What about tax-funded vouchers, tax credits, and charter schools?], Alliance for the Separation of School &amp; State. ==External links== * [http://ericdigests.org/2003-4/vouchers.html The Prospects for Education Vouchers after the Supreme Court Ruling, ERIC Digest] * [http://ericdigests.org/2001-1/vouchers.html Educational Vouchers, ERIC Digest] * [http://www.friedmanfoundation.org/ The Milton &amp; Rose D. Friedman Foundation] * [http://libertymagazine.org/article/view/216 Peabody, Michael. &quot;The Lure of School Vouchers,&quot; Liberty Magazine, July/August 2000.] [[Category:Alternative education]] [[Category:Education_issues]] [[Category:Taxation in the United States]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>E. B. White</title> <id>9751</id> <revision> <id>38878931</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T05:25:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Richard Arthur Norton (1958- )</username> <id>158051</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Bibliography */ removed errant numbers</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Elwyn Brooks White''' ([[July 11]], [[1899]] &amp;ndash; [[October 1]], [[1985]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[essay]]ist, [[author]], and noted prose stylist. He is most famous today for a writers' [[style guide]], ''[[The Elements of Style]]'', and for three [[children's books]] generally considered to be classics of the field. == Biography == E.B. White was born in [[Mount Vernon, New York]] and graduated from [[Cornell University]] with a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[1921]]. His nickname &quot;Andy&quot; derives from Cornell co-founder [[Andrew Dickson White]]--any student thereafter named White was called Andy. He spent several years working as a writer for ''[[The Seattle Times]]'' and ''[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]]'' and as an ad man before returning to [[New York City]] in [[1924]]. He published his first article in the newly founded ''[[The New Yorker]]'' magazine in [[1925]], then joined the staff in [[1927]]. This made him moderately famous for the next six decades as he produced a long series of essays and unsigned &quot;Notes and Comments&quot; that were widely read as the magazine grew in influence. He gradually became the most important contributor to ''The New Yorker'' at a time when it was arguably the most important American literary magazine. He also served as a columnist for ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'' from [[1938]] to [[1943]]. In the late [[1930s]] he turned his hand to [[Children's literature|children's fiction]] on behalf of a niece. His first children's book, ''[[Stuart Little]]'', was published in [[1945]], and ''[[Charlotte's Web]]'' appeared in [[1952]]. Both were highly acclaimed, and in [[1970]] jointly won the [[Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal]], a major prize in the field of children's literature. In the same year, he published his third children's novel, ''[[The Trumpet of the Swan]]''. In 1973, it received the Seqouyah Award from Oklahoma and the William Allen White Award from Kansas. The school children in these states voted and decided this was their &quot;favorite book&quot; of the year. In [[1959]] he edited and updated the classic ''[[The Elements of Style]]''. Originally written and published in [[1918]] by [[William Strunk Jr.]], the book is a handbook of grammatical and stylistic dos and don'ts for written [[American English]]. White had studied under Strunk while at Cornell in the years following [[World War I]]. Further editions of the work followed in [[1972]], [[1979]], [[1999]] and, most recently, as an illustrated edition in [[2005]]. It is a standard tool for students and writers. In [[1978]] he was awarded a special [[Pulitzer Prize]] for his work as a whole. Other awards he received included a [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] in [[1963]], and memberships in a variety of literary societies throughout the [[United States]]. White was also a [[world federalism|world federalist]], and once said[http://www.vcn.bc.ca/wfcvb/quotesdm.html]: :''Government is the thing. Law is the thing. Not brotherhood, not international cooperation, not security councils that can stop war only by waging it...Where does security lie, anyway - security against the thief, the murderer? In brotherly love? Not at all. It lies in government.'' White married Katharine Sergeant Angell in [[1929]], also an editor at the magazine and author (as Katharine White) of ''[[Onward and Upward in the Garden]]''. They had a son, [[Joel White]], a boatbuilder. Katharine's son from her first marriage, [[Roger Angell]], was a fiction editor for the ''New Yorker'', but is perhaps better known as a [[baseball]] writer. White's style was stereotypically &quot;[[Yankee]]&quot;: wry, understated, thoughtful, and informed. He was widely regarded as a master of the English language, noted for clear, well-constructed, and charming prose. He died on [[October 1]], [[1985]] at his farm home in North Brooklin, [[Maine]] and was interred at the Brooklin Cemetery. ==Bibliography== *'''Essays &amp; Collections''' **''One Man's Meat'' **''[[Once More to the Lake]]'' **''The Points of My Compass'' **''The Second Tree from the Corner'' **''The Essays of E.B. White'' **''Letters of E.B. White'' **''Poems and Sketches of E.B. White'' **''The Wild Flag'' *'''Children's Books''' **''[[Charlotte's Web]]'' **''[[Stuart Little]]'' **''[[The Trumpet of the Swan]]'' *'''Other Topics''' **''[[The Elements of Style]]'' (with [[William Strunk Jr.]]) **''A Subtreasury of American Humor'' (1941), edited by E.B. White and Katharine S. White **''[[Is Sex Necessary|Is Sex Necessary?]]'' (with [[James Thurber]]) **''Here is New York'' [[Category:1899 births|White, E.B.
sembles the previous pagan Greek age of idol worship and also because Icons are designed to capture the spiritual aspects of Christ and the Saints, not the material physical human form. Icons are not considered by the Orthodox to be &quot;graven images&quot; or idols. Their useage is justified by the following logic: When the immaterial God was all that we had, no material depiction was possible and therefore blasphemous even to contemplate; however, Biblical prohibitions against material depictions have been altered by Christ (as God) taking on material form thus allowing a material depiction. Also, it is not the wood or paint that are venerated but rather the individual shown. Large icons can be found adorning the walls of churches and often cover the inside structure completely. Orthodox homes often likewise have icons hanging on the wall, usually together on an eastern facing wall, and in a central location where the family can pray together. [[Image:fedorovskaya.jpg|left|thumb|Our Lady of St Theodore (10th century), the protectress of [[Kostroma]], following the same Byzantine &quot;Tender Mercy&quot; type]] Icons are often illuminated with a candle or oil lamp. (Beeswax for candles and olive oil for lamps are preferred because they are natural and burn cleanly.) Besides the practical purpose of making icons visible in an otherwise dark church, both candles and oil lamps symbolize the Light of the World which is Christ. Tales of miraculous icons that moved, spoke, cried, bled, or gushed fragrant myrrh are not uncommon, though it has always been considered that the message of such an event was for the immediate faithful involved and therefore does not usually attract crowds. Some miraculous icons whose reputations span long periods of time nevertheless become objects of pilgrimage along with the places where they are kept. Some of the most venerated Russian Orthodox icons are treated in separate articles. See also [[:Category:Eastern Orthodox icons]]. '''The Cross:''' The Byzantine (sometimes Russian) style cross (seen above-right) is usually shown with a small top crossbar representing the sign that Pontius Pilate nailed above Christ's head, however, instead of the Latin acronym '''INRI''' (''Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum'', meaning &quot;Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews&quot;) the Greek '''INBI''' or its Slavonic equivalent is used. It is not uncommon, however, for this to be replaced by the phrase &quot;The King of Glory&quot; in order to answer Pilate's mocking statement with Christ's affirmation, &quot;My Kingdom is not of this world&quot;. There is also on many Orthodox depictions of the cross a bottom slanting bar. This appears for a number of reasons. First of all, there is enough evidence to show that there was a small wooden platform for the crucified to stand on in order to support his weight; in Christ's case his feet were nailed side by side to this platform with one nail each in order to prolong the torture of the cross. Evidence for this idea comes mainly from two sources, biblical (that in order to cause the victim to die faster their legs were broken so they could not support their weight and would strangle) and tradition (all early depictions of the crucifixion show this arrangement, not the later with feet on top with single nail). It has also been pointed out that the nailed hands of a body crucified in the manner often shown in modern secular art would not support the weight and would tear through, a platform for the feet would relieve this problem. The bottom bar is slanted two reasons, to represent the very real agony which Christ experienced on the cross (a refutation of Docetism) and to signify that the thief on Christ's right chose the right path while the thief on the left did not. ==Traditions== ===Chanting=== Orthodox services are sung nearly in their entirety. Services consist in part of a dialog between the clergy and the people (often represented by the choir or the Psaltis (Cantor). In each case the text is sung or chanted following a prescribed musical form. Almost nothing is read in a normal speaking voice with the exception of the homily if one is given. The church has developed eight Modes or Tones, (see [[Octoechos]]) within which a chant may be set, depending on the time of year, feast days, or other considerations of the Typikon. There are numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and these vary a great deal between cultures. It is common, especially in the United States, for a choir to learn many different styles and to mix them, singing one response in Greek, then English, then Russian, etc. This adds to the beauty and universality of the service. ===Incense=== [[Incense]] is burned during all services in the Eastern Orthodox Church. The spiritual significance of incense is simple and straightforward: it symbolizes the congenial ardor that Orthodox believe ought to characterize the life of a believing Christian, as well as evoking Christian integrity and goodness; it is seen as a representation of prayer rising to God. ===Monasticism=== [[Image:OrthodoxMonks.jpg|thumb|200px|left| Orthodox Monks at prayer in their monastery church.]] All Orthodox Christians are expected to participate in at least some ascetical works, in response to the commandment of Christ to &quot;come, take up the cross, and follow me.&quot; ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 10:21 and elsewhere) They are therefore all called to imitate, in one way or another, Christ himself who denied himself to the extent of literally taking up the cross on the way to his voluntary self-sacrifice. However, laypeople are not expected to live in extreme asceticism since this is close to impossible while undertaking the normal responsibilities of worldly life. Those who wish to do this therefore separate themselves from the world and live as monastics: monks and nuns. As ascetics ''par excellence'', using the allegorical weapons of prayer and fasting in spiritual warfare against their passions, monastics hold a very special and important place in the Church. This kind of life is often seen as incompatible with any kind of worldly activity including that which is normally regarded as virtuous. Social work, schoolteaching, and other such work is therefore usually left to laypeople. [[Image:megaloschema.jpg|thumb|200px|Right|The Schema worn by Orthodox Monks.]]There are three main types of monastics. Those who live in monasteries under a common rule are ''coenobitic''. Each monastery may formulate its own rule, and although there are no religious orders in Orthodoxy some respected monastic centers such as [[Mount Athos]] are highly influential. ''Eremitic'' monks, or hermits, are those who live solitary lives. Hermits might be associated with a larger monastery but living in seclusion some distance from the main compound, and in such cases the monastery will see to their physical needs while disturbing them as little as possible. They often live in the most extreme conditions and practice the strictest asceticism. In between are those in ''semi-eremetic'' communities, or ''sketes'', where one or two monks share each of a group of nearby dwellings under their own rules and only gather together in the central chapel, or ''kyriakon'', for liturgical observances. The spiritual insight gained from their ascetical struggles make monastics preferred for missionary activity. Bishops are often chosen from among monks, and those who are not generally receive the monastic tonsure before their consecrations. Many (but not all) Orthodox [[seminary|seminaries]] are attached to monasteries, combining academic preparation for [[ordination]] with participation in the community's life of prayer. Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are called ''hieromonk'' (priest-monk); monks who have been ordained to the deaconate are called ''hierodeacon'' (deacon-monk). Not all monks live in monasteries, some hieromonks serve as priests in parish churches thus practising &quot;monasticism in the world&quot;. For the Orthodox, ''Father'' is the correct form of address for monks who have been tonsured to the rank of Stavrophore or higher, while Novices and Rassophores are addressed as ''Brother''. Similarly, ''Mother'' is the correct form of address for nuns who have been tonsured to the rank of Stavrophore or higher, while Novices and Rassophores are addressed as ''Sister''. Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also called ''monachoi'' (monastics), and their common living space is called a monastery. Some women's monasteries are nearby or even adjoining a men's monastery. ===Fasting=== [[Fasting]] is a very important, indeed necessary practice in the Orthodox Church. Fasting is never seen as a way to earn the believer &quot;points&quot; or the right to salvation; it is merely an exercise in self-denial that serves to rid the believer of his or her ''passions'' (what most modern people would call &quot;addictions&quot;). These often low-intensity and hard-to-detect addictions to food, television or other entertainments, sex, or any kind of self-absorbed pleasure-seeking are seen as some of the most significant obstacles for man seeking closeness to God. Through struggling with fasting the believer comes face to face with the reality of his condition &amp;mdash; the starting point for genuine repentance according to the Eastern Orthodox tradition. Fasting is also never looked on as a hardship or punishment but rather as a great privilege and joy, although it can be very difficult. Those who for medical reasons (diabetes, for example) cannot fast, often see themselves as missing a great spiritual opportunity. Fasting typically involves differing levels of abstinence depending on the day or season and ranges from a complete fast from all food and drink to abstinence from all animal products (meat, dairy, eggs, etc.), olive oil, and wine. Although the trad
county= Suffolk | clerk_courts = [[Michael Joseph Donovan]] | cty_treasurer = | da = [[Daniel F. Conley]] | deeds = [[Francis Roache]] | probate = [[Richard Iannella]] | sheriff = [[Andrea J. Cabral]] | state_rep =[[Anthony Petruccelli]], [[Salvatore DiMasi]], [[Brian Wallace]], [[Marie St. Fleur]], [[Shirley Owens-Hicks]], [[Gloria Fox]], [[Paul Demakis]], [[Byron Rushing]], [[Michael Rush]], [[Elizabeth Malia]], [[Linda Dorcena-Forry]], [[Martin Walsh]], [[Angelo Scaccia]], [[Jeffrey Sanchez]], [[Kevin Honan]], [[Michael Moran]] | state_sen = [[Jarrett Barrios]], [[Eugene L. O'Flaherty]], [[Marian Walsh]], [[Steven A. Tolman]], [[John Hart, Jr.]], [[Dianne Wilkerson]], [[Robert Travaglini]] | gov_councilors = [[Michael J. Callahan]], [[Kelly A. Timilty]], [[Marilyn M. Petitto Devaney]] | fed_rep = [[Michael Capuano]] (D-[[United States House of Representatives, Massachusetts District 8|8th District]]),&lt;br&gt;[[Steven Lynch]] (D-[[United States House of Representatives, Massachusetts District 9|9th District]]) | fed_sen = [[Edward Kennedy]] (D)&lt;br&gt;[[John Kerry]] (D)}} {{seealso|List of Mayors of Boston, Massachusetts}} ==Economy== [[Image:Bos-downtown.jpg|200px|thumb|Boston's [[Back Bay, Boston|Back Bay]] viewed over the [[Charles River]] from the [[Charles River Esplanade|Esplanade]].]] Boston's colleges and universities have a major impact on the city and region's economy. Not only are they major employers, but they also attract high-tech industries to the city and surrounding region, including computer hardware and software companies as well as [[biotechnology]] companies like [[Millennium Pharmaceuticals]] and [[Biogen Idec]]. Boston recieves the highest amount of annual funding from the [[National Institutes of Health]] of all cities in the United States.{{ref|NIH}} Other important industries include [[financial services]], especially [[mutual fund]]s and [[insurance]]. Boston-based [[Fidelity Investments]] helped popularize the mutual fund in the 1980s, and has made Boston one of the top financial cities in the United States. The city is also the regional headquarters of major banks such as [[Bank of America]] and Sovereign Bank, and a center for [[venture capital]]. Boston is also a printing and publishing center. Textbook publisher [[Houghton Mifflin]] is headquartered within the city. The city is also a major convention destination with four major [[convention center]]s: the Hynes Convention Center in the Back Bay, the Bayside Expo Center in Dorchester, and the World Trade Center Boston and Boston Convention &amp; Exhibition Center on the South Boston waterfront. Because of its status as a state capital and the regional home of federal agencies, law and government is another major component of the city's economy. Major companies headquartered within the city include [[The Gillette Company|Gillette]], owned by [[Procter &amp; Gamble]], and [[Teradyne]], one of the world's leading manufacturers of semiconductors and other electronic equipment. [[New Balance Athletic Shoe, Inc.]] has its headquarters in the city. Other major companies are located outside the city, especially along [[Massachusetts Route 128|Route 128]]. The [[Port of Boston]] is the largest and busiest seaport in Massachusetts. It is also a major seaport along the United States east coast as well as a major [[fishing]] port. :''See also: [[Greater Boston#Major companies|Major companies in Greater Boston]]'' ==Education== ===Colleges and universities=== Boston's reputation as the ''Athens of America'' derives in large part from the teaching and research activities of over 100 colleges and universities located in its metropolitan area. [[Boston College]] was the first [[institution of higher education]] established in the city. It was originally located in the [[South End]] before moving to [[Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts|Chestnut Hill]], on the city's western edge. Its campus, initially envisioned as an ''Oxford in America'', subsequently expanded so that almost half of it is now within the city's political boundaries. [[Boston University]], now the city's second largest employer and one of the largest private universities in the country, was originally established in Vermont before moving to [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]] and later to its present campus in the Back Bay in the 1950s. [[Harvard University]], the nation's oldest institution of higher learning, is based across the Charles River in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]; however, most of its current land holdings lie in Boston. These holdings include the [[Arnold Arboretum]], and its [[Harvard Business School|business]] and [[Harvard Medical School|medical]] schools. Harvard recently announced plans to expand its main campus across the Charles River into Boston's [[Allston, Boston, Massachusetts|Allston]] neighborhood, which already hosts some of the university's dormitories and sports facilities. The [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) operates several major laboratories within the city. [[Emerson College]], a highly regarded arts &amp; communications school, maintains a campus near the Theatre District at the southwest corner of [[Boston Common]]. [[Northeastern University]], a large private university with a distinctive work/study program, maintains a campus in the Fenway district. [[Suffolk University]], a small private university known for its law school, maintains a campus on Beacon Hill. The city is also home to a number of conservatories and art schools, including the [[Massachusetts College of Art]], [[New England Conservatory]], [[Boston Conservatory]], and [[Berklee College of Music]]. ===Primary and secondary schools=== Boston Public Schools, the oldest public school system in the U.S., enrolls 58,600 students from [[kindergarten]] to grade 12. The system operates 145 schools, which includes [[Boston Latin School]] (the oldest public school, established in 1635), [[English High]] (the oldest public [[high school]], established 1821), and Mather (the oldest public elementary school, established in 1639).{{ref|school}} The city also has private, parochial, and [[charter school]]s. 3000 students of racial minorities attend participating suburban schools through the Metropolitan Educational Opportunity Council, or METCO. {{seealso|List of colleges and universities in metropolitan Boston}} ==Culture== [[Image:Charles River Esplanade, Boston, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|200px|A summer day on the [[Charles River esplanade]].]] {{main|Culture in Boston, Massachusetts}} Boston shares many cultural roots with greater [[New England]], including a dialect of the [[American English#Eastern New England|Eastern New England]] accent popularly known as [[Boston English]], and a [[New England cuisine|regional cuisine]] with a large emphasis on seafood and dairy products. [[Irish Americans|Irish Americans]] are a major influence on Boston's politics and religious institutions and consequently on the rest of Massachusetts. Italian, Chinese, and Hispanic groups also have major contributions to Boston's cultural composition. Boston has its own collection of [[neologism|neologisms]] known as [[Boston slang]]. Many consider Boston a highly cultured city, perhaps as a result of its intellectual reputation. Much of Boston's culture originates at its universities. The city also has a number of ornate theatres, including the [[Cutler Majestic Theatre]] and [[The Wang Center for the Performing Arts]]. Renowned performing arts groups include the [[Boston Ballet]], [[Boston Symphony Orchestra]], [[Boston Pops]], [[Boston Lyric Opera|Boston Lyric Opera Company]], and the [[Handel and Haydn Society]] (the oldest choral company in the United States). There are a number of major annual events such as [[First Night]], which occurs during [[New Year's Eve]], and several events during the [[Independence Day (US)|Fourth of July]]. These events include the weeklong Harborfest festivities and a Boston Pops concert accompanied by fireworks on the banks of the [[Charles River]]. [[Image:Faneuil Hall Boston MA USA.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Faneuil Hall]], looking at the east side]] In contrast to what might be considered the more &quot;refined&quot; aspects of Boston's culture, the city is also one of the birthplaces of the [[hardcore punk]] genre of music. Boston musicians have contributed greatly to the [[Hardcore punk|hardcore]] scene over the years (''see also [[Boston hardcore]]''). Boston also had one of the leading local [[ska]] scenes in the ska revival of the mid-1990s with bands like [[The Mighty Mighty Bosstones]], [[The Allstonians]], and Skavoovie and the Epitones. ===Media=== {{main|Media in Boston, Massachusetts}} ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', owned by the [[New York Times Company]], and ''[[The Boston Herald]]'' are Boston's two major daily [[newspaper]]s. The city is also served by a number of smaller publications such as ''[[The Boston Phoenix]]'' and ''The Improper Bostonian''. Boston has the largest broadcasting market in New England, with the Boston radio market being the eleventh largest in the United States.{{ref|radio}} Several major [[amplitude modulation|AM]] stations include [[talk radio]] [[WRKO|WRKO 680 AM]], [[sports radio|sports]]/talk station [[WEEI|WEEI 850 AM]], and news radio [[WBZ (AM)|WBZ 1030 AM]]. A variety of [[Frequency modulation|FM]] [[radio format|radio formats]] serve the area as well as [[National Public Radio|NPR]] stations [[WBUR]] and [[WGBH]]. University radio stations include [[WZBC]] (Boston College), [[WERS]] (Emerson), and [[WUMB]] (UMass Boston). The Boston television [[Designated market area|DMA]], which also includes [[Manchester, New Hampshire]], is the fifth largest in the United States.{{ref|TV}} The city is served by stations representing every major [[List of United States broadcast television networks|American network]] including [[WBZ-TV|WBZ 4]] ([[CBS]]), [[WCVB-TV|WCVB 5]] ([[American Broadcasting Company|
s from ''[[Winnie the Pooh]]'' cartoons with audio from ''Apocalypse Now''. Amazingly, they fit perfectly, following the basic [[plot]] well. * ''[[Hot Shots! Part Deux]]'' starring Sheen's son [[Charlie Sheen]] parodies the film. Martin Sheen, appearing once again as Willard, and Charlie Sheen's character ''Topper'' are depicted staring at each other while passing in opposite directions on PBRs on a river. As they meet each shouts in unison, &quot;I loved you in [[Wall Street (movie)|Wall Street]]!&quot;. * Another movie starring Charlie Sheen, ''[[The Chase (1994 film)|The Chase]]'', has a gag scene after the end credits, in which Sheen quotes Kilgore's famous napalm line. * In ''[[Jarhead (film)|Jarhead]]'', shortly before &quot;Swoff&quot; and the guys are sent into action, they are watching ''Apocalypse Now'' in a theater inside the base, singing along and interacting with the infamous helicopter attack scene, much in the way one would at a ''[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]'' screening. Oddly enough, Walter Murch was editor/sound designer for both Apocalypse Now &amp; Jarhead. * In ''[[Back to the Future Part II (film)|Back to the Future 2]]'', right after Marty meets up with Doc and the police take Jennifer away, you can see a sign behind them reading &quot;Surf Vietnam.&quot; ===Television=== * In an episode of ''[[Seinfeld]]'', [[Elaine Benes]] visits her employer, [[J. Peterman]], in a scene that parodies Willard's eventual meeting with Kurtz. * The same scene is also parodied in an episode of ''[[Sealab 2021]]'', with Captain Murphy as Kurtz and Marco as Willard. * Parodied in the episode &quot;[[Kamp Krusty]]&quot; of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' with [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] assuming the role of Kurtz. [[Marge Simpson]] also tells her husband, [[Homer Simpson|Homer]], in another episode, ''&quot;your character provides the comic relief, like Marlon Brando in Apocalypse Now&quot;''. The 'Ride of the Valkyries' helicopter sequence was humorously homaged in a &quot;[[Treehouse of Horror]]&quot; short. * In an episode of ''[[The Critic]]'', one of the films Jay Sherman reviews is a [[musical]] remake titled &quot;Apocalypse Wow.&quot; * The episode &quot;Eekpocalypse Now!&quot; of the cartoon series ''[[Eek! the Cat]]'' cast Eek as Willard, Elmo the Elk as Colonel Kilgore and Sharky the Sharkdog as Colonel Kurtz. * In the ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' episode &quot;Restless,&quot; contains [[Xander]]'s dream version of ''Apocalypse Now'', including [[Principal Snyder]] as Kurtz. * [[Claymation]] cartoonist Corky Quakenbush produced &quot;''A Pack of Gifts Now''&quot;, which is part of his [[Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer (television special)|Rudolph]] Trilogy (the other two being &quot;''Raging Rudolph''&quot; and &quot;''The Reinfather''.&quot;) The short is set in [[Saskatchewan]], with Rudolph in the Willard role and [[Santa Claus]] in the Kurtz role. Rudolph's mission is to &quot;terminate the Kringle (Santa) with extreme prejudice.&quot; This short would air on the Christmas edition of ''[[MadTV]]'' in 1999. * In the TV series ''[[Scrubs (TV show)|Scrubs]]'', the episode &quot;My Heavy Meddle&quot; ends with the janitors comment: &quot; The horror!&quot;, quoting Kurtz. * In an episode of ''[[Animaniacs]]'', [[Warner Brothers]] sends Yakko, Wakko and Dot Warner on a mission to stop a crazed movie director (a parody of [[Jerry Lewis]]) from filming a movie the studio had cancelled. The trio find the director, who has created a kingdom for himself in which [[stunt double]]s worship him. They stop the film and smash him with a 50 ton weight. His last words are &quot;The hurting... the hurting...&quot; Throughout the episode, a singer who looks very much like [[Jim Morrison]] drones &quot;This is the ending, the ending of our story, the ending.&quot; * &quot;Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man,&quot; an ''[[X-Files]]'' episode features a flashback scene where &quot;the Cigarette Smoking Man&quot; is tasked with the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]]. The scene has many things similar or identical to the Scene where Willard is tasked with the assassination of Kurtz, most prominently both have a question that goes something like &quot;have you ever met myself this man or the general before?&quot; to which Willard and the CSM both reply &quot;Not personally&quot;. * The cartoon ''[[Yvon of the Yukon]]'' has an episode that parodies the opening scene, as well as a helicopter pilot stating &quot;I love the smell of lip balm in the morning&quot; * In a sketch in [[Alas Smith and Jones]], [[Mel Smith]] sits in a darkened room and expresses philosophies similar to that of Kurtz at length to a man who has been sent to find him, at the end of the sketch [[Griff Rhys Jones]] switches on the light to reveal that they are in fact sitting in a rather mundane bathroom with Smith sitting in the bath. Jones (a fairly dull [[Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs|tax inspector]] perched on the toilet) reveals that he is merely investigating Smith for [[Child benefit]] fraud. ===Music=== * [[Iron Maiden]]'s &quot;The Edge of Darkness&quot; on their album ''[[The X Factor (album)|The X Factor]]'' (1995) is very closely based on the film. Most lyrics are very close to being a direct quote from the movie. * The [[Canada|Canadian]] band [[Death From Above 1979]] take their name from the 'Death From Above' motto on Kilgore's helicopter. * The band [[Dismember]] uses the quote &quot;I love the smell of napalm in the morning!&quot; to start of their song &quot;Let the Napalm Rain.&quot; * The band [[Sodom (band)|Sodom]] uses the full quote, including &quot;smells like... victory&quot; in their song &quot;Napalm in the Morning&quot;. * The band [[Ministry (band)|Ministry]] uses a sample of Dennis Hopper saying &quot;Alright, it's alright&quot; on their song &quot;N.W.O.&quot; * The band [[The Clash]]'s song &quot;Charlie Don't Surf&quot; from their album [[Sandinista!]] derives its title and concept from the movie. * The band [[Milhaven]] samples extensively from Kurtz's monologue at the end of the film in their song &quot;Drink a Pint of Blood a Day.&quot; * [[Jedi Mind Tricks]] use a few clips on their CD release Violent By Design. * [[2Pacalypse Now]] was rapper [[Tupac Shakur]]'s debut album, released in November 1991. * [[The Dead Milkmen]] song &quot;Beach Party Vietnam&quot; is a parody of the surfing scene, and the Vietnam War in general. * [[Fall Silent]] incorporates a clip of Marlow's &quot;The Horror...the horror&quot; in their song entitled &quot;The Great White Death.&quot; ===Video games=== * In the videogame ''[[World of Warcraft]]'', a series of quests in the Stranglethorn Vale zone take you to the camp of a crazed Colonel Kurzen who has [[brainwash]]ed his men, in an attempt to kill the Colonel. *In a homage to the infamous village attack scene, the computer game &quot;[[Battlefield Vietnam]]&quot; offers up &quot;[[Ride of the Valkyries]]&quot; as a song to be played while inside helicopters and other vehicles. * The Half-Life singleplayer mod 'Heart of Evil' is partly inspired by the film (the Vietnam War setting, a U.S. Army captain sent to assassinate a rogue colonel, the helicopter ride with &quot;[[Ride of the Valkyries]]&quot; in the background, the boat ride to the colonel's compound). *In [[StarCraft]], one of the Firebat's quotes is &quot;I love the smell of napalm.&quot; The Firebats are flamethrower wielding infantry. ===Literature=== * The ''[[Star Wars]]'' novel ''[[Shatterpoint]]'', written by [[Matthew Stover]], is based on ''Apocalypse Now''. * Before the members of the SAS patrol leave England in the book [[Bravo Two Zero]] by [[Andy McNab]], they watch ''Apocalypse Now''. ==Primary cast== *[[Marlon Brando]] - Col. Walter E. Kurtz *[[Martin Sheen]] - [[Captain#Army, Marine Corps and Air Force|Capt.]] Benjamin L. Willard *[[Dennis Hopper]] - &quot;American [[photojournalist]]&quot; *[[Robert Duvall]] - Lt. Col. Bill Kilgore *[[Frederic Forrest]] - &quot;Chef&quot;, sailor *[[Albert Hall]] - Chief Phillips, Navy boat commander *[[Sam Bottoms]] - Lance B. Johnson, sailor and famous surfer *[[Laurence Fishburne]] - Tyrone, AKA &quot;Clean&quot;, sailor *[[G. D. Spradlin]] - Gen. Corman, [[military intelligence|G-2]] *[[Harrison Ford]] - Col. Lucas, aide to Corman *[[Scott Glenn]] - Lt. Richard M. Colby, previously assigned Willard's current mission *[[Tom Mason]] - supply sgt. *[[Colleen Camp]] - [[Playmate]], &quot;Miss May&quot; '''Award wins:''' *[[Cannes Film Festival]] : [[Palme d'Or]] *[[Academy Award for Best Cinematography]] ([[Vittorio Storaro]]) *[[Academy Award for Sound]] ([[Richard Beggs]], [[Mark Berger]], [[Nathan Boxer]] and [[Walter Murch]]) *[[Golden Globe Award for Best Director - Motion Picture|Golden Globe Award for Best Director]] ([[Francis Ford Coppola]]) *[[Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture|Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor]] ([[Robert Duvall]]) *[[Golden Globe|Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score - Motion Picture]] ([[Carmine Coppola]] &amp; [[Francis Ford Coppola]]) In 2000 the United States [[Library of Congress]] deemed the film &quot;[[cultural significance|culturally significant]]&quot; and selected it for preservation in the [[National Film Registry]]. It is widely believed that ''Apocalypse Now'' did not win the Best Picture Oscar in 1979 due to the fact that another Vietnam epic, ''[[The Deer Hunter]]'', had just won the previous year. It is often regarded as a far superior film to the 1979 winner of the award, ''[[Kramer vs. Kramer]]''. '''Award nominations:''' *[[Academy Award for Best Picture]] *[[Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Drama]] *[[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]] - ([[Robert Duvall]]) *[[Academy Award for Best Art Direction|Academy Award for Best Art Direction - Set Decoration]] ([[Angelo P. Graham]], [[George R. Nelson]] and [[Dean Tavoularis]]) *[[Academy Award for Directing]]
tish]] drama series. One of its foreign affairs programs, ''[[Hemispheres (television program)|Hemispheres]]'', is co-produced with the [[CBC]] of [[Canada]], and presented from both [[Sydney]] and [[Vancouver]]. This is now shown in Australia on ABC2. ==Online== {{further|[[ABC Online]], [[ABC News Online]]}} ABC New Media publishes thousands of websites&lt;!--Really? Thousands?--&gt;. Among the most notable are: ===ABC News Online=== ABC News Online has the most comprehensive local news coverage of Australia, publishing stories from the ABC's 36 regional bureau. It also provides extensive national news and international news from an Australian perspective. ===ABC Kids=== One of the best children's sites on the Internet, you can safely sit your kids down in front of The Playground and keep them entertained for hours.&lt;!--'One of the best' is subjective. 'entertained for hours' is subjective. 'safely' is subjective. 'you' is overly informal and unencyclopaedic.--&gt; ===ABC Science Online=== A rambling site, The Lab provides a fantastic gateway into the world of science, including the unique self-service science forum and the best science news from Down Under.&lt;!--'rambling'? 'fantastic'? 'best'? Who writes this stuff?--&gt; ==ABC Enterprises== ABC Enterprises is the commercial Division of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. The Division is comprised of ABC Retail, ABC Consumer Publishing and Content Sales, and ABC Resource Hire. It was established in 1974 with all profits from the sale of consumer product and production services returned to the Corporation to reinvest in program-making. It now operates over 40 retail shops and 80 centres, an international delivery service on the Internet as well as developing and licensing ABC brands and programs and providing production resource hire to the general public and industry alike. ===ABC Retail=== The ''ABC Shop Online'' (at http://www.abcshop.com.au) is a shopping website operated by ABC Enterprises. It sells DVDs, CDs, books, spoken word, toys, clothing, music downloads and mobile/cell phone products related to programming on ABC TV &amp; Radio and Australian culture in general. The ''ABC Shops'' (at http://www.abcshop.com.au) sell theatrically released products (DVDS, books, CDs, spoken word, toys and clothing) related to programs broadcast on ABC TV and Radio and related to Australian culture. ===ABC Consumer Publishing &amp; Content Sales=== Develop and license products and brands related to ABC programming selling to both the general public and wholesale TV and radio markets worldwide. ===ABC Resource Hire=== Offer a range of productions services including costume hire, soundstage and studio facilities, venue hire and event staging. ==ABC Logo== The ABC wavelength logo is one of the most recognisable logos in [[Australia]]. In the early years of television, the ABC had been using [[Lissajous]] figures as fillers in-between programs. In [[July]] [[1963]], the ABC conducted a staff competition to create a new logo for use on television, stationery, publications, microphone badges and ABC vehicles. In [[1965]], ABC graphics designer, Bill Kennard, who had been experimenting with telerecording of the Cathode Ray Oscillograph displays, submitted a design which was part of the waveform of an oscilloscope. The letters A-B-C were added to the wavelength design and it was adopted as the ABC's official logo. Mr Kennard was presented with twenty five pounds for his design. ==State orchestras== In Australia there are currently six State Symphony Orchestras. These Orchestras were originally formed by the ABC as Broadcast Orchestras. They have since evolved into platform orchestras and now play a vital role in the cultural life of the country. The Orchestras were corporatised in the [[1990s]] but continue to be wholly owned by the ABC. The six orchestras are: The [[Sydney Symphony Orchestra]], [[Melbourne Symphony Orchestra]], [[The Queensland Orchestra]], [[West Australian Symphony Orchestra]], [[Adelaide Symphony Orchestra]] and the [[Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra]]. == Postal address == The ABC's postal address is &quot;[PO] Box 9994 in your Capital city&quot; followed by the [[List of Australian postcodes|postcode]]. It is a persistent [[urban legend]] that '9994' is in memory of the life-time [[cricket|test cricket]] batting average of the Australian cricketer [[Donald Bradman|Sir Donald Bradman]] (he scored 6996 runs in 70 completed innings, an average of 99.94 runs per innings). Supposedly, one-time Chairman of the ABC, [[Sir Charles Moses]], a personal friend of Bradman's, arranged for this number to be used, however this has been denied by the ABC. ==References== *''The Alan McGillivray Solution'' ==See also== * [[ABC2]] * [[ABC Kids (Australia)|ABC Kids]] * [[ABC Rollercoaster]] * [[List of Australian television channels]] * [[List of Australian radio stations]] * [[Sound Quality]] * [[ABC Enterprises]] ==External links== * [http://www.abc.net.au/ Australian Broadcasting Corporation's official website] * [http://www.abc.net.au/abc2 ABC 2] * [http://www.abc.net.au/abckids ABC Kids] * [http://www.abcasiapacific.com ABC Asia Pacific] * [http://www.abc.net.au/radio ABC Radio] * [http://www.abc.net.au/ra Radio Australia] * [http://www.abcasiapacific.com ABC Asia Pacific] * [http://www.abc.net.au/grandstand/ ABC Grandstand] * [http://www.abc.net.au/sport/ ABC Sport] * [http://www.abcshop.com.au ABC Shop Online] * [http://www.abcenterprises.com.au ABC Enterprises] * [http://www.idents.tv Idents.tv - Australian TV Idents (Including ABC)] * [http://abc.net.au/aroundtheworld/content/s1059924.htm PETER CAVE] * [http://www.friendsoftheabc.org/ Friends of the ABC] * [http://www.fabc.org.au/ Friends of the ABC (Victoria)] * [http://wwitv.com/ip_tv/8388.asx Watch ABC Asia Pacific on Windows Media Player] * [http://www.bandt.com.au/news/a1/0c010aa1.asp ABC goes for 25% growth with magazines] * [http://www.abc.net.au/radio/celebrate100/history.htm 100 Years of Radio] [[Category:Australian Broadcasting Corporation|*]] [[Category:Australian radio networks]] [[Category:Australian television networks]] [[Category:Publicly-funded broadcasters]] [[Category:1932 establishments]] [[fr:Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] [[no:Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] [[nn:Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] [[zh:澳大利亚广播公司]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alexandria</title> <id>3080</id> <revision> <id>42146552</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:09:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gladmax</username> <id>196242</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Late Roman history - The Fall of Rome */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{update}} {{otheruses|Alexandria}} [[Image:Image-DSC00289.JPG|thumb|260px|Modern Alexandria, from Qaitbay's Citadel]] [[Image:Altes Ägypten 003.jpg|right|thumb|260px|Antiquity and modernity stand cheek-by-jowl in Egypt's chief Mediterranean seaport.]] '''Alexandria''' (Greek '''Aleksándreia''', [[Coptic language|Coptic]] '''Rakotə''', [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: الإسكندرية ,tran: '''Al-Iskandariya'''), (population of 3.5 to 5 million), is the second largest city in [[Egypt]], and its most major seaport. Alexandria extends about 20 miles (32 km) up and down the Mediterranean sea in southwest Egypt. It is home to the [[Bibliotheca Alexandrina]], the New Library of Alexandria, and is an important industrial centre because of the [[natural gas]] and [[oil pipeline]]s from [[Suez]]. In ancient times, the city was known for the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]] (one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]]) and the [[Library of Alexandria]] (the largest library in the ancient world). Ongoing [[maritime archaeology]] in the harbor of Alexandria(which began in [[1994]]) is revealing details of Alexandria during the Ptolemaic dynasty. ==History== The city of Alexandria was named after its founder, [[Alexander the Great]], and as the seat of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] rulers of Egypt, quickly became one of the greatest cities of the [[Hellenistic civilisation|Hellenistic]] world &amp;mdash; second only to [[Rome]] in size and wealth throughout much of antiquity. However, upon the founding of [[Cairo]] by Egypt's medi&amp;aelig;val Islamic rulers, its status as the country's capital ended, and it fell into a long decline, which by the late [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period, had seen it reduced to little more than a small fishing village. ===Foundation=== Alexandria was founded by [[Alexander the Great]] in or around [[334 BC]] (the exact date is disputed) as Ἀλεξάνδρεια (''Aleksándreia''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]). Alexander's chief architect for the project was [[Deinocrates of Rhodes]]. Ancient accounts are extremely numerous and varied, and much influenced by subsequent developments. One of the more sober descriptions, given by the historian [[Arrian]], tells how Alexander undertook to lay out the city's general plan, but lacking chalk or other means, resorted to sketching it out with grain. Alexander's seers, and in particular [[Aristander of Telmessus]], interpreted this as an omen that the city would prosper, particularly in grain. Other authors make the omen not the grain itself, but the arrival of flocks of birds that ate it. This was at first feared to be an ill omen, but [[Aristander]] the Seer averred it meant that the city would attract and feed many people. In any case, the story explains Alexandria's role as the shipping-point for Egyptian grain, which fed the [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] world. It is believed that Alexandria was the largest city in the world from 320 BC to about 300 BC, when [[Pataliputra]] became the largest.[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm] A number of the more fantastic foundation myths are found in the [[Alexander R
gland|Shirley]] *[[South Croydon]] *[[South Norwood]] *[[Thornton Heath]] *[[Upper Norwood]] *[[Waddon]] *[[West Croydon]] *[[Woodcote]] *[[Woodside, London|Woodside]] ==Railway stations== Stations in [[Croydon]]: *[[East Croydon station|East Croydon]] *[[South Croydon railway station|South Croydon]] *[[West Croydon station|West Croydon]] There are thirteen other railway stations within the borough boundaries. In alphabetical order they are: * [[Coulsdon South railway station|Coulsdon South]] * [[Kenley railway station|Kenley]] * [[Norbury railway station|Norbury]] * [[Norwood Junction railway station|Norwood Junction]] * [[Purley railway station|Purley]] * [[Purley Oaks railway station|Purley Oaks]] * [[Reedham railway station (London)|Reedham]] * [[Riddlesdown railway station|Riddlesdown]] * [[Sanderstead railway station|Sanderstead]] * [[Selhurst railway station|Selhurst]] * [[Smitham railway station|Smitham]] * [[Thornton Heath railway station|Thornton Heath]] * [[Waddon railway station|Waddon]] * [[Woodmansterne railway station|Woodmansterne]] == Individuals associated with the Borough of Croydon == The following people have an association with Croydon:- &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Ruskin House.jpg|right|275px|thumb|Ruskin House of Croydon, named in honour of local figure, John Ruskin]] --&gt; * [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[John Whitgift]] (ca. [[1530]]–[[1604]]), is buried in the parish church of St. John the Baptist, Croydon. Several other Archbishops are buried in the Parish Church or St Mary's in [[Addington, London, England|Addington]]. * Art critic and social theorist [[John Ruskin]] ([[1819]]–[[1900]]) spent much of childhood in Croydon at his mother's family home and visited often as an adult. His parents are buried in [[Shirley, London|Shirley]]. * [[John Horniman]] ([[1803]]–[[1893]]) and [[Frederick John Horniman]] ([[1835]]–[[1906]]), tea merchants, collectors and public benefactors, lived at Coombe Cliff, Coombe Road, Croydon * Naturalist [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] ([[1823]]–[[1913]]), lived at 44 St Peter's Road, Croydon. He independently proposed a theory of evolution by natural selection and prompted [[Charles Darwin]] to reveal his own unpublished theory sooner than he had intended. * Actor and dramatist [[Miles Malleson]] ([[1888]]–[[1969]]), was born in Croydon. * French [[novel]]ist [[Émile Zola]] ([[1840]]–[[1902]]) lived at The Queen's Hotel, 122 Church Road, [[Upper Norwood]] between 1898-1899. * [[William Ford Robertson Stanley]] ([[1829]]–[[1909]]), inventor, collector, manufacturer scientific instruments and philanthropist, lived in Croydon, and founded and designed the halls and technical school known as Stanley Halls, 12 South Norwood Hill, [[South Norwood]]. * Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] ([[1859]]–[[1930]]) author and creator of [[Sherlock Holmes]], lived at 12 Tennison Road, [[South Norwood]] between [[1891]] and [[1894]]. * Author [[D.H. Lawrence]] ([[1885]]–[[1930]]) lived at 12 Colworth Road, [[Addiscombe]], [[1908]] to [[1912]], whilst a teacher at Davidson Road School. * Composer [[Samuel Coleridge Taylor]] ([[1875]]–[[1912]]), lived at 30 Dagnall Park, [[Selhurst]]. * Comic actor [[Will Hay]] ([[1888]]–[[1949]]), lived at 45 The Chase, [[Norbury]] between [[1927]] and [[1934]]. * Illustrator and artist [[Cicely Mary Barker]] ([[1895]]–[[1973]]), who created the famous Flower Fairies books, was born in Croydon and lived locally. She studied at the Croydon School of Art. * Film director Sir [[David Lean]] ([[1908]]–[[1991]]), was born in Croydon on [[25 March]][[1908]]. * Actress Dame [[Peggy Ashcroft]] ([[1907]]–[[1991]]), was born in Croydon and lived in George Street as a child. She is honoured in the naming of the Ashcroft Theatre, part of the [[Fairfield Halls]]. * Comedian [[Roy Hudd]] was born in Croydon in [[1936]]. * Electrical engineer and inventor of the [[Teleprinter]] [[Frederick George Creed]] ([[1871]]–[[1957]]), lived and died at 20 Outram Road, [[Addiscombe]]. * Pop star [[Adam Ant]] is from Croydon. * The original members of rock group [[The Damned]] grew up in Croydon. * Supermodel [[Kate Moss]] was born in Croydon on [[16 January]] [[1974]]. * Comedian [[Ronnie Corbett]] lives in [[Shirley, London|Shirley]]. * [[Wilfred Wood (bishop)|Wilfred Wood]] served as [[Bishop of Croydon]] from [[1985]] to [[2002]], the first black [[Church of England]] bishop. * Former [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] footballer [[Ian Wright]] [[Member of the Order of the British Empire|MBE]] lives in [[Shirley, London|Shirley]]. * [[Feroz Abbasi]], arrested in [[Afghanistan]] in [[2001]] and detained at [[Guantanamo Bay]], lived in Shirley and attended school in Croydon. == See also == * [[Addington Palace]] * [[Lunar House]] * [[UK postcodes#Croydon, CR0|UK postcodes]] — a note of why and how postcodes CR0 and CR9 differ from the others. * [[Ruskin House]] * [[Tramlink]] * [[Woodside and South Croydon Railway]] * [[Croydon parks and open spaces]] * [[Croydon Airport]] == External links == * [http://www.croydonguardian.co.uk/news/ Croydon Guardian Local News page] * [http://www.croydonguardian.co.uk/heritage/croyheritage/ Croydon Guardian Heritage pages] * [http://www.croydonsociety.org.uk/ The Croydon Society Site site] * [http://www.croydon-lcc.org.uk/ Croydon Cycling Campaign site] * [http://www.bourne-society.org.uk/page_navigation.htm The Bourne Society] take an interest in the Southern part of the borough and have fixed their own [[blue plaque]]s on a number of buildings there. * [http://www.croydon-parish-church.org.uk/ Croydon Parish Church] {{London}} [[Category:Croydon|*]] [[Category:Districts of London|Croydon, London Borough of]] [[cs:Croydon (londýnský obvod)]] [[de:London Borough of Croydon]] [[fr:London Borough de Croydon]] [[no:Croydon]] [[ro:Croydon (burg)]] [[sv:Croydon]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chick Publications</title> <id>7187</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41787745</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:26:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Guanaco</username> <id>47960</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/148.241.73.208|148.241.73.208]] ([[User talk:148.241.73.208|talk]]) to last version by Calair</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chick Publications''' is an American publishing company run by [[Jack Chick]] which produces and markets religious pamphlets, [[DVD]]s, [[Video CD|VCDs]], [[video]]s, [[book]]s, a [[poster]], and (most famously) comic [[tract]]s in many languages. The publications promote and seek to win converts to a [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Protestant fundamentalist]] view. While some express views that are generally accepted within [[Christianity | Christian]] theology, e.g.[http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0039/0039_01.asp], Chick is most famous for his publications on issues that are highly controversial even within Christianity, such as [[Occult]]ism, [[Freemasonry]] [http://www.chick.com/information/religions/masonry], [[Catholicism]] [http://www.chick.com/information/religions/catholicism], [[Islam]] [http://www.chick.com/information/religions/islam], [[abortion]], and [[homosexuality]], which many fundamentalist American Protestant Christians believe are sinful &amp;mdash; together with more mundane activities such as [[role-playing game]]s and [[popular music]]. Defenders of the comics assert all his comics carry the same message &amp;mdash; that of salvation through [[Jesus]]. ==Overview== [[Image:This was your life Chick Tract.jpg|thumb|right|The most popular tract from Chick Publications is just one of hundreds of Christian tracts they have published]] The graphics in Chick's tracts are often simple, but striking. Some Christians consider them to be valuable witnessing tools, due to the striking nature of the cartoons and their clear-cut messages. Indeed, many cartoon tracts appear to be designed to appeal mainly to children. Their superficially unsophisticated graphic style, their [[kitsch]] nature, scare tactics, and dogmatic messages also make them popular with non-fundamentalists, who find them amusing; the tracts were popularized among this audience through ''[[High Weirdness By Mail]]'', a publication of the satiric [[Church of the SubGenius]]. Chick Publications also publishes conventional non-graphical books on these same topics, by authors other than Chick. Many of these are also used as sources for Chick's tracts; notable sources include [[Alberto Rivera]], [[Rebecca Brown]], [[Jeff Godwin]], [[Kent Hovind]], [[Charles Chiniquy]], [[William Schnoebelen]], [[John Todd (evangelist)|John Todd]], [[Avro Manhattan]], and [[Alexander Hislop]]. While Chick's tracts are handed out directly (for instance, he encourages Christians to give out anti-[[Halloween]] tracts along with Halloween candy[http://www.chick.com/seasonal/halloween/default.asp?FROM=Tracttips]), they are often distributed by leaving them in places where they will be found and read, an appealing witnessing tool for shy Christians[http://www.chick.com/bc/1996/witnessingideas.asp]. This strategy is intended to reach those who are hostile to [[evangelism|evangelists]] and unlikely to accept an offered tract, by appealing instead to their curiosity. [http://www.chick.com/bc/1996/witnessingideas.asp]. Chick Publication's website claims that many people have been converted by encountering Chick Publication's comic tracts[http://www.chick.com/articles/testimonies/]. The company's web site [http://www.chick.com/catalog/tractlist.asp] lists more than 150 comic tracts; all of them can be viewed online, but other materials can generally only be sampled. The site states that several hundred million tracts have been distributed world wide, with some of them translated into almost 100 languages. Copies of Chick's tracts are displayed in the [[Smithsonian Institution]]
esign]] * [[Software development]] * [[System design]] * [[technical theatre | Theatrical design]] * [[Universal design]] * [[Web design]] * [[Wicked problems]] (includes [[Economics|economic]], [[Natural environment|environmental]], and [[Politics|political]] issues) [[Category:Design| ]] [[bs:Dizajn]] [[ca:Disseny]] [[da:Design]] [[de:Design]] [[es:Diseño]] [[eo:Dezajno]] [[fr:Design]] [[it:Design]] [[he:עיצוב]] [[ka:დიზაინი]] [[mk:Дизајн]] [[nl:Design (kunst)]] [[ja:デザイン]] [[no:Design]] [[nn:Formgjeving]] [[pl:Design]] [[pt:Design]] [[ru:Дизайн]] [[simple:Design]] [[sr:Дизајн]] [[fi:Muotoilu]] [[sv:Formgivning]] [[zh:設計]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Denormalization</title> <id>8561</id> <revision> <id>31582273</id> <timestamp>2005-12-16T06:48:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TechPurism</username> <id>691943</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Denormalization''' is the process of attempting to optimize the performance of a database by adding redundant data. It is sometimes necessary because current [[DBMS]]s implement the [[relational model]] poorly. A true relational DBMS would allow for a fully normalized database at the logical level, while providing physical storage of data that is tuned for high performance. A normalized design will often store different but related pieces of information in separate logical tables (called relations). If these relations are stored physically as separate disk files, completing a database query that draws information from several relations (a [[JOIN|''join operation'']]) can be slow. If many relations are joined, it may be prohibitively slow. There are two strategies for dealing with this. The preferred method is to keep the logical design normalized, but allow the DBMS to store additional redundant information on disk to optimize query response. In this case it is the DBMS software's responsibility to ensure that any redundant copies are kept consistent. This method is often implemented in [[SQL]] as indexed views. A view represents information in a format convenient for querying, and the index ensures that queries against the view are optimized. The more usual approach is to denormalize the logical data design. With care this can achieve a similar improvement in query response, but at a cost&amp;mdash;it is now the database designer's responsibility to ensure that the denormalized database does not become inconsistent. This is done by creating rules in the database called ''constraints'', that specify how the redundant copies of information must be kept synchronized. It is the increase in logical complexity of the database design and the added complexity of the additional constraints that make this approach hazardous. Moreover, due to constraint evaluation overhead, a denormalized database may actually offer '''worse''' performance than its functionally equivalent normalized counterpart. Denormalization should only take place after a satisfactory level of normalization has taken place and that any required constraints and/or rules have been created to deal with the inherent anomalies in the design. For example, all the relations are in Third Normal Form and any relations with join and multi-valued dependencies are handled appropriately. Examples of a denormalization techniques include: * storing the count of the &quot;many&quot; objects in a one-to-many relationship as an attribute of the &quot;one&quot; relation * adding attributes to a relation from another relation with which it will be joined * star schemas which are also known as fact-dimension models and have been extended to snowflake schemas * pre-built summarization or OLAP cubes * materialized views ==See also== * [[Database normalization]] [[Category:Data modeling]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Differential topology</title> <id>8562</id> <revision> <id>15906542</id> <timestamp>2003-12-13T14:03:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Charles Matthews</username> <id>12978</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Differential geometry and topology]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Diffeomorphism</title> <id>8564</id> <revision> <id>40244069</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T05:05:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Naconkantari</username> <id>676502</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.107.56.62|70.107.56.62]] ([[User talk:70.107.56.62|talk]]) to last version by Connelly</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''diffeomorphism''' is a kind of [[isomorphism]] of [[smooth manifold]]s. It is an [[invertible function]] that maps one [[manifold#Differentiable_manifolds|differentiable manifold]] to another, such that both the function and its inverse are [[smooth function|smooth]]. Formally, given two manifolds ''M'' and ''N'', a [[bijective map]] &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; from ''M'' to ''N'' is called a '''diffeomorphism''' if both &lt;math&gt;f:M\to N&lt;/math&gt; and its inverse &lt;math&gt;f^{-1}:N\to M&lt;/math&gt; are smooth (i.e., infinitely differentiable). Two manifolds ''M'' and ''N'' are '''diffeomorphic''' (symbol being usually &lt;math&gt;\simeq&lt;/math&gt;) if there is a diffeomorphism &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; from ''M'' to ''N''. For example :&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}/\mathbb{Z} \simeq S^1.&lt;/math&gt; That is, the [[quotient group]] of the [[real numbers]] [[modulo]] the [[integers]] is again a smooth manifold, which is diffeomorphic to the [[sphere|1-sphere]], usually known as the circle. The diffeomorphism is given by :&lt;math&gt;x\mapsto e^{ix}.&lt;/math&gt; This map provides not only a diffeomorphism, but also an [[isomorphism]] of [[Lie group]]s between the two spaces. ==Local description== '''Model example''': if &lt;math&gt;U&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; are two open subsets of &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^n&lt;/math&gt;, a [[derivative|differentiable]] map &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; from &lt;math&gt;U&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; is a '''diffeomorphism''' if # it is a [[bijection]], # its [[pushforward|derivative]] &lt;math&gt;Df&lt;/math&gt; is invertible (as the matrix of all &lt;math&gt;\partial f_i/\partial x_j&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;1 \leq i,j \leq n&lt;/math&gt;), which means the same as having non-zero [[Jacobian]] determinant. Remarks: * Condition 2 excludes diffeomorphisms going from [[dimension]] &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; to a different dimension &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt; (the matrix of &lt;math&gt;df&lt;/math&gt; would not be square hence certainly not invertible). * A differentiable bijection is ''not'' necessarily a diffeomorphism, e.g. &lt;math&gt;f(x)=x^3&lt;/math&gt; is not a diffeomorphism from &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt; to itself because its derivative vanishes at 0. * &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; also happens to be a [[homeomorphism]]. Now, &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; from ''M'' to ''N'' is called a '''diffeomorphism''' if in [[Manifold#Differentiable_manifolds|coordinates chart]]s it satisfies the definition above. More precisely, pick any cover of ''M'' by compatible [[Manifold#Differentiable_manifolds|coordinate chart]]s, and do the same for ''N''. Let &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\psi&lt;/math&gt; be charts on ''M'' and ''N'' respectively, with &lt;math&gt;U&lt;/math&gt; being the image of &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; the image of &lt;math&gt;\psi&lt;/math&gt;. Then the conditions says that the map &lt;math&gt;\psi f \phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; from &lt;math&gt;U&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; is a diffeomorphism as in the definition above (whenever it makes sense). One has to check that for every couple of charts &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\psi&lt;/math&gt; of two given [[Manifold#Differentiable_manifolds|atlases]], but once checked, it will be true for any other compatible chart. Again we see that dimensions have to agree. ==Diffeomorphism group== The '''diffeomorphism group''' of a manifold is the group of all its self-diffeomorphisms. For dimension &amp;ge; 1 this is a large group (too big to be a [[Lie group]]). For a [[connected space|connected]] manifold ''M'' the diffeomorphisms act [[Group_action#Types_of_actions|transitive]]ly on ''M'': this is true [[locally]] because it is true in [[Euclidean space]] and then a topological argument shows that given any ''p'' and ''q'' there is a diffeomorphism taking ''p'' to ''q''. That is, all points of ''M'' in effect look the same, intrinsically. The same is true for [[finite]] configurations of points, so that the diffeomorphism group is ''k''- fold [[Group_action#Types_of_actions|multiply transitive]] for any integer ''k'' &amp;ge; 1, provided the dimension is at least two (it is not true for the case of the [[circle]] or [[real line]]). ==Homeomorphism and diffeomorphism== It is easy to find a homeomorphism which is not a diffeomorphism, but it is more difficult to find a pair of [[homeomorphic]] manifolds that are not diffeomorphic. In dimensions 1, 2, 3, any pair of homeomorphic smooth manifolds are diffeomorphic. In dimension 4 or greater, examples of homeomorphic but not diffeomorphic pairs have been found. The first such example was constructed by [[John Milnor]] in dimension 7, he constructed a smooth 7-dimensional manifold (called now [[Milnor's sphere]]) which is homeomorphic to the standard 7-sphere but not diffeomorphic to it. There are in fact 28 oriented diffeomorphism classes of manifolds homeomorphic to the 7-sphere (each of them is a [[fiber bundle]] over the 4-sphere with fiber the [[3-sphere]]). Much more extreme phenomena occur: in the early 1980s, a combination of results due to [[Fields Medal]] winne
> <id>42154250</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:25:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Naconkantari</username> <id>676502</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/129.82.41.232|129.82.41.232]] ([[User talk:129.82.41.232|talk]]) to last version by Prodego</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band | band_name = Britney Spears | image = [[Image:Britney Spears.jpg|200px|Britney Spears performing at the National Mall in [[Washington, DC]] in September 2003]] | caption = Britney Spears performing at the National Mall in [[Washington, DC]] in September 2003 along with her backing band, the P-Funk All-Stars. | years_active = 1998&amp;mdash;present | origin = [[Kentwood, Louisiana|Kentwood]], [[Louisiana]] | music_genre = [[Pop music|Pop]] | record_label = [[Jive Records|Jive]] }} '''Britney Jean Spears''' (born [[December 2]] [[1981]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[pop music|pop]] [[singer]]-[[songwriter]] and occasional [[actor|actress]]. Spears first came to fame as a member of the ''[[New Mickey Mouse Club]]'' in the early 1990s, taking a five-year break from entertainment after the show wrapped. She subsequently emerged at the forefront of the pop music scene in 1999, thanks to the crafting of her chart-topping debut album by producer-songwriter [[Max Martin]]. Her second album, released the following year, was a similarly huge hit. In the early 2000s, Spears' success as a singer led her way to high-profile [[advertising]] deals (most notably for [[Pepsi]]), as well as forays into other forms of media, including [[film]] and [[reality television]]. Her third and fourth albums released during this era included more artistic input from Spears, but yielded lower sales. In 2004 she married [[Kevin Federline]], and the following year gave birth to their son Sean Preston. In 2006, she is set to resume her recording career. With worldwide record sales topping the 85 million mark (as of 2006){{ref|WWSales}}, Britney Spears has become one of the most recognisable [[celebrity|celebrities]] and [[sex symbol]]s of her generation and is the biggest selling female artist of the 21st century. ==Biography== ===Childhood and discovery=== Spears was born in [[McComb]], [[Mississippi]] and raised in [[Kentwood, Louisiana|Kentwood]], [[Louisiana]]. Her parents, who are now divorced, are James Parnell Spears (b. 1952), a building [[contractor]], and Lynne Irene Bridges (b. 1956), a grade school [[teacher]]. Her maternal grandmother, Lillian Woolmoore (b. 1924-d. 1993), was an [[England|English]] [[war bride]], who met Spears' maternal grandfather, Barnett O'Field Bridges (b. 1919-d. 1978), in [[England]] during [[WWII]], and subsequently moved with him to the [[United States]]. Her paternal grandparents were June Austin Spears (b. 1930-) and Emma Jean Forbes (b. 1934-d. 1966); Spears also claims some [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] heritage [http://www.indianz.com/ict/showarchive.asp?id=spears]. Spears has a brother, Bryan (b. 1977) and a sister, [[Jamie Lynn Spears|Jamie Lynn]] (b. 1991). As a young girl, Spears was an accomplished [[gymnast]], attending gymnastics classes until age nine, and competing in state-level competitions. She performed in local [[dance]] [[revue]]s and her local [[Baptist]] [[church]] [[choir]]s, and was auditioning for the [[Disney Channel]]'s ''[[New Mickey Mouse Club]]'' by the time she was eight. Although she was considered too young to join the series at the time, a producer on the show introduced her to a [[New York]] agent. Spears subsequently spent three summers at [[New York City|NYC]]'s Professional Performing Arts School and also appeared in a number of [[off-Broadway]] productions, including 1991's ''Ruthless!''. In 1992, she landed a spot on ''[[Star Search]]'', and though she won the first round, she lost in the second. Spears returned to the [[Disney Channel]] for a spot on the ''New Mickey Mouse Club'' and was accepted. She was featured in the 1993 to 1994 seasons during the ages of eleven and thirteen. Other performers on the show included [[Justin Timberlake]] and [[Joshua Chasez]] (both of whom later became members of the pop group [[*NSYNC]]), [[Keri Russell]] (star of the TV show ''[[Felicity]]''), fellow pop singer [[Christina Aguilera]], and actor [[Ryan Gosling]]. A few years later, Spears recorded a [[demo (music)|demo]], which landed in the hands of a [[Jive Records]] executive. She was signed to their label and began touring American venues for a series of [[concert]]s sponsored by American [[teen magazine]]s, before joining *NSYNC and becoming their opening act. ===1998&amp;ndash;2000: Early commercial success=== [[Image:BritneySpears-BabyOneMoreTime.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''[[...Baby One More Time]]'' (1999) remains Spears' best-selling album worldwide.]] Spears' debut [[single (music)|single]], &quot;[[...Baby One More Time (song)|...Baby One More Time]]&quot;, impacted radio stations and [[MTV]] in 1998. Led by a [[music video]] that featured the 5'4&quot; brown-eyed blonde in a racy schoolgirl outfit, the single became an international success, earning [[Platinum single|Platinum]] sales and going to number one in the U.S., as well as in countries such as [[Australia]], [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. Her [[debut album]] of the same name, ''[[...Baby One More Time]]'', topped the LP charts in the U.S. and Canada for six non-consecutive weeks. Within a year of its release, it had become the best-selling LP by a teenager in history, spawned another U.S. top ten hit (&quot;[[(You Drive Me) Crazy]]&quot;) and shipped over ten million copies in the U.S. alone; it would go on to ship another four million copies on top of this. Spears was featured on the cover of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine in April 1999. The sexually suggestive ''[[Lolita (1962 film)|Lolita]]''-themed photo shoot triggered widespread speculation (denied by her camp) that the still-seventeen-year-old had gotten [[breast implants]]. That summer, she kicked off her first headlining tour, the ''[[...Baby One More Time Tour]]''. By late 1999, Spears had become one of the year's biggest stars, a claim backed-up by the amount of award nominations she received that season. In December, she took home four [[Billboard Music Awards]] including one for Female Artist of the Year, and the next month one for Favorite Pop/Rock New Artist at the [[American Music Awards]]. At the [[Grammy Award]]s, held in February 2000, Spears received two nominations, including one for [[Grammy Award for Best New Artist|Best New Artist]]. Following the short-lived ''[[Crazy 2K Tour]]'', the lead single from Spears' second album, &quot;[[Oops!... I Did It Again (song)|Oops!... I Did It Again]]&quot;, was released. It broke a record for most radio station adds in a single day {{ref|ROTN}} and quickly became a U.S. top ten hit and number one single in other countries, including Australia and the U.K. Released in May 2000, the album ''[[Oops!... I Did It Again]]'' also debuted at number one in the U.S. and Canada, and was as commercially successful as her first album. It sold over 1.3 million units during its first week in the U.S., making it the fastest-selling album by a female artist in history. Within a year of release, it had shipped over nine million copies in the U.S. alone. It would go on to ship another million on top of that, and yielded two more top thirty hits: &quot;[[Lucky (song)|Lucky]]&quot; and &quot;[[Stronger]]&quot;. Spears kicked off her first world tour (titled the ''Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour'') in the summer of 2000, and co-wrote the novel ''[[Britney Spears's Heart-to-Heart|Britney Spears' Heart-to-Heart]]'' with her mother, Lynne. During a performance at the 2000 [[MTV Video Music Awards]], she ripped off a black suit to reveal a provocative nude-colored and crystal-adorned outfit that generated controversy due to her young age. In late 2000, she won two Billboard Music Awards, and in early 2001, she was nominated for two [[American Music Awards]]. At the Grammys, one of her two nominations was for ''Oops!... I Did It Again'' in the category of [[Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album|Best Pop Vocal Album]], but again she did not win. ===2001&amp;ndash;2003: Career development=== In early 2001, Spears struck a $7-8 million [[United States dollar|USD]] promotional deal with the soft drink giant [[Pepsi]] and released her second novel, ''[[A Mother's Gift]]''. She performed at the MTV Video Music Awards the following September, and in addition to criticism for being scantily clad, she angered animal rights organization [[PETA]] for the use of animals, including an albino [[python]], in her performance. [[Image:SlaveGrind.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Spears in the music video for &quot;[[I'm a Slave 4 U]]&quot; (2001)]] In November, she released her third album, ''[[Britney]]''. It debuted at number one on both the U.S. and Canadian charts, selling over 740,000 units during its first week in the U.S. This made her the only female artist in SoundScan history to have her first three albums debut at number one. Although over four million copies of the record have been sold in the U.S. alone,{{ref|AlbumsSales}} it was a decline from the sales of her first two albums, and &quot;[[I'm a Slave 4 U]]&quot; was the album's only hit single in the U.S. ''Britney'' was the first album on which Spears assumed some creative control; she co-wrote five of the album's tracks. Spears set off on her next world tour, the ''[[Dream Within a Dream Tour]]'', shortly after its release. In February 2002, Spears starred in a film, ''[[Crossroads (2002 film)|Crossroads]]'', which reached number two on the [[box-office]] charts in its first weekend, but quickly dropped out of the top 10. Songs from the album ''Britney'' appeared in the film.
institution| ]] [[de:Alumnus]] [[nl:Alumnus]] [[nb:Alumni]] [[sv:Alumn]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Angst</title> <id>921</id> <revision> <id>39192226</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T10:22:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ronline</username> <id>126381</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{emotion}} '''''Angst''''' is a [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[North Germanic language|North Germanic]] word for [[fear]] or [[anxiety]]. It is used in English to describe an intense feeling of internal emotional strife. A different but related meaning is attributed to [[Denmark|Danish]] philosopher [[Søren Kierkegaard]] ([[1813]]&amp;ndash;[[1855]]). Kierkegaard used the word ''angst'' (Danish, meaning &quot;dread&quot;) to describe a profound and deep-seated [[spirituality|spiritual]] condition of insecurity and [[despair]] in the free [[human being]]. Where the animal is a slave to its God-given instincts but always confident in its own actions, Kierkegaard believed that the freedom given to mankind leaves the human in a constant fear of failing its responsibilities to [[God]]. Kierkegaard's concept of angst is considered to be an important stepping stone for 20th-century [[existentialism]]. While Kierkegaard's feeling of angst is fear of actual responsibility to [[god (monotheism)|God]], in modern use, angst is broadened to include general frustration associated with the conflict between actual responsibilities to self, one's principles, and others (possibly including God). Still, the angst in alternative music may be more accessible to most audiences than the esoteric tradition of [[existentialism]]. The term &quot;angst&quot; is now widely used with a negative and derisive connotation that mocks the expression of a common adolescent experience of malaise. ==Angst in contemporary music== Angst, in contemporary connotative use, most often describes the intense frustration and other related emotions of [[teenager]]s and the mood of the music with which they identify. [[Punk rock]], [[grunge]], [[emo (music)|emo]], and virtually any [[Alternative Rock]] dramatically combining elements of discord, [[melancholy]] and excitement may be said to assert angst. There is an obvious connection to this music and the various subjugation of its proponent youth or racial or sociopolitical minority [[subculture]]. Angst was probably first discussed in relation to contemporary music in the mid to late 1980s and 1990s. In the 1980s &quot;teen angst&quot; was expressed in music to a certain extent in the rise of &quot;punk&quot;, but the word &quot;angst&quot; is currently more associated with, and was probably first used in reference to, the grunge movement and the band [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]. Nirvana themselves seem to have been aware of this, as evidenced by the first line of [[Serve the Servants]] in which [[Kurt Cobain]] describes the success of writing songs dealing with the subject (''Teenage angst has paid off well | Now I'm bored and old...''). ==See also== {{wiktionarypar|angst}} * [[List of English words of German origin|English words of German origin]] * [[Anxiety]] * [[Suffering]] * [[Anomie]] * [[Alienation]] * [[Ennui]] [[Category:Emotion]] [[Category:Existentialism]] [[Category:German loanwords]] [[fr:Angoisse]] [[io:Angoro]] [[it:Angoisse]] [[nl:Faalangst]] [[pl:Angoisse]] [[sv:Ångest]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anxiety</title> <id>922</id> <revision> <id>42093043</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:59:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Monkeyman</username> <id>79245</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ Removed spam.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anxiety''' refers to a complex combination of negative emotions that includes [[fear]], apprehension and worry, and is often accompanied by physical sensations such as [[Palpitation| palpitations]], chest pain and/or shortness of breath. Anxiety is often described as having [[cognitive]], [[somatic]], [[emotion]]al and [[behavior]]al components (Seligman, Walker &amp; Rosenhan, 2001). The cognitive component entails expectation of a diffuse and uncertain danger. Somatically the body prepares the organism to deal with threat (known as an emergency reaction); [[blood pressure]] and [[heart rate]] are increased, sweating is increased, bloodflow to the major muscle groups is increased, and [[immune system|immune]] and [[Digestion|digestive]] system functions are inhibited. Externally, somatic signs of anxiety may include pale skin, sweating, trembling and [[Mydriasis|pupillary dilation]]. Emotionally, anxiety causes a sense of dread or panic, nausea and chills. Behaviorally, both voluntary and involuntary behaviors may arise directed at escaping or avoiding the source of anxiety. These behaviors are frequent and often maladaptive, being most extreme in [[anxiety disorder]]s. However, anxiety is not always pathological or maladaptive: it is a common emotion along with fear, anger, sadness and happiness, and it has a very important function in relation to survival. Neural circuitry involving the [[amygdala]] and [[hippocampus]] is thought to underlie anxiety (Rosen &amp; Schulkin, 1998). When confronted with unpleasant and potentially harmful stimuli such as foul odors or tastes, [[Positron emission tomography|PET-scans]] show increased bloodflow in the amygdala (Zald &amp; Pardo, 1997; Zald, Hagen &amp; Pardo, 2002). In these studies, the participants also reported moderate anxiety. This might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism designed to prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors such as feeding on rotten food. A chronically recurring case of anxiety that has a serious effect on a person's life may be clinically diagnosed as an anxiety disorder. The most common are [[generalized anxiety disorder]], [[panic disorder]], [[social anxiety disorder]], [[phobia]]s, [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]], and [[posttraumatic stress disorder|posttraumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD). ==Diagnosis== A good assessment is essential for the initial diagnosis of an anxiety disorder, preferably using a standardised interview or questionnaire procedure alongside expert evaluation and the views of the person themselves. There should be a medical examination in order to identify possible medical conditions that can cause the symptoms of anxiety. A family history of anxiety disorders is suggestive of the possibility of an anxiety disorder. ==Diagnosis using a blood test== In 2005 a research team from the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] developed a method for potentially detecting raised anxiety by performing a simple blood test. This is only an early unreplicated study of a possible screening tool. [http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/101005_tech.htm] ==Generalized anxiety disorder== {{main|General anxiety disorder}} Generalized anxiety disorder is a common chronic disorder that affects twice as many women as men and can lead to considerable impairment (Brawman-Mintzer &amp; Lydiard, 1996, 1997). As the name implies, generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by long-lasting anxiety that is not focused on any particular object or situation. In other words it is unspecific or free-floating. People with this disorder feel afraid of something but are unable to articulate the specific fear. They fret constantly and have a hard time controlling their worries. Because of persistent muscle tension and autonomic fear reactions, they may develop headaches, heart palpitations, dizziness, and insomnia. These physical complaints, combined with the intense, long-term anxiety, make it difficult to cope with normal daily activities. ==Panic disorder== {{main|Panic disorder}} In panic disorder, a person suffers brief attacks of intense terror and apprehension that cause trembling and shaking, dizziness, and difficulty breathing. One who is often plagued by sudden bouts of intense anxiety might be said to be afflicted by this disorder. The American Psychiatric Association (2000) defines a panic attack as fear or discomfort that arises abruptly and peaks in 10 minutes or less. Although panic attacks sometimes seem to occur out of nowhere, they generally happen after frightening experiences, prolonged stress, or even exercise. Many people who have panic attacks (especially their first one) think they are having a heart attack and often end up at the doctor or ER. Even if the tests all come back normal the person will still worry, with the physical manifestations of anxiety only reinforcing their fear that something is wrong with their body. Extreme awareness of every little thing that happens or changes with their body can make for a stressful time. Normal changes in heartbeat, such as when climbing a flight of stairs will be noticed by a panic sufferer and lead them to think something is wrong with their heart or they are about to have another panic attack. Some begin to worry excessively and even quit jobs or refuse to leave home to avoid future attacks. Panic disorder can be diagnosed when several apparently spontaneous attacks lead to a persistent concern about future attacks. A common complication of panic disorder is [[agoraphobia]] -- anxiety about being in a place or situation where escape is difficult or embarrassing (Craske, 2000; Gorman, 2000). ==Phobia== {{main|Phobia}} This category involves a strong, irrational fear and avoidance of an object or situation. The person knows the fear is irrational, yet the anxiety remains. Phobic disorders differ from generalized anxiety disorders and panic disorders because there is a specific stimulus or situation that elicits a strong fear response. Imagine how it would feel to be so frightened by a spider that you would try to jump out of a
by Contest&quot; (17??) *''Les amours d'Arlequin et de Camille'', &quot;The Love of Harlequin And Camilla&quot; (1763) *''La jalousie d'Arlequin'', &quot;Harlequin's Jealousy&quot; (1763) *''Les inquiétudes de Camille'', &quot;Camilla's Worries&quot; (1763) *''Gli amori di Zelinda e Lindoro'', &quot;The Love of Zelinda and Lindoro&quot; (1764) *''La gelosia di Lindoro'', &quot;Lindoro's Jealousy&quot; (17??) *''L'inquietudini di Zelinda'', &quot;Zelinda's Worries&quot; (17??) *''Gli amanti timidi'' o sia ''L'imbroglio de' due ritratti'', &quot;The Shy Lovers&quot; or &quot;The Two Portraits' Mess&quot; (17??) *''Il ventaglio'', &quot;The Fan&quot; (1765) *''La burla retrocessa nel contraccambio'' (17??) *''Chi la fa l'aspetti'' o sia ''I chiassetti del carneval'' (17??) *''Il genio buono e il genio cattivo'', &quot;The Good Nature and the Bad Nature&quot;&lt;!--OR IS IT &quot;The Good Genie and the Bad Genie&quot;?--&gt; (17??) *''Il burbero di buon cuore'', &quot;The Tender-Hearted Grumpy Man&quot; (17??) *''Le bourru bienfaisant'' (1771) *''L'avare fastueux'' (1776) *''L'avaro fastoso'' (17??) ===Melodrama=== *''La contessina'', &quot;The Young Countess&quot;, music by Maccari (1743) *''L'Arcadia in Brenta'', &quot;The [[Acadia]] in [[Brenta]]&quot; music by Galuppi (1749) *''Il filosofo di campagna'', &quot;The Country Philosopher&quot;, music by Galuppi(1754) *''Il mercato di Malmantile'', &quot;The Malmantile Market&quot;, music by Fischietti (1757) *''La buona fugliuola'', &quot;The Good Daughter&quot;, music by Piccinni (1760) &lt;!-- Burlesque o Aristide o La fondazion di Venezia o Lucrezia romana in Costantinopoli o La contessina o La scuola moderna o sia La maestra di buon gusto o Bertoldo, Bertoldino e Cacasenno o L'Arcadia in Brenta o Il negligente o Il finto principe o Il mondo della Luna o Arcifanfano re dei matti o Il paese della cuccagna o Il mondo alla rovescia o sia Le donne che comandano o La mascherata o Le donne vendicate o Il conte Caramella o Le pescatrici o Le virtuose ridicole o I portentosi effetti della madre natura --&gt; &lt;!-- Dramas * La calamita de' cuori * I bagni d'Abano * De gustibus non est disputandum * Il filosofo di campagna * Lo speziale * Il povero superbo * Le nozze * La diavolessa * La cascina * La ritornata di Londra * La buona figliuola * Il festino * Il viaggiatore ridicolo * L'isola disabitata * Il mercato di Malmantile * La conversazione * Il signor dottore * Buovo d'Antona * Gli uccellatori * Il conte Chicchera * Filosofia ed amore? * La fiera di Senigaglia * Amor contadino * L'amore artigiano * Amore in caricatura --&gt; &lt;!-- Theatrical compositions Later Burlesque plays o La donna di governo o La buona figliuola maritata o La bella verità o Il re alla caccia o La finta semplice o La notte critica o La cameriera spiritosa o Le nozze in campagna o I volponi o Il talismano o Vittorina Melodramas o La generosità politica o Gustavo primo re di Svezia o Oronte re de' Sciti o Statira o Tigrane o Germondo --&gt; ===Cantatas and serenades=== *''La ninfa saggia'', &quot;The Wise Nymph&quot; (17??) *''Gli amanti felici'', &quot;The Happy Lovers&quot; (17??) *''Le quattro stagioni'', &quot;The Four Seasons&quot; (17??) *''Il coro delle muse'', &quot;The Choir of the Muses&quot; (17??) *''La pace consolata'', &quot;Peace Comforted&quot; (17??) *''L'amor della patria'', &quot;Love for the Country&quot; (17??) *''L'oracolo del Vaticano'', &quot;The Vatican's Oracle&quot; (17??) ===Oratorios=== *''Magdalena conversio'', &quot;The Conversion of [[Magdalene]]&quot; (17??) ===Religious plays=== *''L'unione del reale profeta Davide'', &quot;The Marriage of Royal Prophet [[David]]&quot; (17??) ===Performances=== *''La metempsicosi'' o sia ''La pitagorica trasmigrazione'', &quot;The [[Metempsychosis]]&quot; or &quot;The [[Pythagoras|Pythagorean]] [[Transmigration]]&quot; (17??) *''Il disinganno in corte'', &quot;The Disappointment at the Court&quot; (17??) ===Poetry=== *''Il colosso'', a satire against Parma girls which led to Goldoni being expelled from high school (1725) *''Il quaresimale in epilogo'' (1725-1726) &lt;!-- * Sonetti sacri * Esopo alla grata * L'insonio * La gondola * La conzateste * Il burchiello * Te Deum laudamus * Goldoni in villeggiatura * I riti e le cerimonie * La mascherata * La tavola rotonda * La costa di Adamo * Lo spirito Santo * La pubblica confessione * La visita delle sette chiese * La settimana santa * L'innesto * Il burchiello di Padova * L'ombra di Tito Livio * La Cabala * Le tre sorelle * Il mondo nuovo * Amor vendicato * Amor processato * L'anno felice * Babiole * Stravaganza * Il pellegrino * La piccola Venezia * La pace fra Melpomene e Talia * La galleria di Versailles --&gt; ===Intermezzos=== *''Il buon padre'', &quot;The Good Father&quot; (1729) *''La cantatrice'', &quot;The Singer&quot; (1729) *''Gli sdegni amorosi, ossia il Gondolier veneziano'', &quot;The Lover's Scorn, or the Venetian [[Gondoliere]]&quot; (1732) &lt;!-- * La pelarina * Il gondoliere veneziano o sia Gli sdegni amorosi * La pupilla * La birba * L'ipocondriaco * Il filosofo * Monsieur Petiton * La bottega del caffè * L'amante Cabala * Amor fa l'uomo cieco * Il quartiere fortunato * La favola de' tre gobbi * Il matrimonio discorde * La cantarina * La vendemmia --&gt; ===Books=== *''Nuovo teatro comico'', &quot;New Comic Theather&quot;, plays. Pitteri, Venice (1757) *''Mémoires'', &quot;Memoirs&quot;. Paris (1787) *Goldoni's collected works. Zalta, Venice (1788–1795) ===Translations=== *''La storia di Miss Jenny'', &quot;The Story of Miss Jenny&quot; of Riccoboni, into French&lt;!--GUESS--&gt; ==References== * ''The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization'' ed. Alfred Bates. New York: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. pp. 63-68. ==External links== * [http://www.vicenzanews.it/apt_pro/goldonicarlo/ Detailed biography], prepared for the 200th anniversary of his death (1993, in Italian) [[Category:1707 births|Goldoni, Carlo]] [[Category:1793 deaths|Goldoni, Carlo]] [[Category:Opera librettists|Goldoni, Carlo]] [[Category:Italian dramatists and playwrights|Goldoni, Carlo]] [[Category:Natives of Venice|Goldoni, Carlo]] [[bg:Карло Голдони]] [[cs:Carlo Goldoni]] [[cy:Carlo Goldoni]] [[de:Carlo Goldoni]] [[es:Carlo Goldoni]] [[eo:Carlo GOLDONI]] [[fr:Carlo Goldoni]] [[it:Carlo Goldoni]] [[he:קרלו גולדוני]] [[pl:Carlo Goldoni]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Conditional probability</title> <id>5791</id> <revision> <id>41889765</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:29:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>202.6.138.33</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Definition */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Marginal probability]] and [[joint probability]] redirect to this page.'' This article defines some terms which characterize [[probability distribution]]s of two or more [[variables]]. '''Conditional probability''' is the [[probability]] of some [[event (probability theory)|event]] ''A'', given the occurrence of some other event ''B''. Conditional probability is written ''P''(''A''|''B''), and is read &quot;the probability of ''A'', given ''B''&quot;. '''Joint probability''' is the probability of two events in conjunction. That is, it is the probability of both events together. The joint probability of ''A'' and ''B'' is written &lt;math&gt;P(A \cap B)&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;P(A, B).&lt;/math&gt; '''Marginal probability''' is the probability of one event, regardless of the other event. Marginal probability is obtained by [[summation|summing]] (or [[integrating]], more generally) the joint probability over the unrequired event. This is called '''marginalization'''. The marginal probability of ''A'' is written ''P''(''A''), and the marginal probability of ''B'' is written ''P''(''B''). In these definitions, note that there need not be a [[causal]] or [[temporal]] relation between ''A'' and ''B''. ''A'' may precede ''B'', or vice versa, or they may happen at the same time. ''A'' may [[cause]] ''B'', or vice versa, or they may have no causal relation at all. '''Conditioning''' of probabilities, i.e. updating them to take account of (possibly new) information, may be achieved through [[Bayes' theorem]]. ==Definition== If ''A'' and ''B'' are events, and ''P''(''B'') &gt; 0, then the conditional probability of ''A'', given ''B'' is :&lt;math&gt;P(A\mid B)=\frac{P(A \cap B)}{P(B)}.&lt;/math&gt; Equivalently, we have :&lt;math&gt;P(A \cap B)=P(A\mid B) P(B).&lt;/math&gt; ==Statistical independence== Two random [[event (probability theory) | events]] ''A'' and ''B'' are [[statistical independence|statistically independent]] if and only if :&lt;math&gt;P(A \cap B) \ = \ P(A) P(B).&lt;/math&gt; Thus, if ''A'' and ''B'' are independent, then their joint probability can be expressed as a simple product of their individual probabilities. Equivalently, for two independent events ''A'' and ''B'', :&lt;math&gt;P(A|B) \ = \ P(A)&lt;/math&gt; and :&lt;math&gt;P(B|A) \ = \ P(B).&lt;/math&gt; In other words, if ''A'' and ''B'' are independent, then the conditional probability of ''A'', given ''B'' is simply the individual probability of ''A'' alone; likewise, the probability of ''B'' given ''A'' is simply the probability of ''B'' al
''at birth:'' 1.03 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:'' 1.01 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:'' 0.91 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 0.81 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.) '''Infant mortality rate:''' 94.83 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) '''Life expectancy at birth:''' &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 53.56 years &lt;br&gt;''male:'' 51.53 years &lt;br&gt;''female:'' 55.65 years (2000 est.) '''Total fertility rate:''' 4.94 children born/woman (2000 est.) '''Nationality:''' &lt;br&gt;''noun:'' Equatorial Guinean(s) or Equatoguinean(s) &lt;br&gt;''adjective:'' Equatorial Guinean or Equatoguinean '''Ethnic groups:''' [[Bioko]] (primarily [[Bubi]], some [[Fernandinos]]), [[Rio Muni]] (primarily [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]]), Europeans less than 1,000, mostly Spanish '''Religions:''' nominally [[Christianity|Christian]] and predominantly [[Roman Catholic]], [[Paganism|pagan]] practices '''Languages:''' [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (official), [[French language|French]] (official), [[pidgin English]], [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]], [[Bubi]], [[Ibo]] '''Literacy:''' &lt;br&gt;''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 78.5% &lt;br&gt;''male:'' 89.6% &lt;br&gt;''female:'' 68.1% (1995 est.) :''See also :'' [[Equatorial Guinea]] {{Africa in topic|Demographics of}} [[Category:Demographics by country|Equatorial Guinea]] [[Category:Equatorial Guinea]] [[es:Demografía de Guinea Ecuatorial]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Equatorial Guinea</title> <id>9370</id> <revision> <id>41759909</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:22:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.173.243.32</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{election equatorial guinea}} The 1982 constitution of [[Equatorial Guinea]] gives the President extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and calling legislative elections. The President retains his role as commander in chief of the armed forces and minister of defense, and he maintains close supervision of the military activity. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the President. The Prime Minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security. The Chamber of Representatives is comprised of 15 members appointed by the President and 45 members chosen by indirect elections; the term is 5 years. Adult citizens elect officials by secret ballot in their towns and villages. These officials then become electors who choose the 45 representatives from their own number, one per district, to serve in the national legislature. In practice, the Chamber is not independent and is unable to act without presidential approval or direction. The President appoints the governors of the seven provinces. Each province is divided administratively into districts and municipalities. The internal administrative system falls under the Ministry of Territorial Administration; several other ministries are represented at the provincial and district levels. The judicial system follows similar administrative levels. At the top are the President and his judicial advisors (the Supreme Court). In descending rank are the appeals courts, chief judges for the divisions, and local magistrates. Tribal laws and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law. The current court system, which often uses customary law, is a combination of traditional, civil, and military justice, and it operates in an ad hoc manner for lack of established procedures and experienced judicial personnel. The other official branch of the government is the State Council. The State Council's main function is to serve as caretaker in case of death or physical incapacity of the President. It comprises the following ex officio members: the President of the Republic, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defense, the President of the National Assembly and the Chairman of the Social and Economic Council. In power since 1979, the Obiang government has made little progress in stimulating the economy. Extremely serious health and sanitary conditions persist, and the educational system remains in desperate condition. Although the abuses and atrocities that characterized the Macias years have been eliminated, effective rule of law does not exist. Religious freedom is tolerated. =='''Political conditions'''== In the period following Spain's grant of local autonomy to Equatorial Guinea in 1963, there was a great deal of political party activity. [[Bubi]] and [[Fernandino]] parties on the island preferred separation from [[Rio Muni]] or a loose federation. Ethnically based parties in Rio Muni favored independence for a united country comprising Bioko and Rio Muni, an approach that ultimately won out. (The [[Movement for the Self-Determination of Bioko Island]] (MAIB) which advocates independence for the island under Bubi control, is one of the offshoots of the era immediately preceding independence). After the accession of Macias to power, political activity largely ceased in Equatorial Guinea. Opposition figures who lived among the exile communities in Spain and elsewhere agitated for reforms; some of them had been employed in the Macias and Obiang governments. After political activities in Equatorial Guinea were legalized in the early 1990s, some opposition leaders returned to test the waters, but repressive actions have continued sporadically. With the prodding of the [[United Nations]], the [[United States]], [[Spain]], and other donor countries, the government undertook an electoral census in 1995. Freely contested municipal elections, the country's first, were held in September. Most observers agree that the elections themselves were relatively free and transparent and that the opposition parties garnered between two-thirds and three-quarters of the total vote. The government, however, delayed announcement of the results and then claimed a highly dubious 52% victory overall and the capture of 19 of 27 municipal councils. Ironically, Malabo's council went to the opposition. In early January 1996 Obiang called presidential elections to be held in 6 weeks. The campaign was marred by allegations of fraud, and most of the other candidates withdrew in the final week. Obiang claimed re-election with 98% of the vote. International observers agreed the election was not free or fair. In an attempt to ameliorate his critics, Obiang announced his new cabinet, giving minor portfolios to some people identified by the government as being opposition figures. Since independence, the two Presidents (Macias and his nephew Obiang) have been the dominant political forces. Since 1979, President Obiang has been constrained only by a need to maintain a consensus among his advisers and political supporters, most of whom are drawn from the Nguema family in Mongomo, in the eastern part of Rio Muni. The Nguema family is part of the Esangui subclan of the Fang. Alleged coup attempts in 1981 and 1983 raised little sympathy among the populace. President Obiang's rule, in which schools were permitted to reopen and primary education expanded, and public utilities and roads restored, compares favorably with Macias' tyranny and terror. It has been criticized for not implementing genuine democratic reforms. Corruption and a dysfunctional judicial system disrupt the development of Equatorial Guinea's economy and society. In March 2001 the President appointed a new Prime Minister, Candido Muatetema Rivas, and replaced several ministers perceived to be especially corrupt. However, the government budget still does not include all revenues and expenditures. The United Nations Development Programme has proposed a broad governance reform program, but the Equato Guinean Government was not moving rapidly to implement it. Although Equatorial Guinea lacks a well-established democratic tradition comparable to the developed democracies of the West, it has progressed toward developing a participatory political system out of the anarchic, chaotic, and repressive conditions of the Macias years. '''Country name:''' &lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:'' Republic of Equatorial Guinea &lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:'' Equatorial Guinea &lt;br&gt;''local long form:'' Republica de Guinea Ecuatorial &lt;br&gt;''local short form:'' Guinea Ecuatorial &lt;br&gt;''former:'' Spanish Guinea '''Data code:''' EK '''Government type:''' republic '''Capital:''' Malabo '''Administrative divisions:''' 7 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Annobon, Bioko Norte, Bioko Sur, Centro Sur, Kie-Ntem, Litoral, Wele-Nzas '''Independence:''' [[12 October]] [[1968]] (from Spain) '''National holiday:''' Independence Day, [[12 October]] (1968) '''Constitution:''' approved by national referendum [[17 November]] [[1991]]; amended January 1995 '''Legal system:''' partly based on Spanish civil law and tribal custom '''Suffrage:''' 18 years of age; universal adult '''Executive branch:''' &lt;br&gt;''chief of state:'' President Brig. Gen. (Ret.) [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]] (since [[3 August]] [[1979]] when he seized power in a military coup) &lt;br&gt;''head of government:'' Prime Minister Serafin Seriche DOUGAN (since NA April 1996); First Vice Prime Minister and Agriculture Minister Miguel OYONO NDONG (since NA January 1998); Second Vice Prime Minister for Internal Affairs Demetrio Elo NDONG NZE FUMU (since NA January 1998) &lt;br&gt;''cabinet:'' Council of Ministers appointed by the president &lt;br&gt;''elections:'' president elected by popular vote to a seven-year term; election last held [[25 February]] [[1996]] (next to be held NA February 2003); prime min
m [[1526]] but mostly under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turkish occupation for 150 years, was reconquered in [[1683]] - [[1699]]. The Spanish Habsburgs died out in [[1700]] (prompting the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]), as did the Austrian Habsburgs in [[1740]] (prompting the [[War of the Austrian Succession]]). However, the heiress of the last Austrian Habsburg ([[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]]) had married [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis Stephan]], [[Duke of Lorraine]], (both of them were great-grandchildren of Habsburg Emperor [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III]], but from different empresses) and their descendants carried on the Habsburg tradition from [[Vienna]] under the dynastic name Habsburg-Lorraine. (It is often speculated that extensive intra-family marriages within both lines contributed to their extinctions, but there were few such marriages in the Austrian line. Smallpox killing young heirs was a greater cause.) ===House of Habsburg-Lorraine: the Austrian Empire=== On [[August 6]] [[1806]] the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved under the French Emperor [[Napoleon I]]'s reorganisation of [[Germany]]. However, in anticipation of the loss of his title of Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II declared himself hereditary [[Emperor of Austria]] (as Francis I, thereof) on [[August 11]], [[1804]], three months after Napoleon had declared himself Emperor of France on [[May 18]], [[1804]]. Emperor [[Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire|Francis I]] of Austria used the official great title: &quot;We, Francis the First, by the grace of God Emperor of Austria; [[Kings of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]], [[Hungary]], [[Bohemia]], [[Dalmatia]], [[Croatia]], [[Slavonia]], [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], and [[Lodomeria]]; Archduke of [[Austria]]; Duke of [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]], [[Salzburg]], [[Würzburg]], [[Franconia]], [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]], and [[Carniola]]; Grand Duke of [[Kraków]]; Grand Prince of [[Transylvania]]; Margrave of [[Moravia]]; Duke of [[Sandomir]], [[Masovia]], [[Lublin]], Upper and Lower [[Silesia]], [[Oswiecim|Auschwitz]] and [[Zator]], [[Teschen]], and [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia|Friule]]; Prince of [[Berchtesgaden]] and [[Mergentheim]]; Princely Count of Habsburg, [[Gorizia]], and [[Gradisca]] and of the [[Tyrol]]; and Margrave of Upper and Lower [[Lusatia]] and [[Istria]]&quot;. In [[1867]] effective autonomy was given to Hungary under the terms of the ''[[Ausgleich]]'' or &quot;compromise&quot; (''see'' [[Austria-Hungary]]) until the Habsburgs' deposition from both Austria and Hungary in [[1918]] following defeat in [[World War I]]. The current head of the Habsburg family is [[Otto von Habsburg]], [[Karl of Austria|Emperor Karl's]] eldest son. ==Main Line== Before [[Rudolph I of Germany|Rudolph]] rose to [[Holy Roman Emperor|German king]], the Habsburgs were [[Count]]s in what is today south-western [[Germany]] and [[Switzerland]]. ===Ancestors=== * [[Guntram, Count of Habsburg|Guntram the Rich]] (ca. [[930]] - [[985]] / [[990]]) Father of: * [[Lanzelin, Count of Habsburg|Lanzelin]] of [[Altenburg]] (d. [[991]]). Besides Radbot, he had sons named [[Rudolph I, Count of Habsburg|Rudolph I]], Wernher, and Landolf. ===Counts of Habsburg=== * [[Radbot, Count of Habsburg|Radbot]] of [[Klettgau]], built the Habsburg (ca. [[985]] - [[1035]]). Besides Werner I, he had two other sons: [[Otto I, Count of Habsburg|Otto I]], who would become Count of [[Sundgau]] in the [[Alsace]], and [[Albert I, Count of Habsburg|Albrecht I]]. * [[Werner I, Count of Habsburg|Werner I]], Count of Habsburg ([[1025]] / [[1030]] - [[1096]]). Besides Otto II, there was another son, [[Albert II, Count of Habsburg|Albert II]], who was [[reeve]] of [[Muri]] from [[1111]] - [[1141]] after the death of Otto II. * [[Otto II, Count of Habsburg|Otto II]] of Habsburg; first to name himself as &quot;of Habsburg&quot; (d. 1111) Father of: * [[Werner II, Count of Habsburg|Werner II]] of Habsburg (around [[1135]]; d. [[1167]]) Father of: * [[Albert III, Count of Habsburg|Albrecht III]] of Habsburg (''the Rich''), d. 1199. Under him, the Habsburg territories expanded to cover most of what is today the [[German language|German-speaking]] part of [[Switzerland]]. Father of: * [[Rudolph II, Count of Habsburg|Rudolph II]] of Habsburg (d. [[1232]]) Father of: * [[Albert IV, Count of Habsburg|Albrecht IV]] of Habsburg, (d. [[1239]] / [[1240]]); father of Rudolph IV of Habsburg, who would later become king [[Rudolph I of Germany]]. Between [[Albert IV|Albrecht IV]] and his brother [[Rudolph III, Count of Habsburg|Rudolph III]], the Habsburg properties were split, with Albrecht keeping the [[Aargau]] and the western parts, the eastern parts going to Rudolph III. ===Kings of Germany=== *[[Rudolph I of Germany|Rudolph I]] was king of Germany (then an elective position, as its successive post, the Holy Roman Emperor, would be) from [[1273]] - [[1291]]. ===Dukes of Austria=== In the late [[middle ages]], when the Habsburgs expanded their territories in the east, they often ruled as dukes. &quot;Duke of Austria&quot; is a bit misleading, though: Austria at the time covered what is today [[Lower Austria]] and the eastern part of Upper Austria. The Habsburg possessions also included [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], and then expanded west to include [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and [[Carniola]] in [[1335]] and [[Tyrol]] in [[1363]]. Their original scattered possessions in the southern [[Alsace]], south-western Germany and [[Vorarlberg]] were collectively known as [[Vorderösterreich]]. The Habsburg dukes gradually lost their homelands south of the [[Rhine]] and [[Lake Constance]] to the expanding [[Old Swiss Confederacy]]. Unless mentioned explicitly, the dukes of Austria also ruled over [[Vorderösterreich]] until [[1379]], after that year, Vorderösterreich was ruled by the Princely Count of [[Tyrol]]. Names in ''italics'' designate dukes that never actually ruled. * ''[[Rudolph II of Austria|Rudolph II]]'', son of [[Rudolph I of Germany|Rudolph I]], duke of Austria and Styria together with his brother [[1282]] - [[1283]], was dispossessed by his brother, who eventually would be murdered by one of Rudolph's sons. * [[Albert I of Austria|Albert I]] (''Albrecht I''), son of [[Rudolph I of Germany|Rudolph I]] and brother of the above, duke from [[1282]] - [[1308]]; was [[Holy Roman Emperor]] from [[1298]] - [[1308]]. See also [[#House of Habsburg|below]]. * ''[[Rudolph III of Austria|Rudolph III]]'', oldest son of Albert I, designated duke of Austria and Styria [[1298]] - [[1307]] * [[Frederick I of Austria (Habsburg)|Frederick ''the Handsome'']] (''Friedrich der Schöne''), brother of Rudolph III. Duke of Austria and Styria (with his brother Leopold I) from [[1308]] - [[1330]]; officially co-regent of emperor [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Louis IV]] since [[1325]], but never ruled. * [[Leopold I of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold I]], brother of the above, duke of Austria and Styria from [[1308]] - [[1326]]. * [[Albert II of Austria|Albert II]] (''Albrecht II''), brother of the above, duke of Vorderösterreich from [[1326]] - [[1358]], duke of Austria and Styria [[1330]] - [[1358]], duke of Carinthia after [[1335]]. * [[Otto of Austria|Otto ''the Jolly'']] (''der Fröhliche''), brother of the above, duke of Austria and Styria [[1330]] - [[1339]] (together with his brother), duke of Carinthia after [[1335]]. * [[Rudolph IV of Austria|Rudolph IV ''the Founder'']] (''der Stifter''), oldest son of Albert II. Duke of Austria and Styria [[1358]] - [[1365]], Duke of [[Tyrol]] after [[1363]]. After the death of Rudolph IV, his brothers [[Albert III of Austria|Albert III]] and [[Leopold III of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold III]] ruled the Habsburg possessions together from [[1365]] until [[1379]], when they split the territories in the [[Treaty of Neuberg]], Albert keeping Austria proper and Leopold ruling over [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]], [[Carniola]], the [[Windish March]], [[Tyrol]], and [[Vorderösterreich]]. ===Albertine line: Dukes of Austria=== * [[Albert III of Austria|Albert III]] (''Albrecht III''), duke of Austria until [[1395]], from [[1386]] (after the death of Leopold) until [[1395]] also ruled over the latters possessions. * [[Albert IV of Austria|Albert IV]] (''Albrecht IV''), duke of Austria 1395 - [[1404]], in conflict with Leopold IV. * [[Albert V of Austria|Albert V]] (''Albrecht V''), duke of Austria [[1404]] - [[1439]], [[Holy Roman Emperor]] from [[1438]] - [[1439]] as [[Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert II]]. See also [[#House of Habsburg|below]]. * [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus Posthumus]], son of the above, duke of Austria [[1440]] - [[1457]]. ===Leopoldine line: Dukes of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol=== * [[Leopold III of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold III]], duke of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, and Vorderösterreich until 1386, when he was killed in the [[Battle of Sempach]]. * [[William of Austria|William]] (''Wilhelm''), son of the above, [[1386]] - [[1406]] duke in Innerösterreich (Carinthia, Styria) * [[Leopold IV of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold IV]], son of Leopold III, [[1391]] regent of Vorderösterreich, [[1395]] - [[1402]] duke of Tyrol, after [[1404]] also duke of Austria, [[1406]] - [[1411]] duke of [[Innerösterreich]] ====Leopoldine-Innerösterreich sub-line==== :* [[Ernest of Austria (Habsburg)|Ernest ''the Iron'']] (''der Eiserne''), [[1406]] - [[1424]] duke of Innerösterreich, until [[1411]] together and competing with his brother Leopold IV. :* [[Frederick V of Austria|Frederick V]] (''Friedrich''), son of Ernst, became [[Holy Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]] in [[1440]]. He was duke of Innerösterreich from [[1424]] on. Guardian of [[Sigismund of Austria|Sigismund]] [[1439]] - [[1446]] and of [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus Posthumus]] [[
a '''[[subset]]''' of ''B'' if every element of ''A'' is also an element of ''B''. Notice that in particular, ''B'' is a subset of itself; a subset of ''B'' that isn't equal to ''B'' is called a '''proper subset'''. If ''A'' is a subset of ''B'', then one can also say that ''B'' is a '''superset''' of ''A'', that ''A'' is '''contained in''' ''B'', or that ''B'' '''contains''' ''A''. In symbols, ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;sube;&amp;nbsp;''B'' means that ''A'' is a subset of ''B'', and ''B''&amp;nbsp;&amp;supe;&amp;nbsp;''A'' means that ''B'' is a superset of ''A''. Some authors use the symbols &quot;&amp;sub;&quot; and &quot;&amp;sup;&quot; for subsets, and others use these symbols only for ''proper'' subsets. In this encyclopedia, &quot;&amp;sube;&quot; and &quot;&amp;supe;&quot; are used for subsets while &quot;&amp;sub;&quot; and &quot;&amp;sup;&quot; are reserved for proper subsets. As an illustration, let ''A'' be the set of real numbers, let ''B'' be the set of integers, let ''C'' be the set of odd integers, and let ''D'' be the set of current or former [[President of the United States|U.S. Presidents]]. Then ''C'' is a subset of ''B'', ''B'' is a subset of ''A'', and ''C'' is a subset of ''A''. Note that not all sets are comparable in this way. For example, it is not the case either that ''A'' is a subset of ''D'' nor that ''D'' is a subset of ''A''. It follows immediately from the definition of equality of sets above, that given two sets ''A'' and ''B'', ''A'' = ''B'' [[iff]] ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;sube;&amp;nbsp;''B'' and ''B''&amp;nbsp;&amp;sube;&amp;nbsp;''A''. In fact this is often given as the definition of equality. The set of all subsets of a given set ''A'' is called the '''[[power set]]''' of ''A'' and is denoted by &lt;math&gt;2^A&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;P(A)&lt;/math&gt;. If the set ''A'' has n elements, then &lt;math&gt;P(A)&lt;/math&gt; will have &lt;math&gt;2^n&lt;/math&gt; elements. Note that the [[empty set]] is a subset of every set. == Universal sets and absolute complements == In certain contexts we may consider all sets under consideration as being subsets of some given [[universe (mathematics)|universal set]]. For instance, if we are investigating properties of the [[real number]]s '''R''' (and subsets of '''R'''), then we may take '''R''' as our universal set. It is important to realise that a universal set is only temporarily defined by the context; there is no such thing as a &quot;universal&quot; universal set, &quot;the set of everything&quot; (see '''[[#Paradoxes|Paradoxes]]''' below). Given a universal set '''U''' and a subset ''A'' of '''U''', we may define the '''[[complement (set theory)|complement]]''' of ''A'' (in '''U''') as :''A''&lt;sup&gt;C&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;:= {''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;'''U'''&amp;nbsp;: &amp;not;(''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A'')}, where &amp;not; is the logical [[Negation|not]] operator. In other words, ''A''&lt;sup&gt;C&lt;/sup&gt; (sometimes simply ''A''' ) is the set of all members of '''U''' which are not members of ''A''. Thus with ''A'', ''B'' and ''C'' defined as in the section on subsets, if ''B'' is the universal set, then ''C' ''is the set of even integers, while if ''A'' is the universal set, then ''C' ''is the set of all real numbers that are either even integers or not integers at all. The collection {''A''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;sube;&amp;nbsp;'''U'''} of all subsets of a given universe '''U''' is called the '''[[power set]]''' of '''U'''. (See [[axiom of power set]].) It is denoted ''P''('''U'''); the &quot;''P''&quot; is sometimes in a fancy font. == Unions, intersections, and relative complements == Given two sets ''A'' and ''B'', we may construct their '''[[union (set theory)|union]]'''. This is the set consisting of all objects which are elements of ''A'' or of ''B'' or of both (see [[axiom of union]]). It is denoted by ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cup;&amp;nbsp;''B''. The '''[[intersection (set theory)|intersection]]''' of ''A'' and ''B'' is the set of all objects which are both in ''A'' and in ''B''. It is denoted by ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cap;&amp;nbsp;''B''. Finally, the '''[[complement (set theory)|relative complement]]''' of ''B'' relative to ''A'', also known as the '''set theoretic difference''' of ''A'' and ''B'', is the set of all objects that belong to ''A'' but ''not'' to ''B''. It is written as ''A''&amp;nbsp;\&amp;nbsp;''B'' or ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''B''. Symbolically, these are respectively :''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cup;&amp;nbsp;B&amp;nbsp;:= {''x''&amp;nbsp;: (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A'')&amp;nbsp;[[logical disjunction|or]] (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''B'')}; :''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cap;&amp;nbsp;''B''&amp;nbsp;:= {''x''&amp;nbsp;: (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A'')&amp;nbsp;[[logical conjunction|and]] (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''B'')}&amp;nbsp;= {''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A''&amp;nbsp;: ''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''B''}&amp;nbsp;= {''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''B''&amp;nbsp;: ''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A''}; :''A''&amp;nbsp;\&amp;nbsp;''B''&amp;nbsp;:= {''x''&amp;nbsp;: (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A'')&amp;nbsp;and&amp;nbsp;[[negation|not]] (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''B'') }&amp;nbsp;= {''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A''&amp;nbsp;: not (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''B'')}. Notice that ''A'' doesn't have to be a subset of ''B'' for ''B''&amp;nbsp;\&amp;nbsp;''A'' to make sense; this is the difference between the relative complement and the absolute complement from the previous section. To illustrate these ideas, let ''A'' be the set of left-handed people, and let ''B'' be the set of people with blond hair. Then ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cap;&amp;nbsp;''B'' is the set of all left-handed blond-haired people, while ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cup;&amp;nbsp;''B'' is the set of all people who are left-handed or blond-haired or both. ''A''&amp;nbsp;\&amp;nbsp;''B'', on the other hand, is the set of all people that are left-handed but not blond-haired, while ''B''&amp;nbsp;\&amp;nbsp;''A'' is the set of all people that have blond hair but aren't left-handed. Now let ''E'' be the set of all human beings, and let ''F'' be the set of all living things over 1000 years old. What is ''E''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cap;&amp;nbsp;''F'' in this case? No human being is over 1000 years old, so ''E''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cap;&amp;nbsp;''F'' must be the [[empty set]] {}. For any set ''A'', the power set &lt;math&gt;P(A)&lt;/math&gt; is a [[Boolean algebra]] under the operations of union and intersection. ==Ordered pairs and Cartesian products == Intuitively, an '''[[ordered pair]]''' is simply a collection of two objects such that one can be distinguished as the ''first element'' and the other as the ''second element'', and having the fundamental property that, two ordered pairs are equal if and only if their ''first elements'' are equal and their ''second elements'' are equal. Formally, an ordered pair with '''first coordinate''' ''a'', and '''second coordinate''' ''b'', usually denoted by (''a'', ''b''), is defined as the set {{''a''},&amp;nbsp;{''a'', ''b''}}. It follows that, two ordered pairs (''a'',''b'') and (''c'',''d'') are equal if and only if ''a''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''c'' and ''b''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''d''. Alternatively, an ordered pair can be formally thought of as a set {a,b} with a [[total order]]. (The notation (a, b) is also used to denote an [[open interval]] on the [[real number line]], but the context should make it clear which meaning is intended.) If ''A'' and ''B'' are sets, then the '''[[Cartesian product]]''' (or simply '''product''') is defined to be: :''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times; ''B''&amp;nbsp;= {(''a'',''b'')&amp;nbsp;: ''a'' is in ''A'' and ''b'' is in ''B''}. That is, ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''B'' is the set of all ordered pairs whose first coordinate is an element of ''A'' and whose second coordinate is an element of ''B''. We can extend this definition to a set ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''B''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''C'' of ordered triples, and more generally to sets of ordered [[n-tuple]]s for any positive integer ''n''. It is even possible to define infinite [[Cartesian product]]s, but to do this we need a more recondite definition of the product. Cartesian products were first developed by [[René Descartes]] in the context of [[analytic geometry]]. If '''R''' denotes the set of all [[real number]]s, then '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;:=&amp;nbsp;'''R'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;'''R''' represents the [[Euclidean plane]] and '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;:=&amp;nbsp;'''R'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;'''R'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;'''R''' represents three-dimensional [[Euclidean space]]. ==Some important sets == &lt;small&gt;Note: In this section, ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' are [[natural number]]s, and r and s are [[real number]]s.&lt;/small&gt; # [[Natural number]]s are used for counting. A [[blackboard bold]] capital '''N''' (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{N}&lt;/math&gt;) often represents this set. # [[Integer]]s appear as solutions for ''x'' in equations like ''x'' + ''a'' = ''b''. A blackboard bold capital '''Z''' (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{Z}&lt;/math&gt;) often represents this set (for the German ''Zahlen'', meaning ''numbers'', because '''I''' is used for the set of imaginary numbers). # [[Rational number]]s appear as solutions to equations like ''a'' + ''bx'' = ''c''. A blackboard bold capital '''Q''' (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{Q}&lt;/math&gt;) often represents this set (for ''quotient'', because R is used for the set of real numbers). # [[Algebraic number]]s appear as solutions to [[polynomial]] equations (with integer coefficients) and may involve [[radical]]s and certain other [[irrational number]]s. A blackboard bold capital '''A''' (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{A}&lt;/math&gt;) or a '''Q''' with an overline often represen
ord for &quot;hell&quot; (Hölle) (for example Matthew 16,18), and twice as &quot;the dead&quot;, twice as the &quot;world of the dead&quot;, and once as &quot;his kingdom&quot; (all in German). &quot;[[Gehenna]]&quot; was translated by Martin Luther eight times as &quot;hell&quot; (for example: Matthew 5,22,29,30; 18,9; Mark 9,43,45; and so on) and four times as &quot;hellish&quot;. In [[Norse mythology]] the underworld was a cold, monotonous place, which was commanded by the goddess [[Hel (being)|Hel]]. The place was called [[Hel (realm)|Hel]], too. Newer translations of the Bible translate &quot;Hades&quot; or &quot;[[Sheol]]&quot; into the words &quot;world of dead&quot;, &quot;underworld&quot;, &quot;grave&quot;, &quot;crypt&quot; or similar, but still translate the word &quot;Gehenna&quot; into the word &quot;hell&quot;. The word &quot;Hades&quot; of the [[New Testament]] is the Greek translation of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word &quot;Sheol&quot; of the [[Old Testament]] (Ap. 2,27, Psalm 16,10). What happens in Hades, or rather Sheol, ''[[Ecclesiastes]]'' tells us: &quot;for in the Sheol, where you are going, there is neither working nor planning nor knowledge nor wisdom.&quot; (Ecclesiastes 9,10) and &quot;For the living know that they will die, but the dead know nothing; they have no further reward, and even the memory of them is forgotten. &quot; (''Ecclesiastes'' 9,5; see also Psalm 89,49; 139,8; Numbers 16,30). &quot;The Lord brings death and makes alive; he brings down to the [[Sheol]] and raises up. &quot; (1. Samuel 2,6). The souls of all human beings are going to Hades, whether they believe or not (Joh. 5,28-29; Job 3,11-19, 14,13; Ez 32,18-32; Ps. 31,17; Dan. 12,2). Geenna (or [[Gehenna]]) is the name of a real place. It comes from Hebrew and means &quot;Gorge of Hinnom (Ge-Hinnom)&quot;. This gorge can still be visited today near Jerusalem. In the time of the [[Old Testament]] it was a place where children were sacrificed to the Ammonite god [[Molech]] (2 Kings 23,10). That cultic practice was, according to the Old Testament, imitated by King Solomon in the 10th Century B.C.E. and under the leadership of king Manasseh in the 7th Century B.C.E. and in times of crisis until the time of exile of the Jews in Babylon (6th Century B.C.E.). The prophet Jeremiah, who condemned that cult strictly, called the valley the &quot;gorge of killing&quot; (Jeremiah 7,31-32; 19,5-9). [[Gehenna]] became later a central garbage dump, to stop the practice of child sacrifice. At the turn of the 1st Century C.E. the gorge was used also to burn the dead bodies of criminals after their execution. The imagination of burning dead bodies probably inspired Jewish, and later Christian theologians to translate that place into the word &quot;hell&quot;. The sea of fire after the last tribunal in ''Revelation'' 20,14 isn't translated into the word &quot;hell&quot;, but sometimes gets the connotations of &quot;hell&quot;. In that sea of fire are thrown the beast, the devil, the false prophet, and Hell (Hades) itself, along with evil-doers, according to Revelation 20,12-15. &quot;And the devil, who deceived them, was thrown into the lake of burning sulfur, where the beast and the false prophet had been thrown. They will be tormented day and night for aeons of aeons.&quot; (Revelation 20,10) Many people mistakenly assume &quot;Ages of Ages&quot; to mean forever, but Aeon is definitely a fixed length. See [http://www.kingdomlife.com/kingdom/timeand1.htm] The Old Testament makes a somewhat contradictory statement; in ''Lamentations'' 3:31-32 (NIV), we read: :31 For men '''are not''' cast off, by the Lord '''forever'''. :32 Though he brings grief, he will show compassion, so great is his unfailing love. ====Protestant==== [[Image:Hieronymus Bosch - The Garden of Earthly Delights - Hell.jpg|thumb|270px|right|Hell as depicted in the [[triptych]] [[The Garden of Earthly Delights]].]] In Protestant [[Christianity]], Hell is a place designed for God's punishment of the [[Devil]], [[Lucifer]], [[Beelzebub]], or [[Satan]]. It is a place of everlasting fire. ====Roman Catholic==== The present [[Roman Catholic]] view of Hell is stated in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'': &quot;To die in mortal sin without repenting and accepting God's merciful love means remaining separated from Him for ever by [one's] own free choice. This state of definitive self-exclusion from communion with God and the blessed is called 'Hell'.&quot;(1033) Thus, [[Pope John Paul II]] said (see link below), &quot;The images of hell that Sacred Scripture presents to us must be correctly interpreted. They show the complete frustration and emptiness of life without God. Rather than a place, Hell indicates the state of those who freely and definitively separate themselves from God, the source of all life and joy.&quot; The Catholic version of Hell was graphically described by [[Lucia Santos]], one of the three seers of the approved apparations of [[Our Lady of Fatima|Mary, the Mother of God]], at [[Fátima]], [[Portugal]] in [[1917]], as follows, &quot;Our Lady showed us a great sea of fire which seemed to be under the earth. Plunged in this fire were demons and souls in human form, like transparent burning embers, all blackened or burnished bronze, floating about in the conflagration, now raised into the air by the flames that issued from within themselves together with great clouds of smoke, now falling back on every side like sparks in a huge fire, without weight or equilibrium, and amid shrieks and groans of pain and despair, which horrified us and made us tremble with fear. The demons could be distinguished by their terrifying and repulsive likeness to frightful and unknown animals, all black and transparent.&quot; ====Eastern Orthodoxy==== For many ancient Christians, Hell was the same &quot;place&quot; as Heaven: living in the presence of God and directly experiencing God's love. Whether this was experienced as pleasure or torment depended on one's disposition towards God. [[Isaac of Nineveh|St. Isaac of Syria]] wrote in ''Mystic Treatises'': &quot;''... those who find themselves in Hell will be chastised by the scourge of love. How cruel and bitter this torment of love will be! For those who understand that they have sinned against love, undergo greater suffering than those produced by the most fearful tortures. The sorrow which takes hold of the heart, which has sinned against love, is more piercing than any other pain. It is not right to say that the sinners in Hell are deprived of the love of God ... But love acts in two ways, as suffering of the reproved, and as joy in the blessed!''&quot; This ancient view is still the doctrine of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Church. ====Other Christian denominations==== Most Christian groups teach that Hell is eternal. Some, however, believe that Hell is only temporary, and that souls in Hell cease to exist after serving their time there, and others believe there is no conscious Hell at all but the word refers to the decay of Earthly remains in the ground. Both these beliefs are called [[annihilationism]]. Others believe that after serving their time in Hell all souls are reconciled to [[God]] and admitted to heaven, or ways are found at the time of death of drawing all souls to repentance so that Hell is never experienced. Both these beliefs are called [[universalism]]. [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Latter-day Saints]] believe in a concept of temporary hell, commonly called [[Spirit Prison]], for the disembodied spirits of the wicked awaiting resurrection. They also believe in a concept of permanent hell, commonly called [[Outer Darkness]], a place of eternal emptiness after the resurrection for [[Son of Perdition|Sons of Perdition]], those who are irredeemably evil to their core. While not fully [[universalism|universalist]], they do not believe in a permanent state of hell for any soul who is at all susceptible to the light of God. A parallel may be seen here: Even as Hades has Tartarus and the [[Elysium|Elysian Fields]], so does the lot of the spirits of the dead comprise both Paradise (&quot;. . . today shalt thou be with me in Paradise . . . &quot;) and Prison (e.g., the abode of the wicked who rejected Noah's preaching referred to in 1 Peter). Latter-day Saints might also believe that as the lake of fire and brimstone in the Revelation of John depicts destruction, and as both death and hell are to be cast into it, that therefore both death and hell must have a permanent end, meaning that outer darkness (Perdition) and Hell are distinct states. [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] believe the Bible presents &quot;hell&quot;, as translated from &quot;Sheol&quot; and &quot;Hades&quot;, to be mankind's common grave for both the good and the bad, whereas &quot;Gehenna&quot; signifies eternal destruction [http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2002/7/15/article_02.htm]. ====Popular culture==== Hell is often depicted as a place underground, with fire and molten rock where the devil lives. The devil is popularly depicted as a being or creature who carries a pitchfork (which in turn is actually a trident), has flaming red skin, horns on his head, and a long thin tail with a triangle shaped barb on it. This description of the Devil is popular, to the point of being a cliche' and nearly comical to most, but is not supported by scripture. ===Islam=== The [[Muslim]] belief in ''[[Jahannam|jahannam]]'' (in [[Arabic Language|Arabic]]: جهنم) (similar to Hebrew ''ge-hinnom'' and resembles that of other [[Abrahamic faith|Abrahamic]] religions). In the [[Qur'an]], the holy book of [[Islam]], there are literal descriptions of the condemned in a fiery Hell, as contrasted to the garden-like Paradise enjoyed by righteous believers. The meaning of ''jahannam'' is to do with hotness (whereas in Hebrew Gehenna is said to mean a narrow deep valley). The word for paradise is &quot;janna
tal symbols, but a Class D amplifier merely converts an input waveform into a continuously [[pulse width modulation|pulse-width modulated]] analog signal. ===Class E=== The class E amplifier is a highly efficient switching power amplifier, typically used at radio frequencies. Its efficiency depends on the fact that perfect switching operation does not dissipate power. An ideal switch has zero impedance when closed and infinite impedance when open, implying that there is zero voltage across the switch when it carries current (on state) and zero current through it when there is a voltage across (off state). Consequently the product of voltage and current (power loss) is zero at any time. The figure below shows a schematic of a class-E amplifier that uses this principle to achieve high efficiency. &lt;center&gt;[[image:Class-e.jpg]]&lt;/center&gt; The switch is periodically opened and closed at the frequency of operation. Usually, but not always, the switching duty ratio is 50%. The RF choke has comparatively large inductance so that in effect it functions as a constant current source. Other passive device values are chosen such that the following conditions are satisfied simultaneously. (1) The voltage across the switch at the instant of closing is zero. (2) The time derivative of voltage across the switch at is zero when the switch turns on. Moreover, Ls and Cs forms a resonating filter at the frequency of operation. In practical implementations a transistor is substituted for a switch, but is operated either in saturation (on) or in cut-off (off). The theoretical efficiency of a class-E amplifier is 100% with ideal components. However, practical circuits do exhibit a number of weaknesses that makes them less than 100% efficient. These effects include finite switching speed, finite on-resistance and non-zero saturation voltage of the transistor as well as lossy passive components at high frequencies. Typical efficiency is about 60% at an operating frequency of 1-2 GHz. This amplifier class is specially designed for the amplification of square waves, such as those used to transmit data in purely digital form. “Square” waves or pulses have special needs due to their frequency characteristics, since they require the faithful reproduction of the very high frequencies present in their leading and trailing edges, without adding artifacts such as ringing or overshoot during the amplification process. Consideration must be made as well for the lower frequency components introduced by the switching levels, such as the impedance of the output load, which is often in the form of a transmission line. The class E amplifier was invented in 1972 by Nathan O. Sokal and [[Alan Sokal|Alan D. Sokal]], and details were first published in 1975 [1]. Some earlier reports on this operating class have been published in Russian. ===Class F=== Class F amplifiers are used in radio frequency communications such as cell phones or data links. They have provisions designed into them that accommodate for the modulation (or decoding) of the output by both amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). This gives the designer multiple multiplex paths, whereby different information channels can be encoded into the signal, not just the AM or the FM, but also secondary paths such as side bands, pilot signals, or data streams. This also allows for redundancy to be designed into the signal, to ensure the prevention of error, or loss of data. This type of amplifier often uses Pulse Frequency Modulation (PFM) techniques to provide this complex modulation. ===Class G=== Class G amplifiers are a more efficient version of class AB amplifiers, which use &quot;rail switching&quot; to decrease power consumption and increase efficiency. The amplifier has several power rails at different voltages, and switches between rails as the signal output approaches each. Thus the amp increases efficiency by reducing the &quot;wasted&quot; power at the output transistors. ===Class H=== Class H amplifiers are similar to Class G, except that the power supply voltage &quot;tracks&quot;, or is modulated by, the signal. The power supply is always kept slightly higher than the actual power required. Often it has two power supplies, like the class G, and only the higher is modulated. The modulated power supply is generated by a circuit similar to a class D amp. ==Reference== [1] N. O. Sokal and A. D. Sokal, &quot;Class E&amp;mdash;A New Class of High-Efficiency Tuned Single-Ended Switching Power Amplifiers&quot;, ''IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits'', vol. SC-10, pp. 168-176, June 1975. HVK ==See also== *[[Electronics]] (the section about electronic stages) *[[Low noise amplifier]] *[[operational amplifier]] *[[instrumentation amplifier]] ==External links== *[http://www.rane.com/par-a.html#amplifier_classes Rane audio's guide to amplifier classes] *[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-thd Conversion: distortion factor to distortion attenuation and THD] *[http://www.crownaudio.com/pdf/amps/grbgpapr.pdf An alternate topology called the grounded bridge amplifier (PDF)] *[http://www.qscaudio.com/support/library/papers/amptalk.pdf Contains an explanation of different amplifier classes (PDF)] *[http://www.screensound.gov.au/glossary.nsf/Pages/Amplifier?OpenDocument Amplifier classes] *[http://www.crownaudio.com/pdf/amps/bcapaper.pdf Reinventing the power amplifier (PDF)] *[http://www.caraudiomag.com/specialfeatures/0111cae_anatomy/ Anatomy of the power amplifier, including information about classes] [[Category:Electronic amplifiers]] [[ca:Amplificador]] [[da:Elektronisk forstærker]] [[de:Verstärker (Technik)]] [[es:Amplificador]] [[fr:Amplificateur]] [[it:Amplificatore]] [[nl:Versterker (elektronica)]] [[ja:増幅回路]] [[pl:Wzmacniacz elektryczny]] [[sv:Förstärkare]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Escort aircraft carrier</title> <id>9932</id> <revision> <id>35754541</id> <timestamp>2006-01-19T01:11:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Philip Baird Shearer</username> <id>26801</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Relative World War II carrier sizes */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''escort aircraft carrier''' or '''escort carrier''', was a small [[aircraft carrier]] developed by the [[Royal Navy]] in the early part of [[World War II]] to deal with the [[U-boat]] crisis of the [[Battle of the Atlantic (1940)|Battle of the Atlantic]]. ==World War II== The first escort carrier was [[HMS Audacity (D10)|HMS ''Audacity'']] which was converted from a captured German merchant ship the ''MV Hannover'' and commissioned in July 1941. She was followed by [[HMS Activity|''Activity'']], ''Pretoria Castle'', etc. Subsequently, ''Audacity'' became the model for later U.S. built escort carriers, the first example of which was the [[USS Long Island (CVE-1)|USS ''Long Island'']] (AVG-1). In US service, they were initially referred to as '''auxiliary aircraft escort vessels''' and then '''auxiliary aircraft carrier''' before the Navy settled on escort aircraft carrier. They were informally known as '''Jeep carriers''' and '''baby flat tops'''. Escort carriers were given the US Navy [[hull classification symbol]] '''CVE''' &amp;mdash; this was sarcastically said by their crews to stand for '''Combustible, Vulnerable, and Expendable'''. Escort carriers were typically around 500 ft (150 m) long, not much more than half the length of the almost 900 ft (300 m) fleet carriers of the same era, but actually less than one-third of the size: a typical escort carrier displaced about 8,000 tons, as compared to almost 30,000 tons for a full-size fleet carrier. They had a single [[hydraulic catapult]] instead of the 2 present on medium and large carriers, but the system of tail hook and arresting cable was the same. The aircraft [[hangar]] ran only a third of the way under the flight deck and there was only one aircraft elevator. Procedures for launch and recovery were the same as on the big carriers. The islands of these ships were small and cramped, located well forward of the funnels (unlike on a normal-sized carrier where the funnels were integrated into the island). The crew size was less than a third of that of a large carrier, but this was still a bigger complement than most naval vessels. It was large enough to justify the existence of facilities such as a permanent canteen or snack bar, called a [[gedunk bar]], in addition to the mess. The bar was open at longer hours than the mess and sold several flavors of [[ice cream]], along with cigarettes and other consumables. There were also several [[vending machine]]s, which made a &quot;gedunk&quot; sound when operated. They were developed at the behest of the [[United Kingdom]] to operate as part of a [[North Atlantic]] [[convoy]] escort rather than as part of a naval strike force. Many of the escort carriers produced were assigned to the [[Royal Navy]] for the duration of the war under the [[Lend-lease]] act. They supplemented and then replaced the converted [[merchant aircraft carrier]]s which were put into service by the British and Dutch as an emergency measure until the escort carriers became available. They were used by the Royal Navy, to hunt submarines, for the interception of long range enemy aircraft, for patrols and scouting, and to ferry aircraft. The ships sent to the Royal Navy were slightly modified, partly to suit the traditions of that service. Among other things the ice cream making machines were removed, since they were considered unnecessary luxuries on ships which served [[grog]] and other [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]]. The heavy duty [[washing machine]]s of the laundry room were also removed since &quot;all a British sailor needs to keep clean is a [[bucket]] and a bar of [[soap]]&quot; (quoted from Warrilow). Other modifications were due to the need for an enclosed hangar whe
t the life of [[King Arthur]].]] ''This is an article on biographies. For information on policies concerning biographical articles on [[Wikipedia]], please see [[Wikipedia:Biography]]. For the television series, see [[Biography (television program)]].'' '''Biography''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''bios'' meaning life, and ''graphein'' meaning write) is a genre of [[literature]] and other forms of media like [[film]], based on the written accounts of individual lives. While a biography may focus on a subject of [[fiction]] or [[non-fiction]], the term is usually in reference to non-fiction. As opposed to a [[profile]] or [[curriculum vitae]], a biography develops complex insight and highlights different textures of personality including intimate details of experiences. A biography is more than a list of impertinent facts like birth, education, work, relationships and death. It also delves into the emotions of experiencing such events. ==Early forms== The first known biographies were written by [[scribes]] commissioned by the various rulers of antiquity: ancient [[Assyria]], ancient [[Babylonia]], ancient [[Egypt]], ancient [[Mesopotamia]], among others. Such biographies tended to be chiseled into [[Rock (geology)|stone]] or [[clay]] tablets, a method called [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]]. The [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Hebrew Bible|holy scripture]] is an [[anthology]] of some of the earliest biographies in existence, detailing the lives of [[chief]]s, [[Monarch|kings]], [[tribes]], [[patriarchs]] and [[Prophet|prophets]]. ==Classical forms== Ancient Greece developed biographies that tended not to be objective. Rather, these biographies were defenses of controversial people of the era they were living. The best known of the classical biographies include ''Memorabilia'' by [[Xenophon]], ''Parallel Lives'' by [[Plutarch]] and ''Lives of Caesars'' by [[Suetonius]]. During the reign of the [[Roman Empire]], the [[Gospels]] attributed to [[Gospel of John|John]], [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] and [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] in the [[New Testament]] of the [[Bible]] were biographies about [[Jesus]]. ==Middle Ages== The Early [[Middle Ages]] (AD 400 to 1450) saw a decline in awareness of classical culture. During this time, the only repositories of knowledge and records of early history was the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. [[Hermit]]s, [[monk]]s and [[priest]]s used this historic period to write the first modern biographies. Their subjects were usually restricted to [[church father]]s, [[martyr]]s, [[papacy|popes]] and [[saint]]s. Their works were meant to be inspirational to people, vehicles for [[conversion]] to [[Christianity]]. See [[hagiography]]. One significant example of biography from this period which does not exactly fit into that mold is the life of [[Charlemagne]] as written by his courtier [[Einhard]]. By the late Middle Ages, biographies became less church-oriented as biographies of [[monarch|king]]s, [[knight]]s and [[tyrant]]s began to appear. The most famous of these such biographies was ''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]'' by [[Sir Thomas Malory]]. The book was an account of the life of the fabled [[King Arthur]] and his [[Knights of the Round Table]]. Following Malory, the new emphasis on [[humanism]] during the [[Renaissance]] promoted a focus on secular subjects such as [[artist]]s and [[poet]]s, and encouraged writing in the vernacular. Two other developments are noteworthy: the development of the [[printing press]] in the fifteenth century and the gradual increase in [[literacy]]. NEED BIO ON FEDE GALIZIA ==Multi-media forms== With the technological advancements created in the late 20th and early [[21st century|21st centuries]], multi-media forms of biography became much more popular than literary forms. Visual and film images were able to elaborate new dimensions of personality that written forms could not. The popularity of these forms of biography culminated in the creation of such [[cable]] and [[satellite]] [[television network]]s as: [[A&amp;E Network|A&amp;E]], [[Biography Channel|The Biography Channel]], [[History Channel|The History Channel]] and History International. ==Book Awards== Annually, several countries offer their writers a specific prize for writing a biography such as the: *[[Drainie-Taylor Biography Prize]] &amp;ndash; Canada *[[Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography]] &amp;ndash; United States *[[Whitbread Prize for Best Biography]] &amp;ndash; United Kingdom ==See also== * [[List of biographers]] * [[Lists of people]] * [[List of political career biographies]] * [[Autobiography]] * [[Family history]] * [[People]] * [[Historical document]] * [[Dictionary of National Biography]] (DNB, notable figures from [[United Kingdom|British]] history) * [[NNDB]] (Notable Names Database) ==External links== * [http://biography-directory.com/ Biography directory] * [http://www.awardannals.com/genre/biography/ Most Honored Biography] at the [http://www.awardannals.com/ Book Award Annals] *[http://biographies-memoirs.investitor.net/index.htm Biographies and Memoirs] * [http://www.writersservices.com/mag/05/Writing_biog_autobiog_1.htm Writing Biography &amp; Autobiography] * [http://www.celebsbiography.com Biography of Celebrity] [[Category:Literary genres]] [[Category:Biographies| ]] [[an:Biografía]] [[ast:Biografía]] [[ca:Biografia]] [[da:Biografi]] [[de:Biografie]] [[es:Biografía]] [[eu:Biografia]] [[fr:Biographie]] [[gl:Biografía]] [[ko:전기 (문학)]] [[hr:Biografija]] [[io:Biografio]] [[id:Biografi]] [[it:Biografia]] [[he:ביוגרפיה]] [[ka:ბიოგრაფია]] [[la:Biographia]] [[hu:Életrajz]] [[ms:Biografi]] [[nl:Biografie]] [[ja:伝記]] [[no:Biografi]] [[pl:Biografia]] [[sa:जीवनी]] [[sco:Biographies]] [[simple:Biography]] [[sl:Biografija]] [[sr:Биографија]] [[sv:Biografi]] [[th:ชีวประวัติ]] [[tr:Biyografi]] [[zh:傳記]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Breakdancing</title> <id>3726</id> <revision> <id>41826025</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:12:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Arru</username> <id>175387</id> </contributor> <comment>links + musical tempo + gender inclusive language</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Breakdancing''', also known as '''breaking''' and '''b-boying''' by its practitioners and followers, is a [[street dance]] style that evolved as part of the [[hip hop culture|hip hop]] movement in the South [[Bronx]] of [[New York City]] during the early [[1970s]]. Breakdancing is one of the four original elements (or 'pillars') of hip hop, the others being [[Rapping]], [[Disc Jockey|DJing]], and [[Graffiti]]. ==Etymology== Breakdancing was never a term used by its original practitioners, who preferred to refer to themselves as '[[B-boy]]s' and '[[B-girl]]s'. The term was popularized in the '80s when it became more of a [[media]] phenomenon. David Toop describes breakdancing as being an adaptation of the Break, a dance popular before being replaced by the Freak (popularized by [[Chic]]'s &quot;Le Freak&quot; in [[1978]]), but then revived by artists such as the Nigga Twins, Spy, and the Zulu Kings. He also explains that it may have originated from a literal break in the song: &quot;the word ''break'' or ''breaking'' is a [[music]] and [[dance]] term (as well as a [[proverb]]) that goes back a long way. Some tunes, like 'Buck Dancer's Lament' from the early [[20th century]], featured a two-bar [[silence]] every eight bars for the break - a quick showcase of improvised dance steps.&quot; However, in the documentary &quot;The Freshest Kids&quot; hip hop pioneer [[DJ Kool Herc]] insists that the name breaking originated in the slang term &quot;break&quot;, meaning someone going &quot;off&quot; or crazy, just as the dancers seemed to do when driven by the right beat. Some jokingly claim that the term is derived from the [[Fracture (bone)|'breaking' of bones]], due to several of the more advanced, high-risk movements. ==Dance== In its early form, breakdancing was divided into three distinct forms: Breaking, dancing, and [[popping (dance)|popping]]. Breakdance is commonly associated with, but distinct from, popping which is one element of the [[funk styles]] that evolved independently in California during the [[1970s]], however elements of popping or poppin itself may have existed as a style or subculture of dance as early as the 1920's when it, or the general sub culture of dance associated with Afro-Americans was known as [[Boogaloo]]. Evidence of this is found in the form of statements made by certain &quot;founding&quot; poppers or originators of the modern styles, regarding witnessing or having knowledge of senior citizens and elders whom could either pop or [[boogie]], or taught them about some aspect of the art. Other styles of dance associated with the funk styles include [[locking (dance)|locking]], [[tutting]], [[krumping]], [[boogaloo]] and [[liquid dancing]]. These styles are sometimes more &quot;contortionistic&quot; than &quot;athletic,&quot; although they are often incorporated by breakdancers who wish to widen their expressive range. ===Breakdance moves=== {{details|List of breakdance moves}} All of the above styles factor heavily into the breaker's movements while standing, called '''toprock'''. Toprock is the name given to any part of a breakdancing routine that is performed principally from a standing position. Toprock moves depend upon [[coordination]], flexibility, and style. They are less physically demanding than most downrock moves, but perfecting them is a never-ending process. Toprock often begins the routine, and while it serves as a good warm-up for the more athletic moves that may follow, it is first and foremost a display of style. It is unorthodox-looking in general, and breakdancers take pride in inventing ever-more unique toprock. ''(Note: [[Uprock]] is sometimes used inappropriately as a [[synonym]] of toprock)'' As
and political life in the [[Soviet Union]]. That trip was described by a scandalous publication in the Italian newspaper La Repubblica. The article reported that Yeltsin often appeared drunk in public. The article was reprinted by [[Pravda]]. *According to U.S. [[Deputy Secretary of State]] [[Strobe Talbott]], [[President Bill Clinton]] was exposed to Yeltsin's [[alcoholism]] in their first phone call when Yeltsin called to congratulate him on Inauguration Day in 1993. Yeltsin was drunk. He was drunk again during the first summit meeting they had with Clinton in [[Vancouver]]. Talbott recalls that Yeltsin was so drunk when he arrived in the airport in September 1994 that he could barely get off the plane. The same night Yeltsin was staggering around in his underpants shouting for pizza. According to Talbott, that was a huge problem, and they did their best not to add to the public embarrassment. Phone calls to Yeltsin had to be timed to increase the probability to get him sober. During the Kosovo bombing, Yeltsin, who was obviously drunk, suggested that he and Clinton meet on a submarine. *The portrayal of Yeltsin as a drunk in TV show Kukly by [[Victor Shenderovich]] has led to a criminal investigation, which was later dropped. *Gwynne Dyer, a London-based independent journalist, commented in The Moscow Times on April 13, 1999: :'' &quot;I have seen President Boris Yeltsin drunk and I'm pretty sure I have seen him sober, but unless he does something obvious like singing or falling over, it takes a while to decide: Both his body language and his speech patterns tend to blur the issue.&quot; '' == Life after resignation == Yeltsin's personal and health problems received a lot of attention in the global press. As the years went on, he was seen as an increasingly unstable leader, and not the inspiring figure he once was. The possibility that he might die in office was often discussed. Yeltsin has remained very low-key since his resignation, making almost no public statements or appearances. However, on [[September 13]], [[2004]], following the [[Beslan school hostage crisis]], and nearly-concurrent terrorist attacks in Moscow, Putin launched an initiative to replace the election of regional governors with a system whereby they would be directly appointed by the President and approved by regional legislatures. Yeltsin, together with Mikhail Gorbachev, publicly criticized Putin's plan as a step away from democracy in Russia and a return to the centrally run political apparatus of the Soviet era. In September 2005, Yeltsin underwent a hip operation in Moscow after breaking his femur in a fall while vacationing on the Italian island of [[Sardinia]]. Yeltsin and the members of his family that were involved in his administration enjoy a comfortable, wealthy life. According to [http://www.compromat.ru/main/eltsyn/a.htm &quot;Yeltsin and His Family&quot; (''Compromising Material'' website, in Russian)], the wealth that they gained through participation in government structures by far exceeds the amount that they could possibly earn as the salary. For example, in 1996 they owned two high-speed river yachts with a price tag of 450,000 dollars, which were manufactured for them by a Swiss company. They also allegedly own an 11-million dollar villa in France and expensive facilities for horse riding. Education of Yeltsin's grandson in the UK in the mid 90s costed about 25,000 dollars per year. According to general Korzhakov, [[Roman Abramovich]] handles finances of Yeltsin's family. On February 1st 2006, Yeltsin celebrated his 75th birthday. He used this occasion as an opportunity to criticize a &quot;monopolistic&quot; US foreign policy, and to state that Vladimir Putin was the right choice for Russia. He also discraded the accusation of corruption and the term &quot;Family&quot; as complete nonsense. ==Trivia== * Yeltsin sold [[Sibneft]] to [[Roman Abramovich]] for 180 million dollars. Abramovich then sold it back to the state-owned [[Gazprom]] for 13 billion dollars. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Борис Николаевич Ельцин|{{PAGENAME}}}} *[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/yeltsin/ CNN Cold War - Profile: Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin] *[http://www.elvispresleynews.com/BorisYeltsin.html Boris Yeltsin the Elvis Fan] {{start box}} {{succession box | before = [[Oleg Lobov]] | title = [[Prime Minister of Russia]] | years = 1991&amp;ndash;1992 | after = [[Yegor Gaidar]]}} {{succession box | before = None | title = [[President of Russia]] | years = 1991&amp;ndash;1999 | after = [[Vladimir Putin]]}} {{end box}} [[Category:1931 births|Yeltsin, Boris]] [[Category:Living people|Yeltsin, Boris]] [[Category:Amputees|Yeltsin, Boris]] [[Category:Presidents of the Russian Federation|Yeltsin, Boris]] [[Category:Soviet politicians|Yeltsin, Boris]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[bg:Борис Елцин]] [[cv:Ельцин Борис Николаевич]] [[da:Boris Jeltsin]] [[de:Boris Nikolajewitsch Jelzin]] [[et:Boriss Jeltsin]] [[es:Borís Yeltsin]] [[eo:Boris JELCIN]] [[eu:Boris Yeltsin]] [[fa:بوریس یلتسین]] [[fr:Boris Ieltsine]] [[ko:보리스 옐친]] [[io:Boris Yelcin]] [[id:Boris Yeltsin]] [[he:בוריס ילצין]] [[hr:Boris Jeljcin]] [[lt:Borisas Jelcinas]] [[nl:Boris Jeltsin]] [[ja:ボリス・エリツィン]] [[no:Boris Jeltsin]] [[nn:Boris Jeltsin]] [[pl:Borys Jelcyn]] [[pt:Boris Yeltsin]] [[ro:Boris Elţîn]] [[ru:Ельцин, Борис Николаевич]] [[sk:Boris Jeľcin]] [[fi:Boris Jeltsin]] [[sv:Boris Jeltsin]] [[tl:Boris El’cin]] [[tt:Boris Yeltsin]] [[uk:Єльцин Борис Миколайович]] [[zh:叶利钦]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ben Bova</title> <id>4982</id> <revision> <id>41643884</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:24:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mr Frosty</username> <id>276295</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ -- alpha. categories</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ddb-268-17-wiki.jpg|right|Ben Bova in 1974|175px]] '''Benjamin William Bova''' (born [[November 8]], [[1932]]) is an American [[science fiction author]] and editor. ==Biographical timeline== * [[28 November]] [[1932]] - born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] * 1953 - married Rose Cucinotta (divorced 1974) * 1954 - received [[Bachelor of Science]] from [[Temple University]] He became editor of ''[[Analog Science Fiction]]'' after [[John W. Campbell]]'s death; after leaving Analog, he went on to edit [[Omni Magazine]]. He was the science advisor for the failed television series ''[[The Starlost]]'', leaving in disgust after the airing of the first episode; his novel ''The Starcrossed'' was loosely based on his experiences and featured a thinly veiled characterization of his friend and colleague [[Harlan Ellison]]. He dedicated the novel to &quot;Cordwainer Bird&quot;, the pen name Harlan Ellison uses when he does not want to be associated with a television or film project. Ben Bova is the President Emeritus of the [[National Space Society]] and a past President of [[Science-fiction and Fantasy Writers of America]] [http://www.sfwa.org/] ([[SFWA]]). Bova was a technical writer for [[Project Vanguard]] and later for [[Avco Everett]] in the 1960s when they did research in [[lasers]] and [[fluid dynamics]]. It was there that he met [[Arthur R. Kantrowitz]] later of the [[Foresight Institute]]. Bova is an avid [[fencing|fencer]] and organized Avco Everett's fencing club. Bova is also an environmentalist of the [[Ansel Adams]] variety and met Adams by chance. Bova wants to conserve the Earth but rejects [[Luddism]]. Bova has drawn on these meetings and experiences to create fact and fiction writings rich with references to [[spaceflight]], [[laser]]s, [[artificial heart]]s, [[nanotechnology]], [[environmentalism]], [[fencing]] and [[martial arts]], [[photography]] and [[artist]]s. Ben Bova is the author of over a hundred books, non-fiction as well as science fiction. ==Bibliography== ===Science fiction=== * ''The Star Conquerors'' (1959) * ''Star Watchman'' (1964) * ''The Weathermakers'' (1967) * ''Out of the Sun'' (1968) * ''The Dueling Machine'' (1969) * ''Escape!'' (1969) * The Exiles Trilogy ** ''Exiled From Earth'' (1971) ** ''Flight of Exiles'' (1972) ** ''End of Exile'' (1975) * ''THX 1138'' (with [[George Lucas]]) ([[1971]]) ''based on [[THX 1138]]'' * ''As on a Darkling Plain'' (1972) * ''When the Sky Burned'' (1972) * ''Gremlins, Go Home! (with Gordon R. Dickson) (1974) * ''The Starcrossed'' (1975) * ''City of Darkness'' (1976) * ''Millennium'' (1976) * ''The Multiple Man'' (1976) * ''Colony'' (1978) * ''Kinsman'' (1979) * ''Voyagers'' (1981) * ''Test of Fire'' (1982) * ''The Winds of Altair'' (1983) * The Orion series ** ''Orion'' (1984) ** ''Vengeance of Orion'' (1988) ** ''Orion in the Dying Time'' (1990) ** ''Orion and the Conqueror'' (1994) ** ''Orion Among the Stars'' (1995) * ''Privateers'' (1985) (Contains a character from the ''Grand Tour'' series, but the history is different, such as the Soviet Union still existing.) * ''Voyagers II: The Alien Within'' (1986) * ''Battle Stations'' (1987) * ''The Kinsman Saga'' (1987) * ''Peacekeepers'' (1988) * ''Cyberbooks'' (1989) * ''Voyagers III: Star Brothers'' (1990) * ''The Trikon Deception'' (with Bill Pogue) (1992) * ''To Save the Sun'' (with A.J. Austin) (1992) * The &quot;Grand Tour&quot; books (in series chronological order, including the Asteroid Wars novels) ** ''Powersat'' (2005) ** ''Empire Builders'' (1993) ** ''Mars'' (1992) ** ''Moonrise'' (1996) ** ''Moonwar'' (1998) ** ''Return to Mars'' (1999) ** ''The Precipice'' (2001) (The Asteroid Wars I) ** ''Jupiter'' (2001) ** ''The Rock Rats'' (2002) (The Asteroid Wars II) ** ''Saturn'' (2002) ** ''Titan'' (2006) ** ''The Silent War'' (2004) (The Asteroid Wars III) ** ''Mercury'' (2005) ** ''Venus'' (2000) ** ''Tales of the Grand Tour'' (2004) (short stories occurring at various times throughout the series) * ''Triumph'' (1993) [[Alternate history (f
Ivy League Advocated at Seven Eastern Colleges | org = The New York Times | page = 33 | date = 1936-12-3 }} #{{note|early_cooperation}} {{news reference | author = The Associated Press | title = Colleges Searching for Check On Trend to Goal Post Riots | org = The New York Times | page = 33 | date = 1935-12-6 }} #{{note|unspoken_agreement}} {{news reference | author = Robert F. Kelley | title = Cornell Club Here Welcomes Lynah | org = The New York Times | page = 22 | date = 1936-1-17 }} #{{note|ivy_proposal_rejected}} {{news reference | title = Plea for an Ivy Football League Rejected by College Authorities | org = The New York Times | page = 26 | date = 1937-1-12 }} # ''U.S. News and World Report'' 1993 College Guide - June 4, 1993. # ''StudentsReview Official Rankings'' - Jan 1, 2005. ==See also== * [[Colonial colleges]] * [[Jesuit Ivy]] * [[Little Ivies]] * [[Oxbridge]] * [[Public Ivies]] * [[Southern Ivies]] * [[Seven Sisters (colleges)|Seven Sisters]] * [[Ivy League business schools]] ==External links== *[http://www.ivyleaguesports.com Ivy League Sports Official Website] *[http://www.ivysport.com/history.php Ivy League History at Ivysport] *[http://www.ivysport.com Ivy League sanctioned apparel] {{Ivy League}} [[Category:College athletics conferences]] [[Category:Ivy League| ]] [[Category:Lists of universities and colleges in the United States|*]] [[da:Ivy League]] [[de:Ivy League]] [[es:Ivy League]] [[fr:Ivy League]] [[ko:아이비리그]] [[id:Ivy League]] [[it:Ivy League]] [[he:ליגת הקיסוס]] [[ka:აივი ლიგა]] [[nl:Ivy League]] [[ja:アイヴィー・リーグ]] [[pl:Liga Bluszczowa]] [[ru:Лига плюща]] [[sv:Ivy League]] [[zh:常春藤盟校]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ithaca Hours</title> <id>14976</id> <revision> <id>42115505</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:47:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Paglo</username> <id>556925</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Economic Development */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ithaca Hours-One Eighth.jpg|thumb|350px|right|An Eighth Hour, part of the local currency system of Ithaca, NY.]] '''Ithaca Hours''' is a [[local currency]] in [[Ithaca, New York]]. It is credited as the first modern [[local currency]] and has inspired similar systems throughout the world. It is notable as one of three [[monetary reform]] measures named as viable alternatives to [[Bretton Woods system]] by [[United Nations]] conferences (the other two being [[UNILETS]] and the [[Global Resource Bank]]). == How It Started == While doing research into local economics during 1989, [[Paul Glover]] had seen an &quot;Hour&quot; note [[19th century]] British industrialist [[Robert Owen]] issued to his workers for spending at his company store. After '''Ithaca Hours''' began, he discovered that Owen's Hours were based on [[Josiah Warren]]'s &quot;Time Store&quot; notes of [[1827]]. In May of [[1991]], local student Patrice Jennings interviewed [[Paul Glover]] about the Ithaca [[LETS]] system. This conversation strongly reinforced his interest in trade systems. Within a few days, he had designs for the HOUR and Half HOUR notes. At [[GreenStar Cooperative Market]], [[Paul Glover]] approached Gary Fine, a local massage therapist, with photocopied samples. He said &quot;Sure,&quot; and put the first signature on a sign-up sheet of people willing to accept HOURS. Later Jim Rohrrsen of Papa Jim's toys became the first retailer to sign-up to accept Ithaca HOURS. During the next four months, 90 people provided 262 offers and requests. They all agreed to accept HOURS, without waiting for a business plan or guarantee. Emboldened, [[Paul Glover]] began to ask for small donations to help pay for printing HOURS. Fine Line Printing completed the first run of 1,500 HOURS and 1,500 Half HOURS in October, [[1991]]. These notes, the first modern local currency, were nearly twice as large as the current Ithaca HOURS. Because they didn't fit well in people's wallets, almost all of the original notes have been removed from circulation. The first issue of Ithaca Money was printed at Our Press in Chenango Bridge, NY, on [[October 16]], [[1991]]. The next day [[Paul Glover]] issued 10 HOURS to Ithaca Hours, the organization he founded to run the system, as the first of four reimbursements for the cost of printing HOURS. The day after that, [[October 18]], 382 HOURS were disbursed and prepared for mailing to the first 93 pioneers. On [[October 19]], [[1991]], [[Paul Glover]] bought a [[samosa|samoza]] from Catherine Martinez at the Farmers' Market with Half HOUR #751--the first use of an HOUR. Several other Market vendors enrolled that day. Stacks of the Ithaca Money newspaper were distributed all over town with an invitation to &quot;join the fun&quot;. Sign-up forms from Ithaca Money poured in, the first from fiddler Laurie Hart. A Barter Potluck was held at [[Greater Ithaca Activities Center|GIAC]] on [[November 12]], [[1991]], the first of many monthly gatherings where food and skills were exchanged, friendships made and acquaintances renewed. The [[Ithaca Journal]] did a fine introductory article about HOURS, followed by a short interview with Casey Stevens on Radio WHCU and stories in the [[Syracuse Post-Standard]], The Grapevine, the [[Cornell Daily Sun]], and the [[Ithaca Times]]. Patrice Jennings, a founding member of the HOURS Advisory Board, was featured on a TV story done by WICB. In January of [[1992]], ten days after the Farmers' Market closed for the season and only 46 days after the first Ithaca HOURS went into circulation, [[GreenStar Cooperative Market]] burned down. Local food vendors selling through GreenStar quickly organized a Mini-Market on Henry St. Johns school, and most of them decided to accept HOURS. This provided HOURS with a midwinter food base right from the beginning. == Transition to a Board == The Advisory Board incorporated the Ithaca HOUR system as Ithaca Hours, Inc. in October [[1998]], and hosted the first elections for Board of Directors in March of [[1999]]. The first Board of Directors included [[Monica Hargraves]], [[Dan Cogan]], Margaret McCasland, Greg Spence Wolf, Bob LeRoy, LeGrace Benson, Wally Woods, Jennifer Elges, and Donald Stephenson. In May of [[1999]] [[Paul Glover]] turned the administration of Ithaca HOURS over to the newly elected Board of Directors. [[Paul Glover]] has continued to support Ithaca Hours through community outreach to present, most notably through the [[Ithaca Health Fund]] and [[Ithaca Community News]]. The current Board of Directors, as of [[October 20]], [[2004]], includes LeGrace Benson, Steve Burke, [[Monica Hargraves]], Bob LeRoy, Margaret McCasland, Arc Riley, and Rebecca Nellenback. == Economic Development == Several million dollars value of HOURS have been traded since 1991, among thousands of residents and over 500 area businesses, including the Cayuga Medical Center, [[Alternatives Federal Credit Union]], the public library, many local farmers, movie theatres, restaurants, healers, plumbers, carpenters, electricians, and landlords. One of the primary functions of the Ithaca Hours system is to promote local economic development. Businesses who receive Hours must spend them on local goods and services, thus building a network of inter-supporting local businesses. While non-local businesses are welcome to accept Hours, those businesses need to spend them on local goods and services to be economically sustainable. In their mission to promote local economic development, the Board of Directors also makes interest-free loans of Ithaca HOURS to local businesses and grants to local non-profit organizations. ==See also== *[[Time-based currency]] ==External links== *http://www.ithacahours.org/ - Main Website *http://www.ithacahours.com/ - Founder's Website *http://www.smallisbeautiful.org/ - E F Schumacher Society Local Currency website * [http://www.barter-software.com XO Limited Free Barter Software for Community Exchanges] [[Category:Ithaca, New York|Hours]] [[Category:Community currencies]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Instant Runoff Voting</title> <id>14977</id> <revision> <id>15912494</id> <timestamp>2003-01-17T05:48:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Instant-runoff_voting]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Instant-runoff_voting]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Immortal Seven</title> <id>14978</id> <revision> <id>34070348</id> <timestamp>2006-01-06T04:34:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>John Kenney</username> <id>10512</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Immortal Seven''' were seven notable [[England|Englishmen]] who issued the ''[[Invitation to William]]'', a letter of [[30 June]] [[1688]] asking [[William III of Orange|William of Orange]] to depose his father-in-law [[James II of England|James II]] in favour of William's wife [[Mary II of England|Mary]], an invitation which culminated in the [[Glorious Revolution]]. It was carried to William by [[Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington|Lord Torrington]], and identified by a secret [[code (cryptography)|code]]. Of the seven, Danby and Compton were generally considered to be [[Tory|Tories]], while the other five signatories were generally seen as [[Whig]]s. They were: *[[Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds|The Earl of Danby]] *[[Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury|The Earl of Shrewsbury]] *[[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire|The Earl of Devonshire]] *[[Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough|The Viscount Lumley]] *[[Henry Compton]], [[Bishop of London]] *[[Edward Russell, 1st Earl of Orford|Edward Russell]] *[[Henry Sydney, 1st Earl of Romney|Henry Sydney]] (who wrote the Invitat
analysis of Hilbert spaces mostly deals with the unique Hilbert space of dimensionality Aleph-null, and its morphisms. One of the open problems in functional analysis is to prove that every operator on a Hilbert space has a proper [[invariant subspace]]. Many special cases have already been proven. ===Banach spaces=== General [[Banach space]]s are more complicated. There is no clear definition of what would constitute a base, for example. For any real number ''p'' &amp;ge; 1, an example of a Banach space is given by &quot;all [[Lebesgue-measurable function]]s whose [[absolute value]]'s ''p''-th power has finite integral&quot; (see [[Lp space|L&lt;sup&gt;''p''&lt;/sup&gt; spaces]]). In Banach spaces, a large part of the study involves the [[dual space]]: the space of all [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] linear functionals. The dual of the dual is not always isomorphic to the original space, but there is always a natural monomorphism from a space into its dual's dual. This is explained in the [[dual space]] article. The notion of [[derivative]] is extended to arbitrary functions between Banach spaces. It turns out that the derivative of a function at a certain point is really a continuous linear map. ==Major and foundational results== These are important results of functional analysis: *The [[uniform boundedness principle]] is a result on sets of operators with tight bounds. *One [[spectral theorem]] (there are more of them) gives an integral formula for [[normal operators]] on a Hilbert space. It is of central importance in the mathematical formulation of [[quantum mechanics]]. *The [[Hahn-Banach theorem]] is about extending functionals from a subspace to the full space, in a norm-preserving fashion. Another implication is the non-triviality of dual spaces. *The [[open mapping theorem]] and [[closed graph theorem]]. ''See also'': [[List of functional analysis topics]]. ==Foundations of mathematics considerations== Most spaces considered in functional analysis have infinite dimension. To show the existence of a [[vector space basis]] for such spaces may require [[Zorn's lemma]]. Many very important theorems require the [[Hahn-Banach theorem]], which itself is a form of the [[axiom of choice]] that is strictly weaker than the [[Boolean prime ideal theorem]]. ==Points of view== Functional analysis as it [[as of 2004|currently]] stands includes a number of directions: *''soft analysis'', the approach to mathematical analysis based generally on [[topological group]]s, [[topological ring]]s and [[topological vector space]]s; *''geometry of [[Banach space]]s'', a [[combinatorial]] approach as in the work of [[Jean Bourgain]]; *''[[noncommutative geometry]]'' as developed by [[Alain Connes]], based partly on previous ideas such as [[George Mackey]]'s approach to [[ergodic theory]]; *''connection with [[quantum mechanics]]'', narrowly defined in [[mathematical physics]] or broadly interpreted as by [[Israel Gelfand]] to include most types of [[representation theory]]. ==References== * Yosida, K.: ''Functional Analysis'', Springer-Verlag, 6th edition, 1980 * Schechter, M.: ''Principles of Functional Analysis'', AMS, 2nd edition, 2001 * Hutson, V., Pym, J.S., Cloud M.J.: ''Applications of Functional Analysis and Operator Theory'', 2nd edition, Elsevier Science, 2005, ISBN 0444517901 * Dunford, N. and Schwartz, J.T. : ''Linear Operators, General Theory'', and other 3 volumes, includes visualization charts * Brezis, H.: ''Analyse Fonctionnelle'', Dunod * Sobolev, S.L.: ''Applications of Functional Analysis in Mathematical Physics'', AMS, 1963 * Lebedev, L.P. and Vorovich, I.I.: ''Functional Analysis in Mechanics'', Springer-Verlag, 2002 {{Mathematics-footer}} [[Category:Functional analysis|*]] [[de:Funktionalanalysis]] [[es:Análisis funcional]] [[fr:Analyse fonctionnelle]] [[it:Analisi funzionale]] [[he:אנליזה פונקציונלית]] [[nl:Functionaalanalyse]] [[ja:関数解析学]] [[pl:Analiza funkcjonalna]] [[ru:Функциональный анализ]] [[sv:Funktionalanalys]] [[uk:Функціональний аналіз]] [[zh:泛函分析]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frank Sinatra</title> <id>11181</id> <revision> <id>42064386</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:44:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BorgQueen</username> <id>382591</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/L'Especial|L'Especial]] ([[User talk:L'Especial|talk]]) to last version by Infamous30</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Biography |subject_name= Frank Sinatra |image_name= Frank Sinatra.jpg |image_caption= |dead=dead |date_of_birth= [[December 12]], [[1915]] |place_of_birth= [[Hoboken, New Jersey]] |date_of_death= [[May 14]], [[1998]] |place_of_death= [[Los Angeles, California]]}} '''Francis Albert Sinatra''' ([[December 12]], [[1915]] &amp;ndash; [[May 14]], [[1998]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[singer]] who is considered by many to have been the finest male popular song vocalist of all time. Renowned for his impeccable phrasing and timing, many critics place him alongside artists such as [[Bing Crosby]], [[Elvis Presley]] and [[The Beatles]] as one of the most important popular music figures of the [[20th century]]. [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=11:iyg9kett7q7b~T1] Sinatra launched a second career as a dramatic [[film]] [[actor]], and became admired for a screen persona distinctly tougher than his smooth singing style. Sinatra also had a larger-than-life presence in the public eye, and as &quot;The Chairman of the Board&quot; became an American [[icon]], known for his brash, sometimes swaggering attitude, as embodied by his [[signature song]] &quot;[[My Way (song)|My Way]]&quot;. ==Life== ===Early life=== He was born in [[Hoboken, New Jersey]]. He was the only child of quiet [[Sicilian]] fireman father, Anthony Martin Sinatra (1894-1969). Anthony had immigrated to the United States in 1895. His mother, Natalie Della Gavarante (1896-1977), was a talented, tempestuous [[Liguria]]n, who worked as a part-time abortionist. She was known as &quot;Dolly&quot;, and emigrated in 1897. Although it is part of the Sinatra folklore that Frank had an impoverished childhood, he was actually brought up in middle-class surroundings, due to his father's secure job as a fireman, and his mother's strong political ties in Hoboken. ===Career=== Frank Sinatra decided to become a singer after hearing [[Bing Crosby]] on the radio. He began singing in small clubs in New Jersey and eventually attracted the attention of trumpeter and band-leader [[Harry James]]. [[Image:Jb wwii sinatra 1 e.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Frank Sinatra, 1947]] After a brief stint with James, he joined the [[Tommy Dorsey]] Orchestra in [[1940]] where he rose to fame as a singer. His vast appeal to the &quot;[[bobby soxers]]&quot;, as [[teenager|teenage girls]] were called, revealed a whole new audience for popular music, which had appealed mainly to adults up to that time. (The complete span of his career with Dorsey was released in the [[1994]] box set ''[[The Song Is You]]''.) It was as a featured singer with Dorsey that Sinatra made his earliest film appearances, such as the [[1942]] [[Eleanor Powell]]/[[Red Skelton]] comedy, ''[[Ship Ahoy]]'' in which the uncredited singer performed a couple of songs. He later signed with [[Columbia Records]] as a solo artist with some success, particularly during the musicians' recording [[strike action|strikes]]. Vocalists were not part of the musician union and were allowed to record during the ban by using ''[[a cappella]]'' vocal backing. Of this first phase of Sinatra's career, it can be said that it anticipated virtually every phase of what, in the 1960s, would be called &quot;the youth movement.&quot; His sudden--and for many his alarming--appeal to teen-agers became a topic of journalistic and even sociological comment. Subsequent musical idols would pass through the same stages of massive initial appeal, decline, and retrenchment. Few, however, would manage, as Sinatra did--and as became essential to any popular music career that aspired to longevity--to generate new audiences, as Sinatra did in the 1950s and repeatedly into even the final decade of his career. Sinatra's singing career was in decline in the late [[1940s]] and early [[1950s]], a period when novelty tunes became popular with audiences and during which Sinatra's aging would cause some loss of appeal to new teen-age audiences. Nor was his career helped by the bad publicity that comebacks in the history of American show business, Sinatra would succeed not merely in reestablishing his popularity but in taking it far beyond what he had achieved in the 1940s. This renewal would come about not in the recording studio but in Hollywood. Sinatra had begun appearing in movies in the early 1940s, but usually in [[musical film|musicals]], often undistinguished ones. He also appeared on a weekly television show on [[CBS]] for two years from 1950-1952 (and would try again for one year on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] from 1957-1958). What might be called Sinatra's second career began as a full-fledged dramatic actor when he played the scrappy Pvt. Angelo Maggio in the eve-of-[[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] drama ''[[From Here to Eternity]]'' ([[1953]]), for which he won a [[Best Supporting Actor]] [[Academy Award]]. This role and performance became legendary at the time as the key comeback moment in Sinatra's career. Virtually overnight, his career had recovered.[http://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/movies/bestpictures/eternity-ar.html] The following year, Sinatra played a crazed, coldblooded assassin determined to kill the President in the thriller ''[[Suddenly]]'' (available freely online [http://www.archive.org/details/suddenly here]); critics found Sinatra's performance one of the most chilling portrayals of a psychopath ever
erous Idea.jpg|thumb|right|cover]] '''''Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life''''' ([[1995]]) is a [[controversial book]] by [[Daniel Dennett]] that argues that [[Darwinian process]]es are the central organising force not only in [[biology]] (which is not controversial), but also in most other aspects of the [[Universe]], including the human mind (see [[Neural Darwinism]]). Dennett regards Darwinism as a &quot;universal [[acid]]&quot; that eats through virtually all traditional beliefs, especially [[Christianity]]. He calls Darwin's [[theory of evolution]] by [[natural selection]] &quot;the single best idea anybody ever had.&quot; People &quot;used to think of meaning coming from on high and being ordained from the top down,&quot; Dennett says, but we must now &quot;replace the traditional idea of God the [[creationism|creator]] with the idea of the process of natural selection doing the creating.&quot; Selected quotations (page numbers in parentheses): *&quot;Darwin's dangerous idea cuts much deeper into the fabric of our most fundamental beliefs than many of its sophisticated apologists have yet admitted, even to themselves.&quot; (18) *&quot;To put it bluntly but fairly, anyone today who doubts that the variety of life on this planet was produced by a process of evolution is simply ignorant--inexcusably ignorant.&quot; (46) *&quot;Evolutionists who see no conflict between evolution and their religious beliefs have been careful not to look as closely as we have been looking, or else hold a religious view that gives God what we might call a merely ceremonial role to play.&quot; (310) *&quot;Those whose visions dictate that they cannot peacefully coexist with the rest of us we will have to [[quarantine]] as best we can. . . . If you insist on teaching your children falsehoods--that the Earth is flat, that 'Man' is not a product of evolution by natural selection--then you must expect, at the very least, that those of us who have freedom of speech will feel free to describe your teachings as the spreading of falsehoods, and will attempt to demonstrate this to your children at the earliest opportunity. Our future well-being--the well-being of all of us on this planet--depends on the education of our descendants. What, then, of all the glories of our religious traditions? They should certainly be preserved, as should the languages, the art, the costumes, the rituals, the monuments.&quot; (519) *[Dennett recommends that religion be] &quot;preserved in cultural zoos. . . .&quot; [http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/papers/rearesponse.htm] *&quot;Is something [[sacred]]? Yes, I say with [[Nietzsche]]. I could not pray to it, but I can stand in affirmation of its magnificence. This world is sacred.&quot; (520) ==References== {{Harvard reference | Author=Dennett, Daniel | Title=Darwin's Dangerous Idea | SubTitle=Evolution and the Meaning of Life | Year=1995 | Publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster | ID=ISBN 068482471X }}. ==See also== *[[Greedy reductionism]] ==External links== *[http://www.scientificexploration.org/jse/bookreviews/11-2/dennett.html Book review] in the ''Journal of Scientific Exploration''. [[Category:1995 books]] [[Category:Science books]] [[Category:Biology books]] [[pt:A ideia perigosa de Darwin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Douglas Hofstadter</title> <id>8758</id> <revision> <id>42009240</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:49:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>PKtm</username> <id>428377</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Biography */ wikilink</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Douglas Richard Hofstadter''' (born [[February 15]], [[1945]]) is an [[United States|American]] academic. He is probably best known for his book ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach|Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid]]'' (abbreviated as GEB) which was published in [[1979]], and won the [[1980]] [[Pulitzer Prize]] for general non-fiction. This book inspired thousands of students to begin careers in [[computing]] and [[artificial intelligence]].{{fact}} ==Biography== The son of [[Nobel Prize]]-winning physicist [[Robert Hofstadter]], he received his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[Physics]] from the [[University of Oregon]] in [[1975]]. [[As of 2005]], he is a College Professor of Cognitive Science and Computer Science; Adjunct Professor of History and Philosophy of Science, Philosophy, Comparative Literature, and Psychology at [[Indiana University Bloomington]], where he directs the [http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition]. Hofstadter is [[multilingual]]; he spent a few years in [[Sweden]] in the mid-[[1960s]], where he learned [[Swedish language|Swedish]]. In addition, he speaks (besides [[English language|English]]) [[Italian language|Italian]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]]; his knowledge of these languages can be partly attributed to having spent a year of his youth in [[Geneva]]. He also speaks some [[Russian (language)|Russian]]: he translated parts of GEB into Russian, and published a verse translation of [[Pushkin]]'s ''[[Eugene Onegin]]''. In ''[[Le Ton beau de Marot]]'' (written in memory of his late wife Carol) he describes himself as a &quot;[[pi]]lingual&quot; (conversant in 3.14159 languages) and an &quot;''[[oligoglot]]''&quot; (speaker of few languages). His interests include [[music]], themes of the [[mind]], [[creativity]], [[consciousness]], [[self-reference]], [[translation]], and [[mathematical game]]s. ==Work== At Indiana University Bloomington he co-authored with [[Melanie Mitchell]] and others, a [[cognitive model]] of &quot;high-level perception&quot;, [[Copycat (software)|Copycat]], and several other models of [[Analogy|analogy making]] and [[Cognition|cognition]]. The Copycat project has since grown into 'Metacat' and 'Magnificat' and has been worked on by Hofstadter and several assistants. A 2002 overview can be found [http://www.cs.pomona.edu/~marshall/metacat/dissertation.pdf here (PDF)]. Other new models based on the Copycat 'FARGitecture' include SeekWell and SeqSee, which model cognition and analogy in musical and number sequence domains respectively. Hofstadter has not published much in conventional academic journals (except during his early physics career, see below), preferring the freedom of expression of large books of collected ideas. As such, his great influence on computer science is somewhat subversive and underground - his work has inspired countless research projects, but is not always formally referenced. When [[Martin Gardner]] retired from writing his ''[[Mathematical Games]]'' column for ''[[Scientific American]]'' magazine, Hofstadter succeeded him with a column entitled ''[[Metamagical Themas]]'' (an anagram of &quot;Mathematical Games&quot;). Hofstadter also invented the concept of ''Reviews of This Book'', a book containing nothing but cross-referenced reviews of itself (the idea was introduced in ''Metamagical Themas''): :''&quot;[it] is just a fantasy of mine. I would love to see a book consisting of nothing but a collection of reviews of it that appeared (after its publication, of course) in major newspapers and magazines. It sounds paradoxical, but it could be arranged with a lot of planning and hard work. First, a group of major journals would all have to agree to run reviews of the book by the various contributors to the book. Then all the reviewers would begin writing. But they would have to mail off their various drafts to all the other reviewers very regularly so that all the reviews could evolve together, and thus eventually reach a stable state of a kind known in physics as a &quot;Hartree-Fock self-consistent solution&quot;. Then the book could be published, after which its reviews would come out in their respective journals, as per arrangement.&quot;'' Apparently, [[Idries Shah]] has attempted this, or at least something similar, with [[The Book of the Book]] (ISBN 090086012X). ==Published works== ===Books=== The books published by Hofstadter are (the ISBNs refer to paperback editions, where available): *''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach|Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid]]'' (ISBN 0465026567) *''[[Metamagical Themas]]'' (ISBN 0465045669) (collection of ''Scientific American'' columns) *''Ambigrammi: un microcosmo ideale per lo studio della creatività'' (in Italian only) *''[[Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies]]'' (ISBN 0465024750) *''[[Rhapsody on a Theme by Clement Marot. The Grace A. Tanner Lecture in Human Values, 1995.]]'' (Published 1996) *''[[Le Ton beau de Marot]]: In Praise of the Music of Language'' (ISBN 0465086454) *A verse translation of ''[[Eugene Onegin]]'' by [[Aleksandr Pushkin]] (ISBN 0465020941) *''Jason Salavon: Brainstem Still Life'' (ISBN 9810516622) (Introduction) *''I Am a Strange Loop'' (ISBN 0465030785) (to be released March 31, 2006) ===Papers=== Hofstadter wrote, among many others, the following papers: *&quot;''Energy levels and wave functions of Bloch electrons in rational and irrational magnetic fields''&quot;, ''Phys. Rev. B'' '''14''' (1976) 2239. **Written while he was at the [[University of Oregon]], this paper was enormously influential in directing further research. Hofstadter predicted that the allowed [[energy level]] values of an [[electron]] in this [[crystal]] lattice, as a function of a [[magnetic field]] applied to the system, formed a [[fractal]] set. That is, the distribution of energy levels for large scale changes in the applied magnetic field repeat patterns seen in the small scale structure. This fractal structure is generally known as &quot;Hofstadter's butterfly&quot;, and has recently been confirmed in transport measurements in two-dimensional electron systems with a superimposed nano-fabricated lattice. *&quot;''A non-deterministic approach to analogy, involving the Ising model of ferromagnetism''&quot
* [[Aristotle]], &quot;The Categories&quot;, [[Harold P. Cooke]] (trans.), pp. 1-109 in ''Aristotle, Vol. 1'', [[Loeb Classical Library]], [[William Heinemann]], London, UK, 1938. * [[Aristotle]], &quot;On Interpretation&quot;, [[Harold P. Cooke]] (trans.), pp. 111-179 in ''Aristotle, Vol. 1'', [[Loeb Classical Library]], [[William Heinemann]], London, UK, 1938. * [[Aristotle]], &quot;[[Prior Analytics]]&quot;, [[Hugh Tredennick]] (trans.), pp. 181-531 in ''Aristotle, Vol. 1'', [[Loeb Classical Library]], William Heinemann, London, UK, 1938. * [[George Boole|Boole, George]] (1854), ''An Investigation of the Laws of Thought on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities'', [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]], 1854. Reprinted with corrections, [[Dover Publications]], New York, NY, 1958. * [[John Dewey|Dewey, John]] (1910), ''How We Think'', [[D.C. Heath]], Lexington, MA, 1910. Reprinted, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1991. * [[Jean van Heijenoort|van Heijenoort, Jean]] (1967), &quot;Logic as Language and Logic as Calculus&quot;, ''Synthese'', 17, 324-30. * [[Nathan Houser|Houser, Nathan]] (1989), &quot;The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Peirce Papers&quot;, ''Fourth Congress of the International Association for Semiotic Studies'', Perpignan, France, 1989. Published, pp. 1259-1268 in ''Signs of Humanity'', vol. 3, Michel Balat and Janice Deledalle-Rhodes (eds.), Gérard Deledalle (gen. ed.), Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, Germany, 1992. [http://members.door.net/arisbe/menu/library/aboutcsp/houser/fortunes.htm Eprint] * [[Henry George Liddell|Liddell, Henry George]], and [[Robert Scott|Scott, Robert]] (1889), ''An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon'', [[Oxford University Press]], Oxford, UK, 1889. Impression of 1991. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0058;query=toc Eprint] * [[Saunders Mac Lane|Mac Lane, Saunders]] (1971), ''Categories for the Working Mathematician'', [[Springer-Verlag]], New York, NY, 1971. Second edition, 1998. * Peirce, C.S. (1877), &quot;The Fixation of Belief&quot;, ''Popular Science Monthly'', 12, 1-15, 1877. Reprinted, CP 5.358-387. [http://www.peirce.org/writings/p107.html Eprint] * Peirce, C.S. (1878), &quot;How to Make Our Ideas Clear&quot;, ''Popular Science Monthly'', 12, 286-302, 1878. Reprinted, CP 5.388-410. [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/How_to_Make_Our_Ideas_Clear Eprint] * Peirce, C.S. (1899), &quot;F.R.L.&quot; [First Rule of Logic], unpaginated manuscript, c. 1899. Reprinted, CP 1.135-140. [http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/peirce/frl_99.htm Eprint] * Peirce, C.S., &quot;Application of C.S. Peirce to the Executive Committee of the Carnegie Institution&quot; (1902 [[July 15]]). Published, &quot;Parts of Carnegie Application&quot; (L75), pp. 13–73 in ''The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce, Volume 4, Mathematical Philosophy'', Carolyn Eisele (ed.), Mouton Publishers, The Hague, Netherlands, 1976. [http://members.door.net/arisbe/menu/library/bycsp/l75/l75.htm Eprint, Joseph Ransdell (ed.)] * Peirce, C.S., ''The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Volume 1 (1867–1893)'', Nathan Houser and Christian Kloesel (eds.), Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN, 1992. * Peirce, C.S., ''The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Volume 2 (1893–1913)'', Peirce Edition Project (eds.), Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN, 1998. * Robin, Richard S. (1967), ''Annotated Catalogue of the Papers of Charles S. Peirce'', University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, MA, 1967. [http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/robin/robin.htm Eprint] ==Bibliography== {{main|Charles Peirce (Bibliography)}} A bibliography of Peirce's works may be found at the above location. ==See also== ===Abstraction=== * [[Continuous predicate]] * [[Hypostatic abstraction]] * [[Prescisive abstraction]] ===Contemporaries=== * [[John Dewey]] * [[William James]] * [[Ernst Schröder]] ===Information, inquiry, logic, semiotics=== {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Ampheck]] * [[Comprehension (logic)|Comprehension]] * [[Entitative graph]] * [[Existential graph]] * [[Inquiry]] * [[Laws of form]] {{col-break}} * [[Logic of information]] * [[Logic of relatives]] * [[Logical graph]] * [[Logical matrix]] * [[Logical nand]] * [[Logical nor]] {{col-break}} * [[Peirce's law]] * [[Relative term|Rhema, Rheme]] * [[Semiotics]] * [[Semiotic information theory]] * [[Sign relation]] * [[Sole sufficient operator]] {{col-end}} ===Mathematics=== {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Relation (mathematics)|Relation]] * [[Relation construction]] * [[Relation composition]] * [[Relation reduction]] {{col-break}} * [[Binary relation|Dyadic relation]] * [[Triadic relation]] * [[Theory of relations]] {{col-end}} ===Philosophy=== * [[Pragmatism]] * [[Pragmaticism]] * [[Pragmatic maxim]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{wikisource author|Charles Sanders Peirce}} {{Sem}} * Credits: ** ia = initial author ** ed = architect, coordinator, director, editor, manager, webmaster, webmistress, etc. * [http://members.door.net/arisbe/arisbe.htm Arisbe: The Peirce Gateway], Joseph Ransdell (ed.) * [http://www.peircesociety.org/ Charles S. Peirce Society] :* [http://www.peircesociety.org/transactions.html Transactions] * [http://www.peirce.org/ Charles S. Peirce Studies] * [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Peirce_Charles.html Charles Sanders Peirce], MacTutor History of Mathematics, O'Connor &amp; Robertson * [http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/ Commens: Virtual Centre for Peirce Studies], University of Helsinki, Bergman &amp; Paavola (eds.) :* [http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/dictionary.html Dictionary of Peirce Terms] :* [http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/peircetexts.html Peirce's Writings Online] * [http://www.digitalpeirce.org Digital Encyclopedia of Charles S. Peirce] * [http://www.unav.es/gep/ Grupo de Estudios Peirceanos], Jaime Nubiola (ed.) * [http://www.wyttynys.net/ His Glassy Essence:] Autobiography of Charles S. Peirce, Kenneth Laine Ketner * [http://www.iep.utm.edu/ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy], Fieser &amp; Dowden (eds.) :* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/PeirceBi.htm Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914)], Albert Atkin :* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/PeirceAr.htm C.S. Peirce's Architectonic Philosophy], Albert Atkin :* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/PeircePr.htm C.S. Peirce's Pragmatism], Albert Atkin * [http://www.lichtensteiger.de/peirce.html Peirce, Charles Sanders (1839-1914)], Ralph Lichtensteiger * [http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/ Peirce Edition Project] :* [http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/ep/ep1/intro/ep1intro.htm Introduction to ''Essential Peirce'', vol. 1], Nathan Houser :* [http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/ep/ep2/intro/ep2intro.htm Introduction to ''Essential Peirce'', vol. 2], Nathan Houser * [http://www.pragmatism.org/ Pragmatism Cybrary], John R. Shook (ed.) :* [http://www.pragmatism.org/genealogy/cambridge.htm Cambridge School of Pragmaticm] * [http://plato.stanford.edu/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy], Edward N. Zalta (ed.) :* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/peirce/ Charles Sanders Peirce], Robert Burch :* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/peirce-logic/ Peirce's Logic], Eric Hammer * [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accueil Wikipédia, l’encyclopédie libre] :* [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_et_sémiotique_de_Peirce Philosophie et sémiotique de Peirce], Raymond Robert Tremblay (ia.) ''An [http://www.unav.es/users/Nupedia_Charles_S.html earlier version] of this article, by Jaime Nubiola, was posted at Nupedia.'' [[Category:1839 births|Peirce, Charles Sanders]] [[Category:1914 deaths|Peirce, Charles Sanders]] [[Category:Geodesists|Peirce, Charles Sanders]] [[Category:Logicians|Peirce, Charles Sanders]] [[Category:Mathematicians|Peirce, Charles Sanders]] [[Category:Philosophers|Peirce, Charles Sanders]] [[Category:Pragmatists|Peirce, Charles Sanders]] [[Category:Semioticians|Peirce, Charles Sanders]] [[Category:History of logic|Peirce, Charles Sanders]] [[Category:History of mathematics|Peirce, Charles Sanders]] [[Category:History of philosophy|Peirce, Charles Sanders]] [[Category:Philosophy of science|Peirce, Charles Sanders]] [[ca:Charles Sanders Peirce]] [[de:Charles S. Peirce]] [[et:Charles Sanders Peirce]] [[es:Charles Sanders Peirce]] [[fr:Charles Sanders Peirce]] [[it:Charles Sanders Peirce]] [[he:צ'ארלס פירס]] [[lv:Čārlzs Pīrss]] [[lt:Čarlzas Pirsas]] [[nl:Charles Peirce]] [[no:Charles S. Peirce]] [[pl:Charles Sanders Peirce]] [[pt:Charles Sanders Peirce]] [[ru:Пирс, Чарльз Сандерс]] [[sk:Charles Sanders Peirce]] [[fi:Charles S. Peirce]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carnot heat engine</title> <id>6118</id> <revision> <id>40423794</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T12:57:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Thermodynamic cycles}} The '''Carnot cycle''' is a particular thermodynamic cycle studied by [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]] in the [[1820s]] and expanded upon by [[Émile Clapeyron|Benoit Paul Émile Clapeyron]] in the [[1830s]] and [[1840s|40s]]. Every thermodynamic system exists in a particular state. A thermodynamic cycle occurs when a system is taken through a series of different states, and finally returned to its initial state. In the process of going through this cycle, the system may perform work on its surroundings, thereby acting as a [[heat engine]]. A heat engine acts by transferring energy from a warm region to a cool region of space and, in the process, converting some of that energy to mechanical work. The cycle may also be reversed. The system may be worked upon by an external force, and in the pro
mic field as symbology.{{ref|king}}) [[Matthew Pearl]]'s 2004 mystery novel ''[[The Dante Club]]'' is set in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], 1865 and Harvard professors [[Oliver Wendell Holmes]], [[James Russell Lowell]], and [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]] and a shadowy anti-Dante plot involving the Harvard Corporation (which prefer Latin to Italian, and fears contamination by Dante's Papist theology). In popular culture, &quot;Harvard&quot; can be an archetype for &quot;best college,&quot; as &quot;Cadillac&quot; can be an archetype for luxury, or &quot;Einstein&quot; for intelligence. These archetypes exist, regardless of the literal truth of what they symbolize. Evidence of Harvard's archetypic status is that regionally, any venerable school is likely to be called &quot;the Harvard of&quot; that region; see [[Southern Ivies]] for specific examples of &quot;Harvards of the South.&quot; (A college guide notes, &quot;Ask a Duke student to compare his beloved school to the Ivy league and you'll hear 'Harvard, the Duke of the North'&quot; {{ref|kaplan}}). ==Overview of the campus== The main campus is centered around [[Harvard Yard]] in central Cambridge, and extends into the surrounding [[Harvard Square]] neighborhood. The Harvard Business School and many of the university's athletics facilities, including [[Harvard Stadium]], are located in [[Allston, Massachusetts|Allston]], on the other side of the [[Charles River]] from Harvard Square. Harvard Medical School is located in the Longwood district of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. [[Harvard Yard]] itself contains the central administrative offices and main [[library|libraries]] of the University, several academic buildings, Memorial Church, and the majority of the [[List of Harvard dormitories|freshman dormitories]]. Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors live in twelve [[Harvard College#House system|residential Houses]], 9 of which are south of Harvard Yard along or near the [[Charles River]] and 3 of which are located in a residential neigborhood half a mile northwest of the Yard called the [[Quadrangle (Harvard)|Quadrangle]]. ===Residential Houses=== [[Image:Tower_in_spring_fade_167.jpg|right|thumb|150px|The blue dome of [[Lowell House]]]]Nearly all students at Harvard College live on campus. First-year students live in the [[List of Harvard dormitories|freshman dormitories]] in or near [[Harvard Yard]]. Upperclass students live mainly in a system of twelve residential &quot;Houses&quot;, which serve as administrative units of the College as well as dormitories. Each House is presided over by a &quot;Master&quot;&amp;mdash;a senior faculty member who is responsible for guiding the social life and community of the House&amp;mdash;and a &quot;[[Allston Burr Senior Tutor|Senior Tutor]]&quot;, who acts as [[dean (education)|dean]] of the students in the House in its administrative role. The House system was instituted by [[President of Harvard University|Harvard president]] [[Abbott Lawrence Lowell]] in the 1930s, although the number of Houses, their demographics, and the methods by which students are assigned to particular Houses have all changed drastically since the founding of the system. Funds for the Houses were donated by Edward Harkness, a Yale graduate, who had previously failed to persuade Yale of its merits (but which later adopted a very similar &quot;college&quot; system). Lowell modeled it on the system of constituent [[college]]s of [[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], and the Houses borrow terminology from Oxford and Cambridge such as [[Junior Common Room]] (the set of undergraduates affiliated with a House) and [[Senior Common Room]] (the Master, Senior Tutor, and other faculty members, advisors, and graduate students associated with the House). Non-faculty members of the Senior Common Room of a House are given the title &quot;Tutor&quot;. Nine of the Houses are situated south of Harvard Yard, near the busy commercial district of [[Harvard Square]], along or close to the northern banks of the [[Charles River]], and so are known colloquially as the River Houses. These are: *[[Adams House (Harvard University)|Adams House]], named for several alumni of that name, including U. S. President [[John Adams]]; *[[Dunster House]], named for Harvard's first President, [[Henry Dunster]]; *[[Eliot House]], named for Harvard President [[Charles William Eliot]]; *[[Kirkland House]], named for Harvard President [[John Thornton Kirkland]]; *[[Leverett House]], named for Harvard President [[John Leverett]]; *[[Lowell House]], said to be named for the Harvard-affiliated [[Lowell family]] in general (but the most obvious reference is to Abbott Lawrence Lowell); *[[Mather House]], named for Harvard President [[Increase Mather]]; *[[Quincy House]], named for Harvard President (and sometime mayor of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]) [[Josiah Quincy III]]; *[[Winthrop House]], more officially called ''John Winthrop House'', named for two famous men of that name: [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] founder [[John Winthrop]] and his great-great-great-grandson [[John Winthrop (1714-1779)|John Winthrop]], 2nd Hollis Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy [[Image:Pforzheimerhouse.jpeg|right|thumb|300px|The [[Quadrangle (Harvard)|Quad]], looking north toward [[Pforzheimer House]]]] The remainder of the residential Houses are located around [[Quadrangle (Harvard)|Harvard's Quadrangle]] (or &quot;the Quad&quot;, formerly the &quot;Radcliffe Quadrangle&quot;), in a more [[suburb]]an residential neighborhood half a mile (800 m) northwest of Harvard Yard. These housed [[Radcliffe College]] students until Radcliffe merged its residential system with Harvard. They are: *[[Cabot House]], previously called ''South House'', renamed in 1983 for Harvard donors [[Thomas Dudley Cabot]] and Virginia Cabot; *[[Currier House]], named for Radcliffe alumna Audrey Bruce Currier; *[[Pforzheimer House]], often called ''PfoHo'' for short, previously called ''North House'', renamed in 1995 for Harvard donors Carl and Carol Pforzheimer There is a thirteenth House, [[Dudley House]] [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~dudley/], which is nonresidential but fulfills, for some graduate students and off-campus undergraduates (including members of the [http://hcs.harvard.edu/~dudcoop/ Dudley Co-op]) the same administrative and social functions as the residential Houses do for undergraduates who live on campus. It is named after [[Thomas Dudley]], who signed the charter of Harvard College when he was [[Governors of the Massachusetts Bay Colony|Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony]]. [[Radcliffe Yard]], the center of the campus of the former Radcliffe College (and now Radcliffe Institute), is west of Harvard Yard, adjacent to the Graduate School of Education. ===Major campus expansion=== Throughout the past several years, Harvard has purchased large tracts of land in [[Allston]], a short walk across the Charles River from Cambridge, with the intent of [http://www.allston.harvard.edu/ major expansion southward]. The university now owns approximately fifty percent more land in Allston than in Cambridge. Various proposals to connect the traditional Cambridge campus with the new Allston campus include new and enlarged bridges, a shuttle service and/or a [[tram]]. One of the foremost driving forces for Harvard's pending expansion is its goal of substantially increasing the scope and strength of its science and technology programs. The university plans to construct two 500,000 square foot (50,000 m&amp;sup2;) research complexes in Allston, which would be home to several interdisciplinary programs, including the [[Harvard Stem Cell Institute]] and an enlarged [[Engineering]] department. In addition, Harvard intends to relocate the [[Harvard Graduate School of Education]] and the [[Harvard School of Public Health]] to Allston. The university also plans to construct several new undergraduate and graduate student housing centers in Allston, and it is considering large-scale museums and performing arts complexes as well. ==History== [[Image:Harvard 1740 by William Burgis.jpg|thumb|300px|&quot;A prospect of the colledges in Cambridge in New England&quot;. Engraving by [[William Burgis]] from 1740.]] Harvard's foundation in 1636 came in the form of an act of the colony's [[Massachusetts General Court | Great and General Court]]. By all accounts the chief impetus was to allow the training of home-grown clergy so the [[Puritan]] colony would not need to rely on immigrating graduates of England's [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] universities for well-educated pastors, &quot;dreading,&quot; as a 1643 brochure put it, &quot;to leave an illiterate Ministry to the Churches.&quot; In its first year, seven of the original nine students left to fight in the [[English Civil War]]. Harvard was also founded as a school to educate American Indians in order to train them as ministers among their tribes. Harvard's Charter of 1650 calls for &quot;the education of the English and Indian youth of this Country in knowledge and godliness&quot;. Indeed, Harvard and missionaries to the local tribes were intricately connected. The first Bible to be printed in the entire North American continent was printed at Harvard in an Indian language, Massachusett. Termed the Eliot Bible since it was translated by John Eliot, this book was used to facilitate conversion of Indians, ideally by Harvard-educated Indians themselves. Harvard's first American Indian graduate, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck from the Wampanoag tribe, was a member of the class of 1665. Caleb and other students-- English and American Indian alike-- lived and studied in a dormitory known as the Indian College, which was founded in 1655 under then-President Charles Chauncy. In 1698 it was torn down owing to neglect. The bricks of the former Indian College were later used to build the first
[[641]], ruled [[610]] - [[641]]) &amp;ndash; usurper; son of the Armenian Exarch of Africa *[[Constantine III (emperor)|Constantine III]] Heraclius (Κωνσταντίνος Γ' Ηράκλειος) ([[612]] - [[641]], ruled [[641]]) &amp;ndash; son of Heraclius; coemperor with Heracleonas *[[Heracleonas]] (Heraclius II) Constantine (Ηρακλεωνάς) ([[626]] - [[641]]?, ruled [[641]]) &amp;ndash; son of Heraclius; mutilated and deposed *[[Constans II]] Heraclius (Κώνστας Β' Ηράκλειος) ([[630]] - [[668]], ruled [[641]] - [[668]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constantine III; assassinated by chamberlain *[[Constantine IV]] the Bearded (Κωνσταντίνος Δ' ο Πωγώνατος ) ([[649]] - [[685]], ruled [[668]] - [[685]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constans II *[[Justinian II]] the Slit-nosed (Ιουστινιανός Β' ο Ρινότμητος) ([[668]] - [[711]], ruled [[685]] - [[695]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constantine IV; mutilated, deposed, and exiled ===Non-dynastic (695-705)=== *[[Leontius (emperor)|Leontius]] (Λεόντιος) (ruled [[695]] - [[698]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos (general); mutilated, deposed, and imprisoned - later executed *[[Tiberius III]] (Τιβέριος Γ' ο Αψίμαρος) (ruled [[698]] - [[705]]) &amp;ndash; German orig. named Apsimar; deposed and executed ==Heraclian dynasty (705-711)== *[[Justinian II]] the Slit-nosed (Ιουστινιανός Β' ο Ρινότμητος) (ruled [[705]] - [[711]]) &amp;ndash; restored; deposed and executed ===Non-dynastic (711-717)=== *[[Philippicus]] Bardanes (Φιλιππικός Βαρδάνης) (ruled [[711]] - [[713]]) &amp;ndash; Armenian soldier; deposed and mutilated *[[Anastasius II (emperor)|Anastasius II]] (Αναστάσιος Β') ( ? - [[721]], ruled [[713]] - [[715]]) &amp;ndash; orig. Artemios; secretary of Philippicus; deposed &amp; entered monastery, later revolted &amp; was executed *[[Theodosius III]] (Θεοδόσιος Γ' ο Αδραμμυττηνός) (ruled [[715]] - [[717]]) &amp;ndash; tax-collector; abdicated and entered monastery ==[[Isaurian Dynasty|Isaurian dynasty]] (717-802)== *[[Leo III]] the Isaurian (Λέων Γ' ο Ίσαυρος) ([[675]] - [[741]], ruled [[717]] - [[741]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos *[[Constantine V]] Copronymus (the Dung-named) (Κωνσταντίνος Ε' ο Κοπρώνυμος ή Καβαλίνος) ([[718]] - [[745]], ruled [[741]]) &amp;ndash; son of Leo III; deposed *[[Artabasdus]] the Icon-lover (Αρτάβασδος ο Εικονόφιλος) (ruled [[741]] - [[743]]) &amp;ndash; Leo III's chamberlain and son-in-law *[[Constantine V]] Copronymus (the Dung-named) (Κωνσταντίνος Ε' ο Κοπρώνυμος ή Καβαλίνος) (ruled [[743]] - [[775]]) &amp;ndash; restored *[[Leo IV]] the Khazar (Λέων Δ' o Χαζάρος) ([[750]] - [[780]], ruled [[775]] - [[780]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constantine V *[[Constantine VI]] the Blinded (Κωνσταντίνος ΣΤ') ([[771]] - [[797]], ruled [[780]] - [[797]]) &amp;ndash; son of Leo IV; deposed and mutilated by mother *Ste. [[Irene (empress)|Irene]] the Athenian (Ειρήνη η Αθηναία) ([[755]] - [[803]], ruled [[797]] - [[802]]) &amp;ndash; wife of Leo IV, mother of Constantine VI; canonized by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] church; deposed and exiled to [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]] ==Phocid dynasty (802-813)== *[[Nicephorus I]] Phocas (Νικηφόρος Α' Φωκάς) ( ? - [[811]], ruled [[802]] - [[811]]) &amp;ndash; [[Megas Logothetes]]; died in battle, skull used as wine cup *[[Stauracius]] (Σταυράκιος Φωκάς) ( ? - [[812]], ruled [[811]]) &amp;ndash; son of Nicephorus I; paralyzed *[[Michael I Rhangabes]] (Μιχαήλ Α' Ραγκαβής) (ruled [[811]] - [[813]]) &amp;ndash; son-in-law of Nicephorus I &amp; master of the palace; deposed &amp; entered monastery ===Non-dynastic=== *[[Leo V]] the Armenian (Λέων Ε' ο Αρμένιος) ([[775]] - [[820]], ruled [[813]] - [[820]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos; assassinated ==Phrygian dynasty (820-867)== *[[Michael II]] the Stammerer or the Amorian (Μιχαήλ Β' ο Τραυλός η Ψηλλος) ([[770]] - [[829]], ruled [[820]] - [[829]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos, son-in-law of Constantine VI *[[Theophilus (emperor)|Theophilus]] (Θεόφιλος) ([[813]] - [[842]], ruled [[829]] - [[842]]) &amp;ndash; son of Michael II *[[Theodora (9th century)|Theodora]] (Θεοδώρα) (ruled [[842]] - [[855]]) &amp;ndash; wife of Theophilus; empress and regent for Michael III; canonized by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] church; deposed and entered monastery *[[Michael III]] the Drunkard (Μιχαήλ Γ' ο Μέθυσος) ([[840]] - [[867]], ruled [[842]] - [[867]]) &amp;ndash; son of Theophilus; assassinated ==[[Macedonian dynasty]] (867-1056)== *[[Basil I]] the Macedonian (Βασίλειος Α') ([[811]] - [[886]], ruled [[867]] - [[886]]) - married Michael III's widow; died in hunting accident *[[Leo VI]] the Wise (Λέων ΣΤ' ο Σοφός) ([[866]] - [[912]], ruled [[886]] - [[912]]) &amp;ndash; likely either son of Basil I or Michael III; *[[Alexander III (emperor)|Alexander III]] (Αλέξανδρος Γ' του Βυζαντίου) ([[870]] - [[913]], ruled [[912]] - [[913]]) &amp;ndash; son of Basil I, regent for nephew *[[Constantine VII]] the Purple-born (Κωνσταντίνος Ζ' ο Πορφυρογέννητος) ([[905]]-[[959]], ruled [[913]] - [[959]]) &amp;ndash; son of Leo VI *[[Romanus I]] Lecapenus (Ρωμανός Α' ο Λεκαπηνός) ([[870]] - [[948]], ruled [[919]] - [[944]]) &amp;ndash; father-in-law of Constantine VII; coemperor, deposed by his sons and entered monastery *[[Romanus II]] the Purple-born (Ρωμανός Β' ο Πορφυρογέννητος) ([[939]] - [[963]], ruled [[959]] - [[963]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constantine VII *[[Nicephorus II]] Phocas (Νικηφόρος Β' Φωκάς ή Νικηφόρος Β' ο Φωκάς) ([[912]] - [[969]], ruled [[963]] - [[969]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos; married Romanus II's widow, regent for Basil; assassinated *[[John I Tzimisces]] (Ιωάννης Α' Κουρκούας ο Τσιμισκής) ([[925]] - [[976]], ruled [[969]] - [[976]]) &amp;ndash; brother-in-law of Romanus II, lover of Nicephorus's wife but banned from marriage, regent for Basil *[[Basil II]] the Bulgar-slayer (Βασίλειος Β' ο Βουλγαροκτόνος) ([[958]] - [[1025]], ruled [[976]] - [[1025]]) &amp;ndash; son of Romanus II *[[Constantine VIII]] (Κωνσταντίνος Η')([[960]]-[[1028]], ruled [[1025]] - [[1028]]) &amp;ndash; son of Romanus II; silent coemperor with Basil II *[[Zoe (empress)|Zoe I]] (Ζωή Α') ((c. [[978]] - [[1050]], ruled [[1028]] - [[1050]]) &amp;ndash; daughter of Constantine VIII *[[Romanus III]] Argyrus (Ρωμανός Γ' ο Αργυρός) ([[968]] - [[1034]], ruled [[1028]] - [[1034]]) &amp;ndash; eparch of Constantinople; Zoe's first husband, arranged by Constantine VIII; murdered *[[Michael IV]] the Paphlagonian (Μιχαήλ Δ' ο Παφλαγών) ([[1010]] - [[1041]], ruled [[1034]] - [[1041]]) &amp;ndash; Zoe's second husband *[[Michael V]] the Caulker (Μιχαήλ Ε' ο Καλαφάτης) ([[1015]] - [[1042]], ruled [[1041]] - [[1042]]) &amp;ndash; Michael IV's nephew, Zoe's adopted son *[[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]] (Θεοδώρα) ([[980]] - [[1056]], ruled [[1042]]) &amp;ndash; daughter of Constantine VIII, coempress with Zoe *[[Constantine IX]] Monomachus (Κωνσταντίνος Θ' ο Μονομάχος) ([[1000]] - [[1055]], ruled [[1042]] - [[1055]]) &amp;ndash; Zoe's third husband *[[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]] (Θεοδώρα) (ruled [[1055]] - [[1056]]) &amp;ndash; restored ===Non-dynastic=== *[[Michael VI]] the Bellicose (Μιχαήλ ΣΤ' ο Στρατιωτικός) (ruled [[1056]] - [[1057]]) &amp;ndash; chosen by Theodora; deposed &amp; entered monastery ==[[Comnenus|Comnenid dynasty]]== *[[Isaac I Comnenus]] (Ισαάκιος Α' ο Κομνηνός) (c. [[1007]] - [[1060]], ruled [[1057]] - [[1059]]) &amp;ndash; soldier; abdicated in a fit of illness &amp; entered monastery ==Doukid dynasty (1059-1081)== *[[Constantine X]] Ducas (Κωνσταντίνος Ι' ο Δούκας) ([[1006]] - [[1067]], ruled [[1059]] - [[1067]]) &amp;ndash; selected by Michael Psellus the Younger *[[Michael VII]] Ducas Quarter-short (Μιχαήλ Ζ' Δούκας Παραπινάκης) ([[1050]] - [[1090]], ruled [[1067]] - [[1078]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constantine X, originally coemperor with two brothers and Romanus; deposed &amp; entered monastery *[[Romanus IV]] Diogenes (Ρωμανός Δ' Διογένης) ([[1032]] - [[1072]], ruled [[1068]] - [[1071]]) &amp;ndash; married Constantine X's widow; coemperor, deposed &amp; mutilated to death *[[Nicephorus III]] Botaniates (Νικηφόρος Γ' Βοτανειάτης) ([[1001]] - [[1081]], ruled [[1078]] - [[1081]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos claiming descent from the [[Fabii]], bigamously married Michael VII's wife; deposed &amp; forced into monastery ==Comnenid dynasty (restored, 1081-1185)== *[[Alexius I Comnenus]] (Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός) ([[1057]] - [[1118]], ruled [[1081]] - [[1118]]) &amp;ndash; nephew of Isaac I, married Constantine X's grandniece *[[John II Comnenus]] the Beautiful (Ιωάννης Β' Κομνηνός o Καλός) ([[1087]] - [[1143]], ruled [[1118]] - [[1143]]) &amp;ndash; son of Alexius I, died of a hunting accident *[[Manuel I Comnenus]] the Great (Μανουήλ Α' Κομνηνός ο Μέγας) ([[1118]] - [[1180]], ruled [[1143]] - [[1180]]) &amp;ndash; son of John II *[[Alexius II Comnenus]] (Αλέξιος B' Κομνηνός) ([[1169]] - [[1183]], ruled [[1180]] - [[1183]]) &amp;ndash; son of Manuel I; murdered with garrotte *[[Andronicus I Comnenus]] (Ανδρόνικος Α' Κομνηνός) ([[1118]] - [[1185]], ruled [[1183]] - [[1185]]) &amp;ndash; nephew of John II; married Alexius II's widow; deposed, tortured, and executed; font of the Komnenid line in [[Trebizond|Trapezountas]] ==Angelid dynasty (1185-1204)== *[[Isaac II Angelus]] (Ισαάκιος Β' Άγγελος) ([[1156]] - [[1204]], ruled [[1185]] - [[1195]]) &amp;ndash; great-grandson of Alexius I, deposed &amp; blinded *[[Alexius III Angelus]] (Αλέξιος Γ' Άγγελος) ([[1153]] - [[1211]], ruled [[1195]] - [[1203]]) &amp;ndash; brother of Isaac II, deposed by [[Fourth Crusade|IV Crusade]] &amp; eventually forced into monastery *[[Alexius IV Angelus]] (Αλέξιος Δ' Άγγελος) ([[1182]] - [[1204]], ruled [[1203]] - [[1204]]) &amp;ndash; son of Isaac II, deposed &amp; executed *[[Isaac II Angelus]] (Ισαάκιος Β' Άγγελος) (ruled [[1203]] - [[1204]]) &amp;ndash; largely witless, restored as coemperor with Alexius IV, deposed *[[Alexius V]] Ducas the Bushy-eyebrowed (Αλέξιος Ε' Δούκας ο Μούρτζουφλος) ([[1140]] - [[1204]], ruled [[1204]]) &amp;ndash; son-in-law of Alexius III ==Laskarid dyn
Law enforcement in Australia}} *[[New South Wales Police]] *[[Northern Territory Police]] *[[Queensland Police]] *[[South Australia Police]] *[[Tasmania Police]] *[[Victoria Police]] *[[Western Australia Police]] ==State and territory statistics== {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; | width=20% | State/territory || width=20% | Land area ([[Square kilometre|km²]]) || width=20% | Population (2004) || width=20% | Density (persons/km²) || width=20% | Population % in capital |- |Australian Capital Territory || align=right | 2 358 &lt;small&gt;(rank 8th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 324 300 &lt;small&gt;(rank 7th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 137.53 &lt;small&gt;(rank 1st)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 100%* &lt;small&gt;(rank 1st)&lt;/small&gt; |- |New South Wales || align=right | 800 642 &lt;small&gt;(rank 5th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 6 760 000 &lt;small&gt;(rank 1st)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 8.44 &lt;small&gt;(rank 3rd)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 63% &lt;small&gt;(rank 5th)&lt;/small&gt; |- |Victoria || align=right | 227 416 &lt;small&gt;(rank 6th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 5 002 300 &lt;small&gt;(rank 2nd)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 22 &lt;small&gt;(rank 2nd)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 71% &lt;small&gt;(rank 4th)&lt;/small&gt; |- | Queensland || align=right | 1 730 648 &lt;small&gt;(rank 2nd)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 3 919 500 &lt;small&gt;(rank 3rd)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 2.26 &lt;small&gt;(rank 5th)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 46% &lt;small&gt;(rank 7th)&lt;/small&gt; |- | South Australia || align=right | 983 482 &lt;small&gt;(rank 4th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 1 537 900 &lt;small&gt;(rank 5th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 1.56 &lt;small&gt;(rank 6th)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 73.5% &lt;small&gt;(rank 2nd)&lt;/small&gt; |- | Western Australia || align=right | 2 529 875 &lt;small&gt;(rank 1st)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 1 998 400 &lt;small&gt;(rank 4th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 0.79 &lt;small&gt;(rank 7th)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 73.4% &lt;small&gt;(rank 3rd)&lt;/small&gt; |- | Tasmania || align=right | 68 401 &lt;small&gt;(rank 7th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 484 000 &lt;small&gt;(rank 6th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 7.08 &lt;small&gt;(rank 4th)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 41% &lt;small&gt;(rank 8th)&lt;/small&gt; |- | Northern Territory || align=right | 1 349 129 &lt;small&gt;(rank 3rd)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 200 800 &lt;small&gt;(rank 8th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right | 0.15 &lt;small&gt;(rank 8th)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 54% &lt;small&gt;(rank 6th)&lt;/small&gt; |- |} ==State and territory codes== {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; | align=center | rowspan=2 | State/Territory || colspan=3 | Callsigns | rowspan=2 width=80 | [[Postcode]]s | rowspan=2 width=80 | [[Telephone area code]]s || colspan=2 | [[Time zone]] |- style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; align=center | width=60 | [[AM radio|AM]]/[[FM radio|FM]] | width=60 | [[Television|TV]] | width=60 | [[Amateur radio|Amateur]] | width=60 | Std | width=60 | [[Daylight saving time|Summer]] |- align=center | Australian Capital Territory || 1xx(x) | xx(x)Cn || VK1xx || 02nn*, 26nn || 02 | +10 || +11 |- align=center | New South Wales || 2xx(x) || xx(x)Nn | VK2xx || 1nnn*, 2nnn || 02 || +10 || +11 |- align=center | Victoria || 3xx(x) || xx(x)Vn || VK3xx || 3nnn, 8nnn* | 03 || +10 || +11 |- align=center | Queensland || 4xx(x) || xx(x)Qn || VK4xx || 4nnn, 9nnn* | 07 || colspan=2 | +10 |- align=center | South Australia || 5xx(x) || xx(x)Sn | VK5xx || 5nnn || 08 || +9.5 || +10.5 |- align=center | Western Australia || 6xx(x) || xx(x)Wn | VK6xx || 6nnn || 08 || colspan=2 | +8 |- align=center | Tasmania || 7xx(x) || xx(x)Tn || VK7xx || 7nnn | 03 || +10 || +11 |- align=center | Northern Territory || 8xx(x) || xx(x)Dn | VK8xx || 08nn || 08 || colspan=2 | +9.5 |- | colspan=8 align=left bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; | External Territories |- align=center | Norfolk Island || 2xx(x) || ? | rowspan=4 | VK9xx || rowspan=2 | (NSW) | +672 3 || colspan=2 | +11.5 |- align=center | Lord Howe Island || 2xx(x) || ? || (NSW) || +10.5 | +11 |- align=center | Christmas Island || ? || ? | rowspan=2 | (WA) || rowspan=2 | (WA) | colspan=2 | +7 |- align=center | Cocos Island || ? || ? || colspan=2 | +6.5 |- align=center | Aust. Antarctic Territory || colspan=2 | none | rowspan=2 | VK0xx | rowspan=2 | (Tas) || rowspan=2 | +672 1 | colspan=2 | +6 to +8 |- align=center | Macquarie Island || colspan=2 | none || +10 | +11 |} &lt;br/&gt;* ''Used for PO Box and Large Users only'' ==See also== *[[List of capitals of subnational entities]] *[[List of regions in Australia]] *[[ISO 3166-2:AU]], the ISO codes for the states and territories of Australia *[[Australian States by Gross State Product]] *[[Proposals for new Australian States]] ==External links== *[http://www.ga.gov.au/map/ Maps of Australia] *[http://citymayors.com/government/aus_locgov.html CityMayors article] {{australia}} [[Category:Lists of subnational entities|Australia, States and Territories of]] [[Category:Australian states and territories| ]] [[Category:Subdivisions of Australia|States]] [[Category:States|Australia]] [[Category:Territories|Australia]] [[bg:Административно деление на Австралия]] [[gl:Subdivisións da Australia]] [[id:Negara-negara bagian Australia]] [[he:מדינות אוסטרליה]] [[ja:オーストラリアの州と特別地域]] [[pl:Podział administracyjny Australii]] [[pt:Subdivisões da Austrália]] [[ru:Административно-территориальное деление Австралии]] [[vi:Tiểu bang và vùng lãnh thổ Úc]] [[zh:澳大利亚行政区划]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arthur Phillip</title> <id>2563</id> <revision> <id>41263131</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T03:45:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gwernol</username> <id>266416</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 38692509 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ac.phillip.jpg|frame|Admiral Arthur Phillip (1786 portrait by Francis Wheatley, National Portrait Gallery, London)]] [[Royal Navy|Admiral]] '''Arthur Phillip''' ([[11 October]] [[1738]] &amp;ndash; [[31 August]] [[1814]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Navy|naval]] officer and colonial administrator. Phillip was appointed [[Governor of New South Wales|Governor]] of the first European colony on the [[Australia|Australian]] continent - [[New South Wales]] - and was the founder of the city of [[Sydney]]. ==Early life and naval career== Arthur Phillip was born in [[London]] in 1738, the son of Jacob Phillip, a German-born language teacher, and his English wife, Elizabeth, who had remarried after the death of her previous husband, a Royal Navy captain. Phillip was educated at the school of the [[Greenwich Hospital]] and at the age of 13 was apprenticed to the [[merchant navy]]. Phillip joined the [[Royal Navy]] at fifteen, and saw action at the outbreak of the [[Seven Years' War]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] at the [[Battle of Minorca]] in [[1756]]. In [[1762]] he was promoted to [[Lieutenant]], but was placed on half pay when the [[Seven Years War]] ended in [[1763]]. During this period he married, and farmed in [[Hampshire]]. In [[1774]] Phillip joined the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] Navy as a captain, serving in the war against [[Spain]]. In [[1778]] England was again at war, and Phillip was recalled to active service, and in [[1779]] obtained his first command, the ''Basilisk''. He was promoted to captain in [[1781]], and was given command of the ''Europe'', but in [[1784]] he was back on half pay. ==Governor of New South Wales== Then, in October [[1786]], Phillip was appointed captain of ''[[HMS Sirius (1786)|HMS Sirius]]'' and appointed Governor-designate of [[New South Wales]], the proposed British [[penal colony]] on the east coast of Australia. The appointment seems to have been the work of [[George Rose]], Under-Secretary of the Treasury and a neighbour of Phillip in Hampshire. He would have known of Phillip's experience in farming. Phillip had a very difficult time assembling the fleet which was to make the eight-month sea voyage to Australia. Everything a new colony might need had to be taken, since Phillip had no real idea of what he might find when he got there. There were few funds available for equipping the expedition. His suggestion that people with experience in farming, building and crafts be included was rejected. Most of the 778 convicts were petty thieves from the London slums. Phillip was accompanied by a contingent of [[Royal Marines|marines]] and a handful of other officers who were to administer the colony. The [[First Fleet]], of eleven ships, set sail on [[13 May]] [[1787]]. The leading ship reached [[Botany Bay]] on [[18 January]] [[1788]]. Phillip soon decided that this site, chosen on the recommendation of [[Sir Joseph Banks]], who had accompanied [[James Cook]] in [[1770]], was not suitable, since it offered no secure anchorage and had no reliable water source. After some exploration Phillip decided to go on to Port Jackson, and on [[26 January]] the marines and convicts were landed at [[Sydney Cove]], which Phillip named after [[Thomas Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney|Viscount Sydney]], the [[Home Secretary]]. The early days of the settlement were chaotic and difficult. With limited supplies, the cultivation of food was imperative, but the soils around Sydney were poor, the climate was unfamiliar, and moreover very few of the convicts had any knowledge of [[agriculture]]. Farming tools were scarce and the convicts were unwilling farm labourers. The colony was on the verge o
'' (Summit 1990) *''Evil and Exile'' (University of Notre Dame Press 1990) *''Sages and Dreamers'' (Summit 1991) *''The Forgotten'' (Summit 1992) ISBN 0805210199 *''A Passover Haggadah'' (Simon and Schuster 1993) ISBN 0671735411 *''All Rivers Run to the Sea: Memoirs, Vol. I, 1928-1969'' (Knopf 1995) ISBN 0805210288 *''Memoir in Two Voices'', with [[François Mitterrand]] (Arcade 1996) *''And the Sea is Never Full: Memoirs Vol. II, 1969'' (Knopf 1999) ISBN 0805210296 *''King Solomon and his Magic'' (Greenwillow 1999) *''Conversations with Elie Wiesel'' (Schocken 2001) *''The Judges'' (Knopf 2002) *''Wise Men and Their Tales'' (Schocken 2003) ISBN 0805241736 *''The Time of the Uprooted'' (Knopf 2005) ISBN 1400041724 == Notes == # {{note|Nobel}}[http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1986/press.html 1986 Nobel Peace Prize Press Release] # {{note|ewfoundation}}[http://www.eliewieselfoundation.org The Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity] == References == {{Wikiquote}} * [http://www.pbs.org/eliewiesel/ Elie Wiesel: First Person Singular] PBS special on Elie Wiesel * [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/wie0pro-1 Academy of Achievement: Elie Wiesel] (Profile, biography and interview) * [http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/wiesel.htm Text and audio of Elie Wiesel's famous speech on &quot;The Perils of Indifference&quot;] *[http://wiredforbooks.org/eliewiesel/ 1988 Audio Interview with Elie Wiesel by Don Swaim of CBS Radio, RealAudio] * [http://www.thenation.com/docprint.mhtml?i=20010219&amp;s=hitchens Christopher Hitchens criticizes Elie Wiesel in the Nation Magazine] *Fine, Ellen S. ''Legacy of Night: The Literary Universe of Elie Wiesel''. State University of New York Press, 1982. ISBN 0873955900 (paperback) * Wiesel, Elie. ''All Rivers Run to the Sea: Memoirs.'' New York: Knopf, 1995. * Wiesel, Elie. ''And the Sea is Never Full: Memoirs 1969-''. New York: Schocken, 1999. {{start box}} {{succession box | before = [[International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1986 | after = [[Óscar Arias]]}} {{end box}} [[Category:1928 births|Wiesel, Elie]] [[Category:Living people|Wiesel, Elie]] [[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Wiesel, Elie]] [[Category:Nazi concentration camp survivors|Wiesel, Elie]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Wiesel, Elie]] [[Category:Hungarian writers|Wiesel, Elie]] [[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Wiesel, Elie]] [[Category:Members of The American Academy of Arts and Letters|Wiesel, Elie]] [[Category:Formerly stateless people|Wiesel, Elie]] [[de:Elie Wiesel]] [[es:Elie Wiesel]] [[eo:Elie WIESEL]] [[fr:Elie Wiesel]] [[it:Elie Wiesel]] [[he:אלי ויזל]] [[hu:Elie Wiesel]] [[nl:Elie Wiesel]] [[ja:エリ・ヴィーゼル]] [[no:Elie Wiesel]] [[pl:Elie Wiesel]] [[pt:Elie Wiesel]] [[ro:Elie Wiesel]] [[fi:Elie Wiesel]] [[sv:Elie Wiesel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ed Wood, Jr.</title> <id>10520</id> <revision> <id>41767841</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:33:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Planninefromouterspace</username> <id>855988</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Last days */ where Wood died</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the biopic film, see ''[[Ed Wood (film)]]'' :''Edward Wood was also the name of [[Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax]], British Foreign Secretary'' [[Image:Edwood1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Edward D. Wood, Jr. in the film, ''Glen or Glenda''.]] '''Edward Davis Wood, Jr.''' ([[October 10]], [[1924]] – [[December 10]], [[1978]]) was a filmmaker known for a series of movies derided (or heralded, depending on one's fondness for [[kitsch]]) as &quot;the worst of all time.&quot; He is best known as the maker of [[Z-movie|z-grade]] [[Hollywood]] movies, including ultra-low budget [[Horror film|horror]], [[science fiction]] and [[Western (genre)|cowboy]] motion pictures. After extensive critical and commercial failure, he ended his career making [[pornography]] and writing ''schlock'' [[transvestism|transvestite]]-themed novels drawing from his own [[fetish]]es. Wood's posthumous fame began two years after his death, when he was awarded a [[Golden Turkey Award]] for being the worst director of all time. Today, he is generally respected by film scholars and historians &amp;mdash; not for his talent, which has so far not undergone any kind of critical re-appraisal, but for his evident zeal and honest love of movies and movie production. The very lack of conventional filmmaking ability in his work has earned him and his films a considerable [[cult film|cult]] following. Some of his films have been lampooned on the television series ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'', which has given those works wider exposure. ==Early years== Wood's father, Edward Sr., worked for the [[United States Postal Service|Postal Service]] and his family was shunted around America. Eventually they settled in [[Poughkeepsie, New York|Poughkeepsie]], [[New York]] where Ed Wood Jr. was born. In childhood, Wood was interested in the performing arts and [[pulp fiction]]. He collected [[comics]], pulp magazines and adored [[movies]], most notably [[Westerns]] and anything involving the [[occult]]. As a result of his obsession with film, he would often [[truancy|skip school]] in favor of watching pictures at the local [[movie theatre]]. Stills from that day's picture would often be thrown in the trash by theatre staff, but Wood would salvage them, making them additions to his extensive collection. It is reported that Wood's mother, Lillian, always wanted a girl and sometimes dressed young Ed up in [[skirts]] and dresses. This went on until Ed was about 12 years old. Some have presumed this to be the origin of Wood's non-sexually oriented transvestite tendencies, but others believe that while on a skiing trip with his relatives, one of his aunts told him to wear a jacket, when he said he didn't have one, his aunt took off her own angora jacket and gave it to him (a theme later seen in ''Glen or Glenda''). The story goes on to say that he liked the feel of the material and made a habit of wearing it. One of his first paid jobs was as a cinema usher, although he also sang and played drums in a band. Later, he fronted a singing quartet called ''Eddie Wood's Little Splinters''. He also learned to play a variety of string instruments. Ed was given his first movie [[camera]] on his 17th birthday: a [[Kodak]] 'City Special'. One of the first pieces of footage he shot was of the [[Hindenburg disaster]], a piece he was endlessly proud of. A [[patriotic]] boy, Wood enlisted in the [[US Marine Corps|Marines]] at age 17, just months after the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]]. He survived much combat and became a war hero. He claimed that he had participated in the [[Battle of Guadalcanal]] while secretly wearing a brassiere and panties beneath his uniform. Fascinated by the exotic and the bizarre, Ed joined a [[carnival]] after being discharged from the Marine Corps. His several missing teeth and disfigured leg (souvenirs from his time in combat) combined with his personal fetishes and acting skills made him a perfect candidate for the [[freakshow]]. Ed played, among other roles, 'the geek' and the bearded lady. Still with rugged facial hair, he donned women's clothing and completed the illusion by creating his own prosthetic [[breasts]]. This was achieved (allegedly) by piercing the [[nipple]] and inflating the breast skin with air. This experience resulted in a respect for carnival freakshows and a reinforced adoration of the bizarre. Carnivals appear in Ed's novels and movies quite often, most notably (and semi-autobiographically) in the novel ''Killer in Drag''. Wood's other vices included [[soft drugs]], [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] and [[sex]]. While he respected women and was completely faithful to his girlfriends (most notably [[Dolores Fuller]]) and wife Kathy O'Hara, Ed was a notorious [[womanizer]] in his younger days. ==Movies== [[Image:glenda.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Edward D. Wood, Jr. clad in wig and angora sweater for ''Glen or Glenda''.]] &quot;If you want to know me, see 'Glen or Glenda'. That's me, that's my story, no question. But 'Plan 9' is my pride and joy. We used [[Cadillac (automobile)|Cadillac]] [[hubcap]]s for [[flying saucers]] in that.&quot; - Ed Wood. Wood's movies were notoriously low budget, and car hubcaps were indeed used as flying saucers in ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]'' (actually, the first time one sees the saucers, they are model kit [[Unidentified flying object|UFO]]s but the store from which they had been purchased had run out of kits by the time more had to be constructed so Wood improvised with the hubcaps only in the later shots). The [[octopus]] at the end of ''[[Bride of the Monster]]'' was supposed to have a motor to create the effect of a violent flailing beast but the motor could not be located at the time, so it looks as though the actor in the scene is wrestling with pure rubber. One of Wood's heroes was [[Orson Welles]], whom Wood admired because of his ambition and passion for making films. Wood also prided himself on the fact that he was the only film-maker other than Welles to be [[writer]], [[film director|director]] and usually an [[actor]] in most of his films, although it is likely that Wood took on all of these positions mostly to save time and money. Unlike his counterpart in [[Tim Burton]]'s ''[[Ed Wood (film)|Ed Wood]]'', though, Wood never actually met his hero. His movies have a rushed quality to them, usually because Wood and his crew were working on a tight schedule due to funding constraints. While most directors film only one scene per day (or just a fraction of one in more modern pictures), Wood would complete up to thirty. He seldom ordered a single re-take, even if the original was obviously flawed. A number of has-b
lias&quot;, a minor member of Billy's gang. &quot;[[Knockin' on Heaven's Door (song)|Knockin' on Heaven's Door]]&quot;, among Dylan's most covered songs, has proved much more durable than the film itself. Dylan signed with [[David Geffen]]'s new Asylum label when his contract with [[Columbia Records]] expired in [[1973 in music|1973]]. He recorded ''[[Planet Waves]]'' with the Band; like ''New Morning'', ''Planet Waves'' was initially viewed as a return to peak form, but in retrospect appears less substantial (although &quot;Forever Young&quot; has proved to be one of Dylan's most lasting songs). Columbia Records almost simultaneously released ''[[Dylan (album)|Dylan]]'', a haphazard collection of studio outtakes often termed a &quot;revenge&quot; release. In early [[1974 in music|1974]], Dylan and [[the Band]] staged a high-profile, coast-to-coast tour of [[North America]]; promoter [[Bill Graham (promoter)|Bill Graham]] claimed he received more ticket purchase requests than for any prior tour by any artist. The tour was documented on the album ''[[Before the Flood]]'', but Dylan refused to allow a tour film to be produced. After the tour, Dylan and his wife became publicly estranged. He filled a small red notebook with songs about his marital problems, and quickly recorded a new album entitled ''[[Blood on the Tracks]]'' in September 1974. Word of Dylan's efforts soon leaked out, and expectations were high. But Dylan delayed the album's release, and then re-recorded half of the songs in [[Minneapolis]] by year's end. Released in early [[1975 in music|1975]], ''[[Blood on the Tracks]]'' was critically acclaimed and commercially successful, and is considered his finest album by many fans. The songs are among his most intimate. That summer, Dylan wrote his first successful &quot;protest&quot; song in twelve years, championing the cause of boxer [[Rubin Carter|Rubin &quot;Hurricane&quot; Carter]] who he believed had been wrongfully imprisoned for a triple homicide in Paterson, New Jersey (an eponymous 1971 tribute to [[George Jackson (Black Panther)|George Jackson]], a [[Black Panther]] who was killed in prison, sank almost unnoticed). After visiting Carter in jail, Dylan wrote &quot;[[Hurricane (song)|Hurricane]]&quot;, presenting the case for Carter's innocence. Despite its 8 1/2 minute length, the song was released as a single, peaking at #31 on the Billboard Chart, and performed at every 1975 date of Dylan's next tour, the [[Rolling Thunder Revue]]. The tour was something different: a varied evening of entertainment featuring many performers drawn mostly from the resurgent Greenwich Village folk scene, including [[T-Bone Burnett]]; [[Steven Soles]]; [[David Mansfield]]; former [[The Byrds|Byrds]] frontman [[Roger McGuinn]]; [[Scarlet Rivera]], a [[violin]] player Dylan discovered while she was walking down the street to a rehearsal, her violin case hanging on her back; and a reunion with [[Joan Baez]]. [[Joni Mitchell]] added herself to the Revue in November, and poet [[Allen Ginsberg]] accompanied the troupe, staging scenes for the film Dylan was simultaneously shooting. [[Sam Shepard]], who would later achieve some fame as a playwright and actor, traveled along as a sort of informal chronicler. Running through the fall of 1975 and again through the spring of 1976, the tour also encompassed the release of the album ''[[Desire (album)|Desire]]'' ([[1976 in music|1976]]), with many of Dylan's new songs featuring an almost [[travelogue]]-like narrative style, showing the influence of his new collaborator, playwright [[Jacques Levy]]. The spring 1976 half of the tour was documented by a TV concert special, ''Hard Rain'', and an LP of the same title; no concert album from the better-received and better-known opening half of the tour would be released until 2002, when ''[[The Bootleg Series Vol. 5: Bob Dylan Live 1975, The Rolling Thunder Revue|Live 1975]]'' appeared as the fifth volume in Dylan's official ''Bootleg Series''. The fall 1975 tour with the Revue also provided the backdrop to Dylan's nearly four-hour film ''[[Renaldo and Clara]]'', a sprawling, improvised and frequently baffling narrative mixed with striking concert footage and reminiscences. Released in 1978, the movie received generally poor, sometimes scathing, reviews and had a very brief theatrical run. Later in that year, Dylan allowed a two-hour edit, dominated by the concert performances, to be more widely released. In November 1976, Dylan appeared at The Band's &quot;farewell&quot; concert, along with other guests including [[Joni Mitchell]], [[Muddy Waters]], [[Van Morrison]], and [[Neil Young]]. [[Martin Scorsese]]'s cimematic chronicle of this show, ''[[The Last Waltz]]'', acclaimed as perhaps the best American concert film yet produced, was released in 1978 and included about half of Dylan's set. Dylan's [[1978 in music|1978]] album ''[[Street-Legal]]'' was generally well reviewed. Lyrically one of his more complex and absorbing, it suffered, however, from a poor sound mix (attributed to his studio recording practices), submerging much of its instrumentation in the sonic equivalent of cotton wadding until its remastered CD release nearly a quarter century later. Dylan's work in the late 1970s and early 1980s was dominated by his becoming, in 1979, a [[born again|born-again Christian]]. He released two albums of exclusively religious material and a third that seemed mostly so; of these, the first, ''[[Slow Train Coming]]'' (1979), is generally regarded as the most accomplished, winning him a Grammy for best male vocalist. The second album, ''[[Saved]]'' (1980), was not so well-received. When touring from the fall of 1979 through the spring of 1980 Dylan refused to play secular music and delivered sermonettes on stage, such as: :''&quot;Years ago they used ..., said I was a prophet. I used to say, 'No, I'm not a prophet,' they say, 'Yes, you are, you're a prophet.' I said, 'No, it's not me.' They used to say, 'You sure are a prophet.' They used to convince me I was a prophet. Now I come out and say Jesus Christ is the answer. They say, 'Bob Dylan's no prophet.' They just can't handle it.&quot;'' (January 25, 1980, Omaha) [http://www.bjorner.com/DSN05347%201980%20Second%20Gospel%20Tour.htm#DSN05410] Dylan's religious conversion was met with distrust by some fans and fellow artists. [[John Lennon]], for example, recorded &quot;Serve Yourself&quot;, a parody of Dylan's &quot;Gotta Serve Somebody&quot;. ===Hard-working elder statesman=== ====1980s==== In the fall of 1980, Dylan briefly resumed touring, restoring several of his most popular 1960s songs to his repertoire, for a series of concerts billed as &quot;A Musical Retrospective&quot;. ''[[Shot of Love]]'', recorded the next spring, featured Dylan's first secular compositions in more than two years, mixed with explicitly Christian songs and material that resisted pigeonholing. In the 1980s, the quality of Dylan's recorded work varied, from the well-regarded ''[[Infidels]]'' in 1983 to the panned ''[[Down in the Groove]]'' in 1988. In addition, beginning with ''Infidels'', Dylan's recordings would no longer be dominated by openly Christian lyrics, as they had been on his previous three albums. Of course, one need not look far to find religious themes in his work since, but these themes would no longer be so explicit, and certainly not so evangelistic. Naturally, there is much debate among Dylan fans over his current personal beliefs. Virtually all would agree that he no longer records songs comparable in evangelistic fervor to those of his gospel period, such as &quot;I Believe In You&quot;, &quot;Saving Grace&quot;, or &quot;Property Of Jesus&quot;. However, most would also admit that the supernatural is still a major theme in Dylan's work; for example, he has written and recorded songs such as &quot;[http://bobdylan.com/songs/deathnot.html Death Is Not The End]&quot;, &quot;[http://bobdylan.com/songs/ring.html Ring Them Bells]&quot;, and &quot;[http://bobdylan.com/songs/tryin.html Trying To Get To Heaven]&quot;, in the lyrics of which a cursory glance will reveal religious concerns. The ''Infidels'' recording sessions produced several notable outtakes, and some critics have questioned Dylan's judgment in leaving these off the album. Most well-regarded of these outtakes were &quot;[[Blind Willie McTell (song)|Blind Willie McTell]]&quot;, &quot;Foot of Pride&quot;, &quot;Someone's Got a Hold of My Heart&quot; and &quot;Lord Protect My Child&quot;, which were later released on the boxed set ''[[The Bootleg Series Volumes 1-3 (Rare &amp; Unreleased) 1961-1991]]''. An earlier version of ''[[Infidels]]'', prepared by producer/guitarist [[Mark Knopfler]], contained different arrangements and song selections than what appeared on the final product. In late 1985, Dylan married his longtime backup singer Carolyn Dennis (often professionally known as Carol Dennis). Their daughter, Desiree, Gabrielle Dennis-Dylan, was born on [[January 31]], [[1986]]. The couple divorced in the early 1990s. In 1987, Dylan starred in [[Richard Marquand]]'s movie ''[[Hearts of Fire]]'', in which he played a washed-up-rock-star-turned-chicken farmer whose teenage lover (Fiona) leaves him for a jaded English synth-pop sensation ([[Rupert Everett]]). The film was a critical and commercial flop. In fact, when asked in a press conference if he had anything to do with writing the movie, Dylan chuckled &quot;I couldn't have possibly written anything like that.&quot; Dylan was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in 1988. Later that spring, he took part in the first [[Traveling Wilburys]] album, working with [[Roy Orbison]], [[Jeff Lynne]], [[Tom Petty]], and his good friend [[George Harrison]] on lighthearted, well-selling fare. Despite Orbison's death, the other four Wilburys issued a sequel in 1990. Dylan finished the decade on a critical high note with the [[Daniel Lanois]]-produ
etermine the phases of the moon. Other traditional [[East Asia]]n calendars are similar to if not identical to the Chinese calendar: the [[Korean calendar]] is identical; the [[Vietnamese calendar]] substitutes the cat for the rabbit in the [[#Twelve animals|Chinese zodiac]]; the [[Tibetan calendar]] differs slightly in animal names, and the traditional [[Japanese calendar]] uses a different method of calculation, resulting in disagreements between the calendars in some years. Elements of the Chinese (or Sino-Uighur) calendar were introduced to the Islamic world following the Mongol invasions. The twelve year cycle, including Turkish/Mongolian translations of the animal names (known as ''sanawat-e turki'' سنوات ترکی,) remained in use for chronology, historiography, and bureaucratic purposes in the Persian and Turkish speaking world from Asia Minor to India throughout the Medieval and Early Modern periods. In Iran it remained common in agricultural records and tax assessments until a 1925 law (''see [[Iranian calendar]]'') deprecated its use. In [[China]], the traditional calendar is known as the &quot;agricultural calendar&quot; (&amp;#36786;&amp;#26310; nónglì), while the Gregorian calendar is known as the &quot;standard calendar&quot; (&amp;#20844;&amp;#26310; g&amp;#333;nglì), or &quot;Western calendar&quot; (&amp;#35199;&amp;#26310; x&amp;#299;lì). The Chinese calendar was also called the &quot;old calendar&quot; (&amp;#33290;&amp;#26310;) after the &quot;new calendar&quot; (&amp;#26032;&amp;#26310;), i.e. the [[Gregorian calendar]], was adopted as the official calendar. ==History== ===Legendary beginnings=== According to legend, the Chinese calendar developed during the [[third millennium BCE]]. It is said to have been invented by the first legendary ruler, Huang Di or the [[Yellow Emperor]], who reigned, by tradition, c.2698-2599 BCE. The fourth legendary ruler, [[Emperor Yao]], added the [[intercalary]] month. The 60-year &quot;stem-branch&quot; (干支 gānzhī) cycle (see &quot;[[#Calendar rules|Calendar rules]]&quot; below) was first used to mark years during the [[first century BCE]]. Tradition fixes the first year of the first cycle (the [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]]) at 2637 BCE (see Herbert A. Giles, ''A Chinese-English Dictionary'' (1912), and other Western authors writing in the late [[Qing dynasty]]). Thus the cycle beginning in 1984 is the 78th. Other opinions fix the first year at 2697 BCE (while Huangdi was still immature), by which count we are now in cycle 79. (See the section on [[#Continuously-numbered years|Continuously-numbered years]] and the table below for more information about these correspondences.) ===Early history=== The earliest archaeological evidence of the Chinese calendar appears on [[Oracle bone|oracle bones]] of the late [[second millennium BCE]] [[Shang dynasty]]. They show a 12-month lunisolar year having an occasional thirteenth month, and even a fourteenth month. Adding extra months to a calendar year is known as [[intercalation]], and keeps the new year from drifting backwards through the seasons, just as the Gregorian calendar puts an extra day in February every four years. Historical dates have been exactly determinable since [[840s BC|841 BCE]], the early [[Zhou dynasty]]. It is known that in this period the calendar used arbitrary intercalations. The first month of its year was near the [[winter solstice]] and the intercalary month was after the twelfth month. The ''sìfēn'' 四分 (quarter remainder) calendar, which began about [[484 BCE]], was the first calculated Chinese calendar, so named because it used a solar year of 365&amp;#188; days, along with a 19-year (235-month) Rule Cycle, known in the West as the [[Metonic cycle]]. The winter solstice was in its first month and its intercalary month was inserted after the twelfth month. Beginning in [[256 BCE]], it was first used by the Qin state, then the whole country after the Qin took over the whole country and became the [[Qin dynasty]]. In this calendar, the intercalary month was an extra ninth month at the end of a year that began with the tenth month, now placing the winter solstice in the eleventh month. This calendar continued to be used during the first half of the Western Han Dynasty. ===The Taichuli calendar=== The [[Emperor Wu of Han China|Emperor Wu]] of the Western [[Han dynasty]] introduced reforms that have governed the Chinese calendar ever since. His [[Taichuli calendar|Tàich&amp;#363;]] &amp;#x592A;&amp;#x521D; (Grand Inception) calendar of [[104 BCE]] had a year with the [[winter solstice]] in the eleventh month and designated as intercalary any calendar month (a month of 29 or 30 whole days) during which the sun does not pass a principal term (that is, remained within the same sign of the [[zodiac]] throughout). Because the sun's mean motion was used to calculate the [[#Jieqi|jiéqì]] (節氣/节气) (or seasonal markings) until 1645, this intercalary month was equally likely to occur after any month of the year. The conjunction of the sun and moon (the astronomical new moon) was calculated using the mean motions of both the sun and moon until 619, the second year of the [[Tang dynasty]], when chronologists began to use true motions modeled using two offset opposing [[parabola]]s (with small linear and cubic components). Unfortunately, the parabolas did not meet smoothly at the mean motion, but met with a discontinuity or jump. ===The true sun and moon=== With the introduction of Western astronomy into China via the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]], the motions of both the sun and moon began to be calculated with [[trigonometric function|sinusoids]] in the 1645 Shíxiàn calendar (時憲書, Book of the Conformity of Time) of the [[Qing dynasty]], made by the Jesuit [[Johann Adam Schall von Bell|Adam Schall]]. The true motion of the sun was now used to calculate the [[#Jieqi|jiéqì]], which caused the intercalary month to often occur after the second through the ninth months, but rarely after the tenth through first months. A few autumn-winter periods have one or two calendar months where the sun enters two signs of the zodiac, interspersed with two or three calendar months where the sun stays within one sign. ===The Gregorian Reform and the 1929 time change=== The [[Gregorian calendar]] was adopted by the nascent [[Republic of China]] effective [[January 1]], [[1912]] for official business, but the general populace continued to use the traditional calendar. The status of the Gregorian calendar was unclear between 1916 and 1921 while China was controlled by several competing [[warlord]]s. From about 1921 until 1928 warlords continued to fight over northern China, but the [[Kuomintang]] or Nationalist government controlled southern China and used the Gregorian calendar. After the Kuomintang reconstituted the Republic of China [[October 10]], [[1928]], the Gregorian calendar was officially adopted, effective [[1 January]], [[1929]]. Along with this, the time zone for the whole country was adjusted to the coastal time zone that had been used in European [[treaty ports]] along the Chinese coast since 1904. This changed the beginning of each calendar day, for both the traditional and Gregorian calendars, by plus 14 minutes and 26 seconds from [[Beijing]] [[midnight]] to midnight at the [[longitude]] 120° east of [[Greenwich]]. This caused some discrepancies, such as with the 1978 [[Mid-Autumn Festival]]. There was a new moon on [[September 3]], 1978, at 00:07, [[Chinese Standard Time]][http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/phase/phases1901.html]. Using the old Beijing timezone, the New Moon occurred at 23:53 on the 2nd, so the eighth month began on a different day in the calendars. Thus people in [[Hong Kong]] (using the traditional calendar) celebrated the Festival on [[16 September]], but those in China celebrated on [[17 September]]. [http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/calendar/cal.pdf] (see page 18) ==Calendar rules== The following rules outline the Chinese calendar since c.104 BCE. Note that the rules allow either mean or true motions of the Sun and Moon to be used, depending on the historical period. # The months are lunar months. This means the first day of each month beginning at ''midnight'' is the day of the astronomical [[new moon]]. (Note, however, that a &quot;day&quot; in the Chinese calendar begins at 11 p.m. and not at midnight) # Each year has 12 regular months, which are numbered in sequence (1 to 12) and have alternative names. Every second or third year has an [[intercalary month]] (&amp;#38287;&amp;#26376; rùnyuè), which may come after any regular month. It has the same number as the preceding regular month, but is designated intercalary. # Every other [[#Solar term|jiéqì]] of the Chinese solar year is equivalent to an entry of the sun into a sign of the tropical zodiac (a principal term or cusp). # The sun always passes the [[winter solstice]] (enters Capricorn) during month 11. # If there are 12 months between two successive occurrences of month 11, at least one of these 12 months must be a month during which the sun remains within the same zodiac sign throughout (no principal term or cusp occurs within it). If only one such month occurs, it is designated intercalary, but if two such months occur, only the first is designated intercalary. # The times of the astronomical new moons and the sun entering a zodiac sign are determined in the Chinese Time Zone by the [[Purple Mountain Observatory]] (&amp;#32043;&amp;#37329;&amp;#23665;&amp;#22825;&amp;#25991;&amp;#21488; Z&amp;#464;j&amp;#299;nsh&amp;#257;n Ti&amp;#257;nwéntái) outside [[Nanjing]] using modern astronomical equations. The zodiac sign which the sun enters during the month and the ecliptic longitude of that entry point usually determine the number of a regular month. Month 1, zh&amp;#275;ngyuè, literally means principal month. All other months are literally numbered, second month, third month, etc. {| class=&quot;wikitable&q
eneralization&quot;. If we have a theory ''T'' (a set of statements, called axioms, in some language) then a sentence &amp;phi; is defined to be '''provable in the theory ''T'' ''' if ''a''&amp;and;''b''&amp;and;...&amp;rarr; &amp;phi; is provable in first order logic, for some finite set of axioms ''a'', ''b'',... of the theory ''T''. One apparent problem with this definition of provability is that it seems rather ad hoc: we have taken some apparently random collection of axioms and rules of inference, and it is far from clear that we have not accidently missed out some vital axiom or rule. [[Gödel's completeness theorem]] assures us that this is not really a problem: the theorem states that any statement true in all models is provable in first order logic. In particular, any reasonable definition of &quot;provable&quot; in first order logic must be equivalent to the one above (though it is possible for the lengths of proofs to differ vastly for different definitions of provability). There are many different (but equivalent) ways to define provability. The definition above is a typical example of a &quot;Hilbert style&quot; calculus, which has a lot of different axioms but very few rules of inference. The [[Sequent_calculus|&quot;Gentzen style&quot; predicate calculus]] differs in that it has very few axioms but many rules of inference. ==Metalogical theorems of first-order logic== Some important metalogical theorems are listed below in bulleted form. # Unlike the [[propositional calculus]], first-order logic is [[Decidability (logic)|undecidable]], provided that the language has at least one predicate of valence at least 2. There is provably no [[decision procedure]] for determining for an arbitrary formula P, whether P is valid (see [[Halting problem]]). (Results came independently from [[Alonzo Church|Church]] and [[Alan Turing|Turing]].) # The decision problem for validity is semidecidable; in other words, there is a [[Turing machine]] that when given any sentence as input, will halt if and only if the sentence is valid (true in all models). As [[Gödel's completeness theorem]] shows, for any '''valid''' formula P, P is provable. # Monadic predicate logic (i.e., predicate logic with only predicates of one argument) is decidable. ==Comparison with other logics== *'''Typed first order logic''' allows variables and terms to have various '''types''' (or '''sorts'''). If there are only a finite number of types, this does not really differ much from first order logic, because one can describe the types with a finite number of unary predicates and a few axioms. Sometimes there is a special type &amp;Omega; of truth values, in which case formulas are just terms of type &amp;Omega;. *'''Weak second order logic''' allows quantification over finite subsets. *'''Monadic second order logic''' allows quantification over subsets, or in other words over ''unary'' predicates. *'''[[Second order logic]]''' allows quantification over subsets and relations, or in other words over all predicates. *'''[[Higher order logic]]s''' allows quantification over more general things, such as relations between relations. *'''[[intuitionistic logic|Intuitionistic first order logic]]''' uses intuitionistic rather than classical propositional calculus; for example, &amp;not;&amp;not;&amp;phi; need not be equivalent to &amp;phi;. *'''[[Modal logic]]''' has extra ''modal operators'' with informal meanings such as &quot;it is necessary that &amp;phi;&quot; and &quot;it is possible that &amp;phi;&quot;. *'''[[Infinitary logic]]''' allows infinitely long sentences. For example, one may allow a conjugation or disjunction of infinitely many formulas, or quantification over infinitely many variables. *'''First order logic with extra quantifiers''' has new quantifiers ''Qx'',..., with meanings such as &quot;there are many ''x'' such that ...&quot;. Most of these logics are in some sense extensions of first order logic: they include all the quantifiers and logical operators of first order logic with the same meanings. Lindstrom showed first order logic has no extensions (other than itself) that satisfy both the compactness theorem and the downward [[Lowenheim-Skolem theorem]]. A precise statement of this theorem requires listing several pages of technical conditions that the logic is assumed to satisfy; for example, changing the symbols of a language should make no essential difference to which sentences are true. An exotic equivalence is the exact equivalence between first order logic with an ordered pair construction and a natural system of relation algebra with the projections of an ordered pair as special relations, investigated by Tarski and Givant. ==See also== *[[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] *[[Gödel's completeness theorem]] *[[List of rules of inference]] *[[Mathematical logic]] *[[List of first-order theories]] ==References== * [[David Hilbert]] and [[Wilhelm Ackermann]] (1928). ''Grundzüge der theoretischen Logik'' ([[Principles of Theoretical Logic]]). Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-8218-2024-9. * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/ Article on classical logic] by Stewart Shapiro at the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]], which covers the definition, model theory and soundness and completeness results for first-order logic characterised in a natural deduction style. * [http://www.ltn.lv/~podnieks/ Introduction to mathematical logic] by Karl Podnieks. * [http://us.metamath.org/index.html Metamath]: a project to construct mathematics using an axiomatic system based on [[propositional calculus]], predicate calculus, and [[set theory]] [[de:Prädikatenlogik]] [[fr:Calcul des prédicats]] [[hu:Els&amp;#337;rend&amp;#369; logika]] [[ja:一階述語論理]] [[pl:Klasyczny rachunek logiczny]] [[sv:Predikatlogik]] [[ru:&amp;#1051;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1087;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1086; &amp;#1087;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1103;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;]] [[zh:&amp;#19968;&amp;#38542;&amp;#37007;&amp;#36655;]] [[Category:Model theory]] [[Category:Mathematical logic]] [[Category:Discrete mathematics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>First-order predicate calculus</title> <id>10984</id> <revision> <id>15908771</id> <timestamp>2005-05-22T05:48:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.117.128.104</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[First-order logic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>First-order predicate logic</title> <id>10986</id> <revision> <id>15908773</id> <timestamp>2005-06-09T14:32:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dominus</username> <id>5717</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Snap double rd</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[First-order logic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Functor</title> <id>10987</id> <revision> <id>34292518</id> <timestamp>2006-01-07T22:57:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>YurikBot</username> <id>271058</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: uk</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For functors in [[computer science]], see the [[function object]] article.'' In [[category theory]], a '''functor''' is a special type of mapping between categories. Functors can be thought of as [[morphism]]s in the [[category of small categories]]. Functors were first considered in [[algebraic topology]], where algebraic objects (like the [[fundamental group]]) are associated to [[topological space]]s, and algebraic [[homomorphism]]s are associated to [[continuous function|continuous]] maps. Nowadays, functors are used throughout modern mathematics to relate various categories. ==Definition== Let ''C'' and ''D'' be [[category (mathematics)|categories]]. A '''functor''' ''F'' from ''C'' to ''D'' is a mapping that * associates to each object ''X'' in ''C'' an object ''F''(''X'') in ''D'', * associates to each morphism ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' in ''C'' a morphism ''F''(''f'') : ''F''(''X'') &amp;rarr; ''F''(''Y'') in ''D'' such that the following two properties hold: * &lt;math&gt;F(id_{X}) = id_{F(X)}&lt;/math&gt; for every object &lt;math&gt;X \in C&lt;/math&gt; * &lt;math&gt;F(g \circ f) = F(g) \circ F(f)&lt;/math&gt; for all morphisms &lt;math&gt;f:X \rightarrow Y&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;g:Y\rightarrow Z&lt;/math&gt;. That is, functors must preserve identity morphisms and composition of morphism. ===Covariance and contravariance=== There are many constructions in mathematics which would be functors but for the fact that they &quot;turn morphisms around&quot; and &quot;reverse composition&quot;. We then define a '''contravariant functor''' ''F'' from ''C'' to ''D'' as a mapping that *associates to each object &lt;math&gt;X \in C&lt;/math&gt; an object &lt;math&gt;F(X) \in D&lt;/math&gt;, *associates to each morphism &lt;math&gt;f:X\rightarrow Y \in C&lt;/math&gt; a morphism &lt;math&gt;F(f):F(Y) \rightarrow F(X) \in D&lt;/math&gt; such that **&lt;math&gt;F(id_X)=id_{F(X)}&lt;/math&gt; for every object &lt;math&gt;X \in C&lt;/math&gt;, **&lt;math&gt;F(g \circ f) = F(f) \circ F(g)&lt;/math&gt; for all morphisms &lt;math&gt;f:X\rightarrow Y&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;g:Y\rightarrow Z&lt;/math&gt;. Note that contravariant functors reverse the direction of composition. Ordinary functors are also called '''covariant functors''' in order to distinguish them from contravariant ones. Note that one can also define a contravariant functor as a ''covariant'' functor on the [[dual category]] &lt;math&gt;C^{op}&lt;/math&gt;. Some authors prefer to write all expressions covariantly. That is, instead of saying &lt;math&gt;F: C\rightarrow D&lt;/math&gt; is a contravariant functor, they simply write &lt;math&gt;F: C^{op}
ox jurisdictions. After six months or more as a transitional deacon a man will be ordained to the priesthood. Priests are able to preach, perform baptisms, witness marriages, hear confessions and give absolutions, anoint the sick, and celebrate the [[Eucharist]] or the Mass. For Anglicans, a person is ordained a [[deacon]] once they have completed their training at a theological college. They then typically serve as a [[curate]] and are ordained as [[priest]] a year later. Deacons must be at least 23 years old, and priests 24. Anglican deacons can preach sermons, perform [[baptism]]s and conduct funerals, but, unlike priests, cannot conduct [[marriage]]s or celebrate the [[Eucharist]]. In most branches of the Anglican church, women can be ordained as priests, and in some, can be ordained a [[bishop]]. Anglican priests have to be at least 30 before they can be chosen to become a bishop. [[Bishop]]s are chosen from among the priests in churches that adhere to Roman Catholic usage. Among Eastern Rite Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, which permit married priests, bishops must either be unmarried or agree to abstain from contact with their wives. It is a common misconception that all such bishops come from religious orders; while this is generally true, it is not a rule. In the case of both Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox, they are usually leaders of territorial units called [[diocese]]s. Only bishops can validly administer the sacrament of holy orders. In [[Latin Rite|Latin-rite]] Catholic churches and Anglican churches, only bishops (and priests with authorisation by the bishop) may lawfully administer the sacrament of confirmation, but if an ordinary priest administers that sacrament illegally, it is nonetheless considered valid, so that the person confirmed cannot be confirmed again, by a bishop or otherwise. In [[Eastern Rites|Eastern-rite]] Catholic churches, confirmation is done by parish priests via the rite of chrismation, and is usually administered to both neonates and adults immediately after their baptism. === Recognition of other churches' orders === Roman Catholics recognize the validity of holy orders administered in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Old Catholic, and the Assyrian Church of the East Churches because they believe those churches have maintained the [[apostolic succession]] of bishops, i.e., their bishops claim to be in a line of succession dating back to the [[Apostle]]s, just as Catholic bishops do. Consequently, if a priest of one of those eastern churches converts to Catholicism, he is automatically a Catholic priest. Eastern Orthodox bishops can, and frequently do, grant recognition to the holy orders of converts who were earlier ordained in the Roman Catholic church (though there is much debate in the Orthodox Church about this); that is part of the policy called [[Economy (Eastern Orthodoxy)|church economy]]. [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] churches, unlike most Protestant churches, maintain the succession, their bishops being successors of English bishops who converted to Protestantism in the 16th century. A controversy in the Catholic church over the question of whether Anglican holy orders are valid was settled by [[Pope Leo XIII]] in [[1896]], who wrote in ''[[Apostolicae Curae]]'' that Anglican orders lack validity because the rite by which priests were ordained was not correctly performed, thus causing a break of continuity. [[Eastern Orthodox]] bishops have, on occasion, granted &quot;economy&quot; when Anglican priests convert to Orthodoxy. Changes in the Anglican [[Ordinal]] since King [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]], and a fuller appreciation of the pre-[[Reformation]] ordinals suggest that the correctness of the dismissal of Anglican Orders may be questioned; however it remains Catholic teaching. More importantly, since [[1896]] many Anglican bishops have been consecrated by bishops of the [[Old Catholic]] Church whose holy orders were recognised by the [[Holy See]], thus restoring the historic episcopate, if indeed it were in need of restoration. Roman Catholics do not recognize the ordination of ministers in [[Protestant]] churches that do not maintain the apostolic succession. Anglicans accept the ordination of most mainline denominations; however, only those denominations in full communion with the Anglican Communion such as some [[Lutheran]] denominations, may preside at services requiring a priest. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints accepts the legal authority of clergy to perform marriages but does not recognize any other sacraments performed by ministers not ordained to the Latter-day Saint priesthood. Although the Latter-day Saints do claim a doctrine of apostolic succession, it is significantly different from that claimed by Roman Catholics and is not recognized by Rome. === Marriage and holy orders === The rules discussed in this section are not considered to be among the infallible dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church, but are mutable rules of discipline. See [[clerical celibacy]] for a more detailed discussion. Married men may be ordained to the diaconate as Permanent Deacons, but in the [[Latin Rite]] of the Roman [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]] may not be ordained to the priesthood. In the [[Eastern Rites]] of the Roman Catholic Church and in the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Church married deacons may be ordained priests, but may not become bishops. Bishops in the Eastern Rites and the Eastern Orthodox churches are drawn only from among [[Monasticism|monks]], who have taken a vow of celibacy. They may be widowers, though; it is not required of them to never have been married. There are cases of permanent deacons who, left widowed by the death of a wife, have been ordained to the priesthood. There have been some situations in which men previously married and ordained to the priesthood in an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] church have been ordained to the Catholic priesthood and allowed to function much as an Eastern Rite priest but in a Latin Rite setting; however, this may only happen with the approval of the priest's Bishop and the Pope. Anglican clergy may be married and may marry after ordination. === Chastity and celibacy === There is a difference between '''chastity''' and '''celibacy'''. [[Celibacy]] is the state of not being married, so a [[clerical celibacy|vow of celibacy]] is a promise not to enter into marriage but instead to consecrate one's life to service (in other words, &quot;married to God&quot;). [[Chastity]], a virtue expected of all Christians, is the state of sexual purity; for a vowed celibate, or for the single person, chastity means the avoidance of sex. For the married person, chastity means the practice of sex ''only'' with the spouse, and can carry the expectation of intercourse with the spouse that is open to [[reproduction]]. == Other concepts of ordination == Ordination ritual and procedures vary by denomination. Different churches and denominations specify more or less rigorous requirements for entering into office, and while the process of ordination is likewise given more or less ceremonial pomp depending on the group. Many Protestants still communicate authority and ordain to office by having the existing overseers physically lay hands on the candidates for office and [[prayer|pray]] over them. === Methodist churches === The [[Methodist]] model is loosely based upon the Anglican model and was first devised under the leadership of [[Thomas Coke (Methodist)|Thomas Coke]] and [[Francis Asbury]] in the late 18th century. In this scheme, an [[Elder (religious)|elder]] is ordained to word (preaching and teaching), sacrament (administering baptism and the Lord's Supper), and order (ordaining others), and a [[deacon]] is someone who is ordained to word and service. In the [[United Methodist Church]], for instance, seminary graduates are interviewed and approved by the Conference Board of Ordained Ministry and then the Clergy Session, at which time they are accepted as &quot;probationary members of the conference&quot; and then commissioned by the resident Bishop to full time ministry. (At one time, the graduate was ordained as a deacon at this point, a provisional role which has since been done away with; the Diaconal order is now a separate and distinct [[Laity|lay]] office in the United Methodist Church.) After serving the probationary period consisting of a minimum of three years, the probationer is then interviewed again and either continued on probation, discontinued altogether, or approved. Upon final approval by the Clergy Session of the Conference, the probationer becomes a full member of the Conference and is then ordained as an elder or deacon by the resident Bishop. === Presbyterian churches === [[Presbyterian]] churches, following their [[Scotland|Scottish]] forebears, reject the traditions surrounding overseers and instead identify the offices of bishop (''episkopos'' in Greek) and elder (''presbuteros'' in Greek, from which the term &quot;presbyterian&quot; comes) because the two terms seem to be used interchangeably in the [[Bible]] (compare [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Titus+1.5-9 Titus 1.5-9] and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1Tim+3.2-7 I Tim. 3.2-7]). While there is an increasing authority with each level of gathering of elders ('Kirk Session' over a [[congregation (worship)|congregation]], then [[presbytery]], then possibly a [[synod]], then the [[General Assembly]]), there is no hierarchy of elders, and each elder has an equal vote at the court on which they sit. Elders are usually chosen at their local level, either elected by the congregation and approved by the Kirk Session, or appointed directly by the Kirk Session. Some churches place limits on the term that the elders serve, while others ordain elders for life. Presbyterians also ordain (by laying on of hands) ministers of Word and Sacrament (sometimes known as 'teachi
er than by ear. The most notable of these was the early [[transatlantic telegraph cable]]. ==Global communication== Within 29 years of its invention, the telegraph network crossed the oceans to every continent, making instant global [[communication]] possible for the first time. Its development allowed newspapers to cover significant world events in near real-time, revolutionized business, particularly trading businesses, and allowed huge fortunes to be won and lost in a flurry of investment in research and infrastructure building reminiscent of the [[1990s]] [[dot-com]] boom. Few inventions have ever had greater impact. ==See also== *[[Baron Schilling]] *[[Telegraphy]] *[[Telegraph key]] *[[Undersea telegraph cable]] *[[Charles Wheatstone]] *[[Slough]] - for more details of the Tawell murder ==External links== *[http://www.morsetelegraphclub.org/ Morse Telegraph Club, Inc.] (The Morse Telegraph Club is an international non-profit organization dedicated to the perpetuation of the knowledge and traditions of telegraphy.) *http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tel/morse/morse.htm *http://collections.ic.gc.ca/canso/index.htm * [[da:Elektrisk telegraf]] [[fi:Lennätin]] [[ja:&amp;#38651;&amp;#20449;]] [[sl:Telegraf]] [[Category:Telecommunications history]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Event</title> <id>9451</id> <revision> <id>39868714</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:21:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wiki alf</username> <id>303874</id> </contributor> <comment>rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|event}} An '''event''' is something that takes place; an occurrence and arbitrary point in [[time]]. A significant occurrence or happening. A social gathering or activity. Individuals define an event's significance subjectively; people actively and retroactively compartmentalize their lives and [[history]] in terms of [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]]s delimited by events considered to be significant. == Sciences == * In [[physics]] (and in some kinds of [[philosophy]]), an event occurs at a point in [[time]] which can be distinguished because the [[state (disambiguation)|state]] of the world changed. Something was different before and after the event. Physics also speaks of [[event horizon]]s and [[simultaneity]]. In Physics and in Science in general, an event may be contrasted with a [[process]], which occurs across intervals, not just at a point on a timeline. An action or relationship may be misunderstood when viewed as an event or single point of focus. Instead, it may help to view it as part of an integrated process. * In [[special relativity]] (and [[general relativity]]), an event is a point in the [[spacetime]] continuum, i.e. it has a position in [[space]] and [[time]]. * In experimental [[particle physics]], an [[event (particle physics)|event]] refers to a set of [[elementary particle]] interactions recorded in a brief span of time. * In [[probability]] a possible outcome of an experiment is called an [[elementary event]], while a set of those (a subset of all) is called simply an event (see [[event (probability theory)]]). * In [[biology]] one speaks of [[extinction event]]s. * In [[philosophy]], one might want to distinguish [[fact]]s from [[event (philosophy)|events]], and then between physical events, [[mental event]]s, and [[brain event]]s. [[Weinberg's Law of Twins]] states that most of the time, no matter how much effort one expends, no event of any great significance will result. == Telecommunications == * In [[information processing]], an event is a change in the [[property |properties]] received by an [[observer]] after being transmitted from an [[object]]. * In [[computer science]], an event is a software message that indicates something has happened. See [[event-driven programming]]. A number of protocols, such as [[MIDI]], are also event-based. {{disambig}} [[de:Ereignis]] [[als:Ereignis]] [[ja:イベント]] [[ru:Событие]] [[sv:Evenemang]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Estruscan alphabet</title> <id>9452</id> <revision> <id>15907344</id> <timestamp>2004-08-16T20:45:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Topbanana</username> <id>20151</id> </contributor> <comment>fix broken redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Etruscan language]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Establishing shot</title> <id>9454</id> <revision> <id>36870375</id> <timestamp>2006-01-27T00:26:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mikereichold</username> <id>566926</id> </contributor> <comment>rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[film]] the '''establishing shot''' is a short referential section at the beginning of a scene indicating where the remainder of the scene takes place. For example, an exterior [[shot (film)|shot]] on location of a large building on a rainy night, followed by an interior shot of a couple talking, implies that the conversation is taking place inside that building. Of course the conversation may in fact have been filmed on a studio set because of budget, permitting, time limitations, etc. Directors will frequently use subtle cues to reinforce the illusion--in this case, the sound of rain plus the occasional sight of it through a window in the background. {{filming-stub}} [[Category:Film techniques]] [[de:Establishing Shot]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Etruscan language</title> <id>9455</id> <revision> <id>41573427</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:00:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>71.161.139.70</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language |name=Etruscan |familycolor=Isolate |states=Ancient [[Etruria]] |region=[[Italian peninsula]] |extinct=[[1st century|1st century CE]] |family=Unclassified, possibly [[Lemnian language|Lemnian]] |iso2=und|iso3=ett}} '''Etruscan''' was a [[language]] spoken and written in the ancient region of [[Etruria]] (current [[Tuscany]]) and in parts of what are now [[Lombardy]], [[Veneto]], and [[Emilia-Romagna]] (where the Etruscans were displaced by [[Gaul]]s), in [[Italy]]. However, [[Latin]] superseded Etruscan completely, leaving only a few documents and a few [[loanword]]s in Latin (e.g., ''persona'' from Etruscan ''phersu''), and some place-names, like [[Parma, Italy|Parma]]. ==History== [[Image:Haruspex.png|thumb|right|300px|Drawing of the inscriptions on the [[Piacenza]] liver, see [[haruspex]].]] The [[Etruscans]] are thought by some to be indigenous people of Italy, living there before the [[Indo-European]] migration and the arrival of the Latins, around [[1000 BC]]. [[Herodotus]] (''Histories'' I.94), however, describes the [[Tyrrhenian]]s as immigrants from [[Lydia]] in western [[Anatolia]], led west, fleeing famine, by their leader Tyrrhoeus, to settle in [[Umbria]] [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/etrucans2.html]; the Tyrrhenians of Herodotus are sometimes identified with the Etruscans, although there is no material cultural evidence to back this up. Literacy was fairly common, as can be seen by the great number of short [[inscription]]s (dedications, [[epitaph]]s etc). Though, in the [[1st century BC]], the Greek historian [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] noted that the Etruscan language was unlike any other, the Etruscans had a rich literature, as noted by Latin authors. With the rise of the [[Roman Republic]] that conquered Etruria, Latin [[hegemony]] hastened the decline of the Etruscan civilization, and by [[200 BC]], Etruscan was already replaced by Latin, except perhaps among some isolated mountain or fenland communities and, in a field that was more accessible to Latin authors, in the traditional contexts of [[cult|religious cult]]. By the late Republic, however, only a few educated Romans with antiquarian interests (such as [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]]) could read Etruscan. The last person known to have been able to read Etruscan was the [[Roman emperor ]] [[Claudius]] ([[10 BC]] &amp;ndash; [[54]]), who compiled a dictionary (now lost) by interviewing the last few elderly rustics who still spoke the language. [[Livy]] and [[Cicero]] were both aware that highly-specialized Etruscan religious rites were codified in several sets of books written in Etruscan under the generic Latin title ''Etrusca Disciplina.'' The ''Libri Haruspicini'' dealt with [[divination]] from the entrails of the sacrificed animal, the ''Libri Fulgurales'' expounded the art of divination by observing lightning. A third set, the ''Libri Rituales'', would have provided us with the key to Etruscan civilization: its wider scope embraced Etruscan standards of social and political life as well as ritual practices. According to the [[4th century]] Latin writer [[Servius]], a fourth set of Etruscan books existed, dealing with animal gods, but it is probably unlikely that any contemporary scholar could have read Etruscan at such a late date. Christian authorities collected such works of paganism and burnt them during the [[5th century]]; the single surviving Etruscan book, ''[[Liber Linteus]]'', being written on linen, survived only by being used as mummy wrappings. Etruscan had some influence over Latin. A few dozen words were borrowed by the Romans and some of them can be found in modern languages. ==Classification== The majormost consensus is that Etruscan is related only to other members of what is called the '''Tyrrhenian''' language family which in itself is isolate, that is, unrelated to other language groups as far as we can tell. There is no doubt that [[Rhaetic]] and [[Lemnian]] are among this family. In his ''Natural History'' ([[1st century]] AD), [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] wrote about Alpine peoples: &quot;The [[Rhaetia]]ns and the [[Vinde
-emphasize the view that scientific data is self-evident, value-free, and context-free. A major subject of concern and controversy in the philosophy of science has been to inquire about the nature of ''theory change'' in science. Three philosophers in particular who represent the primary poles in this debate have been [[Karl Popper]], who argued that scientific knowledge is progressive and cumulative; [[Thomas Kuhn]], who argued that scientific knowledge moves through &quot;[[paradigm shift]]s&quot; and is not necessarily progressive; and [[Paul Feyerabend]], who argued that scientific knowledge is not cumulative or progressive, and that there can be no [[demarcation problem|demarcation]] between science and any other form of investigation. Since the publication of Kuhn's ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'' in 1962, there has been much debate in the academic community over the meaning and objectivity of &quot;science.&quot; Often, but not always, a conflict over the &quot;truth&quot; of science has split along the lines of those in the scientific community and those in the social sciences or humanities (for example, the &quot;[[Science wars]]&quot;). ==Pre-experimental &quot;science&quot;== {{main|Pre-experimental science}} [[Image:Aristotle.jpg|thumb|120px|right|[[Aristotle]] (sculpture)]] In the West, from [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]] up to the time of the [[Scientific Revolution]], inquiry into the workings of the universe was known as [[natural philosophy]], and those engaged in it were known as ''natural philosophers''. This included some fields of study which are no longer considered scientific. [[Bertrand Russell]]'s ''History of Philosophy'' gives a good account of the historical development of (natural) philosophy. In many cases, systematic learning about the natural world was a direct outgrowth of religion, often as a project of a particular religious community. One important feature of &quot;pre-scientific&quot; inquiry (whether in the West or elsewhere) was reluctance to engage in experiment. For example, [[Aristotle]], one of the most prolific natural philosophers of antiquity, made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals. Aristotle focused on categorizing. He also made many observations on the large-scale workings of the universe, which led to the development of a comprehensive theory of physics; see [[Physics (Aristotle)]]. Yet, until the period of the [[Scientific Revolution]], the utility of experiment was unproven, which means that theories were never empirically tested. In [[Taoism|Taoist]] philosophy, for example, the tradition of [[wu wei]] (action without action), would deprecate the setting up of ''artificial'' conditions in an experiment in fear they would produce contrived results that could never describe nature as it is in the world around us. ==Early cultures== {{main articles|[[History of science in early cultures]] and [[Alchemy]]}} In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an [[oral tradition]]. The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity. Combined with the [[Origins of agriculture|development of agriculture]], which allowed for a surplus of food, it became possible for early civilizations to develop, because more time could be devoted to tasks other than survival. Many ancient civilizations collected astronomical information in a systematic manner through simple observation. Though they had no knowledge of the real physical structure of the planets and stars, many theoretical explanations were proposed. Basic facts about human physiology were known in some places, and [[alchemy]] was practiced in several civilizations. Considerable observation of macrobiotic flora and fauna was also performed. ==The Middle Ages== {{main|History of science in the Middle Ages}} With the loss of the [[Western Roman Empire]], much of Europe lost contact with the knowledge of the past. While the [[Byzantine Empire]] still held learning centers such as [[Alexandria]] and [[Constantinople]], Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in [[Monastery|monasteries]]. Philosophical and scientific teaching of the period was based upon few copies and commentaries of ancient Greek texts that remained in Western Europe. ===Islamic science=== {{main|Islamic science}} [[Image:Islamic MedText c1500.jpg|thumb|right|Sample of Islamic medical text]]Meanwhile, in the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support by the newly created Arab [[Caliphate]] (Empire). With the spread of [[Islam]] in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Islamic scholarship lasted until the 14th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, [[Arabic language|Arabic]], allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek and Roman texts from the [[Byzantine Empire]] along with Indian sources of learning provided Islamic scholars a knowledge base to build upon. In addition, there was the [[Hajj]]. This annual pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] facilitated scholarly collaboration by bringing together people and new ideas from all over the Islamic world. In Islamic versions of early scientific method, ethics played an important role. During this period the concepts of [[citation]] and [[peer review]] were developed. In mathematics, the [[Persians|Persian]] scholar Muhammad ibn Musa [[al-Khwarizmi]] gave his name to what is now called an [[algorithm]]; the term [[algebra]] is derived from ''al-jabr'', the beginning of the title of one of his publications. [[Sabians|Sabian]] mathematician [[Al-Batani]] (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics and [[Persians|Persian]] scholar [[Al-Razi]] to chemistry. The fruits of these contributions can be seen in [[Damascus steel]] ([[wootz steel]]), and the [[Baghdad Battery]]. Arab alchemy inspired [[Roger Bacon]], and later [[Isaac Newton]]. In astronomy, Al-Batani improved the measurements of [[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]], preserved in the translation of the Greek ''Hè Megalè Syntaxis'' (''The great treatise'') translated as ''[[Almagest]]''. Al-Batani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the earth's axis. ===Medieval Indian science=== :''Main articles: [[Indian science]] and [[Indian science and technology]]'' Before the Middle Ages, Indian philosophers in [[ancient India]] developed [[atomic theory|atomic theories]], which included formulating ideas about the [[atom]] in a systematic manner and propounding ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. The [[principle of relativity]] was also available in an early embryonic form in the Indian philosophical concept of &quot;''sapekshavad''&quot;. The literal translation of this [[Sanskrit]] word is &quot;''theory of relativity''&quot; (not to be confused with Einstein's [[theory of relativity]]). By the beginning of the Middle Ages, the [[wootz steel|wootz]], [[crucible steel|crucible]] and [[stainless steel|stainless]] [[steels]] were invented in India. The [[spinning wheel]] used for [[spinning]] [[thread]] or [[yarn]] from fibrous material such as [[wool]] or [[cotton]] was invented in the early Middle Ages. By the end of the middle ages, [[iron]] [[rocket]]s were developed in the [[kingdom of Mysore]] in [[South India]]. [[Aryabhata]] in [[499]] presented a [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] [[solar system]] of [[gravity|gravitation]] where he presented astronomical and mathematical theories in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the [[Orbital period|periods]] of the planets were given as [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits with respect to the sun. He also believed that the moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight and that the orbits of the planets are ellipses. He carried out accurate calculations of astronomical constants based on this system, such as the periods of the planets, the [[circumference]] of the [[earth]], the [[solar eclipse]] and [[lunar eclipse]], the time taken for a single rotation of the Earth on its axis, the length of earth's revolution around the sun, and the longitudes of planets using eccentrics and [[epicycle]]s. He also introduced a number of [[trigonometric functions]] (including [[sine]], [[versine]], [[cosine]] and inverse sine), [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] tables, and techniques and [[algorithm]]s of [[algebra]]. [[Arabic]] translations of his texts were available in the [[Caliph|Islamic world]] by the [[8th century|8th]]-[[10th century]]. In the [[7th century]], [[Brahmagupta]] briefly described the [[law of gravitation]], and recognized [[gravity]] as a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of [[0 (number)|zero]] as both a [[placeholder]] and a [[decimal digit]], along with the [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]] now used universally thorughout the world. Arabic translations of his texts (around [[770]]) introduced this number system to the Islamic world, where it was adapted as [[Arabic numerals]]. [[Islam]]ic scholars carried knowledge of this number system to [[Europe]] by the [[12th century]] and it has now displaced all older number systems throughout the world. The ''Siddhanta Shiromani'' was a mathematical astronomy text written by [[Bhaskara]] in the [[12th century]]. The 12 chapters of the first part cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The second part contains thirteen chapters on the sphere. It covers topics such as: praise of study of the sphere; nature of the sphere; cosmography and geography; planetary mean motion; eccentric epi
Suriname]] *[[Peruvian inti|Inti]] - [[Peru]] *[[Haitian livre|Livre]] - [[Haiti]] *[[Peso]] **[[Bolivian peso]] - [[Bolivia]] **[[Costa Rican peso]] - [[Costa Rica]] **[[El Salvadoran peso]] - [[El Salvador]] **[[Guatemalan peso]] - [[Guatemala]] **[[Honduran peso]] - [[Honduras]] **[[Nicaraguan peso]] - [[Nicaragua]] **[[Paraguayan peso]] - [[Paraguay]] **[[Puerto Rican peso]] - [[Puerto Rico]] **[[Venezuelan peso]] - [[Venezuela]] *[[Pound (currency)|Pound]] **[[Bahamian pound]] - [[Bahamas]] **[[Jamaican pound]] - [[Jamaica]] *Real **[[Argentine real]] - [[Argentina]] **[[Central American Republic real]] - [[Costa Rica]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]] and [[Nicaragua]] **[[Colombian real]] - [[Colombia]] **[[Ecuadorian real]] - [[Ecuador]] **[[Honduran real]] - [[Honduras]] **[[Mexican real]] - [[Mexican]] **[[Paraguayan real]] - [[Paraguay]] **[[Peruvian real]] - [[Peru]] **[[Spanish colonial real]] - [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Cuba]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Mexico]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Panama]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Uruguay]] and [[Venezuela]] *[[Danish West Indies rigsdaler|Rigsdaler]] - [[Danish West Indies]] *[[Bolivian scudo|Scudo]] - [[Bolivia]] *[[Ecuadorian sucre|Sucre]] - [[Ecuador]] *[[Trade dollar]] - [[United States of America]] *[[Venezuelan venezolano|Venezolano]] - [[Venezuela]] ===Asia=== *[[Georgian abazi|Abazi]] - [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] *[[Tuvan akşa|Akşa]] - [[Tuva]] *[[Dollar]] **[[Malayan dollar]] - [[Brunei]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]] **[[Mongolian dollar]] - [[Mongolia]] **[[Sarawak dollar]] - [[Sarawak]] **[[Straits dollar]] - [[Brunei]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]] **[[Taiwan dollar]] - [[Taiwan]] **[[Kiautschou dollar]] - [[Qingdao]] *[[Escudo]] **[[Portuguese Indian escudo]] - [[Portuguese India]] **[[Portuguese Timor escudo]] - [[East Timor]] *[[Madras fanam|Fanam]] - [[Madras Presidency]] *[[Cambodian franc|Franc]] - [[Cambodia]] *[[Netherlands Indies gulden|Gulden]] - [[Netherlands Indies]] *[[South Korean hwan|Hwan]] - [[South Korea]] *[[Kutch kori|Kori]] - [[Kutch]] *[[Maldivian laari|Laari]] - [[Maldives]] *[[Turkish lira|Lira]] - [[Turkey]] *[[Nepalese mohar|Mohar]] - [[Nepal]] *[[Japanese mon|Mon]] - [[Japan]] *[[Korean mun|Mun]] - [[Korea]] *[[Portuguese Timor pataca|Pataca]] - [[Portuguese Timor]] *[[French Indochinese piastre|Piastre]] - [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]] and [[Vietnam]] *[[Brunei pitis|Pitis]] - [[Brunei]] *[[Pound (currency)|Pound]] **[[Israeli pound]] - [[Israel]] **[[Palestinian pound]] - [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] *[[North Yemeni rial|Rial]] - [[North Yemen]] *[[Ceylonese rixdollar|Rixdollar]] - [[Sri Lanka]] *[[Netherlands Indies roepiah|Roepiah]] - [[Netherlands Indies]] *[[Ruble]] **[[Armenian ruble]] - [[Armenia]] **[[Azeri ruble]] - [[Azerbaijan]] **[[Georgian ruble]] - [[Georgia (country)|Georgia ]] **[[Tajikistani ruble]] - [[Tajikistan]] *[[Rupee]] **[[Afghan rupee]] - [[Afghanistan]] **[[Bhutanese rupee]] - [[Bhutan]] **[[Burmese rupee]] - [[Burma]] **[[Danish Indian rupee]] - [[Danish India]] **[[French Indian rupee]] - [[French India]] **[[Gulf rupee]] - [[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]] and [[UAE]] **[[Hyderabad rupee]] - [[Hyderabad state|Hyderabad]] **[[Portuguese Indian rupia]] - [[Portuguese India]] **[[Travancore rupee]] - [[Travancore]] *Rupiah **[[Riau rupiah]] - [[Riau]] **[[West New Guinea rupiah]] - [[West New Guinea]] *[[Tibetan srang|Srang]] - [[Tibet]] *[[Chinese tael|Tael]] - [[China]] *[[Tibetan tangka|Tangka]] - [[Tibet]] *Tenga **[[Bukharan tenga]] - [[Bukhara]] **[[Kokand tenga]] - [[Kokand]] **[[Khwarazmi tenga]] - [[Khwarazm]] *[[Cambodian tical|Tical]] - [[Cambodia]] *[[Iranian toman|Toman]] - [[Iran]] *[[Chinese wen|Wen]] - [[China]] *[[Korean yang|Yang]] - [[Korea]] *[[Chinese yuan|Yuan]] - [[China]] ===Australasia=== *[[New Hebrides franc|Franc]] - [[New Hebrides]] *[[New Guinea mark|Mark]] - [[New Guinea]] *[[Pound (currency)|Pound]] **[[Australian pound]] - [[Australia]] **[[Fijian pound]] - [[Fiji]] **[[New Guinea pound]] - [[New Guinea]] **[[New Zealand pound]] - [[New Zealand]] **[[Oceania pound]] - [[Kiribati]], [[Nauru]], [[New Guinea]], [[Solomon Islands]] and [[Tuvalu]] **[[Samoan pound]] - [[Samoa]] **[[Solomon Islands pound]] - [[Solomon Islands]] **[[Tongan pound]] - [[Tonga]] ===Europe=== *14 national currencies which were replaced by the [[euro]] in [[2002]]: **[[Austrian schilling]] **[[Belgian franc]] **[[Dutch gulden]] **[[Finnish markka]] **[[French franc]] **[[German mark]] **[[Greek drachma]] **[[Irish pound]] **[[Italian lira]] **[[Luxembourgian franc]] **[[Portuguese escudo]] **[[San Marinese lira]] **[[Spanish peseta]] **[[Vatican lira]] *[[Conventionsthaler]] - [[Holy Roman Empire]] *Daler **[[Danish rigsdaler|Rigsdaler]] - [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]] **[[Dutch rijkdaalder|Rijkdaalder]] - [[Netherlands]] **[[Swedish riksdaler|Riksdaler]] - [[Sweden]] **[[Norwegian speciedaler|Speciedaler]] - [[Norway]] *[[Dinar]] **[[Bosnia and Herzegovina dinar]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] **[[Croatian dinar]] - [[Croatia]] **[[Krajina dinar]] - [[Republic of Serbian Krajina|Krajina]] **[[Republika Srpska dinar]] - [[Republika Srpska]] **[[Yugoslav dinar]] - [[Yugoslavia]] *[[Tuscan fiorino|Fiorino]] - [[Tuscany]] *[[Florin]] **[[Austrian florin]] - [[Austria]] **[[Lombardy-Venetia florin]] - [[Lombardy-Venetia]] *[[Saar franc|Franc]] - [[Saar]] *[[Westphalian frank]] - [[Kingdom of Westphalia|Westphalia]] *[[Luccan franco|Franco]] - [[Lucca]] *[[Ionian gazeta|Gazeta]] - [[Ionian Islands]] *[[Gulden]] **[[Austro-Hungarian gulden]] - [[Austria-Hungary]] **[[Baden gulden]] - [[Baden]] **[[Bavarian gulden]] - [[Bavaria]] **[[Danzig gulden]] - [[Danzig]] **[[South German gulden]] - [[Baden]], [[Bavaria]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Hohenzollern]], [[Württemberg]] and other states **[[Württemberg gulden]] - [[Württemberg]] *[[Ukrainian karbovanets|Karbovanets]] - [[Ukraine]] *Kronenthaler **[[Kronenthaler|Holy Roman Empire Kronenthaler]] - [[Holy Roman Empire]] **[[Austrian Netherlands kronenthaler|Kronenthaler]] - [[Belgium]] *Koruna **[[Czechoslovak koruna]] - [[Czechoslovakia]] **[[Slovak koruna (WWII)|Slovak koruna]] - [[Slovakia]] ([[Second World War]]) *[[Lira]] **[[Luccan lira]] - [[Lucca]] **[[Neapolitan lira]] - [[Naples]] (Kingdom of [[Joachim Murat]]) **[[Papal States lira]] - [[Papal States]] **[[Parman lira]] - [[Parma]] **[[Sardinian lira]] - [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Sardinia]] **[[Turkish lira]] - [[Turkey]] **[[Tuscan lira]] - [[Tuscany]] **[[Venetian lira]] - [[Venice]] *Mark **[[Danzig mark]] - [[Danzig]] **[[Hamburg mark]] - [[Hamburg]] **[[Saar mark]] - [[Saar]] *[[Polish mark|Marka]] - [[Poland]] *[[Ionian obol|Obol]] - [[Ionian Islands]] *[[German ostmark|Ostmark]] - [[Lithuania]] *[[German ostruble|Ostruble]] - [[Lithuania]] *[[Perper]] ** [[Serbian perper]] ** [[Montenegrin perper]] *Piastra **[[Neapolitan piastra]] - Mainland part of [[Two Sicilies]] **[[Sicilian piastra]] - [[Sicily]] **[[Two Sicilies piastra]] - [[Two Sicilies]] *Real **[[Azorean real]] - [[Azores]] **[[Gibraltar real]] - [[Gibraltar]] **[[Spanish real]] - [[Spain]] (plural reales) **[[Portuguese real]] - [[Portugal]] (plural réis) *[[Reichsthaler]] - [[Germany]] *[[Latvian ruble|Rubłi]] - [[Latvia]] *[[Scudo]] **[[Lombardy-Venetia scudo]] - [[Lombardy-Venetia]] **[[Milanese scudo]] - [[Duchy of Milan|Milan]] **[[Papal States scudo]] - [[Papal States]] **[[Maltese scudo]] - [[Malta]] *[[Spanish peso|Peso]] - [[Spain]] *[[Lithuanian talonas|Talonas]] - [[Lithuania]] *[[Thaler]] - [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Hungary]] **[[Bremen thaler]] - [[Bremen]] **[[Danzig thaler]] - [[Danzig]] **[[Hannovarian thaler]] - [[Hannover]] **[[Hesse-Kassel thaler]] - [[Hesse-Kassel]] **[[Mecklenburg thaler]] - [[Mecklenburg]] **[[Prussian thaler]] - [[Prussia]] **[[Saxon thaler]] - [[Mecklenburg]] **[[Westphalian thaler]] - [[Kingdom of Westphalia|Westphalia]] *[[Vereinsthaler]] **[[Hannovarian vereinsthaler]] - [[Hannover]] **[[Hesse-Kassel vereinsthaler]] - [[Hesse-Kassel]] **[[Mecklenburg vereinsthaler]] - [[Mecklenburg]] **[[Prussian vereinsthaler]] - [[Prussia]] **[[Saxon vereinsthaler]] - [[Mecklenburg]] *[[Kraków złoty|Złoty]] - [[Kraków]] ==Accounting units== *[[Franc Poincaré]] *[[Special Drawing Rights]] *[[European Currency Unit]] *[[Currency sign]] *[[Krugerrand]] *[[Fictional currency]] *[[Local currencies]] *[[Petrocurrency]] *[[Currency Pair]] ==Proposed currencies== *[[Eco (currency)|Eco]] *[[Mozambican metica|Metica]] - [[Mozambique]] *[[Montenegrin perun|Perun]] - [[Montenegro]] *[[Amero]] ==Lists== *[[List of circulating currencies]] *[[List of historical currencies]] *[[List of currencies]] *[[List of motifs on banknotes]] *[[List of international trade topics]] *[[List of historical exchange rates]] == See also == *[[ISO 4217]] Currency codes *[[Non-decimal currencies]] *[[exchange rate]] *[[Foreign Exchange]] *[[Foreign exchange trading]] *[[Foreign exchange market]] *[[Foreign exchange service]] *[[Optimal Currency Area]] == External links== * [http://www.rationalfx.com currency converter] * [http://www.shibuimarkets.com/perl/fx Currencies from all over the world (www.shibuimarkets.com)] * [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=currency Table of currencies (from dictionary.com)] * [http://tokyoahead.com/main/staticpages/index.php/chart2 Historical Currency Charts, Matrix &amp; Converter] * [http://haas.ca/articles/20040311-currency.cfm Minting New Security] * http://www.banknotes.com * http://www.banknoteworld.com * [http://www.forexpower.info Foreign Currency Trading Articles] * [http://www.monetary-unit.com/ Ad-Free website on worldwide currencies with short Descrption and Pictures] * [http://www.fxhill.com FXhill.com] Forex Portal - Directory, News, Forum, Trading Strategies, Service Providers, Products, Institutions, Culture ===Records=== * [http://tomc
, Bob McNair announced that [[Denver Broncos]] offensive coordinator [[Gary Kubiak]] would become the Texans' second head coach. As of the [[2005 NFL season]], Houston is the only NFL team with 3 distinctions: they have yet to post a winning season, they have yet to play in a regular-season [[Monday Night Football]] game, and have yet to make their first playoff appearance. The Texans are also one of three franchises, along with [[New Orleans Saints|New Orleans]] and [[Jacksonville Jaguars|Jacksonville]], to have never played in a [[Super Bowl]] or [[List of NFL champions|NFL championship game]]. ==Season-by-season records== {{Start NFL SBS}} {{NFL SBS season|2002|4|12|0|4th AFC South}} {{NFL SBS season|2003|5|11|0|4th AFC South}} {{NFL SBS season|2004|7|9|0|3rd AFC South}} {{NFL SBS season|2005|2|14|0|4th AFC South}} {{end box}} ^ So far, after the [[2005 NFL season]], the Texans All-Time record is 18-46-0. ==Single Season Records== *'''Rushing Attempts''': 302 [[Domanick Davis]] (2004) *'''Rushing Yards''': 1,188 [[Domanick Davis]] (2004) *'''Rushing Touchdowns''': 13 [[Domanick Davis]] (2004) *'''Receiving Catches''': 79 [[Andre Johnson]] (2004) *'''Receiving Yards''': 1,142 [[Andre Johnson]] (2004) *'''Receiving Touchdowns''': 6 [[Andre Johnson]] (2004), [[Corey Bradford]] (2002) *'''Passing Attempts''': 466 [[David Carr]] (2004) *'''Passing Completions''': 285 [[David Carr]] (2004) *'''Passing Yards''': 3,531 [[David Carr]] (2004) *'''Passing Touchdowns''': 16 [[David Carr]] (2004) *'''Passing Interceptions''': 15 [[David Carr]] (2002) *'''Quarterback Sacks''': 8 [[Jeff Posey]] (2002) *'''Pass Interceptions''': 7 [[Marcus Coleman]] (2003) ==Players of note== ===Current players=== {{Houston Texans roster}} ===First Round Draft Picks=== *2002 [[David Carr]] QB, 1st Overall *2003 [[Andre Johnson]] WR, 3rd Overall *2004 [[Dunta Robinson]] CB, 10th Overall *2004 [[Jason Babin]] LB, 27th Overall (From Tennessee) *2005 [[Travis Johnson]] DE, 16th Overall *2006 (To Be Announced), 1st Overall ===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs=== none ===Retired numbers=== none ===Not to be forgotten=== * [[Tony Boselli]] * [[Aaron Glenn]] * [[Billy Miller]] * [[Jamie Sharper]] * [[Dom Capers]] (1st Head Coach) ==Head Coaches== *[[Dom Capers]] (2002-2005) *[[Gary Kubiak]] (2006-present) ===Current Staff=== *Head Coach - [[Gary Kubiak]] *Assistant Head Coach - [[Mike Sherman]] *Offensive Coordinator - [[Troy Calhoun]] *Defensive Coordinator - [[Richard Smith (football coach)|Richard Smith]] *Special Teams Coach - [[Joe Marciano]] *Quarterbacks Coach - [[Troy Calhoun]] *Running Backs Coach - [[Chick Harris]] *Wide Receivers Coach - [[Kyle Shanahan]] *Tight Ends Coach - [[Brian Pariani]] *Offensive Line Coach - [[John Benton (football coach)|John Benton]] *Defensive Line Coach - [[Bob Karmelowicz]] *Linebackers Coach - [[Johnny Holland]] *Defensive Backs Coach - [[Jon Hoke]] *Strength and Conditioning - [[Dan Riley]] ==External links== *[http://www.houstontexans.com/ Official Houston Texans web site] *[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/houtex/houtexans.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com] {{NFL}} [[Category:Houston Texans| ]] [[Category:National Football League teams]] [[Category:2002 establishments]] [[de:Houston Texans]] [[es:Houston Texans]] [[fr:Texans de Houston]] [[it:Houston Texans]] [[pt:Houston Texans]] [[sv:Houston Texans]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heart of Oak</title> <id>13865</id> <revision> <id>30527269</id> <timestamp>2005-12-07T23:19:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>172.200.174.91</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings see [[Hearts of Oak]]'' '''&quot;Heart of Oak&quot;''' is the official [[march (music)|march]] of the [[Royal Navy]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. It is also the official march of the [[Canadian Forces Maritime Command]], the naval component of the [[Canadian Forces]] (CF), as well as the CF's [[Naval Operations Branch (Canadian Forces)|Naval Operations Branch]]. The music was composed by Dr [[William Boyce]] and the words were written by the 18th Century English actor [[David Garrick]]. ==[[Lyric]]s== Come, cheer up, my lads, 'tis to glory we steer, &lt;br&gt;To add something more to this wonderful year; &lt;br&gt;To honour we call you, as freemen not slaves, &lt;br&gt;For who are as free as the sons of the waves? CHORUS &lt;br&gt; Hearts of oak are our ships, Jolly tars are our men, &lt;br&gt; we always are ready; Steady, boys, steady! &lt;br&gt; We'll fight and we'll conquer again and again. &lt;br&gt;We ne'er see our foes but we wish them to stay, &lt;br&gt;They never see us but they wish us away; &lt;br&gt;If they run, why we follow, and run them ashore, &lt;br&gt;And if they won't fight us, we cannot do more. CHORUS... &lt;br&gt;They swear they'll invade us, these terrible foes, &lt;br&gt;They frighten our women, our children and beaus, &lt;br&gt;But should their flat bottoms in darkness get o'er, &lt;br&gt;Still Britons they'll find to receive them on shore. CHORUS... &lt;br&gt;We'll still make them fear and we'll still make them flee, &lt;br&gt;And drub them ashore as we've drubbed them at sea,&quot; &lt;br&gt;Then cheer up, my lads, with our hearts let us sing, &lt;br&gt;Our soldiers, our sailors, our airmen, our Queen. CHORUS... [[Category:Military marches]] [[Category:Navy of Canada]] [[Category:Royal Navy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Huang he</title> <id>13866</id> <revision> <id>41937601</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:24:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>PeaceOnEarth</username> <id>844500</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Yellow River]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Harold Holt</title> <id>13867</id> <revision> <id>41532382</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:00:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>PMA</username> <id>6661</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM | name=Rt Hon Harold Holt | image=haroldholt.jpg | country=Australia | term=[[26 January]], [[1966]]&amp;ndash;[[19 December]], [[1967]] | before=[[Robert Menzies]] | after=[[John McEwen]] | date_birth=[[5 August]] [[1908]] | place_death=[[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]] | date_death=[[17 December]] [[1967]] | place_death=[[Cheviot Beach]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | party=[[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] }} '''Harold Edward Holt''' ([[5 August ]] [[1908]]&amp;ndash;[[17 December ]] [[1967]]) was an [[Australia]]n politician and the 17th [[Prime Minister of Australia]] from [[1966]] - [[1967]], now best remembered for the bizarre circumstances of his death. He was born in [[Sydney]], the son of Tom Holt, a well-known theatre director, but he was educated at [[Wesley College, Melbourne|Wesley College]] in [[Melbourne]] and at the [[University of Melbourne]], where he graduated in law. He practised briefly as a solicitor before being elected to the House of Representatives for the [[United Australia Party]] in [[1935]]. ==Early career== At 27 Holt was one of the youngest members of the House, but his obvious ability brought him rapid promotion to the ministry in [[1939]]. In [[1940]] he joined the Army, without resigning his seat. Shortly afterwards three Cabinet ministers were killed in an air disaster at [[Canberra]], and the Prime Minister, [[Robert Menzies]], recalled Holt from the Army to become Minister for Labour and National Service. This earned him the ironic nickname &quot;Gunner Holt.&quot; Holt had a reputation as a high-living playboy, but in [[1947]] he married [[Zara Bate|Zara Violet Fell]], a fashion designer, and adopted her three young sons from her first marriage. After eight years in opposition from [[1941]] to [[1949]], Holt returned to office in Menzies's new [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] government in [[1949]] as Minister for Labour and National Service and Minister for Immigration. In this position he continued and expanded the massive immigration program begun by his [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] predecessor, [[Arthur Calwell]]. In [[1956]] Holt became Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party and thus Menzies' heir apparent. In [[1958]], when [[Arthur Fadden|Sir Arthur Fadden]] retired, Holt succeeded him as Treasurer. His career was nearly derailed in [[1961]] when his economic policies caused a recession which came close to losing the [[1961]] election for the Liberals. But his stocks, like the economy, soon recovered, and in January [[1966]] he finally succeeded Menzies as Prime Minister. He had been an MP for almost 31 years - the longest wait of any non-caretaker Australian Prime Minister. ==Prime Minister== Holt's major challenge in office was the [[Vietnam War]], to which Menzies had committed Australian troops in support of the [[United States]]. In October [[1966]] US President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] toured Australia at Holt's invitation, and in December Holt called an election on the slogan &quot;All the Way with LBJ.&quot; Holt had an enormous victory over Labor, whose leader, [[Arthur Calwell]], bitterly opposed the war. In [[1967]], however, [[Gough Whitlam]] succeeded Calwell as Labor leader, and proved a much more effective opponent. At the [[1967]] half-Senate elections the Liberals lost a number of seats. Some Liberals, free of the strict discipline of the Menzies years, began to plot against what they saw as Holt's weak leadership. == Disappearance == [[Image:Harold Holt at car boot.jpg|thumb|300px|Harold Holt collecting snorkelling paraphernalia from his car at Portsea, Victoria, 1966.]] On [[17 December]] [[1967]], Holt went swimming at [[Cheviot Beach]] on [[Point Nepean]] near the holiday resort of [[Portsea, Victoria|Portsea]], south of Melbourne. Apparently seeking to impress his friends, Holt, who was 59 and had had a
uot;'' Familiar with this sort of argument, Sartre claimed that bad and good faith do not represent moral ideas, rather, they are ways of being. Logical positivists, such as [[Carnap]] and [[Ayer]], claim that existentialists frequently become confused over the verb &quot;to be&quot; in their analyses of &quot;being&quot;. The verb is prefixed to a predicate and to use the word without any predicate is meaningless. Borrowing from [[Kant]]'s argument against the [[ontological argument]] for the existence of God, they argue that existence is not a property. ==Existentialism in psychotherapy== With complete freedom to decide and being responsible for the outcome of said decisions comes [[anxiety]]--or angst--about the choices made. Anxiety's importance in existentialism makes it a popular topic in [[psychotherapy]]. Therapists often use existential philosophy to explain the patient's anxiety. Psychotherapists using an existential approach believe that the patient can harness his or her anxiety and use it constructively. Instead of suppressing anxiety, patients are advised to use it as grounds for change. By embracing anxiety as inevitable, a person can use it to achieve his or her full potential in life. [[Logotherapy]] asserts that all human beings have a will to find meaning, and that serious behavioral problems develop when they cannot find it. The therapy helps patients handle the responsibility of choices and the pain of unavoidable suffering by helping them decide to give life meaning. ==Major thinkers and authors associated with the movement== ===Film directors=== * [[Ingmar Bergman]] * [[Michel Gondry]] * [[Éric Rohmer]] * [[Alain Robbe-Grillet]] * [[Richard Linklater]] * [[Krzysztof Kieślowski]] * [[David O. Russell]] * [[Michelangelo Antonioni]] * [[Jean-Luc Godard]] * [[François Truffaut]] * [[Mamoru Oshii]] ===Novelists and playwrights=== Existentialist novelists were generally seen as a mid-1950s phenomenon that continued until the mid- to late 1970s. Most of the major writers were either French or from French African colonies. Small circles of other Europeans were seen as literary existential precursors by the existentialists themselves, however, literary history increasingly has questioned the accuracy of this idealism for earlier models. There is overlapping between the American [[beat generation]] writers who lived in Paris, and felt it their spiritual home, and writers of [[road novels]]; as well as the delayed action of the French discovery of American [[film noir]], in the 1950s, after a decade of Nazi-Fascist censorship, which, as [[Truffaut]] and others in the ''[[Cahiers du Cinéma]]'' indicated, influenced novels and plays; to some extent, as well, the [[surrealist]] movement of [[Andre Breton]] and others, which questioned the established reality, made possible the isolation of non-academic novels protagonised by amoral anti-heroes. The ''Belmondo'' school of existentialism, inspired by [[Genet]], the criminal world, and French society's underclasses are seen now as a detective fiction sub-genre. This is a general list of existentialist writers: *[[Kobo Abe]] *[[Edward Albee]] *[[Paul Auster]] *[[Georges Bataille]] *[[Samuel Beckett]] *[[Simone de Beauvoir]] *[[Michel Butor]] *[[Albert Camus]] (Ultimately rejected being labeled an existentialist, but his thoughts and works are characterized as being existential.) *[[Louis-Ferdinand Celine]] *[[Noah Cicero]] *[[Eugene Cullen]] *[[Philip K. Dick]] *[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] *[[Marguerite Duras]] *[[Ralph Ellison]] *[[John Fowles]] *[[Neil Gaiman]] *[[Jean Genet]] *[[Andre Gide]] *[[Joseph Heller]] *[[Hermann Hesse]] *[[Henrik Ibsen]] *[[Eugène Ionesco]] *[[Franz Kafka]] *[[Jack Kerouac]] *[[Imre Kertész]] *[[Jerzy Kosinski]] *[[Joe McGovern]] *[[Yukio Mishima]] *[[Chuck Palahniuk]] *[[Orhan Pamuk]] *[[Walker Percy]] *[[Harold Pinter]] *[[Rainer Maria Rilke]] *[[Alain Robbe-Grillet]] *[[Catherine Robbe-Grillet]] *[[José Saramango]] *[[Nathalie Sarraute]] *[[Claude Simon]] *[[Jean-Paul Sartre]] *[[Marquis de Sade]] (De Sade predated the existentialist movement, but his writings affected it) *[[Ali Shariati]] *[[Tom Stoppard]] *[[Michael Szymczyk]] *[[Miguel de Unamuno]] *[[Boris Vian]] *[[Peter Weiss]] *[[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]] ===Philosophers=== * [[Simone de Beauvoir]] * [[Nikolai Berdyaev]] * [[Henri Bergson]] * [[E. M. Cioran]] * [[José Ortega y Gasset]] * [[Martin Heidegger]] (Like Camus, Heidegger rejected the label 'existentialist'.) * [[Karl Jaspers]] * [[Hans Jonas]] * [[Søren Kierkegaard]] (Kierkegaard died too soon to be a part of the existentialist movement, and it is probable he would have rejected many tenets of Sartre's existentialism. Yet, he was of the first philosophers dealing with the problems of human existence in ways recognizable as forerunners of Sartrean existentialism.) * [[Walter Kaufmann]] * [[Ladislav Klíma]] * [[Emmanuel Levinas]] * [[Gabriel Marcel]] * [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]] * [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] (Like Kierkegaard, Nietzsche died too soon to be part of the existentialist movement, and, in many ways differs from the existentialism we know. Yet, his work is precursor to many of the developments in later existentialist thought.) * [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] * [[Ramond Quole]] * [[Lev Shestov]] * [[Max Stirner]] * [[Miguel de Unamuno]] * [[Peter Wessel Zapffe]] * [[Colin Henry Wilson|Colin Wilson]] ===Psychologists=== * [[Ernest Becker]] * [[Ludwig Binswanger]] * [[Medard Boss]] * [[Frantz Fanon]] * [[Viktor Frankl]] * [[R. D. Laing]] * [[Abraham H. Maslow]] * [[Rollo May]] * [[Theodore Shanks]] * [[Fritz Perls]] * [[Otto Rank]] * [[Irvin D. Yalom]] ===Theologians=== *[[Martin Buber]] *[[Rudolf Bultmann]] *[[John Macquarrie]] *[[Gabriel Marcel]] *[[Paul Tillich]] *[[David Layton]] *[[Samuel Kuhn]] (most noted for his phenomenal film work) ==Existentialism in popular culture== The [[burlesque]] existentialist is a [[stock character]] of the popular imagination, dressed in black and uttering [[gnomic]] assertions about life and the universe. ===Film=== [[Talk:Existentialism#Proposal_to_eliminated_most_films|Existentialist films]] deal with the concepts of existentialism that are familiar to the average person, such as [[free will]], [[personal identity]], individuality, [[responsibility]], mind vs. reality, and what really matters. The Coen Brothers' ''[[The Man Who Wasn't There]]'', ''[[Waking Life]]'' and Bergman's ''[[The Seventh Seal]]'' and ''[[Wild Strawberries]]'' are good examples of existential film. ===Humour=== Existentialism was [[parody|parodied]] in [[Paul Jennings]]'s theory of [[resistentialism]]. It was also themed in the 2005 movie, [[I Heart Huckabees]]. ==References== *Herbert Marcuse, &quot;Sartre's Existentialism&quot;, in ''Studies in Critical Philosophy'', translated by Joris De Bres (London: NLB, 1972) ==External links== *[http://web.archive.org/web/20040205085207/http://www.columbia.edu/~ta63/exist.htm Essays on Existentialism] *[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Existentialism] *[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm &quot;Existentialism is a Humanism,&quot; a lecture given by Jean-Paul Sartre] *[http://counsellingresource.com/types/existential/index.html An Introduction to Existential Counselling] *[http://www.tameri.com/csw/exist/ ''The Existential Primer''] *[http://www.stirrings-still.org Stirrings Still]: The International Journal of Existential Literature {{Modernism}} {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:Ethics]] [[Category:Existentialism]] [[Category:Metaphysics]] [[Category:Modernism]] [[Category:Secularism]] [[zh-min-nan:Chûn-chāi-chú-gī]] [[ca:Existencialisme]] [[cs:Existencialismus]] [[da:Eksistentialisme]] [[de:Existentialismus]] [[et:Eksistentsialism]] [[es:Existencialismo]] [[eo:Ekzistadismo]] [[fr:Existentialisme]] [[hr:Egzistencijalizam]] [[it:Esistenzialismo]] [[he:אקזיסטנציאליזם]] [[lt:Egzistencializmas]] [[nl:Existentialisme]] [[ja:実存主義]] [[no:Eksistensialisme]] [[pl:Egzystencjalizm (filozofia)]] [[pt:Existencialismo]] [[ro:Existenţialism]] [[ru:Экзистенциализм]] [[sk:Existencializmus]] [[fi:Eksistentialismi]] [[sv:Existentialism]] [[th:อัตถิภาวนิยม]] [[tr:Varoluşçuluk]] [[zh:存在主义]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ellipsis</title> <id>9596</id> <revision> <id>42090299</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:37:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>217.70.48.35</ip> </contributor> <comment>+Polish</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Punctuation_marks}} : ''For the Figure of speech, see [[Ellipsis (figure of speech)]]. For the similarly-named flattened-circle, see [[ellipse]]. '''Ellipsis''' ''&amp;#904;&amp;#955;&amp;#955;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#968;&amp;#953;&amp;#962;'' (plural: '''ellipses''' ''&amp;#949;&amp;#955;&amp;#955;&amp;#949;&amp;#943;&amp;#968;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#962;'', Greek for ''omission'') in [[linguistics]] refers to any omitted part of speech that is understood; i.e. the omission is intentional. Analogously, in [[printing]] and [[writing]], the term refers to the row of three dots (&amp;hellip;) or asterisks (*&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp;*) indicating such an intentional omission. This punctuation mark is also called a '''suspension point''', '''points of ellipsis''' or colloquially, '''dot-dot-dot'''. An ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in speech or, at the end of a sentence, a trailing off into silence. ==Typographical rules== There are differences in typographical rules and conventions of using ellipses between languages. ===Ellipsis in English=== ''[[The Chicago Manual of Style]]'' suggests the use of an ellipsis (also known as an ellipse) for any omitted word, phrase, line or paragraph from within a quoted passage. There are two commonly used methods of using ellipses: one uses three dots for any omission, the second makes a distinction
;br&gt; {{fnb|(a)}} Foreman, p. 47 n.10 (1830 census).&lt;br&gt; {{fnb|(a)}} Several thousand more emigrated West from 1844-49; Foreman, pp. 103-4.&lt;br&gt; {{fnb|(c)}} Foreman, p. 111 (1832 census).&lt;br&gt; {{fnb|(d)}} Remini, p. 272.&lt;br&gt; {{fnb|(e)}} Russell Thornton, &quot;Demography of the Trail of Tears&quot;, p.85.&lt;br&gt; {{fnb|(f)}} Prucha, p. 233.&lt;br&gt; {{fnb|(g)}} Low figure from Prucha, p. 233; high from Wallace, p. 101.&lt;br&gt; &lt;/div&gt; ==Indian Removal in the North== Some tribes north of the [[Ohio River]] also resisted relocation. The [[Shawnee]], [[Ottawa]], [[Potawatomi]], [[Sauk]], and [[Fox]] were removed to the [[Indian Territory]]. In 1832, a Sauk chief named [[Black Hawk (chief)|Black Hawk]] led a band of Sauk and Fox back to their lands in Illinois. In the [[Black Hawk War]], the U.S. Army and Illinois militia defeated Black Hawk and his army. ==See also== * [[Population history of American indigenous peoples]] * [[Ethnic cleansing]] * [[Population transfer]] ==Notes== * {{fnb|1}} 100,000 American Indians: Russell Thornton, &quot;The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period&quot;, in Anderson, p. 75. * {{fnb|2}} Jackson never publicly advocated forced removal: Wallace, p._. Ronald N. Satz in &quot;Rhetoric Versus Reality: The Indian Policy of Andrew Jackson&quot; lists some published works that &quot;have erroneously argued or implied that emigration to the West was obligatory for all eastern Indians under the terms of the Removal Act itself&quot;, p. 31, p. 47n.13. * {{fnb|3}} Remini, page 257. ==References== *Anderson, William L., ed. ''Cherokee Removal: Before and After''. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8203-1482-X. *Ehle, John. ''Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation''. New York: Doubleday, 1988. ISBN 038523953X. *Foreman, Grant. ''Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians''. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932, 11th printing 1989. ISBN 0806111720. *Prucha, Francis Paul. ''The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians''. Volume I. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. ISBN 0803236689. * [[Remini, Robert V.]] ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars''. New York: Viking, 2001. ISBN 0670910252. *Thornton, Russell. ''American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492''. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. ISBN 0806120746. *Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians''. New York: Hill and Wang, 1993. ISBN 0809015528 (paperback); ISBN 0809066319 (hardback). ==External links== * [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html PBS article on Indian Removal] * [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/jackson.htm Critical Resources: Text of the Removal Act and other documents.] * [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=638 Indian Removal from ''Digital History'' by S. Mintz] [[Category:Native American history]] [[Category:Legal history of the United States]] [[Category:Forced migration]] [[Category:History of United States expansionism]] [[Category:Cherokee tribe]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Green Party (Ireland)</title> <id>15081</id> <revision> <id>39555289</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T06:47:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Tom</username> <id>12499</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Irish_Political_Party | party_name = Green Party| party_articletitle = {{PAGENAME}}| party_logo = [[Image:Irishgreenlogo.png|150px]] | leader = [[Trevor Sargent]] | foundation = [[1981]] | ideology = [[Green politics|Green]] | international = [[Global Greens]] | european = [[European Green Party]] | europarl = n/a | colours = [[Green]] and [[Gold]]| headquarters = 16-17 Suffolk Street,&lt;br&gt; [[Dublin]] 2 | website = [http://www.greenparty.ie/ http://www.greenparty.ie/] }} The '''Green Party/Comhaontas Glas''' was founded as the Ecology Party of Ireland in [[1981]] by Dublin teacher Christopher Fettes. It became the Green Alliance in 1983 and in 1987 was renamed to its current title. It has succeeded in getting candidates elected to all levels of government; local, [[Dáil Éireann|Dáil]] and [[European Parliament]]. The [[Republic of Ireland]] has a system of [[proportional representation]] called the [[Single Transferable Vote]], which gives smaller parties, such as the Green Party, more opportunity to gain representation. The parties first electoral outing was in November 1982, when they won 02.% of the vote in the [[Irish general election, 1982|general election of 1982]]. After changing their name, they contested the 1984 European Parliament, with their party founder winning 1.9% in the Dublin constituency. The following year they won their first election when Marcus Counihan was elected to Killarney Urban District Council during the 1985 Local Elections. The party nationally ran 34 candidates and won 0.6% of the vote. The party continued to struggle until the [[Irish general election, 1989|general election of 1989]] when the again renamed party win its first seat in the national parliament, the Dáil, when Roger Garland was elected in Dublin South. However, it was not until the [[Irish general election, 2002|general election of 2002]] when it made a breakthrough, getting 6 [[Teachta Dála|TD]]s (Members of Parliament) elected to the Dáil. However, in the [[European Parliament election, 2004| election to the European Parliament of June 2004]], the party lost both of the European Parliament seats which it had won in [[European Parliament election, 1994|1994]] and retained in [[European Parliament election, 1999| 1999]]. It has had little success at local level, winning only 18 seats out of 878 in the local elections of 2004. Nonetheless, this was a doubling of its 9 won in 1999. Its new councillors include [[Niall Ó Brolcháin]], elected in Galway City and [[J.J. Power]], elected in Naas, representing a small breakout from its perceived Dublin base. Arguably, the Green Party's best-known politicians are its leader [[Trevor Sargent]], party chairman [[John Gormley]], and [[Eamon Ryan]], who attempted in 2004 to gain a nomination for election as [[President of Ireland]]. The other Green Party TDs are [[Ciarán Cuffe]], [[Paul Gogarty]] and [[Dan Boyle (politician)|Dan Boyle]]. The Green Party's deputy leader is Councillor [[Mary White (Green Party politician|Mary White]]. The Green Party has strong links with its counterpart in [[Northern Ireland]], the [[Green Party in Northern Ireland]], which has had much more limited electoral success. Although it is a member of the [[European Federation of Green Parties]], the Irish Green Party has adopted a notably more [[eurosceptic]] stance than is usually articulated by the Federation. {{Greens}} The Green Party also has a youth wing, know as '''the Young Greens''', which has several hundred members in branches throughout the country. Founded in 2002, it campaigns for protection of the environment, human rights and more funding for education. It is closely associated with youth members of the Northern Ireland Green Party. In 2004 it became associated with the [[Federation of Young European Greens]]. At the 2005 National Convention, party delegates voted overwhelming not to enter a pre-election pact with the other main opposition parties [[Fine Gael]] and [[Irish Labour Party|Labour]]. Their reasoning for this was that participation in such an alliance would drown out their voice and deprive them of vital transfers from other left-wing parties, most notably [[Sinn Féin]]. Opinion polls typically put the Greens at between 4% and 7%. As the 2007 General Election approaches, the party is targeting fifteen constituencies with the aim of winning at least seven seats, giving the status of a full political grouping in [[Dáil Eireann]]. However, few political commentators have predicted that the Greens are in line for electoral gains, with many suggesting that up to five of their current seats are at risk. More positively for the party, however, support remains clustered in certain geographical areas, principally urban constituencies, which could help the party retain and gain seats. ==External links== *[http://www.greenparty.ie/ Green Party Official website] *[http://www.younggreens.ie/ Young Greens Official website] {{Political parties in Ireland}} {{Green Parties}} [[Category:Green political parties]] [[Category:Republic of Ireland political parties]] [[de:Green Party (Irland)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Information Science</title> <id>15083</id> <revision> <id>27657132</id> <timestamp>2005-11-07T22:25:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Information science&quot; +&quot;Library and information science&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Library and information science]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Iconoclasm</title> <id>15085</id> <revision> <id>41797184</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:40:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>65.222.236.25</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Reformation iconoclasm */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Iconoclasm.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the ''Beeldenstorm'' during the [[History of religion in the Netherlands#Reformation and counter-reformation|Dutch reformation]]]] Iconoclasm is the destruction of [[religion|religious]] [[icon]]s and other symbols or monuments, usually for [[religious]] or political motives. In Christian circles, iconoclasm has generally been motivated by a literal interpretatio
-28T20:57:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Dominion&quot; +&quot;Dominion (disambiguation)&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dominion (disambiguation)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Diarists</title> <id>8976</id> <revision> <id>15906906</id> <timestamp>2002-04-10T01:27:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eclecticology</username> <id>372</id> </contributor> <comment>*useless stub</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[diary]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Design by Contract</title> <id>8977</id> <revision> <id>15906907</id> <timestamp>2003-01-24T23:10:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.253.39.176</ip> </contributor> <comment>redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[design by contract]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dona Marina</title> <id>8982</id> <revision> <id>15906910</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[La Malinche]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dialectical materialism</title> <id>8984</id> <revision> <id>38741113</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T08:36:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Chobot</username> <id>259798</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: gl</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Marxist philosophy of nature}} '''Dialectical materialism''' is the philosophical basis of [[Marxism]] as defined by later [[Communist]]s and their [[Communist party|Parties]] (sometimes called &quot;orthodox&quot; Marxism). As the name signals, it is an outgrowth of both [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]]'s '''[[dialectic]]s''' and [[Ludwig Feuerbach]]'s and [[Karl Marx]]'s philosophical '''[[materialism]]''', and is most directly traced to Marx's fellow thinker, [[Friedrich Engels]]. It uses the concepts of [[thesis]], [[antithesis]] and [[synthesis]] to explain the growth and development of human history. It should however be noted that dialectical materialism cannot be reduced to this interpretation alone. For formal approaches, the main predication of 'dialectical opposition or contradiction' must be understood as 'some sense' opposition between the objects involved in a directly associated context. 'Dialectical contradiction' is not reducible to simple 'opposites' or 'negation'. Some Marxist theorists, critical of dialectical materialism, have called for a reassessment of the place of Engels' work ''Dialectics of Nature'' in the Marxist canon. They note that the term &quot;dialectical materialism&quot; originates with Russian theorist [[Georgi Plekhanov]] and that Marx preferred the term &quot;[[historical materialism|the materialist conception of history]]&quot;, which was later shortened to &quot;historical materialism&quot; by Engels. This, they argue, limits his method within a specifically human, sociological context, distinguishing it from a universalizing theory. And apart from the historical materialists, other thinkers in [[Marxist philosophy]] have had recourse to the original texts of Marx and Engels and have created other Marxist philosophical projects and concepts which are alternatives, and sometimes rivals, to the often-Party-sponsored ideas of &quot;diamat&quot; (an abbreviation for &quot;''dia''lectical ''mat''erialism&quot;). While dialectical materialism has been traditionally associated almost exclusively with Marxism, some claim that the philosophy is applicable to a non-Marxist [[worldview]] as well. There is nothing in either the concept of dialectic as elaborated by Hegel or in materialism itself which requires Marxism. However, because Marxism is essentially free of traditional theological influences, it is particularly well-suited to dialectical materialism, and a comparable political system based on the philosophy has not yet emerged. ==Materialism== In essence, materialism answers the fundamental question of philosophy by asserting the primacy of the material world: in short, matter precedes thought. Materialism holds that the world is material, that all phenomena in the universe consist of matter in motion, wherein all things are interdependent and interconnected and develop in accordance with natural law, that the world exists outside us and independently of our perception of it, that thought is a reflection of the material world in the brain, and that the world is ''in principle'' knowable. :&quot;The ideal is nothing else than the material world reflected by the human mind, and translated into forms of thought.&quot; --Karl Marx, ''Capital'', Vol. 1. ==Dialectics== Dialectics is the science of the most general laws of development of nature, society, and thought. Its principal features are as follows: 1) The universe is not an accidental mix of things isolated from each other, but an integral whole, wherein things are mutually interdependent. 2) Nature is in a state of constant motion: :&quot;All nature, from the smallest thing to the biggest, from a grain of sand to the sun, from the protista to man, is in a constant state of coming into being and going out of being, in a constant flux, in a ceaseless state of movement and change.&quot; --Friedrich Engels, ''Dialectics of Nature''. 3) Development is a process whereby insignificant and imperceptible quantitative changes lead to fundamental, qualitative changes. The latter occur not gradually, but rapidly and abruptly, in the form of a leap from one state to another. :&quot;Merely quantitative differences, beyond a certain point, pass into qualitative changes.&quot; --Karl Marx, ''Capital'', Vol. 1. 4) All things contain within themselves internal dialectical contradictions, which are the primary cause of motion, change, and development in the world. ===Laws of dialectics=== The three laws of dialectics are: * The law of the unity and conflict of opposites; * The law of the passage of quantitative changes into qualitative changes; * The law of the negation of the negation. ===Quotation=== :&quot;The question whether objective truth can be attributed to human thinking is not a question of theory but is a ''practical'' question. Man must prove the truth, i.e., the reality and power, the this-worldliness of his thinking in practice.&quot; --Karl Marx, ''[[Theses on Feuerbach]]'' ==Selected readings on dialectical materialism== *''[http://marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1886/ludwig-feuerbach/index.htm Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy]'', Friedrich Engels *''[http://marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/index.htm Anti-Dühring]'', Friedrich Engels *''[http://marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/don/index.htm Dialectics of Nature]'', Friedrich Engels *''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1908/mec/index.htm Materialism and Empirio-Criticism]'', V.I. Lenin *''Dialectical Materialism'', V.G. Afanasyev *''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/pannekoe/materialism/index.htm Materialism And Historical Materialism]'', [[Anton Pannekoek]] *''[http://www.marxist.com/rircontents.asp Reason in Revolt, Marxist Philosophy and Modern Science]'', Ted Grant and Alan Woods * Ioan, Petru &quot;Logic and Dialectics&quot; AI CUZA University Press, IASI 1998. ==See also== '''People''' * [[Joseph Dietzgen]] * [[Friedrich Engels]] * [[Karl Marx]] '''Concepts''' * [[Marxist philosophy of nature]] * [[dialectical monism]] * [[historical materialism]] * [[Marxism]] [[Category:Marxist theory]] {{Link FA|pl}} [[ast:Materialismu dialéuticu]] [[be:Дыялектычны матэрыялізм]] [[de:Dialektischer Materialismus]] [[es:Materialismo dialéctico]] [[gl:Materialismo dialéctico]] [[ko:변증법적유물론]] [[he:מטריאליזם דיאלקטי]] [[ja:唯物弁証法]] [[no:Den dialektiske materialisme]] [[pl:Materializm dialektyczny]] [[ru:Диалектический материализм]] [[fi:Dialektinen materialismi]] [[sv:Materialistisk dialektik]] [[uk:Діалектичний матеріалізм]] [[zh:辩證唯物主義]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dual Alliance (1879)</title> <id>8985</id> <revision> <id>15906913</id> <timestamp>2004-02-29T16:48:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Adam Bishop</username> <id>13008</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to Dual Alliance, 1879, where this info exists in more detail</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dual Alliance, 1879]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dominion</title> <id>8986</id> <restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions> <revision> <id>38928659</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T16:02:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.23.72.137</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This is a page about Dominions of the British Empire and of the Commonwealth of Nations. For other meanings, please see [[Dominion (disambiguation)]].'' A '''Dominion''' is a wholly self-governing or virtually self-governing [[state]] of the [[British Empire]] or [[Commonwealth of Nations]], particularly one which reached that stage of constitutional development in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries such as [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. Prior to attaining dominion status these states had always been [[Crown colonies]], under direct rule from [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and/or a [[self-governing colony]], or they have been formed from groups of such colonies. However, the phrase ''Her Majesty's dominion
consumption of fresh asparagus is traditonally limited to the time before St. John's Day (June 24th). ==Side Dishes== [[Noodles]] are usually thicker than [[cuisine of Italy|Italian]] pasta and often contain [[egg yolk]]. Especially in the southern part of the country, the predominant variety of noodles is [[Spaetzle|Spätzle]] which contain a very large amount of yolk. In recent years, however, Italian-style pasta has very nearly supplanted the traditional varieties, and even Spätzle are often made with durum wheat and no egg yolk. Besides noodles, potatoes and dumplings ([[Klöße]] or [[Knödel]]) are very common, especially in the south. Potatoes entered German cuisine in the late 18th century and were almost ubiquitous in the 19th and 20th centuries, but their popularity is currently waning somewhat in favour of noodles and rice. Potatos are most often served boiled in salt water, but mashed and fried potatoes also are traditional, and French fries have now become very common. ==Drinks== '''[[Beer]]''' is very common throughout all parts of Germany, with many local and regional breweries producing a wide variety of beers. In most of the country [[Pils]] is predominant today, whereas people in the South (especially in Bavaria) seem to prefer [[Lager]] or [[wheat beer]]. A number of regions have a special kind of local beer, for example the dark [[Altbier]] around the lower Rhine, the [[Kölsch]] of the Cologne area, which is light but like Altbier uses a more traditional brewing process than Pils, and the very weak [[Berliner Weisse|Berliner Weiße]], often mixed with fruit syrups, in Berlin. Beer may also be mixed with other beverages; pils and lemonade, known as Alsterwasser or [[Radler]], is a popular example. '''[[Wine]]''' is also popular throughout the country. [[German wine]] comes predominantly from the areas along the upper and middle [[Rhine]] and its tributaries; the northern half of the country is too cold and flat to grow [[grape]] vines. [[Riesling]] and [[Silvaner]] are among the best-known varieties. Traditionally, white wine was more popular than red or rosé (except in some regions), and sweet wine more popular than dry, but both these tastes seem to be changing. '''[[Coffee]]''' is also very common, not only for breakfast, but also accompanying a piece of cake in the afternoon. '''[[Tea]]''' is more common in the Northwest. East Frisians traditionally have their tea with cream and rock candy (&quot;Kluntje&quot;). '''[[Apfelsaftschorle]]''', apple juice mixed with sparkling mineral water, is a common beverage. '''[[Spezi]]''' is a soft drink made with cola and lemonade. In Southern Germany and [[Austria]], Spezi a generic term for a mixture of cola and Fanta (or a similar orange soft drink). In some regions (Emsland) spezi is a mixture of cola and [[schnapps]]. Germans are unique among their neighbours in preferring strongly carbonated [[bottled water]]s to non-carbonated ones. ==Spices and condiments== [[Culinary mustard|Mustard]] is a very common accompaniment to sausages and is usually very hot. In the southern parts of the country, a sweet variety of mustard is made which is almost exclusively served with Bavarian specialities such as [[Weißwurst]] and [[Leberkäse]]. [[Horseradish]] is also commonly used as a condiment. [[Garlic]] was long frowned upon as &quot;making one stink&quot; and thus has never played a large role in traditional German cuisine, but it has seen a rise in popularity in recent decades due to the influence of [[French cuisine|French]], [[Italian cuisine|Italian]], Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, and Turkish cuisine. Generally, with the exception of mustard for sausages, German dishes are rarely hot and spicy &amp;mdash; the most popular herbs are traditionally [[parsley]], [[thyme]], [[bay laurel|laurel]], and [[chives]], the most popular spices are [[white pepper]] (used in small amounts), [[juniper]] berries and [[caraway]]. Other herbs and spices like [[basil]], [[sage]], [[oregano]], and hot [[chilli pepper]]s have become more popular in recent times. ==Desserts== A wide variety of [[cake]]s and [[tart]]s are prepared throughout the country, most commonly made with fresh fruit. Apples, plums, strawberries, and cherries are used regularly on cakes. [[Cheesecake]] is also very popular and almost always made with [[quark]]. German [[doughnut]]s are usually balls of dough with jam or other fillings inside, and are known as ''[[Berliner (pastry)|Berliner]]'', ''Pfannkuchen'' or ''[[Krapfen]]'' depending on the region. A popular dessert in northern Germany is &quot;Rote Grütze&quot;, red fruit jelly, which is cooked from black and red currants, raspberries and sometimes with strawberries or cherries. It is traditionally served with cream, but also common with vanilla sauce, milk or whipped cream. &quot;Rhababergrütze&quot; (rhubarb jelly) and &quot;Grüne Grütze&quot; (gooseberry fruit jelly) are variations of the &quot;Rote Grütze&quot;. [[Ice cream]] and [[sorbet]]s are also very popular. Italian-run ice cream parlours were the first large wave of foreign-run eateries in Germany, becoming widespread in the [[1920s]]. ==Bread== With regard to [[bread]], German cuisine is more akin to Eastern than to Western Europe. The country boasts at least 300 different types of bread, ranging from white [[wheat]] bread to grey bread (''Graubrot'') and &quot;black&quot; (actually dark brown) [[rye]] bread (''Schwarzbrot''). Most types of bread contain both wheat and rye flour (hence ''Mischbrot'', mixed bread), and often wholemeal and seeds (such as [[linseed]], [[sunflower]] seed, or [[pumpkin]] seeds) as well. [[Pumpernickel]], a [[Westphalia]]n black bread, is not baked but steamed, and has a unique sweetish taste. === [[Bread roll|Brötchen/Semmel/Schrippe/Weck/Rundstück]] === Bread rolls, known as ''Brötchen'', ''Semmel'', ''Schrippe'', ''Rundstück'' or ''Weckle''/''Weckli'' depending on the region, are common in German cuisine. They are typically cut in half, and spread with butter, margarine or mayonnaise. Cheese, meat, fish or preserves is then placed between the two halves, or on each half separately. Bread is usually eaten for breakfast and as sandwiches in the evening, not as a side dish for the main meal. The importance of bread (''Brot'') in German cuisine is also illustrated by words such as ''Abendbrot'' (supper, literally ''Evening Bread'') and ''Brotzeit'' (snack, literally ''Bread Time''). ==Specialities by region== ===[[Baden Germany|Baden]]=== * [[Snail soup]] * [[Brägele]], sliced potatoes pan-fried in lard * [[Knöpfle]], similar to [[Spätzle]], but thicker rather than long * [[Schupfnudeln]], pasta made from potatoes and flour, often served with [[Sauerkraut]] * [[Flädlesuppe]], broth with thin strips of German-style pancakes * [[Bibbeleskäs]], cottage cheese ===[[Bavaria]] (''Bayern'')=== * [[Weißwurst|Weißwürste]] ('white [[sausage]]s') &amp;mdash; a speciality from [[Munich]] (''München''), traditionally eaten for [[second breakfast]]. Served with sweet mustard, [[pretzel]]s, and [[wheat beer]], even on working days, although companies usually set a limit on the amount of beer that may be drunk during work hours. * [[wheat beer|Weizenbier]] (wheat beer) * [[Knödel]] (dumplings made from potatoes or white bread) * [[Schweinebraten]] (pot-roasted pork) * [[Leberkäse]] (a type of meat pie) ===[[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] and [[Lower Saxony]] === * Kohl und Pinkel ([[kale]], very slowly cooked, with bits of rather salty sausage; a typical winter dish) * Heidschnucke (a type of goat) * crabs * Knipp ===[[Franconia]] (''Franken'')=== * [[Bratwurst]] (Fat beef or pork sausages served grilled). The best-known sausages are from [[Nuremberg]] (''Nürnberg''). * [[Klöße]] (Large dumplings made from bread dough and served with pot-roasted meats) * [[Gingerbread]] (Lebkuchen). The most famous German gingerbread is, again, from Nuremberg. ===[[Frankfurt am Main]] and [[Hessen]]=== * [[Green Sauce]] (Made from minced hardboiled eggs, oil, vinegar, and an abundant amount of seven fresh herbs. Served with boiled potatoes) * Frankfurter sausage, a smoked sausage made from pure pork, which is eaten hot and usually accompanied by bread and mustard. Not to be confused with the [[United States|American]] hot dog &quot;[[Frankfurter]]&quot;. * Apfelwein (dialect: Äbbelwoi), wine made of apples, somewhat comparable to [[Cider]] and French [[Cidre]] * [[Sauer Gespritzer]], apfelwein mixed with sparkling water. Very refreshing, usually served during summer. * [[Handkäs mit Musik]], a strong cheese made from curdled milk served in a dressing (the &quot;music&quot;) from vegetable oil, vinegar, caraway, salt and pepper. Usually served with rye bread and butter. ===[[Hamburg]]=== * [[Labskaus]] (made from [[corned beef]], mashed potatoes and beetroot and served with a fried egg and a gherkin) * Birnen, Bohnen und Speck (literally &quot;pears, beans and bacon&quot;. These ingredients are cooked together into a stew) * Aalsuppe (literally &quot;eel soup&quot;) a sweet and sour soup from meat broth, dried fruits, vegetables and herbs, but normally without eel. ===[[Palatinate]] (''Pfalz'')=== * [[Saumagen]] (Pork stomach) ===[[Rhineland]] ('''Rheinland''')=== * [[Sauerbraten]] * [[Potato]] [[fritter]]s (''Reibekuchen'') with [[bread#Breads across different cultures|black bread]], apple syrup, sugar beet syrup or stewed apples * [[Blood sausage]] (''Blutwurst'') crude or fried * ''Himmel un Ääd'' (literally Sky and Earth) mashed potatoes with stewed apples and fried blood pudding * ''Halbe Hahn'' (literally Half Rooster), actually not a rooster at all but a cheese sandwich with onions, the name is based on a wordplay ([[Cologne]]) * Rice pies, apricot pies and pear pies in [[Eschweiler]] * [[Mussels]] ===[[Saarland]]=== * [[Dibbelabbes]] (A potato hash prepared from raw grated potatoes, bacon and leeks, and baked in a ''Dibbe'', or pot) * [[Geheirote]] (lit. &quot;Marrie
ngland|Henry VIII]] in [[1533]]), had long associated Roman Catholicism with invasion threats and with political policy imposed from abroad. A potentially more troublesome issue arose with Charles' insistence on joining in the [[Thirty Years' War]] conflicts then raging in [[Europe]], which he saw as something of a crusade. This alone might not have caused a problem, except that Charles had placed his own &quot;[[favourite]]&quot;, [[George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham]], in command. Parliament showed some degree of suspicion towards Buckingham, with whom they had had to deal under James as well, and eventually they decided to support the war-effort only on the condition of the potential recall of Buckingham if his performance did not meet expectations. The Parliament of 1625 then granted the king the right to collect customs duties for only a year at a time and not, (as tradionally) for his entire reign. After a disastrous raid on [[France]], Parliament dismissed Buckingham in [[1626]], and Charles, furious at what he considered insolence and fearful that they might impeach his favourite, dismissed the Parliament. ===Petition of Right=== Having dissolved Parliament, and unable to raise money without it, the king assembled a new one in [[1628]]. The elected members included [[Oliver Cromwell]]. The new Parliament drew up the [[Petition of Right]] in 1628, and Charles accepted it as a concession in order to get his subsidy. Amongst other things the Petition referred to the [[Magna Carta]] and said that a citizen should have freedom from: * arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, * non-parliamentary taxation, * the enforced billeting of troops, and * [[martial law]]. However, Charles now determined to rule without summoning another Parliament, and this required him to devise new means of raising extraordinary revenue. The revival and extension of [[ship money]] became one of the most controversial of these policies. Medieval English governments had levied this tax on seaports, but Charles extended it to inland counties as well. According to Charles and his supporters, the Government needed ship money as a levy for the [[Royal Navy]]. As a requirement for the defence of the realm, they argued, it lay within the legitimate scope of the [[royal prerogative]]. But Parliament had not approved the tax, and a number of prominent men refused to pay it on these grounds. Reprisals against Sir [[John Eliot (statesman)|John Eliot]], one of the prime movers behind the Petition of Right, and the prosecution of [[William Prynne]] and [[John Hampden]] (fined after losing their case 7 to 5 for refusing to pay ship money and for making a stand against the legality of the tax) aroused widespread indignation. Charles' use of the Court of [[Star Chamber]] in this issue also angered many, as the people had always seen the Star Chamber as the citizenry's last appeal against the monarch's power, but now apparently being used against them. ==The Eleven Years' Tyranny and the rebellion in Scotland== Charles I managed to avoid calling a Parliament for a decade. Depending upon one's political affiliation, this time was known either as the &quot;Eleven Years' Tyranny&quot; or &quot;Charles' Personal Rule&quot;. This policy broke down when he was involved in a series of disastrous and expensive wars against his [[Scottish people|Scottish]] subjects, the [[Bishops' Wars]] of 1639 and [[1640]]. Charles believed in a sacramental version of the [[Church of England]], called [[Anglicanism|High Anglicanism]], with a theology based upon [[Arminianism]], a belief shared by his main political advisor, Archbishop [[William Laud]]. Laud was appointed by Charles as the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] in [[1633]] and started a series of reforms in the Church to make it more ceremonial, starting with the replacement of the wooden communion tables with stone altars. Puritans accused Laud of trying to reintroduce [[Catholicism]], and when they complained, Laud had them arrested. In [[1637]] [[John Bastwick]], Henry Burton and William Prynne had their ears cut off for writing pamphlets attacking Laud's views&amp;mdash;a rare penalty for [[gentleman|gentlemen]] to suffer, and one that aroused anger. As part of Charles' plan to have one uniform High Anglican church across all three kingdoms, he forced the English [[Book of Common Prayer|Common Prayer Book]] upon Scotland. Scottish Presbyterians reacted explosively when it was introduced in the spring of [[1638]] with riots started in [[Edinburgh]] by [[Jenny Geddes]] leading to the [[National Covenant]], that sought to purge bishops from the [[Church of Scotland]] altogether. Charles took a year to raise an army, and sent it north in 1639 to end the rebellion. After a disastrous skirmish he decided to seek a truce, the [[Pacification of Berwick]], and was humiliated by being forced to agree not only not to interfere with religion in Scotland, but to pay the Scottish war expenses as well. ===Local grievances=== In the summer of 1642, these national troubles helped to polarize opinion, ending indecision about which side to support or what action to take. Opposition to Charles also arose owing to many local grievances. For example, the livelihoods of thousands of people were negatively affected by the imposition of drainage schemes in [[The Fens]] after the King awarded a number of drainage contracts. The King was regarded by many as worse than insensitive and this was important in bringing a large part of eastern England into Parliament&amp;#8217;s camp. This sentiment brought with it people like the [[Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester|Earl of Manchester]] and Oliver Cromwell, each a notable wartime adversary of the King. Conversely, one of the leading drainage contractors, the [[Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey|Earl of Lindsey]], was to die fighting for the King at the [[Battle of Edge Hill]]. ===Recall of Parliament=== Charles needed to suppress the rebellion in his northern realm&amp;mdash;he was insufficiently funded, however, and was forced to seek money from a recalled [[Parliament]] in 1640. Parliament took this appeal for money as an opportunity to discuss grievances against the Crown; moreover, they were opposed to the military option. Charles took exception to this ''[[lese majesty|lèse-majesté]]'' and dismissed the Parliament. The name &quot;the [[Short Parliament]]&quot; was derived from this summary dismissal. Without Parliament's support, Charles attacked [[Scotland]] again and was comprehensively defeated; the Scots, seizing the moment, took [[Northumberland]] and [[County Durham|Durham]]. Meanwhile, another of Charles's chief advisers, [[Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford|Thomas Wentworth, 1st Viscount Wentworth]], had risen to the role of Lord Deputy of Ireland in [[1632]] and brought in much needed revenue for Charles by persuading the Irish Catholic gentry to pay new taxes in return for promised religious concessions. In 1639, he had been recalled to England and in 1640, was created Earl of Strafford, as Charles attempted to have him work his magic again in Scotland. This time he was not so lucky, and the English forces fled the field in their second encounter with the Scots in 1640. Almost the entirety of Northern England was occupied, and Charles was forced to pay £850 per day to keep the Scots from advancing. If he did not, they would &quot;take&quot; the money by pillaging and burning the cities and towns of Northern England. ===The Long Parliament=== In desperate straits, Charles was obliged to summon Parliament in November 1640; this was the &quot;[[Long Parliament]].&quot; None of the issues raised in the Short Parliament had been addressed, and Parliament took the opportunity to raise them again, refusing to be dismissed. Under the leadership of [[John Pym]] and [[John Hampden]], a law was passed which stated that Parliament should be reformed every three years, and removed the king's right to dissolve the Long Parliament without Parliament's consent. Other laws passed by the Long Parliament made it illegal for the king to impose his own taxes, and later, gave members control over the king's ministers. With Ireland apparently peaceful after Strafford's able administration of eight years, Charles thought he saw a way out&amp;mdash;Strafford had raised an Irish Catholic army and was prepared to use it against Scotland. Of course the very thought of a Catholic army campaigning against the Scots from Protestant England was considered outrageous by the parliamentary party. In early [[1641]] Strafford was arrested and sent to the [[Tower of London]], charged with [[treason]]. John Pym made the claim that Wentworth's statements of readiness to campaign against &quot;the kingdom&quot; were in fact directed at England itself. The case could not be proven, so the [[House of Commons]], led by John Pym and [[Henry Vane]], resorted to a [[Bill of Attainder]]. Unlike treason, attainder required not only the burden of proof, but also the king's signature. Charles, still incensed over the Common's handling of Buckingham, refused. Wentworth himself, hoping to head off the war he saw looming, wrote to the king and asked him to reconsider. Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, was executed on [[May 12]], 1641. Instead of saving the country from war, Wentworth's sacrifice in fact doomed it to one. Within months, the Irish Catholics, fearing a resurgence of Protestant power, [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|struck first]], and the entire country soon descended into chaos. Rumours circulated that the Irish were being supported by the king, and Puritan members of the Commons were soon agitating that this was the sort of thing Charles had in store for all of them. On [[January 4]], 1642, Charles attempted to arrest five members of the House of Commons ([[John Hampden]], [[John Pym]], [[Arthur Haselrig]], [[Denzil Holles]], and [[William Strode]]) on a charge of [[treason]]; this attempt
ype]]'', and ''[[The Competition (Dilbert_episode)|The Competiton]]'' respectively); the fourth (''[[Testing (Dilbert episode)|Testing]]'') involved having it survive &quot;Bob Bastard&quot;, and the fifth (''[[Elbonian Trip (Dilbert episode)|Elbonian Trip]]'') was about production in the famine-stricken fourth-world country of [[Elbonia]]. The product was finally tested by an incredibly stupid family in Squiddler's Patch, [[Texas]], in the thirteenth and final episode of the season, ''[[Infomercial (Dilbert episode)|Infomercial]]'', even though it had not been tested in a lab beforehand. The second season ran featured seventeen episodes, bringing the total number of episodes to thirty. Unlike the first season, the episodes were not part of a larger [[story arc]] and had a different storyline for each of the episodes (with the exception of episodes 29 and 30, ''[[Pregnancy (Dilbert episode)|Pregnancy]]'' and ''[[The Delivery (Dilbert episode)|The Delivery]]''). Elbonia was revisited once more in ''[[Hunger (Dilbert episode)|Hunger]]'', Dogbert still managed to scam people in ''[[Art (Dilbert episode)|Art]]'', Dilbert was accused of mass murder in ''[[The Trial (Dilbert episode)|The Trial]]'', and Wally gets his own disciples in episode 16, ''[[The Shroud of Wally (Dilbert episode)|The Shroud of Wally]]''. The entire run of the ''Dilbert'' animated series was made available on DVD on [[January 27]], [[2004]]. The DVD box set retails at $49.95 and includes some special features including trailers and clip complations with commentary by [[Scott Adams]], executive producer [[Larry Charles]], and voice actors [[Chris Elliot]], [[Larry Miller (actor)|Larry Miller]], [[Kathy Griffin]], and [[Gordon Hunt]]. The theme music, ''The Dilbert Zone'', was written by [[Danny Elfman]]. ====Voice actors==== *[[Daniel Stern (actor)|Daniel Stern]] as [[Dilbert (character)|Dilbert]] *[[Kathy Griffin]] as [[Alice (Dilbert character)|Alice]] *[[Gordon Hunt (Director)|Gordon Hunt]] as [[Wally (Dilbert character)|Wally]] *[[Chris Elliot]] as [[Dogbert]] *[[Larry Miller (actor)|Larry Miller]] as the [[Pointy-Haired Boss]] *[[Tom Kenny]] as [[Ratbert]] and [[Asok (Dilbert character)|Asok]] *[[Jason Alexander]] as [[Catbert]] *[[Tress MacNeille]] as [[List of minor characters in Dilbert|Carol]] *[[Jim Wise]] as [[List of minor characters in Dilbert|Loud Howard]] *[[Buck Henry]] as Dilbert's Dad ==See also== *[[The Dilbert Principle]] *[[Peter Principle]], the opposite of the Dilbert Principle *[[Plop: The Hairless Elbonian]]'', a Dilbert spin-off strip *[[Microserfs]]'', a book about [[Microsoft]] employees ==External links== {{wikiquote}} ===Official sites=== *[http://www.dilbert.com Official Dilbert website] *[http://www.dreamworksgames.com/Games/dilbert/ Website for ''Dilbert's Desktop Games'', by DreamWorks Interactive] *[http://www.dilbert.com/comics/dilbert/duh/ Dilbert's Ultimate House (DUH)] ===Unofficial sites=== *[http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards2.asp National Cartoonists' Society awards page] *[http://www.triviaasylum.com/dilbert/diltriv.html Complete list of Dilbert characters] *[http://www.logophilia.com/WordSpy/induhvidual.asp A detailed treatment of the word &quot;Induhvidual&quot;] *[http://www.bfmartin.ca/finder/ Searchable archive of text from Dilbert strips] *[http://www.mit.edu/~jcb/humor/scott-adams-mgmt-consultant Dilbert Creator Fools Executives] *[http://www.calendarstop.net/Dilbert-by-Scott-Adams--2006-Daily-Boxed-Calendar.html Dilbert Calendars] *[http://home.pcisys.net/~tbc/hacks/knack.htm The Knack] *{{imdbtitle|0118984|Dilbert}} *[http://www.tv.com/dilbert/show/940/summary.html?q=dilbert Dilbert at TV.com] [[Category:Dilbert|*]] [[Category:Comic strips]] [[Category:Animated television series]] [[Category:Television programs based on comic strips]] [[Category:Comics characters]] [[Category:Fictional engineers]] [[Category:Fictional businesspeople]] [[Category:UPN network shows]] [[Category:Workplace webcomics]] [[ca:Dilbert]] [[da:Dilbert]] [[de:Dilbert]] [[es:Dilbert]] [[fr:Dilbert]] [[it:Dilbert]] [[he:דילברט]] [[ja:ディルバート]] [[nl:Dilbert]] [[no:Dilbert]] [[pl:Dilbert]] [[pt:Dilbert]] [[fi:Dilbert]] [[sv:Dilbert]] [[zh:呆伯特]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dialect</title> <id>8128</id> <revision> <id>41913316</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:01:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.158.206.145</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''dialect''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word διάλεκτος, ''dialektos'') is a [[variety (linguistics)|variety]] of a [[language]] used by people from a particular geographic area. The number of speakers, and the area itself, can be of [[wiktionary:arbitrary|arbitrary]] size. It follows that a dialect for a larger area can contain plenty of (sub-) dialects, which in turn can contain dialects of yet smaller areas, etc. A dialect is a complete system of verbal communication (oral or [[sign language|signed]] but not necessarily written) with its own [[vocabulary]] and/or [[grammar]]. The concept of dialects can &lt;!-- most importantly --&gt; be distinguished from:— * [[sociolect]]s, which are a variety of a language spoken by a certain [[social class]], * [[standard language]]s, which are standardized for public performance (e.g. written standard), * [[jargon]]s, &lt;!-- including [[slang]] --&gt; which are characterized by differences in [[vocabulary]] (or [[lexicon]] according to linguist jargon), and * [[slang]]. Varieties of language such as dialects, [[idiolect]]s and sociolects can be distinguished not only by their vocabulary and grammar, but also by differences in [[phonology]] (including [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]]). If the distinctions are limited to phonology, one often uses the term ''[[accent (linguistics)|accent]] of a variety'' instead of ''variety'' or ''dialect.'' == Standard and non-standard dialects == A '''standard dialect''' (also known as a '''standardized dialect''' or &quot;[[standard language]]&quot;) is a dialect that is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include government recognition or designation; presentation as being the &quot;correct&quot; form of a language in schools; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a &quot;correct&quot; spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature that employs that dialect (prose, poetry, nonfiction, etc.). There may be multiple standard dialects associated with a language. For example, Standard [[American English]], Standard [[British English]], and Standard [[Indian English]] may all be said to be standard dialects of the [[English language]]. A [[nonstandard dialect]], like a standard dialect, has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, but is not the beneficiary of institutional support. &lt;!-- no good example, rather a border case: For example, [[African-American Vernacular English]] may be said to be a nonstandard dialect of the English language. --&gt; == &quot;Dialect&quot; or &quot;language&quot; == There are no universally accepted criteria for distinguishing ''languages'' from ''dialects'', although a number of paradigms exist, which render sometimes contradictory results. The exact distinction is therefore a subjective one, dependent on the user's frame of reference. [[Variety (linguistics)|Language varieties]] are often called ''dialects'' rather than ''languages'' * solely because they are not (or not recognized as) [[literary language]]s, * because the speakers of the given language do not have a [[state]] of their own, * or because their language lacks [[prestige (sociology)|prestige]]. The term ''[[idiom (subsystem of language)|idiom]]'' is used by some linguists instead of ''language'' or ''dialect'' when there is no need to commit oneself to any decision on the status with respect to this distinction. [[Anthropology|Anthropological]] linguists define dialect as the specific form of a language used by a [[speech community]]. In other words, the difference between language and dialect is the difference between the abstract or general and the concrete and particular. From this perspective, no one speaks a &quot;language,&quot; everyone speaks a dialect of a language. Those who identify a particular dialect as the &quot;[[standard language|standard]]&quot; or &quot;proper&quot; version of a language are in fact using these terms to express a social distinction. Often, the standard language is close to the sociolect of the [[elite]] class. In groups where prestige standards play less important roles, ''&quot;dialect&quot;'' may simply be used to refer to subtle regional variations in linguistic practices that are considered mutually intelligible, playing an important role to place strangers, carrying the message of wherefrom a stranger originates (which quarter or district in a town, which village in a rural setting, or which province of a country); thus there are many apparent &quot;dialects&quot; of [[Slavey language|Slavey]], for example, geographically widespread North American indigenous languages, by which the linguist simply means that there are many subtle variations among speakers who largely understand each other and recognize that they are each speaking &quot;the same way&quot; in a general sense. Modern day linguistics knows that the [[Social status|status]] of language is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. [[Romansh]] came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects. An opposite example is the case of the [[Chinese language]] whose variations are often considered dialects and not languages despite their mutual unintelligibility because they share a common literary standard and common body of literature. The [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] linguist [[
s work determined world exploration and dominated mapping of the world for almost 1400 years -- until the scientific achievements of another great mapmaker, [[Gerardus Mercator]] (1512-1594). He was a Flemish cartographer who in his quest to make the world “look right” on the maps developed new projection (called [[Mercator projection]]) using mathematical formulas. From then on, the image of the world that he produced on his map in [[1569]] becomes a conventional view of the world that we are accustomed European scientific cartography slept through the [[Middle Ages]], when philosophical thought turned toward religion. Though the field advanced in some ways, such as [[Roger Bacon]]'s investigations of map projections and the appearance of [[portolano]] and then [[portolan chart]]s for plying the European trade routes, there was little impetus for systematic study or application of cartography. Most world 'maps' of the period were Christian cosmological diagrams not intended as rigorous geographical representations. Typically rectangular or circular, they followed the style of the so-called &quot;[[T and O map]],&quot; which represents the earth's single land mass as disk-shaped and surrounded by [[ocean]]. Large-scale mapping tended toward diagrammatic as well, since cadastral needs generally were met by descriptions of landmarks rather than by measurements. In contrast, the Chinese during this time were using a rectangular [[coordinate system]] suitable for real, if rough, surveying. The Chinese did not produce world maps because their cosmology supplied no dogma describing distant lands outside their experience. Writings suggest that Chinese philosophers believed the earth to be flat. With the exception of a few theologians of minority opinion, notably [[Lactantius]], Christian and Islamic philosophers adhered to the Greek conception of a spherical earth. [[Image:Kepler-world.jpg|thumb|left|World map by [[Johannes Kepler]].]] The discovery of the Americas by Europeans and the subsequent effort to control and divide those lands necessitated the invention of scientific mapping methods. The trend of globalism that was started with the [[Age of Exploration]] would continue during the [[Renaissance]]. This would, in turn, eventually lead to [[the Enlightenment]] a concern for scientific accuracy and a desire to classify the world would further develop scientific mapmaking. Those early mapmakers were the first to show to us the potential values of maps for putting things in perspective, both factually and symbolically. Through their maps, they opened the door for future generations, by allowing people to make informative decisions based on their work. For example, one of the differences between the [[Western World]] and other cultures, and one of the reasons for the global spread of western power, is that [[Europeans]] recorded their knowledge on maps while others did not. Or, as Peter Whitfield, the author of several books on the history of maps, points out &quot;Men in Seville, Amsterdam or London had access to knowledge of America, Brazil, or India, while the [[native peoples]] knew only their own immediate environment&quot; (Whitfield). ===Technological changes=== In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the [[compass]] and much later [[magnetic storage]] devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally. Advances in mechanical devices such as the [[printing press]], [[quadrant]] and [[vernier]] allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the [[telescope]], [[sextant]] and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their [[latitude]] by measuring angles to the [[North Star]] at night or the [[sun]] at noon. Advances in photochemical technology, such as the [[lithography| lithographic]] and [[photography | photochemical processes]], have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps. In the mid to late [[20th century]] advances in electronic technology have led to a new revolution in cartography. Specifically [[computer hardware]] devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. See also [[digital raster graphic]]. == Map types == In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. A [[topographic map]] is primarily concerned with the topography of a place, and is typically different from other maps by its use of [[contour line]]s showing elevation. A planimetric map is like a topographic one but without elevations: countour lines or spot heights. A [[topological map]] is a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin. Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences. A couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into numerical [[Choropleth map|choropleth]] classes. As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data. Two of the most influential American cartographers, especially in thematic cartography have been [[Arthur H. Robinson]] at the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] and [[George F. Jenks]] at the [[University of Kansas]]. == Naming conventions == There are several ways to name the places on a map. Early explorers named them in several ways &amp;mdash; after themselves, people in their homeland, and the ruler(s) of their countries. Features were also named by appearance, local climate, incidents that happened in the vicinity, and location. Many places along the coast of [[Brazil]] were named by [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers in the early [[1500s]] after the [[saint]] of the day of discovery in the [[Catholic]] [[calendar of saints]] (so that the detailed timetable of their expeditions can often be recovered from the list of assigned names). Cartographers also borrowed native names, sometimes by [[transliteration|transliterating]] the written form into the [[Latin alphabet]], but most often by transcribing the sound, or attempting to do so. Often the explorer would address the nearest native, pointing at the landmark in question and speaking in a loud voice; whatever the native said was then written down as its name. The [[Yucatán|Yucatan Peninsula]] was named in this way as was Nome, Alaska, according to legend. == See also == * [[Animated mapping]] * [[Cartogram]] * [[Figure-Ground in Map Design]] * [[List of cartographers]] * [[Geocode]] * [[Geographic information system|Geographic Information System]] (GIS) * [[Map design]] * [[Map projections]] * [[OpenStreetMap]], a free project mapping the worlds roads using [[GPS]] * [[Point of Beginning]] * [[Sea level]] &lt;!-- The article titled ''[[great circle distance]]'' explains how to find that quantity if one knows the two latitudes and longitudes. --&gt; == External links == {{Commons|Historical maps}} * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmilltoc.html Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide], by the staff of the US [[Library of Congress]]. * [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Cartography.html The history of cartography] at the School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland * [http://www.antiquemaps.co.uk/contents.html Antique Maps] by Carl Moreland and David Bannister - complete text of the book, with information both on map making and on map makers, including short biographies of many cartographers * [http://www.nacis.org/ North American Cartographic Information Society] * [http://www.newberry.org/collections/conbib.html Concise Bibliography of the History of Cartography], Newberry Library See [[Maps#External links|Maps]] for more links to modern and historical maps; however, most of the largest sites are listed at the sites linked below. * [http://www.maphistory.info/index.html Map history] has extensive links to online map resources, including several large [http://www.maphistory.info/webimages.html collections of images online] and articles on the [http://www.maphistory.info/webtexts.html history of cartography]. * [http://oddens.geog.uu.nl/index.php Odden's fascinating world of maps and mapping] has a huge database of links on maps and cartography (under &quot;Literature&quot;). * [http://www.sunysb.edu/libmap/libcats.htm Online map catalogs in North America and Europe] lists some good places to search for online maps. * [http://www.uidaho.edu/special-collections/Other.Repositories.html A listing of over 5000 websites] describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources for the research scholar
rarys digital library project] * [http://librivox.org/notes-from-the-underground-by-fyodor-dostoyevsky/ Free audiobook] of ''[[Notes from Underground]]'' from [http://librivox.org LibriVox] * [http://ilibrary.ru/author/dostoevski/ Full texts of some Dostoevsky's works in the original Russian] * [http://www.fmdostoyevsky.com Fyodor Dostoyevsky] - Biography, ebooks, quotations, and other resources * ''Crime and Punishment,'' Fyodor Dostoevsky, translated by Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky. Vintage Classics, 1992, New York. * ''Crime and Punishment,'' Fyodor Dostoevsky, translated by Constance Garnett, introduction by Joseph Frank. Bantam Books, 1987, New York. *[http://www.acad.carleton.edu/curricular/RUSS/Moscow/2001PhotoAlbum/StPetersburg/Dostoevsky_GogolSights/ Some photos of places and statues that are reminiscent of Dostoevsky and his work] * [http://www.kiosek.com/dostoevsky/contents.html Dostoevsky Research Station] * [http://www.emich.edu/public/history/moss/ ALEXANDER II AND HIS TIMES: A Narrative History of Russia in the Age of Alexander II, Tolstoy, and Dostoevsky] {{Link FA|nl}} [[Category:1821 births|Dostoevsky, Fyodor]] [[Category:1881 deaths|Dostoevsky, Fyodor]] [[Category:Russian novelists|Dostoevsky, Fyodor]] [[Category:Russian short story writers|Dostoevsky, Fyodor]] [[ar:فيودور دوستويفسكي]] [[bg:Фьодор Достоевски]] [[bs:Fjodor Dostojevski]] [[ca:Fiodor Dostoievski]] [[cs:Fjodor Michajlovič Dostojevskij]] [[da:Fjodor Mikhajlovitj Dostojevskij]] [[de:Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski]] [[et:Fjodor Dostojevski]] [[el:Φιοντόρ Ντοστογιέφσκι]] [[es:Fiódor Dostoievski]] [[eo:Fjodor DOSTOJEVSKIJ]] [[fa:فئودور داستایوسکی]] [[fr:Fedor Dostoïevski]] [[hr:Fjodor Dostojevski]] [[io:Fyodor Dostoyevski]] [[it:Fëdor Mikhailovič Dostoevskij]] [[he:פיודור מיכאילוביץ' דוסטויבסקי]] [[lv:Fjodors Dostojevskis]] [[lt:Fiodoras Dostojevskis]] [[hu:Fjodor Mihajlovics Dosztojevszkij]] [[mk:Фјодор Достоевски]] [[nl:Fjodor Dostojevski]] [[ja:フョードル・ドストエフスキー]] [[no:Fjodor Dostojevskij]] [[pl:Fiodor Dostojewski]] [[pt:Fiódor Dostoiévski]] [[ro:Fiodor Dostoievski]] [[ru:Достоевский, Фёдор Михайлович]] [[sk:Fiodor Michajlovič Dostojevskij]] [[sl:Fjodor Mihajlovič Dostojevski]] [[sr:Фјодор Михајлович Достојевски]] [[fi:Fjodor Dostojevski]] [[sv:Fjodor Dostojevskij]] [[tl:Fëdor Dostoevskij]] [[vi:Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky]] [[tr:Fyodor Mikailoviç Dostoyevski]] [[uk:Достоєвський Федір Михайлович]] [[wa:Fyodor Mixhaylovitch Dostoyevskiy]] [[zh:费奥多尔·陀思妥耶夫斯基]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Faith healing</title> <id>11627</id> <revision> <id>41739061</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:41:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>El C</username> <id>92203</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.3.49.1|82.3.49.1]] ([[User talk:82.3.49.1|talk]]) to last version by NiTenIchiRyu</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''&quot;[[Spiritual healing]]&quot; redirects here. You may be looking for the album entitled ''[[Spiritual Healing]]'' by [[Death (band)|Death]].'' '''Faith healing''', or '''divine healing''', is the use of [[spirituality|spiritual]] means in treating [[disease]], sometimes accompanied (in extreme instances) with the refusal of modern [[medicine|medical]] techniques. Another term for this is '''spiritual healing'''. Faith healing is a form of [[alternative medicine]]. ==Christian faith healing== The term is sometimes used in reference to the belief of some [[Christianity|Christians]] who hold that [[God]] heals people through the power of the [[Holy Spirit]], often involving the &quot;[[laying on of hands]]&quot;. Those who hold to this belief do not usually use the term &quot;faith healing&quot; in reference to the practice; that expression is more often used descriptively by commentators outside of the faith movement in reference to the belief and practice. Many people who resort to faith healing do so in cases of otherwise incurable [[disease]]. However, there are groups that believe in faith healing as the primary (if not sole) remedy for any health problem. The general consensus among [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]] and [[Charismatic]]s who believe in supernatural healing is that God ''always'' desires a Christian to be physically healthy, and that illness is a form of [[spiritual warfare|demonic attack]] which, through [[prayer]] and [[Bible|Biblical reading]] can be overcome. Other Christian groups generally do not dispute that God ''can'' heal supernaturally, but take issue with the Pentecostal/Charismatic view that God is somehow ''required'' to heal when asked to do so. The predominant view among supporters of faith healing is that medical treatment should be sought whenever necessary, and that the two are not incompatible (believing that God can heal ''both'' supernaturally ''and'' through modern medical practice). However, there is an extreme view that teaches seeking medical treatment constitutes a &quot;lack of faith&quot; in supernatural healing. The term &quot;faith healing&quot; is occasionally used in connection with [[Christian Science]], though its adherents maintain its practice of healing is methodical and does not rest on faith alone, but also on an intimate understanding of God's law. Some practitioners such as [[William Baldwin]] and [[Ken Page (Author)|Ken Page]] incorporated methods that were Christian in origin with Shamanic tools for work on clients regardless of their spiritual beliefs or backgrounds. ==Proposed sociobiological basis== Some argue that faith healing may have a basis in [[sociobiology]] where [[evolution]] conferred survival advantage over the several million years of human [[pre-history]] to those tribes that had [[shamans]] who were thought to possess powers of healing by virtue of having undergone a [[neurological]] transformation whose symptoms are similar to [[kundalini]]. The argument posits that humans have an innate capacity to respond to shamanistic type ministrations, perhaps entirely via the [[placebo]] response, or perhaps via other as yet unknown physiological processes. In the UK and British Commonwealth countries, &quot;spiritual healing&quot; is used generically to designate healing by prayer, mental intent and/or the laying-on of hands, both within religious practitioner frameworks and in the secular community - where spiritual healing could include healing as taught and practiced by the National Federation of Spiritual Healiers (UK), Reiki, Therapeutic Touch, Healing Touch, and dozens of other related practices. ==Criticism== Some would point out that faith healing has not scientifically been proven effective, since its practitioners can only cite [[anecdotal evidence]] of cases where it has been successful. Skeptics point out that proponents of faith healing ignore the far more numerous cases where the patient dies despite the efforts of faith healing. Doctors often ascribe any success to the [[placebo effect]] or to [[spontaneous remission]]: some people will heal with or without treatment, and it is generally natural to credit the most recent treatment for the cure (this logical fallacy is called [[post hoc|post hoc ergo propter hoc]]). Prominent 1980's-era faith healer and [[televangelist]] [[Peter Popoff]] was publicly exposed by noted [[skeptic]] [[James Randi]] working together with popular TV host [[Johnny Carson]], when it was discovered that the apparent healing miracles and prophetic acts performed by Popoff were in fact part of an elaborately stage-managed setup including planting of audience members and broadcasts to an in-ear [[radio]] receiver. Other faith healers such as [[Benny Hinn]] have also been hit by reports of fraudulent activity. ==Ethical issues when conventional treatment is refused== Faith healing can pose serious ethical problems for medical professionals when parents decline or refuse traditional medical care for their children. In some countries, parents argue that constitutional guarantees of religious freedom include the right to rely on alternative healing to the exclusion of medical care. Advocates of conventional medicine argue studies have shown faith healing no more effective than a placebo, making it unethical to rely on, though advocates of spiritual healing argue there exist methodical and bias issues. Doctors as a rule consider it their duty to do everything that they can in the interests of the patient. In consequence, where they judge medical treatment necessary to save an individual's life or health, and balancing the question with legal and privacy concerns, they may act contrary to the patient's or parental wishes. In [[2000]] in Britain, a government ruling allowed a child, against much protest from the parents, to be treated by doctors. ==See also== *[[Carnivàle]] *[[:category: Faith Healers]] *[[James Randi]] - Offers one million dollars for anyone who can prove faith healing. *[[Homeopathy]] *[[Muraqaba]] *[[Psychic surgery]] *[[Reiki]] *[[Scientology]] *[[Shaman|Shamanism]] *[[Therapeutic Touch]] *[[Christian Science]] ==External links== *[http://www.spiritual.com.au/healing.html Articles on spiritual healing] *[http://www.quranichealing.com Spiritual Healing of mind and body] *[http://www.nfsh.org.uk/ National Federation of Spiritual Healers (United Kingdom)] *[http://www.oohoi.com/inner_self/spiritual-healing/spiritual-healing-research.htm Proofs of Healing Power] *[http://www.acu-cell.com/sh.html Discussions of Scriptural accounts of spiritual health and healing] *[http://www.spirituality.com Christian Science healing] * [http://www.spiritreleasement.org William Baldwin's Spirit Releasement Therapy] * [http://www.kenpage.com Ken Page's Multidimensional Cellular Healing] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4727929.stm proposed legislation to limit the activities of faith healers] *[http://ex-pentecostals.org The Association of Former
umn are usually pretty, well-fed females decked out with fruits, vegetables and grains that ripen at this time. Most ancient cultures featured autumnal celebrations of the harvest, often the most important on their calendars. Still extant echoes of these celebrations are found in the late-Autumn [[Thanksgiving]] holiday of the [[United States]], the Jewish [[Sukkot]] holiday with its roots as a full moon harvest festival of &quot;tabernacles&quot; (huts wherein the harvest was processed and which later gained religious significance), the many North American Indian festivals tied to harvest of autumnally ripe foods gathered in the wild, the Chinese [[Mid-Autumn Festival | Mid-Autumn or Moon festival]], and many others. The predominant mood of these autumnal celebrations is a gladness for the fruits of the earth mixed with a certain melancholy linked to the imminence of harsh weather. Remembrance of ancestors is also a common theme. In modern times, apart from being the start of the school year, it is one of the seasons in which the film industry starts releasing movies that are usually low-budget in scope, but worthy of artistic achievement at academic institutions such as the [[Oscars]] and the [[BAFTA]] awards (whose award ceremonies are held in late-February). Such movies are considered low-key, deeper in content and more serious than their big-budget, effects-laden summer counterparts. Autumn, which begins on the weekend following [[Labor Day (United States)|Labor Day]] and ends—every 4 years—on the weekend before the US elections, is the shortest and least profitable season of the movies. Autumn is also associated with the [[Halloween]] season, and with it a widespread marketing campaign that promotes it. The film and music industries use this time of year to promote movies and records that closely associate with such holiday, and their releases begin in early September but no later than October 28, since their themes rapidly lose strength once the holidays ends. Autumn, like spring, is highly unpredictable and, in many regions, it is also short. Temperatures in September can get above 86°F (30°C) and with the heat index, it may make for dangerous conditions regarding people neglecting themselves in regard to heat stroke ([[hyperthermia]]) risks. In October, especially in the northern lattitudes, there maybe some cold snaps and a mix of rain and snow, although permanent snow cover is usually not established until mid-November. == Autumn and tourism == [[Image:Autumn colors.jpg|thumb|right|Brilliant orange of sunlight autumn trees]] Eastern Canada and the [[New England]] region of the United States are famous around the world for the brilliance of their &quot;fall foliage,&quot; and a seasonal tourist industry has grown up around the few weeks in autumn when the leaves are at their peak. Some television and web-based weather forecasts even report on the status of the fall foliage throughout the season as a service to tourists. Fall foliage tourists are often referred to as &quot;[[leaf peeper]]s&quot;. == Autumn versus Fall == [[Image:FireTrees-Fall2005-Georgia.jpg|thumb|right|Fiery red fall leaves]] '''Fall''' is an alternative [[English language|English]] word for the season of [[Autumn]]. Only in use now in [[North American English]], the word traces it origins to old [[Germanic languages]]. The exact derivation is unclear, the [[Old English language|Old English]] ''fiæll'' or ''feallan'' and the [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] ''fall'' all being possible candidates. However, these words all have the meaning &quot;to fall from a height&quot; and are clearly derived either from a common root or from each other. The term only came to denote the season in the [[16th century]], a contraction of [[Middle English]] expressions like &quot;fall of the leaf&quot; and &quot;fall of the year&quot;. ''Autumn'' comes from the [[Old French]] ''autompne'', and ultimately from the [[Latin]] autumnus. There are rare examples of its use as early as the [[14th century]], but it became common only in the 16th, around the same time as ''Fall'', when the two words appear to have been used interchangebly. During the 17th century immigration to the English colonies in [[North America]] was at its peak and the new settlers took their language with them. While use of the term ''Fall'' gradually waned in Britain, the opposite happened in North America, and ''Autumn'' fell from favour. Before the 16th century ''[[Harvest]]'' was the term usually used to refer to the season. However as more people gradually moved from working the land to living in towns (especially those who could read and write, the only people whose use of language we now know), the word became to refer to the actual activity of reaping, rather than the time of year, and ''Fall'' and ''Autumn'' began to replace it. ==References== #{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&amp;entity=HistSciTech000900240221&amp;isize=L] == See also == *[[Axial tilt]] *[[How directness of sunlight causes warmer weather]] *[[Spring (season)|Spring]] *[[Summer]] *[[Winter]] == External links == * [http://www.home2garden.org/new-england-fall-foliage.html New England fall foliage, tour, report.] * [http://landscaping.about.com/od/fallfoliagetrees/ Fall Foliage Trees] Information on fall foliage trees for home landscaping, including pictures. * [http://www.urbanext.uiuc.edu/fallcolor/trees.html &quot;The Mirage of Fall - Foliage Trees&quot;] at University of Wisconsin has fall pictures of around 50 trees and 20 shrubs * [http://www.cnr.vt.edu/dendro/dendrology/fall/biglist_frame.cfm Virginia Tech's picture gallery] from their [[dendrology]] department with over 100 images of trees and shrubs * [http://www.housatonicnet.com/foliage/index.htm Fall Foliage Pictures] A sample of fall foliage from Western Connecticut * [http://www.oulu.fi/northnature/english/englanti/ajankohtsyksy.html Autumn of animals and plants in Finland] by Northern Nature Project *[http://www.landscape-photo.net/Season-autumn/index.html Photos of autumn trees, leafs and landscapes] by Landscape-Photo.net ==Etymology references== *[http://hea-www.harvard.edu/ECT/Words/#fall Word Lore] *[http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/autumn Definition of autumn] *[http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/fall Definition of fall] *[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Fall&amp;searchmode=none Online Etymology Dictionary: Fall] [[Category:Etymology]] [[Category:Seasons]] [[ast:Seronda]] [[bg:Есен]] [[ca:Tardor]] [[cy:Hydref (tymor)]] [[da:Efterår]] [[de:Herbst]] [[el:Φθινόπωρο]] [[es:Otoño]] [[eo:Aŭtuno]] [[fr:Automne]] [[fur:Sierade]] [[gl:Outono]] [[ko:가을]] [[id:Musim gugur]] [[it:Autunno]] [[he:סתיו]] [[ka:შემოდგომა]] [[la:Autumnus]] [[nl:Herfst]] [[ja:秋]] [[no:Høst]] [[pl:Jesień]] [[pt:Outono]] [[ru:Осень]] [[sl:Jesen]] [[fi:Syksy]] [[sv:Höst]] [[tt:Köz]] [[vi:Mùa thu]] [[zh:秋季]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Angus McDuck</title> <id>3051</id> <revision> <id>39326509</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T10:27:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>60.226.120.170</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Angus McDuck''', nicknamed &quot;Pothole&quot;, is a [[fictional character]] of the [[Scrooge McDuck universe]], as depicted in [[comic book]]s series produced by the [[Walt Disney]] company. Angus McDuck was born in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]] on [[1829]] to [[Dingus McDuck]] and [[Molly Mallard]], who were both working as [[coal]] miners at the time. He had two younger brothers named [[Fergus McDuck]] and [[Jake McDuck]]. Angus migrated to the [[United States]] during the late [[1840s]]. In [[1850]] he was working as a cabin boy in the [[Mississippi River]] riverboat ''Drennan Whyte'' when it sunk. He was the only survivor. He continued working on Mississippi riverboats and he had obtained his own by [[1861]], named ''Cotton Queen''. During the [[American Civil War]] ([[1861]]-[[1865]]) he became quite successful as a riverboater. Soon after the end of the war in [[1865]] he and fellow riverboater [[Porker Hogg]] became the two owners of Cornpone Gables, a southern [[plantation]] that had gone bankrupt. The two were unable to settle their differences and they decided to have a riverboat race in [[1870]] to decide who would be the single owner. Both riverboats sunk. Porker had two more riverboats but Angus spent the next ten years as a professional card player. In [[1880]], in a poker game with Porker, Angus won the rights to one of his rival's riverboats, named ''Dilly Dollar''. Porker soon lost his other riverboat to the Beagle Boys, a family of outlaws, and retired. Angus on the other hand hired his nephew [[Scrooge McDuck]] and a penniless inventor named [[Ratchet Gearloose]] as his crew. Business wasn't going well and Angus decided to retire in [[1882]]. He left his riverboat to his nephew and settled down in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]. He became the writer of a series of [[dime novel]]s under the title ''The Master of Mississippi'', based on a highly exaggerated description of his life. His dime novels became very popular and to have more material to add he occasionally travelled through the country. During his travels he met many famous historical figures of the Western United States. Among others he befriended [[Phineas Taylor Barnum]], [[Buffalo Bill]], [[Annie Oakley]], and [[Geronimo]]. He died in 1901 aged 72. [[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|McDuck, Angus]] [[Category:Fictional writers|McDuck, Angus]] [[Category:Fictional ducks|McDuck, Angus]] [[Category:Fictional Scots|McDuck, Angus]] [[it:Angus de Paperoni]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alameda, California</title> <id>3052</id> <revision> <id>41919839</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:55:23Z</tim
Sangshad]], which has 300 members elected by popular vote from single territorial constituencies for five-year terms of office. The remaining 45 seats are reserved for women, and allocated among political parties according to representation of elected members. There is [[universal suffrage]], citizens attain the right to vote at age 18. The most important legal document in Bangladesh is the [[Constitution of Bangladesh|constitution]]. The constitution was written in 1972 and has undergone thirteen [[amendment]]s. All other laws of the country are made by the Parliament conforming to the tenets of the constitution. The highest [[judiciary]] body is the Supreme Court, whose chief justices and other judges are appointed by the president. The judiciary is not separate from the administration, which has caused much commotion in recent years. Laws are loosely based on [[English common law]]. But family laws (regarding marriage, inheritance, etc.) are based on religious texts, and hence differ for various religious communities. ==Politics== {{main|List of political parties in Bangladesh}} [[Khaleda Zia]] began her second (non-contiguous) 5-year term as Prime Minister in 2001. She is the head of the [[Bangladesh Nationalist Party]] (BNP) which has formed a coalition with [[Jatiya Party]] and the two moderate Islamist parties [[Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh]] and [[Islami Oikya Jot]]. The opposition is led by [[Sheikh Hasina]] and the [[Awami League]], which has been a key party since and prior to independence. Awami tends to adopt a more secular stance and tilts towards India, while BNP has closer relations with China. Awami-BNP rivalry has been bitter and punctuated by protests, violence and murder. This has been partly attributed to the personal animosity that continues to exist between the main two female leaders. Two radical Islamist parties, Jagrata Muslim Janata Bangladesh (JMJB) and Jama'atul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB), were banned in February, 2005. Since then, a series of bomb attacks have been blamed on those groups, and hundreds of their suspected members have been detained in numerous security operations. The first recorded case of a suicide bomb attack in Bangladesh took place in November 2005. ==Subdivisions== [[Image:Bangladesh divisions english.png|thumb|250px|Map of Bangladesh showing the six administrative divisions]] {{main|Divisions of Bangladesh}} Bangladesh is divided into six administrative divisions, all named after their respective divisional headquarters: * [[Barisal division|Barisal]] বরিশাল * [[Chittagong division|Chittagong]] চট্টগ্রাম * [[Dhaka division|Dhaka]] ঢাকা * [[Khulna division|Khulna]] খুলনা * [[Rajshahi division|Rajshahi]] রাজশাহী * [[Sylhet division|Sylhet]] সিেলট The next level of administrative unit is a district or ''zila'' (িজলা) (in [[Bengali language|Bangla]]). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh. For more information, see [[Districts of Bangladesh]]. Each district is further subdivided into ''thana'' or Police stations (formerly called upa-zila or sub-districts). Each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions. The unions consist of many villages. In the metropolitan areas, the unit is a ward, which consists of several ''mahalla'' or areas. At the district level there is no elected officials, only the government appointed administration. Direct elections are held for thana and union levels, in both cases electing a chairperson and a number of members of comissioners. Recently, legislation was passed to reserve one seat for a female candidate in every union. [[Dhaka]] is the country's capital and largest city. Other major cities include [[Chittagong]], [[Rajshahi]], [[Sylhet]], and [[Khulna]]. See [[List of cities in Bangladesh]]. ==Geography and climate== [[Image:Satellite image of Bangladesh in October 2001.jpg|thumb|200px|left|NASA satellite Image of Bangladesh's physical features (click to enlarge)]] [[Image:Kaptai_lake01.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Kaptai Lake on [[Karnaphuli River]] in [[Rangamati District]]]] {{main|Geography of Bangladesh}} Bangladesh consists mostly of a low-lying [[river delta]] located on the [[Indian subcontinent]], in the geographic region called the [[Ganges Delta]] or Ganges-Brahmaputra River Delta. This densely populated delta is formed by the confluence of the [[Ganges]] (local name ''Padma'' or ''Pôdda''), [[Brahmaputra]] (''Jomuna''), and [[Meghna]] rivers and their tributaries as they flow down from the [[Himalaya]]. It is the largest river delta in the world. Bangladesh's [[alluvial soil]] is highly fertile but vulnerable to flood and [[drought]]. Hills rise above the plain only in the [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] (highest point: in the Mowdok range at 1,052&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]] (3,451&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), N&amp;nbsp;21°47'12&quot;&amp;nbsp;E&amp;nbsp;92°36'36&quot;, not [[Keokradong]], 883&amp;nbsp;m (2,897&amp;nbsp;ft) not 1,230&amp;nbsp;m (4,035&amp;nbsp;ft) as sometimes reported) in the far southeast and the [[Sylhet division]] in the northeast. Most parts of Bangladesh are less than 10 meters above sea level, and it is belived that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 meter.&lt;ref name=&quot;alia&quot;&gt;Ali, A (1996). ''Vulnerability of bangladesh to climate change and sea level rise through tropical cyclones and storm surges'', Water, Air, &amp; Soil Pollution. 92(1-2). pp 171-179.&lt;/ref&gt; A large part of the coastline consists of the [[marsh|marshy]] [[jungle]] known as the [[Sundarbans]]. Sundarbans, one of the largest [[mangrove]] [[forests]] in the world, is home to very diverse flora and fauna, including the (Royal) [[Bengal Tiger]]. This region is endangered and half the size it used to be 150 years ago with subtantial reduction in diversity as well.&lt;ref name=&quot;sundwild&quot;&gt;''Sundarban wildlife sanctuaries Bangladesh'', World Heritage Nomination-IUCN Technical Evaluation.&lt;/ref&gt; Straddling the [[Tropic of Cancer]], the Bangladeshi climate is [[Tropics|tropical]] with a mild winter from October to March, a hot, humid summer from March to June, and a humid, warm rainy [[monsoon]] from June to October. Natural calamities, such as [[flood]]s, [[tropical cyclone]]s, [[tornado]]es, and [[tidal bore]]s affect the country almost every year, combined with the effects of [[deforestation]], [[soil degradation]] and [[erosion]]. [[Cox's Bazar]], south of the city of [[Chittagong]], has a sea beach that stretches uninterrupted over 120 kilometres (75&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]); it is frequently quoted as the World's longest natural sea beach (although this claim is difficult to prove or disprove). ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Bangladesh}} [[Image:Cox's Bazaar Fishermen.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fishermen near the town of Cox's Bazaar in southern Bangladesh. Many industries in Bangladesh are still primitive by modern standards.]] Despite sustained domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains an underdeveloped, [[overpopulation|overpopulated]], and ill-governed nation. The par capita income in 2004 was a low 440$, and many other economic indicators were less than impressive [http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/bangladesh_bangladesh_statistics.html]. Yet, as the [[World Bank]] notes in its July 2005 Country Brief, the country has made impressive progress in human development by focusing on increasing [[literacy]], achieving gender parity in schooling, and reducing population growth. [[Jute]] was once Bangladesh's economic engine. Its share of the world export market peaked in the late 1940s at 80% [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/J_0135.HTM] and even in the early 1970s accounted for 70% of its export earnings. But after [[polypropylene]] products began to substitute jute products in the world economy, Bangladesh's jute industry started to slow down. Bangladesh also grows significant quantities of [[rice]], [[tea]] and [[Mustard plant|mustard]]. Although two-thirds of Bangladeshis are farmers, nowadays more than three quarters of Bangadesh's export earnings come from the [[garment industry]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4118969.stm], which began attracting foreign investors in the 1980s due to cheap labor and low conversion cost. In 2002, the industry exported $5 billion worth of products. &lt;ref name=&quot;rahs&quot;&gt;Rahman, Shahidur (2004). ''Global Shift: Bangladesh Garment Industry in Perspective'', Asian Affairs, 26(1), pp 75-91.&lt;/ref&gt; The industry now employs more than 3 million workers, 90% of whom are women.&lt;ref name=&quot;begn&quot;&gt;Begum, N (2001). ''Enforcement of Safety Regulations in Garment sector in Bangladesh'', Growth of Garment Industry in Bangladesh: Economic and Social dimension. pp 208-226&lt;/ref&gt; A significant amount of foreign currency earnings also come from the remittances sent by expatriate Bangladeshis living in other countries. Major impediments to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, inefficient state-owned enterprises, mismanaged [[port]] facilities, a growth in the labor force that has outpaced jobs, inefficient use of energy resources (such as [[natural gas]]), insufficient power supplies, slow implementation of economic reforms, political infighting and [[Political corruption|corruption]]. According to the World Bank's Country Brief updated July, 2005: &quot;Among Bangladesh’s most significant obstacles to growth are poor governance and weak public institutions.&quot; [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/BANGLADESHEXTN/0,,menuPK:295769~pagePK:141132~piPK:141107~theSitePK:295760,00.html] In spite of the hurdles, since 1990 the country has achieved an average annual growth rate of 5% according to the World Bank. The [[middle class]] and the [[consumer]] industry have seen some growth. In December 2005, four years after its report on the emerging &quot;
se and fall of the Jaredite empire corresponds with that of the [[Olmec]]. *''Moroni'' details the final destruction of the Nephites and the [[idolotry|idolatrous]] state of the remaining society. He adds a few spiritual insights and mentions some important doctrinal teachings, then closes with his [[testimony]] and an invitation to [[prayer|pray]] to God for a confirmation of the truthfulness of the account. ===The book's major themes=== ====Stated purposes==== The purpose of ''The Book of Mormon'', as stated on its original title page, &quot;is to show the remnant of the [[Children of Israel|House of Israel]] what great things the Lord has done for their fathers&quot; and to convince &quot;[[Jew]] and [[Gentile]] that [[Jesus]] is the [[Christ]], the Eternal [[God]], [[Manifestation of God|manifesting]] himself to all nations.&quot; ====Another Testament of Christ==== The crowning event of the Book of Mormon is the visitation of the [[resurrection|resurrected]] Christ to the Nephites around [[34|34 AD]], shortly after his ministry in [[Jerusalem]] (3 Nephi 11-26). Every [[prophet]] in the Book of Mormon teaches about [[Jesus]]. An [[angel]] prophesied to [[Nephi]] that [[Jesus]]'s birth would be 600 years from the time he and his family left [[Jerusalem]] (1 Nephi 10:4, 19:8; See 3 Nephi 1). Many [[Prophet|prophets]] in the Book of Mormon, beginning with [[Lehi]] and Nephi, saw in visions the birth, ministry, and death of Christ (1 Nephi 11), and were told his name. (Mosiah 3:8). At the time of [[King Benjamin]], the Nephites were called &quot;the children of Christ&quot; (Mosiah 5:7). The faithful members of the church at the time of [[Captain Moroni]] ([[73 BC]]) were called &quot;Christians&quot; by their enemies, because of their belief in Christ (Alma 46:13-15). For nearly 200 years after the Christ's appearance at the [[temple (Mormonism)|temple]] in the Americas, the land was filled with peace and prosperity because of the people's obedience to Christ's commandments (4 Nephi). The great prophet-general [[Mormon]] worked to convince the faithless people of his time of Christ ([[360|360 AD]]), and [[Moroni (Mormonism)|Moroni]] buried the [[Golden Plates|plates]] with faith in Christ (See title page). Many others also bore witness to the reality of the [[Messiah]]. ====Some doctrinal teachings==== The following teachings are especially notable in ''The Book of Mormon'': *Christ spoke to the [[Jew]]s in [[Jerusalem]] of 'other sheep' (referring to other Hebrews, not Gentiles) who would hear his voice (see [[Gospel of John|John]] 10:16), which the Book of Mormon explains meant that the Nephites and other remnants of the [[Ten Lost Tribes|lost tribes]] of Israel throughout the world were to be visited by Christ after his [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]]. The various groups had their own [[Prophet|prophets]], and each recorded their history and dealings with God. These records will eventually be had among men, and will complement the Bible and Book of Mormon (3 Nephi 15:13-24, 3 Nephi 16:1-4, 2 Nephi 29:7-14). *The land of the Jaredites, Nephites, and Lamanites, which is the American continent, is choice above all other lands (1 Nephi 2:20; 13:30; 2 Nephi 1:5; 10:19; Jacob 5:43; Ether 1:38, 42; 2:7; 2:10-12, 15; 9:20; 10:28; 13:2). *&quot;Inasmuch as ye keep [the Lord's] commandments, ye shall prosper in the land, but inasmuch as ye keep not my commandments, ye shall be cut off from my presence&quot; (1 Nephi 2:20; 4:14; 2 Nephi 1:20; 4:4; Jarom 1:9; Omni 1:6; Mosiah 1:7; 2:22; 2:31; Alma 9:13; 36:1; 36:30; 37:13; 38:1; 48:15; 48:25; Helaman 3:20; 50:20; 3 Nephi 5:22). *All mankind must be born again, for the natural man is an enemy to God until he yields to the holy spirit and is born of Christ, being changed to a state of righteousness, becoming his son or daughter (Mosiah 3:19; 27:25; Alma 22:15-18; Moroni 10:34). *Between death and the resurrection the [[spirit]] returns to God and awaits the resurrection in either a place of rest or a place of darkness and torment. At the resurrection, the spirit and body shall be reunited, not one hair of the head shall be lost, and this resurrection shall come to all (Alma 11:42-45; 40:11-14, 23). *Giving to the poor ([[charity]]) is emphasized as a necessary aspect of living the gospel of Christ (2 Nephi 9:30; Mosiah 4:26). ====Dominant narrative themes==== The following narrative themes are especially consistent in ''The Book of Mormon'': *The Pride Cycle. When God blesses his people most, they forget him in [[pride]] until by tribulation they are brought to [[humility]] and [[repentance]], which brings the blessings of God. Pride of heart because of exceeding riches unto wearing costly apparel and despising the poor is a sure sign of wickedness (2 Nephi 26:20; 28:13; Jacob 2:13; Alma 1:6, 27, 32; 4:6-13; 5:53; 31:28; 32:2-3; Hel. 4:12; 6:39; 4 Nephi 1:24; Mormon 8:37). *The danger of [[Secret combination|secret combinations]], organizations which meet secretly and use secret signs and oaths, committing crimes for personal gain. Notable examples include the [[Gadianton robbers]] in the [[Book of Helaman]] and the secret combination of Akish in the [[Book of Ether]]. Prevalent modern interpretations of this term include [[gang]]s, [[Mafia]], and [[terrorism|terrorists]]. *The scattering and gathering of [[Ten Lost Tribes|Israel]]. Because the Nephites consider themselves a remnant of the [[children of Israel|House of Israel]], a great many passages refer to its scattering and gathering; [[Nephi]] quotes heavily from [[Isaiah]] concerning the subject, too. Many of the prophecies in the book refer to the [[end times|last days]], when Israel will be gathered for one final time. *God's [[mercy]] to the [[faith|faithful]]. Throughout the book, references to God's mercy in forgiving the sins of those who [[repentance|repent]] and honoring those who have faith in him is shown. Several narratives involve stories of people who give up their sinful lives and adopt the gospel. Other narratives show what lies in store for those who reject the [[Prophet|prophets]] and teachers of the gospel. Many narratives show the kind of power God will exercise in behalf of those who believe in Him. *America as the promised land. The ''Book of Mormon'' portrays the Americas as a favorable, promised land, to which the Lord leads favored groups of people, including the [[Jaredite]]s, the [[Mulekite]]s, the Nephites, and early European colonists of the New World. ==Origin of the Book of Mormon== ''See [[Linguistics and the Book of Mormon]] for additional information and analysis on authorship.'' ===Authorship=== Many different parties have differing views on the origin of the Book of Mormon. If the book is what it purports to be then it is an ancient record, compiled and abridged by Mormon of the pre-Colombian Native Americans, recording the generations of his nation and the teachings of ancient Hebrews. If not, it was written by Joseph Smith and his associates. ===Joseph Smith as Translator=== If true then the book is an abridgment of earlier records by Mormon and his son, Moroni (who carried on the work of abridgment after his father's death) at about AD 400. The record was subsequently buried in a stone box in a hillside, where it remained until the time of Joseph Smith. According to the accounts of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] and his associates, the original record was engraved on thin, malleable sheets of metal with the appearance of [[gold]] and bound with three rings at one edge, much like a modern book. The leaves were engraved on both sides with considerable skill. At the end of Moroni's ministry (around AD [[421]]), he hid these gold plates along with several other artifacts in a stone box. On [[September 22]], [[1823]], Joseph Smith was directed by God through the [[angel]] [[Moroni (Mormonism)|Moroni]] to the place where the plates were stored. He was not immediately allowed to take them, but after four years was entrusted with them. Through the power of God he was able to translate the characters (supposedly related to 600 B.C. [[Reformed Egyptian|Egyptian]] with Hebrew influence ([http://scriptures.lds.org/morm/9 Mormon 9:32,34]) into [[English language|English]]. Because the heavy plates were reportedly made of gold (or perhaps gold alloy or gold colored metal), the plates were much sought-after by individuals interested in their monetary value. Joseph admitted that, prior to receiving the plates, he had entertained thoughts of selling them to provide for his family, who were farmers and not particularly wealthy or well-educated. Joseph Smith claimed he was commanded to show the plates to several people and no one else. Accounts by these individuals are recorded in the front of The Book of Mormon as &quot;The Testimony of [[Three Witnesses]]&quot; and &quot;The Testimony of [[Eight Witnesses]].&quot; Most of the witnesses at some point became disaffected with Joseph Smith's leadership and the church, but none withdrew their testimony of what they signed. After translation was complete, the angel again took the plates from Joseph Smith, and no public account of their whereabouts has been made since. The golden plates were commonly referred to as a &quot;Golden Bible,&quot; particularly by non-Mormons, though a few members also used the term in early descriptions. The label &quot;Golden Bible&quot; actually predates the Book of Mormon as legends of such an artifact existed in Canada and upstate New York while Joseph Smith was growing up (Bushman 2005). ''See'' [[Golden Plates]] ====Passages from the King James Version of the Bible==== A substantial segment of the Book of Mormon, namely 2 Nephi chapters 7, 8, and 12-24, matches nearly word-for-word the chapters 50, 51-52:1-2, and 2-14 (respectively) of the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Translation]] (1611) of the [[Book of Isaiah]]. While a point of argument for those who do not believe
xpanding &lt;math&gt;\left| \psi\left(t\right) \right\rangle&lt;/math&gt; in terms of the basis states. Each of the ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;(t)'''s actually corresponds to ''two'' independent degrees of freedom, since the variable has a real part and an imaginary part. We now perform the following trick: instead of using the real and imaginary parts as the independent variables, we use ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;(t)'' and its [[complex conjugate]] ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;*(t)''. With this choice of independent variables, we can calculate the [[partial derivative]] :&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial \langle H \rangle}{\partial a_{n'}^{*}} = \sum_{n} a_n \langle n'|H|n \rangle = \langle n'|H|\psi\rangle &lt;/math&gt; By applying [[Schrödinger's equation]] and using the orthonormality of the basis states, this further reduces to :&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial \langle H \rangle}{\partial a_{n'}^{*}} = \mathrm{i} \hbar \frac{\partial a_{n'}}{\partial t} &lt;/math&gt; Similarly, one can show that :&lt;math&gt; \frac{\partial \langle H \rangle}{\partial a_n} = - \mathrm{i} \hbar \frac{\partial a_{n}^{*}}{\partial t} &lt;/math&gt; If we define &quot;conjugate momentum&quot; variables ''&amp;pi;&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' by :&lt;math&gt; \pi_{n}(t) = \mathrm{i} \hbar a_n^*(t) &lt;/math&gt; then the above equations become :&lt;math&gt; \frac{\partial \langle H \rangle}{\partial \pi_{n}} = \frac{\partial a_{n}}{\partial t} \quad,\quad \frac{\partial \langle H \rangle}{\partial a_n} = - \frac{\partial \pi_{n}}{\partial t} &lt;/math&gt; which is precisely the form of Hamilton's equations, with the &lt;math&gt;a_n&lt;/math&gt;s as the generalized coordinates, the &lt;math&gt;\pi_n&lt;/math&gt;s as the conjugate momenta, and &lt;math&gt;\langle H\rangle&lt;/math&gt; taking the place of the classical Hamiltonian. [[Category:Quantum mechanics]] [[Category:Operator theory]] [[de:Hamiltonoperator]] [[es:Hamiltoniano_(mecánica cuántica)]] [[ja:&amp;#12495;&amp;#12511;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12491;&amp;#12450;&amp;#12531;]] [[pl:Hamiltonian]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hi-hat</title> <id>14382</id> <revision> <id>40144648</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T13:46:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pietaster</username> <id>533049</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* History of development */ link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Drum kit components}} A '''Hi-hat''' or '''hihat''' is a type of [[cymbal]] and stand used as a typical part of a [[drum kit]] by percussionists in [[jazz]], [[rock and roll]], and other forms of contemporary popular music. == Description == The Hi-hat consists of two cymbals mounted on a metal stand, with a pedal pulling down on a narrow metal shaft, which is countered by a spring attached to the bottom of the shaft that repels against the upper housing of the pedal. The top cymbal is mounted directly to the shaft and is positioned prior to playing. The bottom cymbal however, is stationary and rests on the metal stand, connected to a hollow metal rod. The top cymbal can move up and down to open or close the Hi-hat via the pedal, . It can be played in both the open and closed positions, a partially open closed position, or making the cymbals clash together using the pedal. [[Image:Hihat.jpg|thumbnail|left|150px|The hi-hat stand has changed little since its invention.]] == History of development == The hi hat originated as a cymbal turned upside down on the floor, with another cymbal tied to the drummer's shoe, and was played by stepping on the bottom cymbal. Later in the 20th century, it was raised up to sock level (just below the knee) and called a &quot;low boy&quot; or &quot;sock cymbal.&quot; and operated by a pedal. The low-sock was a pedal which simply clashed together a pair of similar [[crash cymbal]]s. The cymbals were mounted next to the pedal, so playing them with a stick was not possible. Today it is called the &quot;hi hat&quot;. The hi-hat stand was developed from the ''low-sock'' by [[Gene Krupa]] in collaboration with [[Armand Zildjian]]. Up until the late [[1960s]] the standard hi-hats were 14&quot;, with 13&quot; available as a less common alternative in professional cymbal ranges and smaller sizes down to 12&quot; restricted to children's kits. In the early 1970s heavy [[Rock and roll|rock]] drummers (including [[Led Zeppelin]]'s [[John Bonham]] began to use 15&quot; hi-hats. In the late 1970s [[Sabian]] released their revolutionary 10&quot; ''mini hats'', which were small, heavy hi-hat cymbals intended for close miking either live or recording, and other manufacturers quickly followed. Starting in the [[1980s]] a number of manufacturers also experimented with rivets in the lower cymbal. But by the end of the [[1990s]] the standard size was again 14&quot;, with 13&quot; a less common alternative, and smaller hats mainly used for special sounds. [[Rivet]]s in hi-hats received rave reviews but failed to catch on. [[Image:paiste2002hihat.jpg|thumb|right|[[Paiste]]'s 2002 Sound Edge features a wavy bottom hihat to allow air escape out quickly.]] Modern hi-hat cymbals are much heavier than modern [[crash cymbal]]s, reflecting a continual trend to lighter and thinner crash cymbals as well as to heavier hi-hats. The other change has been that a pair hi-hat cymbals are no longer necessarily similar. More typically the bottom is now heavier than the top, and may also be vented, this being one innovation to have caught on. Some drummers even use completely mismatched hi-hats from different cymbal ranges, of different manufacturers and even of different sizes. Another recent development is fixed and cable-controlled hi-hats. An extended drum kit will often have a second set of hi-hats, normally smaller than the main ones, mounted to the centre or to the right. These may be fixed closed or connected by a [[bowden cable]] to a pedal operated by the drummer's left foot. Additionally, many drummers use a drop-clutch mechanism to disengage the top hi-hat in order to free up both feet while double bass playing. This results in the hi-hat producing a closed sound until the hi-hat foot is available again. The mechanism is disabled by fully pressing the hi-hat pedal. == Playing techniques == When struck closed or played with the pedal, the hi-hat gives a short, muted percussive sound. Adjusting the gap between the cymbals can alter the sound of the open hi-hat from a &quot;shimmering&quot;, sustained tone to something similar to a [[ride cymbal]]. When struck with a drumstick, the cymbals make either a short, snappy sound or a longer sustaining sandy sound depending on the position of the pedal. It can be also played just by lifting and lowering the foot to clash the cymbals together, a style commonly used to accent beats 2 and 4 in [[jazz]] music. In [[Rock and roll|rock music]], the hihats are commonly struck every beat or on beats 1 and 3, while the cymbals are held together. The drummer can control the sound by foot pressure. Less pressure allows the cymbals to rub together more freely, giving both greater sustain and greater volume for accent or crescendo. In [[shuffle time]], a rhythm known as &quot;cooking&quot; is often employed. To produce this the cymbals are stuck twice in rapid succession, being held closed on the first stroke and allowed to open just before the second, then allowed to ring before being closed with a &quot;chick&quot; to complete the pattern (the cymbals may or not be struck on the &quot;chick&quot;). A right-handed drummer will normally play the hi-hat pedal with their left foot, and may additionally use either or both drumsticks. The traditional hi-hat rhythms of rock and jazz were produced by crossing the hands over, so the right stick would play the hi-hat while the left played the [[snare drum]] below it, but this is not universal. However, some top modern drummers do not cross their hands over at all, normally playing the hi-hat and also occasionally a second [[ride cymbal]] mounted on the left with the left stick rather than the right. In both rock and jazz, often the drummer will move the same stick pattern between the hihat cymbal and the [[ride cymbal]], for example using the hihat in the verses and the ride in the chorus of a song, or using the ride to accompany a [[lead break]] or other instrumental solo. &lt;!-- _________________Table________________________. --&gt; {| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; !colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#4B95B5;&quot; | '''Audio samples''' |- !width=&quot;30&quot; style=&quot;background:#87BBC8;&quot; | Component !width=&quot;160&quot; style=&quot;background:#87BBC8;&quot; | Content !width=&quot;70&quot; style=&quot;background:#87BBC8;&quot; | Audio &lt;small&gt;([[Ogg Vorbis]])&lt;/small&gt; |- |align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3 &quot;|'''Hi-hat''' |Closed hi-hat |align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Hi hat closed.ogg |41 KB}} |- |Open hi-hat |align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Hi hat open.ogg|58 KB}} |- |Hi-hat being opened and closed by its foot pedal |align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Hi hat foot pedal.ogg|48 KB}} |- |align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#fffdead;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;''See the [[Commons:Drums|Drums]] page at [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikipedia Commons] for more'' &lt;/small&gt; |} [[Category:Cymbals]] [[Category:Drum kit components]] [[de:Hi Hat]] [[fr:Charleston (musique)]] [[nl:Hi-hat]] [[sv:Hi-hat]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hydrogen bonding</title> <id>14383</id> <revision> <id>15911943</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="p
example anyone to write a message for a list of recipients, and only those recipients will be able to read that message. * [[Intrusion-detection system]]s can scan a network for people that are on the network but who should not be there or are doing things that they should not be doing, for example trying a lot of passwords to gain access to the network. * [[Social engineering (computer security)|Social engineering]] awareness - Keeping yourself and your employees aware of the dangers of social engineering and/or having a policy in place to prevent social engineering can reduce successful breaches of your network and servers. == Capabilities vs. ACLs == Within computer systems, the two fundamental means of enforcing privilege separation are [[access control list]]s (ACLs) and [[Capability_(computers)|capabilities]]. The semantics of ACLs have been proven to be insecure in many situations (e.g., [[Confused deputy problem]]). It has also been shown that ACL's promise of giving access to an object to only one person can never be guaranteed in practice. Both of these problems are resolved by capabilities. This does not mean practical flaws exist in all ACL-based systems &amp;mdash; only that the designers of certain utilities must take responsibility to ensure that they do not introduce flaws. Unfortunately, for various historical reasons, capabilities have been mostly restricted to research [[operating system]]s and commercial OSes still use ACLs. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design. An open source project in the area is the [[E programming language | E language]] [http://www.erights.org/]. The Cambridge [[CAP computer]] demonstrated the use of capabilities, both in hardware and software, in the 1970s, so this technology is hardly new. A reason for the lack of adoption of capabilities may be that ACLs appeared to offer a 'quick fix' for security without pervasive redesign of the operating system and hardware. The most secure computers are those not connected to the Internet and shielded from any interference. In the real world, the most secure come from [[operating system]]s where [[security]] is not an add-on, such as [[OS/400]] from [[IBM]]. This almost never shows up in lists of vulnerabilities for good reason. Years may elapse between one problem needing remediation and the next. A good example of a current secure system is [[Extremely Reliable Operating System|EROS]]. But see also the article on [[secure operating systems]]. [[TrustedBSD]] is an example of an [[opensource]] project with a goal, among other things, of building capability functionality into the [[FreeBSD]] operating system. Much of the work is already done. == Other uses of the term &quot;trusted&quot; == The term &quot;trusted&quot; is often applied to operating systems that meet different levels of the [[Common Criteria|common criteria]], some of which are discussed above as the techniques for creating secure systems. A computer industry group led by [[Microsoft]] has used the term &quot;trusted system&quot; to include making computer hardware that could impose restrictions on how people use their computers. The project is called the [[Trusted Computing Group]] ('''TCG'''). See also [[Next-Generation Secure Computing Base]]. == Further reading == Computer security is a highly complex field, and it is relatively immature, except on certain very secure systems that never make it into the news media because nothing ever goes wrong that can be publicized, and for which there is not much literature because the security details are proprietary. The ever-greater amounts of money dependent on electronic information make protecting it a growing industry and an active research topic. ==Notable persons in computer security== *[[Ross Anderson]] *[[Steven M. Bellovin]] *[[Edward Felten]] *[[Butler Lampson]] *[[Bruce Schneier]] *[[Gene Spafford]] *[[David Wagner]] *[[John Bambenek]] *[[William Cheswick]] For additional persons, see the categories [[:Category:Computer security specialists|Computer security specialists]] and [[:Category:Cryptographers|Cryptographers]]. == See also == ''See [[:Category:Computer security]] for a complete list of all related articles''. &lt;div style=&quot;float: left;&quot;&gt; *[[Alice and Bob]] problem solving *[[Authentication]] *[[Strong authentication]] *[[Authorization certificate]] *[[Bell-LaPadula model]] *[[Buffer overflow]] *[[Code injection]] *[[Capability (computers)]] *[[Computer Fraud and Abuse Act]] (U.S.) *[[Computer security policy]] *[[COMSEC]] *[[Contract security]] *[[Security cracking|cracking]] *[[Cross-site scripting]] *[[Cryptography]] *[[Defensive programming]] *[[Directory traversal]] *[[Electronic underground community]] *[[Format string attacks]] *[[Full disclosure]]&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;float: right;&quot;&gt; *[[Hacker]] *[[INFOSEC]] *[[Intrusion-detection system]] *[[Intrusion-prevention system]] *[[Memory debugger]] *[[Monoculture]] *[[Non-interference]] *[[Password policy]] *[[Physical security]] *[[Penetration test]] *[[Secure by design]] *[[Secure operating system]] *[[Security engineering]] *[[Penetration testing]] *[[Security focused operating system]] *[[Shellcode]] *[[Shibboleth#Computer security|Shibboleth]] *[[Software testing]] *[[SQL injection]]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float: middle; height: 380px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt; == References == * [[Ross Anderson|Ross J. Anderson]]: &lt;cite&gt;Security Engineering: A Guide to Building Dependable Distributed Systems&lt;/cite&gt;, ISBN 0471389226 * [[Bruce Schneier]]: &lt;cite&gt;Secrets &amp; Lies: Digital Security in a Networked World&lt;/cite&gt;, ISBN 0471253111 * [[Min Gyung Kang]]: &lt;cite&gt;A Complete Dufus Guide to Computer Security&lt;/cite&gt;, ISBN 313378675309 * [[Paul A. Karger]], [[Roger R. Schell]]: &lt;cite&gt;Thirty Years Later: Lessons from the Multics Security Evaluation&lt;/cite&gt;, IBM white paper. * [[Clifford Stoll]]: &lt;cite&gt;Cuckoo's Egg: Tracking a Spy Through the Maze of Computer Espionage&lt;/cite&gt;, Pocket Books, ISBN 0743411463 * [[Stephen Haag]], [[Maeve Cummings]], [[Donald McCubbrey]], [[Alain Pinsonneault]], [[Richard Donovan]]: &lt;cite&gt;Management Information Systems for the information age&lt;/cite&gt;, ISBN 0070911207 == External links == * [http://www.networkdictionary.com/security/ Network Security vulnerabilities, Protocols, Terms and Glosaries] * [http://www.dwheeler.com/secure-programs Secure Programming for Linux and Unix HOWTO] (GFDL License) *[http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/views/linux/articles.jsp?sort_order=desc&amp;amp;expand=&amp;amp;sort_by=Date&amp;amp;show_abstract=true&amp;amp;view_by=Search&amp;amp;search_by=secure+programmer%3A &quot;Secure Programmer&quot; article series] * [http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Security-HOWTO/index.html The Linux Security HOWTO] * [http://www.caplet.com/security/taxonomy/index.html Computer Security Fact Forum Framework] * [http://www.eros-os.org/essays/capintro.html Intro to Caps] * [http://www.eros-os.org/essays/ACLSvCaps.html ACLs vs. Caps] * [http://www.skyhunter.com/marcs/capabilityIntro/index.html Intro to Cap Security] * [http://www.securityforumx.com/ Computer Security Discussion Forums] * [http://www.erights.org/ Open Source Distributed Capabilities] * [http://www.waterken.com/ REST and capability-based security] * [http://www.ssl-forum.com/ SSL Security Forum] * [http://www.cs.washington.edu/homes/levy/capabook/ Capability-Based Computer Systems]&quot; * [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cs?q=computer+and+security Citations from CiteSeer] * [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2828.txt RFC2828, Internet Security Glossary] Official glossary of security-related terms used in Internet Standards Documents * [http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~pgut001/pubs/secure_del.html ''Secure Deletion of Data from Magnetic and Solid-State Memory''] by Peter Gutmann * [http://groups.google.com/group/n3td3v n3td3v group] - news group * [http://secunia.com/advisories/ Secunia's list of known security vulnerabilities in most modern software] * [http://www.securitydocs.com/ SecurityDocs] Computer Security Whitepaper Directory * (pdf) - [http://www.xuis.com/documents/passstation/StandDeliver.pdf Stand &amp; Deliver] XuiS White Paper on the why's &amp; wherefore's of computer security *[http://www.wbglinks.net White Hat, Black Hat, Grey Hat links] *[http://www.thiemeworks.com/blog/archives/2005/02/fear_and_loathi.html Fear and Loathing in Information Security] by Mick Bauer *[http://www.un.int/kamal/informationinsecurity Information Insecurity] by Ahmad Kamal and Eduardo Gelbstein [[Category:Computer security| ]] [[category:Electronic commerce]] [[bs:Sigurnost računara]] [[ca:Seguretat informàtica]] [[de:Computersicherheit]] [[es:Seguridad informática]] [[eo:Komputika Sekureco]] [[fr:Sécurité informatique]] [[it:Sicurezza informatica]] [[he:אבטחת מחשב אישי ברשת]] [[nl:Computerbeveiliging]] [[ja:コンピュータセキュリティ]] [[pl:Bezpieczeństwo teleinformatyczne]] [[pt:Segurança de computadores]] [[sk:Počítačová bezpečnosť]] [[sv:Datasäkerhet]] [[uk:Безпека мережі]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chris Cunningham</title> <id>7400</id> <revision> <id>41593692</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:34:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vizjim</username> <id>319214</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chris Cunningham''' is a British [[music video]] [[film director]] and [[video art]]ist. He was first commissioned to as a comic book artist by [[David Bishop]] for the UK weekly ''[[2000 AD (comic) | 2000 AD]]'', under the name '''Chris Halls'''. His strip work was heavily influenced by [[Simon Bisley]]. His video work, &quot;Flex&quot; (containing original music by [[Aphex Twin]]) was exhibited at the [[Royal Academy of Arts]] in
edove Cay]] **[[Water Island, United States Virgin Islands|Water Island]] **[[Welk Rock]] == Continental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands== * '''{{BLZ}}''' ** [[Ambergris Caye]] ** [[Belize City]] ** [[Big Creek, Belize|Big Creek]] ** [[Caye Caulker]] ** [[Glover's Reef]] ** [[Hicks Cays]] ** [[Lighthouse Reef]] ** [[South Water Caye]] ** [[Turneffe Islands]] * '''{{COL}}''' ** Archipelago of [[San Andres and Providencia]] * '''{{CRI}}''' * '''{{GUF}}''' * '''{{GTM}}''' * '''{{GUY}}''' * '''{{HON}}''' ** [[Cortés department]] ** [[Atlántida department]] ** [[Gracias a Dios department]] ** [[Islas de la Bahía Department]] *** [[Puerto Cortés]] *** [[Tela]] *** [[La Ceiba]] *** [[Trujillo]] *** [[La Mosquitia]] *** [[Puerto Lempira]] *** [[Guanaja]] *** [[Roatán]] *** [[Útila]] *** [[Cayos Cochinos]] *** [[Swan Islands]] * '''{{MEX}}''' ** [[Cancún]] ** [[Isla Contoy]] ** [[Isla Cozumel]] ** [[Isla Mujeres]] * '''{{NIC}}''' ** [[Corn Islands]] ** [[Cayos Miskitos]] * '''{{PAN}}''' ** [[San Blas Islands]] ** [[Bocas del Toro]] * '''{{SUR}}''' * '''{{VEN}}''' ** [[Isla Margarita]] ** [[Los Monjes Archipelago]] ** [[Las Aves Archipelago]] ** [[Isla de Aves]] ** [[Los Hermanos Island]] ** [[Los Frailes Island]] ** [[Los Roques Archipelago]] ** [[La Sola Island]] ** [[La Tortuga Island]] ** [[La Orchila Island]] ** [[Los Testigos Island]] ** [[La Blanquilla Island]] ** [[Isla de Patos]] The nations of [[Belize]] and [[Guyana]], although on the mainland of [[Central America]] and [[South America]] respectively, were former British colonies and maintain many cultural ties to the Caribbean and are members of [[Caribbean Community|CARICOM]]. The Turneffe Islands (and many other islands and reefs) are part of Belize and lie in the Caribbean Sea. ==Island territories near the Caribbean== Though not technically in the Caribbean Sea, the nearby Bahaman Archipelago is sometimes considered to be part of the Caribbean. * '''{{BHS}}''' **[[Abaco]] **[[Acklins Island]] **[[Andros, Bahamas|Andros]] **[[Bimini|Bimini Islands]] **[[Cat Island, Bahamas|Cat Island]] **[[Crooked Island, Bahamas|Crooked Island]] **[[Eleuthera]] **[[Grand Bahama]] **[[Great Abaco]] **[[Great Exuma]] **[[Great Inaco]] **[[Long Island, Bahamas|Long Island]] **[[Mayaguana]] **[[New Providence]] **[[Ragged Island]] **[[San Salvador Island]] * '''{{TCA}}''' ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] dependency) **[[Grand Turk Island|Grand Turk]] **[[Middle Caicos]] **[[North Caicos]] **[[Parrot Cay]] **[[Pine Cay]] **[[Providenciales]] **[[Salt Cay]] **[[South Caicos]] ==[[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|Indigenous]] Tribes== * [[Arawak]] * [[Carib]] * [[Ciboney]] * [[Garifuna]] * [[Lucayan]] * [[Taino]] ==See also== {{portal}} {{sisterlinks|Caribbean}} * [[African diaspora]] * [[Americas (terminology)]] * [[British Afro-Caribbean community]] * [[Caribbean English]] * [[CONCACAF]] * [[Council on Hemispheric Affairs]] * [[History of the Caribbean]] * [[Indo-Caribbean]] * [[Music of the Caribbean]] * [[Politics of the Caribbean]] * [[Tongue of the Ocean]] * [[List of popular tourist regions#Tourism in Caribbean|Tourism in Caribbean]] * [[West Indies Federation]] == Regional [[List of international organizations|Institutions]] == ''Here are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration'': * [[The Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme]] (CREP)-www.crepnet.net * [[ACP countries|African, Caribbean and Pacific states]] (ACP) * [[Association of Caribbean States]] (ACS), [[Trinidad and Tobago]] * [[Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce]] (CAIC), Trinidad and Tobago [http://www.caic.org.tt/] * [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM), [[Guyana]] * [[Caribbean Development Bank]] (CDB), [[Barbados]] * [[CDERA|Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency]] (CDERA), Barbados * [[Caribbean Examinations Council]] (CXC), Barbados and [[Jamaica]] * [[Caribbean Hotel Association]] (CHA), [[Puerto Rico]] [http://www.caribbeanhotels.org/] * [[Caribbean Programme for Economic Competitiveness]] (CPEC), [[Saint Lucia]] [http://www.cpechrd.org/] * [[Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism]] (CRFM), [[Belize]] [http://www.caricom-fisheries.com/] * [[Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery]] (CRNM), Barbados and [[Dominican Republic]] [http://www.crnm.org/] * [[Caribbean Tourism Organisation]] (CTO), Barbados * [[Inter-American Economic Council]] (IAEC), [[Washington, D.C.]] * [[Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry]] (LACNIC), [[Brazil]] and [[Uruguay]] * [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS), [[Saint Lucia]] * [[ECLAC|United Nations - Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean]] (ECLAC), [[Chile]] and Trinidad and Tobago Many of the nations in the Caribbean play international cricket as one team called the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]. {{Region}} [[Category:Americas]] [[Category:Caribbean| ]] [[ca:Carib]] [[da:Caribien]] [[de:Westindische Inseln]] [[eo:Antiloj]] [[es:Islas Caribes]] [[et:Lääne-India]] [[fr:Antilles]] [[gl:Caribe]] [[id:Karibia]] [[it:Antille]] [[ja:西インド諸島]] [[ko:서인도 제도]] [[nds:Karibik]] [[nl:Caribisch Gebied]] [[no:Karibien]] [[pl:Karaiby]] [[pt:Caribe]] [[ru:Вест-Индия]] [[simple:Caribbean]] [[fi:Länsi-Intia]] [[sv:Västindien]] [[th:แคริเบียน]] [[tr:Karayipler]] [[zh:加勒比海国家]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Colin Maclaurin</title> <id>7824</id> <revision> <id>40395244</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T06:36:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dantheox</username> <id>290909</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Colin maclaurin.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Colin Maclaurin]] '''Colin Maclaurin''' (February, [[1698]] - [[June 14]], [[1746]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[mathematician]]. He was born in Glendaruel, [[Argyll]], where his father was the minister of the parish of Kilmodan, and attended the [[University of Glasgow]] at age eleven. Entering the University at eleven was not unusual at the time, but his graduating by successfully defending a thesis at 14 was. After graduation he remained at Glasgow to study [[divinity]] for a period and in [[1717]], aged nineteen, he became professor of [[mathematics]] at Marischal College in the [[University of Aberdeen]]. In [[1725]] he was appointed deputy of the mathematical professor at [[Edinburgh]], James Gregory (brother of [[David Gregory]] and nephew of the more famous [[James Gregory (astronomer and mathematician)| James Gregory]]), upon the recommendation of [[Isaac Newton]]. Newton was so impressed his work, he actually offered to pay Maclaurin's salary. Eventually, Maclaurin went on to succeed Gregory. The &quot;[[Maclaurin series]]&quot; for many [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] functions had in fact been first developed by [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]] in fourteenth century India. They were also developed and published by James Gregory, but Maclaurin wasn't aware of this and published them in ''Methodus incrementorum directa et inversa''. Independently from [[Euler]] he discovered the &quot;[[Euler-Maclaurin formula]]&quot;. In [[1733]] he married Anne Stewart, the daughter of the [[Solicitor General]] of [[Scotland]]. He actively opposed the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] Rebellion of [[1745]] and assisted in the defence of Edinburgh but had to flee to [[York]] upon the approach of the Highlanders. He returned after the Jacobite army marched south, but the events had damaged his health, and led indirectly to his death. Some of his important works: *''[[Geometria Organica]]'' - [[1720]] *''[[De Linearum Geometricarum Proprietatibus]]'' - [[1720]] *''[[Treatise on Fluxions]]'' - [[1742]] (763 pages in two volumes. The first systematic exposition of Newton's methods.) *''[[Treatise on Algebra]]'' - [[1748]] (two years after his death.) *''[[Account of Newton's Discoveries]]'' - Incomplete upon his death and published in [[1750]] or [[1748]] (sources disagree.) ==Sources== *''http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Maclaurin/RouseBall/RB_Maclaurin.html'' *''http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/famousfirst829.html'' *''http://www.andrews.edu/~calkins/math/biograph/199899/biomacla.htm'' *''http://www.stetson.edu/~efriedma/periodictable/html/Mg.html'' *''http://occ.awlonline.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_awl/chapter1/medialib/custom3/topics/sequences.htm'' ==External links== * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Maclaurin}} [[Category:1698 births|Maclaurin, Colin]] [[Category:1746 deaths|Maclaurin, Colin]] [[Category:Scottish mathematicians|Maclaurin, Colin]] [[Category:Christians in science|Maclaurin]] [[Category:18th century mathematicians|Maclaurin, Colin]] [[de:Colin Maclaurin]] [[fr:Colin Maclaurin]] [[is:Colin Maclaurin]] [[it:Colin Maclaurin]] [[nl:Colin Maclaurin]] [[pl:Colin Maclaurin]] [[sv:Colin Maclaurin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Celestial globe</title> <id>7825</id> <revision> <id>19330841</id> <timestamp>2005-07-21T22:02:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Elfguy</username> <id>269251</id> </contributor> <comment>merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Armillary sphere]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Covenant-breaker</title> <id>7827</id> <revision> <id>41939305</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:37:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Everyking</username> <id>44020</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Current groups */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Bahá'í}} :'''''Note:''' the term &quot;head of the Faith&quot; is used throughout the article, it is helpful to note that, since 1963, this refers to the elected nine-member [[Universal House of Justice]].'' A '''Covenant-breaker''' or the act of '''Covenant-breaking''' is a ter
elta Chi]]) and graduated in 1852. He studied law in [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] then moved to [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] in 1854. He was admitted to the [[bar (law)|bar]] and became [[reporter of the decisions]] of the [[Indiana Supreme Court|state supreme court]]. Harrison served in the [[Union Army]] during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], [[brevet (military)|brevet]]ting as a [[brigadier general]], and mustering out in 1865. While in the field in October 1864, he was re-elected reporter of the State supreme court and served four years. He was an unsuccessful [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] candidate for [[Governor of Indiana]] in 1876. He was appointed a member of the [[Mississippi River Commission]] in 1879, and elected as a Republican to the [[United States Senate]], where he served from [[March 4]], [[1881]], to [[March 3]], [[1887]]. He was chairman of the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Transportation Routes to the Seaboard]] ([[Forty-seventh United States Congress|47th Congress]]) and [[U.S. Senate Committee on Territories]] ([[Forty-eighth United States Congress|48th]] and [[Forty-ninth United States Congress|49th Congress]]es). Harrison was married twice. On October 20, 1853, he married [[Caroline Lavinia Scott Harrison|Caroline Lavina Scott]] (1832-1892). They had two surviving children, Russell Benjamin Harrison (1854-1936) and Mary Scott Harrison (1858-1930). After Caroline Harrison's death of [[tuberculosis]] in 1892, while Harrison was in office, he married his wife's widowed niece and former secretary [[Mary Scott Lord Dimmick]] (1858-1948) on April 6, 1896. They had one daughter, [[Elizabeth Harrison]] (1897-1955). ==Presidency 1889-1893== ===Policies=== After beating [[John Sherman]] for the Republican presidential nomination, Harrison was elected President of the United States in 1888. In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1888|Presidential election]], Harrison received 100,000 fewer popular votes than incumbent President [[Grover Cleveland]], but carried the [[Electoral College]] 233 to 168. Although Harrison had made no political bargains, his supporters had given innumerable pledges upon his behalf. When Boss [[Matthew Quay]] of [[Pennsylvania]] heard that Harrison ascribed his narrow victory to Providence, Quay exclaimed that Harrison would never know &quot;how close a number of men were compelled to approach...the penitentiary to make him President.&quot; He was inaugurated on [[March 4]], [[1889]], and served through [[March 3]], [[1893]]. Harrison was also known as the &quot;centennial president&quot; because his inauguration was the 100th anniversary of the inauguration of [[George Washington]]. [[Image:BenjaminHarrison2.jpe|thumb|200px|left|Benjamin Harrison]] For Harrison, [[Civil Service|Civil Service Reform]] was a no-win situation. Congress was split so far apart on the issue that agreeing to any measure for one side would alienate the other. The issue became a popular [[political football]] of the time and was immortalized in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Harrison_Football_Political_Cartoon.jpg a cartoon] captioned &quot;What can I do when both parties insist on kicking?&quot; Harrison was proud of the vigorous foreign policy which he helped shape. The first [[Pan-American Congress]] met in [[Washington, D.C.]] in 1889, establishing an information center which later became the [[Organization of American States|Pan American Union]]. At the end of his administration, Harrison submitted to the Senate a treaty to annex [[Hawaii]]; to his disappointment, President Cleveland later withdrew it. Substantial appropriation bills were signed by Harrison for internal improvements, naval expansion, and [[subsidies]] for [[steamship]] lines. For the first time except in war, Congress appropriated a billion dollars. When critics attacked &quot;[[Fifty-first United States Congress|the billion-dollar Congress]],&quot; Speaker [[Thomas B. Reed]] replied, &quot;This is a billion-dollar country.&quot; President Harrison also signed the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]] &quot;to protect [[trade]] and [[commerce]] against unlawful restraints and [[monopolies]],&quot; the first Federal act attempting to regulate [[trusts]]. The most perplexing domestic problem Harrison faced was the [[tariff]] issue. The high tariff rates in effect had created a surplus of money in the Treasury. Low-tariff advocates argued that the surplus was hurting business. Republican leaders in Congress successfully met the challenge. Representative [[William McKinley]] and Senator [[Nelson W. Aldrich]] framed a still higher tariff bill; some rates were intentionally prohibitive. [[Image:Benjamin Harrison.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Benjamin Harrison]] Harrison tried to make the tariff more acceptable by writing in reciprocity provisions. To cope with the Treasury surplus, the tariff was removed from imported raw [[sugar]]; sugar growers within the United States were given two cents a pound bounty on their production. Long before the end of the Harrison Administration, the Treasury surplus had evaporated, and prosperity seemed about to disappear as well. Congressional elections in [[1890]] went stingingly against the Republicans, and party leaders decided to abandon President Harrison although he had cooperated with Congress on party legislation. Nevertheless, his party renominated him in 1892, but he was defeated by Cleveland. Just 2 weeks earlier, on [[October 25]], [[1892]], Harrison's wife, Caroline died after a long battle with [[tuberculosis]]. ===Significant events=== * [[Sherman Antitrust Act]] (1890) * [[Sherman Silver Purchase Act]] (1890) * [[McKinley Tariff]] (1890) * [[Ocala Demands]] (1890) * [[Wounded Knee Massacre]] (1890) ===Administration and Cabinet=== {| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM''' |- !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''[[Benjamin Harrison]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1893 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Levi P. Morton]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1893 |- !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James G. Blaine]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1892 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John W. Foster]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1892&amp;ndash;1893 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William Windom]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1891 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles Foster]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1891&amp;ndash;1893 |-ūí |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Redfield Proctor]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1891 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Stephen B. Elkins]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1891&amp;ndash;1893 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William H. H. Miller]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1891 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John Wanamaker]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1893 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Benjamin F. Tracy]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1893 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John W. Noble]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1893 |} &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; ===Supreme Court appointments=== Harrison appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]: * [[David Josiah Brewer]] - 1890 * [[Henry Billings Brown]] - 1891 * [[George Shiras, Jr.]] - 1892 * [[Howell Edmunds Jackson]] - 1893 ===States admitted to the Union=== * [[North Dakota]] &amp;ndash; 1889 * [[South Dakota]] &amp;ndash; 1889 * [[Montana]] &amp;ndash; 1889 * [[Washington]] &amp;ndash; 1889 * [[Idaho]] &amp;ndash; 1890 * [[Wyoming]] &amp;ndash; 1890 When North and South Dakota were admitted to the Union. Harrison covered the tops of the bills and shuffled them so that he could only see the bottom. He signed them and we will never know which state was the 39th or the 40th! ==Post-presidency== After he left office, Harrison returned to Indianapolis and remarried. He served as an attorney for the Republic of [[Venezuela]] in the boundary dispute between Venezuela and the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1900]]. Harrison developed the flu and a bad cold in [[February]] of [[1901]]. Despite treatment by steam vapor inhalation, Harrison's condition only worsened. Benjamin Harrison VI finally passed away from [[influenza]] and [[pneumonia]] on Wednesday, [[March 13]], [[1901]] and is interred in [[Crown Hill Cemetery]]. ==Legacy== The [[Benjamin Harrison Law School]] in [[Indianapolis]], [[Indiana]], was named in his honor. In 1944, [[Indiana University system|Indiana University]] acquired the school and renamed it [[Indiana University School of Law Indianapolis]]. A U.S. Army base, Fort Benjamin Harrison, was established after Harrison's death in Indianapolis, but it was closed in the 1990s. ==References== * [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=9950113 Davis R.
and the protocol will likely continue to evolve, it is hard to say what the word 'Gnutella' will come to mean in the future. The name is a [[portmanteau]] of ''[[GNU]]'' and ''[[Nutella]]'': supposedly, Frankel and Pepper ate a lot of Nutella working on the original project, and intended to license their finished program under the GNU General Public License. Gnutella is not associated with the [[GNU|GNU project]]; see [[GNUnet]] for the GNU project's equivalent. ==How it works== To envision how Gnutella works, imagine a large circle of users (called nodes), who each have Gnutella client software. The client software on the initial use must [[bootstrap]] and find at least one of those other nodes. Different methods have been used for this, including a pre-existing list of possibly working node addresses shipped with the software, using Gwebcache sites on the web to find nodes, as well as using [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] to find nodes. Chances are at least one node (call it B) will work. Once it has connected, node B will send node A its own list of working nodes. Node A will try to connect to the nodes it was shipped with, as well as nodes it receives from other nodes, until it reaches a certain quota, usually user-specifiable. It will only connect to that many nodes, but it keeps the nodes it has not yet tried. (It discards ones that it tries but did not work.) Now, when user A wants to do a search, it sends the request to each node it is actively connected to. It is possible that some of them will no longer work, in which case user A tries to connect to the nodes it has saved as backups. The number of actively connected nodes for user A is usually quite small (around 5), so each node then forwards the request to all the nodes it is connected to, and they in turn forward the request, and so on. In theory, the request will eventually find its way to every user on the Gnutella network. As the size of the Gnutella network has grown and its developers have fought excess traffic consumption, global searchability of the network has diminished. If a search request turns up a result, the node that had the result contacts the searcher either directly or indirectly. If the node that sent the search request is not [[Firewall (networking)|firewall]]ed, the node with the result directly returns the result. If the node that sent the search request is firewalled (many are), then the result is (indirectly) routed back along the route the search was received on. After the result is returned, they negotiate the file transfer and the transfer proceeds. If more than one copy of the same file is found, the searcher can perform a &quot;swarm&quot; download - download pieces of the file from different nodes a la [[BitTorrent]]. This results in increased download rates. Finally, when user A disconnects, the client software saves the list of nodes that it was actively connected to, and that it was keeping as a backup, for use next time it connects. In practice, searching on the Gnutella network is often unreliable. Each node is a regular computer user; as such, they are constantly connecting and disconnecting, so the network is never completely stable. Since individual users' bandwidth are likely to be limited, some search requests may be dropped before they reach the whole network. As a result most queries will never reach more than 50% of the network. The real benefit of having Gnutella so decentralized is to make it very difficult to shut the network down. Unlike [[Napster]], where the entire network relied on the central server, Gnutella cannot be shut down by shutting down any one node. As long as there are at least two users, Gnutella will continue to exist. ==Protocol features and extensions== Gnutella operates on a [[query flooding]] protocol. The outdated Gnutella version 0.4 [[network protocol]] employs five different packet types, namely * ping: discover hosts on network * pong: reply to ping * query: search for a file * query hit: reply to query * push: download request for firewalled [[servent]]s These are mainly concerned with searching the Gnutella network. File transfers are handled using [[HTTP]]. The development of the Gnutella protocol is currently led by the [[Gnutella Developers Forum|GDF]] (Gnutella Developer Forum). Many protocol extensions have been and are being developed by the software vendors and free Gnutella developers of the GDF. These extensions include intelligent query routing, [[SHA-1]] checksums, query hit transmission via [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], querying via UDP, dynamic queries via [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], file transfers via UDP, [[XML]] meta data, source exchange a.k.a &quot;the download mesh&quot; and parallel downloading in slices (swarming). There are efforts to finalize these protocol extensions in the Gnutella 0.6 specification at the Gnutella protocol development website. The Gnutella 0.4 standard, although being still the latest protocol specification since all extensions only exist as proposals so far, is outdated. In fact, it is hard to impossible to connect today with the 0.4 handshake. The Gnutella protocol remains under development and in spite of attempts to make a clean break with the complexity inherited from the old Gnutella 0.4 and to design a clean new message architecture (such as [[Gnutella2]]), it is still one of the most successful file-sharing protocols to date. ==Software== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! Name || Platform || License |- | [[Acquisition (software)|Acquisition]] || [[Mac OS X]] || [[Closed source]] |- | [[Acqlite]] || [[Mac OS X]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[Apollon (GUI)]] || [[Unix-like]]/[[KDE]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[BearShare]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Closed source]] |- | [[Cabos]] || [[Java platform|Java]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[CocoGnut]] || [[RISC OS]] || [[Freeware]] |- | [[DM2]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Freeware]] |- | [[FrostWire]] || [[Java platform|Java]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[giFT]] || [[Unix-like]], [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS X]], [[AmigaOS]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[Gnucleus]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[GNU GPL]], [[GNU LGPL]] |- | [[Gtk-gnutella]] || [[Unix-like]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[Gluz]] || [[Java Platform|Java]] || [[Closed source]] |- | [[iMesh]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Closed source]] |- | [[KCeasy]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[Kiwi Alpha]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Closed source]] |- | [[LimeWire]] || [[Java platform|Java]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[MLdonkey]] || [[Unix-like]], [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS X]], [[MorphOS]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[Morpheus (computer program)|Morpheus]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Closed source]] |- | [[Mutella]] || [[Unix-like]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[Phex]] || [[Java platform|Java]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[Poisoned]] || [[Mac OS X]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[Qtella]] || [[Unix-like]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[Shareaza]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[Swapper.NET]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Closed source]] |- | [[Symella]] || [[Symbian OS]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[XFactor]] || [[Mac OS X]] || [[Open source]] |- | [[XNap]] || [[Java platform|Java]] || [[GNU GPL]] |- | [[XoloX]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Closed source]] |} ==See also== *[[Gnutella2]], a reworked network based on Gnutella *[[Bitzi]], an [[open content]] file catalog integrated with some Gnutella clients *[[Wikisource:GnuFU|GnuFU]], '''Gnu'''tella '''F'''or '''U'''sers: A description of the inner workings of the Gnutella network in User-Friendly Style *[[Gnutella crawler]], a program used to gather information from the Gnutella network *[[WASTE]], a different network developed by [[Justin Frankel]] *[[Freenet]], a different network which focuses on anonymization *[[MUTE]], a different network which focuses on anonymization, routing network traffic according to an algorithm adopted from ant behaviour. ==External links== * '''[http://www.the-gdf.org/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page Gnutella Protocol Development Wiki]''' * '''[http://rfc-gnutella.sf.net/ Gnutella protocol development website].''' * [http://www.gnutelliums.com/ Gnutelliums] - A list of Gnutella clients for Windows, Linux/Unix, and Macintosh * [http://www.gnutellanews.com/ Gnutella News] * [http://www.gnutellaforums.com/ Gnutella Forums] * [http://gnufu.net GnuFU: Gnutella For Users] &amp;ndash; A guide to Gnutella in Userfriendly style * [http://schnarff.com/gnutelladev/source/pytella/ Pytella] &amp;ndash; A collection of bits of Gnutella 0.4 related Python code * [http://www.cryptnet.net/fsp/cpcd/ CPCD] - Gnutella host cache software * [http://www.gnucleus.com/gwebcache/ GWebCache] - Gnutella host cache software ===Papers on Gnutella and Filesharing=== *[http://www.pam2004.org/programme.html The 5th annual Passive &amp; Active Measurement Workshop] * ''[http://shumans.com/p2p-business-models.pdf Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models]''. [[Shuman Ghosemajumder|Ghosemajumder, Shuman]]. [[MIT Sloan School of Management]], 2002. * ''[http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item.jhtml?id=4206&amp;t=innovation Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers?]''. Silverthorne, Sean. [[Harvard Business School|Harvard Business School Working Knowledge]], 2004. [[Category:File sharing networks]] [[Category:Computing portmanteaus]] [[da:Gnutella]] [[de:Gnutella]] [[es:Gnutella]] [[fr:Gnutella]] [[ko:누텔라]] [[it:Gnutella]] [[lt:Gnutella]] [[hu:Gnutella]] [[ms:Gnutella]] [[nl:Gnutella]] [[ja:Gnutella]] [[no:Gnutella]] [[pl:Gnutella]] [[pt:Gnutella]] [[ru:Gnutella]] [[fi:Gnutella]] [[sv:Gnutella]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>George Lucas</title> <id>11857</id> <revision> <id>42080917</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:18:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Marudubshinki</username> <id>190816</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.92.129.179|70.92.129.179]] ([[User talk:70.92.129.17
tomobile manufacturing]]. [[Albert Pope]] of Hartford saw a bicycle in [[Philadelphia]] in [[1876]] and was immediately enthralled with the concept of an &quot;ever-saddled horse that eats nothing and requires no care.&quot; He subsequently began the first bicycle manufacturing in America, [[Columbia Bicycles]], and set about marketing the vehicle, setting up a system of distributorships with fixed prices, hiring doctors to tout cycling as healthy exercise, and founding cycling magazines. When the [[safety bicycle]] was developed in the [[1880s]], he was in a perfect position to benefit from the subsequent craze. Connecticut also became an innovative leader in the [[shipbuilding]] industry. The first recorded [[steam power]]ed boat in America was built by [[South Windsor, Connecticut|South Windsor]]'s [[John Fitch (inventor)|John Fitch]] in [[1786]]. The first military [[submarine]], the [[Turtle (submarine)|Turtle]], was built in Connecticut in [[1775]] by [[David Bushnell]]; since then, Connecticut has remained a world leader in the manufacture of these specialized ships. [[Simon Lake]] produced submarines for the US Navy in Bridgeport, beginning in [[1913]], and the work done by [[John P. Holland]] led to submarine production by the [[Electric Boat Company]] in [[Groton, Connecticut|Groton]] beginning in [[1924]], which continues to this day. In the late [[1700s]], the Connecticut government engaged in financial incentives for building and operating [[textile]] mills. Between the birth of the U.S. [[patent]] system in [[1790]] and [[1930]], Connecticut had more patents issued per capita than any other state; in the [[1800s]], when the U.S. as a whole was issued one patent per three thousand population, Connecticut inventors were issued one patent for every 700&amp;ndash;1000 residents. Connecticut's first recorded invention was a [[lapidary]] machine, by [[Abel Buell]] of [[Killingworth]], in [[1765]]. The Connecticut Valley ([[Wethersfield]], [[East Windsor]], and [[Colchester]]) was a center of [[cabinetmaking]] and [[furniture]] construction in the latter half of the [[1700s]]. Beginning in the [[Queen Anne Style architecture|Queen Anne]] style, by the end of the period the furniture had evolved into four distinct variations of the [[Chippendale]] style; that of [[Eliphalet Chapin]], one of the masters of the craft, who tended to produce pieces which were more compact and chunky in appearance, incorporating some of the [[Philadelphia]] [[rococo]] style without as much fussiness; that of the [[Colchester, Connecticut|Colchester]]/[[Norwich, Connecticut|Norwich]] area, exemplified by [[Samuel Loomis]], as well as those of the [[Wethersfield]] and [[Springfield, Massachusetts|Springfield]]&amp;ndash;[[Northampton, Massachusetts|Northampton]] areas. == Demographics == {| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot; |- ! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations |- ! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population |- | colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt; |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1790 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 237,946 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1800 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 251,002 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1810 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 261,942 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1820 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 275,248 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1830 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 297,675 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 309,978 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 370,792 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 460,147 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 537,454 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 622,700 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 746,258 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 908,420 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,114,756 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,380,631 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,606,903 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,709,242 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,007,280 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,535,234 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,031,709 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,107,576 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,287,116 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,405,565 |} As of 2005, Connecticut has an estimated population of 3,510,297, which is an increase of 11,331, or 0.3%, from the prior year and an increase of 104,695, or 3.1%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 67,427 people (that is 222,222 births minus 154,795 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 41,718 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 75,991 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 34,273 people. As of 2004, 11.4% of the population (400,000) was foreign-born, and 10% of the foreign-born in the state were illegal aliens (about 1.1% of the population). === Race / Ethnicity === The racial / ethnic makeup of Connecticut: *77.5% [[White (people)|White]] non-Hispanic *9.4% [[Hispanic]] *9.1% [[Black (people)|Black]] *2.4% [[Asian American|Asian]] *0.3% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] *2.2% [[Mixed race]] === Languages === As of 2000, 81.7% of Connecticut residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 8.4% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[Italian language|Italian]] is the third most spoken language at 1.6%, followed by [[French language|French]] at 1.6% and [[Polish language|Polish]] at 1.2%. === Ancestry === The five largest reported ancestries in the state are: [[Italian-American|Italian]] (18.6%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (16.6%), [[British-American|English]] (10.3%), [[German-American|German]] (9.9%), [[African American]] (9.1%). Connecticut has a large [[Italian-American]] population, although residents of British, Irish, German, and other ancestries are also present, with old-stock Americans being the largest percentage of the population in the eastern part of the state. Italian is the largest ancestry group in five of the state's counties, while the Irish are the largest group in Tolland county, French-Canadians the largest group in Windham county, and old stock New England Yankees are present throughout. Connecticut is the second most Italian-American state percentage-wise, after Rhode Island. Blacks and Hispanics (mostly Puerto Ricans) are numerous in the urban areas of the state. 6.6% of its population was reported as being under 5 years old, 24.7% under 18 years old, and 13.8% were 65 years of age or older. Females made up approximately 51.6% of the population, with 48.4% male. === Religion === The religious affiliations of the people of Connecticut are: *[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 83% **[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 48% ***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 10% ***[[Episcopal]] &amp;ndash; 6% ***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 4% ***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 4% ***[[Congregational church|Congregational]]/[[United Church of Christ]] &amp;ndash; 2% ***Other Protestant or general Protestant &amp;ndash; 22% **[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 34% **Other Christian &amp;ndash; 1% *[[Judaism|Jewish]] &amp;ndash; 3% *Other Religions &amp;ndash; 1% *Non-Religious &amp;ndash; 13% There is a significant [[Jewish]] population in the state, mostly concentrated in the &quot;Gold Coast&quot; towns between [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]] and [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] and in the [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] suburb of [[West Hartford, Connecticut|West Hartford]]. New Haven once had a significant Jewish population, but it has mostly moved elsewhere, although there is still a large concentration in the suburban towns west of New Haven. Recent immigration has brought other non-Christian religions to the state, but the numbers of adherents of other religions are still low. == September 11, 2001 == Connecticut was particularly hard-hit on [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] as many of the state's residents work in New York City. Over five-hundred people from Connecticut were killed, most of them from the southwestern area of the state. Many schools in Connecticut closed for the day because of the number of students who had parents who worked in New York City. By nightfall, [[Metro-North Railroad|train stations]] in Greenwich, Fairfield, Westport, Seymour and Danbury still had full parking lots, giving residents a fearful sense of reality to the number of people who were missing. == Important cities and towns == {| style=&quot;font-size: smaller; width:100%;&quot; |- |valign=&quot;top&quot;| Population &gt; 10,000 (urbanized area) *[[Danbury, Connecticut|Danbury]] *[[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]] *[[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] *[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] *[[New London, Connecticut|New London]] *[[Norwich, Connecticut|Norwich]] *[[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]] *[[Waterbury, Connecticut|Waterbury]] |valign=&quot;top&quot;| Population &gt; 10,000 (urbanized area) *[[Meriden, Connecticut|Meriden]] *[[Middletown, Connecticut|Middletown]] *[[Storrs, Connecticut|Storrs]] *[[Torrington, Connecticut|Torrington]] *[[Willimantic, Connecticut|Willimantic]] |valign=&quot;top&quot;| Important Suburbs *[[Bristol, Connecticut|Bristol]] *[[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]] *[[Manchester, Connecticut|Man
/id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:17:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wayward</username> <id>184087</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.164.126.20|193.164.126.20]] ([[User talk:193.164.126.20|talk]]) to last version by Blastwizard</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Finland_1996_CIA_map.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Map of Finland - click to enlarge]] [[Image:Finlandsat.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Click for larger satellite image]] The '''geography of [[Finland]]''' differs from that of other [[Nordic countries]]. Bordering the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Gulf of Bothnia]], and [[Gulf of Finland]], between [[Sweden]] and [[Russia]], Finland is the northernmost country on the European continent. Although other countries have points extending farther north, virtually all of Finland is north of 60 degrees north latitude; nearly a quarter of the land area and fully one-third of the latitudinal extent of the country lie north of the Arctic Circle. '''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|64|0|N|26|0|E|type:country}} ==Size, external boundaries, and geology== In area, Finland has 304,623 square kilometers of land and 33,522 square kilometers of inland water, a total of 338,145 square kilometers. It shares borders on the west with Sweden for 540 kilometers, on the north with Norway for 720 kilometers, and on the east with Russia for 1,268 kilometers. There are approximately 1,107 kilometers of coastline on the Gulf of Finland (south), the Baltic Sea (southwest), and the Gulf of Bothnia (west). The rugged coastline is deeply indented with bays and inlets. The offshore region is studded with islands. The most predominant influences on Finland's geography were the [[continental glacier]]s that scoured and gouged the country's surface. When the glaciers receded about 10,000 years ago, they left behind them [[moraine]]s, [[drumlin]]s, and [[esker]]s. Other indications of their presence are the thousands of lakes they helped to form in the southern part of the country. The force of the moving ice sheets gouged the lake beds, and meltwaters helped to fill them. The [[Glacier retreat|recession of the glaciers]] is so recent (in geologic terms) that modern-day [[drainage system|drainage pattern]]s are immature and poorly established. The direction of glacial advance and recession set the alignment of the lakes and streams in a general northeast to southwest lineation. The two [[Salpausselkä]] Ridges, which run parallel to each other about twenty-five kilometers apart, are the [[terminal moraine]]s. At their greatest height they reach an elevation of about 200 meters, the highest point in southern Finland. ==Landform regions== Many countries of the world can be divided into distinct geographic regions, in each of which some physical characteristic is dominant, almost to the exclusion of others. In Finland, the same physical characteristics are common to each of the four geographic regions into which the country is divided. Regional differences in Finland lie, therefore, in subtle combinations of physical qualities. In archipelago Finland, rock and water are dominant. Coastal Finland consists of broad clay plains where agriculture plays a leading role. The interior lake district supports extensive forests. Upland Finland is covered by Arctic scrub. Nonetheless, each of these regions contains elements of the others. For instance, patches of agriculture extend far northward along some rivers in [[Lapland]], and in southern Finland a substantial bogland, the [[Suomenselkä]], is sometimes referred to as Satakunta Lapland because it has the character of Arctic [[tundra]]. Archipelago Finland, consisting of thousands of islands and skerries, extends from the southwestern coast out into the Baltic Sea. It includes the strategically significant [[Åland]] Islands, positioned at the entrance to the Gulf of Bothnia. After [[World War I]], both Finland and Sweden laid claim to the islands, which are culturally more Swedish than Finnish. For strategic reasons, however, the [[League of Nations]] awarded the Åland Islands to Finland in [[1921]]. A principal reason for this decision was that, during the winter, the islands are physically linked to Finland by the frozen waters of the sea and are hence essential for the country's defense. This myriad of forest-covered and bare bedrock islands was formed and continues to be formed by the process of uplift following the last glaciation. The rest of the country is also still emerging from the sea. The weight of the continental glaciers depressed the land over which they moved, and even now, a hundred centuries after their recession, Finland is rising up from this great load through the process of [[isostatic rebound]]. In the south and the southwest, this process is occurring slowly, at a rate of twenty-five to thirty centimeters a century. Farther north in the [[Ostrobothnia]] area, uplift is more rapid, it amounts to eighty or ninety centimeters a century. The process also means that Finland is growing about seven square kilometers yearly as land emerges from the sea. Coastal Finland consists of broad clay plains extending from the coast inland, for no more than 100 kilometers. These plains slope southward from the morainic Salpausselkä Ridges in southern Finland. Along the Gulf of Bothnia coast, the plains slope southwest from upland areas. The land of coastal Finland is used for [[agriculture]] and [[dairy farming]]. The interior lake district is the largest geographic region, and it is perhaps what most foreigners think of when they imagine Finland. The district is bounded to the south by the Salpausselkä Ridges. Behind the ridges extend networks of thousands of lakes separated by hilly forested countryside. This landscape continues to the east and extends into Russia. As a consequence, there is no natural border between the two countries. Because no set definition of what constitutes a lake and no procedures for counting the number of lakes exist, it has been impossible to ascertain exactly how many lakes the region has. There are, however, at least 55,000 lakes that are 200 or more meters wide. The largest is [[Lake Saimaa]], which, with a surface area of more than 4,400 square kilometers, is the fifth largest lake in Europe. The deepest lake has a depth of only 100 meters; the depth of the average lake is 7 meters. Because they are shallow, these many lakes contain only slightly more water than Finland's annual rainfall. The hilly, forest-covered landscape of the lake plateau is dominated by drumlins and by long sinuous eskers, both glacial remnants. Upland Finland extends beyond the [[Arctic Circle]]. The extreme north of this region is known as Lapland. The highest points in upland Finland reach an elevation of about 1,000 meters, and they are found in the [[Kilpisjärvi]] area of the [[Scandinavian Mountains|Scandinavian Keel Ridge]]. In the southern upland region the hills are undulating, while in the north they are rugged. Much of upland Finland is not mountainous, but consists of bogs. Finland's longest and most impressive rivers are in the north. The [[Kemijoki]] has the largest network of tributaries. Farther south the [[Oulujoki]] drains the beginning of the north country. Most of the streams flow to the Gulf of Bothnia, but there is a broad stretch of land in the north and northeast that is drained by rivers flowing north across Norway and northeast across Russia to the [[Arctic Ocean]]. ==Climate== Latitude is the principal influence on Finland's climate. Because of Finland's northern location, winter is the longest season. On the average, winter lasts 105 to 120 days in the archipelago and 180 to 220 days in Lapland. This means that southern portions of the country are snow-covered about three months of the year and the northern, about seven months. The long winter causes about half of the annual 500 to 600 millimeters of precipitation in the north to fall as snow. Precipitation in the south amounts to about 600 to 700 millimeters annually. Like that of the north, it occurs all through the year, though not so much of it is snow. The [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west and the [[Eurasia|Eurasian continent]] to the east interact to modify the climate of the country. The warm waters of the [[Gulf Stream]] and the [[North Atlantic current|North Atlantic Drift Current]], which warm Norway and Sweden, also warm Finland. Westerly winds bring the warm air currents into the Baltic areas and to the country's shores, moderating winter temperatures, especially in the south. These winds, because of clouds associated with weather systems accompanying the westerlies, also decrease the amount of sunshine received during the summer. By contrast, the continental high pressure system situated over the Eurasian continent counteracts the maritime influences, causing severe winters and occasionally high temperatures in the summer. ==Area and boundaries== '''Area:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' [[1 E11 m²|337,030]] [[square kilometre|km²]] &lt;br&gt;''land:'' 305,470 km² &lt;br&gt;''water:'' [[1 E10 m²|31,560]] km² '''Area - comparative:''' slightly smaller than [[Germany]] '''Land boundaries:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' [[1 E6 m|2,628]] [[kilometre|km]] &lt;br&gt;''border countries:'' Norway [[1 E5 m|729]] km, Sweden 586 km, Russia 1,313 km '''Coastline:''' 1,126 km (excludes islands and coastal indentations) '''Maritime claims:''' &lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:'' 6 [[nautical mile]]s (11 km) &lt;br&gt;''continental shelf:'' 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation &lt;br&gt;''exclusive fishing zone:'' 12 nautical miles (22 km) &lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:'' 12 nautical miles (22 km), 3 nautical miles (6 km) in the [[Gulf of Finland]] '''Elevation extremes:''' &lt;br&gt;''lowest point:'' [[Baltic Sea]] 0 m &lt;br&gt;''highest point:'' [[Haltitunturi]] [[1 E3 m|1,328]] [[metre|m]] ==Resources and land u
f of ''Paris-Soir''. In this year he finished his first books, ''[[The Stranger (novel)|The Stranger]]'' and ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]''. He returned briefly to [[Oran]], Algeria in 1942. == Literary career == During the war Camus joined the [[French Resistance]] cell ''Combat'', which published an underground newspaper of the same name. This group worked against the Nazis, and in it Camus assumed the [[moniker]] &quot;Beauchard&quot;. Camus became the paper's editor in 1943, and when the Allies liberated Paris Camus reported on the last of the fighting. He eventually resigned from ''Combat'' in 1947, when it became a commercial paper. It was here that he became acquainted with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. [[Image:camus-albert.jpg|thumb|right|Albert Camus]] After the war, Camus became one member of Sartre's entourage and frequented ''[[Café de Flore]]'' on the [[Boulevard St. Germain]] in [[Paris]]. Camus also toured the [[United States]] to lecture about French existentialism. Although he leaned [[left-wing politics|left]] politically, his strong criticisms of communist doctrine did not win him any friends in the communist parties and eventually also alienated Sartre. In 1949 his tuberculosis returned and he lived in seclusion for two years. In 1951 he published ''[[The Rebel]]'', a philosophical analysis of rebellion and revolution which made clear his rejection of communism. The book upset many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France and led to the final split with Sartre. The dour reception depressed him and he began instead to translate plays. Camus's most significant contribution to philosophy was his idea of the absurd, the result of our desire for clarity and meaning within a world and condition that offers neither, which he explained in ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'' and incorporated into many of his other works, such as ''[[The Plague]]''. Some would argue that Camus is better described not as an [[existentialist]] (a label he would have rejected) but as an [[absurdist]]. In the 1950s Camus devoted his efforts to [[human rights]]. In 1952 he resigned from his work for [[UNESCO]] when the [[UN]] accepted [[Spain]] as a member under the leadership of [[Francisco Franco|General Franco]]. In 1953 he was one of the few leftists who criticized [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] methods to crush a worker's strike in [[East Berlin]]. In 1956 he protested similar methods in [[Hungary]]. He maintained his pacifism and resistance to [[capital punishment]] everywhere in the world. One of his most significant contributions was an essay collaboration with [[Arthur Koestler|Koestler]], the writer, intellectual, and founder of the League Against Capital Punishment. When the [[Algerian War of Independence]] began in 1954 it presented a moral dilemma for Camus. He identified with [[pied-noir]]s, and defended the French government on the grounds that revolt of its North African colony was really an integral part of the 'new Arab imperialism' led by Egypt and an 'anti-Western' offensive orchestrated by Russia to 'encircle Europe' and 'isolate the United States' (Actuelles III: Chroniques Algeriennes, 1939-1958). Although favouring greater Algerian [[self-governance|autonomy]] or even [[federation]], though not full-scale independence, he believed that the pied-noirs and Arabs could co-exist. During the war he advocated civil truce that would spare the civilians, which was rejected by both sides who regarded it as foolish. Behind the scenes, he began to work clandestinely for imprisoned Algerians who faced the death penalty. From 1955 to 1956 Camus wrote for [[L'Express]]. In [[1957]] he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in literature]], officially not for his novel ''[[The Fall]]'', published the previous year, but for his writings against capital punishment in the essay &quot;Réflexions Sur la Guillotine&quot;. When he spoke to students at the [[University of Stockholm]], he defended his apparent inactivity in the Algerian question and stated that he was worried what could happen to his mother who still lived in Algeria. This led to further ostracism by French left-wing intellectuals. Camus died on [[January 4]], [[1960]] in a car accident near [[Sens]], in a place named &quot;Le Grand Frossard&quot; in the small town of Villeblevin. Ironically, Camus had uttered a remark earlier in his life that the most absurd way to die would be in a car accident. [[Image:Camus Monument in Villeblevin France 17-august-2003.1.JPG|thumb|left|The monument to the French writer and philosopher Albert Camus (1913-1960), built in the small town of Villeblevin (France) where he died in a car crash on January 4, 1960]] [[Image:Camus Monument in Villeblevin France 17-august-2003.4.JPG|thumb|left|The bronze plaque on the monument to the French writer and philosopher Albert Camus (1913-1960), built in the small town of Villeblevin (France). The plaque says: &quot;From the Yonne area's local council, in tribute to the writer Albert Camus who was watched over in the Villeblevin town hall in the night of the 4th to the 5th of January 1960&quot;]] The driver of the [[Facel Vega]], [[Michel Gallimard]] -- his publisher and close friend -- also perished in the accident. Camus was interred in the Lourmarin Cemetery, [[Lourmarin]], [[Vaucluse]], [[Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur]], [[France]]. He was survived by his twin children, Catherine and Jean, who hold the copyrights to his work. After his death, two of Camus's works were published posthumously. The first was an earlier version of ''[[The Stranger (novel)|The Stranger]]'' entitled ''[[A Happy Death]]'' and was published in [[1970]]. The second work was an unfinished novel, ''[[The First Man]]'', that Camus was writing before he died. The novel was an [[autobiographical]] work about his childhood in [[Algeria]] and was published in [[1995]]. {{-}} ==Summary of Absurdism== [[Image:20041113-002 Lourmarin Tombstone Albert Camus.jpg|thumb|Albert Camus' gravestone]] Many writers have written on the Absurd, each with his or her own interpretation of what the Absurd actually is and their own ideas on the importance of the Absurd. For example, Sartre does little more than acknowledge it while Kierkegaard bases the existence of the God on the fact of the absurd. Camus was not the originator of Absurdism and regretted the continued reference to him as a ''philosopher of the absurd''. He shows less and less interest in the Absurd shortly after publishing ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' (The Myth of Sisyphus). To distinguish Camus's ideas of the Absurd from those of other philosophers, people sometimes refer to the '''Paradox of the Absurd''', when referring to ''Camus's Absurd''. His early thoughts on the Absurd appeared in his first collection of essays, ''L'Envers et l'endroit'' (The Wrong Side and the Right Side) in 1937. Absurd themes appeared with more sophistication in his second collection of essays, ''Noces'' (Nuptials), in 1938. In these essays Camus does not offer a philosophical account of the Absurd, or even a definition; rather he reflects on the experience of the Absurd. In 1942 he published the story of a man living an Absurd life as ''L'Étranger'' (The Stranger/Outsider), and in the same year releases ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' (The Myth of Sisyphus), a literary essay on the Absurd. He had also written a play about a Roman Emperor, Caligula, pursuing an Absurd logic. However, the play was not performed until 1945. The turning point in Camus's attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of letters to a fictitious German friend, published in the newspaper ''Combat''. ===Camus' ideas on the Absurd=== In the essays Camus presented us with dualisms; happiness and sadness, dark and light, life and death, etc. He wanted us to face up to the fact that happiness is fleeting and that we will die. He did this not to be morbid, but so we can love life and enjoy our happiness when it occurs. In ''Le Myth'', this dualism became a paradox; we value our lives and existence so greatly, but at the same time we know we will eventually die, and ultimately our endeavours are meaningless. Whilst we can live with a dualism (''I can accept periods of unhappiness, because I know I will also experience happiness to come''), we cannot live with the paradox (''I think my life is of great importance, but I also think it is meaningless''). In ''Le Myth'', Camus was interested in how we experience the Absurd and how we live with it. Our life must have meaning for us to value it. If we accept that life has no meaning and therefore no value, should we kill ourselves? Meursault, the Absurdist hero of ''L'Étranger'', is a murderer who is executed for his crimes. Caligula ends up admitting his Absurd logic was wrong and is killed by an assassination he has deliberately brought about. However, Camus, while obviously suggesting that Caligula's Absurd reasoning is wrong, exalts Meursault as the only Messiah we deserve. ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' raises questions it cannot satisfactorily answer. Camus' work on the Absurd was intended to promote a public debate. His various offerings entice us to think about the Absurd and offer our own contribution. Concepts such as cooperation, joint effort and solidarity are of key importance to Camus. In the essay ''Enigma'', Camus expressed his frustration at being labeled a philosopher of the absurd. None of his previous work was intended to be a definitive account of his thoughts on the Absurd, although the ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' is often mistaken as such. Camus made a significant contribution to our understanding of the Absurd, but was not himself an Absurdist. &quot;If nothing had any meaning, you would be right. But there is something that still has a meaning.&quot; ''Second Letter to a German Friend'', December 1943. ==Famous works== ===Novels=== *''[[The Stranger (novel)|The Stranger]]'' (''L'Étranger'', also translated as ''The Outsider) (1942) *''[[The Plague]]'' (''La Peste'') (1947)
y of the game. In baseball's early years, squads were smaller, and relief pitchers were relatively uncommon, with the starter normally remaining for the entire game unless he was either thoroughly ineffective or became injured; today, with a much greater emphasis on pitch count (100 being the &quot;magic number&quot; in general), over the course of a single game each team will frequently use from two to five pitchers. In the 2005 [[ALCS]], all four of the [[Chicago White Sox]] victories were complete games by the starters, a highly noteworthy event in the modern game. Although a pitcher can only take one step backward and one forward while delivering the ball, the pitcher has a great arsenal at his disposal in the variation of location, velocity, movement, and arm location (see [[list of baseball pitches|types of pitches]]). Most pitchers attempt to master two or three types of pitches; some pitchers throw up to 6 types of pitches with varying degrees of control. Common pitches include a [[fastball]], which is the ball thrown at just under maximum velocity; a [[curveball]], which is made to curve by rotation imparted by the pitcher; and a change-up, which seeks to mimic the delivery of a fastball but arrives at significantly lower velocity. To illustrate pitching strategy, consider the &quot;fastball/change-up&quot; combination: The average major-league pitcher can throw a fast ball around 90 [[miles per hour]] (145 km/h), and a few pitchers have even exceeded 100 miles per hour (161 km/h). The [[change-up]] is thrown somewhere between 75 to 85 miles per hour (121 to 137 km/h). Since the batter's timing is critical to hitting a pitch, a batter swinging to hit what looks like a fast ball, would be terribly fooled (swing and miss, hopefully) when the pitch turns out to be a much slower change-up. Some pitchers choose to throw using the 'submarine style,' a very efficient sidearm or near-underhand motion. Pitchers with a submarine delivery are often very difficult to hit because of the angle and movement of the ball once released. They cannot generate the amount of power that an overhand delivery can bring, so they depend on placement and keeping the batter &quot;off balance&quot;. There are exceptions. [[Walter Johnson]], who threw one of the fastest fast balls in the history of the game, threw sidearm (though not submarine) rather than a normal overhand. =====Fielding strategy===== Since only the pitcher's and catcher's locations are fixed, the other players on the field move around as needed to defend against scoring a run. Many variations of this are possible, as location depends upon the &quot;situation.&quot; &quot;Situation&quot; refers to immediate circumstances of play, and includes: the number of outs, the count (balls and strikes) on the batter, the number and speed of runners, the ability of the fielders, the ability of the pitcher, the type of pitch thrown, the inning, home versus visiting team, and others. As the situation dictates, the fielders move to more strategic locations. Common defensive situations include: playing for the bunt, trying to prevent a stolen base (runner advancing to the next base), moving the defensive to a shallow position to throw out a runner at home, playing at &quot;[[double play]] depth&quot;, moving fielders to locations where hitters are most likely to hit the ball, etc. ===Team at bat=== ====Batters and runners==== The ultimate goal of the team at bat is to score runs. To accomplish this feat, the team at bat successively (in an predetermined order called a ''lineup'') sends its nine players to the batter's box (adjacent to home plate) where they become batters. (Each team sets its batting lineup at the beginning of the game. Changes to the lineup are tightly limited by the rules of baseball and must be communicated to the umpires, who have the substitutions announced for the opposing team and fans. See [[#Substitutions|Substitutions]] below.) A batter's turn at the plate is called a ''[[plate appearance]]''. Batters advance to the bases in a variety of ways: hits, walks, hit-by-pitch, and a few others. When the batter hits a fair ball, he must run to first base, and may continue or stop at any base unless he is put out. A successful hit occurs when the batter reaches a base: reaching only first base is a ''single''; reaching second base, a ''double''; third base, a ''triple''; and hit that allows the batter to touch all bases in order on the same play is a [[home run]], whether or not the ball is hit over the fence. Once a runner is held to a base, he may attempt to advance at any time, but is not required to do so unless the batter or another runner displaces him (called a force play). A batter always drops his bat when running the bases— otherwise, the bat would slow him down and could give rise to a call of interference if it were to contact the ball or a fielder. Depending on the way the ball comes off the bat, the play has [[Types of batted balls in baseball|different names]]. A batted ball is called a ''[[fly ball]]'' if it was hit in the air in a way causing the fielder to catch it on its descent. A ''[[line drive]]'' is like a fly ball, but the ball is hit with such force that its trajectory seems level to the ground. A batted ball which is not hit into the air, and which touches the ground within the infield before it can be caught, is called a ''[[ground ball]]''. When a ball is hit outside the foul line, it is a ''foul ball'', requiring the batter and all runners to return to their respective bases. Once the batter and any existing runners have all stopped at a base or been put out, the ball is returned to the pitcher, and the next batter comes to the plate. After the opposing team bats in its own order and three more outs are recorded, the first team's batting order will continue again from where it left off. When a runner reaches home plate, he scores a run and is no longer a base runner. He must leave the playing area until his spot in the order comes up again. A runner may only circle the bases once per plate appearance and thus can score no more than a single run. ====Batting==== [[Image:Beiserebatedor.jpg|thumb|right|Seven-time [[Most Valuable Player|MVP]] [[Barry Bonds]] just after swinging at a pitch (photo: Agência Brasil)]] {{main|Batting (baseball)}} Each [[plate appearance]] consists of a series of pitches, in which the [[pitcher]] throws the ball towards home plate while a batter is standing in the [[batter's box]]. With each pitch, the batter must decide whether or not to swing the bat at the ball in an attempt to hit it. The pitches arrive quickly, so the decision to swing must be made in less than a tenth of a second, based on whether or not the ball is hittable and in the ''[[strike zone]]'', a region defined by the area directly above home plate and between the hollow beneath the batter's knee and the midpoint between the top of the shoulders and the top of the uniform pants. In addition to swinging at the ball, a batter who wishes to put the ball in play may hold his bat over home plate and attempt to tap a pitch lightly; this is called a [[bunt]]. On any pitch, if the batter swings at the ball and misses, he is charged with a ''[[strike (baseball statistics)|strike]]''. If the batter does not swing, the home plate [[umpire (baseball)|umpire]] judges whether or not the ball passed through the strike zone. If the ball, or any part of it, passed through the zone, it is ruled a strike; otherwise, it is called a ''[[ball (baseball statistics)|ball]]''. The number of balls and strikes thrown to the current batter is known as the [[count (baseball)|count]]; the count is always given balls first, then strikes (such as 3-2 or &quot;three and two&quot;, which would be 3 balls and 2 strikes). If the batter swings and makes contact with the ball, but does not put it in play in fair territory—a ''[[foul ball]]''—he is charged with an additional strike, except when there are already two strikes. Thus, a foul ball with two strikes leaves the count unchanged. (However, a noted exception to this rule is that a ball bunted foul with two strikes always counts as a strike.) If a pitch is batted foul or fair and a member of the defensive team is able to catch it, before the ball strikes the ground, the batter is declared out. In the event that a bat contacts the ball, but the ball continues sharply and directly to the catcher's mitt and is caught by the catcher, it is a ''[[foul tip]]'', which is same as an ordinary strike. When three strikes occur on a batter, it is a ''[[strikeout]]'' and the batter is automatically out unless the pitch is not caught by the catcher (a violation of the third strike rule{{ref|ThirdStrikeRule}}). If the catcher drops the third strike the batter is allowed to attempt to advance to first base.(The catcher can try to get him out.) On the fourth [[ball (baseball statistics)|ball]] the batter becomes a runner, and is entitled to advance to first base without risk of being put out, called a ''[[base on balls]]'' or a ''walk'' (abbreviated BB). If a pitch touches the batter, the umpire declares a ''[[hit by pitch]]'' (abbreviated HBP) and the batter is awarded first base, unless the umpire determines that the ball was in the strike zone when it hit the batter, or that the batter did not attempt to avoid being hit. In practice, neither exception is ever called unless the batter obviously tries to get hit by the pitch; even standing still in the box will virtually always be overlooked, and the batter awarded first. ====Base running==== {{main|Baserunning}} Once a batter becomes a runner, he is said to be &quot;on&quot; that base until he attempts to advance to the next base, until he is put out, or until the half-inning ends. Runners on second or third base are considered to be in ''scoring position'' since ordinary hits, even singles, will often score them. If a runner approaches a base an
6 teams from around Australia. At the end of the 22 rounds, the top eight teams compete in the ''[[Toyota AFL Finals Series]]'', in which teams compete in a Qualifying Final or Elimination Final, depending on the teams ladder position. At this stage, only six teams remain, and the bottom four teams play in a Semi Final, in which two teams are eliminated. The remaining four teams play in one of two Preliminary Finals, and the last two teams standing play in the Grand Final. The winners of the Grand Final become the premiers of that year. The Grand Final is always held at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]],even if two non-[[Victoria (Australia)|Victorian]] teams are playing.The only recent exception was [[Waverley Park]] in 1991 while the MCG was undergoing redevelopment. ====NAB Cup==== Before the premiership season commences, a knock-out Cup competition is played. It has had several incarnations as the Escort Cup, the Fosters Cup, the [[Ansett Australia]] Cup, the [[Wizard Cup]], and as of the 2006 season it will be known as the [[NAB Cup]]. ===AFL Strongholds=== Australian Rules Football is the dominant football code in every state and territory in Australia, except [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]], where [[Rugby League]] dominates, and in [[Australian Capital Territory|A.C.T.]], where [[Rugby Union]] dominates. In [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[South Australia]], [[Western Australia]], and [[Tasmania]] massive crowds attend many of the games and AFL is the dominant sport on television, print and radio news. ==Clubs== (for more information go to [[List of Australian Rules Football Clubs]]) ===Present=== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- bgcolor=#efefef ! Club ! Logo ! City ! Home Ground* |- | [[Adelaide Crows]] | [[Image:Adelaide Crows logo.png|80px]] | [[Adelaide]], [[South Australia]] | [[AAMI Stadium]] |- | [[Brisbane Lions]] | [[Image:Brisbane Lions logo.gif|80px]] | [[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]] (merger of [[Brisbane Bears]] and defunct [[Fitzroy Football Club]] in 1996) | [[Brisbane Cricket Ground]] (The 'Gabba) |- | [[Carlton Football Club|Carlton FC]] | [[Image:Carltonfc.png|80px]] | [[Carlton, Victoria|Carlton]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Telstra Dome]]&lt;br&gt;[[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] |- | [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood FC]] | [[Image:Collingwood Football Club logo.gif|80px]] | [[Collingwood, Victoria|Collingwood]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]],[[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] |- | [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon FC]] | [[Image:Essendonfc logo small.png|80px]] | [[Essendon, Victoria|Essendon]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Telstra Dome]] |- | [[Fremantle Football Club|Fremantle FC]] | [[Image:Fremantle Dockers logo.gif|80px]] | [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]], [[Western Australia]] | [[Subiaco Oval]] |- | [[Geelong Football Club|Geelong FC]] | [[Image:Geelong Football Club.png|80px]] | [[Geelong, Victoria|Geelong]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Skilled Stadium]] |- | [[Hawthorn Football Club|Hawthorn FC]] | [[Image:Hawthorn Football Club logo.jpg|80px]] | [[Hawthorn, Victoria|Hawthorn]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]&lt;br&gt;[[Aurora Stadium]] |- | [[Kangaroos Football Club|Kangaroos FC]] | [[Image:Kangaroos FC.svg|80px]] | [[North Melbourne, Victoria|North Melbourne]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Telstra Dome]]&lt;br&gt;[[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]&lt;br&gt;[[Manuka Oval]] |- | [[Melbourne Football Club|Melbourne FC]] | [[Image:Melbourne_Football_Club.png|80px]] | [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] |- | [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide FC]] | [[Image:Port Adelaide Power logo.png|80px]] | [[Port Adelaide]], [[Adelaide]], [[South Australia]] || [[AAMI Stadium]] |- | [[Richmond Football Club|Richmond FC]] | [[Image:Richmond_afl_logo.png|80px]] | [[Richmond, Victoria|Richmond]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] |- | [[St_Kilda Football Club|St. Kilda FC]] | [[Image:Saint_Kilda_Football_Club_logo.png|80px]] | [[St Kilda, Victoria|St Kilda]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Telstra Dome]]&lt;br&gt;[[Aurora Stadium]] |- | [[Sydney Swans]] | [[Image:SydneySwansLogo.png|80px]] | [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]] (relocated from [[South Melbourne, Victoria|South Melbourne]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] in 1982) | [[Sydney Cricket Ground]]&lt;br&gt;[[Telstra Stadium]] |- | [[West Coast Eagles FC]] | [[Image:West Coast Eagles.svg|80px]] | [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Western Australia]] | [[Subiaco Oval]] |- | [[Western Bulldogs]] | [[Image:WesternBulldogsLogo.png|80px]] | [[Footscray, Victoria|Footscray]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Telstra Dome]]&lt;br&gt;[[Marrara Oval]] |} ''(Note: Many clubs play several &quot;home&quot; matches at alternate grounds.)'' ===Former Teams=== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- bgcolor=#efefef ! Club ! Logo ! Home City ! Last Home Ground ! Reason |- |- | [[Fitzroy Football Club|Fitzroy FC]] | [[Image:Fitzroy_logo.gif|80px]] | [[Fitzroy, Victoria|Fitzroy]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Whitten Oval]] | merged with the [[Brisbane Bears]] to become the [[Brisbane Lions]] in [[1996]] |- |- |- | [[South Melbourne Football Club]] | [[Image:Smfc.gif|80px]] | [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Lake Oval]] | relocated to Sydney in [[1982]] and changed trading name to the Sydney Swans |- | [[University Football Club|University FC]] | | [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] | folded [[1915]], merged with [[Melbourne FC]] |} ==[[VFL/AFL]] Records== * '''Highest score'''&lt;br&gt;Geelong- 37.17 (239)&lt;br&gt;[[Carrara Oval]], [[May 3]], [[1992]]. * '''Highest winning margin'''&lt;br&gt;Fitzroy- 190 points&lt;br&gt;[[Waverley Park]], [[July 28]], [[1979]]. * '''Largest crowd'''&lt;br&gt;Carlton v Collingwood - 121,696 &lt;br&gt;[[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]], [[September 26]], [[1970]] (Grand Final) * '''Largest Home &amp; Away crowd'''&lt;br&gt;Melbourne v Collingwood - 99,346 &lt;br&gt;[[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]], [[1958]] * '''Largest Non-Victorian crowd'''&lt;br&gt;Sydney v West Coast Eagles - 91,898 &lt;br&gt;[[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]], [[September 24]], [[2005]] * '''Largest International crowd'''&lt;br&gt;Melbourne v Sydney- 32,789&lt;br&gt;[[B.C. Place]], [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]], [[1987]] * '''Most premierships'''&lt;br&gt; Carlton/Essendon 16 * '''Most wooden spoons'''&lt;br&gt; St Kilda 26, most recent 2000 * '''Most consecutive premierships'''&lt;br&gt;Collingwood- 4&lt;br&gt;[[1927]]-[[1930]] * '''Most games won in a season'''&lt;br&gt;Essendon- 24&lt;br&gt;[[2000]] * '''Most consecutive wins'''&lt;br&gt;Geelong- 23&lt;br&gt;[[1952]]-[[1953]] * '''Most games played in a career'''&lt;br&gt;[[Michael Tuck]] (Hawthorn)- 426 games * '''Most goals in a career'''&lt;br&gt;[[Tony Lockett]] (St Kilda/Sydney)- 1,360 goals * '''Most goals in a game'''&lt;br&gt;[[Fred Fanning]] (Melbourne)- 18 goals * '''Most consecutive matches'''&lt;br&gt;[[Jim Stynes]] (Melbourne)- 244 * '''Most consecutive matches from debut'''&lt;br&gt;[[Jared Crouch]] (Sydney)- 182 * '''Tallest player'''&lt;br&gt;[[Aaron Sandilands]] (Fremantle)- 211cm * '''Shortest player'''&lt;br&gt;[[Danny Craven]] (St Kilda/Brisbane)- 162cm * '''Heaviest player'''&lt;br&gt;[[Aaron Sandilands]] (Fremantle)- 124kg * '''Longest kick'''&lt;br&gt;[[Albert Thurgood]] (Essendon)- 98.48m (109 yards, 1 foot, 3.2 inches) ==Team Rivalries== Games in which teams with rivalries typically draw large crowds and interest regardless of both teams positions on the ladder. Collingwood is a famous club in the league because it is a rival of almost all other traditional clubs and also known as the 'team people love to hate'. ===Traditional Rivals=== * [[Carlton Football Club | Carlton]] v [[Collingwood Football Club | Collingwood]]&lt;br&gt;Arguably the greatest and longest standing rivalry in the competition. Two working class clubs in close proximity, fuelled by the 1970 Grand Final in which Carlton extinguished hopes of Collingwood breaking a premiership drought. Games between these two clubs regularly attract large crowds regardless of whether they are both at the bottom of the ladder. * [[Richmond Football Club | Richmond]] v [[Collingwood Football Club | Collingwood]] &lt;br&gt;Arising from the fact that the two areas neighbour each other,and that Richmond supporters often mocked Collingwood suppoters whom they thought were &quot;feral&quot;. also Richmond and Collingwood were both highly successful in the late 1920's to the early 1930's, meeting each other in several grand finals . * [[Melbourne Football Club | Melbourne]] v [[Collingwood Football Club | Collingwood]] &lt;br&gt;As per Richmond vs Collingwood but additionally fuelled by a narrow loss to Collingwood which stopped Melbourne from winning a fourth flag in a row in 1958. And the fact that Melbourne played half their premierships against them. * [[Essendon Football Club | Essendon]] v [[Collingwood Football Club | Collingwood]]&lt;br&gt;Arising from the inaugural [[ANZAC Day]] clash and Essendon's loss to Collingwood in the 1990 Grand Final. Games between these sides draw large crowds. * [[Essendon Football Club | Essendon]] v [[Carlton Football Club | Carlton]] &lt;br&gt;As is the case with two successful sides in any competition, fans of each club love to defeat the other. === Local Derbies=== * [[Adelaide Football Club | Adelaide]] v [[Port Adelaide Football Club | Port Adelaide]] &lt;br&gt;Known as The Showdown *
tions] * [http://www.chickgeneration.com/ Chick Generation] ===Parody=== * [http://www.svamcentral.org/chick/ Tower of Lies] * [http://www.epsilonminus.com/darquedungeon/ Darque Dungeon] * [http://www.weirdcrap.com/chick/intro.html Various Chick Tract Parodies] * [http://www.jhuger.com/tract/tyd/ This is Your Death] * [http://www.jhuger.com/tract/dtr/ Dead to Rights] * [http://rapidshare.de/files/1818940/Play_-_This_Was_Your_Life.mp3.html/ This Was Your Life: an audio play by the Glorified, Sanctified, Amplified Players] * [http://www.hellboundalleee.com/oldarchive.html#Eplays/ More Chick Parody audio Plays] * [http://home.flash.net/~manfre/miscellany/devildoll.html Devil Doll] by comic artist Daniel Clowes * [http://www.planetadnd.com/humor/DD-MST3K/?file=dd-mst3k.php MST3k Dark Dungeons] * [http://www.lizardcomics.com/d/20031106.html Lizard webcomic] [[Category:Anti-Catholicism]] [[Category:Book publishing companies of the United States]] [[Category:Christian fundamentalism|Chick]] [[Category:Christian media companies]] [[Category:Comic book publishing companies]] [[Category:King-James-Only Movement]] [[eo:Eldonejo Chick]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carme (moon)</title> <id>7188</id> <revision> <id>36683167</id> <timestamp>2006-01-25T20:03:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kwamikagami</username> <id>93143</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; |+'''Carme''' |- ! bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Discovery |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Discovered by | [[Seth Barnes Nicholson|S. B. Nicholson]] |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Discovered in | [[July 30]], [[1938]] |- ! bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Orbit]]al characteristics |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Mean [[radius]] | 23,734,465 [[kilometer|km]] (0.15866 [[astronomical unit|AU]]) |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Eccentricity (orbit)|Eccentricity]] | 0.3122 |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Periapsis]] | 16,324,700 [[kilometer|km]] (0.109 AU) |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Apoapsis]] | 31,144,200 [[kilometer|km]] (0.208 AU) |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Orbital period]] | 747.008062 d (2.045 [[year|a]]) |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Orbital [[circumference]] | 145,425,000 [[kilometer|km]] (0.972 AU) |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Orbital [[velocity]] | max: 3.191 km/s&lt;br/&gt;mean: 2.253 km/s&lt;br/&gt;min: 1.673 km/s |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Inclination]] | 165.54° (to the [[ecliptic]])&lt;br/&gt;120.66° (to Jupiter's equator) |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Is a [[natural satellite|satellite]] of | [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] |- ! bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Physical characteristics |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Mean [[diameter]] | 46 km |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Surface [[area]] | ~6600 [[square kilometer|km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Volume]] | ~51,000 [[cubic kilometer|km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;]] |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Mass]] | 1.3{{e|17}} [[kilogram|kg]] |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Mean [[density]] | 2.6 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Surface [[gravity]] | ~0.017 [[Acceleration|m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] (0.0017 ''g'') |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Escape velocity]] | ~0.028 km/s |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Rotation period | ? |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Axial tilt]] | ?° |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Albedo]] | 0.04 |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Surface [[Temperature|temp.]] | {| cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; |- ! min !! mean !! max |- | K | ~124 K | K |} |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Atmospheric pressure]] | 0 [[Pascal|kPa]] |} '''Carme''' ''(kar'-mee,'' {{IPA2|ˈkɑrmi}}; Greek ''Κάρμη)'' is one of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s moons. It was discovered by [[Seth Barnes Nicholson]] at [[Mount Wilson Observatory]] in [[California]] in July [[1938]]. It is named after the mythological [[Carme (mythology)|Carme]], mother by [[Zeus]] of [[Britomartis]], a [[Crete|Cretan]] goddess. Carme did not receive its present name until [[1975]]; before then, it was simply known as '''Jupiter&amp;nbsp;XI'''. It was sometimes called &quot;[[Pan (mythology)|Pan]]&quot;. Note that [[Pan (moon)|Pan]] is now the name of a satellite of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]. It gives its name to the [[Carme group]], made up of irregular retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23 and 24 Gm and at an inclination of about 165°. This moon should not be confused with the [[asteroid]] [[558 Carmen]]. ==External links== * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/PASP./0050//0000292.000.html Seth B. Nicholson, &quot;Two new satellites of Jupiter&quot;, PASP '''50''' (1938) 292&amp;ndash;293] &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; &lt;center&gt;''... | [[Arche (moon)|Arche]] | '''Carme''' | [[Isonoe (moon)|Isonoe]] | ...''&lt;/center&gt; {{Jupiter_Footer}} [[Category:Jupiter's moons]] [[als:Carme (Mond)]] [[bg:Карме (спътник)]] [[bs:Karma]] [[ca:Carme (satèl·lit)]] [[da:Carme (måne)]] [[de:Carme (Mond)]] [[fr:Carmé (lune)]] [[hr:Carme (mjesec)]] [[nl:Carme (maan)]] [[ja:カルメ (衛星)]] [[nn:Jupitermånen Carme]] [[sk:Carme (mesiac)]] [[sr:Карме]] [[sv:Carme]] [[zh:木卫十一]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Commedia del arte</title> <id>7189</id> <revision> <id>15905267</id> <timestamp>2002-08-23T03:05:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixing a redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Commedia dell'arte]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Compton Effect</title> <id>7190</id> <revision> <id>15905268</id> <timestamp>2005-05-30T15:15:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eleassar777</username> <id>173332</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redirect fixed</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[compton scattering]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Commutator</title> <id>7193</id> <revision> <id>41126267</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T05:24:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Melchoir</username> <id>454640</id> </contributor> <comment>[[Category:Binary operations]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For an electrical switch that [[periodic function|periodic]]ally reverses the current see [[commutator (electric)]]'' In [[mathematics]], the '''commutator''' gives an indication of how poorly a certain [[binary operation]] fails to be [[commutative]]. There are different definitions used in [[group theory]] and [[ring theory]]. ==Group theory== The '''commutator''' of two elements ''g'' and ''h'' of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' is the element :[''g'', ''h''] = ''g''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;''h''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;''gh'' It is equal to the group's identity if and only if ''g'' and ''h'' commute (i.e. if and only if ''gh'' = ''hg''). The [[subgroup]] generated by all commutators is called the [[derived group]] or the ''commutator subgroup'' of ''G''. Note that one must consider the subgroup generated by the set of commutators because in general the set of commutators is not closed under the group operation. Commutators are used to define [[nilpotent group]]s. N.B. Some authors choose to define the commutator as :[''g'', ''h''] = ''ghg''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;''h''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; ===Identities=== In the sequel the expression ''a&lt;sup&gt;x&lt;/sup&gt;'' denotes the conjugated (by ''x'') element ''x&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;a x''. * &lt;nowiki&gt;[y,x] = [x,y]&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; * &lt;nowiki&gt;[[x,y&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;],z]&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;sup&gt;y&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;nowiki&gt;[[&lt;/nowiki&gt;y,z&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;],x] &lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sup&gt;z&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;nowiki&gt;[[&lt;/nowiki&gt;z,x&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;],y]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sup&gt;x&lt;/sup&gt; = 1 * &lt;nowiki&gt;[xy,z] = [x,z]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sup&gt;y&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;nowiki&gt;[y,z]&lt;/nowiki&gt; * &lt;nowiki&gt;[x,yz] = [x,z] [x,y]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sup&gt;z&lt;/sup&gt; The second identity is also known under the name ''Hall-Witt identity''. It is a group-theoretic analogue of the Jacobi-identity for the ring-theoretic commutator (see next section). ==Ring theory== The '''commutator''' of two elements ''a'' and ''b'' of a [[ring (algebra)|rings]] or [[associative algebra]] is defined by :[''a'', ''b''] = ''ab'' &amp;minus; ''ba'' It is zero if and only if ''a'' and ''b'' commute. In [[linear algebra]], if two matrices commute in one [[basis]] they will commute in any basis. By using the commutator as a [[Lie bracket]], every associative algebra can be turned into a [[Lie algebra]]. The commutator of two operators defined on a [[Hilbert space]] is an important concept in [[quantum mechanics]] since it measures how well the two [[observable]]s described by the operators can be measured simultaneously. The [[uncertainty principle]] is ultimately a [[theorem]] about these commutators. Likewise, the '''anticommutator''' is defined as ''ab'' + ''ba'', often written { ''a'', ''b'' }. See also [[Poisson algebra]]. === Identities === The commutator has the following properties: ''Lie-algebra relations:'' &lt;code&gt; *[A,B] = &amp;minus; [B,A] *[A,A] = 0 *[A,[B,C]] + [B,[C,A]] + [C,[A,B]] = 0 &lt;/code&gt; ''Additional relations:'' &lt;code&gt; *[A,BC] = [A,B]C + B[A,C] *[AB,C] = A[B,C] + [A,C]B *[A,BC] = [AB,C] + [CA,B] *[AB
DVD. In other countries, like [[Vietnam]], the voiceover technique is also used for theatrical releases. In Russia, the reading of all lines by a single person only occurs nowadays with [[pirate copy|pirated copies]] of films. Professional copies always include at least two actors of opposite gender translating the dialogue (some titles in Poland have been dubbed this way, too, but this method lacks public appeal so it is very rare now). On special occasions, such as [[film festival]]s, live translation is often done by [[volunteer]]s. See also ''[[dubtitle]]''. ==Criticism and defence of dubbing== Dubbing has been criticised in several ways, patricularly in countries where it is not common practice. Those who dislike dubbing sometimes claim that it devalues films or TV programmes, as original soundtracks are closer to what the director intended. In some cases dubbing can make the film or programme less authentic. (For example, [[Nazi]] officers in [[World War II|WWII]] movies can be distracting to some if not speaking [[German language|German]]). Also, lip synchronisation is normally lost when dubbing, even with quality dubbings between closely related languages. There are examples which have been reshot or reanimated to remedy this problem. It can also be argued that using subtitles is assisting in increasing the proficiency in both understanding and speaking the original language due to the ongoing translation between the foreign audio and the local subtitled language. Using dubbing completely removes this benefit. This may be a major factor in explaining why people from countries using subtitles generally are more proficient in English than people from countries using dubbing on television for English-audio movies. A practical example of this is [[Italy]], where the majority of people receive some English tutoring and where the majority of people watch (a large amount of) television and yet the majority understand and speak no or very little English. If broadcasters in Italy showed programmes in the original English with subtitling in Italian, like the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s [[BBC Prime]], proficiency in English might increase considerably over time. In countries with illiteracy in the television movies´ audio language (whether dubbed or not), it can be argued that subtitling in the same language as the audio would increase the literacy rate by acting as ongoing spelling and informal language education. Defenders of dubbing maintain that subtitling interferes with the visual experience, as it obscures part of the picture. In many European countries, Hollywood movies are regularly dubbed and some people maintain that a creative translation (not necessarily faithful to the original English words) can bring more fun and depth to films, so that the supposedly more demanding European audience will not find them as tedious. In [[Hungary]] it is common for translators to create the [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] text to rhyme for comedies and cartoons with well-known local actors providing their voices to read it. The most famous example is perhaps the [[The Flintstones]], with its entire Hungarian text in rhymes. ==External links== *[http://www.geocities.com/gselinsky/nonsync.html How to film with non-synchronized cameras and dub] [[Category:Translation]] [[Category:Video and movie technology]] [[cs:Dabing]] [[de:Synchronisation]] [[eo:Dublado]] [[es:Doblaje]] [[fr:Doublage]] [[he:דיבוב]] [[it:Doppiaggio]] [[ja:&amp;#21561;&amp;#12365;&amp;#26367;&amp;#12360;]] [[nl:Nasynchronisatie]] [[pl:Dubbing]] [[pt:Dublagem]] [[sv:Dubbning (tolkning)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Delaunay triangulation</title> <id>8864</id> <revision> <id>37223659</id> <timestamp>2006-01-29T16:08:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Joturner</username> <id>153365</id> </contributor> <comment>revert to last version by michael hardy</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], and [[computational geometry]], the '''Delaunay triangulation''' or '''Delone triangularization''' for a set '''P''' of points in the plane is the [[triangulation (advanced geometry)|triangulation]] DT('''P''') of '''P''' such that no point in '''P''' is inside the [[circumcircle]] of any [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]] in DT('''P'''). Delaunay triangulations maximize the minimum angle of all the angles of the triangles in the triangulation; they tend to avoid &quot;sliver&quot; triangles. The triangulation was invented by [[Boris Delaunay]] in 1934 [[#References|&lt;nowiki&gt;[1]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]. [[Image:Delaunay triangulation.png|right|thumb|250px|This is the Delaunay triangulation of a random set of points in the plane&lt;!--, assuming the program I wrote was working correctly--&gt;.]] In the general ''n''-dimensional case it is stated as follows: For a set '''P''' of points in the (''n''-dimensional) [[Euclidean space]], the '''Delaunay triangulation''' is the [[triangulation]] DT('''P''') of '''P''' such that no point in '''P''' is inside the [[circumcircle|circum-hypersphere]] of any [[simplex]] in DT('''P'''). Equivalently, the Delaunay [[triangulation]] of a [[discrete]] point set '''P''' is the [[Duality (projective geometry)|geometric dual]] of the [[Voronoi tessellation]] for '''P'''. It is known that the Delaunay triangulation exists and is unique for '''P''', if '''P''' is a set of points in ''[[general position]]''; that is, no three points are on the same line and no four are on the same circle, for a two dimensional set of points, or no ''n'' + 1 points are on the same hyperplane and no ''n'' + 2 points are on the same hypersphere, for an ''n''-dimensional set of points. An elegant proof of this fact is outlined below. It is worth mentioning, because it reveals connections between the two constructs fundamental for [[computational geometry|computational]] and [[combinatorial geometry]]. The problem of finding the Delaunay triangulation of a set of points in ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space can be converted to the problem of finding the [[convex hull]] of a set of points in (''n'' + 1)-dimensional space, by giving each point &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; an extra coordinate equal to &lt;math&gt;|p|^2&lt;/math&gt;, taking the bottom side of the convex hull, and mapping back to ''n''-dimensional space by deleting the last coordinate. As the convex hull is unique, so is the triangulation, assuming all facets of the convex hull are [[simplex]]es. A facet not being a simplex implies that ''n'' + 2 of the original points lay on the same ''d''-[[hypersphere]], and the points were not in general position. On the other hand, it is easily seen that for the set of three points on the same line there is no Delaunay triangulation (in fact, no triangulation at all). On the other hand, for 4 points on the same circle (e.g., the vertices of a rectangle) the Delaunay triangulation is not unique: clearly, the two possible triangulations that split the quadrangle into two triangles satisfy the Delaunay condition. Generalizations are possible to metrics other than Euclidean. However in these cases the Delaunay triangulation is not guaranteed to exist or be unique. ==Properties== Let ''n'' be the number of points and ''d'' the number of dimensions. *The union of all simplices in the triangulation is the convex hull of the points. *The Delaunay triangulation contains at most &lt;math&gt;O(n^{\lceil d/2 \rceil})&lt;/math&gt; simplices. *In the plane (''d'' = 2), if there are ''b'' vertices on the convex hull, then any triangulation of the points has at most 2''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''b'' triangles, plus one exterior face (see [[Euler characteristic]]). *The Delaunay triangulation maximizes the minimum angle. Compared to any other triangulation of the points, the smallest angle in the Delaunay triangulation is at least as large as the smallest angle in any other. The converse is not true: the Delaunay does not necessarily minimize the maximum angle. ==Algorithms== All algorithms for computing Delaunay triangulations rely on fast operations for detecting when a point is within a triangle's circumcircle and an efficient data structure for storing triangles and edges. In two dimensions, one way to detect if point ''D'' lies in the circumcircle of ''A'', ''B'', ''C'' is to evaluate the [[determinant]] :&lt;math&gt;\begin{bmatrix}A_x&amp;A_y&amp;A_x^2 + A_y^2&amp;1\\ B_x&amp;B_y&amp;B_x^2 + B_y^2&amp;1\\ C_x&amp;C_y&amp;C_x^2 + C_y^2&amp;1\\ D_x&amp;D_y&amp;D_x^2 + D_y^2&amp;1\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; Assuming ''A'', ''B'' and ''C'' to lie [[counter-clockwise]], this is positive if and only if ''D'' lies in the circumcircle. ===Incremental=== The most straightforward way of computing the Delaunay triangulation is to repeatedly add one vertex at a time, retriangulating the affected parts of the graph. When a vertex is added, a search is done for all triangles' circumcircles containing the vertex. Then, those triangles are removed and that part of the graph retriangulated. Done naively, this results in a running time of O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). A common way to speed up this method is to sort the vertices by the first coordinate, and add them in that order. Then, one only needs to keep track of circumcircles containing points of large of enough first coordinate. The expected running time in two dimensions in this case is O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;3/2&lt;/sup&gt;) although the worst case continues to be O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). If one inserts the vertices in a random order, the running time is O(''n'' log ''n'') expected. Another efficient (O(''n'' log ''n'')) incremental algorithm keeps the whole history of the triangulation in the form of a tree. The elements replacing a conflicting element in an insertion are called its children. When a parent is in conflict with a point to be inserted, so
], after returning to England, she had her four-year-old daughter inoculated. She invited friends to see her daughter, including [[Sir Hans Sloane]], the [[George I of Great Britain|King]]'s physician. Sufficient interest arose that Maitland gained permission to test inoculation on six condemned prisoners at [[Newgate prison]], witnessed by a number of notable doctors. The trial succeeded; the prisoners gained their freedom, and in 1722 [[George II of Great Britain|the Prince of Wales']] daughters received inoculations. The practice of inoculation slowly spread amongst the royal families of Europe, usually followed by the more general adoption amongst the people. As early as [[1732]] the practice is documented in [[United States|America]]. Fearing the outbreak of an epidemic, the editor of the ''[[South Carolina Gazette]]'' published a detailed description of the innoculation process in the April 22 issue. In Boston there was argument with churchmen on both sides &quot;...within a year or two after the first experiment nearly three hundred persons had been inoculated by Boylston in Boston and neighbouring towns, and out of these only six had died; whereas, during the same period, out of nearly six thousand persons who had taken smallpox naturally, and had received only the usual medical treatment, nearly one thousand had died.&quot;[http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/whitem10.html A HISTORY OF THE WARFARE OF SCIENCE WITH THEOLOGY IN CHRISTENDOM ] Andrew Dickson White. &lt;div style=&quot;float:right;&quot;&gt; &lt;table border=1&gt; &lt;caption&gt;Natural experiment around Boston&lt;/caption&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Total &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Died&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mortality %&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Variolated &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;C 300&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; 6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;C 2%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Unvariolated&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;C 6000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;C 1000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&quot;about 14%&quot;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; (The 14% figure rather than 17% comes from&lt;br&gt; &quot;Edward Jenner and Vaccination. Harris[http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/tech/medicine/EdwardJennerAndVaccination/chap1.html]) &lt;/div&gt; [[John Zephaniah Holwell| J.Z. Holwell]] described the [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] system of inoculation against smallpox to the [[Royal College of Physicians]] in [[London]] in [[1767]] in a tract called ''An account of the manner of inoculating for the small pox in the East Indies''. He based his account on observations made during his residence in [[Bengal]]. In [[France]] considerable opposition arose to the introduction of inoculation: [[Voltaire]], in his ''Lettres Philosophiques'' wrote a criticism of his countrymen for having so little regard for the welfare of their children (English translation on-line[http://www.bartleby.com/34/2/11.html]). Given the prevalence of smallpox in the 18th century (60% incidence of first infection, 20% mortality 20% severe scarring. Voltaire), one could expect almost inevitably to become infected by it sooner or later. The advantages of inoculation seemed so evident that parents would pre-empt the dangerous natural infection by the less risky use of inoculation; but [[Edward Jenner]]'s introduction of the far safer [[cowpox]] in vaccination after 1796 eventually led to the smallpox inoculation falling into disuse, and being banned in England in 1840. ==See also== *[[Inoculation effect]] *[[Stress inoculation]] {{Vaccines}} [[no:Inokulasjon]] [[ja:接種]] [[Category:Immunology]] [[fr:variolisation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Icon</title> <id>14800</id> <revision> <id>42128379</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:28:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.153.28.32</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Catholic */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:rublev's_saviour.jpg|right|thumb|[[Christ the Redeemer]] (1410s, by [[Andrei Rublev]])]] :''For other senses of this word, see [[icon (disambiguation)]].'' An '''icon''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|εἰκών}}, ''eikon'', &quot;image&quot;) is an image, picture, or representation; it is a sign or likeness that stands for an object by signifying or representing it, or by analogy, as in semiotics; in computers an icon is a symbol on the monitor used to signify a command; by extension, '''''icon''''' is also used, particularly in modern popular culture, in the general sense of [[symbol]] &amp;mdash; i.e. a name, face, picture or even a person readily recognized as having some well-known significance or embodying certain qualities. In Eastern Orthodoxy and other icon-painting Christian traditions, the icon is generally a flat panel painting depicting a holy being or object such as [[Jesus]], [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]], [[saints]], [[angels]], or the [[Christian cross|cross]]. Icons may also be cast in metal, carved in stone, embroidered on cloth, done in mosaic work, printed on paper or metal, etc. ==Images in religion== Throughout history religion has often made use of images, whether in two dimensions or three. Some, such as [[Hinduism]], have a very rich iconography called [[murti]], while others, such as Islam, severely limit the use of visual representations. The function and degree to which images are used or permitted, and whether they are for purposes of ornament, instruction, inspiration, or treated as sacred objects of veneration or worship, thus depends upon the tenets of a given religion. ==Icons in Christianity== Christianity originated as a movement within Judaism during a time when there was great concern about idolatry. There is no evidence of the making and use of painted icons or of similar religious images by Christians within the New Testament writings. However, Eastern Orthodox theologian Rev. Dr. Steven Bigham writes (''Early Christian Attitudes Toward Images'', Orthodox Research Institute, 2004), &quot;The first thing to note is that there is a total silence about Christian and non-idolatrous images. It is important to note that the silence is in the New Testament texts, and this silence should not be interpreted as describing all the activities of the Apostles or 1st century Christians. St. John himself said that 'Jesus did many other signs in the presence of the disciples, which are not written in this book...' (Jn 20.30). We could easily add that the Apostles also did and said many things not recorded in the New Testament. It is obvious, therefore, that we do not have a complete account of the activities and sayings of the Apostles. So, if we want to find out if the first Christians made or ordered any kind of figurative art, the New Testament is of no use whatsoever. The silence is a fact, but the reason given for the silence varies from exegete to exeget depending on his assumptions.&quot; In other words, relying only upon the New Testament as evidence of no painted icons amounts to an argument from silence. Though the word ''eikon'' is found in the New Testament (see below), it is never in the context of painted icons. There were, of course, Christian paintings and art in the early [[Catacombs of Rome|catacomb churches]]. Many can still be viewed today, such as those in the catacomb churchs of Domitilla and San Callisto in Rome. The earliest written records available of Christian images treated like icons are in a [[Paganism|pagan]] or [[Gnostic]] context. Alexander Severus (A.D. 222–235) kept a domestic chapel for the veneration of images of deified emperors, of portraits of his ancestors, and of Christ, Apollonius, Orpheus and Abraham (Lampridius, ''Life of Alexander Severus'' xxix.). [[Irenaeus of Lyons|Irenaeus]], in his ''Against Heresies'' 1:25;6, says of the Gnostic Carpocratians, “''They also possess images, some of them painted, and others formed from different kinds of material; while they maintain that a likeness of Christ was made by Pilate at that time when Jesus lived among them. They crown these images, and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras, and Plato, and Aristotle, and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images, after the same manner of the Gentiles'' [pagans].” A criticism of image veneration is found in the apocryphal ''[[Acts of John]]'' (generally considered a [[gnostic]] work), in which the Apostle John discovers that one of his followers has had a portrait made of him, and is venerating it: (27) ''“...he [John] went into the bedchamber, and saw the portrait of an old man crowned with garlands, and lamps and altars set before it. And he called him and said: Lycomedes, what do you mean by this matter of the portrait? Can it be one of thy gods that is painted here? For I see that you are still living in heathen fashion''.” Later in the passage John says, ''&quot;But this that you have now done is childish and imperfect: you have drawn a dead likeness of the dead.&quot;'' [[Image:Ushakov Nerukotvorniy.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Image of the Saviour Not Made by Hand'': a traditional Orthodox iconography in the interpretation of [[Simon Ushakov]] (1658).]] In addition to the legend that Pilate had made an image of Christ, the 4th Century bishop Eusebius, in his ''Church History'', provides another reference to a “first” icon of Jesus. He relates that King Abgar of Edessa sent a letter to Jesus at Jerusalem, asking Jesus to come and heal him of an illness. In this version there is no image. Then, in the later account found in the Syriac ''Doctrine of Addai'', a painted image of Jesus is mentioned in the story; and even later, in the account given by Evagrius, the painted image is transformed into an image that miraculously appeared on a towel when Christ pressed the cloth to his wet face (''Veronica and her Cloth'', Kuryluk, Ewa, Basil Blackw
et MindForth] is an attempt to build a [[Seed AI]] by simulating Human mental processes. * [http://questsin.net questsin] Artificial Intelligence clustering of English words based on symbolic similarities, similar to a Thesaurus but larger in scope * [http://www-ai.cs.uni-dortmund.de/ Artificial Intelligence Group @ University of Dortmund], Germany: [http://yale.sf.net/ YALE (Yet Another Learning Environment)]: project building and providing a free open-software system for knowledge discovery, data mining, and machine learning</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aaliyah</title> <id>2144</id> <revision> <id>42140339</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:12:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.51.17.150</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Death */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the Jewish cultural concept see [[Aliyah]].}} [[Image:Aaliyah-one-in-a-million.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Aaliyah on the cover of her most successful album, ''[[One in a Million (album)|One in a Million]]''.]] '''Aaliyah Dana Haughton''' ([[January 16]], [[1979]] &amp;ndash; [[August 25]], [[2001]]), better known simply as her [[stage name]] '''Aaliyah''', was an [[United States|American]] [[Rhythm and blues|R&amp;B]] [[singer]], [[dancer]], [[Model (person)|fashion model]] and [[Actor|actress]]. Introduced to audiences by R&amp;B singer [[R. Kelly]], Aaliyah became famous in her own right during the mid-1990s with several hit records from the songwriting/production team of [[Missy Elliott|Missy &quot;Misdemeanor&quot; Elliott]] and [[Timbaland]], and their associate [[Steve &quot;Static&quot; Garrett]]. Notable for recording several hit records, including five number one [[Rhythm and blues|R&amp;B]] hits, one number one pop hit, and seven top 10 singles on the [[Billboard Hot 100]], Aaliyah sold over 24 million records worldwide during her career. The singer also modeled for [[Tommy Hilfiger]] and starred in two [[Film|motion pictures]] before her death in a [[Accidents and incidents in aviation|plane crash]] in 2001 at the age of 22. ==Life and career== [[Image:Aaliyah-age-aint-94.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Aaliyah and [[R. Kelly]] on the cover of the 1994 album ''[[Age Ain't Nothing but a Number]]''.]] ===Childhood and early career=== Aaliyah (Ah-Lee-Yah) was born in [[Brooklyn, New York]] to Michael and Diane Haughton. Her name is Arabic for the highest, most exalted one, the best. She grew up in [[Detroit, Michigan]] where she attended various schools including the Detroit High School for Fine and Performing Arts. Aaliyah signed with her uncle [[Barry Hankerson]]'s [[Blackground]] label in 1993 and released her debut album, titled ''[[Age Ain't Nothing but a Number]],'' in 1994. The album reached [[Platinum record|platinum status]] within months, and featured the gold-selling singles &quot;Back and Forth&quot; (number one U.S. R&amp;B, 3 weeks), and &quot;At Your Best (You Are Love)&quot; (number two U.S. R&amp;B), a cover of the 1976 [[Isley Brothers]] single. The album went on to reach double platinum status with sales of over two million copies in the U.S. and five million worldwide. It was revealed that in 1994, when she was 15, she was married to [[R&amp;B]] singer/songwriter R. Kelly, the producer of ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number''. [[Vibe magazine|''VIBE'' magazine]] in 1995 published a copy of their marriage certificate and claimed Aaliyah had falsified her age as 18 so she and Kelly could be married. Neither agreed or denied the accusations. Both parties had the marriage quickly annulled when the press found out about the union. R. Kelly did not work on any of Aaliyah's future recordings. ===''One in a Million'' (1996)=== ''[[One in a Million (album)|One in a Million]]'', Aaliyah's sophomore album, was chiefly written and produced by then unknowns [[Missy Elliott]] and Tim &quot;Timbaland&quot; Mosley and released on [[August 27]] 1996. The album was a landmark in Aaliyah's career, garnering her mass critical acclaim and introducing Aaliyah's more mature side. It embarked the newfound chemistry of Aaliyah and Timbaland. The album was certified double-platinum within a year, making Aaliyah a major R&amp;B star and igniting the successful careers of Missy Elliott and Timbaland. ''One in a Million'' featured the international smash hit &quot;If Your Girl Only Knew&quot; (number one U.S. R&amp;B, 2 weeks), &quot;One in a Million,&quot; (number one U.S. R&amp;B airplay, six weeks) and the top 10 U.S. R&amp;B single &quot;The One I Gave My Heart To,&quot; a ballad written by [[Diane Warren]]. The album also included &quot;4 Page Letter&quot; which also received significant airplay on U.S. pop and R&amp;B radio. Tommy Hilfiger took notice of Aaliyah's &quot;street but sweet&quot; image and gave Aaliyah her first endorsement deal. He immediately signed Aaliyah onto print campaigns, runway shows, and a commercial. During this period, Aaliyah would also make guest appearances on albums by artists such as Missy Elliott, [[Timbaland &amp; Magoo]], [[Ginuwine]] and [[Playa (band)|Playa]]. Timbaland and Playa's frontman [[Steve &quot;Static&quot; Garrett]] would remain Aaliyah's principal collaborators for the duration of her career. To date, ''One in a Million'' has sold over 3 million copies in the U.S. and eight million worldwide. [[Image:romeo_must_die_dvd.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''[[Romeo Must Die]]'' DVD cover]] ===Movie roles and soundtracks=== In 1997, Aaliyah appeared on the soundtrack album for the [[Fox Animation Studios]] animated feature ''[[Anastasia (1997 movie)|Anastasia]]'', singing the pop version of &quot;Journey to the Past&quot;. The song was nominated for an [[Academy Award]], and Aaliyah performed the song at the 1997 Academy Awards ceremony, making history. Aaliyah became the youngest female recording artist to perform at the ceremony. Aaliyah had a huge hit in 1998 with &quot;Are You that Somebody&quot; (number one U.S. R&amp;B airplay, eight weeks), the main single from the ''[[Doctor Dolittle (movie)|Doctor Doolittle]]'' soundtrack. Its video was the third most-played on [[MTV]] that year, and the song's success helped make Aaliyah a household name. The single was a Top 10 hit on the Billboard [[Hot 100 Airplay]] chart. In 2000, she co-starred with [[Jet Li]] in the [[martial-arts]] film ''[[Romeo Must Die]]'', which debuted at number two at the box office. Aaliyah and Timbaland executive produced the film's soundtrack album and Aaliyah contributed four songs: &quot;Are you Feelin' Me?,&quot; &quot;I Don't Wanna,&quot; &quot;Back in One Piece,&quot; a duet with [[DMX_(rapper)|DMX]], and the international number one hit &quot;Try Again.&quot; Aaliyah made history once again with her hit single &quot;Try Again.&quot; It became the first song in history to ever reach number one on the Billboard Hot 100 based solely on the strength of its radio airplay, without any single sales factored. After the huge success of &quot;[[Try Again]]&quot; at radio, a [[12 inch single|12&quot; maxi single]] was released for consumer purchase. The radio-only single, &quot;I Don't Wanna&quot;, peaked at number 35 on the Billboard Hot 100, and number five on the Billboard Hot R&amp;B/Hip Hop Singles &amp; Tracks chart. In 2001, Aaliyah went to [[Australia]] to co-star with [[Stuart Townsend]] in the film ''[[Queen of the Damned]]'', an adaptation of the [[Anne Rice]] novel of the same name. While filming ''Queen of the Damned'', Aaliyah also recorded most of her third studio album, ''[[Aaliyah (album)|Aaliyah]]''. ===''Aaliyah'' (2001)=== [[Image:Aaliyah001.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Aaliyah in the video for the 2001 single &quot;We Need a Resolution&quot;]] &quot;We Need a Resolution,&quot; the first single from Aaliyah's highly-anticipated third studio album, was released in April of 2001. The self-titled ''Aaliyah'' was released four months later on [[July 17]], 2001. The album was a critical success, introducing a darker and edgier side to Aaliyah's music, and was noted as having showcased her growth as an artist. The album debuted at number two on the [[Billboard 200]] chart, selling over 187,000 copies in its first week, and was certified gold (500,000 copies sold) within four weeks, before her death. In the summer of 2001, Aaliyah filmed the video for ''Aaliyah's'' intended second single, &quot;More than a Woman&quot;. After the video was completed, however, it was decided &quot;Rock the Boat&quot; should be the second single instead, and the &quot;More than a Woman&quot; video was temporarily shelved. ===Death=== Aaliyah traveled to the [[Bahamas]] in August 2001 to film the &quot;Rock the Boat&quot; video with director [[Hype Williams]]. On [[August 25]], [[2001]], at 6:45 pm, just after filming was completed, Aaliyah and 7 friends boarded a [[Cessna 402]] small aircraft en route to [[Miami, Florida]]. The journey would have taken approximately 1 hour travel time. Instead, as the plane was lifting off the runway nosedived and impacted in a marsh on the south side of the departure end runway 27. All nine people aboard, including Aaliyah, the pilot and the other seven passengers, were killed. Investigators determined the plane was over its total gross weight by several hundred pounds. Although those responsible claimed that the passengers had been asked to leave some luggage behind and had refused, it was later discovered that the passengers, including Aaliyah, had not been informed of the excess weight. Furthermore, an [[autopsy]] of the pilot revealed [[cocaine]] and [[alcoholic_beverage| alcohol]] in his blood. Reports have also suggested the pilot of the plane falsely obtained his licence from Black Hawk Airways by showing hundreds of hours never flown, suggesting he was not qualified to pilot the plane to begin with. As a result of the accident, Barry &amp; Sons, Inc., a [[corporation]] formed in 1992 to develop, promote and capitaliz
al]]. The first letter represents how the album was recorded, the second how it was mixed, and the third how it was transferred (inevitably a D, as the CD is a digital medium). Almost all early CDs are &quot;AAD&quot; (analog recording and mixing, digital transfer to CD) as a result. Often this code was accompanied by a short description such as &quot;Full Digital Recording&quot; for DDD and &quot;Digitally Mixed Analog Recording&quot; for ADD. Commercial digital recording of classical and jazz music began in the early [[1970s]], pioneered by Japanese companies such as [[Denon]], although experimental recordings exist from the [[1960s]]. The first 16-bit PCM recording in the [[United States]] was made by [[Thomas Stockham]] at the [[Santa Fe Opera]] in [[1976]] on a [[Soundstream]] recorder. In most cases there was no mixing stage involved; a stereo digital recording was made and used unaltered as the master tape for subsequent commercial release. These unmixed digital recordings are still described as DDD since the technology involved is purely digital. (Unmixed analog recordings are likewise usually described as ADD to denote a single generation of analog recording). The first digitally recorded (DDD) popular music album was [[Ry Cooder]]'s ''[[Bop Till You Drop]]'', recorded in late [[1978]]. It was unmixed, being recorded straight to a two-track [[3M]] digital recorder in the studio. Many other top recording artists were early adherents of digital recording. [[Stevie Wonder]] adopted the technology in early [[1979]] for [[Journey Through the Secret Life of Plants]] and used it on all later recordings. Others, such as former [[Beatles]] producer [[George Martin]], felt that the multitrack digital recording technology of the early [[1980s]] had not reached the sophistication of analog systems. Martin used digital mixing, however, to eliminate the distortion and noise that an analog master tape would introduce (thus ADD). An early example of an analog recording that was digitally mixed is [[Fleetwood Mac]]'s 1979 release ''[[Tusk (album)|Tusk]]''. By the time the compact disc was introduced worldwide digital recording and mixing was becoming commonplace among recording artists and producers known for their interest in fidelity. Two examples from [[1982]] are ''[[Signals (album)|Signals]]'' by [[Rush (band)|Rush]] and ''[[The Nightfly]]'' by [[Donald Fagen]]. A few examples of DAD recordings exist, mostly of works that were originally recorded digitally but later [[remix]]ed by artists who preferred to work with analog technology. A notable example is [[Herb Alpert]]'s ''Rise'' album from 1979. &lt;!--I think there is an Arthur Baker remix of Like A Virgin that is an example of this, if someone can confirm this or provide another example--&gt; The originally CD-only label [[Ryko]] extended this system to the other media when it began making LPs and cassettes so that a digital recording on an LP would be DDA, and so forth. ===Three-Letter Codes=== * '''DDD:''' digital tape recorder used during session recording, mixing and/or editing, and mastering (transcription). * '''ADD:''' analog tape recorder used during session recording, digital tape recorder used during subsequent mixing and/or editing and during mastering (transcription). * '''AAD:''' analog tape recorder used during session recording and subsequent mixing and/or editing, digital tape recorder used during mastering (transcription). == CD-ROM == {{main|CD-ROM}} For its first few years of existence, the compact disc was purely an audio format. However, in [[1985]] [[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow Book]] CD-ROM standard was established by [[Sony]] and [[Philips]], which defined a non-volatile optical data [[computer storage|storage]] medium using the same physical format as audio [[compact disc]]s, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive. == Recordability == [[Injection moulding]] is used to mass produce compact discs. A &quot;stamper&quot; is made from the original media (audio tape, data disc, etc.) by writing to a glass disc (referred to as a glass master) coated with a photosensitive dye with a laser. This dye is then etched, leaving the data track. It is then plated to make a positive version of the CD. Polycarbonate is liquified and injected into the mold cavity where the stamper transfers the pattern of pits and lands to the polycarbonate disc. The disc is then metallized with aluminum and lacquer coated. Recordable compact discs are injection molded with a &quot;blank&quot; data spiral. A photosensitive dye is then applied, and then the discs are metallized and lacquer coated. The write laser of the [[CD recorder]] changes the characteristics of the dye to allow the read laser of a standard CD player to see the data as it would an injection molded compact disc. CD-R recordings are permanent. The resulting discs can be read by most CD-ROM drives and played in most audio CD players. [[CD-RW]] is a re-recordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead of a dye. The write laser in this case is used to heat and alter the chemical properties of the alloy and hence change its reflectivity. A CD-RW does not have as great a difference in the reflectivity of lands and bumps as a pressed CD or a CD-R, and so many CD audio players cannot read CD-RW discs, although the majority of standalone [[DVD]] players can. == Copy protection == The [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]] audio specification does not include any [[copy prevention|copy protection]] mechanism. ''Ripping'' is the process by which the contents of an audio disc is copied out verbatim to a duplicate disc or re-encoded into some other format, such as [[MP3]] or [[Ogg Vorbis]]. An [[CIRC|error-correcting code]] is included with Red Book audio to deal with small scratches or defects on the disc media. Where error correction fails on larger defects, audio CD players are expected to apply [[interpolation]] [[algorithm]]s to conceal the loss of audio data. Starting in early [[2002]], attempts were made by record companies to market &quot;copy-protected&quot; compact discs. Some of these deliberately introduced error patterns into audio tracks severe enough to defeat the error-correcting code (and hence defeat most [[CD-ROM]] drives attempting to copy the tracks as data), but not so disruptive as to prevent interpolation from working (hence allowing the same tracks to be played in audio mode without overly affecting [[high fidelity|fidelity]]). These discs are said to be more sensitive to disc pollution or surface damage (typically in the form of scratches) because they partially exhaust the error-correction thresholds incorporated into the Red Book standard right from the time of production. Another copy protection method places a data track (usually containing bonus software for computer users) at the end of the disc and gives it an invalid size in the disc's table of contents. This is intended to prevent the data track from being ripped, but can be defeated by ignoring the table of contents and reading the disc sector by sector. Philips has stated that such discs are not permitted to bear the [[trademark]]ed ''Compact Disc Digital Audio'' logo because they violate the Red Book specification. It also seems likely that Philips' new models of CD recorders will be designed to be able to record from these &quot;protected&quot; discs. However, there has been great public outcry over copy-protected discs because many see it as a threat to [[fair use]]. For example, audio tracks on such media cannot be easily added to a personal music collection on a computer's [[hard disk]] or a portable (non-CD) music player. Also, many ordinary CD audio players, e.g. in car radios, have problems playing copy-protected media, mostly because they use [[hardware]] and [[firmware]] components also used in [[CD-ROM]] drives. The reason for this reuse is cost efficiency. Other systems developed are [[Macrovision CDS-200]] and [[Mediamax CD-3]]. In any case, even if a disc cannot be directly ripped, it can still be played in audio mode, and the audio thence captured. Any loss of sound quality caused by this method is generally considered negligible. This is commonly referred to as the [[analog hole]]. {{seealso|Serial Copy Management System}} == Non-standard CD behaviors == Some commercially released audio discs have a &quot;secret&quot; [[hidden track|bonus track]]. These may be an extension of the last audio track or a separate track hidden from the disc's table of contents. Either way, the hidden portion is heard when the disc is played to the end. Other discs hide the extra material at the beginning of the disc. On most discs, the location of the first track listed in the table of contents immediately follows the table of contents itself. In this case, the hidden track is an unlisted track sandwiched between the two. To hear the hidden track, the listener must usually &quot;rewind&quot; the player past the beginning of the first listed track. Not all players allow this. == Name == Notwithstanding the variability of general usage between [[disk|&quot;disk&quot; and &quot;disc&quot;]] [http://www.bartleby.com/61/16/C0521600.html], the customary spelling is &quot;compact disc&quot;, rather than &quot;compact disk&quot;. This may be in large degree due to its status as a [[Philips]] [[trademark]] under that spelling. == References == * Kees Immink, ''The Compact Disc Story'', AES Journal, pp. 458-465, May 1998 [http://www.exp-math.uni-essen.de/~immink/pdf/cdstory.pdf]. * Kenneth C. Pohlmann (1992). ''The Compact Disc Handbook''. Middleton, Wisconsin: A-R Editions. ISBN 895793008. == See also == {{commons|Compact disc}} * [[SACD]] * [[DVD-Audio]] * [[CD-ROM]] * [[CD-R]] * [[CD-RW]] * [[CD Text]] * [[Loudness war]] * [[Rainbow Books]] ** [[Red Book (audio CD standard)]] ** [[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)]] * [[CD-G|CD+G]] * [[Enhanced CD|ECD]] * [[Video CD]] *
the intrinsic moral superiority of [[autonomy]] and freedom (in the market), see [[deontology]]. The other is a form of [[consequentialism]] - a belief that decentralised planning by a multitude of individuals making free economic decisions produces ''better results'' in regard to a more organized, efficient, and productive economy, than does a centrally-planned economy where a central agency decides what is produced, and allocates goods by non-price mechanisms. An older version of this argument is the [[metaphor]] of the [[Invisible Hand]], familiar from the work of [[Adam Smith]], although it is older. In Smith's time there were no centrally planned economies to serve as a comparison, he was simply arguing that the market benefits the [[common good]]. Modern theories of ''[[self-organization]]'' say the internal organization of a system can increase automatically without being guided or managed by an outside source. When applied to the market, as an ethical justification, they are appealing primarily to its [[intrinsic value]] as a self-organising entity. Intense admiration for these abilities of the market became a characteristic of some pro-market argument in the 1990's, especially among those who saw the [[internet]] as a form of perfect market. ==Legal tender and taxes in a pure free market == Some people believe that money, in a truly free market economy, is not monopolized by [[legal tender]] laws or by a central money maker authority which coerces society to use its own money as the unique medium of exchange in trades, in order to receive [[Value added tax|taxes]] from the transactions or to be able to issue [[loan]]s. On the other hand, the so called &quot;coercion&quot; of taxes is arguably essential for the market's survival, and a market free from taxes may lead to no market at all. It is obvious that there is no market without private property and it is also obvious that private property itself can only exist while there is someone to defend it and define it. Traditionally, the State defends private property and defines it by issuing ownership titles, and also nominates the central authority to print or mint currency. It is reasonable to coerce people who are doing their exchanges and their trades to give something back in return for the state defense and definition of the money or of the real estate property they gained during those trades. If no taxes are given back to the state then the state collapses. The state's collapse causes private property such as money or real estate to be undefined, and without money or real property, the market, too, may collapse. After the state's collapse only movable goods such as [[energy source]]s or [[information]] or [[weapons]] can (if stored carefully) still remain privately owned and become the subject of a new stateless market. &quot;Free market anarchists&quot; disagree with the above assessment, as they maintain that private property and free markets can be protected by voluntarily-funded services under the concept of [[individualist anarchism]]'' and ''[[anarcho-capitalism]]''. A free market could be defined alternatively as a tax-free market, independent of any central authority, which uses as medium of exchange one or several objects (real or virtual ones) that hold the three properties of money (store value, medium of exchange, and unit of account) along with a fourth property of use value (such as energy) or being trusted (as gold was in antiquity) even in the absence of the State. It is disputed, however, whether this hypothetical stateless market could function freely, without coercion and violence. ==Opposition towards free markets== Critics of laissez-faire variously see the &quot;free market&quot; as an impractical ideal or as a [[rhetorical device]] that puts the concepts of [[freedom]] and anti-[[protectionism]] at the service of vested wealthy interests, allowing them to attack [[labor law]]s and other protections of the [[working class]]es. For example, investment advisor [[Martin J. Whitman]] considers free markets an impracticable ideal: &quot;Corporate America would not work at all unless many activities continued to be coercive.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin J. Whitman, Third Avenue Value Fund letter to shareholders October 31, 2005. p.6.&lt;/ref&gt; In a different critique, [[Noam Chomsky]] argues that the wealthy use free-market rhetoric to justify imposing greater economic [[risk]] upon the lower classes, while being insulated from the rigours of the market by the political and economic advantages that such wealth affords. As the notable political [[activism|activist]] [[Noam Chomsky]] remarked, &quot;the free market is [[socialism]] for the [[wealthy|rich]]&amp;mdash;[free] markets for the poor and state [[protectionism|protection]] for the rich.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Takis Michas, &quot;The Other Chomsky&quot;, ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'', November 4, 2005. [http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/20051104.htm Reproduced on Chomsky's official site].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Noam Chomsky, &quot;The Passion for Free Markets&quot;, ''[[Z Magazine]]'', May 1997. [http://www.chomsky.info/articles/199705--.htm Reproduced on Chomsky's official site].&lt;/ref&gt; ==Notes== &lt;references /&gt; ==See also== *[[Economics]] *[[Adam Smith]] *[[Capitalism]] *[[History of theory of capitalism]] *[[Political Economy]] *[[Karl Marx]] *[[Economic liberalism]] *[[Liberalism]] *[[Market economy]] *[[Neoliberalism]] *[[Neoconservatism in the United States]] *[[Austrian School]] *[[Anarcho-capitalism]] *[[Free-market anarchism]] *[[Free trade]] *[[Friedrich Hayek]] *[[Game theory]] *[[Heritage Foundation]] *[[LIEO]] *[[Libertarianism]] *[[Milton Friedman]] *[[Minarchism]] *[[Ludwig von Mises]] *[[Negative liberty]] *[[Night watchman state]] *[[Nash equilibrium]] *[[School of Salamanca]] *[[Self-organization]] *[[Transparency (market)]] *[[Underground economy]] *[[Voluntaryism]] *[[Open Source Initiative]] *[[Non-profit organization]] ===Contrast=== *[[Communism]] *[[Gift economy]] *[[Libertarian socialism]] *[[Market abolitionism]] *[[Market socialism]] *[[Mixed economy]] *[[Participatory economy]] *[[Planned economy]] *[[Socialism]] *[[Statism]] *[[Subsistence economy]] ==External links== *[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/FreeMarket.html Free Market] by [[Murray N. Rothbard]] *[http://www.freemarketdoctors.blogspot.com Free Market Doctors] Utilizing the ideals of a free-market economy to revitalize the healthcare industry *[http://globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=145 In Defense of the Free Market] *[http://www.mises.org Mises.org] is the official website of the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]] for [[Austrian School|Austrian economics]] and [[classical liberalism]] *[http://www.dallasfed.org/educate/free/index.html Free Enterprise: The Economics of Cooperation] Looks at how communication, coordination and cooperation interact to make free markets work *[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ IEF] *[http://www.sprott.com/pdf/pressrelease/TheVisibleHand.pdf ''Move Over, Adam Smith: The Visible Hand of Uncle Sam] Report concludes that the U.S. government surreptitiously intervenes in the American stock market *[http://www.fff.org/freedom/0292d.asp ''Fair versus Free''] by [[Milton Friedman]] [[Category:Capitalism]] [[Category:Markets]] [[de:Freier Markt]] [[es:Libre mercado]] [[he:כלכלת שוק]] [[id:Pasar bebas]] [[is:Frjáls markaður]] [[ja:自由市場]] [[lt:Laisvoji rinka]] [[mk:Слободен пазар]] [[nl:Vrije markt]] [[pl:Wolny rynek]] [[pt:Economia de mercado]] [[sk:Voľný trh]] [[sv:Fri marknad]] [[th:ตลาดเสรี]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frederick I of Brandenburg</title> <id>11829</id> <revision> <id>15909546</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>David Parker</username> <id>42</id> </contributor> <comment>Redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ford GT40</title> <id>11830</id> <revision> <id>40560516</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T12:47:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Ced. Wikify dates</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the concept car presented as the Ford GT40 on the auto show circuit in 2002, see [[Ford GT]].'' [[Image:Ford GT40.jpg|thumb|right|250px|GT40 Mk II front. This car won the 24h of Daytona 1966 driven by Ken Miles and Loyd Ruby, giving Ford its first victory in a 24 hour race. (Serial Number GT-40 P 1015 Mk. II)]] [[Image:Ford GT40 (rear).jpg|thumb|right|250px|GT40 Mk II rear]] The '''[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] GT40''' was a notable [[sports car]] and winner of the [[24 hours of Le Mans]] four times in a row, from [[1966]] to [[1969]]. It was built to win long-distance [[sports car racing|sports car races]] against [[Ferrari]] (who won at [[List of Le Mans 24h winners|Le Mans]] six times in a row from 1960 to 1965). The car was named the '''GT40''' after the [[Gran Turismo|Grand Tourisme]] category it was intended to compete in (in fact regulations were changed the car was never homologated in GT) and its overall height of 40 inches (1.02 m, measured at the windscreen) as required by the rules. Large-capacity Ford V8 engines (4.7&amp;nbsp;L and 7&amp;nbsp;L) were used, compared with the Ferrari V12 which had 3.0 L or 4.0 L. Early cars were simply named &quot;Ford GT&quot; the name GT40 was introduced with the production of the stock Mk. 1. The contemporary [[Ford GT]] is a modern homage to the GT40. ==History== [[Henry Ford II]] had wanted a Ford at Le Mans since the early [[1960s]]. Initially, Ford attempted to buy Ferrari. Much to the surprise of Ford who expected long negotiations, the proposal was welcomed by [[Enzo Ferrari]]. A deal had been all
years from 1846. Some two million refugees are attributed to the Great Hunger (estimates vary), and much the same number of people emigrated to [[Great Britain]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[Australia]] (''see'' the [[Irish Diaspora]]). The immediate effect on Ireland was devastating, and its long-term effects proved immense, permanently changing Irish culture and tradition. The Irish Potato Famine was the culmination of a social, biological, political and economic catastrophe, caused by both Irish and British factors, which would have sharp and lasting influences on the world. ==The potato in Ireland== The potato contains considerable [[food energy]], and yet is very easy to cultivate. Typical farming practice of the era seeded a field once after being hoed, and future years' crops were &quot;seeded&quot; by simply leaving some of the potatoes unharvested in the ground. Weeding was minimal, and irrigation unnecessary. The [[potato]] had become Ireland's major food crop after being introduced sometime around [[1650]], though its dominance was not achieved until around the [[1780s]]. Even small plots could provide enough food energy for a family (and also to feed pigs, providing access to meat, while they could also be sold, providing extra income.) While potatoes are relatively rich in energy they are only a fair source of protein. Some paleo-nutritionists estimate that potato consumption prior to the famine averaged an astonishing 14 pounds per day per adult. This monotonous diet provided good nutrition which led to a taller average height in Ireland than in England during the early 19th century. In addition to the potato crop, other lands were used for cash crops like [[flax]]. The abundance of food and cash led to a rise in population in Ireland. The potato's benefits also led to a dangerous inflexibility in the Irish food system. The majority of food energy was being provided from a single crop. That alone is not unusual, and is still the case today for many subsistence farmers around the world. However, the traditional Irish practice of [[Irish farm subdivision|sub-dividing]] plots among the male children of a family, though diminishing, was still widely practiced in the poorer areas of the country. The use of the potato and sub-division produced two interlinked side-effects; with increased food energy the number of surviving male heirs was quickly increasing, while with the prospect of inheriting a land-holding, heirs married young and produced large families-hence increasing subdivision into smaller estates for their own heirs. ==The blight== {{sect-stub}} Although the origins are still unclear, in [[1845]] a [[potato blight]] struck across [[Europe]], turning potatoes into a soggy and inedible mess. The [[Freeman's Journal]] (the main nationalist newspaper) on [[June 27]] [[1846]] carried a headline '''Disease in the New Potato Crop''', recounting an early outbreak in [[County Mayo]]. By ''Black '47'', the vast majority of that year's crop was ruined. Food stores and emergency supplies made up for some of this setback, but the blight appeared again in [[1849]], and there was no reserve capacity remaining, even in the height of the famine, Ireland still produced enough food to feed the entire population of the country with ease, however the forced removal of food caused the famine to kill so many people. The result was widespread [[famine]], though it affected different parts of the island to different degrees. == Famine and Deathtolls == [[Image:Irish population change (1841-1851).png|thumb|210px|Fall in Irish population (1841-1851)]] No-one knows for certain how many people died in the Famine. State registration of births, marriages or deaths had not yet begun, while the Roman Catholic Church's records, where they exist at all, are understandably incomplete, given the sheer scale of deaths. Many of the [[Church of Ireland]]'s records (which included records of local Catholics, who paid [[tithes]] (local taxes) to their local Church of Ireland), were destroyed when the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] blew up the [[Irish Public Records Office]] in 1922. One possible estimate has been reached by comparing the expected population with the eventual numbers in the 1850s. Earlier predictions expected that by 1851, Ireland would have a population of 8 to 9 million. This calculation is based on numbers contained in the ten year census results compiled since 1821. (However, a recent re-examination of those returns raise questions as to their accuracy; the 1841 Census, for example, incorrectly classed farm children as labourers, affecting later calculations on how many adults capable of child-bearing existed to produce children between 1841 and 1851!). What we do know is that in 1851 the actual population was 6.6 million. Making straightforward calculations is complicated by a secondary effect of famine, a key side-effect of malnutrition, namely plummeting fertility and sexual activity rates. The scale of that effect on population numbers was not fully recognised until studies done during [[Africa]]n famines in the twentieth century. As a result, corrections based on inaccuracies in census returns and on the previous unrealised decline in births due to malnourishment have led to an overall reduction in the presumed death numbers. Modern historians and statisticians estimate that between 500,000 and 1,100,000 died. Many historians suggest the death-toll was in the region of 700,000 to 800,000.{{fn|2}} One website claims a figure of over five million though most historians have dismissed this claim and the reliability of its calculations. [http://www.catholicapologetics.net/Ireland's%20Holocaust.htm] In addition, in excess of one million Irish emigrated in the notorious [[coffin ship|coffin ships]] to the [[United States]], [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and elsewhere, while more than one million emigrated over following decades; by 1911, a combination of emigration and an abnormally high number of unmarried men and women in the population, had reduced the population of Ireland to 4.4 million. The initial British government response towards the early famine was, in the view of historians such as [[F.S.L. Lyons]] 'prompt and relatively successful'.{{fn|3}} Professor Joe Lee contended: :there was nothing unique, by the standards of pre-industrial subsistence crisis, about the [Irish] famine. The death rate had been frequently equalled in earlier European famines, including, possibly, in Ireland itself during the famine of [[Irish Famine of 1740-41|1740-41]].{{fn|4}} In the case of the 1846-49 Irish Famine, with tragic consequences the [[Tory]] government of Sir [[Robert Peel]] (who had served in the [[Dublin Castle]] British administration, having begun his political career as an MP for a [[rotten borough]] of [[Cashel]], [[County Tipperary]] and so had some understanding of Ireland) was replaced (with the help of Irish MPs under [[Daniel O'Connell]]) by a Whig ministry under [[Lord John Russell]]. Russell believed in a [[laissez-faire]] economic policy of non-intervention in the economy. So whereas Peel had imported Indian [[maize]] to feed the starving, Russell instead focused on providing support through public works and [[work-houses]]. A disastrous ''[[Gregory Clause]]'' of the ''[[Poor Law Extension Act]]'' was introduced, making aid available only to those who owned less than one quarter of an acre (1,000&amp;nbsp;m&amp;sup2;) of land. This forced poverty-stricken starving tenants either to give up their homes and land, and so become destitute ''after'' the famine, or hold on to them and risk starvation. == Ireland and Great Britain == The [[Act of Union 1800]] stipulated that Ireland would have in the [[United Kingdom]] one-fifth the representation of Great Britain, that is 100 members in the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of Commons]]. The trouble was not the lack of Irish representation in the [[British parliament]] but that the London parliament was not in tune with the needs of Ireland, given that the vast majority of its MPs and government ministers had never set foot in Ireland, and had shown little interest in it or its problems. The union of the churches of [[England]] and [[Ireland]] also cemented British rule, strengthening the pre-eminent position in [[Ireland]] of the [[Anglican]]s by securing the continuation of the British [[Test Act]], which virtually excluded [[Presbyterian]]s and [[Roman Catholic]]s from Parliament and from membership of municipal corporations. Part of the agreement that led to the Act of Union stipulated that the [[Penal Laws]] were to be repealed and [[Catholic Emancipation]] granted. [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]], however, blocked emancipation, arguing that to grant it would break his coronation oath to defend the Anglican Church. A campaign under lawyer and politician [[Daniel O'Connell]] led to the conceding of Catholic Emancipation in 1829, so allowing Catholics to sit in parliament. O'Connell then mounted an unsuccessful campaign for the &amp;#8220;Repeal&amp;#8221; of the Act of Union. Not until [[1828]]-[[1829|29]] did the repeal of the Test Act and the concession of Catholic Emancipation provide political equality for most purposes, including free trade between the British Isles and that Irish merchandise would be admitted to British colonies on the same terms as British merchandise. ===Suggestions of genocide=== The suggestion that the Famine &quot;amounted to [[genocide]]&quot; by the British against the Irish is a divisive issue. Few Irish historians accept outright such a definition, as &quot;genocide&quot; implies a ''deliberate policy'' of extermination. Many agree that the British policies during the Famine, particularly those applied under [[Lord John Russell]], were misguided, ill-informed and disastrous. Irish poet [[Jonathan Swift]] had satirized the plight of the Irish in relati
cess with [[Elvis Presley]], he left Atkins in charge of RCA's Nashville division. It was then that Atkins and Owen Bradley, seeing country music record sales in tatters as rock and roll took over, came up with the idea of eliminating fiddles and steel guitar as a means of making country singers appeal to pop fans. Atkins used the [[Jordanaires]] and a rhythm section on hits like [[Jim Reeves]]'s &quot;Four Walls&quot; and &quot;He'll Have to Go&quot; and [[Don Gibson]]'s &quot;Oh Lonesome Me&quot; and &quot;Blue Blue Day.&quot; The concept of having a country hit &quot;cross over&quot; to pop success became a formula. He and Bradley had essentially put the producer in the driver's seat, guiding an artist's choice of material and the musical background. Atkins made his own records, which usually visited pop standards and jazz, in a home studio, recording the rhythm tracks as RCA but working on them repeatedly until they satisfied him. Guitarists of all styles came to admire various Atkins albums for their unique ideas and in some cases experimental electronic ideas. Atkins style, which was and is very difficult for the &quot;backyard guitarist&quot; to master, uses the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand. He developed this style from listening to Merle Travis. He was sure no one could play that articulately with just the thumb and index finger (which actually was exactly how Travis played) and he assumed it required the thumb and two fingers - and that was the style he pioneered and mastered. He enjoyed jamming with fellow studio musicians which led to them being asked to perform at the [[Newport Jazz Festival]] in [[1960]]. That performance was canceled, however, due to rioting. Atkins performed at the [[White House]] in [[1961]]. Before his mentor, Sholes, died in [[1968]], Atkins had become vice president of RCA's country division. He had brought [[Waylon Jennings]], [[Willie Nelson]], [[Connie Smith]], [[Bobby Bare]], [[Dolly Parton]], [[Jerry Reed]] and [[John Hartford]] to the label in the 1960s. He took a considerable risk during the mid-1960s, when the [[Civil Rights Movement]] sparked violence throughout the South by signing country music's first African-American singer: [[Charley Pride]], who sang rawer country than the smoother music Atkins had pioneered. But Atkins's hunch paid off. Ironically, Pride's biggest fans became the most conservative country fans, many of whom didn't care for the pop stylings Atkins had added. Atkins's own biggest hit single came in [[1965]], with &quot;Yakety Axe,&quot; an adaptation of his friend saxophonist [[Boots Randolph]]'s &quot;Yakety Sax.&quot; He rarely performed in those days, and eventually had to hire other RCA producers like [[Bob Ferguson]] and [[Felton Jarvis]] to allieviate his workload. In the [[1970s]], Atkins became increasingly stressed out by his executive duties. He produced fewer records but could still turn out hits such as [[Perry Como]]'s pop hit &quot;And I Love You So.&quot; He recorded extensively with close friend and fellow picker Jerry Reed, who'd become a hit artist in his own right. A 1973 bout with [[colon cancer]], however, led Atkins to redefine his role at RCA, to allow others to handle administration while he worked more on his music, often recording with Reed or even [[Homer &amp; Jethro]]'s Jethro Burns (Atkins's brother-in-law) after Homer died in 1971. By the end of the '70s, Atkins's time had passed as a producer. New executives at RCA had different ideas. He retired from his position in the company. Then began feeling stifled as an RCA artist because they would not let him branch out into [[jazz]]. At the same time he grew dissatisfied with the direction Gretsch, no longer family-owned, was going and withdrew his authorization for them to use his name and began designing guitars with [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]]. He left RCA in [[1982]] and signed with [[Columbia Records]], for whom he produced an album in [[1983]]. While he was with Columbia, he showed his creativity and taste in jazz guitar, and in various other contexts. Jazz had always been a strong love of Atkins, and many times during his career he was criticized by &quot;pure&quot; country musicians for his jazz influences. He also said - on many occasions - that he did not like being called a &quot;country guitarist&quot;, insisting that he was a guitarist, period. Later in life, he learned to read music, and even performed some classical guitar pieces with taste and distinction. He did return to his country roots for albums he recorded with [[Mark Knopfler]] and Jerry Reed. On being asked to name the ten most influential guitarists of the 20th century, he named Django Rheinardt to the first position on the list, and modestly placed himself at fifth position. Atkins received numerous awards, including eleven [[Grammy Award]]s and nine [[Country Music Association]] Instrumentalist of the Year awards. While he did more performing in the 1990s his health grew frail as the cancer returned and worsened. He died on June 30, 2001 at his home in Nashville. Before his health drastically declined, Atkins authored a book on his music and his extensive guitar collection for publisher Russ Cochran. In his final recollection, he stated: :Years from now, after I'm gone, someone will listen to what I've done and know I was here. They may not know or care who I was, but they'll hear my guitars speaking for me. ==See also== * [[List of best-selling music artists]] ==External links== * [http://www.misterguitar.com Chet Atkins Official Website] * [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=11:liaxlf3e5cqq AMG Entry for Chet Atkins] * [http://www.jazzkeyboard.com Chet Atkins band sideman] [[Category:1924 births|Atkins, Chet]] [[Category:2001 deaths|Atkins, Chet]] [[Category:Country musicians|Atkins, Chet]] [[Category:Record producers|Atkins, Chet]] [[Category:American guitarists|Atkins, Chet]] [[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Atkins, Chet]] [[Category:American music industry executives|Atkins, Chet]] [[Category:People from Tennessee|Atkins, Chet]] [[de:Chet Atkins]] [[fr:Chet Atkins]] [[pl:Chet Atkins]] [[no:Chet Atkins]] [[sv:Chet Atkins]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Conrad II</title> <id>7757</id> <revision> <id>15905810</id> <timestamp>2002-09-19T01:05:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ktsquare</username> <id>2240</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>page redirected</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carassius auratus</title> <id>7763</id> <revision> <id>15905813</id> <timestamp>2002-07-07T13:55:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[goldfish]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[goldfish]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cyprinus carpio</title> <id>7764</id> <revision> <id>15905814</id> <timestamp>2002-07-07T13:53:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[common carp]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[common carp]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cahiers du cinéma</title> <id>7765</id> <revision> <id>39807059</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T00:14:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Korg</username> <id>263660</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>typo</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''''' Cahiers du cinéma''''' is an influential [[France|French]] [[film]] [[magazine]] founded in [[1951]] by [[Andre Bazin|André Bazin]], [[Jacques Doniol-Valcroze]] and [[Joseph-Marie Lo Duca]]. It was a development from the earlier magazine ''Revue du Cinéma'' and the members of two Paris film clubs &amp;mdash; ''Objectif 49'' ([[Robert Bresson|Bresson]], [[Jean Cocteau|Cocteau]] and [[Alexandre Astruc]], etc.) and ''Ciné-Club du Quartier Latin''. Initially edited by [[Éric Rohmer]] (Maurice Scherer) it included amongst its writers [[Jacques Rivette]], [[Jean-Luc Godard]], [[Claude Chabrol]] and [[François Truffaut]]. The critical writing of ''Cahiers'' re-invented the basic tenets of [[film theory]] ([[auteur theory|auteurs]], [[mise en scène]], la critique des beautés etc.) and [[film theory|film scholarship]] &amp;mdash; establishing the 'value' of the [[Hollywood]] films of [[Alfred Hitchcock]] and [[Howard Hawks]] then directors including [[Robert Aldrich]], [[Nicholas Ray]], [[Fritz Lang]], and [[Anthony Mann]], as well as [[Jean Renoir]], [[Roberto Rossellini]], [[Kenji Mizoguchi]], [[Max Ophuls]], and [[Jean Cocteau]]. While also attacking the existing French directors (La qualité française &amp;mdash; novelization, over-elaboration etc.). The magazine also created the ''[[French New Wave|Nouvelle Vague]]'' or New Wave of French cinema, which was largely directed by ex-writers of the magazine. After being reactionary and isolated in the [[1950s]] the replacement of Rohmer by Jacques Rivette in [[1963]] meant that the magazine staff were more sensitive to political and social trends as well as responding more to non-Hollywood films. The style moved through literary modernism in the early [[1960s]] to radicalism and &quot;dialectical materialism&quot; by 1970 and through the mid-70s the magazine was run by a [[Maoist]] collective. A return to more commercial perspectives in the late [[1970s]], marked by a review of ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'', and a more organised turnover of editors ([[Serge Daney]], [[Serge Toubiana]], [[Thierry Jousse]], [[Antoine de Baecque]], and [[Charles Tesson]]) meant the rehabilitation of some of the old Cahiers
red not to be [[mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with German. Although a [[dialect continuum]] still exist at certain places along the Dutch-German language border this is fading away because of standardisation in both countries, as can be seen in the pictures to the right in which the dialectal borders and the standard borders can be seen. While German is grammatically quite similar to Dutch in many ways, it is very different in speech. Speakers of one, especially Germans, require practice to effectively understand a speaker of the other. Compare, for example: :''De kleinste kameleon is volwassen 2 cm groot, de grootste kan wel 80 cm lang worden.'' (Dutch) :''Das kleinste Chamäleon ist ausgewachsen 2 cm groß, das größte kann gut 80 cm lang werden.'' (German) : (English: &quot;The smallest chameleon is fully grown 2 cm long, the longest can easily attain 80 cm.&quot;) Dutch speakers are generally able to read German, and German speakers who can speak Low German or English are generally able to read Dutch, but have problems understanding the spoken language, although Germans who speak High German, or, even better, Low German, can cope with Dutch much better than people from Southern Germany, Switzerland and Austria who have grown up with the Alemannic or Bavarian dialects. ===Official status=== Standard German is the only official language in [[Germany]], [[Liechtenstein]], and [[Austria]]; it shares official status in [[Switzerland]] (with [[French (language)|French]], [[Italian (language)|Italian]] and [[Romansh]]), and [[Luxembourg]] (with [[French (language)|French]] and [[Luxembourgish language|Luxembourgish]]). It is used as a local official language in German-speaking regions of [[Belgium]], [[Italy]], [[Denmark]], and [[Poland]]. It is one of the 20 official [[languages of the European Union]]. It is also a minority language in [[Poland]], [[Canada]], [[France]], [[Russia]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], [[Estonia]], [[Romania]], [[Togo]], [[Cameroon]], the [[United States|USA]], [[Namibia]], [[Brazil]], [[Paraguay]], [[Hungary]], [[Slovakia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Croatia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Argentina]], and [[Australia]]. ' German was once the [[lingua franca]] of central, eastern and northern Europe, but first [[Russian language|Russian]] and now [[English language|English]] have assumed much of this role. However, German remains one of the most popular foreign languages taught world-wide, and is more popular than French as a foreign language in Europe. 8% of citizens of the EU-15 countries say they can converse in German, in addition to the 24% who speak German as a mother tongue.[http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/lang/languages/index_en.html] This is assisted by the availability of German TV by cable or satellite, where series like [[Star Trek]] are shown [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbed]] into German. German is also the second language of the [[Internet]], more than 8% of the websites are in German ([[English language|English]] 50%, [[French language|French]] 6%, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] 5%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 3% and [[Portuguese Language|Portuguese]] 2%). ==Dialects== {{main|German dialects}} The term &quot;German&quot; is used for the dialects of Germany, Austria, German-speaking Switzerland (that is, outside the [[French language|French]]-, [[Italian language|Italian]]-, and [[Romansh language|Romansch]]-speaking areas) and some areas in the surrounding countries, as well as for several [[colony|colonies]] and other ethnic concentrations founded by German-speaking people (for example [[German in the United States]]). The variation among the German dialects is considerable. Only the neighbouring dialects are mutually understandable. Most dialects are not understandable for someone who knows standard German. However, all German dialects belong to the [[dialect continuum]] of the continental [[West Germanic languages]] because any pair of neighbouring dialects is perfectly mutually intelligible. The dialect continuum of the continental West Germanic languages is typically divided into [[Low Germanic languages]] and [[High Germanic languages]]. '''Low Germanic''' is defined as the varieties that were not affected by the [[High German consonant shift]]. They consist of two subgroups, [[Low Franconian language|Low Franconian]] and [[Low German]]. Low Franconian includes [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Afrikaans]], spoken primarily in the Netherlands, Belgium, Surinam and South Africa; Low German includes dialects spoken primarily in the German [[Northern European Lowlands|Lowlands]] and in the eastern Netherlands. The Low German varieties are considered dialects of the German language by some, but a separate language by others; the Low Franconian varieties are not considered a part of the German language (see [[#Neighboring languages|above]] for a discussion of the distinction between German and Dutch). '''High Germanic''' is divided into [[Central German]] and [[Upper German language|Upper German]]. Central German dialects include [[Ripuarian]], [[Moselle Franconian]], [[Rhine Franconian]], [[Hessian language|Hessian]], [[Thuringian language|Thuringian]] and [[Upper Saxon dialect|Upper Saxon]]. It is spoken in the southeastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of France, and in Germany approximately between the River [[Main]] and the southern edge of the Lowlands. Modern Standard German is mostly based on Central German, but it should be noted that the usual German term for modern Standard German is ''Hochdeutsch'', that is, ''High German''. The Moselle Franconian varieties spoken in [[Luxembourg]] have been officially standardized and institutionalized and are therefore usually considered a separate language, [[Luxembourgish language]]. Upper German dialects include [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] (for instance [[Swiss German]]), [[Swabian German|Swabian]], [[East Franconian German|East Franconian]], and [[Austro-Bavarian language|Austro-Bavarian]]. They are spoken in parts of the [[Alsace]], southern Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, and in the German-speaking parts of Switzerland and Italy. The High German varieties spoken by [[Ashkenazi Jew]]s (mostly in the former [[Soviet Union]]) have several unique features, and are usually considered as a separate language, [[Yiddish]]. It is the only Germanic language that does not use the [[Latin alphabet]] as its [[official script|standard script]]. The dialects of German which are or were primarily spoken in colonies founded by German speaking people resemble the dialects of the regions the founders came from (for example [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] resembles dialects of the [[Rhenish Palatinate|Palatinate]], or [[Hutterite German]] resembles dialects of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]], while [[Venezuelan]] ''[[Alemán Coloniero]]'' is a [[Low Alemannic]] variant). In Brazil the largest concentrations of German speakers ([[German Brazilians]]) are in [[Rio Grande do Sul]], where [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]] was developed, especially in the areas of [[Santa Catarina]], [[Paraná]], and [[Espírito Santo]]. In the [[United States]], the teaching of the German language to latter-age students has given rise to a pidgin variant which combines the German language with the grammar and spelling rules of the English language. It is often understandable by either party. The speakers of this language often refer to it as ''Amerikanisch'' or ''Amerikanischdeutsch'', although it is known in English as [[American German]]. ==Standard German== {{main|Standard German}} In German linguistics, only the traditional regional varieties are called dialects, not the different varieties of standard German. Standard German has originated not as a traditional dialect of a specific region, but as a [[written language]]. However, there are places where the traditional regional dialects have been replaced by standard German (especially in major cities of Germany, and to some extent in Vienna). Standard German differs regionally, especially between German-speaking countries, especially in [[vocabulary]], but also in some instances of [[pronunciation]] and even [[grammar]]. This variation must not be confused with the variation of local dialects. Even though the regional varieties of standard German are to a certain degree influenced by the local dialects, they are very distinct. German is thus considered a [[pluricentric language]]. In most regions, the speakers use a continuum of mixtures from more dialectical varieties to more standard varieties according to situation. In the German-speaking parts of Switzerland, mixtures of dialect and standard are very seldom used, and the use of standard German is almost entirely restricted to the written language. Therefore, this situation has been called a ''medial [[diglossia]]''. Standard German is rarely spoken, for instance when speaking with people who do not understand the [[Swiss German]] dialects at all, and it is expected to be used in school. ==Grammar== ''Main article: [[German grammar]]'' German is an [[inflected language]]. ===Noun inflection=== German nouns inflect into: * one of four [[declension class]]es * one of three [[grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine, or neutral. Word endings indicate some grammatical genders; others are arbitrary and must be memorised. * two numbers: singular and plural * four cases: [[nominative]], [[genitive]], [[dative]], and [[accusative case]]. Although German is usually cited as an outstanding example of a highly inflected language, it should be noted that the degree of inflection is considerably less than in Old German, or in Icelandic today. The three genders have collapsed in the plural, which now behaves, grammatically, somewhat as a fourth gender. With four cases and three genders plus plural there are 16 distinct possible combinations of cas
highest per capita incomes on earth, but since 1989 standard of living has declined sharply as the supply and demand has run out. Oil rich states can sustain high GDPs without industrializing, but this high level will not be sustainable past the point that the oil runs out. Economies experiencing an [[asset bubble]], such as a [[housing bubble]] or stock bubble, or a low private saving rate tend appear to grow faster due to higher consumption, mortgaging their futures for present growth. Environmental degradation at the expense of economic growth can end up costing dearly to clean up, GDP doesn't account for this in places such as China. * GDP counts work that produces no net change. For instance, a hurricane destroying thousands of homes would not be counted by GDP, but the rebuilding of those homes would be. A good recent example would be the aftermath of 2005 Katrina hurricane, which is poised to become the most expensive hurricane in history. GDP would capture the rebuilding activity and suggest a rising living standard, but we're only working toward restoring what was lost for the most part. Therefore, GDP growth would over-estimate the increase in the standard of living. See [[externality|Negative externalities]]. * As a measure of actual sale prices, GDP does not capture the [[economic surplus]] between the price paid and subjective value received. * the annual growth of real GDP is adjusted by using the &quot;[[GDP deflator]]&quot;, which tends to underestimate the objective differences in the quality of manufactured output over time. (The deflator is explicitly based on [[subjective]] experience when measuring such things as the consumer benefit received from [[Moore's law|computer-power improvements]] since the early [[1980s]]). Therefore the GDP figure may underestimate the degree to which improving technology and quality-level are increasing the real standard of living. * Some economists such as [[Herman Daly]] consider GDP to be a poor measure even of ''material well being'', especially in developed countries. They argue that GDP only measures production and consumption, not however the level of [[utility]] people gain from producing and consuming. This idea is expressed in the theory of [[uneconomic growth]], which states that GDP growth above a certain &quot;economic limit&quot; actually decreases material well being. An extreme example of this is a major war. Historically, GDP growth was often boosted in war time while material living standards fell considerably. * GDP does not take [[social inequality|inequality]] into account. Some economists have attempted to create a replacement for GDP called the [[Genuine Progress Indicator]] (GPI), which attempts to address many of the above criticisms. Many nations calculate a [[national wealth]], a sum of all assets in a nation, but again doesn't account for future obligations such as environmental degradation, asset bubbles, and debt. Other nations such as [[Bhutan]] have advocated [[gross national happiness]] as a standard of living, claiming itself as the world's happiest nation. ==Lists of countries by their GDP== * [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)]] * [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)]] * [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita]] * [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita]] * [[List of African countries by GDP]] * [[List of Asian countries by GDP]] * [[List of European countries by GDP]] ==See also== * [[GDP deflator]] * [[Gross value added]] * [[Measures of national income]] * [[Natural gross domestic product]] * [[Uneconomic growth]] *[[Value added]] * [[Genuine Progress Indicator]] ==External links== *[http://www.wie.org/business Frank Dixon from Innovest Partners writes about Why Gross National Happiness is a better indicator of National Happiness and the failures of GNP and Western Economic Systems] * [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/66f306f503e529a5ca25697e0017661f/3f880ee1d366198cca2569a400061616!OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics Manual on GDP measurement] * [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/pgreenfinch/eoblpib.htm GDP-indexed bonds] ===Data=== * [http://www.bea.gov/bea/dn/home/gdp.htm Bureau of Economic Analysis: Offical United States GDP data] * [http://english.historia.se Historicalstatistics.org: Links to historical statistics on GDP for different countries and regions] *Complete listing of countries by GDP: [http://aol.countrywatch.com/includes/grank/globrank.asp?TBLS=PPP+Method+Tables&amp;vCOUNTRY=17&amp;TYPE=GRANK Purchasing Power Parity Method] and [http://aol.countrywatch.com/includes/grank/gdpnumericcer.asp?TYPE=GRANK&amp;TBL=NUMERICCER&amp;vCOUNTRY=17 Current Exchange Rate Method ] ===Articles and books=== * [http://dieoff.org/page11.htm What's wrong with the GDP?] * [http://ingrimayne.saintjoe.edu/econ/Measuring/GNP2.html Limitations of GDP Statistics by Schenk, Robert.] * [http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~nroubini/MEASURE.HTM whether output and CPI inflation are mismeasured, by Nouriel Roubini and David Backus, in Lectures in Macroeconomics] * [http://william-king.www.drexel.edu/top/prin/txt/EcoToC.html Ch. 22. Measuring the National Economy, by Dr. Roger A. McCain] * [http://www.diva-portal.org/diva/getDocument?urn_nbn_se_su_diva-378-1__fulltext.pdf Growth, Accumulation, Crisis: With New Macroeconomic Data for Sweden 1800-2000 by Rodney Edvinsson] [[Category:Economic indicators]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Socioeconomics]] [[af:Bruto nasionale produk]] [[be:Сукупны ўнутраны прадукт]] [[bg:Брутен вътрешен продукт]] [[cs:Hrubý domácí produkt]] [[da:BNI per indbygger]] [[de:Bruttoinlandsprodukt]] [[et:SKT]] [[es:Producto Nacional Bruto]] [[eo:Malneta Enlanda Produkto]] [[fr:Produit intérieur brut]] [[id:Produk domestik bruto]] [[is:Landsframleiðsla]] [[it:Prodotto Interno Lordo]] [[he:תוצר מקומי גולמי]] [[lv:Iek&amp;#353;zemes kopprodukts]] [[lt:Bendras Vidaus Produktas]] [[nl:Bruto Nationaal Product]] [[ko:국내총생산]] [[hu:Bruttó hazai termék]] [[ja:国内総生産]] [[no:Bruttonasjonalprodukt]] [[pl:Produkt krajowy brutto]] [[pt:Produto Interno Bruto]] [[ro:Produs intern brut]] [[ru:Валовый внутренний продукт]] [[simple:Gross Domestic Product]] [[sl:Bruto domači proizvod]] [[sr:Бруто домаћи производ]] [[sv:Bruttonationalprodukt]] [[fi:BKT]] [[th:ผลิตภัณฑ์มวลรวมภายในประเทศ]] [[tr:Gayri Safi Milli Hasıla]] [[vi:Tổng sản phẩm quốc nội]] [[zh:国内生产总值]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gasoline engine</title> <id>12597</id> <revision> <id>35238676</id> <timestamp>2006-01-15T05:36:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Interiot</username> <id>122679</id> </contributor> <comment>fix double-redirect, -&gt; [[Spark-ignition]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Spark-ignition]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</title> <id>12598</id> <revision> <id>41740838</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:04:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.246.207.166</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Secondary literature */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher | &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt; &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt; region = Western Philosophers | era = [[19th century philosophy]] | color = #B0C4DE | &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt; image_name = Hegel.jpg | image_caption = G.W.F. Hegel | &lt;!-- Information --&gt; name = Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel | birth = [[August 27]], [[1770]] ([[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]]) | death = [[November 14]], [[1831]] ([[Berlin]], [[Germany]]) | school_tradition = [[Hegelianism]] | main_interests = [[Logic]], [[Philosophy of history]], [[Aesthetics]], [[Religion]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Political Science]], | influences = [[Aristotle]], [[Anselm]], [[Rene Descartes|Descartes]], [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], [[Jacob Boehme|Boehme]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]] | influenced = [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]], [[Ludwig Feuerbach|Feuerbach]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], [[Bruno Bauer]],&lt;br&gt;[[F. H. Bradley]], [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]], [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]], [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]],&lt;br&gt;[[Karl Barth]],&lt;br&gt;[[Hans Küng]], [[Jürgen Habermas|Habermas]], [[Hans-Georg Gadamer|Gadamer]]| notable_ideas = [[Absolute idealism]], [[Dialectic]]| }} '''Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel''' [{{IPA|ˈgeːɔrk ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈfriːdrɪç ˈheːgəl}}] ([[August 27]], [[1770]]&amp;ndash;[[November 14]], [[1831]]) was a [[German people|German]] [[philosopher]] born in [[Stuttgart]], [[Württemberg]], in present-day southwest [[Germany]]. His influence has been widespread on writers of widely varying positions, including both his admirers ([[F. H. Bradley]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]]), and his detractors ([[Kierkegaard]], [[Schopenhauer]], [[Heidegger]]). He is best known for attempting to elaborate a comprehensive and systematic [[ontology]] from a logical starting point. ==Teachings== Hegel was fascinated by the works of [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], and by the [[French Revolution]]. Modern philosophy, culture, and society seemed to Hegel fraught with contradictions and tensions, such as those between the subject and object of [[knowledge]], mind and nature, [[Self_%28philosophy%29|self]] and [[Other|other]], freedom and authority, knowledge and faith, the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and [[Romanticism]]. Hegel's main philosophical project was to take these contradictions and tensions and interpret them as part of a comprehensive, evolving, rational unity that, in different c
ind their earliest expression in spirituals, work chants/songs, praise shouts, gospel and blues. In more contemporary music, gospel, blues and blues extensions and jazz often flow together seamlessly. Funky music is an amalgam of [[soul music]], [[soul jazz]] and [[R&amp;B]]. ===James Brown and funk as a genre=== Only with the innovations of James Brown in the late 1960s was funk regarded as a distinct genre. In the R&amp;B tradition, these tightly rehearsed bands created an instantly recognizable style, overlaid with catchy, anthemic vocals. Often cueing his band with the command, &quot;On the one!&quot; Brown changed the rhythmic emphasis from the two-four beat of traditional soul music to a one-three emphasis previously associated with white musical forms -- but with a hard-driving, brassy swing. This pumping, one-three beat became a signature of classic funk. While James Brown's [[1965]] Top 10 [[King Records]] hit &quot;[[Papa's Got a Brand New Bag]]&quot; is widely presumed to be the song that paved way for the funk genre, much of Brown's work in 1965 and [[1966]], though remarkable, still maintained the rhythms and approach found in earlier records. It was the #1 R&amp;B hits &quot;Cold Sweat&quot; in [[1967]], &quot;I Got The Feelin'&quot; and &quot;Say It Loud, I'm Black And I'm Proud&quot; in [[1968]] that further defined the feel of funk. R&amp;B #1's &quot;Give It Up Or Turn It Loose&quot; and &quot;Mother Popcorn&quot; in [[1969]] continued to solidify the tight rhythms, riffs and grooves for which funk music is known, setting the standard for James Brown's future work and the rising wave of funk to come in the [[1970s]]. Other musical groups picked up on the [[riff|riffs]], rhythms, and vocal style innovated by [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] and his band, and the style began to grow. [[Dyke &amp; the Blazers]] based in [[Phoenix, Arizona]] released &quot;Funky Broadway&quot; in [[1967]], perhaps the first record to have &quot;funky&quot; in the title. Meanwhile, on the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]], [[Charles Wright &amp; the Watts 103rd Street Rhythm Band]] were releasing funk tracks beginning with their first album in 1967, culminating in their classic single &quot;Express Yourself&quot; in 1970. [[The Meters]] defined funk in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] starting with their Top Ten R&amp;B hits &quot;Sophisticated Cissy&quot; and &quot;Cissy Strut&quot; in 1969. Another group who would define funk in the decade to come were [[The Isley Brothers]] whose funky 1969 #1 R&amp;B hit, &quot;[[It's Your Thing]]&quot;, signaled a breakthrough in black music bridging the gaps of the rock of [[Jimi Hendrix]] and the upbeat soul of [[Sly &amp; the Family Stone]]. ===1970s and P-Funk=== In the [[1970s]], a new group of musicians further developed the &quot;funk rock&quot; approach innovated by [[Jimi Hendrix]]. [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]], with his bands [[Parliament (band)|Parliament]] and, later, [[Funkadelic]], produced a new kind of funk sound heavily influenced by [[jazz]] and [[psychedelic music]]. The two groups had members in common and often are referred to singly as &quot;Parliament-Funkadelic.&quot; The breakout popularity of Parliament-Funkadelic gave rise to the term &quot;[[P-Funk]],&quot; which both referred to the music by George Clinton's bands and defined a new subgenre. [[Image:george_clinton_funk.jpg|thumb|right|200 px|George Clinton with rainbow [[dreadlocks|dreads]] at the [[VH1]] Fashion Awards.]]&quot;P-funk&quot; also came to mean something in its quintessence, of superior quality, or ''sui generis'', as in the lyrics from &quot;P-Funk,&quot; a hit single from Parliament's album &quot;Mothership Connection&quot;: ::''&quot;I want the bomb. I want the P-Funk. I want my funk uncut.&quot;'' The 1970s was probably the era of highest mainstream visibility for funk music. Other prominent funk bands of the period included [[Earth, Wind &amp; Fire]], [[Bootsy's Rubber Band]], [[The Meters]], [[Tower of Power]], [[Ohio Players]], [[The Commodores]], [[War (band)|War]], [[Kool &amp; the Gang]], [[Confunkshun]], [[Slave (band)|Slave]], [[Cameo (band)|Cameo]], [[Midnight Star(band)|Midnight Star]], the [[Bar-Kays]], [[Betty Davis]], [[Zapp (band)|Zapp]], and many more. Two bands in particular, [[Earth, Wind &amp; Fire]] and [[Tower of Power]], took the rythmic power of funk and added to it more complex song forms, combined with large scale instrumentation -- large horn sections, latin percussion, numerous capable soloists. These bands sold many records and brought the funk ethos to a larger audience. Already, in late 1960s, many jazz musicians &amp;mdash; among them [[Horace Silver]], [[Herbie Hancock]] (with his [[The Headhunters|Headhunters]] band), [[Grover Washington, Jr.]], and [[Cannonball Adderley]], [[Les McCann]] and [[Eddie Harris]] &amp;mdash; had begun to combine jazz and funk. Sometimes this approach is called &quot;[[jazz-funk]]&quot;. Additionally, in the late 1960s work of [[Miles Davis]] (with girlfriend/wife [[Betty Davis]]) and [[Tony Williams]] helped to create [[Jazz fusion]] and influnced funk. Funk music was exported to Africa in the late [[1960s]], and melded with African singing and rhythms to form [[Afrobeat]]. [[Fela Kuti]] was a Nigerian musician who is credited with creating the music and terming it &quot;Afrobeat&quot;. [[Disco]] music owed a great deal to funk. Many early disco songs and performers came directly from funk-oriented backgrounds. ===1980s and stripped-down funk=== In the [[1980s]], many of the core elements that formed the foundation of the P-Funk formula began to be usurped by machines. Horns were replaced by [[synthesizer|synths]], effectively phasing out horn sections, and the horns that remained were simplified from the patterns and hooks of the earlier funk sound. Horn solos were out. The classic keyboards of funk, like the [[Hammond B3]] organ and the [[Rhodes piano|Fender Rhodes piano]] began to be replaced by the brash sound of new digital synthesizers like the [[Yamaha DX7]]. [[Drum machines]] began to replace the &quot;[[funky drummer|funky drummers]]&quot; of the past, and the [[slapping|slap]] and pop style of bass playing began to fall out of favor, often replaced by thinner sounding and rhythmically simpler keyboard bass. The lyrics and hooks of funk began to change from often suggestive and using [[double entendre]] to more graphic and sexually explicit. [[Rick James]] was the first funkateer of the 80s to assume the funk mantle dominated by P-Funk in the 70s. His 1981 album [[Street Songs (album)|Street Songs]] with the singles &quot;Give It To Me Baby&quot; and &quot;[[Super Freak]]&quot; resulted in James becoming a bit of a rock star, and paved the way for the future direction of explicitness in funk. [[Prince (artist)|Prince]], using a stripped-down instrumentation similar to [[Rick James]], went on to have as much of an impact on the sound of funk as any one artist since [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]]. [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] combined eroticism, technology, an increasing musical complexity, and an outrageous image and stage show to ultimately create a musical world as ambitious and imaginative as P-Funk or [[The Beatles]]. [[The Time (band)|The Time]], originally conceived as an opening act for Prince and based on his &quot;[[Minneapolis sound]]&quot;, went on to define their own style of stripped-down funk based on tight musicianship and sexual themes. Bands that began during the 1970s P-Funk era incorporated some of the uninhibited sexuality of [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] and state-of-the-art technological developments to continue to craft funk hits. [[Cameo (band)|Cameo]], [[Zapp (band)|Zapp]], The [[Gap Band]], The [[Bar-Kays]], and The [[Dazz Band]] all found their biggest hits in the 80s, but by the latter half of the 80s, funk had lost its commercial impact. [[Afrika Bambaataa]] influenced by [[Kraftwerk]] created &quot;[[Electro (music)|Electro Funk]]&quot;, a minimalist machine-driven style of funk with his single &quot;Planet Rock&quot; in 1982. Also known simply as [[Electro (music)|Electro]], this style of funk was driven by synthesizers and the electronic rhythm of the [[TR-808]] drum machine. The single &quot;Renegades of Funk&quot; followed in 1983. ===Recent developments=== While funk was all but driven from the radio by slick commercial [[Rhythm and blues|R&amp;B]] and [[New Jack Swing]], its influence continued to spread. Rock bands began adding elements of Funk to their sound, creating new combinations of &quot;funk rock&quot; and [[funk metal]]. [[Jane's Addiction]], [[Primus (band)|Primus]], [[Fishbone]], [[Faith No More]] and the [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]] spread the approach and styles garnered from funk pioneers to all new predominantly white audiences in the mid-to-late [[1980s]] and the [[1990s]]. These bands later inspired the underground mid-[[1990s]] [[funkcore]] movement. Artists like The [[Brand New Heavies]] and [[Me'shell Ndegeocello]] carried on with strong elements of funk in the [[1990s]], but never came close to reaching the commercial success of funk in its heyday. Today, [[hip hop music|hip hop]] artists regularly [[digital sampling|sample]] old funk tunes. [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] is said to be the most sampled artist in the history of hip hop. Notably, the sampling of The [[Ohio Players]]' 'Ecstasy' in [[Jay-Z]]'s track 'Brooklyn's Finest', (which featured the [[Notorious B.I.G.]]) led to what is widely regarded as one of 1990s hip hop's seminal tracks. P-Funk also is sampled frequently&amp;mdash;samples of old [[Parliament (band)|Parliament]] and [[Funkadelic]] songs formed the basis of [[West Coast rap|West Coast]] [[G Funk]]. [[Dr. Dre]] (considered the progenitor of the G-Funk genre) has freely acknowledged to being heavily influenced by George Clinton's psychedelic funk: ''
duty.&quot;'' *''&quot;It is a great thing, when one is in adversity, to think of duty.&quot;'' *''&quot;Repentance for shameful deeds is salvation in life.&quot;'' *''&quot;The wrongdoer is more unfortunate than the man wronged.&quot;'' *''&quot;Magnanimity consists in enduring tactlessness with mildness.&quot;'' *''&quot;Well-ordered behavior consists in obedience to the law, the ruler, and the man wiser than oneself.&quot;'' *''&quot;When inferior men censure, the good man pays no heed.&quot;'' *''&quot;It is hard to be governed by one’s inferior.&quot;'' *''&quot;The man enslaved to wealth can never be honest.&quot;'' *''&quot;In power of persuasion, reasoning is far stronger than gold.&quot;'' *''&quot;He who tries to give intelligent advice to one who thinks he has intelligence, is wasting his time.&quot;'' *''&quot;Many who have not learnt Reason, nevertheless live according to reason.&quot;'' *''&quot;Many whose actions are most disgraceful practice the best utterances.&quot;'' *''&quot;The foolish learn sense through misfortune.&quot;'' *''&quot;One should emulate the deeds and actions of virtue, not the words.&quot;'' *''&quot;Noble deeds are recognized and emulated by those of natural good disposition.&quot;'' *''&quot;Good breeding in cattle depends on physical health, but in men on a well-formed character.&quot;'' *''&quot;The hopes of right-thinking men are attainable, but those of the unintelligent are impossible.&quot;'' *''&quot;Neither skill nor wisdom is attainable unless one learns.&quot;'' *''&quot;It is better to examine one’s own faults than those of others.&quot;'' *''&quot;Those whose character is well-ordered have also a well-ordered life.&quot;'' *''&quot;Virtue consists, not in avoiding wrong-doing, but in having no wish thereto.&quot;'' *''&quot;To pronounce praise on noble deeds is noble; for to do so over base deeds is the work of a false deceiver.&quot;'' *''&quot;Many much-learned men have no intelligence.&quot;'' (Also attributed to Heraclitus) *''&quot;One should practice much sense, not much learning.&quot;'' *''&quot;It is better to deliberate before action than to repent afterwards.&quot;'' *''&quot;Believe not everything, but only what is approved: the former is foolish, the latter the act of a sensible man.&quot;'' *''&quot;The worthy and the unworthy man are to be known not only by their actions, but also their wishes.&quot;'' *''&quot;For all men, good and true are the same; but pleasant differs for different men.&quot;'' *''&quot;Immoderate desire is the mark of a child, not a man.&quot;'' *''&quot;Untimely pleasures produce unpleasantness. &quot;'' *''&quot;Violent desire for one thing blinds the soul to all others.&quot;'' *''&quot;Virtuous love consists in decorous desire for the beautiful.&quot;'' *''&quot;Accept no pleasure unless it is beneficial.&quot;'' *''&quot;It is better for fools to be ruled than to rule.&quot;'' *''&quot;For the foolish, not reason but advantage is the teacher.&quot;'' *''&quot;Fame and wealth without intelligence are dangerous possessions.&quot;'' *''&quot;To make money is not without use, but if it comes from wrong-doing, nothing is worse.&quot;'' *''&quot;It is a bad thing to imitate the bad, and not even to wish to imitate the good.&quot;'' *''&quot;It is shameful to be so busy over the affairs of others that one knows nothing of one's own.&quot;'' *''&quot;Constant delay means work undone.&quot;'' *''&quot;The false and the seemingly good are those who do all in word, not in fact.&quot;'' *''&quot;The cause of error is ignorance of the better.&quot;'' *''&quot;The man who does shameful deeds must first feel shame in his own eyes.&quot;'' *''&quot;He who contradicts and chatters much is ill-fitted for learning what he ought.&quot;'' *''&quot;It is greed to do all the talking and not be willing to listen.&quot;'' *''&quot;One must be on one’s guard against the bad man, lest he seize his opportunity.&quot;'' *''&quot;The envious man torments himself like an enemy.&quot;'' *''&quot;An enemy is not he who injures, but he who wishes to do so.&quot;'' *''&quot;The enmity of relatives is much worse than that of strangers.&quot;'' *''&quot;Be not suspicious towards all, but be cautious and firm.&quot;'' *''&quot;Accept favors in the foreknowledge that you will have to give a greater return for them. *''&quot;When you do a favor study the recipient first, lest he prove to be a scoundrel and repay evil for good.&quot;'' *''&quot;Small favors at the right time are greatest to the recipients.&quot;'' *''&quot;Marks of honor at the right time are greatly valued by right-thinking men, who understand why they are being honored.&quot;'' *''&quot;The generous man is he who does not look for a return, but who does good from choice.&quot;'' *''&quot;Many who seem friendly are not so, and those who do not seem so, are.&quot;'' *''&quot;The friendship of one intelligent man is better than that of all the unintelligent.&quot;'' *''&quot;Life is not worth living for the man who has not even one good friend.&quot;'' *''&quot;The man whose tested friends do not stay long with him is bad-tempered.&quot;'' == References == * {{cite book | last = Melchert | first = Norman | title = The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0195175107 }} * Ancilla To The Pre-Socratic Philosophers, translated by Kathleen Freeman. == External links == *[http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Democritus.html Democritus of Abdera] biography page by the ''School of Mathematics and Statistics'' at the ''University of St Andrews, Scotland''. *[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/democrit.htm Democritus article in The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] *[http://www.thebigview.com/greeks/democritus.html Leucippus and Democritus] *[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democritus/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] {{Presocratics}} [[Category:460 BC births]] [[Category:370 BC deaths]] [[Category:Presocratic philosophers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]] [[Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy]] [[bg:Демокрит]] [[ca:Demòcrit]] [[cs:Démokritos]] [[da:Demokrit]] [[de:Demokrit]] [[el:Δημόκριτος]] [[eo:Demokrito]] [[es:Demócrito]] [[fa:دموکریت]] [[fi:Demokritos]] [[fr:Démocrite d'Abdère]] [[he:דמוקריטוס]] [[hr:Demokrit]] [[hu:Démokritosz]] [[id:Demokreitos]] [[it:Democrito]] [[ja:デモクリトス]] [[ko:데모크리토스]] [[la:Democritus]] [[lt:Demokritas Abderietis]] [[nl:Democritus]] [[nn:Demokrit]] [[no:Demokrit]] [[pl:Demokryt]] [[pt:Demócrito de Abdera]] [[ro:Democrit]] [[ru:Демокрит]] [[sk:Demokritos]] [[sl:Demokrit]] [[sv:Demokritos]] [[tl:Democritus]] [[tr:Demokritos]] [[uk:Демокріт]] [[zh:德谟克利特]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Disc golf</title> <id>8212</id> <revision> <id>41816698</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:03:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.169.95.170</ip> </contributor> <comment>added to external links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Disc_golf_throw.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A player throwing his disc toward a metal basket target.]] '''Disc Golf''' (also known as '''folf''' or '''frolf''' for '''frisbee golf''') is a game based on the rules of [[golf]] (referred to by disc golfers as &quot;ball golf&quot; or &quot;stick golf&quot;). It uses flying discs which are similar to the [[Frisbee]], but usually smaller and more dense. The discs are [[Frisbee throws|thrown]] towards a target, which serves as the &quot;hole&quot;. The targets can range from objects, such as trees and poles, to metal baskets with hanging chains to catch the discs. ===Playing=== Disc golf is played in a similar manner as ball golf. The initial &quot;drive&quot; is taken from a designated tee area. Each subsequent throw is taken from just behind the spot where the disc came to rest. Each is added to your tally. As with ball golf each hole is given a par rating. A common strategy for a par-three hole, as in golf, would be drive (long throw toward the basket), approach (mid-range throw to the &quot;green&quot;), putt (short throw into the basket). Your hole is scored when the disc has come to rest in the basket of the target or when it hits the designated part of an object if there are no baskets and it is an object course. A typical course would be 18 holes. Many smaller courses have only 9 holes, while an increasing number of courses offer an additional 9 holes to make 27 available holes to the disc golfer. Many disc golf courses are in open, grassy public parks, but more challenging courses are set in semi-wooded and hilly areas, some quite rough and natural. One good example of a classic long course with wooded hills is [[De Laveaga Disc Golf Course]] in [[Santa Cruz, California]], [[United States|USA]]. The target in disc golf is usually a metal basket that is suspended parallel to the ground about two feet from the ground, and attached to a vertical pole that is a few feet tall. To better allow discs to come to rest in this basket, chains are suspended from another circular section near the top of the pole and allowed to hang limply to a point where they are connected to the pole in or near the receiving basket. Disc golf is unique in that [[Professional Disc Golf Association|PDGA]] and [[World Flying Disc Federation|WFDF]] [http://www.pdga.com/rules/ rules], based in player conservation efforts as well as fair play, make it a violation to cause damage to the course's flora. With most courses not requiring greens fees, the relative low cost of discs, and tournament fees still fairly low, the disc golf social structure may be among the most egalitarian and relaxed in organized sports. There are a wide variety of discs, divided into three basic categories: putters, approach discs, and drivers. Within each of these categories, each disc has its own distinct flight
]] map ''f'' from the vertices of ''G'' to the vertices of ''H'' that preserves the &quot;edge structure&quot; in the sense that there is an edge from [[vertex]] ''u'' to vertex ''v'' in ''G'' [[iff]] there is an edge from ''f''(''u'') to ''f''(''v'') in ''H''. In [[linear algebra]], an isomorphism can also be defined as a [[linear transformation|linear map]] between two [[vector spaces]] that is [[bijection, injection and surjection|one-to-one]] and [[bijection, injection and surjection|onto]]. ==See also== *[[automorphism]] *[[homomorphism]] *[[epimorphism]] *[[isomorphism class]] *[[monomorphism]] *[[morphism]] *[[isometry]] [[Category:Abstract algebra]] [[Category:Algebra]] [[Category:Category theory]] [[cs:Izomorfismus]] [[de:Isomorphismus]] [[es:Isomorfismo]] [[fr:Isomorphisme]] [[it:Isomorfismo]] [[he:איזומורפיזם (מתמטיקה)]] [[nl:Isomorfisme]] [[no:Isomorfisme]] [[pl:Izomorfizm]] [[ru:Изоморфизм (математика)]] [[sv:Isomorfism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Infinite descending chain</title> <id>14829</id> <revision> <id>23776920</id> <timestamp>2005-09-22T20:17:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Quarl</username> <id>59118</id> </contributor> <comment>change minimal element to [[least element]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Given a [[set]] ''S'' with a [[partial order]] &amp;le;, an '''infinite descending chain''' is a [[Chain (order theory)|chain]] ''V'', that is, a subset of ''S'' upon which &amp;le; defines a [[total order]], such that ''V'' has no [[least element]], that is, an element ''m'' such that for all elements ''n'' in ''V'' it holds that ''m'' &amp;le; ''n''. As an example, in the set of [[integer]]s, the chain &amp;minus;1, &amp;minus;2, &amp;minus;3, ... is an infinite descending chain, but there exists no infinite chain on the [[natural number]]s, every chain of natural numbers has a minimal element. If a partially ordered set does not contain any infinite descending chains, it is called [[well-founded set|well-founded]]. A total ordered set without infinite descending chains is called [[well-order]]ed. [[Category:Order theory]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>International organizations</title> <id>14830</id> <revision> <id>15912362</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International organization]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>International law</title> <id>14831</id> <revision> <id>40013775</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T14:25:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Demicx</username> <id>769154</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''International law''', is the body of law that &quot;regulates the activities of entities possessing international personality&quot;. Traditionally, that meant the conduct and [[relationship]]s of [[state]]s. However, it is now well established that international law also concerns the structure and conduct of [[international organization]]s, and, to a degree, that of [[multinational corporation]]s and individuals. As [[Rosalyn Higgins]] stated, international law is a normative system &quot;harnessed to the achievement of common values - values that speak to us all, whether we are rich or poor, black or white, of any religion or none, or come from countries that are industrialised or developing&quot;.{{ref|1}} The necessity for international law arises from the need to ensure a process that regulates competing demands and establishes the framework for predictable and agreed community behaviour. The term &quot;public international law&quot; is occasionally used as a synonym to distinguish international law from [[private international law|&quot;private international law&quot;]]. The latter regulates the relations between persons or entities in different states and is in fact not international law at all (a better term which has been suggested for [[private international law]] is &quot;conflict of laws&quot;). == The scope of international law == International law establishes the framework and the criteria for identifying [[states]] as the principal actors in the international legal system. As the existence of a state presupposes control and [[jurisdiction]] over territory, international law deals with the acquisition of territory, [[state immunity]] and the legal responsibility of states in their conduct with each other. The law is similarly concerned with the treatment of individuals within state boundaries. There is thus a comprehensive regime dealing with group rights, the treatment of [[alien (law)|aliens]], the rights of [[refugee]]s, [[international crime]]s, [[nationality]] problems and [[human rights]] generally. It further includes the important functions of the maintenance of international peace and security, arms control, the pacific settlement of disputes and the regulation of the [[use of force]] in international relations. Even when the law is not able to stop the outbreak of war, it has developed principles to govern the conduct of hostilities and the treatment of [[prisoners of war|prisoners]]. International law is also used to govern issues relating to the global environment, the global commons such as [[international waters]] and [[outer space]], global communications, and [[world trade]]. Whilst [[municipal law]] is hierarchical or vertical, with the [[legislature]] enacting binding [[legislation]], international law is horizontal, with all states being [[sovereign]] and theoretically equal. Because of this, the value and authority of international law is dependent upon the voluntary participation of states in its formulation, observance, and enforcement. Although there may be exceptions, most states enter into legal commitments to other states out of enlightened self-interest rather than adherence to a body of law that is higher than their own. As D. W. Greig notes, &quot;international law cannot exist in isolation from the political factors operating in the sphere of [[international relations]]&quot;.{{ref|2}} Where there are breaches of the law, international law has no established compulsory [[judicial system]] for the settlement of disputes or coercive [[penal system]]. That is not to say that there are no judicial or quasi-judicial tribunals in international law. The formation of the [[United Nations]], for example, created a means for the world community to enforce international law upon members that violate its charter. Traditionally, [[state]]s were the sole [[subject]]s of international law. With the proliferation of [[international organizations]] over the last century, they have in some cases been recognized as relevant parties as well. Recent interpretations of [[international human rights law]], [[international humanitarian law]], and [[international trade law]] (e.g. [[NAFTA]] Chapter 11 actions) have been inclusive of corporations, and even individuals. ==Fundamental conflicts over international law== The 17th, 18th and 19th centuries saw the growth of the concept of a &quot;[[nation-state]]&quot;, which comprised nations controlled by a centralized system of government. The concept of nationalism became increasingly important as people began to see themselves as citizens of a particular nation with a distinct national identity. Until the beginning of the 20th century, relations between nation-states were dictated by Treaty, unenforceable agreements to behave in a certain way towards another state. Many people now view the nation-state as the primary unit of international affairs. States may choose to voluntarily enter into commitments under international law, but they will often follow their own counsel when it comes to interpretation of their commitments. As the 20th century progressed, a number of violent armed conflicts, including WWI and WWII, exposed the weaknesses of a voluntary system of international treaties. In an attempt to create a stronger system of laws to prevent future conflicts, a vehicle for the application of international law was found in the creation of the United Nations, an international law making body, and new international criminal laws were applied at the [[Nuremberg trials]]. Over the past fifty years, more international laws and law making bodies have been created. Many people feel that these modern developments endanger nation states by taking power away from state governments and ceding it to international bodies such as the U.N. and the World Bank. Some scholars and political leaders have recently argued that international law has evolved to a point where it exists separately from the mere consent of states. There is a growing trend toward judging a state's domestic actions in the light of international law and standards (see [[world government]] for trends and movements leading in this direction). A number of states, notably the [[United States]] vehemently oppose this interpretation, maintaining that sovereignty is the only true international &quot;law&quot; and that states have free reign over their own affairs. Similarly, a number of scholars now discern a legislative and judicial process to international law that parallels such processes within domestic law. Opponents to this point of view maintain that states only commit to international law with express consent and have the right to make their own interpretations of its meaning; and that international courts only function with the consent of states. Because international law is a new area of law its development is uncertain and its relevance and propriety is hotly disputed. ==Sources of international law== ''See main article: [[sources of international law]].'' International law has three primary
&quot;|Peak&lt;br&gt;position |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|Australian [[ARIA]] Top 50 |align=&quot;center&quot;|2 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|Canadian Billboard Top 100 |align=&quot;center&quot;|1 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|U.K. Top 75 |align=&quot;center&quot;|2 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|U.S. Bilboard 200 |align=&quot;center&quot;|1 (6 weeks) |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|Austria Top Albums |align=&quot;center&quot;|2{{ref|Austria}} |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|German Top 100 Albums |align=&quot;center&quot;|1 (2 weeks){{ref|Germany}} |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|Ireland Album Top 75 |align=&quot;center&quot;|6 {{ref|Ireland}} |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|Netherlands Top 100 Albums |align=&quot;center&quot;|13 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|Norway Top 40 Albums |align=&quot;center&quot;|5 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|Sweden Top 60 Albums |align=&quot;center&quot;|10 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|Switzerland Top 100 Albums |align=&quot;center&quot;|1 (3 weeks) |- |} ==See also== * &quot;[[...Baby One More Time (song)|…Baby One More Time]]&quot; * &quot;[[Sometimes]]&quot; * &quot;[[(You Drive Me) Crazy]]&quot; * &quot;[[Born to Make You Happy]]&quot; * &quot;[[From the Bottom of My Broken Heart]]&quot; ==External links and References== * [http://www.letssingit.com/?/britney-spears-baby-one-more-time-bcb6ph.html Britney Spears: ''…Baby One More Time'' Lyrics] * {{note|Austria}}[http://austriancharts.at/showitem.asp?interpret=Britney+Spears&amp;titel=%2E%2E%2E+Baby+One+More+Time&amp;cat=a Proof of #2 in Austria] * {{note|Germany}}[http://germancharts.com/showitem.asp?key=5734&amp;cat=a Proof of #1 in Germany] * {{note|Ireland}}[http://irish-charts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Britney+Spears&amp;titel=Baby+One+More+Time&amp;cat=a Proof of #6 in Ireland] [[Category:1999 albums|Baby One More Time]] [[Category:Britney Spears albums|Baby One More Time]] [[Category:Debut albums|Baby One More Time]] [[Category:Enhanced CDs|Baby One More Time]] [[Category:Jive Records albums|Baby One More Time]] [[es:...Baby One More Time]] [[hu:Baby One More Time]] [[nl:...Baby One More Time (Britney Spears)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burn card</title> <id>3412</id> <revision> <id>36338906</id> <timestamp>2006-01-23T09:36:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>218.103.132.187</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[card game]]s, a '''burn card''' is a [[playing card]] dealt from the top of a deck, and discarded (&quot;burned&quot;), unused by the players. This is often done in [[casino]]s to deter a form of cheating known as [[card marking]], as well as to provide extra cards for use when an irregularity of play occurs. In [[poker]], the top card of the deck stub is burned at the beginning of each betting round, so that players who might have been able to read markings on that card during the previous round cannot take advantage of that information (far less, at least; knowledge of a burn card might occasionally be marginally useful, such as knowing there is one less Ace in the deck, but far less so than having it in play). Burn cards are almost always placed in the discard pile face down, so no (or at least, fewer) players know what card was burned. Sometimes a mis-dealt card (such as one of the down cards in poker that has flashed during the deal) will be used as the burn card--in those cases, the card should be immediately placed face up on the deck after the deal is complete. [[Category:Poker terminology]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Batch job</title> <id>3413</id> <revision> <id>15901749</id> <timestamp>2004-09-02T17:39:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gtrmp</username> <id>38984</id> </contributor> <comment>merge and redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[batch processing]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bulgaria</title> <id>3415</id> <revision> <id>42158778</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:14:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Guanaco</username> <id>47960</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>clean up and bypass unambiguous redirects using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country| |native_name = Република България &lt;br&gt; Republika Bulgariya |common_name = Bulgaria |image_flag = Flag of Bulgaria.svg |image_coat = BGgerb2.gif |image_map = LocationBulgaria.png |national_motto = Съединението прави силата &lt;br&gt;(English: ''Unification is strength'') |national_anthem = [[Mila Rodino]] |official_languages = [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] |capital = [[Sofia]] |latd=42 |latm=41 |latNS=N |longd=23 |longm=19 |longEW=E | |largest_city = [[Sofia]] |government_type = [[parliamentary democracy]] |leader_titles = [[President of Bulgaria|President]]&lt;br&gt; [[Prime Minister of Bulgaria|Prime Minister]] |leader_names = [[Georgi Parvanov]] ([[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]])&lt;br&gt; [[Sergey Stanishev]] ([[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]) |area_rank = 102nd |area_magnitude = 1 E11 |area = 111,001.9 |areami² = 42,858 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt; |percent_water = 0.3% |population_estimate = 7,761,000 |population_estimate_year = 2005 |population_estimate_rank = 92 |population_census = 7,932,984 [http://www.nsi.bg/Census_e/Census_e.htm] |population_census_year = 2001 |population_density = 67 |population_densitymi² = 174 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt; |population_density_rank = 100 |GDP_PPP_year= 2005 |GDP_PPP = $66,113 million |GDP_PPP_rank = 65 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $8,500 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 69 |HDI_year = 2003 |HDI = 0.808 |HDI_rank =55th |HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt; |sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |established_events = &amp;nbsp;- Gained autonomy&lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;- Declared |established_dates = From the [[Ottoman Empire]]&lt;br&gt; [[March 3]], [[1878]]&lt;br&gt; [[September 22]], [[1908]] |currency = [[Lev]] |currency_code = BGN |country_code = bg |time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]] |utc_offset = +2 |time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +3 |cctld = [[.bg]] |calling_code = 359 |footnotes = }} The '''Republic of Bulgaria''' ([[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: Република България), or '''Bulgaria''' ([[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: България), is a country in the southeast of [[Europe]]. It borders the [[Black Sea]] to the east, [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] to the south, [[Serbia and Montenegro]] and the [[Republic of Macedonia]] to the west, and [[Romania]] to the north along the river [[Danube]]. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Bulgaria]]'' {|style=&quot;margin-left:1em; border:1px; solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:2px; float:left; font-size:85%;&quot; | colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; | [[Image:BGgerb2.gif|60px]]-Bulgaria |- |style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[History of the First Bulgarian Empire|First Bulgarian Empire]] |- |style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[History of the Second Bulgarian Empire|Second Bulgarian Empire]] |- |style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[History of Ottoman Bulgaria|Ottoman Bulgaria]] |- |style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[History of Independent Bulgaria|Independent Bulgaria]] |- |style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[History of Communist Bulgaria|Communist Bulgaria]] |- |style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[ History of Democratic Bulgaria|Democratic Bulgaria]] |} In the late [[7th century]] a branch of the [[Bulgars]] led by [[Khan]] [[Asparuh]] migrated into the northern [[Balkans]], where they merged with the local [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] population and possibly remnants of the [[Thracian]] population to form the first Bulgarian state in [[Anno Domini|AD]]&amp;nbsp;681. This was the first Slavic nation-state in history. The Bulgarian empire was a significant European power in the [[9th century|9th]] and the [[10th century]], while fighting with the [[Byzantine Empire]] for the control of the Balkans. The Bulgarian state was crushed by an assault by the ''[[Kievan Rus'|Rus']]'' in 969 and completely subdued by a determined Byzantine assault under [[Basil II]] in 1018. It was re-established in 1185 and continued to be an important power in the European south-east for two more centuries by fighting to assert its place in the region with the [[Byzantine Empire]], imposing defeats on the Crusader states in Greece, as well as [[Hungary]]. By the end of the [[14th century]] the country was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. A liberation attempt by the [[Poland|Polish]]-[[Hungary|Hungarian]] forces under the rule of [[Wladislaus III of Poland]] was crushed in 1444 in the [[battle of Varna]]. An autonomous Bulgarian principality in its ethnic borders was proclaimed by the [[Treaty of San Stefano]] of [[March 3]], [[1878]], following the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78]]. The treaty was, however, not accepted by the [[Great Powers]] for fear that a large Slavic country on the [[Balkans]] would serve Russian interests. This led to the [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878|Treaty of Berlin (1878)]] which provided for an autonomous Bulgarian principality comprising [[Moesia]] and the region of [[Sofia]]. Most of [[Thrace]] was included in the autonomous region of [[Eastern Rumelia]], whereas the rest of Thrace along with the whole of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] was returned under the sovereignty of the [[Ottomans]]. After [[Unification of Bulgaria|uniting]] with [[Eastern Rumelia]] in 1885, the principality was proclaimed a fully independent kingdom in 1908. The struggle for liberation of the [[Bulgarians]] in the [[Adrianople]] Vilayet and Macedonia continued throughout the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century cul
as if from a point. However, when philosophers and scientists consider the location of the form and contents of this phenomenal consciousness, there are fierce disagreements. As an example, Descartes proposed that the contents are brain activity seen by a non-physical place without extension (the Res Cogitans), which he identified as the soul. This idea is known as ''[[Cartesian Dualism]]''. Another example is found in the work of [[Thomas Reid]] who thought the contents of consciousness are the world itself, which becomes conscious experience in some way. This concept is a type of [[Direct realism]]. The precise physical substrate of conscious experience in the world, such as photons, quantum fields, etc. is usually not specified. Other philosophers, such as [[George Berkeley]], have proposed that the contents of consciousness are an aspect of minds and do not involve matter at all. This is a type of [[Idealism]]. Yet others, such as [[Leibniz]], have considered that each point in the universe is endowed with conscious content. This is a form of [[Panpsychism]]. Panpsychism is the belief that all matter, including rocks for example, is sentient or conscious. The concept of the things in conscious experience being impressions in the brain is a type of [[representationalism]], and representationalism can be a form of [[indirect realism]]. Some philosophers, such as [[David Malet Armstrong| David Armstrong]] and [[Daniel Dennett]], believe that qualia exist in terms of judgements or beliefs about things in the world, and are therefore meaningless when separated from behavior, while other philosophers insist that qualia cannot be understood in terms of belief. Dennett believes that &quot;ineffable, intrinsic, private&quot; qualia do not exist (Dennett 1988). However, Dennett does not believe that we lack conscious, phenomenal experience. :&quot;Dennett suggests that while some episodes of mental life have impoverished contents, others are very rich and are full of content and information. Block would characterize the rich episodes of mental life as being instances of P-Consciousness and in cases where Dennett would suggest that content is impoverished, Block would claim that P-Consciousness is missing altogether.&quot; (Silby, 1998) [http://www.def-logic.com/articles/silby011.html] It is sometimes held that consciousness emerges from the complexity of brain processing. The general label '[[emergence]]' applies to new phenomena that emerge from a physical basis without the connection between the two explicitly specified. Some theorists hold that phenomenal consciousness poses an [[explanatory gap]]. [[Colin McGinn]] believes that the problem [[New Mysterianism|cannot be solved]], and Chalmers [[David Chalmers#Work|criticizes purely physical accounts]] of mental experiences based on the idea that [[philosophical zombie]]s are logically possible and supports [[property dualism]]. But others have proposed scientific theories to explain the explanatory gap, such as [[Quantum mind]], [[space-time theories of consciousness]], and [[Electromagnetic theories of consciousness]] to explain the correspondence between brain activity and experience. As yet there is little evidence from brain studies to support these theories. Evidence from [[parapsychology]] of [[psychokinesis]] or [[telepathy]], if substantiatied, might support the theory that the location of consciousness is not confined to the brain. However, no evidence has been substantiatied. ===Access consciousness=== There have been numerous approaches to the processes that act on conscious experience from instant to instant. Philosophers who have explored this problem include [[Gerald Edelman]], [[G. Spencer-Brown]], [[Edmund Husserl]] and [[Daniel Dennett]]. Some philosophers have concentrated on reflexive processes to link one instant to the next, some on discriminations and differences between things in conscious experience and others on the overall behaviour of the organism. [[G. Spencer-Brown]] provides an example of the analysis of consciousness as a process, the process in this case being differentiating one thing from another.[[G. Spencer-Brown]] proposes in [[Laws of Form]] that the root of [[cognition]] is the ability to perceive [[dualism]], i.e., in its most simple construct, the capability of differentiating a &quot;this&quot; from a &quot;that.&quot; A mathematician, he captured this concept of elementary content-in-context in an abstraction: an algebraic and tautological symbol he referred to as the &quot;Mark,&quot; also referred to as a &quot;distinction.&quot; [[Francisco Varela]], a co-founder of the [[Integral Institute]], and [[Humberto Maturana]] also identify &quot;distinction&quot; as the elementary act of cognition. By definition, this concept extends the notion of &quot;consciousness&quot; well beyond that solely evidenced by humans and lends itself to the idea of a &quot;scale&quot; of consciousness. === Class consciousness === {{Main|Class consciousness}} [[Marxism]] invented the concept of [[class consciousness]], to design a form of self-identification which is also an achievement. It is through class consciousness that the [[proletariat]] can hope defeating the [[bourgeoisie]], and it is this concept that assures the link between [[theory]] and [[praxis]]. This concept of &quot;class consciousness&quot; has been of interests to non-Marxists, as it poses the problem of collective consciousness. It can be compared to the Marxist concept of [[false consciousness]] and [[Carl Jung]]'s [[collective unconscious]]. However, this concept, which was central in [[Georg Lukács]]' famous ''History and Class Consciousness'', was harshly criticized by [[Louis Althusser]]. === Consciousness and language === Because humans express their conscious states using language, it is tempting to equate language abilities and consciousness. There are, however, speechless humans (infants, [[Feral child|feral children]], [[aphasia|aphasics]], severe forms of [[autism]]), to whom consciousness is attributed despite language lost or not yet acquired. Moreover, the study of brain states of non-linguistic primates, in particular the [[macaque|macaques]], has been used extensively by scientists and philosophers in their quest for the neural correlates of the contents of consciousness. Julian Jaynes however, argues in &quot;The origin of consciouness in the breakdown of the bicameral mind&quot; that for consciousness to arise in a person, language needs to have reached a fairly high level of complexity. According to Jaynes consciouss men emerged as recent as around 1300 BC. ==Cognitive neuroscience approaches== Modern investigations into and discoveries about consciousness are based on [[psychological statistics|psychological]] [[statistical study|statistical studies]] and [[case studies]] of consciousness states and the deficits caused by [[lesion]]s, [[stroke]], [[injury]], or [[surgery]] that disrupt the normal functioning of human [[sense]]s and [[cognition]]. These discoveries suggest that the [[mind]] is a complex structure derived from various localized functions that are [[binding problem | bound]] together with a unitary awareness. Several studies point to common mechanisms in different clinical conditions that lead to loss of consciousness. [[Persistent vegetative state]] (PVS) is a condition in which an individual loses the higher cerebral powers of the brain, but maintains sleep-wake cycles with full or partial autonomic functions. Studies comparing PVS with healthy, awake subjects consistently demonstrate an impaired connectivity between the deeper (brainstem and thalamic) and the upper (cortical) areas of the brain. In addition, it is agreed that the general brain activity in the cortex is lower in the PVS state. Some [[electroneurobiology|electroneurobiological]] interpretations of consciousness characterize this loss of consciousness as a loss of the ability to resolve time (similar to playing an old phonographic record at very slow or very rapid speed), along a continuum that starts with inattention, continues on sleep, and arrives to coma and [[death]]. Loss of consciousness also occurs in other conditions, such as general (tonic-clonic) [[epileptic seizure]]s, in [[general anaesthesia]], maybe even in deep (slow-wave) [[sleep]]. At present, the best-supported hypotheses about such cases of loss of consciousness (or loss of time resolution) focus on the need for 1) a widespread cortical network, including particularly the frontal, parietal and temporal cortices, and 2) cooperation between the deep layers of the brain, especially the thalamus, and the upper layers, the cortex. Such hypotheses go under the common term &quot;globalist theories&quot; of consciousness, due to the claim for a widespread, global network necessary for consciousness to interact with non-mental reality in the first place. Brain chemistry affects human consciousness. Sleeping drugs (such as [[Midazolam]] = Dormicum) can bring the brain from the awake condition (conscious) to the sleep (unconscious). Wake-up drugs such as [[Anexate]] reverse this process. Many other drugs (such as [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[nicotine]], [[THC]], [[heroin]], [[cocaine]], [[LSD]], [[MDMA]]) have a consciousness-changing effect. There is a neural link between the left and right hemispheres of the brain, known as the [[corpus callosum]]. This link is sometimes surgically severed to control severe seizures in epilepsy patients. This procedure was first performed by Roger Sperry in the 1960's. Tests of these patients have shown that, after the link is [[Split-brain|completely severed]], the hemispheres are no longer able to communicate, leading to certain problems that usually arise only in test conditions. For example, while the left side of the brain can verbally describe what is going on in the right visual field, the right hemisphere is essentially mute, instead relying on its
schedule. The ''steam clipper'' was developed around this time, and had auxiliary steam engines which could be used in the absence of wind. An example of this type was the [[Royal Charter (ship)|Royal Charter]], built in 1857 and wrecked on the coast of [[Anglesey]] in [[1859]]. The final blow came in the form of the [[Suez Canal]], opened in 1869, which provided a huge shortcut for steamships between [[Europe]] and [[Asia]], but which was difficult for sailing ships to use. Although many clipper ships were built during the middle of the 1800s, ''[[Cutty Sark]]'' is arguably the only survivor. ''[[Falls of Clyde]]'' is a well-preserved example of a more conservatively designed, slower contemporary of the clippers, which was built for general freight in 1878. Other surviving examples of clipper ships of the era are not as well preserved, for example the ''[[City of Adelaide (1864)|City of Adelaide]]'' (aka ''S.V. Carrick'')[http://www.historyscotland.com/features/svcarrick.html]. == Notable clipper ships == * ''[[Great Republic]]'' * ''[[James Baines]]'' * ''[[Lightning (clipper)|Lightning]]'' * ''[[Sea Witch]]'' * [[Clipper ships|Summary details of further famous Clipper Ships]] ==Aerial clippers== Trans-oceanic [[flying boat]]s, above all the [[Boeing 314]] were established under the name of &quot;flying clipper&quot;, from the early [[1930s]]. To send mail or goods by one of these flights was, in the 1930s, ''to clipper'' it. == See also == * [[William Jardine]] * [[Donald McKay]] * [[Packet ship]] * [[Sail-plan]] * [[Clipper ships|Famous Clipper ships]] ==External links== *[http://seafarer.netfirms.com/2/telanak.htm The &quot;Telanak&quot;] *[http://www.tenpound.com/clippercard.html Clipper Ship cards] *[http://www.tradecards.com/articles/br/ Clipper Ship Cards (from The Trade Card Place)] *[http://www.flyingclippers.com/ The Flying Clippers] *[http://www.theshipslist.com/ships/descriptions/baltimore.htm The Shipslist: Baltimore Clipper] *[http://www.seakayak.ws/kayak/kayak.nsf/NavigationList/NT00003CC2 &quot;Baltimore Clippers - Pirates of the Chesapeake&quot;]: career of ''Chasseur'' * Clipper Wind [http://www.clipperwind.com] == References == *[[Carl C. Cutler]], ''Greyhounds of the Sea'' (1930, 3rd ed. [[Naval Institute Press]] 1984) *Alexander Laing, ''Clipper Ship Men'' (1944) *David R. MacGregor, ''Fast Sailing Ships: Their Design and Construction, 1775-1875'' Naval Institute Press, 1988 ISBN 0870218956 [http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/becites/genealogy/immigrant/87062528.idx.html#b index] *Oxford English Dictionary (1987) ISBN 0-19-861212-5. *Bruce D. Roberts, ''Clipper Ship Cards: The High-Water Mark in Early Trade Cards,'' The Advertising Trade Card Quarterly 1, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 20-22. *Bruce D. Roberts, ''Clipper Ship Cards: Graphic Themes and Images,'' The Advertising Trade Card Quarterly 1, no. 2 (Summer 1994): 22-24. *Bruce D. Roberts, ''Museum Collections of Clipper Ship Cards,'' The Advertising Trade Card Quarterly 2, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 22-24. *Bruce D. Roberts, ''Selling Sail with Clipper Ship Cards,'' Ephemera News 19, no. 2 (Winter 2001): 1, 11-14. *Villiers, Capt. Alan, 1973. ''Men, Ships and the Sea'' (National Geographic Society) {{Clipper ships}} {{Sailing Vessels and Rigs}} [[Category:Sailboat types]] [[Category:Ship types]] [[de:Klipper (Schiff)]] [[es:Clipper (barco)]] [[fr:Clipper]] [[is:Klippari]] [[it:Clipper (nave)]] [[nl:Klipper]] [[pl:Kliper (żaglowiec)]] [[ru:Клипер (парусное судно)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clive Anderson</title> <id>7462</id> <revision> <id>41630124</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:22:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>JeffreyMaynard</username> <id>995768</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Clive Anderson''' (born [[December 10]] [[1952]]) is a former [[barrister]] (specialising in [[criminal law]]) turned [[television presenter]] from the [[United Kingdom]]. He is also a comedy sketch writer, who has written for [[Frankie Howerd]] and [[Griff Rhys Jones]]/[[Mel Smith]]. One of his early comedy writing projects was ''[[Black Cinderella Two Goes East]]'' with [[Rory McGrath]] for [[BBC Radio 4]] in [[1978]]. He is famous for his fast, nervous delivery, and his close-to-the-knuckle witticisms. Most famously, he made remarks about the [[Bee Gees]] during a television interview with them which caused them to walk out, and once had a glass of water poured over his head by a perturbed [[Richard Branson]]. He was educated at Harrow County School for Boys, where his group of friends included [[Michael Portillo]], and then went to university at [[Selwyn College, Cambridge]]. He was involved in the fledgling [[alternative comedy]] scene in the early 1980s and even performed on occasion. He made his name as host of the improvised television comedy show ''[[Whose Line Is It Anyway?]]'' which was full of his rapid-fire wit as well as the show-ending catchphrase &quot;This is me, Clive Anderson, saying good night. Good night.&quot; He has been a frequent participant on [[Have I Got News For You]], notching up seven appearances in total. As a journalist for the BBC he travelled around the world looking at problems 'in out-of-the-way places', though mostly arguing about whether they can film there. ''[[Our Man In..]]'' featured episodes on [[Monkeywrenching]] in American logging and [[Advance_fee_fraud|419 scams]] in [[Nigeria]]. More recently, Anderson has forged a career on [[BBC Radio 4|Radio 4]] presenting a legal affairs show and has produced several pieces of journalism for various newspapers. He is currently president of the [[Woodland Trust]]. Shows he has presented include: * ''[[Clive Anderson Talks Back]]'' * ''[[Our Man in..]] * ''[[Whose Line Is It Anyway?]]'' * ''[[Mastermind (television)|Discovery Mastermind]]'' {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[Footlights President]]|before=Jon Canter|after=[[Chris Keightley]]|years=1974&amp;ndash;1975}} {{succession box | title=Host of ''[[Whose Line Is It Anyway?]]''| before=None | after=[[Drew Carey]] in the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC-TV]] version.| years=1988&amp;ndash;1998}} {{end box}} ==External links== *{{imdb name|id=0026536|name=Clive Anderson}} *[http://www.speakers.co.uk/Retro/5293.htm Speaker Biography: Clive Anderson] [[Category:1952 births|Anderson, Clive]] [[Category:Living people|Anderson, Clive]] [[Category:Alumni of Selwyn College, Cambridge|Anderson, Clive]] [[Category:British barristers|Anderson, Clive]] [[Category:British television presenters|Anderson, Clive]] [[Category:Cambridge Footlights|Anderson, Clive]] [[Category:Game show hosts|Anderson, Clive]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cold fusion</title> <id>7463</id> <revision> <id>41839051</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:58:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.204.113.186</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Other kinds of fusion */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the article about the computer programming language, see [[ColdFusion]].}} [[Image:ColdFusion.jpg|thumb|Charles Bennett examines three &quot;cold fusion&quot; test cells at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA]] '''Cold fusion''' is [[nuclear fusion]] occurring well below the temperature required for [[thermonuclear]] reactions (millions of degrees [[Celsius]]) in a relatively small &quot;table top&quot; apparatus. A variety of experimental methods are used; originally [[electrolytic cell]]s. The idea was first brought into popular consciousness by the Fleischmann-Pons experiment in March of 1989, which was front-page news for some time, and has been controversial since. Cold fusion is sometimes referred to as low energy nuclear reactions (LENR) or chemically-assisted nuclear reactions (CANR). The subject has been of scientific interest since nuclear fusion was first understood. Hot nuclear fusion using [[deuterium]] has the potential to yield large amounts of [[energy]], uses an abundant fuel source, and produces only small amounts of manageable waste; thus a cheap and simple process of nuclear fusion would have great [[economic]] impact. Cold fusion is especially attractive because proponents claim that it produces very little [[nuclear radiation]], and can be scaled down to small devices such as vehicle engines. The existence of cold fusion has been a controversial issue. It has been dismissed by some as an example of [[pathological science]], and an idea that would not go away, long after the majority of scientists in the field dismissed it as wrong. Despite this opposition, researchers continue to report results. While there is little mainstream acceptance of the field today, thousands of peer-reviewed cold fusion papers have been published. [http://www.lenr-canr.org/LibraryGuide.html] Despite opposition and ridicule by mainstream journals, several peer-reviewed papers continue to be published every year. [http://www.lenr-canr.org/FilesByDate.htm] Mainstream journals such as ''Scientific American'' and ''Nature'' have often attacked the subject, for example in March and October 2005 respectively, and most other journals reject papers on the subject without reviewing them. In January 2006, the ''Washington Post,'' ''Time'' magazine, the ''Guardian,'' and other major newspapers and magazines attacked cold fusion, claiming it was a &quot;scientific misdeed&quot; debunked in 1989. [http://lenr-canr.org/News.htm] The term &quot;cold nuclear fusion&quot; was first used in the scientific literature by [[Johann Rafelski]] and [[Steven E. Jones]] of [[Brigham Young University]] in 1986 in an investigation of what is today referred to as [[muon-catalyzed fusion]]. This research was generally unrelated; however, the distinction was not immediately understood by the press in 1989. Consequently, the term &quot;cold fusion&quot; became associated with the Fleischman
ce of Fractal Images'', by Heinz-Otto Peitgen and Dietmar Saupe, Eds. *''Explaining Chaos'', by Peter Smith *''Chaos'', by [[James Gleick]] *''Complexity'', by M. Mitchell Waldrop *''Chaos, Fractals and Self-organisation'', by Arvind Kumar *''Chaotic Evolution and Strange Attractors'', by [[David Ruelle]] *''Sync: The emerging science of spontaneous order'', by Steven Strogatz *''The Essence of Chaos'', by [[Edward Lorenz]] *''Deep Simplicity'', by John Gribbin *''The Road To Chaos'', by Yoshisuke Ueda *''The Chaos Avant-Garde: Memoirs of the Early Days of Chaos Theory'', Edited by Ralph H. Abraham and Yoshisuke Ueda ===Popular culture=== *''Ian Malcolm'', a character from the movie and book ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', was a chaos theory mathematician. *''[[Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Chaos Theory]]'' had a subtle undertone (and a main title) around chaos theory. Also, one of the main antagonists, Douglas Shetland, believed in his own version of chaos theory and how it related to the condition of America in the game. ==External links== *[http://www.enm.bris.ac.uk/anm Bristol Centre for Applied Nonlinear Mathematics] *http://www.nbi.dk/ChaosBook/ *[http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/intro.html Nick's Nonlinear Dynamics Archive] *[http://www.libraryreference.org/chaos.html Chaos Theory and Education] *[http://www.imho.com/grae/chaos/chaos.html Chaos Theory: A Brief Introduction] *[http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Chaos/Chaos.html An introduction to Chaos by David M. Harrison, Dept. of Physics. Univ. of Toronto] *[http://www.ae.uiuc.edu/lndvl Linear and Nonlinear Dynamics and Vibrations Laboratory at the University of Illinois] *[http://hypertextbook.com/chaos/ The Chaos Hypertextbook]. An introductory primer on chaos and fractals. * ''Chaos Theory in the Social Sciences'', edited by L Douglas Kiel, Euel W Elliott. *[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/chaos.shtml Emergence of Chaos] at [[cut-the-knot]] *[http://physics.mercer.edu/pendulum/ Interactive live chaotic pendulum experiment], allows users to interact and sample data from a real working damped driven chaotic pendulum [[Category:Chaos theory|*]] [[Category:Non-linear systems]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[ar:نظرية الشواش]] [[ca:Teoria del caos]] [[cs:Teorie chaosu]] [[de:Chaosforschung]] [[el:Θεωρία του χάους]] [[es:Teoría del Caos]] [[fr:Théorie du chaos]] [[gl:Teoría do caos]] [[ko:혼돈 이론]] [[id:Teori chaos]] [[it:Teoria del caos]] [[he:תורת הכאוס]] [[hu:Káoszelmélet]] [[nl:Chaostheorie]] [[ja:カオス理論]] [[pl:Chaos (matematyka)]] [[pt:Teoria do caos]] [[ru:Теория хаоса]] [[simple:Chaos theory]] [[fi:Kaaosteoria]] [[th:ทฤษฎีความอลวน]] [[vi:Lý thuyết hỗn loạn]] [[tr:Dinamik Sistemler ve Kaos Teorisi]] [[zh:混沌理论]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cornell University</title> <id>6297</id> <revision> <id>42078146</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:53:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>200.232.208.92</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Alumni */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">: ''&quot;Cornell&quot; redirects here. For the unaffiliated liberal arts college in Mount Vernon, Iowa, see [[Cornell College]]. For other uses, see [[Cornell (disambiguation)]].'' {{Infobox_University |image = [[Image:Cornell_emblem.png|175px|Cornell University]] |name = Cornell University |motto = ''&quot;I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study&quot;''&lt;br /&gt;–Ezra Cornell, 1865 |established = [[1865]] |type = [[Private university|Private]] with 14 colleges and schools, including 4 [[statutory college]]s|&lt;!-- note: Cornell's contract colleges do not make it public. See talk --&gt; |president = [[Hunter R. Rawlings, III]] &lt;!-- Skorton will not be inaugurated until July 1, 2006 --&gt; |head_label = [[President-elect]] |head = [[David Skorton]] (Inauguration: July 1, 2006) |city = [[Ithaca, New York|Ithaca]] |state = [[New York|NY]] |country = [[United States|USA]] |undergrad = 13,665 |postgrad = 6,679 |faculty = 3,241 |campus = [[Urban area]], 745 [[acre]]s (3.0 [[kilometre|km]]&amp;sup2;) |mascot = [[Image:cornellbear.gif|40px|left]] None. Teams referred to as the &quot;[[Cornell Big Red|Big Red]]&quot;; the unofficial mascot is the [[bear]] |free_label = Athletics |free = 36 Varsity Teams |website= [http://www.cornell.edu/ www.cornell.edu] |endowment= $3.847 billion&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.investmentoffice.cornell.edu/documents/1%20-%20LTI%20Summary.pdf 1]&lt;/sup&gt; |footnotes= &lt;tr colspan=2&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;[[Image:Culogo_web_60red.gif|24em|Cornell University]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; }} '''Cornell University''' is a research [[university]] located on the East Hill of [[Ithaca, New York]]. Its two medical campuses are located in [[New York City]] and in [[Education City, Qatar|Education City]], [[Qatar]], near [[Doha]]. The youngest member of the [[Ivy League]], Cornell was founded in [[1865]] by [[Ezra Cornell]] and [[Andrew Dickson White]] as a [[coeducation]]al, [[nonsectarianism|nonsectarian]] institution where admission was offered irrespective of [[religion]] or [[race]]. Conceived immediately after the [[Industrial Revolution]] and the [[American Civil War]], its founders intended that the new university would teach and make contributions in all fields of knowledge—from the [[classics]] to the [[science]]s and from the [[theory|theoretical]] to the [[applied science|applied]]. These ideals—a radical departure at the time—are captured in Cornell's motto, an 1865 [[Ezra Cornell]] quotation: &quot;I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study&quot;. Known for both its [[undergraduate]] and [[graduate school|graduate]] programs, Cornell continues to have one of the broadest [[curriculum|curricula]] of any university, offering more than 80 [[academic major|majors]], housing over 150 [[academic department|departments and academic areas]] and offering well over 5000 [[course (education)|courses]]. Cornell is also a leader in research: During the 2004–05 academic year, research expenditures topped $560 million{{ref|lead.research}}. In recent years, Cornell has been aggressively expanding its [[#International programs|international programs]]—from the establishment, in [[2001]], of the [[Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar]], the first American [[medical school]] outside of the United States, to the forging of partnerships and collaboration with major institutions in [[China]]{{ref|lead.china}}, [[India]]{{ref|lead.india}} and [[Singapore]]{{ref|lead.singapore}}—it has gone as far as claiming to be &quot;the first transnational university.&quot;{{ref|lead.transnational_claim}} ==History== {{main|History of Cornell University}} ===Conception of Cornell=== [[Image:Cornell Arts Quad 1919.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Statue of [[Andrew Dickson White|A.D. White]] on the [[Cornell University College of Arts and Sciences#The Arts Quadrangle|Arts Quadrangle]].]] When Ezra Cornell and Andrew Dickson White met in the [[New York State Senate|New York Senate]] in January [[1864]], each a newly elected member, their eventual partnership seemed unlikely. Although both valued egalitarianism, science, and education, they had come from two very different backgrounds. Ezra Cornell, a self-made businessman and austere, pragmatic telegraph mogul, made his fortune on the [[Western Union Telegraph Company]] stock he received during the consolidation that led to its formation{{ref|conception_of_cornell.western_union}}. Cornell, who had been poor for most of his life, suddenly found himself looking for ways that he could do the greatest good for with his money—he wrote, &quot;My greatest care now is how to spend this large income to do the greatest good to those who are properly dependent on me, to the poor and to posterity&quot;.{{ref|conception_of_cornell.cornell_quote}} Cornell's self education and hard work would lead him to the conclusion that the greatest end for his philanthropy was in the need of colleges for the teaching of practical pursuits such as [[agriculture]], the [[applied science]]s, [[veterinary medicine]] and [[engineering]] and in finding opportunities for the poor to attain such an education. Andrew Dickson White entered college, at the age of sixteen, in 1849. White dreamed of going to one of the elite eastern colleges, but his father sent him to [[Geneva College]] (later known as [[Hobart and William Smith Colleges|Hobart]]), a small [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal]] college. In Geneva's library, White would read about the great colleges at [[Oxford University]] and at the [[University of Cambridge]]; this appears to be his first inspiration for &quot;dreaming of a university worthy of the commonwealth &lt;nowiki&gt;[New York]&lt;/nowiki&gt; and of the nation&quot;, a dream that would become a lifelong goal of White's. After a year at Geneva, White convinced his father to send him to [[Yale University]]. For White, Yale was a great improvement over Geneva, but he found that even at one of the country's great universities there was &quot;too much reciting by rote and too little real intercourse&quot;. The state senate was charged with the allotment of New York's allocation of the federal land grant, an endowment of public lands for education, granted by the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act|Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862]]. Initially, Cornell wanted the grant to go to the New York State Agricultural College at Ovid. However, White &quot;vigorously opposed this bill, on the ground that the educational resources of the state were already too much dispersed&quot;. He felt that the grant would be most effective if it were used to establish or strengthen a comprehensive university. In the face of this disa
. The Irish chain provided by Bórd Iascaigh Mhara continued transmitting until [[19 May]] [[2000]]. == Other Applications == A more accurate system was developed using signalling in the 1.6MHz range, named Hi-Fix, was used for specialised applications such as precision measurements involved with oil-drilling, etc. Other systems were used in the Middle East. An interesting characteristic discovered on BOAC, later British Airways, test flights to Moscow, was that the carrier switching could not be detected even though the carrier could be received with sufficient strength to provide navigation. Such testing, involving civilian aircraft, is quite common and may well not be in the knowledge of a pilot. The 'low frequency' signalling of the Decca system also permitted its use on submarines. One 'enhancement' of the Decca system was to offer the potential of keying the signal, using Morse code, to signal the onset of nuclear war. This was never optioned by the UK government. Messages were clandestinely sent, however, between Decca stations thereby bypassing ancient international telephone calls, especially in non-UK chains. == References == * Decca Navigator - Principles and Performance of the System, The Decca Navigator Company Limited, July 1976 * Night Passage to Normandy, Lieutenant-Commander Oliver Dawkins, R.N.V.R, Decca, 1969 * The Decca Navigator System on D-Day, [[6 June]] [[1944]], An Acid Test, Commander Hugh St. A. Malleson, R.N. (Ret.) * Hyperbolic Radionavigation Systems (Compiled by Jerry Proc VE3FAB) [http://www.jproc.ca/hyperbolic/] [[Category:Radio navigation]] [[de:Decca Navigation System]] [[nl:DECCA]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Diary</title> <id>8951</id> <revision> <id>41701761</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:54:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Elkman</username> <id>346341</id> </contributor> <comment>rm linkspam</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:'' See [[Diary (novel)]] for the novel by [[Chuck Palahniuk]] and [[Diary (album)]] for an album by [[Sunny Day Real Estate]]'' [[Image:appointment_diary.jpg|thumb|An appointment diary]] A '''diary''' or '''journal''' is a [[book]] for [[writing]] discrete entries arranged by date. It can be used for recording in advance of appointments and other planned activities, and/or for reporting on what has happened over the course of a day or other period. Such [[log]]s play a role in many aspects of human civilization, including governmental, business [[ledger]]s, and military [[record]]s. Diaries run the spectrum from business notations, to listings of weather and daily personal events, through to inner exploration of the psyche, or a place to express one's deepest self. Some use the words &quot;diary&quot; and &quot;[[journal]]&quot; interchangeably while others apply strict differences to journals, diaries and journaling: dated, undated, inner focused, outer focused, forced, etc. The current preference (based on book and article titles) is to use the word &quot;journal.&quot; The phrase &quot;'''journaling'''&quot; is often used to describe such [[hobby]] writing, similar to the term &quot;[[scrapbooking]].&quot; Some diarists think of their diaries as a special friend, even going so far as to name them. For example, [[Anne Frank]] called her diary &quot;Kitty&quot;. There is a strong psychological effect of having an audience for one's self-expression, a personal space, or a &quot;listener,&quot; even if this is the book one writes in, only read by oneself. More than 16,000 diaries have been published since book [[publishing]] began. See [[List of diarists]]. Additionally, the diary is a popular form for works of [[fiction]]. See [[List of fictional diaries]]. ==History== The word ''diary'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''diarium'' (&quot;daily allowance&quot;, from ''dies'', &quot;day&quot; - more often in the plural form ''diaria''). The word &quot;journal&quot; comes from the same root (''diurnus'' = of the day) through &quot;journey&quot;. The oldest extant diaries come from East Asian cultures, [[pillowbook]]s of [[Japan]]ese court ladies and [[Asia]]n travel journals being some of the oldest surviving specimens of this genre of writing. Sales of &quot;page a day&quot; diaries go back hundreds of years ([[Letts]], for example, is over 200 years old). At first, most of these books were used as [[ledger]]s, or business books. [[Samuel Pepys]] is the earliest diarist that is well known today, although he had contemporaries who were also keeping diaries. ([[John Evelyn]] for one.) Pepys also was apparently at a turning point in diary history, for he took it beyond mere business transaction notation, into the realm of the personal. Until, it seems, around the turn of the [[20th century]], with greater literacy and industrialization throughout the globe, particularly the [[Western world]], diary writing was mostly limited to the members of the higher [[social class|social classes]]. In the [[Western World|West]], at least, a high proportion of historical and literary figures from the Renaissance to the [[20th century]] seem to have kept a diary. (see list below) [[Tristine Rainer]]'s 1978 ''The New Diary'' expanded awareness of diary-keeping as a literary genre, particularly among [[feminism|feminists]]. Acknowleding key figures in the resurgence of diary writing such as [[Carl Jung]], [[Marion Milner]], [[Ira Progoff]] and [[Anaïs Nin]], she identified techniques that people use either spontaneously or have employed in their daily writing to explore themselves and their experience of the world. Rainer's idea, as expressed in the title, is that a diary is much more than a dry record of weather or daily events--it allows the writer to communicate deep and often spiritual realizations. [[Social history|Social historians]] were particularly interested in this, as it expanded greatly the number of [[historiography|historical texts]] available to them. In the [[United States]] during the 1990's various [[K-12]] [[pedagogy|educators]] used a variety of journals across subject areas to encourage and document student progress, including pre-literate picture journals and &quot;math journals&quot; to aid in developing [[mathematics|mathematical concepts]] in an individualized way, in accordance with [[Lev Vygotsky]]'s concepts of [[instructional scaffolding]]. Another popular adaptation of the diary is the personal use of [[time management]] tools such as the [[FiloFAX]] or [[Franklin Planner]]. ==Appeal== One of the most tempting things about diaries is that writing one is accessible to anyone with [[pen]] and [[paper]]. No education is needed. One doesn't need to know how to [[spell]] or use [[grammar]]. Writing a diary is something some people are driven to do, often as a way to put their existence into perspective. Too often the modern Western stereotype is that diaries are written only by [[teenage]] [[girl]]s and inexpensive diaries sold in &quot;cute&quot; colors with locks and keys helped this [[illusion]]. &lt;!--Not sure when those became popular - 1940s or 1950s.--&gt; Now, many people prefer the word &quot;journal&quot; so as to avoid this stereotype and to expand the diary's use beyond a mere catalog of events. ==Healing== In the [[1960s]] Ira Progoff pioneered the use of diaries in [[psychotherapy]], publishing on his [[Intensive Journal Method]] in 1975. Rainer and Progoff's work helped to increase the use of journals in personal or [[psychotherapy]], and a small library of books on various journal techniques, into the present day. The [[Intensive Journal Method]] is the most famous, but there are dozens, mostly building on techniques mentioned or described by Progoff and Rainer. Many of these books focus on using the journal or diary for &quot;self-awareness&quot;, &quot;finding your true self&quot;, and healing from any number of personal troubles, including physical illness and trauma). Popular among [[creative writing|creative writers]], several of these entered into the formal teaching of composition as &quot;prewriting&quot; techniques or adapted for [[notetaking]]. ''Related articles'': [[List of writing techniques]] and [[List of books on diaries and journals]]. ==Internet diaries== :''Main article: [[Online diary]]'' As [[Internet]] access became commonly available, people naturally adopted it as yet another medium with which to chronicle their lives, with the added dimension of having an audience (negating, to some, the very definition of &quot;diary&quot;). Apart from the odd tangent on [[USENET]] and posts to proprietary forums on the earliest [[Internet service provider]]s, the first [[online diary]] is believed to be that of [http://diary.carolyn.org Carolyn Burke], which debuted on the [[world wide web|web]] in January [[1995]]. The number of people publishing web journals grew quickly, but for some time the practice was limited to people who had both internet access and a familiarity with [[HTML]]. However, several diverse communities of web diarists eventually developed. Once broadband had become widespread new online business diaries started to appear. Their services were chargeable. One of the first to appear was the [[internetdiary]] which came on line in February 2004 and now is one of the most popular services for small to medium sized business ====Blogs==== Easy-to-use web-based services soon appeared to make [[online publishing]] easier. But the great explosion in personal storytelling came with the emergence of [[weblog]]s, also known as '''blogs'''. While the format was at first focused on external links and topical commentary, widespread weblog tools were quickly seized upon to create web journals - albeit consisting of short, spontaneous entries rather than crafted essays. Further, the weblog community was more naturally comfortable with networking and linking, creating a thriving online communit
<timestamp>2006-01-02T12:39:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hu</username> <id>133716</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Category fictional birds.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alice and Dodo.gif|right]] The '''Dodo''' is a fictional character appearing in Chapters 2 and 3 of the book ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]] (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson). It is a reference to Dodgson himself who had a stutter and very frequently pronounced his name &quot;Do-do-dodgson&quot;. In this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to everyone present on the original boating expedition of [[July 4]], [[1862]] during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]] as herself, and the others represented by birds: the [[Lory]] was Lorina Liddell, the [[The Eaglet|Eaglet]] was Edith Liddell, the Dodo was Carroll, and the [[Duck]] was Rev. [[Robinson Duckworth]]. [[Category:Alice characters]] [[Category:Fictional birds]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Lory</title> <id>1501</id> <revision> <id>32990968</id> <timestamp>2005-12-28T12:36:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Anthony Appleyard</username> <id>119438</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">A [[lory]] is any of about 30 [[species]] of small, fast-moving [[parrot]] from southern Asia and New Guinea. See [[lorikeet]]. ---- The '''Lory''' is a character appearing in Chapters 2 and 3 of ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]], a reference to Lorina Liddell, [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]]'s sister. In this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to everyone present on the original boating expedition of [[July 4]], [[1862]] during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with Alice as [[Alice Liddell|herself]], and the others represented by birds: the Lory was Lorina Liddell, [[the Eaglet]] was Edith Liddell, the [[Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Dodo]] was [[Lewis Carroll|Carroll]] himself, and the Duck was Rev. [[Robinson Duckworth]]. [[Category:Alice characters]] [[Category:Fictional parrots]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eaglet (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)</title> <id>1502</id> <revision> <id>31596412</id> <timestamp>2005-12-16T10:39:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>202.152.162.216</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Eaglet''' is a character appearing in Chapter 2 and 3 of ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]], a reference to Edith Liddell, [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]]'s sister. In this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to everyone present on the original boating expedition of [[July 4]], [[1862]] during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with Alice as [[Alice Liddell|herself]], and the others represented by birds: the [[Lory]] was Lorina Liddell, the Eaglet was Edith Liddell, the [[Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Dodo]] was [[Charles Lutwidge Dodgson]], and the Duck was Rev. [[Robinson Duckworth]]. [[Category:Alice characters|Eaglet, The]] [[Category:Fictional birds of prey |Eaglet, The]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albuquerque (disambiguation)</title> <id>1503</id> <revision> <id>24311853</id> <timestamp>2005-09-29T11:22:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>PatGallacher</username> <id>164032</id> </contributor> <comment>better disambiguation</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Alburquerque]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albert</title> <id>1504</id> <revision> <id>42096886</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:30:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>62.162.242.140</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert''' is a common first and last name. It is also the name of several historical people. (Note: only persons with &quot;Albert&quot; as their only common name are listed here; persons with &quot;Albert&quot; as a first or last name, such as [[Albert Einstein]], are not listed.)The name was from a germanic name Adalbrecht that meant &quot;bright nobility&quot; * [[Archduke Albert (1817-1895)]], Son of [[Archduke Charles]], [[Austria]]n General. *[[Albert (wojt)]] (after 1317), [[wojt]] of [[Kraków]] *[[Albert I of Belgium]] reigning [[1909]]-[[1934]] *[[Albert I of Brandenburg]] (c. 1100-1170) Margrave of Brandenburg *[[Albert I of Habsburg]] (c. 1250-1308) German king *[[Albert II of Austria]] (1298-1358), Duke of Austria *[[Albert II of Belgium]] reigning [[Belgian monarch]] *[[Albert II of Habsburg]] (=Albert V of Austria) (1397-1439) German king *[[Albert I, Prince of Monaco|Albert I of Monaco]] *[[Albert II, Prince of Monaco|Albert II of Monaco]] reigning [[Monegasque monarch]] *[[Albert III of Austria]], Duke of Austria 1365-1395 *[[Albert IV of Austria]], Duke of Austria 1395-1404 *[[Albert Of Aix]] (c. A.D. 1100) *[[Albert of Mainz]] (1490-1545) Archbishop of Mainz *[[Albert of Prussia]] (1490-1568) First duke of Prussia *[[Albert of Sweden|Albert Mecklenburg, King of Sweden]] reigning [[1363]]-[[1389]] *[[Albert The Degenerate]] (c. 1240-1314) *[[Albert The Warlike]] (1522-1557) Prince of Bayreuth *[[Albert VI of Austria]], Duke of Austria (ruler of Inner Austria) 1446-1463 *[[Albert, duc de Broglie]] (1821-1901), French politician *[[Albert, Duke of Saxony]] (1443-1500) Duke of Saxony *[[Albert, King of Saxony]] (1828-1873) *[[Albert's Real Jamaican Foods]] (Restaurant) *[[Archduke Albert (1559-1621)]], Son of [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor]], Governor of the [[Low Countries]]; *[[Prince_Albert_of_Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]] (1819-1861) Prince-consort of Queen Victoria of England *[[Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale]] The following places are named '''Albert'''. *[[Albert County, New Brunswick]] *[[Albert (electoral district)]] in New Brunswick, Canada *[[Albert Township, Michigan]] *[[Albert Township, North Dakota]] *[[Albert, Kansas]] *[[Albert, Somme]] is the name of a [[commune in France|commune]] of the [[Somme]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' in [[France]]. In addition, the word ''&quot;Albert&quot;'' can refer to the following: * '''Albert''' is also the name of one of the supporting characters in the early [[1960s]] version of the ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (comic) | Josie]]'' (later ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (comic) | Josie and the Pussycats]]'') comic book produced by [[Archie Comics]]. *'''[[719_Albert|Albert]]''' is also a near-earth [[asteroid]]. *'''[[Albert clarinet maker|Albert]]''' was a [[Belgian]] [[clarinet]] maker. *'''Albert E. Gator''', the mascot of the [[University of Florida]] The female form of Albert is '''[[Alberta]]''' or '''[[Albertina]]''' {{disambig}} [[de:Albert]] [[fr:Albert]] [[hu:Albert (keresztnév)]] [[ja:アルバート]] [[nl:Albert]] [[pl:Albert]] [[pt:Alberto]] [[sk:Albert]] [[fi:Albert]] [[sv:Albert]] Albert LLLESHI DIBER R.Macedonia</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albert I</title> <id>1505</id> <revision> <id>38138004</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T12:33:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ft1</username> <id>875504</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+it</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert I''' is the name of several historical people: *[[Albert I of Belgium]] (1875 - 1934) third king of Belgium *[[Albert I of Brandenburg]] (c. 1100-1170) Margrave of Brandenburg *[[Albert I of Germany|Albert I of Habsburg]] (c. 1250-1308) German king *[[Albert I, Prince of Monaco|Albert I of Monaco]] (1848-1922), Prince of [[Monaco]] *[[Albert I, Count of Namur|Albert I of Namur]] (c. 950-1011), a Belgian count *[[Albert I, Count Vermandois|Albert I of Vermandois]] (917 -- [[8 September]] 987), Count of Vermandois in Normandy {{hndis}} [[fr:Albert_Ier]] [[it:Alberto I]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albert II</title> <id>1506</id> <revision> <id>38295331</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T10:52:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ft1</username> <id>875504</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+it</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert II''' is the name of several monarchs: ===Current=== * [[Albert II of Belgium]] (1934&amp;ndash;) * [[Albert II, Prince of Monaco|Albert II of Monaco]] (1958&amp;ndash;) ===Historical=== * [[Albert II of Austria]] (1298&amp;ndash;1358) * [[Albert II of Gorizia]] * [[Albert II of Germany|Albert II of Habsburg]] (1397&amp;ndash;1439) {{hndis}} [[fr:Albert II]] [[it:Alberto II]] [[ko:알베르 2세]] [[nl:Albert II]] [[ja:アルベール2世]] [[no:Albert II]] [[pl:Albert II]] [[fi:Albert II]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albert III</title> <id>1507</id> <revision> <id>35530412</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T11:57:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Korg</username> <id>263660</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>{{hndis}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert III''' may mean: *[[Albert III of Austria]] (1349-1395) *[[Albert III, Duke of Bavaria|Albert III of Bavaria]] (1438-1460) *[[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg]] (1414-1486) *[[Albert III, Count of Namur]] (1048-1102) *[[Albert III, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg]] (1260-1298) *[[Albert, Duke of Saxony]] (1443-1500), sometimes called &quot;Albert III&quot; {{hndis}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albert the Warlike</title> <id>1508</id> <revision> <id>40852331</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T12:32:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Saga
dence, making it difficult to interpret. It took some time for the current theory to be worked out. Analyses of ice cores and ocean sediment cores unambiguously show the record of glacials and interglacials over the past few million years. == Interglacials == [[Image:Ice Age Temperature.png|right|thumb|300px|Shows the pattern of temperature and ice volume changes associated with recent glacials and interglacials]] In between ice ages, there are multi-million year periods of more temperate, almost tropical, climate, but also within the ice ages (or at least within the last one), temperate and severe periods occur. The colder periods are called 'glacial periods', the warmer periods 'interglacials', such as the [[Eemian interglacial era]]. We are in an interglacial period now, the last retreat ending about 10,000 years ago. There appears to be a folk wisdom that &quot;the typical interglacial period lasts ~12,000 years&quot; but this is hard to substantiate from the evidence of ice core records. For example, an article in ''Nature'' [http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v429/n6992/abs/nature02599_fs.html] argues that the current interglacial might be most analogous to a previous interglacial that lasted 28,000 years. Nonetheless, fear of a new glacial period starting soon does exist (See: [[global cooling]]). However, many now believe that anthropogenic (manmade) forcing from increased &quot;[[greenhouse gas]]es&quot; would outweigh any [[Milankovitch cycles|Milankovitch]] (orbital) forcing; and some recent considerations of the orbital forcing have even argued that in the absence of human perturbations the present interglacial could potentially last 50,000 years. == Causes of ice ages == The cause of ice ages remains controversial for both the large-scale ''ice age'' periods and the smaller ebb and flow of ''glacial/interglacial'' periods within an ice age. The general consensus is that it is a combination of up to three different factors: atmospheric composition (particularly the fraction of [[carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] and [[methane]]), changes in the Earth's orbit around the [[Sun]] known as [[Milankovitch cycles]] (and possibly the Sun's orbit around the [[galaxy]]), and the arrangement of the continents. The first of these three factors is probably responsible for much of the change, especially for the first ice age. The &quot;[[Snowball Earth]]&quot; hypothesis maintains that the severe freezing in the late [[Proterozoic]] was both caused and ended by changes in CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; levels in the atmosphere. However, the other two factors do matter. An abundance of land within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles appears to be a necessity for an ice age, probably because the landmasses provide space on which snow and ice can accumulate during cooler times and thus trigger positive feedback processes like [[albedo]] changes. The Earth's orbit does not have a great effect on the long-term causation of ice ages, but does seem to dictate the pattern of multiple freezings and thawings that take place within the current ice age. The complex pattern of changes in [[Earth]]'s orbit and the change of [[albedo]] may influence the occurrence of glacial and interglacial phases &amp;mdash; this was first explained by the theory of [[Milutin Milankovic]]. [[Image:Yosemite_1_bg_090504.jpg|thumb|left|180px|A glacier carried away the missing half of [[Half Dome]] in [[Yosemite Valley]].]] The present ice ages are the most studied and best understood, particularly the last 400,000 years, since this is the period covered by [[ice core]]s that record atmospheric composition and proxies for temperature and ice volume. Within this period, the match of glacial/interglacial frequencies to the Milankovic orbital forcing periods is so good that orbital forcing is the generally accepted explanation. The combined effects of the changing distance to the sun, the precession of the Earth's axis, and the changing tilt of the Earth's axis can change and significantly redistribute the sunlight received by the Earth. Of particular importance are changes in the tilt of the Earth's axis, which impact the intensity of [[seasons]]. For example, the amount of solar influx in July at 65 degrees north [[latitude]] is calculated to vary by as much as 25% (from 400 [[watt|W]]/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; to 500 W/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, see graph at [http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/ice_ages/insolation_graph.html]). It is widely believed that ice sheets advance when summers become too mild to melt all of the accumulated snowfall from the previous winter. Some workers believe that the strength of the orbital forcing appears to be too small to trigger glaciations, but feedback mechanisms like CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; may explain this mismatch. While Milankovic forcing predicts that cyclic changes in the Earth's [[Orbit#Orbital_parameters|orbital parameters]] can be expressed in the glaciation record, additional explanations are necessary to explain which cycles are observed to be most important in the timing of glacial/interglacial periods. In particular, during the last 800 thousand years, the dominant inter/glacial oscillation has been 100 thousand years, which corresponds to changes in Earth's [[eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] and orbital [[inclination]], and yet is by far the weakest of the three frequencies predicted by Milankovic. During the period 3.0 &amp;mdash; 0.8 million years ago, the dominant pattern of glaciation corresponded to the 41 thousand year period of changes in Earth's [[obliquity]] (tilt of the axis). The reasons for preferring one frequency to another are poorly understood and an active area of current research, but the answer probably relates to some form of resonance in the Earth's climate system. The &quot;traditional&quot; Milankovitch explanation struggles to explain the dominance of the 100,000-year cycle over the last 8 cycles. [[Richard A. Muller]] and Gordon J. MacDonald [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/16/8329] [http://muller.lbl.gov/pages/glacialmain.htm] [http://muller.lbl.gov/papers/sciencespectra.htm] and others have pointed out that those calculations are for a two-dimensional orbit of Earth but the three-dimensional orbit also has a 100 thousand year cycle of orbital inclination. They proposed that these variations in orbital inclination lead to variations in insolation, as the earth moves in and out of known dust bands in the solar system. Although this is a different mechanism to the traditional view, the &quot;predicted&quot; periods over the last 400,000 years are nearly the same. The Muller and MacDonald theory, in turn, has been challenged by Rial [http://pangea.stanford.edu/Oceans/GES290/Rial1999.pdf]. Another worker, Ruddiman has suggested a plausible model that explains the 100,000 cycle by the modulating effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000 year cycle) on precession (23,000 year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000 and 23,000-year cycles. Yet another theory has been advanced by Peter Huybers who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has always been dominant, but that the Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the 2nd or 3rd cycle triggers an ice age. This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80 and 120 thousand years. This theory is consistent with the existing uncertainties in dating, but not widely accepted at present (Nature 434, 2005, [http://web.mit.edu/~phuybers/www/Doc/Obliquity_HuybersWunsch.pdf]). == Recent glacial and interglacial phases == [[Image:Pleistocene north ice map.jpg|thumb|right|The maximum extent of glacial ice in the north polar area during [[Pleistocene]] time]] See ''[[Timeline of glaciation]]''. == Glaciation in North America == The Wisconsinan glaciation has had a considerable effect on the landscape of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] and the [[Finger Lakes]] were carved by ice's deepening of old valleys, and most of the lakes in Minnesota and Wisconsin were gouged out by glaciers, to be filled with water later when the glaciers melted. The old [[Teays River]] drainage system was radically altered and largely reshaped into the [[Ohio River]] drainage system. Other rivers were dammed and diverted to new channels, such as the [[Niagara Falls|Niagara]], which formed a dramatic waterfall and gorge, when the waterflow encountered a limestone escarpment. Another similar waterfall near [[Syracuse, New York]] is now dry. [[Long Island]] was formed from glacial till, and the watersheds of [[Canada]] were so severely disrupted that they are still sorting themselves out &amp;mdash; the plethora of lakes on the [[Canadian Shield]] in northern Canada can be almost entirely attributed to the action of the ice. As the ice retreated and the rock dust dried, winds carried the material hundreds of miles, forming beds of [[loess]] many dozens of feet thick in the [[Missouri River|Missouri Valley]]. [[Isostatic rebound]] continues to reshape the [[Great Lakes]] and other areas formerly under the weight of the ice sheets. The [[Driftless Zone]], around the junction of [[Wisconsin]], [[Minnesota]], and [[Iowa]], was not covered by glaciers. ==Reference== *Imbrie, John and Katherine Palmer Imbrie. ''Ice ages: Solving the Mystery''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1979, 1986 (reprint). ISBN 089490020X; ISBN 0894900153; ISBN 0674440757. ==See also== * [[Geology]] * [[Timeline of glaciation]] *[[Cryogenian|Cryogenian period]] *[[Glacial erratic]] *[[Glacial striations]] *[[Glacier]] * [[Little Ice Age]] * [[Genesee River: Glacial Geology]] &amp;mdash; Relief maps of some glacial landforms and drainage alterations in western NY. ==External links== * [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ice/ Cracking the Ice Age
sign Alliance] - Non-profit industry consortium which provides program libraries to read and write DWG and DXF files. {{AutoCAD_related_articles}} [[Category:CAD file formats]] [[de:Drawing Interchange Format]] [[ja:DXF]] [[pl:Dxf]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Asexual reproduction</title> <id>2756</id> <revision> <id>41222770</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:07:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stevemcl</username> <id>190614</id> </contributor> <comment>RV 71.99.210.114</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:caduco.jpg|thumb|400px|Asexual reproduction in liverworts: a caducuous phylloid germinating]] '''Asexual reproduction''' (also known as '''''agamogenesis''''') is a form of reproduction which does not involve [[meiosis]], [[gamete]] formation, or [[fertilization]]. In laymen's terms, there is only one &quot;parent&quot; involved. This form of reproduction is common among simple organisms such as [[amoeba]] and other [[single-celled organism]]s, although most [[plant]]s produce asexually as well (see [[vegetative reproduction]]). Because it does not require male and female participation, asexual reproduction occurs faster than sexual reproduction and requires less energy. Additionally, asexual reproduction produces an exact [[replica]] of the parent due to the lack of [[genetic recombination]]. From an [[evolution]]ary standpoint, one could thus argue that asexual reproduction is inferior because it stifles the potential for change. However, there is also a significantly reduced chance of [[mutation]] or other complications that can result from the mixing of genes. Many, but not all, single-celled organisms produce asexually through [[binary fission]]. Some single-celled organisms rely on one or more [[host]] organisms in order to reproduce, but most literally divide into two organisms. An exception to the rule are [[ciliate]]s, which reproduce both sexually and asexually. All [[prokaryote]]s (the vast majority of which are [[unicellular]]) reproduce asexually. There are three types of asexual reproduction utilized by plants: [[regeneration]], [[vegetative reproduction]], and spore formation. The last type, spore formation, involves the production of reproductive cells called [[spore]]s that contain [[DNA]] and develop into a new organism after dispersal. This method of reproduction is found in the [[fern]]s, and involves sporogenesis without meiosis. Thus the chromosome number of the spore cell is the same as that of the parent producing the spores. ==Examples of asexual reproduction in higher organisms== The cape bee [[Apis mellifera capensis]] is known to sometimes reproduce asexually through a process called [[thelytoky]]. [[Identical Twins]] are also a form of asexual reproduction in humans. ==References== * Graham, L., J. Graham, &amp; L. Wilcox. 2003. ''Plant Biology''. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, N.J.: pp. 258-259. * [http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0030820.html tiscali.reference] Asexual reproduction * [http://www.tulane.edu/~wiser/protozoology/notes/intes.html Intestinal Protozoa] ==See also== * [[Alternation of generation]] * [[Bacterial conjugation]] * [[Reproduction]] * [[Sex]] [[Category:Biological reproduction]] [[cs:Nepohlavní rozmnožování]] [[de:Ungeschlechtliche Vermehrung]] [[nl:Ongeslachtelijke voortplanting]] [[es:Reproducción asexual]] [[sv:Asexuell]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aelbert Cuyp</title> <id>2758</id> <revision> <id>41294206</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T09:40:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.210.119.60</ip> </contributor> <comment>minor changes</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The_Negro_Page_by_Aelbert_Cuyp.jpeg|thumb|right|350px|&quot;The Negro Page&quot;]] '''Aelbert Jacobsz Cuyp''' ([[Dordrecht]] [[October 20]], [[1620]] - Dordrecht [[November 15]], [[1691]]) was one of the leading [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[landscape painting|landscape]] [[painter]]s of the [[17th century]]. The most famous of a family of painters, the pupil of his father [[Jacob Gerritsz. Cuyp]] (1594&amp;ndash;1651/52), he is especially known for his views of the Dutch countryside in early morning or late afternoon. Sunlight in his paintings rakes across the panel, accentuating small bits of detail in the golden light. In large, atmospheric panoramas of the countryside, the highlights on a blade of meadow grass, the mane of a tranquil horse, the horn of a dairy cow reclining by a stream, or the tip of a peasant's hat are all caught in a bath of yellow ocher light. The quality of paint in a picture by Cuyp is unmistakably masterful. The richly [[varnish|varnished]] medium refracts the rays of light like a jewel as it dissolves into numerous glazed layers. Cuyp's drawings reveal him to be a draftsman of superior quality. Light-drenched washes of [[Walnut ink|golden brown ink]] depict a distant view of the city of [[Dordrecht]] or [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]]. A Cuyp drawing may look like he intended it to be, a finished work of art; but it was most likely taken back to the studio and used as a reference for his paintings. Often the same section of a sketch can be found in several different pictures. Cuyp's landscapes were based on reality and on his own invention of what an enchanting landscape should be. Cuyp signed many of his works but rarely dated them, so that a chronology of his career has not been satisfactorily reassembled. A phenomenal number of paintings are ascribed to him, some of which are likely to be by other masters of the golden landscape, such as '''Abraham Calraet''' (1642&amp;ndash;1722), whose initials ''A.C.'' may be mistaken for Cuyp's. ==External links== *[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/cuyp/ Cuyp family] ==See also== *[[Cuyp]] *[[Dutch Golden Age]] [[Category:1620 births|Cuyp, Albert]] [[Category:1691 deaths|Cuyp, Albert]] [[Category:Dutch painters|Cuyp, Albert]] [[Category:Dutch Golden Age painters|Cuyp, Albert]] [[Category:Landscape artists|Cuyp, Albert]] [[de:Aelbert Cuyp]] [[nl:Albert Cuyp]] [[sv:Aelbert Cuyp]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A.K. Erlang</title> <id>2759</id> <revision> <id>15901151</id> <timestamp>2005-05-01T06:50:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Woohookitty</username> <id>159678</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Agner Krarup Erlang]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arabic</title> <id>2760</id> <revision> <id>26077363</id> <timestamp>2005-10-21T08:23:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Peter Isotalo</username> <id>505774</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert and redirect to [[Arabic language]]; see talkpage.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Arabic language]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alkene</title> <id>2761</id> <revision> <id>41540442</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:03:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>12.210.90.147</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; |+'''Alkenes''' |- | align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:ethene.png]] |- ! bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Properties |- ! align=&quot;left&quot; | General formula |[[C]]&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;[[H]]&lt;sub&gt;2n&lt;/sub&gt; |- |} An '''alkene''' in [[organic chemistry]] is an [[Saturation (chemistry)|unsaturated]] [[hydrocarbon]] containing at least one [[carbon]] to [[carbon]] [[double bond]]. The simplest alkenes, with only one double bond, form a [[homologous series]], ''the alkenes'' with general formula '''C&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2n&lt;/sub&gt;'''. The simplest alkene is C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, which has the common name &quot;[[ethylene]]&quot; and the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) name &quot;[[ethene]]&quot;. Alkenes are also called [[olefin|olefins]] and [[vinyl]] compounds. == Structure of Alkenes == === Shape of Alkenes === As predicted by the [[VSEPR theory|VSEPR]] model of [[electron]] pair replusion, in the [[molecular geometry]] of alkenes the [[bond angle]]s about each carbon in a double bond are about 120&amp;deg;, although the angle may be larger because of [[steric strain]] introduced by [[nonbonded interactions]] created by [[functional group]]s attached to the carbons of the double bond. For example, the C-C-C bond angle in [[propene]] is 123.9&amp;deg;. The alkene double bond is stronger than a single [[covalent bond]] and also shorter with an average [[bond length]] of 133 [[picometre]]. === Molecular Geometry=== Like single [[covalent bond]]s, double bonds can be described in terms of overlapping atomic orbitals, except that unlike a single bond (which consist of a single [[sigma bond]]), a carbon-carbon double bond consists of one [[sigma bond]] and one [[pi bond]]. Each carbon of the double bond uses its three ''sp&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'' hybrid orbitals to form sigma bonds to three atoms. The unhybridized ''2p'' atomic orbitals, which lie perpendicular to the plane created by the axes of the three ''sp&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'' hybrid orbitals, combine to form the pi bond. Because it requires a large amount of energy to break a pi bond (264 [[joules|kJ]]/[[Mole (unit)|mol]] in ethylene), rotation about the carbon-carbon double bond is very difficult and therefore severely restricted. As a consequence substituted alkenes exist as one of two [[isomer]]s called a [[cis isomer]] and a [[trans isomer]]. In cis-2-butene two [[methyl]] substituents face the same side of the double bond and in trans-2-butene they
n ease of creating a public website. ===Finding what you need—The search engine=== {{main|Search engine}} Even before the World Wide Web, there were search engines that attempted to organize the Internet. The first of these was the [[Archie search engine]] from McGill University in 1990, followed in 1991 by [[Wide area information server|WAIS]] and [[gopher protocol |Gopher]]. All three of those systems predated the invention of the [[World Wide Web|WWW]] but all continued to index the Web and the rest of the Internet for several years after the Web appeared. There are still [[gopher protocol|Gopher]] servers today. As the Web grew, [[search engine]]s and [[Web directory|Web directories]] were created to track pages on the web and allow people to find things. The first full-text Web search engine was [[WebCrawler]] in 1990. Before WebCrawler, only Web page titles were searched. Another early search engine, [[Lycos]], was created in 1993 as a university project, and was the first to be commercially successful. By August 2001, [[Google]] tracked over 1.3 billion web pages and the growth continues. In early 2004, Google's index exceeded 4 billion pages. On [[November 11]], [[2004]], this number had doubled to just over 8 billion. On [[August 8]] [[2005]], [[Yahoo!]] announced that its online search engine index spans more than 20 billion items. ===The dot-com bubble=== {{main|Dot-com}} The suddenly low price of reaching millions worldwide, and the possibility of selling to or hearing from those people at the same moment when they were reached, promised to overturn established business dogma in [[advertising]], [[mail-order]] sales, [[customer relationship management]], and many more areas. The web was a new [[killer app]] -- it could bring together unrelated buyers and sellers in seamless and low-cost ways. Visionaries around the world developed new business models, and ran to their nearest [[venture capitalist]]. Of course a proportion of the new entrepreneurs were truly talented at business administration, sales, and growth; but the majority were just people with ideas, and didn't manage the capital influx prudently. The dot-com bubble burst on [[March 10]], [[2000]], when the technology heavy [[NASDAQ|NASDAQ Composite]] index peaked at [http://dynamic.nasdaq.com/dynamic/IndexChart.asp?symbol=IXIC&amp;desc=NASDAQ+Composite&amp;sec=nasdaq&amp;site=nasdaq&amp;months=84 5048.62] (intra-day peak 5132.52), more than double its value just a year before. By 2001, the bubble's deflation was running full speed. A majority of the dot-coms had ceased trading, after having burnt through their [[venture capital]], often without ever making a gross [[profit]]. ==References== * {{note|NetHistory}} {{Web reference | title=Hobbes' Internet Timeline v8.1 | URL=http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/ | date=November 25 | year=2005}} * {{note|AsWeMayThink}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Vannevar Bush]] | Title=As We May Think | PublishYear=1945 | URL=http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194507/bush}} * {{note|AugmentingHumanIntellect}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Douglas Engelbart]] | Title=Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework | PublishYear=1962 | URL=http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/augmentinghumanintellect/ahi62index.html}} * {{note|ABriefHistoryoftheInternet}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Barry M. Leiner]], [[Vinton G. Cerf]], [[David D. Clark]], [[Robert E. Kahn]], [[Leonard Kleinrock]], [[Daniel C. Lynch]], [[Jon Postel]], [[Lawrence Roberts (scientist)|Larry G. Roberts]], [[Stephen Wolff]] | Title=A Brief History of the Internet | PublishYear=2003 | URL=http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml }} * {{note|Man-ComputerSymbiosis}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[J. C. R. Licklider]] | Title=Man-Computer Symbiosis | PublishYear=1960 | URL=http://groups.csail.mit.edu/medg/people/psz/Licklider.html}} * {{note|ABriefHistoryofNSF}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Thomas Greene]], [[Larry Landweber]], [[George Strawn]] | Title=A Brief History of NSF and the Internet | PublishYear=2003 | URL=http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/03/fsnsf_internet.htm}} * {{note|WhereWizardsStayUpLate}} {{cite book | authorlink = Katie Hafner | last = Hafner | first = Katie | title = Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins Of The Internet | publisher = Simon &amp; Schuster | year = 1998 | id = 0-68-483267-4 }} * {{note|FromtheARPANETtotheInternet}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Ronda Hauben]] | Title=From the ARPANET to the Internet | PublishYear=2001 | URL=http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt}} * {{note|InternationalOriginsandCollaborativeVision}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Ronda Hauben]] | Title=The Internet: On its International Origins and Collaborative Vision | PublishYear=2004 | URL=http://www.ais.org/~jrh/acn/ACn12-2.a03.txt}} * {{note|InternetProtocolsatCERN}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Ben Segal]] | Title=A Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN | PublishYear=1995 | URL=http://www.ifla.org/documents/internet/segb1.htm}} * {{note|ComputerNetworks}} {{cite book | authorlink = Andrew S. Tanenbaum | last = Tanenbaum | first = Andrew S. | title = Computer Networks | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 1996 | id = 0-13-394248-1 }} * {{note|InternetHistoryTimeline}} {{Web reference | title=Internet History Timeline | work=Internet History Timeline | url=http://www.computerhistory.org/exhibits/internet_history/ | date=November 25 | year=2005}} * {{note|InternetPioneer}} {{Web reference | title=An Internet Pioneer Ponders the Next Revolution | work=An Internet Pioneer Ponders the Next Revolution | url=http://partners.nytimes.com/library/tech/99/12/biztech/articles/122099outlook-bobb.html?Partner=Snap | date=November 25 | year=2005}} * {{note|TheEarlyWorldWideWeb}} {{Web reference | title=The Early World Wide Web at SLAC | work=The Early World Wide Web at SLAC : Documentation of the Early Web at SLAC | url=http://www.slac.stanford.edu/history/earlyweb/history.shtml | date=November 25 | year=2005}} * {{note|BritishTelecommsHistory}} {{Web reference | title=Events in British Telecomms History | work=Events in British TelecommsHistory | url=http://www.sigtel.com/tel_hist_brief.html | date=November 25 | year=2005}} * {{note|InternetHistory}} {{Web reference | title=Internet History | work=Internet History | url=http://www.mkaz.com/ebeab/history/ | date=November 25 | year=2005}} * {{note|TCP-IPDigest}} {{newsgroup reference Google | Author=[[Mike Muuss]]| Title=TCP-IP Digest, Vol 1 #10 | Date=5th January 1982 | Newsgroup=fa.tcp-ip | ID=anews. Aucbvax.5690 | URL=http://groups.google.co.uk/group/fa.tcp-ip/msg/7cfa39961cf92d12?dmode=source }} * {{note|RFC 801}} [[Jon Postel]], NCP/TCP Transition Plan, RFC 801 * {{note|MailHistory}} {{Web reference | title=The History of Electronic Mail | work=The History of Electronic Mail | url=http://www.multicians.org/thvv/mail-history.html | date=December 23 | year=2005}} * {{note|FirstMail}} {{Web reference | title=The First Network Email | work=The First Network Email | url=http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html | date=December 23 | year=2005}} * {{note|ChinaPCWorld}} {{Web reference | title=A brief history of the Internet in China | work=China celebrates 10 years of being connected to the Internet | url=http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/index.php/id;854351844;pp;2;fp;2;fpid;1 | date=December 25 | year=2005}} * {{note|AsiaHist}} {{Web reference | title=Internet History in Asia | work=16th APAN Meetings/Advanced Network Conference in Busan | url=http://www.apan.net/meetings/busan03/cs-history.htm | date=December 25 | year=2005}} * {{note|InterNICcontract}} {{Web reference | title=NIS Manager Award Announced | work=NSF NETWORK INFORMATION SERVICES AWARDS | url=http://www.ripe.net/ripe/maillists/archives/lir-wg/1992/msg00028.html | date=December 25 | year=2005}} * {{note|DDN-NIC}} {{Web reference | title=DDN NIC | work=IAB Recommended Policy on Distributing Internet Identifier Assignment | url=http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1174.txt | date=December 26 | year=2005}} * {{note|SRI-GSI}} {{Web reference | title=GSI-Network Solutions | work=TRANSITION OF NIC SERVICES | url=http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1261.txt | date=December 26 | year=2005}} * {{note|PB-RAND}} {{Web reference | title=About Rand | work=Paul Baran and the Origins of the Internet | url=http://www.rand.org/about/history/baran.html | date=January 14 | year=2006 }} [[Category:Digital Revolution]] [[Category:History of computing|Internet, History of the]] [[Category:Internet]] [[Category:Telecommunications history]] [[ca:Història d'internet]] [[da:Internettets historie]] [[de:Geschichte des Internets]] [[fr:Histoire de l'internet]] [[it:Storia di Internet]] [[lt:Interneto istorija]] [[lv:Interneta vēsture]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van het internet]] [[pl:Historia Internetu]] [[pt:História da Internet]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Horace</title> <id>13693</id> <revision> <id>41881244</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T09:19:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Unyoyega</username> <id>460372</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: pt</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other people named Horace, see [[Horace (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Horace]] '''Quintus Horatius Flaccus''', ([[December 8]], [[65 BC]] - [[November 27]], [[8 BC]]), known in the [[English language|English-speaking]] world as '''Horace''', was the leading [[lyric]] poet in [[Latin]], the son of a [[freedman]], but himself born free. His father, though poor, spent considerable money on Horace's education, accompanying him first to [[Rome]] for his primary education, and then to [[Athens]] to study [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[philosophy]]. Horace never took for granted his father's care and sacrifice, and his relationship with his father remains one of the
, French socialists [[Georges Sorel]], [[Charles Peguy]], and [[Hubert Lagardelle]] were invoked as the sources of fascism. Sorel's ideas concerning [[syndicalism]] and violence are much in evidence in this document. It also quotes from [[Ernest Renan]] who it says had &quot;pre-fascist intuitions&quot;. Both Sorel and Peguy were influenced by the Frenchman [[Henri Bergson]]. Bergson rejected the [[scientism]], mechanical evolution and [[materialism]] of [[Marxist]] ideology. Also, Bergson promoted an ''[[elan vital]]'' as an evolutionary process. Both of these elements of Bergson appear in fascism. Mussolini states that fascism negates the doctrine of Marxist socialism and its doctrine of [[historical materialism]]. Hubert Lagardelle, an authoritative syndicalist writer, was influenced by [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] who, in turn, inspired [[anarchosyndicalism]]. There were several strains of tradition influencing Mussolini. [[Sergio Panunzio]], a major theoretician of fascism in the 1920s, had a [[syndicalist]] background, but his influence waned as the movement shed all connection to the working-class autonomy of syndicalism. The fascist concept of [[corporatism]] and particularly its theories of [[class collaboration]] and economic and social relations have similarities to the model laid out by [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s [[1892]] [[encyclical]] ''[[Rerum Novarum]]''{{ref|Rerum}}. This encyclical addressed politics as it had been transformed by the [[Industrial Revolution]], and other changes in society that had occurred during the nineteenth century. The document criticized capitalism, complaining of the exploitation of the masses in industry. However, it also sharply criticized the socialist concept of [[class struggle]], and the proposed socialist solution to exploitation (the elimination, or at least the limitation, of private property). ''Rerum Novarum'' called for strong governments to undertake a mission to protect their people from exploitation, while continuing to uphold private property and reject socialism. It also asked [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]] to apply principles of social justice in their own lives. Seeking to find some principle to compete with and replace the Marxist doctrine of [[class struggle]], ''Rerum Novarum'' urged social solidarity between the upper and lower [[classes]]. Its analogy of the state as being like a body working together as &quot;one mind&quot; had some cultural influence on the early Fascists of Catholic nations. It also indicated the state had a right to suppress &quot;firebrands&quot; and striking workers. Further ''Rerum Novarum'' proposed a kind of [[corporatism]] that resembled medieval guilds for an industrial age. This relates far more directly to [[Brazilian Integralism]] form of Fascism than anything in Italy. The encyclical intended to counteract the &quot;subversive nature&quot; of both [[Marxism]] and [[liberalism]]. Themes and ideas developed in ''Rerum Novarum'' can also be found in the ideology of fascism as developed by Mussolini. Although it also contains ideas like &quot;the members of the working classes are citizens by nature and by the same right as the rich&quot; or &quot;the State has for its office to protect natural rights, not to destroy them; and, if it forbid its citizens to form associations, it contradicts the very principle of its own existence,&quot; that never fit easily with Italian Fascism. Fascism also borrowed from [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]'s [[Constitution of Fiume]] for his ephemeral &quot;regency&quot; in the city of [[Fiume]]. [[Syndicalism]] had a strong influence on fascism as well, particularly as some syndicalists intersected with D'Annunzio's ideas. Before the First World War, syndicalism had stood for a militant doctrine of working-class revolution. It distinguished itself from Marxism because it insisted that the best route for the working class to liberate itself was the [[trade union]] rather than the party. The [[Italian Socialist Party]] ejected the syndicalists in 1908. The syndicalist movement split between [[anarcho-syndicalists]] and a more moderate tendency. Some moderates began to advocate &quot;mixed syndicates&quot; of workers and employers. In this practice, they absorbed the teachings of Catholic theorists and expanded them to accommodate greater power of the state, and diverted them by the influence of D'Annunzio to nationalist ends. When [[Henri De Man]]'s Italian translation of ''Au-dela du marxisme'' emerged, Mussolini was excited and wrote to the author that his criticism &quot;destroyed any scientific element left in Marxism&quot;. Mussolini was appreciative of the idea that a corporative organization and a new relationship between labour and capital would eliminate &quot;the clash of economic interests&quot; and thereby neutralize &quot;the germ of class warfare.'&quot; Socialist thinkers, [[Robert Michels]], Sergio Panunzio, [[Ottavio Dinale]], [[Agostino Lanzillo]], [[Angelo Oliviero Olivetti]], [[Michele Bianchi]], and [[Edmondo Rossoni]] played a part in this attempt to find a [[third way]] that rejected both capitalism and Marxism. Many historians claim that the [[March 23]] [[1919]] meeting at the Piazza San Sepolcro was the historic “birthplace” of the fascist movement. However, this would imply that the Italian Fascists “came from nowhere” which is simply not true. Mussolini revived his former group, ''[[Fasci d'Azione rivoluzionaria]]'', in order to take part in the 1919 elections in response to an increase in Communist activity occurring in Milan. The [[Fasci di Combattimenti]] were the result of this continuation (not creation) of the Fascist party. The result of the meeting was that Fascism became an organized political movement. Among the founding members were the revolutionary syndicalist leaders Agostino Lanzillo and Michele Bianchi. In 1919, the fascists developed a program that called for: * a [[republic|democratic republic]], * [[separation of church and state]], * a national army, * [[progressive taxation]] for inherited wealth, and * development of co-operatives or guilds to replace labor unions. As the movement evolved, several of these initial ideas were abandoned and rejected. Mussolini capitalized on fear of a Communist revolution{{ref|Corner}}, finding ways to unite Labor and Capital to prevent [[class war]]. In 1926 he created the National Council of Corporations, divided into guilds of employers and employees, tasked with managing 22 sectors of the economy. The guilds subsumed both labor unions and management, and were represented in a chamber of corporations through a triad comprised of a representative from management, from labour and from the [[Partito Nazionale Fascista]]. Together they would plan aspects of the economy for mutual advantage. The movement was supported by small [[capitalist]]s, low-level [[bureaucracy|bureaucrats]], and the [[middle class]]es, who had all felt threatened by the rise in power of the Socialists. Fascism also met with great success in rural areas, especially among farmers, peasants, and in the city, the [[lumpenproletariat]]. Mussolini's fascist state was established nearly a decade before Hitler's rise to power (1922 and the [[March on Rome]]). Both a movement and a historical phenomenon, Italian Fascism was, in many respects, an adverse reaction to both the apparent failure of ''[[laissez-faire]]'' economics and fear of Communism. Fascism was, to an extent, a product of a general feeling of anxiety and fear among the middle class of postwar Italy. This fear arose from a convergence of interrelated economic, political, and cultural pressures. Under the banner of this authoritarian and nationalistic ideology, Mussolini was able to exploit fears regarding the survival of capitalism in an era in which postwar depression, the rise of a more militant left, and a feeling of national shame and humiliation stemming from Italy's 'mutilated victory' at the hands of the World War I postwar peace treaties seemed to converge. Such unfulfilled nationalistic aspirations tainted the reputation of [[liberalism]] and [[constitutionalism]] among many sectors of the Italian population. In addition, such democratic institutions had never grown to become firmly rooted in the young [[nation-state]]. This same postwar depression heightened the allure of Marxism among an urban proletariat who were even more disenfranchised than their continental counterparts. But fear of the growing strength of [[trade union]]ism, Communism, and socialism proliferated among the [[elite]] and the middle class. In a way, Benito Mussolini filled a political vacuum. Fascism emerged as a &quot;third way&quot; &amp;mdash; as Italy's last hope to avoid imminent collapse of the 'weak' Italian liberalism, and Communist revolution. In this fluid situation, Mussolini took advantage of the opportunity and, rapidly abandoning the early socialist and republican program, put himself at the service of the antisocialist cause. The fascist militias, supported by the wealthy classes and by a large part of the state apparatus which saw in him the restorer of order, launched a violent offensive against the syndicalists and all political parties of a socialist or Catholic inspiration, particularly in the north of Italy (Emiglia Romagna, Toscana, etc.), causing numerous victims though the substantial indifference of the forces of order. These acts of violence were, in large part, provoked by fascist ''[[squadristi]]'' who were increasingly and openly supported by [[Dino Grandi]], the only real competitor to Mussolini for the ''leadership'' of the fascist party until the Congress of Rome in 1921. The violence increased considerably during the period from 1920-1922 until the March on Rome. Confronted by these badly armed and badly organized fascist militias attacking the Capital, [[King of Italy|King]] [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]], preferring to avoid any spi
t of the [[Hopewell culture]] (ca. [[100]]&amp;ndash;[[400]] CE). It was part of the [[Mississippian culture]] from roughly [[1000]]CE up to the conventional end of Mississippian dating (&quot;contact with [[European]]s&quot;). The specific [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[tribe]]s that inhabited this territory at that time were primarily the [[Miami tribe|Miami]] and the [[Shawnee (tribe)|Shawnee]]. The area was claimed for [[New France]] in the [[17th century]], handed over to the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] as part of the settlement at the end of the [[French and Indian War]], given to the [[United States]] after the [[American Revolution]], soon after which it became part of the [[Northwest Territory]], then the [[Indiana Territory]], and joined the Union in [[1816]] as the 19th state. == Law and government == [[Image:wiki_indiana.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Greetings from Indiana]] {{further|[[List of Indiana Governors]], [[Indiana General Assembly]], and [[Indiana Supreme Court]]}} The current [[governor]] of Indiana is [[Mitch Daniels]], whose campaign slogan was &quot;My Man Mitch,&quot; an appellation given by [[President George W. Bush]] for whom Mitch Daniels was the director of the office of Management and Budget. He was elected to office on [[November 2]], [[2004]]. However, Governor Daniels' plans to [[privatize]] the [[Indiana Toll Road]] to an Australian/Spanish consortium have met with resistance, especially in northern Indiana, the route of the Toll Road. His trips to that part of Indiana to explain his plan have met with thinly-disguised hostility from local residents. His first official act upon taking up the governorship was to end [[collective bargaining]] for Indiana state employees, which is largely in line with [[Republican]] [[union busting]], pro-employer/management doctrine. These acts have not been universally embraced by Hoosiers, even in this overwhelmingly Republican-controlled state. &quot;Ditch Mitch&quot; bumper stickers have started appearing throughout the state. The state's U.S. senators are [[Evan Bayh|B. Evans &quot;Evan&quot; Bayh III]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]) and [[Dick Lugar|Richard G. Lugar]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]). Indiana is considered by many to be one of the most conservative states outside the Deep South. Since it supported [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] over [[Barry Goldwater]] in [[1964]], Indiana has not backed a single Democratic presidential candidate. Indiana's polls are the first to close on Election Day, and almost invariably is the first state in the Republican column. During Presidential campaigns, little attention is paid to Indiana by either Republican or Democrat candidates, though for different reasons. Republicans have generally reliable assurance that Indiana is &quot;theirs&quot; anyway, while Democrats do not appear to want to make the effort to win votes here because of all-but-assured Republican dominance. During a 2005 speaking engagement, former President [[Bill Clinton]] half-jokingly thanked supporters for &quot;allowing&quot; him into such a &quot;[[red state]]&quot;. However, half of Indiana's governors in the 20th century were Democrats, though their policies were considerably more right-of-center than Democrats in other parts of the country. Former Governor and current U.S. Senator [[Evan Bayh]] is an all-but-announced candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 2008. His middle-of-the-road record and attention to constituencies have been well-received by Indiana voters. His father was a three-term Senator with a liberal record who was turned out of office in the 1980 &quot;[[Reagan Revolution]]&quot; by conservative Republican (and future [[Vice-President]]) [[Dan Quayle]], a native of the small town of [[Huntington, Indiana|Huntington]] in the northeastern part of the state. Until the election of former Governor Evan Bayh to the U.S. Senate, Indiana had an all-Republican Senatorial delegation, composed of the strongly conservative [[Dan Coats]] (later appointed Ambassador to Germany) and the relatively moderate [[Richard Lugar]], who is widely respected in both parties for his experience in world affairs. Indiana is nonetheless well-known for its conservatism and loyalty to the Republican Party, especially outside metropolitan areas. Hoosier conservatism is generally not radical or reactionary, but is traditionalist--rooted in a strong resistance to change, either towards &quot;left&quot; or &quot;right&quot;, though more Hoosiers identify themselves as &quot;conservative&quot;, and [[right-wing]] [[talk radio]] programming such as [[Rush Limbaugh]] is widely listened to (the first &quot;Rush Room&quot; in the United States was formed in Mishawaka). [[Gun control]], [[unions]], [[gay marriage]] (as of 2006, Indiana is attempting to amend the State Constitution to outlaw gay marriage), [[taxes]] or workers' rights issues (Indiana is a staunchly pro-management, [[at-will]] employment state) are not popular issues among many Hoosiers, which can explain their attachment to the GOP. However, attempts by political pressure groups or even individual state legislators at making the state &quot;more conservative&quot; have met with little success. == Geography == [[Image:National-atlas-indiana.PNG|thumb|left|250px|Map of Indiana]] {{see also|List of Indiana counties|List of Indiana rivers|Watersheds of Indiana}} Indiana is bounded on the north by [[Lake Michigan]] and the state of [[Michigan]], on the east by [[Ohio]], on the south by [[Kentucky]] with which it shares the [[Ohio River]] as a border, and on the west by [[Illinois]]. Indiana is one of the Great Lakes states. The 475 mile long [[Wabash River]] bisects the state from northeast to southwest and has given Indiana two theme songs, the state song ''On the Banks of the Wabash'' as well as ''The Wabash Cannonball''. The White River (a tributary of the Wabash, which is a tributary of the Ohio) zigzags through central Indiana. Indianapolis and Muncie are large cities on this river. [[Evansville]], the third largest city in Indiana, is located on the Ohio River, which forms all of the Indiana-Kentucky border. Northern Indiana is mostly farmland; however, the northwest corner of the state is part of the greater metropolitan area of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and is therefore more densely populated. [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]], a city on Lake Michigan, is effectively a suburb of Chicago, even though it is in Indiana. [[South Bend]], [[Mishawaka]], [[Elkhart]] and [[Goshen]] have effectively become a single metropolitan area over the past 20 years (spanning two counties). It is sometimes said that culturally Indiana is demarcated by [[US Highway 30]], which runs on a southeast-northwest axis from [[Fort Wayne]] through [[Merrillville]] into Illinois. Those living north of US 30 are often closer in attitude to [[Chicago]] and [[Detroit]], and some feel a disconnection from the rest of the state. South of US 30 tends to have the more stereotypical Hoosier rural, conservative attitudes, though this of course is in question in the larger cities like [[Indianapolis]], [[Lafayette]] and [[Evansville]]. [[Bloomington]] tends to be much more culturally liberal than the rest of the state. The [[Kankakee River]], which winds through northern Indiana, serves somewhat as a demarcating line between rural and suburban northwest Indiana. Southern Indiana is a mixture of farmland and forest. The [[Hoosier_National_Forest|Hoosier National Forest]] is a 200,000 acre nature preserve near Bedford. Southern Indiana generally contains more hills and geographic variation than the northern portion. == Economy == [[Image:North-manchester-indiana.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Most of northern Indiana is very flat farmland dotted with small towns, such as [[North Manchester, Indiana|North Manchester]].]] The total gross state product in 2003 was $214 billion. Indiana's per capita income, as of 2003, was $28,783. Indiana is located well within the [[Corn Belt]], and the state's agricultural methods and principal farm outputs reflect this: a feedlot-style system raising corn, to fatten hogs and cattle. [[Soybeans]] are also a major cash crop. The state's nearness to large urban centers, such as [[Chicago, Illinois]], also assures that much dairying, egg production, and specialty horticulture occur. Specialty crops include melons (southern Wabash Valley), tomatoes (concentrated in central Indiana), grapes, and mint (Source: USDA crop profiles). In addition, Indiana is a significant producer of [[tobacco]]. It should be remembered that most of the original land was not prairie and had to be cleared of deciduous trees. Many isolated parcels of woodland remain, and much of the southern, hilly portion is heavily forested (a condition which supports a local furniture-making sector in that part of the state). A high percentage of Indiana's GDP comes from manufacturing. The Calumet region of northwest Indiana is the largest [[steel]] producing area in the USA, and this activity also requires that very large amounts of electric power be generated. Indiana's other manufactures include automobiles, electrical equipment, transportation equipment, chemical products, rubber, [[petroleum]] and [[coal]] products, and factory machinery. In addition, Indiana has the international headquarters of pharmaceutical company [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] as well as the headquarters of Mead Johnson Nutritionals, a division of [[Bristol-Myers Squibb]]. [[Elkhart, Indiana|Elkhart]], in the north, has also had a strong economic base of pharmaceuticals, though this has changed over the past decade with the closure of Whitehall Laboratories in the 1990s and the planned drawdown of the large [[Bayer]] complex, announced in late 2005. [[Image:Canalbridge300.jpg|thumb|left|Indianapolis from the Central Canal]] Despite its reliance
n> </page> <page> <title>Indo-Germanic languages</title> <id>15456</id> <revision> <id>15912930</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indo-European_languages]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Indo-germanic languages</title> <id>15457</id> <revision> <id>15912931</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indo-European_languages]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Indo-germanic</title> <id>15458</id> <revision> <id>15912932</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indo-European_languages]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems</title> <id>15459</id> <revision> <id>39727862</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T12:37:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.16.146.177</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Look up codes */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems''' (commonly known by the abbreviation '''ICD''') is a detailed description of known [[disease]]s and injuries. It is published by the [[World Health Organization]] and is used world-wide for [[morbidity]] and [[mortality]] statistics. It is revised periodically and is currently in its tenth edition, known as the '''ICD-10'''. Every disease (or group of related diseases) is described with its diagnosis and given a unique code, up to five letters long. =International Classification of Diseases= The International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) are designed to promote international comparability in the collection, processing, classification, and presentation of [[morbidity]] and [[mortality]] statistics. [http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/ ICD-9]. Commonly disputed by healthcare providers as billing code and not representative of true clinical outcomes, the ICD-9 transforms verbal descriptions of diseases, injuries, and procedures into numbers. The current ICD-9-CM has been revised to incorporate changes in the medical field. To date, there have been 10 versions of the ICD, with the ICD-10 developed in 1992 to track mortality statistics. The years for which causes of death in the United States have been classified by each revision as follows: * ICD-1 - 1900 * ICD-2 - 1910 * ICD-3 - 1921 * ICD-4 - 1930 * ICD-5 - 1939 * ICD-6 - 1949 * ICD-7 - 1958 * ICD-8A - 1968 * ICD-9 - 1979 * ICD-10 - 1992 ==History== The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) was designed to promote international comparability in the collection, processing, classification, and presentation of morbidity and mortality statistics. In 1893, a French physician, [[Jacques Bertillon]], introduced the [[Bertillon Classification]] of Causes of Death at the International Statistical Institute in Chicago. A number of countries adopted Dr. Bertillon’s system, and in 1898, the [[American Public Health Association]] (APHA) recommended that the registrars of Canada, Mexico, and the United States also adopt it. The APHA also recommended revising the system every ten years to ensure the system remained current with medical practice advances. As a result, the first international conference to revise the International Classification of Causes of Death convened in 1900; with revisions occurring every ten years thereafter. At that time the classification system was contained in one book, which included an Alphabetic Index as well as a Tabular List. The book was small compared with current coding texts. The revisions that followed contained minor changes, until the sixth revision of the classification system. With the sixth revision, the classification system expanded to two volumes. The sixth revision included morbidity and mortality conditions, and its title was modified to reflect the changes: ''Manual of International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death (ICD)''. Prior to the sixth revision, responsibility for ICD revisions fell to the Mixed Commission, a group composed of representatives from the International Statistical Institute and the Health Organization of the League of Nations. In 1948, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) assumed responsibility for preparing and publishing the revisions to the ICD every ten years. WHO sponsored the seventh and eighth revisions in 1957 and 1968, respectively. In 1959, the [[U.S. Public Health Service]] published The International Classification of Diseases, Adapted for Indexing of Hospital Records and Operation Classification (ICDA). It was completed in 1962 and a revision of this adaptation – considered to be the seventh revision of ICD – expanded a number of areas to more completely meet the indexing needs of hospitals. The U.S. Public Health Service later published the Eighth Revision, International Classification of Diseases, Adapted for Use in the United States. Commonly referred to as ICDA-8, this classification system fulfilled its purpose to code diagnostic and operative procedural data for official morbidity and mortality statistics in the United States. WHO published the ninth revision of ICD (ICD-9) in 1978. The U.S. Public Health Service modified ICD-9 to meet the needs of American hospitals and called it International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) [http://www.cms.hhs.gov/paymentsystems/icd9/ ]. The ninth revision expanded the book to three volumes and introduced a fifth-digit sub-classification. ==Current Use== ICD has become the most widely used statistical classification system in the world. Although some countries found ICD sufficient for hospital indexing purposes, many others felt that it did not provide adequate detail for diagnostic indexing. The original revisions of ICD also did not provide for classification of operative or diagnostic procedures. As a result, interested persons in the United States began to develop their own adaptation of ICD for use in the United States. Hospitals and other healthcare facilities index healthcare data by referring and adhering to a classification system published by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM). The Clinical Modification or CM system was developed and implemented in order to better describe the clinical picture of the patient. The CM codes are more precise than those needed only for statistical groupings and trend analysis. The diagnosis component of ICD-9-CM is completely consistent with ICD-9 codes. Of note, [[ICD-10]] was adopted in 1999 for reporting mortality, but the ICD-9-CM remains the data standard for reporting morbidity. Revisions of the ICD-10 have progress to incorporate both clinical code (ICD-10-CM) and procedure code (ICD-10-PCS) with the revisions completed in 2003. However, ICD-9 has not been phased out by the new revision. ===Public Data Reporting=== Setting the data standard for healthcare providers for the world is a task undertaken in the last fifty years by the World Health Organization (WHO). As individuals become more involved in their personal healthcare, the data standard shared by most will be the International Classification of Diseases or ICD. These codes also have an active role in reporting of data from the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations [http://www.jcaho.org JCAHO] but also the current public data on hospitals released by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services[http://www.cms.hhs.gov/quality/hospital/ CMS] in the United States ==ICD-9== The ICD-9 was published by the WHO in 1977. At this time, the [[National Center for Health Statistics]] created an extension of it so the system could be used for [[morbidity]] as well as mortality ([http://www.instacode.com/news-icd10-demystified.htm]). This extension was called &quot;ICD-9-CM&quot;, with the CM standing for &quot;Clinical Modification&quot;. There are three volumes of the ICD-9-CM: * [[List of ICD-9 codes|Volumes 1 and 2]] contain [[diagnosis codes]]. (Volume 1 is a tabular listing, and volume 2 is an index.) * [[ICD-9-CM Volume 3|Volume 3]] contains [[procedure codes]]. ==ICD-10== Work on ICD-10 began in [[1983]] and was completed in [[1992]]. (Also see the [http://www3.who.int/icd/vol1htm2003/fr-icd.htm ICD-10 online].) ''Links to diseases can be accessed from: [[List of ICD-10 codes]].'' Adoption was relatively swift in most of the world, but not in the United States. Since 1988, the USA had required ICD-9-CM codes for [[Medicare]] and [[Medicaid]] claims, and most of the rest of the American medical industry followed suit. On January 1, 1999, the ICD-10 (without clinical extensions) was adopted for reporting [[mortality]], but ICD-9-CM was still used for [[morbidity]]. Meanwhile, NCHS received permission from the WHO to create a clinical modification of the ICD-10, and has produced drafts of the following two systems: * ICD-10-CM, for [[diagnosis codes]], is intended to replace volumes 1 and 2. A draft was completed in 2003. * [[ICD-10-PCS]], for [[procedure codes]], is intended to replace volume 3. A final draft was completed in 2000. However, neither of these systems is currently in place. There is
r even observe us at all for that matter. We would also have problems perceiving or communicating with them. See also [[#... they have experienced a technological singularity.|technological singularity]] below. Whatever the reason, it is possible that our enthusiasm and desire to communicate with other species may not be shared by alien civilizations. ==== ... Earth is purposely isolated (The zoo hypothesis). ==== A particular reason that alien civilizations may ''choose'' not to communicate with us in the so-called [[Zoo hypothesis]]: the idea that Earth is being monitored by advanced civilizations for study, or is being preserved in isolation for ethical reasons. This idea is similar to the [[Prime Directive]] of the &quot;United Federation of Planets&quot; in the fictional ''[[Star Trek]]'' television series. This possibility has caused some to speculate that perhaps humanity needs to pass a certain ethical, technological or social boundary before we will be allowed to make contact with existing advanced alien civilizations. This idea is at least possible if there is a single alien civilization within contact range, or there is a homogenous culture or law amongst alien civilizations which dictates that Earth be thus shielded from contact; this is the concept behind the &quot;Prime Directive&quot; that makes it plausible within its fictional universe. If there is a plurality of cultures, then this theory starts to break down under the [[uniformity of motive]] flaw: all it takes is single culture or civilization which decides to act contrary to such a law for it to break down, and the probability of such a violation increases with the number of civilizations which do not subscribe to this law. ==== ... they have experienced a technological singularity. ==== Another possibility is that technological civilizations invariably experience a [[technological singularity]]. This would possibly preclude communication for several reasons. Possibilities include, * The beings of the civilization would have altered in such a drastic way as to make them alien enough that communication is no longer possible. I.e. no ''meaningful'' communication might be possible between a human and the alien equivalent of a [[transhuman]] intelligence any more than we can have meaningful communication with &amp;mdash; or attempt to talk to &amp;mdash; ants. * Such beings may divest themselves of physical form, create massive artificial virtual environments (see [[Matrioshka Brain]]), transfer themselves into these environments through [[mind transfer]], and exist totally within virtual worlds, ignoring the external physical universe (this theme is explored by [[Greg Bear]] in his novel ''[[Blood Music]]'', and in [[Charles Stross]]'s [[Accelerando (novel)|''Accelerando'']] cycle. It is also mentioned briefly in [[Greg Bear]]'s ''[[Anvil of Stars]]''). * The new ''form'' of the intelligence of a post-singularity civilization would simply require more information exchange than is possible with theoretical means of interstellar communication in order to have ''meaningful'' communication between intelligences. Because of this, they do not try. Whatever the reasons, it seems unlikely that pre-singularity and post-singularity civilizations could have meaningful communication. If most civilizations experience a technological singularity soon after developing a technological civilization, then the &quot;window of time&quot; with which to communicate with a pre-singularity civilization would be brief, and the chances of us communicating with them within that time frame, low. It may be that most older alien civilizations are post-singularity civilizations, with which we will not be able to communicate until and unless we experience our own singularity. However, the possibility, probability, and the effects of a technological singularity have not even been resolved for ''human'' civilization yet. It is impossible to judge with any certainty the likelihood of ''alien'' civilizations experiencing a singularity. ==== ... but we do not understand them, even though they are communicating, because... ==== Another series of views, some of which tend to be disregarded by contemporary science, consider that alien entities have been communicating with humans throughout history, but for any number of reasons we are unable to scientifically detect these attempts; or that the accounts of communication that have been reported are generally dismissed by scientists for [[sociological]] reasons. ===== ... we are not listening properly. ===== As noted above, there are some assumptions that underly the [[SETI]] search programs. It may be that any number of these may be incorrect, and are causing us to miss signals that are present. For example, the radio searches to date would completely miss highly compressed data streams (which would be almost indistinguishable from &quot;white noise&quot; to anyone who did not understand the compression algorithm). They might also use frequencies that we have decided are unlikely to carry signals, or use [[modulation]] strategies we have not thought to look for yet. They may even use the expected &quot;simple&quot; broadcast techniques, but are broadcasting from non-[[main sequence]] stars which are searched with lower priority. Even if only a few civilizations attempted to communicate in such an &quot;obtuse&quot; manner, it would reduce the odds of us locating an alien civilization. If there are only a few civilizations in our galaxy to begin with, our &quot;narrow mindedness&quot; may cause us to miss their existence completely. ===== ... we misunderstand their attempts, or we dismiss the evidence. ===== Another proposed possibility is that alien intelligences are attempting to communicate using methods and technologies that are outside our experience or even our speculation. It is possible that such &quot;signals&quot; are reaching us, but we do not perceive them, or perceive them in a distorted manner. As an example: Some have proposed that if the human brain utilizes [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] processes in its operation (as theorized by [[Roger Penrose]], [[Stuart Hameroff]], and others) then it may be open to receiving some form of [[nonlocal]] &quot;[[psychic]]&quot; communication &amp;mdash; perhaps using quantum entanglement. Some have proposed that at least some accounts of [[mystics]], [[shaman]]s, [[schizophrenia|schizophrenics]], and [[channeling|channeler]]s may be such &quot;garbled&quot; communications, transmitted by non-human intelligences in this manner. Although [[classical]] communication in the context of [[information theory]] is not possible using quantum nonlocal correlations, supporters of this view believe that it may explain the 'garbled', associative, and inspirational nature of the 'messages' recorded in the world's religious and anthropological history. [[Terence McKenna]] has proposed that the [[psychoactive drug]] [[Dimethyltryptamine|Dimethyltryptamine (DMT)]] is an alien technology, &quot;seeded&quot; here on Earth by non-human intelligence, as part of a &quot;biological communication strategy&quot;, in order to alter the perceptive processes of the human mind so that it may receive messages being transmitted to us. While this may seem to be &quot;fringe science&quot; to some, it is an example of a theoretical means of communication that would appear very ''alien'' to our way of thinking, and would most likely be (some say is being) misinterpreted by us. Apart from this example it is possible that there are ''other'' signalling systems that would be likewise outside our current assumptions about inter-species communication, and would most likely be missed if used as a means of attempted communication by an alien civilization. ==See also== *[[SETI]] *[[Arecibo Observatory]] *[[Astrosociobiology]] *[[Doomsday argument]] *[[Drake equation]] *[[Fermi problem]] *[[Von Neumann probe]] *[[Zoo hypothesis]] *[[Planetary habitability]] ==External links== *[http://www.sff.net/people/Geoffrey.Landis/percolation.htp The Fermi Paradox: An Approach Based on Percolation Theory] by Geoffrey A. Landis *[http://www.space.com/searchforlife/shostak_paradox_011024.html Space.com: Our Galaxy Should Be Teeming With Civilizations, But Where Are They?] by Seth Shostak *[http://www-personal.engin.umich.edu/~fritx/Ftlessay/essay.html The Possibilities of FTL: Or Fermi's Paradox Reconsidered] by F.E. Freiheit IV *[http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~js/cosmo/lectures/lec28.html Fermi's Paradox (i.e. Where are They?)] by [http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~js/ James Schombert] * [http://www.accelerating.org/articles/answeringfermiparadox.html Answering the Fermi Paradox: Exploring the Mechanisms of Universal Transcension] by [[John Smart (futurist)|John Smart]] * [http://hanson.gmu.edu/greatfilter.html The Great Filter &amp;mdash; Are We Almost Past It?] by [[Robin Hanson]] * ''[http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/ResolvingFermi1983.htm Extraterrestrial Intelligence in the Solar System: Resolving the Fermi Paradox]'', which argues that our observations are incomplete, and ''[http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/ThereIsNoFermiParadox1985.htm There Is No Fermi Paradox]'', arguing that the paradox is based on a logical flaw, both by [[Robert Freitas]] * [http://www.futurehi.net/archives/000106.html Beyond Kardaschev: Possible Answer to Fermi's Paradox] by Paul Hughes * [http://www.astrobio.net/news/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=1745 SETI and the Cosmic Quarantine Hypothesis] by Steven Soter. ==Fictional treatment== * The [[Berserker (Saberhagen)|Berserker]] novels by [[Fred Saberhagen]] * ''[[Childhood's End]]'' by [[Arthur C. Clarke]] * ''[[The Engines of God]]'' by [[Jack McDevitt]] * ''[[The Forge of God]]'', ''[[Anvil of Stars]]'', and ''[[Blood Music]]'' by [[Greg Bear]] * The [[Heechee]] novels by [[Frederik Pohl]] * ''The Manifold Trilogy'': ''[[Manifold: Time]]'', ''[[Manifold: Space]
not registered with the government (in fact, this is the situation for all private enterprises in Belarus). === Free expression limited === Many western human rights groups state that the [[civil right]]s of free expression are severely limited in Belarus, though there are some individuals and groups that refuse to be controlled and some of the journalists have disappeared. What makes the situation complex, however, is that the relatively free Russian media is allowed to transmit television programming, sell newspapers and conduct journalistic activities in Belarus (though some Russian journalists have been expelled by the Belarusian government) thus giving some members of the public, typically those in large cities with many Russian residents, access to an alternative point of view in the Russian language (nearly all Belarusians understand and most of them speak Russian). In [[2004]], media watchdog [[Reporters Without Borders]] ranked Belarus 144th out of 167 countries. For comparison, in the same index Ukraine was 138th and Russia was 140th, while the closest of the other European countries were Serbia at 77 and Romania at 70. === Examples of propaganda === Perhaps the most obvious examples of Belarusian [[propaganda]] are imaginary terrorist stories, whereby alleged terrorists are said to be plotting to overthrow President [[Aleksandr Lukashenko]]. The state controlled media in Belarus deny that there is any bias or censoring of [[freedom of expression]] in Belarus. They point to the Belarusian people's overwhelming re-election of Lukashenko (also known as Luka) on [[September 9]], [[2001]] claiming that this shows that the anti-democracy sentiment in Belarus is genuine and that the Belarusian people and media do have the right to free speech - they simply do not want to criticize their government because they believe it to be running the country well. Once outside Belarus and free of fear of reprisal, most Belarusians are vocal in their discontent with the Soviet-style system that prevents free enterprise and democracy from taking root in Belarus as it has in neighboring post-Soviet countries. They also point to the fact that the standard of living of Belarus is comparatively low. :''See also :'' [[Politics of Belarus]] ==External links== Non-state controlled media and criticism: * http://www.charter97.org/eng/news/ Pro-democracy alternative Belarus news blog * http://www.hrw.org/wr2k2/europe4.html Human Rights Watch 2002 Belarus Report * http://www.zubr-belarus.com/index.php?lang=2 &quot;Bison&quot; Youth Protest Movement * http://www.osce.org/belarus/ OSCE office in Belarus * http://www.ilhr.org/ilhr/regional/belarus/index.html International League of Human Rights Belarus Project * http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=1049 Reports without Frontiers article on Belarus press freedoms * http://www.zubr.com/en/catalog/17.html List of Belarusian media outlets * http://www.cpj.org/attacks03/europe03/belarus.html Attacks on the Press:2003 * http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/188/ IFEX Alerts on media freedom violations in Belarus Statement from the Belarusian Embassy to the U.S. on Mass Media in Belarus: * http://www.belarusembassy.org/media/index.htm * http://www.e-belarus.org/links/media.html Media in Belarus (Media Directory) [[Category:Belarusian media]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belgium/History</title> <id>3540</id> <revision> <id>15901862</id> <timestamp>2002-03-01T15:32:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LA2</username> <id>445</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Belgium]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belgium/Geography</title> <id>3541</id> <revision> <id>15901863</id> <timestamp>2002-08-03T14:46:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Scipius</username> <id>488</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to [[Geography of Belgium]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Belgium]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belgium/People</title> <id>3542</id> <revision> <id>15901864</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:36:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Belgium]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belgium/Government</title> <id>3543</id> <revision> <id>15901865</id> <timestamp>2002-08-03T14:43:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Scipius</username> <id>488</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to [[Politics of Belgium]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Belgium]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belgium/Economy</title> <id>3544</id> <revision> <id>15901866</id> <timestamp>2002-08-03T14:52:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Scipius</username> <id>488</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to [[Economy of Belgium]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Belgium]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in Belgium</title> <id>3545</id> <revision> <id>19251676</id> <timestamp>2005-07-20T20:11:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Joolz</username> <id>123025</id> </contributor> <comment>{{CIA}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} '''Telephones - main lines in use:''' 4.769 million (1997) - 5.2 million in 2003 '''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 974,494 (1997) - 8.1 million in 2003 '''Telephone system:''' highly developed, technologically advanced, and completely automated domestic and international telephone and telegraph facilities &lt;br /&gt;''domestic:'' nationwide cellular telephone system; extensive cable network; limited microwave radio relay network &lt;br /&gt;''international:'' 5 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 Eutelsat '''Radio broadcast stations:''' FM 79, AM 7, shortwave 1 (1998) '''Radios:''' 8.075 million (1997) '''Television broadcast stations:''' 25 (plus 10 repeaters) (1997) '''Televisions:''' 4.72 million (1997) '''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):''' 61 (2000) '''Internet users:''' 3.76 million (2002) - 5.1 million in 2004 '''[[Country code]]:''' BE ==Reference== ''Much of the material in this article is adapted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] .'' :''See also:'' [[Belgium]] [[Category:Communications by country|Belgium]] [[Category:Communications in Belgium| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transportation in Belgium</title> <id>3546</id> <revision> <id>40334793</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T22:08:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Meddlin' Pedant</username> <id>51586</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">This article is about '''transportation in Belgium'''. ==Railways== ''Main article'': [[Rail transport in Belgium]] Total of 3,437 km (2,446 km electrified; 2,563 km double track) all on [[standard gauge]] of 1.435 m (1998). [[NMBS/SNCB]] is the National Railway Company of Belgium. Trains, unlike road traffic, run on the left. City with [[metro]] system: [[Brussels]] (''[[MIVB/STIB]]'', see also [[Brussels Metro]]). Cities with [[light rail]] systems: [[Antwerp]] (''De Lijn''), [[Charleroi]] (''TEC''), [[Ghent]] (''De Lijn''). Some heavy [[metro]] infrastructures were built in [[Antwerp]] and in [[Charleroi]] and its suburbs, but these are currently used by [[light rail]] vehicles, and their conversion to full [[metro]] is not envisaged at present due to lack of funds. ===Rail links with adjacent countries=== *All adjacent countries use the same 1.435 m gauge. *[[Transportation in the Netherlands|Netherlands]] - yes - different voltage [[3000VDC]]/[[1500VDC]] *[[Transportation in Germany|Germany]] - yes - different voltage [[3000VDC]]/[[15kVAC]] *[[Transportation in Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] - yes - different voltage [[3000VDC]]/[[25kVAC]]?? *[[Transportation in France|France]] - yes - different voltage [[3000VDC]]/[[25kVAC]] ==Roads== ===Highways=== &lt;br /&gt;''total:'' 149,018 km (2002) &lt;br /&gt;''highways:'' 1,729 km &lt;br /&gt;''regional roads:'' 12,610 km &lt;br /&gt;''others:'' 134,679 km The highways[http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/overzichtb.html] in Belgium are marked with a letter '''A''' and a number. Most often however the European numbering system is used. There is however not always a one-on-one relationship between the two numbering systems along the whole length of the highways. *[[A1 road (Belgium)|A1]]([[European route E19|E19]]): [[Brussels]] - [[Antwerp]] - [[Breda]] *[[A4 road (Belgium)|A4]]([[European route E411|E411]]): [[Brussels]] - [[Wavre]] - [[Namur]] - [[Arlon]] - [[Luxembourg]] *[[A10 road (Belgium)|A10]]([[European route E40|E40]]): [[Brussels]] - [[Ghent]] - [[Brugge]] *[[A14 road (Belgium)|A14]]([[European route E17|E17]]): [[Lille]] - [[Kortrijk]] - [[Ghent]] - [[Antwerp]] *[[A18 road (Belgium)|A18]]([[European route E40|E40]]): [[Brugge]] - [[Veurne]] - [[Dunkerque]] *[[A2 road (Belgium)|A2]]([[European route E314|E314]]): [[Leuven]] - [[Lummen]] - [[Genk]] *[[A3 road (Belgium)|A3]]([[European route E40|E40]]): [[Brussels]] - [[Leuven]] - [[Liège (city)|Li&amp;egrave;ge]] - [[Aachen]] ===Ringways=== The ringways[http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/rb.html](or orbital roads) around bigger cities have their proper nomenclature. The names start with a '''R''' then a first digit indicating the (old)province, and sometimes a second digit to further differentiate in between different
ion between [[Potassium permanganate]] and [[Sodium sulfite]]. :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Reaction unbalanced: }\mbox{KMnO}_{4}+\mbox{Na}_{2}\mbox{SO}_3+\mbox{H}_2\mbox{O}\rightarrow\mbox{MnO}_{2}+\mbox{Na}_{2}\mbox{SO}_{4}+\mbox{KOH}\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Reduction: }\mbox{3e}^{-}+\mbox{2H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{MnO}_{4}^{-}\rightarrow\mbox{MnO}_{2}+\mbox{4OH}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Oxidation: }\mbox{2OH}^{-}+\mbox{SO}^{2-}_{3}\rightarrow\mbox{SO}^{2-}_{4}+\mbox{H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{2e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt; The same procedure as followed on acid medium by multiplying electrons to opposite half reactions solve the equation thus balancing the overall reaction. :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{6e}^{-}+\mbox{4H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{2MnO}_{4}^{-}\rightarrow\mbox{2MnO}_{2}+\mbox{8OH}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{6OH}^{-}+\mbox{3SO}^{2-}_{3}\rightarrow\mbox{3SO}^{2-}_{4}+\mbox{3H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{6e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt; Equation balanced: :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{2KMnO}_{4}+\mbox{3Na}_{2}\mbox{SO}_3+\mbox{H}_2\mbox{O}\rightarrow\mbox{2MnO}_{2}+\mbox{3Na}_{2}\mbox{SO}_{4}+\mbox{2KOH}\,&lt;/math&gt; ====Neutral medium==== The same procedure as used on acid medium is applied, for example on balancing using electron ion method to [[Combustion|complete combustion]] of [[propane gas]]. :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Reaction unbalanced: }\mbox{C}_{3}\mbox{H}_{8}+\mbox{O}_{2}\rightarrow\mbox{CO}_{2}+\mbox{H}_{2}\mbox{O}\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Reduction: }\mbox{4H}^{+} + \mbox{O}_{2}\rightarrow\mbox{H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{H}_{2}\mbox{O}+ \mbox{4e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Oxidation: }\mbox{20e}^{-}+\mbox{6H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{C}_{3}\mbox{H}_{8}\rightarrow\mbox{3CO}_{2}+\mbox{20H}^{+}\,&lt;/math&gt; As in acid and basic medium, electrons which were used to compensate oxidation changes are multiplied to opposite half reactions, thus solving the equation. :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{20H}^{+}+\mbox{5O}_{2}\rightarrow\mbox{5H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{5H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{20e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{20e}^{-}+\mbox{6H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{C}_{3}\mbox{H}_{8}\rightarrow\mbox{3CO}_{2}+\mbox{20H}^{+}\,&lt;/math&gt; Equation balanced: :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{C}_{3}\mbox{H}_{8}+\mbox{5O}_{2}\rightarrow\mbox{3CO}_{2}+\mbox{4H}_{2}\mbox{O}\,&lt;/math&gt; ==Electrochemical cells== {{main|Electrochemical cell}} An electrochemical cell is a device capable to produce electric current by a [[spontaneous]] redox reaction. This kind of cell is also known as [[Galvanic cell]] or [[Voltaic cell]], named after [[Luigi Galvani]] and [[Alessandro Volta]], both scientists conducted several experiments on chemical reactions and electric current during the late [[18th century]]. [[Image:Galvanic cell.png|thumb|right|260px|A modified version of [[Galvanic cell|Daniells Cell]]s, a U—Shaped tube is replaced with a porous disk acting as [[saline bridge]] thus electric current is produced.]] The Galvanic cell's metals dissolve in the [[electrolyte]] at two different rates, leaving some electrons in the rest of the metal, which charges it negative with respect to the electrolyte. Each metal undergoes a different [[half reaction|half-reaction]], giving different dissolving rates, which causes an unequal number of electrons in the two metals. This results in a different electrode potential between the electrolyte and each metal. If an electrical connection, such as a [[wire]] or direct contact, is formed between the two, an electric current appears in the metal. Electrochemical cell which [[electrode|electrodes]] are [[Zinc]] and [[Copper]] submerged on [[Zinc sulfate]] and [[Copper sulfate]] respectively is known as [[Daniell cell|Daniells cell]]. In a Galvanic cell [[anode]] is defined the electrode where oxidation occurs and [[cathode]] the electrode where the reduction takes place. Half reactions for a Daniells cell are these: :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Zinc electrode (anode) : }\mbox{Zn}(s)\rightarrow\mbox{Zn}^{2+}(aq)+\mbox{2e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Copper electrode (cathode) : }\mbox{Cu}^{2+}(aq)+\mbox{2e}^{-}\rightarrow\mbox{Cu}(s)\,&lt;/math&gt; In order to avoid positive charges to accumulate on anode's compartment an U—shaped tube inverted filled with an [[electrolytic solution]] is placed on the cell, thus allowing flow of electrons and producing [[Direct current|D.C.]] electric current. Cell's [[voltage]] is often defined as an [[analogy|analogue]] to difference between [[potential energy]] in both heights of a [[waterfall]] on which a [[galvanometer|voltameter]] is capable of measuring the change on [[Electric potential|electrical potential]] between anode and cathode. Electrochemical cell voltage is also referred to as [[electromotive force]] or [[emf]]. A cell diagram traces the path of the electrons in the electrochemical cell. The reduced form of the metal to be oxidized at the anode is written first, followed by its oxidized form, then the oxidized form of the metal to be reduced at the cathode, and finally the reduced form of the metal at the cathode. A vertical line separates both electrodes and the limit between the phases (oxidation changes); a double vertical line represents the saline bridge on the cell. Daniell's cell diagram: :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Zn}(s)|\mbox{Zn}^{2+}(1M)||\mbox{Cu}^{2+}(1M)|\mbox{Cu}(s)\,&lt;/math&gt; ==Standard electrode potential== {{Main|Standard electrode potential}} [[Image:Reduction-potentials2.PNG|thumb|right|260px|The [[standard reduction potentials]] table is determined in a modified version of [[galvanic cell]] using an [[Hydrogen]] [[electrode]] as [[cathode]], because Hydrogen is taken as reference, standard reduction potential for that substance is zero (gray [[highlighter|highlight]]).]] Standard electrode potential is the value of the standard [[emf]] of a cell in which molecular hydrogen under standard pressure (10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; Pa) is oxidized to solvated protons at the left-hand electrode. The cell potential depends on the difference between each half cell potential. Conventionally the potential associated with each electrode is chosen as the [[reduction]] takes place on the chosen electrode, hence standard electrode potential are [[tabulation|tabulated]] on reduction potentials, thus tables are built on [[Standard reduction potential|standard reduction potentials]] noted as &lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}^{0}_{red}\,&lt;/math&gt;. Standard cell potential is calculated by the difference between the standard reduction potentials of each electrode. :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}^{o}_{cell}=\mbox{E}^{o}_{red}(cathode)-\mbox{E}^{o}_{red}(anode)&lt;/math&gt; It is impossible to measure directly half cell standard reduction potential, to avoid this problem a standard reduction potential is assignated to a reference acting as an electrode equivalent to &lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}^{0}_{red}=0\,&lt;/math&gt;. Cell's half reaction used for this procedure is [[hydrogen]] which in [[Standard conditions for temperature and pressure|standard temperature and pressure]] conditions (10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; Pa, 298.15&amp;nbsp;K, 1 mol.L&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;) acts as a zero volt electrode. The [[Standard hydrogen electrode|standard hydrogen electrode]] or ([[Standard hydrogen electrode|SHE]]) consists on an inverted glass tube similar to a laboratory [[test tube]], where a light and fine [[platinum]] wire is connected to a thin platinum [[blade]]. This setup is placed in a solution of [[Hydrochloric acid]], plenty of H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ions, gaseous [[hydrogen]] enter through the tube and react over the platinum blade thus allowing reduction and oxidation processes to occur. [[Standard hydrogen electrode|SHE]] operates exactly as the same way as conventional electrodes on Daniells cell's work; in order to measure the standard reduction potential, SHE replaces one of the electrodes in the electrochemical cell acting as [[cathode]] or [[anode]], thus electric current generated on the cell represents the standard reduction potential for the element which is measured. For example on Copper standard reduction potential: :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Cell diagram}\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Pt}(s)|\mbox{H}_{2}(1 atm)|\mbox{H}^{+}(1 M)||\mbox{Cu}^{2+}(1 M)|\mbox{Cu}(s)\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}^{o}_{cell}=\mbox{E}^{o}_{red}(cathode)-\mbox{E}^{o}_{red}(anode)&lt;/math&gt; At standard temperature pressure conditions cell's [[electromotive force|emf]] (measured by a [[multimeter]]) is 0.34 V, conventionally [[Standard hydrogen electrode|SHE]] has a zero value, thus replacing on previous equation gives: :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{0.34V}_{cell}=\mbox{E}^{o}_{\mbox{Cu}^{2+}/\mbox{Cu}}-\mbox{E}^{o}_{\mbox{H}^{+}/\mbox{H}_{2}}&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{0.34V}_{cell}=\mbox{E}^{o}_{\mbox{Cu}^{2+}/\mbox{Cu}}-0&lt;/math&gt; Electrochemical cell's [[electromotive force|emf]] value is used to predict whether redox reaction is a [[spontaneous]] process or not. A positive sign for overall cell's standard potential is considered to be spontaneous reaction, a negative sign would predict a spontaneous reaction on the opposite direction. Changes over [[Stoichiometric coefficient|stoichiometric coefficients]] on balanced cell equation will not change &lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}^{0}_{red}\,&lt;/math&gt; value because standard electrode electrode potential are [[Intensive and extensive properties|intensive properties]]. ==Spontaneity of Redox systems== {{main|Spontaneous process}} On electrochemical cells, [[chemical energy]] transforms into [[electrical energy]] and is expressed mathematically as the product between cell's emf by [[electrical charge]] in [[Coulombs]]. :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Electrical energy}=(\mbox{volts})(\mbox{coulombs})\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Electrical energy}=\mbox{joules}\,&lt;/math&gt; Electrochemical cell's total charge is determined by multiplying the number of moles by [[Faraday's constant]] (F). :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Total charge}=\mbox{n}\mbox{F}\,&lt;/math&gt; Faraday's constant is