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to other machines such as the [[Sinclair Research Ltd|Sinclair]] [[ZX Spectrum]] and [[Commodore 64]].
The Dragon was also unable to display [[minuscule|lower-case]] letters easily. Some more sophisticated applications synthesised them using high-resolution graphics modes (in the same way that user-defined characters would be designed for purely graphical applications such as games). Simpler programs just managed without lower case. This effectively locked it out of the then-blooming educational market, which came to be dominated by the [[Acorn Computers Ltd|Acorn]]-built [[BBC Micro]].
As a result of these limitations, the Dragon was not a commercial success, and Dragon Data collapsed in June 1984.
Despite the demise of the parent company, Dragons still proved quite popular. They had a robust [[motherboard]] in a spacious case, and were much more tolerant of home-modification than many of their contemporaries, which often had their components crammed into the smallest possible space.
==Technical notes==
===Hardware and peripherals===
The Dragon was built around the [[Motorola 6809|Motorola MC6809E]] processor running at 0.89 [[megahertz|MHz]]. For the time, this was a relatively sophisticated 8-bit CPU, with limited 16-bit capabilities. In terms of raw computational power, the Dragon beat most of its contemporary rivals (which were based on the older [[MOS Technology 6502]] and [[Zilog Z80]]) but this made little difference in a market where graphical capabilities and software library were much more important to consumers.
Many Dragon 32s were upgraded by their owners to 64K. A few were further expanded to 128K, 256K, or 512K, with home-built memory controllers/[[memory management unit]]s (MMUs).
A broad range of peripherals existed for the Dragon 32/64, and on top of this there were add-ons such as the [[Dragon's Claw]] which gave the Dragons access to the [[BBC Micro]]'s large range of accessories (a particularly important factor in the UK home market). Although neither machine had a built-in disk operating system ([[compact audio cassette|cassette tapes]] being the default data-storage mechanism in the home computer market at the time), DragonDOS was supplied as part of the disk controller interface from Dragon Data Ltd. The numerous external ports (by the standards of the time), including the standard [[RS-232]] on the 64, also allowed hobbyists to attach a diverse range of equipment.
===System software===
In addition to the [[DragonDOS]] disk operating system the Dragon 32/64 were capable of running several others, including [[FLEX (operating system)|FLEX]] and [[OS-9]] which brought [[Unix|UNIX]]-like multitasking to the platform. Memory-expanded and MMU-equipped Dragons were able to run OS-9 Level 2.
===Differences from the CoCo===
Both the Dragon and the TRS-80 Color Computer (Coco) were based on a Motorola data sheet design for the MC6883 SAM chip for memory management and peripheral control.
The systems were sufficiently similar that a significant fraction of the compiled software produced for one machine would happily run on the other. Software running via the built-in Basic interpreters also had a high level of compatibility, but only after they were re-[[tokenize]]d (which could be achieved fairly easily by transferring via cassette tape with appropriate options).
The Dragon had additional circuitry to make the MC6847 VDG compatible with european 625-line television standards, rather than the US 525-line [[NTSC]] standard, and a [[Centronics]] parallel printer port not present on the Coco. Some models were manufactured with NTSC video for the US market.
===Dragon 32 vs. Dragon 64===
Aside from the amount of RAM, the 64 also had an [[RS-232]] serial port which was not included on the 32.
A minor difference between the two Dragon models was the outer case color; the Dragon 32 was [[beige]] and the 64 was light grey. Besides the color and the Dragon 64's serial port (and the model name stickers, of course), the two machines looked exactly the same.
===Special features trivia===
Like with most other home computers, accessing and/or modifying the value of various operating system structures or [[memory mapping|memory mapped]] [[hardware register|control register]]s would invoke more or less useful features of the OS or hardware. The Dragon's "secret incantations" included the following:
* [[PEEK and POKE|POKE]] 65495,0 let the processor double its ROM access speed. This accelerated the ROM-resident BASIC interpreter, but temporarily disabled correct functioning of the cassette/printer ports. POKE 65495,126 returned the speed to normal.
* POKE 113,18 would cause the computer to perform a [[soft reboot|warm start]].
==References==
*Vander Reyden, John (1983). ''Dragon 32 programmer's reference guide''. Beam Software/Melbourne House. ISBN 0-86161-134-9.
* Smeed, D.; Sommerville, I. (1983). ''Inside the Dragon''. Addison-Wesley.
==External links==
*[http://www.6809.org.uk/dragon/ The Dragon 32/64 Computers] – at website www.6809.org.uk
*[http://www.grempc.demon.co.uk/dragon/info/ Dragon Information Files] – from Graham's Dragon Page, by Graham E. Kinns
*[http://www.dragon-archive-online.co.uk/ The Dragon Archive] – An archive of everything related to the Dragon 32/64 and its clones and prototypes
[[Category:Home computers]]
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<page>
<title>Dark matter</title>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/167.21.254.11|167.21.254.11]] ([[User talk:167.21.254.11|talk]]) to last version by Dragons flight</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This refers to the cosmological use of the term. For other uses, see [[Dark matter (disambiguation)]]''
{{Cosmology}}
In [[cosmology]], '''dark matter''' refers to hypothetical [[matter]] [[particles]], of unknown composition, that do not emit or reflect enough [[electromagnetic radiation]] to be detected directly, but whose presence can be inferred from [[gravity|gravitational]] effects on visible matter such as [[star]]s and [[galaxy|galaxies]]. The dark matter hypothesis aims to explain several anomalous astronomical observations, such as anomalies in the rotational speed of galaxies (the [[galaxy rotation problem]]). Estimates of the amount of matter present in galaxies, based on gravitational effects, consistently suggest that there is far more matter than is directly observable. The existence of dark matter would also resolve a number of inconsistencies in the [[Big Bang]] theory, and is crucial for [[structure formation]].
If dark matter does exist, it has vastly more mass than the "visible" part of the [[universe]] [http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_mm/mr_limits.html]. Only about 4% of the total mass in the universe (as inferred from gravitational effects) can be seen directly. About 23% is thought to be composed of dark matter. The remaining 73% is thought to consist of [[dark energy]], an even stranger component, distributed diffusely in space, that probably cannot be thought of as ordinary particles. Determining the nature of this missing mass is one of the most important problems in modern [[cosmology]] and [[particle physics]].
==Hypothesizing dark matter==
In 1913, Norwegian explorer and physicist [[Kristian Birkeland]] may have been the first to predict that space is not only a [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]], but also contains "dark matter". He wrote: ''"It seems to be a natural consequence of our points of view to assume that the whole of space is filled with electrons and flying electric ions of all kinds. We have assumed that each stellar system in evolutions throws off electric corpuscles into space. It does not seem unreasonable therefore to think that the greater part of the material masses in the universe is found, not in the solar systems or nebulae, but in 'empty' space".'' (Ref. See notes) [[Jim Peebles|Professor Peebles]] and [[Jeremiah P. Ostriker|Professor Ostriker]], both of [[Princeton University]] investigated dark matter.
The first to hypothesize dark matter was [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[astrophysicist]] [[Fritz Zwicky]], of the [[California Institute of Technology]] (Caltech) in 1933. He applied the [[virial theorem]] to the [[Coma galaxy cluster|Coma]] [[groups and clusters of galaxies|cluster of galaxies]] and obtained evidence of unseen mass. Zwicky estimated the total amount of mass in a [[galaxy cluster|cluster of galaxies]], the [[Coma Cluster]], based on the motions of the galaxies near the edge of the cluster. When he compared this mass estimate to one based on the number of galaxies and total brightness of the cluster, he found that there was about 400 times more mass than expected. The gravity of the visible galaxies in the cluster would be far too small for such fast orbits, so something extra was required. This is known as the "missing mass problem". Based on these conclusions, Zwicky inferred that there must be some other form of matter existent in the cluster which we have not detected, which provides enough of the mass and gravity to hold the cluster together.
{{unsolved|physics|What is dark matter? How is it generated? Is it related to [[supersymmetry]]?}}
Professor [[Timothy Sumner|T. Sumner]] of the [[Imperial College London]] hypothesized a possible particle, the [[neutralino]], which is a candidate for [[Cold dark matter]] but so far it is undetected. Sumner was looking for something massive which fails to interact with normal matter. If dark matter exists throughout the [[Milky Way|Milky Way Galaxy]] it must pass through the Earth but fails to interact with [[the Earth]] o |
>
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<comment>*</comment>
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<title>JapanConstitution/ChapterFive</title>
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<title>JapanConstitution/ChapterSix</title>
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<title>JapanConstitution/ChapterSeven</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Constitution of Japan]]</text>
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<title>JapanConstitution/ChapterEight</title>
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<title>JapanConstitution/ChapterNine</title>
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<title>JapanConstitution/ChapterTen</title>
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<title>JapanConstitution/ChapterEleven</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Constitution of Japan]]</text>
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<page>
<title>JudO</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Judo]]
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<page>
<title>John Ford (disambiguation)</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''John Ford''' may refer to:
* [[John Ford]] (1894–1973), film director
* [[John Ford (dramatist)]] (1586–c.1640)
* [[John D. Ford]] (1840–1918), U.S. naval officer
* [[John David Ford]], Green candidate for Canadian House of Commons, 2004, 2006
* [[John M. Ford]] (born 1957), writer, game designer
* [[John Ford (politician)]] (born 1942), Tennessee state senator
* [[John Patrick Ford]], witness in the [[Schapelle Corby]] trial.
* [[John Salmon Ford]] (also called John ”Rip” Ford) (1815–1897), Texas politician, Texas Ranger, Confederate military officer, journalist
{{hndis}}
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<page>
<title>John Woo</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:12:32Z</timestamp>
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<ip>82.36.108.51</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:John_woo_small.jpg|right|John Woo]]
'''John Woo''' ({{zh-cp|c=&#21555;&#23431;&#26862;|p=Wú Y&#468;s&#275;n}}) (born [[1 May]], [[1946]], in [[Guangzhou]], [[China]]) is a [[China|Chinese]] [[film director]] known especially for the [[ballet]]-like [[violence]] in his [[film|movie]]s.
==Biography==
When Woo's parents were faced with persecution, his [[Lutheran]] family fled to [[Hong Kong]] when he was five years old. During this time, the Woo family led a hard life in the slums since his father had [[tuberculosis]] and could not work. In 1953, the family was made [[homeless]] when their house was burned to the ground in a brush fire. It was only thanks to donations from charities that his family were able to move into another house. Unfortunately, by this time, a wave of crime and violence was beginning to infest Hong Kong's housing projects. One of Woo's most vivid childhood memories was of seeing a man being killed on his front steps.
In order to escape his dismal surroundings, Woo would retreat to the local movie theater. It was through [[Musical film|musical]]s like ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' &mdash;a film that still stands as his all-time favorite&mdash;that the young Woo came to realize that the world was not just filled with violence and suffering; it could be beautiful and happy as well.
Woo has been married to Annie Woo Ngau Chun-lung since 1976 and they have three children. He plans to stay in the [[United States]].
==Hong Kong career history==
In 1969, when he was 23, Woo got a job as a script supervisor at Cathay Studios. In 1971, he became an assistant director at [[Shaw Studios]], where the famous [[Chang Cheh]] took him under his wing. In 1974 he directed his first feature film '''The Young Dragons''' (Tie han rou qing)''. Choreographed by [[Jackie Chan]], it was a [[Kung fu]] [[action cinema|action]] film that featured dynamic camera-work and elaborate action scenes. The film was picked up by [[Golden Harvest Studio]] where he went on to direct more martial arts films. He later had success as a comedy director with ''Money Crazy (Fa qian han)'' (1977), starring Hong Kong comedian [[Ricky Hui]].
By the mid-1980s, Woo suffered a [[Burnout (psychology)|burnout]]. His films were failures at the box office and he retreated to [[Taiwan]] in exile. John Woo&mdash; once called the new comedy king of Hong Kong&mdash; seemed to be on the way out. It was then that director/producer [[Tsui Hark]] provided the funding for Woo to film a longtime pet project called ''[[A Better Tomorrow]]'' (1986).
The story of two brothers&mdash; one a cop, the other a criminal&mdash; the film became a sensational [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]]. ''A Better Tomorrow'' singularly redefined Hong Kong [[action cinema]] with its emotional drama, slow-motion gun-battles and gritty atmosphere. The film's trenchcoat/sunglasses fashion sense, and combat style of using a gun in each hand in close quarters&mdash; often referred to as '[[Gun fu]]'&mdash; would later inspire [[Hollywood]] filmmakers such as [[Quentin Tarantino]] and the [[Wachowski brothers]].
Together with leading man [[Chow Yun-Fat]], John Woo would make several more [[Heroic bloodshed|Heroic Bloodshed]] films in the late 1980s and early 1990s. His violent [[gangster]] [[thriller]]s typically focused on men who were steadfast in their honor and friendship, even though such values forced them to become outcasts in a rapidly-changing world that was more concerned with money and progress. In this respect, Woo's characters were modern-day knights who used guns instead of swords.
The most famous of these movies would be ''[[The Killer (film)|The Killer]] (Die xue shuang xiong)'' (1989), which brought Woo international recognition. Often named as one of the best Hong Kong movies ever made, it was widely praised by critics and fans for its action sequences, acting and [[cinematography]], and often referred to as being a perfect action film. With ''The Killer'' becoming the most successful Hong Kong film in the U.S. since [[Bruce Lee]]'s ''[[Enter the Dragon]]'' (1973), John Woo became a [[cult film|cult]] favorite. One year later he made another masterpiece, ''[[Bullet in the Head]]'', that he still considers as his most personal work. The movie was a major commercial failure in his career though.
It was only a matter of time before [[Hollywood]] took notice. By this time, John Woo had many American admirers, including the likes of [[Martin Scorsese]], and [[Sam Raimi]] - who compared Woo's mastery of action to [[Alfred Hitchcock|Hitchcock]]'s mastery of suspense. Enormously impressed with his work, American executives green-lighted a contract for Woo to work in America. With the [[History of Hong Kong|1997 handover of Hong Kong]] fast approaching, Woo decided that it was indeed time to leave.
John Woo's last Hong Kong film was ''[[Hard Boiled]]'' (1992), which he made as an antithesis to his movies that glorifie gangsters. Upping the ante with an all-out action film, it featured a Hollywood-scale spectacle in its second half with policemen and criminals waging war inside a hospital - while helpless patients are caught in the crossfire. The film climaxes with supercop [[Chow Yun-Fat]] singing a lullaby to a baby while gunning down incoming gangsters, and then jumping out of a window to safety below, baby in arm.
==United States career history==
In [[1993 in film|1993]], |
has made dishes like kebab and falafel as popular as more traditional Scandinavian fast food.
==Transportation==
[[Image:Trains in Copenhagen.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Trains in Copenhagen outside of Carlsberg building]]
Copenhagen has a public transportation system, consisting of commuter trains (called "[[S-Train]]s" (''S-tog'')), [[bus]]es, and a new [[Copenhagen Metro|metro]]. The S-trains form the basis of the transportation network, stretching to most areas of metropolitan Copenhagen, with their main hub at Copenhagen Central Station (København H). Some regional trains supplement the S-train services with lines extending further such as to the [[Copenhagen Airport]], [[Elsinore]], and [[Malmö]]. The entire system is governed by the same overall authority and tickets are transferable from one mode to another. The region is divided up into 99 zones which govern the cost of a ticket. Travelling through two zones is less expensive than three, four, or more zones. A trip of seven or more zones costs a base rate. Ticket prices are high and have increased substantially in recent years leading to a decrease in passenger numbers. In fact the percentage of trips made on public transportation in Copenhagen is quite low by northern European standards.
An extensive road system is also in place for private automobiles, and the city's [[bicycle paths]] are extensive and well-used. The city provides [[Community bicycle program|public bicycles]] which can be found throughout the downtown area and used with a returnable deposit of 20 [[Danish krone|kroner]]. Bicycle paths are often separated from the main automobile lanes and have their own signal systems.
==Places of note in or near Copenhagen==
[[Image:Christiansborg Slot1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''[[Christiansborg]] Castle'' - home of the Danish Parliament - ''[[Folketing]]et''.]]
[[Image:kopenhagenborse.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Danish Stock Exchange (''[[Børsen]]'') with Parliament to the right.]]
*[[Amalienborg Palace]]
*[[Assistens Cemetery]] (Assistens Kirkegård)
*[[Arken Museum of Modern Art]]
*[[Børsen]] The Stock Exchange
*[[The Copenhagen Opera House]]
*[[Dyrehavsbakken|Bakken]]
*[[Freetown Christiania|Christiania]]
*[[Christiansborg]]
*[[Copenhagen Zoo]]
*[[Statens Museum for Kunst|Danish National Gallery]]
*[[Dyrehaven|The Deer Park]]
*[[Frederiksborg Palace]] in [[Hillerød]]
*[[Gefion fountain]]
*[[Kastellet]]
*[[Kongens Have]]
*[[Kronborg|Kronborg Castle]] &mdash; [[Hamlet]]'s castle in [[Elsinore]] (''Helsingør'')
*[[The Little Mermaid]]
*[[La Fontaine(jazz)|La Fontaine]]
*[[Louisiana Museum of Modern Art]]
*[[National Museum of Denmark]]
*[[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]]
*[[Nyhavn]]
*[[Rosenborg Castle]]
*[[Roskilde Cathedral]]
*[[Rundetårn]]
*[[Strøget]]
*[[Tivoli Gardens, Copenhagen|Tivoli Gardens]]
==Famous Copenhageners==
*[[Karen Blixen]] a.k.a. [[Isak Dinesen]]
*[[Niels Bohr]]
*[[Aage Bohr]]
*[[Tycho Brahe]]
*[[Georg Brandes]]
*[[Tove Ditlevsen]]
*[[August Bournonville]]
*[[Nicolai Grundtvig|Frederik Grundtvig]]
*[[Ludvig Holberg]]
*[[Iben Hjejle]]
*[[J. C. Jacobsen]] (founder of [[Carlsberg]] Brewery)
*[[Søren Kierkegaard]]
*[[Jakob Nielsen (usability consultant)|Jakob Nielsen]]
*[[Ole Rømer]]
*[[Sandi Toksvig]]
*[[Jørn Utzon]]
==See also==
* [[Eurovision Song Contest 2001]]
* [[Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2003]]
* [[Transportation in Denmark]]
* [[Ports of the Baltic Sea]]
==External links==
{{commons|København}}
* [http://www3.kk.dk/Topmenu/English/City%20of%20Copenhagen.aspx Municipality's official website]
* [http://www.sk.kk.dk/indexUK.htm City of Copenhagen Statistical Office]
* [http://www.copcap.com/ Copenhagen Capacity, the official investment agency of Greater Copenhagen]
* [http://politiken.dk/VisArtikel.iasp?PageID=143878 Webcam of the City Hall Square] from Politiken, a national daily newspaper. Images updated every 20 seconds
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=55.682917,12.591019&spn=0.060339,0.085316&t=k&hl=en Satellite photo map from Google Maps]
* [http://www.visitcopenhagen.dk/ Wonderful Copenhagen official tourism web site]
* [http://dr.dk/hca/en/tidsmaskinen/default.asp The Time Machine] The history of Copenhagen in the 1800's in sound and images from [http://dr.dk Danish Broadcasting Corp. (DR)]
* [http://www.megaholiday.com/copenhagen/index.html Copenhagen in Pictures]
* [http://www.netkontor.dk/cph/ Daily Pictures from Copenhagen]
* [http://www3.aok.dk/Copenhagen/Visiting_Copenhagen/ Visiting Copenhagen (AOK)]
* [http://www.rejseplanen.dk/bin/query.exe/en? Rejseplanen: Getting around with public transportation]
* [http://www.copenhagen.at/ Pictures of Copenhagen] Site with a lot of pictures of Copenhagen and the surrounding area
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Copenhagen Wikitravel Copenhagen]
==References==
* Municipal statistics: [http://www2.netborger.dk/Kommunefakta/ NetBorger Kommunefakta], delivered from [http://www.kmd.dk/ KMD aka Kommunedata (Municipal Data)]
* Municipal mergers and neighbors: [http://kommune.eniro.dk/region/media/nyekommuner.shtml Eniro new municipalities map]
{{amt}}
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Copenhagen| ]]
[[Category:Eurovision host cities]]
[[ar:كوبنهاغن]]
[[an:Copenaguen]]
[[bg:Копенхаген]]
[[be:Капэнгаген]]
[[ca:Copenhaguen]]
[[cs:Kodaň]]
[[da:København]]
[[de:Kopenhagen]]
[[et:Kopenhaagen]]
[[el:Κοπεγχάγη]]
[[es:Copenhague]]
[[eo:Kopenhago]]
[[fo:Keypmannahavn]]
[[fr:Copenhague]]
[[gl:Copenhaguen - København]]
[[ko:코펜하겐]]
[[hr:Kopenhagen]]
[[io:København]]
[[id:Kopenhagen]]
[[is:Kaupmannahöfn]]
[[it:Copenaghen]]
[[he:קופנהאגן]]
[[csb:Kòpenhaga]]
[[la:Hafnia]]
[[lv:Kopenhāgena]]
[[lt:Kopenhaga]]
[[lb:Kopenhagen]]
[[hu:Koppenhága]]
[[nl:Kopenhagen]]
[[nds:Kopenhagen]]
[[ja:コペンハーゲン]]
[[no:København]]
[[nn:København]]
[[pl:Kopenhaga]]
[[pt:Copenhaga]]
[[ro:Copenhaga]]
[[ru:Копенгаген]]
[[sa:कोपनहागन]]
[[sk:Kodaň]]
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[[sv:Köpenhamn]]
[[zh:哥本哈根]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Central Tendancy</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Central tendency]]
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<page>
<title>Checkers</title>
<id>5168</id>
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<timestamp>2005-08-06T08:50:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Visviva</username>
<id>123395</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv forking.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Draughts]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cluster Sampling</title>
<id>5169</id>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cluster sampling]]
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<page>
<title>Combinatorics</title>
<id>5170</id>
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<id>41330323</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T17:08:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.123.51.63</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Overview and history */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Combinatorics''' is a branch of [[mathematics]] that studies collections (usually [[finite]]) of objects that satisfy specified criteria. In particular, it is concerned with "counting" the objects in those collections (''enumerative combinatorics''), with deciding when the criteria can be met, with constructing and analyzing objects meeting the criteria (as in ''[[combinatorial design]]s and [[matroid]] theory''), with finding "largest", "smallest", or "optimal" objects (''[[extremal combinatorics]]'' and ''[[combinatorial optimization]]''), and with finding [[algebra|algebraic]] structures these objects may have (''[[algebraic combinatorics]]'').
==Overview and history==
Combinatorics is as much about problem solving as theory building, though it has developed powerful theoretical methods, especially since the later twentieth century. Much of combinatorics is about [[graph theory|graphs]], to whose study all types of combinatorics can contribute.
An example of a combinatorial question is the following: What is the number of possible orderings of a deck of 52 playing cards? That number equals 52! (i.e., "fifty-two [[factorial]]"). It may seem surprising that this number, about 8.065817517094 &times; 10<sup>67</sup>, is so large &mdash;a little bit more than 8 followed by 67 zeros! Comparing that number to some other [[large numbers]], it is greater than the ''square'' of [[Avogadro's number]], 6.022 &times; 10<sup>23</sup>.
An example of another kind is this problem: Given a certain number ''n'' of people, is it possible to assign them to sets so that each person is in at least one set, each pair of people are in exactly one set together, every two sets have exactly one person in common, and no set contains all or all but one of the people? The answer depends on ''n'' and is only partially known to this day. See "Design theory" below for a partial answer.
Enumerative combinatorics came to prominence because counting configurations is essential to elementary [[probability]], starting with the work of [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]] and others. Modern combinatorics began to develop in the late nineteenth century and became a distinguishable field of study in the twentieth century, partly through the publication of the systematic enumerative treatise ''[[Combinatory Analysis]]'' by [[Percy Alexander MacMahon]] in 1915 and the work of [[R.A. Fisher]] in [[design of experiments]] in the [[1920s]]. T |
butt cut" hairstyle, has an ornery nature, and is one of the local business owners habitually annoyed by Beavis and Butt-Head. The duo often loiter in his convenience store, Maxi Mart, while trying to pick up chicks. He occasionally gets back at them by selling Butt-Head old, stale, bug-infested nachos in one episode, and by selling both Beavis and Butt-Head used forks and stale donuts in another.
*'''Mr. Manners/Mr. Candy'''. Mr. Manners was an educational speaker who initially came to Highland High to teach the kids proper manners; he later returns as Mr. Candy, promoting a candy-bar-selling drive for the school. During his instructional sessions, he instantly clashes with Beavis and Butt-Head. Beavis dislikes him immediately and exacts revenge by accusing the man of seuxally molesting him. When he fights back, he winds up getting into confrontations with Mr. Van Driessen and Mr. Buzzcut. This character was voiced by actor [[David Spade]].
*'''PATSIES'''. The group P.A.T. (Positive Acting Teens) consists of goody-goody honor-student caricatures, who also interact positively with Stewart. The two most prominent members are "good versions" of Beavis and Butt-Head.
*'''Janitor/crazy farmer'''. The janitor of Highland High is shown in different contexts. At times, he is simply a janitor. Other times, he is portrayed as a slow-witted, bluish grey skinned farmer who is dangerously senile. In the episode "Cow Tipping", he attempts to decapitate Beavis with a chainsaw. The Janitor and the Farmer may be the same person, or may simply be related. There is likely no explanation for the unusual nature of the Farmer, and is most likely meant to provide a creepy effect.
*'''Gina'''. Todd's girlfriend appears several times. She works in a beauty salon and has a heavily hairsprayed 80's metalhead appearance.
*'''Kimberly'''. A pretty girl who is often the object of unwanted physical attention from Beavis and Butt-Head. She refused to practice CPR on them during Buzzcut's swimming class. The duo filed an unsuccessful sexual harassment suit against her for turning them on (or giving them "stiffies").
*'''Cassandra'''. Like Kimberly and Daria, a female classmate of Beavis and Butt-Head. She wears glasses, [[Dr. Martens]] boots, and a shapeless blue dress. She usually has no direct interaction with Beavis and Butt-Head, appearing mainly as the show's other parody (besides Mr. Van Driessen) of [[hippie]] or [[New Age]] thought.
*'''Billy Bob'''. Billy Bob was an earlier recurring character who stopped appearing in the later seasons. Depicted as an obese redneck, Billy Bob does not wear clothes for some reason, and is often shown in only a cowboy hat and briefs. He often smokes a cigar. He is not to be confused with Bob, a heavyset cowboy who owns Bob's Fancy Skeet.
*'''Mrs. Dickie'''. One of the few female teachers at Highland, and occasional customer at Burger World. Like everyone else, she too is annoyed by Beavis and Butt-Head.
*'''[[President Bill Clinton]]'''. President Clinton appeared in a two-part episode, as well as the movie. Both times, he met Beavis and Butt-Head and befriended them.
*'''Redneck woman'''. This woman has never been named, but appeared a number of times, most notably in an episode where Beavis and Butt-Head dial a phone-sex hotline. She is usually depicted in a messy trailer with a husband who silently watches TV in the background. She is sometimes seen driving the bus to the highschool as well. Her husband is a skinny middle aged man in his underwear with a gut, a cap, sunglasses and a cigarette who appears to be a prototype for [[Dale Gribble]] from [[King of the Hill]].
*'''Earl'''. A fellow student, he has buzzcut hair, a tough angular face, and a black shirt buttoned tightly at the collar. He often sits in the front row of class, usually looking at pictures of nude women in a men's magazine, and prefers to remain silent.
*'''Spanish Teacher'''. Highland High's Spanish teacher is a middle-aged Hispanic man who hates Beavis and Butt-Head, much like the other teachers. He had a number of early appearances, but has since faded into the background.
*'''Bill'''. An old man who owns the bar that Tom Anderson frequents. Both of them were in the military. He once unwittingly contributed to their antics. When Bill asked Anderson to watch the bar for a few hours, Anderson put Beavis and Butt-Head in charge of a yard sale he was holding at the time. While he was gone, the two sold everything inside his house for almost a hundred dollars.
*'''Collette'''. Tom Anderson's poodle. She appeared in a few episodes, but the most well known was when the duo attempt to give her a bath by putting her in a clothes dryer. The duo broke all of her teeth when they made her fetch a plate.
*'''Thor'''. Appeared a few times in some of the earliest episodes. His physical stature represented that of a gorilla, and he was often summoned to deal with Beavis and Butt-Head if they were being disruptive at a place of business. This involved him grabbing the duo by their ankles and repeatedly slamming them onto the ground.
*'''Doctor'''. Highland's unnamed town doctor appears several times, a testament to the number of times Beavis & Butt-head have injured themselves with their antics.
*'''Vinnie and Frankie'''. Slicker drawn parallel versions of Beavis and Butt-Head that, occasionally, show up on television or in educational film strips that the two are watching. While Vinnie and Frankie are depicted as being every bit as reckless as Beavis and Butt-Head, they come off as older and less silly. They are also, reportedly, Judge's early sketches of Beavis and Butt-Head themselves.
*'''Attorney Joe Adler'''. Joe Adler is a sleazy Highland lawyer specializing in frivolous lawsuits and personal injury cases. Beavis and Butt-Head hired him in one episode to sue their classmate Kimberly for sexually "harrassing" them. In another episode, the boys (influenced by an Adler TV ad) staged an accident with a schoolbus in order to "get rich" by claiming a whiplash injury.
===Memorable One-offs===
*'''Killer'''. An unnamed serial killer who once escaped from the local prison. He has a jailhouse tattoo of the word "killer" on his forehead, which Beavis and Butt-Head misread and assume is his name, "Kyler". After being diverted from killing the two by having a confusing conversation about tattoos, he gives them tattoos on their butts, of a picture of a butt with a picture of a butt on it.
*'''Rabid Ron'''. A local radio host for a station called KT&A whose show was ruined after Beavis and Butt-Head won a guest DJ spot and gained popularity with his audience by tactlessly ridiculing Ron on air for being a 40'ish Heavy Metal poser. He would subsequently retool his on-air persona as an imitation of the two youths.
*'''Madame Blavatsky'''. Madame Blavatsky was a sham fortune teller who spoke in a faux-Romanian accent. She attempted to tell Butt-Head's future once, only to have Beavis seize her crystal ball and give predictions of a war, which turned out to be the reflection of a news broadcast from the TV behind him. Her character is based on the real person of Russian origin, [[Madame Blavatsky|Elena Blavatsky]].
*'''Gus Baker'''. A parody of [[Rush Limbaugh]], Gus mistakenly believed Beavis & Butt-head to be positive young role models and brought him on his talk show to discuss "immoral music videos." Beavis and Butt-Head enjoyed Baker's television program, particularly his advocacy of the death penalty for criminals, Beavis exclaiming "Give 'em the chair! The chair!" Baker's show, and his [[Grassroots]] Presidential campaign, were ruined when Beavis [[mooning|mooned]] him on live TV.
==Questionable content==
Mike Judge created the Beavis and Butt-Head characters for an animated short for the ''[[Spike and Mike's Sick and Twisted Festival of Animation]]''. This short, named "Frog Baseball", was aired on MTV's independent animation showcase ''[[Liquid Television]]'', and featured the two playing baseball with a living frog as the ball.
The duo lent popularity to slang terms including "buttmunch", "fartknocker", "[[bunghole]]", "[[choad]]", "[[ass munch]]", "[[toilet paper|TP]]", "[[slang terms for masturbation|spank the monkey]]" and others. Early episodes gave them a juvenile [[pyromania|obsession with fire]] and dangerous behavior. The show was blamed for child deaths as the result of fire and dangerous stunts. The references were excised from further broadcastings, being replaced to some extent with simply silly stunts, bad pick-up lines, etc. References to fire were cut from earlier episodes in reruns. Other episodes MTV opted to not rerun.
Jabs at the controversy were made in subsequent episodes.
* Beavis tries to light a cigarette but cannot get the lighter to work.
* In one episode, Beavis chants "liar, liar", saying it as "liar, liar, pants on...heh...woah!"
* Beavis shouts "water" in the same manner as that in which he would shout "fire".
* Beavis watches the video "California" by the [[punk-rock]] band [[Wax (band)|Wax]]. It includes slow-motion footage of a man running while covered in flames. Beavis remains sublimely transfixed throughout the video, capable of uttering nothing more than "Oooooh… Aaaaaah…"
* When the song "[[Great Balls of Fire]]" by [[Jerry Lee Lewis]] came up during a video, Beavis could not resist saying the last word for the title in his signature style.
The original disclaimer in the first and second seasons shown before each episode was:
:''Beavis and Butt-Head are not real. They are stupid cartoon people completly made up by this Texas guy who we hardly even know. Beavis and Butt-Head are dumb, crude, ugly, though |
<id>41862645</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:25:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>134.7.248.137</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Sports */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fortaleza_bandeira.png|thumb|right|180px|Official Flag]]
'''Fortaleza''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] for fortress, [[pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]] {{IPA|foɾ.ta.le.zɐ}}) is the State capital of [[Ceará]], located in northeastern [[Brazil]]. With population of around 2 million, it is considered the third most important city in the region in economics terms, after [[Salvador, Brazil|Salvador]] in [[Bahia]] and [[Recife, Brazil|Recife]] in [[Pernambuco]]. Fortaleza has an area of 336 square km. In the North of the city one can locate the [[Atlantic Ocean]], in the south one can finde the cities of [[Pacatuba]], [[Eusébio(city)|Eusébio]], [[Maracanaú]] and [[Itaitinga]]. To the East it is the county of [[Aquiraz]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. And to west the city of [[Caucaia]].
== History ==
Fortaleza's history began [[February 2]],[[1500]] when the [[Spaniard]] [[Vicente Yáñez Pinzón|Vicente Pinzón]] landed in Mucuripe's cove and named the new land by the name of ''Santa Maria de la Consolación'' but because of the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] the discover was never officialised.
The real colonization started when the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] constructed the Fort Schoonenborch in [[1649]]. Later, the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] expelled the Dutch and renamed it to [[Forte de Nossa Senhora da Assunção]]. Around the fort, which even today is in perfect conservation state, a small village grew into the fifth largest city in [[Brazil]] today. In [[2004]] [[Luizianne Lins]] was surprisingly elected as mayor.
== Tourism ==
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Forte.jpg|thumb|left|240px|[[Forte de Nossa Senhora da Assunção]]]] -->
A complete infrastructure, three thousand hours of sun per year and the constant ocean breeze gives the full dimension of this paradise. For those who have more energy, the nightlife is full of attractions, with bars, restaurants, and shows. Not even on Mondays does Fortaleza cool down. The city is known for having the "wildest Monday nights in the world." The [[Praia de Iracema]] (Iracema's beach), one of the first urban nuclei of the city, holds many bars and restaurants. There, the [[Ponte dos Ingleses]] (English's Bridge), the old docks, is located and used to watch the sunset and spot dolphins.
[[Image:Praia_de_Fortaleza.jpg|thumb|right|240px|View of Fortaleza's [[Beira-Mar]].]]
Warm waters bathe Fortaleza's urbanized beaches, which offer every comfort to the tourist. The scenery is complemented by the [[jangadas]] (small and rustic [[raft]]s used by many of [[Ceará]]'s fishermen). From the jangadas come the sea's fruits, responsible for the best Ceará's cuisine.
The [[Praia do Futuro]] (Beach of the Future) is the meeting place for the bathers, concentrating a large number of typical beachside restaurants, with carnauba straw used in its construction. The local population calls them "Barracas de Praia." Thursday nights, the beach becomes the biggest sensation in the capital's nightlife, with live music, [[forró]] and a lot of crab to eat.
A few kilometers away from the city are some well-known beaches as [[Prainha]], [[Iguape]] and [[Porto das Dunas]]. In the latter there are two large water parks.
== Cultural features ==
=== Landmarks ===
Fortaleza is the home of numerous landmarks and is a popular tourist destination. Landmarks include:
*[[Teatro José de Alencar|José de Alencar playhouse]]
*[[Farol do Mucuripe|Mucuripe lighthouse]]
*[[Fortaleza's Cathedral|Cathedral]]
*[[Estátua de Iracema|Iracema Statue]]
*[[Forte de Nossa Senhora da Assunção|Nossa Senhora da Assunção Fort]]
*[[Palácio da Luz|Palace of Light]]
== Sports ==
Fortaleza provides visitors and residents with various sport activities. There are several
soccer clubs based in Fortaleza such as [[Fortaleza Esporte Clube|Fortaleza EC]], [[Ferroviário Atlético Clube|Ferroviário AC]] and [[Ceará Sporting Club|Ceará SC]].
With strong winds the Praia do Futuro is an excellent place for nautical sports. Fortaleza hosts world competitions of [[surfing]],[[windsurfing]] and [[kitesurfing]].
==External links==
* [http://http://www.fortaleza.ce.gov.br/ Fortaleza City Hall Website] (in Portuguese)
[[Category:Fortaleza| ]]
[[Category:Cities in Ceará]]
[[Category:Ceará state]]
{{Capitals of Brazil}}
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[da:Fortaleza]]
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[[eo:Fortalezo]]
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[[zh:福塔雷萨]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 13</title>
<id>11170</id>
<revision>
<id>42066763</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:08:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikkalai</username>
<id>28438</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/4g0ttn1|4g0ttn1]] ([[User talk:4g0ttn1|talk]]) to last version by Hazr0x</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"> {| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=13}}
|}
'''February 13''' is the 44th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 321 days remaining, 322 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[1130]] - [[Pope Innocent II|Innocent II]] is voted [[Pope]].
* [[1542]] - [[Catherine Howard]], the fifth wife of [[Henry VIII of England]], is executed for [[adultery]].
* [[1575]] - [[Henry III of France]] is crowned at [[Reims]].
* [[1633]] - [[Galileo Galilei]] arrives in [[Rome]] for his trial before the [[Inquisition]].
* [[1635]] - The first [[public school]] in the [[United States|U.S.]], [[Boston Latin Public School]], is founded.
* [[1668]] - [[Spain]] recognizes [[Portugal]] as an independent nation.
* [[1689]] - [[William III of England|William]] and [[Mary II of England|Mary]] are proclaimed co-rulers of [[England]].
* [[1692]] - [[Massacre of Glencoe]] : About 78 [[Clan Donald|Macdonalds]] at [[Glen Coe]], [[Scotland]] are killed early in the morning for not promptly pledging allegiance to the new king, [[William II of Scotland|William of Orange]].
* [[1815]] - The [[Cambridge Union Society]] founded.
* [[1866]] - The first daylight robbery in [[United States]] history during peacetime takes place in [[Liberty, Missouri]]. This is considered to be the first robbery committed by [[Jesse James]] and his gang, although [[James]]'s role is disputed.
* [[1880]] - [[Thomas Edison]] observes the [[Edison effect]].
* [[1881]] - The [[feminist]] newspaper ''[[La Citoyenne]]'' is first published in [[Paris]] by activist [[Hubertine Auclert]].
* [[1894]] - [[Auguste and Louis Lumière]] patent the ''[[Cinematographe]]'', a combination [[movie camera]] and [[projector]].
* [[1914]] - [[Copyright]]: In [[New York City]] the [[ASCAP]] (for American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers) is established to protect the copyrighted musical compositions of its members.
* [[1920]] - The [[Negro National League (the first)|Negro National League]] is formed.
* [[1934]] - The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[steamship]] ''[[Cheliuskin (ship)|Cheliuskin]]'' sinks in the [[Arctic Ocean]].
* [[1935]] - A jury in [[Flemington, New Jersey]] finds [[Bruno Hauptmann]] guilty of the [[1932]] [[kidnapping]] and [[murder]] of the [[Lindbergh kidnapping|Lindbergh baby]], the son of [[Charles Lindbergh]].
* [[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Soviet Union]] forces capture [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]] from the [[Nazi]]s.
* 1945 - [[World War II]]: The [[Royal Air Force]] bombers were dispatched to [[Dresden]], [[Germany]] (see [[Bombing of Dresden in World War II]]).
* [[1955]] - [[Israel]] obtains 4 of the 7 [[Dead Sea scrolls]].
* [[1960]] - [[Nuclear testing]]: [[France]] tests its first [[atomic bomb]].
* [[1971]] - [[Vietnam War]]: Backed by [[United States|American]] air and artillery support, [[South Vietnam]]ese troops invade [[Laos]].
* [[1974]] - [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]], winner of the [[Nobel Prize in literature]] in [[1970]], is exiled from the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[1978]] - [[Hilton bombing]]: a [[bomb]] explodes in a refuse truck outside the [[Hilton Hotel]] in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]], killing two refuse collectors and a policeman.
* [[1979]] - The intense [[February 13, 1979 Windstorm]] strikes western [[Washington]] and sinks a 1/2-mile-long section of the [[Hood Canal Bridge]].
* [[1984]] - [[Konstantin Chernenko]] succeeds the late [[Yuri Andropov]] as general secretary of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]].
* [[1988]] - [[1988 Winter Olympic Games]] open in [[Calgary, Alberta]], [[Canada]].
* [[1990]] - [[German reunification]]: An agreement is reached for a two-stage plan to reunite [[Germany]].
* [[1991]] - [[Gulf War]]: Two laser-guided "[[smart bomb]]s" destroy a bunker in [[Baghdad]]. The bunker was being used as a military communications outpost and unknown to allied forces, as a shelter for [[Iraq]]i civilians.
* [[1996]] - The [[Nepalese People's War]] began.
* [[1996]] - Pop group [[Take That]] announce that they are splitting up.
* [[1997]] - Tune-up and repair work on the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] is started by [[astronaut]]s from the [[Space Shuttle Discovery]].
* 1997 - The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] closes above 7,000 for the [[Closing milestones of the Dow Jones Industrial Average|first time]] closing at 7,022.44.
* [[2000]] - The last original "[[Peanuts]]" [[comic strip]] appears in [[newspaper]]s one day after [[Charles M. Schulz]] dies.
* [[2001]] - An [[earthquake]] measuring 6.6 on the [[Richter Scale]] hits [[El Salvador]], killing at least 400. |
ed signals introduced by the amplifier are also fed back. Since they are not part of the original input, they are added to the input in opposite phase, subtracting them from the input.
Careful design of each stage of an [[open loop]] (non-feedback) amplifier can achieve about 1% distortion. With [[negative feedback]], 0.001% is typical. Noise, even crossover distortion can be practically eliminated. Feedback was originally invented so that replacing a burnt-out [[vacuum tube]] would not change an amplifier's performance (manufacturing realities require that tubes and transistors with the same part number will have close but not identical gain). Negative feedback also compensates for changing temperatures, and degrading or non-linear components. While amplifying devices can be treated as linear over some portion of their characteristic curve, they are inherently non-linear; their [[physics]] dictates that they operate using a [[square law]]. The result of non-linearity is distortion.
The application dictates how much distortion a design can tolerate. For [[hi-fi]] audio applications, [[instrumentation amplifier]]s and the like, distortion must be minimal, often better than 1%.
While feedback seems like a universal fix for all the problems of an amplifier, many believe that negative feedback is a bad thing. Since it uses a loop, it takes a finite time to react to an input signal, and for this short period the amplifier is "out of control." A musical transient whose timing is of the same order as this period will be grossly distorted, even though the amplifier will show incredibly good distortion performance on steady-state signals. Proponents of feedback refute this, saying that the feedback "delay" is of such a short order that it represents a frequency vastly outside the [[bandwidth]] of the system, and such effects are not only inaudible, but not even present, as the amplifier will not respond to such high frequency signals.
The argument has caused controversy for many years, and has led to all sorts of interesting designs&mdash;such as [[feedforward]] amplifiers (e.g. digital signals on many cell-site base-station transmitters are precompensated for the radio amplifier's distortion). The fact remains that the majority of modern amplifiers use considerable amounts of feedback, though the best audiophile designs seek to minimise this as much as possible.
The concept of feedback is used in [[operational amplifier]]s to precisely define gain, bandwidth and other parameters.
===A practical circuit===
For the purposes of illustration, this practical amplifier circuit is described. It could be the basis for a moderate-power audio amplifier. It features a typical (though substantially simplified) design as found in modern amplifiers, with a class AB push-pull output stage, and uses some overall negative feedback. Bipolar transistors are shown, but this design would also be realisable with FETs or valves.
<center>[[image:Amplifier_Circuit_Small.png]]</center>
The input signal is coupled through [[capacitor]] C1 to the base of transistor Q1. The capacitor allows the [[Alternating current|AC]] signal to pass, but blocks the [[Direct current|DC]] bias voltage established by [[resistor]]s R1 and R2 so that any preceding circuit is not affected by it. Q1 and Q2 form a [[differential amplifier]] (an amplifier that multiplies the difference between two inputs by some constant), in an arrangement known as a [[long-tailed pair]]. This arrangement is used to conveniently allow the use of negative feedback, which is fed from the output to Q2 via R7 and R8. The negative feedback into the difference amplifier allows the amplifier to compare the input to the actual output. This way the amplifier "knows" the actual output and uses that knowledge to adjust the gain. The amplified signal from Q1 is directly fed to the second stage, Q3, which provides further amplification of the signal, and the DC bias for the output stages, Q4 and Q5. R6 provides the load for Q3. So far, all of the amplifier is operating in Class A. The output pair are arranged in Class AB push-pull, also called a complementary pair. They provide the majority of the current amplification and directly drive the load, connected via d.c. blocking capacitor C2. The [[diode]]s D1 and D2 provide a small amount of constant voltage bias for the output pair, just biasing them into the conducting state so that crossover distortion is minimised. This design is simple, but a good basis for a practical design because it automatically stabilises its operating point, since feedback internally operates from DC up through the audio range and beyond. Further circuit elements would probably be found in a real design that would roll off the [[frequency response]] above the needed range to prevent the possibility of unwanted [[oscillation]]. Also, the use of fixed diode bias as shown here can cause problems if the diodes are not both electrically and thermally matched to the output transistors&mdash;if the output transistors turn on too much, they can easily overheat and destroy themselves, as the full current from the power supply is not limited at this stage. A common solution to help stabilise the output devices is to include some emitter resistors, typically an ohm or so. Calculating the values of the circuit's resistors and capacitors is done based on the components employed and the intended use of the amp.
For the basics of radio frequency amplifers using valves, see [[Valved RF amplifiers]].
==Specialty classes==
===Class C===
Class C amplifiers conduct less than 50% of the input signal and the distortion at the output is high, but efficiencies of up to 90% can be reached. Some applications can tolerate the distortion, such as audio [[bullhorn]]s. A much more common application for Class C amplifiers is in RF [[transmitter]]s, where the distortion can be vastly reduced by using tuned loads on the amplifier stage. The input signal is used to roughly switch the amplifying device on and off, which causes pulses of current to flow through a [[LC circuit|tuned circuit]]. The tuned circuit will only resonate at particular frequencies, and so the unwanted frequencies are dramatically suppressed, and the wanted full signal (sine wave) will be abstracted by the tuned load. Provided the transmitter is not required to operate over a very wide band of frequencies, this arrangement works extremely well. Other residual harmonics can be removed using a filter.
<center>[[image:Electronic_Amplifier_Class_C.png]]</center>
===Class D===
A class D amplifier is a power amplifier where all power devices are operated in on/off mode. Output stages such as those used in [[pulse generator]]s are examples of class D amplifiers. Mostly though, the term applies to devices intended to reproduce signals with a bandwidth well below the pulse frequency. These amplifiers use [[pulse width modulation]], [[pulse density modulation]] (sometimes referred to as pulse frequency modulation) or some combination of the two. The input signal is converted to a sequence of pulses whose averaged value is directly proportional to the amplitude of the signal at that time. The frequency of the pulses is typically ten or more times the highest frequency of interest in the input signal. The output of such an amplifier contains unwanted spectral components (i.e.. the pulse frequency and its [[harmonics]]) that must be removed by a passive [[filter]]. The resulting filtered signal is then an amplified replica of the input.
The main advantage of a class D amplifier is power efficiency. Because the output pulses have a fixed amplitude, the switching elements (usually [[MOSFET]]s, but valves and [[bipolar transistor]]s were once used) are switched either on or off, rather than operated in linear mode. This means that very little power is dissipated by the transistors except during the very short interval between the on and off states. The wasted power is low because the instantaneous power dissipated in the transistor is the product of voltage and current, and one or the other is almost always close to zero.
The lower losses permit the use of a smaller [[heat sink]] while the [[power supply]] requirements are lessened too.
Class D amplifiers can be controlled by either [[analog circuit|analog]] or [[digital circuit]]s. A digital controller introduces additional distortion called ''quantisation error'' caused by its conversion of the input signal to a digital value.
Class D amplifiers were widely used to control [[motor]]s, and almost exclusively for small DC motors. But they are now also used as audio amplifiers. The relative difficulty of achieving good audio quality means that the vast majority appear in applications where quality is not a factor, such as miniature audio systems and "DVD-receivers". But now, high quality Class D audio amplifiers are starting to appear in the market. Some of them even outperform classical designs. Recently, several manufacturers are offering built modules ready to be integrated in audio systems.
An early and prolific area of application is high-powered, high-fidelity subwoofer amplifiers in automobiles. Because subwoofers are generally limited to a bandwidth of no higher than 150 Hz, the switch speed for the amplifier does not have to be as high as for a full range amplifier. They have become so inexpensive that a true 1 kW of power output can be had for less than 250USD (retail). Efficiencies are in the 80% to 95% range.
See also: [[PWM amplifier]]
====D does not stand for "digital"====
The letter ''D'' used to designate this type of amplifier is simply the next letter after ''C '', and does not stand for ''[[digital]]''. Class D and Class E amplifiers are sometimes mistakenly described as "digital" because the output waveform superficially resembles a pulse-train of digi |
erm to the Italic and Iberian Peninsula, and seemingly nothing more. The gradually acquired political connotations are newer, and, to a large extent, due to oscillating political circumstances. After the split of Yugoslavia beginning with June 1991, the term 'Balkans' again got a negative meaning, even if this usage is casual. For example, [[Romania]] is also labelled a 'Balkanic country' even if this is not compliant with either its initial meaning or later evolutions of the term. Over the last decade, in the wake of the former Yugoslav split, [[Croatians]] and especially [[Slovenians]] have rejected their former label as 'Balkan nations'. This is in part due to the pejorative connotation of the term 'Balkans' in the 1990s, and continuation of this meaning until now. Today the term Southeast Europe is preferred or, in the case of [[Slovenia]] and sometimes Croatia, [[Central Europe]].
Even if incorrect, both historically and politically, it is probable that "Balkans" will continue to have a wider, and pejorative, meaning. Quite often this is rather a cliché covering ignorance or ill intentions.
===Southeastern Europe===
[[Image:European_Regions_16.png|right|thumb|300px|Regions of Europe]]
Due to the aforementioned connotations of the term "Balkan", many people prefer the term '''Southeastern Europe''' instead. The use of this term is slowly growing; a [[European Union]] initiative of [[1999]] is called the ''[[Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe]]'', and the online newspaper ''Balkan Times'' renamed itself ''Southeast European Times'' in [[2003]].
The use of this term to mean the Balkan peninsula (and only that) technically ignores the geographical presence of northern [[Romania]] and [[Ukraine]], which are also located in the southeastern part of the European continent.
===Ambiguities and controversies===
The northern border of the Balkan peninsula is usually considered to be the line formed by the [[Danube]], [[Sava]] and [[Kupa]] rivers and a segment connecting the spring of the Kupa with the [[Kvarner Bay]].
Some other definitions of the northern border of the Balkans has been proposed:
*the line Danube - Sava - [[Krka]] (river in Slovenia) - [[Postojnska Vrata]] - [[Vipava River]] - [[Isonzo River]] (also known as [[Soca river|So&#269;a river]])
*the line Danube - Sava - [[Ljubljansko polje]] - [[Idrijca]] river - [[Soca river|So&#269;a river]].
*the line [[Dniester]] - [[Timisoara|Timi&#351;oara]] - [[Zagreb]] - [[Triglav]] (mountain).
[[Image:Balkanpeninsula.png|thumb|250px|Balkan peninsula (as defined by the Danube-Sava-Kupa line)]]
The most commonly used Danube-Sava-Kupa northern boundary is arbitrarily set as to the physiographical characteristics, however it can be easily recognized on the map. It has a historical and cultural substantiation. The region so defined (together with Romania and excluding Montenegro, Dalmatia, and the Ionian Islands) constituted most of the European territory of the [[Ottoman Empire]] from the late [[15th century|15th]] to the [[19th century]]. The Kupa forms a natural boundary between south-eastern Slovenia and Croatia and has been a political frontier since the [[12th century]], separating [[Carniola]] (belonging to [[Austria]]) from [[Croatia]] (belonging to [[Hungary]]).
The Danube-Sava-Krka-Postojnska Vrata-Vipava-Isonzo line ignores some historical and cultural characteristics, but can be seen as a rational delimitation of the Balkan peninsula from a geographical point of view. It assigns all the Karstic and Dinaric area to the Balkan region.
The Sava bisects Croatia and Serbia and the Danube, which is the second largest European river (after [[Volga]]), forms a natural boundary between both Bulgaria and Serbia and Romania. North of that line lies the [[Pannonian plain]] and (in the case of Romania) the [[Carpathian mountains]].
Although Romania (with the exception of [[Dobrudja]]) is not geographically part of the Balkans, it is conventionally included as a [[successor state]] to the old Ottoman Empire.
According to the most commonly used border, Slovenia lies to the north of the Balkans and is considered a part of [[Central Europe]]. Historically and culturally, it is also more related to Central Europe, although the Slovenian culture also incorporates some elements of culture of Balkanic peoples.
However, as already stated, the northern boundary of the Balkan peninsula can also be drawn otherwise, in which case at least a part of Slovenia and a small part of [[Italy]] ([[Province of Trieste]]) may be included in the Balkans.
Slovenia is also sometimes regarded as a Balkan country due to its association with the former [[Yugoslavia]]. When the Balkans are described as a twentieth-century geopolitical region, the whole Yugoslavia is included (so, Slovenia, [[Istria]], islands of [[Dalmatia]], northern Croatia and [[Vojvodina]] too).
The aforementioned historical justification for the Sava-Kupa northern boundary would preclude including a big part of [[Croatia]] (whose territories were by and large part of the [[Habsburg Monarchy]] and [[Venetian Republic]] during the Ottoman conquest). Other factors such as prior history and culture also bind Croatia to Central Europe and the Mediterranean region more than they bind it to the Balkans. Nevertheless, its peculiar geographic shape inherently associates it with the region Bosnia and Herzegovina is part of, as well as the recent history with Yugoslavia etc.
===Current common definition===
[[Image:Balkans-political-map-small.png|thumb|250px|Political map in 2004]]
In most of the English-speaking, western world, the countries commonly included in the Balkan region are:
*{{ALB}}
*{{BIH}}
*{{BUL}}
*{{CRO}}
*{{GRE}}
*[[Image:Flag of Macedonia.svg| 21x16px]] [[Republic of Macedonia]]
*{{SCG}}
*{{TUR}}, but only the European part of it around [[Istanbul]] (traditionally called [[Rumelia]] or [[Eastern Thrace]])
Some other countries are sometimes included in the list as well:
*{{ROM}}
*{{SLO}}
Many regions in the countries listed as Balkan states can be in many respects rather distinct from the remainder of the region, so countries that are borderline cases (often far away from the Balkan mountain itself: Romania, Croatia, Slovenia, sometimes also Greece) usually prefer not to be called ''Balkan countries''.
===Related countries===
Other countries not included in the Balkan region that are close to it and/or play or have played an important role in the region's geopolitics, culture and history:
*[[Cyprus]] (see also [[Cyprus dispute]])
*[[Hungary]] (see also [[Austria-Hungary]])
*[[Austria]] (see also [[Austria-Hungary]], [[Assassination in Sarajevo]])
*[[Italy]] (see Croatia: [[Dalmatia]], [[Zadar|Zara]], [[Rijeka|Fiume]]; [[History of Slovenia]])
*[[Russia]] (see [[History of Serbia]])
== Nature and natural resources ==
Most of the area is covered by mountain ranges running from south-west to north-east. The main ranges are the [[Dinaric Alps]] in Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia, the [[Sar mountain|&#352;ar]] massif which spreads from Albania to Republic of Macedonia and the [[Pindus]] range, spanning from southern Albania into central Greece. In Bulgaria there are ranges running from east to west: the [[Balkan mountains]] and the [[Rhodope mountains]] at the border with Greece. The highest mountain of the region is [[Musala]] in [[Bulgaria]] at 2925 m, with [[Mount Olympus]] in Greece, the throne of Zeus, being second at 2919 m and Vihren in Bulgaria being the third at 2914.
On the coasts the climate is [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]], in the inland it is moderate [[continental climate|continental]]. In the northern part of the peninsula and on the mountains, winters are frosty and snowy, while summers are hot and dry. In the southern part winters are milder.
During the centuries many woods have been cut down and replaced with bush and brush. In the southern part and on the coast there is evergreen vegetation. In the inland there are woods typical of [[Central Europe]] ([[oak]] and [[beech]], and in the mountains, [[spruce]], [[fir]] and [[pine]]). The [[tree-line]] in the mountains lies at the height of 1800-2300 m.
The soils are generally poor, except on the plains where areas with natural grass, fertile soils and warm summers provide an opportunity for tillage. Elsewhere, land cultivation is mostly unsuccessful because of the mountains, hot summers and poor soils, although certain cultures such as [[olive]]s and [[grape]]s flourish.
Resources of energy are scarce. There are some deposits of [[coal]], especially in Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Bosnia. [[Lignite]] deposits are widespread in Greece. [[Petroleum]] is most notably present in Romania, although scarce reserves exist in Greece, Serbia, Albania and Croatia. [[Natural gas]] deposits are scarce. Hydropower stations are largely used in energetics.
Metal ores are more usual than other raw materials. Iron ore is rare but in some countries there is a considerable amount of [[copper]], [[zinc]], [[tin]], [[chromite]], [[manganese]], [[magnesite]] and [[bauxite]]. Some metals are exported.
== History and geopolitical significance ==
:''Main article: [[History of the Balkans]]''
The Balkan region was the first area of Europe to experience the arrival of [[farming]] cultures in the [[Neolithic]] era. The practices of growing grain and raising livestock arrived in the Balkans from the [[Fertile Crescent]] by way of [[Anatolia]], and spread west and north into [[Pannonia]] and [[Central Europe]].
In pre-classical and [[classical antiquity]], this region was home to [[Greeks]], [[Illyrians]], [[Paeonians]], [[Thracians]], and other ancient groups. Later the [[Roman Empire]] conquered most of the region and spread Roman culture and the [[Latin]] language but significant parts still remained under [[Ancient Greece|classical Greek]] influence. During the [[Middle Ages]], the Balkans became th |
pean.) It is also possible that the nearest common ancestor of the Algonquian languages used some other sound intead, such as ''p'', which eventually mutated to ''b'' in one branch and to ''m'' in the other.
Since the reconstruction of a proto-language involves many of these choices, the probability of making a wrong choice is very high. That is, any reconstructed proto-language is ''almost certainly'' incorrect; it is an artificial construct that is accepted by convention, not by rigorous proof. These hidden errors take their toll when two reconstructed proto-languages are compared in order to build large family trees.
===Assessment===
In view of these weaknesses, we must be wary of the reconstructions and trees obtained with the comparative method. Most linguists, however, continue to use it, although they now recognize its flaws. Fox (1997:141-2), for example, concludes:
<blockquote>"The Comparative Method ''as such'' is not, in fact, historical; it provides evidence of linguistic relationships to which we may give a historical interpretation. ...The interpretative processes must therefore weight up the evidence provided by the Comparative Method in conscious knowledge of these weaknesses, and in the light of other relevant considerations, if they are to give historical validity to the reults. ...Our interpretation of the findings of the method have doubtless changed as more has been learnt of the historical processes involved, and this has probably made historical linguists less prone to equate the idealizations required by the method with historical reality. ...Provided we keep [the interpretation of the results and the method itself] apart, the Comparative Method can continue to be used in the reconstruction of earlier stages of languages."</blockquote>
==See also==
*[[historical linguistics]]
*[[Lexicostatistics]]
*[[August Schleicher]]
*[[Morris Swadesh]]
*[[Joseph Greenberg]]
==References==
*Campbell, Lyle (1997). ''American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press.
*———— (2004). ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' (2nd ed.). Cambridge: The MIT Press.
*Comrie, Bernard (ed.) (1990). ''The World's Major Languages''. New York: Oxford University Press.
*Crowley, Terry (1992). ''An Introduction to Historical Linguistics'' (2nd ed.). Aukland: Oxford University Press.
*Fox, Anthony (1995). ''Linguistic Reconstruction: An Introduction to Theory and Method''. New York: Oxford University Press.
*Pederson, Holger (1962). ''The Discovery of Language''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
*Trask, R. L. (1996). ''Historical Linguistics''. New York: Oxford University Press.
==External links==
*[http://www.utexas.edu/depts/classics/documents/PIE.html Comparative method applied on Proto-Indo-european]
[[Category:Historical linguistics]]
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[[de:Vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft]]
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[[it:Linguistica comparativa]]
[[pl:Metoda porównawcza]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Council of Constance</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-23T16:56:58Z</timestamp>
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<comment>+painting by Brožík</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="400"
|-
| colspan="2" bgcolor="lightgreen" style="font-size:120%" align="center"|'''''Council of Constance'''''
|-
|Date
|[[1414]]-[[1418]]
|-
|Accepted by
|[[Catholicism]]
|-
|Previous Council||[[Council of Vienne]]
|-
|Next Council
|[[Council of Basel|Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence]] (the [[Council of Siena]] is generally not considered ecumenical by Catholics)
|-
|Convoked by||[[Schismatic Pope John XXIII ]], confirmed by [[Pope Gregory XII]]
|-
|Presided by||[[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]]
|-
|Attendance||600
|-
|Topics of discussion||[[Western Schism]]
|-
|Documents and statements||[[Schismatic Pope John XXIII ]] deposed, [[Papal abdication|resignation]] of [[Pope Gregory XII]] accepted, [[Avignon Pope Benedict XIII]] deposed, condemnation of [[Jan Hus]], election of [[Pope Martin V]]
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Ecumenical council|chronological list of Ecumenical councils]]
|}
[[Image:Richental Konzilssitzung Muenster.jpg|thumb|Bishops debating with the pope at the Council of Constance]]
[[Image:Jan Hus-Council of Constance.jpg|thumb|Painting of [[Jan Hus]] in Council of Constance by [[Václav Brožík]]]]
The '''Council of Constance''' was an [[ecumenical council]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], called by the [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Sigismund]], a supporter of [[Antipope John XXIII|Antipope John XXIII]], the pope recently elected at Pisa. The council was held from [[November 16]], [[1414]] to [[April 22]], [[1418]] in [[Konstanz|Constance]]. Its main purpose was to end the [[Western schism|Papal schism]] which had resulted from the [[Avignon Papacy]], or as it is sometimes known, the "[[Babylonian Captivity of the Church]]." The Council of Constance marked the high point of the [[Conciliarism|Conciliar movement]] to reform the Church. The Catholic Church, however, only regard as valid and ecumenical those sessions of the Council that were held after the confirmation of the Council by true Pope Gregory XII.
The previous sessions, held under the authority of Emperor Sigismund and anti-pope "John XXIII" are not considered valid, and its decrees (including the famous decree Haec Sancta, on Conciliarism), are regarded by the Catholic Church as null and void, since, according to catholic doctrine, an Ecumenical Council is only valid when convened or at least accepted by the Pope, and its decrees are only binding if approved or confirmed by the Roman Pontiff.
At the time the council was called, there were three [[pope|popes]], all of whom claimed legitimacy. A few years earlier, in one of the first blows of the Conciliar movement, the bishops at the [[Council of Pisa]] had deposed both of the two claimant popes and elected a third pope, claiming that in such a situation, a council of bishops had greater authority than just one bishop, even if he be the bishop of Rome. This had only furthered the schism.
An innovation at the Council was that instead of voting as individuals, the bishops voted in [[nation]]al blocs, explicitly confirming the national pressures that had fueled the schism since 1378.
The famous ''Haec sancta'' decree contradicting [[Vatican I]] on papal primacy/infallibility was promulgated in the sixth session, [[April 6]], [[1415]]. Its declaration that
:''legitimately assembled in the holy Spirit, constituting a general council and representing the catholic church militant, it has power immediately from Christ; and that everyone of whatever state or dignity, even papal, is bound to obey it in those matters which pertain to the faith, the eradication of the said schism and the general reform of the said church of God in head and members.''
marks the high water mark of the Conciliar movement of reform [http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum16.htm]. This decree, however, is not considered valid by the Catholic Church, since it was never approved by the true Pope, Gregory XII, and was passed by the Council in a session that was held before the summons of the Pope. (The first sessions of the Council of Constance were an invalid and illicit assembly of Bishops, gathered under the authority of Emperor Sigismund and anti-pope "John XXIII". Only later was the same Bishops summoned by the true Pope, Gregory XII, to assemble, in the same place, as an Ecumenical Council, under the presidency of the Papal legates sent by Pope Gregory. Only the sessions held after that summons are regarded by the Catholic Church as part of the true Council of Constance.
Thus, what historians describe as "the Council of Constance" were, in fact, two different assemblies in the eyes of the Catholic Church and its canon law. The first part is regarded as an illicit assembly, incapable of issuing any valid decree. The second part is regarded as a true Ecumenical Council. The Bishops that were already assembled in Constance accepted to be re-summoned by the authority of Gregory XII since it was known that Gregory XII was willing to resign, so as to allow the election of another Pope, that could be accepted by the whole of Christiandom.
With the support of the [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]], enthroned before the high altar of the cathedral of Constance, the Council of Constance recommended that all three popes abdicate, and that another be chosen. In part because of the constant presence of the emperor, other rulers demanded that they have a say in who would be pope. Much of the Council's time was therefore occupied with trying to placate secular rulers rather than in actual reform of the Church and its hierarchy.
Gregory XII then sent representatives to Constance, duly empowered by him with full powers to summon, open and preside over an Ecumenical Council, and also empowered to present his resignation to the Papacy. This would pave the way for the end of the Western Schism.
The legates were received by Emperor Sigismund and by the assembled Bishops, and the Emperor yielded the presidency of the proceedings to the p |
to be shrines. One, however – a stately seated Goddess flanked by two lions – was found in a grain bin, which Mellaart suggests might have been a means of ensuring the harvest or protecting the food supply (Mellaart, p. 180).
Whereas Mellaart excavated nearly two hundred buildings in four seasons, the current excavator, Ian Hodder, spent an entire season excavating one building alone (Michael Balter, The Goddess and the Bull, Free Press, 2005, p. 127). Nevertheless, Hodder, in 2004 and 2005, began turning up the same corpulent, carefully-made “Mother Goddess” figurines that Mellaart found in abundance. The 2005 female figurine was striking; according to the official Catalhoyuk website, it “…may force us to change our views of the nature of Catalhoyuk society…”:
“There are full breasts on which the hands rest, and the stomach is extended in the central part…. As one turns the figurine around one notices that the arms are very thin, and then on the back of the figurine one sees a depiction of either a skeleton or the bones of a very thin and depleted human. The ribs and vertebrae are clear, as are the scapulae and the main pelvic bones…. [T]his is a unique piece that may force us to change our views of the nature of Catalhoyuk society and imagery” (official Catalhoyuk website 2005 Press Release: “New Finds at Catalhoyuk”).
==See also==
*[[Bull (mythology)]]
*[[Old European culture]]
*[[Neolithic Revolution]]
==External links==
* [http://www.catalhoyuk.com Çatalhöyük Excavations of a Neolithic Anatolian Höyük]
* [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/282/5393/1442 The First Cities: Why Settle Down? The Mystery of Communities]
==For Further Reading==
* Balter, Michael (2005). ''The Goddess and the Bull: Catalhoyuk, An Archaeological Journey to the Dawn of Civilization.'' New York: Free Press. ISBN 0743243609. (A highly condensed version was published in ''Smithsonian Magazine'', May 2005.)
* Hodder, Ian, editor. ''On the Surface: Çatalhöyük 1993-95''. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research and British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, 1996. ISBN 0951942034.
* Hodder, Ian. ''Women and Men at Çatalhöyük''. Scientific American Magazine, January 2004, (update V15:1, 2005 - see www.sciam.com).
* Mellaart, James. ''Catal Huyuk: A Neolithic Town in Anatolia.'' New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967.
* Pearson and Connor. ''The Dorak Affair''. New York, Atheneum, 1968.
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Turkey|Catalhöyük]]
[[Category:Anatolia|Catalhöyük]]
[[Category:Copper Age|Catalhöyük]]
[[Category:Neolithic|Catalhöyük]]
[[bs:Čatal Hejuk]]
[[de:Çatal Hüyük]]
[[es:Çatalhöyük]]
[[fr:Çatal Hüyük]]
[[it:Çatal Hüyük]]
[[pl:Çatal Höyük]]
[[pt:Çatalhüyük]]
[[ru:Чатал-Гуюк]]
[[sv:Çatal Hüyük]]
[[tr:Çatal Höyük]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clement Attlee</title>
<id>5766</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-02-24T13:30:12Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox BPM
| name=[[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] Clement Richard, Earl Attlee
| image=Catlee.jpg
| kingdom=the United Kingdom
| term=[[27 July]] [[1945]] &ndash; [[26 October]] [[1951]]
| before=[[Winston Churchill]]
| after=[[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]]
| date_birth=[[3 January]] [[1883]]
| place_birth=[[Putney]], [[London]]
| date_death=[[8 October]] [[1967]]
| place_death=[[London]]
| party=[[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]
}}
'''Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee''', [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Order of Merit|OM]], [[Order of the Companions of Honour|CH]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] ([[3 January]] [[1883]]–[[8 October]] [[1967]]) was [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] from 1945 to 1951. Despite his natural modesty and laconic style of speaking, he won a landslide [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|election]] victory over [[Winston Churchill]] immediately after Churchill had led [[United Kingdom|Britain]] through [[World War II]]. He was the first [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] Prime Minister to serve for a full Parliamentary term, and the first to have a majority in Parliament. The government he led put in place the [[post-war consensus]], which enabled the [[nationalisation]] of major industries and public utilities to create a system of administration that was by and large accepted by both parties until [[Margaret Thatcher]] became Prime Minister. In [[2004]] he was voted as the most effective (Non-Wartime) British Prime Minister in the [[20th century]] in a poll [http://www.mori.com/polls/2004/leeds.shtml [[1]] of political academics organised by [[MORI]].
==Birth and Early Life==
Born in [[Putney]] in [[London]] into a middle-class family, and educated at [[Haileybury and Imperial Service College|Haileybury]] and [[University College, Oxford]], Attlee trained as a lawyer. He turned to [[socialism]] after working with slum children in the [[East End of London]]. Good works for the poor did not attract him; he did not want there to be any poor. He left the [[Fabian Society]] and joined the [[Independent Labour Party]] in 1908. Attlee became a lecturer at the [[London School of Economics]] in 1913, but enlisted promptly for [[World War I]].
==Early Political Career==
During the [[World War I|war]] Attlee served in Gallipoli and Mesopotamia , where he was badly wounded at El Hanna. He recovered back in England, and was sent to France in 1918 and served on the Western Front for the last few months of the war. By the end of the First World War he had reached the rank of major. After the war, he returned to teaching at the [[London School of Economics]] and became involved in local politics, becoming mayor of the London borough of [[Stepney]] in 1919. At the [[United Kingdom general election, 1922|1922 general election]] Atlee became the [[Member of Parliament|MP]] for the [[constituency]] of [[Limehouse]] in [[Stepney]]. He was [[Ramsay MacDonald]]'s parliamentary private secretary for the brief 1922 parliament.
Attlee served in the first two [[British Labour Party|Labour]] governments, as under-secretary of state for war in 1924 with [[Ramsay MacDonald]], then as [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]] and later [[United Kingdom Postmaster General|Postmaster General]] in the 1929 to 1931 MacDonald government. He actively supported the [[UK General Strike 1926|General Strike]]. In 1928 he reluctantly joined the [[Simon Commission]], a royal commission on [[British Raj|India]]. As a result of the time he had to devote to this, he was not initially offered a ministerial post in the [[Second Labour Government]].
==Opposition==
In 1930, Labour MP [[Oswald Mosley]] attacked his own government favouring [[Keynesian]] action against unemployment, and lost. Attlee got Mosley's old job as [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]. He was Postmaster General in 1931, when most of the party's leaders lost their seats; this helped him win the deputy leadership under [[George Lansbury]]. Attlee, and Labour, opposed [[appeasement]]. Additionally, he had previously opposed (in concert with the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]]) rearmament, for which [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] blamed him in his monumental work ''A Gathering Storm'' (among others, including Lansbury and MacDonald). When Lansbury resigned the leadership in 1935, Attlee was appointed as an interim leader until after the [[united Kingdom general election, 1935|general election]] that year. In the post election leadership contest Attlee was elected, beating both [[Herbert Morrison (politician)|Herbert Morrison]] and [[Arthur Greenwood]], and remained leader of the party until 1955 - to date, Labour's longest-serving party leader.
==Deputy Prime Minister==
In the [[World War II]] coalition government, three interconnected committees ran the war: [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] chaired the war cabinet and the defence committee. Attlee was his regular deputy in committee and in parliament, and chaired the lord president's committee, which ran the civil side of the war. Only he and Churchill remained in the war cabinet throughout. Attlee was [[Lord Privy Seal]] (1940-1942), [[Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Deputy Prime Minister]] (1942), [[Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs|Dominions Secretary]] (1942-1943), and [[Lord President of the Council]] (1943-1945).
==Prime Minister==
The landslide [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|1945 Election]] returned Labour to power and Attlee became prime minister. The party had clear aims. Several controversal policies were enacted, including the [[nationalisation]] of utilities and the long-distance transport system and the creation of the modern [[Welfare State]]. [[History of India|India]] became independent, and Britain's role in [[1947 UN Partition Plan|Palestine]] ended. Attlee's first Health Secretary, [[Aneurin Bevan]], fought against general medical disapproval, to create the British [[National Health Service]] that still survives today and is often just as controversial as then.
The Labour Party was returned to power in the [[united Kingdom general election, 1950|general election of 1950]]. The large reduction that it suffered in its parliamentary majority was mostly due to the vagaries of the [[first past the post]] voting system, plus a degree of Conservative opposition recovering support at the expense of the Liberal Party.
==Return to Opposition and Retirement==
Labour lost the [[United Kingdom general election, 1951|General Election of 1951]] despite polling more votes than in the 1945 election, and indeed more votes than the Conservative Party. Labour had also been internally weakened by splits exacerbated by the strain of financing British involvement in the [[Korean War]]. Attlee led |
Russell won a scholarship to read [[mathematics]] at [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], and commenced his studies there in [[1890]]. He became acquainted with the younger [[George Edward Moore|G.E. Moore]] and came under the influence of [[Alfred North Whitehead]], who recommended him to the [[Cambridge Apostles]]. He quickly distinguished himself in mathematics and philosophy, graduating with a B.A. in the former subject in 1893 and adding a fellowship in the latter in 1895.
Russell first met the American [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]], [[Alys Pearsall Smith]], when he was seventeen years old. He fell in love with the puritanical, high-minded Alys, who was connected to several educationists and religious activists, and, contrary to his grandmother's wishes, he married her in December [[1894]]. Their [[marriage]] began to fall apart in [[1902]] when Russell realised he no longer loved her; they divorced nineteen years later. During this period, Russell had passionate (and often simultaneous) affairs with, among others, Lady [[Ottoline Morrell]] and the [[actor]] Lady [[Constance Malleson]]. Alys pined for him for these years and continued to love Russell for the rest of her life.
Russell began his published work in 1896 with ''[[Germany|German]] [[Social Democracy]]'', a study in politics that was an early indication of a lifelong interest in political and social theory. In 1896 he taught German social democracy at the [[London School of Economics]], where he also lectured on the science of power in the autumn of 1937.
Russell became a fellow of the [[Royal Society]] in [[1908]]. The first of three volumes of ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' (written with Whitehead) was published in [[1910]], which (along with the earlier [http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics ''The Principles of Mathematics'']) soon made Russell world famous in his field. In [[1911]] he became acquainted with the Austrian engineering student [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], whose genius he soon recognised (and whom he viewed as a successor who would continue his work on mathematical logic). He spent hours dealing with Wittgenstein's various phobias and his frequent bouts of despair. The latter was often a drain on Russell's energy, but he continued to be fascinated by him and encouraged his [[academic]] development, including the publication of Wittgenstein's ''[[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]'' in [[1922]].
During the [[First World War]], Russell engaged in pacifist activities, and in [[1916]] he was dismissed from [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]] following his conviction under the [[Defence of the Realm Act]]. A later conviction resulted in six months' imprisonment in [[Brixton prison]] (see ''[[Bertrand Russell#Russell.27s activism|Activism]]'').
In [[1920]], Russell travelled to [[Russia]] as part of an official delegation sent by the British government to investigate the effects of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]. Russell's lover [[Dora Black]] also visited Russia independently at the same time - she was enthusiastic about the revolution, but Russell's experiences destroyed his previous tentative support for it.
Russell subsequently lectured in [[Peking]] on philosophy for one year, accompanied by Dora. While in China, Russell became gravely ill with [[pneumonia]], and [[List of premature obituaries|incorrect reports]] of his death were published in the Japanese press. When the couple visited Japan on their return journey, Dora notified journalists that "Mr Bertrand Russell, having died according to the Japanese press, is unable to give interviews to Japanese journalists".
On the couple's return to England in [[1921]], Dora was five months pregnant, and Russell arranged a hasty divorce from Alys, marrying Dora six days after the divorce was finalised. Their children were [[John Conrad Russell, 4th Earl Russell]] and [[Katharine Russell|Katharine Jane Russell]] (now Lady Katharine Tait). Russell supported himself during this time by writing popular books explaining matters of physics, ethics and [[education]] to the layman. Together with Dora, he also founded the experimental [[Beacon Hill School (England)|Beacon Hill School]] in [[1927]]. After he left the school in 1932, Dora continued it until 1943.
Upon the death of his elder brother Frank, in [[1931]], Russell became the 3rd Earl Russell. He once said that his [[title]] was primarily useful for securing [[hotel]] rooms.
Russell's marriage to Dora grew increasingly tenuous, and it reached a breaking point over her having two children with an American [[journalist]], [[Griffin Barry]]. In [[1936]], he took as his third wife an [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] undergraduate named Patricia ("Peter") Spence, who had been his children's [[governess]] since the summer of [[1930]]. Russell and Peter had one son, [[Conrad Russell, 5th Earl Russell|Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell]], later to become a prominent historian, and one of the leading figures in the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] party.
In the spring of [[1939]], Russell moved to [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] to lecture at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]]. He was appointed professor at the [[City College of New York]] in 1940, but after public outcries, the appointment was annulled by the [[court]]s: his [[radical]] opinions made him "morally unfit" to teach at the college. The protest was started by the mother of a student who would not have been eligible for his graduate-level course in abstract, mathematical logic. Many intellectuals, led by [[John Dewey]], protested his treatment. Dewey and [[Horace M. Kallen]] edited a collection of articles on the CCNY affair in ''[[The Bertrand Russell Case]]''. He soon joined the [[Barnes Foundation of Philadelphia|Barnes Foundation]], lecturing to a varied audience on the history of philosophy - these lectures formed the basis of ''[[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|A History of Western Philosophy]]''. His relationship with the eccentric [[Albert C. Barnes]] soon soured, and he returned to Britain in [[1944]] to rejoin the faculty of Trinity College.
During the 1940s and 1950s, Russell participated in many broadcasts over the [[BBC]] on various topical and philosophical subjects. By this time in his life, Russell was world [[famous]] outside of academic circles, frequently the subject or author of [[magazine]] and [[newspaper]] articles, and was called upon to offer up opinions on a wide variety of subjects, even mundane ones. ''A History of Western Philosophy'' ([[1945]]) became a best-seller, and provided Russell with a steady income for the remainder of his life. Along with his friend [[Albert Einstein]], Russell had reached superstar status as an intellectual. In [[1949]], Russell was awarded the [[Order of Merit]], and the following year he received the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].
In [[1952]], Russell was divorced by Peter, with whom he had been very unhappy. Conrad, Russell's son by Peter, did not see his father between the time of the divorce and [[1968]] (at which time his decision to meet his father caused a permanent breach with his mother). Russell married his fourth wife, [[Edith Finch Russell|Edith Finch]], soon after the divorce. They had known each other since [[1925]], and Edith had lectured in English at [[Bryn Mawr College]] near [[Philadelphia]], sharing a house for twenty years with Russell's old friend Lucy Donnelly. Edith remained with him until his death, and, by all accounts, their relationship was close and loving throughout their marriage. Russell's eldest son, John, suffered from serious [[mental illness]], which was the source of ongoing disputes between Russell and John's mother, Russell's former wife, Dora. John's wife Susan was also mentally ill, and eventually Russell and Edith became the legal guardians of their three daughters (two of whom were later diagnosed with [[schizophrenia]]).
Russell spent the 1950s and [[1960s]] engaged in various political causes, primarily related to nuclear disarmament and opposing the Vietnam War. He wrote a great many letters to world leaders during this period. He also became a hero to many of the youthful members of the [[New Left]]. During the 1960s, in particular, Russell became increasingly vocal about his disapproval of the American government's policies. In 1963 he became the inaugural recipient of the [[Jerusalem Prize]], an award for writers concerned with the freedom of the individual in society.
Bertrand Russell published his three-volume autobiography in the late 1960s. While he grew frail, he remained lucid until the end, when, in [[1970]], he died in his home, [[Plas Penrhyn]], [[Penrhyndeudraeth]], [[Merioneth]], [[Wales]]. His ashes, as his will directed, were scattered.
==Russell's philosophical work==
===Analytic philosophy===
Russell is generally recognised as one of the founders of [[analytic philosophy]], indeed, even of its several branches. At the beginning of the 20th century, alongside [[G. E. Moore]], Russell was largely responsible for the British "revolt against [[Idealism]]", a philosophy greatly influenced by [[Georg Hegel]] and his British apostle, [[F. H. Bradley]]. This revolt was echoed 30 years later in [[Vienna]] by the [[Logical positivism|logical positivists]]' "revolt against metaphysics". Russell was particularly appalled by the [[idealist]] doctrine of internal [[relations]], which held that in order to know any particular thing, we must know all of its relations. Russell showed that this would make [[space]], [[time]], [[science]] and the concept of [[number]] unintelligible. Russell's logical work with [[Alfred North Whitehead|Whitehead]] continued this project.
Russell and Moore strove to eliminate what they saw as [[meaning]]less and inc |
[[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] in controversial circumstances for around [[pound sterling|£]]10 million, and in the following summer, many new players were bought, including the Danish international [[Dennis Rommedahl]], [[Francis Jeffers]] and [[Danny Murphy (footballer)|Danny Murphy]] from [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]]. Charlton finished seventh at the end of the 2003-04 season, their best position for 50 years.
Charlton became the first Premiership club to establish a formal youth academy in the [[United States]]; the club opened an academy in [[Tucson, Arizona]] in May [[2005]], and will eventually expand the academy throughout [[Arizona]]. Charlton already operates youth academies in [[Spain]] and [[South Africa]], as well as in its London home.
Charlton is the only football club to operate a City Learning Centre (CLC) which opened in October 2005. This CLC is an extension of the successful study support centre which has provided support for local youngsters from 2001. The CLC is open to all members of the local community from pre-school to the young at heart and provides a wide range of ICT(IT) based learning experiences.
Since their return to The Valley in 1992, the ground itself has undergone some pretty remarkable changes. Tiers have been added to the West and North Stands (The North Stand affectionately known as 'The Covered End' by fans) which have taken the total capacity of the stadium to over 26,000. And the club hasn't stopped there with their future aspirations for the ground. In plans revealed in 2004, Charlton Athletic hope to expand The Valley to a total of 40,600. This includes adding another tier onto the East Stand, and completely rebuilding the South (Jimmy Seed) Stand into a new, 3-tier structure.
In the middle of the 2005-06 season, the club's shirt sponsor, [[all:sports]], went into administration. This meant that Charlton had to find a shirt sponsor and change their shirt design mid-season. Eventually [[Llanera (company)|Llanera]], a Spanish property company, agreed to become their new sponsor. This is the first time a top-level club has had to change its shirt sponsor mid-season.
==Current squad==
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player| no= 2| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Luke Young]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 3| nat=Iceland | pos=DF| name=[[Hermann Hreidarsson]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 4| nat=Uruguay | pos=DF| name=[[Gonzalo Sorondo]] | other=on loan from [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Inter Milan]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 5| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Chris Perry (footballer)|Chris Perry]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 6| nat=England | pos=FW| name=[[Marcus Bent]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 7| nat=Bulgaria | pos=MF| name=[[Radostin Kishishev]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 8| nat=Ireland | pos=MF| name=[[Matt Holland]]}} (captain)
{{Fs player| no= 9| nat=Jamaica | pos=FW| name=[[Jason Euell]]}}
{{Fs player| no=10| nat=England | pos=FW| name=[[Darren Bent]]}}
{{Fs player| no=11| nat=England | pos=FW| name=[[Francis Jeffers]]}}
{{Fs player| no=14| nat=England | pos=MF| name=[[Jerome Thomas]]}}
{{Fs player| no=15| nat=Morocco | pos=DF| name=[[Talal El Karkouri]]}}
{{Fs player| no=16| nat=Denmark | pos=GK| name=[[Stephan Andersen]]}}
{{Fs player| no=17| nat=South Africa| pos=FW| name=[[Shaun Bartlett]]}}
{{Fs player| no=18| nat=England | pos=MF| name=[[Darren Ambrose]]}}
{{Fs player| no=19| nat=Denmark | pos=MF| name=[[Dennis Rommedahl]]}}
{{Fs player| no=20| nat=England | pos=MF| name=[[Bryan Hughes]]}}
{{Fs mid}}
{{Fs player| no=22| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Chris Powell]]}}
{{Fs player| no=23| nat=United States| pos=DF| name=[[Jonathan Spector]] | other=on loan from [[Manchester United F.C.|Man Utd]]}}
{{Fs player| no=24| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Jonathan Fortune]]}}
{{Fs player| no=25| nat=Russia | pos=MF| name=[[Alexei Smertin]] | other=on loan from [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]}}
{{Fs player| no=26| nat=France | pos=DF| name=[[Kelly Youga]]}}
{{Fs player| no=28| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Osei Sankofa]]}}
{{Fs player| no=29| nat=England | pos=MF| name=[[Lloyd Sam]]}}
{{Fs player| no=30| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Mark Ricketts]]}}
{{Fs player| no=31| nat=England | pos=FW| name=[[Alex Varney]]}}
{{Fs player| no=32| nat=England | pos=MF| name=[[Barry Fuller]]}}
{{Fs player| no=33| nat=Ireland | pos=GK| name=[[Darren Randolph]]}}
{{Fs player| no=34| nat=England | pos=FW| name=[[James Walker (footballer)|James Walker]]}}
{{Fs player| no=35| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Nathan Ashton]]}}
{{Fs player| no=36| nat=Norway | pos=GK| name=[[Thomas Myhre]]}}
{{Fs player| no=37| nat=Portugal | pos=DF| name=[[Goncalo Brandao]] | other=on loan from [[Belenenses]]}}
{{Fs player| no=38| nat=England | pos=FW| name=[[Jay Bothroyd]]}}
{{Fs player| no=39| nat=Iceland | pos=FW| name=[[Rurik Gislason]]}}
{{Fs end}}
===Out on loan===
{|
{{Fs player| no=12| nat=Jamaica | pos=FW| name=[[Kevin Lisbie]] | other=on loan at [[Derby County F.C.|Derby]]}}
{{Fs player| no=21| nat=Finland | pos=FW| name=[[Jonatan Johansson]] | other=on loan at [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich]]}}
{{Fs player| no=27| nat=England | pos=GK| name=[[Robert Elliot]] | other=on loan at [[Accrington Stanley F.C.|Accrington Stanley]]}}
|}
==Notable former Charlton players==
*[[John Barnes]]
*[[Sam Bartram]]
*[[Paolo Di Canio]]
*[[Derek Hales]]
*[[Rob Lee]]
*[[Clive Mendonca]]
*[[Scott Parker (footballer)|Scott Parker]]
*[[Allan Simonsen]]
==Charlton fans==
Charlton are rare among football clubs, in that they reserve a seat on their director's board for a supporter. Any season ticket holder can put themselves forward for election, with a certain number of nominations, and votes are cast by all season ticket holders over the age of 18.
Charlton's fans are known as The Addicks. Among the theories on the etymology of the name are that 1), it comes from the fact that Charlton in their early days at the Valley were part sonsored by a fishmonger and he offered a "'addock dinner" after the game to players and opposition. According to A.V Carter the said fishmonger advertised his wares by having a fish on a stick, walking up and down the touch line; or, 2) it is a southeast London form of Addict (which seems unlikely).
The team's home kit is red, and they always come on to the pitch at The Valley to the tune of "When the Red, Red Robin Goes Bob-, bob- bobbin' along" this is a popular [[Billy Cotton]] song from the 1930's.
The fan's favourite chant is entitled "Valley, Floyd Road" (Floyd Road being the street on which the stadium is situated) and is sung to the tune of Sir Paul McCartney's "Mull of Kintyre".
''Lyrics:''
Many miles have I travelled,
Many games have I seen,
Following Charlton my favourite team.
Many hours have I spent in the covered end choir,
Singing Valley, Floyd Road,
My only desire.
Valley, Floyd Road,
The mist rolling in from the Thames,
My desire,
Is always to be found at Valley, Floyd Road.
== Valley View Fanzine ==
A brand new fanzine recently started at the club called Valley View. Available for just £1, the fanzine started in February 2006, and can be bought from around the outside of The Valley as well as from outside Charlton railway station and the local pubs.
== External links ==
{{BBC Football Info|BBClinkname=c/charlton_athletic}}
*[http://www.cafc.co.uk The club's official website]
*[http://boards.rivals.net/default.asp?sid=905&p=16&forumid=3224 Meet Charlton Fans talking about recent games]
*[http://www.4thegame.com/club/cafc/ 4thegame.com's Charlton Athletic page]
*[http://www.caist.org.uk Charlton Athletic Independent Supporters' Trust]
*[http://www.addicksonline.co.uk Addicksonline - Un-official Charlton Athletic website]
*[http://www.charltonathletic-mad.co.uk/ Charlton Athletic MAD Fansite]
*[http://www.zyworld.com/davidcafc/ Charlton Till I Die]
*[http://www.footballchants.org/viewChantsRecent.php?teams=9 Charlton Athletic Football Chants]
*[http://charlton.blogspot.com/ Highly rated Charlton blog, All Quite in the East Stand]
{{FA Premier League}}
[[Category:Charlton Athletic F.C.]]
[[Category:English football clubs]]
[[Category:FA Premier League]]
[[cs:Charlton Athletic FC]]
[[da:Charlton Athletic FC]]
[[de:Charlton Athletic F.C.]]
[[es:Charlton Athletic Football Club]]
[[fr:Charlton Athletic Football Club]]
[[he:צ'רלטון אתלטיק]]
[[nl:Charlton Athletic FC]]
[[no:Charlton Athletic FC]]
[[pl:Charlton Athletic]]
[[pt:Charlton Athletic FC]]
[[simple:Charlton Athletic F.C.]]
[[fi:Charlton Athletic FC]]
[[sv:Charlton Athletic FC]]
[[th:สโมสรฟุตบอลชาร์ลตันแอทเลติก]]
[[zh:查尔顿竞技足球俱乐部]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cross-country skiing</title>
<id>6721</id>
<revision>
<id>41348266</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:34:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rmhermen</username>
<id>835</id>
</contributor>
<comment>remove vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cross-country skiing''' (also known as '''XC skiing''') is a [[winter sport]] popular in many countries with large snowfields, primarily [[Northern Europe]] and [[Canada]]. The popularity of the sport has been quickly growing in the [[United States]].
[[Image:Finnish Soldiers Skiing.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Finnish people|Finnish]] [[soldier|soldiers]] on skis. Like most of the other [[Fennoscandinavia|Fennoscandinavian]] armies, virtually every [[infantry]] soldier is given ski training in the [[Finnish army]].]]
Cross-country skiing is part of the [[Nordic skiing]] sport family, which also includes [[ski jumping]], and a combination sport of cross-country skiing and ski jumping called [[Nordic combined]]. Free-technique cross-country skiing is also the method of [[locomotion]] in the combination sport of [[Biathlon]], which adds [[marksmanship|rifle marksmanship]] to skiing.
As a hobby, cross-country skiing may be viewed as |
ogae]]
***[[unclassified Bacteria]]
***...
** Domain [[Archaea]]
***[[Crenarchaeota]] (extremely thermophilic archaebacteria)
***[[Euryarchaeota]]
***[[Korarchaeota]]
***[[Nanoarchaeota]]
** Domain [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]], organisms with cells containing a nucleus
*** [[Opisthokont]]s
**** '''Kingdom [[Animal]]ia''' - animals
**** [[Choanoflagellate]]s
**** [[Nucleariid]]s
**** '''Kingdom [[Fungus|Fungi]]''' - fungi
*** [[Amoebozoa]]
*** [[Rhizaria]]
**** [[Cercozoa]]
**** [[Foraminifera]]
**** [[Polycystine]]a
**** [[Acantharea]]
**** ''[[Sticholonche]]''
*** [[Excavate]]s
**** [[Retortamonad]]s
**** [[Diplomonad]]s
**** [[Oxymonad]]s
**** [[Parabasalid]]s
**** [[Jakobid]]s
**** [[Heterolobosea]]
**** [[Euglenozoa]]
*** "Plants"
**** '''Kingdom [[Plant]]ae''' - green plants
**** [[Red alga]]e
**** [[Glaucophyte]]s
*** [[Heterokont]]s
*** [[Alveolate]]s
**** [[Ciliate]]s
**** [[Apicomplexa]]
**** [[Dinoflagellate]]s
**** [[Ellobiopsid]]s
*** ''[[Stephanopogon]]''
*** [[Apusomonad]]s
*** [[Kathablepharid]]s
*** [[Pseudodendromonad]]s
*** [[Spironemid]]s
*** [[Copromyxid]]s
*** [[Vampyrellid]]s
*** [[Dimorphid]]s
*** [[Gymnosphaerid]]s
*** [[Ebriid]]s
*** [[Haptophyte]]s
*** [[Xenophyophorea]]
*** [[Cryptomonad]]s
*** [[Centrohelid]]s
==See also==
* [[Animal evolution]]
* [[Evolution]]
* [[Evolution of multicellularity]]
* [[Phylogeny]]
* [[Phylogenetic tree]]
* [[Taxonomy]]
*[[:Wikipedia:WikiProject_Tree_of_Life|WikiProject Tree of Life]]
== External links ==
* http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html The Tree of Life &#151; A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity
* In 2003, the [[Science_(journal)|''Science'']] journal dedicated a special issue to the tree of life, including an [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/tol/ online version of a tree of life].
== More examples ==
* http://www.aisee.com/graph_of_the_month/jura.htm &#151; The most detailed and comprehensive family tree of dinosaurs yet available
* http://www.omne-vivum.com tree of life with lots of pictures
{{origin_of_life}}
[[Category:Phylogenetics]]
[[da:Systema naturae]]
[[de:Evolutionärer Stammbaum]]
[[fr:Syst%E9matique]]
[[nl:Classificatie en Evolutie]]
[[pl:Drzewo &#380;ycia (biologia)]]
[[pt:Árvore da vida (biologia)]]
[[sv:Systema naturae]]
[[zh:演化樹]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evolutionary tree/Animalia</title>
<id>9795</id>
<revision>
<id>15907661</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-07T05:22:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tim Starling</username>
<id>4635</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Animal]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Animal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evolutionary tree/Chordata</title>
<id>9797</id>
<revision>
<id>15907663</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-07T05:23:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tim Starling</username>
<id>4635</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Chordate]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chordate]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evolutionary tree/Sarcoptergii</title>
<id>9798</id>
<revision>
<id>15907664</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-07T05:25:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tim Starling</username>
<id>4635</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Sarcopterygii]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sarcopterygii]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erin Brockovich</title>
<id>9799</id>
<revision>
<id>41542272</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:19:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.174.12.3</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For alternate uses see [[Erin Brockovich (film)]]}}
'''Erin Brockovich-Ellis''' (born [[June 22]] [[1960]]) is a woman who, despite the lack of a formal law school education, in 1993 was instrumental in constructing a case against the [[United States dollar|US$]] 30 billion [[Pacific Gas & Electric Company]] (PG&E), of [[California]], alleging contamination of drinking water with [[hexavalent chromium]] in the southern California town of [[Hinkley, California|Hinkley]]. At the center of the case is a facility called the Hinkley Compressor Station, part of a natural gas pipeline connecting to the San Francisco Bay Area and constructed in 1952. The case was settled in 1996 for $333 million, the largest settlement ever paid in a [[class action lawsuit]] in [[United States|U.S.]] history.
Continuing to work with the [[Thousand Oaks, California]]-based lawyer [[Ed Masry]], she went on to participate in other anti-pollution lawsuits. One accuses [[Whitman Corp.]] of chromium contamination in [[Willits, California]], and another with 1200 plaintiffs alleges contamination near PG&E's Kettleman Hills Compressor Station in [[Kings County, California|Kings County]]. (The facility is located along the same pipeline as the Hinkley site.)
After experiencing problems with mold contamination in her own home in the [[Conejo Valley]], Brockovich became a prominent activist and educator in this area as well. Today, Brockovich is a noted speaker in demand all over the U.S.
Brockovich was born '''Erin L.E. Pattee''' and raised in [[Lawrence, Kansas]], and attended [[Kansas State University]] in [[Manhattan, Kansas]]. She has lived in California since 1982.
Her story is the topic of a feature film, ''[[Erin Brockovich (film)|Erin Brockovich]]'', with [[Julia Roberts]] starring as Erin Brockovich. The film became very sucessful, and was nominated for many [[Academy Award]]s including the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]. Also, [[Julia Roberts]] won the [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] for her portrayal of Erin Brockovich.
==Sources==
Coleman, Charles M., ''P. G. and E. of California; the centennial story of Pacific Gas and Electric Company, 1852-1952,'' (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952).
==External links==
* [http://www.masryvititoe.com/erin_brockovich.shtml "Masry & Vititoe"] Masry & Vititoe website biography
* [http://www.fumento.com/erinwsj.html "'Erin Brockovich,' Exposed"] by Michael Fumento
* [http://www.fumento.com/brocklett.html Erin Brockovich's response to "Exposed"] & Fumento's rebuttal
* [http://www.rwu.edu/NR/rdonlyres/7891D96A-3C78-4571-B350-647A52743609/1211/BrockovichErin.jpg] Current Picture
[[Category:1960 births|Brockovich, Erin]]
[[Category:Living people|Brockovich, Erin]]
[[Category:People from the Greater Los Angeles Area|Brokovich, Erin]]
[[Category:People from Kansas|Brokovich, Erin]]
[[de:Erin Brockovich]]
[[fi:Erin Brockovich]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>El dia de los muertos</title>
<id>9801</id>
<revision>
<id>15907667</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-17T21:55:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Day of the Dead]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Day of the Dead]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Event Horizon</title>
<id>9803</id>
<revision>
<id>40776820</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T23:15:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wikiborg</username>
<id>13798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is on the film Event Horizon. For the physics term, see [[event horizon]].''
{{Infobox Film | name = Event Horizon
| image = Eventhorizonpic.jpg
| caption = Event Horizon VHS cover
| director = [[Paul W. S. Anderson]]
| producer = [[Jeremy Bolt]]<br />[[Lawrence Gordon]]<br />[[Lloyd Levin]]
| writer = [[Philip Eisner]]
| starring = [[Laurence Fishburne]]<br />[[Sam Neill]]<br />[[Kathleen Quinlan]]<br />[[Joely Richardson]]
| music = [[Michael Kamen]]
| cinematography = [[Adrian Biddle]]
| editing =
| distributor = [[Paramount Pictures]]
| released = [[August 15]]th, [[1997]] ([[USA]])
| runtime = 95 min.
| language = [[English language|English]]
| budget =
| imdb_id = 0119081
}}
'''''Event Horizon''''' is a [[1997]] [[science fiction]] and [[horror film]]. It was directed by [[Paul W. S. Anderson]], written by [[Philip Eisner]], and stars [[Laurence Fishburne]], [[Sam Neill]], and [[Joely Richardson]].
== Plot summary ==
{{spoiler}}
In the year [[2047]], a rescue crew (on board the ship ''Lewis and Clark'') investigates the miraculous re-appearance of the spaceship (the ''Event Horizon'') that was supposedly destroyed in a disaster seven years earlier. As they embark on this mission, they are informed by the ship's designer of the true story behind this "accident." It had in fact not exploded, as was reported, but had been a [[top secret]] ship designed to travel faster than the [[speed of light]]. It had a gravity drive on board which created an artificial [[black hole]] that "folded space time" thus creating a temporary gateway to any other point in the universe, instantaneously. To test the new gravity drive, the ship was sent to a designated jump-point with the goal of reaching [[Proxima Centauri]] (a star relatively close to the [[Sol|Sun]]) and had then vanished. When they board the ship, they discover the truth about its disappearance and come to realize that it had brought back something absolutely horrifying from where it had been for those last seven years.
It turns out that the ship did indeed succeed in opening a gateway in [[space-time]] by using the gravity drive. However, when it made the jump, it passed outside the known universe and into another dimension; a "dimension of pure chaos, pure [[evil]]." |
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Haiti infobox}}The '''Republic of Haiti''' is a country situated on the western third of the Caribbean island [[Hispaniola]] and also includes the smaller islands of La Gonâve, La Tortue ([[Tortuga]]), Les Cayemites, and Ile a Vache. Haiti shares Hispaniola with the [[Dominican Republic]]. The total land area of Haiti is 10,714 [[square mile]]s (27,750&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]]) and its capital is [[Port-au-Prince]] on the main island of Hispaniola.
A former [[French colonization of the Americas|French colony]], it was the second country in [[the Americas]], after the [[United States]], to declare its independence in 1804. In spite of its longevity, it is the most impoverished nation in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. Haiti is currently in a state of transition following a coup d'etat (''see'' [[2004 Haiti rebellion]]) which deposed President [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] on [[February 29]], [[2004]]; he had been re-elected in [[2000]] in an election which several opposition parties boycotted due to disputes with the vote counting of the parlimentary elections.
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Haiti]]''
The island of [[Hispaniola]], of which Haiti occupies the western half, was claimed for Spain by [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492, but in 1697 [[Spain]] ceded it to [[France]]. French settlers imported African slaves whose descendants became most of the population. The colony was ruled by a small minority of Europeans and mulattos. In 1796, stimulated by the ideals of the French revolution, the slaves revolted, and after prolonged fighting Haiti became an independent republic in 1804.
Haiti has always been one of the poorest and most poorly-governed countries in the Americas. Through the 19th century it was ruled by a series of dictators of varying degrees of incompetence. The outside world took little notice until 1915, when the country's unpayable debt led to [[United States occupation of Haiti (1915-1934)|American occupation]]. The US introduced a constitution (written by [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]) and other reforms. That said, the occupation also had many long-lasting (and oft-regarded as ill) effects on the country--most notably centralization of government and industry from the provices to the capital (which resulted in the rural exodus which continues today). Additionally the occupation resulted in the creation of an American-trained National Army which in future decades would be said to commit many atrocities against its own people. The occupation began dissolving in the late 1920's and ended with complete American troop withdrawl in 1934.
The Americans left Haiti in the hands of the mulatto minority, but in 1946 [[Dumarsais Estimé]] became the country's first black president. His efforts at reform sparked disorders and a coup in 1950, followed by renewed dictatorship. In 1957 Dr [[François Duvalier]] ("Papa Doc") came to power and established a personal dictatorship which lasted until his death in 1971, when he was succeeded by his son [[Jean-Claude Duvalier]] ("Baby Doc"). Duvalier junior was deposed in 1986, leading to a further period of upheaval.
The charismatic black leader [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] was elected President in 1991, but deposed in a coup shortly after. This led to three years of brutal control by a military junta which spawned a renewed American occupation in 1994 that ultimately returned Aristide to power. He was succeeded by [[René Préval]] in 1996, but returned to office in 2001 after elections widely regarded as rigged. In February 2004 he was again overthrown.
In the wake of Aristide's removal, Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Boniface Alexandre]] succeeded to the Presidency in accordance with the stipulations of the [[wikisource:Constitution of Haiti|1987 constitution]]). Elections were held in February 2006, and René Préval was again elected President. See [[Haitian elections, 2006]]
==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Haiti]]''
Haiti is a presidential [[republic]] with an elected president and National Assembly. However, some claim it to be an [[authoritarian]] government in practice. On [[29 February]] [[2004]], a [[2004 Haiti rebellion|rebellion]] culminated in the defacto resignation of president [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] and it is unknown if the current political structure will remain.
The [[constitution]] was introduced in [[1987]] under the administration of [[Leslie Manigat]] and is modeled on those of the [[United States]] and [[France]]. Having been either completely or partially suspended for some years, it was fully reinstated in [[1994]]. Since, and as a result of, the aforementioned coup, the future of the 1987 Constitution has fallen into doubt, even though the planned elections for the Presidency, Parliament, and local governments are being held in accordance with its terms.
See [[List of Presidents of Haiti]], [[Haitian elections, 2006|2006 Haitian Elections]], [[2000 Haitian Elections]], [[1995 Haitian Elections]], [[1990 Haitian Elections]], and the [[Constitution of Haiti]].
==Departments==
''Main article: [[Departments of Haiti]]''
Haiti is divided into ten departments (provinces):
*[[Artibonite Department|Artibonite]]
*[[Centre Department|Centre]]
*[[Grand'Anse Department|Grand'Anse]]
*[[Nippes Department|Nippes]]
*[[Nord Department|Nord]]
*[[Nord-Est Department|Nord-Est]]
*[[Nord-Ouest Department|Nord-Ouest]]
*[[Ouest Department|Ouest]]
*[[Sud Department|Sud]]
*[[Sud-Est Department|Sud-Est]]
[[Image:Haiti_map.png|framed|Map of Haiti]]
==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of Haiti]]''
Haiti's terrain consists mainly of rugged mountains with small coastal plains and river valleys. The east and central part is a large elevated plateau.
In 1925, Haiti was a lush island paradise, with 60% of its original forest covering the lands and mountainous regions. Over the years, the population cut down 95% of its trees and in the process destroyed fertile farmland soils. Now the mountains are bare down to the bedrock. Pictures from space glaringly show this stark contrast compared to Haiti's neighbour the [[Dominican Republic]]. Charcoal production by low-income labor accounts for the bulk of Haitian logging. There has also been dispute between the United States and Haiti about Navassa Island which both countries claim, although it is documented that Navassa Island became part of Haiti after the French signed a territory deal with Spain in 1697 which gave France the western third of the island, including Navassa island which France lost control to the Haitians after the Haitian revolution
This deforestation led to soil erosion and flooding as seen on [[September 17]], [[2004]]. [[Hurricane Jeanne #Haiti|Tropical storm Jeanne]] skimmed the north coast of Haiti leaving 3006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of [[Gonaïves]].
[http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sfl-0923haitigallery,0,7266223.photogallery]
==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Haiti]]''
Haiti remains the least-developed country in the Western Hemisphere and one of the poorest in the world. Comparative social and economic indicators show Haiti falling behind other low-income developing countries (particularly in the hemisphere) since the 1980s. Haiti now ranks 153rd of 177 countries in the UN&#8217;s [[Human Development Index]].
About 80% of the population lives in abject poverty, making it the second poorest country in the world. Nearly 70% of all Haitians depend on the agriculture sector, which consists mainly of small-scale subsistence farming and employs about two-thirds of the economically active work force. The country has experienced little job creation since President [[René Préval]] took office in February [[1996]], although the [[informal economy]] is growing. Failure to reach agreements with international sponsors have denied Haiti badly needed budget and development assistance.
==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Haiti]]''
Although Haiti averages about 270 people per square kilometer (699/mi²), its population is concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys. About 95% of Haitians are of predominant African descent with caucasian and taino admixture(Although due to the massive rape by the French, most Haitians show a strain of European ancestry averaging about 10%, and many also have a small percentage of [[Taíno]] ancestry). The rest of the population is mostly [[mulatto]], or mixed [[whites|Caucasian]]-African ancestry. A few are of [[European]] or [[Levantine]] heritage. About two thirds of the population live in rural areas. The biggest city is the capital [[Port-au-Prince]] with 2 million inhabitants, followed by [[Cap-Haïtien]] with 600,000.Nearly all Haitians speak [[Haitian Creole|Kreyòl]] (Creole), the country's official language. [[French language|French]] is the other official language only spoken by about 10% of the population.[[Roman Catholicism]] is the state religion, which the majority professes. Some have converted to [[Protestantism]]. Protestant churches of numerical strength are [[Assemblies_of_God|Assemblées de Dieu]], the [[Convention Baptiste d'Haïti]], the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]], the [[Church of God (Cleveland)]], the [[Church of the Nazarene]], the [[Episcopalian|Église Episcopale d'Haiti]] and the [[Mission Evangelique Baptiste du Sud-Haiti]].
==Culture==
''Main articles: [[Culture of Haiti]], [[Music of Haiti]]''
==See also==
''[[Little Haiti]]''
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Haiti}}
'''News'''
*[http://www.haitiprogres.com], news briefs in several languages.
*[http://www.canadahaitiaction.ca], Articles and News Focusing in on Canada's Role in Haiti
*[http://www.hayti.net/], Website of Haitian Populat Movement Fanmi Lavalas
*[http://www.outofhaiti.ca], Articles and News Focusing in on Canada's Role in Haiti
*[http://www.zmag.org/lam/haitiwatch.c |
ir superiority by a combination of superior technology and numbers. Common claims that the Polish Air Force was destroyed early in the campaign while it was on the ground are not true. Polish aircraft were moved to hidden airstrips approximately 48 hours before the outbreak of the hostilities.
The understanding of operations in Poland has shifted considerably since the Second World War. Many early postwar histories, such as Barrie Pitt's in ''The Second World War'' (BPC Publishing 1966), incorrectly attribute German victory to "enormous development in military technique which occurred between 1918 and 1940", incorrectly citing that "Germany, who translated (British inter-war) theories into action...called the result Blitzkrieg." More recent histories identify German operations in Poland as relatively cautious and traditional. Matthew Cooper wrote (in ''The German Army 1939-1945: Its Political and Military Failure'') that "(t)hroughout ([[Polish September Campaign|the Polish Campaign]]), the employment of the mechanised units revealed the idea that they were intended solely to ease the advance and to support the activities of the infantry....Thus, any strategic exploitation of the armoured idea was still-born. The paralysis of command and the breakdown of morale were not made the ultimate aim of the ... German ground and air forces, and were only incidental by-products of the traditional manoeuvers of rapid encirclement and of the supporting activities of the flying artillery of the Luftwaffe, both of which had has their purpose the physical destruction of the enemy troops. Such was the [[Vernichtungsgedanke]] of the Polish campaign." He went on to say that the use of tanks "left much to be desired...Fear of enemy action against the flanks of the advance, fear which was to prove so disastrous to German prospects in the west in 1940 and in the Soviet Union in 1941, was present from the beginning of the war." John Ellis, writing in ''Brute Force'' (Viking Penguin, 1990) asserted that "...there is considerable justice in Matthew Cooper's assertion that the panzer divisions were not given the kind of ''strategic'' mission that was to characterise authentic armoured ''blitzkrieg'', and were almost always closely subordinated to the various mass infantry armies." In fact, according to Zaloga and Madej, in ''The Polish Campaign 1939'' (Hippocrene Books, 1985), "Whilst Western accounts of the September campaign have stressed the shock value of the panzers and Stuka attacks, they have tended to underestimate the punishing effect of German artillery on Polish units. Mobile and available in significant quantity, artillery shattered as many units as any other branch of the Wehrmacht."
===France 1940===
The [[Battle of France|invasion of France]] consisted of two phases, Operation Yellow (''Fall Gelb'') and Operation Red. Yellow opened with a feint conducted against Holland and Belgium by two Panzer corps and [[paratrooper]]s. Three days later, the main panzer effort of Panzer Group von Kleist attacked through the [[Ardennes]] and achieved a breakthrough with Luftwaffe air support. The group raced to the coast of the [[English Channel]], dislodging the [[British Expeditionary Force]], [[Belgian Army]], and some divisions of the [[French Army]]. The Panzer units initially advanced far beyond the following divisions. The Panzers were met with a counterattack at the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]] the tough British tanks inducing a brief panic in the High Command. The Panzer forces were halted outside the port city of Dunkirk which was being used to evacuate the Allied forces. The Luftwaffe (in the form of Goering) had promised to complete the job but its bombing did not prevent the evacuation of the majority of the troops ([[Operation Dynamo]]); some 330,000 French and British. Operation Red then began with XV Panzer Corps attacking towards [[Brest, France|Brest]] and XIV Panzer Corps attacking south, east of Paris, towards [[Lyon]], and XIX Panzer Corps completing the encirclement of the [[Maginot Line]]. The defending forces were hard pressed to organise any sort of counter-attack. The French forces were continually ordered to form new lines along rivers, often arriving to find the German forces had already passed them.
===Soviet Union: the Eastern Front: 1941–45===
[[Image:DefensivePincersVolkhov.png|thumb|right|250px|After 1941–42, panzer forces were increasingly used as a mobile reserve against Allied breakthroughs.]]
Use of armoured forces was crucial for both sides on the Eastern Front. [[Operation Barbarossa]], the German invasion of the [[Soviet Union]] in 1941, involved a number of breakthroughs and encirclements by panzer forces. Its stated goal was "to destroy the Russian forces deployed in the West and to prevent their escape into the wide-open spaces of Russia."{{ref|10}} This was generally achieved by four panzer armies which encircled surprised and disorganised Soviet forces, followed by marching infantry which completed the encirclement and defeated the trapped forces. The first year of the [[Eastern Front (WWII)|Eastern Front]] offensive can generally be considered to have had the last successful major blitzkrieg operations.
After Germany's failure to destroy the Soviets before the winter of 1941, the limits of blitzkrieg became visible. Although the German attack took huge areas of Soviet territory, the overall strategic effects were more limited. The [[Red Army]] was able to regroup far to the rear of the main battle line, and eventually defeat the German forces for the first time in the [[Battle of Moscow]].
In the summer of 1942, when Germany launched another offensive in the southern [[USSR]] against [[Stalingrad]] and the [[Caucasus]], the Soviets again lost tremendous amounts of territory, only to counter-attack once more during winter. German gains were ultimately limited by [[Hitler]] diverting forces from the attack on Stalingrad itself and seeking to pursue a drive to the Caucasus oilfields simultaneously as opposed to subsequently as the original plan had envisaged.[[Image:Jagdtiger 1.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The [[Jagdtiger]], one of the most formidable German [[tank destroyer]]s. These specialised vehicles denied the basics of blitzkrieg because their designs trade mobility for firepower and protection.]]
===Western Front, 1944–45===
As the war progressed, Allied armies began using tactics somewhat resembling the blitzkrieg tactics of Germany. Many operations in the Western Desert and on the Eastern Front relied on massive concentrations of firepower to establish breakthroughs by fast-moving armoured units. These artillery-based tactics were also decisive in Western Front operations after [[Operation Overlord]] and both the British Commonwealth and American armies developed flexible and powerful systems for utilizing artillery support. What the Russians lacked in flexibility, they made up for in number of rocket, cannon, and mortar tubes. The Germans never achieved the kind of response times or fire concentrations their enemies were capable of by 1944.
After the Allied landings at [[Battle of Normandy|Normandy]], Germany made attempts to overwhelm the landing force with armoured attacks but this failed for lack of co-ordination and Allied air superiority. The most notable attempt to use Blitzkrieg in Normandy was at Mortain, which resulted in the creation of the Falaise Gap and the ultimate destruction of German forces in Normandy. The Mortain counter-attack was launched against Allied forces employed in [[Operation Cobra]], U.S. 12th Army Group's breakout from the Normandy area at [[St.-Lô]]. The German [[German Seventh Army|Seventh Army]] attacked towards the coast at St.-Lô, attempting to cut off the [[U.S. Third Army]], commanded by [[George S. Patton]], in [[Operation Lüttich]]. It was unable to achieve a breakthrough against defending infantry and, stalled, was encircled and effectively destroyed by U.S. 12th Army Group.
The Allied offensive in central France, spearheaded by armoured units from [[George S. Patton]]'s Third Army, used breakthrough and penetration techniques that were essentially identical to blitzkrieg. Patton acknowledged that he had read both Guderian and Rommel before the war, and his tactics shared their emphasis on speed and attack. A phrase commonly used in his units was "haul ass and bypass."
Germany's last offensive on its Western front, [[Battle of the Bulge|Operation Wacht am Rhein]], was a blitzkrieg offensive towards the vital port of [[Antwerp]] during the winter of 1944 to 1945. Launched in poor weather against a weakened Allied sector, it achieved surprise and initial success. Allied air power was stymied by cloud cover. However, defence along the [[Ardennes]] and few serviceable roads caused delays. Allied forces deployed to the flanks of the German penetration, and Allied aircraft were again able to attack panzer columns, finally routing them. While the strategy itself had been sound, the German troops had already been reduced beyond their ability to effectively exploit the initial gains.
==Countermeasures and limitations==
===Terrain===
Blitzkrieg was largely dependent upon terrain and weather conditions. Where the ability for rapid movement across "tank country" was not possible, blitzkrieg was often avoided or resulted in failure. Terrain would ideally be flat, firm, unobstructed by natural barriers or fortifications, and interspersed with roads and railways. If it was instead hilly, wooded, marshy, or urban, panzers would be vulnerable to infantry in close-quarters combat and unable to breakout at full speed. Additionally, units could be halted by mud ([[thaw]]ing along the Eastern Front regularly slowed both sides) or extreme snow.
===Air superiority===
[[Image:Il2 sturmovik.jpg|thumb|right|400px|[[Ilyushin Il-2]], formidable Sovi |
to numbers (quantized). The resulting [[digital image]] is then processed and stored in the camera's memory card. The samples in this case are spatial. In contrast, converting an audio source to digital requires temporal samples: it is converted to an electrical signal using a [[microphone]], and the voltage of this signal is sampled thousands of times per second (the [[sampling frequency]]). Each sample is then quantized to form the [[digital audio]] data.
Both sampling and quantization will result in a loss of data. Changes in the original data that occur between the samples will not appear in the digital data (or worse, will cause [[aliasing]], the appearance of data not present in the original source). And while a voltage can be any of a seemingly unlimited number of values between its minimum and maximum (limited only by [[quantum mechanics]]), a digital representation using <math>n</math> bits can have only <math>2^n</math> possible values. While this information will be preserved in future transmission, the data has been lost.
The amount of information that can be stored in a digital representation is called its ''resolution''. And since the conversion to digital is a two step process, there are two types of resolution: sampling resolution and quantization resolution. Sampling resolution can be either spatial (expressed in [[pixels per inch]]) or temporal (expressed as samples per second) or both (for example, a video). Quantization resolution is usually expressed as the number of [[bit]]s used to represent each sample and is thus often called the bit depth or (for pictures) the [[color depth]].
The best resolution for a given set of digital data depends on the processing it will undergo and its ultimate purpose. For example, [[compact disc]]s use a sampling resolution of 44,100 samples/second, which is sufficient for audio in the range of human hearing. Most digital photographs use a bit depth of 8 bits/color, which produces more colors than the human eye can discern. However many photographers use [[camera raw]] with 12 bits/color to allow for more accuracy during processing before producing a final photograph at 8 bits/color for display or printing. Scientific photography may also require greater bit depth.
If sufficient resolution is used, the data loss caused by the conversion to digital is offset by the accuracy of digital processing. When analog signals are transmitted and stored, accuracy is lost due to [[Signal noise|noise]] and [[distortion]]. So neither digital nor analog offer perfect [[fidelity]]; resolution is sacrificed for accuracy with digital and vice versa for analog. When both high resolution and high accuracy are needed, either a high resolution digital system or a high accuracy analog system must be used (with a correspondingly high cost).
==Symbol to digital conversion==
Since symbols are not continuous, converting symbols to digital is simpler and less prone to data loss than analog to digital conversion. Instead of sampling and quantization, similar steps are used: [[polling]] and [[encoding]].
A symbol input device usually consists of a number of switches that are polled at regular intervals to see which switches are pressed. Data will be lost if, within a single polling interval, two switches are pressed, or a switch is pressed, released, and pressed again. This polling can be done by a specialized processor in the device to prevent burdening the main [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. When a new symbol has been entered, the device sends an [[interrupt]] to alert the CPU to read it.
For devices with just a few switches (such as the buttons on a [[joystick]]), the status of each can be encoded as bits (usually 0 for released and 1 for pressed) in a single word. This is very useful when combinations of key presses are meaningful, and is sometimes used for passing the status of modifier keys on a keyboard (such as shift and control). But it does not scale to support more keys than the number of bits in a single byte or word.
Devices with many switches (such as a [[computer keyboard]]) usually arrange these switches in a scan matrix, with the individual switches on the intersections of x and y lines. When a switch is pressed, it connects the corresponding x and y lines together. Polling (often called scanning in this case) is done by activating each x line in sequence and detecting which y lines then have a signal, thus which keys are pressed. When the keyboard processor detects that a key has changed state, it sends a signal to the CPU indicating the scan code of the key and its new state. The symbol is then [[Code|encoded]], or converted into a number, based on the status of modifier keys and the desired [[character encoding]].
Using a custom [[Character encoding|encoding]] for a specific application can be done with no loss of data. However, using a standard encoding such as [[ASCII]] is problematic if a symbol such as 'ß' needs to be converted but is not in the standard.
==Historical digital systems==
Although digital signals are generally associated with the binary electronic digital systems used in modern electronics and computing, digital systems are actually ancient, and need not be binary nor electronic.
* A ''[[beacon]]'' is perhaps the simplest non-electronic digital signal, with just two states (on and off). In particular, ''[[smoke signal]]s'' are one of the oldest examples of a digital signal, where an analog "carrier" (smoke) is [[modulated]] with a blanket to generate a digital signal (puffs) that conveys information.
* ''[[DNA]]'' comprises a long sequence of four digits (denoted [[adenine|A]], [[cytosine|C]], [[guanine|G]], and [[thymine|T]]), effectively a base-four [[numeral system]]. (In fact, in the [[double helix]] structure, there are two strands, but one of them is never read.) Each of these digits is an organic molecule, known as a [[nucleotide]]. DNA is the major system of information transfer from one generation to another.
* [[Morse code]] uses five digital states&mdash;dot, dash, short gap (between each letter), medium gap (between words), and long gap (between sentences)&mdash;to send messages via a variety of potential carriers such as electricity or light, for example using an [[electrical telegraph]] or a flashing light.
* The [[Braille]] system was the first binary format for [[character encoding]], using a six-bit code rendered as dot patterns.
* [[Semaphore (communication)|Semaphore signalling]] uses rods or flags held in particular positions to send messages to the receiver watching them some distance away.
* [[International maritime signal flags]] have distinctive markings that represent letters of the alphabet to allow ships to send messages to each other.
* More recently invented, a [[modem]] modulates an analog "carrier" signal (such as sound) to encode binary electrical digital information, as a series of binary digital sound pulses. A slightly earlier, surprisingly reliable version of the same concept was to bundle a sequence of audio digital "signal" and "no signal" information (i.e. "sound" and "silence") on [[compact audio cassette|magnetic cassette tape]] for use with early [[home computer]]s.
==See also==
*[[Digital circuit]]
*[[Binary (disambiguation)|Binary]]
*[[Analog to digital converter]]
*[[Digital control]]
*[[Digitalism]]
*[[Digital Revolution]]
*[[Digital signal]]
*[[Digital culture]]
[[Category:Digital technology]]
[[cs:Digitální]]
[[da:Digital]]
[[de:Digital]]
[[es:Sistema digital]]
[[eo:Cifereca]]
[[fr:Numérique]]
[[ko:디지털]]
[[id:Digital]]
[[it:Digitale (informatica)]]
[[he:דיגיטלי/אנלוגי]]
[[nl:Digitaal]]
[[ja:デジタル]]
[[pt:Circuito digital]]
[[ru:Цифровой]]
[[sl:Digitalno]]
[[fi:Digitaalinen]]
[[sv:Digital]]
[[th:ดิจิทัล]]
[[tr:Dijital]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>22q11.2 deletion syndrome</title>
<id>8277</id>
<revision>
<id>41969062</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:15:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vaughan</username>
<id>4704</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>more wikilinks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = DiGeorge syndrome |
ICD10 = {{ICD10|D|82|1|d|80}} |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|279.11}} |
}}
'''22q11.2 deletion syndrome''' (also called DiGeorge syndrome and velocardiofacial syndrome) is a disorder caused by the deletion of a small piece of [[chromosome 22 (human)|chromosome 22]]. The deletion occurs near the middle of the [[chromosome]] at a location designated q11.2. It has a birth incidence estimated at 1:1800.
The features of this syndrome vary widely, even among members of the same family, and affect many parts of the body. Characteristic signs and symptoms include heart defects that are often present from birth, an opening in the roof of the mouth (a [[cleft palate]] or other defect in the palate), [[|learning disability|learning disabilities]], recurrent [[infection]]s caused by problems with the [[immune system]], and mild differences in facial features. Affected individuals may also have kidney abnormalities, low levels of calcium in the blood (which can result in seizures), significant feeding difficulties, [[autoimmune disorder]]s such as [[rheumatoid arthritis]], and an increased risk of developing mental illnesses such as [[schizophrenia]] and [[bipolar disorder]].
Because the signs and symptoms of 22q11.2 deletion syndrome are so varied, different groupings of features were once described as separate conditions. Doctors named these conditions DiGeorge syndrome, velocardiofacial syndrome (also called Shprintzen syndrome), and conotruncal anomaly face syndrome. In addition, some children with the 22q11.2 deletion were diagnosed with Opitz G/BBB syndrome and Cayler cardiofacial syndrome. Once the genetic basis for these disorders was |
wever, another group that deleted the same gene found no abnormality in cell death, so developing the question whether this gene really does encode the PS receptor, rather than a nuclear localized transcription factor [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15345036&query_hl=22].
In another study [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15155946], milk fat globule epidermal growth factor 8 (MFG-E8) was found to bind to phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells and help [[macrophage]]s to engulf such cells.
Tingible body [[macrophage]]s highly express MFG-E8 on their plasma membranes.
Mice lacking MFG-E8 exhibited a decrease in phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, leading to an extreme increase in the production of IgG [[autoantibody|autoantibodies]].
=== Intrinsic and extrinsic inducers ===
Apoptotic messages from outside the cell (called ''extrinsic'' inducers) will be described in the next section, on biochemical execution of apoptosis.
Apoptotic messages from inside the cell (''intrinsic'' inducers) are a response to stress, such as nutrient deprivation or DNA damage, as explained by Chiarugi and Moskowitz in their previously-mentioned article on PARP-1.
Both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways have in common the activation of ''central effectors of apoptosis'', a group of cysteine proteases called ''[[caspase|caspases]]'', which carry out the cleaving of both structural and functional elements of the cell, resulting in the previously-described morphological changes.
=== Biochemical execution ===
Caspases are normally suppressed by [[inhibitor of apoptosis protein|IAP]] (inhibitor of apoptosis) proteins [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11711663]. When a cell receives an apoptotic stimulus, IAP activity is relieved after SMAC (Second Mitochondria-derived Activator of Caspases, or its mouse homologue, called DIABLO), a [[mitochondrion|mitochondrial]] protein, is released into the [[cytosol]]. SMAC binds to IAPs, and in doing so "inhibits the inhibitors," effectively preventing them from arresting the apoptotic process.
But, before we go on to a short description of how SMAC is released, we must take a look at two much-studied extrinsically-induced apoptotic processes: the TNF and the Fas pathways. Keep in mind, however, that both activating and inhibiting factors are present at each step of these pathways.
Tumor necrosis factor ([[TNF]]), a 157-amino acid intercellular signaling molecule ([[cytokine]]), is produced mainly by activated macrophages, and is the major extrinsic mediator of apoptosis. The cell membrane has two specialized receptors for TNF: TNF-R1 and TNF-R2. The binding of TNF to TNF-R1 has been shown to fire-off the pathway that leads to activating the caspases [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12040173].
Fas (''a.k.a.'' Apo-1 or CD95), is another receptor of extrinsic apoptotic signals in the cell membrane, and belongs to the TNF receptor superfamily [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12040174]. The Fas ligand (FasL, the protein that binds to Fas and activates the Fas pathway) is a transmembrane protein, and is part of the TNF family. The interaction between Fas and FasL results in the formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC), which contains the Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD) and caspases 8 and 10. In some types of cells (type I), processed caspase-8 directly activates other members of the caspase family, and triggers the execution of apoptosis; whereas, in other types of cells (type II), the Fas DISC starts a feed-back loop that spirals into increasing release of pro-apoptotic factors from mitochondria (see below), and the amplified activation of caspase-8.
Downstream from TNF-R1 and Fas activation - at least in mammalian cells - a balance between pro- (like BAX, BID, or BAD) and anti-apoptotic (Bcl-Xl and Bcl-2) members of the [[Bcl-2|Bcl-2 family]] is compromised. This balance is the proportion of pro-apoptotic [[homodimer]]s that form in the outer-membrane of the mitochondrion. The homodimers (of molecules like BAK and BAX) are required in order to make the mitochondrial membrane permeable for the release of caspase activators. Just how BAX and BAK are controlled under the normal conditions of cells that are not undergoing apoptosis is incompletely understood. But it has been found that a mitochondrial outer-membrane protein, VDAC2, interacts with BAK to keep this potentially-lethal apoptotic effector under control. When the death signal is received, products of the activation cascade - such as tBID, BIM or BAD - displace VDAC2: BAK and BAX are activated, and the mitochondrial outer-membrane becomes permeable; it is seen that these members of the Bcl-2
family have a pore-forming domain, resulting in the release of caspase activators, namely [[cytochrome c]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10713725], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12881569]., but other molecules like SMAC or AIF are also released.
Once [[cytochrome c]] is released, it binds with Apaf-1 and [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], which then binds to pro-caspase-9, creating a multi-protein complex known as apoptosome. The apoptosome cleaves this pro-caspase, rendering the active form of caspase-9, which in turn activates effector caspase-3. (''See also the articles on [[caspase]]s and the [[Bcl-2|Bcl-2 protein family]]'').
The whole process requires energy and a cell machinery not too damaged. If the cell damage is between certain levels, the cell can start the earliest events of apoptosis and then continue with a necrosis.
It must be advised, however, that the apoptotic pathways that have been summarily described are subject to regulatory mechanisms, and that there is not a one-to-one relationship between the reception of TNF or FasL and the complete execution of an apoptotic pathway. Fas, for instance, has been implicated - in a seemingly ironic way - in cell proliferation, through pathways that are not yet well understood; and both Fas and TNF-R1 trigger events that activate the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-&#954;B), which induces the expression of genes that play an important role in diverse biological processes, including cell growth, cell death, cell development, and immune responses.
The link between TNF and apoptosis shows why an abnormal production of TNF plays a fundamental role in several human diseases, especially (but not only) in autoimmune diseases, such as diabetes and multiple sclerosis.
== Implication and role of apoptosis in diverse pathologies ==
===Apoptosis and HIV progression===
In the review article by [http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.19110-0 Alimonti ''et al'' (2004)], they describe how HIV-1 causes apoptosis in bystander CD4+ T cells leading to AIDS.
=== Apoptosis and the role of interferon in tumor suppression ===
In their ''Nature'' article on the "Integration of interferon-alpha/beta signaling to p53 responses..." (see previous section on [[Apoptosis#Cell damage or infection|Cell damage or infection]]), Takaoka and co-workers have described their research on how [[interferon]]-alpha and -beta (IFN-alpha/beta) induce transcription of the ''[[p53 gene]]'', resulting in the increase of p53 protein level and enhancement of cancer cell-apoptosis. p53 Is a tumor suppressor, and is considered as a negative-growth and anti-oncogenic factor.
Work carried out by Takaoka and colleagues has contributed to clarify the role played by interferon in the treatment of some forms of human cancer, and has provided knowledge on the link between p53 and IFN-alpha/-beta. The p53 response not only contributes to tumor suppression but is also important in eliciting an apoptotic response to viral infection and consequent damage to the cell's reproductive cycle.
=== Cancer and defective apoptotic pathways ===
Liling Yang ''et al.'' reported in the [[15 February]] [[2003]], issue of ''Cancer Research'' [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12591734] the results of their work in the role played by a defective death signal in a type of lung cancer cells called NCI-H460 (human non-small cell lung cancer cells). They found that the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) is overexpressed in H460 cells. XIAPs bind to the processed form of caspase-9, and suppress the activity of apoptotic activator [[cytochrome c]] (see previous section on biochemical execution).
The apoptotic pathway was found to be dramatically restored in H460 cells with a Smac peptide (SmacN7) that targets IAPs. Yang and her team successfully developed a SmacN7 peptide that selectively reversed apoptosis resistance - and hence tumor growth - in H460 cells in mice.
(See also the role of [[Gefitinib]] and [[Peptidomimetic|peptidomimetics]] in restoring apoptotic pathways.)
=== Role of apoptotic products in tumor immunity ===
An interesting case of re-use and feed-back of apoptotic products was presented by Matthew L. Albert in a research article that won him an Amersham Biosciences & Science Prize for Young Scientists in Molecular Biology, and published in ''Science Online'' in December, 2001. Albert described how dendritic Cells, a type of antigen-presenting cells, phagocytose (that is, engulf) apoptotic tumor cells. Upon maturation, these dendritic cells present antigen (derived from the apoptotic corpses) to killer T cells, which are then primed for the eradication of cells undergoing malignant transformation. This apop |
r" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="left" valign="top"|general "best of" compilation for all B.A.D. variants
|-
|}
===Chart Singles===
{| class="wikitable"
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|Year
!align="left" valign="top"|Song
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|<small>[[UK singles chart|UK singles]]</small>
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|<small>[[Billboard Hot 100|US Hot 100]]</small>
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|<small>[[Modern Rock Tracks chart|US Modern Rock]]</small>
!align="left" valign="top"|Album
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1986
|align="left" valign="top"|"E=MC<sup>2</sup>"
|align="center" valign="top"|11
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="left" valign="top"|''This Is Big Audio Dynamite''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1986
|align="left" valign="top"|"Medicine Show"
|align="center" valign="top"|29
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="left" valign="top"|''This Is Big Audio Dynamite''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1988
|align="left" valign="top"|"Just Play Music!"
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="left" valign="top"|''Tighten Up, Vol. 88''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1988
|align="left" valign="top"|"Other 99"
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|13
|align="left" valign="top"|''Tighten Up, Vol. 88''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1989
|align="left" valign="top"|"James Brown"
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|2
|align="left" valign="top"|''Megatop Phoenix''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1989
|align="left" valign="top"|"Contact"
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|6
|align="left" valign="top"|''Megatop Phoenix''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1991
|align="left" valign="top"|"Rush"
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|32
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="left" valign="top"|''The Globe''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1991
|align="left" valign="top"|"The Globe"
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|72
|align="center" valign="top"|3
|align="left" valign="top"|''The Globe''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1994
|align="left" valign="top"|"Looking For a Song"
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|24
|align="left" valign="top"|''Higher Power''
|-
|}
[[Category:English musical groups|Big Audio Dynamite]]
[[Category:New Wave groups|Big Audio Dynamite]]
[[Category:Alternative musical groups|Big Audio Dynamite]]
[[sv:Big Audio Dynamite]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bentley</title>
<id>5052</id>
<revision>
<id>41197333</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T18:47:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.27.213.226</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''For other uses of "Bentley", see [[Bentley (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Bentley badge and hood ornament-BW.jpg|thumb|250px|Bentley's winged "B" badge and hood ornament]]
'''Bentley Motors Limited''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] based manufacturer of [[luxury car|luxury]] [[automobile]]s and [[Grand Tourer]]s. Bentley Motors was founded in [[England]] on [[January 18]], [[1919]] by [[Walter Owen Bentley]], known as W.O. Bentley or just "W.O." ([[1888]]&ndash;[[1971]]). He was previously known for his successful range of [[Rotary engine|rotary aero-engines]] in [[World War I]], the most famous being the Bentley BR1 as used in later versions of the [[Sopwith Camel]]. The company is currently owned by the [[Volkswagen Group]].
==Bentley as a separate company==
[[Image:Bentley_logo.jpg|thumb|250px|The Bentley logo]]
[[Image:1929 Bentley front 34 right.jpg|thumb|250px|1929 [[Bentley Blower|"Blower" Bentley]] from the [[Ralph Lauren]] collection.]]
A group of wealthy British automobile aficionados known as "the [[Bentley Boys]]" ([[Woolf Barnato]], heir to a partnership in the [[Kimberly diamond mines]], Sir [[Henry Birkin]], [[George Duller]], [[steeplechase]]r, [[Glen Kidston]], [[aviator]], [[Sammy Davis]], automotive journalist, and Dr. [[Dudley Benjafield]]) kept the car's reputation for high performance alive. At one point, on a bet, Barnato raced a legendary car from [[Cannes]] to [[Calais]], then by ferry to [[Dover]] and finally [[London]], traveling on public highways with normal traffic, and won; the special-bodied 6.5 litre car became known as the ''[[Blue Train Bentley]]''. Thanks to the dedication of this group to serious racing, the company, located at Cricklewood, north [[London]], was noted for its four consecutive victories at the [[24 hours of Le Mans]] from [[1927]]-[[1930]]. Their greatest competitor at the time, [[Bugatti]], whose lightweight, elegant, but fragile creations contrasted with the Bentley's rugged reliability and durability, referred to them as "the world's fastest trucks". Perhaps the most iconic Bentley of the period is the 4.5 litre "Blower Bentley", with its distinctive [[supercharger]] projecting forward from the bottom of the grille. Uncharacteristically fragile for a Bentley, however, it was not the racing workhorse that the 6 litre Bentley was. It became famous in the popular media as the vehicle of [[James Bond]] in the original novels, but not in any film; rather, [[John Steed]] in the television series ''[[The Avengers (TV series)|The Avengers]]'' did drive a Bentley on-screen.
A great deal of Barnato's fortune went to keeping Bentley afloat and he eventually became chairman; the [[Great Depression]] destroyed demand for the company's expensive products, and it was finally sold off to [[Rolls-Royce]] in [[1931]]. It should be noted that Bentley was a very serious competitor to Rolls-Royce and that the 8 Litre Bentley was probably a better machine than anything Rolls-Royce at that time had to offer.
===Early Bentleys===
* 1921&ndash;1929 [[Bentley 3 Litre|3 Litre]]
* 1926&ndash;1930 [[Bentley Speed Six|6&frac12; Litre]]
** 1928&ndash;1930 [[Bentley Speed Six|Speed Six]]
* 1926&ndash;1930 [[Bentley Blower|4&frac12; Litre]]
** 1928&ndash;1930 [[Bentley Blower|Blower]]
* 1930&ndash;1931 [[Bentley 8 Litre|8 Litre]]
* 1931 [[Bentley 4 Litre|4 Litre]]
* 1933&ndash;1937 [[Bentley 3.5 Litre|3&frac12; Litre]]
** 1936&ndash;1939 [[Bentley 3.5 Litre|4&frac14; Litre]]
* 1939&ndash;1941 [[Bentley Mark V|Mark V]]
** 1939 [[Bentley Mark V|Corniche]]
==Bentleys of the Rolls-Royce era==
[[Image:Bentley SI Continental Fastback Coupe Mulliner.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Bentley S1|S1 Continental Fastback Coupé]] with Mulliner Bodywork]]
Rolls-Royce merged the Bentley line into its own, so that the Bentley marque became just a Rolls-Royce without the distinctive grill and with a $300 lower price tag. In the [[1980s]], however, Bentley became a separate, high performance car line once again. The most notable car in the Rolls-Royce period was probably the [[Bentley Continental]], which appeared in various forms from [[1952]] to [[1965]], and again in [[1992]] with production ending in [[2003]]. The Bentley factory in Crewe, Cheshire, is still known in the town by the name "Royce´s". For more on Bentley Motors from 1931 to 1998, see [[Rolls-Royce]].
* 1946-1952 [[Bentley Mark VI|Mark VI]]
* 1952-1955 [[Bentley R Type|R Type]] and Continental
* 1955-1959 [[Bentley S1|S1]] and Continental
* 1959-1962 [[Bentley S2|S2]] and Continental
* 1962-1965 [[Bentley S3|S3]] and Continental
* 1965-1980 [[Bentley T-series|T-series]]
** 1965-1977 [[Bentley T1|T1]]
** 1977-1980 [[Bentley T2|T2]]
* 1971-1984 [[Bentley Corniche|Corniche]]
** 1984-1995 [[Bentley Continental (1984)|Continental]] &mdash; convertible
*** 1992-1995 [[Bentley Continental (1984)|Continental Turbo]]
* 1975-1986 [[Bentley Camargue|Camargue]]
* 1980-1987 [[Bentley Mulsanne|Mulsanne]]
** 1984-1988 [[Bentley Mulsanne|Mulsanne L]] limousine
** 1982-1985 [[Bentley Mulsanne|Mulsanne Turbo]]
** 1987-1992 [[Bentley Mulsanne|Mulsanne S]]
** 1984-1992 [[Bentley Eight|Eight]] &mdash; lower-priced model
** 1985-1995 [[Bentley Turbo R|Turbo R]] &mdash; [[turbocharged]] performance version
** 1991-2002 [[Bentley Continental R|Continental R]] &mdash; tur |
w.epilepsy.org.uk/info/firstaid.html What to do when someone has a seizure] - Information from [[Epilepsy Action]]
*National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/epilepsy.htm Epilepsy Information Page] (USA)
*[http://www.epilepsyaustralia.org Epilepsy Australia] Where to go for help with epilepsy in Australia.
*[http://www.epilepsy.org.au Epilepsy Association of Australia] Information and education, seizure first aid.
*[http://www.headlines.org.au Australian Headlines, online epilepsy magazine] News, opinion, research, personal experiences
*[http://www.eqi.org.au/ Epilepsy Queensland]An award winning site especially for children with epilepsy.
*[http://epilepsy.ca/eng/mainSet.html Epilepsy Canada]
*[http://www.getontheteam.org.au Get on the Team Campaign] Epilepsy Awareness Campaign featuring high profile ambassadors.
*[http://www.epilepsytasmania.org. The Epilepsy Association of Tasmania] A site for Tasmanians living with epilepsy.
*[http://www.ncype.org.uk The National Centre for Young People with Epilepsy] A UK charity with a school and medical centre.
===Peer support forums===
*[http://brain.hastypastry.net/forums/forumdisplay.php?f=133 BrainTalk Communities]
*[http://www.coping-with-epilepsy.com/forum/ Coping With Epilepsy]
*[http://theterranetwork.com/E/integramod/index.php Global Epilepsy Network]
*[http://www.epilepsyforum.org.uk/ National Society for Epilepsy] UK based group
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[Category:Medical terms]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[da:Epilepsi]]
[[de:Epilepsie]]
[[es:Epilepsia]]
[[eo:Epilepsio]]
[[eu:Epilepsia]]
[[fr:Épilepsie]]
[[gl:Epilepsia]]
[[io:Epilepsio]]
[[it:Epilessia]]
[[he:כיפיון]]
[[nl:Epilepsie]]
[[ja:てんかん]]
[[no:Epilepsi]]
[[pl:Padaczka]]
[[pt:Epilepsia]]
[[ru:Эпилепсия]]
[[fi:Epilepsia]]
[[sv:Epilepsi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Everquest</title>
<id>10513</id>
<revision>
<id>15908322</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[EverQuest]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extra-sensory perception</title>
<id>10515</id>
<revision>
<id>41841098</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:16:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Master Jay</username>
<id>526659</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* The Randi Prize */ typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- At least one editor thinks this article is biased - please see the talk page to discuss this -->
{{POV check}}
'''Extra-sensory perception''', or '''ESP''', is the name given to any ability to acquire information by means other than the five canonical [[sense]]s ([[taste]], [[sight]], [[touch]], [[smell]], and [[hearing (sense)|hearing]]), or any other sense well-known to science ([[Equilibrioception|balance]], [[proprioception]], etc).
Because the definition of ''sense'' is vague and ambivalent,- the precise definition of ''extra-sensory perception'' is as well, but the term is generally used in reference to humans, to imply sensual sources of information unknown to modern science.
==Types of ESP==
Specific types of extra-sensory perception include:
* Perception of events in other places ([[clairvoyance]], [[clairaudience]], [[clairgustance]], [[clairsentience]]) and in other times ([[precognition]], [[retrocognition]], [[second sight]])
* Perception of aspects of others not perceivable by most people ([[aura]] reading)
* The ability to sense communications from, and communicate with, people far away ([[telepathy]]), beyond the grave ([[medium]]-hood and [[séance|séancing]], [[spirit walking]]), or in other dimensions ([[astral projection]])
There are many other names for such powers of perception, from different cultures and different eras. It was first discovered by the Hindu tribe, Maanui.{{fact}}
The study of these abilities is called [[parapsychology]], which also addresses other abilities, similarly outside the explanation of current science and sometimes associated with ESP (e.g., [[psychometry]] and [[psychokinesis]]).
The word "psychic" is sometimes used as both a noun and adjective to denote a person capable of using ESP in any of its forms. Many who believe in ESP maintain that it is a power innate to only a relatively small percentage of the population; yet some believe that everyone is psychic, and that most people have just not learned to tap into their innate extrasensory potential..
==History of ESP==
The notion of extra-sensory perception is a very old one, and in many ancient cultures it was taken for granted that certain people had such powers of perception, be it [[second sight]], or the power to [[communing|communicate]] with deities, ancestors, or spirits. However, in recent centuries this idea has been widely classified as [[superstition]] and denounced as fictitious, or at best unprovable and unscientific.
* ''in ancient culture: the [[Delphic Oracle]], [[shaman]]s, [[soothsayer]]s, ...''
=== Extra-sensory perception and hypnosis ===
When [[Franz Anton Mesmer]] and [[Grigori Rasputin]] were first popularizing [[hypnosis]], the legend came about that a person who was hypnotized would be able to demonstrate ESP. [[Carl Sargent]], a psychology major at the [[University of Cambridge]], heard about the early claims of a hypnosis-ESP link, and designed an experiment to test whether they had merit. He recruited forty fellow college students, none of whom identified him- or herself as having ESP, and then divided them into a group that would be hypnotized before being tested with a pack of 25 [[Zener card]]s, and a control group that would be tested with the same Zener cards. The control subjects averaged a score of 5 out of 25 right, exactly what chance would indicate. The subjects who were hypnotized did more than twice as well, averaging a score of 11.9 out of 25 right. Sargent's own interpretation of the experiment is that ESP is associated with a relaxed state of mind and a freer, more atavistic level of consciousness. Other scientists, using normal experimental controls, have been unable to reproduce Sargent's results.
=== Extra-sensory perception and technology ===
In the early days of radio and electronics, the technology seemed magical to most people, including the engineers working on it. It was suggested that it might be used to unleash previously impossible feats of mental ability. This included communication with dead people, who were considered to have moved on to another world or "plane". [[Alec Reeves]], one of the pioneers of digital communications, considered ESP a perfectly reasonable proposition. He believed that many of his inventions were prompted by the dead pioneer [[Michael Faraday]], and spent much of his earlier years trying to perfect spiritualist telecommunication devices. Some of his experiments are available as [[ActiveX]] pages on his website.
== Ongoing debates about the existence of ESP ==
Proponents of the existence of ESP point to numerous scientific studies that appear to offer evidence of the phenomenon's existence: the work of [[J. B. Rhine]], a botanist at [[Duke University]] in the 1930s, and of [[Russell Targ]] and [[Harold E. Puthoff]], physicists at [[SRI International]] in the 1970s, are often cited in arguments that ESP exists.
Those who believe ESP does not exist point to methodological flaws in such studies[http://www.skepdic.com/zener.html], and point to numerous other ESP studies which have failed to find any evidence of the phenomenon. Many modern scientists and skeptics do not take ESP seriously enough to find it warrants study. Believers consider the widespread disbelief in the "taboo" subject of ESP among the scientific and rationalist communities as a sociological phenomenon, not a scientific one.
=== Difficulties testing ESP ===
Among the difficulties having to do with proving the existence or non-existence of '''extra-sensory perception''' are that, if ESP exists, it may have a subtle rather than an overt effect, and that the ability to perceive may be altered by the nature of the event being perceived. For example, some proponents of ESP put forward that predicting whether a loved one was just involved in a car crash might have a stronger effect than sensing which [[playing card]] was drawn from a deck, even though the latter is better suited for scientific studies. This, ''in part'', is why scientists remain skeptical, although cases of ESP involving subjects who are familiar with each other have yielded results that would indicate a positive demonstration of the ability [http://www.sheldrake.org/articlesnew/pdf/Lobach.pdf]. There are no consistent and agreed-upon standards by which ESP powers may be tested, in the way one might test for, say, electrical current or the chemical composition of a substance. Often, when self-proclaimed psychics are challenged by skeptics and fail to prove their alleged powers, they assign all sorts of reasons for their failure, such as that the skeptic is affecting the experiment with "negative energy." This, and the practice of charlatanry in ESP and psychic circles[http://www.rickross.com/reference/general/general542.html], can cause scientists and rationalists to dismiss ESP claims out of hand.
There is some dispute over the interpretation of results obtained in scientific studies of ESP, as the most compelling and repeatable results are all small to moderate [[statistical]] results. Critics of ESP argue that the results are too small to be significant, while proponents of ESP argue that the results are consistent in numerous studies. The combined [[Statistical significance|significance]] is large and considered to be further proof by proponents. That |
41927560 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsJapan}}
[[Japan]] has a [[parliament|parliamentary government]], which consists of three branches: the administration (executive) branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch. Sovereignty is vested in Japanese nationals by whom officials are elected in all of the branches. There is universal adult suffrage with a fair, reliable, secret ballot. For historical reasons, the system is similar to that in the [[United Kingdom]]. There is dispute as to whether Japan is a [[constitutional monarchy]] or a [[republic]].
== Government ==
'''Main article:''' [[Government of Japan]]
Japan officially has the traditional [[federal system]], and its [[prefectures of Japan|47 prefectures]] depend on the central government for most funding. Governors of prefectures, [[mayors]] of municipalities, and prefectural and municipal assembly members are popularly elected for four-year terms.
===Sovereignty===
According to traditional beliefs, Japan was founded in [[660 BC]] by [[Emperor Jimmu]]. The [[Meiji Constitution]], which established the modern Japanese state, was ratified in [[1889]]. Japan was [[occupied Japan|occupied]] by the [[Allies]] from the end of [[World War II]] in [[1945]] until [[1952]]. Sovereignty, which was previously embodied in the Emperor, is now the domain of the people. The Emperor is defined as the symbol of the state.
[[Image:Japanese_national_diet_building.jpg|right|250px|frame|National Diet building in Tokyo]]<br>
=== Legislative ===
By the [[JapanConstitution|Constitution]], the [[Diet of Japan|Diet]] is the most powerful of the three branches and consists of two houses, [[House of Representatives of Japan|the House of Representatives]] and [[House of Councillors of Japan|the House of Councillors]]. The Diet directs the [[Akihito|Emperor]] in the appointment and removal of the chiefs of the executive and judicial branches.
At present, the following political parties are represented in the National Diet, along with Non-partisans.
*[[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP, conservative)
*[[Democratic Party of Japan| Democratic Party]] (DPJ, liberal/social-democratic)
**the [[Independent's Club]] sits with the Democrat Party.
*[[New Clean Government Party]] (New K&#333;meit&#333;, theocratic Buddhist/conservative)
*[[Japanese Communist Party]] (JCP, communist)
*[[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Social Democrat Party]] (SDP, social-democratic)
*[[Liberal League]] (LL, conservative)
'''Note:''' The [[New Conservative Party]] (''Hoshu Shint&#333;'') merged with the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democrat Party of Japan]] on [[November 10]], [[2003]], after its failure to win more than 4 seats in the election that year.
The LDP has been the dominant party for most of the post-war period since 1955, and is composed of a several factions which are oriented along personalistic rather than ideological lines.
=== Executive ===
The executive branch reports to the Diet. The chief of the executive branch, the [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]], is appointed by the Emperor as directed by the Diet. He must be a member of either house of the Diet and a civilian. The [[Cabinet of Japan|Cabinet]], which he organizes, must also be civilian. The Constitution states that the majority of the Cabinet must be elected members of either house of the Diet, the precise wording leaving an opportunity to appoint non-elected officials too. The Prime Minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers.
In cases when the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democrat Party]] (the '''LDP''') has been in power, it has been convention that the President of the LDP serves as prime minister.
=== Judicial ===
The judicial branch is independent of the other two. Its judges are appointed by the Emperor as directed by the Diet.
Japan's judicial system, drawn from customary law, civil law, and Anglo-American common law, consists of several levels of courts, with the Supreme Court as the final judicial authority. The Japanese [[Constitution of Japan|constitution]], drawn up on [[May 3]], [[1947]] includes a bill of rights similar to the [[United States Bill of Rights]], and the Supreme Court has the right of judicial review. Japanese courts do not use a jury system, and there are no administrative courts or claims courts. Because of the judicial system's basis, court decisions are made in accordance with legal statutes. Only Supreme Court decisions have any direct effect on later interpretation of the law.
''See also:'' [[Japanese law]], [[Judicial system of Japan]]
==Policy making==
Despite an increasingly unpredictable domestic and international environment, policy making conforms to wellestablished postwar patterns. The close collaboration of the ruling party, the [[Civil service of Japan|elite bureaucracy]], and important interest groups often make it difficult to tell who exactly is responsible for specific policy decisions. The tendency for insiders to guard information on such matters compounds the difficulty, especially for foreigners wishing to understand how domestic decision making can be influenced to reduce trade problems.
===Human factor===
The most important human factor in the policy-making process is the homogeneity of the political and business elites. They tend to be graduates of a relatively small number of top-ranked universities, such as the [[University of Tokyo]] and [[Keio University]]. Regardless of these individuals' regional or class origins, their similar educational backgrounds encourage their feeling of community, as is reflected in the finely meshed network of marriage alliances between top official and financial circle (''zaikai'') families. The institution of early retirement also foster homogeneity. In the practice of ''[[amakudari]]'', or descent from heaven, as it is popularly known, bureaucrats retiring in their fifties often assume top positions in public corporations and private enterprise. They also become politicians. By the late 1980s, most postwar prime ministers had had civil service backgrounds.
This homogeneity facilitates the free flow of ideas among members of the elite in informal settings. Bureaucrats and business people that are associated with a single industry, such as electronics, often hold regular informal meetings in Tokyo hotels and restaurants. Political scientist [[T.J. Pempel]] has pointed out that the concentration of political and economic power in Tokyo—particularly the small geographic area of its central wards—makes it easy for leaders, who are almost without exception denizens of the capital, to have repeated personal contact. Another often overlooked factor is the tendency of elite males not to be family men. Late night work and bar-hopping schedules give them ample opportunity to hash and rehash policy matters and engage in ''[[haragei]]'' (literally, belly art), or intimate, often nonverbal communication. Comparable to the warriors of ancient [[Sparta]], who lived in barracks apart from their families during much of their adulthood, the business and bureaucratic elites are expected to sacrifice their private lives for the national good.
===Formal Policy Development===
After a largely informal process within elite circles in which ideas were discussed and developed, steps might be taken to institute more formal policy development. This process often took place in deliberation councils (''shingikai''). There were about 200 ''shingikai'', each attached to a ministry; their members were both officials and prominent private individuals in business, education, and other fields. The ''shingikai'' played a large role in facilitating communication among those who ordinarily might not meet. Given the tendency for real negotiations in Japan to be conducted privately (in the ''[[nemawashi]]'', or root binding, process of consensus building), the ''shingikai'' often represented a fairly advanced stage in policy formulation in which relatively minor differences could be thrashed out and the resulting decisions couched in language acceptable to all. These bodies were legally established but had no authority to oblige governments to adopt their recommendations.
The most important deliberation council during the 1980s was the [[Provisional Commission for Administrative Reform]], established in March 1981 by Prime Minister [[Suzuki Zenko]]. The commission had nine members, assisted in their deliberations by six advisers, twenty-one "expert members," and around fifty "councillors" representing a wide range of groups. Its head, [[Keidanren]] president [[Doko Toshio]], insisted that government agree to take its recommendations seriously and commit itself to reforming the administrative structure and the tax system. In 1982 the commission had arrived at several recommendations that by the end of the decade had been actualized. These implementations included tax reform; a policy to limit government growth; the establishment, in 1984, of the [[Management and Coordination Agency]] to replace the Administrative Management Agency in the Office of the Prime Minister; and privatization of the [[Japanese public corporations|state-owned railroad and telephone systems]]. In April 1990, another deliberation council, the Election Systems Research Council, submitted proposals that included the establishment of single-seat constituencies in place of the multiple-seat system.
Another significant policy-making institution in the early 1990s was the [[LDP's Policy Research Council|LDP's Policy Research Council]]. It consisted of a number of committees, composed of LDP Diet members, with the committees corresponding to the different executive agencies. Committee members worked closely with their official counterparts, advancing the requests of their constituents, in one of the |
quot;free") comes from the ethnic name of the Franks, the connection being that only the Franks, as the conquering class, had the status of freemen.
Contrary to what many people believe, the name of the former French currency, the [[franc]], does not come from the name of the country. Instead, the name of the currency comes from [[Old French]] ''franc'', a word which meant "free", directly borrowed from the Germanic word ''frank'' ("free"). In modern French, ''franc'' means "frank, sincere". The meaning "free" was lost, except in a few set phrases, such as ''port franc'' (i.e. "[[free port]]") or ''franc-maçon'' (i.e. "[[freemason]]"). During the [[Hundred Years' War]], King [[John II of France]] was captured by the English at the [[Battle of Poitiers (1356)|Battle of Poitiers]] (1356). The English asked for a ransom to liberate the king, which amounted to twice the yearly income of France. In order to raise the money to pay the ransom, a new coinage had to be minted. These new coins were called ''francs'', because they were minted to "free" the king.
Before the arrival of the Franks, France was called [[Gaul]] ([[Latin]]: ''Gallia''; [[French language|French]]: ''Gaule''). This name continued to be used for a very long time after the Franks arrived in what is now France. In fact, for as long as the cultural elites of Europe used Latin predominantly (until the 18th century), the name ''Gallia'' continued to be used alongside the name France. Today, in modern [[French language|French]], the word ''Gaule'' has completely disappeared, and is only used in a historical context. The only current use of the word is in the title of the leader of the French bishops, the [[archbishop]] of [[Lyon]], whose official title is [[Primate (religion)|Primate]] of the Gauls (''Primat des Gaules''). Gaul is in the plural in the title, reflecting the three Gallic entities identified by the Romans (''[[Gaul|Celtica]]'', ''[[Gallia Belgica|Belgica]]'', and ''[[Gascony#History|Aquitania]]''). The adjective ''gaulois'' (Gallic) is still sometimes used when a Frenchman wants to stress some idiosyncrasies of the French people entrenched in history, such as ''notre vieux fond gaulois querelleur'' ("the love of quarrels of our old Gallic stock"), a phrase used when denouncing French propensity for strikes or controversies. During the [[French Third Republic]], the authorities often referred to ''notre vieille Nation gauloise'' ("our old Gallic Nation"), a case in which the adjective ''gaulois'' is used with a positive connotation. The adjective ''gaulois'' is also used to describe a kind of humour located below the belt. In English the word Gaul is never used in a modern context. The adjective Gallic is sometimes used to refer to French people, especially in a derisive and critical way, such as "Gallic pride" or "Gallic hygiene".
Note that the family name of [[Charles de Gaulle]] (with two "l") has nothing to do with the name Gaul (French: ''Gaule'', with one "l"). It seems that "Gaulle" comes from an old Germanic word meaning "wall", where w- evolved into g- under the influence of French (cf. William and Guillaume). Nonetheless, contemporary Frenchmen could not help noticing the striking similarity between the two names, and it added to the aura surrounding de Gaulle.
In almost all the languages of the world, France is known by the word "France" or any of its derivatives. In a few languages (essentially [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Breton language|Breton]]), France is known as "Gaul".
===Meanings of the name France===
[[Image:Charles de Gaulle.jpg|thumb|Charles de Gaulle]]
The name "France" (and its adjective "French") can have four different meanings which it is important to distinguish in order to avoid ambiguities.
In a first meaning, "France" refers to the whole French Republic.
In a second meaning, it refers to [[metropolitan France]] only. This is the most common meaning.
In a third meaning, "France" refers specifically to the [[provinces of France|province]] of [[Île-de-France (province)|Île-de-France]] (with [[Paris]] at its centre) which historically was the heart of the royal demesne. This meaning is found in some geographic names, such as French Brie (''Brie française'') and French Vexin (''Vexin français''). French Brie, the area where the famous [[Brie cheese]] is produced, is the part of [[Brie]] that was annexed to the royal demesne, as opposed to Champagne Brie (''Brie champenoise'') which was annexed by [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]]. Likewise, French Vexin was the part of [[Vexin]] inside Île-de-France, as opposed to Normandy Vexin (''Vexin normand'') which was inside [[Normandy]].
This meaning is also found in the name of the [[French language]] (''langue française''), whose literal meaning is "language of Île-de-France". It is not until the 19th and 20th centuries that the language of Île-de-France indeed became the language of the whole country France. In modern French, the French language is called ''le français'', while the old language of Île-de-France is called ''le francien''.
In a fourth meaning, "France" refers only to the ''[[Pays de France]]'', one of the many ''pays'' (Latin: ''pagi'', singular ''pagus'') of Île-de-France. French provinces are traditionally made up of several ''pays'', which are the direct continuation of the ''pagi'' set up by the Roman administration during [[Antiquity]]. The province of Île-de-France is thus made up of several ''pays'': ''Pays de France'', Parisis, Hurepoix, French Vexin, and so on. ''Pays de France'' is the extremely fertile plain located immediately north of Paris which supported one of the most productive agriculture during the [[Middle Ages]] and was responsible for the tremendous wealth of the kingdom of France before the Hundred Years' War, making possible the emergence of [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] art and architecture which spread all over western Europe. ''Pays de France'' is also called ''Plaine de France'' (i.e. "Plain of France"). Its historic main town is [[Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis]], where the first gothic cathedral in the world was built in the 12th century, and inside which the kings of France are buried. ''Pays de France'' is now almost entirely built up, being but the northern extension of the Paris suburbs.
This fourth meaning is found in many place names, such as the town of [[Roissy-en-France]], on whose territory is located [[Charles de Gaulle International Airport]]. The name of the town literally means "Roissy in the ''Pays de France''", and not "Roissy in the country France", as many people wrongly believe. Another example of the use of France in this meaning is the new ''[[Stade de France]]'', which was built near Saint-Denis for the [[Football World Cup 1998|1998 Football World Cup]]. It was decided to call the stadium after the ''Pays de France'', to give it a local touch. In particular, the mayor of Saint-Denis made it very clear that he wanted the new stadium to be a stadium of the northern suburbs of Paris, and not just a national stadium which happens to be located in the northern suburbs. The name reflected this. However, most people, both inside and outside France, are not aware of this, and assume that the stadium was called after the country France.
== Miscellaneous topics ==
[[Image:TourDeFrance 2005 07 09.jpg|thumb|[[Tour de France]]]]
[[Image:Montstmichel.JPG|thumb|[[Mont Saint Michel]], the most visited tourist site in France]]
[[Image:IMG 0133(Eiffel in Evening).jpg|thumb|Symbol of France, the [[Eiffel tower]]]]
*''Description of the flag:'' three vertical bands of blue (hoist side), white, and red (the ratio being 30:33:37) became the flag during the French Revolution and made popular by Marquis de Lafayette; known as the ''[[Flag of France|drapeau tricolore]]'' (Tricolour Flag).
*The foundation of France as a kingdom is dated 496 (baptism of [[Clovis I]]) since this event funds put together three essential features of the country: the definition of a territorial limit (however much smaller than the current one), the definition of a power rule (succession from a king to his first son) and the definition of a social system (3 categories of people: warriors, priest and workers). The [[Treaty of Verdun]] in 843, which divided the [[Frankish Empire]] and created the kingdom of Francia Occidentalis (&#8220;Western Frankland&#8221;), from which France is descended, represents only the legal founding of the state. The French state has been in continuous existence since 843, among the oldest states in existence in the world.
*Although commonly associated with the [[French Revolution]] and suggested by [[Robespierre]] in [[December]], [[1790]], France's motto, "[[Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité]]" was not adopted until [[the Revolutions of 1848 in France]].{{ref|motto}}
*The national holiday of France since 1880 is the ''Fête Nationale'' (National Holiday), colloquially known as ''le 14 juillet'', celebrating the ''Fête de la Fédération'' ([[July 14]], [[1790]]) and ''not'' the storming of the [[Bastille]] ([[July 14]], [[1789]]) as is often mistakenly believed, even by a majority of French people, and is the reason why the holiday is referred to as [[Bastille Day]] in [[English language|English]]. On the occasion of the ''Fête de la Fédération'', celebrated exactly one year after the storming of the Bastille, all the representatives of the provinces of France gathered on the [[Champ de Mars]] in [[Paris]] in presence of the king [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] and proclaimed the national unity of France. They vowed to remain faithful to "the Nation, the Law, the King".
:This day is considered by French Repu |
with or fails to explain:
* The spectra of larger atoms. At best, it can make some approximate predictions about the emission spectra for atoms with a single outer-shell electron (atoms in the [[lithium]] group.)
* The relative intensities of spectral lines; although in some simple cases, it was able to provide reasonable estimates (for example, calculations by Kramers for the [[Stark effect]]).
* The existence of [[fine structure]] and [[hyperfine structure]] in spectral lines.
* The [[Zeeman effect]] - changes in spectral lines due to external [[magnetic field]]s.
==See also==
*[[Franck-Hertz experiment]] provided early support for the Bohr model.
*[[Inert pair effect]] is adequately explained by means of the Bohr model.
*[[Lyman series]]
*[[Schrödinger equation]]
==References==
===Historical===
*{{cite journal | author=Niels Bohr | title=[http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Bohr/Bohr-1913a.html On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules (Part 1 of 3)] | journal=Philosophical Magazine | year=1913 | volume=26 | pages=1-25}}
*{{cite journal | author=Niels Bohr | title=On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules, Part II Systems Containing Only a Single Nucleus | journal=Philosophical Magazine | year=1913 | volume=26 | pages=476-502}}
*{{cite journal | author=Niels Bohr | title=On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules, Part III | journal=Philosophical Magazine | year=1913 | volume=26 | pages=857-875}}
*{{cite journal | author=Niels Bohr | title=The spectra of helium and hydrogen | journal=Nature | year=1914 | volume=92 | pages=231-232}}
*{{cite journal | author=Niels Bohr | title=[http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Bohr-Nature-1921.html Atomic Structure] | journal=Nature | year=1921 | volume= | pages=}}
===Modern===
*{{cite book | author=Paul Tipler and Ralph Llewellyn | title=Modern Physics (4th ed.) | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0716743450}}
[[Category:Atomic physics]]
[[Category:Foundational quantum physics]]
[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]
[[ar:نموذج بور]]
[[da:Atommodel (Bohr)]]
[[de:Bohrsches Atommodell]]
[[es:Modelo atómico de Bohr]]
[[fa:مدل بور]]
[[fr:Modèle de Bohr]]
[[it:Modello atomico di Bohr]]
[[he:המודל הפלנטרי]]
[[lv:Bora atoma struktūras modelis]]
[[hu:Bohr-féle atommodell]]
[[nl:Atoommodel van Bohr]]
[[nn:Atommodell]]
[[pl:Model atomu Bohra]]
[[fi:Bohrin malli]]
[[sv:Bohrs atommodell]]
[[zh:玻尔模型]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bombay Sapphire</title>
<id>4832</id>
<revision>
<id>37540320</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T17:38:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zoicon5</username>
<id>15789</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguation from [[Martini]] to [[Martini cocktail]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bombay-sapphire.jpg|thumb|100px|A bottle of Bombay Sapphire brand [[gin]] which has been partially consumed.]]
'''Bombay Sapphire''' is a brand of [[gin]] distributed by [[Bacardi]], launched in 1987. The name hints at the origins of gin's popularity in the [[British Raj]]. During their administration, the British took [[quinine]] in the form of [[tonic water]] to protect against [[malaria]]. This was mixed with gin in order to make a more pleasing and sociable drink of this medical necessity.
In addition to its roots, the brand is distinctive because of the ingredients and [[distillation]] process used in the manufacture of the product. The flavoring comes from a recipe of ten ingredients: [[almond]], [[lemon]] peel, [[liquorice]], [[juniper]] berries, [[orris root]], [[angelica]], [[coriander]], [[cassia]], [[cubeb]], and [[Aframomum melegueta|grains of paradise]]. Instead of distilling a mixture of the grain spirit and flavouring components as is normal, the spirit is distilled, and the alcohol vapours are passed through bundles of the herbs and spices in order to gain flavour and aroma.
Bombay Sapphire is marketed in a flat-sided, sapphire-coloured bottle that bears a likeness of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] on the label.
Bombay Sapphire is popular as the main ingredient in a dry [[Martini cocktail|martini]].
== External links ==
*[http://www.bombaysapphire.com/ Bombay Sapphire Homepage]
[[Category:Gins]]
[[ja:ボンベイ・サファイア]]
[[no:Bombay Sapphire]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bob Wills</title>
<id>4833</id>
<revision>
<id>41115024</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T03:37:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.118.11.8</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bob Wills.jpg|right|thumb|240px]]
'''James Robert (Bob) Wills''' ([[March 6]], [[1905]] &ndash; [[May 13]], [[1975]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[country music]]ian and [[songwriter]].
He was born near [[Kosse, Texas]]; his father was a [[fiddle]] player who along with his grandfather, taught the young Wills to play the fiddle and the [[mandolin]]. In his 20s "Jim Rob" attended barber school, got married, and moved to [[Turkey, Texas]], to be a barber. He regularly entered fiddle contests in West Texas, [[New Mexico]] and [[Oklahoma]] and soon the fiddle had replaced the [[scissors]] in the young Wills' imagination. He headed to Fort Worth to pursue a career in music. It was there that while performing in a [[medicine show]], the show's owner gave him the nickname "Bob."
In [[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth]] Wills met Herman Arnspinger and formed The Wills Fiddle Band. In 1930 [[Milton Brown]] joined the group as lead vocalist and brought a sense of innovation and experimentation to the band, now called the [[Light Crust Doughboys]] due to radio sponsorship by the makers of Light Crust Flour. Brown left the band in 1932 to form the Musical Brownies, the first true Western Swing band. Brown added twin fiddles, tenor [[banjo]] and slap bass, pointing the music in the direction of swing, which they played on local [[radio]] and at [[dancehalls]].
Wills remained with the Doughboys and replaced Brown with new singer [[Tommy Duncan]]. Unable to work with W. Lee O'Daniel, the authoratarian host of the Light Crust Doughboy radio show and General Manager of the parent, Burrus Mill and Elevator Company, Wills and Duncan left the Doughboys in 1933.
After forming a new band, "The Playboys" and relocating to [[Waco, Texas|Waco]], Wills found enough popularity there to decide on a bigger market. They left Waco in January of 1934 for [[Oklahoma City]]. Wills soon settled the renamed "Texas Playboys" in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]], and began broadcasting noontime shows over the 50,000 watt KVOO [[radio station]]. Their 12:30-1:15 Monday-Friday broadcasts became a veritable institution in the region. By 1935 Wills had added [[horn section|horn]], [[reed]] players and [[drums]] to the Playboys. The addition of [[steel guitar]] whiz Leon McAuliffe in March, [[1935]] added not only a formidable instrumentalist but a second engaging vocalist. Wills himself largely sang [[blues]] and sentimental [[ballads]].
With its [[jazz]] sophistication, pop music and [[blues]] influence, plus improvised [[scats]] and [[wisecrack]] commentary by Wills (something he learned clowning in medicine shows), the band became the first [[superstar]]s of the genre. In 1940 "[[New San Antonio Rose]]" sold a million records and became the [[signature song]] of The Texas Playboys. The song's title referred to the fact that Wills had recorded it as a fiddle instrumental in 1938 as "San Antonio Rose". By then, the Texas Playboys were virtually two bands: one a fiddle-guitar-steel band with rhythm section and the second a first-rate big band able to play the day's [[swing]] and [[pop music |pop]] hits as well as [[Dixieland]]. Despite losing various members to the [[World War II]] draft, Wills kept the [[big band]] until late 1942.
By the fall of 1943, after a brief, unpleasant stint in the [[U.S. Army]], Bob Wills had moved to Sacramento with a reorganized, downsized Texas Playboys. He became an enormous draw in [[Los Angeles]], where many of his [[Texas]], Oklahoma and regional fans had relocated during World War II.
He commanded enormous fees playing dances there, and began to make more creative use of electric guitars to replace the big horn sections the Tulsa band had boasted. In 1944 on a rare cross-country tour, he appeared on the Grand Ole Opry and defied that conservative show's ban on drums onstage. By 1945 he was working from Fresno, [[California]] then in 1947 he opened the Wills Point nightclub in Sacramento and continued touring the Southwest and Pacific Northwest from Texas to Washington State.
During the postwar period, KGO radio in San Francisco syndicated a [[Bob Wills & His Texas Playboys]] show recorded at the Fairmont Hotel. Many of these recordings survive today as the Tiffany Transcriptions, and are available on [[Compact disc|CD]]. They show the band's strengths off significantly, with superb instrumental work from fiddlers Joe Holley and Jesse Ashlock, steel guitarists Noel Boggs and Herb Remington, guitarists Eldon Shamblin and Junior Barnard and electric mandolinist-fiddler Tiny Moore.
A binge drinker, Wills became increasingly unreliable in the late 1940s, causing a rift with Tommy Duncan that ended when he fired Duncan in the fall of 1948. Having lived a lavish lifestyle, in
1949 Wills moved back to Oklahoma City, then went back on the road to maintain his payroll and Wills Point. An even more disastrous business decision came when he opened a second club, the Bob Wills Ranch House in [[Dallas, Texas]]. Turning the club over to what was later revealed as dishonest managers left Wills in desperate financial straits with heavy debts to the [[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] for back [[tax|taxes]] that caused him to sell many assets including, mistakenl |
ion)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elf (disambiguation)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Elbląg</title>
<id>9857</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>34883754</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-12T12:35:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SpookyMulder</username>
<id>87517</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>consistency etc.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!--SCROLL DOWN IN ORDER TO EDIT THE ARTICLE-->
{{Infobox_Poland|
city_name=Elbląg|
motto=none|
voivodship=[[Warmian-Masurian Voivodship|Warmia-Masuria]]|
council=Rada Miejska w Elblągu|
mayor=Henryk Słonina|
area=83,32|
population=130,000|
agglomeration=none|
density=1544,64|
date_founded=[[9th century]]|
city_rights=[[1246]]|
latitude=54° 10' N|
longitude=19° 24' E|
area_code=55|
car_plates=NE|
twin_towns=[[Baltiysk]], [[Baoji]], [[Compiegne]], [[Coquimbo]], [[Druskininkai]], [[Kaliningrad]], [[Leer]], [[Liepāja]], [[Navahrudak]], [[Ronneby]], [[Ternopil]], [[West Wiltshire]]|
website=http://www.umelblag.pl/|
location_pic=Elblag Mapa.PNG|
flag_pic=Elblag Flaga.PNG|
coa_pic=Elblag Herb.PNG|
colour_scheme=background:#cccccc;|
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'''Elbląg''' (pronounced [[Image:Ltspkr.png]] [[Media:Elblag.ogg|<nowiki>[</nowiki>:εlbl&#596;&#771;g<nowiki>]</nowiki>]], local Polish [[dialect]]: ''Elbiąg'' ([:εlbi&#596;&#771;g]); [[German language|German]]: ''Elbing''; [[Old Prussian]] ''Truso, Ilfing'') is a [[city]] in northern [[Poland]] with 128,700 inhabitants, the [[capital]] of the [[Powiat]] [[Powiat of Elblag|of Elbląg]], situated in the [[Warmian-Masurian Voivodship]] since [[1999]], previously capital of [[Elbląg Voivodship]] ([[1975]]&ndash;[[1998]]), and a county-site of [[Gdańsk Voivodship]] ([[1945]]&ndash;1975).
The city is located on the Elbląg river connecting the [[Drużno Lake]] to the [[Vistulan Bay]].
===The city's name===
According to various sources the city name of Elbląg comes from the river name, which is of (Old)Prussian or Germanic (Gothic) origin. Early sources: river ''Ilfing'' ([[890]]), ''Castrum de Elbingo quod a nomine fluminis Elbingum appellavit'' (1237 &mdash; Peter Dusburg, Chronicon Terre Prussiae), ''in Elbingo'' ([[1239]]), ''in Elbing'' ([[1242]]), ''in Elbinge ... fluvium Elbinc'' ([[1246]], city charter), ''de Elbingo'' ([[1250]]), ''in Elbyngo'' ([[1258]]), ''vitra Elbingum'' ([[1263]]), ''Elvingo'' ([[1293]]), ''in Elbingo'' ([[1300]]), ''in Elvingo'' ([[1389]]), ''czum Elbinge'' ([[1392]]), ''czu Elbing'' ([[1403]]), ''Elwing'' ([[1410]]), ''czum Elwinge'' ([[1412]]), ''Elbing'' ([[1414]]&ndash;[[1438]]), ''Elbyang'' (before [[1454]]), ''Elbing'' ([[1508]]), ''ku Elbiągowi'' ([[1634]]), ''w Elblągu'' ([[1661]]), ''w Elblągu'' ([[1661]]).
{{Polishcity|name=Elbing}}
Literature:
* ''Elbląg'', in: Kazimierz Rymut, ''Nazwy Miast Polski'', [[Ossolineum]], Wrocław [[1987]]
* Hubert Gurnowicz, ''Elbląg'', in: ''Nazwy miast Pomorza Gdańskiego'', Ossolineum, Wrocław [[1978]]
==History==
===(Old) Prussian city of Truso===
The seaport of Truso on the Ilfing river was first mentioned in ca. 890 by [[Wulfstan of Hedeby]], an [[Anglo-Saxon]] sailor, travelling on the south coast of the [[Baltic Sea]]. The exact location of Truso is not certain, as the seashore has significantly changed, but most historians trace the settlement inside or near to modern Elbląg.
It was an important seaport serving the [[Vistula]] river bay on the early medieval Baltic Sea trade routes. The main goods were amber, furs and slaves. The town was inhabited by the (old) Prussian tradesmen and craftsmen, but also visited by merchants from the Baltic territories (Poland, Scandinavia). Truso's importance declined in the [[10th century]], and its functions were taken over by [[Gdańsk]] and later by Elbląg.
'''Truso''', situated on [[Lake Druzno]], was an [[Prussia (Baltic)|Old Prussian]] town near the Baltic Sea just east of the [[Vistula River]]. It was one of the trading posts on the [[Amber Road]], and is thought to be the antecedent of the city of [[Elbląg]].
Truso was situated in a central location upon the Eastern European trade routes, which led from [[Birka]] in the north to the island of [[Gotland]] and to [[Visby]] in the [[Baltic Sea]] and later included the [[Hanseatic League]] city of Elbląg. From there, traders continued further south to [[Carnuntium]] in the [[Alps]]. This was called the [[Amber Road]]. The ancient Amber Road or roads led further southwest and southeast to the [[Black Sea]] and eventually to [[Asia]].
The east-west trade route went from Truso, along the [[Baltic Sea]] to [[Jutland]], and from there inland by river to [[Hedeby]], a large trading center in Jutland. Hedeby, which lay near the modern city of Schleswig in [[Schleswig-Holstein]], was pretty centrally located and could be reached from all four directions overland as well as from the [[North Sea]], the [[Atlantic Ocean]], and the Baltic Sea.
Around the year 890, [[Wulfstan of Hedeby]] (by his own account) reportedly undertook a boat journey from Hedeby to Truso at the behest of King [[Alfred the Great]]. One possible reason for this expedition was that Harold needed aid in his defense against the Danes or [[Vikings]], who had taken over most of [[England]]. The reasons for this journey are fundamentally unclear, since Truso was at the time little more than a trading center, and Alfred the Great, the West Saxon ruler, already kept in close contact with the continental Saxons and the Franks.
===Bringing Christianity &mdash; Teutonic Order===
In the [[12th century|12th]] and [[13th century|13th centuries]], Elbląg was loosely dependent on the Polish [[duchy]] of [[Eastern Pomerania]]. The task of [[Christianization]] of the territory was given to bishop Christian of [[Prussia]] ([[Zantyr]]) and the [[Teutonic Order]] who received Kulmerland or [[Chełmno Land]] as [[fief]] from the independent [[duke]] [[Konrad of Mazovia]]. The [[Conquest of Prussia]] was only accomplished with great bloodshed over more than 50 years, during which new [[castle]]s were built and trade and administration cities were founded.
A city named Elbing in [[Pogesania]] was founded in [[1237]] by German tradesmen near the ruins of the Prussian fortress and trading settlement of [[Truso]], on the ancient [[Amber Road]]. The Teutonic Knights built a castle, which the burghers later destroyed. When Prussia was divided into four [[diocese]]s, Elbing and Pogesania became part of one of the four [[diocese]]s named [[Pomesania]].
In [[1246]] Elbląg received [[Lübeck rights]] marking its importance as a [[seaport]] (unlike many other cities in east-central Europe, which received [[Magdeburg rights]]). At this time it was a significant seaport, member of the [[Hanseatic League]], having important trading contacts with [[England]], [[Flanders]], [[France]] and the [[Netherlands]]. The city received numerous merchant privileges from rulers of [[England]], [[Poland]], [[Pomerania]] and the [[Teutonic Order]]. e.g. in the privilege of the Elbląg Old Town was upgraded in [[1343]], in [[1393]] it was granted an emporium privilege for grains, metals and forest products. A separate settlement called Elbląg New Town was founded in ca. [[1337]] and it received a Lübeck law charter in [[1347]].
The oldest copy of the Polish [[common law]], called the [[Book of Elbląg]] (Księga Elbląska) was written in the second half of 13th century. A vocabulary of the [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] [[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]] language, named the Elbing-Preußisches Wörterbuch (Elbląg Prussian Dictionary), was written around [[1350]] by the leading administrators.
===Member of the Hanseatic league===
The trading cities of Elbląg (Elbing), [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig), and [[Toruń]] (Thorn), under the leadership of Imperial [[Cologne]], formed the [[Hanseatic League]].
In [[1440]] the eastern Prussian cities formed the [[Prussian Confederation]] (Preußische Bund), which led the successful rising (1454) of Prussia against the rule of the [[Teutonic Order]]. The [[Prussian Confederation]] asked King of Poland [[Casimir IV of Poland]] for help in their struggle against the Teutonic Knights. On the request of the confederation Casimir IV annexed Prussia and this led to the [[Thirteen Years War]]. As a result, the city of Elbląg became a part of the province of [[Royal Prussia]] under the sovereignty of the Polish crown. Since [[1569]], Elbląg became the part of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] that respected local languages and law. The administration switched from [[Middle Low German]] to [[German language|German]], as was the case in all Hanseatic cities.
[[Image:Feldaltar MK1888.png|thumb|right|Field altar of the Grand Masters of the Teutonic Order]]
With the [[Reformation]] the burghers became protestants and in [[1535]] the first [[Protestant]] [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] was established in Elbląg.
From [[1579]] Elbląg had close trade relations with [[England]], to which the city accorded free trade. English and [[Scotland|Scots]] merchants settled in Elbląg and formed the ''[[Scots Reformed Church of Elbing]]''. The Scottish newcomers remained and aided Protestant [[Sweden]] in the [[Thirty Years War]]. The rivalry of nearby Gdańsk several times interrupted trading links. By [[1618]] Elbląg left the [[Hanseatic League]] owing to its close business dealings with England.
Famous inhabitants of the city at that time included native sons [[Hans von Bodeck]], [[Samuel Hartlib]] or Hartlieb and for six years the Moravian Brethren refugee Johann Amos [[Comenius]]. In [[1646]] the Elbląg city recorder Daniel Barholz noted that the Elbląg city council employes ''Bernsteindreher'', also known as ''Paternostermacher'', licensed and guilded amber |
party. In December 1975, Suharto discussed the invasion plans during a meeting with Kissinger and President Ford in the Indonesian capital of [[Jakarta]]. Both Ford and Kissinger made clear that U.S. relations with Indonesia would remain strong and that it would not object to the proposed annexation. U.S. arms sales to Indonesia continued, and Suharto went ahead with the annexation plan, meeting fierce resistance from the native East Timorese. The army responded with indiscriminate massacres; it is said that some 200,000 East Timorese lost their lives during the occupation due to starvation and army massacres. The Indonesian government's recognition of East Timor as the province of ''Timor Timur'' was not accepted internationally. Repression on the part of the military and its collaborators was especially intense during the initial invasion and following a [[United Nations|UN]]-supervised East Timorese vote for independence in March 1999. East Timor achieved independence in late 1999. The U.S. maintained friendly diplomatic ties with Suharto during the '90s, but with the end of the [[Cold War]] felt more free to criticize the regime for its actions in East Timor.
==Personality and public perception==
Kissinger, like the rest of the Nixon administration, faced extreme unpopularity with the anti-war Left, particularly after the secret U.S. bombing of Cambodia was revealed. However, few doubted his intellect and diplomatic skill, and he became one of the better-liked members of the Nixon administration, which many Americans grew to view as cynical and self-serving. Kissinger was not connected with the [[Watergate scandal]] that would eventually ruin Nixon and many of his closest aides; this greatly increased Kissinger's reputation as he became known as the "clean man" of the bunch. At the height of his popularity he was even regarded as something of a [[sex symbol]] and seen dating such starlets as [[Jill St. John]], [[Shirley MacLaine]], and [[Candice Bergen]]. There was even discussion of ending the requirement that a U.S. president be born in America so that Kissinger could have a chance to run.
[[Image:Henry Kissinger.png|frame|Kissinger is updated on the latest situation in [[South Vietnam]] on [[April 29]], [[1975]], one day before its government falls.]]
Kissinger left office when former Democratic [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]n governor and "Washington outsider" Jimmy Carter defeated Gerald Ford in the 1976 presidential elections. Carter was defeated by [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] presidential candidate [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1980, but in the '80s and early '90s Kissinger played a relatively minor role in the U.S. government, because the [[neoconservatism|neoconservatives]], who had come to dominate the Republican Party and the [[Reagan administration]] from 1981 to 1989, considered ''détente'' to be a policy of accommodation for the Soviet Union. Kissinger continued to participate in policy groups such as the [[Trilateral Commission]] and to do political consulting, speaking, and writing. He would often appear as a foreign-policy commentator on American broadcast networks.
In 2002, [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]] appointed Kissinger to chair a committee to investigate the events of the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack|September 11 attacks]]. This led to criticism from Congressional Democrats who accused Kissinger of being secretive and not supportive of the public's right to know. Leading Democrats insisted that Kissinger file financial disclosures to reveal any conflicts of interest. Both Bush and Kissinger claimed that Kissinger did not need to file such forms, since he would not be receiving a salary. However, following continual Democratic pressure, Kissinger cited conflicts of interest with his clients and stepped down as chairman on [[December 13]], [[2002]].
In 2005, Kissinger offered a public apology for using foul language in 1971 to describe [[India]]n [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]] [[Indira Gandhi]] and Indians in general. Declassified transcripts show that Kissinger had disparaged the independence movement in East Pakistan, predicting that an independent [[Bangladesh]] would become a failed [[third world]] country. The comments underscored U.S. hostility toward [[India]], supportive of the Bengali guerrillas and backed by the Soviet Union. The [[Pakistan]]i Army violently suppressed the independence movement in the East, causing an influx of Bengali refugees into India and exacerbating longstanding Indo-Pakistani tensions. Pakistani forces were eventually forced to withdraw and an independent Bangladesh was established in East Pakistan's place. Despite international condemnation of the conduct of Pakistani forces during the conflict, U.S.-Pakistani relations remained strong based both on concerns of growing Indo-Soviet hegemony in the region and Pakistan's status as an ally of China. (see [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] and [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]])
==Accusations of war crimes and legal difficulties==
=== ''The Trial of Henry Kissinger'' ===
A revival of interest in Henry Kissinger came during the new millennium, when journalist [[Christopher Hitchens]] wrote ''[[The Trial of Henry Kissinger]]'', a scathing critique of Kissinger's policy that accused him of war crimes, particularly for his policy toward Vietnam and Cambodia. Kissinger became a focal point of criticism from the political Left and certain [[human rights]] [[non-governmental organizations|NGO]]s. The ''Trial of Henry Kissinger'' was later adapted into a documentary that predominantly featured Hitchens as narrator.
=== Gladio, or NATO's secret "stay-behind" paramilitary organizations ===
{{main|Operation Gladio}}
After World War II, the [[MI6]] and the [[CIA]] organized secret "[[stay-behind]]" anticommunist paramilitary organizations, originally to counter an eventual invasion by the Soviet Union. However, those anticommunist networks, dubbed Gladio, which were connected to [[ODESSA]]'s ratlines through the [[Gehlen organization]], have been involved in various terrorist acts: during Italy's [[strategy of tension]], in Turkey with the support of the ultra-nationalist [[Grey Wolves]] and various military coups, in Greece helping the [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974|"Regime of Colonels"]] take the power in 1967, in Spain during the 1976 [[Montejurra]] terrorist incident, and also in Argentina, during the June 20, 1973 Ezeiza massacre, when the [[Alianza Anticomunista Argentina]] shot on the mass of left-wing [[peronists]]. Gladio's existence, which was closely linked to [[Propaganda Due]], a masonic lodge also known as "P2", was officially disclosed by Prime minister [[Giulio Andreotti]] in 1990. According to a November 18, 1990 article by ''[[The Observer]]'', quoted by [[Statewatch]]:
:"Declassified secret service papers reveal that Ted Shackleton, deputy chief of the CIA station in Rome in the 1970’s introduced the notorious [[Licio Gelli]] – head of the neofascist [[Propaganda Due|P2 masonic lodge]] and for years a fugitive in Argentina – to General [[Alexander Haig]], then Nixon's chief of staff, and later, from 1974 to 1979, [[SACEUR|NATO Supreme Commander]]. P2 was a right-wing shadow government, ready to take over Italy, that included four Cabinet Ministers, all three intelligence chiefs, 48 members of parliament, 160 military officers, bankers, industrialists, top dipomats and the Army Chief of Staff. After meetings between Gelli, Italian military brass and CIA men in the embassy, Gladio was given renewed blessing – and more money – by Haig and the then head of the National Security Council, Henry Kissinger. Just how those and later funds were spent is a key point in the [Casson] investigations." [http://www.poptel.org.uk/cgi-bin/dbs2/statewatch?query=Gladio&mode=records&row_id=7255].
=== Involvement in Operation Condor ===
{{main|Operation Condor}}
On May 31, 2001, French judge [[Roger Le Loire]] requested a summons served on Kissinger while he was staying at the Ritz Hotel in [[Paris]]. Loire claimed to want to question Kissinger for alleged U.S. involvement in [[Operation Condor]] as well as the death of French nationals under the Chilean junta. As a result, Kissinger left Paris that evening, and Loire's inquiries were directed to the U.S. State Department.
In July 2001, the Chilean high court granted investigating judge [[Juan Guzman]] the right to question Kissinger about the 1973 killing of American journalist [[Charles Horman]], whose execution at the hands of the Chilean military following the coup was dramatized in the 1982 [[Costa-Gavras]] film, ''[[Missing (movie)|Missing]]''. The judge’s questions were relayed to Kissinger via diplomatic routes but went unanswered.
In August 2001, Argentine Judge Rodolfo Canicoba sent a letter rogatory to the US State Department, in accordance with the [[Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty]] (MLAT), requesting a deposition by Kissinger to aid the judge's investigation of Operation Condor.
[http://hrw.org/wr2k2/americas1.html]
On September 10, 2001, a civil suit was filed in a Washington, D.C., federal court by the family of Gen. [[René Schneider]], former Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army, asserting that Kissinger gave the order for the elimination of Schneider because he refused to endorse plans for a military coup. Schneider was killed by coup-plotters loyal to General [[Roberto Viaux]] in a botched kidnapping attempt, but U.S. involvement with the plot is disputed, as declassified transcripts show that Nixon and Kissinger had ordered the coup "turned off" a week prior to the killing, fearing that Viaux had no chance. As a part of the suit, Schneider’s two sons are attempting to sue Kissinger and then-CIA director [[Richard Helms]] for $3 million.
On September 11, 2001, the 28th anniversary of t |
ide his white layman's robe for the black robe of a monk....Lamenting the decline of the true teaching in the outlands, he subsequently crossed distant mountains and seas, traveling about propagating the teaching in Han and Wei.</blockquote>
The ''Biography'' is part of the ''[[Long Scroll of the Treatise on the Two Entrances and Four Practices]]'', which [[Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki]] found in 1935 by going through the [[Mogao_Caves|Dunhuang]] collection of the Chinese National Library.
===Biographical details from the ''Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks'' (645) by Daoxuan===
The entry for Bodhidharma is almost entirely drawn from the first two sections of the ''Long Scroll'' (Tanlin's ''Biography'' and the ''Two Entrances'', traditionally attributed to Bodhidharma himself), to which [[Daoxuan]] added the following:
; Caste background : Daoxuan writes that Bodhidharma's father is [[Brahmin]]. However, as a king, he is more likely to have been from the [[Kshatriya]] [[caste]] ([[Varma]]).
; Age : Daoxuan takes his figure for Bodhidharma's age from the ''Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang''.
; The duration of Daoyu and Huike's service to Bodhidharma : Tanlin's original says "several" years. Daoxuan gives a figure of "four or five".
; The route of Bodhidharma's journey : Tanlin's original says only that Bodhidharma "crossed distant mountains and seas" on the way to his ultimate destination, [[Northern_Wei_Dynasty|the northern Chinese kingdom of Wei]]. In Daoxuan's account, Bodhidharma travels to by sea to [[North_China_and_South_China|southern China]] and then makes his way north, eventually crossing the [[Yangtze River]], according to legend, on a reed.
; The date of Bodhidharma's journey : Daoxuan says that Bodhidharma makes landfall in [[Song_Dynasty_(420-479)|the southern Chinese kingdom of Song]], making his arrival in China no later than that kingdom's fall to [[Qi_Dynasty|Qi]] in [[479]].
; Bodhidharma's death : Bodhidharma dies at Luo River Beach. His interment by Huike on a bank of the river, possibly in a cave, is unusual because masters of Bodhidharma's reputation typically receive elaborate funerals. According to Daoxuan's chronology, Bodhidharma must have died before 534, when the Northern Wei falls, because Huike leaves Luoyang for Ye at that point. The use of the Luo River Beach as an execution grounds suggests that Bodhidharma may have died in the mass executions at Heyin in 528. A report in ''[[Taishou shinshuu daizoukyou]]'' states that a Buddhist monk was among the victims.
[[Image:Bodhidarma.jpg|thumb|left|This Japanese scroll calligraphy of '''Bodhidharma''' reads &#8220;Zen points directly to the human heart, see into your nature and become [[Buddha]]&#8221;. It was created by [[Hakuin Ekaku]] ([[1685]] to [[1768]])]]
===Biographical details from the ''Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall'' (952)===
The version of the Bodhidharma legend found in the ''[[Zutangji|Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall]]'' follows Daoxuan but is distinguished by the following:
* Bodhidharma's master Prajnatara, 27th Chan Patriach
* Bodhidharma's birth name Bodhitara
* Bodhidharma makes landfall not during the [[Song_Dynasty_(420-479)|Song period]] of southern China but in 527 during the [[Liang Dynasty]]. According to the ''Anthology'', Bodhidharma's voyage from India to China took three years.
* Before crossing the Yangtze River en route to Wei, Bodhidharma visits the Liang court in present-day [[Nanjing]], but leaves soon after his uncompromising doctrines end up offending [[Emperor_Wu_of_Liang_China|Emperor Wu]].
* Bodhidharma dies at the age of 150 and is buried on Mount Xiong'er to the west of Luoyang. Three years later in the [[Pamir Mountains]], Songyun, an envoy of one of the later Wei kingdoms, encounters Bodhidharma, who is on his way back [[West]]. Bodhidharma, carrying a single sandal, predicts that Songyun's ruler has died, which is borne out upon Songyun's return. Bodhidharma's tomb is opened and only a single sandal is found inside. The nine years of meditation after his departure from the Liang court in 527 mean that Bodhidharma's death can take place no earlier than 536, but his encounter with the Wei diplomat mean that his death can take place no later than 554, three years before the fall of the [[Western_Wei_Dynasty|last Wei kingdom]].
==Spiritual approach==
[[Image:CentralAsianBuddhistMonks.JPG|thumb|220px|Blue-eyed Central Asian Buddhist monk, possibly Bodhidharma, forming the "Vitarka" [[mudra]] (Symbol of teaching/ discussion of the [[dharma]]), in the direction of a disciple East-Asian monk. Eastern [[Tarim Basin]], China, 9th-10th century.]]
Tradition holds that Bodhidharma's chosen sutra was the [[Lankavatara Sutra]], a development of the [[Yogacara]] or "Mind-only" school of Buddhism established by the [[Gandhara]]n half-brothers [[Asanga]] and [[Vasubandhu]]. He is described as a "master of the Lankavatara Sutra", and an early history of Zen in China is titled "Record of the Masters and Disciples of the Lankavatara Sutra" (Chin. Leng-ch'ieh shih-tzu chi). It is also sometimes said that Bodhidharma himself was the one who brought the Lankavatara to Chinese Buddhism.
Bodhidharma's approach tended to reject devotional rituals, doctrinal
debates and verbal formalizations, in favour of an intuitive grasp of
the "Buddha mind" within everyone, through [[meditation]]. In contrast
with other Buddhist schools such as [[Pure Land]], Bodhidarma
emphasized personal [[enlightenment (Buddhism)|enlightenment]], rather than the promise
of [[heaven]].
Bodhidharma also considered spiritual, intellectual and physical excellence as an indivisible whole necessary for enlightenment.
Bodhidharma's mind-and-body approach to enlightenment ultimately
proved highly attractive to the [[Samurai]] class in Japan, who made
[[Zen]] their way of life, following their encounter with the
martial-arts-oriented Zen [[Rinzai School]] introduced to Japan by
[[Eisai]] in the [[12th century]].
According to legend, he developed two exercise regimens for the monks of the Shaolin Monastery&mdash;the “Yi Jin Jing” (Muscle Change Classic) and the “Xi Sui Jing” (Marrow Washing Classic)&mdash;which supposedly became the basis of the [[Shaolin (martial arts)|Shaolin style]] of [[Kung fu|Kung Fu]] and subsequently an important influence on the [[martial art]]s of [[East Asia]] in general.
However, it is difficult to determine the veracity of the Shaolin legend.
The ''[[Taiping Guangji|Extensive Records of the Taiping Era]]'' record that, prior to Bodhidharma's arrival in China, monks practiced wrestling for recreation.
Shaolin monastery records state that two of its very first monks, Hui Guang and Seng Chou, were expert in the martial arts years before the arrival of Bodhidharma.
The exercises attributed to Bodhidharma are consistent with Chinese [[qigong]] exercises and look little like Indian forms of bodywork like [[yoga]].
Scholarship by Chinese martial arts historians has demonstrated that the [[Yijinjing|Yijin jing]] and Xisuijing are most likely Ming dynasty (1368-1644) texts due to the presence of technical terminology from the Daoist "inner alchemy" (neidan) tradition which reached its maturity in the Song. This argument is summarized by modern historian Lin Boyuan in his ''Zhongguo wushu shi'' as follows:
<blockquote>As for the “Yi Jin Jing” (Muscle Change Classic), a spurious text attributed to Bodhidharma and included in the legend of his transmitting martial arts at the temple, it was writtin in the Ming dynasty, in 1624 CE, by the Daoist priest Zining of Mt. Tiantai, and falsely attributed to Bodhidharma. Forged prefaces, attributed to the Tang general Li Jing and the Southern Song general Niu Hao were written. They say that, after Bodhidharma faced the wall for nine years at Shaolin temple, he left behind an iron chest; when the monks opened this chest they found the two books “Xi Sui Jing” (Marrow Washing Classic) and “Yi Jin Jing” within. The first book was taken by his disciple Huike, and disappeared; as for the second, “the monks selfishly coveted it, practicing the skills therein, falling into heterodox ways, and losing the correct purpose of cultivating the Real. The Shaolin monks have made some fame for themselves through their fighting skill; this is all due to having obtained this manuscript.” Based on this, Bodhidharma was claimed to be the ancestor of Shaolin martial arts. This manuscript is full of errors, absurdities and fantastic claims; it cannot be taken as a legitimate source. (Lin Boyuan, ''Zhongguo wushu shi'', Wuzhou chubanshe, p. 183)</blockquote>
While early legends associate Bodhidharma with Mt. Song, where the Shaolin temple is located, it is not until the 11th century that we see the appearance of a hagiographical record (in the "Jingde Record of the Transmission of the Lamp," ''Jingde chuandeng lu'') explicitly associating Bodhidharma with the Shaolin temple. No mention of Bodhidharma is found in any of the many stele inscriptions preserved at the Shaolin temple from the Tang dynasty.
Legend also associates Bodhidharma with the use of [[tea]] to maintain wakefulness in meditation (the origin of [[Chado]]), and favoured [[paradoxes]], [[conundrum]]s and provocation as a way to break intellectual rigidity (a method which led to the development of [[koan]]).
==Portrayals of Bodhidharma==
Throughout [[Buddhist art]], Bodhidharma is depicted as a rather
ill-tempered, profusely bearded and wide-eyed barbarian. He is
described as "The Blue-Eyed Barbarian" in Chinese texts.
Chan texts also present Bodhidharma as the 28th Chan Patriarch, in an
uninterrupted line starting with the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]],
through direct and non-verbal transmission.
==Legends==
===Encounter with Emperor Liang===
According to |
se, north of Maryland, and had the largest population of [[free black]]s (17%) prior to the Civil War.
As of 2000, 90.5% of Delaware residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 4.7% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[French language|French]] is the third most spoken language at 0.7%, followed by [[Chinese language|Chinese]] at 0.5% and [[German language|German]] at 0.5%.
===Religion===
The religious affiliations of the people of Delaware are:
*[[Christianity|Christian]] &ndash; 79%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &ndash; 68%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &ndash; 22%
***[[Baptist]] &ndash; 21%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &ndash; 4%
***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] &ndash; 3%
***[[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] &ndash; 3%
***Other Protestant or general Protestant &ndash; 15%
**[[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] &ndash; 10%
**Other Christian &ndash; 1%
*Other Religions &ndash; 2%
*Non-Religious &ndash; 19%
== Important cities ==
Wilmington is the state's largest city and its economic hub. It is located within commuting distance of both Philadelphia and Baltimore. Despite Wilmington's size, all regions of Delaware are enjoying phenomenal growth, with Dover and the beach resorts expanding immensely.
{| width=100%
|- valign=top
|width=33%|
; Cities and Towns
* [[Bear, Delaware|Bear]]
* [[Brookside, Delaware|Brookside]]
* [[Claymont, Delaware|Claymont]]
* [[Elsmere, Delaware|Elsmere]]
* [[Glasgow, Delaware|Glasgow]]
* [[Hockessin, Delaware|Hockessin]]
* [[New Castle, Delaware|New Castle]]
* [[Newark, Delaware|Newark]]
* [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]]
*
|width=33%|
; More Cities and Towns
* [[Dover, Delaware|Dover]]
* [[Georgetown, Delaware|Georgetown]]
* [[Lewes, Delaware|Lewes]]
* [[Middletown, Delaware|Middletown]]
* [[Milford, Delaware|Milford]]
* [[Rehoboth Beach, Delaware|Rehoboth Beach]]
* [[Seaford, Delaware|Seaford]]
* [[Smyrna, Delaware|Smyrna]]
| [[Image:National-atlas-delaware.png|thumb|Delaware cities]]
|}
{| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations
|-
! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population
|-
| colspan=2|<hr>
|-
| align="center"| 1790 || align="right"| 59,096
|-
| align="center"| 1800 || align="right"| 64,273
|-
| align="center"| 1810 || align="right"| 72,674
|-
| align="center"| 1820 || align="right"| 72,749
|-
| align="center"| 1830 || align="right"| 76,748
|-
| align="center"| 1840 || align="right"| 78,085
|-
| align="center"| 1850 || align="right"| 91,532
|-
| align="center"| 1860 || align="right"| 112,216
|-
| align="center"| 1870 || align="right"| 125,015
|-
| align="center"| 1880 || align="right"| 146,608
|-
| align="center"| 1890 || align="right"| 168,493
|-
| align="center"| 1900 || align="right"| 184,735
|-
| align="center"| 1910 || align="right"| 202,322
|-
| align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 223,003
|-
| align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 238,380
|-
| align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 266,505
|-
| align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 318,085
|-
| align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 446,292
|-
| align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 548,104
|-
| align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 594,338
|-
| align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 666,168
|-
| align="center"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align="right"| 783,600
|}
===Top 10 richest places in Delaware===
Ranked by [[per capita income]]
#[[Greenville, Delaware|Greenville]]: $83,223
#[[Henlopen Acres, Delaware|Henlopen Acres]]: $82,091
#[[South Bethany, Delaware|South Bethany]]: $53,624
#[[Dewey Beach, Delaware|Dewey Beach]]: $51,958
#[[Fenwick Island, Delaware|Fenwick Island]]: $44,415
#[[Bethany Beach, Delaware|Bethany Beach]]: $41,306
#[[Hockessin, Delaware|Hockessin]]: $40,516
#[[North Star, Delaware|North Star]]: $39,677
#[[Rehoboth Beach, Delaware|Rehoboth Beach]]: $38,494
#[[Ardentown, Delaware|Ardentown]]: $35,577
{{see|Delaware locations by per capita income}}
==Economy==
{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
The gross state product of Delaware in 2003 was $49 billion. The per capita personal income was $34,199, ranking 9<sup>th</sup> in the nation.
Delaware's agricultural output consists of [[poultry]], nursery stock, [[soybeans]], [[dairy]] products and [[maize|corn]]. Its industrial outputs include [[chemical]] products, [[processed food]]s, [[paper]] products, and [[rubber]] and [[plastic]] products. Delaware's economy generally outperforms the national economy of the United States.
The state's largest employers are concentrated in government (State of Delaware, New Castle County, University of Delaware), chemical and pharmaceutical companies ([[DuPont|E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co.]], [[Syngenta]], [[AstraZeneca]], and [[Hercules, Incorporated]]), banking ([[MBNA]] America, [[Wilmington Trust Company]], [[First USA]] / [[Bank One]] / [[JPMorgan Chase]], AIG, Citigroup, Deutsche Bank), automotive manufacturing ([[General Motors]], [[DaimlerChrysler]]), and farming, specifically chicken farming in Sussex County (Perdue, Mountaire Farms).
The United States headquarters of [[ING Group]], and the U.S. operations of its online bank, ING Direct, are located in Wilmington, as are the world headquarters of [[MBNA]].
[[Dover Air Force Base]], just outside Dover, is one of the largest in the country and is a major employer in Central Delaware. In addition to its other responsibilities, the base serves as the entry point and [[mortuary]] for American military persons (and some U.S. government civilians) who die overseas.
==Transportation==
The transportation system in Delaware is under the governance and supervision of the Delaware Department of Transportation, also known as "DelDOT".([http://www.deldot.gov/index.shtml]) DelDOT manages programs such as a Delaware [[Adopt-a-Highway]] program, major road route snow removal, traffic control infrastructure (signs and signals), toll road management, Delaware [[Division of Motor Vehicles]], the Delaware Transit Corporation (branded as "DART First State", the state government public transportation organization), among others. Almost ninety percent of the state's public roadway miles are under the direct maintenance of DelDOT which far exceeds the United States national average of twenty percent for state department of transportation maintenance responsibility; the remaining public road miles are under the supervision of individual municipalities.
One major branch of the U.S. [[Interstate Highway System]], [[Interstate 95]], crosses Delaware southwest-to-northeast across [[New Castle County, Delaware|New Castle County]]. In addition to I-95, there are seven [[principal highways]]: [[U.S. Highway 9]], [[U.S. Highway 13]], [[U.S. Highway 40]], [[U.S. Highway 113]], [[U.S. Highway 202]], [[U.S. Highway 301]], and [[Delaware Route 1]]. U.S. 13 and DE Rt. 1 are primary north-south highways connecting Wilmington and [[Pennsylvania]] with [[Maryland]], while U.S. 40, the primary east-west route, connects Maryland with New Jersey. The state also operates two toll highways, the [[Delaware Turnpike]], which is Interstate 95 between Maryland and [[New Castle, Delaware|New Castle]] and the [[Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway]], which is DE Rt. 1 between Dover and Interstate 95 between Wilmington and [[Newark, Delaware|Newark]].
Delaware has around 1,450 bridges, of which ninety-five percent are under the supervision of DelDOT. About thirty percent of all Delaware bridges were built prior to 1950 and about sixty percent of the number are included in the [[National Bridge Inventory]]. Some bridges not under DelDOT supervision includes the four bridges on the [[Chesapeake and Delaware Canal]], which is under the jurisdiction of the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]], and the [[Delaware Memorial Bridge]], which is under the bi-state [[Delaware River and Bay Authority]].
The public transportation system, DART First State, was named "Most Outstanding Public Transportation System" in 2003 by the [[American Public Transportation Association]]. Coverage of the system is broad within New Castle County with close association to major highways in Kent and Sussex Counties. The system includes bus, passenger rail, subsidized taxi and paratransit modes, the latter consisting of a state-wide door-to-door bus service for the elderly and disabled. Passenger rail service, like interstate highway service, is limited to a single southwest-to-northeast corridor in New Castle County. Ferry service exists between [[Lewes, Delaware]] and [[Cape May, New Jersey]], across the mouth of the [[Delaware Bay]].
== Culture ==
=== Media ===
There are no network broadcast-television stations operating solely in Delaware. A public-television station from Philadelphia, WHYY, maintains a studio and broadcasting facility in Wilmington. Philadelphia's [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] affiliate, [[WPVI]], maintains a news bureau in downtown Wilmington. The northern part of the state is served by network stations in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] and the southern part by network stations in [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]] and [[Salisbury, Maryland]]. Salisbury's [[CBS]] affiliate, [[WBOC]], maintains bureaus in Dover and Milton.
=== Religion ===
Delaware is h |
scalpel]] is used to cut a slit, allowing for the insertion of large gauge jewelry. This method is often used in the creation of large gauge [[ear piercing]]s. Scalpelling can also be used to correct an improper placement on piercings, an example of this would be cutting existing large gauge ear piercings to match symmetrically. If the jewelry is removed from a scalpelled piercing the fistula may not shrink or close over time and unwanted piercings may have to be [[surgical]]ly repaired. Scalpelling is most commonly used on earlobes, but can be used anywhere where large gauge piercings are desired.
===Dermal Punching===
In this method, a [[dermal punch]] is used to remove a circular area of tissue, into which jewelry is placed. This method is usually used to remove both skin and [[cartilage]] in upper ear piercings, where cartilage must be removed to relieve pressure on the piercing to ensure proper healing and long term viability of the piercing. Like scalpelled piercings, the healed fistulas created or enlarged using a dermal punch will usually not shrink over time.
===Piercing Guns===
Piercing guns are commonly used by non-professional body piercers in retail settings to perform [[ear piercing]]s. These gun-shaped devices force a blunt stud through flesh via mechanical means, causing much greater trauma to the body than any other piercing method. They are often used by untrained personnel and as they cannot be properly sterilised, they place both the operator and the client at much greater risk for infection and the transmission of bloodborne pathogens than any of the methods used by professional body piercers. Most professional body piercers do not use or recommend using these devices for any purpose. Currently there are efforts by manufacturers to develop improved versions of these devices, for use in other body parts than the earlobe, as well as devices that lessen or eliminate the exposure of client and operators to bloodborne pathogens.
==The healing process and body piercing aftercare==
A new piercing will be sore, tender or red for several days up to three weeks. Complete healing normally takes several weeks or more. Below are more specific healing time estimates. During this period, care must be taken to avoid [[infection]]. Touching--or, for genital and oral piercings, sexual activity--is usually discouraged.
Healing times:
*[[Septum piercing]]: 3 &ndash; 6 months
*[[Eyebrow piercing]]: 2 &ndash; 4 months
*[[Tongue piercing]]: 3 &ndash; 6 weeks
*[[Nipple piercing]]: 10 &ndash; 12 months
Over time, after the piercing, the resulting wound is allowed to heal, forming a tunnel of scar tissue called a [[fistula]]. When the piercing has fully healed, the initial jewelry may be changed or removed for short periods.
===Behaviors which tend to support successful healing===
* Revisiting the piercer for an evaluation at any time, if needed
* Practicing good [[hygiene]]
* Following the recommended aftercare guidelines
* Taking sufficient supplement tablets [[Iron]], [[Zinc]]
===Behaviors which tend to contribute to unsuccessful healing===
* Contact between the new piercing and another person's skin
* Touching the piercing, unless cleaning it, in which case only with washed hands
* Smoking and drinking alcohol (in the case of oral piercings)
* Contact between the piercing and bodily fluids, perfume or cosmetics
* [[Oral sex]] and genital intimacy, where this could cause one of the above
* Swimming in public [[swimming pool]]s, [[lakes]], [[river]]s, [[stream]]s, and [[ocean]]s as they may be too harsh to promote skin cell healing. [[Chlorine]] in swimming pool water may be an irritant. [[Bacteria]], [[protozoa]], and [[parasite]]s found in non-chlorinated water can lead to infections.
===Cleaning===
====Oral piercings====
For tongue, lip, cheek and labret piercings, it is recommended to rinse the mouth after eating and drinking (except water). If you smoke rinse your mouth out more, instead of rinsing it 8 to 10 times a day rinse it 10 to 16 times. Some piercers recommend using Listerine, while others, claiming that Listerine is too harsh on the piercing thereby hindering the healing process, recommend a non-alcoholic [[mouthwash]] such as Oral-B Non-Alcoholic or Biotene, or a diluted [[saline (medicine)|saline]] solution. Kissing and oral sex are advised against for 4-6 weeks after the piercing, as are excessively hot, or spicy foods. It is recommended that you should eat cold foods such as ice cream bars slushies etc...
===Changing of initial jewelry to allow for swelling===
For some piercings (in particular tongue piercings) changing the initial jewelry is an essential step. In the case of tongue piercing this is because the initial jewelry is significantly longer than the jewelry for a healed piercing, to allow for swelling.
==Risks associated with body piercing==
Body piercing is an invasive procedure and is not without risks. When properly performed, these risks can be minimized, and most individuals who receive their piercing from a professional piercer, and who take care of their new piercing as recommended by their piercer, will enjoy a safe and healthy piercing experience.
Risks of note include:
* Allergic reaction to ingredients of products used to clean the new piercing, or of ancillary products used in proximity to the piercing (e.g., [[soap]], [[hydrogen peroxide]], [[isopropyl alcohol]], [[antibacterial|antibacterial products]], [[antiseptic|antiseptic medicines]], [[makeup]], [[hairspray]], [[swimming pool]] [[chlorine]], etc.). This risk can be minimized by cleaning the piercing as recommended by a professional body piercer (different piercers will have differing recommendations), by not contaminating the fresh piercing with irritating products, and by not swimming in chlorinated water.
* Allergic reaction to the metal in the piercing jewelry, particularly [[nickel]]. This risk can be minimized by using high quality jewelry manufactured from surgical stainless steel or similar inert metals.
* [[bacteria|Bacterial]] [[infection]], particularly from [[Staphylococcus|''Staphylococcus aureus'']]. However, this risk is greatly reduced when the piercing is performed by a professional body piercer using best practice piercing techniques, and when appropriate steps are taken during the aftercare period to avoid infection. Blunt force piercing, such as that associated with the use of [[ear piercing instrument]]s, increases the chance of a bacterial infections. For that reason. among others, piercing guns should never be used to pierce any part of the body other than earlobes.
* [[parasite|Parasitic]] and [[protozoa|protozoan]] infections may occur by swimming in lakes, rivers, streams, and oceans during the healing period. The best way to reduce this risk is to avoid swimming in these locations.
* [[Trauma]] to a fresh piercing, usually associated with unintended entanglement of the piercing jewelry with another object. This risk is always present, but can be reduced by using jewelry appropriate for the piercing, and covering or taping over jewelry during sports activities. Also, larger gauge piercings will tend to resist tearing better than smaller gauge piercings.
* [[virus|Viral]] infection, particularly from [[hepatitis|hepatitis B]], [[hepatitis|hepatitis C]] and [[HIV]]. However, it is important to note that although hepatitis has been transmitted through the practices of [[ear piercing]], body piercing, and [[tattoo|tattooing]], there has not yet been a case of HIV transmission associated with these procedures (see [http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/facts/transmission.htm CDC Fact Sheet: HIV and Its Transmission]). As with bacterial infections, the risk of viral infection is minimized when proper piercing techniques are used, particularly by the use of [[autoclave|autoclaved]] disposable piercing needles and the autoclaving of jewelry prior to installation.
==List of piercing types==
===Facial and oral piercings===
* [[Bridge piercing]]
* [[Cheek piercing]]
* [[earring|Earlobe and ear cartilage piercings]]
* [[Eyebrow piercing]]
* [[Lip piercing]]
* [[Nose piercing|Nostril, septum, and bridge piercings]]
* [[Tongue piercing]]
* [[Tongue frenulum piercing]]
* [[Lip frenulum piercing]]
* [[Uvula piercing]]
===Body piercings===
* [[Madison piercing]]
* [[Navel piercing]]
* [[Nipple piercing]]
* [[Nape piercing]]
* [[Surface piercing]]
===Male genital piercings===
* [[Ampallang]]
* [[Apadravya]]
* [[Hafada]]
* [[Foreskin piercing]]
* [[Deep shaft piercing]]
* [[Dolphin piercing]]
* [[Dydoe]]
* [[Frenum ladder]]
* [[Frenum piercing]]
* [[Guiche]]
* [[Lorum]]
* [[Prince Albert piercing]]
* [[Pubic piercing]]
* [[Reverse Prince Albert piercing]]
* [[Transscrotal piercing]]
===Female genital piercings===
* [[Christina piercing]]
* [[Clitoris piercing]]
* [[Clitoral hood piercing|Horizontal and vertical clitoral hood piercing]]
* [[Triangle piercing]]
* [[Fourchette piercing]]
* [[Isabella piercing]]
* [[Labia piercing|Inner and outer labia piercing]]
* [[Nefertiti piercing]]
* [[Princess Albertina]]
==See also==
{{Commons|Body piercing}}
* [[Body modification]]
* [[Body piercing jewelry]]
* [[Body piercing materials]]
* [[Ear piercing instrument]]
* [[Earring]]
* [[Scalpelling]]
* [[Tattoo]]ing
* [[Famous people with piercings]]
==Related Media==
<!-- NOTE: The following images seem to have been removed so I am commenting them out until the situation is remedied.
The following [[Adobe]] [[pdf]] documents are examples from a single piercing studio:
* [[Media:Body_Modification_Code_of_Ethics.pdf|A body modification code of ethics]]
* [[Media:Required_Legal_Forms_And_Aftercare_Sheets.pdf|The studio's Required legal forms and aftercare sheets]]
* [[Media:Sizing_Chart.jpg|A chart for sizing gloves and measuring jewelry gauge and size]]
* [[Media:Piercing_Class_Difficulty_and_Pricing.pdf|A list of piercings' difficulty and pricing]]
* [[Media:Needles.pd |
ine Papadakis]]
*[[Constantine Papaevagelou]]
*[[Constantine Paparregopoulus]]
*[[Constantine Phaulkon]]
*[[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz]]
*[[Constantine Rhigas]]
*[[Constantine-Silvanus]]
*[[Constantine Simitis]]
*[[Konstantin Stanislavski|Constantine Stanislavski]]
*[[Constantin Zureiq|Constantine Zureik]]
==Places called Constantine==
*[[Constantine, Algeria]]
*[[Constantine, Cornwall]]
*[[Constantine Bay]]
*[[Constantine, Michigan]]
*[[Constantine Township, Michigan]]
*[[Constantine, Switzerland]]
*[[Constantine, Andorra]]
==In Music==
*"[[Konstantine]]" is a [[rock ballad]] by the band [[Something Corporate]].
*''[[The Constantines]]'' are an [[indie rock]] band from Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
==In Film==
*''[[Constantine (film)|Constantine]]'' is a movie based on the [[comic book]] [[Hellblazer]] whose main character is called [[John Constantine]].
==Educational establishments==
*Constantine College, based in [[Middlesbrough]], [[England]] and now [[Teesside University]]
==Landmarks==
*[[Strelna|Constantine Palace]]
{{hndis}}
[[Category:Given names]]
[[Category:Surnames]]
[[cs:Konstantin]]
[[de:Konstantin]]
[[el:Κωνσταντίνος]]
[[es:Constantino]]
[[fr:Constantine]]
[[hu:Konstantin]]
[[nl:Constantijn]]
[[pl:Konstantyn]]
[[pt:Constantino]]
[[ru:Константин]]
[[sk:Konštantín]]
[[sv:Konstantin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of composers</title>
<id>6650</id>
<revision>
<id>41504066</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:34:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.171.221.22</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Vocal */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Composers''' are generally people who write [[music]]. A strong distinction is made, however, between composers, lyricists, and performers in such [[genre|genres]] as [[European classical music|classical]] and [[jazz music|jazz]] music. In other genres, such as [[popular music|popular]] and [[folk music|folk]] music, the term "[[songwriter]]" means someone who authors both music and lyrics, and is more common than "composer." If a songwriter also performs, he or she is called a "singer/songwriter."
This page includes a ''list of composers'' sorted by various genres.
For composers of classical music and opera see:
*[[List of classical music composers]]
*[[List of 20th century classical composers]]
*[[List of 21st century classical composers]]
*[[List of opera composers]]
See also: [[List of uncategorized composers]]
== Film ==
''See also [[Film]].''
*[[Jody Gray]]
*[[Pandit Bhajan Sopori]]
*[[Burt Bacharach]], (born 1928)
*[[John Barry (composer)|John Barry]], (born 1933)
*[[Elmer Bernstein]], (1922&ndash;2004)
*[[Adam Berry]], (born 1966)
*[[Christian Biegai]], (born 1974)
*[[Carter Burwell]], (born 1955)
*[[Daniel Elfman]], (born 1953)
*[[George Fenton]], (born 1950)
*[[Philip Glass]], (born 1937)
*[[Elliot Goldenthal]], (born 1954)
*[[Jerry Goldsmith]], (1929&ndash;2004)
*[[Ron Goodwin]], (1925&ndash;2003)
*[[Patrick Gowers]], (born 1936)
*[[Bernard Herrmann]], (1911&ndash;1975)
*[[Joe Hisaishi]]
*[[Maurice Jarre]], (born 1924)
*[[Rolfe Kent]], (born 1963)
*[[Erich Wolfgang Korngold]], (1897&ndash;1957)
*[[Francis Lai]], (born 1932)
*[[Michel Legrand]], (born 1932)
*[[Saša Lošić]], (born 1964)
*[[Albert Hay Malotte]] (1895&ndash;1964)
*[[Henry Mancini]], (1924&ndash;1994)
*[[Cliff Martinez]], (born 1954)
*[[Ennio Morricone]], (born 1928)
*[[Michael Nyman]], (born 1944)
*[[Edward Shearmur]], (born 1966)
*[[Howard Shore]], (born 1946)
*[[Alan Silvestri]], (born 1950)
*[[John Williams]], (born 1932)
*[[Ilayaraja]], (born 1943)
== Ragtime ==
''See also [[Ragtime]].''
*[[William Bolcom]], (born 1938)
*[[Zez Confrey]]
*[[Ben Harney]], (1872&ndash;1938)
*[[Scott Joplin]], (1867&ndash;1917)
*[[Joseph Lamb]], (1887&ndash;1960)
*[[Artie Matthews]], (1888&ndash;1958)
*[[Billy Mayerl]], (1902&ndash;1959),
*[[Ernesto Nazareth]], (1863&ndash;1934)
*[[David Thomas Roberts]]
*[[James Scott (musician)|James Scott]], (1885&ndash;1938)
*[[Wilber Sweatman]], (1882&ndash;1961)
== Religious Music ==
*[[Pandit Bhajan Sopori]]
*[[Johann Sebastian Bach]] (1685&ndash;1750)
*[[William Byrd]] (1540&ndash;1623)
*[[James Butt]] (1929&ndash;2003)
*[[Thomas Tallis]] (1505&ndash;1585)
*[[Aleksandar Simić]] (born 1973)
*[[Ilayaraja]], (born 1943)
== Jazz and Blues ==
''See also [[Jazz]] and [[Blues]].''
*[[Count Basie]], (1904&ndash;1984)
*[[Dave Brubeck]], (born 1920)
*[[Chris Burnett]], (born 1955)
*[[Alain Caron]], (born 1962)
*[[John Coltrane]], (1926&ndash;1967)
*[[Duke Ellington]], (1899&ndash;1974)
*[[Herbie Hancock]], (born 1940)
*[[Krzysztof Komeda]]
*[[Jelly Roll Morton]], (1890&ndash;1941)
*[[Charles Mingus]], (1922&ndash;1979)
*[[Thelonious Monk]], (1920&ndash;1982)
*[[Charlie Parker]], (1920&ndash;1955)
*[[Bob Powell]], (born 1961)
*[[Billy Strayhorn]], (1915&ndash;1967)
*[[Fats Waller]], (1904&ndash;1943)
*[[Clarence Williams]], (1893&ndash;1965)
== Orchestra ==
''See also [[Orchestra music]].''
*[[Abhay Rustum Sopori]],
*[[Burt Bacharach]], (born 1928)
*[[James Butt]] (born 1929)
*[[Titus Carter]] (born 1991)
*[[Roberto Carnevale]] (born 1966)
*[[Daron Hagen]], (born 1961)
*[[Glenn Miller]]
*[[Ilayaraja]], (born 1943)
*[[Tolib Shakhidi]], (born 1946)
== Vocal ==
''See also [[Vocal music]].''
*[[Jacques Brel]], (1929&ndash;1978)
*[[James Butt]], (1929&ndash;2003)
*[[Daron Hagen]], (born 1961)
*[[Georges Moustaki]]
*[[Sydney Nicholson]], (1875&ndash;1947)
*[[Ilayaraja]], (born 1943)
*[http://www.uremusic.com Kevin Ure], (born 1978)
== Pop and Rock ==
''See also [[Pop music]] and [[Rock music]].''
*[[Paul Anka]], (born 1941)
*[[Charles Aznavour]], (born 1924)
*[[Jeff Barry]], (born 1938)
*[[Andy Bell (singer)|Andy Bell]], (born 1964)
*[[Irving Berlin]], (1888&ndash;1989)
*[[Billy Bragg]], (born 1957)
*[[Ray Buttigieg]], (born 1955)
*[[Vince Clarke]], (born 1960)
*[[Brian Eno]], (born 1948)
*[[George Gershwin]], (1898&ndash;1937)
*[[Ira Gershwin]], (1896&ndash;1983)
*[[Michael Jackson]], (born 1958)
*[[Mick Jagger]], (born 1943)
*[[Jean Michel Jarre]], (born 1948)
*[[Elton John]], (born 1947)
*[[John Lennon]], (1940&ndash;1980)
*[[Paul McCartney]], (born 1942)
*[[Tim McGowan]], (born 1966)
*[[George Harrison]], (1943&ndash;2001)
*[[Gerardo Mencia]], (born 1985)
*[[George Michael]], (born 1963)
*[[Joni Mitchell]], (born 1943)
*[[JunkDuster]], (born 1971)
*[[Mike Oldfield]], (born 1953)
*[[Roy Orbison]], (1936&ndash;1988)
*[[Dolly Parton]], (born 1946)
*[[Neil Sedaka]], (born 1939)
*[[Chris Smith (composer)|Chris Smith]], (1879&ndash;1949)
*[[Albert Von Tilzer]], (1878&ndash;1956)
*[[Harry Von Tilzer]], (1872&ndash;1946)
*[[Frank Zappa]], (1940&ndash;1993)
*[[Thom Yorke]]
*[[Jonny Greenwood]]
*[[Kevin Shields]]
*[[Brian Wilson]]
*[[Carl Wilson]]
*[[Kurt Cobain]], (1967&ndash;1994)
*[[Joe Strummer]]
*[[Mick Jones]]
*[[Billy Corgan]]
*[[Richard Ashcroft]]
*[[Jack White]]
*[[Stephen Malkmus]]
*[[Ben Gibbard]]
*[[Todd Rundgren]]
*[[Robert Pollard]]
== Folk and Country ==
''See also [[Folk music]] and [[Country music]].''
*[[Joan Baez]]
*[[John Denver]]
*[[Bob Dylan]]
*[[Nick Drake]]
*[[Ilayaraja]], (born 1943)
Jessen O'Sullivan
Elad Mehl
== New Age ==
''See also [[New Age music]].''
*[[Enya]]
*[[Kevin Kern]]
*[[Tim McGowan]]
*[[George Winston]]
*[[Yanni]]
*[[Jessen O'Sullivan]]
*[[Elad Mehl]]
==Other classifications==
*[[Graphical timeline for classical composers|Timeline for classical composers]]
*[[List of Australian composers]]
*[[List of Canadian composers]]
*[[List of Dutch and Flemish composers]]
*[[List of French composers]]
*[[Polish composers|List of Polish composers]]
*[[Plethora of Indian composers|List of Indian composers]]
*[[List of Indonesian composers]]
*[[List of Iranian composers]]
*[[List of Irish composers]]
*[[List of Italian composers]]
*[[List of Portuguese composers]]
*[[List of Spanish composers]]
*[[List of Swedish composers]]
*[[List of female composers]]
*[[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual composers]]
*[[List of composers of African descent]]
*[[List of soundtrack composers]]
*[[List of video game musicians]]
*[[National Academy of Popular Music/Songwriters Hall of Fame]]
[[bg:Списък на композитори]]
[[cy:Rhestr cyfansoddwyr]]
[[de:Liste bekannter Komponisten]]
[[et:Heliloojad]]
[[es:Lista de compositores de música clásica]]
[[eo:Listo de komponistoj]]
[[fr:Compositeurs par époques]]
[[he:מלחינים]]
[[li:Lies vaan componiste]]
[[nl:Componisten]]
[[pl:Wielcy kompozytorzy]]
[[ru:Композиторы]]
[[sl:Seznam skladateljev]]
[[zh:作曲家列表]]
[[Category:Composers|*]]
[[Category:Lists of composers|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cedar Falls, Iowa</title>
<id>6651</id>
<revision>
<id>34942567</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-12T22:27:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.167.185.15</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Notable natives */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cedar Falls''' is a city located in [[Black Hawk County, Iowa]] and is home to one of Iowa's three Public Universities, the [[University of Northern Iowa]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 36,145. Its name comes from being on the [[Cedar River (Iowa)|Cedar River]]. It was originally named Sturgis Falls, after James Sturgis, the first permanent white settler.
== Geography ==
[[Image:IAMap-doton-CedarFalls.PNG|right|Location of Cedar Falls, Iowa]]
Cedar Falls is located at 42&deg;31'25" North, 92&deg;26'47" West (42.523520, -92.446402){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 74.8 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (28.9 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 73.3 km&sup2; (28.3 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 1.5 km&sup2; (0.6 mi& |
y in the case of wines. Such [[fortified wine]]s include [[Port wine]] and [[Sherry]].
The process involved (as well as the resulting alcohol content) defines the finished product. [[Beer]] involves a relatively short (incomplete) fermentation process and an equally short aging process (a week or two) resulting in an alcohol content generally between 3-8%, as well as natural carbonation. [[Wine]] involves a longer (complete) fermentation process, and a relatively long aging process (months or years -- sometimes decades) resulting in an alcohol content between 7-18%. [[Sparkling wine]] is generally made by adding a small amount of sugar before bottling, which causes a secondary fermentation to continue in the bottle. Distilled products are generally not made from a "beer" that would normally be palatable as fermentation is normally completed, but no aging is involved until after distillation. Most are 30% or greater alcohol by volume. [[Liqueur|Liqueurs]] are characterized by the way in which their flavors are infused and typically have high sugar content. Spirits typically contain 37.5% alcohol or greater and are not infused with flavors during the distilling process, however some modern spirits are infused with flavors after distilling for example the swedish vodka [[Absolut Vodka|Absolut]].
Standard drinks of alcoholic beverages in the United States all contain equivalent amounts of alcohol, about 0.6 fl. oz. (american) each (17.75ml). A U.S. standard drink is a 12 ounce can or bottle of beer, a five ounce glass of dinner wine, or a 1.5 ounce drink of 40% distilled spirits (either straight or in a mixed drink).
In the UK alcohol content is measured in units. One unit equates to 10ml of pure ethanol (approx. 1/3 fl. oz. american). A typical pint of beer or large glass of containing approx 2 units. A shot (25ml) of 40% spirit contains exatly 1 unit.
The names of some beverages are determined by the source of the material fermented:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Source
! Name of fermented beverage
! Name of distilled beverage
|-
| [[barley]] || [[beer]], [[ale]]
| [[Scotch whisky]]
|-
| [[rye]] || [[rye beer]]
| [[Rye whisky]]
|-
| [[maize|corn]] || corn beer
| [[Bourbon whiskey]]
|-
| [[wheat]] || [[wheat beer]]
| Wheat [[whisky]], Korn (Germany)
|-
| [[rice]] || [[sake]] [[sonti]]
| [[shochu]] (Japan), [[soju]] (Korea)
|-
| [[juice]] of [[fruit]]s, other than apples or pears
| [[wine]] (most commonly from [[grape]]s)
| [[brandy]], [[Cognac (drink)|Cognac]] (France), Branntwein (Germany), [[Pisco]] (Peru/Chile)
|-
| juice of [[Apple (fruit)|apple]]s || ("hard") [[cider]], [[apfelwein]]
| [[applejack]] (or apple brandy), [[Calvados (spirit)|Calvados]]
|-
| juice of [[pear]]s || [[perry]], or [[perry|pear cider]]
| pear brandy
|-
| juice of [[sugarcane]], or [[molasses]]
| basi, betsa-betsa (regional) || [[rum]], [[cachaça]], [[aguardiente]], [[guaro]]
|-
| juice of [[agave]] || [[pulque]] || [[tequila]], [[mezcal]]
|-
| juice of [[plum]]s || [[plum wine]] || [[slivovitz]], [[tzuica]], [[palinca]]
|-
| [[pomace]] || [[pomace wine]]
| [[grappa]] (Italy), [[Trester]] (Germany), [[marc (wine)|marc]] (France)
|-
| [[honey]] || [[mead]] || distilled mead ("mead brandy" or "honey brandy")
|-
| [[potato]] and/or [[cereal|grain]] || potato beer || [[vodka]]: potato mostly used in [[Ukraine]], otherwise grain
|-
| [[Milk]] || [[Kumis]] || Araka
|}
Note that in common speech, ''wine'' or ''brandy'' is made from grapes unless the fruit is specified: "plum wine" or "cherry brandy" for example, although in some cases grape-derived alcohol is added.
In the USA and Canada, ''cider'' often means ''unfermented'' apple juice (see the article on [[cider]]), while fermented cider is called ''hard'' cider. Unfermented cider is sometimes called ''sweet'' cider. Also, [[applejack]] was originally made by a freezing process described in the article on [[cider]] which was equivalent to distillation but more easily done in the cold climate of [[New England]]. In the UK, cider is always alcoholic, and in Australia it can be either.
''Beer'' is generally made from barley, but can sometimes contain a mix of other grains. ''Whisky'' is sometimes made from a blend of different grains, especially [[Irish whiskey]] which may contain several different grains. The style of whisky (Scotch, Rye, Bourbon) generally determines the primary grain used, with additional grains usually added to the blend (most often barley, and sometimes [[oat]]s).
Two common distilled beverages are [[vodka]] and [[gin]]. Vodka can be distilled from any source ([[Cereal|grain]] and [[potato|potatoes]] being the most common) but the main characteristic of vodka is that it is so thoroughly distilled as to exhibit none of the flavors derived from its source material. Gin is a similar distillate which has been flavored by contact with herbs and other plant products, especially [[juniper]] berries. The name comes from the Dutch liquor genever, which in turn takes its name from the Dutch word for juniper.
==See also==
* [[Dionysus]]
* [[Effects of alcohol on the body]]
* [[Alcohol equivalence]]
* [[Drug abuse]]
* [[History of alcohol]]
* [[Legal drinking age]]
* [[Psychoactive drug]]
==References==
# {{note|abacter}} {{Conference reference | Author=Smith, M.G., and M. Snyder | Title=[http://www.abstractsonline.com/viewer/viewAbstractPrintFriendly.asp?CKey={D0F90285-6F6E-4754-A0C2-7ABED16D3F06}&SKey={E2FAF97F-9FAE-4FEC-B822-9D0F7214CF43}&MKey={382D7E47-BE0B-4BBA-B3A6-E511C92FA999}&AKey={32093528-52DC-4EBE-9D80-29DAD84C92CE} Ethanol-induced virulence of ''Acinetobacter baumannii''] | Booktitle=American Society for Microbiology meeting, Atlanta | Year=2005| Pages=}}
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Alcoholic beverages}}
* [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/Controversies/1114796842.html History of alcohol and drinking around the World.]
* [http://www.benbest.com/health/alcohol.html Alcohol -- Health Benefit or Hazard? ]
[[Category:Alcoholic beverages|*]]
[[Category:alcohol|Beverage]]
[[Category:Drugs]]
[[ca:Beguda alcohòlica]]
[[da:Alkohol]]
[[de:Alkohol]]
[[es:Bebida alcohólica]]
[[eo:Alkoholaĵo]]
[[fa:نوشیدنیهای الکلی]]
[[fr:Boisson alcoolisée]]
[[ko:술]]
[[id:Minuman beralkohol]]
[[is:Áfengi]]
[[he:אלכוהול]]
[[lt:Alkoholinis gėrimas]]
[[ms:Arak]]
[[nl:Alcoholische drank]]
[[ja:アルコール飲料]]
[[pl:Napój alkoholowy]]
[[pt:Bebida alcoólica]]
[[ro:Băutură alcoolică]]
[[ru:Алкогольные напитки]]
[[fi:Alkoholijuoma]]
[[sv:Sprit]]
[[th:เหล้า]]
[[vi:Các loại đồ uống có chứa cồn]]
[[uk:Спиртні напої]]
[[zh:酒]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphanumeric Keyboard</title>
<id>2980</id>
<revision>
<id>15901357</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alphanumeric keyboard]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astrocade</title>
<id>2981</id>
<revision>
<id>15901358</id>
<timestamp>2002-11-07T16:27:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maury Markowitz</username>
<id>2175</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving to Bally Astrocade</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[Bally Astrocade]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Austria-Hungary</title>
<id>2983</id>
<revision>
<id>42106940</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:45:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Header - references plural</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><TABLE align="right" WIDTH=225 style border="1" style="margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;">
<TR align="center" BGCOLOR="#efefef">
<TD COLSPAN=2>
''Die im Reichsrat vertretenen Königreiche und Länder und die Länder der heiligen ungarischen Stephanskrone''<br /><small>([[German language|German]])</small><br />''A birodalmi tanácsban képviselt királyságok és országok és a magyar szent korona országai''<br /><small>([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]])</small></big>
</TD></TR>
<TR align="center"><TD COLSPAN=2>
[[Image:Location-Austria-Hungary.png|225px|]]<br>Austria-Hungary in Europe
</TD></TR>
<TR align="center"><TD COLSPAN=2>
[[Image:Austria-hungary.png|225px|]]<br>Kingdoms and countries of Austria-Hungary
</TD></TR>
<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 align="center">
<HR><BR>
<TABLE BORDER=0 CELSPACING=O CELPADDING=O WIDTH="100%">
</TD></TR>
<TR align="center"><TD WIDTH="50%">
[[Image:Austria-Hungary-flag-1869-1918-naval-1786-1869-war.gif|50px|]]<br><small>war flag</small>
</TD><TD WIDTH="50%">
[[Image:Austria-Hungary flag 1869-1918.gif|50px|]]<br><small>merchant flag</small>
</TD></TR>
<TR align="center"><TD WIDTH="50%"> [[Image:Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg|40px|]]<br><small>Flag of Austria</small><br>[[Image:Kuk-doppeladler.jpg|60px|]]<br><small>Coat of arms</small>
</TD><TD WIDTH="50%">
[[Image:Flag of Hungary.png|50px|]]<br><small>Flag of Hungary</small><br>[[Image:Hungary COA.jpg|33px|]]<br><small>Coat of arms</small>
</TD></TR>
<TR align="center"><TD COLSPAN=2>
'''Before the [[Ausgleich|1867 Compromise]]'''
&l |
er" |<tt>'''+39:''' [[Italy|IT]]</tt>
|-
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+40:''' [[Romania|RO]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+41:''' [[Switzerland|CH]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+420:''' [[Czech Republic|CZ]]<br>
'''+421:''' [[Slovakia|SK]]<br>
'''+422:''' --<br>
'''+423:''' [[Liechtenstein|LI]]<br>
'''+424:''' --<br>
'''+425:''' --<br>
'''+426:''' --<br>
'''+427:''' --<br>
'''+428:''' --<br>
'''+429:''' --</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+43:''' [[Austria|AT]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+44:''' [[United Kingdom|UK]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+45:''' [[Denmark|DK]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+46:''' [[Sweden|SE]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+47:''' [[Norway|NO]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+48:''' [[Poland|PL]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+49:''' [[Germany|DE]]</tt>
|-
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+500:''' [[Falkland Islands|FK]]<br>
'''+501:''' [[Belize|BZ]]<br>
'''+502:''' [[Guatemala|GT]]<br>
'''+503:''' [[El Salvador|SV]]<br>
'''+504:''' [[Honduras|HN]]<br>
'''+505:''' [[Nicaragua|NI]]<br>
'''+506:''' [[Costa Rica|CR]]<br>
'''+507:''' [[Panama|PA]]<br>
'''+508:''' [[St. Pierre and Miquelon|PM]]<br>
'''+509:''' [[Haiti|HT]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+51:''' [[Peru|PE]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+52:''' [[Mexico|MX]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+53:''' [[Cuba|CU]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+54:''' [[Argentina|AR]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+55:''' [[Brazil|BR]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+56:''' [[Chile|CL]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+57:''' [[Colombia|CO]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+58:''' [[Venezuela|VE]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+590:''' [[Guadeloupe|GP]]<br>
'''+591:''' [[Bolivia|BO]]<br>
'''+592:''' [[Guyana|GY]]<br>
'''+593:''' [[Ecuador|EC]]<br>
'''+594:''' [[French Guiana|GF]]<br>
'''+595:''' [[Paraguay|PY]]<br>
'''+596:''' [[Martinique|MQ]]<br>
'''+597:''' [[Suriname|SR]]<br>
'''+598:''' [[Uruguay|UY]]<br>
'''+599:''' [[Netherlands Antilles|AN]]</tt>
|-
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+60:''' [[Malaysia|MY]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+61:''' [[Australia|AU]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+62:''' [[Indonesia|ID]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+63:''' [[Philippines|PH]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+64:''' [[New Zealand|NZ]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+65:''' [[Singapore|SG]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+66:''' [[Thailand|TH]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+670:''' [[Timor-Leste|TL]]<br>
'''+671:''' --<br>
'''+672:''' [[Antarctica|AQ]]<br>
'''+673:''' [[Brunei Darussalam|BN]]<br>
'''+674:''' [[Nauru|NR]]<br>
'''+675:''' [[Papua New Guinea|PG]]<br>
'''+676:''' [[Tonga|TO]]<br>
'''+677:''' [[Solomon Islands|SB]]<br>
'''+678:''' [[Vanuatu|VU]]<br>
'''+679:''' [[Fiji|FJ]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+680:''' [[Palau|PW]]<br>
'''+681:''' [[Wallis and Futuna|WF]]<br>
'''+682:''' [[Cook Islands|CK]]<br>
'''+683:''' [[Niue|NU]]<br>
'''+684:''' --<br>
'''+685:''' [[Samoa|WS]]<br>
'''+686:''' [[Kiribati|KI]]<br>
'''+687:''' [[New Caledonia|NC]]<br>
'''+688:''' [[Tuvalu|TV]]<br>
'''+689:''' [[French Polynesia|PF]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+690:''' [[Tokelau|TK]]<br>
'''+691:''' [[Federated States of Micronesia|FM]]<br>
'''+692:''' [[Marshall Islands|MH]]<br>
'''+693:''' --<br>
'''+694:''' --<br>
'''+695:''' --<br>
'''+696:''' --<br>
'''+697:''' --<br>
'''+698:''' --<br>
'''+699:''' --</tt>
|-
| width="100%" align="center" colspan="10" |<tt>'''+7:''' [[Russia|RU]], [[Kazakhstan|KZ]]</tt>
|-
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+800:''' [[Universal international freephone number|XT]]<br>
'''+801:''' --<br>
'''+802:''' --<br>
'''+803:''' --<br>
'''+804:''' --<br>
'''+805:''' --<br>
'''+806:''' --<br>
'''+807:''' --<br>
'''+808:''' [[Shared Cost Service|XS]]<br>
'''+809:''' --</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+81:''' [[Japan|JP]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+82:''' [[South Korea|KR]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+83:''' Not used</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+84:''' [[Vietnam|VN]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+850:''' [[North Korea|KP]]<br>
'''+851:''' --<br>
'''+852:''' [[Hong Kong|HK]]<br>
'''+853:''' [[Macau|MO]]<br>
'''+854:''' --<br>
'''+855:''' [[Cambodia|KH]]<br>
'''+856:''' [[Laos|LA]]<br>
'''+857:''' --<br>
'''+858:''' --<br>
'''+859:''' --</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+86:''' [[People's Republic of China|CN]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+870:''' [[Inmarsat|XN]]<br>
'''+871:''' [[Inmarsat|XE]]<br>
'''+872:''' [[Inmarsat|XF]]<br>
'''+873:''' [[Inmarsat|XI]]<br>
'''+874:''' [[Inmarsat|XW]]<br>
'''+875:''' --<br>
'''+876:''' --<br>
'''+877:''' --<br>
'''+878:''' [[Universal Personal Telecommunications|XP]]<br>
'''+879:''' --</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+880:''' [[Bangladesh|BD]]<br>
'''+881:''' [[Global Mobile Satellite System|XG]]<br>
'''+882:''' [[International Networks (country code)|XV]]<br>
'''+883:''' --<br>
'''+884:''' --<br>
'''+885:''' --<br>
'''+886:''' [[Republic of China|TW]]<br>
'''+887:''' --<br>
'''+888:''' --<br>
'''+889:''' --</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+89:''' Not used</tt>
|-
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+90:''' [[Turkey|TR]] <BR> ('''+90 392:''' [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|TRNC]])</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+91:''' [[India|IN]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+92:''' [[Pakistan|PK]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+93:''' [[Afghanistan|AF]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+94:''' [[Sri Lanka|LK]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+95:''' [[Myanmar|MM]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+960:''' [[Maldives|MV]]<br>
'''+961:''' [[Lebanon|LB]]<br>
'''+962:''' [[Jordan|JO]]<br>
'''+963:''' [[Syria|SY]]<br>
'''+964:''' [[Iraq|IQ]]<br>
'''+965:''' [[Kuwait|KW]]<br>
'''+966:''' [[Saudi Arabia|SA]]<br>
'''+967:''' [[Yemen|YE]]<br>
'''+968:''' [[Oman|OM]]<br>
'''+969:''' --</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+970:''' [[Palestinian Authority|PS]]<br>
'''+971:''' [[United Arab Emirates|AE]]<br>
'''+972:''' [[Israel|IL]]<br>
'''+973:''' [[Bahrain|BH]]<br>
'''+974:''' [[Qatar|QA]]<br>
'''+975:''' [[Bhutan|BT]]<br>
'''+976:''' [[Mongolia|MN]]<br>
'''+977:''' [[Nepal|NP]]<br>
'''+978:''' --<br>
'''+979:''' [[International premium rate service|XR]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+98:''' [[Iran|IR]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+990:''' --<br>
'''+991:''' [[ITPCS|XC]]<br>
'''+992:''' [[Tajikistan|TJ]]<br>
'''+993:''' [[Turkmenistan|TM]]<br>
'''+994:''' [[Azerbaidzhan|AZ]]<br>
'''+995:''' [[Georgia (country)|GE]]<br>
'''+996:''' [[Kyrgyzstan|KG]]<br>
'''+997:''' --<br>
'''+998:''' [[Uzbekistan|UZ]]<br>
'''+999:''' [[Telecommunications for Disaster Relief|XD]]</tt>
|}
==In depth==
===Zone 1 &ndash; North American Numbering Plan Area ===
Areas within [[North American Numbering Plan|NANPA]] (North American Numbering Plan Area) have been assigned area codes as if they were all areas within one country.
The codes below in format +1-XXX represent that area code within the +1 NANPA--Not a separate country code. For example, the country code for Guam is +1 followed by the area code 671--not +671.
*+1 [[United States|United States of America]]
**Including U.S. territories in the [[Oceania|Pacific Islands]]:
***+1-671 [[Guam]]
***+1-670 [ |
f antibody-positive blood donations | journal=Ann. Intern. Med. | year=1990 | pages=733-739 | volume=113 | issue=10
| id={{PMID|2240875}}
}}</ref>
|-
| Needle-sharing injection drug use || 67 <ref name=Kaplan>{{
cite journal | author=Kaplan, E. H. and Heimer, R. | title=HIV incidence among New Haven needle exchange participants: updated estimates from syringe tracking and testing data | journal=J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. | year=1995 | pages=175-176 | volume=10 | issue=2
| id={{PMID|7552482}}
}}</ref>
|-
| Receptive anal intercourse || 50 <ref name=ESG>{{
cite journal | author=European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV | title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples | journal=BMJ. | year=1992 | pages=809-813 | volume=304 | issue=6830 | id={{PMID|1392708}}
}}</ref><ref name=Varghese>{{
cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}}
}}</ref>
|-
| Percutaneous needle stick || 30 <ref name=Bell>{{
cite journal | author=Bell, D. M. | title=Occupational risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection in healthcare workers: an overview. | journal=Am. J. Med. | year=1997 | pages=9-15 | volume=102 | issue=5B | id={{PMID|9845490}}
}}</ref>
|-
| Receptive penile-vaginal intercourse || 10 <ref name=ESG>{{
cite journal | author=European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV | title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples | journal=BMJ. | year=1992 | pages=809-813 | volume=304 | issue=6830 | id={{PMID|1392708}}
}}</ref><ref name=Varghese>{{
cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}}
}}</ref><ref name=Leynaert>{{
cite journal | author=Leynaert, B., Downs, A. M. and de Vincenzi, I. | title=Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus: variability of infectivity throughout the course of infection. European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV | journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. | year=1998 | pages=88-96 | volume=148 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|9663408}}
}}</ref>
|-
| Insertive anal intercourse || 6.5 <ref name=ESG>{{
cite journal | author=European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV | title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples | journal=BMJ. | year=1992 | pages=809-813 | volume=304 | issue=6830 | id={{PMID|1392708}}
}}</ref><ref name=Varghese>{{
cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}}
}}</ref>
|-
| Insertive penile-vaginal intercourse || 5 <ref name=ESG>{{
cite journal | author=European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV | title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples | journal=BMJ. | year=1992 | pages=809-813 | volume=304 | issue=6830 | id={{PMID|1392708}}
}}</ref><ref name=Varghese>{{
cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}}
}}</ref>
|-
| Receptive oral intercourse || 1 <ref name=Varghese>{{
cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}}
}}</ref>
|-
| Insertive oral intercourse || 0.5 <ref name=Varghese>{{
cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}}
}}</ref>
|}
The diverse transmission routes of HIV are well-known and established. Also well-known is how to prevent transmission of HIV. However, recent epidemiological and behavioral studies in Europe and North America have suggested that a substantial minority of young people continue to engage in high-risk practices and that despite HIV/AIDS knowledge, young people underestimate their own risk of becoming infected with HIV <ref name=Dias>{{
cite journal
| author=Dias, S. F., Matos, M. G. and Goncalves, A. C.
| title=Preventing HIV transmission in adolescents: an analysis of the Portuguese data from the Health Behaviour School-aged Children study and focus groups
| journal=Eur. J. Public Health | year=2005 | pages=300-304 | volume=15 | issue=3
| id={{PMID|15941747}}
}}</ref>. However, transmission of HIV between intravenous drug users has clearly decreased, and HIV transmission by blood transfusion has become quite rare in developed countries.
===Prevention of sexual transmission of HIV===
====Underlying science====
Unprotected receptive sexual acts are at more risk than unprotected insertive sexual acts, with the risk for transmitting HIV from an infected partner to an uninfected partner through unprotected insertive anal intercourse greater than the risk for transmission through vaginal intercourse or oral sex. Oral sex is not without its risks as it has been established that HIV can be transmitted through both insertive and receptive oral sex <ref name=Rothenberg>{{
cite journal | author=Rothenberg, R. B., Scarlett, M., del Rio, C., Reznik, D. and O'Daniels, C.
| title=Oral transmission of HIV | journal=AIDS | year=1998 | pages=2095-2105 | volume=12 | issue=16
| id={{PMID|9833850}}
}}</ref>.
[[Sexually-transmitted infection]]s (STI) increase the risk of HIV transmission and infection because they cause the disruption of the normal epithelial barrier by genital ulceration and/or microulceration; and by accumulation of pools of HIV-susceptible or HIV-infected cells ([[lymphocyte]]s and [[macrophage]]s) in semen and vaginal secretions. Epidemiological studies from sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and North America have suggested that there is approximately a four times greater risk of becoming HIV-infected in the presence of a genital ulcer such as caused by [[syphilis]] and/or [[chancroid]]; and a significant though lesser increased risk in the presence of STIs such as [[gonorrhoea]], [[chlamydia]]l infection and [[trichomoniasis]] which cause local accumulations of lymphocytes and macrophages <ref name=Laga>{{
cite journal
| author=Laga, M., Nzila, N., Goeman, J.
| title=The interrelationship of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection: implications for the control of both epidemics in Africa
| journal=AIDS | year=1991 | pages=S55-S63 | volume=5 | issue=Suppl 1
| id={{PMID|1669925}}
}}</ref>.
Transmission of HIV depends on the infectiousness of the [[index case]] and the susceptibility of the uninfected partner. Infectivity seems to vary during the course of illness and is not constant between individuals. An undetectable plasma viral load does not mean that you have a low viral load in the seminal liquid or genital secretions. Each 10 fold increment of seminal HIV RNA is associated with an 81% increased rate of HIV transmission <ref name=Laga>{{
cite journal
| author=Laga, M., Nzila, N., Goeman, J.
| title=The interrelationship of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection: implications for the control of both epidemics in Africa
| journal=AIDS | year=1991 | pages=S55-S63 | volume=5 | issue=Suppl 1
| id={{PMID|1669925}}
}}</ref><ref name=Tovanabutra>{{
cite journal
| author=Tovanabutra, S., Robison, V., Wongtrakul, J., Sennum, S., Suriyanon, V., Kingkeow, D., Kawichai, S., Tanan, P., Duerr, A. and Nelson, K. E.
| title=Male viral load and heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 subtype E in northern Thailand
| journal=J. Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr. | year=2002 | pages=275-283 | volume=29 | issue=3
| id={{PMID|11873077}}
}}</ref>. Women are more susceptible to HIV-1 infection due to hormonal changes, vaginal microbial ecology and physiology, and a higher prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases <ref name=Sagar>{{
cite journal
| author=Sagar, M., Lavreys, L., Baeten, J. M., Richardson, B. A., Mandaliya, K., Ndinya-Achola, J. O., Kreiss, J. K., and Overbaugh, J.
| title=Identification of modifiable factors that affect the genetic diversity of the transmitted HIV-1 population
| journal=AIDS | year=2004 | pages=615-619 | volume=18 | issue=4
| id={{PMID|15090766}}
}}</ref><ref name=Lavreys>{{
cite journal
| author= Lavreys, L., Baeten, J. M., Martin, H. L. Jr., Overbaugh, J., Mandaliy |
for Arius, Eusebius of Caesarea accepted the decisions of the
council, accepting the entire creed. The number of bishops in opposition was small. After a month of discussion, there were only two adherents of Arius who remained steadfast, Theonas of Marmarica in [[Libya]], and Secundus of Ptolemais. Of three others on whom Arius might have counted, Maris of Chalcedon finally agreed to the whole creed. Similarly, [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]] and Theognis of Nice also agreed, except for the explicitly anti-Arian statements.
Now, the emperor actually carried out his previous threat; everybody who refused to endorse the Creed had to face [[exile]] from the empire. Arius, Theonas, Secundus, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Theognis were [[excommunication|excommunicated]]. The works of Arius were ordered to be confiscated and [[book burning|consigned to the flames]], although there is no evidence that this occurred. Nevertheless, the controversy, already festering, continued, in various parts of the empire.
==Passover (Easter) Controversy==
After the [[June 19]] settlement of the most important topic, the question of the date of the [[Christian Passover]], now called [[Easter]], was brought up. This feast is linked to the Jewish [[Passover]], as [[crucifixion]] and [[resurrection]] of Jesus occurred during that festival. By the year [[300]], most Churches had adopted the Western style of celebrating the feast on the Sunday after the Passover, placing the emphasis on the resurrection, which occurred on a Sunday. Others however celebrated the feast on the 14th of the Jewish month [[Nisan]], the date of the crucifixion according to the [[Bible|Bible's]] [[Hebrew calendar]]. Hence this group was called [[Quartodeciman|Quartodecimans]]. The Eastern Churches of [[Syria]], [[Cilicia]], and [[Mesopotamia]] determined the date of Christian Passover in relation to the 14th day of Nisan, in the Bible's Hebrew calendar. [[Alexandria]] and [[Rome]], however, followed a different calculation, attributed to [[Pope Soter]], so that Christian Passover would never coincide with the Jewish observance and decided in favour of celebrating on the first Sunday after the [[spring equinox]], independently of the Bible's Hebrew calendar.
According to [[Louis Duchesne|Duchesne]] (''Revue des questions historiques,'' xxviii. 37), who founds his conclusions:
#on the conciliar letter to the Alexandrians preserved in [[Theodoret]], ''Hist. eccl.'', I., ix. 12; [[Socrates Scholasticus|Socrates]], ''Hist. eccl.'', I., ix. 12;
#on the circular letter of Constantine to the bishops after the council, [[Eusebius]], ''Vita Constantine'', III., xviii. 19; Theodoret, ''Hist. eccl.'', I., x. 3 sqq.;
#on Athanasius, ''De Synodo'', v.; ''Epist. ad Afros'', ii.;
[[Epiphanius of Salamis]] wrote in the mid-4th Century, "...the emperor...convened a council of 318 bishops...in the city of Nicea...They passed certain ecclesiastical canons at the council besides, and at the same time decreed in regard to the Passover that there must be one unanimous concord on the celebration of God's holy and supremely excellent day. For it was variously observed by people..." (Epiphanius. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Books II and III (Sects 47-80), De Fide). Section VI, Verses 1,1 and 1,3. Translated by Frank Williams. EJ Brill, New York, 1994, pp.471-472).
The council assumed the task of regulating these differences, in part because some [[diocese]]s were determined not to have Christian Passover correspond with the Jewish calendar (Jews were a persecuted minority because of the [[Jewish-Roman Wars]]). For example, Eusebius' ''Life of Constantine'', Book III [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/25023.htm] chapter 18 records Constantine as stating: "Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way." The Council of Nicaea, however, did not declare the Alexandrian or Roman calculations as normative. Instead, the council gave the [[Bishop of Alexandria]] the privilege of announcing annually the date of Christian Passover to the [[Roman curia]]. Although the synod undertook the regulation of the dating of Christian Passover, it contented itself with communicating its decision to the different dioceses, instead of establishing a canon. In the future, there would be [[Easter#Easter_controversies|conflict]] over this very matter. See also [[Computus]].
==Other Problems==
Then the bishops began proceedings against the Meletian schism. Its founder was suspended from his office but not degraded or exiled.
Finally, the council promulgated twenty new church laws, called ''[[canon law|canons]]'', (though the exact number is subject to debate, see [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-24.htm#TopOfPage]), that is, unchanging rules of discipline. The twenty as listed in the [[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]] are as follows:[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-13.htm#P561_131414]
:1. prohibition of self-[[castration]]; (see [[Origen]])
:2. establishment of a minimum term for [[catechism]];
:3. prohibition of the presence in the house of a cleric of a younger woman who might bring him under suspicion;
:4. ordination of a bishop in the presence of at least three provincial bishops and confirmation by the [[Metropolitan bishop|metropolitan]];
:5. provision for two provincial [[synod]]s to be held annually;
:6. exceptional authority acknowledged for the bishops of [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Alexandria]] and [[Pope|Rome]], for their respective regions;
:7. recognition of the honorary rights of the [[Patriarch of Jerusalem|see of Jerusalem]];
:8. provision for agreement with the [[Novatian]]s;
:9-14. provision for mild procedure against the lapsed during the persecution under [[Licinius]];
:15-16. prohibition of the removal of priests;
:17. prohibition of [[usury]] among the clergy;
:18. precedence of bishops and presbyters before deacons in receiving Holy Communion, the [[Eucharist]];
:19. declaration of the invalidity of [[baptism]] by [[heresy|heretics]];
:20. prohibition of kneeling during the [[liturgy]], on Sundays and in the fifty days of [[Eastertide]] ["the pentecost"]. Standing was the normative posture for [[prayer]] at this time, as it still is among the Eastern Orthodox. (In time, Western Christianity adopted the term [[Pentecost]] to refer to the last Sunday of Eastertide, the fiftieth day.) For the exact text of the prohibition of kneeling, in Greek and in English translation, see [http://www.srocco.org/Liturgies/NiceaStanding.dsp canon 20] of the acts of the council.
On [[July 25]], [[325]], in conclusion, the fathers of the council celebrated the emperor's twentieth anniversary. In his valedictory address, Constantine again informed his hearers how averse he was to dogmatic controversy; he wanted the Church to live in harmony and peace. In a circular letter, he announced the accomplished unity of practice by the whole Church in the date of the celebration of Christian Passover (now called Easter).
The synod was not decisive, however. Arius as well as the friends punished with him and the Meletians regained nearly all rights they had lost, moreover Arianism continued to spread and to cause division in the Church, during the remainder of the fourth century.
==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}}Richard Kieckhefer (1989). "Papacy". ''[[Dictionary of the Middle Ages]]''. ISBN 0684182750
*{{fnb|2}} Kieckhefer.
*{{fnb|3}} Kieckhefer.
*{{fnb|4}} ''ecumenical'', from [[Koine Greek]] ''oikoumenikos,'' literally meaning worldwide but generally assumed to be limited to the Roman Empire as in Augustus' claim to be ruler of the oikoumene/world; the earliest extant uses of the term for a council are Eusebius' ''Life of Constantine'' 3.6[http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/books/eusebius/vc/gr/index.htm] "{{polytonic|σύνοδον οἰκουμενικὴν συνεκρότει}}" (he convoked an Ecumenical council), Athanasius' Ad Afros Epistola Synodica in 369[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2819.htm], and the Letter in 382 to [[Pope Damasus I]] and the Latin bishops from the [[First Council of Constantinople]][http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-63.htm#TopOfPage]
==See also==
* [[Ecumenical council]]
* [[First Council of Constantinople]]
* [[Second Council of Nicaea]]
* [[Constantinian shift]]
== Bibliography ==
* Schaff, Philip ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.vii.i.html The first ecumenical council]'' includes creed and canons of the council.
* Sozomen, ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.iii.vi.xvii.html Of the Council convened at Nicæa on Account of Arius]'' from the Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen, a 5th century source.
* Eusebius of Caesarea, ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204.ix.ii.html Letter of Eusebius of Cæsarea to the people of his Diocese]'' Account of the Council of Nicea
* Eusebius of Caesarea, ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.toc.html The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine]'' Book 3, Chapters VI-XXI treat the First Council of Nicaea.
* Rusch, William G. "The Trinitarian Controversy", Sources of Christian Thought Series, ISBN 0800614100
* Kelly, J.N.D., ''The Nicene Crisis'' in ''Early Christian Doctrines'', 1978, ISBN 006064334X
* Kelly, J.N.D., ''The Creed of Nicea'' in ''Early Christian Creeds'', 1982, ISBN 058249219X
* [[John Henry Newman]]. ''[http://www.newmanreader.org/works/arians/chapter3-1.html The Ecumenical Council of Nicæa in the Reign of Constantine] from ''Arians of the Fourth Century'', 1871
* Tanner S.J., Norman P., "The Councils of the Church: A Short History", 2001, ISBN 0-8245-1904-3
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11044a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: First Council of Nicaea]
* [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ch/2005/001/7.18.html The Road to Nicaea] a descriptive overview of the events of the Council, by [[John Anthony McGuckin]].
* [http://www. |
A Little Night Music'' opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] at the [[Shubert Theatre]] on [[February 25]], [[1973]], with a cast which included [[Glynis Johns]], [[Len Cariou]], [[Hermione Gingold]], [[Victoria Mallory]], [[Mark Lambert (actor)|Mark Lambert]], [[Laurence Guittard]], [[Patricia Elliott]], and [[D. Jamin-Bartlett]]. It won the [[New York Drama Critics Circle Award]] and the [[Tony Award]] for [[Tony Award for Best Musical|Best Musical]].
The subsequent London production in 1974 starred [[Jean Simmons]], [[Joss Ackland]], [[David Kernan]], [[Diane Langton]], and [[Hermione Gingold]] reprising her role as Madame Armfeldt.
In 1978, a film version of '''A Little Night Music''' was made, starring [[Elizabeth Taylor]], [[Lesley-Anne Down]], and [[Diana Rigg]], with [[Len Cariou]], [[Hermione Gingold]], and [[Laurence Guittard]] reprising their Broadway roles. The setting for the film was moved from Sweden to Austria, and was filmed on location. Much of the score was cut, and many of the performers, including Taylor, were dubbed by other singers. [[Stephen Sondheim]] wrote lyrics for the "Night Waltz" theme ("Love Takes Time") and wrote an entirely new version of "The Glamorous Life" which has been incorporated into several subsequent productions of the stage musical. The film marked legendary Broadway director [[Hal Prince]]'s first time as a motion picture director.
In addition to the original Broadway and London cast recordings, and the motion picture soundtrack (now out of print), there are recordings of the 1990 studio cast, the 1995 [[Royal National Theatre]] revival (starring [[Judi Dench]]), and the 2001 Barcelona cast recording sung in [[Catalan language|Catalan]]. In 1997 an all-jazz version of the score was recorded by [[Terry Trotter]].
== Musical Numbers ==
*Overture
*Night Waltz
*Now
*Later
*Soon
*Glamorous Life
*Remember?
*You Must Meet My Wife
*Liaisons
*In Praise of Women
*Every Day a Little Death
*Weekend in the Country
*Night Waltz I/The Sun Won't Set
*Night Waltz II (Liebeslieders)
*It Would Have Been Wonderful
*Perpetual Anticipation
*Send in the Clowns
*Miller's Son
*Send in the Clowns Reprise
*Last Waltz (orchestral)
== Awards ==
In [[1973]], the original [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] production was nominated for eleven [[Tony Awards]]. It won in the following categories:
*Best Musical ([[Harold Prince, producer]])
*Best Book of a Musical ([[Hugh Wheeler]])
*Best Original Score ([[Stephen Sondheim]])
*Best Actress in a Musical ([[Glynis Johns]])
*Best Featured Actress in a Musical ([[Patricia Elliott]])
*Best Costume Design ([[Florence Klotz]])
The following were the other nominations. In the Best Featured Actress category, both [[Hermione Gingold]] and [[Patricia Elliott]] were nominated against one another for their work on the same show.
*Best Actor in a Musical ([[Len Cariou]])
*Best Featured Actor in a Musical ([[Laurence Guittard]])
*Best Featured Actress in a Musical ([[Hermione Gingold]])
*Best Scenic Design ([[Boris Aronson]])
*Best Lighting Design ([[Tharon Musser]])
*Best Direction of a Musical ([[Harold Prince]])
Additionaly in [[1973]], [[D'Jamin Bartlett]], [[Patricia Elliott]], and [[Laurence Guittard]] were honored with [[Theatre World Award]]s for their work on the show.
[[Category:Musicals|Little Night Music,A]]
----
'''A Little Night Music''' is also an occasionally used translation of ''[[Eine Kleine Nachtmusik]]'', the nickname of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s Serenade No. 13 for strings in G major, K. 525.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Akimbo (gaming)</title>
<id>2943</id>
<revision>
<id>40743602</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T18:59:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bloodshedder</username>
<id>20963</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Examples */ +blood</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Akimbo (disambiguation)|akimbo]].''
In [[computer gaming]], [[weapon]]s are '''akimbo''' if identical weapons are held in each [[hand]]. This usually refers to [[handgun]]s (many [[first person shooter]]s have such weapons as "[[Beretta]]s akimbo" or "[[pistol]]s akimbo") but can refer to any other weapon that can be held in one hand such as [[Machine pistol]]s (for example "akimbo [[MAC-10]]s") and even melee weapons (e.g. [[katana]]s or [[lightsaber]]s). It should be noted that computer games frequently allow the player to wield submachine guns akimbo style, even though doing this in real life would render both weapons completely uncontrollable.
This particular version of ''akimbo'' is derived from [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. The word is used in traditional [[samurai]] texts to describe a particular class of samurai that wielded two swords, one in each hand. The word acquired its current slang usage via fans of action director [[John Woo]], who used the word to describe his trademark style of wielding two handguns at once.
{{quotation|Give a guy a gun, he thinks he's Superman. Give him two and he thinks he's God.|John Woo|[[Hard Boiled]]}}
It has since entered into the computer gaming lexicon as well (this [[etymology]] is mentioned in the book [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0879516631 Hong Kong Action Cinema] by [[Bey Logan]]).
== Examples ==
In [[role-playing game]]s (especially [[computer role-playing game|computer RPGs]]), holding two weapons with one in each hand is called '''dual wielding'''. Notable CRPGs that allow akimbo:
* [[Diablo II]]
* [[The Elder Scrolls II: Daggerfall]]
* [[Knights of the Old Republic]]
* [[Neverwinter Nights]]
In [[first-person shooters]], ''dual-wielding'' refers to wielding one weapon in one hand and a different weapon in the other hand. ''Akimbo'' is a subset of ''dual-wielding'' in that the weapons in the hands of the player character are the same ("dual-wielding Plasma Rifle and Magnum" vs. "akimbo Magnums"). Notable shooter games that allow akimbo:
* [[Blood (computer game)|Blood]]
* [[BloodRayne]]
* [[Counter-Strike]] (''[[Beretta]]s'' only, though)
* [[Halo 2]]
* [[Max Payne]] and [[Max Payne 2]]
== See also ==
* [[Hyoho Niten Ichi-ryu]]
* [[Lightsaber combat#Form X: Jar'Kai|Jar'Kai]]
* [[Main-gauche]]
[[Category:Computer and video game gameplay]]
[[de:Akimbo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ariel Sharon</title>
<id>2944</id>
<revision>
<id>42094036</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:06:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monkeyman</username>
<id>79245</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv again ... caught wrong ver.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- _Please_ do not add unverified or premature claims, particularly relating to Sharon's death, until and unless such claims have been made by several separate news sources. -->
:''For more detail of Sharon's recent illness, see [[Illnesses of Ariel Sharon]].
{{Infobox_Prime_Minister
|name=Ariel Sharon
|image=Ariel_Sharon.jpg
|order=11th [[Prime Minister of Israel]]
|term_start= [[March 7]] [[2001]]
|term_end=
|deputy=[[Ehud Olmert]] (currently Acting P.M.)
|predecessor=[[Ehud Barak]]
|successor=''[[Incumbent]]''
|birth_date=[[February 26]], [[1928]]
|birth_place=[[Kfar Malal]]
|death_date=
|death_place=
|spouse=Margalit Sharon (d. 1962);<br>[[Lily Sharon]] (d. 2000)
|party=[[Kadima]] (formerly [[Likud]])
}}
'''{{Audio|He-Ariel Sharon.ogg|Ariel "Arik" Sharon}}''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: אריאל "אריק" שרון) (born [[February 26]] [[1928]]) is the eleventh and current [[Prime Minister of Israel]], serving since February 2001. Since [[January 4]] [[2006]], Sharon has been incapacitated by the effects of a massive [[hemorrhagic stroke]].
Sharon has been a highly controversial figure, both in and outside Israel. Supporters view him as a leader who strove to establish peace without sacrificing Israel's security. Many Israelis consider him a [[war hero]] who helped defend the country during some of its greatest struggles. Some critics refer to him as "the Butcher of [[Beirut]]" and have sought to prosecute him as a [[war criminal]] for alleged crimes related to the [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]] during the [[1982 Lebanon War]], for which the [[Kahan Commission]] held him indirectly responsible.
On [[January 4]] [[2006]], Sharon suffered a massive [[hemorrhagic stroke]], was declared "temporarily incapable of discharging his powers", and [[Ehud Olmert]], the Deputy Prime Minister, was officially confirmed as the Acting Prime Minister of Israel. Sharon is currently undergoing medical treatment; see the ''[[#Incapacitation|Incapacitation]]'' section.
==Early life==
Sharon was born '''Ariel Scheinermann''' [[February 26]] [[1928]] to Shmuel and Dvora (formerly Vera), immigrants from [[Russia]]. They arrived in the [[Aliyah#Second Aliyah|Second Aliyah]] and settled in a [[socialist]] and [[secular]] community, where they, despite being [[Mapai]] supporters, were known to be contrarians against the prevailing community consensus:
:''The Scheinermans' eventual ostracism... followed the 1933 Arlozorov murder when Dvora and Shmuel refused to endorse the Labor movement's anti-Revisionist calumny and participate in Bolshevi(k)-style public revilement rallies, then the order of the day. Retribution was quick to come. They were expelled from the local health-fund clinic and village synagogue. The cooperative's truck wouldn't make deliveries to their farm nor collect produce.'' [http://www.netanyahu.org/antacyonsche.html]
In 1942 at the age of 14, he joined the [[Gadna]], a [[Paramilitary force|paramilitary]] youth [[battalion]], and later the [[Haganah]], the underground paramilitary force and the Jewish military [[precursor]] to the [[Israel Defense Forces]]. At the creation of Israel (and |
ns starring Dame [[Margaret Rutherford]], a magnificent comic actress but too boisterous and loud for the prim and birdlike character Christie created. This first film was based on the [[1957]] novel ''4:50 from Paddington'' (U.S. title, ''What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!''), and the changes made in the plot were typical of the series. In the film, Mrs. McGillicuddy doesn't see anything because there is no Mrs. McGillicuddy. Miss Marple herself sees apparent murder committed on a train passing hers. Likewise, it is Miss Marple herself who poses as a maid to find out the facts of the case, not a young friend of hers who has made a business of it.
The other Rutherford films (all directed by George Pollock) were ''Murder at the Gallop'' ([[1963]]), based on the [[1953]] Hercule Poirot novel ''[[After the Funeral]]''; ''Murder Most Foul'' ([[1964]]), based on the [[1952]] Poirot novel ''[[Mrs McGinty's Dead]]''; and ''Murder Ahoy'' ([[1964]]), not based on any Christie work.
In [[1980]], [[Angela Lansbury]] played Miss Marple in ''The Mirror Crack'd'' (EMI, directed by [[Guy Hamilton]]), based on Christie's [[1962]] novel. However, Lansbury is only on screen for a short time, the bulk of the film being taken up with the machinations of an all-star cast that included [[Elizabeth Taylor]], [[Rock Hudson]], [[Geraldine Chaplin]], [[Tony Curtis]], and [[Kim Novak]]. [[Edward Fox]] appeared as Inspector Craddock, who did Miss Marple's legwork.
American stage and screen legend [[Helen Hayes]] portrayed Miss Marple in two American made-for-TV movies, both for [[CBS]]: ''A Caribbean Mystery'' ([[1983]]) and ''Murder with Mirrors'' ([[1984]]). [[Sue Grafton]] contributed to the screenplay of the former. Hayes's Marple was benign and chirpy.
==Television and Radio==
American TV was the setting for the first dramatic portrayal of Miss Marple. [[Gracie Fields]], a legendary British actress, played the geriatric sleuth in a [[1956]] episode of ''Goodyear TV Playhouse'' based on ''A Murder Is Announced'', the [[1950]] Christie novel.
There was a long-running and popular [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] TV series in the [[1980s]] with [[Joan Hickson]], an octogenarian herself, who had appeared in a small role in the Rutherford film ''Murder, She Said''. The consensus among Christie devotees was that hers was the definitive performance. All twelve Miss Marple novels were dramatized: ''The Body in the Library''; ''The Moving Finger''; ''A Murder Is Announced''; ''A Pocket Full of Rye''; ''Murder at the Vicarage''; ''Sleeping Murder''; ''At Bertram's Hotel''; ''Nemesis''; ''4:50 from Paddington''; ''A Caribbean Mystery''; ''They Do It with Mirrors'' and ''The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side''. All these serializations were shown in the United States on the [[PBS]] ''[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/mystery/marple/index.html Mystery!]'' series. It was also televised in Germany. The television show followed the plots of the books considerably more closely than did the Rutherford films.
[[BBC Radio 4]] also dramatised several of the books with [[June Whitfield]] as Miss Marple.
[[Angela Lansbury]], after playing Miss Marple in ''The Mirror Crack'd'', went on to star in the TV series ''[[Murder, She Wrote]]'' as [[Jessica Fletcher]], a novelist who solves crimes. The character was to some degree based on Miss Marple and another Christie character, [[Ariadne Oliver]].
[[Image:Geraldine McEwan.jpg|thumb|right|Geraldine McEwan as Miss Marple]]
In 2004, [[Granada Television]], in collaboration with [[Agatha Christie Limited]], produced four adaptations (namely ''The Body in the Library'', ''Murder in the Vicarage'', ''4.50 from Paddington'' and ''A Murder is Announced'') starring [[Geraldine McEwan]] in the title role, and also featuring [[Joanna Lumley]], [[Ian Richardson]], [[Zoe Wanamaker]], [[Miriam Margolyes]], [[Janet McTeer]], [[Derek Jacobi]], [[Claire Skinner]] and [[Stephen Tompkinson]] in supporting roles. In 2005 and 2006, four more mysteries are being made...but two of them aren't even Miss Marple books! They are [[Sleeping Murder]], [[The Moving Finger]], [[By the Pricking of My Thumbs (novel)]], and [[The Sittaford Mystery]].
In 2004, [[NHK]] (a Japanese TV network) produced a 39 episode [[anime]] series titled ''[[Agatha Christie's Famous Detectives Poirot and Marple]] (アガサ・クリスティーの名探偵ポワロとマープル, Agasa Kurisutii no Meitantei Powaro to Maapuru)'', as well as a manga series by the same title released starting in 2005. The series ran from [[July 4]], [[2004]] through [[May 15]], [[2005]], and is now being shown as [[rerun]]s on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by [[Kōtarō Satomi]] (里見 浩太朗, Satomi Kōtarō) and Miss Marple was voiced by [[Kaoru Yachigusa]] (八千草 薫, Yachigusa Kaoru).
{{Agatha Christie}}
==External links==
*[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/976602/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online (1980s TV adaptations)]
[[Category:Fictional detectives|Marple, Miss]]
[[Category:Crime television series]]<!-- until we get a separate article on the TV series -->
[[Category:BBC television programmes]]
[[Category:Television programs based on novels]]
[[Category:Series of books]]
[[Category:English cultural icons]]
[[Category:Agatha Christie]]
[[da:Miss Marple]]
[[de:Miss Marple]]
[[eo:Miss MARPLE]]
[[fr:Miss Marple]]
[[id:Miss Marple]]
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[[hu:Miss Marple]]
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[[ja:ミス・マープル]]
[[pl:Jane Marple]]
[[pt:Miss Marple]]
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[[zh:珍·瑪波]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apple (fruit)</title>
<id>1003</id>
<revision>
<id>15899511</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-30T01:13:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Apple]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April</title>
<id>1004</id>
<revision>
<id>42000914</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:34:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthonyken0109</username>
<id>906087</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{AprilCalendar}}
{{wiktionarypar|April}}
'''April''' is the [[fourth]] [[month]] of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] and one of four with the length of 30 [[day]]s.
April begins (astrologically) with the sun in the sign of [[Aries]] and ends in the sign of [[Taurus]]. Astronomically speaking, the sun begins in the constellation of [[Pisces]] and ends in the constellation of [[Aries]].
The derivation of the name ([[Latin]] ''aprillis'') is uncertain. The traditional etymology from the Latin ''aperire'', "to open," in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to "open," is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of &alpha;&#788;&nu;&omicron;&iota;&xi;&iota;&sigmaf; (opening) for spring. Since all the Roman months were named in honour of divinities, and as April was sacred to Venus, the ''Festum Veneris et Fortunae Virilis'' being held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month Aphrilis, from her Greek name Aphrodite, or from the [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] name ''Apru''. Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero, ''Aper'' or ''Aprus''
The Anglo-Saxons called April ''Oster-monath'' or ''Eostur-monath'', the period sacred to ''Eostre'' or ''Ostara'', the pagan Saxon goddess of spring, from whose name is derived the modern Easter. St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the twenty-fourth. In China the symbolical ploughing of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood takes place in their third month, which frequently corresponds to our April; and in Japan the feast of Dolls is celebrated in the same month.
The "days of April" (''journées d'avril'') is a name appropriated in French history to a series of insurrections at Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in 1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial known as the ''procès d'avrill''.
April was originally the second month of the [[Roman calendar]] and had 29 days. [[Julius Caesar]]'s calendar [[Julian calendar|reform]] in [[45 BCE]] resulted in April having 30 days and becoming the fourth month, as the year now began in [[January]].
==The tragic month of April==
Wars that started/ended in April include
*[[U.S. Revolutionary War|American Revolution Started]] (Paul Revere's Ride: [[April 18]]-19 1775)
*[[U.S. Civil War|American Civil War]] (Started April 1861, Ended April 1865, thus "Across 5 Aprils")
*The [[Bosnian War]] began in the first days April 1992
*The [[Rwandan Genocide]] began in April 1994
Other Tragedies that have occurred in the month of April include
*President [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s Assassination ([[April 14]] [[1865]])
*1906 [[San Francisco Earthquake]] ([[April 18]] [[1906]])
*The sinking of the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] ([[April 14]]-15,1912)
*The [[Armenian Genocide]] ([[April 24]] [[1915]])
*[[Martin Luther King Jr.]] Assassinated ([[April 4]] [[1968]])
*Super Tornado Outbreak ([[April 3]]-4, 1974)
*[[Chernobyl]] nuclear accident ([[April 26]] [[1986]])
*The bloody end to the Branch Dividan siege in Waco, Texas ([[April 19]] [[1993]])
*The [[Oklahoma City Bombing]] ([[April 19]] [[1995]])
*In [[Lebanon]], 102 [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] civilians are killed when the [[Israel Defense Forces]] shell the [[UN]] compound at [[Qana]] (see [[Qana Massacre]]). ([[April 18]] [[1996]])
*[[Columbine High School]] shooting ([[April 20]] [[1999]])
==Trivia==
*April begins on the same day of week as July in all years and also January in leap years.
*April's [[flower]] is |
a captain in the anti-Treaty IRA, was abducted and shot by Free State forces in July 1923, two months after the war had ended. His body was dumped in the [[Wicklow Mountains]], near Glencree, where it was found in October 1923. The spot where his body was found is marked by a memorial.<br>
{{fnb|3}} O'Higgins was the Minister for Economic Affairs in the Free State government and was known to be in favour of executions of prisoners. His elderly father was killed by republicans during the civil war. He was assassinated in 1927 by anti-treaty IRA members on his way to [[Mass]]. He was killed in reprisal for what they viewed as his responsibility for executions of republicans during the civil war.
==Sources==
*Ernie O'Malley, The Singing Flame, Dublin 1978.
*M.E. Collins, Ireland 1868-1966, Dublin 1993.
*Michael Hopkinson, Green against Green - the Irish Civil War
*Eoin Neeson, The Irish Civil War
*Paul V Walsh, The Irish Civil War 1922-23 -A Study of the Conventional Phase
*Meda Ryan, The Real chief, Liam Lynch
*Tim Pat Coogan, De Valera, Long Fellow, Long Shadow
==See also==
*[[History of Ireland]]
*[[History of the Republic of Ireland]]
*[[List of Ireland-related topics]]
==External links==
*[http://www.limerick-leader.ie/issues/20000101/s1920.html The final siege of Limerick City] from [[July 7]] until [[July 21]] 1922, on the [[Limerick Leader]] web site.
[[Category:Civil wars]]
[[Category:Guerrilla wars]]
[[Category:History of Ireland]]
[[Category:History of the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Wars of Ireland]]
[[ca:Guerra Civil Irlandesa]]
[[de:Irischer Bürgerkrieg]]
[[es:Guerra Civil Irlandesa]]
[[ga:Cogadh Cathartha na hÉireann]]
[[it:Guerra civile irlandese]]
[[ja:アイルランド内戦]]
[[pl:Irlandzka wojna domowa]]
[[fi:Irlannin sisällissota]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet Explorer</title>
<id>15215</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42095673</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:19:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.14.173.1</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>robot Adding: gl, lv, ro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software | name =
| logo = [[Image:Internet Explorer 7 logo.png|250px|Windows Internet Explorer logo]]
| screenshot = [[Image:Internet Explorer 6.png|250px]]
| caption = Internet Explorer 6 under Windows XP
| developer = [[Microsoft]], [[Spyglass]]
| latest_release_version = 6.0 SV1
| latest_release_date = August 6, 2004
| latest_preview_version = [http://www.microsoft.com/windows/IE/ie7/ie7betaredirect.mspx 7.0 Beta 2 Preview] (build 5296)
| latest_preview_date = January 31, 2006
| operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]
| genre = [[Web browser]]
| license = Closed source
| website = [http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ Internet Explorer]
}}
'''Internet Explorer''', abbreviated '''IE''' or '''MSIE''', is a [[proprietary software|proprietary]] [[graphical user interface|graphical]] [[web browser]] made by [[Microsoft]] and included as part of the [[Microsoft Windows]] line of operating systems. It is the most widely used web browser today.
Microsoft has shipped Internet Explorer as the default browser in all versions of Microsoft Windows since [[Windows 95]] OSR1. The last major upgrade to Internet Explorer, 6.0 SV1{{ref|sv1}}, is included in [[Windows XP]] Service Pack 2 and [[Windows Server 2003]] Service Pack 1 only. [[software beta|Beta versions]] of Internet Explorer 7 for Windows XP SP2 have been available since [[July 27]] [[2005]] and versions specific to [[Windows Server 2003]] as well as for 64-bit editions of Windows will also be released, though it won't be available for older versions of Windows. Internet Explorer versions, prior to the one included in Windows XP SP2, are also available as a separate download for versions of Windows uptil [[Windows XP]].
In the past, Internet Explorer was also developed for several other operating systems: [[Internet Explorer for Mac]] and [[Internet Explorer for UNIX]] (the latter for use through the [[X Window System]] on [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]] and [[HP-UX]]). All of these versions have ceased active development.
Internet Explorer is currently known as '''Microsoft Internet Explorer''', but the name will change to '''Windows Internet Explorer''' with the release of Internet Explorer 7.
==History==
[[Image:Internet Explorer 4.png|thumb|Internet Explorer 4.0 under Windows]]
{{main|History of Internet Explorer}}
Internet Explorer is derived from [[Spyglass]] [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]], an early commercial web browser. In 1995, Spyglass Mosaic was licensed by [[Microsoft]] in an arrangement under which Spyglass would receive a quarterly fee plus a percentage of Microsoft's revenues for the software. Although bearing a name similar to [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications|NCSA]] Mosaic, which was the first widely used browser, Spyglass Mosaic was relatively unknown in its day and did not use any of the NCSA Mosaic source code {{ref|SpyglassMosaic}}.
Internet Explorer 3 was the first major browser with [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] support released in August, 1996 and it could handle the [[Platform for Internet Content Selection|PICS]] system for content [[metadata]]. The improvements were significant, compared to its main competitor at the time, [[Netscape Navigator]].
The browser was not widely used until version 4, which was released in October 1997 and was integrated with the [[Windows 98]] operating system. This integration, however, was subject to numerous criticisms (see [[United States v. Microsoft]]). Version 5, released in September 1998, was another significant release that supported [[bi-directional text]], [[ruby character]]s, [[XML]] and [[Extensible Stylesheet Language|XSL]].
Version 6 was released on [[August 27]] [[2001]], a few weeks before [[Windows XP]]. This version included DHTML enhancements, content restricted inline frames, and better support of CSS level 1, DOM level 1 and SMIL 2.0. The MSXML engine was also updated to version 3.0. Other new features included a new version of the IEAK, Media bar, [[Windows Messenger]] integration, fault collection, automatic image resizing, [[P3P]], and a new look-and-feel that is in line with the style of Windows XP.
On [[February 15]] [[2005]], Microsoft Chairman [[Bill Gates]] announced that the new version of its browser will be released at the RSA Conference 2005 in San Francisco {{ref|RSAConference2005}}. The decision to update the browser occurred in the wake of a decline in the use of Internet Explorer for the first time. Microsoft also stated that Internet Explorer 7 will only be available for Windows XP SP2 and later, including Windows Server 2003 SP1 and Windows Vista. The first [[software beta|beta version]] of the browser was released on [[July 27]] [[2005]] for technical testing, and a first public preview version of Internet Explorer 7 (Beta 2 preview: Pre-Beta 2 version) was released on [[January 31]], [[2006]]. Version 7 is intended to defend users from [[phishing]] as well as deceptive or malicious software, and also features full user control of ActiveX, and better security framework. It includes important bug fixes, enhancements to support the web standards, improvements in HTML 4.01/CSS 2, [[Tabbed document interface|Tabbed Browsing]], Tab preview and management, and web feeds reader.
==Features==
{{main|Features of Internet Explorer}}
[[Image:XPSP2_popup.png|thumb|right|The pop-up blocker included in Internet Explorer 6 SP 2]]
Internet Explorer has been designed to view the broadest range of web pages and to provide certain features within the operating system, including [[Windows Update]]. During the heydays of the historic [[browser wars]], Internet Explorer superseded Netscape by supporting many of the progressive features of the time.
===Component architecture===
The [[Component Object Model]] (COM) technology is used extensively in Internet Explorer. It allows third parties to add functionalities via [[Browser Helper Object]]s (BHO); and allows websites to offer rich content via [[ActiveX]]. As these objects have the same privileges as the browser itself (in certain situations), this raised concern over security. This issue was addressed in Internet Explorer 6.0 Service Pack 2, which provides an [[Add-on]] Manager for controlling ActiveX controls and Browser Helper Objects. Internet Explorer 7 provides a "No Add-Ons" version (Under Programs/Accessories/System Tools) to address this issue, as well.
===Usability and accessibility===
[[Image:Ie7tabbedbrowsing.PNG|thumb|Tabbed browsing in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2 preview]]
Since it is tightly integrated with the operating system, Internet Explorer makes use of the accessibility framework provided in Windows. Internet Explorer is also a user interface for FTP, with operations similar to that of [[Windows Explorer]].
The ability to block [[popup]] windows was introduced with Internet Explorer 6.0, Service Pack 2.
[[Tabbed browsing]] can be added to Internet Explorer 6 by installing Microsoft's [[MSN Search Toolbar]], and is natively supported as of Internet Explorer 7.
===Security framework===
Internet Explorer uses a zone-based [[computer security|security]] framework, which means that sites are grouped based upon certain conditions. It allows the restriction of broad areas of functionality, and also allows specific functions to be restricted.
Patches and updates to the browser are released periodically and made available through [[Windows Update]] [[website]]. Although security patches continue to be released for a range of platforms, most recent feature additions and security improvements are released for Windows XP only. A report in April 2005 showed that only [http://www.winplanet.com/article/2825-.htm 24% of corporate PCs] had upgraded to XP SP2.
Internet Explorer 6 Service Pack 2 provide Download Monitoring and Ins |
actal] — popular software for Microsoft Windows
*[http://www.apophysis.org/ Apophysis] — A free and powerful flame and IFS fractal generator. Widely used for creating fractal artwork.
*[http://www.chaospro.de ChaosPro] — for Microsoft Windows
*[http://www.aswsoftware.com/products/msplotter/msplotter.shtml MSPlotter] a great free Windows-based fractal generator, using fractals to create [[bitmap]] images and AVI video clips.
*[http://www.eclectasy.com/Fractal-Explorer/ Fractal Explorer] — free Windows-based generator
; Mac generator programs
*[http://www.daugerresearch.com/fractaldemos/altivecfractalcarbon.html Altivec Fractal Carbon] Mac-based benchmarking utility, using fractals to determine performance.
*[http://www.cl.uni-heidelberg.de/~kleinert/ubisonic/stephan/software/ifslab/index.shtml IFSLab] A [[Iterated function system]] fractal generator for [[Mac OS X]].
; MorphOS generator programs
*[http://www.elena-fractals.it/ Zone Explorer] with support for custom formulas
; Fractal Art Galleries
*[http://blog.yukonho.com/article.php?id=71 Gallery]
*[http://www.fractovia.org/ Fractovia] — authoritative source of fractal generators.
*[http://www.phidelity.com/ph2/fractals/ Fractal Artwork]
*[http://www.fractal-landscapes.com Fractal landscapes]
*[http://fred.mitchellware.com/fractals Mitchell-Green gravity set]
*[http://www.faemalia.net/Fractals Fractal art galleries]
*[http://www.ericbigas.com/fractals Fractal Zoom movies]
*[http://www.webfractales.com/en/ WebFractales : Galleries and softwares]
*[http://www.geocities.com/tmichelitsch/Michelitsch_Fractals.html Fractal art with papers and programs]
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~wolter/index.html Fractal Art by Wolter Schraa]
[[Category:Fractals| ]]
[[Category:Digital Revolution]]
[[Category:Digital art]]
{{Link FA|ru}}
{{Link FA|th}}
[[ar:هندسة كسيرية]]
[[bg:Фрактал]]
[[ca:Fractal]]
[[cs:Fraktál]]
[[da:Fraktal]]
[[de:Fraktal]]
[[es:Fractal]]
[[eo:Fraktalo]]
[[fa:برخال]]
[[fr:Fractale]]
[[ko:프랙탈]]
[[io:Fraktalo]]
[[id:Fraktal]]
[[it:Frattale]]
[[he:פרקטל]]
[[nl:Fractal]]
[[ja:フラクタル]]
[[pl:Fraktal]]
[[pt:Fractal]]
[[ru:Фрактал]]
[[sl:Fraktal]]
[[fi:Fraktaali]]
[[sv:Fraktal]]
[[th:แฟร็กทัล]]
[[vi:Fractal]]
[[tr:Fraktal]]
[[uk:Фрактал]]
[[zh:分形]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fluid</title>
<id>10915</id>
<revision>
<id>38789360</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T17:49:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.63.114.185|208.63.114.185]] ([[User talk:208.63.114.185|talk]]) to last version by 141.210.103.244</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A subset of the [[Phase (matter)|phases of matter]], '''fluids''' include [[liquid|liquids]], [[gas|gases]], [[Plasma physics|plasmas]] and, to some extent, [[plasticity (physics)|plastic solids]].
Fluids share the properties of not resisting deformation and the ability to flow (also described as their ability to take on the shape of their containers). These properties are typically a function of their inability to support a [[shear stress]] in static [[equilibrium]]. While in a solid, stress is a function of strain, in a fluid stress is a function of rate of strain. A consequence of this behaviour is [[Pascal's law]] which entails the important role of [[pressure]] in characterising a fluid's state.
Fluids can be characterised as:
*[[Newtonian fluid]]s; or
*[[Non-Newtonian fluid]]s,
- depending on the way [[stress (physics)|stress]] depends on [[strain]] and its [[derivative]]s. The behaviour of fluids is described by a set of [[partial differential equations]], including the [[Navier-Stokes equations]].
Fluids are also divided into liquids and gases. Liquids form a free surface (that is, a surface not created by their container) while gases do not.
The distinction between [[plasticity (physics)|solids]] and fluids is not so obvious. The distinction is made by evaluating the [[viscosity]] of the matter: for example [[Silly Putty]] can be considered either a solid or a fluid, depending on the time period over which it is observed.
The study of fluids is [[fluid mechanics]] which is then subdivided into [[fluid dynamics]] and [[fluid statics]] depending on whether the fluid is in motion or not.
==See also==
*[[rheology]]
*[[thermodynamics]]
*[[super fluid]]
*[[perfect fluid]]
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Fluid mechanics]]
<!--Interwiki-->
[[cs:Tekutina]]
[[de:Fluid]]
[[es:Fluido]]
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[[zh:流体]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FAQ</title>
<id>10916</id>
<revision>
<id>40762086</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T21:26:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.187.0.164</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
{{selfref|For frequently asked questions about Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:Questions]]}}
'''FAQ''' is an [[abbreviation]] for "Frequently Asked Question(s)". The term refers to listed questions and answers, all supposed to be frequently asked in some context, and pertaining to a particular topic. Since the [[acronym]] originated in textual media, its [[pronunciation]] varies; both "fak" and "F.A.Q." are commonly heard (and therefore, when used with an indefinite article, it is either "a FAQ" or "an FAQ"). Depending on usage, the term may refer specifically to a single frequently-asked question, or to an assembled list of many questions and their answers.
==Origins==
While the name may be recent, the format itself is quite old. For instance, [[Matthew Hopkins]] wrote ''The Discovery of Witches'' in 1647 in FAQ format. He introduces it as "Certaine Queries answered," ... Many old [[catechism]]s are in a question and answer format.
The FAQ is an [[Internet]] textual tradition originating from a combination of mailing list-laziness plus speculation and a separate technical and political need within NASA in the early 1980s. The first FAQs developed over several pre-Web years starting from 1982 when storage was expensive. On the SPACE mailing list, the presumption was that new users would [[ftp]] archived past messages. In practice, this never happened. Instead, the dynamic on mailing lists was for users to speculate rather than use very basic original sources (contacting NASA which was not part of ARPA and had only one site on the ARPAnet) to get simple answers. Repeating the "right" answers becomes tedious. A series of different measures from regularly posted messages to [[netlib]]-like query mailing daemons were set up by loosely affiliated groups of computer system administrators. Posting frequency started annually by Eugene Miya, then monthly, and finally weekly and daily across a variety of mailing lists and newsgroups. The first person to post a weekly FAQ was Jef Poskanzer to the USENET net.graphics/comp.graphics newsgroups. Eugene Miya experimented with the first daily FAQs. The first FAQs were initially attacked by some mailing list users for being repetitive.
On [[USENET]], Mark Horton started a series of "Periodic Posts" {PP} which attempted to answer trivia terminology such as "What is 'foobar'?" with appropriate answer. Periodic summary messages posted to [[USENET]] [[newsgroup]]s attempted to reduce the continual reposting of the same basic questions and associated wrong answers {yet another 'A'}. On USENET, posting questions which are covered in a group's FAQ is often considered poor [[netiquette]], as it shows that the poster has not done the expected background reading before asking others to provide answers. Some groups may have multiple FAQs on related topics, or even two or more competing FAQs explaining a topic from different points of view.
Another factor on early ARPAnet mailing lists was netiquette, wherein people asking questions typically "promised to 'summarize' received answers." Rarely were these summaries more than mere concatenations of received electronic replies with little to no quality checking.
==Modern Developments==
Originally the term FAQ referred to the Frequently Asked Question itself, and the compilation of questions and answers was known as a '''FAQ list''' or some similar expression. Today "FAQ" is more frequently used to refer to the list, and a text consisting of questions and their answers is often called a FAQ regardless of whether the questions are actually ''frequently'' asked (if ''asked'' at all). This is done to capitalize on the fact that the concept of a FAQ has become fairly familiar online - documents of this kind are sometimes called '''FAAQ'''s ('''''F'''requently '''A'''sked and '''A'''nticipated '''Q'''uestions'').
In some cases informative documents not in the traditional FAQ style have also been called FAQs, [[videogame]] FAQs in particular. One large collection of such documents is [[GameFAQs]], where most so-called "FAQs" have nothing in common with the meaning of the name, but are often instead rather detailed descriptions of gameplay, including tips, secrets, and beginning-to-end guidance. Rarely are videogame FAQs in a question-and-answer format.
Over time, the accumulated FAQs across all USENET news groups sparked the creation of the "*.answers" moderated newsgroups such as comp.answers, misc.answers, sci.answers, etc. for [[crossposting]] and collecting FAQs across respective comp.*, misc.*, sci.* newsgroups.
The term "FAQ", and the idea behind it, has spread offline as well, even to areas not related to the Net at all. Even bottles of bicycle chain lubricant have been marketed wi |
ured domination over the rival Christian conversion attempts by [[Arianism]]. Under the [[Merovingian]] and [[Carolingian]] kings the Franks formed a new Germanic empire, which replaced the Roman Empire in Western Europe.
In the AD 400s, [[Euric]], the king of the Visigoths, for the first time, wrote and codified the oral tradition of Germanic laws into a constitution (the Code of Euric). Among the laws was the system of choosing successor kings, and some policies, by the electors (delegates), each representing their own region, meeting at grand councils. This would later be continued by the Holy Roman Empire, in which policies on the Reformation would be determined by councils of electors, and even inspired the U.S. Constitution's creation of a House of Representatives, where each region was represented by a delegate, as well as the birth of parliaments in European countries.
===The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (843–1806)===
[[Image:Electoral princes.png|thumb|left|The [[prince-elector]]s of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. From ''Bildatlas der Deutschen Geschichte'' by Dr Paul Knötel (1895)]]
{{main|Holy Roman Empire}}
The medieval empire—since 1448 officially called the '''Holy Roman Empire of German Nation''' ("Sacrum Romanum Imperium Nationis Germanicae") but often refered to as the '''Holy Roman Empire''' (or the ''First Reich'') —stemmed from a division of the [[Carolingian Empire]] in 843, which was founded by [[Charlemagne]] on [[25 December]] [[800]], and existed in varying forms until 1806, its territory stretching from the river ''Eider'' in the north to the Mediterranean coast in the south.
However, the conversion process did not often come willingly to the ancient tribes of Germany. A devout Roman Catholic with strong links to the Pope, Charlemagne sought to consolidate power through conversion and implant Roman Christianity throughout Germany to maintain power, often forcefully. This lead to the systematic destruction of local pagan sites and the annexation of the native pagan tribes, such as the destruction of the [[Irminsul]] likely within the region of [[Paderborn]] and, perhaps most famously, massacres such as the [[Bloody Trial of Verden]].
During this period of almost a thousand years, the Holy Roman Empire expanded its influence successfully at home by attempting to stomp out remnants of native paganism and spreading influence abroad with the help of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Teutonic Order]] and the [[Hanseatic League]] to the East.
Under the reign of the [[Ottonian]] emperors (919-1024), the Holy Roman Empire absorbed the duchies of [[Duchy of Lorraine|Lorraine]], [[Duchy of Saxony|Saxony]], [[Franconia]], [[Swabia]], [[Thuringia]] and [[Bavaria]]. Under the reign of the [[Salian]] emperors (1024-1125), the Holy Roman Empire absorbed [[Italy]] and [[Burgundy]].
During the long stays of the [[Hohenstaufen]] emperors (1138-1254) in Italy, the German princes became stronger and began a successful mostly peaceful colonization of Westslavic lands, so the empire increased in size and came to include [[Pomerania]], [[Silesia]], [[Bohemia]], and [[Moravia]]. The princes became virtually independent rulers within their territories. After the [[Great Interregnum]] (1256-1273), a period of anarchy in which there was no emperor and German princes vied for individual advantage, followed the death of the last Hohenstaufen king in 1254, princes of miscellaneous Houses were elected emperor and strongly relied on the lands of their own family. The edict of the [[Golden Bull of 1356|Golden Bull]] in 1356 provided the basic constitution of the empire up to its dissolution. Since 1438 for three hundred years, the Emperors exclusively had been elected from the Austrian [[Habsburg]] family.
In 1530, the attempt of the [[Protestant Reformation]] of Catholicism turned out to have failed, and a separate Protestant church was acknowledged as new state religion in many states of Germany. This led to inter-German strife, the [[Thirty Years War]] (1618) and finally the [[Peace of Westphalia]] (1648), that resulted in a drastically enfeebled and politically disunited Germany, the Habsburg emperors relied more on their role as Austrian archdukes and were challenged by the new kingdom of [[Prussia]] since 1740. The empire itself was unable to resist the stroke of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], during which the ''Imperium'' was overrun and dissolved (1806).
===Restoration and revolution (1814–1871)===
[[Image:Wartburg-Stundentenzug-1817.jpg|thumb|250px|The way of the students to Wartburg 1817]]
[[Image:Zug-zum-hambacher-schloss.jpg|thumb|250px|The way of the students to the Hambacher Schloss in the year 1832]]
[[Image:Maerz1848 berlin.jpg|thumb|250px|Celebrating Revolutionary after Barricade fights on 19.&nbsp;March 1848 in Berlin]]
[[Image:800px-Nationalversammlung.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Frankfurt Parliament in 1848/49]]
{{main|German Confederation}}
Following Napoleon's fall and the end of the [[Confederation of the Rhine]], the [[Congress of Vienna]] convened in 1814 in order to restructure Europe. In Germany, the [[German Confederation]] was founded, a loose league of [[List of German Confederation member states|39 sovereign states]]. Disagreement with the [[restoration]] politics partly led to the lifestyle called ''[[Biedermeier]]'' and to intellectual [[Liberalism in Germany|liberal]] movements, which demanded unity and freedom during the [[Vormärz]] epoch, each followed by a measure of [[Klemens Wenzel von Metternich|Metternich]] repressing the liberal agitation. The ''[[Zollverein]]'', a tariff union, profoundly furthered economic unity in the [[List of German Confederation member states|German states]].
The [[German people|German]] people had been stirred by the ideals of the [[French revolution]]. On October 18, [[1817]], students held a gathering to exchange ideas, the high point of which were the burning of works by authors like Otto of Kotzebue, who were against a united German state. A second such meeting attracted 30,000 people from all social classes and from all regions to the Hambacher celebration. There for the first time, the colors of black, red and gold were chosen to represent the movement, which later became the national colors.
The states were also shaped by the [[Industrial Revolution]], which was the initial step of the growing [[industrialisation]] in Europe and contributed to a wave of poverty in it, causing social uprisings. In light of a [[Revolutions of 1848|series of revolutionary movements in Europe]], [[The Revolutions of 1848 in France|which in France]] successfully established a republic, intellectuals and common people started [[the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states]]. The monarchs initially yielded to the revolutionaries' liberal demands, and an intellectual [[Frankfurt Parliament|National Assembly]] was elected to draw up a constitution for the new Germany, completed in 1849. However, the Prussian king [[Frederick William IV of Prussia|Frederick William IV]], who was offered the title of Emperor but with a loss of power, rejected the crown and the constitution. This prompted the demise of the national assembly along with most merits of the revolution.
In 1862, conflict between the Prussian King [[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] and the increasingly liberal parliament erupted over military reforms. The king appointed [[Otto von Bismarck]] the new [[Prime Minister of Prussia]]. Bismarck used the desire for national unification to further the interests of the Prussian monarchy. He successfully waged [[Second war of Schleswig|war on Denmark]], [[Austro-Prussian War|on Austria]] and, finally, [[Franco-Prussian War|on France]]. The lasting effect of the Austro-Prussian War came to be the division between [[Austria]], formerly the leading state of Germany, from the more western and northern parts.
===German Empire (1871–1918)===
[[Image:Reichsgruendung2.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Foundation of modern Germany, Versailles, 1871. Bismarck is in white in the middle]]
{{main|German Empire}}
After the French defeat in the [[Franco-Prussian War]], the [[German Empire]] (''Deutsches Kaiserreich'') was proclaimed in [[Versailles]] on [[18 January]] [[1871]]. Virtually a result of the wars, the empire was a unification of the scattered parts of Germany but without Austria&mdash;''[[Kleindeutschland]]''. After 1888, the ''[[Year of Three Emperors]]'', Bismarck was forced to quit by the new emperor, young [[William II of Germany|Wilhelm II]], in 1890 due to political and personal differences. The emperor's foreign policy was opposed to that of Bismarck, who had established a system of alliances in the era called ''[[Gründerzeit]]'', securing Germany's position as a great nation and avoiding war for decades. Under Wilhelm II, however, Germany took an [[imperialism|imperialistic]] course, [[New Imperialism|not unlike other powers]], but it led to friction with neighbouring countries. Most alliances in which Germany had been previously involved were not renewed, and new alliances excluded the country. Austria and Germany became increasingly isolated.
Beginning in 1884 Germany established [[List of former German colonies|several colonies]], which were ruled with the cruelty typical for colonial powers. In the years 1904-1907 German troops killed most of the [[Hereros|Herero population]] of [[German South-West Africa]] in the [[Herero Genocide]] after a rebellion.
Although not one of [[Causes of World War I|the main causes]], [[Assassination in Sarajevo|the assassination]] of [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Austria's crown prince]] triggered [[World War I]] on [[28 July]] [[1914]], which saw Germany as part of the unsuccessful [[Central Powers]] in the [[World War I casualties|second-bloodiest]] conflict of all time against the [[Allied Powers]]. In November 1918, the second [[German Revolution]] broke out, and Emperor Wilhelm II and all Ger |
Eisenhower]] had reservations. Given time, those fears proved roundly unfounded. After an early flirtatious period with liberal politics, the political climate of Alaska changed quickly once [[petroleum]] was discovered and the federal government came to be seen as 'meddling' in local affairs. Still, despite its libertarian leanings, the state regularly takes in more federal money than it gives out, a fact that can be attributed at least partially to its equal representation in the [[United States Senate]].
In recent years, the [[Alaska Legislature]] is a 20-member Senate serving 4-year terms and 40-member House serving 2-year terms. It has been dominated by conservatives, generally Republicans. Likewise, recent state governors have been mostly conservatives, although not always elected under the official 'Party' banner. Republican [[Walter Joseph Hickel|Wally Hickel]] was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after jumping the Republican ship and briefly joining the [[Alaskan Independence Party]] ticket just long enough to be reelected. He subsequently officially 'rejoined' the Republican fold in 1994.
Alaska's members of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] are all Republican. U.S. Senator [[Ted Stevens]] was appointed to the position following the death of U.S. Senator [[Bob Bartlett]] in December of 1968, and has never lost a re-election campaign since. As the longest-serving Republican in the Senate (some political wits call him Senator-For-Life), Stevens has been a crucial force in gaining Federal money for his state.
Until his resignation from the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] to run for Governor, Republican [[Frank Murkowski]] held the state's other Senatorial position and, as Governor, was allowed to appoint his daughter, [[Lisa Murkowski]] as his successor. She won a full six-year term on her own in 2004.
Alaska's sole [[U.S. House of Representatives|U.S. House]] Representative, [[Don Young]] won re-election to his 17th-straight term, also in 2004. His seniority in House ranks him as one of the most influential Republican House members. His position on the House Transportation Committee allowed him to parlay some $450 million to two bridge projects in Alaska, named the ''[[Bridges to Nowhere]]'', for which he gained national notoriety following the devastation in the State of [[Louisiana]] following [[Hurricane Katrina]] and his insistence that the money not be returned to aid in rebuilding the Gulf Coast.
==Geography==
[[image:Looking back to Little Port Walter - NOAA.jpg|thumb|250px|Near [[Little Port Walter]]]]
Alaska is one of the two states that is not bordered by another US state, [[Hawaii]] being the other. It is the only state that is both in [[North America]] and is not part of the 48 contiguous states; about 500 miles (800 kilometers) of [[Canada|Canadian]] territory separate Alaska from Washington. Therefore, Alaska is an [[exclave]] of the United States that is part of the continental U.S. but is not part of the contiguous U.S. It is also the only mainland state whose [[capital city]] is accessible only via [[Water transportation|ship]] or [[aviation|air]]. There are no [[road]]s connecting Juneau to the rest of the state.
Alaska is the largest state in the United States in terms of land area, 570,374 square miles (1&nbsp;477&nbsp;261 km²). If a map of Alaska were superimposed upon a map of the [[Continental United States]], Alaska would overlap [[Texas]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Kansas]], [[New Mexico]] and [[Colorado]]. Alaska has the longest [[coastline]] of any state.
One scheme for describing the state's geography is by labeling the regions:
*[[South Central Alaska]] is the southern coastal region and is the population center for the state. The Municipality of Anchorage and many small but growing towns, such as [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]], and [[Wasilla, Alaska|Wasilla]], lie within this area. [[Petroleum]] industrial plants, transportation, [[tourism]], and two [[military base]]s form the core of the economy here.
*The [[Alaska Panhandle]], also known as Southeast Alaska, is home to Juneau, many small towns, tidewater [[glacier|glaciers]] and extensive forests. Tourism, fishing, forestry and state government anchor the economy.
*The [[Alaska Interior]] is home to [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]]. The geography is marked by large [[braided river]]s, such as the [[Yukon River]] and the [[Kuskokwim River]], as well as [[Arctic]] [[tundra]] lands and shorelines.
*The [[Alaskan Bush]] is the remote, less crowded part of the state, encompassing 380 native villages and small towns such as [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]], [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]], [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]] and, most famously, [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]], the northernmost town in the United States.
The northeast corner of Alaska is covered by the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]], which covers 19,049,236 acres (79,318 km²).
With its numerous islands, Alaska has nearly 34,000 miles (54&nbsp;700 km) of tidal shoreline. The island chain extending west from the southern tip of the [[Alaska Peninsula]] is called the [[Aleutian Islands]]. Many active [[volcano]]es are found in the Aleutians. For example, [[Unimak Island]] is home to [[Mount Shishaldin]], a moderately active volcano that rises to 9,980 ft (3042&nbsp;m) above [[sea level]]. The chain of volcanoes extends to [[Mount Spurr]], west of Anchorage on the mainland.
North America's second largest [[tide]]s occur in [[Turnagain Arm]] just south of Anchorage, which often sees tidal differences of more than 35 feet (10.7&nbsp;m).
Alaska is home to 3.5 million [[lake]]s of 20 acres (8&nbsp;ha) or larger. [[Marshland]]s and wetland [[permafrost]] cover 188,320 square miles (487&nbsp;747&nbsp;km², mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands. Frozen water, in the form of [[glacier]] ice, covers some 16,000 square miles (41&nbsp;440&nbsp;km²) of land and 1200 square miles (3108&nbsp;km²) of tidal zone. The Bering Glacier complex near the southeastern border with [[Yukon]], [[Canada]], covers 2250 square miles (5827&nbsp;km²) alone.
{{ussm|alaska.png|ak}}
The Aleutian Islands actually cross longitude 180°, also making it the easternmost state, although the [[International Date Line]] doglegs around them to keep the whole state in the same day. It is part of the [[extreme points of the United States]].
According to the October 1998 report of the [[United States Bureau of Land Management]], approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the [[United States Federal Government|U.S. Federal Government]] as [[national forest]]s, [[national park]]s, and [[national wildlife refuge]]s. Of these, the [[Bureau of Land Management]] manages 87 million acres (350&nbsp;000&nbsp;km²), or 23.8% of the state. The [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] is managed by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]].
Of the remaining land area, the State of Alaska owns 24.5%; another 10% is managed by thirteen regional and dozens of local Native corporations created under the [[Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act]]. Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling less than 1%.
''See also:''
* [[List of Alaska rivers]]
* [[Alaska Peninsula]]
* [[Bristol Bay]]
==Boroughs and census areas==
Alaska has no [[county (United States)|counties]] in the sense used in the rest of the country. Instead, the state is divided into [[List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska|27 census areas and boroughs]]. The difference between [[borough]]s and census areas is that boroughs have an organized area-wide government, while census areas are artificial divisions defined by the [[United States Census Bureau]] for statistical purposes only. Areas of the state not in organized boroughs compose what the government of Alaska calls the [[unorganized borough]]. Borough-level government services in the unorganized borough are provided by the state itself.
==Economy==
[[Image:wiki_alaska.jpg|thumb|350px|Greetings from Alaska]]
The state's 2003 total gross state product was $31 billion. Its ''per-capita'' income for 2003 was $33,213, 14<sup>th</sup> in the nation. Alaska's main export is seafood. Agriculture represents only a fraction of the Alaska economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere. Employment is primarily in government and industries such as [[natural resource]] extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in both Fairbanks and Anchorage. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and [[tourism]] sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging.
-
The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. This has changed for the most part in [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] and [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]], where the cost of living is actually less than some major cities in the Lower 48, thanks to lower housing and transportation costs. The introduction of big-box stores in Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Juneau also did much to lower prices. However, rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods, compared to the rest of the country due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure. Many rural residents come in to these cities and purchase food and goods in bulk from warehouse clubs like [[Costco]] and [[Sam's Club]]. Some have embraced the free shipping offers of some online retailers to purchase items much more cheaply than they could in their own communities, if they are available at all.
==Transportation==
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</page>
<page>
<title>Anaximander</title>
<id>1168</id>
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<id>41581865</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T07:44:20Z</timestamp>
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<username>Zirland</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anaximander.jpg|thumb|right|Anaximander|200px]]
'''Anaximander''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''&#913;&#957;&#945;&#958;&#943;&#956;&#945;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#959;&#962;''')(c.610 BC&ndash;c. [[546 BC]]) also known as '''Aniximander''', was the second of the physical philosophers of [[Ionia]], a citizen of [[Miletus]], a companion or pupil of [[Thales]], and teacher of [[Anaximenes of Miletus]]. Little is known of his life and work. [[Aelian]] makes him the leader of the Milesian colony to [[Amphipolis]], and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen. The computations of [[Apollodorus of Athens]] have fixed his birth in 611, and his death shortly after 547 B.C.
Ancient sources represent him as a successful student of [[astronomy]] and [[geography]], and an early proponent of [[exact science]]. He has also been said to have introduced such astronomical instruments as the [[sundial]] and the [[gnomon]] to ancient [[Greece]]. Furthermore, he is credited with having created the first map of the world, which was circular in form and showed the known lands of the world grouped around the Aegean Sea at the center and all of this was surrounded by the ocean.
==Cosmology and the ''apeiron''==
Anaximander's reputation is due mainly to a cosmological work, little of which remains. From the few extant fragments, we learn that he believed the beginning or first principle (''[[arche]],'' a word first found in Anaximander's writings, and which he probably invented) is an endless, unlimited mass ([[apeiron]]), subject to neither old age nor decay, which perpetually yields fresh materials from which everything we can perceive is derived.
He never defined this principle precisely, and it has generally (e.g. by [[Aristotle]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]) been understood as a sort of primal [[Chaos_(mythology)|chaos]]. It embraced the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directed the movement of things, by which there grew up all of the host of shapes and differences which are found in "all the worlds"--as he believed there were many.
Out of the vague and limitless body there sprang a central mass &mdash; this earth of ours, cylindrical in shape, poised equidistant from surrounding orbs of fire, which had originally clung to it like the bark round a tree, until their continuity was severed, and they parted into several wheel-shaped and fire-filled bubbles of air.
Man himself and the animals had come into being by like transmutations. Mankind was supposed by Anaximander to have sprung from some other species of animals, probably aquatic. For, he thought, man with his extended infancy could not have survived, originally, in the manner he does presently. For this, even though he had no theory of [[natural selection]], some people consider him to be [[evolution]]ary theory's most ancient proponent.
Anaximander offered up the theory of the apeiron in direct response to the earlier theory of his teacher, [[Thales]], who had claimed that the primary substance was [[water]]. Anaximander reasoned that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature &mdash; for example, water can only be wet, never dry &mdash; and therefore, it can not be the one primary substance. Nor could any of the other candidates, so Anaximander postulated the [[apeiron]] as a substance that, although it could not be perceived directly, could explain the opposites he could clearly see around him.
----
The one surviving fragment of Anaximander was transmitted as a quote by [[Simplicius_of_Cilicia|Simplicius]] and could be translated as
<h3 align="center">Whence things have their origin,<br>
Thence also their destruction happens, <br>
As is the order of things; <br>
For they execute the sentence upon one another<br>
- The condemnation for the crime -<br>
In conformity with the ordinance of Time. </h3>
== Interpretations ==
[[Bertrand Russell]] in ''The History of Western Philosophy'' interprets the above quote as an assertion of the necessity of an appropriate balance between earth, fire, and water elements, all of which may be independently seeking to aggrandize their proportions relative to the others. Anaximander seems to express his belief that a natural order ensures balance between these elements, that where there was fire, ashes (earth) now exist. Anaximander's Greek peers echoed this sentiment with their belief of natural boundaries that not even their Gods could operate beyond.
[[Nietzsche]], in his ''[[Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks]]'', claimed that Anaximander was a pessimist. Anaximander asserted that the primal being of the world was state of indefiniteness. In accordance with this, anything definite has to eventually pass back into indefiniteness. In other words, Anaximander viewed "...all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance." (''Ibid.'', § 4) The world of individual objects, in this way of thinking, has no worth and should perish.
== Known Works ==
''On Nature'', circa ?
:; Subject : Philosophy
:; Referenced in : [[Simplicius_of_Cilicia|Simplicius]] in Phys., p. 24, 13sq.
:; Authenticity : Likely
Map, circa ? (lost)
:; Subject : (First?) Map of his Known World
:; Referenced in : [[Agathemerus]], [[Geographie informatio]]
:; Authenticity : Likely
Some of Anaximander's ideas were also preserved in [[Theophrastus]]'s (lost) history of philosophy, and re-quoted by later authors.
==Honors==
* [[Anaximander (crater)|Anaximander crater]] on the [[Moon]], at 66N, 48W, is named after him. For a picture, see:
* http://www.dirkcouprie.nl/Anaximander.html
* The [[asteroid]] [[6006 Anaximandros]] is also named after him.
==References==
Dirk L.Couprie, Roobert Hahn, and Gerard Naddaf, 2003. 'Anaximander in Context: New Studies in the Origins of Greek Philosophy', Albany N.Y.: State University of New York Press
==See also==
*[[Milesian school]]
==External links==
* "http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/anaximan.htm" Anaximander from The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* "http://www.dirkcouprie.nl/Anaximander-bibliography.htm" for an extensive bibliography.
{{1911}}
{{Presocratics}}
[[Category:610 BC births]]
[[Category:609 BC births]]
[[Category:547 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]
[[Category:Presocratic philosophers]]
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[[zh:阿那克西曼德]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>APL</title>
<id>1169</id>
<revision>
<id>38930486</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T16:18:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.39.218.10</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''APL''' is an [[abbreviation]], [[Acronym and initialism|acronym]], or [[Acronym and initialism|initialism]] that may refer to:
*[[Acute promyelocytic leukemia]], a subtype of [[acute myelogenous leukemia]]
*[[American President Lines]], a [[Singapore]]-based container transportation and shipping company
*[[American Protective League]], a WWI era pro-war organization
*[[Association of Pension Lawyers]]
*[[APL programming language]], an [[array programming]] language invented in 1962
*The [[Adaptive Public License]]
*The [[Apple Public License]]
*The [[AROS Public License]]
*Applied Physics Letters (a journal published by [[American Institute of Physics]], [http://scitation.aip.org/aplo/ website])
*The [[Applied Physics Laboratory|Applied Physics Laboratory]] at [[Johns Hopkins University]]
*The [[Applied Physics Laboratory (University of Washington)|Applied Physics Laboratory]] at the [[University of Washington]]
*The [[United States Navy]] [[hull classification symbol]] for Barracks Craft
*[[Australian Pork Limited]]
*The rap singer [[Allan Pineda Lindo]]
*The [[metadata]] format for [[Monkey's Audio]] files
*[[average picture level]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[da:APL (flertydig)]]
[[de:APL]]
[[fr:APL]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Architect</title>
<id>1170</id>
<revision>
<id>42018152</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:27:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jamesandra</username>
<id>991772</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Notable Schools of Architecture */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Architect.png|thumb|Architect at his drawing board, 1893]]
An '''architect''' is a person involved in the [[planning]], [[Design|designing]] and oversight of a [[Building|building's]] [[construction]]. The most basic definition of an architect is a professional who is qualified to design and provide advice - functional, aesthetic and technical - on built objects in our public and private landscapes. More generally, an architect is |
arkedly.
Deng traveled abroad and had a series of amicable meetings with western leaders, traveling to the [[United States]] in 1979 to meet President [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] at the [[White House]] shortly after the U.S. broke diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] and established them with the PRC. [[Sino-Japanese relations]] also improved significantly. Deng used Japan as an example of a rapidly progressing economic power that sets a good example for China's future economic directions.
Another achievement was the agreement signed by [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and China on [[December 19]], [[1984]] ([[Sino-British Joint Declaration]]) under which [[Hong Kong]] was to be handed over to the PRC in [[1997]]. With the end of the 99-year lease on the [[New Territories]] expiring, Deng agreed that the PRC would not interfere with Hong Kong's capitalist system for 50 years. A similar agreement was signed with [[Portugal]] for the return of colony [[Macau]]. Dubbed "[[one country-two systems]]," this approach has been touted by the PRC as potential framework within which [[Taiwan]] could be reunited with [[mainland China|the Mainland]] in more recent years.
Deng, however, did little to improve relations with the [[Soviet Union]], continuing to adhere to the [[Maoist]] line of the [[Sino-Soviet Split]] era that the Soviet Union was a superpower equally as "hegemonist" as the United States, but even more threatening to China because of its geographical proximity.
=="Socialism with Chinese characteristics"==
The goals of Deng's reforms were summed up by the [[Four Modernizations]], those of agriculture, industry, science and technology and the military.
The strategy for achieving these aims of becoming a modern, industrial nation was the [[socialist market economy]].
Deng argued that China was in the primary stage of [[socialism]] and that the duty of the party was to perfect "[[socialism with Chinese characteristics]]." This interpretation of [[Chinese Marxism]] reduced the role of ideology in economic decision-making and deciding policies of proven effectiveness. Downgrading communitarian values but not necessarily Marxism-Leninism, Deng emphasized that socialism does not mean shared poverty. His theoretical justification for allowing market forces was given as such:
:"Planning and market forces are not the essential difference between socialism and capitalism. A planned economy is not the definition of socialism, because there is planning under capitalism; the market economy happens under socialism, too. Planning and market forces are both ways of controlling economic activity."{{ref|gittings}}
Unlike Hua Guofeng, Deng believed that no policy should be rejected out of hand simply for not having been associated with Mao, and unlike more conservative leaders such as [[Chen Yun]], Deng did not object to policies on the grounds that they were similar to ones which were found in capitalist nations.
Although Deng provided the theoretical background and the political support to allow economic reform to occur, few of the economic reforms that Deng introduced were originated by Deng himself. Typically a reform would be introduced by local leaders, often in violation of central government directives. If successful and promising, these reforms would be adopted by larger and larger areas and ultimately introduced nationally. Many other reforms were influenced by the experiences of the [[East Asian Tigers]].
This is in sharp contrast to the pattern in the ''[[perestroika]]'' undertaken by [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in which most of the major reforms were originated by Gorbachev himself. The bottom-up approach of the Deng reforms, in contrast to the top-down approach of ''perestroika'', was likely a key factor in the success of the former.
Deng's reforms actually included the introduction of planned, centralized management of the macro-economy by technically proficient bureaucrats, abandoning Mao's mass campaign style of economic construction. However, unlike the Soviet model, management was indirect through market mechanisms.
Deng sustained Mao's legacy to the extent that he stressed the primacy of agricultural output and encouraged a significant decentralization of decision making in the rural economy teams and individual peasant households.
At the local level, material incentives, rather than political appeals, were to be used to motivate the labor force, including allowing peasants to earn extra income by selling the produce of their private plots at free market.
In the main move toward market allocation, local municipalities and provinces were allowed to invest in industries that they considered most profitable, which encouraged investment in light manufacturing. Thus, Deng's reforms shifted China's development strategy to an emphasis on light industry and export-led growth.
Light industrial output was vital for a developing country coming from a low capital base. With the short gestation period, low capital requirements, and high foreign-exchange export earnings, revenues generated by light manufacturing were able to be reinvested in more technologically-advanced production and further capital expenditures and investments.
However, in sharp contrast to the similar but much less successful reforms in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and [[Hungary]], these investments were not government mandated. The capital invested in heavy industry largely came from the banking system, and most of that capital came from consumer deposits. One of the first items of the Deng reforms was to prevent reallocation of profits except through taxation or through the banking system; hence, the reallocation in state-owned industries was somewhat indirect, thus making them more or less independent from government interference. In short, Deng's reforms sparked an industrial revolution in China.
These reforms were a reversal of the Maoist policy of economic self-reliance. China decided to accelerate the modernization process by stepping up the volume of foreign trade, especially the purchase of machinery from [[Japan]] and the West. By participating in such export-led growth, China was able to step up the Four Modernizations by attaining certain foreign funds, market, advanced technologies and management experiences, thus accelerating its economic development.
Deng attracted foreign companies to a series of [[Special Economic Zones]], where foreign investment and market liberalization were encouraged.
The reforms centered on improving labor productivity as well. New material incentives and bonus systems were introduced. Rural markets selling peasants' homegrown products and the surplus products of communes were revived. Not only did rural markets increase agricultural output, they stimulated industrial development as well. With peasants able to sell surplus agricultural yields on the open market, domestic consumption stimulated industrialization as well and also created political support for more difficult economic reforms.
There are some parallels between Deng's market socialism especially in the early stages, and Lenin's [[New Economic Policy]] as well as those of [[Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin|Bukharin's]] economic policies, in that both foresaw a role for private entrepreneurs and markets based on trade and pricing rather than central planning.
An interesting anecdote on this note is the first meeting between Deng and [[Armand Hammer]]. Deng pressed the industrialist and former investor in Lenin's Soviet Union for as much information on the NEP as possible.
==Crackdown of the Tiananmen Square Protests==
The [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]] started from the middle of April 1989, triggered by the death of [[Hu Yaobang]], the stepped down party general secretary. Hu was widely seen as a liberal-minded person and was forced to resign from his position by [[Deng Xiaoping]], an unfair treatment in many people's view, especially among intellectuals.
Although the [[government]] declared [[martial law]] on [[May 20]], the demonstrations continued. After deliberating among [[Communist]] party leaders, the use of military force to resolve the crisis was ordered, and [[Zhao Ziyang]] was ousted from political leadership. [[Soldiers]] and [[tanks]] from the 27th and 38th Armies of the [[People's Liberation Army]] were sent to take control of the city. These forces were confronted by Chinese workers and students in the streets of Beijing and the ensuing violence resulted in both civilian and army deaths. The Chinese government acknowledged that a few hundred people died.
Estimates of civilian deaths which resulted vary: 400-800 ([[New York Times]] [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat7.htm#Chinat_sources]), 1,000 ([[National Security Agency|NSA]]), and 2,600 (Chinese Red Cross). Student protesters maintained that over 7,000 were killed. Following the violence, the government conducted widespread arrests to suppress the remaining supporters of the movement, limited access for the foreign press and controlled coverage of the events in the mainland Chinese press. The violent suppression of the Tiananmen Square protest caused widespread international condemnation of the PRC government.
<!--- ref: http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20010101faessay4257-p0/andrew-j-nathan/the-tiananmen-papers.html --->
==After resignation==
Officially, Deng decided to retire from top positions when he stepped down as Chairman of the [[Central Military Commission]] in 1989, and retired from the political scene in [[1992]]. China, however, was still in the ''era of Deng Xiaoping''. He continued to be widely regarded as the "[[paramount leader]]" of the country, believed to have backroom control. [[Hu Jintao]], Deng's hand-picked man, is now the leader of the fourth generation of the PRC leadership. Deng was recognized officially as "The architect of Chin |
ally debunking the claims of Pulling and BADD
* [http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Arcade/2964/ Christian Gamers Guild] (formerly the Christian Role-Playing Gamers Association)- RPGing from a Christian perspective that does not brand all RPGs as 'evil'
*[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2004/11/15/dungeons_and_dragons_we_love_you/ How 'Dungeons' Changed the World] - ''Boston Globe'' editorial
===Community sites===
* [http://www.enworld.org/ EN World] &mdash; D&D/[[d20]] News and Reviews
* [http://www.opengamingworld.com/ Open Gaming World] forums
* [http://www.dmchronicles.com/ Dragonmark Chronicles] Eberron Campaign HQ
[[Category:Dungeons & Dragons| ]]
[[Category:Origins award winners]]
{{Link FA|it}}
[[da:Dungeons and Dragons]]
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[[es:Dragones y Mazmorras]]
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[[fr:Donjons et Dragons]]
[[he:מבוכים ודרקונים]]
[[it:Dungeons & Dragons]]
[[ja:ダンジョンズ&ドラゴンズ]]
[[nl:Dungeons & Dragons (RPG)]]
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[[pt:Dungeons & Dragons]]
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[[zh:龙与地下城]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Double jeopardy</title>
<id>7941</id>
<revision>
<id>42116200</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:52:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BDAbramson</username>
<id>196446</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambig fix ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{{CrimPro}}
'''Double jeopardy''' (also called "[[autrefois acquit]]" meaning "already acquitted") is a [[procedural defense]] (and, in many countries such as the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and [[India]], a [[constitution]]al right) that forbids a [[defendant]] from being [[trial (law)|tried]] a second time for a crime, after having already been tried for the same crime. At common law a defendant can plead ''autrefois acquit'' or ''autrefois convict''; meaning the defendant has been acquitted or convicted of the same offence previously.
==Double jeopardy by country==
===Australia===
Australian double jeopardy jurisprudence is very similar to other common law countries. While there is no constitutional protection against re-trials following acquittal, there have been few examples of statutory exceptions.
In all state jurisdictions prosecutors can appeal against the sentence handed down by the trial judge and in South Australia and Tasmania the prosecution can appeal against an error of law made by the trial judge in certain situations. However the aquittal will still stand valid and the purpose of the appeal is merely to clarify the relevant law for future cases.
In contrast to other common law jurisdictions, Australian double jeopardy law has been held to extend to prevent prosecution for perjury following a previous acquittal where a finding of perjury would controvert the previous acquittal. This was confirmed in the case of ''[[The Queen v Carroll]]'', where the police found new evidence convincingly disproving Caroll's sworn alibi two decades after he had been acquitted of the murder of a young girl and successfully prosecuted him for perjury. Public outcry following the overturning of his conviction by the High Court has led to widespread calls for reform of the law along the lines of the UK legislation.
===Canada===
{{sectstub}}
The [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] includes provisions such as [[Section Eleven of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|section 11(h)]] prohibiting double jeopardy. But often this prohibition only applies after the trial is finally concluded - in contrast to the laws of the United States, [[Canada|Canadian]] law allows the prosecution to appeal from an acquittal. If the acquittal is thrown out, the new trial is not considered to be double jeopardy because the first trial and its judgement would have been annulled. In rare circumstances, a court of appeal might also substitute a conviction for an acquittal. This is not considered to be double jeopardy either - in this case the appeal and subsequent conviction are deemed to be a continuation of the original trial.
===Europe===
All members of the [[Council of Europe]] (which includes nearly all European countries, and all members of the [[European Union]]) have signed the [[European Convention of Human Rights]], which protects against double jeopardy. The Seventh Protocol, Article Four, says:
<blockquote>
No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again in criminal proceedings under the jurisdiction of the same State for an [[offence]] for which he has already been finally [[acquittal|acquitted]] or [[conviction (law)|convicted]] in accordance with the law and penal procedure of that State.
</blockquote>
This specific optional protocol has been ratified by all EU states except six (namely [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], [[The Netherlands]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]] and the [[United Kingdom]]). Those members states may still have the provision in their respective constitutions (if any) providing a prohibition against double jeopardy.
In many European countries the prosecution may appeal an acquittal to a higher court (similar to the provisions of Canadian law) - this is not counted as double jeopardy but as a continuation of the same trial. This is allowed by the European Convention of Human Rights - note the word ''finally'' in the above quote.
====France====
Once all appeals have been exhausted on a case, the judgment is final and the action of the prosecution is closed (code of penal procedure, art. 6), except if the final ruling was [[forgery|forged]]. Prosecution for an already judged crime is impossible even though new incriminating evidence has been found. However, a person who has been convicted may request another trial on grounds of new exculpating evidence.
====United Kingdom====
The [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] passed legislation in the [[Criminal Justice Act 2003]] introduced by then [[Home Secretary]] [[David Blunkett]] to abolish the previously strict form of prohibition of double jeopardy. Retrials are now allowed if there is 'new and compelling evidence'. All cases must be approved by the [[Director Of Public Prosecutions]] and the [[Court Of Appeal]] must agree to quash the original acquittal.[http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section19/chapter_j.html]
===India===
{{sectstub}}
In India, protection against double jeopardy is a [[Fundamental Rights of India|Fundamental Right]] under [[Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India#Right to Freedom|Right to Freedom]].It is a fundamental right guaranteed under .The provision enshrines the principle that a person cannot be tried twice for same offence by the equally competent court.Thus aperson cannot be tried for the offence of which he had been tried and acquitted or convicted.
===United States===
The phrase "double jeopardy" stems from the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]]: "nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb." This clause is intended to limit prosecutorial abuse by the [[government]] in repeated [[prosecution]] for the same offense, as a means of harassment or oppression. It is also in harmony with the [[common law]] concept of ''[[res judicata]],'' which prevents courts from relitigating issues and claims that have already been the subject of a final judgment.
There are three essential protections included in double jeopardy: protection from being retried for the same crime after an acquittal; protection from retrial after a conviction; and protection from being punished multiple times for the same offense.
This law is occasionally referred to as a [[legal technicality]], because it allows defendants a defense that does not address whether the crime was actually committed. For example, were police to uncover new evidence conclusively proving the guilt of someone previously acquitted, there is little they can do because the defendant may not be tried again (at least, not on the same or substantially similar charge) ''[[Fong Foo v. United States]]'', [[Case citation|369 U.S. 141 ]] (1962).
Though the Fifth Amendment applies only to the federal government, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] has ruled that the double jeopardy clause applies to the [[U.S. state|states]] as well, through [[due process#Incorporation|incorporation]] by the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]].
Jeopardy attaches in a [[jury trial]] once the jury and alternates are impanelled and sworn in. In a [[non-jury trial]], jeopardy attaches once the first evidence is put on, which occurs when the first [[witness]] is sworn.
Some solace can be found in the fact that in many cases, Civil Trials, where the burden of proof is substantially lower, have resulted in some criminally not-guilty defendants have been found liable for wrongful death.
====Exceptions to double jeopardy====
As double jeopardy only applies to charges that were the subject of an earlier ''final'' judgment, there are many situations in which it does not apply despite the appearance of a retrial. For example, a second trial held after a [[mistrial]] does not violate the double jeopardy clause, because a mistrial ends a trial prematurely without a judgment of guilty or not guilty. [[Legal case|Cases]] which have been [[case dismissal|dismissed]] because of insufficient evidence may constitute a final judgment for these purposes, though many state and federal laws allow for limited prosecutorial appeals from these orders. A re-trial after a conviction has been reversed on appeal also does not violate double jeopardy, b |
detrimental as extreme indulgence. According to the Bhagavad Gita, the goal of life is to free the mind and intellect from their complexities, and to focus them on the glory of the Self, by dedicating one's actions to the divine. This goal can be achieved through the Yogas of meditation, action, devotion and knowledge.The Gita describes the best Yogi as one who constantly thinks of God.
Krishna summarizes the Yogas through eighteen chapters. There are four kinds of Yoga - Raja Yoga or ''Psycho-Physical Meditation'', Bhakti Yoga or ''Devotion'', Karma Yoga or ''Selfless Action'', and Jnana (pronounced ''gyaan'') Yoga or ''Self Transcending Knowledge''.
While each path differs, their fundamental goal is the same - to realize Brahman (the ''' ''Divine Essence'' ''') as being the only truth, that the body is temporal, and that the ''Supreme Soul'' ([[Paramatman]]) is infinite. Yoga's aim ([[nirvana]] or [[moksha]]) is to escape from the cycle of reincarnation through realization of oneness with the ultimate reality. There are three stages to self-realisation enunciated from the Bhagavad Gita:
1. Brahman - The impersonal universal energy
2. Paramatma - The Supreme Soul sitting in the heart of every living entity.
3. Bhagavan - God as a personality, with a transcendental form.
Here are some quotations from Krishna that make up history's first real yoga text and give comprehensive definitions of the four principle yogas:
===On The Goal Of Yoga===
"When the mind comes to rest, restrained by the practice of Yoga, and when beholding the Self, by the Self, he is content in the Self." [http://vedabase.net/bg/6/20] " He who finds his happiness within, his delight within, and his light within, this yogi attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman."
===On Bhakti Yoga===
Put simply, Bhakti Yoga is ''Service in Love and Devotion to God'' (Krishna in the context of the Bhagavad Gita).
"I consider the Yogi-devotee - who lovingly contemplates on Me with supreme faith, and whose mind is ever absorbed in Me - to be the best of all the Yogis". [http://vedabase.net/bg/6/47]
"After attaining Me, the great souls do not incur rebirth in this miserable transitory world, because they have attained the highest perfection." [http://vedabase.net/bg/8/15]
"... those who, renouncing all actions in Me, and regarding Me as the Supreme, worship Me... For those whose thoughts have entered into Me, I am soon the deliverer from the ocean of death and transmigration, Arjuna. Keep your mind on Me alone, your intellect on Me. Thus you shall dwell in Me hereafter." [http://vedabase.net/bg/12/6]
"And he who serves Me with the yoga of unswerving devotion, transcending these qualities [binary opposites, like good and evil, pain and pleasure] is ready for liberation in Brahman." [http://vedabase.net/bg/14/26]
"Fix your mind on Me, be devoted to Me, offer service to Me, bow down to Me, and you shall certainly reach Me. I promise you because you are My very dear friend." [http://vedabase.net/bg/18/65]
"Setting aside all meritorious deeds (Dharma), just [[surrender (religion)|surrender]] completely to My will (with firm faith and loving contemplation). I shall liberate you from all sins. Do not fear." [http://vedabase.net/bg/18/66]
===On Karma Yoga===
Karma Yoga is essentially ''Acting, or doing one's duties in life as per his/her [[dharma]], or duty, without concern of results'' - a sort of constant sacrifice of action to the Supreme. It is action done without thought of gain. In a more modern interpretation, it can be viewed as duty bound deeds done without letting the nature of the result affecting ones actions. It is said that the results can be of 3 types - as aimed for, opposite of what is aimed for, or a mixture of these. If one can perform his duties (as prescribed in the [[Vedas]]) without any anticipation of the result of his actions, he is bound to succeed. It includes, but is not limited to, dedication of one's chosen profession and its perfection to God. It is also visible in community and social service, since they are inherently done without thought of personal gain.
'''Example:''' If one is playing tennis on the tennis court, his duty is to play as well as he can. If he is a [[Karma Yogi]], the loss of a few points will not hamper his enthusiasm and energy for the rest of the game, but if he is not, then he will start getting tense, nervous, self-conscious, etc. and is then bound to make mistakes and lose anyway. This is a simple example of Karma Yoga for a [[layman]].
Krishna advocates [[Nishkam Karma Yoga]] (the Yoga of Selfless Action) as the ideal path to realize the Truth. Allocated work done without expectations, motives, or thinking about its outcomes tends to purify one's mind and gradually makes an individual fit to see the value of reason and the benefits of renouncing the work itself. These concepts are vividly described in the following verses:
:"To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits;let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction" -- ''verse 47, Chapter 2-Samkhya theory and Yoga practise''
:"Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Winner of wealth(Arjuna), abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga" -- ''verse 48, Chapter 2-Samkhya theory and Yoga practise''
:"With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the Yogis perform action toward self-purification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in Yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace..." [http://vedabase.net/bg/5/11]
In order to achieve true liberation, it is important to control all mental desires and tendencies to enjoy and sense pleasures. The following verses illustrate this:
:''Verses 62,63, chapter 2- Samkhya theory and Yoga practise''
:"When a man dwells in his mind on the object of sense, attachment to them is produced. From attachment springs desire and from desire comes anger."
:"From anger arises bewilderment, from bewilderment loss of memory; and from loss of memory, the destruction of intelligence and from the destruction of intelligence he perishes"
===On Jnana Yoga===
Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not. Through a steady advancement in realization of the distinction between Real and the Unreal, the Eternal and the Temporal, one develops into a ''Jnana Yogi''. This is essentially a path to God through knowledge and discrimination, and has been described as being the "shortest, and steepest" path to God - the most difficult one.
"When he perceives the various states of being as resting in the One, and from That alone spreading out, then he attains Brahman. / They who know, through the eye of knowledge, the distinction between the field and the knower of the field, as well as the liberation of beings from material nature, go to the Supreme." [http://vedabase.net/bg/13/31].
===On Raja Yoga===
Raja Yoga is the stilling of the mind and body through meditating techniques, geared at realizing one's true nature. This practice was later described by [[Patanjali]] in his [[Yoga Sutras]].
" Establishing a firm seat for himself in a clean place... having directed his mind to a single object, with his thought and the activity of the senses controlled, he should practice yoga for the purpose of self-realization. Holding the body, head and neck erect, motionless and steady, gazing at the tip of his own nose and not looking in any direction, with quieted mind, banishing fear, established in the brahmacharin vow of celibacy, controlling the mind, with thoughts fixed on Me, he should sit, concentrated, devoted to Me. Thus, continually disciplining himself, the yogin whose mind is subdued goes to nirvana, to supreme peace, to union with Me." [http://vedabase.net/bg/6/11]
==Influence of Bhagavad Gita==
In many ways seemingly a heterogeneous text, the Gita is a reconciliation of many facets and schools of Hindu philosophy of both Brahmanical (i.e., orthodox Vedic) origin, and the parallel ascetic and Yogic traditions. It comprises primarily Vedic (as in the four Vedas, as opposed to the Upanishads/Vedanta), Upanishadic, Sankhya and Yogic philosophies. It has stood the test of time, bringing together all four thought systems by taking their largely cohesive, common ideologies and backgrounds into the powerful [[Sanskrit]] verse of one text.
It had always been a creative text for Hindu priests and [[yogi|Yogis]]. Although not strictly part of the 'canon' of Vedic writings, almost all Hindu sects draw upon the Gita as authoritative. Some claim that it may have been inserted into the Mahabharata at a later date, but this is only natural as it sounds more like an Upanishad (which are commentaries that followed the Vedas) in thought than a Purana (histories), of which tradition the Mahabharata is a part.
For its religious depth, quintessential Upanishadic and Yogic philosophy and beauty of verse, the Bhagavad Gita is one of the most compelling and important texts of the Hindu tradition. It is one of the world's greatest religious and spiritual scriptures.
For the Vedantic schools of Hindu philosophy , it is one of the three foundation texts (Sanskrit: Prasthana Trayi, literally three points of departure)( the other two being the [[Upanishad]]s and [[Brahma Sutra]]s). Every such school is required to have a commentary on the three. The oldest available commentary is from [[Adi Shankara]] but he mentions older commentators. He is followed by classical commentators like Anandagiri, Shridhara Swami, Madhusudana Saraswati, [[Ramanuja]], [[Madhavacharya]], [[Nimbarka]], [[Vallabha]] and [[Dnyaneshwar]]. While the traditional text |
ew Guinea]] || (1971)
|-
| '''[[Philippines]]*''' || (1966)
|}
| width="30%" valign="top" |
{| width="100%"
|-
| width="80%" | '''[[Samoa]]*''' || width="20%" | (1966)
|-
| '''[[Singapore]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Solomon Islands]] || (1973)
|-
| '''[[Sri Lanka]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Republic of China|Taipei, China]]*''' (Taiwan){{ref|Taiwan}} || (1966)
|-
| [[Tajikistan]] || (1998)
|-
| '''[[Thailand]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[East Timor|Timor-Leste]] || (2002)
|-
| [[Tonga]] || (1972)
|-
| [[Turkmenistan]] || (2000)
|-
| [[Tuvalu]] || (1993)
|-
| [[Uzbekistan]] || (1995)
|-
| [[Vanuatu]] || (1981)
|-
| '''[[Vietnam|Vietnam]]*''' || (1966)
|}
|-
| colspan="3" |
===Other regions===
|-
| width="30%" valign="top" |
{| width="100%"
|-
| width="80%" | '''[[Austria]]*''' || width="20%" | (1966)
|-
| '''[[Belgium]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Canada]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Denmark]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Finland]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[France]] || (1970)
|}
| width="30%" valign="top" |
{| width="100%"
|-
| width="80%" | '''[[Germany]]*''' {{ref|Germany}} || width="20%" | (1966)
|-
| '''[[Italy]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Luxembourg]] || (2003)
|-
| '''[[Netherlands]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Norway]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Portugal]] || (2002)
|}
| width="30%" valign="top" |
{| width="100%"
|-
| width="80%" | [[Spain]] || width="20%" | (1986)
|-
| '''[[Sweden]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Switzerland]] || (1967)
|-
| [[Turkey]] || (1991)
|-
| '''[[United Kingdom]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[United States]]*''' || (1966)
|}
|}
==Notes==
# {{note|Taiwan}} Represented the whole of China since being a founding member until 1986 when the People's Republic of China joined.
# {{note|Germany}} Founding member; joined as [[West Germany]].
==External links==
* The ADB website: http://www.adb.org
* ADB Institute: http://www.adbi.org
[[Category:Supranational banks]]
[[de:Asiatische Entwicklungsbank]]
[[id:Bank Pembangunan Asia]]
[[ja:アジア開発銀行]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aswan</title>
<id>2514</id>
<revision>
<id>41605608</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T13:25:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>*drew</username>
<id>91902</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+id:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="border: 0px" align="left"
|--
|[[Image:Egypt.Aswan.RiverView.01.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The Nile at Aswan, seen from Elephantine Island]]
|--
|[[Image:Railway Station Street, Aswan, Egypt, Oct 2004 A.jpg|left|thumb|200px|A view along the street connecting railway station and [[Nile]].]]
|--
|[[Image:Railway Station Street, Aswan, Egypt, Oct 2004 B.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Another view along the street]]
|--
|[[Image:Aswan Street, Egypt, Oct 2004.jpg|left|thumb|200px|A street parallel to Corniche in Aswan]]
|}
'''Aswan'''
([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''محافظة أسوان '''''Asw&#257;n'')
({{coor dm|24|05|N|32|56|E|}}, population 200,000) is a city in the south of [[Egypt]], the capital of the [[Aswan Governorate]]. It stands on the east bank of the [[Nile]] at the [[first cataract]] and is a busy market and tourist center.
Aswan is one of the driest inhabited places in the world; as of early 2001, the last rain here was 6 years ago. In [[Nubia]]n settlements they generally do not bother to roof all of the rooms in their houses.
This is identified with the ancient city of '''Syene''', which is famous for providing a basis on which [[Eratosthenes]] disputed the [[Flat Earth]] theory and attempted to determine the circumference of the Earth, using Syene as the originating point and [[Alexandria]] as the terminal point of a measured arc to make an accurate estimate of the circumference of the Earth.
''See also:'' [[Aswan Dam]], [[Elephantine]], [[Kitchener's Island]]
{{Commons|Aswan}}
[[Category:Cities in Egypt]]
[[af:Aswan]]
[[ar:أسوان (محافظة)]]
[[ca:Assuan]]
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[[da:Aswan]]
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[[fr:Assouan]]
[[gl:Asuán - أسوان]]
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[[ja:アスワン]]
[[no:Aswan]]
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[[pt:Assuão]]
[[ru:Асуан]]
[[sv:Assuan]]
{{Egypt-geo-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adelaide of Italy</title>
<id>2519</id>
<revision>
<id>38307814</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T13:23:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.158.132.182</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>edit cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Another Saint Adelaide is [[Adelaide, Abbess of Vilich]]''.
Saint '''Adelaide of Italy''' ([[931]]-[[December 16]], [[999]]) was the daughter of [[Rudolf II of Burgundy]], King of [[Italy]]. Her first [[marriage]] was to [[Lothar of Italy|Lothar]], King of Italy, and was part of a political settlement designed to conclude a peace between her father, Rudolf II, and [[Hugh of Provence]], the father of Lothar.
The Calendar of Saints states that her first husband was poisoned by his successor, [[Berengar of Ivrea]], who attempted to cement his political power by forcing her to marry his son; when she refused, she was imprisoned for four months, and escaped to [[Canossa]], where she threw herself on the mercy of [[Monarch|King]] [[Otto I the Great]]; they subsequently married in [[951]] . They had four [[child]]ren: Henry, born in [[952]]; Bruno, born [[953]]; [[Matilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg]], born about [[954]]; and [[Otto II]], later [[Holy Roman Emperor]], born [[955]].
When her husband Otto I died in [[973]] he was succeeded by their son Otto II, and Adelaide for some years exercised a powerful influence at court. Later, however, her daughter-in-law, the Byzantine princess [[Theophanu|Theophano]], turned her husband against his mother, and she was driven from court. Finally a reconciliation was effected, and in 983 Otto appointed her his viceroy in Italy. However, Otto died the same year, and although both mother and grandmother were appointed as co-regents for the child-king, Otto III, Theophano forced Adelaide to [[abdicate]] and exiled her. When Theophano died in 991, Adelaide was restored the regency of her grandson. She was assisted by [[Willigis]], bishop of [[Mainz]]. In 995 Otto III came of age, and Adelaide was free to devote herself exclusively to works of charity, notably the foundation or restoration of religious houses.
Adelaide had long entertained close relations with [[Cluny]], then the center of the movement for ecclesiastical reform and in particular with its abbots Majolus and Odilo. She retired to the convent of Seltz near [[Cologne]]. Though she never became a nun, she spent the rest of her days there in prayer. On her way to [[Burgundy]] to support her nephew Rudolf III against a rebellion, she died at a monastery she had founded [[Seltz]] in the [[Alsace]] on [[December 16]], [[999]]. She had constantly devoted herself to the service of the church and peace, and to the empire as guardian of both; she also interested herself in the conversion of the Slavs. She was thus a principal agent—almost an embodiment—of the work of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] during the [[Middle Ages|Early Middle Ages]] in the construction of the religion-culture of western Europe. Her feast day is still kept in many [[Germany|German]] dioceses.
[[Category:German saints]]
[[Category:Ottonian Dynasty]]
[[Category:931 births]]
[[Category:999 deaths]]
[[de:Adelheid von Burgund]]
[[fr:Adélaïde de Bourgogne]]
[[no:Adelheid av Burgund]]
[[fi:Adelheid]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Addition of natural numbers</title>
<id>2520</id>
<revision>
<id>18673608</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-12T14:12:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>R.Koot</username>
<id>170083</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Addition of natural numbers''' is the most basic arithmetic operation. In its simplest form, addition combines two numbers (terms, summands), the augend and addend, into a single number, the sum.
== Notation and terms ==
The operation of '''addition''', commonly written as the [[infix]] [[operator]] "+", is a [[function_(mathematics)|function]] + : '''N''' &times; '''N''' &rarr; '''N'''. For natural numbers ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'', we write
:<math>a + b = c.\,</math>
Here, ''a'' is the ''augend'', ''b'' is the ''addend'', and ''c'' is the ''sum''.
== Definition ==
We let ''S''(''a'') denote the ''successor of a'' as defined in the [[Peano postulates]].
Addition is defined inductively by fixing the augend. In other words, we let ''a'' be any arbitrary, but fixed natural number, and we then make the following definitions:
* ''a'' + 0 = ''a'' [A1]
* ''a'' + ''S''(''b'') = ''S''(''a'' + ''b'') [A2]
By the recursion theorem, this defines a unique function "''a'' +" : '''N''' &rarr; '''N'''. In words, it says that adding zero to ''a'' gives back ''a'', and that applying the successor function to the addend has the effect of applying the successor function to the sum.
Since ''a'' was an arbitrary natural number, we can "put together" all these functions into a single binary operation '''N''' &times; '''N''' &rarr; '''N'''.
== Properties ==
The following are three immediate and important properties of addition which can be deduced from the definition.
* [[associative|Associativity]]: for all natural numbers ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'', we have
:<math>(a + b) + c = a + (b + c);\,</math> ([[Addition of natural numbers/proofs#Proof of associativity|proof]])
* [[commutative|Commutativity]]: for all natural numbers ''a'' and ''b'', we have
:<math>a + b = b + a;\,</math> ([[Addition of natural numbers/proofs#Proof of commutativity|proof]]) |
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<title>Catholicism</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{christianity}}
:''This article considers Catholicism in the broadest ecclesiastical sense. See [[Catholicism (disambiguation)]] for alternative meanings''
'''''Catholicism''''' has two main [[ecclesiastical]] meanings, described in [[Webster's Dictionary]] as: a) "the whole orthodox Christian church, or adherence thereto"; and b) "the doctrines or faith of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic church]], or adherence thereto." [[#Footnotes|<font size=-2><sup>1</sup></font>]]
The term ''Catholicism'', derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] adjective &#954;&#945;&#952;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962; (katholikos), meaning "general" or "universal", is widely understood to refer to the Church, governed by the [[Pope|Bishop of Rome]] and the bishops in [[Communion (Christianity)|communion]] with him. However, other Churches that trace their historic episcopate to the apostolic succession &mdash; such as the [[Oriental Orthodox]] Churches, the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Churches, the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], the Churches of the [[Anglican Communion]], and the [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholics]] &mdash; consider themselves to be branches of the Catholic Church. [[Neo-Lutheranism]] argues that Lutheran Churches are simply a Protestant reform movement that remains within the greater Church catholic.
==The term "Catholic Church"==
A letter that, in about [[107]], [[Ignatius of Antioch|Saint Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch]] wrote to Christians in Smyrna, is the earliest surviving witness to the use of the term "catholic Church" (Smyrnaeans, 8).[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-21.htm#P2233_373220] By it Saint Ignatius designated the Christian Church in its universal aspect, excluding [[heresy|heretics]], such as those who disavow "the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again" (Smyrnaeans, 7).[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-21.htm#P2216_370671] He called such people "beasts in the shape of men, whom you must not only not receive, but, if it be possible, not even meet with" (Smyrnaeans, 4).[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-21.htm#P2179_364822]
Yet more explicit was the manner in which Saint Cyril of Jerusalem (circa [[315]]-[[386]]) used the term "catholic Church" precisely to distinguish this Church from heretical "Churches". He urged: "If ever thou art sojourning in cities, inquire not simply where the Lord's House is (for the other sects of the profane also attempt to call their own dens houses of the Lord), nor merely where the Church is, but where is the Catholic Church. For this is the peculiar name of this Holy Church, the mother of us all, which is the spouse of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God" (Catechetical Lectures, XVIII, 26).[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/310118.htm]
Only slightly later, when Christians still applied the word "priest" only to [[bishop]]s and not yet to those who are now called "priests" in English, Saint [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354-430) wrote:
:"In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the [[Apostle Peter]], to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15-19), down to the present episcopate.
:"And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house.
:"Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should ... With you, where there is none of these things to attract or keep me... No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion... For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church."
: &mdash; St. Augustine (354&ndash;430): <i>Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental</i>, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith[http://www.ccel.org/pager.cgi?&file=fathers/NPNF1-04/augustine/bk_fundamental/bk1.html&from=CHAP4&up=]
A contemporary of Augustine, [[St. Vincent of Lerins]], wrote in 434 under the pseudonym Peregrinus a work known as the ''Commonitoria'' ("Memoranda"). While insisting that, like the human body, Church doctrine develops while truly keeping its identity (sections 54-59, chapter XXIII), he stated: "[I]n the Catholic Church itself, all possible care must be taken, that we hold that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, by all. For that is truly and in the strictest sense 'Catholic,' which, as the name itself and the reason of the thing declare, comprehends all universally. This rule we shall observe if we follow universality, antiquity, consent. We shall follow universality if we confess that one faith to be true, which the whole Church throughout the world confesses; antiquity, if we in no wise depart from those interpretations which it is manifest were notoriously held by our holy ancestors and fathers; consent, in like manner, if in antiquity itself we adhere to the consentient definitions and determinations of all, or at the least of almost all priests and doctors" (section 6, end of chapter II).
==Divergent interpretations of the term "Catholic Church"==
Many Christians (and [[Christian denominations|denominations]]) see themselves as "catholic". They fall into two groups:
::1) those like the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], and [[Anglican Communion|Anglican]] Churches having [[Apostolic Succession]] from the early Church; and
::2) those who claim to be spiritual descendants of the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] but have no discernable institutional descent from the historic Church, and normally do not refer to themselves as catholic.
Of those in the first category, some see their Church as ''the'' Catholic Church, others see their Church as only ''part of'' the Catholic Church.
For Protestants, most of whom consider themselves to be spiritual descendants (category 2, above), this affirmation refers to their belief in the ultimate unity of all Churches under one [[God]] and one [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation#Roman Catholicism|Saviour]], rather than in one visibly unified institutional Church (category 1, above). In this usage ''catholic'' is sometimes written with a lower-case "c". The Western [[Apostles' Creed]], stating "I believe in...the holy catholic church..." (sometimes capitalised), is thus recited in [[Protestant]] worship services (with the notable exception of German Lutherans, who substitute "Christian" for "catholic"). The [[Nicene Creed]] likewise declares belief in "one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church". It should be noted historically, however, that apostolicity in the form of [[apostolic succession|tactile succession]] as well as spiritual descent has been maintained by certain national Lutheran Churches (now part of the [[Porvoo Communion]]), and has been restored in this fully visible form to the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America through the procedures of full communion agreements with their national Anglican counterparts.
== Brief organizational history of the Church ==
The early Catholic Church came to be organized under the three [[patriarch]]s of [[Rome]], [[Alexandria]] and [[Antioch]], to which later were added the patriarchs of [[Constantinople]] and [[Jerusalem]]. The [[Bishop of Rome]] was at that time recognized as first among them, as is stated, for instance, in canon 3 of the [[First Council of Constantinople]] ([[381]]) - many interpret "first" as meaning here [[first among equals]] - and doctrinal or procedural disputes were oftentimes referred to Rome, as when, on appeal by St Athanasius against the decision of the Council of Tyre ([[335]]), [[Pope Julius I]], who spoke of such appeals as customary, annulled the action of that council and restored Athanasius and Marcellus of Ancyra to their sees. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils. When the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Rome's influence was sometimes challenged. Nonetheless, Rome claimed special authority because of its connection to [[Saint Peter]][[#Footnotes|<font size=-2><sup>2</sup></font>]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]], who, all agreed, were martyred and buried in Rome, and because the bishop of Rome saw himself the direct successor of Saint Peter.
The [[431]] [[Council of Ephesus]], the Third [[Ecumenic |
.php?title=Hydrogen_peroxide Computational Chemistry Wiki]
* [http://ecb.jrc.it/ European Chemicals Bureau]
* [http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc01/icsc0164.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0164]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0335.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
* [http://www.astronautix.com/props/h2o2.htm Astronautix.com]
* [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol71/023-hydrogenper.html IARC Monograph "Hydrogen Peroxide"]
* [http://www.gkllc.com General Kinetics Inc. Hydrogen Peroxide Rocket Engines and Gas Generators]
* [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Cancer/oxygen.html Oxygenation Therapy:Unproven Treatments for Cancer and AIDS]
* [http://media.armadilloaerospace.com/misc/MaterialTest.mpg Video of a high concentration solution of hydrogen peroxide reacting with different clothing materials (including leather, which is "exciting")]
==References==
#{{an|thioether}} J. Drabowicz ''et al.'', in ''The Syntheses of Sulphones, Sulphoxides and Cyclic Sulphides'', p112-116, G. Capozzi ''et al.'', eds., John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK, 1994. ISBN 0-471-93970-6.
# N. N. Greenwood, A. Earnshaw, ''Chemistry of the Elements'', 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK, 1997. A great description of properties & chemistry of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>.
# J. March, ''Advanced Organic Chemistry'', 4th ed., p. 723, Wiley, New York, 1992.
# W. T. Hess, ''Hydrogen Peroxide'', in ''Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology'', 4th edition, Wiley, New York, Vol. 13, 961-995 (1995).
# {{anb|cancer}} CA Cancer J Clin. 1993 Jan-Feb;43(1):47-56. "Questionable methods of cancer management: hydrogen peroxide and other 'hyperoxygenation' therapies." PMID 8422605
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<title>Hesychasm</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hesychasm''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ησυχασμός ''hesychasmos'', from ησυχία ''hesychia'', "stillness, rest, quiet") is an [[eremitic]] tradition of [[prayer]] in [[Eastern Orthodox]] [[Christianity]] practised (Gk: ησυχάζω ''hesychazo'': "to keep stillness") by the '''Hesychast''' (Gr. ησυχαστής ''hesychastes'').
==History of the term==
The origin of the term ''hesychasmos'' and of the related terms ''hesychastes'', ''hesychia'' and ''hesychazo'' is not entirely certain. According to the entries in Lampe's ''A Patristic Greek Lexicon'', the basic terms ''hesychia'' and ''hesychazo'' appear as early as the 4th Century in such Fathers as St [[John Chrysostom]] and the Cappadocians. The terms also appear in the same period in [[Evagrius Pontikos]] (c.345–399), who although he is writing in Egypt is out of the circle of the Cappadocians, and in the ''[[Sayings of the Desert Fathers]].''
The term ''Hesychast'' is used sparingly in Christian [[ascetical]] writings emanating from [[Egypt]] from the 4th Century on, although the writings of Evagrius and the ''Sayings of the Desert Fathers'' do attest to it. In Egypt, the terms more often used are ''anchoretism'' (Gr. αναχώρησις, "withdrawal, retreat"),'' and ''[[anchorite]]'' (Gr. αναχωρητής, "one who withdraws or retreats, i.e. a hermit").
The term ''Hesychast'' was used in [[Palestine]] in the 6th Century in the ''Lives'' of [[Cyril of Scythopolis]], many of which lives treat of Hesychasts who were contemporaries of Cyril. Here it should be noted that several of the saints about whom Cyril was writing, especially Euthymios and Savas, were in fact from Cappadocia.
The laws ''(novella)'' of the Emperor [[Justinian]] (6th Century) treat ''Hesychast'' and ''anchorite'' as synonyms, making them interchangeable terms.
The terms ''hesychia'' and ''Hesychast'' are used quite systematically in the ''Ladder of Divine Ascent'' of [[St John of Sinai]] (523–603) and in ''Pros Theodoulon'' by St Hesychios (''c.''750?), who is ordinarily also considered to be of the School of [[Sinai]]. It is not known where either St John of Sinai or St Hesychios were born, nor where they received their monastic formation.
It appears that the particularity of the term ''Hesychast'' has to do with the integration of the continual repetition of the [[Jesus Prayer]] into the practices of mental ascesis already used by hermits in Egypt.
''Hesychasm'' itself is not recorded in Lampe, which indicates that it is a much later usage.
By the 14th Century on [[Mt Athos]] the terms ''Hesychasm'' and ''Hesychast'' refer to the practice and to the practitioners of a method of mental ascesis that involves the use of the Jesus Prayer assisted by certain psychophysical techniques. Most likely, the rise of term ''Hesychasm'' reflects the coming to the fore of this practice as something concrete that can be discussed.
Books used by the Hesychast include the ''[[Philokalia]],'' a collection of texts on prayer and solitary mental ascesis written from the 4th to the 15th Centuries, this collection existing in a number of independent redactions; the ''Ladder of Divine Ascent;'' the collected works of [[St Symeon the New Theologian]] (949–1022); and the works of [[St Isaac the Syrian]] (7th C.?–8th C.?), as they were selected and translated into Greek at the [[Monastery of St Savas]] in [[Jerusalem]] about the 10th Century.
==Hesychastic practice==
Hesychastic practice bears some superficial resemblance to mystical prayer or meditation in Eastern religions ([[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Sufism]], compare with [[yoga]]), although this similarity is often over-emphasized in popular accounts and is generally rejected by actual Orthodox practitioners of Hesychasm. The practice may involve specific body postures, and be accompanied by very deliberate breathing patterns. However, these bodily postures and breathing patterns are treated as secondary by both modern Athonite practitioners of Hesychasm (e.g. ''Elder Ephraim of Katounakia,'' p. 114 (Greek edition)) and by the more ancient texts in the ''Philokalia'' (e.g. ''On the Two Methods of Prayer'' by St Gregory of Sinai), the emphasis being on the primary role of Grace.
Hesychasts are fully inseted into the Liturgical and [[Sacraments|sacramental]] life of the Orthodox Church, including the daily cycle of prayer of the [[Canonical hours|Divine Office]] and the [[Divine Liturgy]]. However, Hesychasts who are living as hermits may have a very rare attendance at the Divine Liturgy (see the life of St Seraphim of Sarov) and may not recite the Divine Office except by means of the Jesus Prayer (attested practice on Mt Athos). In general, the Hesychast seeks to restrict his external activities for the sake of his Hesychastic practice.
Hesychastic practice involves acquiring an inner stillness and ignoring the physical senses. In this, Hesychasm shows its roots in Evagrius Pontikos and even in the Greek tradition of asceticism that goes back to [[Plato]]. The Hesychast interprets Christ's injunction in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] to "go into your closet to pray", to mean that he should ignore the senses and withdraw inward. St John of Sinai writes: "Hesychasm is the enclosing of the bodiless mind ''(nous)'' in the bodily house of the body." ''(Ladder,'' Step 27, 5, (Step 27, 6 in the Holy Transfiguration edition).)
In Step 27, 21 of the ''Ladder'' (Step 27, 22–3 of the Holy Transfiguration edition), St John of Sinai describes Hesychast practice as follows:
::Take up your seat on a high place and watch, if only you know how, and then you will see in what manner, when, whence, how many and what kind of thieves come to enter and steal your clusters of grapes. When the watchman grows weary, he stands up and prays; and then he sits down again and courageously takes up his former task.
In this passage, St John of Sinai says that the primary task of the Hesychast is to engage in mental ascesis. This mental ascesis is the rejection of tempting thoughts (the “thieves”) that come to the Hesychast as he watches in sober attention in his hermitage. Much of the literature of Hesychasm is occupied with the psychological analysis of such tempting thoughts (e.g. [[St Mark the Ascetic]]). This psychological analysis owes much to the ascetical works of Evagrius Pontikos, with its doctrine of the eight passions.
[[John Cassian|St. John Cassian]] is not represented in the ''Philokalia'' except by two brief extracts, but this is most likely due to his having written in Latin. His works ''(Coenobitical Institutions'' and the ''Conferences)'' represent a transmittal of Evagrius Pontikos’ ascetical doctrines to the West. These works formed the basis of much of the spirituality of the [[Order of St Benedict]] and of its offshoots. Hence, the tradition of St John Cassian in the West concerning the spiritual practice of the hermit can be considered to be a tradition parallel to that of Hesychasm in the Orthodox Church.
The highest goal of the Hesychast is the experiential knowledge of God. In the 14th Century, the possibility of this experiential knowledge of God was challenged by a [[Calabrian]] monk, Barlaam, who had |
hat mainstream experts were repeatedly forced to revise their limits regarding the maximum size of snakes when confronted with specimens that defied the generally-accepted estimates. At one point in time, 6 meters (20 feet) in length was the widely-accepted maximum size of an anaconda. These giant snakes are very capable of killing and consuming an adult human being.
When it sheds, an adult anaconda relieves itself of an average of 2 pounds of skin. An anaconda's skin can stretch up to 30% larger than the original size of the snake.
== In captivity ==
Anacondas have a reputation for bad temperament; that plus the massive size of the green species mean that anacondas are comparatively less popular as pets than other boas, but they are fairly commonly available in the exotic pet trade, with the exception of ''E. deschauenseei''.
== References ==
* Bernard Heuvelmans, ''On The Track Of Unknown Animals'', Hill and Wang, [[1958]]
==External links==
*[http://www.junglephotos.com/amazon/amanimals/amreptiles/anaconda.shtml Anaconda photos and information]
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eunectes_murinus.html ADW: Eunectes murinus (green anaconda)]
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<title>All Saints</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Christian holiday. For other meanings see [[All Saints (disambiguation)]] and [[All Hallows (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Wszystkich swietych cmentarz.jpg|thumb|right|300px|All Saints in Poland]]
The [[festival]] of '''All Saints''', also sometimes known as "All Hallows," or "Hallowmas," is a feast celebrated in their honour. '''All Saints''' is also a Christian formula invoking all the faithful [[saint]]s and [[martyr]]s, known or unknown.
The [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] holiday (''Festum omnium sanctorum'') falls on [[November 1]], followed by [[All Souls Day]] on [[November 2]], and is a [[Holy Day of Obligation]], with a [[vigil]] and an [[Octave (disambiguation)|octave]]. The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Church's '''All Saints''' is the first Sunday after [[Pentecost]] and as such marks the close of the [[Easter]] season.
Common commemorations by several churches of the deaths of martyrs began to be celebrated in the 4th century. The first trace of a general celebration is attested in [[Antioch]] on the Sunday after [[Pentecost]]. This custom is also referred to in the 74th homily of [[John Chrysostom]] ([[407]]) and is maintained to the present day in the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Church.
The date of festival was changed to November 1 by [[Pope Gregory III]] ([[731]]&ndash;[[741]]) to coincide with the ancient [[Celts |Celtic]] New Year's festival [[Samhain]]. He designated November 1 as the date of the anniversary of the consecration of a chapel in St. Peter's for the relics "of the holy apostles and of all saints, martyrs and confessors, of all the just made perfect who are at rest throughout the world". By the time of the reign of [[Charlemagne]], the November festival of All Saints was widely celebrated. November 1 was decreed a day of obligation by the [[Franks|Frankish]] king [[Louis the Pious]] in [[835]] issued "at the instance of [[Pope Gregory IV]] and with the assent of all the bishops."
In [[Portugal]], [[Spain]] and [[Mexico]], ''ofrendas'' (offerings) are made on this day. In Spain, the play [[Don Juan Tenorio]] is traditionally performed. In [[Portugal]] and [[France]], people offer flowers to dead relatives. In [[Poland]] and [[Germany]], the tradition is to light candles and visit the graves of deceased relatives. In the [[Philippines]], the day is spent visiting the graves of deceased relatives, where they offer prayers, lay flowers, and light candles, often in a picnic-like atmosphere. In English speaking countries, the festival is celebrated with the hymn "For All the Saints", set to music by [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]].
The festival was retained after the [[Reformation]] in the calendar of the [[Church of England]] and in many [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] churches. In the Lutheran churches, such as the [[Church of Sweden]], it assumes a role of general commemoration of the dead (similar to the ''All Souls'' commemoration in the Eastern Orthodox Church that takes place two Saturdays before the beginning of [[Lent]]). In the [[Holidays in Sweden|Swedish calendar]], the observance takes place on the first Saturday of November. In many Lutheran Churches however, the festival has fallen into disuse.
==See also==
*[[Veneration of the dead]]
*[[Halloween]]
*[[Dziady]]
*[[Day of the Dead]]
==Compare==
*[[Saturnalia]] and [[Yule]]
==Reference==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01315a.htm All Saints' Day] article in the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]
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[[Category:Sainthood|*All Saints]]
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==External links==
* [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Saints/faqs.asp American Catholic - Saints FAQs, All Saints and All Souls Day]
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<page>
<title>Afghanistan/Geography</title>
<id>814</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Afghanistan]]
:''See also :'' [[Afghanistan]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Afghanistan/Government</title>
<id>815</id>
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<id>15899329</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-01T05:30:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix redirect to wikiproject standards</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Afghanistan]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Afghanistan/People</title>
<id>816</id>
<revision>
<id>15899330</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T15:34:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Afghanistan]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Afghanistan/Economy</title>
<id>817</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Afghanistan]]
:''See also :'' [[Afghanistan]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Afghanistan/Communications</title>
<id>818</id>
<revision>
<id>15899332</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-13T13:38:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
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<minor />
<comment>removing 'see also' from redirect page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Afghanistan]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Afghanistan/Transportation</title>
<id>819</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Afghanistan]]
:''See also :'' [[Afghanistan]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Afghanistan/Military</title>
<id>820</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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< |
> V_0 </math> of the
initial state. Then
: <math> {\ln (P/P_0) \over \ln (V/V_0)} = -{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha}, </math>
: <math>
\ln \left( {P \over P_0} \right)
=\ln \left( {V \over V_0} \right)^{-{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha}}. </math>
Exponentiate both sides,
: <math> \left( {P \over P_0} \right)
=
\left( {V \over V_0} \right)^{-{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha}}, </math>
eliminate the negative sign,
: <math> \left( {P \over P_0} \right)
=
\left( {V_0 \over V} \right)^{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha}. </math>
Therefore
: <math> \left( {P \over P_0} \right) \left( {V \over V_0} \right)^{\alpha+1 \over \alpha} = 1
</math>
and
: <math> P V^{\alpha+1 \over \alpha} = P_0 V_0^{\alpha+1 \over \alpha} = P V^\gamma = \operatorname{constant}. </math>
==Graphing adiabats==
Properties of adiabats on a P-V diagram are:
#Every adiabat asymptotically approaches both the V axis and the P axis (just like isotherms).
#Each adiabat intersects each isotherm exactly once.
#An adiabat looks similar to an isotherm, except that during an expansion, an adiabat loses more pressure than an isotherm, so it has a steeper inclination (more vertical).
#If isotherms are concave towards the "north-east" direction (45 &deg;), then adiabats are concave towards the "east north-east" (31 &deg;).
#If adiabats and isotherms are graphed severally at regular changes of entropy and temperature, respectively (like altitude on a contour map), then as the eye moves outwards away from the axes (towards the north-east), it sees the density of isotherms stay constant, but it sees the density of adiabats drop. The exception is very near absolute zero, where the density of adiabats drops sharply and they become rare (see [[Nernst's theorem]]).
The following diagram is a P-V diagram with a superposition of adiabats and isotherms:
[[Image:Entropyandtemp.PNG]]
The isotherms are the red curves and the adiabats are the black curves. The adiabats are isentropic. Volume is the [[abscissa]] (x-axis) and pressure is the [[ordinate]] (y-axis).
== See also ==
* [[Cyclic process]]
* [[First law of thermodynamics]]
* [[Isobaric process]]
* [[Isochoric process]]
* [[Isothermal process]]
* [[Thermodynamic entropy]]
* [[Quasistatic equilibrium]]
[[Category:Thermodynamics]]
[[cs:Adiabatický děj]]
[[da:Adiabatisk]]
[[de:Adiabatische Zustandsänderung]]
[[es:Proceso adiabático]]
[[nl:Adiabatisch]]
[[ja:断熱過程]]
[[pl:Przemiana adiabatyczna]]
[[sk:Adiabatický dej]]
[[sl:Adiabatna sprememba]]
[[fi:Adiabaattinen prosessi]]
[[sv:Adiabatisk process]]
[[uk:Адіабатичний процес]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Antoni van Leeuwenhoek</title>
<id>1420</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-26T18:50:24Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Amide</title>
<id>1422</id>
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<timestamp>2006-01-31T23:47:22Z</timestamp>
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<comment>moved text around, added some content, removed one or two lines that were unclear.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amide.png|right|Amide functional group]]In [[chemistry]], an '''''amide''''' is either the [[organic chemistry|organic]] [[functional group]] characterized by a [[carbonyl]] group linked to a [[nitrogen]] atom or a compound that contains this functional group, or a particular [[inorganic]] [[anion]]. In organic chemistry, an amide is essentially an [[amine]] where one of the nitrogen [[substituent|substituents]] is a carbonyl group, represented generally by the formula: R<sub>1</sub>([[carbon|C]][[oxygen|O]])[[nitrogen|N]]R<sub>2</sub>R<sub>3</sub> where either or both of R<sub>2</sub> and R<sub>3</sub> may be [[hydrogen]]. Specifically, an amide can also be regarded as a derivative of a [[carboxylic acid]] in which the hydroxyl group has been replaced by an [[amine]] or [[ammonia]].
Compounds in which a [[hydrogen]] atom on nitrogen from [[ammonia]] or an [[amine]] is replaced by a [[metal]] [[cation]] are also known as amides or '''azanides'''.
The inorganic amide anion is an extremely strong base, due to the extreme weakness of ammonia as a [[Brønsted acid]].
==Amide synthesis==
[[Image:Amide react.png|right|Amide bond formation]]
*Amides are commonly formed from the reaction of a [[carboxylic acid]]s with an [[amine]].This is the reaction that forms [[peptide bond]]s between [[amino acid]]s. These amides can participate in [[hydrogen bond|hydrogen bonding]] as hydrogen bond acceptors and donors, but do not [[ion|ionize]] in aqueous solution, whereas their parent acids and amines are almost completely ionized in solution at neutral pH. Amide formation plays a role in the synthesis of some [[condensation polymer]]s, such as [[nylon]] and [[Kevlar]].
* Cyclic amides are synthesized in the [[Beckmann rearrangement]] from oximes.
* Other amide forming reactions are the [[Passerini reaction]] and the [[Ugi reaction]]
== Amide reactions ==
* Amide breakdown is possible via [[amide hydrolysis]].
* In the [[Vilsmeier-Haack reaction]] an amide is converted into an imine.
== Amide Properties ==
An amide linkage is kinetically stable to [[hydrolysis]]. However, it can be hydrolysed in boiling alkali, as well as in strong acidic conditions. Unlike the hydrolysis of esters, the kinetics of amide hydrolysis is third order: first order with respect to the amide and second order with respect to hydroxide. Amide linkages in a [[biochemistry| biochemical]] context are called [[peptide link|peptide linkages]]. Amide linkages constitute a defining molecular feature of [[protein|proteins]], the [[secondary structure]] of which is due in part to the hydrogen bonding abilities of amides.
==Derivatives==
[[Sulfonamide]]s are analogs of amides in which the atom double bonded to oxygen is [[sulfur]] rather than carbon.
==Naming Convertions ==
*Example: CH<sub>3</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> is named [[acetamide]] or [[ethanamide]]
*Other examples: propan-1-amide, N,N-dimethylpropanamide, [[acrylamide]]
*For more detail see [[IUPAC_nomenclature#Amines_and_Amides]]
==External links ==
*[http://www.chemsoc.org/chembytes/goldbook/ IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology]
[[Category:Amides]]
[[Category:Functional groups]]
[[ar:اميد]]
[[da:Amid (funktionel gruppe)]]
[[de:Amide]]
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[[eo:Amido]]
[[fr:Amide]]
[[he:אמיד]]
[[nl:Amide]]
[[ja:アミド]]
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[[ru:Амиды]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Animism</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:39:23Z</timestamp>
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<username>CJLippert</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[religion]], the term '''"Animism"''' is used in a number of ways.
*Animism (from ''animus'', or ''anima'', [[mind]] or soul), originally means the doctrine of [[spiritual beings]].
*It is often extended to include the belief that personalized, [[supernatural]] beings (or souls) endowed with [[reason]], [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and [[volition]] inhabit ordinary objects as well as animate beings, and govern their existence ([[pantheism]] or [[animatism]]). More simply, the belief is that "[[everything]] is [[alive]]", "everything is [[conscious]]" or "everything has a soul".
*It has been further extended to mean a belief that the world is a community of living [[persons]], only some of whom are human. It also refers to the culture or philosophy which these types of Animists live by, that is, to attempt to relate respectfully with the persons (human, rock, plant, animal, bird, ancestral, etc.) who are also members of the wider community of life.
'''"Animism"''' can refer to the [[religion]] or [[beliefs]] or [[philosophy]] of the above interpretations. It can also refer to the [[culture]] and [[practice]]s related to Animism.
"Animism" was the term used by [[anthropology | anthropologist]], Sir [[E. B. Tylor]], as a proposed theory of [[religion]], in his [[1871]] book, ''[[Primitive Culture]]''. He used it to mean a 'belief in spirits' (i.e. mystical, supernatural, non-empirical or imagined entities). Tylor's use of the term has since been widely criticized (see details below). Today the term is used with more respect.
Today Animists live in significant numbers in countries such as [[Zambia]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Gabon]], the [[Republic of Guinea Bissau]], [[Indonesia]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]], [[Papua New Guinea]], the [[Philippines]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], [[Thailand]], and the [[United States of America]].
Modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]], especially Eco-Pagans, sometimes describe themselves as animists, meaning that they respect the diverse community of living beings with whom humans share the world/cosmos. Some, however, use the term to refer to the idea that the [[Mother goddess]] and [[Horned god]] consist of everything that exists. This [[Pantheism]] in which [[God]] is equated with [[existence]] is different from animism because it imputes value to individual living beings and/or objects because they might reveal a larger reality or divinity behind everything. Animists respect beings for their own sake - whether because they have or are souls (as in the original definition of the word) or because they are persons (the new definition).
==Overview==
I |
* {{note|4}} Brouwers JR. ''Drug interactions with quinolone antibacterials.'' Drug Saf 1992;7:268-81. PMID 1524699.
==External links==
* [http://www.drugs.com/cons/Cipro_I_V_.html Data sheet for Cipro]
* [http://www.fqresearch.org/ Fluoroquinolone Toxicity Research Foundation] querying the overall safety of fluoroquinolones
* [http://www.emedmag.com/html/pre/fea/features/011501.asp Emergency Medicine Magzine] a review of ciprofloxacin in relation to other fluoroquinolones
[[Category:Fluoroquinolone antibiotics]]
[[de:Ciprofloxacin]]
[[it:Ciprofloxacina]]
[[hu:Ciprofloxacin]]
[[no:Ciprofloxacin]]
[[th:ไซโปรฟลอกซาซิน]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Consubstantiation</title>
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<minor />
<comment>rm "however".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Communion}}
'''Consubstantiation''' is a philosophical theory that, like the competing theory of [[transubstantiation]], attempts to describe the nature of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Eucharist]] in concrete [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] terms. It holds that during the [[sacrament]] the fundamental "''[[Substance theory|substance]]''" of the body and blood of Christ are present ''alongside'' the substance of the bread and wine, which remain present. Transubstantiation differs from consubstantiation in that it postulates that through [[consecration]], according to some, that one set of substances (bread and wine) is ''exchanged'' for another (the Body and Blood of Christ) or, according to others, that the reality of the bread and wine ''become'' the reality of the body and blood of Christ. The ''substance'' of the bread and wine do not remain, but their ''[[Accident (philosophy)|accidents]]'' (superficial properties like appearance and taste) remain.
Consubstantiation is commonly&mdash;though erroneously&mdash;associated with the teachings of [[Martin Luther]] and [[Philipp Melanchthon]]. Lutheran teachings reject any attempt to explain philosophically the means by which Christ is present in the Eucharist. Luther did teach that the body and blood of Christ are present "in, with, and under the forms" of bread and wine, and present-day Lutherans hold to this statement while disagreeing about its exact meaning. Some Lutherans do use the term "consubstantiation" to refer to this belief, but the theology intended is not the same as the philosophical theory described above. Luther illustrated his belief about the Eucharist "by the analogy of the iron put into the fire whereby both fire and iron are united in the red-hot iron and yet each continues unchanged," a concept which he called "sacramental union." (''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', F.L. Cross, Ed., London: Oxford, 1958, p. 337). Consubstantiation is affirmed by a minority of [[Anglican]]s and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christians]].
==History and culture==
In [[England]] in the late [[14th century]], there was a political and religious movement known as [[Lollardy]]. Among much broader goals, the Lollards affirmed a form of consubstantiation -- that the Eucharist remained physically bread and wine, while becoming spiritually the body and blood of Christ. Lollardy was effectively ended with the execution of [[John Badby]] for heresy by [[burning at the stake]].
In literature the conflict between Consubstantiation and Transubstantiation was satirically described in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s "[[Gulliver's Travels]]" as war between [[Lilliput and Blefuscu]].
==See also==
*[[Eucharistic theologies contrasted]]
*[[Real Presence]]
[[Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services]]
[[Category:Lutheranism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[es:Consubstanciación]]
[[de:Konsubstantiation]]
[[fr:Consubstantiation]]
[[it:Consustanziazione]]
[[nl:Consubstantiatie]]
[[pl:Konsubstancjacja]]
[[sv:Konsubstantiation]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Chlorophyta</title>
<id>6775</id>
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<comment>rehrase: obviously modern algae can't be ancestors of land plants</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Chlorophyta
| image = Haeckel Siphoneae.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = "Siphoneae" from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''Artforms of Nature'', 1904
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = '''Chlorophyta'''
| subdivision_ranks = Classes
| subdivision =
[[Chlorophyceae]] <BR>
[[Ulvophyceae]] <br>
[[Trebouxiophyceae]] <br>
[[Prasinophyceae]] <BR>
}}
The '''Chlorophyta''' ''sensu stricto'' or chlorophyte [[algae]], comprises most of what are commonly called [[green algae]] and includes most members of the grade of putatively ancestral scaly flagellates in [[Prasinophyceae]] plus members of [[Ulvophyceae]], [[Trebouxiophyceae]], and [[Chlorophyceae]].
They contain both Unicellular and multicellular species. Generally, they are restricted to water or very damp habitats. They possess [[chlorophyll]]s & [[accessory pigment]]s similar to those of vascular plants. They store energy as starch. These organisms contain chlorophyll a and b and are thought to be closely related to land plants.
== References ==
Lewis, L.A, McCourt, R.M. (2004) Green algae and the origin of land plants. ''AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 91'' (10): 1535-1556 OCT
{{commons|Category:Chlorophyta}}
[[Category:Green algae]]
[[de:Grünalgen]]
[[es:Chlorophyta]]
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[[nl:Chlorophyta]]
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[[he:&#1497;&#1512;&#1493;&#1511;&#1497;&#1493;&#1514;]]
[[uk:&#1042;&#1086;&#1076;&#1086;&#1088;&#1086;&#1089;&#1090;&#1110; (&#1087;&#1110;&#1076;&#1094;&#1072;&#1088;&#1089;&#1090;&#1074;&#1086;)]]
[[zh:&#32511;&#34299;&#38376;]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Capybara</title>
<id>6776</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-23T13:12:34Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Capybara
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| fossil_range = [[Pleistocene]] - Recent
| image = capybara.png
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Rodentia]]
| subordo = [[Hystricomorpha]]
| infraordo = [[Caviomorpha]]
| familia = [[Caviidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Hydrochoerinae]]
| genus = '''''Hydrochoerus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson|Brisson]], [[1762]]
| species = '''''H. hydrochaeris'''''
| binomial = ''Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris''
| binomial_authority = ([[Linnaeus (taxonomy)|Linnaeus]], [[1766]])
| range_map = Capybara-range.png
| range_map_width = 200px
| range_map_caption = Capybara range
}}
The '''capybara''' (''Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris'') is a semi-aquatic [[herbivore|herbivorous]] animal, the largest of living [[rodent]]s. It is native to most of the [[tropical]] and [[temperate]] parts of [[South America]] east of the [[Andes]], and has been introduced to north-central [[Florida]] and possibly other [[subtropical]] regions in the [[United States]]. It is the only living member of the [[family (biology)|family]] ''Hydrochoeridae''.
The animal is also called '''''carpincho''''' or '''''chigüire''''' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], '''''capivara''''' in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and '''''kapibara''''' in [[Polish language|Polish]].
The name originally derives from the [[Guarani]] word '''''kapiÿva''''', meaning roughly "master of the grasses".
==Description and habits==
Full-grown capybaras reach between 105 and 135 [[metre|cm]] (40-55 [[inch|in]]) in length, and [[weight|weigh]] 35 to 65 [[kilogram|kg]] (75-140 [[pound (mass)|lbs]]). Capybaras are excellent swimmers, and have partially webbed feet. They [[mating|mate]] in the water, use the water to hide from predators, and can stay submerged for several minutes. It is even possible for capybaras to sleep underwater, which they accomplish by leaving their noses exposed to the air.
Capybaras are [[herd]] animals. The males of the species have a gland on their noses which exudes a liquid [[pheromone]]. In the mating season, they will rub this gland on the surrounding [[foliage]] to attract females. They spend most of their time on the banks of rivers, feeding in the mornings and evenings. The diet consists of vegetation such as river plants and [[bark]].
==Economic and ecological aspects==
===Hunting===
In the regions along the [[Paraná river]] in Southern [[Brazil]], Northern [[Argentina]], and [[Uruguay]], capybaras are occasionally hunted for food and for their leather. The flesh is described as tasting like [[pork]] and has a similar whitish appearance. <!---These efforts are similar to encouragement of [[iguana]] ranching in the rainforests of [[Central America]] and [[Brazil]] to offset the impact of [[cattle ranching]].
What efforts? Capturing, keeping as pets, hunting, & eating? --->
[[Venezuela]]n farmers who once considered the animal a pest now make a valuable addition to their incomes by selling capybara meat (approximately 400 [[metric ton]]s annually). The rodents are rounded up in February so that they can be slaughtered and sold just before the onset of [[Lent]], when the meat is in high demand.
The popularity of capybara meat in Venezuela is attributed to a 16th century<!--PRESUMED DATE, NEEDS CONFIRMATION--> [[theology|t |
, Anglo-centred way of teaching English and has gradually appropriated teaching material to a Cameroonian context. Non Western-topics treated are, for instance, the rule of Emirs, traditional medicine or polygamy (1997:225). Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been appropriated to suit local [[Vietnamese culture]]. The [[Pakistani]] textbook "Primary Stage English" includes lessons such as "Pakistan My Country", "Our Flag", or "Our Great Leader" (Malik 1993: 5,6,7) which might well sound jingoistic to Western ears. Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between ELT, patriotism and Muslim faith is seen as one of the aims of ELT, as the chairman of the Punjab Textbook Board openly states: "The board...takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your [the students] home lands" (Punjab Text Book Board 1997).
=== Many Englishes ===
There are many difficult choices that have to be made if there is to be further standardisation of English in the future. These include the choice over whether to adopt a current standard, or move towards a more neutral, but artificial one. A true International English might supplant both current American and British English as a variety of English for international communication, leaving these as local dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and standard British English with admixture of other varieties of English and would generally replace all these varieties of English.
<blockquote>We may, in due course, all need to be in control of two standard Englishes&mdash;the one which gives us our national and local identity, and the other which puts us in touch with the rest of the human race. In effect, we may all need to become bilingual in our own language. &mdash;&nbsp;David Crystal (1988: p.&nbsp;265)</blockquote>
This is the situation long faced by many users of English who possess a 'non-standard' dialect of English as their birth tongue but have also learned to write (and perhaps also speak) a more standard dialect. Many academics often publish material in journals requiring different varieties of English and change style and spellings as necessary without great difficulty.
=== Dual standard ===
Two approaches to International English are the individualistic and inclusive approach and the new dialect approach.
The individualistic approach gives control to individual authors to write and spell as they wish (within purported standard conventions) and to accept the validity of differences. The ''Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English'', published in 1999, is a descriptive study of both American and British English in which each chapter follows individual spelling conventions according to the preference of the main editor of that chapter.
The new dialect approach appears in ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage'' (Peters, 2004) which attempts to avoid any language bias and accordingly uses an idiosyncratic international spelling system of mixed American and British forms (but tending more to American spelling).
== Non-U.S. English ==
Sometimes ''International English'' is used to refer to a general standard that is based on [[Commonwealth English|Commonwealth]] and [[British English]], rather than [[American English|U.S. English]]. Whereas the majority of English native speakers use American English, most nations other than the United States use British/Commonwealth English as a standard, which explains the use of the word "international". However, U.S. English is having a greater influence in the rapidly expanding area of English as a foreign language, due to the economic and cultural influence of the United States.<br>
The international flavour of British/Commonwealth English is dependent on three factors:
# British and Commonwealth English are standard in far more countries around the world than U.S. English.
# Many academic publications outside the United States use the conventions of the [[Oxford University Press]].
# This standard of English has official status in the [[United Nations]] and the [[European Union]], and it is used as the basis of English-language testing by the ''International English Language Testing System'' ([[IELTS]]).
''International English'' is also sometimes used in this manner in the computer industry. The [[Linux]] community, and other [[Open Software]] groups use the term [[Commonwealth English]] instead, usually in giving users a choice of spellings or wordings for messages. But the English language choices given are in fact normally only between American English and British English with ''-ise'' spellings, the latter being called ''International English'' or ''Commonwealth English''.
However, [[Microsoft]]'s ''[[Encarta]]'' has different versions for American English, Australian English, British English, and Canadian English which does not exhaust what could be provided.
== International organisations ==
There are ''three major English varieties'' used as standards by international organisations:
=== British English with -ize spellings ===
Spellings: centre, programme, labour, defence, cooperation, organize, recognize, but: analyse
<br>[[IANA]] language tag [[en-GB-oed]], this standard is based on the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]
Examples of organisations that predominantly adhere to this standard are:
* United Nations system ([[UN]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNICEF]]...),
* World Trade Organization ([[WTO]]),
* International Organization for Standardization ([[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]),
* International Electrotechnical Commission ([[IEC]]),
* International Telecommunication Union ([[ITU]]),
* World Health Organization ([[WHO]]),
*[[ International Labour Organization]] (ILO),
* International Atomic Energy Agency ([[IAEA]]),
* Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ([[OPEC]]),
* South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ([[SAARC]]),
* International Criminal Police Organization - [[Interpol]],
* International Committee of the Red Cross ([[ICRC]]),
* [[WWF]] - The Conservation Organization,
* and [[Amnesty International]].
=== British English with -ise spellings ===
Spellings: centre, programme, labour, defence, co-operation, organise, recognise, analyse<br>
Language tag [[en-GB]], the official standard of the UK government.
Examples of organisations that predominantly adhere to this standard are:
* North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ([[NATO]]),
* European Union ([[EU]]),
* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ([[OECD]]),
* [[Commonwealth Secretariat]] ([[Commonwealth of Nations]]),
* Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States ([[OECS]]),
* International Olympic Committee ([[IOC]]),
* Fédération Internationale de Football Association ([[FIFA]]),
* [[Transparency International]]
* and [[Greenpeace]]
=== American English ===
Spellings: center, program, labor, defense, cooperation, organize, recognize, analyze<br>
Language tag [[en-US]], used by the U.S. government.
Examples of organisations that predominantly adhere to this standard are:
* International Monetary Fund ([[IMF]]),
* [[World Bank]],
* Organization of American States ([[OAS]]),
* [[NAFTA]] Secretariat,
* and World Intellectual Property Organization ([[WIPO]])
* [[IUPAC]]
==See also==
* [[Globish]], the "dialect" version of International English
==References, further reading, and external links==
===Distinguished from or including both U.S. and British English===
* [http://kfa.univ.szczecin.pl/histvar/around.html Arsoba, Leszek. "Varieties of English: English Around the World"]
* Biber, Douglas; Johansson, Stig; Leech, Geoffrey; Conrad, Susan; Finnegan, Edward (1999). ''Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English.'' Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education. ISBN 0582237254.
* Bobda, Augustin Simo (1997) "Sociocultural Constraints in EFL Teaching in Cameroon." In: Pütz, Martin (ed.) The cultural Context in Foreign Language Teaching. Frankfurt a.M.: Lang. 221-240.
* Crystal, David (1988). ''The English Language''. London: Penguin. ISBN 0140135324.
* &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash; (1997). ''English as a Global Language.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052159247X.
* [http://www.ling.ed.ac.uk/~pgc/archive/2000/subs/elizabeth.ps Erling, Elizabeth J. (2000). "International/Global/World English: Is a Consensus Possible?", Postgraduate Conference Proceedings, The University of Edinburgh, Department of Applied Linguistics.] (Postscript.)
* [http://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html García Landa, José Ángel (2004). "World English" Bibliography. From ''A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology'' (10th ed.) University of Zaragoza (Spain).]
* [http://www.ielts.org IELTS&mdash;International English Language Testing System.]
* [http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/pron/global_english.shtml Jenkins, Jennifer. "Global English and the teaching of pronunciation".] (A discussion of the relative importance of different pronunciation feature for international comprehension of spoken English.)
* [http://www.wordflair.com/Articles/ibearticle.html Johnson, Christine and Bartlett, Cath (1999). "International Business English - What should we be teaching?" ''BESIG Business Issues'' 3.]
* [http://online-communication.net/southernenglish.html Johnson, Angel M. "Southerners, Rednecks, Hicks, and Bumpkins: Sustainers of the Forgotten United States Dialects".]
* Kachru, Braj (1986). ''The Alchemy of English: The Spread, Functions, and Models of Non-native Englishes.'' Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252061721.
* Klaire Kramsch and Particia Sullivan (1996) "Appropriat |
mplexes have survived for thousands of years. Stable humus tends to originate from [[wood]]ier plant materials, eg, cellulose and lignins.
==See also==
*[[Leaf litter]]
[[Category:Soil science]]
[[bg:Хумус]]
[[cs:Humus]]
[[da:Humus]]
[[de:Humus]]
[[es:Humus]]
[[fr:Humus]]
[[it:Humus]]
[[he:הומוס]]
[[nl:Humus]]
[[pl:Próchnica]]
[[pt:Húmus]]
[[sv:Humus]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Hilbert space</title>
<id>13608</id>
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<id>41977272</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:21:03Z</timestamp>
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<ip>84.59.122.246</ip>
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<comment>/* Introduction */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''Hilbert space''' is a generalization of [[Euclidean space]] which is not restricted to finite dimensions. Thus it is an [[inner product space]], which means that it has notions of [[distance]] and of [[angle]] (especially the notion of [[orthogonality]] or perpendicularity). Moreover, it satisfies a more technical [[complete space|completeness]] requirement which ensures that [[limit]]s exist when expected, which facilitates various definitions from [[calculus]]. Hilbert spaces provide a context with which to formalize and generalize the concepts of the [[Fourier series]] in terms of arbitrary [[orthogonal polynomials]] and of the [[Fourier transform]], which are central concepts from [[functional analysis]]. Hilbert spaces are of crucial importance in the mathematical formulation of [[quantum mechanics]].
== Introduction ==
Hilbert spaces were named after [[David Hilbert]], who studied them in the context of integral equations. The origin of the designation "der abstrakte Hilbertsche Raum" is [[John von Neumann]] in his famous work on unbounded [[Self-adjoint operator|Hermitian operators]] published in [[1929]]. Von Neumann was perhaps the mathematician who most clearly recognized their importance as a result of his seminal work on the foundations of quantum mechanics begun with Hilbert and [[Lothar Nordheim|Lothar (Wolfgang) Nordheim]] and continued with [[Eugene Wigner]]. The name "Hilbert space" was soon adopted by others, for example by [[Hermann Weyl]] in his book ''The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics'' published in [[1931]] (English language paperback ISBN 0486602699).
The elements of an abstract Hilbert space are sometimes called "vectors". In applications, they are typically [[sequence]]s of [[complex number]]s or [[function (mathematics)|function]]s. In quantum mechanics for example, a physical system is described by a complex Hilbert space which contains the "[[wavefunction]]s" that stand for the possible states of the system. See [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics]] for details. The Hilbert space of [[plane wave]]s and [[bound state]]s commonly used in quantum mechanics is known more formally as the [[rigged Hilbert space]].
== Definition ==
Every [[inner product space|inner product]] <.,.> on a [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] [[vector space]] ''H'' gives rise to a [[normed vector space|norm]] ||.|| as follows:
:<math>\|x\| = \sqrt{\langle x,x \rangle}</math>
We call ''H'' a '''Hilbert space''' if it is [[complete space|complete]] with respect to this norm. Completeness in this context means that every [[Cauchy sequence]] of elements of the space [[limit (mathematics)|converges]] to an element in the space, in the sense that the norm of differences approaches zero. Every Hilbert space is thus also a [[Banach space]] (but not vice versa).
All finite-dimensional inner product spaces (such as [[Euclidean space]] with the ordinary [[dot product]]) are Hilbert spaces. However, the infinite-dimensional examples are much more important in applications. These applications include:
* The theory of [[unitary representation|unitary group representations]]
* The theory of square integrable [[stochastic process]]es
* The Hilbert space theory of [[partial differential equation]]s, in particular formulations of the [[Dirichlet problem]]
* Spectral analysis of functions, including theories of [[wavelet]]s
* Mathematical formulations of [[quantum mechanics]]
The inner product allows one to adopt a "geometrical" view and use geometrical language familiar from finite dimensional spaces. Of all the infinite-dimensional [[topological vector space]]s, the Hilbert spaces are the most "[[well-behaved]]" and the closest to the finite-dimensional spaces.
One goal of [[Fourier analysis]] is to write a given function as a (possibly infinite) sum of multiples of given base functions. This problem can be studied abstractly in Hilbert spaces: every Hilbert space has an [[orthonormal basis]], and every element of the Hilbert space can be written in a unique way as a sum of multiples of these base elements.
== Examples ==
In these examples, we will assume the underlying field of
scalars is '''C''', although the definitions apply to the case in which the
underlying field of scalars is '''R'''.
===Euclidean spaces ===
'''C'''<sup>''n''</sup> with the inner product definition
:<math>\langle x, y \rangle = \sum_{k=1}^n \overline{x_k} y_k</math>
where the bar over a [[complex number]] denotes its [[complex conjugate]].
===Sequence spaces===
Much more typical are the infinite dimensional Hilbert spaces however.
If ''B'' is any [[set]], we define the [[sequence space]] ''little l<sup>2</sup>'' over ''B'', denoted by
:<math> \ell^2(B) =\left\{ x:B \rightarrow \mathbb{C}\,\bigg|\,\sum_{b \in B} \left|x \left(b\right)\right|^2 < \infty \right\}</math>
This space becomes a Hilbert space with the inner product
:<math>\langle x, y \rangle = \sum_{b \in B} \overline{x(b)} y(b)</math>
for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''l''<sup>2</sup>(''B'').
''B'' does not have to be a countable set in this definition, although if ''B'' is not countable, the resulting Hilbert space is ''not'' [[separable space|separable]]. In a sense made more precise below, every Hilbert space is [[isomorphic]] to one the form ''l''<sup>2</sup>(''B'') for a suitable set ''B''. If ''B''='''N''', we write simply ''l''<sup>2</sup>.
===Lebesgue spaces===
These are [[function space]]s associated to [[measure space]]s (''X'', ''M'', &mu;), where ''M'' is a &sigma;-algebra of subsets of ''X'' and &mu; is a countably additive measure on ''M''. Let ''L''<sup>2</sup><sub>&mu;</sub>(''X'') be the space of complex-valued square-integrable measurable functions on ''X'', modulo equality almost everywhere. Square integrable means the integral of the square of its [[absolute value]] is finite. ''Modulo equality almost everywhere'' means functions are identified if and only if they are equal ''outside of a set of measure 0''.
The inner product of functions ''f'' and ''g'' is here given by
:<math>\langle f,g\rangle=\int_X \overline{f(t)} g(t) \ d \mu(t)</math>
One needs to show:
* That this integral indeed makes sense;
* The resulting space is complete.
These are technically easy facts, and the interested reader should consult the Halmos reference below, Section 42. Note that the use of the Lebesgue integral ensures that the space will be complete. See [[Lp space|L<sup>''p''</sup> space]] for further discussion of this example.
===Sobolev spaces===
[[Sobolev space]]s, denoted by <math>H^s</math> or <math>W^{s,2}</math>, are another example of Hilbert spaces, and are used very often in the field of [[Partial differential equation]]s.
== Operations on Hilbert spaces ==
Given two (or more) Hilbert spaces, we can combine them into a big Hilbert space by taking their [[direct sum#Direct sum of Hilbert spaces|direct sum]] or their [[tensor product#Tensor product of Hilbert spaces|tensor product]].
== Bases ==
An important concept is that of an '''[[orthonormal basis]]''' of a Hilbert space ''H'': this is a family {''e''<sub>''k''</sub>}<sub>''k'' &isin; ''B''</sub> of ''H'' satisfying:
# Elements are normalized: Every element of the family has norm 1: ||''e''<sub>''k''</sub>|| = 1 for all ''k'' in ''B''
# Elements are orthogonal: Every two different elements of ''B'' are orthogonal: <''e''<sub>''k''</sub>, ''e''<sub>''j''</sub>> = 0 for all ''k'', ''j'' in ''B'' with ''k'' &ne; ''j''.
# Dense span: The [[linear span]] of ''B'' is [[dense set|dense]] in ''H''.
We also use the expressions ''orthonormal sequence'' and ''orthonormal set''.
Examples of orthonormal bases include:
* the set {(1,0,0),(0,1,0),(0,0,1)} forms an orthonormal basis of '''R'''<sup>3</sup>
* the sequence {''f''<sub>''n''</sub> : ''n'' &isin; '''Z'''} with ''f''<sub>''n''</sub>(''x'') = [[exponential function|exp]](2&pi;''inx'') forms an orthonormal basis of the complex space L<sup>2</sup>([0,1])
* the family {''e''<sub>''b''</sub> : ''b'' &isin; ''B''} with ''e''<sub>''b''</sub>(''c'') = 1 if ''b''=''c'' and 0 otherwise forms an orthonormal basis of ''l''<sup>2</sup>(''B'').
Note that in the infinite-dimensional case, an orthonormal basis will not be a basis in the sense of [[linear algebra]]; to distinguish the two, the latter basis is also called a [[Hamel basis]].
Using [[Zorn's lemma]], one can show that ''every'' Hilbert space admits an orthonormal basis; furthermore, any two orthonormal bases of the same space have the same [[cardinal number|cardinality]]. A Hilbert space is [[separable space|separable]] if and only if it admits a [[countable]] orthonormal basis.
Since all infinite-dimensional separable Hilbert spaces are isomorphic, and since almost all Hilbert spaces used in [[physics]] are separable, when physicists talk a |
mp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Declaration of Human Rights.jpg|thumb|Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen: Revolutionary patriotism borrows familiar iconography of the [[Ten Commandments]]]]
{{wikisource}}
'''The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen''' ([[French language|French]]: ''La Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen'') is one of the fundamental documents of the [[French Revolution]], defining a set of individual rights and collective rights of the people. Influenced by the [[natural right]]s, these rights are [[universality (philosophy)|universal]] - they are supposed to be valid in all times and places, pertaining to the [[human nature]] itself. The Declaration was adopted [[August 26]], [[1789]], by the [[National Constituent Assembly]] (''Assemblée nationale constituante''), as the first step toward writing a [[constitution]]. It sets forth fundamental rights not only of French citizens but acknowledges these rights to ''all men without exception'', making it a precursor to [[international human rights instruments]]:
: "First Article &ndash; Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions can be founded only on the common utility."
The principles set forth in the declaration are of constitutional value in present-day French law and may be used to oppose legislation or other government activities.
==Adoption of the declaration==
The declaration was drafted by the [[Marquis de Lafayette]] and was adopted by the National Assembly, it was intended as part of a transition from an [[absolute monarchy|absolute]] to a [[constitutional monarchy]]. Many of the principles laid down in the declaration directly oppose the institutions and usages of the ''[[ancien régime]]'' of pre-revolutionary France. In the event, [[France]] soon became a [[Republic]], but this document remained fundamental.
The principles set forth in the declaration come from the philosophical and political principles of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], such as [[individualism]], the [[social contract]] as theorised by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], and the [[separation of powers]] espoused by the [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|baron de Montesquieu]]. As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration is a copy of the declaration of Human Rights contained in the [[U.S. Declaration of Independence]] ([[4 July]] [[1776]])
and the [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]] developed by [[George Mason]] in June 1776, which was itself based on the [[Bill of Rights 1689|English 1689 Bill of Rights]].
==Substance of the declaration==
This statement of principles contained the kernel of a much more radical re-ordering of society than had yet taken place. A mere six weeks after the [[storming of the Bastille]] and barely three weeks after the [[French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy#The abolition of feudalism|abolition of feudalism]], the Declaration put forward a doctrine of [[popular sovereignty]] and [[equal opportunity]]:
: "Article III &ndash; The principle of any [[sovereignty]] resides essentially in the Nation. No body, no individual can exert authority which does not emanate expressly from it."
This contrasts with the pre-revolutionary situation in France, where the political doctrine of the monarchy found the source of law in the [[divine right of kings]].
: (From Article VI) &ndash; "All the citizens, being equal in [the eyes of the law], are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents."
Again, this strikingly contrasts with the pre-revolutionary division of French society in three [[Estates-General of 1789|estate]]s (the [[Roman Catholic church]], the [[nobility]], and the rest of the population, known as the [[Third Estate]]), where the first two estates had special rights. Specifically, it contradicts the idea of people being ''born'' into a nobility or other special class of the population, and enjoying (or being deprived of) special rights for this reason.
All citizens are to be guaranteed the rights of "liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression". The Declaration argues that the need for law derives from the fact that "...the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the enjoyment of these same rights". Thus, the declaration sees law as an "expression of the [[general will]]", intended to promote this equality of rights and to forbid "only actions harmful to the society".
The Declaration also put forward several provisions similar to those in the [[United States Constitution]] (1787) and the [[United States Bill of Rights]] (1789, adopted at approximately the same time as the Declaration). Like the U.S. Constitution, it discusses the need to provide for the common defense and states some broad principles of taxation, especially equality before taxation (a striking difference from the pre-revolutionary era, when the Church and the nobility were exempted from most taxes). It also specifies a public right to an [[accountability|accounting]] from public agents as to how they have discharged the public trust.
The declaration prohibits ''[[ex post facto]]'' application of criminal law and proclaims the [[presumption of innocence]], prohibiting undue duress to the suspect. In pre-revolutionary France, while technically one was only considered guilty after having been sentenced by the appropriate authorities, the royal courts, known as ''[[parlement]]s'', made ample use of [[torture]] to extract confessions, and gave few rights to the defense &mdash; so effectively one ran very heavy risks of being sentenced if one was suspected.
It provides for [[freedom of speech]] and [[freedom of the press|of the press]], and a slightly weaker guarantee of [[freedom of religion]] &mdash; "provided that [...the] manifestation [...of their religious opinions] does not trouble the public order established by the law". It asserts the rights of property, while reserving a public right of [[eminent domain]]:
:"Article XVII - Property being an inviolable and sacred right, no one can be deprived of private usage, if it is not when the public necessity, legally noted, evidently requires it, and under the condition of a just and prior indemnity [i.e., compensation]."
The Declaration is largely [[individualistic]], not addressing [[freedom of assembly]], [[liberty of association]], or the [[right to strike]]. These principles did acquire a [[constitutional]] value, from the provisions of the Constitution of the [[French Fourth Republic]].
==Women's rights==
The Declaration, as originally understood, recognized most rights only as belonging to [[male]]s. As early as 1791, this was protested by [[Olympe de Gouges]] in her [[Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen]]. As interpreted by French courts today, women are included in these rights.
==Effect today==
According to the [[preamble]] of the [[Constitution of the French Fifth Republic]] (adopted on [[October 4]] [[1958]], and the current constitution [[as of 2005]]), the principles set forth in the Declaration have constitutional value. Many laws and regulations have been cancelled because they did not comply with those principles as interpreted by the [[Constitutional Council of France]] or the ''[[Conseil d'État]]'' ("Council of State").
Many of the principles in the 1789 declaration have far-reaching implications nowadays:
* Taxation legislation or practices that seem to make some unwarranted difference between citizens are struck down as anticonstitutional.
* Suggestions of [[positive discrimination]] on ethnic grounds are rejected because they infringe on the principle of equality, since they would establish categories of people that would, by birth, enjoy greater rights.
The declaration has also influenced and inspired to [[right]]s-based [[liberal democracy]] throughout the world.
==See also==
* [[Politics of France]]
* [[Universality (philosophy)|Universality]] (these rights are universal, i.e. valid in all times & places - or claim to be)
===Compare to other countries' bills of rights===
* '''England''': The [[Bill_of_Rights_1689|Bill of Rights of 1689]], on which the U.S. Bill of Rights was partly based.
* '''Scotland''': The [[Claim of Right]], similar in chronology and origin to the English Bill.
* '''United States''': the [[United States Bill of Rights]] (1789)
* '''United Nations''': [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] (1948)
* '''Europe''': [[European Convention on Human Rights]] (1950), [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]] (2000)
* '''Canada''': [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] (1982).
==External links==
*{{en icon}} [http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html The declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen] - in English
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/textes/d1789.htm The declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen] - in French
[[Category:French Revolution]]
[[Category:French law]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:1789 in law]]
[[Category:Government of France]]
[[ast:Declaración de los Derechos del Home y del Ciudadanu]]
[[da:Erklæringen om menneskets og borgerens rettigheder]]
[[de:Erklärung der Menschen- und Bürgerrechte]]
[[es:Declaración de los Derechos del Hombre y del Ciudadano]]
[[eo:Deklaro de la rajtoj de homo kaj civitano]]
[[fr:Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789]]
[[id:Deklarasi Hak Asasi Manusia]]
[[it:Dichiarazione dei diritti dell'uomo e del cittadino]]
[[he:הצהרת זכויות האדם]]
[[hu:Emberi és po |
A memorandum of understanding between the Australian and Indonesian governments allows Indonesian fishermen access to their traditional fishing grounds within the region, subject to limits.
'''Cartier Island Marine Reserve''' includes the entire sand cay of Cartier Island, the reef surrounding it, the ocean for a 7.2 km radius around the island, and 1000 m below the seafloor. It was proclaimed in [[2000]].
There is no economic activity in the Territory.
As Ashmore Reef is the closest point of Australian territory to Indonesia, it has been a popular target for [[people smugglers]] to take [[asylum seekers]] to Australia. They were transported at great personal risk and expense in leaky fishing boats and dumped on the island, expecting to be rescued by Australia and granted [[refugee]] status there. As Australia was not the [http://refugeethesaurus.org/hms/refugee_obj.php?type=terms&id=2143 country of first asylum] for these "[[boat people]]", Australia did not consider it had a responsibility to accept them. A number of things were done to discourage the practice such as attempting to have the people smugglers arrested in Indonesia; [[Mandatory detention in Australia|mandatory detention]] of all arrivals until their status could be determined; the so-called [[Pacific Solution]] of processing them in third countries; and finally excising these and many other small islands from the [[Australian migration zone]].
<br clear=all>
==External link==
* [http://ea.gov.au/coasts/mpa/cartier/ Cartier Island Marine Reserve]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/at.html CIA - The World Factbook&mdash;Ashmore and Cartier Islands] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on Ashmore and Cartier Islands
* [http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/dimensions/externalterr/ashmore.htm Geoscience Australia&mdash;Ashmore and Cartier Islands]
* [http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/mpa/ashmore/ Department of the Environment and Heritage&mdash;Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve]
{{Australia}}
[[Category:Australian states and territories]]
[[Category:Islands]]
[[de:Ashmore- und Cartier-Inseln]]
[[es:Islas Ashmore y Cartier]]
[[eo:Aŝmora kaj Kartia Insuloj]]
[[fr:Îles Ashmore et Cartier]]
[[gl:Illas Ashmore e Cartier]]
[[it:Isole Ashmore e Cartier]]
[[he:איי אשמור וקרטייה]]
[[hu:Ashmore- és Cartier-szigetek]]
[[nl:Ashmore- en Cartiereilanden]]
[[ja:アシュモア・カルティエ諸島]]
[[pl:Wyspy Ashmore i Cartiera]]
[[pt:Ilhas Ashmore e Cartier]]
[[fi:Ashmore ja Cartiersaaret]]
[[zh:阿什莫尔和卡捷岛]]</text>
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<title>Acoustic theory</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]
'''Acoustic theory''' is the field relating to mathematical description of [[sound]] [[waves]]. It is derived from [[fluid dynamics]]. See [[acoustics]] for the [[engineering]] approach.
The propagation of sound waves in air can be modeled by an equation of motion (conservation of [[momentum]]) and an equation of continuity (conservation of [[mass]]). With some simplifications, in particular constant density, they can be given as follows:
: <math>\rho_0 \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x}, t) + \nabla p(\mathbf{x}, t) = 0</math>
: <math>\frac{\partial}{\partial t} p(\mathbf{x}, t) + \rho_0 c^2 \nabla \cdot \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x}, t) = 0</math>
where <math>p(\mathbf{x}, t)</math> is the acoustic pressure and <math>\mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x}, t)</math> is the acoustic fluid velocity vector, <math>\mathbf{x}</math> is the vector of spatial coordinates <math>x, y, z</math>, <math>t</math> is the time, <math>\rho_0</math> is the static density of air and <math>c</math> is the speed of sound in air.
==See also==
* [[Transfer function]]
* [[Sound pressure]]
* [[Acoustic impedance]]
* [[Acoustic resistance]]
* [[Gas Laws|law of gases]]
* [[Frequency]]
* [[Fourier analysis]]
* [[Instrumental acoustics]]
* [[Music theory]]
* [[Voice production]]
* [[Formant]]
* [[Speech synthesis]]
* [[Loudspeaker acoustics]]
* [[Lumped component]] model</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander Mackenzie</title>
<id>1235</id>
<revision>
<id>42099118</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:49:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fawcett5</username>
<id>132013</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other people called ''Alexander Mackenzie'' see [[Alexander Mackenzie (disambiguation)]]}}
{{Infobox PM
| name=The Hon. Alexander Mackenzie
| image=Alexander_mackenzie.jpg
| country=Canada
| term=[[November 7]], [[1873]] &ndash; [[October 8]], [[1878]]
| before=[[John A. Macdonald]]
| after=[[John A. Macdonald]]
| date_birth=[[January 28]], [[1822]]
| place_birth=[[Logierait]], [[Scotland]]
| date_death=[[April 17]], [[1892]]
| place_death=[[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]
| party=[[Liberal Party of Canada]]
}}
'''Alexander Mackenzie''', [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada|PC]] ([[January 28]], [[1822]] &ndash; [[April 17]], [[1892]]), a building contractor and writer, was the second [[Prime Minister of Canada]] from [[November 7]], [[1873]] to [[October 8]], [[1878]].
He was born in [[Logierait]], [[Perth and Kinross]], [[Scotland]]. He [[emigrate]]d to [[Canada]] in [[1842]] after completing an education in [[public schools]] at [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], [[Moulin]], and [[Dunkeld]], Scotland. Mackenzie married Helen Neil ([[1826]]-[[1852]]) in [[1845]] and with her had three children, with only one girl surviving infancy. In [[1853]], he married [[Jane Sym]] ([[1825]]-[[1893]]).
When the [[John A. Macdonald|Macdonald]] government fell due to the [[Pacific scandal]] in 1873, the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]], [[Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava|Lord Dufferin]], had to call on someone to form a government. There was no clear leader of the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]]. Mackenzie was the fourth person called upon, and the first to accept, the post of Prime Minister. Mackenzie formed a government and then asked the Governor General to call an [[Canadian federal election, 1874|election for January 1874]]. The Liberals won, and Mackenzie remained prime minister until the [[Canadian federal election, 1878|1878 election]] when Macdonald's [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservatives]] returned to power with a [[majority government]].
As Prime Minister, Alexander Mackenzie strove to reform and simplify the machinery of government. He introduced the [[secret ballot]]; created the [[Supreme Court of Canada]]; established the [[Royal Military College]] of Canada in [[Kingston, Ontario]] in [[1874]]; created the Office of the Auditor General in 1878; and struggled to launch the [[Canadian Pacific Railway|national railway]]. After his government's defeat, Mackenzie remained [[Leader of the Opposition (Canada)|Leader of the Oppositio |
Trout Mask Replica]]'' for his old friend [[Captain Beefheart]] as well as releases by [[Alice Cooper]], [[Tim Buckley]], [[Wild Man Fischer]] and [[The GTOs]].
==1970s==
[[Image:Frank Zappa - Hot Rats.jpg|thumb|''[[Hot Rats]]'', 1969]]
After he disbanded the original Mothers, Zappa released the acclaimed solo instrumental album ''[[Hot Rats]]'', featuring his [[jazz]]-inflected guitar playing backed by jazz, blues and R&B session players including violinist [[Don "Sugarcane" Harris]], drummer [[John Guerin]], multi-instrumentalist [[Ian Underwood]], and bassist [[Shuggie Otis]]. It remains one of his most popular and accessible recordings and inarguably had a major influence on the development of the [[jazz-rock fusion]] genre.
Around 1970, Zappa put together a new version of The Mothers that included British drummer [[Aynsley Dunbar]], jazz keyboardist [[George Duke]], previous Mothers member Ian Underwood, and no fewer than ''three'' members of [[The Turtles]]: bass player [[Jim Pons]], who before joining [[The Turtles]] had been the lead singer of [[The Leaves]] (of "Hey Joe" fame); and singers [[Mark Volman]] and [[Howard Kaylan]], who due to persisting legal/contractual problems adopted the stage-monikers "The Phlorescent Leech and Eddie," or "[[Flo & Eddie]]" for short.
The new lineup debuted on Zappa's next solo LP ''[[Chunga's Revenge]]'', which was followed by the sprawling soundtrack to the movie project ''[[200 Motels]]'', featuring both The Mothers and The [[Royal Philharmonic Orchestra]]. At the time George Duke was in the band and appears both in the film and on the sound track as a musician. He left the band to play with [[Cannonball Adderly]] and was replaced by [[Don Preston]] from the original Mothers, who acted in the film, but is not playing on the soundtrack. This double disc album was followed by two live sets, ''[[Fillmore East - June 1971]]'' and ''[[Just Another Band From L.A.]]'', which included the 20-minute track ''Billy The Mountain'', Zappa's satire on rock opera, set in Southern California. The former features hilariously low-concept cover art (similar to the [[Bootleg recording|bootleg]] albums that had recently become popular) just at the apex of the era of great rock "album cover artwork".
In 1971 there were two serious setbacks. While performing in [[Montreux]], [[Switzerland]], the Mothers' equipment was destroyed when a flare set off by an audience member started a disastrous fire that burned down the casino where they were playing &mdash;an event immortalised in [[Deep Purple]]'s classic song ''[[Smoke On The Water]]''. The actual event and immediate aftermath can be heard on the bootleg album ''[[Swiss Cheese / Fire]]'', released legally as part of Zappa's [[Beat the Boots]] compilation.
Then in December 1971, Zappa was attacked on stage at the [[Rainbow Theatre]], [[London]]. A jealous boyfriend of a female fan pushed Frank off the stage and into the orchestra pit. Zappa suffered serious fractures, head trauma and injuries to his back, leg, and neck, as well as a crushed [[larynx]] (which caused his voice to drop a [[third]] after it healed). This left him wheelchair bound for a time, forcing him off the road for over a year. (He was wearing a leg brace for a period thereafter, had a noticeable limp and couldn't stand for very long while onstage.) He said one leg healed "shorter than the other" (a reference found years later in the lyrics of ''Dancin' Fool''). He employed tour [[bodyguard]] John Smothers, who was an accomplished martial artist, former military chauffeur and bodyguard for several big-name celebrities. Meanwhile, the Mothers were left in limbo, and eventually formed the core of [[Flo and Eddie]]'s band as they set out on their own.
[[Image:Frank Zappa - The Grand Wazoo.jpg|thumb|''[[The Grand Wazoo]]'', 1972]]
In 1971-72 Zappa released two strongly jazz-oriented solo LPs, ''[[Waka/Jawaka]]'' and ''[[The Grand Wazoo]]'', which were recorded during the layoff from live concert touring, using floating lineups of session players and Mothers alumni. He began touring again in late 1972, first with a Grand Wazoo 'big band' and with groups that variously included [[Ian Underwood]] on brass and reeds, [[Ruth Underwood]] on vibes, [[Sal Marquez]] (trumpet), [[Napoleon Murphy Brock]] (sax and vocals), [[Bruce Fowler]] (trombone), [[Tom Fowler]] (bass), [[Chester Thompson]] (drums), George Duke (keyboards, vocals) and [[Jean-Luc Ponty]] (violin).
He continued a high rate of production through the early [[1970s]], including the excellent and accessible albums ''[[One Size Fits All]]'' and ''[[Apostrophe (album)|Apostrophe]]'', ''[[Over-Nite Sensation]]'' and ''[[Roxy & Elsewhere]]'' featuring ever-changing versions of a band though still called the Mothers. These albums were notable for the highly-technical [[jazz-fusion]] the band was renowned for, demonstrated on such pieces as ''Don't You Ever Wash That Thing'' or the ''Be-Bop Tango''.
=== Läther ===
In the mid 70's Zappa began recording material for ''[[Läther]]'' (pronounced "leather"), an ambitious four-LP studio project extravaganza. ''Läther'' featured all aspects of Zappa's musical styles &mdash;rock tunes, theatrical works, complex instrumental compositions, and Zappa's own trademark [[vacuum tube|tube]] distortion-drenched guitar solos were all recorded for the release. What happened next is subject to debate.
According to popular theory (and the liner notes of the re-release of ''Läther'' itself), he had completed the recording for the album when [[Warner Brothers Records]] executives, wary of a quadruple-LP, decided not to support the project. Zappa soon appeared on the (at the time) influential Los Angeles radio station [[KROQ]], allowing them to broadcast the whole album and instructing listeners to make their own tape recordings. Soon after, some of the material from ''Läther'' was officially released on ''Zappa in New York''. After a legal battle with Warner, in order to satisfy his contract, Zappa allowed the label to release much of the music on three LPs instead of four, but he had little input beyond that. The records ''[[Studio Tan]]'', ''[[Sleep Dirt]]'', and ''[[Orchestral Favorites]]'' were dumped on the market with no [[promotion]] and only cheaply produced (but exquisite) [[cover art]] by [[Gary Panter]]. These albums nevertheless include some classic Zappa tunes like "RDNZL", "The Adventures of Greggery Peccary", and "Sleep Dirt".
An alternative theory of the ''Läther'' debacle was that upon completing the four aforementioned albums (''Zappa in New York'', ''Studio Tan'', ''Sleep Dirt'', and ''Orchestral Favorites''), Zappa turned the albums in at once, to complete his contract. Warner Brothers balked at releasing five new LPs (''Zappa in New York'' being a double album) of a single artist at once, fearing that the LPs would cut into each other's sales. Perturbed at what he felt was record label ineptitude, Zappa shipped the albums to other competing record labels. Somewhere along the line it was decided that one triple album would be more appealing than four standalone albums, and with some editing and tape splices, ''Läther'' was born. This theory is supported by the fact that each of the "''Läther'' babies" is a fully realized concept of its own (the live album ''Zappa in New York'', ''Sleep Dirt'', which was later overdubbed with lyrics and turned into an operetta, the "mini-sampler" feel of ''Studio Tan'', and the orchestral works on the aptly named ''Orchestral Favorites''), and, with the exception of ''Studio Tan'', each features songs unreleased on ''Läther''. If the former theory is true, one would have to wonder how Warner Brothers (a label Zappa publicly disliked) managed to secure unreleased material from Zappa. ''Läther'' was finally re-constructed and released in its original form in [[1996]].
In [[1976]] the cessation of cordial relations with Zappa's long-time manager Herb Cohen also occurred. The breakup was an acrimonious affair; exacerbated by Zappa's ongoing feud with Warner Brothers staff. Cohen had created [[DiscReet Records]] with Zappa as a label of Warner Brothers, in order to be used as a business venture to aid funding of Zappa albums. Zappa however discovered that Cohen had been skimming more than he was allocated from the label, and he also alleged that Cohen had used some of Frank's money to fund other recordings such as [[Captain Beefheart]]. Cohen filed a lawsuit against Zappa in return, due to Zappa taking the master copies of ''Zoot Allures'' directly to Warner, bypassing DiscReet completely. Whilst it is unknown what came of the lawsuits, with both parties remaining tight-lipped about the rancorous affair, Zappa and Cohen would never work together again.
It was during the ''Läther'' period that Zappa recruited [[Ike Willis]] as a lead singer and backup guitarist. Zappa's 1970s period ended with the releases of the highly regarded ''[[Joe's Garage]]'', which heavily featured Willis as voice of "Joe", and ''[[Sheik Yerbouti]]'' (1979), which contained Zappa classics such as ''Dancin' Fool'', ''Bobby Brown (Goes Down)'', ''Flakes'', ''Broken Hearts are for Assholes'', as well as ''Jewish Princess'', which received some controversial attention. ''Joe's Garage'' is considered to be one of Zappa's definitive achievements of the period, and ''Sheik Yerbouti'' was a commercial success, though many tracks were composed or largely recorded live during the ''Läther'' period of 1977. In fact, every song on ''Sheik Yerbouti'' uses live backing tracks recorded during the 1977–1978 tour, with varying amounts of studio overdubs added.
According to Zappa's record company Rykodisc: "Bobby Brown Goes Down" is perhaps the oddest of Zappa's successes. This colorful tale of a young man's encou |
amp;list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16] and clock genes [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18] in behavioral actions of cocaine.
Since [[nicotine]] increases the levels of dopamine in the brain, many cocaine users find that consumption of [[tobacco]] products during cocaine use enhances the euphoria. This, however, may have undesirable consequences, such as uncontrollable [[chain smoking]] during cocaine use (even users who don't normally smoke [[cigarettes]] have been known to chain smoke when using cocaine), in addition to the detrimental health effects and the additional strain on the cardiovascular system caused by tobacco.
===Metabolism and excretion===
Cocaine is extensively [[metabolism|metabolized]], primarily in the [[liver]], with only about 1% excreted unchanged in the urine. It is mostly eliminated as [[benzoylecgonine]], the major [[metabolite]] of cocaine, and is also excreted in lesser amounts as ecgonine methyl ester and ecgonine.
If taken with [[ethanol|alcohol]], cocaine combines with the ethanol in the [[liver]] to form [[cocaethylene]], which is both more [[euphoria|euphorigenic]] and has higher [[cardiovascular]] toxicity than cocaine by itself.
Cocaine metabolites are detectable in urine for up to four days after cocaine is used. Benzoylecgonine can be detected in urine within four hours after cocaine inhalation and remains detectable in concentrations greater than 1000&nbsp;ng/ml for as long as 48 hours. Detection in hair is possible in regular users until the sections of hair grown during use are cut or fall out.
===Effects and health issues===
Cocaine is a potent [[central nervous system]] [[stimulant]]. Its effects can last from 20 minutes to several hours, depending upon the dosage of cocaine taken, purity, and method of administration.
The initial signs of stimulation are hyperactivity, restlessness, increased [[blood pressure]], increased [[heart rate]] and [[euphoria]]. The euphoria is sometimes followed by feelings of discomfort and depression and a craving to re-experience the drug. Side effects can include twitching and [[paranoia]], which usually increase with frequent usage.
With excessive dosage the drug can produce [[hallucination]]s, paranoid delusions, [[tachycardia]], [[itch]]ing, and [[formication]].
Overdose causes tachyarrhythmias and a marked elevation of blood pressure. These can be life threatening, especially if the user has existing cardiac problems.
Cocaine raises the amount of dopamine and serotonin in the nucleus accumbens; the "crash" experienced after the initial high is marked by an undershooting of normal levels afterwards. This is because neurons run out of dopamine and serotonin neurotransmitters. Receptors disappear as a response mechanism to too much neurotransmitter. This contributes to the rise in an abuser's tolerance thus requiring a larger dosage to achieve the same effect. The lack of normal amounts of serotonin and dopamine in the brain is the cause of the dysphoria and depression felt after the initial high. The diagnostic criteria for cocaine withdrawal is characterized by a dysphoric mood, fatigue, unpleasant dreams, insomnia or hypersomnia, increased appetite, psychomotor retardation or agitation, and anxiety.
The [[LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>]] of Cocaine when administered to mice is 95.1 mg/kg. Toxicity results in seizures, followed by respiratory and circulatory depression of medullar origin. This may lead to death from [[respiratory failure]], [[stroke]], [[cerebral hemorrhage]], or [[heart]]-failure. Cocaine is also highly pyrogenic, because the stimulation and increased muscular activity cause greater heat production. Heat loss is inhibited by the intense [[vasoconstriction]]. Cocaine-induced [[hyperthermia]] may cause muscle cell destruction and [[myoglobinuria]] resulting in [[renal failure]]. There is no specific [[antidote]] for cocaine overdose.
Cocaine abuse is associated with a lifetime risk of [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] that is seven times that of non-users. During the hour after cocaine is used, [[heart attack]] risk rises 24-fold. It accounts for 25% of the heart attacks in the 18&ndash;45 year-old age group.
Side effects from chronic smoking of cocaine include chest pain, lung trauma, shortness of breath, sore throat, hoarse voice, [[dyspnea]], and an aching, [[flu]]-like syndrome. A common misconception is that the smoking of cocaine breaks down [[tooth enamel]] and causes [[tooth decay]]. Although this is not true, the lifestyle of frequent cocaine users may include poor dental hygiene, which often results in tooth decay. In addition, cocaine often causes involuntary tooth grinding, known as [[bruxism]], which can deteriorate tooth enamel and lead to [[gingivitis]].
Chronic intranasal usage can degrade the [[cartilage]] separating the [[nostril]]s (the [[Septum nasi]]), leading eventually to its complete disappearance.
===Cocaine as a local anesthetic===
Cocaine was historically useful as a topical anesthetic in eye and nasal surgery. The major disadvantages of this use are cocaine's intense [[vasoconstrictor]] activity and potential for [[cardiovascular]] toxicity. Cocaine has since been largely replaced in Western medicine by synthetic local anaesthetics such as [[benzocaine]], [[proparacaine]], and [[tetracaine]] though it remains available for use if specified. If vasoconstriction is desired for a procedure (as it reduces bleeding), the anesthetic is combined with a vasoconstrictor such as [[phenylephrine]] or [[epinephrine]]. In [[Australia]] it is currently prescribed for use as a local anesthetic for conditions such as mouth and lung [[ulcers]]. Some Australian [[ENT]] specialists occasionally use cocaine within the practice when performing procedures such as nasal [[cauterization]]. In this scenario dissolved cocaine is soaked into a ball of cotton wool, which is placed in the nostril for the 10-15 minutes immediately prior to the procedure, thus performing the dual role of both numbing the area to be cauterized and also vasoconstriction.
==== Production ====
Cocaine comes from the coca plant. The leaves are stripped from the plants and dried, then crushed into a paste, commonly using [[cement mix]] (containing [[sodium carbonate]]), [[Lime (mineral)|lime]] and [[water]]. This then allows extraction of the cocaine alkaloid into [[kerosene]]. The resulting water immiscible solvent (kerosene) acts to extract water insoluble cocaine alkaloids from the mixture. The plant leaves are usually agitated by stomping on them or, occasionally by using a so-called agitation machine. The cocaine alkaloids and kerosene mostly separates from the water and leaves, and then needs to be strained.
The alkaloids should be extracted from the kerosene by adding a dilute [[Hydrochloric acid|hydrochloric]] or [[sulfuric acid]] mix then strained again. [[Potassium permanganate]] is usually added then the mix should be allowed to sit for 4-6 hours. The paste is usually further strained and ammonia added. A dubious precipitate will be formed, known as cocaine base.
The base is dried and converted to cocaine hydrochloride (HCl) by soaking it in [[acetone]] and straining it. Adding diluted hydrochloric acid or Ether (cutting) should cause a precipitate to form which is usually dried under heat lamps, resulting in concentrated [[cocaine hydrochloride]].''
Purity of cocaine varies widely over a range of approximately 10 to 90 percent, with larger quantities generally more pure than smaller quantities.
==Cocaine trade==
Because of the extensive processing it undergoes during preparation and its highly addictive nature, [[cocaine]] is generally treated as a [[hard drug]], with severe penalties for possession and trafficking. Demand remains high, and consequently black market cocaine is quite expensive. Unprocessed cocaine, such as [[coca leaves]] is occasionally bought and sold, but this is exceedingly rare as it is much easier and more profitable to conceal and smuggle it in powdered form (cocaine hydrochloride).
Most cocaine is smuggled in large quantities in [[truck]]s, [[boat]]s, or small [[airplane]]s. Smaller gangs will often send out a [[Mule (smuggling)|drug mule]], often a young woman, with kilos of cocaine strapped to her waist or legs or hidden in her bags. If she gets through without being caught, the gangs will reap most of the profits. If she is caught however, gangs will sever all links and she will usually stand trial for trafficking by herself.
[[Colombia]] produces around 75% of the world's cocaine.
=== Trafficking ===
[[Organized crime|Organized criminal]] gangs operating on a large scale dominate the cocaine trade. Most cocaine is grown and processed in [[South America]], particularly in [[Colombia]] and [[Peru]], and smuggled into the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], where it is sold at huge markups.
===Distribution ===
During the chain of distribution, cocaine is often adulterated or "cut" with a variety of substances prior to sale. Common [[adulterant]]s include [[baking soda]], sugars (such as lactose, [[inositol]], and [[mannitol]]), and local anesthetics (such as [[benzocaine]] or [[lidocaine]], which mimic or add to cocaine's numbing effect on [[mucous membrane]]s).
==Addiction==
'''Cocaine addiction''' is the obsessive or uncontrollable abuse of cocaine, and can result in physiological damage, lethargy, depression, or a potentially fatal overdose. Many habitual abusers have been diagnosed with a manic condition similar to [[amphetamine psychosis]] and [[schizophrenia]], whose symptoms include aggression, severe paranoia, and tactile hallucinations (including the feeling of insects under the skin, or "coke bugs").
Cocaine has positive reinforcement effects, which refers to the effect that certain stimuli have on behavior. Good feelings bec |
nce of the recipe to have been in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], where it was used as an accompaniment for fish dishes, and from which it spread to the rest of the country and then to Belgium.
==Variants==
French fries have numerous variants, from "thick-cut" to "shoestring", "curly", and "waffle-cut". They can also be coated with [[breading]] and [[spice]]s to create "seasoned fries", or cut thickly (often with the skin left on) to create "steak fries". Sometimes fries are cooked in the oven as a final step in the preparation (having been coated with oil during preparation at the factory): these are often sold frozen, and are called "oven fries."
In Australia, Britain, Ireland, and many other countries, the term ''french fries'' is only used by fast-food restaurants serving narrow-cut (shoestring) fries prepared in the American style. Traditional ''chips'' in these countries are usually cut much thicker and cooked for a shorter period of time than American-style french fries, making them less crunchy on the outside and fluffier on the inside. This results in a relatively healthier dish as the area saturated with oil is much less. Chips form one half of the popular British takeaway dish [[fish and chips]]. In another example of two nations being divided by their common language, [[potato chips]] are called ''crisps'' in [[British English]].
According to American culinary celebrity [[Alton Brown]], Belgian ''pommes frites'' are usually fried in [[horse]] fat. However, he is mistaken, as traditionally, [[ox]] fat was used, although now nut oil is usually preferred for health reasons. [[Belgian fries]] must be fried twice, and are thicker than french fries, but thinner than British chips. ''Fries with [[Mayonnaise]]'' is actually the national dish of Belgium and Belgians are very fussy about how their fries are served. Even the smallest Belgian town has its own "'''frietkot'''" (a Flemish word literally meaning "fries shack" which has also been adopted by the French speaking part of the country in addition to the French "'''friterie'''"; an alternate Flemish form is '''frituur''' ), the Belgian equivalent of the British "fish and chips", only that its main dish is fries with mayonnaise. Belgians actually have their "Frieten met [[Mayonnaise]] / Frites avec [[Mayonnaise]]" as a main dish, without any side orders.
'''Boardwalk fries''', are brine soaked fresh-cut [[potatoes]], that are quickly deep-fried in 100% [[peanut oil]], served in paper buckets, sprinkled lightly with [[salt]] and malt [[vinegar]]. You will never find [[ketchup]] available at any authentic fry stands. Perhaps one of the most famous vendors of boardwalk fries is Trashers' French Fries of [[Ocean City, Maryland]], founded in 1929 by J.T. Trasher. The term "Boardwalk Fries" was registered as a trademark by a [[franchising]] company in 1982. The company was formed in 1980, after the founders visited Ocean City (and presumably Trashers).
In [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[South Africa]], the word ''chips'' is used for both forms of fried potato; although the phrase ''hot chips'' unambiguously refers to ''french fries'' or ''chips''.
==Cooking==
[[Image:fries_cooking.jpg|thumb|212px|French fries cooking in the Joël Robuchon method]]
[[Image:fries_draining.jpg|thumb|right|212px|French fries draining after cooking]]
Most home cooks who prepare french fries from potatoes that they have cut themselves cook them a single time in a generous amount of oil pre-heated to a temperature around 375 °F (190 °C) until they are golden and slightly crisp. Many restaurants, especially those reputed to have excellent french fries, cook them in two batches: the first at a temperature that varies from chef to chef but that is generally around 350 °F (177 °C), until the fries are nearly cooked but still limp and pale; the second, after the first batch has been removed from the oil and allowed to cool, at a higher temperature, generally around 375 °F (190 °C), until they are golden and crisp, which normally takes less than a minute. A third method, invented by the celebrated French chef [[Joël Robuchon]] for the home cook, is to put the sliced potatoes into a saucepan with just enough cold oil in it to cover the potatoes, then cook them over high heat until golden, stirring occasionally. Frozen french fries are widely available in supermarkets; it is not unheard of for them to be baked instead of fried.
The Belgian way of cooking frites is generally in two stages. First fries are 'pre-fried' ('voorgebakken' in Dutch) for about 6 or 7 minutes in oil preheated to about 130 degrees Celsius (to get out most of the moisture), then they are generally taken out, tossed (to avoid clumping), and allowed to cool down. This intermediate product can be frozen for "instant" deep-frying later, or several batches of "pre-fried" fries prepared (e.g., when fries stands are opened for the day, or ahead of a large company of guests to the home) for rapid frying and serving later.
The second stage involves frying in oil preheated to 180-190 degrees Celsius for about two minutes (generally the cook is guided more by the color of the product&mdash;a crisp golden brown usually being preferred&mdash;than by timing).
==Accompaniments==
French fries are almost always salted just after cooking. They are then served with a variety of condiments, most notably [[ketchup]], [[tomato sauce]], [[hot sauce]], [[mayonnaise]], [[tartar sauce]], [[fry sauce]], [[brown sauce]], [[vinegar]] (especially malt vinegar) or [[gravy]]. In the [[Netherlands]], (where fries are sold in ''snackbars''), [[peanut]] sauce is also popular (also called [[satay]] sauce, after the Malayan meat ''sate'' on which the same sauce is used). The Dutch also use the word [[mayonnaise]] to refer to ''frietsaus'' (fries-sauce) a thicker, less acidic sauce made specially to accompany french fries. Another interesting combination is ''Patatje Oorlog'' (Dutch for: ''French Fries War''), which is french fries with a variety of sauces; a variety that differs from region to region, and even from one snackbar to another. While it sometimes means mayonnaise (or rather, ''frietsaus''), peanut sauce and chopped raw onions, in other places it means the fries are accompanied with all condiments available. Dutch snackbars typically offer at least 8 condiments or combinations of them (the condiments are never free in the Netherlands), but some serve up to 40 different styles.The Dutch eat their fries mostly with the famous Dutch snacks called [[kroket]] and [[frikadel]].
In [[Britain]], particularly the North of [[England]], [[curry]] sauce is available from chip shops. In [[Australia]], [[chicken salt]] is widely used in preference to plain salt.
A restaurant chain called Gordon Biersch serves garlic fries at their brewery restaurants and at Dodger Stadium.
An alternate dipping sauce for French fries is Ranch salad dressing.
In [[Utah]], [[USA]], and the surrounding area, french fries are often served with [[fry sauce]], a mixture of spices, mayonnaise, and ketchup. In [[Quebec]] and [[New Brunswick]], both in [[Canada]], french fries are the main component of a dish called ''[[poutine]]'': a mixture of french fries with fresh [[cheese]] [[curd]]s, covered with hot [[gravy]]. A simillar variant, [[Disco fries]] is found in several [[new england]] cities. In Western [[Canada]], fries are often served "all-dressed", with grated Parmesan cheese, ketchup, gravy, vinegar, salt, and pepper. In Newfoundland, Canada 'Newfie Fries' are comprised of french fries topped with turkey stuffing, peas, cheese and gravy. In the United States, fries are sometimes coated with melted cheese, called ''cheese fries''. Often this is in combination with [[chili con carne|chili]]. Variations of cheese fries include fries covered with melted cheese, usually [[Cheez Whiz]], [[mozzarella]], [[Swiss cheese]], or [[garlic]] and cheese fries (cheese with garlic mayonnaise). In the [[Philippines]] they are often served with a sprinkling of cheese powder.
==Health aspects==
French fries may contain a large amount of [[fat]] (usually [[saturated fat|saturated]]) from frying and from some condiments or topping and may be bad for the [[health]] of those who consume them regularly. Some researchers have also suggested that the high temperatures used for frying such dishes may have results harmful to health (see [[acrylamide]]s). In the United States about 1/4 of [[vegetable]]s consumed are prepared as french fries and are believed to contribute to an epidemic of [[obesity]]. <!--Page 4,5, ''Food Fight'', ISBN 0071402500--> Frying french fries in [[beef tallow]], the traditional but recently discarded McDonald's recipe, adds saturated fat to the diet. Replacing tallow with tropical oils such as [[palm oil]] simply substitutes one saturated fat for another. Replacing tallow with partially hydrogenated oil reduces [[cholesterol]] but adds [[trans fat]]. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0813/is_n7_v23/ai_18650428]
==United States political controversy==
On [[March 11]], [[2003]], the cafeteria menus in the three [[United States House of Representatives]] office buildings changed the name of ''french fries'' to ''[[freedom fries]]'' in a symbolic culinary rebuke of France stemming from anger over that country's opposition to the United States government's position on Iraq. (''[[French toast]]'' was also changed to ''freedom toast''.) In response, the French embassy noted that french fries are Belgian. "We are at a very serious moment dealing with very serious issues and we are not focusing on the name you give to potatoes," said Nathalie Loisau, an embassy spokeswoman.
Even though the name change started with private restaurants across the country and was late |
of beer.
Beta acids do not isomerise during the boil of [[wort]], and have a negligible effect on beer flavour. Instead they contribute to beer's bitter aroma, and high beta acid hop varieties are often added at the end of the wort boil for aroma. Beta acids oxidize and oxidized beta acids form sulfur compounds such as DMS ([[dimethyl-sulfide]]) that can give beer off-flavours of rotten vegetables or cooked corn.
The flavour imparted by hops varies by type and use: hops boiled with the beer (known as "bittering hops") produce bitterness, while hops added to beer later impart some degree of "hop flavour" (if during the final 10 minutes of boil) or "hop aroma" (if during the final 3 minutes, or less, of boil) and a lesser degree of bitterness. Adding hops after the boil, a process known as "dry hopping", adds hop aroma, but very little bitterness. The degree of bitterness imparted by hops depends on the degree to which otherwise insoluble [[alpha acid]]s (AAs) are [[isomer]]ized during the boil, and the impact of a given amount of hops is specified in [[International Bitterness Units scale|International Bitterness Units]]. Unboiled hops are only mildly [[bitter (taste)|bitter]].
Flavours and aromas are described appreciatively using terms which include "grassy", "floral", "citrus", "spicy", and "earthy". Most of the common commercial [[lager]]s have fairly low hop influence, while true pilseners should have noticeable noble hop aroma and certain [[ale]]s (particularly the highly-hopped style known as [[India Pale Ale]]) can have high levels of bitterness.
==Noble hops==
The term '''Noble hops''' traditionally refers to four varieties of hop which are low in bitterness and high in [[aroma]]. They are the [[central Europe]]an [[cultivar]]s, 'Hallertauer Mittelfrueh', 'Tettnanger', 'Spalter', and 'Saaz'. They are each named for a specific region or city in which they were first grown or primarily grown. They contain high amounts of the hop oil [[humulene]] and low amounts of alpha acids [[cohumulone]] and [[adhumulone]], as well as lower amounts of the harsher-tasting beta acids [[lupulone]], [[colupulone]], and [[adlupulone]]. Humulene imparts an elegant, refined taste and aroma to beers containing it.
Their low relative bitterness but strong aroma are often distinguishing characteristics of European-style [[lager]] [[beer]], such as [[Pilsener]], [[Dunkel]], and [[Märzen|Oktoberfest/Marzen]]. In beer, they are considered aroma hops (as opposed to bittering hops); see [[Pilsner Urquell]] as a classic example of the Pilsener style, which showcases Noble hops.
As with grapes, the land where the hops were grown affects the hops' characteristics. Much like [[champagne (beverage)|champagne]] may only be called "champagne" if the grapes were grown in the [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]] area of [[France]], Noble hops may only officially be considered "Noble" if they were grown in the areas for which the hops varieties were named.
'Tettnanger' hops come from '''Tettnang''', a small town in southern [[Baden-Württemberg]] in [[Germany]]. The region produces significant quantities of hops, and ships them to [[brewery|breweries]] throughout the world.
==Hop varieties==
Particular hop varieties are associated with beer styles, for example [[Pilsener]]s are usually brewed with European (and often Czech) hop varieties such as Saaz, Hallertau, Strissel, and Spalt. English ales use hop varieties such as Fuggle, Golding and Bullion. North American varieties include Cascade, Columbia, and Willamette.
==Types of hops==
'''Ahtanum''' – An American aroma-type variety developed by Yakima Chief Ranches, similar to Cascade. Popularity seems to be increasing. (Alpha acid: 5.7-6.3% / Beta acid: 5.0-6.5%)
'''Amarillo''' – Popular American mid-range alpha variety developed by Virgil Gamache Farms in late 20th century. (Alpha acid: 8-11% / Beta acid: 6-7% )
'''Brewer's Gold''' – British bittering hop developed in 1934. Sometimes used as aroma variety in conjunction with noble hops. Related to Bullion. (Alpha acid 5.5 - 6.5% / Beta acid 2.5 - 3.5%)
'''Cascade''' – Very successful and well-established American aroma hop developed in 1956 from Fuggle and Serebrianker (a Russian variety), but not released for cultivation until 1972. Piney, citrusy, and quite assertive. (Alpha acid: 4.5-6.0% / Beta acid: 5.0-7.0% )
'''Centennial''' – American aroma-type variety bred in 1974 and released in 1990. Similar to Cascade, perhaps with sweeter fruit notes and a slightly chunkier bitterness. (Alpha acid: 9.5-11.5% / Beta acid: 4.0-5.0%)
'''Challenger''' – English hop with a spicy character. (Alpha acid 6.5 - 8.5% / Beta acid 4 - 4.5%)
'''Chinook''' – American cross between Petham Golding and a USDA-selected male. Big, rich, robust bitterness, with woody aroma characteristics. (Alpha acid 12.0 - 14.0% /
Beta acid 3.0 - 4.0%)
'''Crystal''' – An American triploid variety developed in 1993 from Hallertau, Cascade, Brewer's Gold and Early Green. Quite aromatic, fruity. (Alpha acid 3.5 - 5.5% /
Beta acid 4.5 - 6.5%)
'''First Gold''' – English dwarf hop. A cross-pollination of Whitbread Golding variety and a dwarf male. It is like a spicier Golding, with a higher alpha and slightly richer bitterness. (Alpha acid 6.5 - 8.5% / Beta acid 3 - 4%)
'''Fuggles''' - Main English hop developed late 19th century. Considered by some to be less refined than Goldings, others prefer its juicier, more woody character. (Alpha acid 4 - 5.5% /
Beta acid 2 - 3%)
'''Galena''' - Hugely popular American bittering hop developed from Brewer's Gold by open pollination in the state of Idaho. Has a moderate bitterness despite its high alpha content. (Alpha acid 12 - 14% w/w
Beta acid 7 - 9%)
'''Goldings''' - The traditional and very popular English aroma hop. Developed in 1790. Soft, earthy, vaguely farm-like aroma. Widely cultivated. Called East Kent Goldings if grown in East Kent, Kent Goldings if grown in mid-Kent, and Goldings if grown elsewhere. (Alpha acid 4 - 5.5% / Beta acid 2 - 3.5%)
'''Hallertau''' - The original German lager hop; due to susceptibility to crop disease was largely replaced by Hersbrucker in the 1970s and 1980s. (Alpha acid 3.5 - 5.5% /
Beta acid 3 - 4%)
'''Hersbrucker''' - Common in German pilsners, this noble hop has a grassy, hay-like aroma, and is seldom used for bittering purposes. (Alpha acid 3 - 5.5% /
Beta acid 4 - 5.5%)
'''Horizon''' - American high alpha cross made in Oregon in 1970 from Nugget. Soft bitterness. (Alpha acid 11 - 13% / Beta scid 6.5 - 8.5%)
'''Liberty''' - American cross between Hallertauer Mittlefruh and downy mildew resistant male, developed in 1983. (Alpha acid 3.0 - 5.0% / Beta acid 3.0 - 4.0%)
'''Lublin''' - The grassy, hay-like signature of Polish lagers. The bitterness is slightly harsher than noble varieties, but the aroma is a little bit softer.
'''Millennium''' - Bittering variety, born of Nugget and generally considered interchangeable. (Alpha acid 15.5% / Beta acid 4.8%)
'''Mount Hood''' - Soft American variety developed from Hallertau. Frequently used in styles that require only a subtle hop aroma. (Alpha acid 5.0 - 8.0% / Beta acid 5.0 - 7.5%)
'''Northdown''' - Dual purpose hop in England developed in 1970s, with a Northern Brewer-like bitterness, and modest but refined aroma, well suited to backing up maltier style beers. (Alpha acid 7.5 - 9.5% / Beta acid 5 - 5.5%)
'''Northern Brewer''' – Developed in England in 1934 from a cross between a female hop of wild American parentage and an English male. Grown in Europe and America as a dual-purpose hop, but best suited for bittering. Versatile, lending a moderate bitterness. Aroma wise it’s quite mellow, and usually used in combination with other hops. (Alpha acid 8 - 10% / Beta acid 3 - 5%)
'''Nugget''' – Bittering variety. Nuggets generally have a poor reputation as being cheap and unrefined, but do have a pronounced herbal aroma. Examples include Sierra Nevada Bigfoot (bittering only),
'''Pacific Gem''' – High alpha variety from New Zealand, but also contributes a berryish aroma. This, along with Hallertauer, are frequently organically grown in New Zealand, so this is most likely to be found in organic beers outside of NZ. Has a woody, berryish note.
'''Perle''' – One of the least distinctive German hops, the dual-purpose Perle is often found in conjunction with other hops.
'''Pride of Ringwood''' - Ubiquitous Australian hop. At one time, this was a high-alpha variety, but has been long surpassed. Considered by some rather malodorous, PoR hasn't caught on outside of the Australian lager world.
'''Progress''' – Developed as a replacement for Fuggles, this has a higher alpha rating, and is often found in combination with Goldings.
'''Saaz''' – The Bohemian hop, used in almost all Czech pilsners. It gives a soft bitterness, so IBUs can be high without harshness. The aroma is famous, and a fresh Pilsner Urquell is still the best place to learn it.
'''Santiam''' – Aroma variety with mid-range alphas.
'''Select''' - Disease-resistant Spalt substitute
'''Simcoe''' - High alpha variety with piney notes and a rounded bitterness. Has made increasing appearances the past couple of years, in both pilsners and ales.
'''Spalt''' - Noble hop, with a fine, spicy aroma. Used in all manner of German-style beers both ale and lager. Is the signature hop for altbier.
'''Strisselspalt''' - Classic French aroma hop, used mainly in lagers. Fairly neutral character can be tough to detect, but is similar to Herbrucker.
'''Styrian Goldings''' – Actually derived from Fuggles, but grown in more continental conditions. I find them spicier, and more elegant than Fuggles, while retaining the delicious woodsy character. Used in a wide range of beers, from English ales to witbier and both English and Belgian strong ales.
|
izers
*Alan Myers: drums
'''Other members'''
*[[Bob Lewis]]
*Jim Mothersbaugh
*David Kendrick
*[[Josh Freese]]
Note: as the group's sound evolved, it became more common for the members to use synthesizers and drum machines over their original bass guitar, guitars and acoustic drum kit.
==Discography==
'''Career Albums:'''
*''[[Be Stiff EP]]'' (1977)
*''[[Are We Not Men We Are Devo!|Q: Are We Not Men? A: We Are Devo!]]'' (1978)
*''[[Duty Now for the Future]]'' (1979)
*''[[Freedom of Choice]]'' (1980)
*''[[DEV-O Live]]'' (1980) (re-released in an expanded, limited (5000 copies) edition by [[Rhino Entertainment|Rhino]] Handmade in October, 1999)
*''[[New Traditionalists]]'' (1981)
*''[[Oh, No! It's Devo]]'' (1982)
*''[[Shout (Devo album)|Shout]]'' (1984)
*''[[E-Z Listening Disc]]'' (1987)
*''[[Total Devo]]'' (1988)
*''[[Now It Can Be Told: DEVO at the Palace]]'' (1989)
*''[[Smooth Noodle Maps]]'' (1990)
'''Posthumous Compilations:'''
*''[[Devo's Greatest Hits]]'' (1990)
*''[[Devo's Greatest Misses]]'' (1990)
*''[[Hardcore Devo]]'' 1974-77, Volume 1 (1990) (previously unreleased 4-track demos)
*''[[Harcore Devo: Volume Two|Hardcore Devo]]'' 1974-77, Volume 2 (1991) (previously unreleased 4-track demos)
*''[[DEVO Live: The Mongoloid Years]]'' (1992)
*''[[Adventures of the Smart Patrol]]'' (1996)
*''[[Pioneers Who Got Scalped]]'' (2000)
*''[[Recombo DNA]]'' (2000) - a compilation of music demos and rarities (only available through [[Rhino Entertainment|Rhino]] Handmade)
*''[[The Essentials]]'' (2002) - Features digitally remastered audio
*''[[Whip It and Other Hits]]'' (2003)
*''[[DEVO Live 1980]]'' (2005) (Dual-Disc Format Release)
'''As a backup band for others:'''
*[[Hugh Cornwell & Robert Williams]]: ''[[Nosferatu (album)|Nosferatu]]'' (1979) (Mark Mothersbaugh & Bob Mothersbaugh co-wrote and performed on the track "Rhythmic Itch")
*[[Jermaine Jackson]]: ''Let Me Tickle Your Fancy'' (1982) (backup on title song)
*[[Toni Basil]]: ''Word of Mouth'' (1983) (backup on covers of Devo's own "Space Girls", "Be Stiff" and "Pity You")
*[[David Byrne (musician)|David Byrne]]: ''Feelings'' (1997) (backup on "Wicked Little Doll")
*[[Martini Ranch]]: ''Holy Cow'' (1988) (Bob Casale produced "How Can the Labouring Man Find Time for Self-Culture?" while [[Mark Mothersbaugh]] contributed backup vocals.)
'''As The Wipeouters:'''
*''[[P'Twaaang!!!]]'' (2001)
==Singles==
* 1976 - "[[Mongoloid (song)|Mongoloid]]" (Booji Boy Label)
* 1977 - "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" (Booji Boy Label)
* 1978 - "Be Stiff" (Stiff Records)
* 1978 - "Come Back Jonee"
* 1979 - "The Day My Baby Gave Me a Surprize"
* 1979 - "Secret Agent Man"
* 1979 - "Flimsy Wrap"
* 1980 - "Girl U Want"
* 1980 - "[[Whip It]]" (#14 US)
* 1980 - "Gates of Steel"
* 1980 - "Freedom of Choice"
* 1981 - "Through Being Cool"
* 1981 - "Working in a Coalmine" (#43 US)
* 1981 - "Beautiful World" (Picture Disc)
* 1982 - "Jerkin' Back 'n' Forth"
* 1982 - "Peek-a-Boo!"
* 1983 - "That's Good" (Picture Disc)
* 1983 - "Theme from Doctor Detroit"
* 1984 - "Are You Experienced?"
* 1985 - "Here to Go"
* 1985 - "Shout"
* 1988 - "Disco Dancer"
* 1988 - "Baby Doll"
* 1990 - "Post Post-Modern Man"
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.clubdevo.com Club DEVO] - Official website
* [http://www.huboon.com Devo Live Guide] - Comprehensive guide to Devo's live performances.
* [http://www.DEVObook.com DEVOBook.com] - a book about the history and development of Devo, made without their input and rejected by them as allegedly inaccurate
*[http://devo.devaluate.com/Devolution.doc DEVO: The First Post-Modern Band] Essay on Devo and Kent State
*[http://www.cleveland.com/music/index_story.ssf?/music/more/local/cle/3a/readers/index.html Readers vs. Breeders: Didactical Works re De-Evolution] originally appearing in Los Angeles Staff, 1972
* [http://www.mutato.com Mutato Muzika]
*[http://www.gocodon.org/artistmonthpage.htm Mark Mothersbaugh talks about DEVO, his visual art, science, and Hollywood on www.gocodon.org.]
* [http://www.rhinohandmade.com Rhino Handmade]
* [http://www.devo-obsesso.com Michael Pilmer's DEVO Collection] - The largest collection of DEVO memoribilia, anywhere
* [http://www.forte-intl.com/~ronald/devo/ Devo lyrics and the Devo Print Archive in PDF format]
* [http://www.sanspoint.com/basement/ Booji Boy's Basement] - band-sanctioned site for trading live recordings and demos
* [http://www.chaoscontrol.com/content_article.php?article=devo Mark Mothersbaugh interviewed ] - Mark talks about DEVO, soundtrack work and the Wipeouters side-project.
* [http://disney.go.com/disneyrecords/Song-Albums/devo20/ DEVO 2.0] - Official Disney Records site
[[Category:American musical groups]]
[[Category:Art rock musical groups]]
[[Category:New Wave groups]]
[[Category:Post-punk]]
[[Category:Musical groups from Ohio]]
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[[sv:Devo]]
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<page>
<title>Djinn</title>
<id>9131</id>
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<timestamp>2004-07-20T19:06:14Z</timestamp>
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<username>Heenan73</username>
<id>85908</id>
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<page>
<title>Dale Chihuly</title>
<id>9132</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:56:09Z</timestamp>
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<ip>206.200.254.205</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chihuly Inside and Out close-up (cropped).jpg|thumb|'''Dale Chihuly''' has become famous for his intricate, vividly-colored, eye-catching glasswork. This work, ''Inside and Out'', belongs to the [[Joslyn Art Museum]] in [[Omaha, Nebraska]].]]
[[Image:Chihuly Chandelier close-up.jpg|thumb|Chihuly's ''Glowing Gemstone Polyvitro Chandelier'' also hangs in the main atrium of the Joslyn Art Museum.]]
[[Image:VandA Rotunda.jpg|thumb|In [[2000]], Dale Chihuly completed a commission from the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] for a 30ft high, blown glass, [[chandelier]] dominating the museum's main entrance.]]
[[image:glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Chihuly's ''The Sun'' on temporary display until January 2006 at Kew Gardens, London, England. The piece is 13 feet (4 metres) high]]
'''Dale Chihuly''' (b. [[September 20]], [[1941]] in [[Tacoma, Washington]], [[United States|USA]]) is a modern day [[glass]] [[sculpture|sculptor]].
Chihuly grew up and graduated from high school in Tacoma. Supported by his mother after his brother George's death in a flight-training accident in Florida and his father's death of a heart attack, he had no intention to continue his education until his mother convinced him to enroll at the College of the Puget Sound (now [[University of Puget Sound]]) in [[1959]]. A year later, he transferred to the [[University of Washington]] at [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], where, though he studied [[interior design]] and [[architecture]], he first tried [[glassblowing]]. In 1967 he received a Masters of Science in Glassblowing from the University of Wisconsin. In 1968 he received an Masters of Fine Arts in Sculpture at the [[Rhode Island School of Design]], where he later helped establish the school's glass program. In that year he also received a Fulbright Fellowship, and went on to become the first American glassblower to work in the prestigious Venini Fabrica on the island of [[Murano]]. Along with several other glass artists, Chihuly founded the influential and inventive [[Pilchuck Glass School]] in [[1971]] in [[Stanwood, Washington]].
Chihuly lives and works at his 25,000 [[square foot]] (2300 m&sup2;) [[studio]] on [[Lake Union]]. Since losing the [[visual perception|vision]] in one of his [[eye|eyes]] in an [[automobile]] accident in [[1976]], Chihuly (who wears an [[eyepatch]]) no longer has the [[depth perception]] necessary to handle the molten glass himself. Instead, he conceptualizes each project with [[paint]] and [[canvas]] and then employs a team of artists to do the handiwork. In 1991, Chihuly began his Niijima Floats Series (see link below), some of the largest blown glass pieces in the world, at the [[Niijima]] International Glass Art Festival in [[Japan]].
==Permanent collections==
[[United States]]
*[[Colorado]]
**([[2004]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/cosprings/] [[Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center]], [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]]
*[[Minnesota]]
**([[2001]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/Art/mayo3B.html] [[Mayo Clinic]], [[Rochester, Minnesota|Rochester]]
*[[Nebraska]]
**([[2000]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/joslyn.html] [[Joslyn Art Museum]], [[Omaha, Nebraska|Omaha]]
**([[2000]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/Art/nebraskaB.html] [[University_of_Nebraska_at_Omaha|University of Nebraska]], [[Omaha, Nebraska|Omaha]]
*[[Nevada]]
**([[1998]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/Fiori/fiori.html Fiori di Como]'', [[Bellagio (hotel and casino)|Bellagio Hotel and Casino]], [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]]
*[[New Jersey]]
**([[2003]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/borgata01.html] [[Borgata|Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa]], [[Atlantic City, New Jersey|Atlantic City]]
*[[New York]]
**([[1987]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/Art/FAbram_Img0083B.html Rainbow Room Frieze]'', [[Rockefeller Center]], [[New York, New York|New York]]
**([[1994]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/stpeters.html Persian Window]'', St. Peter's Church, [[ |
onese.
**Cantonese includes various dialects, such as [[Taishan dialect]] or [[Waitau]].
* '''[[Cantonese cuisine]]''': cuisine of the style historically popularized in [[Guangzhou]], or broadly, among [[overseas Chinese|Chinese communities abroad]] with origins in Guangdong.
== Etymology ==
The term "Cantonese" derives from the place-name "[[Canton, China|Canton]]", a former name used in Western languages for Guangzhou, the capital of Guangdong Province. Most likely, it is a development of the Cantonese-language pronunciation ''Gwong Dung'', the name of the province, romanized in former systems as Kwang Tung or Kwangtung. The name 'Canton' was then erroneously applied to the city of Guangzhou. In some European languages both the city and the province is known as Canton (or similar spellings). Additional confusion may have come about as a result of confusion between Cantonese-language and other Chinese versions of the name (e.g. [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]]), as well as mispronunciations by users of the romanization systems.
== See also ==
* [[List of Cantonese-related topics]]
{{disambig}}
[[ru:Кантонский]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Charles Chaplin</title>
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<page>
<title>Çatalhöyük</title>
<id>5765</id>
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<id>41590427</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T09:49:06Z</timestamp>
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<username>Zserghei</username>
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<comment>+ ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CatalHoyukSouthArea.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Excavations at the South Area of Çatal Höyük]]
'''Çatalhöyük''' {{IPA|/&#679;&#593;t&#593;l højyk/}} (also ''Çatal Höyük'' and ''Çatal Hüyük'', or any of the three without [[accent mark]]s -- Çatal is [[Turkish language|Turkish]] for 'fork' and Höyük is [[Turkish language|Turkish]] for "mound") was a very large [[Neolithic]] and [[Chalcolithic]] settlement in southern [[Anatolia]], dating from around 7500 BC for the lowest layers. It is perhaps the largest and most sophisticated Neolithic site yet uncovered.
Çatalhöyük is located overlooking wheatfields in the Konya Plain, southeast of the present-day city of [[Konya]], [[Turkey]], approximately eighty-five miles from the twin-coned volcano of [[Hasan Da&#287;]]. The eastern settlement forms a mound which would have risen about 20 metres above the plain at the time of the latest Neolithic occupation. There is also a smaller settlement mound to the west and a [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] settlement a few hundred meters to the east. The prehistoric mound settlements were abandoned before the [[Bronze Age]]. A channel of the Çarsamba river once flowed between the two mounds, and the settlement was built on alluvial clay which may have been favourable for early [[agriculture]].
== Archaeological history ==
First discovered in 1958, the Çatalhöyük site was brought to worldwide attention by [[James Mellaart]]'s excavations between [[1961]] and [[1965]], which revealed this section of [[Anatolia]] as a centre of advanced culture in the [[Neolithic]] period. After Mellaart was banned from Turkey for involvement in the "Dorak affair" in which he published drawings of supposedly important Bronze Age artifacts that later went missing (see Pearson and Connor, below), the site lay idle until September 1, 1993, when investigations began under the leadership of [[Ian Hodder]] from the [[University of Cambridge]]. These investigations are among the most ambitious excavation projects currently in progress according to, among others, [[Colin Renfrew]]. In addition to extensive use of [[archaeological science]], psychologists' and artists' interpretations of the [[symbolism]] of the wall paintings have also been employed.
== Cultural findings ==
The settlement was described by Mellaart as the earliest city in the world. However, it is more properly described as an overgrown village rather than a true town or city. The community seems to have consisted entirely of domestic housing with open areas for dumping rubbish. There are no obvious public buildings or signs of division of labour, although some dwellings are larger than the rest and bear more elaborate wall paintings. The purpose of larger rooms remains unclear, though some sort of ritual purpose is suspected.
The population of the eastern mound has been estimated at up to 10,000 people, but population totals likely varied over the community’s history. An average population of between 5,000 to 8,000 is a reasonable estimate. The inhabitants lived in mud-brick houses which were crammed together in an agglutinative manner. No footpaths or streets were used between the dwellings, which were clustered in a honeycomb-like maze. Most were accessed by holes in the ceiling, which were reached by interior and exterior ladders. The ceiling openings also served as the only source of ventilation, letting in fresh air and allowing smoke from open hearths and ovens to escape. House interiors were characterized by squared off timber ladders or steep stairs, usually placed on the south wall of the room, as were [[cooking hearths]] and [[ovens]]. Each main room served as an area for cooking and daily activities. Raised platforms built along the walls of main rooms were used for sitting, working and sleeping. These platforms, and all interior walls, were carefully plastered to a smooth finish. Ancillary rooms were used as storage, and were accessed through low entry openings from main rooms. All rooms were kept scrupulously clean. Archaeologists identified very little trash or rubbish within the buildings, but found that trash heaps outside the ruins contain sewage and food waste as well as significant amounts of wood ash. In good weather, many daily activities may also have taken place on the rooftops, which conceivably formed an open air plaza. In later periods, large communal ovens appear to have been built on these rooftops. Over time, houses were renewed by partial demolition and rebuilding on a foundation of rubble&mdash; which was how the mound became built up. Up to eighteen levels of settlement have been uncovered.
The people of Çatalhöyük buried their dead within the village. Human remains have been found in pits beneath the floors, and especially beneath hearths and the platforms within the main rooms. The bodies were tightly flexed before burial, and were often placed in [[baskets]] or wrapped in reed mats. Disarticulated bones in some graves suggest that bodies may have been exposed in the open air for a time before the bones were gathered and buried. In some cases, graves were disturbed and the individual’s head removed from the skeleton. These heads may have been used in ritual, as some were found in other areas of the community. Some skulls were plastered and painted with ochre to recreate human-like faces, a custom more characteristic of Neolithic sites in Syria and at Neolithic [[Jericho]] than at sites closer by .
Vivid [[murals]] and [[figurines]] are found throughout the settlement, on interior and exterior walls. Predominant images include men with erect phalluses, groups of men in hunting scenes, and red images of the now extinct [[aurochs]] and stags, and vultures swooping down on headless figures. Heads of animals were mounted on walls. In addition, distinctive [[clay]] figurines of women have been found in the upper levels of the site. Although no identifiable temples have been found, the graves, murals and figurines suggest that the people of Çatalhöyük had a religion that was rich in symbol. Rooms with concentrations of these items may have been shrines or public meeting areas. The people appear to have lived relatively egalitarian lives with no apparent social classes, as no houses with distinctive features (belonging to [[Monarch|kings]] or [[priests]], for example) have been found so far. The most recent investigations also reveal little social distinction based on gender, with both men and women receiving equivalent nutrition and apparently having relatively equal social status.
In upper levels of the site, it becomes apparent that the people of Çatalhöyük were gaining skills in [[agriculture]] and the domestication of animals. Female figurines have been found within bins used for storage of [[cereal]]s such as [[wheat]] and [[barley]]. [[Peas]] were also grown, and [[almonds]], [[pistachio]]s, and fruit were harvested from trees in the surrounding hills. [[domestic sheep|Sheep]] were domesticated and evidence suggests the beginning of [[cattle]] [[domestication]] as well. However, [[hunting]] continued to be a major source of meat for the community. The making of [[pottery]] and the construction of [[obsidian]] tools were major industries. Obsidian tools were probably both used and traded for items as [[Mediterranean]] [[sea]] [[animal shell|shells]] and [[flint]] from [[Syria]].
== Religion ==
One striking features of Catalhoyuk are its female figurines. Mellaart, the original excavator, argued that these well-formed, carefully made figurines, carved and molded from marble, blue and brown limestone, schist, calcite, basalt, alabaster and clay, represented female deity. Although a male deity existed as well, “…statues of a female deity far outnumber those of the male deity, who moreover, does not appear to be represented at all after Level VI” (James Mellaart, Catal Huyuk: A Neolithic Town in Anatolia. McGraw-Hill 1967, p. 181). These careful figurines were found primarily in areas Mellaart believed |
ww.bio-balance.com/Graphics.htm link]). Three types of ligands exist: agonists are ligands which shift the equilibrium in favour of active states; [[inverse agonist]]s are ligands which shift the equilibrium in favour of inactive states; and neutral antagonists are ligands which do not affect the equilibrium. It is not yet known how exactly the active and inactive states differ from each other.
If a receptor in an active state encounters a [[G protein]], it may activate it. Some evidence suggests that receptors and G-proteins are actually pre-coupled. For example, binding of G-proteins to receptors affects the receptor's affinity for ligands.
===GPCR signaling without G-proteins===
In the late 1990s, evidence began accumulating that some GPCRs are able to signal without G-proteins. The ERK2 mitogen-activated protein kinase, a key signal transduction mediator downstream of receptor activation in many pathways, has been shown to be activated in response to cAMP-mediated receptor activation in the slime mold ''D. discoideum'' despite the absence of the associated G-protein &alpha;- and &beta;-subunits.
In mammalian cells the well-studied &beta;2-adrenoceptor has been demonstrated to activate the ERK2 pathway after arrestin-mediated uncoupling of G-protein mediated signalling. It therefore seems likely that some mechanisms previously believed to be purely related to receptor desensitisation are actually examples of receptors switching their signalling pathway rather than simply being switched off.
== Receptor regulation ==
GPCRs are known to become less sensitive to their ligand when they are exposed to it for a prolonged period of time. The key reaction of this downregulation is the [[phosphorylation]] of the intracellular (or [[cytoplasm|cytoplasmic]]) receptor domain by [[protein kinase]]s.
=== Phosphorylation by cAMP-dependent protein kinases ===
[[Cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase]]s (protein kinase A) are activated by the signal chain coming from the G protein (that was activated by the receptor) via [[adenylate cyclase]] and [[cyclic AMP]] (cAMP). In a ''feedback mechanism'', these activated kinases phosphorylate the receptor. The longer the receptor remains active, the more kinases are activated, the more receptors are phosphorylated.
=== Phosphorylation by GRKs ===
The [[G-protein-coupled receptor kinases]] (GRKs) are protein kinases that phosphorylate only active GPCRs.
Phosphorylation of the receptor can have two consequences:
# ''Translocation''. The receptor is, along with the part of the membrane it is embedded in, brought to the inside of the cell, where it is dephosphorylated and then brought back. This mechanism is used to regulate long-term exposure, for example, to a hormone.
# ''[[Arrestin]] linking''. The phosphorylated receptor can be linked to ''arrestin'' molecules that prevent it from binding (and activating) G proteins, effectively switching it off for a short period of time. This mechanism is used, for example, with [[rhodopsin]] in [[retina]] cells to compensate for exposure to bright light. In many cases, arrestin binding to the receptor is a prerequisite for translocation.
== Receptor oligomerization ==
It is generally accepted that that G-protein-coupled receptors can form homo- and/or hetero-dimers and possibly more complex oligomeric structures. However, it is presently unproven that true hetero-dimers exist. Present bio-chemical and physical techniques lack the resolution to differentiate between distinct homo-dimers assembled into an oligomer or true 1:1 hetero-dimers. It is also unclear what the functional significance of oligomerization is. This is an actively studied area in GPCR research.
== References ==
* {{note | lotsofdrugs}} {{news reference
| firstname=David
| lastname=Filmore
| pages=11
| title=It's a GPCR world
| date=November 2004
| org=Modern Drug Discovery (American Chemical Society)
| url=http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/mdd/v07/i11/html/1104feature_filmore.html
}}
* {{cite journal
| author=Kroeze, W.K., Sheffler, D.J., and Roth, B.L.
| title=G-protein-coupled receptors at a glance
| journal=Journal of Cell Science
| year=2003
| volume=116
| pages=4867–4869
| url=http://jcs.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/116/24/4867
}}
* {{note | confequil}} {{cite journal
| author=Rubenstein, Lester A. and Lanzara, Richard G.
| title=Activation of G protein-coupled receptors entails cysteine modulation of agonist binding
| journal=Journal of Molecular Structure (Theochem)
| year=1998
| volume=430
| pages=57–71
| url=http://cogprints.org/4095/
}}
[[de:G-Protein-gekoppelter Rezeptor]]
[[fi:G-proteiinikytkentäinen reseptori]]
[[Category:Membrane biology]]
[[Category:G protein coupled receptors]]
[[Category:Signal transduction]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GTPase</title>
<id>12833</id>
<revision>
<id>42091630</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:47:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<comment>converting HTML to wiki markup using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''GTPases''' are a large family of [[enzyme]]s that can bind and [[hydrolysis|hydrolyze]] [[Guanosine triphosphate|GTP]]. The GTP binding and hydrolysis takes place in the highly [[conserved]] ''G [[domain (protein)|domain]]'' common to all GTPases. GTPases play an important role in:
* [[Signal transduction]] at the intracellular domain of [[G protein-coupled receptor|transmembrane receptor]]s, including recognition of taste, smell and light.
* [[Protein biosynthesis]] (aka [[translation (biology)|translation]]) at the [[ribosome]].
* Control and [[cellular differentiation|differentiation]] during [[cell division]].
* [[Translocation]] of [[protein]]s through [[cell membrane|membrane]]s.
* Transport of [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s within the [[cell (biology)|cell]]. (GTPases control assembly of vesicle coats).
==Mechanism of GTP==
The hydrolysis of the &gamma; [[phosphate]] of GTP supposedly occurs by the S<sub>N</sub>2 mechanism (see [[nucleophilic substitution]]) via a ''pentavalent intermediate state'' depending on [[magnesium|Mg<sup>2+</sup>]].
<!-- Insert image here -->
==Regulatory GTPases==
Regulatory GTPases, also called the [[GTPase superfamily]], are GTPases used for regulation of other [[biochemistry|biochemical]] processes. Most prominent among the regulatory GTPases are the G proteins.
===GTP switch===
All regulatory GTPases have a common mechanism that enables them to switch a [[signal transduction]] chain on and off. Throwing the switch is performed by the unidirectional change of the GTPase from the ''active, [[GTP]]-bound form'' to the ''inactive, [[guanosine diphosphate|GDP]]-bound form'' by [[hydrolysis]] of the GTP through intrinsic GTPase-activity, effectively switching the GTPase ''off''. This reaction is initiated by [[GTPase-activating protein]]s (GAPs), coming from another signal transduction pathway. It can be reverted (switching the GTPase ''on'' again) by [[Guanine nucleotide exchange factor]]s (GEFs), which cause the GDP to dissociate from the GTPase, leading to its association with a new GTP. This closes the cycle to the active state of the GTPase; the irreversible hydrolysis of the GTP to GDP forces the cycle to run only in one direction. Only the active state of the GTPase can transduce a signal to a reaction chain.
===Switch regulation===
The efficiency of the signal transduction via a GTPase depends on the ratio of active to inactive GTPase. That equals:
<!--
:GTPase*GTP k<sub>diss.GDP</sub>
:<sup>__________</sup> = <sup>_________</sup>
:GTPase*GDP k<sub>cat.GTP</sub>
-->
:<math>
\frac {\mbox{GTPase}*\mbox{GTP}} {\mbox{GTPase}*\mbox{GDP}} =
\frac {k_\mbox{diss.GDP}} {k_\mbox{cat.GTP}}
</math>
with ''k<sub>diss.GDP</sub>'' being the dissociation constant of GDP, and ''k<sub>cat.GTP</sub>'' the hydrolysis constant of GTP for the specific GTPase. Both constants can be modified by special regulatory proteins.<br>
The amount of active GTPase can be changed in several ways :
# Acceleration of GDP dissociation by GEFs speeds up the building of active GTPase.
# Inhibition of GDP dissociation by [[guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor]]s (GDIs) slows down the building of active GTPase.
# Acceleration of GTP hydrolysis by GAPs reduces the amount of active GTPase.
# ''GTP analogues'' like ''&gamma;-S-GTP'', ''&beta;,&gamma;-methylene-GTP'', and ''&beta;,&gamma;-imino-GTP'' that cannot be hydrolized fixate the GTPase in its active state.
==Heterotrimeric G proteins==
These G proteins are made from three subunits, with the G domain located on the largest one (the ''&alpha; unit''); together with the two smaller subunits (''&beta;'' and ''&gamma; units''), they form a tightly associated protein complex. &alpha; and &gamma; unit are associated with the membrane by [[lipid anchor]]s. Heterotrimeric G proteins act as the specific reaction partners of [[G protein-coupled receptor]]s. The GTPase is normally inactive. Upon receptor activation, the intracellular receptor domain activates the GTPase, which in turn activates other molecules of the signal transduction chain, either via the &alpha; unit or the &beta;&gamma; complex. Among the target molecules of the active GTPase are [[adenylate cyclase]] and [[ion channel]]s. The heterotrimeric G proteins can be classified by [[sequence homology]] of the &alpha; unit into four families:
# ''G<sub>s</sub> family.'' These G proteins are used in the signal transduction of taste and smell. They always use the activation of [[adenylate cyclase]] as the next step in the signal chain. Their function is permanently acti |
sweb/src/share/misc/license.template?rev=HEAD license] modeled after the [[Internet Systems Consortium|ISC]] license for all additional software created by the project, as it is functionally a two-clause BSD-styled license, with no additional clauses or consequences involved.
* [[SixXS]] uses an extended 3-clause BSD [[http://www.sixxs.net/tools/aiccu/LICENSE LICENSE]], the license contains a short list of the differences compared to the 3 clause BSD license. 'Written' permission has been removed from the 3rd clause, email suffices. 2 clauses added which requires that no logo's or texts are removed, which is similar to the 1st clause. The 5th clause makes a request to notify the authors when one is using this software for alternate purposes than SixXS. The latter is mainly of interest because the AICCU software is written with SixXS in mind and not with other providers. If somebody thus makes an interoperable server, using the protocols that have been specified, they would be happy to know about this.
==See also==
* [[BSD and GPL licensing]]
==External links==
* [http://www.opensource.org/licenses/bsd-license.php BSD License Template]
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/bsd.html The BSD License Problem (GNU Project)] (This article is mostly outdated, because of the license change in 1999.)
* [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/gilbert.fernandes/usl_bsd/index.html Materials about the Unix System Laboratories v. BSD case]
* [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/opensources/book/kirkmck.html Marshall Kirk McKusick, ''Twenty Years of Berkeley Unix: From AT&T-Owned to Freely Redistributable'', in: Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution, O'Reilly 1999]
[[Category:Open source licenses]][[Category:Free software licenses]][[Category:BSD]]
[[cs:BSD licence]]
[[de:BSD-Lizenz]]
[[es:Licencia BSD]]
[[fr:Licence BSD]]
[[ko:BSD식 사용 허가서]]
[[it:Licenza BSD]]
[[hu:BSD License]]
[[nl:BSD-licentie]]
[[ja:BSDライセンス]]
[[no:BSD-lisensen]]
[[pl:Licencja BSD]]
[[pt:Licença BSD]]
[[ru:Лицензия BSD]]
[[simple:BSD licence]]
[[zh:BSD许可证]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Biostatistics</title>
<id>3878</id>
<revision>
<id>40019543</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T15:17:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.205.191.123</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the automated recognition of people based on intrinsic physical or behavioural traits, see [[Biometrics]].''
'''Biostatistics''' or '''biometry''' is the application of [[statistics]] to a wide range of topics in [[biology]]. It has particular applications to [[medicine]] and to [[agriculture]].
''Note on terminology'': Although the terms "biostatistics" and "biometry" are sometimes used interchangeably, "biometry" is more often used of biological or agricultural applications and "biostatistics" of medical applications. In older sources "biometrics" is used as a [[synonym]] for "biometry", but this term has now been largely usurped by the [[information technology]] industry.
== Biostatistics and the history of biological thought ==
Biostatistical reasoning and modeling were critical in formation of the foundation theories of modern biology. In the early [[1900s]], after the rediscovery of [[Mendel|Mendel's]] work, the conceptual gaps in understanding between [[genetics]] and evolutionary [[Darwinism]] led to vigorous debate between biometricians such as [[Walter Frank Raphael Weldon|Walter Weldon]] and [[Karl Pearson]] and Mendelians such as [[Charles Benedict Davenport|Charles Davenport]] and [[William Bateson]]. By the [[1930s]] statisticians and models built on statistical reasoning had helped to resolve these differences and to produce the Neo-Darwinian [[Modern evolutionary synthesis]].
The leading figures in the establishment of this synthesis all relied on statistics and developed its use in biology.
* [[Ronald Fisher|Sir Ronald Fisher]] developed several basic statistical methods in support of his work ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]''
* [[Sewall G. Wright]] used statistics in the development of modern [[population genetics]]
* [[J. B. S. Haldane|J. B. S Haldane's]] book, ''The Causes of Evolution'', reestablished natural selection as the premier mechanism of evolution by explaining it in terms of the mathematical consequences of Mendelian genetics.
These individuals and the work of other biostatisticians, mathematical biologists, and statistically inclined geneticists helped bring together [[evolutionary biology]] and [[genetics]] into a consistent, coherent whole that could begin to be quantitatively modeled.
In parallel to this overall development, the pioneering work of [[D'Arcy Thompson]] in ''On Growth and Form'' also helped to add quantitative discipline to biological study.
== Education and Training Programs ==
Almost all educational programmes in biostatistics are at [[postgraduate]] level. They are most often found in schools of public health, affiliated with schools of medicine, forestry, or agriculture or as a focus of application in departments of statistics. In the United States, several universities have dedicated biostatistics departments; many other top-tier universities integrate Biostatistics faculty into Statistics (or other) departments.
Many universities that deal with ecological research have a biostatistics course that introduces concepts such as [[hypothesis testing]] for univariate and sometimes multivariate [[data set]]s with one, two, or more samples. Often this is combined or followed with some kind of experimental design course.
== Applications of biostatistics==
* [[Public health]], including [[epidemiology]], [[nutrition]] and [[environmental health]],
* Design and analysis of [[clinical trial]]s in [[medicine]]
* [[Genomics]], [[population genetics]], and [[statistical genetics]] in populations in order to link variation in [[genotype]] with a variation in [[phenotype]]. This has been used in agriculture to improve crops and farm animals. In biomedical research, this work can assist in finding candidates for [[gene]] [[alleles]] that can cause or influence predisposition to disease in [[human genetics]]
* [[Ecology]]
* Biological [[sequence analysis]]
Statistical methods are beginning to be integrated into [[medical informatics]] and [[bioinformatics]].
== Related Fields ==
Biostatistics draws quantitative methods from fields such as:
*[[statistics]],
*[[operations research]],
*[[economics]], and, generally,
*[[mathematics]]
==See also==
* [[Mathematical biology]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_medicine#Biostatistics| Important publications in biostatistics]]
==External links==
* [http://www.tibs.org The International Biometric Society]
* [http://www.asph.org/document.cfm?page=200 The American Association of Schools of Public Health]
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Bioinformatics]]
[[de:Biostatistik]]
[[es:Bioestadística]]
[[he:ביומטריה]]
[[sv:Biostatistik]]
[[zh:&#29983;&#29289;&#32479;&#35745;&#23398;]]
[[pt:Biometria]]
[[tr:biyometri]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Business statistics</title>
<id>3879</id>
<revision>
<id>35329934</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T23:46:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Savidan</username>
<id>677067</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ fix drd</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Business statistics''' is the science of good decision making in the face of uncertainty and is used in many disciplines such as financial analysis, econometrics, auditing, production and operations including services improvement, and marketing research. These sources feature regular repetitive publication of series of data. This makes the topic of [[time series]] especially important for business statistics. It is also a branch of [[applied statistics]] working mostly on data collected as a by-product of doing business or by government agencies. It provides knowledge and skills to interpret and use statistical techniques in a variety of business applications. A typical business statistics course is intended for business majors, and covers statistical study, descriptive statistics (collection, description, analysis, and summary of data), probability, and the binomial and normal distributions, test of hypotheses and confidence intervals, linear regression, and correlation.
==See also==
*[[Sampling (statistics)|Sampling]]
**[[Simple random sampling]]
**[[Systematic sampling]]
**[[Stratified sampling]]
**[[Cluster sampling]]
**[[Multistage sampling]]
**[[Nonprobability sampling]]
*[[Conjoint analysis (in marketing)|Conjoint analysis]]
*[[Factor analysis]]
*[[Multidimensional scaling in marketing|Multidimensional scaling]]
*[[Discriminant analysis (in marketing)|Discriminant analysis]]
*[[Cluster analysis (in marketing)|Cluster analysis]]
*[[Preference regression (in marketing)|Preference regression]]
*[[Logit analysis in marketing|Logit analysis]]
*[[Intent scale translation]]
*[[Preference-rank translation]]
*[[Quantitative marketing research]]
**[[Statistical survey|Statistical surveys]]
**[[Questionnaire construction]]
**[[Scale (social sciences)|Scales]]
**[[Experimental techniques]]
**[[Observational techniques]]
**[[Cross tab]]
*[[XbarR chart]]
*[[Six Sigma]]
[[Category:Business]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blaxploitation</title>
<id>3882</id>
<revision>
<id>41056366</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T19:51:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.170.255.14</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blaxploitation''' is a [[portmanteau]], or combination, of the words &ldquo;black&rdquo; and &ldquo;exploitation&rdquo;. It is a [[film genre]] which emerged in the [[United States]] in the early [[1970s]] when ma |
/Recipes/hominy.htm Homemade Hominy]. Retrieved June 18, 2005.
* Ha-pah-shu-tse (2005). [http://www.redcorn.com/about_hominy.html Hominey Products]. Retrieved June 18, 2005.
[[de:Maismehl]]
[[Category:Cereals]]
[[Category:Grains]]
[[Category:American cuisine]]
[[Category:Cuisine of the Southern United States]]
[[Category:Fruits and vegetables of Mexico]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Home computers</title>
<id>13954</id>
<revision>
<id>15911538</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-26T11:52:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.94.11.2</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[Home computer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>W. Heath Robinson</title>
<id>13955</id>
<revision>
<id>34345920</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-08T08:28:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.130.254.249</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''William Heath Robinson''' ([[May 31]], [[1872]]&ndash;[[September 13]], [[1944]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[cartoonist]] and [[illustrator]], who signed himself '''W. Heath Robinson'''.
Born into a family of artists in [[London]], his early career was as a book illustrator, for example in [[Hans Christian Andersen]]'s ''Tales; The Arabian Nights'', (1899); ''Tales From Shakespeare'' (1902), and ''Twelfth Night'' (1908), [[Charles Kingsley]]'s ''The Water Babies'' (1915), and [[Walter de la Mare|Walter de la Mare's]] ''Peacock Pie'' (1916).
In the course of this however, he wrote and illustrated two children's books, ''The Adventures of Uncle Lubin'' (1902), and ''Bill the Minder'' (1912); these are regarded as the start of his career in the depiction of unlikely machines. During [[World War I]] he drew large numbers of cartoons, collected as ''Some "Frightful" War Pictures'' (1915), ''Hunlikely!'' (1916), and ''Flypapers'' (1919), depicting ever-more-unlikely secret weapons being used by the combatants.
Besides these, he produced a steady stream of humorous drawings, for magazines and advertisements. In 1934, he published a collection of his favourites as ''Absurdities'', such as
*"The Wart Chair. A simple apparatus for removing a wart from the top of the head"
*"Resuscitating stale railway scones for redistribution at the station buffets"
*"The multimovement Tabby Silencer", which automatically threw water at serenading cats
Most of his cartoons have since been reprinted many times in multiple collections.
The machines he drew were usually kept running by balding, bespectacled men in overalls. The machines were frequently powered by steam boilers or kettles, heated by candles or a spirit lamp; often there would be complex pulley arrangements, threaded by lengths of knotted string. Robinson's cartoons were so popular, that even to this day in Britain, the name "Heath Robinson" is used as shorthand for an improbable, rickety machine barely kept going by incessant tinkering. (The corresponding term in the U.S. is ''[[Rube Goldberg]]'', after an American cartoonist with an equal devotion to odd machinery.)
One of the automatic analysis machines built for [[Bletchley Park]] during [[World War II]] to assist in the decryption of German message traffic was named "Heath Robinson" in his honour. It was a direct predecessor to the [[Colossus computer|Colossus]], the world's first programmable digital electronic [[computer]].
== External links ==
*[http://www.heathrobinson.org The William Heath Robinson Trust]
*[http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/exhibitions/heathrobinson Heath Robinson online exhibition]
*[http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/illustrations/illustrators/whrobinson.html SurLaLune Fairy Tale Pages: Fairy Tale Illustrations of William Heath Robinson]
*[http://www.nocloo.com/gallery2 Children's Book Illustrators Gallery - Large Archive of W.H Robinson illustrations]
[[Category:1872 births|Robinson, W. Heath]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Robinson, W. Heath]]
[[Category:British cartoonists|Robinson, W. Heath]]
[[Category:British illustrators|Robinson, W. Heath]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Heraclius</title>
<id>13956</id>
<revision>
<id>41748601</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:35:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.70.172.4</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Patriarch of Jerusalem, see [[Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem]].''
[[Image:Solidus-Heraclius-sb0764.jpg|thumb|300px|Heraclius and his sons [[Constantine III (emperor)|Heraclius Constantine]] and [[Heraclonas]].]]
'''Flavius Heraclius [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]''' (c. [[575]] - [[February 11]], [[641]]) was [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] from [[October 5]], [[610]] to [[February 11]], [[641]].
==Origins==
Heraclius' family was almost certainly of [[Armenians|Armenian]]{{ref|simocatta}} origins, though beyond that there is little specific information known about his ancestry. He was the son and namesake of Heraclius (generally referred to retroactively as "Heraclius the Elder"), who had been one of Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]'s key generals in the [[590]] war with [[Iran|Persia]]. After the war, Maurice appointed Heraclius the Elder to the position of [[Exarch]] of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]. Though the younger Heraclius' birthplace is unknown, he grew up in Roman Africa; according to one tradition, he engaged in gladiatorial combat with lions as a youth.
==The revolt against Phocas and the accession of Heraclius==
In [[608]], the Heraclius the Elder renounced his loyalty to the Emperor [[Phocas]], who had overthrown Maurice six years earlier. The rebels issued coins showing both Heraclii dressed as [[consul|consuls]], though neither of them explicitly claimed the imperial title at this time. The younger Heraclius' cousin Nicetas launched an overland invasion of [[Egypt]]; by 609, he had defeated Phocas's general Bonosus and secured the province. Meanwhile, the younger Heraclius sailed eastward with another force via Sicily and Cyprus. As he approached [[Constantinople]], he made contact with leading aristocrats in the city, and soon arranged a ceremony where he was crowned and acclaimed as emperor. When he reached the capital, the [[Excubitor]]s, an elite imperial guard unit led by Phocas's own son-in-law Priscus, deserted to Heraclius, and he entered the city without serious resistance. Heraclius personally executed Phocas. On [[October 5]], [[610]], Heraclius was crowned for a second time, this time in the Chapel of St. Stephen within the Great Palace, and at the same time wed his betrothed, Fabia, who took the name Eudocia. She was beloved in Constantinople, and when she died in [[612]] and he married his niece [[Martina]], the second marriage was never approved of. In the reign of Heraclius' two sons, the divisive Martina was to become the center of power and political intrigue.
==The war against Persia==
When Heraclius took power, the Empire was in a desperate situation. Phocas's initial revolt had stripped the Danube frontier of troops, leaving the most of the [[Balkans]] at the mercy of the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]]. The [[Iran|Persian]] King [[Khosrau II of Persia|Chosroes II]], who had been an ally of Maurice, used his death as an excuse to launch a war against the Byzantines. Chosroes had at his court a man who claimed to be Maurice's son Theodosius, and Chosroes demanded that the Byzantines accept him as Emperor. The Persians had slowly gained the upper hand in Mesopotamia over the course of Phocas's reign; when Heraclius' revolt resulted in civil war, the Persians took advantage of the internal conflict to advance deep into Syria.
Heraclius offered peace terms to the Persians upon his accession, but Khosrau refused to treat with him, viewing him as just another usurper of Theodosius' throne. Heraclius' initial military moves against the Persians ended disastrously, and the Persians rapidly advanced westward. They took [[Damascus]] in 613, [[Jerusalem]] in 614 (damaging the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] and capturing the Holy [[True Cross|Cross]] in the process), and [[Egypt]] in 616. They made raids deep into [[Anatolia]] as far as [[Chalcedon]], a town lying almost opposite of Constantinople across the Bosporous. At night, it was said, the people of Constantinople would see Persian watch-fires and their reflection on the water. The Persians were also in communication with the [[Avars]].
The situation was so grave that Heraclius reportedly considered moving the capital from [[Constantinople]] to [[Carthage]]. But he remained in the East and worked on reorganizing the Byzantine military. He developed the idea of granting land to individuals in return for hereditary military service. The land so granted was organised into ''[[thema]]'', a Greek word to describe a division of troops, and each theme was placed under the command of a ''[[strategos]]'' or military governor. This arrangement ensured the continuance of the Empire for hundreds of years and enabled Heraclius to reconquer lands taken by the Persians, ravaging Persia along the way.
Once he had rebuilt the army, Heraclius took the field himself in [[621]], the first emperor to campaign against a foreign enemy in person since [[Theodosius I]]. Confident that Constantinople was well defended, and unwilling to engage in a war of attrition over the lost eastern provinces, he marched across Asia Minor and invaded Persia itself. He would stay on campaign for several years. In [[626]], Constantinople itself was besieged by the Avars; but Persian attempts to cross the Bosporus and aid the Avars were repulsed by the Byzantine navy, and the Avars withdrew. Meanwhile, Heraclius acquired the assistance of the [[Khazars]] and other Turkic troops. Heraclius also exploite |
8 and 9 in English)]
{{evolutionary biology}}
{{Human Evolution}}
[[Category:Human evolution|*]]
[[Category:Neogene]]
[[bs:Ljudska evolucija]]
[[cs:Vývoj člověka]]
[[da:Menneskets udvikling]]
[[de:Hominisation]]
[[es:Evolución humana]]
[[et:Inimese evolutsioon]]
[[fi:Ihmisen evoluutio]]
[[fr:Lignée humaine]]
[[ko:인류의 진화]]
[[pl:Ewolucja człowieka]]
[[pt:Evolução Humana]]
[[la:Evolutio Hominis]]
[[sl:Nastanek in razvoj človeka]]
[[sr:Развој човека]]
[[sv:Människans utveckling]]
[[th:วิวัฒนาการของมนุษย์]]
[[uk:Антропогенез]]
[[zh:人类起源]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eighteen wheeler</title>
<id>10327</id>
<revision>
<id>15908145</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Semi-trailer]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evliya Çelebi</title>
<id>10328</id>
<revision>
<id>33251623</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-30T14:09:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Opoudjis</username>
<id>374618</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Evliya Çelebi''' (also known as '''Derviş Mehmed Zilli''') was one of the most famous [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] travelers, who traveled throughout the territories of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the neighbouring lands over a period of forty years.
Born on [[February 25]], [[1611]] in [[Istanbul]] as the son of a [[jewellery]] designer for the Ottoman court, he received an excellent education. After initially traveling in Istanbul and taking notes on buildings, markets, customs and culture, he started his first journey outside the city in 1640. His collection of notes of all of his travels formed a ten volume work called ''[[Seyahatname]]'' (Book of Travels). Although many of the descriptions in this book were written in a quite exaggerated manner, his notes are widely accepted as a useful guide to the cultural aspects and life style of Ottoman Empire in the [[17th century]].
The Seyahatname contains the first transcriptions of many [[Caucasian languages]] and [[Tsakonian]], and the only extant specimens of written [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] outside the linguistic literature.
[[Category:Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Explorers of Asia]]
[[de:Evliya Çelebi]]
[[hu:Evlija Cselebi]]
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[[tr:Evliya Çelebi]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eternal existence</title>
<id>10329</id>
<revision>
<id>15908147</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-27T19:06:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.253.39.21</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>redireting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[eternity]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Egyptian mythology</title>
<id>10331</id>
<revision>
<id>41987224</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:37:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joy Stovall</username>
<id>69412</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.63.151.22|203.63.151.22]] ([[User talk:203.63.151.22|talk]]) to last version by DanielCD</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Egyptian mythology''' or '''Egyptian religion''' is the succession of tentative beliefs held by the people of [[Egypt]] for over three thousand years, prior to major exposure to [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].
== Gods ==
[[Image:Egypt.Thoth.01.jpg|right|thumb|111px|Thoth]]
'''Early beliefs can be split into 5 distinct localized groups,
* the [[Ennead]] of [[Heliopolis]], whose chief god was [[Atum]]
* the [[Ogdoad]] of [[Hermopolis]], where the chief god was [[Ra]]
* the [[Chnum]]-[[Satet]]-[[Anuket]] triad of [[Elephantine]], where the chief god was [[Chnum]]
* the [[Amun]]-[[Mut]]-[[Chons]] triad of [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], where the chief god was [[Amun]]
* the [[Ptah]]-[[Sekhmet]]-[[Nefertem]] triad of [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], unusual in that the gods were unconnected before the triad was formalised, where the chief god was [[Ptah]]
[[Image:Egypt.Mythology.Set.jpg|left|thumb|111px|Set]]
Throughout the vast and complex history of Egypt, the dominant beliefs of the Ancient Egyptians merged and mutated as leaders of different groups gained power. This process continued even after the end of the Egyptian civilisation as we know it today. As an example, during the New Kingdom Ra and Amun became [[Amun-Ra]]. This "merging" into a single god is typically referred to as [[syncretism]]. Syncretism should be distinguished from mere groupings, also referred to as "families" such as Amun, Mut and Khonsu, where no "merging" takes place. Over time, deities took part in multiple syncretic relationships, for instance, the combination of Ra and [[Horus]] into [[Ra-Herakty]]. However, even when taking part in such a syncretic relationship, the original deities did not become completely "absorbed" into the combined deity, although the individuality of the one was often greatly weakened. Also, these syncretic relationships sometimes invloved more than just two deities, for instance, Ptah, Seker and [[Osiris]], becoming ''Ptah-Seker-Osiris''. The goddesses followed a similar pattern. Also important to keep in mind is that sometimes the attributes of one deity got closely associated with another, without any "formal" syncretism taking place. For instance, the loose association of [[Hathor]] with [[Isis]].
An interesting aspect of Ancient Egyptian religion is that deities sometimes played different conflicting roles. As an example, the lioness [[Sekhmet]] being sent out by Ra to devour the humans for having rebelled against him, but later on becoming a fierce protectress of the kingdom, life in general and the sick. Even more complex is the roles of [[Set (mythology)|Set]]. By looking at the mythology of Set from a modern perspective it is very easy to cast Set in the role of arch villain and source of evil, especially if one only looks at the mythology surrounding Set's relationship with Osiris. This is however wrong as Set was earlier playing the role of destroyer of Apep, in the service of Ra on his barge, and thus serving to uphold Ma'at (Truth, Justice and Harmony).
Given the diverse tapestry of religeous history in Ancient Egypt, it comes as no surprise that many different forms of theism evolved. Although mainly [[henotheism|henotheistic]] in nature, at some point even [[monotheism]], as introduced by [[Akhenaten]] thrived. What is important to realise is that it is very dangerous to try and cast the religion of the Ancient Egyptians in any particular theistic form. Even more dangerous to claim is that, towards the end of the Egyptian civilisation, a drive toward monotheism was taking place. The evidence of the time (Greaco-Roman period) seems counter to this belief: although syncretism was still taking place (sometimes and more frequently between Egyptian and non-Egyptian deities), many deities were still revered and served. As an example the following which [[Thoth]] enjoyed during these later periods. This is quite evident when one simply looks at the vast number of mummified Ibis birds offered to him. Also, the belief in Egyptian deities were spreading to countries other than Egypt. For instance the Roman belief in, and following of.<b/>
The Egyptians believed that in the beginning, the universe was filled with the dark waters of chaos. The first god, Re-Atum, appeared from the water as the land of Egypt appears every year out of the flood waters of the Nile. <b/>Re-Atum spat and out of the spittle came out the gods Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture). The world was created when Shu and Tefnut gave birth to two children: Nut (sky) & Geb (the Earth). Humans were created when Shu and Tefnut went wandering in the dark wastes and got lost. Re-Atum sent his eye to find them. On reuniting, his tears of joy turned into people. Osiris was the son of Re-Atum and king of Egypt. His brother Seth represented evil in the universe. He murdered Osiris and himself became the king. After killing Osiris Seth tore his body into pieces, but Isis rescued most of the pieces for burial beneath the temple. Seth made himself king but was challenged by Osiris's son-Horus. Seth lost and was sent to the desert. He became the God of terrible storms. Osiris was mummified by Anubis and became God of the dead. Horus became the King and from him descended the pharaohs.
==Death==
Egypt had a highly developed view of the afterlife with elaborate rituals for preparing the body and soul for a peaceful life after death. Beliefs about the [[Egyptian soul|soul]] and afterlife focused heavily on preservation of the body, or ba (The soul was known as the ka). This meant that [[embalming]] and [[Mummy|mummification]] were practiced, in order to preserve the individual's identity in the afterlife. Originally the dead were buried in [[reed (plant)|reed]] caskets in the searing hot [[sand]], which caused the remains to dry quickly, preventing decomposition, and were subsequently buried. Later, they started constructing wooden tombs, and the extensive process of [[mummy|mummification]] and associated [[Egyptian burial rituals and protocol|burial rituals and rules]] began. [[Embalming]] was developed by the Egyptians around the 4th Dynasty. All soft tissues were removed, and the cavities washed and packed with [[natron]], then the exterior body was buried in natron as well. Since it was a stoneable offence to harm the body of the Pharaoh, even after death, the person who made the cut in the abdomen with a rock knife was ceremonially chased away and had rocks thrown at him.
After coming out of the natron, the bodies were coated inside and out with resin to preserve them, then wrapped with li |
r]] asserted that "Archaeology is neither history nor anthropology. As an autonomous discipline, it consists of a method and a set of specialised techniques for the gathering, or 'production' of cultural information".
Archaeology is an approach to understanding human culture through its material remains regardless of chronology. In [[England]], archaeologists have uncovered the long-lost layouts of medieval villages abandoned after the crises of the 14th century and the equally lost layouts of 17th century parterre gardens swept away by a change in fashion. In downtown [[New York City]] archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the Black burial ground. Traditional Archaeology is viewed as the study of pre-historical human cultures; that is cultures that existed before the development of [[writing]] for that culture. [[Historical archaeology]] is the study of post-[[writing]] cultures.
In the study of relatively recent cultures, which have been observed and studied by Western scholars, archaeology is closely allied with [[ethnography]]. This is the case in large parts of [[North America]], [[Oceania]], [[Siberia]], and other places where the study of archaeology mingles with the living traditions of the cultures being studied. [[Kennewick Man]] is an example of archaeology interacting with modern culture. In the study of cultures that were literate or had literate neighbours, [[history]] and archaeology supplement one another for broader understanding of the complete cultural context, as at [[Hadrian's Wall]].
==Importance and applicability==
Most of human history is not described by any written records. [[Writing]] did not exist anywhere in the world until about 5000 years ago, and only spread among a relatively small number of technologically advanced [[civilisation]]s. In contrast [[Homo Sapiens|''Homo sapiens'']] have existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of [[Homo (genus)|''Homo'']] for millions of years (see [[Human evolution]]). These civilisations are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they have been open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Even within a civilisation that is literate at some levels, many important human practices are not officially recorded. Any knowledge of the formative early years of human civilisation - the development of [[agriculture]], cult practices of [[folk religion]], the rise of the first [[city|cities]] - must come from archaeology.
Even where written records do exist, they are invariably incomplete or biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the [[elite]] classes, such as the [[clergy]] or the [[bureaucracy]] of court or temple. The literacy even of an [[aristocracy]] has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the rest of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into [[library|libraries]] and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases of the literate classes, and cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record is nearer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own inaccuracies, such as [[sampling bias]] and [[differential preservation]].
In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or simply strong [[aesthetic]] appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies.
This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'', ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)|The Mummy]]'', and ''[[King Solomon's Mines]]''. When such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of [[pseudoscience]] are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology, below). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of the modern state of archaeology.
==Goals==
There is still a tremendous emphasis in the practice of archaeology on field techniques and methodologies. These include the tasks of surveying areas in order to find new sites, digging sites in order to unearth the cultural remains therein, and classification and preservation techniques in order to analyse and keep these remains. Every phase of this process can be a source of information.
The goals of archaeology are not always the same. There are at least three broad, distinct theories of exactly what archaeological research should do. (These are beyond the scope of the present discussion, and are discussed at length below.) Nevertheless, there is much common ground.
===Academic sub-disciplines===
''Main article: [[Archaeological sub-disciplines]]''
As with most [[academia|academic]] disciplines, there are a very large number of [[archaeological sub-disciplines]] characterised by a specific method or type of material (e.g. [[lithic analysis]], [[music (archaeology)|music]], [[archaeobotany]]), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. [[Near Eastern archaeology]], [[Medieval archaeology]]), other thematic concern (e.g. [[landscape archaeology]]), or a specific [[archaeological culture]] or [[civilisation]] (e.g. [[Egyptology]]).
===Cultural resources management===
''[[Cultural resources management]]'' (CRM) (also called ''heritage management'' in Britain) is a branch of archaeology that accounts for most research done in the [[United States]] and much of that in [[western Europe]] as well. In the United States, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the [[National Historic Preservation Act]] of 1966 and most of the archaeology done in that country today proceeds from either direct or related requirements of that measure. In the United States, the vast majority of taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped to preserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, this mandates that no construction project on [[public land]] or involving public funds may damage an unstudied [[archaeological site]].
The application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990 [[PPG 16]] has required planners to consider archaeology as a [[material consideration]] in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organisations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer's expense.
Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of [[cultural]] sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavation indicates the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely. CRM is a thriving entity, especially in the United States and Europe where archaeologists from private companies and all levels of government engage in the practice of their discipline.
Cultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard-of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavour.
==Field methods==
===Survey===
A modern archaeological project often begins with a [[archaeological survey|survey]]. ''Regional survey'' is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. ''Site survey'' is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and [[midden|middens]], within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods.
Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. [[Gordon Willey]] pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the [[Viru Valley]] of coastal [[Peru]], and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.
Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artefacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] methods.) It avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as [[settlement pattern|settlement patterns]] and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into [[map|maps]], which may show surface features and/or artefact distribution.
The simplest survey te |
[[Pablo Picasso]].
==Surviving plays==
* ''[[The Acharnians]]'' ([[425 BC]])
* ''[[The Knights]]'' ([[424 BC]])
* ''[[The Clouds]]'' (Original [[423 BC]]Uncompleted revised version survives [[418-415 BC]])
* ''[[The Wasps]]'' ([[422 BC]])
* ''[[Peace (play)|Peace]]'' (first version, [[421 BC]])
* ''[[The Birds (play)|The Birds]]'' ([[414 BC]])
* ''[[Lysistrata]]'' ([[411 BC]])
* ''[[Thesmophoriazusae]]'' ("The Festival Women", first version, ca.[[410 BC]])
* ''[[The Frogs]]'' ([[405 BC]])
* ''[[Assemblywomen|Ecclesiazousae]]'' ("The Assemblywomen", ca.[[392 BC]])
* ''[[Plutus (play)|Plutus]]'' ("Wealth", second version, [[388 BC]])
==Dated non-surviving plays==
* ''Banqueters'' ([[427 BC]])
* ''Babylonians'' ([[426 BC]])
* ''Farmers'' ([[424 BC]])
* ''Merchant Ships'' ([[423 BC]])
* ''[[The Clouds]]'' (first version) ([[423 BC]])
* ''Proagon'' ([[422 BC]])
* ''Amphiaraos'' ([[414 BC]])
* ''[[Plutus (play)|Plutus]]'' ("Wealth", first version, [[408 BC]])
* ''Gerytades'' (uncertain, probably [[407 BC]])
* ''Koskalos'' ([[387 BC]])
* ''Aiolosikon'' (second version, [[386 BC]])
==Undated non-surviving plays==
* ''Aiolosikon'' (first version)
* ''Anagyros''
* ''Broilers''
* ''Daidalos''
* ''Danaids''
* ''Dionysos Shipwrecked''
* ''Centaur''
* ''Niobos''
* ''Heroes''
* ''Islands''
* ''Lemnian Women''
* ''Old Age''
* ''Peace'' (second version)
* ''Phoenician Women''
* ''Poetry''
* ''Polyidos''
* ''Seasons''
* ''Storks''
* ''Telemessians''
* ''Triphales''
* ''[[Thesmophoriazusae]]'' ("The Festival Women", second version)
* ''Women Encamping''
==See also==
*[[Agathon]]
*[[Greek literature]]
*[[2934 Aristophanes|Asteroid 2934 Aristophanes]], named after the dramatist
==External links==
*[http://www.greektexts.com/library/Aristophanes/index.html Aristophanes Texts] Biography and texts of Aristophanes
*[http://www.textkit.com/view-author/author_id/8/ The texts of Aristophanes' plays (in translation)]
* {{gutenberg author|id=Aristophanes|name=Aristophanes}}
* [http://wiktionary.org/wiki/Lopadotemachoselachogaleokranioleipsanodrimhypotrimmatosilphioparaomelitokatakechymenokichlepikossyphophattoperisteralektryonoptekephalliokigklopeleiolagoiosiraiobaphetraganopterygon Contribution to the English Language]
[[Category:448 BC births]]
[[Category:380 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Ancient Athenians]]
[[Category:Satirists|Aristophanes]]
[[bg:Аристофан]]
[[ca:Aristòfanes]]
[[da:Aristofanes]]
[[de:Aristophanes]]
[[el:Αριστοφάνης]]
[[es:Aristófanes]]
[[fr:Aristophane]]
[[ko:아리스토파네스]]
[[it:Aristofane]]
[[he:אריסטופאנס]]
[[la:Aristophanes]]
[[hu:Arisztophanész]]
[[nl:Aristophanes]]
[[ja:アリストパネス]]
[[nn:Aristofanes]]
[[no:Aristofanes]]
[[pl:Arystofanes]]
[[pt:Aristófanes]]
[[ru:Аристофан]]
[[sk:Aristofanes]]
[[sl:Aristofan]]
[[sr:Аристофан]]
[[fi:Aristofanes]]
[[sv:Aristofanes]]
[[tr:Aristofanes]]
[[uk:Арістофан]]
[[zh:阿里斯托芬]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Albert Schweitzer</title>
<id>1029</id>
<revision>
<id>41225203</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T22:27:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dvavasour</username>
<id>55791</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!--Image missing [[Image:Schweitzer.jpg|thumb|Albert Schweitzer]] --->
[[Image:Albert Schweitzer, Etching by Arthur William Heintzelman.jpg|thumb|200px|Albert Schweitzer, Etching by Arthur William Heintzelman]]
'''Albert Schweitzer''', [[Order of Merit|OM]], ([[January 14]], [[1875]] &ndash; [[September 4]], [[1965]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[theology|theologian]], [[musician]], [[philosopher]], and [[physician]]. He was born in [[Kaysersberg]], [[Elsass-Lothringen]], [[Germany]] (now in [[Haut-Rhin]], [[Alsace]], [[France]]). He received the [[1952]] [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1953]].
==Theology==
As a young theologian his first major work, by which he gained a great reputation, was ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus'' (1906), in which he interpreted the life of [[Jesus]] in the light of Jesus' own [[eschatology|eschatological]] convictions. He established his reputation further as a [[New Testament]] scholar by other theological studies, like ''The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle'' (1930). In these studies he examined the eschatological beliefs of Paul and through this the message of the New Testament.
During his tenure as a priest for St. Nicholas church in [[Strasbourg]], he blessed the wedding of [[Theodor Heuss]], who was to become the first [[President|President of Germany]] of the [[German Federal Republic]].
==Music==
Albert Schweitzer was a famous organist in his day, and was highly interested in the music of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]. He developed a simple style of performance, which he thought to be closer to what Bach had meant it to be. He based his interpretation mainly on his reassessment of Bach's religious intentions. Through the book "Johann Sebastian Bach", the final version of which he completed in [[1908]], he advocated this new style, which has had great influence in the way Bach's music is now being treated. Albert Schweitzer was also a famous [[organ (music)|organ]] constructor. Recordings of Schweitzer playing the music of Bach are available on CDs.
==Philosophy==
Schweitzer's worldview was based on his idea of ''Reverence for Life'', which he believed to be his greatest single contribution to humankind. His view was that Western civilization was in decay because of gradually abandoning its ethical foundations - those of affirmation of life.
It was his firm conviction that the respect for life is the highest principle. In a similar kind of exaltation of life to that of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], a recently influential philosopher of the time, Schweitzer admittedly followed the same line as that of the Russian [[Leo Tolstoy]]. Some people in his days compared his philosophy with that of [[Francis of Assisi]], a comparison he did not object to. In his ''Philosophy of Civilisation'' (all quotes in this section from Chapter 26 of the same book), he wrote:
<blockquote>True philosophy must start from the most immediate and comprehensive fact of consciousness: 'I am life that wants to live, in the midst of life that wants to live'. </blockquote>
Life and love in his view are based on, and follow out of the same principle: respect for every manifestation of Life, and a personal, spiritual relationship towards the universe. Ethics, according to Schweitzer, consists in the ''compulsion'' to show to the will-to-live of each and every being the same reverence as one does to one's own. In circumstances where we apparently fail to satisfy this compulsion should not lead us to defeatism, since the will-to-live renews itself again and again, as an outcome of an evolutionary necessity and a phenomenon with a spiritual dimension.
However, as Schweitzer himself pointed out, it is neither impossible nor difficult to spend a life of not following it: the history of world philosophies and religions clearly shows many instances of denial of the principle of reverence for life. He points to the prevailing philosophy in the European middle ages, and the Indian Brahminic philosophy. Nevertheless, this kind of attitude lacks in genuineness.
Since we enter the world, it offers us a horrible drama: it consists in the fact that the will to live, looked as a sum of all the individual wills, is divided against itself. One existence is antagonised against another, one destroys another. Only in the thinking being has the will to live become conscious of other will to live, and desirious of solidarity with it. This solidarity, however, cannot be brought about, because human life does not escape the puzzling and horrible circumstance that it must live at the cost of other life. But as an ethical being one strives to escape whenever possible from this necessity, and to put a stop to this disunion of the Will to live, so far as it is within one's power.
Schweitzer advocated the concept of reverence for life widely throughout his entire life. The historical [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] waned and corrupted itself, Schweitzer held, because it has not been well enough grounded in thought, but compulsively followed the ethical will-to live. Hence, he looked forward to a renewed and more profound [[Rennaisance]] and Enlightenment of humanity (a view he expressed in the Epilogue of his ''Out of My Life and Thought''). Albert Schweitzer nourished hope in a humankind that is more profoundly aware of its position in the Universe. His optimism was based in "belief in truth". "The spirit generated by [conceiving of] truth is greater than the force of circumstances." He persistently emphasized the necessity to think, rather than merely acting on basis of passing impulses or by following the most widespread opinions.
<blockquote>Never for a moment do we lay aside our mistrust of the ideals established by society, and of the convictions which are kept by it in circulation. We always know that society is full of folly and will deceive us in the matter of humanity. [...] humanity meaning consideration for the existence and the happiness of individual human beings.</blockquote>
Respect for life, resulting from contemplation on one's own conscious will to live, leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature.
Schweitzer was very much respected for putting his theory into practice in his own life.
Schweitzer died in [[Gabon]], [[Africa]] after years of serving others as a physician in Africa.
==Stance on racial relations==
Schweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in Africa to be his response
to Jesus' call to become "fishers of men" but also as a small
recompense for the historic guilt of Eu |
by tying ropes around himself, Obelix, and their guides, creating a famous technique in mountain-climbing.
*In ''[[Asterix in Belgium]]'', the chieftain of Asterix's Belgian hosts gains inspiration for ''patates frites'' (chips) and mussels, Belgium's two most famous culinary ambassadors, from a vat of boiling oil prepared as a Roman weapon, and a damp wooden plank belonging to the pirates (note that [[potato]]es were unknown in Europe at the time).
*In ''[[Asterix and Caesar's Gift]]'', Cacofonix composes the protest anthem "We shall Overcome", which became the US civil rights movement song.
*In ''[[Asterix the Gladiator]]'', Julius Caesar asks Brutus to clap for him using the famous Shakespearean phrase "Et tu Brute".
*In ''[[Asterix in Britain]]'', Asterix' cousin speaks about building a tunnel under the water from Dover to France and says that it's a dream project which he hopes to achieve some day.
===Influences===
*The first satellite launched by [[France]] in [[1965]] received the name of the character, and during the campaign for [[Paris]] to obtain the right to host the [[1992 Summer Olympics]] Asterix appeared in many posters over the [[Eiffel Tower]].
*The Israeli [[Psy-trance]] DJ and producer [[Astrix]] is named after the character.
==Major recurring characters==
{{main|Recurring characters in Asterix}}
{| class="wikitable" width="100%"
! Name in English translations !! Original French name !! Description !! First appearance
|-
| Asterix || Astérix || Gaulish warrior || [[Asterix the Gaul]]
|-
| [[Obelix]] || Obélix || Menhir delivery man || Asterix the Gaul
|-
| [[Dogmatix]] || Idéfix (fixed idea) || Obelix’s dog || [[Asterix and the Banquet]]
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Getafix|Getafix]] || Panoramix || Druid || Asterix the Gaul
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Vitalstatistix|Vitalstatistix]] || Abraracourcix (arms coiled, ready to punch) || Chief of the village || Asterix the Gaul
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Impedimenta|Impedimenta]] || Bonemine (nice face) || Wife of Vitalstatistix || [[Asterix and the Chieftain's Shield| Asterix and the Chieftain’s Shield]]
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Geriatrix|Geriatrix]] || Agecanonix (biblical age) || Village elder || [[Asterix at the Olympic Games]]
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Mrs Geriatrix|Mrs Geriatrix]] (unnamed) || Mme Agecanonix (unnamed) || Wife of Geriatrix || [[Asterix and the Roman Agent]]
|-
| [[Cacofonix]] || Assurancetourix (comprehensive insurance) || Bard || Asterix the Gaul
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Fulliautomatix|Fulliautomatix]] || Cétautomatix (it's automatic) || Blacksmith || Asterix the Gaul
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Unhygienix|Unhygienix]] || Ordralfabétix (alphabetical order) || Fishmonger || [[Asterix in Spain]]
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Bacteria|Bacteria]] || Iélosubmarine (''yellow submarine'') || Wife of Unhygienix || Asterix in Spain
|}
==See also==
* [[List of Asterix volumes]]
* [[List of Asterix films and videogames]]
* [[Recurring characters in Asterix]]
* [[Parc Astérix]]
* [[Roman Gaul]], after Julius Caesar's conquest of 58–51 BC that consisted of five provinces.
==External links==
{{commons|Asterix}}
* The [http://www.asterix.com/ Official Asterix web site]
* The [http://www.asterix-obelix.nl/ Asterix around the World &ndash; The many languages]
* [http://www.asterix.co.nz/ Asterix NZ]&ndash; General Reference site for English speaking Fans
* [http://openscroll.org/asterix/ The Asterix Annotations] &ndash; album-by-album explanations of all the historical references and obscure in-jokes
* A [[Cessna]] aircraft with Asterix on the tail [http://www.airliners.net/open.file/653603/M/]
* For the movie of [[Asterix at the Olympic Games]] [[ SN Brussels]] Airlines will paint two of their aircraft in Asterix livery. [http://www.luchtzak.be/article9764.html]
* Each Asterix book is examined in detail at [http://www.gthomas.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/ Alea Jacta Est (Asterix for grown-ups)]
* [http://www.mage.fst.uha.fr/asterix/allusion/allusion.html Les allusions culturelles dans Astérix] - Cultural allusions (French)
[[Category:Asterix|*]]
[[category:Comics characters]]
[[Category:Fictional Celts]]
[[Category:French comics]]
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[[sv:Asterix]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arizona Cardinals</title>
<id>2102</id>
<revision>
<id>40255874</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T07:20:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.108.193.196</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Not to be forgotten */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Arizona Cardinals
| logo = AZCardinals.png
| founded = 1898
| city = Glendale, Arizona
| colors = Cardinal Red, Black, and White
| coach = [[Dennis Green]]
| general manager = [[John Idzik]]
| owner = Bidwill Family
| mascot = [[Big Red (Cardinals mascot)|Big Red]]
| nicknames = The Cards
| stations = KMVP (860 AM), KTAR (620 AM), and KMIA (710 AM)-Spanish
| announcers = Kent Derdivanis and Ron Wolfley-Radio (English); Gabriel Trujillo and Luis Zendejas (Spanish)
| hist_yr = 1994
| hist_misc =
* Morgan Athletic Club (1898)
* Racine Normals (1899-1900)
* Racine Cardinals (1901-1906, reformed 1913-1919)
* [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] Cardinals (1920-1943)
* Card-[[Pittsburgh Steelers|Pitt]] (1944)
* Chicago Cardinals (1945-1959)
* [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] Cardinals (1960-1987)
* [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] Cardinals (1988-1993)
| affiliate_old =
Independent (1898-1919)<br>
| NFL_start_yr = 1920
| division_hist =
*Western Division (1933-1949)
*American Conference (1950-1952)
*Eastern Conference (1953-1969)
**Century Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[National Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[NFC East]] (1970-2001)
**'''[[NFC West]] (2002-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 2
| no_div_champs = 4
| league_champs =
*'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (2)'''<br>1925, 1947
| div_champs =
*'''NFL West:''' 1947, 1948
*'''NFC East:''' 1974, 1975
| stadium_years =
:''Since 1920''
*[[Normal Field]] (1920-1921), (1926-1928)
*[[Comiskey Park]] (1922-1925), (1929-1959)
*[[Sportsman's Park]] (1960-1965)
*[[Busch Stadium]] (1966-1987)
*[[Sun Devil Stadium]] (1988-2005)
*'''[[Cardinals Stadium]] (scheduled to open in 2006)'''
}}
The '''Arizona Cardinals''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in the [[Phoenix, Arizona]] [[metropolitan area]]. In 2006, the club will move to the new [[Cardinals Stadium]] in the suburb of [[Glendale, Arizona]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC West|Western Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL).
The Cardinals are the oldest existing professional American football club in the [[United States]]. The team was formed in 1898 as the '''Morgan Athletic Club''' in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. The club was then called the '''Racine Normals''' since they were originally located on Racine Avenue but moved to Chicago's Normal Field. They then changed their name to the '''Racine Cardinals''' after they started wearing cardinal red uniforms.
After becoming a charter member of the NFL in 1920, the club was renamed the '''Chicago Cardinals'''. The Cardinals moved to [[Saint Louis, Missouri]] in 1960, then relocated to the Phoenix area in 1988. The team was known as the '''Phoenix Cardinals''' before it started using "Arizona" in its name in 1994.
The Cardinals have won [[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] in 1925 and 1947. But the team has not won a league title since then, and thus currently holds the record for the longest championship drought (period of not winning) in NFL history. Despite being the oldest existing professional football franchise in the United States, the Arizona Cardinals have an all-time postseason record of 2-5. (Not counting the 1964 [[Playoff Bowl|Bert Bell Benefit Bowl]])
:'''Helmet design:''' White with a cardinal head
==Franchise history==
[[Image:Chicago_cardinals.GIF|left|framed|Chicago Cardinals logo.]]
The Cardinals are the oldest existing football club in the [[United States]], beginning as an amateur athletic club team in Chicago named the Morgan Athletic Club, which was founded by Chicago painter/builder [[Chris O'Brien]]. They began to field a pro team even before the founding of the NFL. He later moved them to Chicago's Normal Field and the team was named ''The Racine Normals'', since they were originally located on Racine Avenue in Chicago. In 1901, O'Brien bought used [[Maroon (color)|maroon]] uniforms from the [[University of Chicago]]. The colors had faded by this time, leading O'Brien to exclaim, "That's not maroon, it's cardinal red!" It was right there that the team changed its name to the '''Racine Cardinals'''.
The team disbanded in 1906 due mostly to a lack of local competition, but reformed in [[1913]]. They were forced to suspend operations for a second time in 1918 due to [[World War I]] and the outbreak of the [[Spanish_Flu|Spanish Flu Pandemic]]. They resumed operations later in the year, and have operated continuously since then.
The team became a charter member of the [[American Professional Football Association]] (which became the NFL in 1922) in 1920, for the franchise fee of $100. According to some, the team's name was erroneously recorded as "[[Racine, Wisconsin]]." The team was renamed the '''Chicago Cardinals''' in 1922 after a team from [[Racine, Wisconsin]] entered the league. |
load on the main system bus.
Compounding the performance impact of the lack of available cache bandwidth was the fact IA-64 code has a larger footprint than x86 code. So the amount of instructions that could be contained in the cache was in fact even smaller than the sizes alone would suggest, all of which might have been mitigated had Itanium been designed around a fast processor bus. However, at a mere 266MHz it was only equal to consumer [[Athlon]]s of the period, and a full 33% slower than first generation [[Pentium 4]]s. Again, this was worse than it would appear, due to the fact that Itaniums were designed to be used in systems with several processors. Itanium clock speeds were also disappointing, relative to the [[gigahertz|GHz]] speeds being delivered by the Athlon architecture of the period.
Overall, it is generally believed that the technical specifications indicate an original [[1998]]&ndash;[[1999|99]] target launch date. But the repeated and lengthy project delays, effectively meant the processor was out of date before it had even begun shipping. Hence, the Itanium was not a competitive product when launched, although it would have been two years earlier.
It was succeeded by the [[Itanium 2]].
==Itanic nickname==
'''Itanic''' is a derisive nickname promulgated by the often-satiric technology publication [[The Register]]. It is a reference to the [[RMS Titanic|''Titanic'']], a famous [[ocean liner]] which sank in [[1912]]. The IA-64 architecture is considered by some to be a [[white elephant]], which cost Intel and partner [[Hewlett-Packard]] many billions of dollars while failing to achieve expected sales in the originally projected timeframe.
==Competition==
Sales of IA-64 processors have most recently been hampered by competition from [[Advanced Micro Devices|AMD]]'s [[AMD64]] architecture on the low end, leading to Intel releasing the largely compatible [[EM64T]] architecture. [[International Business Machines|IBM]]'s [[IBM POWER|POWER]] architecture competes to a lesser extent at the high end. Some early IA-64 vendors, such as [[Dell Computer|Dell]] and IBM have dropped or drastically scaled back support for the architecture, Dell choosing AMD64-compatible processors in line with their high-volume business model, while IBM continues to develop servers built on its own POWER architecture.
Microsoft has decided not to make further releases of its consumer operating systems for Itanium, concentrating only on x86-64 (AMD64, EM64T).
== See also ==
* [[IA-64| IA-64 Architecture]]
* [[Itanium 2]]
==External links==
* [http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-5984747.html Itanium: A Cautionary Tale] Intel takes over the world - with the lowly x86
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=i&i=2179&n=1&sd=1 Intel Itanium opened cartridge processor images at cpu-collection.de]
* [http://news.com.com/Analyst+firm+offers+rosy+view+of+Itanium/2100-1006_3-6038932.html Analyst firm offers rosy view of Itanium]
{{Intel processors}}
[[Category:Microprocessors]]
[[ca:Itanium]]
[[de:Itanium]]
[[es:Intel Itanium]]
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[[zh:Itanium]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Infinity</title>
<id>15455</id>
<revision>
<id>41298066</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T10:32:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Woodstone</username>
<id>145668</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Mathematical infinity */ tighten</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
'''Infinity''' refers to several distinct concepts which arise in [[theology]], [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]] and everyday life. Popular or colloquial usage of the term often does not accord with its more technical meanings. The word '''infinity''' comes from the [[Latin]] ''infinitas'', "unboundedness".
In [[theology]], for example in the work of [[List of Christian theologians|theologians]] such as [[Duns Scotus]], the infinite nature of [[God]] invokes a sense of being without constraint, rather than a sense of being unlimited in quantity. In [[philosophy]], infinity can be attributed to space and time, as for instance in [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s first [[antinomy]]. In both theology and philosophy, infinity is explored in articles such as [[the Ultimate]], [[the Absolute]], God, and [[Zeno's paradoxes]].
In mathematics, infinity is relevant to, or the subject matter of, articles such as mathematical [[limit (mathematics)|limit]]s, [[aleph number]]s, [[class (set theory)|class]]es in [[set theory]], [[Dedekind-infinite set]]s, [[large cardinal]]s, [[Russell's paradox]], [[hyperreal number]]s, [[projective geometry]], [[extended real number]]s and the [[absolute Infinite]]. By some, infinity is considered to be not a number but a concept of increase beyond bounds.
In [[popular culture]], we have [[Buzz Lightyear]]'s rallying cry, "To infinity &mdash; and beyond!", which may also be viewed as the rallying cry of [[set theory|set theorists]] considering [[large cardinal]]s.{{rf|1|large_cardinals}}
For a discussion about infinity and the physical universe, see [[Universe]].
== History ==
=== Ancient view of infinity ===
The earliest known documented knowledge of ''infinity'' is presented in the [[Veda]]- ''[[Yajur Veda]]'' which states that "if you remove a part from infinity or add a part to infinity, still what remains is infinity". The [[Ancient India|India]]n [[Jain]]a mathematical text ''Surya Prajinapti'' (ca. [[400 BC]]) classifies all numbers into three sets: ''enumerable'', ''innumerable'' and ''infinite''. It recognises five different types of infinity: infinite in one and two directions, infinite in area, infinite everywhere, and infinite perpetually. [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Jaina_mathematics.html] [http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_agraw_jaina.htm] The concept of different orders of infinity would remain unknown in [[Europe]] until the late [[19th century]].
In Europe, the traditional view derives from [[Aristotle]]:
:"... it is always possible to think of a larger number: for the number of times a [[magnitude]] can be [[bisection|bisected]] is infinite. Hence the infinite is potential, never actual; the number of parts that can be taken always surpasses any assigned number." [Physics 207b8]
This is often called potential infinity; however there are two ideas mixed up with this. One is that it is always possible to find a number of things that surpasses any given number, even if there are not actually such things. The other is that we may quantify over infinite sets without restriction. For example, ∀n∈'''Z'''(∃m∈'''Z'''[m>n∧P(m)]), which reads, "for any [[integer]] n, there exists an integer m > n such that P(m)". The second view is found in a clearer form by medieval writers such as [[William of Ockham]]:
:"Sed omne continuum est actualiter existens. Igitur quaelibet pars sua est vere existens in rerum natura. Sed partes continui sunt infinitae quia non tot quin plures, igitur partes infinitae sunt actualiter existentes." (But every [[continuum (mathematics)|continuum]] is actually existent. Therefore any of its parts is really existent in nature. But the parts of the continuum are infinite because there are not so many that there are not more, and therefore the infinite parts are actually existent.)
The parts are actually there, in some sense. However, on this view, no infinite magnitude can have a number, for whatever number we can imagine, there is always a larger one: "There are not so many (in number) that there are no more". [[Thomas Aquinas|Aquinas]] also argued against the idea that infinity could be in any sense complete, or a totality.
=== Views from the Renaissance to modern times ===
[[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] (during his long house arrest in [[Siena]] after his condemnation by the [[Inquisition]]) was the first to notice that we can place an infinite set into [[one-to-one correspondence]] with one of its [[proper subset]]s (any part of the set, that is not the whole). For example, we can match up the "set" of even numbers {2, 4, 6, 8 ...} with the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, 4 ...} as follows:
:1, 2, 3, 4, ...
:2, 4, 6, 8, ...
It appeared, by this reasoning, as though a set which is naturally smaller than the set of which it is a part (since it does not contain all the members of that set) is in some sense the same size. He thought this was one of the difficulties which arise when we try, "with our finite minds", to comprehend the infinite.
:"So far as I see we can only infer that the totality of all numbers is infinite, that the number of squares is infinite, and that the number of their roots is infinite; neither is the number of squares less than the totality of all numbers, nor the latter greater than the former; and finally the attributes "equal", "greater", and "less", are not applicable to infinite, but only to finite, quantities." [''On two New Sciences'', 1638]
The idea that size can be measured by one-to-one correspondence is today known as [[Hume's principle]], although Hume, like Galileo, believed the principle could not be applied to infinite sets.
[[John Locke|Locke]], in common with most of the [[empiricist]] philosophers, also believed that we can have no proper idea of the infinite. They believed all our ideas were derived from [[sense data]] or "impressions", and since all sensory impressions are inherently finite, so too are our thoughts and ideas. Our idea of infinity is merely negative or privative.
:"Whatever ''positive'' ideas we have in our minds of any space, duration, or number, let them be never so great, they are still finite; but when we suppose an inexhaustible remainder |
7. In 1981 the School was renamed the [[School of International and Public Affairs]] (SIPA). The School introduced an MPA in [[Environmental Science]] and [[environmental policy|Policy]] in 2001 and, in 2004, SIPA inaugurated its first doctoral program - the interdisciplinary Ph.D. in [[Sustainable Development]].
=== Student demonstrations ===
{{main|Columbia University protests of 1968}}
Students protested in 1968 over the issue of whether Columbia would build its gymnasium in neighboring [[Morningside Park]]; this was seen by the protestors to be an act of aggression aimed at the Black residents of neighboring Harlem. A second issue sparking the 1968 student protest was the Columbia Administration's failure to resign its institutional membership in the [[Pentagon]]'s weapons research think-tank, the [[Institute for Defense Analyses]] [IDA].
== Life ==
{{unreferencedsect}}
=== Traditions ===
[[Image:Meadmoresculpture.jpg|thumb|right|Curl, by [[Clement Meadmore]].]]
[[Image:ColumbiaCampusSunset.JPG|thumb|right|Columbia's campus at sunset (February 2006)]]
==== Orgo Night ====
On the day before the Organic Chemistry Exam, at precisely the stroke of midnight, the [[Columbia University Marching Band]] occupies Butler library (the main library) to distract diligent students from studying and to lower the curve. After a half-hour of the campus-interest jokes, the procession then moves out to the lawn in front of Hartley, Wallach and John Jay residence halls to entertain the residents there.{{fact}}
==== Alma Mater ====
This refers to the statue that has been sitting on the steps in front of Low Library since 1904, and of which the university possesses three back-up versions in case of unforeseen rioting or some terrorist attack. Supersition has it that the first member of the class to discover the owl hidden in Alma Mater's robe will become valedictorian.{{fact}}
==== The [[Varsity Show]] ====
An annual musical written by and for students, this is one of Columbia's oldest and finest traditions. Past writers and directors have included Columbians [[Richard Rodgers]] and [[Oscar Hammerstein]].
==== Butler Library====
The main library, packed during midterms and finals weeks, has three main parts: the stacks, the study rooms, and the cafe. Butler houses two million of the university's 8.6
million volumes, mostly in the humanities. Unlike the libraries of most other schools, Butler remains partially open 24 hours a day and acts as a center of late night studying.
==== Tree-Lighting Ceremony====
College walk is the part of 116th street that passes through campus, and it was closed to the public while [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] was university president in 1953. On the left and the right, just in front of Kent and Hamilton Hall on the east end, and Dodge and Journalism on the west side are planted some medium-sized trees. These are lit annually just before finals week in early december, and the lights remain on until mid-march. Students meet at the sun-dial for free hot chocolate, performances by various a capella groups, a guest speaker, and a speech by the university president.{{fact}}
==== Naked Run ====
Each year in October, some students run from the steps in front of Low around one of the lawns, pass Butler, and return to the steps, naked, surrounded by a crowd. {{fact}}
==== First Year Run ====
During orientation week before their first classes, freshmen get the rare opportunity to exit Lerner Hall through its back doors, turn right and enter campus again through the main gates to officially become Columbia students.{{fact}}
==== Annual Bad Poetry Contest ====
The Columbia Philolexian Society hosts this once a year. Contestants get up and read their poetry, hoping for cheers. Past worst poets include Everett Patterson and Matthew Harrison.{{fact}}
=== Sundial ===
This elevated stone pedestal at the center of the main campus quadrangle now serves as a podest for various speeches. Originally there was a large granite sphere located upon the pedestal, which would mark the time via its shadow. It sat upon the pedestal from approximately 1914 to 1946. It was removed in that year due to cracks that formed within it. The ball was assumed destroyed for 55 years until it was discovered intact in a Michigan field in 2001. As of 2006, is unlikely that the sundial will ever be restored back to a working state. [http://www.columbiaspectator.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2001/12/05/3c0de9f044e89?in_archive=1]
=== Dormitories ===
First years usually live in one of the first year dorms: Hartley, Wallach, John Jay, Furnald, or Carman. Upperclassmen participate in a housing lottery. Based on their luck, students can choose between the aforementioned dorms (but not Carman or John Jay), and Schapiro, River, McBain, East Campus, Broadway, Watt, 116th, Hogan, and Wien. Most students consider a town house in East Campus the best housing option, which includes two-story suites for six students including a kitchen, common lounge, large single rooms, and a quiet location.
=== The tunnels ===
A tunnel system connects all campus buildings underground, but it has been shut down since the student riots of 1968. Part of the system is still accessible, however, and being used as a safe way to move without getting wet or snowed on. (See [[Columbia University Tunnels]].)
=== CULPA ===
Invented in 2002, this website allows students to post their own analyses of their professors. It is a useful tool for students looking to enroll in a class. The site has occasionally been accused of harboring biased reviews and misrepresenting professors. Still, it is the main source of professor review currently available to the Columbia student body. The acronym CULPA stands for "Columbia Underground Listing of Professor Ability", where "Underground" refers to the fact that CULPA is not officially affiliated with the university. It can be found at [[http://www.culpa.info.]]
=== Publications===
Major publications include The ''[[Columbia Review]]'',[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/review] the nation's oldest college literary magazine ; The ''[[Columbia Daily Spectator]]'',[http://www.columbiaspectator.com] the nation's second-oldest student newspaper; CTV,[2] the nation's second oldest student television station; The Fed,[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/thefed/] an alternative humor paper; ''[[Jester of Columbia]]'',[http://www.jesterofcolumbia.com], the revived campus humor magazine established in 1899 and edited at one point by Allen Ginsberg; ; The ''[[Blue & White]]'',[http://www.theblueandwhite.org/] a literary magazine established in 1890; the Collection, an undergraduate literary magazine; and the Journal of Politics & Society,[6] the nation's leading journal of advanced undergraduate research in the social sciences, published by the Helvidius Group. Columbia also has an online arts and literary web magazine The Mobius Strip[http://www.mobiusmag.com/]. This year, a group of undergraduates also started AdHoc, an undergraduate magazine that grapples with progressive issues on campus.
===Athletics===
While Columbia is no longer an athletics powerhouse, sports at Columbia have a long tradition. [[Sport rowing|Crew]] was Columbia's first sport, and the first non-English school to win the [[Henley Regatta]]. The Columbia football team is one of the nation's oldest and won the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]] in 1934. Its [[amateur wrestling|wrestling]] team is the nation's oldest. Due to space constraints, most of Columbia's outdoor athletic teams practice and compete uptown at Baker Field in [[Inwood, Manhattan]]. The rowing teams use the [[Orchard Beach, New York|Orchard Beach Lagoon]] as their home course. Home meets for [[cross country running]] are held at [[Van Cortlandt Park]] in the [[Bronx]].
Columbia has been home to some famous athletes - [[Eddie Collins]] and [[Lou Gehrig]] played baseball and [[Sid Luckman]] played football there. Columbia's [[fencing]] team in the late 20th century was one of the nation's most successful, with [[NCAA]] [[NCAA Fencing team championship|team championships]] in 1987, 1988, 1989, 1992 and 1993. In recent years, the women's [[cross country running|cross country]] team has held the Heptagonal Championship title. In 2004, both the men's and women's teams won the race.
The university's recent notoriety in sports, however, lies with its [[American football|football]] team, which set an NCAA record of most consecutive football games without a win. After a losing 44 games, it broke the streak by beating [[Princeton University|Princeton]] at Columbia's [[homecoming game]] in 1988. Their dubious record was superseded by [[Prairie View A&M]] in the 1990s.
Although Columbia routinely finishes at or near the bottom of the [[Ivy League]] standings in most sports, the university remains among the top 20 universities in terms of its number of [[NCAA]] [[Division I]] varsity sports offerings.
For a listing of organizations, see the article [[Clubs and Organizations of Columbia University]].
==Awards and honors==
As of 2005, 73 Columbia University affiliates have been honored with Nobel Prizes for their work in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, peace, and economics. For a complete list, see [http://c250.columbia.edu/c250_celebrates/nobel_laureates/by_year.html]
Other awards/honors won by current faculty include:
*[[MacArthur Foundation]] Award: 28 [http://www.studentaffairs.columbia.edu/admissions/university/academic/faculty.php]
* [[National Medal of Science]]: 4 [http://www.studentaffairs.columbia.edu/admissions/university/academic/faculty.php]
*The [[National Academies]]: 94 (sum of 38+17+39, below)
:*[[National Academy of Sciences]]: 38 [http://www.nasonline.org/site/Dir/1496521948?pg=rslts]
:*[[National Academy of Engineering]]: 17 [http://www.nae.edu/nae/naepub.nsf/Members%20By%20Parent%20InstitutionC?OpenView&Start=30]
:*Institute of Medicine of the National Academies |
apidly to about 1500&nbsp;K after 40&nbsp;s. The plume from the fireball quickly reached a height of over 3,000&nbsp;km&nbsp;<sup>[2]</sup>. A few minutes after the impact fireball was detected, Galileo measured renewed heating, probably due to ejected material falling back onto the planet. Earth-based observers detected the fireball rising over the [[limb]] of the planet shortly after the initial impact&nbsp;<sup>[3]</sup>.
Astronomers had expected to see the fireballs from the impacts, but did not have any idea in advance how visible the atmospheric effects of the impacts would be from Earth. Observers soon saw a huge dark spot after the first impact. The spot was visible even in very small telescopes, and was about 6,000&nbsp;km (one Earth radius) across. This and subsequent dark spots were thought to have been caused by debris from the impacts, and were markedly asymmetric, forming crescent shapes in front of the direction of impact.
Over the next 6&nbsp;days, 21 discrete impacts were observed, with the largest coming on [[July 18]] at 07:34 UTC when fragment G struck Jupiter. This impact created a giant dark spot over 12,000&nbsp;km across, and was estimated to have released an energy equivalent to 6,000,000&nbsp;[[megaton|megatons of TNT]] (750 times the world's nuclear arsenal). Two impacts 12&nbsp;hours apart on [[July 19]] created impact marks of similar size to that caused by fragment G, and impacts continued until [[July 22]], when fragment W struck the planet.
==Observations and discoveries==
===Chemical studies===
[[Image:Jupiter showing SL9 impact sites.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Brown spots mark impact sites on [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter's]] southern hemisphere.]]
Observers hoped that the impacts would give them a first glimpse of Jupiter beneath the cloud tops, as lower material was exposed by the comet fragments punching through the upper atmosphere. [[Astronomical spectroscopy|Spectroscopic]] studies revealed [[absorption line]]s in the Jovian [[spectrum (disambiguation)|spectrum]] due to diatomic [[sulfur]] (S<sub>2</sub>) and [[carbon disulfide]] (CS<sub>2</sub>), the first detection of either in Jupiter, and only the second detection of S<sub>2</sub> in any [[astronomical object]]. Other molecules detected included [[ammonia]] (NH<sub>3</sub>) and [[hydrogen sulfide]] (H<sub>2</sub>S). The amount of sulfur implied by the quantities of these compounds was much greater than the amount that would be expected in a small cometary nucleus, showing that material from within Jupiter was being revealed. [[Oxygen]]-bearing molecules such as [[sulfur dioxide]] were not detected, to the surprise of astronomers&nbsp;<sup>[4]</sup>.
As well as these [[molecule]]s, emission from heavier [[atom]]s such as [[iron]], [[magnesium]] and [[silicon]] was detected, with the abundances of these atoms being consistent with what would be found in a cometary nucleus. While substantial [[water]] was detected spectroscopically, it was not as much as predicted beforehand, meaning that either the water layer thought to exist below the clouds was thinner than predicted, or that the cometary fragments did not penetrate deeply enough.
===Seismic waves===
As predicted beforehand, the collisions generated enormous [[seismic wave]]s which swept across the planet at speeds of 450&nbsp;km/s and were observed for over two hours after the largest impacts. These waves seemed to be [[gravity wave]]s, but their location was subject to debate. The waves were thought to be travelling within a stable layer acting as a [[waveguide]], and some scientists believed the stable layer must lie within the hypothesised [[troposphere|tropospheric]] water cloud. However, other evidence seemed to indicate that the cometary fragments had not reached the water layer, and the waves were instead propagating within the [[stratosphere]]&nbsp;<sup>[5]</sup>.
===Other observations===
[[Image:Impact of fragment G of SL9 on Juptier.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A sequence of [[Galileo spacecraft|Galileo]] images, taken several seconds apart, showing the appearance of the fireball of fragment W on the dark side of Jupiter.]]
[[Radio]] observations revealed a sharp increase in [[Black body|continuum]] emission at a wavelength of 21&nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]] after the largest impacts, which peaked at 120% of the normal emission from the planet. This was thought to be due to [[synchrotron radiation]], caused by the injection of [[relativistic]] [[electron]]s into the Jovian [[magnetosphere]] by the impacts&nbsp;<sup>[6]</sup>.
About an hour after fragment K entered Jupiter, observers recorded [[aurora (astronomy)|auroral]] emission near the impact region, as well as at the [[antipodal point|antipode]] of the impact site with respect to Jupiter's strong [[magnetic field]]. The cause of these emissions was difficult to establish due to a lack of knowledge of Jupiter's internal [[magnetic field]] and of the geometry of the impact sites. One possible explanation was that upwardly accelerating [[shock wave]]s from the impact accelerated charged particles enough to cause auroral emission, a phenomenon more typically associated with fast-moving [[solar wind]] particles striking a planetary atmosphere near a [[magnetic pole]]&nbsp;<sup>[7]</sup>.
Some astronomers had suggested that the impacts might have a noticeable effect on the [[Io torus]], a [[torus]] of high-energy particles connecting Jupiter with the highly [[volcano|volcanic]] moon [[Io (moon)|Io]]. High resolution spectroscopic studies found that variations in the ion [[density]], [[rotational velocity]] and [[temperature]]s at the time of impact and afterwards were within the normal limits&nbsp;<sup>[8]</sup>.
==Post-impact analysis==
[[Image:Impact site of fragment G.gif|thumb|left|250px|Fragment G impact site, showing asymmetric ejecta pattern.]]
One of the surprises of the impacts was the small amount of water revealed compared to prior predictions. Before the impact, models of Jupiter's atmosphere had indicated that the break-up of the largest fragments would occur at atmospheric pressures of anywhere from 300&nbsp;[[kilopascal]]s to a few [[megapascal]]s (from three to a few hundred [[bar (unit)|bar]]), and most astronomers expected that the impacts would penetrate a hypothesised water-rich layer underneath the clouds.
Astronomers did not observe large amounts of water following the collisions, and later impact studies found that fragmentation and destruction of the cometary fragments in an 'airburst' probably occurred at much higher altitudes than previously expected, with even the largest fragments being destroyed when the pressure reached 250&nbsp;[[kPa]] (2.5&nbsp;bar), well above the expected depth of the water layer. The smaller fragments were probably destroyed before they even reached the cloud layer&nbsp;<sup>[9]</sup>.
<br clear="all">
==Longer term effects==
The visible scars from the impacts could be seen on Jupiter for many months after the impact. They were extremely prominent, and observers described them as more easily visible even than the [[Great Red Spot]]. A search of historical observations revealed that the spots were probably the most prominent transient features ever seen on the planet, and that while the Great Red Spot is notable for its striking colour, no spots of the size and darkness of those caused by the SL9 impacts have ever been recorded before&nbsp;<sup>[10]</sup>.
Spectroscopic observers found that ammonia and carbon sulfide persisted in the atmosphere for at least fourteen months after the collisions, with a considerable amount of ammonia being present in the stratosphere as opposed to its normal location in the troposphere&nbsp;<sup>[11]</sup>.
Counterintuitively, the atmospheric temperature dropped to normal levels much more quickly at the larger impact sites than at the smaller sites: at the larger impact sites, temperatures were elevated over a region 15,000–20,000&nbsp;km wide, but dropped back to normal levels within a week of the impact. At smaller sites, temperatures 10&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]] higher than the surroundings persisted for almost two weeks&nbsp;<sup>[12]</sup>. Global stratospheric temperatures rose immediately after the impacts, then fell to below pre-impact temperatures 2–3&nbsp;[[week]]s afterwards, before rising slowly to normal temperatures &nbsp;<sup>[13]</sup>.
==Frequency of impacts==
[[Image:Chain of impact craters on Ganymede.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A chain of [[impact crater|crater]]s on [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]], probably caused in a similar impact event. The picture covers an area approximately 120 miles across. ]]
Since the impact of SL9, two further very small comets have been found to be orbiting Jupiter. Studies have shown that the planet, by far the most massive in the [[solar system]], can capture comets from solar orbit into Jovian orbit rather frequently.
Cometary orbits around Jupiter are generally unstable, as they will be highly [[ellipse|elliptical]] and likely to be strongly perturbed by the Sun's gravity at [[apojove]] (the furthest point on the orbit from the planet). Studies have estimated that comets probably crash into Jupiter once or twice per [[century]], but the impact of comets the size of SL9 is much less common – probably no more often than once per [[millennium]].
There is very strong evidence that comets have previously been fragmented and collided with Jupiter and its satellites. During the Voyager missions to the planet, planetary scientists identified 13 [[crater chain]]s on [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]] and three on [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]], the orig |
atio Evangelica''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_encomium.htm ''Encomium of the Martyrs''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation from an ancient Syriac version)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_martyrs.htm ''History of the Martyrs in Palestine''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation from an ancient Syriac version)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_onomasticon_01_intro.htm ''Onomasticon''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_pe_00_eintro.htm ''Praeparatio Evangelica''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_theophania_01preface.htm ''Theophania''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation from an ancient Syriac version)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_letter_to_carpianus.htm ''To Carpianus''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation)
*[http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Eusebius_Letters_Fragmented.html ''Letters''] at the [http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_homepage.html Patristics In English Project] (English Translation From Various Sources)
===Other links===
*[http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/eusebius/ Eusebius of Caesarea] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project]
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/NTcanon.html#6] A discussion of the questionable scholarship of the early Christian historians.
* [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/eusebius.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography.
-----
Initial text from Schaff-Herzog ''Encyclopedia of Religion'', subjected to edits for style.
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Empiricism''' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &#949;&#956;&#960;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#972;&#962;, a noun meaning a "test" or "trial". The -pir- is ultimately related to the -per- of the Latin words ''experientia'' and ''experimentum'', both of which mean "experiment," and from which our words "experiment" and "experience" come. (Interestingly, it is also related to the Latin word ''periculum'', "essay, trial, danger," which gives the English word "peril".) Empiricism is therefore the [[philosophy|philosophical]] doctrine (-ism) of "testing" or "experimentation," and has taken on the more specific meaning that all human knowledge ultimately comes from the senses and from experience. Empiricism denies that humans have [[innate ideas]] or that anything is knowable without reference to experience.
Empiricism is contrasted with [[continental rationalism]], epitomized by [[René Descartes]]. According to the rationalist, philosophy should be performed via introspection and [[a priori]] [[deductive reasoning]]. Names associated with empiricism include [[St. Thomas Aquinas]], [[Aristotle]], [[Thomas Hobbes]] (also see [[Philosophical naturalism|naturalism]]), [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]], [[John Locke]] (who originally developed the doctrine during the 17th and early 18th centuries), [[George Berkeley]], and [[David Hume]].
It is generally regarded as the heart of the modern [[scientific method]], that present [[theory|theories]] should be based on our [[observation]]s of the world rather than on [[intuition]] or [[faith]]; that is, [[empirical research]] and [[empirical knowledge|a posteriori]] [[inductive reasoning]] rather than purely [[deductive logic]].
'''Empirical''' is an adjective often used in conjunction with [[science]], both the [[natural science|natural]] and [[social science]]s, which means the use of working [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] which are capable of being [[falsifiability|disproved]] using [[observation]] or [[experiment]] (i.e.: ultimately through [[experience]]).
In a second sense "empirical" in science may be synonymous with "experimental". In this sense, an empirical result is an experimental observation. In this context, the term "semi-empirical" or "semiempirical" is used for qualifying theoretical methods which use in part basic [[axiom]]s or postulated scientific laws and empirical (experimental) results. Such methods are opposed to theoretical ''[[ab initio]]'' methods which are purely [[deductive]] and based on [[first principles]]. This terminology is particularly important in [[theoretical chemistry]].
== Empiricism and Science ==
Empiricism was a precursor of [[logical positivism]], also known as logical empiricism. Empirical methods have dominated science until the present day. It laid the groundwork for the scientific method, which is the traditional view of theory and progress in science. However, in the past couple of decades [[quantum mechanics]], [[constructivist_epistemology|constructivism]], and [[Thomas Samuel Kuhn|Kuhn]]'s ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' have created some challenges to empiricism as the exclusive way in which science works and should work. On the other hand, some argue that theories such as [[quantum mechanics]] provide a perfect example of the solidity of empiricism: the ability to discover even counter-intuitive scientific laws, and the ability to rework our theories to accept these laws.
==Empiricism in history==
Within [[historiography]], empiricism refers to [[empiricist historiography]], a school of documentary interpretation and historical [[teleology]] derived from the works of [[Leopold von Ranke|Ranke]].
== Classical Empiricism ==
Refers mostly to the [[Epistemology|epistemological]] work of [[St. Thomas Aquinas]] and [[Aristotle]]. Aristotle argued that all forms of knowing come from [[induction]]. Aquinas wrote the famous [[peripatetic axiom]], "Nihil in intellectu quod prius non fuerit in sensu" which means "Nothing is in the intellect which was not first in the senses."
== Modern Empiricism ==
Also known as traditional empiricism. [[David Hume]], [[John Locke]] and [[George Berkeley]] were among the British philosophers who rejected the theory of innate ideas. Theories of the existence of innate ideas were the subject of much debate between the Continental rationalists and British empiricists in the seventeenth century. From the late eighteenth century onwards, empiricists were critical of [[Immanuel Kant]]'s doctrine of the ''[[a priori]]'' as positing innate ideas, while proponents of innate ideas rejected Kant's doctrine of intuition and deduction as not innatist, but part of a rationalist doctrine. Modern empiricism contends that all knowledge must be attained through internal and external sensations.
== Radical Empiricism ==
Radical empiricists believe that ''all'' human knowledge is purely empirical. [[William James]] was a proponent of one form of radical empiricism.
== Moderate Empiricism ==
Moderate empiricists believe that all human knowledge of "matter of fact propositions" is purely empirical. This is the view that [[David Hume]] held.
== Other forms ==
[[naïve empiricism|Naïve Empiricism]]: Our ideas and theories need to be tested against reality and not be affected by preconceived notions.
[[constructive empiricism|Constructive Empiricism]]: According to this view of science coined by [[Bas C. van Fraassen]] (''The Scientific Image'', 1980), we should only ask that theories accurately describe observable parts of the world. Theories that meet these requirements are considered "empirically adequate". If a theory becomes well established, it should be "accepted". What that means is the theory is believed to be empirically accurate, used to solve further problems, and used to extend or refine the '''theory.'''
== Criticisms ==
=== Kuhn's [[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]] ===
One of the most famous challenges against empiricism is [[Thomas Samuel Kuhn|Kuhn's]] ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' (1962), which built upon [[Norwood Russell Hanson]]'s ''[[Patterns of Discovery]]'' (1958). In this, he argues that theory change is actually developed through paradigm shifts, where a new idea is offered that doesn't follow on existing theories but instead offers a unique, creative solution to existing problems. Scientific thinking, in Kuhn's view, goes through revolutions, instead of gradual theory development through testing and experimentation. After the revolution occurs, scientists can see things t |
et [[ground attack aircraft]] that specialised in destroying German armour]]
Allied [[air superiority]] became a critical hindrance to German operations during the later years of the war. Early German successes enjoyed air superiority with unencumbered movement of ground forces, close air support, and aerial reconnaissance. However, the Western Allies' air-to-ground attacks were so great following the lead up to [[Operation Overlord]] that panzer crews deployed from the Western to Eastern Front showed reluctance to moving en masse during daylight. Indeed, the final German blitzkrieg operation in the west, [[Operation Wacht am Rhein]], was planned to take place during poor weather which grounded Allied aircraft. Under these conditions, it was difficult for German commanders to employ the panzer arm to its envisioned potential.
===Counter-tactics===
[[Image:Stanislaw Maczek.jpg|thumb|right|150px| General [[Stanisław Maczek]], one of the early developers of anti-blitzkrieg tactics]]
Blitzkrieg was very effective against [[static defence]] doctrines that most countries developed in the aftermath of the First World War. Early attempts to defeat the blitzkrieg can be dated to the [[Polish September Campaign]] in 1939, where Polish general [[Stanisław Maczek]], commander of 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade, prepared a detailed report of blitzkrieg tactics, its usage, effectiveness and possible precautions for the French military from his experiences. However, the French staff disregarded this report (it was captured, unopened, by the German army). Later, Maczek would become one of the most successful Allied armoured forces commanders in the war.
During the [[Battle of France]] in 1940, De Gaulle's 4th Armour Division and elements of the British Armour Brigade in the British Expeditionary Force both made probing attacks on the German flank, actually pushing into the rear of the blitzkrieging armoured columns at times (See [[Battle of Arras (1940)]] ). This may have been a reason for Hitler to call a halt to the panzers' advance. Those attacks combined with [[Maxime Weygand]]'s [[Hedgehog tactic]] would become the major basis for responding to blitzkrieg attacks in the future: deployment in depth, permitting enemy forces to bypass defensive concentrations, reliance on anti-tank guns, strong force employment on the flanks of the enemy attack, followed by counter-attacks at the base to destroy the enemy advance in detail. While Allied forces in 1940 lacked the experience to successfully develop these strategies, resulting in France's capitulation with heavy losses, they characterized later Allied operations such as Kursk (where Russian armies deployed in great depth), Mortain (where counterattacks by the US and Canadian armies closed the Falaise Gap) or the Ardennes (and the hedgehog defence of Bastogne and counterattack of the US 3rd Army).
By 1944 the Allied armies' [[Ordnance QF 17 pounder|17 pdr]] anti-tank guns and [[90 mm M3 gun|90 mm gun]]-equipped tank destroyers and the Germans' famous [[88 mm gun|88s]] were very successful in blunting tank attacks, especially those with little infantry support. By that time the Allies had also developed their own version of both offensive and defensive strategies using armoured forces.
===Logistics===
Although effective in quick campaigns against Poland and France, blitzkrieg could not be sustained by Germany in later years. Blitzkrieg strategy has the inherent danger of the attacking force overextending its [[supply line]]s, and the strategy as a whole can be defeated by a determined foe who is willing to sacrifice territory for time in which to regroup and rearm, as the Soviets did on the Eastern Front. Tank and vehicle production was a constant problem for Germany; indeed, late in the war many panzer "divisions" had no more than a few dozen tanks.{{ref|11}} As the end of the war approached, Germany also experienced critical shortages in [[fuel]] and [[ammunition]] stocks as a result of Anglo-American [[strategic bombing]]. Although production of Luftwaffe fighter aircraft continued, they would be unable to fly for lack of fuel. What fuel there was went to panzer divisions, and even then they were not able to operate normally. Of those [[Tiger I|Tiger]] tanks lost against the United States Army, nearly half of them were abandoned for lack of fuel.{{ref|12}}
==Influence==
Blitzkrieg's widest influence was within the [[Allies|Western Allied]] leadership of the war, some of whom drew inspiration from the Wehrmacht's approach. United States General [[George S. Patton]] emphasized fast pursuit, the use of an armoured spearhead to effect a breakthrough, then cut off and disrupt enemy forces prior to their flight. In his comments of the time, he credited Guderian and Rommel's work, notably ''Infantry Attacks'', for this insight. He also put into practice the idea attributed to cavalry leader [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]], "Get there fustest with the mostest." (Get there fastest, with the most forces).
Blitzkrieg also has had some influence on subsequent militaries and doctrines. The [[Israeli Defense Forces]] may have been influenced by blitzkrieg in creating a military of flexible armoured spearheads and [[close air support]].{{ref|13}} The 1990's United States theorists of "[[Shock and awe]]" claim blitzkrieg as a subset of strategies which they term "rapid dominance".
==Changing Interpretations of Blitzkrieg==
Beginning in the 1970s, the interpretation of Blitzkrieg, particularly with respect to the Second World War, has undergone a shift in the historical community. John Ellis described the shift in his book ''Brute Force'' in 1990.
<blockquote>Our perception of land operations in the Second World War has...been distorted by an excessive emphasis upon the hardware employed. The main focus of attention has been the tank and the formations that employed it, most notably the (German) panzer divisions. Despite the fact that only 40 of the 520 German divisions that saw combat were panzer divisions (there were also an extra 24 motorised/panzergrenadier divisions), the history of German operations has consistently almost exclusively been written largely in terms of ''blitzkrieg'' and has concentrated almost exclusively upon the exploits of the mechanised formations. Even more misleadingly, this presentation of ground combat as a largely armoured confrontation has been extended to cover Allied operations, so that in the popular imagination the exploits of the British and Commonwealth Armies, with only 11 armoured divisions out of 73 (that saw combat), and of the Americans in Europe, with only 16 out of 59, are typified by tanks sweeping around the Western Desert or trying to keep up with Patton in the race through Sicily and across northern France. Of course, these armoured forces did play a somewhat more important role in operations than the simple proportions might indicate, but it still has to be stressed that they in no way dominated the battlefield or precipitated the evolution of completely new modes of warfare.</blockquote>
Ellis, as well as Zaloga in his study of the Polish Campaign in 1939, points to the effective use of other arms such as artillery and aerial firepower as equally important to the success of German (and later, Allied) operations. Panzer operations in Russia failed to provide decisive results; Leningrad never fell despite an entire Panzer Group being assigned to take it, nor did Moscow. In 1942 panzer formations overstretched at Stalingrad and in the Caucasus, and what successes did take place - such as Manstein at Kharkov or Krivoi Rog - were of local significance only.
==See also==
*[[AirLand Battle]], blitzkrieg-like doctrine of US Army in 1980s
*[[Armoured warfare]]
*[[Attrition warfare]]
*[[The Blitz]], the [[Luftwaffe]] terror bombings of [[London]]
*[[Combined arms]]
*[[Deep Battle]], the period Soviet concept of warfare
*[[Maneuver warfare]], battle doctrine of speed and strategic movement
*[[Methodical Battle]], the period French concept of warfare
*[[Shock and Awe]], the 21st century American military doctrine
*[[Vernichtungsgedanken]], or 'annihilation thoughts', one of blitzkrieg predecessors
*[[Mission-type tactics]], tactical battle doctrine of delegation and initiative stimulation
==References==
#{{note|TIMEety}}"Blitzkrieger" in [[TIME]] Vol. XXXIV No. 13, [[25 September]] [[1939]]. http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,761969,00.html
#{{note|1}}James S. Corum, <cite>The Roots of Blitzkrieg: Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform</cite> (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1994), 37
#{{note|2}}Corum, op. cit., 23.
#{{note|3}}Corum, op. cit., 7.
#{{note|14}}Argued by Corum, Edwards, and House. This is not to include theories which were not adopted as actual doctrine, on which there are varied views.
#{{note|4}}Roger Edwards, <cite>Panzer: A Revolution in Warfare, 1939-1945</cite> (London: Brockhampton Press, 1998), 23.
#{{note|5}}Guderian's remarks are from an unnamed article published in the National Union of German Officers, [[15 October]] [[1937]] as quoted in ''Panzer Leader'', pp. 39-46. Italics removed — the quoted sections are all italics in the original.
#{{note|6}}[[Heinz Guderian]], trans. Constantine Fitzgibbon, <cite>Panzer Leader</cite> (New York: De Capo Press, 2002), 46.
#{{note|7}}Edwards, op. cit., 24.
#{{note|8}}Edwards, op. cit., 145.
#{{note|9}}Edwards, op. cit., 25.
#{{note|10}}[[Alan Clark]], <cite>Barbarossa: The Russian-German Conflict, 1941-45</cite> (New York: Quill, 1965), 78.
#{{note|11}}[[Richard Simpkin]], <cite>Race to the Swift: Thoughts on Twenty-First Century Warfare</cite> (London: Brassey's, 2000), 34
#{{note|12}}Charles Winchester, "The Demodernization of the German Army in World War 2", Osprey Publishing. http://www.ospreypublishing.com/conte |
nfluence of reviews is extremely important. Poor reviews will often doom a film to obscurity and financial loss.
===Reviews and film marketing===
The impact of reviews on a film's [[box office]] performance and DVD rentals/sales is a matter of debate. Some claim that [[movie marketing]] is now so intense and well financed that reviewers cannot make an impact against it. However, the cataclysmic failure of some heavily-promoted movies (such as ''[[Alexander (movie)|Alexander]]'') that were harshly reviewed, as well as the unexpected success of critically praised independent movies (such as ''[[Pulp Fiction]]'') indicates that extreme critical reactions can have considerable influence. Others note that positive film reviews have been shown to spark interest in little-known films. Major box-office analysis websites like Box Office Prophets and Box Office Guru regularly factor in general film review opinions in their projections of a film's earnings.
Studios respect the clout of reviewers. There have been several films in which film companies have so little confidence that they refuse to give reviewers an advanced viewing to avoid widespread panning of the film (such as ''[[The Avengers (film)|The Avengers]]''). However, this usually backfires as reviewers are wise to the tactic and warn the public that the film may not be worth seeing. Such films often do poorly as a result.
Since so much money is riding on positive reviews, studios often work to woo film critics. Any major release is accompanied by mailings to film critics [[press kit]]s containing background information, photos for use in a publication, and often small gifts. Film reviewers who appear on television are given clips from the movie which they may use.
==== "Quote whoring" ====
Almost all films, no matter how badly panned they are by other critics, can find some reviewers to praise them. These praises often appear in the ads for the movies. Often used are stock phrases such as "spectacular," "edge-of-the-seat," "thrilling," "joy ride," "triumph," "tour de force."
These reviews are sometimes obtained by the studio offering to fly a group of critics from cities across the United States to either [[New York]] or [[Los Angeles]] for a weekend that includes a screening of the studios newest film. This screening normally occurs well before other critics have seen the film. Added to this "free vacation" are often elaborate gifts. After the screening the studios ask the critics to write a small review, often only a few sentences. From these reviews they draw advertising blurbs.
Other critics strongly oppose this practice arguing it is selling reviews for bribes. [http://www.efilmcritic.com eFilmcritic.com] published an [http://www.efilmcritic.com/feature.php?feature=712 expose] of the most notorious "critic" in this category, Earl Dittman.
One reviewer who was widely labeled a "[[quote whore]]" was [[David Manning (fictitious writer)|David Manning]], whose quotes often appeared on promotional posters for [[Columbia Pictures]]. In early [[June 2001]], the company admitted that Manning was an entirely fictional creation of their [[marketing]] department. In 2005, the studio reached a $1.5 million settlement and agreed to refund the ticket price for viewers who attended certain movies, including ''A Knight's Tale'' and ''Hollow Man''.
=== Online film reviews ===
Some websites seek to improve the usefulness of film reviews by compiling them acertain a general opinion. [[Rotten Tomatoes]] and [[Metacritic]] are two such examples. The [[Online Film Critics Society]], an international professional association of Internet-based cinema reviewers, consists of writers from all over the world.
Some websites specialize in narrow aspects of film reviewing. For instance, there are sites that focus on specific content advisories for parents to judge a film's suitability for children. Others focus on a religious perspective. Still others highlight more esoteric subjects such as the depiction of [[science]] in fiction films. One such example is ''Insultingly Stupid Movie Physics'' by [[Intuitor]].
One unique website, [[Everyone's a Critic]], allows anyone to publish film reviews and comment on them.
=== Notable journalistic critics ===
*[[Rona Barrett]]
*[[James Berardinelli]]
*[[Ernest Callenbach]]
*[[Cinecast]]
*[[Roger Ebert]] (''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'' [[Siskel & Ebert]])
*[[David Edelstein]] (''New York Magazine'', [[NPR]]'s ''Fresh Air'', ''[[CBS]] Sunday Morning'')
*[[Àlex Gorina]]
*[[Leslie Halliwell]]
*[[Pauline Kael]]
*[[Stanley Kauffmann]] ([[The New Republic]])
*[[Dave Kehr]] (''[[The New York Times]]'')
*[[Mark Kermode]]
*[[Harry Knowles]] (''[[Ain't It Cool News]]'')
*[[Tim Lucas]] (''[[Video Watchdog]]'')
*[[Derek Malcolm]], (the [[Manchester]] ''[[The Guardian|Guardian]]'')
*[[Leonard Maltin]]
*[[Janet Maslin]]
*[[Nell Minow]], Yahoo!'s "Movie Mom"
*[[Khalid Mohammed]] ''([[Bollywood]] films, previously for [[The Times of India]] and [[Midday]]'')
*[[Barry Norman]]
*[[Rex Reed]]
*[[Richard Roeper]] ([[Ebert & Roeper]])
*[[Jonathan Rosenbaum]] (''[[Chicago Reader]]'') also author of several books on Hollywood and film criticism.
*[[Jonathan Ross]]
*[[Danielle Savage]]
*[[A. O. Scott]] (''[[New York Times]]'')
*[[Gene Shalit]] ([[ABC Television)]]
*[[Joel Siegel]]
*[[John Ivan Simon]]
*[[Gene Siskel]] (''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', [[Siskel & Ebert]])
*[[David Stratton]]
*[[Peter Travers]] (''[[Rolling Stone]]'')
*[[Parker Tyler]]
*[[Alexander Walker]] for the [[London]] ''[[ Evening Standard]]'' and others
*[[David Walsh]] (World Socialist Web Site)
* Matt Weatherford, aka [[The Filthy Critic]]
==Academic criticism==
Some claim that journalist film critics should only be known as film reviewers, and that true film critics are those who take a more academic approach to films. This work is more often known as [[film theory]] or [[film studies]]. These film critics try to come to understand why film works, how it works, what it means, and what effects it has on people. Rather than write for mass-market publications their articles are published in scholarly journals, or sometimes in up-market magazines. They also tend to be affiliated with universities.
=== Notable academic critics ===
* [[Taran Adarsh]]
* [[Rudolf Arnheim]]
* [[Béla Balázs]]
* [[André Bazin]]
* [[Jean-Louis Beaudry]]
* [[Peter Bogdanovich]]
* [[David Bordwell]]
* [[Ernest Callenbach]]
* [[Ray Carney]]
* [[Serge Daney]]
* [[Maya Deren]]
* [[Mary Ann Doane]]
* [[Sergei Eisenstein]]
* [[Siegfried Kracauer]]
* [[Christian Metz]]
* [[Laura Mulvey]]
* [[William Rothman]]
* [[Andrew Sarris]]
* [[Kaja Silverman]]
* [[Kristin Thompson]]
* [[Slavoj Žižek]]
==See also==
*[[Film journals and magazines]]
==Further reading==
*Jonathan Rosenbaum, ''Movie Wars: How Hollywood and the Media Conspire to Limit What Films We Can See'', A Cappella Books 2000
*Slavoj Žižek, <i>The Žižek Reader</i> (edited by Elizabeth Wright and Edmond Wright), Blackwell Publishing 1999
*Maya Deren, <i>Essential Deren: Collected Writings on Film by Maya Deren</i> (edited by Bruce R. McPherson), Documentext 2005
*Raúl Ruiz, <i>Poetics of Cinema</i> (translated by Brian Holmes) Dis Voir 2005
==External links==
(sorted by domain name)
*[http://www.brightlightsfilm.com/ Bright Lights Film Journal]
*[http://www.everyonesacritic.net Everyone's A Critic]
*[http://www.filmsite.org Filmsite.org]
*[http://www.independentcritics.com Independent Critics]
*[http://www.imdb.com Internet Movie Database]
*[http://www.kamera.co.uk Kamera]
*[http://www.latrobe.edu.au/screeningthepast/ Screening the Past]
*[http://www.mrqe.com/lookup Movie Review Query Engine]
*[http://www.offscreen.com/ Offscreen]
*[http://www.rogerebert.com/ Roger Ebert]
*[http://www.rottentomatoes.com Rotten Tomatoes]
*[http://ofcs.rottentomatoes.com The Online Film Critics Society]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/ Senses of Cinema]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/links.html Links to everything else]
*[http://www.thefilmjournal.com/index.html The Film Journal]
[[Category:Film criticism|*]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Film festival</title>
<id>10781</id>
<revision>
<id>41095916</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T00:43:26Z</timestamp>
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<username>Demicx</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">A '''film festival''' is a mostly annual [[festival]] in one or more [[movie theater]]s with a special program showcasing many [[film|films]]. The films are usually of a recent date; sometimes there is a focus on a specific genre (e.g. [[animation]]) or subject (e.g. gay and lesbian film festivals).
The world's first major film festival was held in [[Venice Film Festival|Venice]] in 1932; the other major film festivals of the world ([[Berlin Film Festival|Berlin]], [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]], [[Moscow International Film Festival|Moscow]] and [[Karlovy Vary International Film Festival|Karlovy Vary]]) date back to the 1940s and 1950s.
The [[Edinburgh International Film Festival]] in [[Scottland]] was established in 1947 and is the longest continually running film festival in the world.
The first North American film festival was the [[San Francisco International Film Festival]] held in March 1957. It played a major role in introducing foreign films to American audiences. Among the films were [[Akira Kurosawa]]'s [[Rashomon (film)|Rashomon]] and [[Satyajit Ray]]'s [[Pather Panchali]].
The [[Toronto International Film Festival| Toronto]] festival in [[Canada]], begun in 1976, is now the major North American film festival and the most widely attended worldwide.
The [[Ivy Film Festival]] at [[Brown Unive |
rmian time (A.G. Smith 1997). Toward the end of the Carboniferous, and around 290 million years ago, Gondwanda hovered over the south polar regions, where glacial centres expanded across the continents, as evidenced by glacial deposits of tillites along with striations in ancient rocks. Those heavily grooved by the advancing glaciers showed lines of ice flow away from the equator and toward the poles, which is the opposite direction if the continents were situated where they are today. Overall, the southern continents drifted together over the South Pole, and massive ice sheets radiating outward from a central point crossed the present continental boundaries. The Permo-Carboniferous ice sheet is so extensive that it can fit within a latitude circle of 50 degrees (A.G.Smith 1997)
(Rahul Megharaj 1985).
== The debate over continental drift ==
Before [[geophysics|geophysical]] evidence started accumulating after [[World War II]], the idea of continental drift caused sharp disagreement among geologists. Wegener had introduced his theory in 1912 at a meeting of the German Geological Association. His paper was published that year and expanded into a book in 1915. In 1921 the Berlin Geological Society held a symposium on the theory. In 1922 Wegener's book was translated into English and then it received a wider audience. In 1923 the theory was discussed at conferences by [[Geological Society of France]], the Geological Section of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]], and the [[Royal Geological Society]]. The theory was carefully but critically reviewed in the journal ''Nature'' by [[Philip Lake]]. On [[November 15]], [[1926]], the [[American Association of Petroleum Geologists]] (AAPG) held a symposium at which the continental drift hypothesis was vigorously debated. The resulting papers were published in 1928 under the title ''Theory of continental drift''. Wegener himself contributed a paper to this volume.
One of the main problems with Wegener's theory was that he believed that the continents "plowed" through the rocks of the ocean basins. Most geologists did not believe that this could be possible. In addition, Wegener did not have an acceptable theory of the forces that caused the continents to drift. He also ignored counterarguements and evidence contrary to his theory and seemed too willing to interpret ambiguous evidence as being favorable to his theory (Williams 2000:59).
[[Plate tectonics]], a modern update of the old ideas of Wegener about "plowing" continents, accommodates continental motion through the mechanism of [[seafloor spreading]]. New rock is created by volcanism at mid-ocean ridges and returned to the Earth's mantle at ocean trenches. Remarkably, in the 1928 AAPG volume, [[G. A. F. Molengraaf]] of the Delft Institute (now [[Delft University of Technology|University]]) of Technology proposed a recognisable form of seafloor spreading in order to account for the opening of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] as well as the [[East Africa Rift]]. Arthur Holmes (an early supporter of Wegener) suggested that the movement of continents was the result of convection currents driven by the heat of the interior of the Earth, rather than the continents floating on the mantle. In the words of [[Carl Sagan]] (1995:302-03), it is more like the continents are being carried on a conveyor belt than floating or drifting. The ideas of Molengraaf and of Holmes led to the theory of plate tectonics, which replaced the theory of continental drift, and became the accepted theory in the 1960s (based on data that started to accumulate in the late 1950s).
However, acceptance was gradual. Nowadays it is universally supported; but even in 1977 a textbook could write the relatively weak: "a poll of geologists now would probably show a substantial majority who favor the idea of drift" and devote a section to a serious consideration of the objections to the theory (Davis, 1977).
== Further reading ==
* Friedlander, Michael W. ''At the Fringes of Science'', pages 21-26, Westview, 1995, ISBN 0-8133-2200-6. 1998 edition with new epilog: ISBN 0-8133-9060-5.
* Le Grand, H. E. ''Drifting Continents and Shifting Theories'', Cambridge University, 1988, ISBN 0521311055 (paperback) and ISBN 0521322103 (hardback).
* Sagan, Carl. ''[[The Demon-Haunted World]], Science As a Candle in the Dark''. Ballantine Books, March 1997 ISBN 0345409469. 1996 hardback edition: Random House, ISBN 0-394-53512-X. 302-03.
== References ==
* Davis, Richard A. ''Principles of Oceanography'', 2nd edition, 1977, [[Addison-Wesley]]. ISBN 0-201-01464-5
* [[William F. Williams]], editor (2000). ''Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy''. [[Facts on File]]. ISBN 0-8160-3351-X.
== External links ==
*[http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfjps/1300/cont_drift.html A brief introduction to Plate Tectonics, based on the work of Alfred Wegener.]
*[http://www.scotese.com/earth.htm Maps of continental drift, from the Precambrian to the future]
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<page>
<title>Commodores</title>
<id>6057</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:05:58Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Original Band Personnel */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''The Commodores''' were a highly successful [[Soul music|soul]]/[[funk]] band in the [[1970]]s. They met as [[freshmen]] at [[Tuskegee University|Tuskegee Institute]], and signed to [[Motown]] having first caught the [[public]] eye supporting [[The Jackson Five]] on tour.
==Original Band Personnel==
* [[Lionel Richie]] ([[vocals]], [[saxophone]], [[piano]]) - born on [[20 June]], [[1949]], in Tuskegee, Alabama.
* [[Thomas McClary]] ([[lead guitar]]) - born on [[6 October]], [[1950]], in [[Eustis]], [[Florida]].
* [[Milan Williams]] ([[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]) - born on [[28 March]], [[1948]], in [[Mississippi]].
* William King ([[trumpet]]) - born on [[30 January]], [[1949]], in [[Florida]].
* [[Ronald La Pread]] ([[bass guitar]]) - born on [[4 September]], [[1946]], in [[Alabama]].
* [[Walter Orange]] ([[vocals]], [[drums]]) - born on [[10 December]], [[1946]], in [[Florida]].
==Biography==
The group are perhaps best known for their [[ballads]] such as "Easy" & "Three Times a Lady", which are not, however, considered representative of their output. Usually, they recorded funky, driven dance floor hits including "Brick House", "Fancy Dancer", and "Slippery When Wet", amongst others. Their song "Oh No" was highlighted in the movie ''[[The Last American Virgin]]''. Later, "Machine Gun", the [[instrumental]] title track from their debut album, become a staple at American sporting events, and has similarly been featured in many films, including ''[[Boogie Nights]]''. Another instrumental, "[[Cebu Province|Cebu]]" (named after an island in the [[Philippines]]) later became a sample in the [[Quiet Storm]] format.
Band members typically traded lead vocal duties. After [[Lionel Richie]] left to presue a solo career, former [[Heatwave (band)|Heatwave]] [[singer]] [[J.D. Nicholas]] assumed his place in the group. However, with the exception of the Grammy winning "Nightshift," the band never achieved the same level of success it enjoyed with Richie. Ironically, "Nightshift" won the Commodores their only [[Grammy]] for [[Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals| Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals]].
Over time, founding members began leaving; McClary (1982, shortly after Richie left), LaPread (1986), and Williams, (1989). The group also gradually abandoned their funk roots and moved into the more commercial [[disco]] arena.
The Commodores were inducted into the [[Vocal Group Hall of Fame]] in [[2003]].
==Discography==
* (1974) ''[[Machine Gun (album)|Machine Gun]]''
* (1975) ''[[Caught in the Act (Commodores album)|Caught in the Act]]''
* (1975) ''[[Movin' On]]''
* (1976) ''[[Hot On The Tracks]]''
* (1977) ''[[Commodores (album)|Commodores]]''
* (1977) ''[[Zoom (Commodores album)|Zoom]]''
* (1978) ''[[Natural High]]''
* (1979) ''[[Midnight Magic]]''
* (1980) ''[[Heroes (Commodores album)|Heroes]]''
* (1981) ''[[In The Pocket]]''
* (1983) ''[[Commodores 13]]''
* (1985) ''[[Nightshift (album)|Nightshift]]''
The group left [[Motown]] in [[1986]] for [[Polydor]], and released several additional albums, primarily compilations.
==Samples==
*[[Media:BrickHouse.ogg|Download sample]] "Brick House" from ''[[Commodores (album)|Commodores]]''
== External links ==
*[http://www.vghf.com/Inductees/commodores.htm Vocal Group Hall of Fame page on The Commodores]
[[Category:American musical groups|Commodores]]
[[Category:Funk musical groups|Commodores]]
[[Category:Motown performers|Commodores]]
[[Category:Popular musical groups|Commodores]]
[[Category:R&B musical groups|Commodores]]
[[Category:Soul musical groups|Commodores]]
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<page>
<title>Co |
e same '''27-book NT''', except for the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] who continue to use the [[Peshitta]] and the [[Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] (which lists four books of Sinodos (church practices), two Books of Covenant, "Ethiopic Clement", and "Ethiopic Didascalia" within a broader New Testament canon, although their narrow canon is the same as that of other churches; see [http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Bible/Text/Canon/ethiopican.html this webpage] for much more detailed information on the Ethiopian Canon) and the [[Armenian Orthodox]] who include the [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]]. The Canon of the [[Tewahedo Church]] is looser than for most other traditional Christian groups. The Ethiopian "narrow" Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the [[Septuagint]] accepted by the Orthodox plus [[Book of Enoch|Enoch]], [[Jubilees]], [[1 Esdras]] and [[2 Esdras]], [[3 Maccabees]], and [[Psalm 151]]; but their three books of the Maccabees are quite different in content from those of the other Christian churches which include them. The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups', as well. This Church also has a "broader canon" that includes more books.
The books that were not accepted, but that are known to have existed in antiquity, are stylistically or in subject matter similar to the New Testament, and claim apostolic authorship, are generally termed [[New Testament apocrypha]].
=== Modern Evangelicals ===
Many [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Christian groups do not accept the theory that the Christian Bible was not known until various Roman-dominated Councils made their official declarations.
These groups believe that the New Testament supports that Paul (2 Timothy 4:11-13), Peter (2 Peter 3:15-16), and ultimately John (Revelation 22:18-19) finalized the canon of the New Testament. They note that Peter, John, and Paul wrote 20 (or 21) of the 27 books of the NT and personally knew all the other NT writers. (Books not attributed to these three are: Matthew, Mark, Luke, Acts, James, and Jude. The authorship of Hebrews has long been disputed.)
[[Protestantism|Protestants]] tend not to accept the [[Septuagint]] as the correct Hebrew Bible. They claim that the [[Masoretic text]] was known and used by the end of the first Century. They note that early Christians knew the Hebrew Bible since around 170 A.D. [[Melito of Sardis]] listed all the books of the Old Testament that those in the Evangelical faiths now use (except, according to the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', the Book of Esther). Melito's canon is found in [[Eusebius]] EH4.26.13-14 [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm]:
<blockquote> Accordingly when I went East and came to the place where these things were preached and done, I learned accurately the books of the Old Testament, and send them to thee as written below. Their names are as follows: [[Mosaic Law|Of Moses]], five books: Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus, Deuteronomy; [[Book of Joshua|Jesus Nave]], Judges, Ruth; of Kings, four books; of Chronicles, two; the Psalms of David, the Proverbs of Solomon, [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]] also, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Job; of Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah; of the [[Minor prophet|twelve prophets]], one book ; Daniel, Ezekiel, [[Esdras]]. From which also I have made the extracts, dividing them into six books.</blockquote>
===Modern interpretation of canonization===
Many modern Protestants point to four "Criteria for Canonicity" to justify the books that have been included in the Old and New Testament, which are judged to have satisfied the following:
#Apostolic Origin — attributed to and based on the preaching/teaching of the first-generation apostles (or their close companions).
#Universal Acceptance — acknowledged by all major Christian communities in the ancient world (by the end of the fourth century).
#Liturgical Use — read publicly when early Christian communities gathered for the Lord's Supper (their weekly worship services).
#Consistent Message — containing a theological outlook similar or complementary to other accepted Christian writings.
The basic factor for recognizing a book's canonicity for the New Testament was divine inspiration, and the chief test for this was apostolicity. The term ''apostolic'' as used for the test of canonicity does not necessarily mean apostolic authorship or derivation, but rather ''apostolic authority''. ''Apostolic authority'' is never detached from the authority of the Lord. See [[Apostolic succession]].
It is sometimes difficult to apply these criteria to all books in the accepted canon, however, and some point to books that Protestants hold as apocryphal which would fulfill these requirements. In practice, Protestants hold to the Jewish canon for the Old Testament and the Catholic canon for the New Testament.
=== Latter-day Saint Scripture ===
[[Latter Day Saint]] churches include the English [[Bible]] (i.e. the Protestant [[King James Version]]) in their canon, but also include books that the Saints believe to be of ancient origin, even though they were first published in the [[19th century]] in English. See [[Golden Plates]] for details. This usually includes the [[Book of Mormon]] and the [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]]. Additionally, the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] is a continually expanding work written and published in modern times and considered canonical by the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (by far the largest sect), though some LDS sects do not accept it.
The smaller [[Community of Christ]] has an authorized canon of three books. They use an edition of the [[Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible]] known as the ''Inspired version'', along with more modern translations. They accept the Book of Mormon as divinely inspired. They also use a version of the Doctrine and Covenants common to the Latter Day Saint editions up to 1844 but which differs in content after the schism which occured following the 1844 death of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]].
Judaism, and most other Christians do not accept these works as canon, and mostly regard them with ambivalence or rejection, regarding them instead to be original to the 19th century and not translations of ancient texts. Most LDS faiths respect the free practice of other religions as enshrined in their [[Articles of Faith]], but insist that the LDS canon are not [[apocrypha]]l nor [[forgery|forged]].
See also [[Mormonism and Judaism]] and [[Mormonism and Christianity]].
==Footnotes==
*{{fnb|1}}Assuming Koine Greek primacy, which is the majority view, however, a small minority assume [[Aramaic primacy]], meaning an original Aramaic Gospel which would cite the [[Targums|Aramaic Old Testament]].
==See also==
*[[Books of the Bible]] for a side-by-side comparison of Jewish, Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant canons.
==References==
*Anchor Bible Dictionary
*Ante-Nicene Fathers, Eerdmans Press
*Apostolic Fathers, Lightfoot-Harmer-Holmes, ISBN 0801056764
*Encyclopedia of the Early Church, Oxford
*Beckwith, R.T. ''OT Canon of the NT Church'' ISBN 0802836178
*Brakke, David. "Canon formation and social conflict in fourth century Egypt," in ''Harvard Theological Review'' 87:4 (1994) pp 395 &ndash; 419. [[Athanasius]]' role in the formation of the N.T. canon.
*Bruce, F.F., ''Canon of Scripture'' ISBN 083081258X
*Davis, L.D. ''First Seven Ecumenical Councils'' ISBN 0814656161
*Ferguson ''Encyclopedia of Early Christianity''
*Fox, Robin Lane. ''The Unauthorized Version.'' 1992. A classical historian dispassionately discusses the formation of the canons.
*Gamble. ''NT Canon'' ISBN 0800704709
*Hennecke-Schneemelcher. ''NT Apcrypha''
*Jurgens, W.A. ''Faith of the Early Fathers'' ISBN 0814656161
*Metzger, Bruce. ''Canon of the NT'' ISBN 0198261802
*John Salza, [http://www.scripturecatholic.com/ Scripture Catholic], [http://www.scripturecatholic.com/septuagint.html Septuagint references]
*Sundberg. ''OT of the Early Church'' Harvard Press 1964
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03267a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon of the Old Testament]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon of the New Testament]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1025&letter=B&search=Bible%20canon Jewish Encyclopedia: Bible Canon]
*[http://www.ntcanon.org/lists.shtml Development of the Canon of the New Testament]
*[http://wesley.nnu.edu/biblical_studies/noncanon/index.htm Noncanonical Literature]
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ Early Christian Writings]
*[http://www.nag-hammadi.com/ The Nag Hammadi library]
*[http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/nhl.html Gnostic Society Library page on The Nag Hammadi library]
*[http://www.ubs-translations.org/tictalk/tt45.html United Bible Societies, Translation Information Clearinghouse: Canon Update] Annotated bibliography of recently published research
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=63255 Judaica Press Translation - Online Jewish translation of the Biblical canon.] The Tanakh and [[Rashi]]'s entire commentary.
[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Jewish Christian topics]]
[[Category:Bible]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[de:Kanon des Neuen Testaments]]
[[fr:Canon (Bible)]]
[[id:Kanon]]
[[it:Canone della Bibbia]]
[[ja:正典]]
[[nl:Canon van de Bijbel]]
[[pl:Kanon biblijny]]
[[pt:Evangelhos canônicos]]
[[zh:正典]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Mormon</title>
<id>3978</id>
<revision>
<id>41948394</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:47:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lbmixpro</username>
<id>109364</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.64.101.88|65.64.101.88]] ([[User talk:65.64.101.88|talk]]) to last version by 129.93.205.149</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LDSBOM.jpg|righ |
mitar, un personaje polémico, amado, odiado, que provoca gran convulsión social, sobre todo en Argentina... El error está en poner el acento sobre su vida privada. Maradona es incomparable dentro de un campo de juego, pero también ha convertido en espectáculo su vida y ahora está viviendo un drama personal que conviene no imitar.-->[http://www.el-mundo.es/larevista/num103/textos/valdano1.html]
A columnist for the sports daily ''Olé'' welcomed Maradona's hosting a TV show in 2005, noting that "for the first time, he seems to have found his place in the world outside the football pitch".
==Career statistics==
===International===
*[[1977]]&ndash;[[1994]] Argentina (91 appearances, 34 goals)
*21 appearances in four [[Football World Cup|FIFA World Cup]] Championships (1982, [[1986]], [[1990]], 1994)
*{{nft|Argentina}} second-highest goal-scorer (held the record until surpassed by [[Gabriel Batistuta]])
===Club honours===
*1981 [[Primera División Argentina|Argentine league]] (Boca Juniors)
*[[1987]] [[Serie A|Italian league]] (SSC Napoli)
*1987 [[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]] (SSC Napoli)
*[[1988]] [[Serie A|Italian]] top-scorer (SSC Napoli)
*[[1989]] [[UEFA Cup]] (SSC Napoli)
*1990 [[Serie A|Italian league]] (SSC Napoli)
*1991 [[Supercoppa Italiana|Italian Super Cup]] (SSC Napoli)
===International honours===
*[[1979]] FIFA [[Football World Youth Championship|World Youth Championship]]
*1986 FIFA [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] winner
*1990 FIFA World Cup runner-up
*[[1993]] Copa Artemio Franchi
===Coaching career===
*1994 Mandiyú de Corrientes
*[[1995]] Racing Club de Avellaneda
*[[2005]] Boca Juniors (Football vice-president)
===Individual honours===
*1979&ndash;1981, 1986 Argentine Football Writers' Footballer of the Year
*1979, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1992 South American Footballer of the Year (El Mundo, Caracas)
*1986 Argentine Sports Writers' Sportsman of the Year
*1986 Golden Ball for Best Player of the FIFA World Cup
*1986 European Footballer of the Year (France Football)
*1986&ndash;1987 Best Footballer in the World (Onze)
*1986 World Player of the Year (World Soccer Magazine)
*1996 Golden Ball for services to cccfootball (France Football)
*1999 Argentine Sports Writers' Sportsman of the Century
*2000 "FIFA best football player of the century", people's choice.
*2002 "FIFA [[Goal of the Century]]" (1986 (2&ndash;0) v. England; second goal)
*2005 [[Argentine Senate]] ''"Domingo Faustino Sarmiento"'' recognition for lifetime achievement.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[South American Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Mario Kempes]] |after=retained |years=1979}}
{{succession box|title=[[South American Footballer of the Year]]|before=current holder |after=[[Zico]] |years=1980}}
{{succession box|title=[[World Soccer Magazine|World Player of the Year]]|before=[[Michel Platini]] |after=[[Ruud Gullit]] |years=1986}}
{{succession box |title=[[FIFA World Cup]]<br>winning [[captain (football)|captain]] |
before=[[Dino Zoff]]<br>[[Italy national football team|(Italy)]] |
after=[[Lothar Matthäus]]<br>[[Germany national football team|(West Germany)]]|
years='''[[Football World Cup 1986|1986]]'''}}
{{end box}}
==References==
*[http://espndeportes.espn.go.com/story?id=349221 'El Diez emprende dos nuevos desafíos', ''ESPN Deportes''] ([[July 28]] [[2005]]). Retrieved [[August 17]] [[2005]].
*[http://sports.yahoo.com/sow/news?slug=reu-maradonatv&prov=reuters&type=lgns "Zidane, Ronaldo to appear on Maradona TV show", Reuters/Yahoo!] ([[August 19]] [[2005]]). Retrieved [[August 20]] [[2005]].
<!--*[http://www.dios.com "web of de dios", Reuters/Yahoo! ([[August 19]] [[2005]])]. Retrieved [[October 07]] [[2005]].-->
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.homenajeal10.com.ar/ Homenaje al 10 - Diego Maradona's Tribute] (Spanish)
* [http://www.diegofutbol.com/ Maradona History, Stats, and Media] (Spanish)
* [http://www.diegomaradona.com/ Diego Maradona's home page]
* [http://www.expertfootball.com/players/maradona/ Diego Maradona] Biography and pictures
* [http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/02/en/pf/h/gotc/launch.html Video clip of the Goal Of the Century ]
[[Category:1960 births|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Argentine footballers|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Argentine television personalities|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Argentinos Juniors footballers|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Boca Juniors footballers|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:FC Barcelona footballers|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) midfielders|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Living people|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Newell's Old Boys footballers|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:People from Buenos Aires Province|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Sevilla FC footballers|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Television talk show hosts|Maradona, Diego]]
[[bg:Диего Марадона]]
[[ca:Diego Armando Maradona]]
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[[eo:Diego Armando MARADONA]]
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[[ko:디에고 마라도나]]
[[id:Diego Maradona]]
[[it:Diego Armando Maradona]]
[[he:דייגו ארמאנדו מאראדונה]]
[[lt:Diego Maradona]]
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[[no:Diego Maradona]]
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[[sl:Diego Armando Maradona]]
[[sr:Марадона]]
[[fi:Diego Maradona]]
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[[zh:马拉多纳]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Brewster</title>
<id>8487</id>
<revision>
<id>38013677</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T16:30:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sheynhertz-Unbayg</username>
<id>154084</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''see also '''[[David Josiah Brewer]]'''''
----
[[Image:Dbrewster.jpg|thumb|right|David Brewster]]
'''Sir David Brewster''', ([[December 11]], [[1781]] &ndash; [[February 10]], [[1868]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] scientist and writer.
He was born at [[Jedburgh]], where his father, a teacher of high reputation, was rector of the [[grammar school]]. At the age of twelve he was sent to the [[University of Edinburgh]], being intended for the clergy. However, he had already shown a strong inclination for natural science, and this had been fostered by his intimacy with a "self-taught [[philosophy|philosopher]], [[astronomy|astronomer]] and [[mathematics|mathematician]]," as Sir [[Walter Scott]] called him, of great local fame&mdash;[[James Veitch]] of [[Inchbonny]], who was particularly skilful in making [[telescope]]s.
Though he duly finished his [[theology|theological]] course and was licensed to preach, Brewster's other interests distracted him from the duties of his profession. In [[1799]] he was persuaded by his fellow-student, Henry Brougham, to study the [[diffraction]] of [[light]]. The results of his investigations were communicated from time to time in papers to the [[Philosophical Transactions]] of [[London]] and other scientific journals. The fact that other philosophers, notably [[Etienne Louis Malus]] and [[Augustin Fresnel]], were pursuing the same investigations contemporaneously in [[France]] does not invalidate Brewster's claim to independent discovery, even though in one or two cases the priority must be assigned to others.
The most important subjects of his inquiries can be enumerated under the following five headings: (1) The laws of [[polarization]] by [[Reflection (physics)|reflection]] and [[refraction]], and other quantitative laws of phenomena; (2) The discovery of the polarizing structure induced by [[heat]] and [[pressure]]; (3) The discovery of crystals with two axes of double refraction, and many of the laws of their phenomena, including the connection between optical structure and crystalline forms; (4) The laws of [[metal]]lic reflection; (5) Experiments on the absorption of light. In this line of investigation the prime importance belongs to the discovery (1) of the connection between the refractive index and the polarizing angle, (2) of biaxial crystals, and (3) of the production of double refraction by irregular heating.
These discoveries were promptly recognized. So early as the year [[1807]] the degree of LL.D. was conferred upon Brewster by [[Marischal College]], [[Aberdeen, Scotland|Aberdeen]]; in [[1815]] he was made a member of the [[Royal Society|Royal Society of London]], and received the [[Copley Medal|Copley medal]]; in [[1818]] he received the [[Rumford Medal]] of the society; and in [[1816]] the [[French Institute]] awarded him one-half of the prize of three thousand francs for the two most important discoveries in physical science made in Europe during the two preceding years.
Among the non-scientific public his fame was spread more effectually by his rediscovery in about [[1815]] of the [[kaleidoscope]], for which there was a great demand in both the United Kingdom and the [[United States]]. An instrument of higher interest, the [[stereoscope]], which, though of much later date ([[1849]]&ndash;[[1850]]), may be mentioned here, since along with the kaleidoscope it did more than anything else to popularize his name, was not, as has often been asserted, the invention of Brewster. Sir [[Charles Wheatstone]] discovered its principle and applied it as early as [[1838]] to the construction of a cumbersome but effective instrument, in which the binocular pictures were made to combine by means of [[mirror]]s. To Brewster is due the merit of suggesting the use of [[Lens (optics)|lenses]] for the purpose of uniting the dissimilar pictures; and accordingly the lenticular stereo-scope may fairly be said to be his invention.
A much more valuable practical result of Brewster's optical researches was the improvement of the British [[lighthouse]] system. It is true that the dioptric appara |
rst as an [[Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau|IFA]] F9 (later to become [[Wartburg]]) in [[Zschopau]], [[East Germany]], and shortly afterwards in DKW-form from Düsseldorf as the 3=6 or F91.
<gallery>
Image:DKW-F1.jpg|A [[1931]] '''DKW F1'''
Image:DKW F8-700.jpg|A [[1939]] '''DKW F8-700'''
</gallery>
== Automobiles made after WWII ==
As the Auto Union company originally was situated in Saxony in what became [[East Germany]] or [[DDR]], it took some time before they gathered after the war was ended. The company was registered again in [[BRD]] as Auto Union GMBH in [[1949]], first as a spare-part provider, but soon to take up production of the RT 125 motorcycle and a newly developed delivey van, called a Schnellaster F800. Their first line of production took place in [[Düsseldorf]]. This van used the same engine as the last F8 made before the war. Their first passenger car was the F89 using the body from the prototype F9 made before the war and the 2 cylinder engine from the last F8. Production went on until it was released by the successful 3 cylinder engine which came with the F91. The F91 was in production from [[1953]] to [[1955]], and was replaced by the somewhat larger F93 in [[1956]]. The F91 and F93 models all had 900 [[cc]] 3-cylinder two-stoke engines, the first ones delivering 34 [[horsepower|hp]], and the last ones 38 hp. The ignition system of these engines comprised three independant sets of [[Circuit breaker|points]] and [[Ignition coil|coils]], one for each cylinder, with the points mounted in a cluster around a single three [[lobe]]d [[cam]] at the front end of the crank shaft. The cooling system was of the [[convection|free convection]] type assisted by a fan driven from a pulley mounted at the front end of the crank shaft.
The F93 was produced until [[1959]], and was in turn replaced by the AU1000. These models where produced with a 1000 cc engine, with a choice between 44 or 50 hp S versions until [[1963]]. During this transission, production was also moved from Düsseldorf to [[Ingolstadt]] where [[Audi]] still have their production. From [[1957]], these cars could be fitted with an optional [[saxomat]], an automatic clutch, and at the time it was the only small car available with this feature. The last versions of the AU1000S also had [[disk brakes]] as option, an early development for this technology. A sporting 2+2 seater version was also available as the AU1000 Sp from [[1957]] to [[1964]], the first years only as a [[coupe]] and from [[1962]] also as a [[convertible]].
In [[1956]], the very rare DKW Monza was put into small scale production on a private initiative. This was a sporting, twoseater body made of [[glassfiber]] mounted on a standard F93 frame. The car was first called Solitude, but got its final name from the several long distance speed records it made on the [[Autodromo Nazionale Monza|Monza]] racing track in [[Italy]] in november 1956. Running in [[FIA]] class G, it set several new records, among them 48 hours with average speed 140.961 km/h, 10.000 km with average speed 139.453 km/h and 72 hours with average speed 139.459 km/h. The car was first produced by Dannenhauer & Stauss in [[Stuttgart]], then by Massholder in [[Heidelberg]] and at last by Robert Schenk in Stuttgart. Total number of produced cars is said to be around 230 and production was rounded up by the end of 1958.
A more successful range of passenger cars was put out on the marked from [[1959]]. This was the Junior/F12 series based on a modern concept from the late 50ies. This range consist of Junior (basic model) made from [[1959]] to [[1961]], Junior de Luxe (a little enhanced) from [[1961]] to [[1963]], F11 (a little larger) and F12 (larger and bigger engine) from [[1963]] to [[1965]] and F12 Roadster from [[1964]] to [[1965]]. The Junior/F12 series got quite popular, and many cars where produced.
All the 3 cylinder post-war cars had some sporting potential and formed the basis for many [[rally]] victories in the [[1950s]] and beginning of [[1960s]]. This made DKW the most winning car brand in the European rally league for several years during the fifties.
The last DKW was the [[DKW F102|F102]] coming into production in [[1964]] as a release for the somewhat old-looking AU1000. This model was the direct forerunner of the first post-war [[Audi|Audi 60]], the main difference being that the Audi used a conventional [[four-stroke engine]].
<gallery>
Image:F91_cabrio.jpg|A [[1955]] '''F91''', as 2-seater [[convertible]]
Image:Au1000s_62+F91.jpg|A [[1962]] '''AU1000S''', with an F91 behind it
Image:Monza_57.jpg|A [[1957]] '''DKW Monza'''
Image:DKW_F12_1963.jpg|A [[1963]] '''F12'''
Image:Au1000sp.jpg|A [[1962]] '''AU1000Sp convertible'''
Image:DKW-F102.jpg|A [[1964]] '''DKW F102'''
</gallery>
== Vans and utility vehicles ==
=== The Munga ===
The word "MUNGA" comes from the German phrase "Mehrzweck UNiversal Geländewagen mit Allradantrieb", which translated means, " Multi purpose Universal Cross-country Car with [[Four-wheel drive|All-wheel]] drive".
DKW produced the [http://www.munga.worldoftechnic.de Munga] from [[1954]] to [[1968]], a [[Jeep]]-like [[all terrain vehicle]] for the [[German Army]] and [[Polizei]]. It had two 2 different [[two-stroke engine]] versions: either 900 or 1000 cc [[engine displacement]], with 38 or 44 [[horsepower|hp]] respectively. A firm of [[land survey]]ors in [[Stellenbosch]] is known to have owned one of these. The [[Pretoria]] [[fire brigade]] also made use of the Munga.
=== The Van ===
During the [[1960s]], DKW produced a [[van]] with a trailing-arm [[rear suspension]] system which incorporated [[spring]]s in the cross bar assembly. Because it was [[front-wheel drive]], it was possible for a [[low floor]] configuration, with the load areas about 40 [[centimeter|cm]] from the ground. It was also fitted with a large single rear [[door]] fitted to [[hinge]]s on the right-hand side. The van proved popular; one example being a company in [[Stellenbosch]], [[South Africa]], that sold [[musical instrument]]s: their DKW van, used for the transport of [[piano]]s because of the low floor and large door, became iconic in the town.
== Motorcycles ==
Before [[World War II]], the company had some success with [[forced induction]] racing bikes, and during the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]], DKW was the world largest motorcycle manufacturer. After the war, the company made the RT125, 175, 250 and 350 models.
The motorcycle branch of the company produced very famous models such as the [[RT125]] pre- and post [[World War II]]. As reparations after the war, the design drawings of the RT125 were given to [[Harley-Davidson]] in the [[USA]] and [[Birmingham Small Arms Company|BSA]] in the [[UK]]. The HD version was known as the Hummer, while BSA used them for the [[BSA Bantam|Bantam]]. IFA and later [[MZ]] models continued in production until the [[1990s]], when economics finally brought production of the two stroke to an end. Other manufacturers also copied the DKW design, officially or otherwise. This can be seen in the similarity of many small two stroke motorcycles from the [[1950s]], including a product of [[Yamaha Motor Corporation|Yamaha]].
==External links==
{{commonscat|DKW vehicles}}
* [http://www.polizeioldtimer.de/bilder_feier/berlin_dkw_munga.jpg DKW Munga picture]
* [http://dmoz.org/World/Nederlands/Recreatie/Auto%27s/Merken/DKW/ Category at ODP (Dutch)] DKW Club Nederland
* [http://www.dkw.co.za Site with many pictures and link list] DKW Owners Club South Africa
[[Category:Audi]]
[[Category:Volkswagen]]
[[Category:German automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Motorcycle manufacturers]]
[[da:DKW]]
[[de:DKW]]
[[fr:DKW]]
[[it:DKW]]
[[nl:DKW]]
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[[sv:DKW]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Doctor Syn</title>
<id>8708</id>
<revision>
<id>40759222</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T21:05:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rpab</username>
<id>915416</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Reverend Doctor Christopher Syn''' is the [[smuggling|smuggler]] [[hero]] of a series of novels by [[Russell Thorndike]], who was the brother of the celebrated English actress Dame [[Sybil Thorndike]]. The first book in this series, ''Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh'' was published in [[1915]].
{{spoiler}}
==Character Biography==
Doctor Syn was a brilliant [[scholar]] who also possessed many [[swashbuckler|swashbuckling]] skills such as riding, [[fencing]], and seamanship. He was content to live the quiet live of a country [[vicar]] until his wife was seduced away by a [[pirate]].
Syn set out on a quest for revenge, in the process assuming the guise of the pirate [[Captain Clegg]]. With the end of his quest, Syn settled down to a more respectable life as the vicar of [[Dymchurch]] in [[Romney Marsh]], [[Kent]], and resumed his original name.
Syn learns that his parishioners have been smuggling goods from [[France]] to avoid the extravagant [[Customs (tax)|customs]] duties the government charges. Realizing that the townsfolk are falling into an ambush, Syn races to their rescue. A suit of clothing borrowed from a [[scarecrow]] makes an improvised [[disguise]].
After this rescue Syn decides that he can only protect his people by becoming their leader. He makes a more elaborate scarecrow costume complete with eerie [[luminous paint]]. At night the respectable Dr Syn became "The Scarecrow", the feared head of the smugglers. Together with the church sexton (and former pirate colleague) Mr. Mipps, he organizes the smugglers into a well-organized band of "night riders", called "The Devil Riders" with macabre disguises and code-names. Syn's cunning is so great that the smugglers outwit the government forces for many years.
==Publication History==
The Dr. Syn books detail his adventures and attempts to evade the |
ling Dioscorus. All of the bishops were then asked to sign their assent to the Tome, but a group of thirteen Egyptians refused, saying that they would assent to "the traditional faith". As a result, the emperor's commissioners decided that a creed would indeed be necessary and presented a text to the fathers. No consensus was reached, and indeed the text has not survived to the present.
Paschanius threatened to return to Rome to reassemble the council in Italy. Marcian agreed, saying that if a clause were not added to the creed supporting Leo's doctrine, the bishops would have to relocate. The bishops relented and added a clause, saying that, according to the decision of Leo, in Christ there are two natures united, inconvertible [natures], inseparable [natures].
The work of the council was completed by a series of 30[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-105.htm#P4958_1022711] disciplinary [[canon law|canons]]. #1 states all canons of previous councils shall remain in force, specific councils were clarified by [[Quinisext Council]] canon 2, #2 states that those who [[simony|buy their office]] are [[anathema]], #3 prohibits bishops from engaging in business, #4 bishops were given authority over the monks in their dioceses, with the right to permit or forbid the foundation of new monasteries, #5 travelling bishops are subject to canon law, #6 the clergy were forbidden to change dioceses or #7 to serve in the military or #10 to belong to multiple churches, #8 the poorhouses are under the jurisdiction of the bishop, #9 limits the ability to accuse a bishop of wrong doing, #11 regards letters of travel for the poor, #12 no province shall be divided for the purposes of creating another church, #13 no clergy shall be received by others without a letter of recommendation, #14 regards wives and children of [[cantors]] and [[lectors]], #15 a [[deaconess]] must be at least 40, #16 [[monks]] and [[nuns]] are forbidden to marry on pain of [[excommunication]], #17 rural parishes cannot change bishops, #18 conspiring forbidden, #19 twice a year the bishops shall conduct a [[synod]], #20 lists exemptions for those who have been driven to another city, #21 says an accuser of a bishop shall be suspect before the bishop, #22 makes it illegal to seize the goods of a dead bishop, #23 allows the expulsion of outsiders who cause trouble in Constantinople, #24 [[monasteries]] are permanent, #25 a new bishop shall be assigned within 3 months, #26 churches shall have a steward from among the congregation to monitor church-business, #27 forbidden to carry off women under pretense of marriage (eloping), #28 grants equal privileges (isa presbeia) to Constantinople as of Rome because Constantinople is the [[New Rome]] as renewed by canon 36 of the [[Quinisext Council]] (the [[papal legate]]s were not present for the vote on this canon, and protested it afterwards), #29 states a bishop cannot be demoted, only removed, #30 grants the [[Coptic Orthodox]] time to consider their rejection of Leo's ''Tome''.
==Consequences of the council==
The near-immediate result of the council was a major schism. The bishops that were uneasy with the language of Pope Leo's Tome repudiated the council, saying that the acceptance of two ''physes'' was tantamount to Nestorianism. This is the origin of [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], which still today rejects the results of this council.
Recent years have brought about a certain amount of dialogue between other Christians and the Oriental Orthodox. Some Oriental Orthodox bishops have indicated that the difference in doctrine was never more than a misunderstanding and have since reintegrated in the [[Catholic]] or [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches. Formerly schismatic [[Eastern Rite]] denominations returning to communion with Rome since Chalcedon include elements of the Alexandrian, Syriac and Armenian churches.
==External links==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03555a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Council of Chalcedon]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05495a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Robber Council of Ephesus]
* [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Category:Coptic_interpretations_of_the_Fourth_Ecumenical_Council Coptic interpretations of the Fourth Ecumenical Council]
[[Category:patristics|Chalcedon]] [[Category:House of Theodosius]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy]] [[Category:451]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox Church councils]]
[[ca:Concili de Calcedònia]]
[[cs:Chalkedonský koncil]]
[[de:Konzil von Chalcedon]]
[[es:Concilio de Calcedonia]]
[[fr:Concile de Chalcédoine]]
[[it:Concilio di Calcedonia]]
[[nl:Concilie van Chalcedon]]
[[ja:カルケドン公会議]]
[[no:Konsilet i Kalkedon]]
[[pl:Sobór chalcedoński]]
[[pt:Concílio de Calcedónia]]
[[ro:Conciliul de la Calcedon]]
[[ru:Халкидонский собор]]
[[zh:迦克墩公會議]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canadian football</title>
<id>6963</id>
<revision>
<id>42071978</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:01:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted fix of link to disambiguation page Rugby ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Canadian football''' is a sport in which two teams of twelve players each compete for territorial control of a field of play 110 [[yard]]s (100.6 [[metre|m]]) long and 65 yards (59.4 m) wide, with end zones 20 yards (18.3 m) deep. At each goal line is a set of forty-foot (12.2 m) high goalposts two ''uprights'' joined by a crossbar 18.5 feet (5.6 m) long which is ten feet (3.1 m) above the goal line. The goalposts may be either H-shaped (both posts fixed in the ground) or of the tuning-fork design (supported by a single curved post behind the goal line, so that each post starts ten feet (3.1 m) above the ground). The sides of the field are marked by white sidelines, the goal line is marked in white, and white lines are drawn laterally across the field every 5 yards (4.6 m) from the goal line.
It shares origins with, and is similar to (though distinct from) [[American football]].
''For a discussion of differences between Canadian and American football see: [[Comparison of Canadian and American football]]''
==Play of the game==
Teams advance across the field through the execution of short, distinct plays, which involve the possession of a brown, ovoid ball with ends tapered to a point. The ball has two one-inch-wide stripes.
===Kickoff===
Play begins with one team place-kicking the ball from its own 35-yard line. Both teams then attempt to catch the ball. The player who recovers the ball may run while holding the ball, or throw the ball to a teammate, so long as the throw is not forward.
===Stoppage of play===
Play stops when the ball carrier's knee or elbow is forced to the ground (a ''tackle''), when a touchdown (see below) is scored, a drop goal is scored, the ball leaves the playing area by any means (being carried, thrown, or fumbled out of bounds) or when the ball carrier is in a standing position but can no longer move. If no score has been made, the next play starts from ''scrimmage''.
===Scrimmage===
Before scrimmage, an official places the ball at the spot it became dead, but no nearer than 24 yards from the sideline or 1 yard from the goalline. The line parallel to the end zone passing through the ball is referred to as the line of scrimmage. This line is a sort of "no-man's land": players must stay on their respective sides of this line until the play has begun again. For a scrimmage to be valid the team in possession of the football must have seven players, excluding the quarterback, within one yard of the line of scrimmage. The defending team, however, must stay a yard or more back from the line of scrimmage.
===Live play===
On the field at the beginning of a play are two teams of 12. The team in possession of the ball is the offence and the team defending is referred to as the defence. Play begins with a backwards pass through the legs by a member of the offensive team, to the quarterback or punter. If the quarterback or punter receives the ball, he may then do any of the following:
* run with the ball, attempting to run further downfield (gaining yardage). The ball-carrier may run in any direction he sees fit (including backwards).
* ''drop-kick'' the ball, dropping it onto the ground and kicking it on the bounce. (This play is exceedingly rare in both Canadian and American football).
* pass the ball laterally or backwards to a teammate. This play is known as a ''lateral'', and may come at any time on the play. A pass which has any amount of forward momentum is a ''forward pass'' (see below); forward passes are subject to many restrictions which do not apply to laterals.
* ''hand-off''--hand the ball off to a teammate, typically a runningback or the fullback.
* ''punt'' the ball; dropping it in the air and kicking it ''before'' it touches the ground.
* place the ball on the ground for a ''place kick''
* throw a ''forward pass'', where the ball is thrown to a receiver located further downfield (closer to the opponent's goal) than the thrower is. Forward passes are subject to the following restrictions:
** They must be made from ''behind'' the line of scrimmage
** Only one forward pass may be made on a play
** The pass must be made in the direction of an eligile receiver.
Each play constitutes a ''down''. The offence must advance the ball at least ten yards towards the opponents' goal line within three downs or forfeit the ball to their opponents. Once ten yards have been gained the offence gains a new set of three downs. It must be noted that they do not accumulate, so that if one completes 10 yards on their first play, they lose the other two downs, instead of being granted three on top of their remaining two. If a team fails to gain ten yards in t |
game, eligible receivers may move in any direction before the snap, any number may be in motion at any one time, and there is no need to be motionless before the snap.
The rules on eligible receivers only apply to forward passes, even those behind the line of scrimmage. However, any player may legally catch a backwards or lateral pass.
In the American game, once the play has started, players can become ineligible and eligible depending on how the play develops. Any eligible receiver that goes out of bounds is no longer an eligible receiver and cannot receive a forward pass. Also, if a pass is touched by any eligible receiver (tipped by a defensive lineman, slips through a receiver's hands, etc) every player on the field immediately becomes eligible. These rules may also apply to the Canadian game as well, but are not verified.
==See also==
*[[Glossary of American football]]
[[Category:American football terminology]]
[[Category:Canadian football terminology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enver Hoxha</title>
<id>10286</id>
<revision>
<id>41261604</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T03:30:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palpatine</username>
<id>217561</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added cat atheists</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class="toccolours" style="float: right; width: 240px; clear: both; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border:1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big><big>'''Enver Hoxha'''</big></big>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" |
|-
| colspan="2" style="padding-bottom:1em;text-align:center;" |[[Image:Enver.jpg|Leader Enver Hoxha]]
|-
|'''Name of Office:'''
|[[General Secretary|First Secretary]] of the [[Albanian Party of Labour]]
|-
|'''Term of Office:'''
|[[1944]]-[[1985]]
|-
|'''Predecessor:'''
|[[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|King Victor Emmanuel III]]
|-
|'''Successor:'''
|[[Ramiz Alia]]
|-
|'''Date of Birth:'''
|October 16, [[1908]]
|-
|'''Place of Birth:'''
|[[Gjirokastër]]
|-
|'''Date of Death:'''
|April 11, [[1985]]
|-
|'''Place of Death:'''
|[[Tirana]]
|-
|'''Political party:'''
|[[Albanian Party of Labour]]
|}
'''Enver Hoxha''', ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/&#603;nv&#603;&#638; h&#596;&#676;a/}}, [[October 16]], [[1908]]&ndash;[[April 11]], [[1985]]) was the paramount leader of [[Albania]] from the end of [[World War II]] until his death in [[1985]], as the [[General Secretary|First Secretary]] of the [[Communism|Communist]] [[Albanian Party of Labour]]. He was also [[List of Prime Ministers of Albania|Prime Minister of Albania]] from [[1944]] to [[1954]] and the Minister of Foreign Affairs from [[1946]] to [[1953]]. Under Hoxha, whose rule was characterized by isolation from the rest of [[Europe]] and firm adherence to [[Stalinism]], Albania's government projected the image that it had emerged from semi-[[feudalism]] to become an [[industrialization|industrialized]] state.
==Biography==
Hoxha was born in [[Gjirokastër]], a city in southern Albania. He was the son of a Muslim cloth merchant who travelled widely across Europe during his childhood, and the major influence on Enver during these years was his uncle, Hysen Hoxha ({{IPA|/hy&#603;n h&#596;&#676;a/}}). Hysen Hoxha was a militant who campaigned vigorously for the independence of Albania - which occurred when Enver was four years old - and opposed the repressive governments that prevailed after independence. Enver took to these ideas very strongly, especially after [[Zog of Albania|King Zog]] came to power in [[1928]].
In [[1930]], he went to study at the [[University of Montpellier]] in [[France]] on a state scholarship, but he soon dropped out. From [[1934]] to [[1936]] he was a secretary at the Albanian consulate in [[Brussels]]. He also studied [[law]] at the [[university]] there. He returned to Albania in [[1936]] and became a teacher in [[Korçë]].
Hoxha was dismissed from his teaching post following the [[1939]] [[Italy|Italian]] invasion of [[World War II]] for refusing to join the [[Albanian Fascist Party]]. He opened a [[tobacco]] shop in [[Tiranë]] where soon a small communist group started gathering. He was helped by [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] communists to found and become leader of the Albanian Communist Party (called Party of Labour afterwards) in November [[1941]], as well as the resistance movement (National Liberation Army), which took power in November [[1944]].
Hoxha declared himself an orthodox [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] and strongly admired [[Joseph Stalin]]. He adopted the model of the [[Soviet Union]] and severed relations with his former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] communist allies following their ideological breach with Moscow in [[1948]]. He had defence minister [[Koçi Xoxe]] ({{IPA|/k&#596;&#679;i &#675;&#596;&#675;&#603;/}}) executed a year later for alleged pro-Yugoslav activities.
[[Image:Albania bunkers.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Pill box]]es in [[Albania]] built during Hoxha's rule to defend against possible invasion.]]
Hoxha's regime confiscated farmland from wealthy landowners and consolidated it into collective farms ([[Cooperative|Cooperatives]]), imprisoning and murdering thousands in the process. The Hoxha regime propaganda took great pride in claiming that Albania had become completely self-sufficient in food crops during communist rule, as well as developing an Albanian industry and bringing electricity to most rural areas, all the while stamping out illiteracy and disease.
However, the opening of the Albanian borders to the outside world, following the collapse of the communist regime, revealed a completely different picture. Albania was not the industrialized, advanced nation of communist party propaganda, but in fact a country that was backward, not only by Western Capitalist standards, but also by those of other Eastern Bloc countries such as Bulgaria and Romania. The vaunted industry of Albania was, in fact, completely fictional, while the farming collectives used agricultural methods of the previous century. Telephone communication, long established in every household in Albania's neighbouring countries, was unknown to all but the highest ranking communist party officials. Worker wages and living standards were amazingly low by any conceivable standard for a European nation, a fact that led to a massive exodus of Albanian workers into neighbouring Greece and Italy, where they could sustain better standards of living as illegal immigrants, than they did in their country as nationals.
Despite a chronic history of grand-standing, it appeared that Hoxha's only concrete legacy was an unthinkable complex of over 600,000 one-man concrete [[bunker]]s across a country of 3 million inhabitants, to act as look-outs and gun emplacements, pointed against towns and villages, just as often as they were outside of them. The paranoid nature of Hoxha's character, who was beset by fears of American invasion just as much as internal revolution, was apparent in the design.
Hoxha had remained a firm Stalinist despite new Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s repudiation of Stalin's excesses in [[1956]] at the [[Twentieth Party Congress]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet Communist Party]], but this meant Albania's isolation from the rest of communist Eastern Europe. In [[1960]], Hoxha aligned Albania with the [[People's Republic of China]] in the [[Sino-Soviet split]], severing relations with [[Moscow]] the following year. In [[1968]], Albania withdrew from the [[Warsaw Pact]] in response to the Soviet-led invasion of [[Czechoslovakia]].
Hoxha's internal policies were true to the Stalinist paradigm he admired, and the personality cult organized around him held striking resemblance to that of the USSR leader he idealized. Internally, the "Sigurimi" Albanian secret police made sure to replicate the repressive methods of the KGB and Stasi. Its activities permeated Albanian society to the extent that every third citizen had either served time in labor camps or been interrogated by Sigurimi officers. To eliminate dissent, the government resorted systematically to purges, in which opponents were dismissed from their jobs, imprisoned in forced-labour camps, and often executed. Travel abroad was forbidden to all but those on official business, in order to sustain the myth of an advanced Albania. Any trace of individuality and creativity in cultural life was stifled, as the arts and belles lettres were allowed to exist only to the degree they served as mouthpieces for the government.
In [[1967]], following two decades of progressively harsher persecution of [[religion]] under his rule, Hoxha triumphantly declared his nation to be the first, and only officially [[atheism|atheist]] state in history. Partially inspired by China's [[Cultural Revolution]], he proceeded to confiscate mosques, churches, monasteries, and shrines. Many were immediately razed, others turned into machine shops, warehouses, stables, and [[film|movie]] theaters. Parents were forbidden to give their children religious names. Anyone caught with the [[Qur'an]], [[Bible]]s, [[icon]]s, or religious objects faced long prison sentences.
According to a landmark [[Amnesty International]] report published in [[1984]] Albania's [[human rights]] record was dismal under Hoxha. The regime denied its citizens [[freedom of expression]], religion, movement, and association although the [[constitution]] of [[1976]] ostensibly guaranteed each of these rights. In fact, certain clauses in the constitution effectively circumscribed the exerc |
01 attacks]] (which claimed two of AA's aircraft), American began losing money. Carty negotiated new wage and benefit agreements with the airline's labor unions, but was forced to resign after union leaders discovered that Carty was planning to award handsome executive compensation packages at the same time. St. Louis' hub was also downsized afterwards.
[[image:AA bird logo.svg|thumb|right|100px|Logo as pictured on their tail fin and when referring to the website aa.com]]
In Carty's wake, American has undergone additional cost-cutting measures, including rolling back its "More Room in Coach" program (which eliminated several seats on certain aircraft types), ending three-class service on many international flights, and standardizing its fleet at each hub (see below). However, the airline has rebounded and expanded its service into new markets, including [[Ireland]], western [[Japan]], and [[India]]. American Airlines is also expanding to [[China]] in [[2006]].
On [[July 20]], [[2005]], for the first time in 17 quarters, American announced a quarterly profit; the airline earned $58 million in Q2 2005. American is reliant upon its dominant position at Dallas/Fort Worth for its continuing financial solvency, and is lobbying for the preservation of the [[Wright Amendment]], which regulates [[Southwest Airlines]]' operations at [[Love Field]] in Dallas.
==Codesharing agreements==
American currently has [[Code sharing|codesharing]] agreements with [[Aer Lingus]], [[Air Pacific]], [[Air Sahara]], [[Alaska Airlines]], [[British Airways]], [[Cathay Pacific Airways]], [[China Eastern Airlines]], [[Deutsche Bahn]] ([[AiRail Service]]), [[EVA Air]], [[Finnair]], [[TACA (airline)|Grupo TACA]], [[Gulf Air]], [[Hawaiian Airlines]], [[Iberia Airlines|Iberia]], [[Japan Airlines]], [[LAN (airline)|LAN Airlines]], [[Mexicana]], [[Qantas Airways]], [[SN Brussels Airlines]], [[SNCF]], [[Swiss International Air Lines]], [[TAM Linhas Aéreas|TAM Airlines]], [[Turkish Airlines]] and [[Vietnam Airlines]]. [[AmericanConnection]], which feeds American's hub at [[Lambert Saint Louis International Airport]], is also a codesharing operation with three regional carriers.
[[Image:American.b777.rearview.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|AA 777-200ER landing at [[London Heathrow Airport]].]]
== Destinations ==
{{further|[[American Airlines destinations]]}}
===New services/Future destinations===
American Airlines has begun to expand its network internationally, especially [[Asia]]. Major hubs such as [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport]] and [[Chicago O'Hare International Airport]] are constantly introduced to new destinations.
Nonstop services from [[Chicago O'Hare International Airport|Chicago O'Hare]] to
*[[Shanghai]] ([[Shanghai Pudong International Airport]]), [[China]] (starting [[April 3]], [[2006]])
==Incidents and Accidents ==
* [[American Airlines Flight 320]], a [[Lockheed L-188 Electra]], crashed on approach to LaGuardia on [[February 3]], [[1959]] due to pilot error.
* [[American Airlines Flight 1]], a [[Boeing 707]], crashed shortly after takeoff from Idewild (now [[John F. Kennedy Airport|JFK]]) airport on [[March 1]], [[1962]] due to a maintenance error causing rudder failure.
* [[American Airlines Flight 625]], a [[Boeing 727]], crashed on approach to [[St. Thomas]], [[U.S. Virgin Islands]] on [[April 27]], [[1976]].
* [[American Airlines Flight 191]], a [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]], crashed at O'Hare Airport on [[May 25]], [[1979]].
* [[American Airlines Flight 965]], a [[Boeing 757]], crashed on approach to [[Santiago de Cali|Cali]], [[Colombia]], on [[December 20]], [[1995]].
* [[American Airlines Flight 1420]], a [[McDonnell Douglas MD-82]], crashed on landing to [[Little Rock, AR]] on [[June 1]], [[1999]].
* Two American Airlines [[aircraft]] were [[hijack]]ed and crashed during the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]: [[American Airlines flight 77|Flight 77]] (a [[Boeing 757]]) and [[American Airlines Flight 11|Flight 11]] (a [[Boeing 767]]).
* [[American Airlines Flight 587]], an [[Airbus A300]] crashed in [[New York City]] on [[November 12]], [[2001]].
* American almost lost [[American Airlines Flight 63|Flight 63]] to "shoe bomber" [[Richard Reid (terrorist)|Richard Reid]] on [[December 22]] of the same year, but the plot was foiled. The flight was en route from [[Charles De Gaulle International Airport|Paris Charles De Gaulle]] to [[Miami International Airport|Miami]], and was diverted to Boston's [[Logan International Airport|Logan Airport]].
*A passenger on [[American Airlines Flight 924]] who officials said claimed to have a bomb in a carry-on bag was shot and killed by a team of federal [[Federal Air Marshal Service|air marshals]] on a jetway as the plane boarded at [[Miami International Airport]] for a flight to [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[Florida]] on [[December 7]], [[2005]].
== Fleet ==
American operates a relatively young fleet, with an average age of 10.5 years [http://www.airsafe.com/events/airlines/fleetage.htm]. Almost half of its fleet is comprised of [[McDonnell Douglas]] [[McDonnell Douglas DC-9#MD-80 series|MD-82]] and [[McDonnell Douglas DC-9#MD-80 series|MD-83]] series twinjets, referred to by AA as "Super 80," denoting the type's original name, "DC-9 Super 80." Much of the Super 80 fleet dates back to the early 1980s, although they own some newer examples acquired from TWA. Regardless of age, most of AA's aircraft have been refitted with new interiors in the last few years, with the exception of many [[Boeing 757]]s. AA has also introduced new aircraft to its fleet: the newest are the [[Boeing Commercial Airplanes|Boeing]] [[Boeing 777|777-200ER]]s, which replaced [[McDonnell Douglas MD-11|MD-11]]s on key transoceanic routes in the late 1990s such as Tokyo Narita, and [[Boeing 737|737-800]]s, which replaced [[Boeing 727|727]]s and the [[BAC-111]]s on some domestic and Caribbean routes.
American has discontinued three-class service on most aircraft, but continues to offer business class on 777 and 767-200 aircraft. First class passengers on 777 routes to London and Frankfurt enjoy the "American Flagship Suite," a first class seat that can swivel inwards toward a personal work area and also recline 90 degrees to become a bed. 767-200 flights between [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|JFK]], [[San Francisco International Airport|SFO]], and [[Los Angeles International Airport|LAX]] offer three-class "American Flagship Service" which replicates the passenger service offered on long international flights.
[[Image:IMG 1265r.jpg|thumb|250px|An American Airbus A300 inbound to JFK.]]
On all American aircraft (except ex-TWA 757s), passengers in all cabins have a cigarette port DC power port at select seats. All classes of service on the 777-223ER have personal video screens, although they lack Audio/Video On Demand (AVOD) systems. These personal video screens offer GateConnect, a feature which allows passengers to view maps of the destination airports (gates, security checkpoints, baggage claims, etc) and find out information on connecting flights from that same airport such as gate, aircraft, etc.
Most recently, American has taken the unique step of redesigning its schedules so that each hub city receives certain aircraft types more often than others, which is intended to simplify maintenance and last-minute fleet substitutions. Currently, Chicago, DFW and St. Louis get most Boeing MD-80(S80), 757-2Q8, and 757-231 service, Miami gets most 757-223 and 737 service, and JFK gets most A300 and 767-200 service. [[Boeing 777|777-223ER]]'s and [[Boeing 767|767-323ER]]'s are usually reserved for high density domestic markets and international flights.
American Airlines was one of three carriers ([[Continental Airlines]] and [[Delta Air Lines]] being the other two) to sign an exclusivity agreement with Boeing in the late 1990s. When Boeing acquired [[McDonnell Douglas]], the [[European Union]] forced Boeing to void the contracts. However, both parties have been adhering to and intend to adhere to the terms under a [[gentlemen's agreement]].
{| style="border-collapse: collapse;" border="1"
!Type
!Fleet
!Seats, layout
!Routes
|-
|[[Boeing 777|Boeing&nbsp;777-223ER]]
|45
|236&nbsp;(16/35/194)<br>238 (18/42/163)
|London, Frankfurt, Tokyo, Osaka, Delhi, Shanghai (2006), Brazil, Argentina, DFW-MIA, DFW-ORD
|-
|[[Airbus A300|Airbus A300-600R]]
|34
|267 (16/251)
|High-density, medium-range trunk routes to the Caribbean and along the East Coast
|-
|[[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-323ER]]
|58
|213 (30/183)
|Medium-haul routes to Europe, Hawaii, and Latin America, premium transcontinental, some hub-to-hub ferrying flights
|-
|[[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-223ER]]
|16
|158 (9/30/119)
|Service from JFK to Bermuda, Los Angeles, Miami, and San Francisco
(Non -ER aircraft currently being phased out of service.)
|-
|[[Boeing 757|Boeing 757-2Q8,757-231,757-223]]
|143
|188 (22/166)<br>180 (22/158)
|Domestic, Caribbean, and Latin American flights; service from Boston to Manchester and Shannon
|-
|[[Boeing 737|Boeing 737-823]]
|77
|142 (16/126)
|Domestic, Caribbean, and Latin American flights
|-
|[[McDonnell Douglas DC-9#MD-80 series|Boeing MD-82 (S80)]]
|266
|129 (16/115)
|Domestic flights, predominantly east-west flights through DFW, Chicago and St. Louis
|-
|[[McDonnell Douglas DC-9#MD-80 series|Boeing MD-83 (S80)]]
|95
|131 (16/115)
|Domestic flights, predominantly east-west flights through DFW, Chicago and St. Louis
|}
American Airlines has operated a wide variety of aircraft types, including:
* [[BAC 111]] (1964-1972)
* [[BAe 146]] (1987-1993) AirCal
* [[Boeing 707]] (1959-1981)
* [[Boeing 717]] (2001-2002) TWA Airlines LLC
* [[Boeing 727|Boeing 727-123]] (1964-1993)
* [[Boeing 727|Boeing 727-223]] (1966-2002)[[image:AA757.JPG|thumb|right|250px|American Airlines Boeing 757]]
* [[Boeing 737|Boeing 737-1xx]] (1987-19 |
cause of an obvious barrier of the skins, sensory stimulation is sacrificed, especially with older style thicker condoms, causing some people to dismiss condoms as limiting their pleasure (though this effect can be largely overcome by properly applying lubricants internally and externally). However, a woman can partially solve this problem by training her vaginal muscles, specifically the [[pubococcygeus]].
==Physical Properties of latex condoms==
[[Vulcanized rubber]] latex has outstanding elastic properties. Tensile strength excedes 30MNm<sup>-2</sup> . Condoms may be stretched in excess of 800% before breaking. <ref>"<cite> Condoms produced by Western industrial standards exceed by a wide margin the minimum strength required for effective use</cite>" PMID 12264044 "Relationship of condom strength to failure during use."</ref>
Condoms maybe freely coloured, and their surfaces textured. Condoms can be made to custom shapes, such as an enlarged "head" or in novelties have tentacles, or other features for clitoral stimulation. <br>
Natural latex can be cured to be 0.046mm in thickness, while polyurethane can be set at 0.02mm thickness.
In 1990 the [[ISO]] set standards for production (ISO 4074, Natural latex rubber condoms) and the [[EU]] followed suit with its [[CEN]] standard (Directive 93/42/EEC concerning medical devices). <br>
Condoms are tested with an electrical current for holes. If the condom passes, it is rolled and packaged. Batches of condoms are tested for breakage with air inflation tests (Nordenberg T. (1998) 'Condoms: barriers to bad news', FDA Consumer Magazine, March-April). Condoms are evaluated for their ability to form barriers against the [[pathogen]]s that can cause various [[sexually transmitted infection]]s which can be vastly smaller than sperm.
The average dimensions of a condom are: Length: 190mm, Circumference: 52mm, Thickness: 0.07mm.
Thickness for a condom is a tricky issue, as the condom is thicker at the head than on the shaft in many cases.
==Duron/Polyurethane versus latex==
'''Advantages''':
[[Polyurethane]] can be considered better than [[latex]] in several ways:
*It conducts heat better than latex
*It lasts longer in storage
*It does not degrade in oil- or water-based lubricants, also it does not degrade as readily as latex
*It is suitable for those with latex allergies. It is widely used in internal medicine such as artificial hearts, [[pumps]], and [[blood vessel]] [[catheters]].
*Polyurethane condoms have no smell, unlike latex condoms
*Polyurethane condoms are smoother than latex ones
*Unlike latex condoms, which must be stored at a reduced temperature range to avoid degradation, polyurethane condoms have no such requirements
'''Disadvantages''':
*Clinical failure (breaks and slippage, together) of polyurethane show significantly higher rates over latex use.<ref>Frezieres RG, et al.: Fam Plann Perspect 1998, 30:73-78</ref>
*It is more expensive than standard latex condoms.
*It may not be as effective in protecting against STDs.<ref>"<cite>The polyurethane condom [..] Disadvantages vs. latex condoms [..] May not be as effective in protecting against sexually transmitted diseases.</cite>" [http://www.contraceptiononline.org/slides/slide01.cfm?q=male+condom&dpg=4 Contraception online]</ref>
==Condom failure==
A [[1994]] [[FHI]] study showed that most condom users rarely experienced condom breakage, while a study by the [[World Health Organization]] states condom effectiveness at 97% and other studies have set it at 80% <ref>"<cite>The report examined two decades of scientific literature on condoms, and UNAIDS says lead author Norman Hearst 'makes a cogent argument that we should be talking about safer sex, not safe sex, with condoms.'</cite>" [http://www.cwnews.com/news/storytools.cfm?task=print&recnum=23132 United Nations Report says Condoms have 10% Failure Rate against AIDS]</ref>. The main reason for breakage, besides misuse, is damage from fingernails, teeth, and rings or ineffective application. Some UK reports state that breakages only occur 0.3% of the time.
Most condom failures are due to misuse. This has led some researchers to suggest age-appropriate [[sex education]] that includes how to use a condom properly.
Another possible cause of condom failure is [[sabotage]]. One motive is to have a child against a partner's wishes, known to be done by men and women alike. Saboteurs usually pierce the condom's tip multiple times before intercourse. As this can result in pregnancies unwanted by one of the participants, it is generally seen as a deceitful and unethical act. However, websites exist that provide advice on sabotage to women who want children against their male partner's wishes.
==Proper use==
{{wikibookspar||use of male condoms}}
The packaging often contains instructions for use, and often suggests lubricants. For more general information and advice on condom use, please see ''[[wikibooks:Use of male condoms]]''.
==Effectiveness of preventing STDs==
According to a 2001 report by the [[National Institutes of Health]] <ref>"<cite>Recently, a number of Federal agencies sponsored a workshop to answer the following question: "What is the scientific evidence on the effectiveness of latex male condom-use to prevent STD transmission during vaginal intercourse?" This workshop was attended by 180 persons, and the data from numerous peer-reviewed published studies were discussed. Following the workshop, a panel of 28 experts worked to develop this report.</cite>" [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/dmid/stds/condomreport.pdf Scientific Evidence on Condom Effectiveness for Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) Prevention]</ref>, correct and consistent use of ''latex'' condoms:
* reduces the risk of [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] transmission by approximately 85%.
* reduces the risk of [[gonorrhea]] for men by approximately 71%.
Other [[sexually-transmitted infection]]s may be affected as well, but they could not draw definite conclusions from the research they were working with. In particular, these include STIs associated with [[ulcer]]ative lesions that may be present on body surfaces where the condom doesn't cover, such as [[human papillomavirus]] (HPV), [[Herpes simplex#Genital infection (Generally HSV 2)|genital herpes simplex]] (HSV), [[chancroid]], and [[syphilis]]. If contact is made with uncovered lesions, transmission of these STIs may still occur despite appropriate condom use. Additionally, the absence of visible lesions or symptoms cannot be used to decide whether caution is needed.
An article in ''The American Journal of Gynecologic Health''<ref>"<cite>In a study, all women who correctly and consistently used Reality were protected from Trichomonas vaginalis, while sporadic users were not protected.</cite>" [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12288250&dopt=Abstract The female condom: STD protection in the hands of women.]</ref> showed that "all women who correctly and consistently used Reality® were protected from [[Trichomonas vaginalis]]" (referring to a particular brand of [[Condom#female condoms|female condom]]).
==Health issues==
[[Carcinogen|Carcinogenic]] [[nitrosamine|nitrosamines]] have been discovered in 29 out of 32 condom brands tested by the Chemical and Veterinary Investigation Institute in [[Stuttgart]] <ref>"<cite>The Chemical and Veterinary Investigation Institute in Stuttgart said on Friday it had found the carcinogen N-Nitrosamine in 29 of 32 types of condoms it tested in simulated conditions.</cite>" [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,1220847,00.html German Study Says Condoms Contain Cancer-causing Chemical]</ref>. However, there have been no studies linking the use of condoms to an increased risk of cancer and a 2001 study from the University of Kiel concluded that humans regularly receive 1,000 to 10,000 times greater nitrosamine exposure from food and tobacco than from condom use and concluded that the risk of cancer from condom use is very low. <ref>"<cite>In addition, humans are regularly exposed to nitrosamines from food and tobacco smoke at a dose which is 1,000 to 10,000 fold higher than expected from condom use. In summary, the risk for the induction of tumors from nitrosamines in condoms is very low.</cite>" [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11759152&query_hl=4&itool=pubmed_docsum Toxicological evaluation of nitrosamines in condoms.]</ref>
Some lubricated condoms are produced with dusting powders, such as [[talc]], which aren't recommended by the University of Virginia School of Medicine for surgery because of "acute & chronic problems" that may arise if the powders find their way into the abdominal cavity (i.e. via the [[vagina]]). <ref>"<cite>These dusting powders can gain access to the abdominal cavity through the vagina or through surgical intervention. The toxicity of these dusting powders in the abdominal cavity can be divided into acute and chronic complications that may be life-threatening. The use of medical and surgical products without dusting powders is strongly recommended.</cite>" [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10167361&query_hl=15&itool=pubmed_docsum Potential toxicity of retrograde uterine passage of particulate matter.]</ref>
Condoms lubricated with the spermicide [[Nonoxynol-9]] may increase the user's risk of contracting the [[HIV]] virus and other sexually transmitted diseases. For this reason, [[Planned Parenthood]] has disco |
d to explore the transition between a superfluid and a [[Mott insulator]] [http://qpt.physics.harvard.edu/qptsi.html], and may be useful in studying Bose-Einstein condensation in less than three dimensions, for example the [[Tonks-Girardeau gas]].
Bose-Einstein condensates composed of a wide range of [[isotope|isotopes]] have been produced [http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/18/6/1].
Related experiments in cooling [[fermions]] rather than [[bosons]] to extremely low temperatures have created [[degenerate matter|degenerate]] gases, where the atoms do not congregate in a single state due to the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]. To exhibit Bose-Einstein condensate, the fermions must "pair up" to form compound particles (e.g. [[molecules]] or [[BCS theory|Cooper pairs]]) that are bosons. The first [[molecule|molecular]] Bose-Einstein condensates were created in November [[2003]] by the groups of [[Rudolf Grimm]] at the [[University of Innsbruck]], [[Deborah S. Jin]] at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]] and [[Wolfgang Ketterle]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]. Jin quickly went on to create the first [[Fermionic condensate|fermionic condensate]] composed of Cooper pairs [http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/8/1/14/1].
== See also ==
* [[Bose gas]]
* [[Electromagnetically induced transparency]]
* [[Fermionic condensate]]
* [[Gas in a box]]
* [[Slow glass]]
* [[Superfluid]]
* [[Supersolid]]
* [[Super-heavy atom]]
* [[Tonks-Girardeau gas]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/bec/index.html BEC Homepage] General introduction to Bose-Einstein condensation
* [http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/2001/index.html Nobel Prize in Physics 2001] - for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates
* [http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-12/p14.html Physics Today: Cornell, Ketterle, and Wieman Share Nobel Prize for Bose-Einstein Condensates]
* [http://jilawww.colorado.edu/bec/ Bose-Einstein Condensates at JILA]
* [http://www.bec.phys.uu.nl/ The Bose-Einstein Condensate at Utrecht University, the Netherlands]
* [http://cua.mit.edu/ketterle_group/home.htm Alkali Quantum Gases at MIT]
* [http://www.physics.uq.edu.au/atomoptics/ Atom Optics at UQ]
* [http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/ Einstein's manuscript on the Bose-Einstein condensate discovered at Leiden University]
* [http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/18/6/8/1 The revolution that has not stopped] PhysicsWeb article from June 2005
== References ==
* S. N. Bose, Z. Phys. 26, 178 (1924)
* A. Einstein, Sitz. Ber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. (Berlin) 22, 261 (1924)
* L.D. Landau, J. Phys. USSR 5, 71 (1941)
* {{cite journal | author=L. Landau | title=Theory of the Superfluidity of Helium II | journal=Physical Review | year=1941 | volume=60 | pages=356-358 | url= }}
* {{cite journal | author=M.H. Anderson, J.R. Ensher, M.R. Matthews, C.E. Wieman, and E.A. Cornell | title=Observation of Bose-Einstein Condensation in a Dilute Atomic Vapor | journal=Science | year=1995 | volume=269 | pages=198-201 | url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0036-8075%2819950714%293%3A269%3A5221%3C198%3AOOBCIA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-G }}
* {{cite journal | author=K.B. Davis, M.-O. Mewes, M.R. Andrews, N.J. van Druten, D.S. Durfee, D.M. Kurn, and W. Ketterle | title=Bose-Einstein condensation in a gas of sodium atoms | journal=Physical Review Letters | year=1995 | volume=75 | pages=3969-3973 | url=}}.
* {{cite journal | author=D. S. Jin, J. R. Ensher, M. R. Matthews, C. E. Wieman, and E. A. Cornell | title=Collective Excitations of a Bose-Einstein Condensate in a Dilute Gas | journal=Physical Review Letters | year=1996 | volume=77 | pages=420-423 | url= }}
* {{cite journal | author=M. R. Andrews, C. G. Townsend, H.-J. Miesner, D. S. Durfee, D. M. Kurn, and W. Ketterle | title= Observation of interference between two Bose condensates | journal=Science | year=1997 | volume=275 | pages=637-641 | url= }}.
* {{cite journal | author=M. R. Matthews, B. P. Anderson, P. C. Haljan, D. S. Hall, C. E. Wieman, and E. A. Cornell | title=Vortices in a Bose-Einstein Condensate | journal=Physical Review Letters | year=1999 | volume=83 | pages=2498-2501 | url= }}
* {{cite journal | author=E.A. Donley, N.R. Claussen, S.L. Cornish, J.L. Roberts, E.A. Cornell, and C.E. Wieman | title=Dynamics of collapsing and exploding Bose-Einstein condensates | journal=Nature | year=2001 | volume=412 | pages=295-299 | url=}}
* {{cite journal | author=M. Greiner, O. Mandel, T. Esslinger, T. W. Hänsch, I. Bloch | title=Quantum phase transition from a superfluid to a Mott insulator in a gas of ultracold atoms| journal=Nature | year=2002 | volume=415 | pages=39-44}}.
* {{cite journal | author=S. Jochim, M. Bartenstein, A. Altmeyer, G. Hendl, S. Riedl, C. Chin, J. Hecker Denschlag, and R. Grimm | title=Bose-Einstein Condensation of Molecules | journal=Science | year=2003 | volume=302 | pages=2101-2103 | url= }}
* {{cite journal | author=Markus Greiner, Cindy A. Regal and Deborah S. Jin | title=Emergence of a molecular Bose−Einstein condensate from a Fermi gas | journal=Nature | year=2003 | volume=426 | pages=537-540 | url= }}
* {{cite journal | author=M. W. Zwierlein, C. A. Stan, C. H. Schunck, S. M. F. Raupach, S. Gupta, Z. Hadzibabic, and W. Ketterle | title=Observation of Bose-Einstein Condensation of Molecules | journal=Physical Review Letters | year=2003 | volume=91 | pages=250401 | url= }}
* {{cite journal | author=C. A. Regal, M. Greiner, and D. S. Jin | title=Observation of Resonance Condensation of Fermionic Atom Pairs | journal=Physical Review Letters | year=2004 | volume=92 | pages=040403}}
* C. J. Pethick and H. Smith, "Bose-Einstein Condensation in Dilute Gases", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001.
* Lev P. Pitaevskii and S. Stringari, "Bose-Einstein Condensation", Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2003.
* Mackie M, Suominen KA, Javanainen J., "Mean-field theory of Feshbach-resonant interactions in 85Rb condensates." Phys Rev Lett. 2002 Oct 28;89(18):180403.
* Oxford Experimental BEC Group. http://www-matterwave.physics.ox.ac.uk/bec/bec.html
* {{cite journal | author=T. Nikuni, M. Oshikawa, A. Oosawa, and H. Tanaka, | title=Bose-Einstein Condensation of Dilute Magnons in TlCuCl3| journal = Physical Review Letters | volume=84 | pages=5868 | year=1999 | url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.5868}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>B programming language</title>
<id>4475</id>
<revision>
<id>39214710</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T15:43:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Val42</username>
<id>18242</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Made first paragraph an introduction section.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''B''' was the name of a programming language developed at [[Bell Labs]]. It is almost extinct, as it was replaced by the [[C programming language|C language]].
It was mostly the work of [[Ken Thompson]] with contributions from [[Dennis Ritchie]], and first appeared in [[1969]] or thereabouts.
==History==
'''B''' was essentially the [[BCPL]] system stripped of any component that Thompson felt he could do without, in order to make it fit within the memory capacity of the minicomputers of the time. The language also included some changes made to suit Thompson's preferences (mostly along the lines of reducing the number of non-whitespace characters in a typical program).
Like BCPL and [[Forth programming language|FORTH]], B had only one datatype, the computer word. Most operators treated this as an integer (i.e, +, -, *, /) but others treated it as a memory address to be dereferenced. In most other ways it looked a lot like an early version of C. A few library functions existed, including some that vaguely resemble functions from the standard IO library in C.
Early implementations were for the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[PDP-7]] and [[PDP-11]] minicomputers using early [[Unix]], and [[Honeywell]] 36 bit mainframes running the operating system, [[GCOS]]. The earliest PDP-7 implementations compiled to [[threaded code]], then Ritchie wrote a compiler which produced machine code. In 1970 a [[PDP-11]] was acquired and threaded code was used for the port. The first version of [[yacc]] was produced with this PDP-11 configuration. Ritchie took over maintenance during this period.
The typeless nature of B made sense on the Honeywell, PDP-7 and many older computers, but was a problem on the PDP-11 because it was difficult to elegantly access the character data type that the PDP-11 and most modern computers fully support. Starting in 1971 Ritchie made changes to the language while converting its compiler to produce machine code, most notably adding data typing for variables. During 1971 and 1972 B evolved into "New B" and then C, with the [[preprocessor]] being added in 1972 and early 1973 at the urging of Alan Snyder. The effort was sufficiently complete that during the summer of 1973 the Unix kernel for the PDP-11 was rewritten in C. During the 1972-73 period there was a need to port to Honeywell 635 and IBM 360/370 machines, so Lesk wrote the "portable I/O package" which would become the C "standard I/O" routines.
B continued to see use as late as the 1990s on Honeywell mainframes, and on certain |
[Boeing 737]]s and several smaller executive jets. Their tail numbers are registered to several unexceptional civil aircraft leasing corporations. They are reported to shuttle to Groom, [[Tonopah Test Range]], to other locations in the NAFR and NTS, and reportedly to [[Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake]]. Observers counting departures and cars in the private EG&G parking lot at McCarran estimate several thousand people commute on JANET each day.
A bus runs a commuter service along Groom Lake Road, catering to a small number of employees living in several small desert communities beyond the NTS boundary (although it is not clear whether these workers are employed at Groom or at other facilities in the NTS). The bus drives down Groom Lake Road and stops at [[Crystal Springs, Nevada|Crystal Springs]], [[Ash Springs, Nevada|Ash Springs]], and [[Alamo, Nevada|Alamo]], and parks in front of the Alamo court house overnight.
== The Government's position on Area 51 ==
[[Image:Wfm x51 area51 warningsign.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Area 51 border and warning sign. "Camo dudes" in their vehicle watch from the ridgeline.]]
The U.S. government does not explicitly acknowledge the existence of the Groom Lake facility, nor does it deny it. Unlike much of the Nellis range, the area surrounding the lake is permanently off-limits both to civilian and normal military air traffic. The area is protected by radar stations, and uninvited guests are met by helicopters and armed guards. Should they accidentally stray into the exclusionary "box" surrounding Groom's airspace, even military pilots training in the NAFR are reportedly grilled extensively by military intelligence agents.
Perimeter security is provided by uniformed private security guards working for EG&G, who patrol in desert camouflage [[Jeep Cherokee]] and [[High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle|Hum-Vee]] vehicles, and more recently champagne coloured Ford F-150 pickups and gray Chevy 2500 4X4 pickups. Although the guards are armed with [[M16 (rifle)|M16s]], no violent encounters with Area 51 observers have been reported; instead the "camo dudes" generally follow visitors near the perimeter and radio for the Lincoln County sheriff. Modest fines (of around $600) seem to be the norm, although some visitors and journalists report receiving follow-up visits from [[FBI]] agents. Some observers have been detained on public land for pointing camera equipment at the base. Surveillance is also conducted using buried motion sensors and by [[HH-60 Pave Hawk]] helicopters.
The base does not appear on public U.S. government maps; the USGS topological map for the area only shows the long-disused Groom Mine, and the civil aviation chart for Nevada shows a large restricted area, but defines it as part of the Nellis restricted airspace. Similarly the National Atlas page showing [http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/pdf/fedlands/nv.pdf federal lands in Nevada] does not distinguish between the Groom block and other parts of the Nellis range. Although officially declassified, the original film taken by U.S. [[Corona (satellite)|Corona]] [[Reconnaissance satellite|spy satellite]] in the 1960s has been altered prior to declassification; in answer to freedom of information queries, the government responds that these exposures (which map to Groom and the entire NAFR) appear to have been destroyed ([http://www.fas.org/irp/overhead/groom_corona_200567.jpg Corona image]). [[Terra (satellite)|Terra]] satellite images (which were publicly available) were removed from webservers (including [[Microsoft]]'s "Terraserver") in 2004 ([http://terraserver.microsoft.com/GetImageArea.ashx?t=1&s=17&lon=-115.81666666666666&lat=37.233333333333334&w=600&h=400&f=Tahoma,Verdana,Sans-serif&fs=10&fc=ffffffff&logo=1 Terraserver image]), and from the monochrome 1 m resolution USGS datadump made publicly available. NASA [[Landsat 7]] images are still available (these are used in the [[NASA World Wind]]). Non-U.S. images, including high-resolution photographs from Russian satellites and the commercial [[IKONOS]] system, are also easily available (and abound on the Internet).
Despite the official government ban on discussing the matter, the phrase "groom lake" does [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&client=safari&rls=en&q=%22groom+lake%22+site%3Aaf.mil&btnG=Search appear] on several publicly-accessible U.S. Air Force websites most of which are unambiguously refering to the facility.
[[Image:Wfm x51 extraterrestrial highway.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Extraterrestrial Highway'' sign]]
Nevada's state government, recognizing the folklore surrounding the base might afford the otherwise neglected area some tourism potential, officially renamed the section of [[Nevada State Route 375]] near Rachel "The Extraterrestrial Highway", and posted fancifully illustrated signs along its length.
Although federal property within the base is exempt from state and local taxes, facilities owned by private contractors are not. One researcher has reported that the base only declares a taxable value of $2 million to the Lincoln County tax assessor, who is unable to enter the area to perform an assessment. Some Lincoln County residents have complained that the base is an unfair burden on the county, providing few local jobs (as most employees appear to live in or near Las Vegas) and imposing an iniquitous burden of land sequestration and law enforcement costs.
===Environmental lawsuit===
In 1994 five unnamed civilian contractors and the widows of contractors Walter Kasza and Robert Frost sued the USAF and the [[Environmental Protection Agency]]. Their suit, in which they were represented by [[The George Washington University|George Washington University]] law professor Jonathan Turley, alleged they had been present when large quantities of unknown chemicals had been burned in open pits and trenches at Groom. [[biopsy|Biopsies]] taken from the complainants were analyzed by [[Rutgers University]] [[biochemistry|biochemists]], who found high levels of [[dioxin]], [[dibenzofuran]], and [[trichloroethylene]] in their body fat. The complainants alleged they had sustained skin, liver, and respiratory injuries due to their work at Groom, and that this had contributed to the deaths of Frost and Kasza. The suit sought compensation for the injuries they had sustained, claiming the USAF had illegally handled toxic materials, and that the EPA had failed in its duty to enforce the [[Resource Conservation and Recovery Act]] (which governs handling of dangerous materials). They also sought detailed information about the chemicals to which they alleged they had been exposed, hoping this would help the medical treatment of those still living.
The government petitioned trial judge, U.S. District Judge Philip Pro (sitting in the U.S. District Court in Las Vegas), to disallow disclosure of classified documents or examination of witnesses on secret matters, alleging this would expose classified information and threaten national security. When Judge Pro rejected the government's argument, [[Bill Clinton|President Bill Clinton]] issued a Presidential Determination, exempting what it called "the Air Force's Operating Location Near Groom Lake, Nevada" from environmental disclosure laws. Consequently Pro dismissed the suit due to lack of evidence. Turley appealed to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|Ninth Circuit court of appeal]] on the grounds that the government was abusing its power to classify material. [[United States Secretary of the Air Force|Secretary of the Air Force]] [[Sheila E. Widnall]] filed a brief which said that disclosures of the materials present in the air and water near Groom "can reveal military operational capabilities or the nature and scope of classified operations." The Ninth Circuit rejected Turley's appeal, and the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear it, putting paid to the complainants' case.
The [[President of the United States|President]] continues to annually issue a determination continuing the Groom exception ([http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2001_cfr_3v1&docid=3CFRSep19 2000 determination], [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/09/20020918-9.html 2002 determination], [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/09/20030916-4.html 2003 determination]). This (albeit tacitly) constitutes the only formal recognition the U.S. Government has ever given that Groom Lake is more than simply another part of the Nellis complex.
===1974 Skylab photography===
In January 2006 aviation journalist Dwayne Day published an article in online aerospace magazine ''The Space Review'' titled "Astronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident." The article was based around a recently<!--2004--> declassified memo written in [[1974]] to [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] director [[William Colby]] by an unknown CIA official. The memo reported that astronauts on board [[Skylab 4]] had, as part of larger program, inadvertently photographed a location of which the memo said ''"There were specific instructions not to do this. <redacted> was the only location which had such an instruction."'' Although the name of the location was obscured, the context led Day to believe that the subject was Groom Lake.
The memo details debate between federal agencies regarding whether the images should (or indeed could) be classified, with Department of Defense agencies arguing that it should and [[NASA]] and the [[United States Department of State|State Department]] arguing against classification. The memo itself questions whether it was legal for images obtained by an unclassified program to be retroactively classified.
Remarks on the memo, handwritten apparently by DCI ([[Director of C |
adapted for travellers in general.'', John F.W. Herschel ed. [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/geology.html]
* 1851: ''A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Figures of all the Species. The Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes.'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/liv_lepadidae/lepadidae01.html]
* 1851: ''A Monograph on the Fossil Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes of Great Britain'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/fos_lepadidae/fos.lep.html]
* 1854: ''A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Figures of all the Species. The Balanidae (or Sessile Cirripedes); the Verrucidae, etc.'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/liv_balanidae/balanidae_fm.html]
* 1854: ''A Monograph on the Fossil Balanidæ and Verrucidæ of Great Britain'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/fos_balanidae/fos.balanidae.html]
* 1858: ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection|On the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''
* 1859: ''[[The Origin of Species|On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life]]''
* 1862: ''On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilised by insects'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/orchids/orchids_fm.htm]
* 1868: ''Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication'' [http://www.esp.org/books/darwin/variation/facsimile/title3.html (PDF format)], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/variation-of-animals-and-plants-under-domestication-v1/ Vol. 1], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/variation-of-animals-and-plants-under-domestication-v2/ Vol. 2]
* 1871: ''[[The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex]]''
* 1872: ''The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-expression-of-emotion-in-man-and-animals/]
* 1875: ''Movement and Habits of Climbing Plants'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2485]
* 1875: ''Insectivorous Plants'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/insectivorous-plants/]
* 1876: ''The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-effects-of-cross-and-self-fertilisation/]
* 1877: ''The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-different-forms-of-flowers-on-plants/]
* 1879: "Preface and 'a preliminary notice'" in Ernst Krause's ''Erasmus Darwin'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/erasmus.html]
* 1880: ''The Power of Movement in Plants'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-power-of-movement-in-plants/]
* 1881: ''The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2355] [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=LCCN04010736&id=IHcQHUAXg3oC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=Vegetable+Mould]
* 1887: ''Autobiography of Charles Darwin'' (Edited by his Son Francis Darwin) [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2010]
* 1958: ''Autobiography of Charles Darwin'' (Barlow, unexpurgated)
=== Letters ===
*[[Correspondence of Charles Darwin]]
* 1887: ''Life and Letters of Charles Darwin'', (ed. [[Francis Darwin]]). [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-life-and-letters-of-charles-darwin-volume-i/ Volume I], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-life-and-letters-of-charles-darwin-volume-ii/ Volume II]
* 1903: ''More Letters of Charles Darwin'', (ed. [[Francis Darwin]] and A.C. Seward). [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/more-letters-of-charles-darwin-volume-i/ Volume I], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/more-letters-of-charles-darwin-volume-ii/ Volume II]
== References ==
*Charles Darwin, ''Voyage of the Beagle'', (including Robert FitzRoy's ''Remarks with reference to the Deluge''), (Penguin Books, London [[1989]]) ISBN 0-14-043268-X
*[[E. Janet Browne]], ''Charles Darwin: Voyaging'' and ''The Power of Place'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995-2002).
*Adrian Desmond and James Moore, ''Darwin'' (London: Michael Joseph, the Penguin Group, [[1991]]). ISBN 0-7181-3430-3
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/hope.html The Darwin Deathbed Conversion Question]
*[[Richard Keynes]], ''Fossils, Finches and Fuegians: Charles Darwin's Adventures and Discoveries on the Beagle, 1832-1836''. ( London: HarperCollins, 2002) ISBN 0-00-710189-9.
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/john_murphy/charlesdarwin.html Charles Darwin (1999) by John Patrick Michael Murphy]
* James Moore and Adrian Desmond, "Introduction", in ''The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex'' (London: Penguin Classics, 2004). (Detailed history of Darwin's views on race, sex, and class)
*Diane B. Paul, "Darwin, social Darwinism and eugenics," in Jonathan Hodge and Gregory Radick, eds., ''The Cambridge Companion to Darwin'' (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 214-239.
*[[The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin]], Ch. VIII, p. 274. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1905 [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/texts/letters/letters1_08.html]: quotation in which he describes himself as "agnostic"
==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikibooks}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Charles Darwin}}
*[http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/ Writings of Charles Darwin on the Web]
*[http://darwin-online.org.uk/ Complete Works of Darwin Online]
*[http://www.darwinisme.org/ Institut Charles Darwin International]
*[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/biographies/charles-darwin/charles-darwin.html Charles Darwin biography at the Natural History Museum, London]
* [http://www.aboutdarwin.com AboutDarwin.com]
* [http://www.bradburyac.mistral.co.uk/dar0.html ''Charles Darwin - the Truth?'' An investigation into the origins of ''The Origin of Species''.]
* [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/ Darwin] - at the [[American Museum of Natural History]]
* [http://www.gruts.com/darwin/index.php The Friends of Charles Darwin]
* [http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/current/darwin.htm Darwin's portrait on the £10 note]
* [http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?search=ss&sText=Charles+Darwin&LinkID=mp01196 Twelve different portraits of Charles Darwin at the National Portrait Gallery, U.K.]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4607037.stm BBC News: "Darwin family repeat flower count"]
* [http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/onlinedb/darwin/darimage/dardraw.htm Examine Darwin's crustacean collection online]
* A short [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Darwin_e.htm biography of Darwin]
*[http://www.tecalibri.info/D/DARWIN-CR_OPE.htm Works of Darwin]
*[http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_fact-and-theory.html Stephen Jay Gould, "Evolution as Fact and Theory".]
==See also==
* [[Harriet]] - a Galápagos tortoise apocryphally believed to have been captured by Darwin; possibly the world's oldest living animal.
* [[Skandar Keynes]] - the great-great-great grandson of Charles Darwin
* [[Patrick Matthew]] - an amateur evolutionary theorist and contemporary of Darwin.
{{Darwin}}
{{evolution}}
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[[Category:1809 births|Darwin, Charles]]
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[[Category:British ornithologists|Darwin, Charles]]
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[[Category:Charles Darwin|*]]
[[Category:Darwin — Wedgwood family|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:English travel writers|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:Ethologists|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biologists|Darwin, Charles]]
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[[zh:查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coast</title>
<id>5236</id>
<revision>
<id>41807626</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:59:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TigerShark</username>
<id>161478</id>
|
ber 19]]. In an 1894 article that included a facsimile of this copy, Nicolay, who had become the custodian of Lincoln's papers, wrote that Lincoln had brought to Gettysburg the first part of the speech written in ink on [[The White House|Executive Mansion]] stationery, and that he had written the second page in pencil on lined paper before the dedication on [[November 19]].{{ref|Nicolay}} Matching folds are still evident on the two pages, suggesting it could be the copy that eyewitnesses say Lincoln took from his coat pocket and read at the ceremony. Others believe that the delivery text has been lost, because some of the words and phrases of the Nicolay copy do not match contemporary transcriptions of Lincoln's original speech. The words "under God", for example, are missing from the phrase "that this nation (under God) shall have a new birth of freedom&hellip;" In order for the Nicolay draft to have been the reading copy, either the contemporary transcriptions were inaccurate, or Lincoln uncharacteristically would have had to depart from his written text in several instances. This copy of the Gettysburg Address apparently remained in John Nicolay's possession until his death in 1901, when it passed to his friend and colleague John Hay, and after years of being lost to the public, it was reported found in March 1916. The Nicolay copy is on permanent display as part of the American Treasures exhibition of the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.{{ref|americantreasures}}
===Hay Copy===
[[Image:Gettysburg.haydraft.jpg|300px|right|thumb|The Hay Copy, with [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln's]] handwritten corrections.]]
With its existence first announced to the public in 1906, the Hay Copy{{ref|LOC3}} was described by historian [[Garry Wills]] as "the most inexplicable of the five copies Lincoln made." With numerous omissions and inserts, this copy strongly suggests a text that was copied hastily, especially when one examines the fact that many of these omissions were critical to the basic meaning of the sentence, not simply words that would be added by Lincoln to strengthen or clarify their meaning. This copy, which is sometimes referred to as the "second draft," was made either on the morning of its delivery, or shortly after Lincoln's return to Washington. Those that believe that it was completed on the morning of his address point to the fact that it contains certain phrases that are not in the first draft but are in the reports of the address as delivered and in subsequent copies made by Lincoln. It is probable, they conclude, that as stated in the explanatory note accompanying the original copies of the first and second drafts in the [[Library of Congress]], that it was this second draft which Lincoln held in his hand when he delivered the address.{{ref|GNMP}} Lincoln eventually gave this copy to his other personal secretary, John Hay, whose descendants donated both it and the Nicolay copy to the Library of Congress in 1916.
===Everett Copy===
The Everett Copy,{{ref|VG}} also known as the "Everett-Keyes" copy, was sent by President Lincoln to Edward Everett in early 1864, at Everett's request. Everett was collecting the speeches given at the Gettysburg dedication into one bound volume to sell for the benefit of stricken soldiers at New York's [[United States Sanitary Commission|Sanitary Commission Fair]]. The draft Lincoln sent became the third autograph copy, and is now in the possession of the Illinois State Historical Library in [[Springfield, Illinois]], where it is currently on display in the Treasures Gallery of the [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]].
===Bancroft Copy===
The Bancroft Copy of the Gettysburg Address was written out by President Lincoln in April 1864 at the request of [[George Bancroft]], the most famous historian of his day.{{ref|Cornell}} Bancroft planned to include this copy in ''Autograph Leaves of Our Country's Authors'', which he planned to sell at a Soldiers' and Sailors' Sanitary Fair in [[Baltimore]]. As this fourth copy was written on both sides of the paper, it proved unusable for this purpose, and Bancroft was allowed to keep it. This manuscript is the only one accompanied by a letter from Lincoln transmitting the manuscript and by the original envelope addressed and franked (i.e., signed for free postage) by Lincoln. This copy remained in the Bancroft family for many years until it was donated to the Carl A. Kroch Library at [[Cornell University]].{{ref_label|GNMP|16|a}} It is the only one of the five copies to be privately owned.{{ref|www.cornellsun.com.273}}
===Bliss Copy===
Discovering that his fourth written copy intended for George Bancroft's "Autograph Leaves" could not be used, Lincoln wrote a fifth draft, which was accepted for the purpose requested. The Bliss Copy,{{ref|IHPA}} once owned by the family of Colonel [[Alexander Bliss]], Bancroft's stepson and publisher of "Autograph Leaves", is the only draft to which Lincoln affixed his signature. All the probabilities are that it was the last copy written by Lincoln, and because of the apparent care in its preparation, and in part because Lincoln provided a title and signed and dated this copy, it has become the standard version of the address. The Bliss Copy has been the source for most facsimile reproductions of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. This draft now hangs in the [[Lincoln Room]] of the [[White House]], a gift of [[Oscar B. Cintas]], former [[Cuba]]n Ambassador to the United States.{{ref_label|GNMP|16|b}} Cintas, a wealthy collector of art and manuscripts, purchased the Bliss copy at a public auction in 1949 for $54,000, the highest price ever paid for a document at public auction.{{ref|cintas}}
Garry Wills, who won the 1993 [[Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction]] for ''Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words that Remade America'', concluded the Bliss Copy "is stylistically preferable to others in one significant way: Lincoln removed 'here' from 'that cause for which they (here) gave&hellip;' The seventh 'here' is in all other versions of the speech." Wills noted the fact that Lincoln "was still making such improvements suggests that he was more concerned with a perfected text than with an 'original' one (however that is understood)."
{{wikisource}}
==Contemporary sources and reaction==
[[Image:Gettys.nyt.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The ''[[New York Times]]'' article from [[November 20]], [[1863]], indicates Lincoln's speech was interrupted five times by applause and was followed by "long continued applause."]] Another contemporary source of the text is the [[Associated Press]] [[wire service]] broadcast, transcribed from the [[shorthand]] notes taken by reporter Joseph L. Gilbert. It also differs from the drafted text in a number of minor ways.{{ref|www.bartleby.com.274}}{{ref|www.ap.org.275}}
Eyewitness reports vary as to their view of Lincoln's performance. In [[1931]], the printed recollections of 87-year-old Mrs. Sarah A. Cooke Myers, who at the age of 19 was present, suggest a dignified silence followed Lincoln's speech: "I was close to the President and heard all of the Address, but it seemed short. Then there was an impressive silence like our Menallen [[Quaker|Friends Meeting]]. There was no applause when he stopped speaking."{{ref|showcase.netins.net.276}} According to historian [[Shelby Foote]], after Lincoln's presentation, the applause was delayed, scattered, and "barely polite".{{ref|Foote}} In contrast, [[List of Governors of Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania Governor]] Curtin maintained, "He pronounced that speech in a voice that all the multitude heard. The crowd was hushed into silence because the President stood before them...It was so Impressive! It was the common remark of everybody. Such a speech, as they said it was!"{{ref|showcase.netins.net.277}}
In a letter to Lincoln written the following day, Everett praised the President for his eloquent and concise speech, saying, "I should be glad if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in two minutes." Lincoln was glad to know the speech was not a "total failure".
Other public reaction to the speech was divided along partisan lines. The next day the ''Chicago Times'' observed, "The cheek of every American must tingle with shame as he reads the silly, flat and dishwatery utterances of the man who has to be pointed out to intelligent foreigners as the President of the United States." In contrast, the ''[[New York Times]]'' was complimentary. A [[Massachusetts]] paper printed the entire speech, commenting that it was "deep in feeling, compact in thought and expression, and tasteful and elegant in every word and comma."
Lincoln himself, over time, revised his opinion of "my little speech".
==Themes and textual analysis==
Lincoln used the word "nation" five times, but never the word "union," which might refer only to the North&mdash;furthermore, restoring the ''nation'', not a union of sovereign states, was paramount. Lincoln's text referred to the year [[1776]] and the [[American Revolutionary War]], and included the famous words of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], that "[[all men are created equal]]".
Lincoln did not allude to the [[1789]] [[United States Constitution|Constitution]], which implicitly recognized [[slavery]] in the "[[three-fifths compromise]]," and he avoided using the word "[[slavery]]". He also made no mention of the contentious [[antebellum]] political issues of [[Nullification Crisis|nullification]] or [[state's rights]].
In ''Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words that Remade America'', Garry Wills suggests the Address was influenced by the American [[Greek Rev |
in the Solar system, God's Habitation, there are [[Rosicrucian Fellowship#The Seven Worlds .26 the Seven Cosmic Planes|seven Worlds]] differentiated by God, within Himself, one after another.
Rosicrucians teach that the, above referred, seven Worlds belong to the lowest of the seven "Cosmic Planes". The Worlds and Cosmic Planes are not one above another in space, but the seven Cosmic Planes inter-penetrate each other and all the seven Worlds. They are states of spirit-matter, permeating one another, so that God and the other great Beings pervade every part of their own realms and realms of greater density than their own, including our world.
== Notes and references ==
* [[Cliff Pickover|Pickover, Cliff]], <cite>The Paradox of God and the Science of Omniscience</cite>, Palgrave/St Martin's Press, 2001.
* [[Jack Miles|Miles, Jack]], <cite>God : A Biography</cite>, Knopf, 1995; [http://www.jackmiles.com/default.asp?ID=15 Book description].
* [[Karen Armstrong|Armstrong, Karen]], <cite>A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam</cite>, Ballantine Books, 1994.
* [[Fr. Mike Rotch|Rotch, Mike]], <cite>God, the Sheep, and Me... And Other Stories of Godly En(tendre)counters</cite>, Modern Christian Press, 2003.
* [[Dr. Michael Sharp|Sharp, Michael]], <cite>The Book of Light: The Nature of God, the Structure of Consciousness, and the Universe within you. Avatar Publications, 2005. [ISBN 0973855525]. [http://bookoflight.michaelsharp.org/?act=intro0973855525 free as eBook]
==Popular culture==
*God was played by [[Alanis Morissette]] in [[Kevin Smith]]'s ''[[Dogma (film)|Dogma]]''.
*[[Morgan Freeman]] played God in the [[Jim Carrey]] film ''[[Bruce Almighty]]''.
*[[George Burns]] played God in ''[[Oh God!]]'' and its two sequels. He also played the devil.
*In ''[[It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie]]'', the unnamed character played by [[Whoopi Goldberg]] was evidently meant to portray "God".
*[[Steve Coogan]] played God in ''[[24 Hour Party People]]''.
*In ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'', God was represented by an animated photograph of cricketer [[W. G. Grace]].
*God, depicted through numerous human-looking avatars, was a central character in ''[[Joan of Arcadia]]''.
*God was the title of a [[John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band|song by John Lennon]], which defines God as "a concept by which we measure our pain." 'God' is also the title of a song by [[Tori Amos]] from the album ''[[Under The Pink]]''.
*God is the main villain of the comic book series ''[[Preacher (comics)|Preacher]]''.
*In the [[Western World]], God is frequently depicted as an old white man with long white hair and a white beard. The popular American television show ''[[The Simpsons]]'' has played on this characterization, depicting God similiarly, but with the show's unique yellow-caucasian skin. In ''[[South Park]]'' God is depicted against this type, short and resembling an odd looking rodent creature.
==See also==
{| style="background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}"
<p></p>
| width="50%" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
* [[Allah]]
* [[Atheism]]
* [[Agnosticism]]
* [[Ayya Vaikundar]]
* [[Baal]]
* [[Deism]]
* [[Existence of God]]
* [[God and gender]]
* [[God complex]]
* [[God in Buddhism]]
* [[God realm]]
* [[Jesus]]
* [[Jehovah]]
* [[Krishna]]
<p></p>
| width="50%" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
* [[List of appearances of God in fiction]]
* [[Natural theology]]
* [[Nontheism]]
* [[Pantheism]]
* [[Polytheism]]
* [[Higgs boson|The Higgs boson, ''the God particle'']]
* [[Spiritism]]
* [[The All]]
* [[Theism]]
* [[Transtheism]]
* [[The Urantia Book]]
* [[Plane (cosmology)|Planes of existence]]
* [[Yahuah]]
* [[Yazidi]]
<p></p>
|}
== External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*Cheung, Vincent (2003). [http://www.rmiweb.org/books/theology2003.pdf "Systematic Theology"]
*Draye, Hani (2004). [http://sultan.org/articles/god.html Concept of God in Islam]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*[http://www.aish.com/literacy/concepts/Understanding_God.asp Jewish Literacy]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*Preston, Gregory (2005). [http://www.lulu.com/GregoryPreston Seeking Divine Guidance &amp; Concepts of God].
*Nicholls, David (2004). [http://web.archive.org/web/20041013082021/http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/doesgodexist.htm DOES GOD EXIST?]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*Salgia, Amar (1997)[http://www.dd-b.net/~raphael/jain-list/msg01332.html Creator-God and Jainism] Retrieved [[2005-10-18]].
*shaivam.org (2004). [http://www.shaivam.org/hipgodco.htm Hindu Concept of God]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*Schlecht, Joel (2004). [http://www.freewebs.com/thegodparticle/ The God Particle]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2004). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-arguments-god/ Moral Arguments for the Existence of God]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2005). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/god-necessary-being/ God and Other Necessary Beings]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*Students of Shari'ah (2005). [http://www.studentsofshariah.com/proof_of_creator.php Proof Of Creator]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*[http://www.allaboutgod.com Scientific &amp; Philosophical Arguments for God]. Retrieved [[2005-09-09]].
*[http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=God God at WikiChristian]
* [http://adishakti.org Jagbir Singh. Shri Adi Shakti: The Kingdom Of God] - e-book about common in prophecies in different religions and understanding of God
[[Category:Gods|*]]
[[Category:Bahá'í]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Deities]]
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Judaism]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Singular God]]
[[af:God]]
[[bg:Бог]]
[[be:Бог]]
[[bn:ঈশ্বর]]
[[br:Doue]]
[[ca:Déu]]
[[cs:Bůh]]
[[da:Gud]]
[[de:Gott]]
[[el:Θεός]]
[[et:Jumal]]
[[es:Dios]]
[[eo:Dio]]
[[fr:Dieu]]
[[hi:ईश्वर]]
[[ko:신]]
[[id:Tuhan]]
[[ia:Deo]]
[[is:Guð]]
[[it:Dio]]
[[he:אלוהים]]
[[ku:Xwedê]]
[[la:Deus]]
[[lv:Dievs]]
[[lt:Dievas]]
[[hu:Isten]]
[[ms:Tuhan]]
[[nl:God]]
[[ja:神]]
[[no:Gud]]
[[nn:Gud]]
[[pl:Bóg]]
[[pt:Deus]]
[[ro:Dumnezeu]]
[[ru:Бог]]
[[simple:God]]
[[sk:Boh]]
[[sl:Bog]]
[[yi:גאט]]
[[sr:Бог]]
[[fi:Jumala]]
[[sv:Gud]]
[[tl:Diyos]]
[[vi:Thiên Chúa]]
[[uk:Бог]]
[[zh:上帝]]
[[ig:Chineke]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gnutella</title>
<id>11856</id>
<revision>
<id>42113854</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:35:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/166.70.196.17|166.70.196.17]] ([[User talk:166.70.196.17|talk]]) to last version by FlaBot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Gnutella''''' (pronounced {{IPA|/nʌˈtɛlə/}} or {{IPA|/gnʌˈtɛlə/}}) is a [[file sharing]] network used primarily to exchange music, films and software. It is a true [[peer-to-peer]] network; it operates without a central server. Files are exchanged directly between users.
Gnutella [[Client (computing)|client]] programs connect to the network and share files. Search queries are passed from one node to another in round-robin fashion. Gnutella clients are available for a number of [[Platform (computing)|platforms]].
According to the file sharing website [[Slyck.com]], Gnutella is the second-most-popular file sharing network in the Internet, following [[eDonkey network|eDonkey 2000]]. While figures vary from hour to hour and day to day, Gnutella is thought to host on average approximately 2.2 million users, although around 400,000-500,000 are on at any given moment.
[http://www.slyck.com/news.php?story=814]
==History==
The first client was developed by [[Justin Frankel]] and [[Tom Pepper]] of [[Nullsoft]], in early [[2000]], soon after the company's acquisition by [[AOL]]. On March 14, the program was made available for download on Nullsoft's servers. The event was prematurely announced on [[Slashdot]], and thousands downloaded the program that day. The [[source code]] was to be released later, supposedly under the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL).
The next day, AOL stopped the availability of the program over legal concerns and restrained Nullsoft from doing any further work on the project. This did not stop Gnutella; after a few days, the protocol had been [[reverse engineering|reverse engineered]], and compatible [[open source|open-source]] clones began to appear. This parallel development of different clients by different groups remains the ''[[modus operandi]]'' of Gnutella development today.
The Gnutella network is a fully distributed alternative to such semi-centralized systems as [[FastTrack]] ([[KaZaA]]) and such centralized systems as [[Napster]]. Initial popularity of the network was spurred on by Napster's threatened legal demise in early 2001. This growing surge in popularity revealed the limits of the initial protocol's scalability. In early 2001, variations on the protocol (first implemented in closed-source clients) allowed somewhat of an improvement in scalability. Instead of treating every user as client and server, some users were now treated as "ultrapeers", routing search requests and responses for users connected to them.
This allowed the network to grow in popularity. In late 2001, the Gnutella client [[LimeWire]] became [[open source]]. In February 2002, [[Morpheus (computer program)|Morpheus]], a commercial file-sharing group, abandoned its [[FastTrack]]-based peer-to-peer software and released a new client based on the open source Gnutella client [[Gnucleus]].
The word "Gnutella" refers not to any one project or piece of software, but to the open protocol used by the various clients. Since various parties are developing new clients, |
as near, although they were close by, and the children missed the opportunity to be at their father's bedside when he died.
===Alleged organized crime links===
[[Image:Sinatra and Mafia.jpg|frame|Left to right: [[Paul Castellano]], [[Gregory DePalma]], Sinatra, [[Tommy Marson]], [[Carlo Gambino]], [[Aladena Fratianno]], [[Salvatore Spatola]], Seated: [[Joseph Gambino]], [[Richard Fusco]], in 1976]]
Sinatra has been frequently linked to members of the [[Mafia]] and it has long been rumored that his career was aided behind the scenes by [[organized crime]].[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/sinatra/94360.stm]
One of his uncles, Babe Gavarante, was a member of a [[Bergen County]] armed gang connected to the organization of [[Willie Moretti]]. Gavarante was convicted of murder in [[1921]] in connection with an armed robbery in which he had driven the get-away car. Sinatra was also allegedly personally linked to Willie Moretti, his first wife [[Nancy Barbato]] was a cousin of one of his senior henchmen and he sang at his daughter's wedding in [[1948]]. According to testimony from Moretti, Sinatra received help from him in arranging performances in return for kick-backs.
He had associations with and did favors for [[Charles Fischetti]], a notorious [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] mobster dating back to [[1946]], according to the FBI. Sinatra was also friends with Charles' brother Joseph, who ran the Fontainebleau Hotel complex in [[Miami]], who arranged work for him and introduced him to [[Charles Luciano]] in [[Havana]]. After Luciano's deportation to Italy, Sinatra visited him at least twice, singing at a [[1946]] Christmas Party and gifting the famed mobster with a gold cigarette case engraved "To my dear pal Charlie, from his friend Frank" the next year. These visits were widely reported by the media and used as further evidence of Sinatra's ties to the mob, haunting him for the rest of his life. Among the allegations were the two million dollars that Sinatra gave Luciano. As Joseph "Doc" Stacher later recalled of the Havana meeting, "The Italians among us were all very proud of Frank. They always told me they had spent a lot of money helping him in his career ever since he was in [[Tommy Dorsey]]&#8217;s band. Lucky Luciano was very fond of Frank&#8217;s singing. Frankie flew into Havana with the Fischettis, with whom he was very friendly, but of course, our meeting had nothing to do with hearing him croon&#8230;Everyone brought envelopes of money for Luciano &#8230;But more important, they came to pay allegiance to him." The "Havana" allegations - while the basis of rumors for Sinatra's mob ties - have never been proved, and Luciano himself denied there was any criminal association in his autobiography.
Sinatra had a strong friendship with [[Sam Giancana]] who always wore a sapphire friendship ring given to him by Sinatra, and who ordered the killing of 200 people. A number of alleged incidents have been noted where people who angered Sinatra have been threatened by Giancana's mob. [[Comedian]] [[Jackie Mason]] has alleged that after mocking Sinatra in his routine, he received threats and his hotel room was shot up in his presence. After he continued, he received death threats and was roughed up and his nose was broken.
[[J. Edgar Hoover]] apparently suspected Sinatra over the years, and Sinatra's file at the [[FBI]] ended up at 2,403 pages[http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/sinatra.htm], detailing allegations of extortion against Ronald Alpert for $100,000. Sinatra publicly rejected these accusations many times, and was never charged with any crimes in connection with them.
The character Johnny Fontane in the book and movie ''[[The Godfather (novel)|The Godfather]]'' is widely viewed as having been inspired by Frank Sinatra and his alleged connections. Indeed, Sinatra was furious with Godfather author [[Mario Puzo]] over the Fontane character and reportedly confronted Puzo in public with profane threats. However, those involved in the making of the movie (primarily Francis Ford Coppola and Mario Puzo) deny any intended similarities between Fontane and Sinatra.
Yet the similarities exist. The "bandleader story" from ''The Godfather'' is similar to the rumored story of how Sinatra got out of his contract with bandleader [[Tommy Dorsey]]. Sinatra's contract with Dorsey specified that he would have to pay Dorsey one-third of his earnings for life and an additional 10 percent to Dorsey’s agent. In short, 43 percent of Frank Sinatra would belong to Tommy Dorsey and his agent forever. As Sinatra's popularity started to grow, he began seeking ways to separate himself from Dorsey. In 1943, Sinatra’s representatives tried to get him out of the contract, offering Dorsey $60,000 to rip it up, but Dorsey refused. By some accounts, hard negotiation eventually convinced the bandleader to take the offer. Yet, other accounts say that Sinatra’s godfather, [[Willie Moretti]], presented Dorsey with "an offer he couldn't refuse". Sinatra has denied that Moretti had anything to do with it, but Moretti bragged in private that he and a few associates jammed the barrel of a gun into Dorsey's mouth and got him to release Sinatra from his obligations in exchange for one dollar. In 1951 Dorsey talked about the incident to a reporter from American Mercury magazine, describing his meeting with three men who, according to Sinatra biographer [[J. Randy Taraborrelli]], “talked out of the sides of their mouths and ordered him to ‘sign or else.’”
But some of the story of the character Johnny Fontane was embellished for the film. The scene in which Johnny asks the Godfather to pressure a Hollywood director to give him a part in a movie that was "sure to make him a star" is a loose reference to Sinatra's role in [[From Here to Eternity]], a role which earned him an Academy Award in 1954. However, the widely held belief that Sinatra’s godfather leaned on Harry Cohn, the head of Columbia Pictures, to force him to cast Sinatra is untrue. Unlike the producer in the film, Cohn never woke up to find a severed horse’s head in his bed. It was Sinatra’s 29-inch waistline and his natural acting talent rather than mob strong-arm tactics that landed him the role.
===Death===
A frequent visitor, property owner and benefactor in the [[Palm Springs, California]] area, Sinatra wished to be buried in the desert he grew to love so much.
Frank Sinatra died at the age of 82 of a [[heart attack]] in [[Los Angeles, California]], following a long battle with [[coronary heart disease]], [[kidney disease]], [[bladder cancer]], and [[dementia]].
His funeral was held on [[May 20]], [[1998]] at the Church of the Good Shepherd in [[Beverly Hills]]. Sinatra's last words were (according to his daughter [[Nancy Sinatra]], as told to ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' senior columnist, [[Army Archerd]]): "I'm losing."
Sinatra was buried a few miles away from Palm Springs next to his parents in Desert Memorial Park in [[Cathedral City]], a quiet, unassuming cemetery near his famous compound in [[Rancho Mirage, California]], which is located on the beautiful, tree-lined thoroughfare that bears his name.
His longtime friend, Jilly Rizzo, who died in a [[Rancho Mirage]] car crash in 1992, is buried nearby as is pop star, former Palm Springs mayor and [[United States House of Representatives|Congressman]], [[Sonny Bono]].
Legend has it that Sinatra was buried with a flask of [[Jack Daniel's]] [[whiskey]], a roll of ten dimes (in reference to the kidnapping of his son, see above), a lighter (which some take to be a reference to his mob connections) and a packet of [[Camel cigarettes]]. The words '''The Best is Yet to Come''' are imprinted on his tombstone.
==Recorded legacy==
===Influences===
Sinatra's vocal style represented a significant departure from the '[[crooner|crooning]]' style of his early idol, [[Bing Crosby]]. Sinatra's generation represented the first generation of children that had grown up in the era of the [[microphone]], and the amplification of sound enabled singers to sing in a much softer, much more nuanced style. Crosby had begun this change, and established a new American singing style based around conversational ease.
However Sinatra, as he himself once noted, ''sang more'', by which he meant that he introduced a [[bel canto]] sound to the tradition begun by Crosby. And, more importantly, he might be said to have brought the Crosby tradition to artistic completion, taking it to levels of intensity and depth of feeling that, because of the displacement of the Crosby-Sinatra tradition by [[rock and roll]] and subsequent genres, are unlikely to be achieved again.
Two other great performers of the 1930s and 1940s were significant influences on Sinatra: [[Billie Holiday]] and [[Mabel Mercer]]. Sinatra regularly heard "Lady Day" in New York clubs in the 1940s and learned from her the importance of authenticity of emotion. From Mercer he learned the importance of the element of "story" in a song. For Sinatra a song is a 3-4 minute narrative — sometimes even the story of himself, his own life, his own heartaches, his own feelings of buoyancy — and this is why [[Ella Fitzgerald]] could say of him, "With Frank, it's always this little guy, telling this ... story." The archetypal examples of the Sinatra song as story could later be found in two selections from his 1958 Capitol LP ''[[Frank Sinatra Sings For Only The Lonely]]'': "[[Angel Eyes (song)|Angel Eyes]]" and "[[One For My Baby (And One More For The Road)]]".
===Genres===
Sinatra would certainly have been considered a 'pop' singer before the [[rock and roll]] era, and the epithets [[Traditional Pop]] or more specifically [[classic pop|Classic Pop]] have perhaps been coined to describe Sinatra's style.
The |
ring the reign of these "Good Emperors" than before or after. The extent to which these people suffered or were happy continues to be subject of historical debate.
==See also==
{{Epochs of Roman Emperors}}
<timeline>
ImageSize = width:700 height:120
PlotArea = width:680 height:60 left:10 bottom:20
Colors =
id:yellow value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # light yellow
id:red value:rgb(1,0.7,0.7) # light red
id:green value:rgb(0.7,1,0.7) # light green
id:blue value:rgb(1,1,0.7) # light blue
id:cyan value:rgb(0.7,1,1) # light blue
id:purple value:rgb(1,0.7,1) # light purple
id:grey value:gray(0.8) # grey
Period = from:90 till:190
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bar:barre1
PlotData=
align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) shift:(0,-5)
bar:barre1
from: 96 till: 98 color:purple text:[[Nerva]]
from: 98 till: 117 color:yellow text:[[Trajan]]
from: 117 till: 138 color:blue text:[[Hadrian]]
from: 138 till: 161 color:red text:[[Antoninus Pius]]
from: 161 till: 180 color:green text:[[Marcus Aurelius]]]
</timeline>
[[Category:Roman Empire]][[Category:Families of Rome]][[Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty]][[Category:Royal families]]
[[bs:Pet dobrih careva]]
[[de:Adoptivkaiser]]
[[es:Emperadores Antoninos]]
[[eu:Antoniar leinu]]
[[fr:Antonins (Rome)]]
[[ko:네르바-안토니누스 왕조]]
[[hr:Pet dobrih careva]]
[[nl:Adoptiefkeizers]]
[[ja:五賢帝]]
[[pl:Pięciu dobrych cesarzy]]
[[pt:Cinco bons imperadores]]
[[ru:Пять хороших императоров]]
[[sr: Пет добрих царева]]
[[zh:五贤君]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fossile</title>
<id>11696</id>
<revision>
<id>15909426</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fossil]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fossils and the geological timescale</title>
<id>11697</id>
<revision>
<id>41184072</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T16:50:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ollj</username>
<id>733710</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>mergeto|Geologic time scale</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Different [[fossil]]s were laid down at different points in the [[geology|geological]] timescale:
{{mergeto|Geologic time scale}}
*''[[Precambrian]]'' (3.8 billion to 570 million years ago)
**[[Bacterium|Bacteria]] and blue-green [[algae]]
**First complex multicellular organisms and soft-bodied animals, [[Charnia]]
*''[[Cambrian]]'' (570 to 500 million years ago)
**First [[invertebrate]]s
*''[[Ordovician]]'' (500 to 440 million years ago)
*''[[Silurian]]'' (440 to 410 million years ago)
**First land [[plant]]s
**First land invertebrates
*''[[Devonian period|Devonian]]'' (410 to 365 million years ago)
**First ferns and seed plants
**First [[insect]]s
**First [[Amphibia|amphibians]]
**First [[ammonite]]s
*''[[Carboniferous]]'' (365 to 290 million years ago)
**First flying insects
**First [[reptile]]s
*''[[Permian]]'' (290 to 245 million years ago)
**Extinction of [[trilobite]]s
*''[[Triassic]]'' (245 to 210 million years ago)
**First [[dinosaur]]s
**First [[mammal]]s
*''[[Jurassic]]'' (210 to 140 million years ago)
**First [[Aves|bird]]s
*''[[Cretaceous]]'' (140 to 65 million years ago)
**First [[Angiosperm|flowering plant]]s
**First [[primate]]s
**Extinction of dinosaurs
**Extinction of [[ammonite]]s
*''[[Paleocene]]'' (65 to 55 million years ago)
**Diversification and spreading of mammals
*''[[Eocene]]'' (55 to 38 million years ago)
*''[[Oligocene]]'' (38 to 25 million years ago)
**First [[Poaceae|grass]]
*''[[Miocene]]'' (25 to 5 million years ago)
*''[[Pliocene]]'' (5 to 2 million years ago)
**First [[hominid]]s
[[Category:Paleontology]]
[[de:Wikipedia:WikiProjekt Paläo/Geologische Zeitskala]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Franz Boas</title>
<id>11698</id>
<revision>
<id>40707451</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T13:20:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mystic Pixel</username>
<id>733736</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Post-Graduate Studies: from Geography to Anthropology */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FranzBoas.jpg|thumb|right|Franz Boas]]
'''Franz Boas''' ([[July 9]], [[1858]] &ndash; [[December 22]], [[1942]]) was one of the pioneers of modern [[anthropology]] and is often called the "Father of American Anthropology". A [[Germany|German]] by birth, Boas worked for most of his life in [[North America]]. Like many such pioneers, he trained in other disciplines; he received his doctorate in [[physics]], and did post-doctoral work in [[geography]].
==Early life and education==
Franz Boas was born in [[Minden]], [[Westphalia]]. Although his grandparents were observant [[Jew]]s, his parents, like most German Jews, embraced [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] values, including their assimilation into modern [[Germany|German]] society. Boas was sensitive about his Jewish background, and while he vocally opposed anti-Semitism, and refused to convert to [[Christianity]], he did not identify himself as a Jew. In an autobiographical sketch, Boas wrote:
:The background of my early thinking was a German home in which the ideals of the [[revolutions of 1848|revolution of 1848]] were a living force. My father, liberal, but not active in public affairs; my mother, idealistic, with a lively interest in public matters; the founder about 1854 of the kindergarten in my home town, devoted to science. My parents had broken through the shackles of dogma. My father had retained an emotional affection for the ceremonial of his parental home, without allowing it to influence his intellectual freedom.
From his early experience at the Froebel kindergarten in Minden, to his studies at ''[[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]]'', Boas was exposed to, and interested in, natural history. Of his work at ''Gymnasium'', he was most excited by and proud of his research on the geographic distribution of plants. Nevertheless, when Boas attended university &mdash; first at Heidelberg, then Bonn &mdash; he focused on [[mathematics]] and physics (although he also attended a few courses in [[geography]], including one taught by [[Theobald Fischer]]). He intended then to study physics at Berlin, but chose to attend the university at Kiel, in order to be closer to his family. There he studied physics with [[Gustav Karsten]]. Boas wished to conduct research concerning Gauss's law of the [[normal distribution]] of errors, but Karsten instructed him to research the optical properties of water instead. That research became the basis of his doctoral dissertation.
Boas received his doctorate in physics from the university at Kiel in 1881. He was unhappy with his dissertation, but intrigued by the problems of perception that plagued his research. Boas had developed an interest in [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] thought when he took a course on [[aesthetics]] with [[Kuno Fischer]] at Heidelberg, and at Bonn took courses with [[Benno Erdmann]], leading Kantian philosophers. This interest led him to "psychophysics," which addressed [[psychology|psychological]] and [[epistemology|epistemological]] problems in physics. He again considered moving to Berlin to study psychophysics with [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], but psychophysics was of dubious status, and Boas had no training in psychology.
==Post-Graduate Studies: from Geography to Anthropology==
Coincidentally, Theobald Fischer had moved to Kiel, and Boas took up geography as a way to explore his budding interest in the relationship between subjective experience and the objective world. At the time, German geographers were divided over the causes of cultural variation. Many argued that the physical environment was the principal determining factor, but others (notably [[Friedrich Ratzel]]) argued that the diffusion of ideas through human migration is more important. In 1883 Boas went to [[Baffin Island]] to conduct geographic research on the impact of the physical environment on native (Inuit) migrations. He returned to Berlin to finish his studies, and in 1886 (with Helmholtz' support) he successfully defended his habilitation thesis, ''Baffin Land'', and was named ''[[privatdozent]]'' in geography.
While on Baffin Island he began to develop his interest in studying non-Western cultures (in 1888 he published a book, ''The Central Eskimo''). Moreover, in 1885 Boas went to work with physical anthropologist [[Rudolf Virchow]] and Ethnologist [[Adolf Bastian]] at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin. Boas had studied anatomy with Virchow two years earlier, while preparing for the Baffin Island expedition. At the time, Virchow was involved in a vociferous debate with his former student, [[Ernst Haeckel]], over evolution. Haeckel had abandoned his medical practice to study comparative anatomy after reading [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''The Origin of Species'', and vigorously promoted Darwin's ideas in Germany. Like most other natural scientists prior to the rediscovery of [[Mendelian genetics]] in 1909 and the development of the [[modern synthesis]] in 1918, however, Virchow felt that Darwin's theories were weak because they lacked a theory of cellular mutability. Accordingly, Virchow favored [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarckian]] models of evolution. This debate resonated with debates among geographers. Lamarckians believed that environmental forces could precipitate rapid and enduring changes in organisms that had no inherited source; thus, Lamarc |
iced dental sibilant]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;s̠&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|voiceless postalveolar sibilant]] (laminal)
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;z̠&nbsp;]}} [[voiced postalveolar fricative|voiced postalveolar sibilant]] (laminal)
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʃ&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant]] (domed, partially palatalized)
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʒ&nbsp;]}} [[voiced postalveolar fricative|voiced palato-alveolar sibilant]] (domed, partially palatalized)
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ɕ&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative|voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant]] (laminal, palatalized)
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʑ&nbsp;]}} [[voiced alveolo-palatal fricative|voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant]] (laminal, palatalized)
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʂ&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless retroflex fricative|voiceless retroflex sibilant]] (apical or sub-apical)
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʐ&nbsp;]}} [[voiced retroflex fricative|voiced retroflex sibilant]] (apical or sub-apical)
All sibilants are [[coronal consonant|coronal]], but may be [[dental consonant|dental]], [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]], [[postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]], or [[palatal consonant|palatal]] ([[retroflex consonant|retroflex]]) within that range. However, at the postalveolar place of articulation the tongue may take several shapes: domed, [[laminal consonant|laminal]], or [[apical consonant|apical]], and each of these is given a separate symbol and a separate name. Prototypical retroflexes are [[sub-apical consonant|sub-apical]] and palatal, but they are usually written with the same symbol as the apical postalveolars. The alveolars and dentals may also be either apical or laminal, but this difference is indicated with diacritics rather than with separate symbols.
===Central non-sibilant fricatives===
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ɸ&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless bilabial fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;β&nbsp;]}} [[voiced bilabial fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;f&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless labiodental fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;v&nbsp;]}} [[voiced labiodental fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;θ̼&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless linguolabial fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ð̼&nbsp;]}} [[voiced linguolabial fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;θ̟&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless interdental fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ð̟&nbsp;]}} [[voiced interdental fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;θ&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless dental fricative|voiceless dental nonsibilant fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ð&nbsp;]}} [[voiced dental fricative|voiced dental nonsibilant fricative]]
* {{IPA|[ θ̠, ɹ̝̊ ]}} [[Voiceless_alveolar_fricative#The_voiceless_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative|voiceless alveolar nonsibilant fricative]]
* {{IPA|[ ð̠, ɹ̝ ]}} [[Voiced_alveolar_fricative#The_voiced_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative|voiced alveolar nonsibilant fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ç&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless palatal fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʝ&nbsp;]}} [[voiced palatal fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;x&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless velar fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ɣ&nbsp;]}} [[voiced velar fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ɧ&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless palatal-velar fricative]] (articulation disputed)
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;χ&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless uvular fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ħ&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʜ&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless epiglottal fricative]]
===Lateral fricatives===
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ɬ&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless alveolar lateral fricative|voiceless coronal lateral fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ɮ&nbsp;]}} [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative|voiced coronal lateral fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ɬ̢&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless retroflex lateral fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʎ̥&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless palatal lateral fricative]] (needs a raising diacritic)
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʟ̝̊&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless velar lateral fricative]]
===Symbols used for both fricatives and approximants===
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʁ&nbsp;]}} [[voiced uvular fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʕ&nbsp;]}} [[voiced pharyngeal fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʢ&nbsp;]}} [[voiced epiglottal fricative]]
No language distinguishes voiced fricatives from approximants at these places, so the same symbol is used for both. For the pharyngeals and epiglottals, approximants are more numerous than fricatives. A fricative realization may be specified by adding the [[raised (phonetics)|uptack]] to the letters, {{IPA|[ʁ̝, ʕ̝, ʢ̝]}}. Likewise, the [[lowered (phonetics)|downtack]] may be added to specify an approximant realization, {{IPA|[ʁ̞, ʕ̞, ʢ̞]}}.
===Pseudo-fricatives===
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;h&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless glottal fricative|voiceless glottal transition]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;ɦ&nbsp;]}} [[voiced glottal fricative|breathy-voiced glottal transition]]
The glottal "fricatives" are actually unaccompanied [[phonation]] states of the glottis, without any accompanying manner, fricative or otherwise. However, they are called fricatives for historical reasons.
In addition, {{IPA|[&#653;]}} is usually called a "[[voiceless labial-velar fricative]]", but it is actually an approximant. True doubly-articulated fricatives do not appear to occur in any language.
==Languages==
See [[table of consonants]] for a table of fricatives in English.
[[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] may be the language with the most fricatives, with 27, some of which do not have symbols or diacritics in the IPA. This number actually outstrips the number of all consonants in English (which has 24 consonants). By contrast, many languages have no phonemic fricatives at all, and this is a common feature of many [[Australian Aboriginal languages]].
==See also==
* [[List of phonetics topics]]
[[Category:Fricative consonants| ]]
[[da:Frikativ]]
[[de:Frikativ]]
[[fr:Consonne fricative]]
[[ko:마찰음]]
[[he:עיצורים חוככים]]
[[nl:Fricatief]]
[[ja:摩擦音]]
[[pl:Spółgłoska szczelinowa]]
[[ro:Consoană fricativă]]
[[sv:Frikativa]]
[[zh:擦音]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frost</title>
<id>11763</id>
<revision>
<id>41075968</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:14:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bcnfal@hotmail.com</username>
<id>985302</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:GrassCoatedInFrost.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Blades of [[Poaceae|grass]] coated in frost.]]
[[Image:Frost on black pipes.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Frost on black pipes]]
[[Image:Frost on window.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Frost on window]]
'''Frost''', like [[snow]], is the result of [[deposition (meteorology)|deposition]] of [[water vapor]] in [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] air. If solid surfaces in contact with the air are chilled below the deposition point (see [[dew point|frost point]]), then [[spicule]]s of [[ice]] grow out from the solid surface. The size of the [[crystal]]s depends on time and the amount of [[water vapor]] available.
Frost is often observed around cracks in wooden sidewalks due to the moist air escaping from the ground below. Other objects on which frost develops are those with low [[specific heat]] and high [[thermal emissivity]], such as blackened metals; hence the accumulation of frost on the heads of rusty nails. The apparently erratic occurrence of frost in adjacent localities is due partly to differences of elevation, the lower areas becoming colder on calm nights. It is also affected by differences in [[absorbtivity]] and specific heat of the ground which in the absence of wind greatly influences the temperature attained by the [[superincumbent]] air. The formation of white frost on the indoor surface of window panes indicates low [[relative humidity]] of the indoor air, otherwise water would first [[condensation|condense]] in small droplets and then freeze into clear ice.
Because cold air is more dense than warm air, and forms close to the ground, in calm weather cold air pools at ground level. This is known as surface temperature inversion. It explains why frost is more common and extensive in low-lying areas such as valleys and hollows. Areas where frost forms due to cold air trapped against the ground or against a solid barrier such as a wall are known as "frost pockets". Frost can form in these areas even when the reported temperature is above the freezing point of water.
Vegetation will not necessarily be damaged on a night where the air cools the leaves of plants below their freezing point. In the absence of a site nucleating the formation of ice crystals, the leaves remain in a [[supercooled]] liquid state, safely reaching temperatures of -4 &deg;C to -12 &deg;C. However, once frost forms, the leaf [[cell (biology)|cell]]s may be damaged by sharp ice crystals. Certain [[bacterium|bacteria]] are particularly effective at triggering frost formation, raising the nucleation temperature to about -1 &deg;C. In the absence of these "ice-nucleating" bacteria, frost damage can be greatly reduced.
==See also==
{{commonscat|frost}}
*[[freezing fog]]
*[[frost flowers]]
*[[frost heaving]]
*[[hoarfrost]]
*[[ice fog]]
*[[icing (shipping)]]
*[[rime ice]]
*[[Compufrost]]
[[Category:Weather]]
[[Category:Psychrometrics]]
[[Category:Water ice]]
[[Category:Precipitation]]
[[da:Rimfrost]]
[[de:Frost]]
[[es:Escarcha]]
[[eo:Frosto (temperaturo)]]
[[fr:Givre]]
[[it:Le Givre]]
[[lt:Šarma]]
[[nl:Vorst (weer)]]
[[ja:霜]]
[[pl:Givre]]
[[pt:Geada]]
[[sr:Givre]]
[[sv:Frost]]
[[zh:霜]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ferdinand Magellan</title>
<id>11764</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41666728</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:06:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Markalexander100</username>
<id>44845</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Further reading no, no, no</comment>
<text xml:spa |
ander Europe). Starting from [[1956]] early warning coverage was extended across [[Western Europe]] using eighteen radar stations. This part of the system was completed by [[1962]]. Linked to existing national radar sites the coordinated system was called the [[NATO Air Defense Ground Environment]] ([[NADGE]]). By [[1972]] NADGE consisted of 84 radar stations and associated control and reporting centers (CRC). The current system is Air Command and Control System (ACCS).
From [[1960]] NATO countries agreed to place all their air defense forces under the command of SACEUR in the event of war. These forces included command and control systems, radar installations, and Surface-to-Air (SAM) missile units as well as interceptor fighters.
[[Category:NATO]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Invisible balance</title>
<id>15382</id>
<revision>
<id>15912858</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-06T00:45:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:International trade]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''invisible balance''' is that part of the [[balance of trade]] figures that refers to services and commercial [[money]] transfer that does not result in the transfer of physical objects. Examples include consulting services, tourism, and patent license revenues. This figure is usually generated by [[tertiary industry]].
In countries with more developed economies, this is a very important part of the figure, as a more developed economy is liable to import basic goods and food owing to the cheaper costs of production (especially labour) abroad. In order to get the balance of trade positive, the invisible balance must be greater than the negative effect of the visible balance.
[[Category:International trade]]
[[fr:Balance des invisibles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isotopic tracer</title>
<id>15383</id>
<revision>
<id>35433960</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-16T19:24:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''isotopic tracer''', (also "isotopic marker" or "isotopic label"), is used in [[chemistry]] and [[biochemistry]] to help understand chemical [[Chemical reaction|reactions]] and interactions. In this technique, one or more of the [[atom]]s of the [[molecule]] of interest is substituted for an atom of the same [[chemical element]], but of a different (often [[radioactive]], such as in [[Radioactive tracer|radioactive tracing]]) [[isotope]]. Because the atom has the same number of protons, it will behave in almost exactly the same way chemically as other atoms in the compound, and with few exceptions will not interfere with the reaction under investigation. The difference in the number of [[neutron]]s, however, means that it can be detected separately from the other atoms of the same element.
[[Nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]] typically uses this type of technique to investigate the mechanisms of chemical reactions (basically trying to find out which starting atom ends up where after a reaction), because NMR detects not only isotopic differences, but also gives an indication of the position of the atom.
[[Mass_spectrometer|Mass spectrometry]] can also be used with this technique, since mass spectra recorded with sufficiently high resolution can distinguish among isotopes based on the different masses resulting from the different number of neutrons.
Autoradiograms of gels in [[gel electrophoresis]] can also take advantage of this approach. In this technique, radioactive isotopes are used. The radiation emitted by compounds containing the radioactive isotopes darkens a piece of [[photographic film]], recording the position of these compounds relative to one another in the gel.
==See also==
*[[Radionuclide#Uses|Uses of radionuclides]]
[[Category:Physical chemistry]]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[fr:Traceur isotopique]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irreducible complexity</title>
<id>15387</id>
<revision>
<id>42052492</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:50:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Peter Grey</username>
<id>268253</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Criticisms of irreducible complexity */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{creationism2}}
'''Irreducible complexity''' is a controversial concept invoked in support of [[intelligent design]] which claims that the generally accepted [[scientific theory]] that [[life]] evolved through biological [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] is incomplete and flawed and that some additional mechanism is required to explain the origins of life. An '''[[Irreducible (philosophy)|irreducibly]] [[Complexity|complex]]''' system is defined as one that could not possibly have been formed by successive, slight modifications to a functional precursor system.
The concept was popularized by [[Lehigh University]] [[biochemist]] and Fellow of the [[Discovery Institute]] [[Michael Behe]] in his [[1996]] book ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'', wherein Behe argued that there are biochemical systems which are "irreducibly complex" because he saw no way in which these systems could be broken down into smaller functioning systems. With this argument, the book in effect supports what is known as [[intelligent design]], a form of the [[argument from design]], which is one of the arguments for the existence of a [[supernatural]] [[deity]].
In 2001, [[Michael Behe]] admitted that his work had a "defect" and does not actually address "the task facing natural selection."{{ref|behe_reply}} Furthermore, the concept of irreducible complexity is ignored or rejected by the majority of the [[scientific community]]. This rejection stems from the following: the concept utilises an [[argument from ignorance]], Behe fails to provide a testable [[hypothesis]], and there is a lack of [[evidence]] in support of the concept. As such, irreducible complexity is seen by the supporters of [[evolutionary theory]] as an example of [[creationist]] [[pseudoscience]], amounting to a [[God of the gaps]] argument.
In the 2005 [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial]] Behe testified under oath that irreducible complexity did not rule out known evolutionary mechanisms and that there are no peer-reviewed articles supporting his argument that certain complex molecular structures are "irreducibly complex." [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District_4:_whether_ID_is_science#Page_88_of_139] The result of the trial was the [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: curriculum, conclusion#H. Conclusion|ruling]] that intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature.
==Irreducible complexity (IC) ==
An early concept of irreducibly complex systems comes from [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]], a 20th Century Austrian biologist, though he never used the term 'irreducible complexity' in his works{{ref|Bertalanffy}}. He believed that complex systems must be examined as complete, [[irreducible (philosophy)|irreducible]] systems in order to fully understand how they work. He extended his work on biological complexity into a general theory of systems in a book titled ''[[Systems theory|General Systems Theory]]''.
After [[James D. Watson|James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] published the structure of [[DNA]] in the early 1950s, General Systems Theory lost many of its adherents in the physical and biological sciences. [[Jacques Monod]]'s ''Chance and Necessity'' provides a good discussion of the "triumph" of the mechanistic view in biochemistry. Systems theory remained popular among social sciences long after its demise in the physical and biological sciences.
[[Michael Behe]] uses the term "irreducible complexity" in his 1996 book ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'', to refer to certain complex biochemical [[Cell (biology)|cellular]] systems. He posits that evolutionary mechanisms cannot explain the development of such 'irreducibly complex' systems. Notably, Behe credits philosopher [[William Paley]] for the original concept, not Von Bertalanffy, and suggests that his application of the concept to biological systems is entirely original.
Intelligent design advocates argue that irreducibly complex systems must have been deliberately engineered by some form of intelligence.
According to the theory of evolution, genetic variations occur without specific design or intent. The environment "selects" the variants that have the highest fitness, which are then passed on to the next generation of organisms. Change occurs by the gradual operation of natural forces over time, perhaps slowly, perhaps more quickly (see [[punctuated equilibrium]]). This process is able to "create" complex structures from simpler beginnings, or convert complex structures from one function to another (see [[spandrel]]). Most intelligent design advocates accept that evolution occurs through mutation and natural selection at the "micro level," such as changing the relative frequency of various beak lengths in finches, but assert that it cannot account for irreducible complexity, because none of the parts of an irreducible system would be functional or advantageous until the entire system is in place.
Behe uses the mousetrap as an illustrative example of this concept. A mousetrap consists of several interacting pieces&mdash;the base, the catch, the spring, the hammer&mdash;all of which must be in place for the mousetrap to work. The removal of any one piece destroys the function of the mousetrap. |
n Benjamin Morrell of the sealer ''Wasp'' landed, hunting for [[seal (mammal)|seal]]s. He was successful and took several seal skins.
On December 10, [[1825]], one Captain Norris, master of the Enderby Company whalers ''Sprightly'' and ''Lively'', landed on the island, named it ''Liverpool Island'', and claimed it for the [[British Crown]].
In [[1898]], the [[Germany|German]] ''Valdivia'' expedition of [[Carl Chun]] visited the island but didn't land.
The first extended stay on the island was in [[1927]], when the [[Norway|Norwegian]] "Norvegia" crew stayed for about a month; this is the basis for the territorial claim by [[Norway]], who have named the island Bouvetøya (Bouvet Island in Norwegian). The island was [[Annexation|annexed]] on [[December 1]] [[1927]], by a Royal Norwegian Decree of [[January 23]] [[1928]], Bouvetøya became a Norwegian Territory. The [[United Kingdom]] waived its claim in favor of Norway the following year. In [[1930]] a Norwegian act was passed that made the island a dependent area subject to the [[sovereignty]] of the Kingdom (but not a part of the Kingdom).
In [[1964]], an abandoned [[lifeboat]] was discovered on the island, along with various supplies; however, the lifeboat's passengers were never found.
In [[1971]], Bouvet Island and the adjacent territorial waters were designated a nature reserve. The island remains uninhabited, although an automated [[weather station]] was set up there in [[1977]] by the Norwegians.
On [[September 22]], [[1979]], a [[satellite]] recorded a flash of light (which was later interpreted as having been caused by a [[nuclear bomb]] explosion or natural event such as a [[meteor]]) in a stretch of the southern [[Indian Ocean]] between Bouvet Island and [[Prince Edward Islands]]. This detonation, since dubbed the [[Vela Incident]], scattered radioactive debris over a wide area (it was detected by scientists in the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]). No country has ever admitted responsibility for the test, though suspects include [[South Africa]], [[Israel]] and [[Taiwan]].
Despite being uninhabited, Bouvet Island has the [[Internet]] [[country code]] [[top-level domain]] ([[ccTLD]]) [[.bv]], though it is [http://www.norid.no/domenenavnbaser/bv-sj.html not used]. A handful of [[amateur radio]] expeditions have gone to this remote location ([[call sign]]s used here begin with ''3Y''). Bouvet Island falls within the UTC Z [[time zone]]. ''Atlantic/St_Helena'' is the zone used in the time zone database.
==Bouvet Island in fiction==
[[Image:Bouvet island 0.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Southeast coast of Bouvet Island, 1898]]
Bouvet, redundantly called "Bouvetøya Island," was the setting of the [[2004]] movie ''[[Alien vs. Predator (film)|Alien vs. Predator]]''. It also figured prominently in the book, ''A Grue Of Ice'', by [[Geoffrey Jenkins]].
==See also==
* [[Sub-antarctic islands]]
==External links==
*[http://www.btinternet.com/~sa_sa/bouvetoya/bouvetoya.html Information on Bouvet Island]
*[http://www.70south.com/resources/islands/bouvet Bouvet Island - Bouvetøya]
*[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/desertisland11.html Bouvet Island at Infoplease]
*[http://www.qsl.net/wd4ngb/3y0.htm 2000 Bouvet Island amateur radio expedition (3YØC)]
*[http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/4073/ftr_cty.html 1990 Bouvet Island amateur radio expedition (3Y5X)]
{{Norway OT}}
[[Category:Norwegian dependencies]]
[[Category:Ridge volcanoes]]
[[Category:Sub-antarctic islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Norway]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Norway]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of the Southern Ocean]]
[[Category:Bouvet Island|*]]
[[af:Bouvet]]
[[bg:Буве]]
[[ca:Bouvet]]
[[cs:Bouvetův ostrov]]
[[da:Bouvetøen]]
[[de:Bouvetinsel]]
[[el:Μπουβέ]]
[[es:Isla Bouvet]]
[[eo:Buvetinsulo]]
[[fr:Île Bouvet]]
[[ko:부베 섬]]
[[id:Pulau Bouvet]]
[[is:Bouveteyja]]
[[it:Isola Bouvet]]
[[he:בובה (אי)]]
[[lv:Buvē sala]]
[[hu:Bouvet-sziget]]
[[nl:Bouvet]]
[[ja:ブーベ島]]
[[no:Bouvetøya]]
[[pl:Wyspa Bouveta]]
[[pt:Bouvet]]
[[ru:Буве]]
[[sl:Otok Bouvet]]
[[sv:Bouvetön]]
[[tr:Bouvet Adası]]
[[zh:布韦岛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brunei</title>
<id>3466</id>
<revision>
<id>41651508</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:29:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MJCdetroit</username>
<id>627347</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Infobox minor fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = ''برني دارالسلام<br>Negara Brunei Darussalam''
|common_name = Brunei
|image_flag = Flag of Brunei.svg
|image_coat = bx-coat.gif
|image_map = LocationBrunei.png
|national_motto = (translation): Always in service with God's guidance
|national_anthem = [[Allah Peliharakan Sultan]]
|official_languages = [[Malay language|Malay]]
|capital = [[Bandar Seri Begawan]]
|latd=4 |latm=55 |latNS=N|longd=114 |longm=55 |longEW=E
|largest_city =
|government_type = [[Absolute monarchy]]
|leader_titles = [[Sultan of Brunei|Sultan]]
|leader_names =[[Hassanal Bolkiah]]
|area_rank = 162nd
|area_magnitude = 1 E9
|area= 5,765
|areami²= 2,226 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|percent_water = 8.6
|population_estimate = 343,653
|population_estimate_rank = 162nd
|population_estimate_year = 2001
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density = 61
|population_densitymi² = 158 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|population_density_rank = 104
|GDP_PPP = $6,842 million
|GDP_PPP_rank = 148 <!-- cia.gov -->
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = 24,143
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 28th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = From British protectorate
|established_dates = [[January 1]], [[1984]]
|HDI = 0.866
|HDI_rank = 33rd
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font>
|currency = [[Brunei dollar|Brunei Ringgit]]
|currency_code = BND
|country_code =
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = + 8
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld = [[.bn]]
|calling_code = 673 <sup><small>1<small></sup>
|footnotes = <small>1: also 080 from [[Malaysia]]</small>
}}
'''Negara Brunei Darussalam''', more commonly referred to as the '''Sultanate of Brunei''' or simply '''Brunei''', is a country located on the [[island]] of [[Borneo]], in [[southeast Asia]]. Apart from its coastline with the [[South China Sea]], it is completely surrounded by [[East Malaysia]]. The [[Petroleum ]] and [[natural gas|gas]]-rich Brunei is a member of the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN), the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) and the (British) [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
== History ==
[[Image:Brunei3.jpg|thumb|250px|Location of Brunei on Borneo, shown <font color=green>in green</font>.]]
{{main|History of Brunei}}
The [[Sultanate]] of Brunei was very powerful from the [[14th century|14th]] through the [[16th century]]. Its realm covered the southern [[Philippines]], [[Sarawak]] and [[Sabah]]. [[Europe]]an influence gradually brought an end to this [[regional power]]. Later, there was a brief war with [[Spain]] in which Brunei was victorious. The [[19th century]] however saw Brunei losing much of its territory to the [[White Rajahs]] of Sarawak.
There was a small [[rebellion]] against the [[monarchy]] during the [[1960s]], which was prevented by the [[United Kingdom]]. This event became known as the [[Brunei Revolt]] and was partly responsible for the failure to create the [[North Borneo Federation]]. The rebellion also affected Brunei's decision to opt out of the [[Malaysia|Malaysian Federation]]. Brunei was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[protectorate]] from [[1888]] to [[1984]].
== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Brunei}}
[[Hassanal Bolkiah|Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah]] of Brunei, whose [[List of Sultans of Brunei|title has passed within the same dynasty]] since the [[15th century]], is the head of state and head of government in Brunei. The Sultan is advised by several [[Council|councils]] and a cabinet of [[Minister|ministers]] although he is effectively the supreme ruler. The [[media]] is extremely pro-government and the Royal family retains an almost godlike status within the country. There is no elected [[legislative]] body. In September [[2004]] the Sultan convened an appointed [[Parliament]] which had not met since independence in [[1984]].
The country has been under hypothetical [[martial law]] since a rebellion occurred in the early [[1960s]] and was put down by [[United Kingdom|British]] troops from [[Singapore]]. A [[battalion]] from the [[British Army]]'s [[Royal Gurkha Rifles]] is still stationed in Brunei under agreement with the Sultan to protect the [[petroleum|oil]] [[Oil field|fields]] in the West of the country. Other units from the British Army are present to support and train the [[Brunei Army]].
Brunei also claims territory in [[Sarawak]] and is one of many nations to lay claim to the disputed [[Spratly Islands]].
== Districts ==
[[Image:Brunei.geohive.gif|thumb|340px|right|[[Subnational|Administrative division]].]]
{{main|Districts of Brunei}}
Brunei is divided into four [[district]]s, called ''daerah''. These are:
* [[Belait District|Belait]]
* [[Brunei and Muara]]
* [[Temburong]]
* [[Tutong District|Tutong]]
A sub-division of a district, [[province]], is called ''Mukim''.
== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Brunei}}
Brunei consists of two unconnected parts; 97% of the population lives in the larger western part, only about 10,000 live in the mountainous eastern part, the district of [[Temburong]]. Major towns are the capital [[Bandar Seri Begawan]] (about 46,000 inhabitants), the port town [[Muara]] and the oil producing districts of [[Seria]] and [[Kuala Belait]].
The [[climate]] in Brunei is [[equatorial]]-[[Tropical climate|tropical]], with high temperatures, a high [[humidity]] and heavy rainfall.
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Brunei}}
This s |
l others, perhaps to most Jews, Jesus is simply irrelevant, a central figure in a religion that isn't theirs, much as [[Muhammad]] might seem to many Christians.
On a religious level, Judaism does not believe that God requires the sacrifice of any human. This is emphasized in medieval Jewish traditions concerning the story of the [[Binding of Isaac|Akedah]], the binding of [[Isaac]]. In the Jewish explanation, this is a story whereby God wanted to test Abraham's faith and willingness, and Isaac was never going to be actually sacrificed. Thus, Judaism rejects the notion that anyone can or should die for anyone else's sin. As a religion, Judaism is far more focused on the practicalities of understanding how one may live a sacred life in this world according to God's will, rather than hope of spiritual salvation in a future one. Judaism does not believe in the Christian concept of [[Hell]], nor that only those following one specific faith can be "saved". Judaism does have a punishment stage in the afterlife (i.e. [[Gehenna]], a one year maximum purgatory) as well as a Heaven ([[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba .28the world to come.29|Gan Eden]]), but the religion does not intend it as a focus.
[[Christmas]] and other Christian festivals have no religious significance in Judaism and are not celebrated. Celebration of non-Jewish holy days is considered [[Avodah Zarah]] or "Foreign Worship" and is forbidden; however some secular Jews in the West treat Christmas as a secular (but not religious) holiday.
===Common Christian views of Judaism===
:''Main article: [[Christianity]]''
In general, Christians view Christianity as the fulfilment and successor of Judaism, and Christianity initially carried forward (and still does albeit in slightly modified form) much of the doctrine and many of the practices from that faith, including [[monotheism]], the belief in a [[Messiah]], and certain forms of worship (such as [[prayer]], and reading from religious texts). Other beliefs around original sin atoned for by God giving his son, or the Son (who is God) coming down to earth for the sake of humanity, and a subsequent sacrifice of that Son, and the belief in the triune nature of God, are essential differences introduced in Christianity that have no counterpart in Judaism.
Christians consider that the Law was necessary as an intermediate stage, but once the world was able to understand the significance of the Crucifixion, then [[Antinomianism|adherence to Law was superseded]] by faith in Christ as the path to God, and that many of the laws in the Old Testament (the Jewish Five Books of Moses) are no longer required to be applied in life, since humanity is now able to understand and be saved by Jesus directly.
Many Christians today hold to [[supersessionism]], the belief that the Jews' chosenness found its ultimate fulfillment through the message of Jesus: Jews who remain non-Christian are no longer considered to be chosen, since they reject Jesus as the Messiah and Son of God. This position has been softened or even completely abrogated by some churches where Jews are recognized to have a special status due to their covenant with God, so that this continues to be an area of on-going dispute among Christians.
Some forms of Christianity which view the Jewish people as close to God, seek to understand and incorporate elements of Jewish understanding or perspective into their Christian beliefs as a means to respect their "parent" religion or to more fully seek out and return to their Christian roots. (Sometimes known as ''[[Judaizers]]'' because of the Judaic roots they seek to learn from). More evangelistic Christians tend to see Jews as essentially misguided by not choosing Christ, and as a people whom there is a more specific duty to evangelise or convert. (See ''[[Missionary|Missionaries]]'')
==References==
*Bamberger, Bernard 1981 "Commentary to Leviticus" in ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary'' edited by W. Gunther Plaut. New York: Union of American Hebrew Congregations. ISBN 0807400556
*Bloom, Harold 2005 ''Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine'' Riverhead
ISBN 1573223220
*Herberg, Will 1951 ''Judaism and Modern Man: An Interpretation of Jewish religion'' Jewish Publication Society ASIN B0007E19UE
*Jacobs, Louis 1973 ''A Jewish Theology'' Behrman House ISBN0874412269
*Rosenzweig, Franz 2005 ''The Star of Redemption'' University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0299207242
==See also==
*[[Anglo-Israelism]]
*[[Anti-Semitism]]
*[[Bible]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Christianity and Biblical prophecy]]
*[[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]
*[[Christian Zionism]]
*[[Cultural and historical background of Jesus]]
*[[Jesus]]
*[[Jewish Christians]]
*[[Judeo-Christian]]
*[[Messianic Judaism]]
*[[Mormonism and Judaism]]
*[[Relations between Catholicism and Judaism]]
*[[Sermon on the Mount]]
*[[Shema Yisrael]] (a pivotal Jewish prayer and - in part - declaration of faith)
*[[Supersessionism]]
*[[Unification Church and anti-Semitism]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0802813623 Jewish-Christian Schism Revisited] - A book on Jewish-Christian relations from an [[Anabaptist]] perspective.
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/rcc_othe.htm Roman Catholic Church's views on other faiths]
[[Category:Jewish Christian topics|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cesare Borgia</title>
<id>7504</id>
<revision>
<id>40263438</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T09:16:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kummi</username>
<id>270411</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fi:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cesareborgia.jpg|right|Cesare Borgia]]
'''Cesare Borgia''' ([[September]], [[1475]] &ndash; [[March 12]], [[1507]]), [[Duke of Valentinois]], the illegitimate son of [[Pope Alexander VI]] (Rodrigo Borgia) and [[Vannozza dei Cattani]]. He was older brother to [[Lucrezia Borgia]].
Cesare was born to the mistress of Rodrigo Borgia, an important cardinal and nephew of [[Pope Calixtus III]]. Borgia planned to use the forces of the papacy to further his own family. After years of scheming, Rodrigo had himself elected Pope in [[1492]].
Cesare was initially groomed by his father for a Church career and was elevated by his father to the rank of [[Catholic Cardinal|Cardinal]] by the age of 22. Alexander VI staked the hopes for the Borgia family on Cesare's brother Juan, who was made captain general of the military forces of the papacy. When Juan was assassinated, Alexander was forced to substitute Cesare, despite the fact that this conflicted with Cesare's vows.
Cesare's career was founded entirely upon his father's ability to distribute patronage. Appointed commander of the papal armies, Cesare was sent by his father to subdue the cities of [[Romagna]] in central [[Italy]]. Though in theory subject directly to the pope, the rulers of these cities had been practically independent or dependent on other states for generations. Alexander VI hoped that by subduing them his son would create a new central Italian kingdom that would rival [[Naples]], [[Florence]], [[Milan]] and [[Venice]].
Cesare Borgia briefly employed [[Leonardo da Vinci]] as military architect and engineer at one point. Leonardo had worked at the Milanese court of [[Ludovico Sforza]] for many years, until [[Charles VIII of France]] drove Sforza out of Italy.
Though an immensely capable general and statesman, Cesare could do nothing without continued papal patronage. The death of his father ended his own career. Gravely ill at the time that his father died in [[1503]], his political enemies, led by [[Pope Julius II]], were able to seize and imprison him. Exiled to [[Spain]], in [[1504]], he escaped from a Spanish prison two years later and joined his brother-in-law, King [[John III of Navarre|Jean d'Albret of Navarre]]. Serving [[Navarre]] as a soldier, he died at the [[siege]] of [[Viana, Spain|Viana]] in [[1507]], at the age of thirty-one.
Cesare Borgia was greatly admired by [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], who knew him personally. Machiavelli used many of his exploits and tactics as examples in ''[[The Prince]]''. A few scholars, however, have argued that Machiavelli's praise for Borgia was a parody, to cover up the actual anti-hero of the work, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]].
It has been suggested that some pictures of Jesus Christ produced around Borgia's lifetime were based on Cesare Borgia, and that this in turn has influenced images of Jesus produced since that time.
==Notable fictionalized films about Cesare Borgia==
* ''[[Lucrezia Borgia (1926 movie)|Lucrezia Borgia]]'' ([[Richard Oswald]], [[1926]]), a [[silent movie]] starring [[Liane Haid]] and [[Conrad Veidt]]
* [[Lucrèce Borgia]] (1935 Movie) ([[Abel Gance]]), french film starring Edwige Feuillère as Lucrezia and Gabriel Gabrio as Cesare.
* ''The Black Duke'' (1961) starring [[Cameron Mitchell (actor)|Cameron Mitchell]] and [[Gloria Milland]]
* ''Bride of Vengeance'' (1948) starring [[Macdonald Carey]] and [[Paulette Goddard]]
* ''Prince of Foxes'' (1949) starring [[Orson Welles]] and [[Tyrone Power]] (from the best-selling book by [[Samuel Shellabarger]]) at [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0041767/ IMDB ].
==Notable books/comics about Cesare Borgia==
*''[[The Borgia Bride (novel)|The Borgia Bride]]'' by [[Jeanne Kalogridis]]
*''[[The Family (novel)|The Family]]'' by [[Mario Puzo]]
*''[[The Count of Monte Cristo]]'' by [[Alexander Dumas]] mentions many conspiracy theories based around Borgia.
*''[[Cantarella (manga)|Cantarella]]'' by ''Yuu Higuri'' is a [[manga]] attributing [[supernatural]] causes to historic events, starring Cesare.
*''[[Mirror Mirror (novel)|Mirror Mirror]]'' by [[Gregory Maguire]]
*''[[Prince of Foxes (novel)|Prince of Foxes]]'' by [[Samuel Shellabarger]]
*''[[The Banner of the Bull]]'' by [[Rafael Sabatini]]
*''[[The Pr |
id={{PMID |15325002}}
}}</ref>, or the validity of current testing methods. These claims are met with resistance by, and often evoke frustration and hostility from, most of the scientific community, who accuse the dissidents of ignoring evidence in favor of HIV's role in AIDS, and irresponsibly posing a dangerous threat to [[public health]] by their continued activities <ref name=Cohen>{{
cite journal
| author=Cohen, J.
| title=The Duesberg phenomenon
| journal=Science | year=1994 | pages=1642-1644 | volume=266 | issue=5191
| id={{PMID |7992043}}
| url=http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1642a.pdf
}}</ref>. Dissidents assert that the current mainstream approach to AIDS, based on HIV causation, has resulted in inaccurate diagnoses, psychological terror, toxic treatments, and a squandering of public funds. The debate and controversy regarding this issue from the early 1980s to the present has provoked heated emotions and passions from both sides.
==References==
<div style="font-size:85%">
<references/>
</div>
==External links==
* [http://www.unaids.org/en/default.asp UNAIDS] The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
* [http://www.eldis.org/hivaids/ Eldis HIV and AIDS] - latest research and other resources on HIV and AIDS in developing countries
* [http://www.iasociety.org/ International AIDS Society] - the world's leading independent association of HIV/AIDS professionals
* [http://www.aegis.org/ AEGiS.org] AIDS Education Global Information System
* [http://www.worldaidsday.org/ World AIDS Day] World AIDS Day [[1 December]] - Show your support
* [http://www.worldbank.org/oed/aids AIDS Assistance] Evaluating the World Bank's Assistance for Fighting the HIV/AIDS Epidemic
* [http://www.aids.org/ AIDS.ORG]: Comprehensive HIV/AIDS Information
* AIDSinfo 2002 [http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/Glossary/GlossaryDefaultCenterPage.aspx?MenuItem=AIDSinfoTools The Glossary of HIV/AIDS-Related Terms 4th Edition]
* [http://www.aidsmeds.com AIDSmeds.com]: Comprehensive lessons on HIV/AIDS and their treatments
* US Center for Disease Control (2005) [http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/dhap.htm Divisions of HIV/AIDS Prevention]
* [http://fightaidsathome.scripps.edu/index.html FightAIDS@Home] Distributed computing project against AIDS
* Health Action AIDS (2003) [http://www.phrusa.org/campaigns/aids/who_031303.html HIV Transmission in the Medical Setting]
* NIAID/NIH 2003 [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/daids/vaccine/basicinfo.htm Basic Information About AIDS and HIV]
* NIAID/NIH 2003 [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/evidhiv.htm Evidence That HIV causes AIDS]
* NIAID/NIH 2004 [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/howhiv.htm How HIV Causes AIDS]
* NIH 2001 [http://history.nih.gov/NIHInOwnWords/index.html History of AIDS Research in the NIH]
* The Body 2005 [http://www.thebody.com/index.shtml The Body: The Complete HIV/AIDS Resource]
* Origin of Aids Video [http://www.documentary-film.net/search/video-listings.php?e=5 Watch Free online : Origin of Aids Video]
* Journal Watch 2005 [http://aids-clinical-care.jwatch.org/ AIDS Clinical Care]
* UNAIDS Scenarios to 2025 [http://www.unaids.org/NetTools/Misc/DocInfo.aspx?LANG=en&amp;href=http%3a%2f%2fgva-doc-owl%2fWEBcontent%2fDocuments%2fpub%2fPublications%2fIRC-pub06%2fAIDS-scenarios-2025_report_en%26%2346%3bhtm Document regarding three scenarios for HIV/AIDS in Africa for the year 2025 (Large PDF file)]
* AIDS dissident websites [http://www.reviewingaids.com/awiki/index.php/List_of_dissident_websites AIDS Wiki's comprehensive list of dissident websites]
* The Body's list of resources criticizing the "AIDS reappraisal" movement [http://www.thebody.com/whatis/cause.html The Body: AIDS Denialism]
* Gestalt Therapy and AIDS [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/gik_gestalt/rosenblatt.html Treatment Issues with AIDS Patients (1993)]
* Documentation on the oral polio vaccine (OPV) theory of AIDS origin [http://www.aidsorigins.com/ AIDSOrigin.com]
==AIDS News==
{{wikinews|UN/WHO making progress in treating HIV/AIDS, but will miss 2005 target}}
* Nov 2005 - Progress in HIV vaccine research -[http://www.isracast.com/transcripts/011205a_trans.htm - Recorded interview with Prof. Robert Gallo (HIV discoverer)]
{{AIDS}}
[[Category:HIV/AIDS]]
[[Category:Immune system disorders]]
[[Category:Infectious diseases]]
[[Category:Pandemics]]
[[Category:Sexually-transmitted diseases]]
[[Category:Virology]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
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[[ar:متلازمة نقص المناعة المكتسب]]
[[bg:СПИН]]
[[bm:Sida]]
[[be:СНІД]]
[[bs:Sida]]
[[ca:SIDA]]
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[[es:SIDA]]
[[eo:Aidoso]]
[[eu:HIES]]
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[[fr:Syndrome d'immunodéficience acquise]]
[[ko:에이즈]]
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[[pl:Zespół nabytego niedoboru odporności]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ABBA</title>
<id>880</id>
<revision>
<id>42058359</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:46:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.251.103.38</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
band_name = ABBA|
image = [[Image:ABBApromotional.jpg]] |
caption = ''Clockwise from top: Andersson, Ulvaeus, Lyngstad, Fältskog'' |
origin = [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]] |
status = |
years_active = 1972-1982|
music_genre = [[Rock (music)|Rock]]<br /> [[Europop]]<br />[[Pop music|Pop]]<br />[[Disco]] |
record_label = [[Polar Music]]<br />[[Atlantic Records]]<br />[[Epic Records]]<br />[[Universal Music]]<br />[[Polydor Records]] |
current_members = |
past_members = [[Benny Andersson]]<br />[[Agnetha Fältskog]]<br />[[Anni-Frid Lyngstad|Anni-Frid "Frida" Lyngstad]]<br />[[Björn Ulvaeus]] |
}}
'''ABBA''' ([[1972]]–[[1983]]) was a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[pop music]] group. They remain the most successful Swedish music act and were one of the most popular groups in the world. The group dominated charts worldwide during the mid-to-late 1970s and early 1980s, selling many [[ABBA discography|hit singles and albums]]. Estimates of ABBA's total worldwide sales vary from 300 to 400 million (there seems to be no reliable source for this information) which could make them the second most successful band of all time after [[The Beatles]]. They were the first act from the European mainland to become a regular fixture in [[UK Singles Chart|British]], [[Hot 100 Singles Sales|American]] and [[ARIA Charts|Australian]] charts, and their success subsequently opened the doors for many other European acts. Their lasting legacy is the legitimising of the Swedish music industry as a mainstream player.
ABBA was formed around [[1972]] with [[Björn Ulvaeus]], [[Benny Andersson]], [[Agnetha Fältskog]], and [[Anni-Frid Lyngstad]] (nicknamed "Frida"). They became widely known after winning the [[1974]] [[Eurovision Song Contest]] with "[[Waterloo (English version)|Waterloo]]". The group consisted of two couples, Björn and Agnetha along with Benny and Frida. ABBA collectively decided to take a break at the beginning of [[1983]]. They have yet to record together again in the studio.
''ABBA'' is an [[acronym]] formed from the first letters of each group member's name. It is usually written '''ABBA''' but is sometimes written as a word, '''Abba'''. The first ''B'' in the [[logo]] version of the name was reversed on the band's promotional material from [[1976]] onwards.
==History==
===Before ABBA===
Benny Andersson was a member of the Swedish rock / pop band [[Hep Stars]] who were very popular in Sweden during the 1960s. The band was modeled after various US and UK groups such as [[Herman's Hermits]], [[The Who]] and [[The Rolling Stones]]. The Hep Stars had a huge following, especially among teenage girls. Meanwhile Björn Ulvaeus was fronting a [[skiffle]] group called the [[Hootenanny Singers]] whose sound was softer and more easy-listening than the Hep Stars. The singers crossed paths sometimes and they decided to write songs together. One of these, "Isn't It Easy To Say," became a hit for the Hep Stars and Björn sometimes guested with the band on tour. It was even suggested that the two bands merge but this never happened. [[Stikkan Anderson|Stig Anderson]], manager of the Hootenanny Singers and founder of [[Polar Music]], saw more potential in Benny and Björn working together and encouraged them to write more songs and create an album which was eventually called ''Lycka'' ("Happiness") when released on the Polar label.
Agnetha Fältskog was ABBA's youngest member and a pop phenomenon in her own right who wrote and performed Swedish hits while in her teens and had also played [[Mary Magdalene]] in the Swedish production of ''[[Jesus Christ Superstar]]''. Agnetha was noted by critics and songwriters as an accomplished composer but she considered it hard work, writing and performing light pop songs in the [[Schlager]] style, recording [[cover version|covers]] of hit songs and touring Swedish [[folkpark]]s, the main "live circuit" at that time. Inevitably she bumped into the Hootenanny Singers on their folkpark tours, meeting and eventually falling in love with Björn. Their marriage in [[1971]] was the Swedish celebrity wedding of the year and drew much publicity.
Housewife Anni-Frid "Frida" Lyngstad was a part-time cabaret singer who decided to e |
|Arabic]] ''jebel'') is his Emesene manifestation. The god became a sun god in Roman times by a confusion of the original Semitic name with the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''helios'' (sun), resulting in the name variant Heliogabalus. High priests in antiquity were identified with the god they served, and thus the creation of the name Elagabalus.
==Rise to power==
[[Image:As Elagabalus 218-leg 3 Gallica.jpg|thumb|left|Coin minted to celebrate [[Legio III Gallica]], which supported Elagabalus rise to power.]]
When the Emperor [[Macrinus]] came to power he exiled Julia Maesa, her two daughters, and her eldest grandson, Elagabalus, to her estate at Emesa in [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]]. She began a plot, with her [[eunuch]] advisor and Elagabalus' tutor [[Gannys]], to overthrow Macrinus almost upon arrival in Syria. She decided to elevate the fourteen year old Elagabalus as emperor. Elagabalus and his mother readily complied and announced, falsely, that he was the illegitimate son of Caracalla. After Julia Maesa displayed her wealth to the [[Legio III Gallica|III ''Gallica'']] at [[Raphana]] they swore allegiance to Elagabalus. At sunrise on [[May 16]], 218 [[Publius Valerius Comazon Eutychianus|P. Valerius Comazon Eutychianus]] declared him emperor. He assumed Caracalla's names, ''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus'', to strengthen his legitimacy through further propaganda.
Macrinus sent letters to the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] denouncing Elagabalus as the ''False Antoninus'' and claiming he was insane. Both [[consul]]s and other high ranking members of Rome's leadership, including a [[Praetorian Guard|Praetorian]], condemned him, and the Senate subsequently declared war on both Elagabalus and Julia Maesa. Macrinus and his son, weakened by the desertion of the [[Legio II Parthica|II ''Parthica'']] due to bribes and promises circulated by Julia Maesa, [[battle of Antioch (218)|were defeated]] on [[June 8]], 218 near [[Antioch]] by troops commanded by Gannys. Macrinus fled toward [[Italy]] disguised as a courier. He was captured near [[Chalcedon]] and later executed in [[Cappadocia]]. His son [[Diadumenianus]], sent for safety to the [[Parthia|Parthian]] court, was captured at [[Zeugma (city) | Zeugma]] and put to death.
Elagabalus declared the date of the victory at Antioch to be the beginning of his reign and assumed the imperial titles without prior Senatorial approval, which violated tradition but was a common practice among [[2nd century]] emperors nonetheless. Letters of reconciliation were dispatched to [[Rome]] extending amnesty to the Senate and recognizing the laws. He also condemned his predecessor in the letters: "He undertook to disparage my age, when he himself had appointed his five-year-old son [emperor]."
The Senators responded by acknowledging him as emperor and accepting his claim to be the son of Caracalla. Caracalla and Julia Domna were both [[Imperial cult (Ancient Rome)|deified]] by the Senate, both Julia Maesa and Julia Soaemias were elevated to the rank of [[Augustus|Augustae]], and the memory of Macrinus and Diadumenianus was condemned and vilified by the Senate.
==Imperial power==
[[Image:Elagabalus coin.jpg|thumb|A coin commissioned by Elagabalus, bearing his likeness.]]
Elagabalus and his entourage spent the winter of 218 in [[Bithynia]] at [[Nicomedia]]. It was at Nicomedia that Elagabalus' religious beliefs first manifested as a problem. The local Roman citizens were disturbed by his practices and Gannys was killed while trying to suppress the ensuing riots. To help Romans adjust to the idea of having an oriental priest as emperor, Julia Maesa had a painting of Elagabalus in priestly robes sent to Rome and hung over a statue of the goddess [[Victoria (mythology)|Victoria]] in the [[Senate House]]. This placed Senators in the awkward position of having to make offerings to Elagabalus whenever they made offerings to Victoria.
Elagabalus was delayed in [[Asia Minor]] while brief revolts by the [[Legio III Gallica|Legio III ''Gallica'']], under the leadership of the senator [[Verus (senator)|Verus]], and the [[Legio IV Scythica|IV ''Scythica'']], under command of [[Gellius Maximus]], were crushed. When the entourage reached Rome in the Fall of [[219]], Comazon and other allies of Julia Maesa and Elagabalus were given powerful and lucrative positions, much to the outrage of many senators who did not consider them to be respectable. Comazon would serve as the city prefect of Rome three times and as consul twice. An official whose name solely survives as [[...atus]] was moved though various positions including [[Suffect consul]]. Elagabalus tried to have his presumed lover [[Hierocles (charioteer)|Hierocles]] declared [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]], while another alleged lover, [[Zoticus]], was appointed to the non-administrative but influential position of [[Cubicularius]]. His offer of amnesty for the Roman leadership was largely honored, though the [[jurist]] [[Ulpian]] was exiled.
The relationships between Julia Maesa, Julia Soaemias, and Elagabalus were strong, at first. His mother and grandmother became the first women to be allowed into the Senate, and both received Senatorial titles: Soaemias the established title of ''Clarissima'' and Maesa the more unorthodox ''Mater Castrorum et Senatus''. While Julia Maesa tried to position herself as the power behind the throne and subsequently the most powerful woman in the world, Elagabalus would prove to be highly independent, set in his ways, and impossible to control.
===Religious controversy===
[[Image:Bronze-Uranius Antoninus-Elagabal stone-SGI 4414.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The [[Emesa]] temple to the sun god ''El Gabal'', with the holy stone, on the reverse of this bronze coin by [[Roman usurper]] [[Uranius|Uranius Antoninus]].]]
Since the reign of [[Septimius Severus]] sun worship had increased throughout the Empire. Elagabalus saw this as an opportunity to set up his god, El-Gabal, as the chief deity of the [[Roman Pantheon]]. El-Gabal, renamed ''[[Sol invictus|Deus Sol Invictus]]'' or ''God the Invincible Sun'', was placed over even [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]]. As a sign of the union between the two religions, Elagabalus gave either [[Astarte]], [[Minerva]], [[Urania]], or some combination of the three, to El-Gabal as a wife. Moreover, he himself married the [[Vestal Virgin]] [[Aquilia Severa]], provoking great outrage; he said he would have "god-like children" from the marriage. A temple to house El-Gabal, a black conical [[meteorite]], was built in Rome on the east face of the [[Palatine Hill]] and its foundations remain today. To become the high priest of El-Gabal, Elagabalus had himself circumcised. [[Herodian]] writes that Elagabalus forced senators to watch while he danced around the altar of El-Gabal to the sound of drums and cymbals and that each [[summer solstice]] became a great festival to El-Gabal popular with the masses because of its widely distributed food. During this festival, Elagabalus placed El-Gabal:
:''&hellip;in chariot adorned with gold and jewels and brought him out from the city to the suburbs. A six horse chariot carried the divinity, the horses huge and flawlessly white, with expensive gold fittings and rich ornaments. No one held the reins, and no one rode in the chariot; the vehicle was escorted as if the god himself were the charioteer. Elagabalus ran backward in front of the chariot, facing the god and holding the horses reins. He made the whole journey in this reverse fashion, looking up into the face of his god.''
===Sex/gender controversy===
Elagabalus' [[sexual orientation]] and [[gender identity]] are the source of much controversy and debate. Elagabalus married and divorced five women, three of whom are known. His first wife was [[Julia Cornelia Paula]], the second was the Vestal Virgin [[Aquilia Severa]], and another was [[Annia Faustina]] from the house of [[Marcus Aurelius]]. He later returned to Severa but according to a contemporary senator and historian, [[Cassius Dio]], his most stable relationship seems to have been with his chariot driver, a blond slave from [[Caria]] named [[Hierocles]], whom he referred to as his husband. Dio also wrote that Elagabalus used to:
:…''stand nude at the door of his room in the palace, as harlots do, and shake the curtain which hung from gold rings, while in a soft melting voice he solicited passers by.''
Herodian comments that Elagabalus hampered his natural good looks by wearing too much make up. Elagabalus has also often been characterized by modern writers as [[transgender]], most likely [[transsexual]].
He is described as having been "delighted to be called the mistress, the wife, the Queen of Hierocles" and is said to have offered half the Roman Empire to the physician who could equip him with female genitalia.{{rf|1|Benjamin}}
===Fall from power===
Elagabalus' eccentricities, especially his habit of forcing others to participate in his religious practices, weighed heavily on Julia Maesa's mind and she decided he and his mother, Julia Soaemias, who had encouraged his religious practices, had to be replaced. She turned to her other daughter [[Julia Avita Mamaea]] and her son, the thirteen year old [[Severus Alexander]], as alternatives. Maesa and Mamaea convinced Elagabalus to appoint Alexander as his heir. When he changed his mind later and ordered Alexander executed, Maesa and Mamaea bribed the [[Praetorian Guard]] before his orders could be carried out. Elagabalus and Julia Soaemias were murdered (according to the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'', in the Emperor's latrine) on March 11, 222; their bodies were dragged through the streets of Rome and the [[Cloaca Maxima]], and ultimately thrown into the [[Tiber]].
== After death ==
=== Biased historical sources ===
[[Image:The Roses of Heliogabalus by Alma-Tadema (1888), oil on canvas..jpg|right|thumb|350px|''The Roses of Heliogabalus'' by Alma-Tadema (1888), oil on canvas]]
|
e guarantee for the maintenance of secrecy of the information collected at the census of each individual. The census records are not open to inspection and also not admissible in evidence.
Census happens in two phases, first House Listing and House Numbering Operations and second actual population enumeration phase. Census is carried out by the canvassing method. In this method, each and every household is visited and the information is collected by a specially trained enumerator.
9th February 2001, the first day of the 2001 census was celebrated as the census day.
====Source====
*[http://www.censusindia.net/ Website of the office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India]
*[http://www.unfpa.org/sustainable/docs.htm Banthia J.K., Ex Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. "Mobilising Support for India’s Census - Constraints and Challenges"]
===Ireland===
The census in [[Ireland]] is carried out by the [[Central Statistics Office (Ireland)]]. The last one was held during 2002 and the next one will be in April 2006.
*[[http://www.cso.ie/ Web site of the Central Statistics Office Ireland]
===Italy===
The census in [[Italy]] is carried out by [[Istituto Nazionale di Statistica|ISTAT]] every 10 years. The last four were in 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001.
===Japan===
[[Japan]] collects census information every five years. The figures show the English translation of the 2005 census form. The form solicits information on name, sex, relationship to head of household, year and month of birth, marital status, nationality, number of members of household, type and nature of dwelling, floor area of dwelling, number of hours worked during the week prior to October 1, employment status, name of employer and type of business, and kind of work.
<gallery>
Image:CensusSide1.png|Explanation of census form, side 1
Image:CensusSide2.png|Explanation of census form, side 2
</gallery>
===Latvia===
The most recent census in Latvia was in 2000. Before that, it was about 6 censuses, most part of these previous censuses was in the USSR time. The census in [[Latvia]] is carried out by [[Centr&#257;l&#257; Statistikas P&#257;rvalde]] (Central Statistical Bureau).
===New Zealand===
The census in [[New Zealand]] is carried out by [[Statistics New Zealand]] (Tatauranga Aotearoa), every five years. The last was in 2001, the next will be in 2006. For the 2006 Census of New Zealand, respondents can choose to complete their census questionnaire online. See [[New Zealand Census of Population and Dwellings]].
===Poland===
The census in [[Poland]] is carried out by [[GUS (Poland)|GUS]] every circa 10 years. The last one occurred in 2002.
===Portugal===
The census in [[Portugal]] is carried out by [[Instituto Nacional de Estatistica|INE]] every 10 years. The last one occurred in 2001.
===Romania===
The first census in Romania was carried out in 1859. Nowadays it is carried every ten years by the [[Institutul Naţional de Statistică]] (INSSE). The last one occurred in 2002.
===Russia/USSR===
In [[Russia]], the first (and the only) [[Russian Empire Census]] was carried out in [[1897]]. All-Union Population Censuses were carried out in the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] (which included [[Russian SFSR|RSFSR]] and the other republics) in [[1920]], [[1926]], [[1939]], [[1959]], [[1970]], [[1979]], and [[1989]]). The first post-Soviet [[Russian Census (2002)|Russian Census]] was carried out in [[2002]]. The next census is tentatively planned for [[2010]]. Currently, the census is the responsibility of the [http://www.gks.ru Federal State Statistics Service.]
===South Africa===
The census in [[South Africa]] is carried out every 5 years by [[Statistics South Africa]]. The only two to date were in 1996 and [[2001]].
===Ukraine===
The first post-Soviet [[Ukrainian Census (2001)|Ukrainian Census]] was carried out by [http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/ State Statistics Committee of Ukraine] in 2001, twelve years after the last All-Union census in 1989.
===United Kingdom===
{{main|Census in the United Kingdom}}
In the [[7th century]], [[Dalriada]] (now [[Scotland]]) was the first territory in what is now the UK to conduct a census, with what was called the "Tradition of the Men of [[Alba]]" ''([[Senchus fer n-Alban]])''. [[England]] took its first Census when the [[Domesday Book]] was compiled in 1086 for tax purposes.
Following the influence of [[Malthus]] and concerns stemming from his ''An Essay On The Principle Of Population'' the UK census as we know it today started in 1801. This was championed by [[John Rickman]] who managed the first four up to 1831, partly to ascertain the number of men able to fight in the [[Napoleonic wars]]. Rickman's 12 reasons - set out in 1798 and repeated in Parliamentary debates - for conducting a UK census included the following justifications:
* 'the intimate knowledge of any country must form the rational basis of legislation and diplomacy'
* 'an industrious population is the basic power and resource of any nation, and therefore its size needs to be known'
* 'the number of men who were required for conscription to the militia in different areas should reflect the area's population'
* 'there were defence reasons for wanting to know the number of seamen'
* 'the need to plan the production of corn and thus to know the number of people who had to be fed'
* 'a census would indicate the Government's intention to promote the public good' and
* 'the life insurance industry would be stimulated by the results.'
The census has been conducted every ten years since 1801 and most recently in 2001. The first four censuses (1801-1831) were mainly statistical (that is, they were mainly headcounts and contained virtually no personal information). The 1841 Census was the first to record names of all individuals in a household or institution.
Because of [[World War II]], there was no census in 1941. However, following the passage into law (on [[5 September]] [[1939]]) of the '''National Registration Act''' a population count was carried out on [[29 September]] [[1939]], which was, in effect, a census.
The census is undertaken for the government by the [[Office for National Statistics]] (ONS) for policy and planning purposes, and the (statistical) information is also sold to interested parties. Public access to the census returns is restricted under the terms of the 100-year rule and the most recent returns made available to researchers are those of the 1901 Census.
The census is usually very accurate, and with a fine of up to £1,000 for those who do not complete it, filled in by a high percentage of the population. An exception may have been the census conducted during the years of the [[poll tax]] (1991), when some people avoided it in case it was used for enforcing the tax.
The [[United Kingdom Census 2001|2001 census]] was the first year in which the government asked about religion. Perhaps encouraged by a hoax chain letter that started in [[New Zealand]], 390,000 people entered their religion as ''[[Jedi|Jedi Knight]]'' (more than either [[Sikh]]s, [[Buddhist]]s or [[Jew]]s), with some areas registering up to 2.6% of people as "Jedi". It was wrongly implied in emails that stating "Jedi" on the form would cause it to become an "official religion". No such thing exists in the United Kingdom. However, the director of reporting and analysis at the ONS stated that it may have helped with the collection process as it encouraged young people, who are often missed, to complete forms. (See [[Jedi census phenomenon]].)
===United States===
{{main|U.S. Census}}
The [[United States Constitution]] mandates that the census be taken at least once every ten years ([[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] could require a more frequent census by legislation), and that the number of members of the [[House of Representatives]] from each state be determined accordingly. In addition, [[United States Census Bureau|Census Bureau]] statistics are used for apportioning Federal funding for many social and economic programs. But there is not a federal census legislation (nor for federal voting).
The first [[U.S. Census]] was taken in 1790 by the local [[United States Marshals Service|U.S. Marshals]]. Census-takers went door-to-door and recorded the number of people in each household, and the name of the head of the household. Slaves were counted, but for apportionment purposes each counted as only [[three-fifths compromise | three-fifths]] of a citizen. American Indians being neither taxed nor considered during apportionment, were not counted. The first census counted 3.9 million people, less than half the population of New York City in 2000. The 2000 census counted over 281 million people.
In 1902, a [[Public Law]] established the Census Bureau as a permanent Federal agency. Until the 2010 census, there were two forms of questionnaire &ndash; long and short. Currently, the plan is to replace the Long form in 2010 with the [[American Community Survey]] (ACS), but funding for ACS is not assured, in which case there may be a long form in the 2010 census. Computer [[algorithm]]s (based on complex sampling rules) determine which form was mailed to a given household (in practice, of those households whose locations are on the Census Master Address List), one in six receiving the long form. This was supplemented by census workers who go door-to-door to talk to people who fail to return the forms. In addition to a simple count of residents, the Census Bureau collects a variety of statistics, on topics ranging from [[ethnicity]] to the presence of indoor [[plumbing]]. While some critics claim that census questions are an invasion of privacy, the data collected by every question is either required to enforce some federal law (such as the [[Voting Rights Act]]) or is required to administer some federal program. [[Congress]] gives approval to every question asked |
n. The best-known of the Bantu tribes are the Ba-Kongo (Ba-Fiot), who dwell chiefly in the north, and the [[Abunda]] (Mbunda, Ba-Bundo), who occupy the central part of the province, which takes its name from the Ngola tribe of Abunda. Another of these tribes, the Bangala, living on the west bank of the upper Kwango, must not be confused with the Bangala of the middle Congo. In the Abunda is a considerable strain of Portuguese blood. The Ba-Lunda inhabit the Lunda district. Along the upper Kunene and in other districts of the plateau are settlements of Boers, the Boer population being about 2000. In the coast towns the majority of the white inhabitants are Portuguese. The Mushi-Kongo and other divisions of the Ba-Kongo retain curious traces of the Christianity professed by them in the 16th and 17th centuries and possibly later. Crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as symbols of power passing down from chief to chief; whilst every native has a "Santu" or Christian name and is dubbed dom or dona. [[Fetishism]] is the prevailing religion throughout the province. The dwelling-places of the natives are usually small huts of the simplest construction, used chiefly as sleeping apartments; the day is spent in an open space in front of the hut protected from the sun by a roof of palm or other leaves. Despite all that, Catholicism remains the dominant religion, although recently an increasing number of churches are claiming more followers, particularly evangelicals.
*[[List of Angolans]]
==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Angola]]''
*[[List of African writers (by country)#Angola|List of writers from Angola]]
*[[Contemporary Dance Company of Angola]][http://www.cdcangola.com]
==Stamps==
* [[List of errors on Portuguese ex-Colonies stamps of Angola 1912]]
* [[List of errors on Portuguese ex-Colonies stamps of Angola 1914]]
* [[List of errors on Portuguese ex-Colonies stamps of Angola 1921]]
* [[List of birds on stamps of Angola]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Angola]]
* [[List of bonsai on stamps]]
* [[List of fish on stamps]]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Angola]]
* [[Foreign relations of Angola]]
* [[List of Angolan companies]]
* [[Military of Angola]]
* [[Sonangol Group]]
* [[Transport in Angola]]
==See also==
*[[List of sovereign states]]
==Reference==
*''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
==External links==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Angola}}
===Government===
*[http://www.angola.org/ Republic of Angola] official government portal
*[http://www.parlamento.ao/ National Assembly of Angola] official site (in Portuguese)
*[http://www.angola.org/ Embassy of Angola in Washington DC] government information and links
===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/angola/ allAfrica - Angola] - News headline links
*[http://www.angolapress-angop.ao/ Angola Press] - Government-controlled news agency (in Portuguese, French and English)
*[http://www.angonoticias.com/ Angonoticias] (in Portuguese) - A popular news source in Angola
*[http://mangole.hypermart.net Mangole] (in Portuguese) - A full news source in Angola and web directory of angolan sites online
*[http://www.jornaldeangola.com/ Jornal de Angola] (in Portuguese) - A popular newspaper in Angola
===Overviews===
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1063073.stm BBC - Country profile: ''Angola'']
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ao.html CIA World Factbook - ''Angola'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/ao/ US State Department - ''Angola''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
===Radio & Music===
* [http://www.Kizomba.ORG/ Site Official de Kizomba]
* [http://www.CanalAngola.NET/ Radio Canal Angola ONLINE]
===Directories===
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Angola.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Angola''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Angola/ Open Directory Project - ''Angola''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/angola.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Angola''] directory category
===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
===Other===
* [http://www.flashpoints.info/countries-conflicts/Angola-web/angola_briefing.html Angola Conflict Briefing]
{{Africa}}
[[Category:Angola| ]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]]
[[Category:CPLP member states]]
[[af:Angola]]
[[am:አንጎላ]]
[[ar:أنغولا]]
[[an:Angola]]
[[ast:Angola]]
[[bg:Ангола]]
[[zh-min-nan:Angola]]
[[bn:এঙ্গোলা]]
[[bs:Angola]]
[[ca:Angola]]
[[cs:Angola]]
[[da:Angola]]
[[de:Angola]]
[[et:Angola]]
[[el:Αγκόλα]]
[[es:Angola]]
[[eo:Angolo]]
[[eu:Angola]]
[[fr:Angola]]
[[gd:Angola]]
[[gl:Angola]]
[[ko:앙골라]]
[[ht:Angola]]
[[hr:Angola]]
[[io:Angola]]
[[id:Angola]]
[[ia:Angola]]
[[is:Angóla]]
[[it:Angola]]
[[he:אנגולה]]
[[jv:Angola]]
[[ku:Angola]]
[[la:Angolia]]
[[lv:Angola]]
[[lt:Angola]]
[[lb:Angola]]
[[li:Angola]]
[[hu:Angola]]
[[mk:Ангола]]
[[mg:Angola]]
[[ms:Angola]]
[[na:Angola]]
[[nl:Angola]]
[[nds:Angola]]
[[ja:アンゴラ]]
[[no:Angola]]
[[nn:Angola]]
[[oc:Angòla]]
[[pl:Angola]]
[[pt:Angola]]
[[ro:Angola]]
[[ru:Ангола]]
[[se:Angola]]
[[sa:अंगोला]]
[[sq:Angola]]
[[sh:Angola]]
[[scn:Angola]]
[[simple:Angola]]
[[sk:Angola]]
[[sl:Angola]]
[[sr:Ангола]]
[[fi:Angola]]
[[sv:Angola]]
[[tl:Angola]]
[[vi:Angola]]
[[tr:Angola]]
[[uk:Ангола]]
[[zh:安哥拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Angola/History</title>
<id>702</id>
<revision>
<id>15899228</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Angola]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Angola</title>
<id>703</id>
<revision>
<id>40697070</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T10:51:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.41.197.224</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Link to spanish Wikipedia</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Angola Map.jpg|right||thumb|300px|Map of Angola]]
[[Angola]] is located on the [[South Atlantic]] Coast of West [[Africa]] between [[Namibia]] and the [[Republic of the Congo]]. It also is bordered by the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and [[Zambia]] to the east. The country is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to [[Luanda]]; a wet, interior highland; a dry [[savanna]] in the interior south and southeast; and [[rain forest]] in the north and in [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]]. The [[Zambezi River]] and several tributaries of the [[Congo River]] have their sources in Angola. The coastal strip is tempered by the cool [[Benguela]] current, resulting in a climate similar to coastal [[Peru]] or [[Baja California]]. There is a short rainy season lasting from February to April. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are mild. The interior highlands have a mild climate with a rainy season from November through April followed by a cool dry season from May to October. Elevations generally range from 3,000 to 6,000 feet (900 to 1,800 m). The far north and Cabinda enjoy rain throughout much of the year.
The coast is for the most part flat, with occasional low cliffs and bluffs of red [[sandstone]]. There is but one deep inlet of the sea - [[Great Fish Bay]] (or [[Baía dos Tigres]]). Farther north are [[Port Alexander]], [[Little Fish Bay]] and [[Lobito Bay]], while shallower bays are numerous. Lobito Bay has water sufficient to allow large ships to unload close inshore. The coast plain extends inland for a distance varying from 30 to 100 miles (48 to 165 km). This region is in general sparsely watered and somewhat sterile. The approach to the great central plateau of Africa is marked by a series of irregular terraces. This intermediate mountain belt is covered with luxuriant vegetation. Water is fairly abundant, though in the dry season obtainable only by digging in the sandy beds of the rivers. The plateau has an altitude ranging from 4000 to 6000 ft (1,200 to 1,800 m). It consists of well-watered, wide, rolling plains, and low hills with scanty vegetation. In the east the tableland falls away to the basins of the Congo and Zambezi, to the south it merges into a barren sandy [[desert]]. A large number of rivers make their way westward to the sea; they rise, mostly, in the mountain belt, and are unimportant, the only two of any size being the Kwanza and the Kunene, separately noticed. The mountain chains which form the edge of the plateau, or diversify its surface, run generally parallel to the coast, as [[Tala Mugongo]] (4400 ft., 1350 m), [[Chella]] and [[Vissecua]] (5250 ft. to 6500 ft. or 1500 to 2000 m). In the district of [[Benguela]] are the highest points of the province, viz. [[Loviti]] (7780 ft., 2370 m), in 12° 5' S., and [[Mt. Elonga]] (7550 ft., 2300 m). South of the Kwanza is the volcanic mountain [[Caculo-Cabaza]] (3300 ft., 1000 m). From the tableland the [[Kwango]] and many other streams flow north to join the [[Kasai River]] (one of the largest affluents of the Congo), which in its upper course forms for fully 300 mi (490 km). the boundary between Angola and the Congo State. In the south-east part of the province the rivers belong either to the [[Zambezi]] system, or, like the [[Okavango River|Okavango]], drain to [[Lake Ngami]].
== Geology ==
The rock formations of Angola are met with in three distinct regions:
# the [[littoral]] zone,
# the median zone formed by a series of hills more or less parallel with the coast,
# the central plateau.
The central plateau consists of ancient [[crystalline rock]]s with [[granite]]s overlain by [[unfossiliferous]] sandstones and conglomerates of [[Paleozoic]] age. The outcrops are largely hidden under [[laterite]]. The median zone is composed |
commodities:'''
foodstuffs, fuels, vehicles, clothing and other consumer goods, construction materials
'''Imports - partners:'''
France 63%, Germany 4%, US 3%, Japan 2%, Netherlands Antilles 2% (1997)
'''Debt - external:'''
$NA
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$NA; note - substantial annual French subsidies
'''Currency:'''
1 EURO = 1 EUR = 1€ = 100 cents
'''Exchange rates:'''
euros per US$1 - 1, 3002 (February 2005), 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155(1996), 4.9915 (1995)
'''Fiscal year:''' calendar year
[[Category:Economy of Guadeloupe|*]]
[[fr:Économie de la Guadeloupe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Guadeloupe</title>
<id>12349</id>
<revision>
<id>24528747</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-02T02:45:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CaribDigita</username>
<id>60840</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
159,000 (1995)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
814 (1990)
'''Telephone system:'''
domestic facilities inadequate
<br>''domestic:''
NA
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]); microwave radio relay to [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Dominica]], and [[Martinique]]
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 1, [[FM]] 17, [[shortwave]] 0 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
113,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
5 (plus several low-power repeaters) (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
118,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
NA
'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GP
:''See also :'' [[Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Communications in Guadeloupe|*]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Guadeloupe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Guadeloupe</title>
<id>12350</id>
<revision>
<id>32474474</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-23T11:35:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.31.14.40</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Railway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
NA km; privately-owned, narrow-gauge plantation lines
'''[[Highway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
2,082 km
<br>''paved:''
1,742 km
<br>''unpaved:''
340 km (1985 est.)
<br>''note:''
in 1996 there were a total of 3,200 km of roads
'''[[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Basse-Terre]], [[Gustavia (town)|Gustavia]] (on [[Saint-Barthélemy]]), Marigot (on [[Saint Martin]]), [[Pointe-à-Pitre]] (on [[Grande-Terre]]).
'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
<br>''total:''
1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,240 GRT/109 DWT
<br>''ships by type:''
passenger 1 (1999 est.)
'''[[Airport]]s:'''
9 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
8
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
2
<br>''under 914 m:''
5 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
1
<br>''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Transportation in France]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Guadeloupe</title>
<id>12352</id>
<revision>
<id>36325734</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T06:22:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kappa</username>
<id>105499</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cats, stubs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Military branches:'''
no regular indigenous military forces; French Forces, [[Gendarmerie]]
'''Military - note:'''
defense is the responsibility of France
:''See also :'' [[Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Militaries|Guadaloupe]]
{{caribbean-stub}}
{{Mil-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glagolitic alphabet</title>
<id>12353</id>
<revision>
<id>41901664</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:07:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sl</username>
<id>126396</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Glagolithic tablet.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Tablet inscribed with the Glagolitic alphabet]]
The '''Glagolitic alphabet''' or '''Glagolitsa''' is the oldest known [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] [[alphabet]]. It was created by [[Saint Cyril]] in [[855]] or around [[862]]-[[863]] in order to translate the [[Bible]] and other texts into the [[Slavic languages]].
The name comes from the [[Old Slavonic]] ''glagolə'', which means ''word'' (and is also the origin of the name for the letter "G"). Since ''glagolati'' also means ''to speak'', the Glagolitsa is poetically referred to as "the marks that speak".
The original Glagolitic alphabet has 41 letters, but the number varies slightly in later versions. Twenty-four of the 41 original Glagolitic letters (see Great Moravian below) are probably derived from graphemes of the [[medieval]] cursive [[Greek alphabet|Greek small alphabet]], but have been given an ornamental design. It is presumed that the letters ''sha'', ''shta'' and ''tsi'' were derived from the [[Hebrew alphabet]] (the letters [[Shin (letter)|Shin]] and [[Tsadi]]) - the [[phoneme]]s that these letters represent did not exist in Greek but do exist in Hebrew and are quite common in all Slavic languages. The remaining original characters are of unknown origin. Some of them are presumed to stem from the Hebrew and [[Samaritan]] scripts, which Cyril got to know during his journey to the [[Khazars]] in [[Cherson]].
Another theory (see [[Chernorizetz Hrabar]]) asserts that the Glagolitic alphabet was based on ancient Slavic [[Runic alphabet|rune]]s (''chərti i rezki'', i.e., lines and notches), which like the [[Germanic rune]]s were only used in sacred texts of the pre-Christian [[Slavic religion]].
== History ==
{{alphabet}}
[[Rastislav]], the Knyaz (Prince) of [[Great Moravia]], wanted to weaken the dependence of his [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] empire on East [[Frankish]] priests, so in [[862]] he had the [[Byzantine emperor]] send two missionaries, [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]], to Great Moravia. Cyril created a new alphabet for that purpose - the Glagolitic. The alphabet was then used in [[Great Moravia]] between [[863]] (when Cyril and Methodius arrived there) and [[885]] for government and religious documents and books, and at the Great Moravian Academy (Ve&#318;komoravské u&#269;ili&#353;te) founded by Cyril, where followers of Cyril and Methodius were educated (also by Methodius himself).
In [[886]], an East Frankish bishop of [[Nitra]] named [[Wiching]] banned the script and jailed 200 followers of Methodius (mostly of the students of the original academy). They were then dispersed or, according to some sources, sold as slaves. Three of them, however, reached Bulgaria and were commissioned by [[Boris I of Bulgaria]] to teach and instruct the future clergy of the state into the [[Slavic language]]s. After the adoption of Christianity in [[Bulgaria]] in [[865]], religious ceremonies were conducted in [[Greek language|Greek]] by clergy sent from the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Fearing growing Byzantine influence and weakening of the state, Boris viewed the introduction of the Slavic alphabet and language in church use as a way to preserve the independence of [[Bulgaria]]. As a result of Boris's measures, two academies in [[Ohrid Literary School|Ohrid]] and [[Preslav Literary School|Preslav]] were founded.
From there, the students traveled to various other places and spread the use of their alphabet. Some went to [[Croatia]] and [[Dalmatia]] where the squared variant arose and where the Glagolitic remained in use for a long time. In [[1248]], [[Pope Innocent IV]] gave the Croats the unique privilege of using their own language and this script in liturgy. Formally given to bishop Philip of [[Senj]], the permission actually extended to all Croatian lands using the Glagolitic liturgy, mostly along the [[Adriatic]] coast. The Vatican had several Glagolitic [[missal]]s published in Rome. It was eventually replaced with the Latin alphabet.
Some of the students of the Ohrid academy went to [[Bohemia]] where the alphabet was used in the 10th and 11th century, along with other scripts. Glagolitic was also used in Russia, although rarely.
At the end of the [[9th century]], one of these students of Methodius who was settled in [[Preslav, Bulgaria|Preslav]] ([[Bulgaria]]) created the [[Cyrillic alphabet]], which almost entirely replaced the Glagolitic during the [[Middle Ages]]. The Cyrillic alphabet is derived from the Greek alphabet, with (at least 10) letters peculiar to Slavic languages being derived from the Glagolithic.
Nowadays, Glagolitic is only used for [[Church Slavonic]] and, sometimes, vernacular in the service-books of the Catholic [[Eparchy of Krizevci|Eparchy of Kri&#382;evci]] in Croatia.
== Names ==
The tradition that the alphabet was designed by [[Saint Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius]] has not been universally accepted. A less common belief was that the Glagolitic was created by [[St. Jerome]], hence the alphabet is sometimes named '''Hieronymian'''. It is also [[acrophonically]] called '''azbuki''' from the names of its first two letters, on the same model as 'alpha' + 'beta'. (See ''[[azbuka]]'' for the Cyrillic alphabet). The Slavs of [[Great Moravia]] (present-day [[Slovakia]] and [[Moravia]]), [[Hungary]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Slavonia]] were called ''Slov&#283;ne'' at that time, which gives rise to the name '''Slovenish''' for the alphabet. Some other, more rare, names for this alphabet are '''Bukvitsa''' and '''Illyrian'''.
The name "Glagolitic" is in [[Czech (language)|Czech]] ''hlaholice'', in [[Slovak (language)|Slovak]] ''hlaholika'', in [[Polish (language)|Polish]] ''g&#322;agolica'', in [[Russian (language)|Russian]], [[Mac |
ica]] {{R from CamelCase}}</text>
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<title>AnnaKournikova</title>
<id>279</id>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anna Kournikova]]
</text>
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<title>AndorrA</title>
<id>280</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Andorra]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AndorrA/History</title>
<id>281</id>
<revision>
<id>15899020</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Andorra]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
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<title>AndorrA/People</title>
<id>283</id>
<revision>
<id>15899021</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T15:38:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
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<title>AndorrA/Government</title>
<id>284</id>
<revision>
<id>15899022</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:41:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Politics of Andorra]]</comment>
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<title>AndorrA/Economy</title>
<id>285</id>
<revision>
<id>15899023</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:41:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Economy of Andorra]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Andorra]]</text>
</revision>
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<title>AustroAsiaticLanguages</title>
<id>287</id>
<revision>
<id>15899025</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-01T07:12:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.100.250.225</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Austro-Asiatic languages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ActorS</title>
<id>288</id>
<revision>
<id>15899026</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T17:22:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
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<minor />
<comment>bypassing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Actor]]</text>
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<title>ActresseS</title>
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<username>Minesweeper</username>
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</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of female movie actors]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A</title>
<id>290</id>
<revision>
<id>42119076</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:14:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Waggers</username>
<id>878293</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Revert to revision 41533857 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ|uc=A|lc=a}}
{{wiktionarypar2|A|a}}
The letter '''A''' is the first letter in the [[Latin alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''a'', plural ''aes,'' ''a's,'' or ''as''.
==History==
The letter A probably started as a [[pictogram]] of an [[ox]] head in [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s or the [[Proto-semitic alphabet]].
{| align="center" cellspacing="10"
|- align="center"
|[[Image:EgyptianA-01.png|Egyptian hieroglyphic ox head]]<br />Egyptian hieroglyph<br />ox head
|[[Image:Proto-semiticA-01.png|Proto-semitic ox head]]<br />Proto-semitic<br />ox head
|[[Image:PhoenicianA-01.png|Phoenician aleph]]<br />Phoenician ''aleph''
|[[Image:GreekA-01.png|Greek alpha]]<br />Greek ''alpha''
|[[Image:EtruscanA-01.png|Etruscan A]]<br />Etruscan A
|[[Image:RomanA-01.png|Roman A]]<br />Roman A
|}
By [[1600 BC]], the [[Phoenician alphabet]]'s letter had a linear form that served as the basis for all later forms. Its name must have corresponded closely to the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] [[Aleph (letter)|aleph]]. The name is also similar to the Arabic [[Alif|alif.]]
When the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] adopted the alphabet, they had no use for the [[glottal stop]] that the letter had denoted in Phoenician and other [[Semitic languages]], so they used the sign for the vowel {{IPA|/&#593;/}}, and changed its name to [[alpha (letter)|alpha]]. In the earliest Greek inscriptions, dating to the [[8th century BC]], the letter rests upon its side, but in the [[Greek alphabet]] of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set.
The [[Etruscans]] brought the Greek alphabet to what was [[Italy]] and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the [[Old Italic alphabet|Etruscan alphabet]] to write [[Latin]], and the resulting letter was preserved in the modern [[Latin alphabet]] used to write many languages, including [[English language|English]].
The letter has two [[minuscule]] (lower-case) forms. The form used in most current handwriting consists of a circle and vertical stroke. Most printed material uses a form consisting of a small loop with an arc over it. Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the Uncial version below. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the [[serif]] that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form.
{| align="center" cellspacing="10"
|- align="center"
|[[Image:BlackletterA-01.png|Blackletter A]]<br />[[Blackletter]] A
|[[Image:UncialA-01.png|Uncial A]]<br />[[Uncial]] A
|[[Image:Acap.png|Another Capital A]]
|- align="center"
|[[Image:ModernRomanA-01.png|Modern Roman A]]<br />Modern Roman A
|[[Image:ModernItalicA-01.png|Modern Italic A]]<br />Modern Italic A
|[[Image:ModernScriptA-01.png|Modern Script A]]<br />Modern Script A
|}
==Usage==
In [[English language|English]], the letter A by itself usually denotes the [[lax open front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|æ}}) as in ''pad'', the [[open back unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|ɑ}}) as in ''father'', or, in concert with a later orthographic [[e]], the diphthong {{IPA2|eʲ}} (though the pronunciation varies with the dialect) as in ''ace'', due to effects of the [[Great vowel shift]].
In most other languages that use the Latin alphabet, the letter A denotes either an [[open back unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|ɑ}}), or an [[open central unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|a}}).
In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], variants of the letter A denote various [[vowel]]s. In [[X-SAMPA]], capital A denotes the [[open back unrounded vowel]] and lowercase a denotes the [[open front unrounded vowel]].
A also is the English [[indefinite article]], extended to [[an]] before a vowel.
==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Alpha
|Morse=·–
|B1=●
|B2=○
|B3=○
|B4=○
|B5=○
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] A is codepoint U+0041 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] a is U+0061.
In [[Hexadecimal|Hex]], A is the character used to represent decimal 10, or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]], 01010
The [[ASCII]] code for capital A is 65 and for lowercase a is 97; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000001 and 01100001, correspondingly.
The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital A is 193 and for lowercase a is 129.
The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are "<tt>&amp;#65;</tt>" and "<tt>&amp;#97;</tt>" for upper and lower case respectively.
==Meanings for '''A'''==
* As a word; see [[A, an]]
* In [[United States|American]] [[Major League Baseball]], the [[Oakland Athletics]] are often simply referred to as the "'''A's'''."
* In [[astronomy]],
** A stands for a January 1 through 15 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1760 A1]], the Great Comet of 1760) or asteroid (e.g. {{mpl|(4099) 1988 AB|5}})
** ''a'' is often used to denote the [[semi-major axis]] of an orbit
* In [[biochemistry]], A is the symbol for [[alanine]] and [[adenosine]].
* Brassiere [[cup size]] '''A'''
* In [[calendar]]s, A is often an abbreviation for the [[month]]s [[April]] and [[August]].
* In [[computing]],
** <tt>&lt;a&gt;</tt> is the [[HTML element#links and anchors|HTML element for an anchor tag]].
** In Windows, Ctrl-A, and Mac OS, Command-A, selects all the text in the document, or all the pixels of an image.
** A sometimes represents the set of all alphabetic characters within [[character string (computer science)|string]] patterns.
** A:\ is the c |
covery was announced in the ''[[Sidereus Nuncius]]'' ("Starry Messenger"), published in [[Venice]] in March [[1610]], less than two months after the first observations.
Amongst the other names that were put forward, there is ''Principharus'', ''Victipharus'', ''Cosmipharus'' and ''Ferdinandipharus'', for each of the four Medici brothers, proposed by [[Giovanni Batista Hodierna]], a disciple of Galileo and author of the first ephemerides (''Medicaeorum Ephemerides'', [[1656]]).
[[Johannes Hevelius]] called them the ''Circulatores Jovis'' or ''Jovis Comites'', and [[Jacques Ozanam]] called them ''Gardes'' or ''Satellites'' (from the Latin ''satelles, satellitis'': ''escort'').
It would be the names proposed by [[Simon Marius]] (Simon Mayer), who claimed to have discovered the moons at the same time as Galileo, that would eventually prevail: ''[[Io (moon)|Io]]'', ''[[Europa (moon)|Europa]]'', ''[[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]]'' and ''[[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]]'', published in his ''Mundus Jovialis'' in [[1614]].
Galileo steadfastly refused to use Marius' names and invented as a result the numbering scheme that is still used nowadays, in parallel with proper moon names.
The numbers run from Jupiter outward, thus I, II, III and IV for Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto respectively. Galileo used this system in his notebooks but never actually published it.
The Galilean moons are, in order from closest to Jupiter to farthest away:
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"
|- style="background:#efefef;"
! Name
! Image
! Interior<br>structure
! Diameter<br/>(km)
! Mass<br/>(kg)
! Semi-major<br>axis (km)
! Orbital<br/> period
|-
| '''[[Io (moon)|Io]]'''
|[[Image:Io, moon of Jupiter, NASA.jpg|120px]]
|[[Image:PIA01129 Interior of Io.jpg|150px]]
|align="center"| 3643
|align="right"| 8.93&times;10<sup>22</sup>
|align="right"| 421,800
|align="right"| 1.77 days
|-
| '''[[Europa (moon)|Europa]]'''
|[[Image:Europa-moon.jpg|120px]]
|[[Image:PIA01130 Interior of Europa.jpg|150px]]
|align="center"| 3122
|align="right"| 4.8&times;10<sup>22</sup>
|align="right"| 671,100
|align="right"| 3.55 days
|-
| '''[[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]]'''
|[[Image:Ganymede, moon of Jupiter, NASA.jpg|120px]]
|[[Image:PIA00519 Interior of Ganymede.jpg|150px]]
|align="center"| 5262
|align="right"| 1.48&times;10<sup>23</sup>
|align="right"| 1,070,400
|align="right"| 7.16 days
|-
| '''[[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]]'''
|[[Image:Callisto, moon of Jupiter, NASA.jpg|120px]]
|[[Image:PIA01478 Interior of Callisto.jpg|150px]]
|align="center"| 4821
|align="right"| 1.08&times;10<sup>23</sup>
|align="right"| 1,882,700
|align="right"| 16.69 days
|}
The Galilean moons may have been known to the ancients: Babylonian [[Marduk]] (Jupiter) was said to be accompanied by four dogs (Jensen, ''Die Kosmologie der Babylonier'', p. 131) and Egyptian [[Horus]] (Jupiter) had four sons (Mercer, ''Horus, the Royal God of Egypt'', 1942). This is a conjecture, and not widely accepted as probable.
At their closest distance to Earth, the moons have a magnitude of 4.6 (Ganymede) to 5.6 (Callisto). Io at its apsis is separated from Jupiter by about two arc minutes. It is theoretically possible that dedicated and well-trained observers could manage to see the moons with the naked eye, but whether this was actually achieved by the [[Chaldean]]s remains a matter of speculation.
{{Jupiter_Footer}}
[[Category:Jupiter's moons|*]]
[[als:Galileischer Mond]]
[[bg:Галилееви спътници]]
[[cs:Galileovy měsíce]]
[[da:Galileiske måner]]
[[de:Galileischer Mond]]
[[es:Satélite galileano]]
[[eo:Galilejaj satelitoj]]
[[fr:Lune galiléenne]]
[[ko:갈릴레이 위성]]
[[hr:Galilejanski mjeseci]]
[[it:Satelliti medicei]]
[[he:הירחים הגליליאניים]]
[[hu:Galilei-holdak]]
[[nl:Galileïsche manen]]
[[ja:ガリレオ衛星]]
[[no:Galileiske måner]]
[[pl:Galileuszowe księżyce Jowisza]]
[[pt:Luas de Galileu]]
[[ru:Галилеевы спутники]]
[[sk:Galileove mesiace]]
[[zh:伽利略衛星]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Great Schism</title>
<id>12507</id>
<revision>
<id>27498675</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-06T03:08:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Silence</username>
<id>84942</id>
</contributor>
<comment>When there are only two possible options and one is much more commonly used than the other, redirect to the common one and have it link to the other at the top.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[East-West Schism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gamma ray</title>
<id>12508</id>
<revision>
<id>41889964</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:33:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DV8 2XL</username>
<id>146684</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41274309 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about electromagnetic radiation. For the power metal band, see [[Gamma Ray (band)]]''
'''Gamma rays''' (often denoted by the Greek letter [[gamma]], &gamma;) are an energetic form of [[electromagnetic radiation]] produced by [[radioactive decay]] or other nuclear or subatomic processes such as [[electron-positron annihilation]].
Gamma rays form the highest-energy end of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]]. They are often defined to begin at an [[energy]] of 10 [[Electronvolt|keV]], a frequency of 2.42 [[Exahertz|EHz]], or a wavelength of 124 [[Metre|pm]], although electromagnetic radiation from around 10 keV to several hundred keV is also referred to as hard [[X ray]]s. It is important to note that there is no physical difference between gamma rays and X rays of the same energy&nbsp;&mdash; they are two names for the same electromagnetic radiation, just as [[sunlight]] and [[moonlight]] are two names for visible [[light]]. Rather, gamma rays are distinguished from X rays by their origin. ''Gamma ray'' is a term for high-energy electromagnetic radiation produced by nuclear transitions, while ''X ray'' is a term for high-energy electromagnetic radiation produced by energy transitions due to accelerating electrons. Because it is possible for some electron transitions to be of higher energy than some nuclear transitions, there is an overlap between what we call low energy gamma rays and high energy X-rays.
Gamma rays are a form of [[ionizing radiation]]; they are more penetrating than either [[Alpha particles|alpha]] or [[Beta particles|beta]] radiation (neither of which is electromagnetic radiation), but less ionizing.
Gamma sources are used for a range of applications in both [[medicine]] and [[industry]]. For further details see [[commonly used gamma emitting isotopes]].
{{Nuclear_processes}}
==Shielding==
Shielding for &gamma; rays requires large amounts of mass. The material used for shielding takes into account that gamma rays are better absorbed by materials with high [[atomic number]] and high density. Also, the higher the energy of the gamma rays, the thicker the shielding required. Materials for shielding gamma rays are typically illustrated by the thickness required to reduce the intensity of the gamma rays by one half (the half value layer or HVL). For example, gamma rays that require 1 cm (0.4 inches) of [[lead]] to reduce their intensity by 50% will also have their intensity reduced in half by 6&nbsp;cm (2½&nbsp;inches) of [[concrete]] or 9&nbsp;cm (3½&nbsp;inches) of packed dirt.
==Interaction with matter==
In terms of ionization, gamma radiation interacts with matter via three main processes: the [[photoelectric effect]], [[Compton scattering]], and [[pair production]].
* '''Photoelectric Effect''': This describes the case in which a gamma photon interacts with and transfers all of its energy to an orbital electron, ejecting that electron from the atom. The kinetic energy of the resulting photoelectron is equal to the energy of the incident gamma photon minus the binding energy of the electron. The photoelectric effect is thought to be the dominant energy transfer mechanism for x-ray and gamma ray photons with energies below 50 keV (thousand [[electronvolt|electron volts]]), but it is much less important at higher energies.
* '''Compton Scattering''': This is an interaction in which an incident gamma photon loses enough energy to an orbital electron to cause its ejection, with the remainder of the original photon's energy being emitted as a new, lower energy gamma photon with an emission direction different from that of the incident gamma photon. The probability of Compton scatter decreases with increasing photon energy. Compton scattering is thought to be the principal absorption mechanism for gamma rays in the intermediate energy range 100 keV to 10 MeV (megaelectronvolts), an energy spectrum which includes most gamma radiation present in a nuclear explosion. Compton scattering is relatively independent of the [[atomic number]] of the absorbing material.
[[Image:Egret_all_sky_gamma_ray_map_from_CGRO_spacecraft.gif|thumb|300px|right|Image of entire sky in 100 MeV or greater gamma rays as seen by the EGRET instrument aboard the [[CGRO]] spacecraft. Bright spots within the galactic plane are [[pulsar]]s while those above and below the plane are thought to be [[quasar]]s.]]
* '''Pair Production''': By interaction in the vicinity of the coulomb force of the nucleus, the energy of the incident photon is spontaneously converted into the mass of an electron-positron pair. A positron is the anti-matter equivalent of an electron; it has the same mass as an electron, but it has a positive charge equal in strength to the negative charge of an electron. Energ |
o the [[Army Council]] in 1906.
He was made captain of the battleship [[HMS Queen|HMS ''Queen'']] in [[1908]] and promoted to [[Rear Admiral]] on [[1 January]] [[1910]], becoming, at 39, the youngest admiral in the Royal Navy except for Royal family members since [[Horatio Nelson]].
He was offered the post of second-in-command of the Atlantic Fleet, but declined it and asked for one in the [[Home Fleet]]. As the Atlantic Fleet post was a major command, the Admiralty were very unimpressed and his attitude nearly ruined his career. He was put on half pay in [[1912]] but his career was saved when the new First Lord of the [[Admiralty]], [[Winston Churchill]], whom he knew from the [[Sudan]], appointed him private secretary.
From 1912 to 1916, he commanded the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron. During the [[Great War]], he took part in actions at [[Battle of Heligoland Bight|Heligoland Bight]] ([[1914]]), [[Battle of Dogger Bank (1915)|Dogger Bank]] ([[1915]]) and [[Battle of Jutland|Jutland]] ([[1916]]). He was an aggressive commander who expected his subordinates to always use their initiative without direct orders from himself.
{{wikiquote}}
[[Battle of Jutland|Jutland]] proved to be decisive in Beatty's career, despite the loss of three of his [[battlecruiser]]s. Beatty is reported to have remarked "there seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today" after two of them had exploded within half an hour during the battle. Churchill's account of the First World War, ''The World Crisis'', describes Beatty's next order as "Steer two points nearer the enemy", but this is apocryphal. His next order was to turn away by two points, and in any case a few minutes later he reversed his fleet's course to fulfill its anticipated role of leading the German forces towards the main British fleet.
Admiral [[John Jellicoe]], described by Churchill as the man who could "lose the war in an afternoon" by losing the strategic British superiority in dreadnought battleships, was not the dashing showman that David Beatty was. When Jellicoe was promoted to [[First Sea Lord]] in [[1916]], a significant part of his task was to reduce the huge merchant ship losses caused by [[U-boat]]s, Beatty replaced him as commander of the Grand Fleet. In 1919, he was appointed Admiral of the Fleet and First Sea Lord until his retirement in 1927. Also during 1919, he was created 1st Earl Beatty, Baron Beatty of the North Sea and Brooksby.
David Beatty spent much of his life (when not at sea) in [[Leicestershire]], and lived at [[Brooksby Hall]] (now an agricultural college). During the war he and his wife performed many services for the public of Leicestershire, including opening up their home first as a VAD Hospital under the 5th Northern General Hospital, and later a hospital for Naval Personnel.
In Germany, Beatty ruined his reputation when he told the crews of his ships that were receiving the German High Seas Fleet for its internment at Scapa Flow, "Don't forget that the enemy is a despicable beast," and arranged the surrender of the German Fleet as a grand spectacle of humilitation. The German navy thus ignored Beatty's request that its Commander-in-Chief, [[Erich Raeder]], attend his funeral -- as Raeder had done at Jellicoe's funeral earlier. Raeder merely sent the German navy attache.
The Royal Navy named a ''King George V''-class battleship after Beatty, but this ship was renamed [[HMS Howe (1940)|HMS ''Howe'']] before completion.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[First Sea Lord]]|before=[[Rosslyn Wemyss|Sir Rosslyn Wemyss]]|after=[[Charles Madden|Sir Charles Madden]]|years=1919&ndash;1927}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Earl Beatty]]|before=New Creation|after=[[David Field Beatty, 2nd Earl Beatty|David Field Beatty]]|years=}}
{{end box}}
==References==
* Andrew Gordon, The rules of the game - Jutland and British Naval Command ISBN 0719555426
[[Category:1871 births|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:1936 deaths|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:British World War I people|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Royal Navy admirals|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[pl:David Beatty]]
[[de:David Beatty]]
[[zh:戴维·贝蒂]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dictum of Kenilworth</title>
<id>8838</id>
<revision>
<id>15906780</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-17T22:31:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TheParanoidOne</username>
<id>119152</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{UK-hist-stub}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dictum of Kenilworth''' issued in [[October]] [[1266]], was the terms of the supporters of [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]] for ending their resistance to [[Henry III of England]]. Issued from [[Kenilworth Castle]], its main demand was the right to buy back confiscated estates.
The king agreed and after a slight modification of terms, peace was agreed in [[1267]].
{{UK-hist-stub}}
[[Category:History of Warwickshire]]
[[Category:History of England]]
[[Category:Barons' Wars]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Docklands</title>
<id>8839</id>
<revision>
<id>42043961</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:11:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wayward</username>
<id>184087</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/80.134.227.238|80.134.227.238]] ([[User talk:80.134.227.238|talk]]) to last version by Ahoerstemeier</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'''Docklands''' ''can also refer to the urban redevelopment project in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]], see [[Melbourne Docklands]].''
[[Image:08-14-05 Royal Victoria Dock.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Millennium Dome]] and [[Canary Wharf]] from the [[Royal Victoria Dock]].]]
'''Docklands''' is the semi-official name for an area in the east of [[London]], [[England]], comprising parts of several boroughs ([[Southwark]], [[Tower Hamlets]] and [[Newham]]) in [[Greater London]]. The eponymous docks were formerly part of the [[Port of London]], at one time the world's largest port. They have now been redeveloped principally for commercial and residential use. The name '''London Docklands''' was used for the first time in a government report on redevelopment plans in [[1971]] but has since become virtually universally adopted.
==Dockland areas==
[[Image:Docklands-map.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Docklands Areas]]
London's Docklands comprise a number of former dockyard complexes along the Thames, which are (from west to east):
* [[St Katharine Docks]] ([[Wapping]])
* [[London Docks]] ([[Wapping]])
* [[Regent's Canal Dock]] (now [[Limehouse Basin]], [[Limehouse]])
* [[Surrey Commercial Docks]] (now [[Surrey Quays]], [[Rotherhithe]])
* [[West India and Millwall Docks]] ([[Isle of Dogs]])
* [[East India Docks]] ([[Canning Town]])
* [[Royal Docks]] ([[Royal Victoria Dock]], [[Royal Albert Dock]] & [[King George V Dock]])
Another dockyard exists much further downstream at [[Tilbury]], but this is not generally regarded as part of the Docklands.
The area referred to as the Docklands, which mostly lies on the north bank of the Thames, comprises chiefly of the former properties of the Port of London. It does ''not'' comprise the whole of the former riverside port. Many other wharves and quays are located along the lower Thames, though only a few (mostly in [[Greenwich]]) are still used for their original purpose. These are not generally regarded as being part of the Docklands.
== History ==
=== Development of the docks ===
In [[Roman Britain|Roman]] and [[medieval]] times, ships tended either to dock at small quays in the present-day [[City of London]] or [[Southwark]], an area known as the ''[[Pool of London]]''. However, this gave no protection against the elements, was vulnerable to thieves and suffered from a lack of space at the quayside. The [[Howland Great Dock]] in [[Rotherhithe]] (built [[1696]] and later forming the core of the Surrey Commercial Docks) was designed to address these problems, providing a large, secure and sheltered anchorage with room for 120 large vessels. It was a major commercial success and provided a template for two phases of expansion during the [[Georgian era|Georgian]] and [[Victorian era]]s.
The first of the Georgian docks was the West India (opened [[1802]]), followed by the London ([[1805]]), the East India (also [[1805]]), the Surrey ([[1807]]), St Katharine ([[1828]]) and the West India South ([[1829]]). The Victorian docks were mostly further east, comprising the Royal Victoria ([[1855]]), Millwall ([[1868]]) and Royal Albert ([[1880]]). The King George V was a late addition in [[1921]].
[[Image:Thames river 1882.jpg|thumb|left|600px|The London docks in 1882. The [[King George V Dock]] had not yet been built.]]
=== Docks and dockers ===
Three principal kinds of docks existed. '''Wet docks''' were where ships were laid up at anchor and loaded or unloaded. '''Dry docks''', which were far smaller, took individual ships for repairing. Ships were built at '''shipyards''' along the riverside. In addition, the river was lined with innumerable warehouses, piers, jetties and dolphins (mooring points). The various docks tended to specialise in different forms of produce. The Surrey Docks concentrated on timber, for instance; Millwall took grain; St Katharine took wool, sugar and rubber; and so on.
The docks required an army of workers, chiefly [[lightermen]] (who carried loads between ships |
=See also==
* [[Computer hardware]]
* [[MultiLevel Recording]]
* [[Phase-change Dual]]
* [[DVD-ROM]]
* [[CD/DVD authoring]]
== References ==
{{FOLDOC}}
* {{note|parker}} Parker, Dana J. ''The CD-Recordable Handbook''. Cyberage Books, 1996. ISBN 0910965188
== External links ==
* [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/cd.htm ''How CDs Work'' from HowStuffWorks.com]
* [http://www.cdrfaq.org Andy McFadden's CD-Recordable FAQ]
* [http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa.htm Understanding CD-R & CD-RW] by Hugh Bennett
* [http://www.pcdoctor-guide.com/wordpress/?p=1396''Inside a CD-ROM drive'' from The PC Doctor]
[[Category:120 mm discs]]
[[Category:Computer storage media]]
[[Category:Audio storage]]
[[bs:CD-ROM]]
[[cs:CD-ROM]]
[[da:Cd-rom]]
[[de:CD-ROM]]
[[es:CD-ROM]]
[[fr:Cédérom]]
[[ga:Dlúthdhiosca ríomhaireachta]]
[[he:תקליטור]]
[[hu:CD-ROM]]
[[nl:Cd-rom]]
[[ja:CD-ROM]]
[[no:CD-ROM]]
[[sl:CD-ROM]]
[[tr:CD-ROM]]
[[zh:CD-ROM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of computer scientists</title>
<id>6834</id>
<revision>
<id>40362152</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:40:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{listdev}}
This is a '''list of computer scientists''', people who do work in [[computer science]], in particular researchers and authors.
Some persons notable as [[programmer]]s are included here because they work in research as well as program. A few of these people pre-date the [[invention]] of the digital computer; they are now regarded as computer scientists because their work can be seen as leading to the invention of the computer. Others are mathematicians whose work falls within what would now be called theoretical computer science, such as [[computational complexity theory|complexity theory]] and [[algorithmic information theory]].
__NOTOC__
{{compactTOC}}
== A ==
* [[Hal Abelson]]
* [[Paul Abrahams]]
* [[Samson Abramsky]]
* [[Hamid Yassin Adem]]
* [[Leonard Adleman]] - [[RSA]]
* [[Manindra Agarwal]]
* [[Rajeev Agrawal]]
* [[Alfred Aho]]
* [[John R. Allen]]
* [[Gene Amdahl]]
* [[Ravi Arimilli]]
* [[John Vincent Atanasoff]]
* [[Roger Fuscablo Frondoza]]
== B ==
* [[Charles Babbage]] - Invented first mechanical computer
* [[Charles Bachman]]
* [[John Backus]] - [[FORTRAN]]
* [[Rudolf Bayer]] - [[B-tree]]
* [[Gordon Bell]] - [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[VAX]], ''Computer Structures''
* [[Dines Bjørner]] - [[Vienna Development Method|VDM]] and [[RAISE specification language|RAISE]]
* [[Manuel Blum]] - [[cryptography]]
* [[Ron Book]]
* [[Grady Booch]] - [[Unified Modeling Language]], [[Object Management Group]]
* [[George Boole]] - [[Boolean logic]]
* [[Jonathan Bowen]] - [[Z notation]] and [[formal methods]]
* [[Stephen R. Bourne|Steve Bourne]] - [[Bourne Shell]], portable [[ALGOL 68C]] compiler.
* [[Robert Boyer]] - string searching and [[ACL2 theorem prover]]
* [[Ivan Bratko]] - [[prolog]],[[artificial intelligence]]
* [[Jack E. Bresenham]] - early computer graphics contributions including [[Bresenham's algorithm]]
* [[Per Brinch Hansen]] (surname "Brinch Hansen") - concurrency
* [[Fred Brooks]] - [[System 360]], [[OS/360]], ''[[The Mythical Man-Month]]'', ''[[No Silver Bullet]]''
* [[Rod Brooks]]
* [[Tim Budd]] - Tiny C?
* [[Alan Burns]] - Real-time Systems
== C ==
* [[Luca Cardelli]] - objects
* [[Edwin Catmull]] - [[Computer graphics]]
* [[Vint Cerf|Vinton Cerf]] - [[Internet]], [[TCP/IP]]
* [[Gregory Chaitin]]
* [[Zhou Chaochen]] - [[Duration Calculus]]
* [[Alonzo Church]] - mathematics of combinators and [[lambda calculus]]
* [[John Cocke]] - [[RISC]]
* [[Edgar F. Codd]] - formulated the [[database]] [[relational model]]
* [[Stephen Cook]] - [[NP-completeness]]
* [[James Cooley]] - [[Fast Fourier Transform|FFT]]
* [[Fernando J. Corbató]] - [[CTSS]], [[Multics]]
* [[Peter Cousins]] - [[EAI]], [[Enterprise Service Bus|ESB]]
* [[Patrick Cousot]] - [[abstract interpretation]]
* [[Seymour Cray]] - [[Cray Research]], [[supercomputer]]
* [[Dave Cutler]] - [[RSX-11]], [[OpenVMS|VMS]], [[Windows NT]]
== D ==
* [[Ole-Johan Dahl]] - [[Simula]]
* [[Christopher J. Date]] - proponent of [[database]] [[relational model]]
* [[James Demmel]]
* [[Dorothy Denning]] - [[computer security|security]]
* [[John Denning]] - medical informatics
* [[Peter Denning]] - identified the use of an [[operating system]]'s [[working set]] and [[balance set]], President of [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]
* [[Michael Dertouzos.]] - Director of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS) since 1974, [[Oxygen (project)]]
* [[Alexander Dewdney]]
* [[Vinod Dham]]-The so-called father of the [[Pentium]] processor.
* [[Whitfield Diffie]] - [[Cryptography]]
* [[Edsger Dijkstra]] - [[Algorithms]] [[Goto considered harmful]] [[Semaphore (programming)]]
* [[Jack Dongarra]] - [[Linear Algebra]] [[high performance computing]]
== E ==
* [[John Presper Eckert]]
* [[Philip-Emeagwali]] - Supercomputing
* [[Douglas Engelbart]]
* [[Andrey Ershov]]
* [[Bob Evans (computer scientist)]]
* [[Christopher Evans]]
* [[Dave Evans]] - [[computer graphics]]
* [[Shimon Even]]
* [[Annie Easley|Annie C. Easley]]
== F ==
* [[Scott Fahlman]]
* [[Edward Feigenbaum]] - [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Michael Feldman]]
* [[Edward Felten]] - [[computer security|security]]
* [[Raphael Finkel]]
* [[Robert Floyd]] - [[NP-completeness]]
* [[Ken Forbus]]
* [[Dan Friedman]]
* [[Tim Finin]]
== G ==
*[[Bruce Gabrielson]] - Computer Security and athlete
* [[Zvi Galil]]
* [[Bernard Galler]]
* [[Hector Garcia-Molina]]
* [[Michael Garey]] - [[NP-Completeness]]
* [[Hugo de Garis]]
* [[David Gelernter]]
* [[Charles Geschke]]
* [[Kurt Gödel]] - [[Computability]]
* [[Joseph Goguen]]
* [[Adele Goldberg (computer scientist)|Adele Goldberg]] - [[Smalltalk]]
* [[Oded Goldreich]] - [[cryptography]], [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Shafi Goldwasser]] - [[cryptography]], [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Gene Golub]] - [[Matrix (math)]] computation
* [[James Gosling]] - [[NeWS]], [[Java programming language|Java]]
* [[Paul Graham]]
* [[Susan Graham]] - [[Compilers]], [[Programming environments]]
* [[Jim Gray]] - [[Database]]
* [[Bill Griswold]] - [[Software engineering]]
* [[Ralph Griswold]] - [[Snobol string processing languages]]
* [[Barbara Grosz]]
== H ==
* [[Philipp Matthäus Hahn]]
* [[Joseph Halpern]]
* Per Brinch Hansen (listed under B by surname, "Brinch Hansen")
* [[Juris Hartmanis]] - [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Johan Håstad]] - [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Martin Hellman]]
* [[John L. Hennessy]] - [[Computer architecture]]
* [[Danny Hillis]] - [[Connection Machine]]
* [[Geoffrey Hinton]]
* [[C. A. R. Hoare]] - [[Logic]], rigor, [[Communicating sequential processes|CSP]]
* [[Stephen Hodges]]
* [[Hermann Hollerith]]
* [[Douglas Hofstadter]] - wrote [[Gödel, Escher, Bach]], [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Herman Hollerith]] - Developed the first [[punch card]] machines for a forerunner of [[IBM]]
* [[John Hopcroft]] - [[Compilers]]
* Admiral [[Grace Hopper]] - [[Compiler]]s, [[COBOL]]
* [[Berthold K.P. Horn]]
* [[Ellis Horowitz]]
* [[Alston Householder]]
* [[Paul Hudak]]
* [[David A. Huffman]] - [[Huffman code]]
== I ==
* [[Jean Ichbiah]] - [[Ada programming language]]
* [[Kenneth Iverson]] - [[APL programming language|APL]]
== J ==
* [[Ivar Jacobson]] - [[Unified Modeling Language]], [[Object Management Group]]
* [[Ramesh Jain]]
* [[Jonathan James]]
* [[David B. Johnson]]
* [[David S. Johnson]]
* [[Stephen C. Johnson]]
* [[Cliff Jones]] - [[Vienna Development Method|VDM]]
* [[Michael I. Jordan]]
* [[Bill Joy]] - [[Sun Microsystems]], [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] UNIX, [[vi]], [[csh]]
== K ==
* [[William Kahan]]
* [[Robert E. Kahn]] - [[TCP/IP]]
* [[Avinash Kak]]
* [[Alan Kay]] - [[Dynabook]], [[Smalltalk]]
* [[Richard Karp]] - [[NP-complete|NP completeness]]
* [[Narendra Karmarkar]] - [[Karmarkar's algorithm]]
* [[Jacek Karpinski]]
* [[Marek Karpinski]] - [http://www.nada.kth.se/~viggo/problemlist/compendium.html NP Optimization Problems]
* [[Ken Kennedy]] - Compiling for parallel and vector machines
* [[Brian Kernighan]] - [[Unix]]
* [[Donald Knuth]] - [[The Art of Computer Programming]], [[TeX]], [[Literate programming]]
* [[Andrew Koenig]] - [[C++]]
* [[John Koza]] - [[Genetic programming]]
* [[Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov]]
* [[Robert Kowalski]]
* [[Thomas E. Kurtz]] - [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]]
== L ==
* [[Monica Lam]]
* [[Leslie Lamport]] - [[Algorithms]] for concurrency
* [[Butler W. Lampson]]
* [[Peter J. Landin]]
* [[Joshua Lederberg]]
* [[Douglas Lenat]] - [[Artificial intelligence]], [[Cyc]]
* [[Hector Levesque]]
* [[Leonid Levin]] - [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Michael Ley]] - [[DBLP]]
* [[J.C.R. Licklider]]
* [[David Liddle]]
* [[Barbara Liskov]] - [[Programming languages]]
* [[Ada Lovelace]] - first programmer
* [[Nancy Lynch]]
== M ==
* [[Zohar Manna]] - [[Fuzzy logic]]
* [[John Mashey]]
* [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] - [[Lisp programming language]], [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Douglas McIlroy]] - pipes
* [[Chris McKinstry]] - [[Artificial intelligence]], [[Mindpixel]]
* [[Marshall Kirk McKusick]] - [[BSD]], [[Berkeley Fast File System]]
* [[Jose Meseguer]]
* [[Bertrand Meyer]] - [[Eiffel programming language|Eiffel]]
* [[Silvio Micali]] - [[cryptography]]
* [[Robin Milner]] - [[ML programming language|ML]]
* [[Marvin Minsky]] - [[Artificial intelligence]], [[perceptron]]s, [[Society of Mind]]
* [[Paul Mockapetris|Dr. Paul Mockapetris]] - [[Domain Name System|Domain Name System (DNS)]]
* [[Cleve Moler]] - [[numerical analysis]] and [[MATLAB]]
* [[J Strother Moore]] - string searching and [[ACL2 theorem prover]]
* [[Hans Moravec]]
* [[Joel Moses]] |
uot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[lateralized z|{{IPA|ʫ}}]]
|Voiced central-plus-lateral alveolar fricative, {{IPA|[ɮ͡z]}} (a lisp)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[bilabial percussive|{{IPA|ʬ}}]]
|Bilabial percussive (smacking lips)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[bidental percussive|{{IPA|ʭ}}]]
|Bidental percussive (gnashing teeth)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[sublaminal lower alveolar click|{{IPA|¡}}]]
|[[Sub-apical consonant|Sublaminal lower alveolar]] click (sucking tongue)
|}
The last symbol may be used with the alveolar click for {{IPA|[ǃ¡]}}, a combined alveolar and sublaminal click or "cluck-click".
==Suprasegmentals==
[[media:IPA suprasegmentals 2005.png|Closeup of the suprasegmental section of the IPA chart]]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|ˈ}}
| Primary [[lexical stress|stress]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ˌ}}
| Secondary [[lexical stress|stress]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ː}}
| [[Length (phonetics)|Long]] ([[Vowel length|long vowel]] or [[Gemination|geminate consonant]])
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ˑ}}
| Half-long
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˘}}
| [[Extra-short (phonetics)|Extra-short]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|.}}
| [[Syllable]] break
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|‿}}
| [[Liaison|Linking (absence of a break)]]
|}
=== [[Intonation (linguistics)|Intonation]] ===
{| class="wikitable"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|<nowiki>|</nowiki>}}
| [[Prosody (linguistics)|Minor (foot) break]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|‖}}
| [[Prosody (linguistics)|Major (intonation) break]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|↗}}
| [[Intonation (linguistics)#Transcription|Global rise]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|↘}}
| [[Intonation (linguistics)#Transcription|Global fall]]
|}
=== [[Tonal language|Tone]] ===
IPA allows for the use of either tone diacritics or tone letters to indicate tones.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" | {{IPA|e̋ or ˥}}
| Extra high
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|é or ˦}}
| High
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ē or ˧}}
| Mid
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|è or ˨}}
| Low
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ȅ or ˩}}
| Extra low
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ě}}
| Rise
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ê}}
| Fall
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | <sup>{{IPA|↓}}</sup>e
| [[Downstep (phonetics)|Downstep]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | <sup>{{IPA|↑}}</sup>e
| [[Upstep (phonetics)|Upstep]]
|}
Note:
*With regard to tone diacritics, Unicode encodes marks for some contour tones, but not all. In Unicode version 4.1, only hacek (rising) and circumflex (falling) diacritics were encoded. Subsequent versions may also include six additional diacritics for contour tones, such as the macron-acute and the grave-acute-grave ligatures. (See an image [[media:IPA suprasegmentals 2005.png|here]].) Note that contour tone diacritics are not encoded as sequences of level tone diacritics in Unicode.
*With regard to tone letters, Unicode does not have separate encodings for contour tones. Instead, sequences of level tone letters are used, with proper display dependent on the font, usually by means of OpenType font rendition: {{IPA|[˥˩]}} or {{IPA|[˦˥˧]}}. (These are probably not displaying correctly in your browser. See the [[media:IPA suprasegmentals 2005.png|image]] for a sample of how they should appear.) Since few fonts support combination tone letters (see the external links for one that is free), a common solution is to use the old system of superscript numerals from '1' to '5', for example [e<sup>53</sup>, e<sup>312</sup>]. However, this depends on local linguistic tradition, with '5' generally being high and '1' being low for Asian languages, but '1' being high and '5' low for African languages. An old IPA convention sometimes still seen is to use sub-diacritics for low contour tones: {{IPA|[e̖, e̗]}} for ''low-falling'' and ''low-rising''.
*The upstep and downstep modifiers are superscript arrows. Unicode version 4.1 does not encode these, though subsequent versions will. The arrows for upstep and downstep should not be confused with the full-height arrows, which are used to indicate airflow direction.
== Diacritics ==
[[media:IPA diacritics 2005.png|Closeup of the diacritic section of the IPA chart]]<br>
Sub-diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a descender, i.e. {{IPA|ŋ̊}}. The dotless i, <ı>, is used when the dot would interfere with the diacritic. Other IPA symbols may appear as diacritics to represent phonetic detail: {{IPA|tˢ}} (fricative release), {{IPA|bʱ}} (breathy voice), {{IPA|ˀa}} (glottal onset), {{Unicode|ᵊ}} (epenthetic schwa), o<sup>{{IPA|ʊ}}</sup> (diphthongization).
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=4|Syllabicity diacritics
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ɹ̩ n̩}}
| [[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e̯ ʊ̯}}
| [[Non-syllabic vowel|Non-syllabic]]
|-
! colspan=4|Consonant-release diacritics
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|tʰ dʰ}}
| [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]] {{footnote|2}}
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|d̚}}
| [[Unreleased stop|No audible release]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|dⁿ}}
| [[Nasal release]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|dˡ}}
| [[Lateral release]]
|-
! colspan=4|Phonation diacritics
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" | {{IPA|n̥ d̥}}
| [[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|s̬ t̬}}
| [[Voiced consonant|Voiced]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" | {{IPA|b̤ a̤}}
| [[Breathy voice]]d {{footnote|1}}
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|b̰ a̰}}
| [[Creaky voice]]d
|-
! colspan=4|Articulation diacritics
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" | {{IPA|t̪ d̪}}
| [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|t̼ d̼}}
| [[Linguolabial consonant|Linguolabial]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|t̺ d̺}}
| [[Apical consonant|Apical]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|t̻ d̻}}
| [[Laminal consonant|Laminal]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|u̟ t̟}}
| [[Advanced (phonetics)|Advanced]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|i̠ t̠}}
| [[Retracted (phonetics)|Retracted]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ë ä}}
| [[Centralization (phonetics)|Centralized]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e̽ ɯ̽}}
| [[Mid-centralized vowel|Mid-centralized]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e̝ ɹ̝ ˔}}
| colspan=3 | [[Raised (phonetics)|Raised]] ('''{{IPA|ɹ̝}}''' = [[Voiced alveolar fricative#The voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative|voiced alveolar nonsibilant fricative]])
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e̞ β̞ ˕}}
| colspan=3 | [[Lowered (phonetics)|Lowered]] ('''{{IPA|β̞}}''' = [[bilabial approximant]])
|-
! colspan=4|Co-articulation diacritics
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ɔ̹ x̹}}
| More [[Roundedness|rounded]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ɔ̜ x̜ʷ}}
| Less [[Roundedness|rounded]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|tʷ dʷ}}
| [[Labialization|Labialized]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|tʲ dʲ}}
| [[Palatalization|Palatalized]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|tˠ dˠ}}
| [[Velarization|Velarized]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|tˁ dˁ}}
| [[Pharyngealization|Pharyngealized]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[Velarized alveolar lateral approximant|{{IPA|ɫ}}]] {{IPA|z̴}}
| colspan=3 | Velarized ''or'' pharyngealized
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e̘ o̘}}
| [[Advanced tongue root]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e̙ o̙}}
| [[Retracted tongue root]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ẽ z̃}}
| [[Nasalization|Nasalized]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ɚ ɝ}}
| [[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]]
|}
Notes:
#Some linguists restrict this breathy-voice diacritic to sonorants, and transcribe obstruents as {{IPA|bʱ}}.
#With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is also voiced. Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice.
The state of the [[glottis]] can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from an open to a closed glottis [[phonation]] are:
{|
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|[t]}}
| [[Voiceless consona |
nd continue to this day. Most of the other regulations were abolished or scaled back in a bipartisan wave of [[deregulation]] 1975-85.
====Keynesianism: public behaviour to blame====
The British economist [[John Maynard Keynes]] coined the term "the paradox of thrift" to describe the deepening of the Great Depression after 1929. The paradox of thrift indicates that when people decide to save more this may end up causing people to save less. The increased savings (reduced spending) due to the panic following the stock market crash of 1929 left markets saturated, contributing to price deflation, perpetuating the Great Depression. When people decided to save more (spend less) businesses responded by cutting back on production and laying off workers. Businesses, cutting back on investment spending because they were pessimistic about the future as well, were also doing their share of causing a reduction in aggregate expenditures, reducing their investments, setting in motion a dangerous cycle: less investment, fewer jobs, less consumption and even less reason for business to invest. The lower aggregate expenditures in the economy contributed to a multiple decline in income well below full employment. The economy may reach perfect balance, but at a cost of high unemployment and social misery. At the lower income levels during the Great Depression savings were much lower than before-- hence, the paradox of thrift. As a result, Keynesian economists were increasingly calling for government to take up the slack.
===The New Deal and Keynesian economics===
In the early 1930s, before [[John Maynard Keynes]] wrote ''The General Theory'', he was advocating public works programs and deficits as a way to get the British economy out of the Depression. Although Keynes never mentions fiscal policy in The General Theory, and instead advocates the need to socialize investments, Keynes ushered in more of a theoretical revolution than a policy one. Keynes's basic idea was simple. In order to keep people fully employed, governments have to run deficits when the economy is slowing because the private sector won't invest enough. Many politicians, however, failed to understand his idea.
As the Depression wore on, Franklin D. Roosevelt tried public works, farm subsidies and other devices to restart the economy, but he never completely gave up trying to balance the budget. As a result, unemployment remained high throughout the New Deal years; consumption, investment, and net exports-- the pillars of economic growth-- remained low. With [[fiscal policy]], however, government could provide the needed increased spending by decreasing taxes, increasing government spending, increasing individuals' incomes. As individuals incomes would increase, they would spend more. As they spent more, the [[multiplier effect]] would take over and expand the effect on the initial spending. Expansionary fiscal policy thus involves decreasing taxes or increasing government spending to counteract [[cyclical unemployment]] and slow growth during a recession.
It was [[World War II]], not the New Deal, that finally ended the crisis. Nor did the New Deal substantially alter the distribution of power within American [[capitalism]]; and it had only a small impact on the distribution of wealth among the American people.
Keynes's visit to the [[White House]] in 1934 to urge President Roosevelt to do more deficit spending was a debacle. A dazed, overwhelmed Roosevelt complained to Labor Secretary [[Frances Perkins]], "He left a whole rigmarole of figures-- he must be a mathematician rather than a political economist." Keynes, equally frustrated with the encounter, later told Secretary Perkins that he had "supposed the President was more literate, economically speaking."
===The recession of 1937 and recovery===
The Roosevelt administration was under assault during FDR's second term, which presided over a new dip in the Great Depression in the fall of 1937 that continued through most of 1938. Production declined sharply, as did profits and employment. Unemployment jumped from 14.3% in 1937 to 19.0% in 1938. It was, in the largest measure, a result of a premature effort by the administration to balance the budget by reducing federal spending.
The administration reacted by launching a rhetorical campaign against monopoly power, which was cast as the cause of the new dip. The president appointed an aggressive new direction of the antitrust division of the Justice Department, but this effort lost its effectiveness once World War II, a far more pressing concern, began.
But the administration's other response to the 1937 deepening of the Great Depression had more tangible results. Ignoring the vitriolic pleas of the Treasury Department and responding to the urgings of the converts to Keynesian economics and others in his administration, Roosevelt embarked on an antidote to the depression, reluctantly abandoning his efforts to balance the budget and launching a $5 billion spending program in the spring of 1938, an effort to increase mass purchasing power. The New Deal had in fact engaged in deficit spending since 1933, but it was apologetic about it, because a rise in the national debt was opposite of what the Democratic party had always preached. Now they had a theory to justify what they were doing. Roosevelt explained his program in a [[Fireside chats|fireside chat]] in which he finally acknowledged that it was therefore up to the government to "create an economic upturn" by making "additions to the purchasing power of the nation."
Business-oriented observers explained the recession and recovery in very different terms from the Keynesians. They argued that the New Deal had been very hostile to business expansion in 1935-37, had encouraged massive strikes which had a negative impact on major industries such as automobiles, and had threatened massive anti-trust legal attacks on big corporations. All those threats diminished sharply after 1938. For example, the antitrust efforts fizzled out without major cases. The CIO and AFL unions started battling each other more than corporations, and tax policy became more favorable to long-term growth.
==External links==
*[http://www.evtv1.com/index.asp-itemnum-1169 Depression video clip 2 min.]
*[http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/parker.depression An Overview of the Great Depression] from EH.NET by Randall Parker.
==Films and TV==
*''The Crash of 1929 -- PBS ''[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/crash/index.html]
*''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]'', Director: [[John Ford]], 1940
*''[[Of Mice and Men]]'', filmed three times - in 1939, 1981 and 1992
*''[[They Shoot Horses, Don't They?]]'', Director: [[Sidney Pollack]], 1969
*''[[The Journey of Natty Gann]]'', 1985
*''[[Cradle Will Rock]]'', Director: [[Tim Robbins]], 1999
*''[[Dogville]]'', Director:[[Lars von Trier]], 2003
*''[[Seabiscuit]]''
*''[[Carnivàle]]'', Fictional account of Depression era [[television series]] produced by [[HBO]], (2003-2005)
*''[[Cinderella Man]]'', Directed by the Academy Award Winner [[Ron Howard]], Starring Academy Award Winners [[Russell Crowe]] and [[Renée Zellweger]], 2005
== See also ==
*[[Aftermath of World War I]]
*[[Business cycle]]
*[[Cities in the great depression]]
*[[Economic collapse]]
*[[Great Depression in Canada]]
*[[Great Depression in Australia]]
*[[Great Depression in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Great Depression in France]]
*[[Great Depression in Italy]]
*[[Great Depression in Ireland]]
*[[Great Depression in Spain]]
*[[Great Depression in Latin America]]
*[[Great Depression in Germany]]
*[[Great Depression in Scandinavia]]
*[[Great Depression in South Africa]]
*[[Great Depression in Eastern Europe]]
*[[Great Depression in East Asia]]
*[[Great Depression in Japan]]
*[[New Deal]]
==References==
=== External Sources: World ===
* Ambrosius, G. and W. Hibbard, ''A Social and Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe'' (1989)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001644781 Bernanke, Ben S. "The Macroeconomics of the Great Depression: A Comparative Approach" ''Journal of Money, Credit & Banking'', Vol. 27, 1995]
* Brown, Ian. ''The Economies of Africa and Asia in the inter-war depression'' (1989)
* Davis, Joseph S., ''The World Between the Wars, 1919-39: An Economist's View'' (1974)
* Feinstein. Charles H. ''The European economy between the wars'' (1997)
* Garraty, John A., ''The Great Depression: An Inquiry into the causes, course, and Consquences of the Worldwide Depression of the Nineteen-Thirties, as Seen by Contemporaries and in Light of History'' (1986)
* Garraty John A. ''Unemployment in History.'' (1978)
* Garside, William R. ''Capitalism in crisis: international responses to the Great Depression'' (1993)
* Haberler, Gottfried. ''The world economy, money, and the great depression 1919-1939'' (1976)
* Hall Thomas E. and J. David Ferguson. ''The Great Depression: An International Disaster of Perverse Economic Policies'' (1998)
* Kaiser, David E. ''Economic diplomacy and the origins of the Second World War: Germany, Britain, France and Eastern Europe, 1930-1939'' (1980)
* Kindleberger, Charles P. ''The World in Depression, 1929-1939'' (1983)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000995120 Madsen, Jakob B. "Trade Barriers and the Collapse of World Trade during the Great Depression"' ''Southern Economic Journal'', Vol. 67, 2001]
* Mundell, R. A. "A Reconsideration of the Twentieth Century' "The American Economic Review" Vol. 90, No. 3 (Jun., 2000), pp. 327-340
[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8282%28200006%2990%3A3%3C327%3AAROTTC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 online at JSTOR]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103606166 Rothermund, Dietmar. ''The Global Impact of the Great Depression'' (1996)]
* Salsman, Richard M. “The Cause and Consequences of the Great Depression” in ''The Intellectual Activist,'' ISSN 0730-2355.
Mr. Salsman argue |
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