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module. Concern was expressed at the fact so much work had to be done on the lunar module after it had shipped to the Cape. The ascent engine developed leaks that caused redesigns and valve changes. Then in August 1968, the entire mission changed. SA-503 would launch men to the Moon and would not be carrying a lunar module, instead carrying a mass equivalent, called a lunar module test article (LTA), similar to ones used for ''[[Apollo 4]]'' and ''[[Apollo 6]]''. In order to speed up the pre-launch preparations, much of the modification of the Saturn V was taken out of the hands of KSC and given to appropriate development centers; only changes that affected crew safety were made. The ''Apollo 8'' spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on [[September 21]] and the rocket made the slow 3-mile (5 km) journey to the launch pad on [[9 October]]. Testing continued all through December until the day before launch. The SA-503 designation stood for Saturn-Apollo, and was used by NASA departments concerned with the launch vehicle. However, departments concerned with the manned flight often used AS-503, standing for Apollo-Saturn; both of these designations were used at the time to refer to the mission as a whole. The -503 number indicated that it was flight number ''3'' (5'''03''') of the Saturn ''V'' ('''5'''03). ==The mission== ===Launch and trans-lunar injection=== [[Image:Ap8-KSC-68PC-329.jpg|thumb|250px|''Apollo 8'' launch. The photo is a [[double exposure]], as the Moon was not visible at the time of launch (NASA)]] ''Apollo 8'' launched at 7:51:00 a.m. [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern Standard Time]] on [[December 21]], [[1968]]. The entire launch phase was practically flawless with only minor problems. The [[S-IC|S-IC first stage]]'s engines underperformed by 0.75%, causing the engines to burn for 2.45 seconds longer than planned. Towards the end of the second stage burn, the rocket underwent [[pogo oscillation]]s that Frank Borman estimated were of the order of 12 [[Hertz|Hz]] and about ±0.25 [[gee|g]] (±2.5 m/s²). The first manned Saturn V placed the spacecraft into a 112.8 mi by 118.9 mi (181.5 km by 191.3 km) Earth orbit with a period of 88 minutes and 10 seconds. The [[apogee]] was also slightly higher than intended, with a planned circular orbit of 115 mi (185 km). The S-IC impacted the Atlantic Ocean at {{coor dm|30|12|N|74|7|W|}} and the S-II at {{coor dm|31|50|N|37|17|W|}}. {{listen|filename=Apollo 8 liftoff.ogg|title=Launch of Apollo 8|description=Air-to-ground transmissions from T-15 seconds to T+3 minutes|format=[[Ogg]]}} For the next 2 hours and 38 minutes the crew and Mission Control worked to check that the spacecraft was in working in order and ready for Trans-Lunar Injection (TLI), the burn that would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon. At the same time the crew transformed the capsule from a rocket payload to a spacecraft. And the [[S-IVB]] third stage had to be in working order. On the previous unmanned test, the S-IVB had failed to re-ignite. During the flight there would be three [[capsule communicator]]s (usually referred to as "capcoms") on a rotating roster. These were the only people who would normally communicate with the crew. [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] was the first of these on duty and at 2 hours, 27 minutes and 22 seconds after launch radioed "''Apollo 8''. You are Go for TLI". Mission Control had given official permission for the crew to go to the moon. Over the next twelve minutes before the burn, the crew continued to monitor the spacecraft and the rocket. The [[S-IVB|S-IVB third stage]] rocket ignited on time and burned perfectly for 5 minutes and 17 seconds. The burn increased the velocity of the spacecraft to 35,505 ft/s (10,822 m/s) and their altitude at the end of the burn was 215.4 mi (346.7 km). They were the fastest humans in history. {{listen|filename=Apollo 8 go for TLI.ogg|title=Go for TLI|description=Capsule communicator Michael Collins gives the crew of ''Apollo 8'' a 'go' for Trans-Lunar Injection|format=[[Ogg]]}} Now that the S-IVB had performed its required tasks it was jettisoned. The crew then rotated the spacecraft to take some photographs of the spent stage, as well as practiced flying in formation with it. As the crew rotated the spacecraft around they had their first views of the Earth as they moved away from it. This was the first time humans had been able to see the entire Earth in one go. Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to the CSM and suggested to Mission Control that the crew perform a separation maneuver. Mission Control at first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters on the Service Module to add 3 ft/s (0.9 m/s) away from the Earth, but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S-IVB. After much discussion it was decided to burn in this direction anyway but at 9 ft/s (2.7 m/s). These discussions ended up putting the crew an hour behind their flight plan. Five hours after launch, mission control commanded the S-IVB booster to vent its remaining fuel through its engine bell to change its trajectory such that it would flyby the Moon and enter into a solar orbit, so as to pose no future hazard to the crew. It went into a 0.99 by 0.92 [[Astronomical Unit|AU]] solar orbit with an [[inclination]] of 23.47° and a period of 340.80 days. The members of the ''Apollo 8'' crew were the first humans to pass through the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]s, which extend up to 15,000 mi (25,000 km) from Earth. Although it was predicted that the passage through the belts would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest [[X-ray]] or 1 [[Gray (unit)|milligray]] (during the course of a year, the average human receives a dose of 2 to 3 mGy), there was still interest in the radiation dosages on the crew. So each crewmember wore a Personal Radiation [[Dosimeter]] that could be read back to the ground as well as three passive film dosimeters that show the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the average radiation dose of the crew was 1.6 mGy. ===Coasting to the Moon=== [[Image:As08-16-2593.jpg|thumb|250px|One of the first images taken by humans of the whole Earth. Probably photographed by [[Bill Anders]]. South is up with [[South America]] in the middle]] Jim Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was to act as [[navigator]]. Although Mission Control performed all the actual navigation calculation, it was necessary that in case of communication loss the crew could navigate their way home. This was done by star sightings using a [[sextant]] built into the spacecraft, measuring the angle between a star and the Earth's (or the Moon's) [[horizon]]. This proved to be difficult, as the venting by the S-IVB had caused a large cloud of debris to form around the spacecraft, making it hard to distinguish what were the actual stars. By seven hours into the mission, the delay in moving away from the S-IVB and Lovell's star sightings meant that they were behind schedule on the flight plan by about one hour and 40 minutes. The crew now placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control (PTC), or what is more aptly called [[barbecue]] mode. This had the spacecraft roll about one rotation per hour, along its long axis in order to ensure even [[heat distribution]] of the spacecraft. In direct sunlight, the spacecraft could be heated to over 200 °C while the parts in shadow would be -100 °C. These temperatures could cause the [[heat shield]] to crack or propellant lines to burst. As it was impossible to get a perfect roll, the spacecraft actually swept out a [[Conical surface|cone]] as it rotated. This would have to be trimmed every half hour as it started to get larger and larger. The first mid-course correction came 11 hours into the flight. Testing on the ground had shown there was a small chance that the [[Service Propulsion System]] (SPS) engine would explode when burned for long periods unless its [[combustion chamber]] was 'coated' first. This could be done by burning the engine for a short period. This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added about 20.4 ft/s (6.2 m/s) [[Prograde and retrograde motion|prograde]] (in the direction of travel). This was less than the 24.8 ft/s (7.5 m/s) planned, and the shortfall was due to a bubble of [[helium]] in the [[redox|oxidizer]] lines causing lower than expected fuel pressure, requiring the crew to use the small Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters to make up the shortfall. Two later planned midcourse corrections were cancelled as the trajectory was found to be perfect. Eleven hours into the flight, the crew had been awake for over 16 hours, having been awakened about 5 hours before launch. So it was time for Frank Borman to start his scheduled 7-hour sleep period. It proved difficult to sleep. NASA had decided that at least one crewmember should be awake at all times to deal with any issues that might arise. But the constant radio chatter with the ground and the air circulation fans made it hard to sleep. As well as this, sleeping in space is a somewhat unnatural experience—you cannot rest your head on a [[pillow]] and Bill Anders said that he would suddenly jolt awake with the sensation that he was falling. [[Image:As8-16-2583.jpg|thumb|250px|''Apollo 8'' [[S-IVB]] rocket stage. (NASA)]] About an hour after starting his sleep period, Borman requested clearance to take a [[Secobarbitol|Seconal]] [[Barbiturate|sleeping pill]], but the pill had little effect. After Borman slept for seven hours fitfully, he awoke feeling ill. He [[vomiting|vomited]] twice, and had a bout of [[diarrhea]] that left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and [[feces]]. The crew cleaned up as best as they could. Borman decided that he did not want the world to know about his medical problems but Lovell and Anders still wanted to tel
ure and Control Creativity]]'' by [[Lawrence Lessig]] *[[Permission culture]] &amp;mdash; neologism by Lawrence Lessig. *''[[The Uneasy Case for Copyright|The Uneasy Case for Copyright: A Study of Copyright in Books, Photocopies, and Computer Programs]]'' by [[Stephen Breyer]]. ===Other=== *[[The Disneyland Memorial Orgy]] *[[Image copyright tags]] (for use in Wikipedia) ===Some legislation=== *[[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] (US) *[[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] (US) *[[EU Copyright Directive]] *[[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection|Directive on harmonizing the term of copyright protection]] (EU) ===National copyright laws=== * [[United States copyright law]] * [[Japan copyright law]] * [[Australian copyright law]] * [[Copyright law of the European Union]] * [[Copyright law of the United Kingdom]] * [[Hong Kong copyright law]] * [[Canadian copyright law]] * [[Philippine copyright law]] * [[Netherlands copyright law]] * [[French copyright law]], which is based on another philosophy, not founded on &quot;copyright&quot; but on the &quot;Right of the Author&quot; (''droit d'auteur''). ===International treaties=== * [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]] of 1886 * [[Universal Copyright Convention]] of 1952 * [[Rome Convention]] of 1961 * The [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (TRIPS), of 1994 * [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]] of 1996 * [[WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty]] of 1996 ===Notable advocates of copyright law reform=== * [[Mary Bono]] * [[Robin Gross]] * [[Lawrence Lessig]] * [[Eben Moglen]] * [[Richard Stallman]] * [[Jack Valenti]] * [[Jorge Cortell]] * [[Rick Boucher]] ==Miscellaneous further reading== *[[Bruce Lehman|Lehman, Bruce]]: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995) * Gantz, John &amp; Rochester, Jack B. ''Pirates of the Digital Millennium''. Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2005, ISBNO-13-146315-2 * Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. http://ssrn.com/abstract=787244 * [[Simon Moores|Moores, Simon]] - &quot;March of the Spiders:&quot; Policy Challenges for Copyright in the Digital Publishing Environment (2005) * [[Shuman Ghosemajumder|Ghosemajumder, Shuman]]. ''[http://shumans.com/p2p-business-models.pdf Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models]''. [[MIT Sloan School of Management]], 2002. * Silverthorne, Sean. ''[http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item.jhtml?id=4206&amp;t=innovation Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers?]''. [[Harvard Business School|Harvard Business School Working Knowledge]], 2004. ==External links== {{Commons|Copyright}} {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.ip-watch.org/ IP Watch] independent news site reporting on the influences on implementation of intelectual property law. * [http://www.ipdragon.blogspot.com/ IP Dragon] focused on intelectual property in China * [http://www.ipjustice.org IP Justice] - international civil liberties organization that promotes balanced intellectual property law * [http://www.malaquias.net/en/joseluis/articles/copyright.pdf An Alternative Economic System for the Information Era] An argument on the inadequacy of the copyright system, and a proposal for an alternative economic system for copyright * [http://thoughtyard.com/content/view/13/37 Copywar] A proposal to replace the copyright system * [http://www.copyrightcurriculum.com Copyright Curriculum] (public wiki of a comprehensive view on copyright for students) * [http://www.andrew82.net/articles/politics/informationage/ The End of the Information Age] An analysis of the history of Copyright policy and its impact on society * [http://dylansuzanne.info/mainelectures.html Maine Lecture Series on the Crisis in Copyright] A couple of lectures on copyright and philosophy of technology, by Dylan Suzanne * [http://www.templetons.com/brad/copyright.html A brief intro to copyright] (by [[Brad Templeton]], with more in-depth links) * [http://www.templetons.com/brad/copymyths.html 10 Big Myths about copyright explained] * [http://users.goldengate.net/~kbrady/copyright.html Common Copyright Myths and Misconceptions] * [http://www.templetons.com/brad/copysolve.html Responses to the Copyright Crisis] - what can be done? * [[Thomas Babbington Macaulay]] [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/4/25/1345/03329 on copyright (1841)] * The [http://www.fepproject.org/policyreports/copyright.html Free Expression Policy Project report on copyright] * The differences between the length of copyright provided by different countries creates situations where it is legal to publish a work on the Web in one country (''e.g.'', [[Bulgaria]]), but illegal to view that Web page in another country (''e.g.'', the [[United States]]): http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/nonus.html * [http://orion.mt.tama.hosei.ac.jp/hideaki/twocopy.htm The Origin of Two American Copyright Theories --A Case of the Reception of English Law --], The Journal of Arts Management, Law and Society, Vol. 30, No. 3, (Fall 2000, [http://www.heldref.org/ Heldref Publications]) by [[Hideaki Shirata]] *[http://www.michaellorenzen.com/eric/copyright.html Libraries in Today's Digital Age: The Copyright Controversy] *[http://www.infoanarchy.org/wiki/wiki.pl?Copyright_Background Copyright Background] on infoanarchy.org including links to many countries laws, and economics of copyright *[http://www.mp3board.com/ MP3Board.com] - News site which aggregates copyright news (and other IP news). *[http://slashdot.org/features/00/01/20/1316236.shtml B. Gates Rants About Software Copyrights - in 1980] *[http://www.freeculture.org FreeCulture.org] *[http://www.downhillbattle.org DownHill Battle] *[http://www.dacs.org.uk The Design &amp; Artists Copyright Society] - A not-for-profit organization founded by artists to protect and promote their copyright. *Article &quot;[http://www.law.berkeley.edu/journals/btlj/articles/vol15/frischmann/frischmann.html The Evolving Common Law Doctrine of Copyright Misuse: A Unified Theory and Its Application to Software]&quot; by [[Brett Frischmann]] and [[Dan Moylan]] *[http://www.copyright.gov/ United States Copyright Office] *[http://creativecommons.org/ The Creative Commons] - A not-for-profit organization that offers a free and less restrictive alternative to the Copyright. *[http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/dltr/articles/2002dltr0023.html (2002 Duke L. &amp; Tech. Rev. 0023)] MUSIC PIRACY AND THE AUDIO HOME RECORDING ACT * [http://zentelligence.blogspot.com/March%20of%20the%20Spiders.pdf March of the Spiders] (by Simon Moores, for the UK Aediles Policy Unit) *[http://www.uspto.gov/smallbusiness/ USPTO Stopfakes.gov Small Business Resources] *[http://www.bromsun.com/practices/copyright-portfolio-development/flowchart.htm A flowchart which helps to determine the copyright status of a particular work in the US.] *[http://www.feedforall.com/rss-copyright-debate.htm Copyright Debate and RSS] *[http://digital-copyright.ca/ Digital Copyright Canada forum] for debating Canadian PCT (Patent, copyright, trademark and other related rights) law. *[http://fairuse.stanford.edu/ Copyright &amp; Fair Use], Stanford University Libraries *[http://www.intellectual-property.gov.uk/resources/copyright/history.htm] British Government's Intellectual Property portal [[Category:Copyright law| ]] [[Category:Data management]] [[Category:Intellectual property]] [[Category:Library and information science]] [[af:Kopiereg]] [[ast:Derechos d'autor]] [[ca:Drets d'autor]] [[cs:Autorské právo]] [[da:Ophavsret]] [[de:Copyright]] [[de:Urheberrecht]] [[eo:Kopirajto]] [[es:Derecho de autor]] [[fi:Tekijänoikeus]] [[fr:Droit d'auteur]] [[he:זכויות יוצרים]] [[hu:Szerzői jog]] [[ia:Copyright]] [[id:Hak Cipta]] [[it:Copyright]] [[it:Diritto d'autore]] [[ja:著作権]] [[ko:저작권]] [[nl:Auteursrecht]] [[pl:Prawo autorskie]] [[pt:Direito autoral]] [[ro:Drepturi de autor]] [[ru:Авторское право]] [[simple:Copyright]] [[sv:Upphovsrätt]] [[th:ลิขสิทธิ์]] [[vi:Quyền tác giả]] [[zh:著作權]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christine Evelyn Roth</title> <id>5281</id> <revision> <id>20787042</id> <timestamp>2005-08-11T17:21:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jaxl</username> <id>309415</id> </contributor> <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{deletion} '''Christine Evelyn Roth''' is a [[France|French]] woman who was deported from the [[United States]] in [[March 2001]] for trespassing in the home of [[Actor|actress]] [[Pamela Anderson]]. {{France-bio-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Catalan language</title> <id>5282</id> <revision> <id>40406328</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T08:51:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.48.109.16</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language |name=Catalan, Valencian |nativename=català, valencià |familycolor=Indo-European |states=[[Spain]], [[France]], [[Andorra]] and [[Italy]] |region=[[Catalonia]], [[Land of Valencia|Valencia]], [[Balearic Islands]], [[Roussillon]], [[Aragon]], [[Murcia]], [[Sardinia]] and [[Andorra]] |speakers=More than 7.5 million&lt;!-- see sources (and links) in the section [[#Number of Catalan speakers]] below --&gt; |fam2=[[Italic languages|Italic]] |fam3=[[Romance languages|Romance]] |fam4=[[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] |fam5=[[Western Romance languages|Western]] |fam6=[[Gallo-Iberian|Gallo-Iberian]] |fam7=[[Ibero-Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]] |fam8=[[East Iberian languages|East Iberian]] &lt;!-- Name used by the Ethnologue, whose classification (NB which is already at the 'splitters' extreme of linguistics) is the one used across Wikipedia. Although the most frequent scientific denomination is, by far, the one of ''Catalan'', this the most spread syncretic denominat
vember 28]]). *[[1925]] - [[World War I]] aftermath: - The final [[Locarno Treaties|Locarno Treaty]] is signed in [[London]], establshing post-war territorial settlements. *[[1934]] - In the [[Soviet Union]], [[Politburo]] member [[Sergei Kirov]] is shot dead at the [[Communist Party]] headquarters in [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]] by [[Leonid Nikolayev]]. *[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: Mayor of [[New York City]], [[Fiorello LaGuardia]], and the director of the [[Office of Civilian Defense]], sign an order creating the [[Civil Air Patrol]]. *[[1944]] - [[Edward Stettinius Jr.]] becomes the last [[United States Secretary of State]] of the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] administration. *[[1952]] - The ''[[New York Daily News]]'' reports the first successful [[sexual reassignment surgery|sexual reassignment]] operation. *[[1955]] - [[American Civil Rights Movement]]: In [[Montgomery, Alabama]], seamstress [[Rosa Parks]] refuses to give her bus seat to a white man and is arrested for violating the city's [[racial segregation]] laws, an incident which leads to the [[Montgomery Bus Boycott]]. *[[1958]] - [[Central African Republic]] becomes independent from [[France]]. *1958 - [[Our Lady of the Angels School Fire|Our Lady of the Angels School fire]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]] kills 92 children and three nuns. *[[1959]] - [[Cold War]]: [[Antarctic Treaty]] signed , which sets aside [[Antarctica]] as a scientific preserve and bans military activity on that [[continent]]. *[[1961]] - The independent [[Republic of West Papua]] is proclaimed in modern-day [[Western New Guinea]]. *[[1963]] - [[Nagaland]] becomes the 16th state of [[India]]. *[[1964]] - [[Vietnam War]]: US President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and his top-ranking advisers meet to discuss plans to bomb [[North Vietnam]]. *[[1965]] - The [[Border Security Force]] is formed in [[India]] as a special force to guard the borders. *[[1969]] - Vietnam War: The first [[draft lottery (1969)|draft lottery]] in the [[United States]] is held since [[World War II]]. *[[1971]] - [[Cambodian Civil War]]: [[Khmer Rouge]] rebels intensify assaults on [[Cambodia]]n government positions, forcing their retreat from [[Kompong Thmar]] and nearby [[Ba Ray]]. *[[1973]] - [[Papua New Guinea]] gains self government from [[Australia]]. *[[1974]] - A [[Boeing 727]] carrying [[TWA Flight 514]] crashes northwest of [[Dulles International Airport]], killing all 92 people on-board. *[[1975]] - The long-running [[soap opera]] ''[[The Edge of Night]]'' switches networks to [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] after [[19 (number)|19]] years on [[CBS]]. *[[1981]] - A [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavian]] [[Inex Adria Aviopromet]] DC-9 crashes in [[Corsica]] killing 178. *[[1987]] - [[NASA]] announces the names of four companies who were awarded contracts to help build [[Space Station Freedom]]. *[[1989]] - Right-wing military rebel ''Reform the Armed forces Movement'' (RAM) attempt to oust [[President of the Philippines|Philippine President]] [[Corazon Aquino]] by a bloody [[coup d' etat|coup]] attempt. *1989 - [[Cold War]]: [[East Germany]]'s parliament abolishes the constitutional provision granting the communist party the leading role in the state. *[[1990]] - [[Channel Tunnel]] sections started from the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] meet 40 meters beneath the seabed. *[[1991]] - [[Cold War]]: [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] voters overwhelmingly approve a referendum for independence from the [[Soviet Union]]. *[[1998]] - [[Exxon]] announces a US$73.7 billion deal to buy [[Mobil]], thus creating [[Exxon-Mobil]], the largest company on the planet. *[[2000]] - [[Vicente Fox]] is sworn-in as [[President of Mexico]], ending the 75 year control of the [[Institutional Revolutionary Party|PRI]]. *[[2001]] - [[Trans World Airlines]] flies its last flight, after being bought by [[American Airlines]]. *[[2005]] - [[South Africa]]'s [[Constitutional Court of South Africa|Constitutional Court]] extends marriage equality to homosexual couples. ==Births== *[[1081]] - King [[Louis VI of France]] (d. [[1137]]) *[[1083]] - [[Anna Comnena]], Byzantine historian (d. [[1153]]) *[[1521]] - [[Takeda Shingen]], Japanese warlord (d. [[1573]]) *[[1525]] - [[Tadeáš Hájek]], Czech physician and astronomer (d. [[1600]]) *[[1580]] - [[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]], French astronomer (d. [[1637]]) *[[1690]] - [[Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke]], [[Lord Chancellor|Lord Chancellor of England]] (d. [[1764]]) *[[1716]] - [[Etienne-Maurice Falconet]], French sculptor (d. [[1791]]) *[[1743]] - [[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]], German chemist (d. [[1817]]) *[[1766]] - [[Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin]], Russian writer (d. [[1826]]) *[[1792]] - [[Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky]], Russian mathematician (d. [[1856]]) *[[1844]] - [[Alexandra of Denmark]], queen of [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1925]]) *[[1873]] - [[Valery Bryusov]], Russian poet (d. [[1924]]) *[[1886]] - [[Rex Stout]], American author (d. [[1975]]) *[[1895]] - [[Henry Williamson]], English author (d. [[1977]]) *[[1896]] - [[Georgy Zhukov]], Soviet general (d. [[1974]]) *[[1905]] - [[Alexander Wilson (athlete)|Alexander Wilson]], Canadian and Notre Dame athlete (d. [[1994]]) *[[1910]] - [[Alicia Markova]], English ballerina (d. [[2004]]) *[[1911]] - [[Walter Alston]], baseball manager (d. [[1984]]) *1911 - [[Calvin Griffith]], baseball executive (d. [[1999]]) *[[1912]] - [[Minoru Yamasaki]], American architect (d. [[1986]]) *[[1913]] - [[Mary Martin]], American actor and singer (d. [[1990]]) *[[1922]] - [[Paul Picerni]], American actor *[[1923]] - [[Stansfield Turner]], American admiral and Central Intelligence Agency director *[[1930]] - [[Joachim Hoffmann]], German historian (d. [[2002]]) *[[1932]] - [[Matt Monro]], English singer (d. [[1985]]) *[[1935]] - [[Woody Allen]], American film director, actor, and comedian *1935 - [[Lou Rawls]], American singer (d. [[2006]]) *[[1938]] - [[Sandy Nelson]], American drummer *[[1939]] - [[Lee Trevino]], American golfer *[[1940]] - [[Richard Pryor]], American actor, comedian (d. [[2005]]) *[[1942]] - [[John Crowley]], American author *[[1944]] - [[John Densmore]], American drummer ([[The Doors]]) *[[1945]] - [[Bette Midler]], American actress *[[1946]] - [[Gilbert O'Sullivan]], Irish singer *[[1948]] - [[George Foster (baseball player)|George Foster]], baseball player *[[1949]] - [[Pablo Escobar]], Colombian [[drug lord]] (d. [[1993]]) *1949 - [[Sebastián Piñera]], Chilean businessman and presidential candidate *[[1950]] - [[Keith Thibodeaux]], American actor and drummer *[[1951]] - [[Jaco Pastorius]], American bassist (d. [[1987]]) *[[1959]] - [[Wally Lewis]], Australian rugby player *[[1961]] - [[Jeremy Northam]], English actor *[[1963]] - [[Arjuna Ranatunga]], Sri Lankan cricketer *[[1971]] - [[Emily Mortimer]], English actress *[[1974]] - [[Costinha]], Portuguese footballer *[[1976]] - [[Matthew Shepard]], American murder victim (d. [[1998]]) *[[1977]] - [[Brad Delson]], American guitarist ([[Linkin Park]]) *[[1980]] - [[Mohammad Kaif]], Indian cricketer ==Deaths== *[[1135]] - [[Henry I of England]] *[[1241]] - [[Isabella of England]], wife of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1214]]) *[[1377]] - King [[Magnus II of Sweden]] (b. [[1316]]) *[[1433]] - [[Emperor Go-Komatsu of Japan]] (b. [[1377]]) *[[1455]] - [[Lorenzo Ghiberti]], Italian artist and metal smith (b. [[1378]]) *[[1521]] - [[Pope Leo X]] (b. [[1475]]) *[[1530]] - [[Margaret of Austria (1480-1530)|Margaret of Austria]], Regent of the Netherlands (b. [[1480]]) *[[1580]] - [[Giovanni Morone]], Italian cardinal (b. [[1509]]) *[[1581]] - [[Edmund Campion]], English Jesuit (martyred) (b. [[1540]]) *1581 - [[Ralph Sherwin]], English Catholic saint (b. [[1550]]) *[[1602]] - [[Kobayakawa Hideaki]], Japanese samurai and warlord (b. [[1582]]) *[[1633]] - [[Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain]] (b. [[1566]]) *[[1660]] - [[Pierre d'Hozier]], French historian (b. [[1592]]) *[[1707]] - [[Jeremiah Clarke]], English composer (b. [[1674]]) *[[1709]] - [[Abraham a Sancta Clara]], Austrian preacher (b. [[1644]]) *[[1723]] - [[Susanna Centlivre]], English dramatist and actress *[[1729]] - [[Giacomo F. Maraldi]], French-Italian astronomer (b. [[1665]]) *[[1750]] - [[Johan Gabriel Doppelmayr]], German mathematician, astronomer, and cartographer (b. [[1671]]) *[[1755]] - [[Maurice Greene (composer)|Maurice Greene]], English composer (b. [[1696]]) *[[1767]] - [[Henry Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan]], British Freemason (b. [[1710]]) *[[1825]] - Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia]] (b. [[1777]]) *[[1830]] - [[Pope Pius VIII]] (b. [[1761]]) *[[1928]] - [[José Eustasio Rivera]], Colombian writer (b. [[1888]]) *[[1934]] - [[Sergei Kirov]], Russian revolutionary (b. [[1886]]) *[[1943]] - [[Damrong Rajanubhab]], Thai prince and historian (b. [[1862]]) *[[1947]] - [[Aleister Crowley]], English occultist (b. [[1875]]) *[[1950]] - [[E. J. Moeran]], English composer (b. [[1894]]) *[[1964]] - [[J. B. S. Haldane]], Scottish geneticist (b. [[1892]]) *[[1973]] - [[David Ben-Gurion]], first [[Prime Minister of Israel]] (b. [[1886]]) *[[1975]] - [[Nellie Fox]], baseball player (b. [[1927]]) *1975 - [[Anna E. Roosevelt]], American radio personality (b. [[1906]]) *[[1985]] - [[Alvin Ailey]], American dancer, choreographer (b. [[1931]]) *[[1987]] - [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], American writer (b. [[1924]]) *[[1991]] - [[George Joseph Stigler]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1911]]) *[[1997]] - [[Stéphane Grappelli]], French jazz violinist (b. [[1908]]) *[[2003]] - [[Clark Kerr]], first Chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley (b. [[1911]]) *[[2004]] - [[Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands]] (b. [[1911]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Portugal]] - Restauration of Independence Day: on December 1, 1640, Portugal regains its independence from Spain and João IV of P
/skepdic.com/crowley.html Aleister Crowley (1875-1947)]&quot;. The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved [[30 December]] [[2004]]. * Crowley, Aleister(1990) &quot;[http://deoxy.org/taowley.htm The Tao Teh King, Liber CLVII: THE EQUINOX Vol. III. No. VIII. ASCII VERSION]&quot;. Retrieved [[30 December]] [[2004]]. * [http://www.egnu.org/thelema/ Free Encyclopedia of Thelema] (2005). * [http://www.egnu.org/thelema/index.php/The_Equinox The Equinox]. Retrieved [[24 March]] [[2005]]. * A biography of Crowley by Lawrence Sutin, ''Do What Thou Wilt'' (2000) ISBN 0312288972. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{Wikisource author}} *http://www.aleistercrowley.com/ * {{gutenberg author| id=Aleister+Crowley | name=Aleister Crowley}} *[http://www.93beast.fea.st/files/ The most complete resource for books of Crowley in PDF format] *[http://www.newaeonfilms.com A site dedicated to a film being made on Crowley's life] *[http://altreligion.about.com/library/faqs/bl_crowleyfaq.htm Crowley Controversy FAQ] *[http://www.thelemapedia.org/index.php/Aleister_Crowley Aleister Crowley on Thelemapedia] *[http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/religion/aleister-crowley/ Aleister Crowley - The Rotten Library] *[http://www.rinf.com/e-books/Aleister-Crowley.html Aleister Crowley Ebooks] *[http://www.oxygenee.com/absinthe-BOOKS10.html Aleister Crowley and the Green Goddess] [[Category:1875 births|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:1947 deaths|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:Astrologers|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:Bisexual writers|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:British chess players|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:English astrologers|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:English mountain climbers|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:English novelists|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:English occultists|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:Freemasons|Crowley]] [[Category:Hermeticism|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:Occultists|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:Thelema|Crowley, Aleister]] [[af:Aleister Crowley]] [[cs:Aleister Crowley]] [[de:Aleister Crowley]] [[es:Aleister Crowley]] [[fr:Aleister Crowley]] [[it:Aleister Crowley]] [[nl:Aleister Crowley]] [[ja:アレイスター・クロウリー]] [[no:Aleister Crowley]] [[pl:Aleister Crowley]] [[pt:Aleister Crowley]] [[ru:Кроули, Алистер]] [[simple:Aleister Crowley]] [[fi:Aleister Crowley]] [[sv:Aleister Crowley]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afterlife</title> <id>1178</id> <revision> <id>41839865</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:05:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ZAROVE</username> <id>446619</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Logical arguments */ Most religions do not assert this.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Japanese film, see [[After Life]]. For the British television drama, see [[Afterlife (television)]]. For the PC game see [[Afterlife (game)]].'' The '''afterlife''' (or '''life after death''') is a generic term referring to a '''continuation''' of [[existence]], typically [[spirituality|spiritual]] and experiential, beyond this world, or after death. This article is about current generic and widely held or reported concepts of afterlife. ''See also: [[Underworld]], for a comprehensive catalog of specific traditions about afterlife.'' ==Afterlife as a belief== Many people believe in an afterlife. It is generally described as a non-verifiable and non-falsifiable [[belief]] within a [[religion]], because it is generally accepted as beyond the experiential knowledge or casual accessibility of most people (see [[esoteric knowledge]]). As a result, the popular mind relies on various sources for concepts about afterlife, arranged below in presumed order of reliability: *Testimony of individuals who claim experiential knowledge of facets of afterlife **by having died and then been sent back to this life ([[near-death experience]]s) **by having visited the afterlife during a period of unconsciousness ([[out-of-body experience]]s) **by having seen the afterlife during a revelatory vision **by a unique personal gift of remembering an afterlife (before-life) existence **by having communicated with (or received a message from) someone who has passed over ([[after death communication]] or [[electronic voice phenomenon|electronic voice phenomena]]) *Testimony of individuals who are presumed to have special insights into the afterlife **holy ones **miracle workers **spectacular converts *Claimed testimony of visitors from the afterlife **God **Angels **Spirits *Human intuitions of goodness assumed to emanate from the afterlife *Speculation and extrapolation *Concoction While there is information available from all of the above sources, a preponderance of concoctions, speculations, and extrapolations have arguably historically characterized formal descriptions of afterlife. Religious traditions have historically formalized and codified ideas about afterlife in widely divergent forms. Though the onset of the [[information age]] is bringing to light increasing consistency and uniformity of beliefs about afterlife from across and without religious boundaries, most afterlife conceptions continue to follow traditional descriptions, often viewed as rationally weak by skeptics who -- particularly [[atheism|atheists]] and [[agnosticism|agnostics]] of a secular humanist mindset -- may hold that we entirely cease to exist. However, it should be pointed out that not all atheists and agnostics necessarily rule out the existence of an afterlife. For example, many [[buddhism|Buddhists]] neither confirm nor deny the existence of the supernatural (gods, demons, heavens, hells, etc.), while simultaneously embracing the concept of [[rebirth (Buddhist)|rebirth]]. For those who do believe in an afterlife, the various conceptions about it differ in their answer to the following questions: * Is the afterlife a normal life, or a different type of existence? * Are afterlife conditions a consequence of good and bad actions during life? * Is afterlife eternal? * Is it possible to reincarnate as a human or other form of life? * What happens at the moment of death? * Are [[ghost]]s and other [[undead]] a proof of an afterlife? ==Afterlife as an individual existence== For an afterlife to exist, there must be something that survives the body when death occurs. This something is usually believed to be extraphysical and is usually called [[soul]] or spirit. Philosophers have long debated whether such an extraphysical substance can exist; see [[Mind-body problem]]. == Afterlife as reward or punishment == One notion of afterlife which is common to [[Judaism]] (see [[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba (the world to come)|the afterlife and ''olam haba'' [&quot;world to come&quot;] ]]), most sects of [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]] is that human [[soul]]s go on for [[eternity]] to a place of [[happiness]] or [[torment]], such as [[heaven]], [[hell]], or [[purgatory]] or [[limbo]]. Many [[religion|religions]] hold that after death people get reward or punishment based on their deeds or faith. The [[Christian Bible]], for example, contains the words of Jesus: &quot;The measure you give will be the measure you get.&quot; ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 4:24). Some Christians, however, assert that Christianity does not hold to the doctrine that entry into Heaven can be earned, rather that it is a gift that is solely God's to give. A common line of reasoning for this is as follows: The Christian Bible states that &quot;all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God,&quot; ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 3:23) meaning nobody has ever managed to live their life without sinning at least once, and this precludes any sort of afterlife reward. Furthermore, &quot;the wages of sin is death...the gift of God is eternal life in Jesus Christ our Lord.&quot; ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 6:23) &quot;Eternal life&quot; is traditionally accepted to mean life in Heaven, after death. These passages lead some to believe that Christianity may be the only religion that does not hold to the doctrine that entry into Heaven can be earned, as nobody could ever earn it, and it is a gift that is solely God's to give. For many, belief in an afterlife is a consolation in connection with death of a beloved one or the prospect of one's own death. On the other hand, [[fear]] of hell etc. may make death worse. In the informal folk beliefs of many Christians, the souls of virtuous people ascend to Heaven and are converted into [[angels]] upon their deaths. However, a more literal reading of scripture suggests that the dead wait until the [[Last Judgment]], which is followed by resurrection for the faithful. More formal Christian theology makes a sharp distinction between ''angels'', who were created by [[God]] before the creation of humanity, and ''saints'', who are virtuous people who have received immortality from the grace of [[God]]. In view of the eternity of afterlife, some consider regular life as relatively unimportant, except for determining whether afterlife follows, and/or what kind. It is just a provisional situation, and the [[metaphor]] of a [[tent]] as provisional housing facility is used as quoted below: :''For we know that if our earthly house of this [[tabernacle]] were dissolved, we have a [[building]] of God, a [[house]] not made with hands, eternal in the heavens.''(Bible, 2 Corinthians 5:1) In what we know of [[Egyptian religion]], afterlife is very important. The believer had to act well and know the rituals explained in the [[Egyptian Book of the Dead]]. If the corpse was properly [[embalm]]ed and entombed in a [[mastaba]], the defunct would relive in the [[Fields of Yalu]] and accompany the Sun god on its daily ride. If, during the [[psychomachia]], the souls&lt;!-- ka or ba? --&gt; of the defunct were found faulty, the [[Devourer]] monster would eat them. Others, including some Universal
es Darwin Books] *[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/darwinism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] *[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/darwinism.html What is Darwinism] [[Category:Evolution]] [[da:Darwinisme]] [[de:Darwinismus]] [[es:Darwinismo]] [[lt:Darvinizmas]] [[nl:Darwinisme]] [[ja:ダーウィニズム]] [[no:Darwinisme]] [[pl:Darwinizm]] [[pt:Darwinismo]] [[sv:Darwinism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Doraemon</title> <id>8412</id> <revision> <id>42111086</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:14:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gryffindor</username> <id>206678</id> </contributor> <comment>small corrections</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox animanga/Header| title_name=Doraemon |image=Doraemon_hat.jpg |size=212px |caption=Dorameon with his classic smile |ja_name=ドラえもん| |ja_name_trans=Doraemon |genre=Comedy }} {{Infobox animanga/Anime| title= |director=Tsutomu Shibayama |studio=Asatsu DK |network=[[TV Asahi]] |first_aired=[[2 April]] [[1979]] |last_aired= |num_episodes=Over 2000 }} {{Infobox animanga/Footer}} {{nihongo|'''Doraemon|ドラえもん|}} by Hiroshi Fujimoto, pen name [[Fujiko Fujio|Fujiko F. Fujio]], is a [[Japan]]ese [[manga]] about a [[robot]]ic [[cat]], Doraemon, who has [[time travel|travelled back in time]] from the future to aid a schoolboy, Nobita Nobi. The stories first appeared in January 1970. They were simultaneously published in six different magazines. In total, 1,344 of the original stories were created. They are published by Shogakukan under the {{nihongo|Tentōmushi|てんとう虫|}} (ladybug) comics brand, extending to forty-five volumes. They are collected in the Takaoka Central Library, Toyama, Japan, where Fujimoto was born. Doraemon was awarded the grand prize of the [[Osamu Tezuka|Tezuka Osamu]] Cultural Prize (手塚治虫文化賞) of [[1997]]. ==Setting== [[Image:Doraemon_first_appearance.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The first appearance of Doraemon, via the time machine.]] Doraemon was originally sent back in time by Nobita's great-great grandson, ''Sewashi'', in order that his descendants reap the benefits of Nobita's success one day rather than be burdened by the considerable financial debts which his incompetence has led them to suffer in the original timeline. The stories are formulaic, usually focussed on the main character of the story, Nobita Nobi. Doraemon possesses a four-dimensional pocket from which he can produce all manner of futuristic tools, gadgets and playthings from a future department store. Nobita Nobi, a poor athlete and scholar, who is weak-willed, lazy and beset by the local bullies, inevitably comes crying to Doraemon for some device to gain revenge, fix his problems, often involving academic failure, or show up the local rich boy (Suneo) who parades his acquisitions to arouse Nobita's jealousy. Nobita usually goes too far, and, despite Doraemon's best intentions and the technology of the 22nd century, gets into deeper trouble than before. Failing that, Nobita's friends steal the gadgets and end up misusing them. However, at the end of the day, there's usually retribution to the characters who end up misusing them, and a moral lesson is learnt. What makes Doraemon so lovable is that he is not perfect, despite he is supposed to be an &quot;omnipotent&quot; robot from the 22nd century. Doramon has his own weaknesses, such as his insatiable love for ''[[dorayaki]]'', a Japanese treat that is filled with sweet bean paste (this fact is often exploited by Nobita and his family/friends to persuade Doraemon to do something that he is reluctant to do), his fear of rats (because a robotic rat bit off his ears), or his tendency to panic during emergencies (characterized by him frantically trying to pull out a very much needed tool, only to produce a HUGE assortment of unrelated household items). He also has a wide variety of expressions, from the classic, wide-mouthed grin to extreme anger. This serves to make him all the more realistic, and approachable to audiences of all ages. ==Origins== The original Doraemon manga appeared simultaneously in January 1970 in six different children's monthly magazines, divided by the year of study, called ''Yoiko'' (good children), ''Yōchien'' (nursery school), and ''Shōgaku ichinensei'' (first grade of elementary school), ''Shōgaku ninensei'' (second grade), ''Shōgaku sannensei'' (third grade), and ''Shōgaku yonensei'' (fourth grade). Later the series started also on ''Shōgaku gonensei'' (fifth grade) and ''Shōgaku rokunensei'' (sixth grade). Each story in each of the magazines was different, thus the author was originally creating more than six stories a month. In 1979, [[CoroCoro Comic]] was launched as a magazine of Doraemon. Original manga of Doraemon movies were released on CoroCoro magazine. The stories which were preserved in the Tentōmusi comics are the ones from these magazines. ==Characters== ===Nobita=== {{nihongo|Nobita Nobi|野比のび太|''Nobi Nobita''}} is the main character in the series. He is an elementary schoolboy in [[Tokyo]]. He is an only child and lives in a house. He wears glasses, a red or yellow polo shirt with a white collar, and blue shorts, and takes frequent naps. He often gets 0/100 in tests, is a poor athlete, and lacks talent in all sorts of activities/hobbies. He is, however, unrivalled in [[marksmanship]] and [[string games]]. &lt;!-- and the cloth string hand manipulation thingy i don't know what's the word for in english or japanese --&gt;&lt;!-- it is called string games -'Izz --&gt; ===Doraemon=== {{nihongo|Doraemon|ドラえもん|}} is the assistant and helper of Nobita sent back in time by Sewashi. Doraemon originally had ears but they were bitten off by a robot mouse back in the 22nd Century. As a result, he has an excessive fear of mice, despite being a robotic cat. Doraemon's favourite food is ''[[dorayaki]]'', a gong-shaped sweet. Many think that this is the origin of his name. However, it was revealed in one of the manga that his name originates from a Japanese word for &quot;stray cat&quot;, ''dora neko'', and the ''emon'' ending which is part of traditional Japanese names, as seen in, for example, ''[[Goemon]]''. Of the Doraemon characters, Doraemon is the only one to have changed since the beginning of the comic strip. He originally was stooped, had a body much larger than his head, and had a blue tail and flesh-coloured hands and feet. His body shape changed to having a head larger than the body, white hands and feet, a red tail and smaller body. The above picture of his first appearance shows the original Doraemon. He weighs 129.3 kg, his height is 129.3 cm and his birthday is Sept. 3, 2112. ===Shizuka=== {{nihongo|Shizuka Minamoto|源静香|''Minamoto Shizuka''}}, usually called ''Shizu-[[Japanese titles#Chan|chan]]'' or ''Shizukachan'' is a smart and kind young girl who is the object of Nobita's affections and his future bride. She has a habit of frequently bathing, leading to numerous accidental bath scenes. She is also known for attending piano classes, which is sometimes an excuse for declining to play with Nobita. However, she has never played the piano throughout the series (save for in the manga, in which she is occasionally forced to take lessons she resents and tries to get out of). Her true passions are sweet potatoes and violin, in which her talent rivals Jaian's singing. ===Jaian=== {{nihongo|Takeshi Goda|剛田武|''Goda Takeshi''}} , usually known by the nickname {{nihongo|Jaian|ジャイアン|}} (which could be interpreted as &quot;Giant&quot;) is big, strong, and quick-tempered. He is known for his confidence in his terrible singing and cookery. He frequently takes other children's toys and books without permission, and regularly subjects the neighbourhood children to horrendous singing recitals (sometime with his homemade dinner combo). Many of the stories revolve around Nobita and his friends' efforts to avoid Jaian's concerts. Although he bullies the other children, he is terrified of his mother. He founded his own baseball team named after himself. Strangely enough, Nobita is often blamed for the loss against its rival, the &quot;Tyranos&quot;, yet Jaian and Suneo often force Nobita to play because they do not have enough players. He has a younger sister, {{nihongo|Jaiko|ジャイ子|}}, who wants to be a manga artist. She would have been Nobita's wife in the future if Doraemon has not intervened. ===Suneo=== {{nihongo|Suneo Honekawa|骨川スネ夫|''Honekawa Suneo''}} is the braggart who parades his material wealth in front of Nobita. He is Jaian's underling, possibly to hide the fact that he is much more of a crybaby than Nobita. He is a talented artist and designer. He also has a younger brother, Sunetsugu (スネツグ), who was adopted into his uncle's family in [[New York]]. ===Minor characters=== *'''Hidetoshi Dekisugi''' (出木杉英才; ''Dekisugi Hidetoshi'') is Nobita's classmate and rival for Shizuka's affections. He always gets 100% on school tests. His name literally means &quot;brilliant over-achiever&quot;, and his last name is a pun on dekisugiru, which literally means &quot;over achieving&quot;. *'''Dorami-chan''' (ドラミちゃん) is the younger [[sister]] of Doraemon. She lives in the 22nd-century [[Tokyo]] with Sewashi, Nobita's great-great-grandson. She likes [[melon]] [[bun]]s. She is afraid of [[cockroach]]es. She seems to be superior to Doraemon. She sometimes visits Nobita with a [[time machine]].See [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/mission/mission37.jpg Dorami-chan (left side), Sewashi (right side)]. *'''Tameru Kaneo''' tends to accompany Suneo and Jaian. He has a friend (whose name is not mentioned) whom he always makes appearances with. *There is also one character whose name isn't mentioned in the story, but makes regular appearances as a friend of Kaneo. ===Nobita's family=== *'''Tamako Nobi''' (野比玉子; ''Nobi Tamako'') Nobita's Mother. Endlessly either angry with Nobita for failing tests, or sending Nobita on errands
ie-Galante]] (which he named Santa Maria la Galante). After sailing past Les Saintes (Todos los Santos), Columbus arrived at [[Guadaloupe]] (Santa Maria de Guadalupe), which he explored from [[November 4]] through [[November 10]]. The exact course of his voyage through the [[Lesser Antilles]] is debated, but it seems likely that Columbus turned north, sighting and naming several islands including [[Montserrat]] (Santa Maria de Monstserrate), [[Antigua]] (Santa Maria la Antigua), Redonda (Santa Maria la Redonda), [[Nevis]] (Santa María de las Nieve or San Martin), [[Saint Kitts]] (San Jorge), [[Sint Eustatius]] (Santa Anastasia), [[Saba]] (San Cristobal), and [[Saint Martin]] or [[Saint Croix]] (Santa Cruz). Columbus also sighted the island chain of the [[Virgin Islands]], (which he named Santa Ursula y las Once Mil Virgines), and named the islands of [[Virgin Gorda]], [[Tortola]], and [[Peter Island]] (San Pedro). Columbus continued to the [[Greater Antilles]], and landed at [[Puerto Rico]] (San Juan Bautista) on [[November 19]] [[1493]]. On [[November 22]], he returned to Hispaniola, where he found his colonists had fallen into dispute with Indians in the interior and had been killed. He established a new settlement at Isabella, on the north coast of Hispaniola where gold had first been found, but it was a poor location, and the settlement was also short-lived. He spent some time exploring the interior of the island for gold, and did find some, establishing a small fort in the interior. He left Hispaniola on [[April 24]], [[1494]] and arrived at [[Cuba]] (which he named Juana) on [[April 30]], and [[Jamaica]] on [[May 5]]. He explored the south coast of Cuba, which he believed to be a peninsula rather than an island, and several nearby islands, including the [[Isle of Youth]] (La Evangelista), before returning to Hispaniola on [[August 20]]. Before he left Spain for his second voyage, he had been directed by Ferdinand and Isabella to maintain friendly, even loving relations with the natives. However, during his second voyage he sent a letter to the monarchs proposing to enslave some of the native peoples, specifically the [[Carib]]s, on the grounds of their aggressiveness. Although his petition was refused by the Crown, in February 1495, Columbus took 1600 Arawak (a different tribe, who were hunted by the Carib) as slaves. 560 slaves were shipped to Spain; two hundred died ''en route'', probably of disease, and of the remainder, half were ill when they arrived. After legal proceedings, the survivors were released and ordered to be shipped home. Others of the 1600 were kept as slaves for Columbus' men in the Americas, and Columbus recorded using slaves for sex in his journal. A remaining 400 captives, for whom Columbus had no use, were released; they fled into the hills, making, according to Columbus, prospects for their future capture dim. Rounding up the slaves led to the first major battle between the Spanish and the Indians in the New World. The main objective of Columbus' journey had been gold. To further this goal, he imposed a system on the natives in [[Cicao]] on [[Haiti]], whereby all those above fourteen years of age had to find a certain quota of gold, to be signified by a token placed around their necks. Those who failed to reach their quota would have their hands chopped off. Despite such extreme measures, Columbus did not manage to obtain much gold. One of the primary reasons for this was the fact that natives became infected with various diseases carried by the Europeans. In his letters to the Spanish King and Queen, Columbus would repeatedly suggest slavery as a way to profit from the new colonies, but these suggestions were all rejected by the monarchs, who preferred to view the natives as future members of Christendom. ===Third voyage and arrest=== [[Image:Columbus3.PNG|thumb|left|Third voyage]] [[Image:AndalusAndMorocco.jpg|100px|thumb|The arrow points to the city of [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda]] on the delta of the [[Guadalquivir River]], in [[Andalusia]].]] On [[May 30]], [[1498]], Columbus left with six ships from [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda|Sanlúcar, Spain]] for his third trip to the New World. He was accompanied by the young [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]], who would later provide partial transcripts of Columbus' logs. Columbus led the fleet to the Portuguese island of Porto Santo where his wife was from. He then sailed to Madeira and spent some time there with the Portuguese captain, João Gonçalves da Camara before sailing to the [[Canary Islands]] and [[Cape Verde]], Columbus landed on the south coast of the island of [[Trinidad]] on [[July 31]]. From [[August 4]] through [[August 12]], he explored the [[Gulf of Paria]] which separates Trinidad from [[Venezuela]]. He explored the mainland of [[South America]], including the [[Orinoco]] River. He also sailed to the islands of [[Chacachcare]] and [[Margarita Island]] and sighted and named [[Tobago]] (Bella Forma) and [[Grenada]] (Concepcion). Initially, he described the new lands as belonging to a previously unknown new continent, but later he retreated to his position that they belonged to Asia. Columbus returned to Hispaniola on [[August 19]] to find that many of the Spanish settlers of the new colony were discontent, having been misled by Columbus about the supposedly bountiful riches of the new world. Columbus repeatedly had to deal with rebellious settlers and Indians. He had some of his crew hanged for disobeying him. A number of returned settlers and friars lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him of mismanagement. The king and queen sent the royal administrator [[Francisco de Bobadilla]] in 1500, who upon arrival ([[August 23]]) detained Columbus and his brothers and had them shipped home. Columbus refused to have his shackles removed on the trip to Spain, during which he wrote a long and pleading letter to the Spanish monarchs. Although he regained his freedom, he did not regain his prestige and lost his governorship. As an added insult, the Portuguese had won the race to the Indies: [[Vasco da Gama]] returned in September 1499 from a trip to India, having sailed east around Africa. ===Fourth and final voyage=== [[Image:Columbus4.PNG|thumb|left|Fourth voyage]] Nevertheless, Columbus made a fourth voyage, nominally in search of the [[Strait of Malacca]] to the [[Indian Ocean]]. Accompanied by his brother Bartolomeo and his thirteen-year old son Fernando, Columbus left Cádiz, Spain on [[May 11]], [[1502]]. Columbus sailed to Arzila on the Moroccon coast to rescue the Portuguese soldiers who he heard were there under siege by the Moors. On [[June 15]], they landed at Carbet on the island of [[Martinique]] (Martinica). A hurricane was brewing, so Columbus continued on, hoping to find shelter on Hispaniola. Columbus arrived at [[Santo Domingo]] on [[June 29]], but was denied port. Instead, the ships anchored at the mouth of the Jaina River. After a brief stop at Jamaica, Columbus sailed to [[Central America]], arriving at Guanaja (Isla de Pinos) in the [[Islas de la Bahía department|Bay Islands]] off the coast of [[Honduras]] on [[July 30]]. Here Bartholomew found native merchants and a large canoe, which was described as &quot;long as a galley&quot; and was filled with cargo. On [[August 14]], Columbus landed on the American mainland at Puerto Castilla, near [[Trujillo, Honduras]]. Columbus spent two months exploring the coasts of Honduras, [[Nicaragua]], and [[Costa Rica]], before arriving in Almirante Bay, [[Panama]] on [[October 16]]. In Panama, Columbus learned from the natives of gold and a strait to another ocean. After much exploration, he established a garrison at the mouth of Rio Belen in January 1503. On [[April 6]], one of the ships became stranded in the river. At the same time, the garrison was attacked, and the other ships were damaged. Columbus left for Hispaniola on [[April 16]], but sustained more damage in a storm off the coast of Cuba. Unable to travel any farther, the ships were beached in [[Saint Ann Parish, Jamaica|St. Ann's Bay, Jamaica]], on [[June 25]], [[1503]]. Columbus and his men were stranded on Jamaica for a year. Two Spaniards, with native paddlers, were sent by [[canoe]] to get help from Hispaniola. In the meantime, Columbus, in a desperate effort to induce the natives to continue provisioning him and his hungry men, successfully intimidated the natives by correctly predicting a [[lunar eclipse]], using astronomic tables made by Rabbi Avraham Zacuto of Spain. Grudging help finally arrived on [[June 29]], [[1504]], and Columbus and his men arrived in [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda|Sanlúcar, Spain]], on [[November 7]]. ==Later life== [[Image:ColumbusHouseOfValladolid.jpg|thumb|right|Santa Maria statue. House of Columbus in [[Valladolid]]]] While Columbus had always given the conversion of non-believers as one reason for his explorations, he grew increasingly religious in his later years. He claimed to hear divine voices, lobbied for a new [[crusade]] to capture [[Jerusalem]], often wore [[Franciscan]] habit, and described his explorations to the &quot;paradise&quot; as part of God's plan which would soon result in the [[Christian eschatology|Last Judgement]] and the end of the world. In his later years, Columbus demanded that the Spanish Crown give him 10% of all profits made in the new lands, pursuant to earlier agreements. Because he had been relieved of his duties as governor, the crown felt not bound by these contracts and his demands were rejected. His family later sued for part of the profits from trade with America, but ultimately lost some fifty years later. On [[May 20]], [[1506]], Columbus died in [[Valladolid]], fairly wealthy due to the gold his men had accumulated in Hispaniola. He was still convinced that his journeys had been along the East Coast of Asia. Following his death, the body of Columbus underwent [[excarnation]]--the flesh was removed so
eon Interval [poems from Punch] * ''[[When We Were Very Young]]'', ([[1924]]) * ''[[Now We Are Six]]'', ([[1927]]) * ''[[Behind the Lines]]'', ([[1940]]) * ''[[The Norman Church]]'', ([[1948]]) ===Plays=== Milne wrote over 25 plays including: * ''[[Wurzel-Flummery]]'', ([[1917]]) * ''[[Belinda (play)|Belinda]]'', ([[1918]]) * ''[[The Boy Comes Home]]'', ([[1918]]) * ''[[Make-Believe (play)|Make-Believe]]'', ([[1918]]) [a play for children] * ''[[The Camberley Triangle]]'', ([[1919]]) * ''[[Mr. Pim Passes By]]'', ([[1919]]) * ''[[The Red Feathers]]'', ([[1920]]) * ''[[The Romantic Age]]'', ([[1920]]) * ''[[The Stepmother (play)|The Stepmother]]'', ([[1920]]) * ''[[The Truth about Blayds]]'', ([[1920]]) * ''[[The Dover Road]]'', ([[1921]]) * ''[[The Lucky One]]'', ([[1922]]) * ''[[The Artist: a Duologue]]'', ([[1923]]) * ''[[Give Me Yesterday]]'', ([[1923]]) [aka Success in the UK] * ''[[The Great Broxopp]]'', ([[1923]]) * ''[[Ariadne]]'', ([[1924]]) * ''[[The Man in the Bowler Hat]]'', ([[1924]]) [one act] * ''[[To Have the Honour]]'', ([[1924]]) * ''[[Portrait of a Gentleman in Slippers]]'', ([[1926]]) * ''[[Success; a play in three acts]]'', ([[1926]]) * ''[[Miss Marlow at Play]]'', ([[1927]]) * ''[[The Fourth Wall]] or [[The Perfect Alibi]]'', ([[1928]]) * ''[[The Ivory Door]]'', ([[1929]]) * ''[[Toad of Toad Hall]]'', ([[1929]]) (Adaptation of [[The Wind in the Willows]]) * ''[[Other People's Lives]]'', ([[1933]]) [aka They Don't Mean Any Harm] * ''[[Miss Elizabeth Bennett]]'' (based on [[Pride and Prejudice]]?, ([[1936]]) * ''[[Sarah Simple]]'', ([[1937]]) * ''[[Gentleman Unknown]]'', ([[1938]]) * ''[[The Ugly Duckling (play)|The Ugly Duckling]]'' ([[1946]]) * ''[[Before the Flood (A. A. Milne)|Before the Flood]]'', ([[1951]]) * ''[[Michael and Mary]]'' == Books on Pooh and Milne == * Crews, Frederick, ''The Pooh Perplex'', Chicago &amp; London, University of Chicago Press, 2003 (1st ed. 1963) ISBN 0226120589 * Crews, Frederick, ''Postmodern Pooh'', New York, North Point Press, 2001 ISBN 0865476543 * [[Benjamin Hoff|Hoff, Benjamin]], ''[[The Tao of Pooh]]'', New York, Penguin, 1983 ISBN 0140067477 * [[Benjamin Hoff|Hoff, Benjamin]], ''[[The Te of Piglet]]'', New York, Dutton Adult, 1992 ISBN 0525934960 * Milne, Christopher Robin and A. R. Melrose (ed.), ''Beyond the World of Pooh: Selections from the Memoirs of Christopher Milne'', New York, Dutton, 1998 ISBN 0525458883 * Thwaite, Ann, ''A. A. Milne: His Life'', New York, Random House, 1990 ISBN 0394587243 * Tyerman Williams, John, ''Pooh and the Philosophers: In Which It Is Shown That All of Western Philosophy Is Merely a Preamble to Winnie-The-Pooh'', London, Methuen, 1995 ISBN 0525455205 * Wullschlager, Jackie, ''Inventing Wonderland: The Lives and Fantasies of Lewis Carroll, Edward Lear, J. M. Barrie, Kenneth Grahame and A. A. Milne'', New York &amp; Detroit, The Free Press, 1996 ISBN 0684822865 == Films == * ''The Fourth Wall'' was made into a film called ''[[The Perfect Alibi (film)|The Perfect Alibi]]'' * ''[[Michael and Mary (film)|Michael and Mary]]'' was filmed in 1932 == External links == {{wikiquote}} * {{gutenberg author|id=A._A._Milne|name=A. A. Milne}} * [http://books.guardian.co.uk/extracts/story/0,,1667391,00.html Milne extract in the Guardian] [[Category:1882 births|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:1956 deaths|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:British Army officers|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:British novelists|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:British children's writers|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:Old Westminsters|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:Winnie-the-Pooh|Milne, A. A.]] [[bg:Алън Милн]] [[cs:Alexander A. Milne]] [[de:A. A. Milne]] [[es:Alan Alexander Milne]] [[eo:A. A. MILNE]] [[it:Alan Alexander Milne]] [[he:אלן אלכסנדר מילן]] [[nl:A.A. Milne]] [[ja:A・A・ミルン]] [[no:A. A. Milne]] [[pl:Alan Alexander Milne]] [[ru:Милн, Алан Александр]] [[fi:A. A. Milne]] [[sv:A.A. Milne]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alumni</title> <id>925</id> <revision> <id>33789294</id> <timestamp>2006-01-04T00:59:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dmlandfair</username> <id>296817</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alumnus/a]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alumna</title> <id>926</id> <revision> <id>33791606</id> <timestamp>2006-01-04T01:18:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dmlandfair</username> <id>296817</id> </contributor> <comment>un-double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[alumnus/a]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Addiction</title> <id>927</id> <revision> <id>42142122</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:29:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Onealej</username> <id>1009778</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Criticism */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Addictive|the song by [[Truth Hurts]]|[[Addictive (song)]]}} '''Addiction''' is a [[compulsion]] to repeat a behaviour regardless of its consequences. A person who is addicted is sometimes called an '''addict'''. There is a lack of consensus as to what may properly be termed 'addiction.' Some within the medical community maintain a rigid definition of addiction and contend that the term is only applicable to a process of escalating drug or alcohol use as a result of repeated exposure. However, addiction is often applied to compulsive [[behavior]]s other than drug use, such as overeating or gambling. In all cases, the term addiction describes a chronic pattern of behaviour that continues despite the direct or indirect adverse consequences that result from engaging in the behavior. It is quite common for an addict to express the desire to stop the behaviour, but find himself or herself unable to cease. Addiction is often characterized by a craving for more of the drug or behavior, increased [[physiological tolerance]] to exposure, and [[withdrawal]] symptoms in the absence of the stimulus. Many drugs and behaviours that provide either pleasure or relief from pain pose a risk of addiction or [[chemical dependency|dependency]]. ==Terminology and usage== The medical community now makes a careful theoretical distinction between ''physical dependence'' (characterized by symptoms of [[withdrawal]]) and ''psychological addiction'' (or simply ''addiction''). Addiction is now narrowly defined as &quot;uncontrolled, compulsive use despite harm&quot;; if there is no harm being suffered by, or damage done to, the patient or another party, then clinically it may be considered compulsive, but within this narrow definition it is not categorized as &quot;addiction&quot;. In practice, however, the two kinds of addiction are not always easy to distinguish. Addictions often have both physical and psychological components. There is also a lesser known situation called [[pseudo-addiction]], where a patient will exhibit drug-seeking behaviour reminiscent of psychological addiction, however in this case, the patients tend to have genuine pain or other symptoms that have been undertreated. Unlike true psychological addiction, however, these behaviours tend to stop as soon as their pain is adequately treated. The term &quot;''[[dry drunk]]''&quot; is sometimes attached to patterns of behavior that persist after an object of dependence and/or misuse has been removed from daily living routines. This type of behaviour is fairly common in early recovery for those recovering from substance misuse. The obsolete term ''physical addiction'' is deprecated, because of its connotations. In modern pain management with opioids: physical dependence is nearly universal but addiction is rare. Some of the highly addictive drugs (''[[hard drug]]s''), such as [[cocaine]], induce relatively little physical dependence. Not all doctors do agree on what addiction or dependency is*, particularly because traditionally, addiction has been defined as being possible only to a psychoactive substance (for example [[alcoholism|alcohol]], [[Tobacco smoking|tobacco]], or [[drug addiction|drugs]]), which is ingested, crosses the [[blood-brain barrier]], and alters the natural chemical behaviour of the brain temporarily. Many people, both psychology professionals and laypersons, now feel that there should be accommodation made to include psychological dependency on such things as [[gambling]], [[overeating|food]], [[hypersexuality|sex]], [[pornography addiction|pornography]], [[computer addiction|computers]], [[workaholic|work]], and [[shopping]] / spending. However, these are things or tasks which, when used or performed, cannot cross the blood-brain barrier and hence, do not fit into the traditional view of addiction. Symptoms mimicking withdrawal may occur with abatement of such behaviours; however, it is said by those who adhere to a traditionalist view that these withdrawal-like symptoms are not strictly reflective of an addiction, but rather of a behavioural disorder. In spite of traditionalist protests and warnings that overextension of definitions may cause the wrong treatment to be used (thus failing the person with the behavioural problem), popular media, and some members of the field, do represent the aforementioned behavioural examples as addictions. *note: the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM IVR) specifically spells out criteria to define abuse and dependence conditions. ==Varied forms of addiction== ===Physical dependency=== ''Physical dependency'' on a substance is defined by the appearance of characteristic [[withdrawal]] symptoms when the drug is suddenly discontinued. While opioids, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, alcohol and nicotine are all well known for their ability to induce physical dependence, other drugs share this property that are not considered addictive: cortisone, [[beta-bloc
America]], particularly in Mexico, to make a reference to U.S. residents, not necessarily in a pejorative way. ''Yanqui'' (''[[Yankee]]'') is also very common in some regions. There have been a number of attempts to [[neologism|coin]] an alternative to &quot;[[American (disambiguation)|American]]&quot; as an adjective (a [[demonym]]) for a citizen of the [[United States]], that would not simultaneously mean a citizen of the Americas. With the [[1994]] passage of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]], the following words were used to label the ''United States Section'' of that organization: in [[Canadian French]], ''étatsunien''; in Spanish, ''estadounidense''. ==Seeking alternate names== Many people use the word &quot;American&quot; to indicate any inhabitant of [[the Americas]] (which many people in other parts of the world tend to consider a single continent, called America) rather than specifically a citizen of the United States; and perceive the latter usage of &quot;American&quot; to be potentially ambiguous, and perhaps aggressive in tone or imperialistic, a rather widespread view in Latin America. However, many in the US assert that the word &quot;America&quot; in &quot;United States of America&quot; denotes the country's proper name, and is not a geographical indicator. They argue that the interpretation of ''United States '''of''' America'' to mean a country named ''United States'' located in the continent of ''America'' is mistaken. Instead, they argue that the preposition ''of'' is equivalent to the ''of'' in ''Federative Republic '''of''' Brazil'', ''Commonwealth '''of''' Australia'', ''Federal Republic '''of''' Germany''. That is, the ''of'' indicates the name of the state. In addition, other countries use &quot;United&quot; or &quot;States&quot; in their names as well. Indeed, the formal name of [[Mexico]] is ''Estados Unidos Mexicanos'', currently officially translated as &quot;United Mexican States&quot; had in the past been translated as &quot;United States of Mexico.&quot; Regardless, many question a nation's right to formally appropriate the name of a continent for itself, citing the fact that America existed long before the United States ''of'' America. Indeed, [[Amerigo Vespucci]] (who travelled extensively throughout the Caribbean basin) never set foot on present US territory. Some U.S. citizens and Latin Americans alike have no problem with the simultaneous usage of &quot;American&quot; as an adjective for all inhabitants of the Americas, and make the distinction between the demonym for a country and the demonym for a continent (or continents). They argue that there is no reason the two cannot share the term if it is used in distinct but equally legitimate contexts. In other cases, the motivation is not so much political as it is academic, to avoid a perceived ambiguity. For instance, in legal circles a citizen of the United States is usually referred to as a 'U.S. citizen,' not an 'American citizen,' which could arguably apply to citizens of other American nation states as well. A modern alternative term used by Latin speakers to reffer the people from the United Sates in their language is &quot;USen,&quot; situable short for &quot;United States Citizen.&quot; ==The alternatives== Attempts to create such a name have failed to gain widespread use. Proposals have included: *Americanite *Appalacian (now only considered an accurate term for the people of [[Appalachia]]) *Colonican *Columbard *[[Historical Columbia|Columbia]]n (hence the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]]) *Frede or Fredonian *[[Nacirema]] *Statesider *Uesican (pronounced {{IPA|[juˈɛsɪkən]}}) or Uessian (pronounced {{IPA|[juˈɛsiən]}}) *Unisan or Unisian *United States American, United Stater, United Stateser, United Statian, United Statesian, or United Statesman *USAian, U.S. American, Usan, USAn, Usanian, Usian (pronounced {{IPA|[ˈjuʒən]}}), U-S-ian, or [[Usonia]]n (pronounced {{IPA|[juˈsoʊniən]}}) *USen *Vespuccino *Washingtonian. References to these words have been around since the early days of the republic, but ''American'' has become by far the most common term. ''[[Usonia]]n'' is used in architectural circles, and ''Washingtonian'' remains as the adjective for the state of [[Washington]] and the city of [[Washington, D.C.]]. Several of these terms have direct parallels in languages other than [[English language|English]]. Many languages have already created their own distinct word for a citizen of the United States: *''United Statian'' directly parallels the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] term ''estadounidense''. *''Norteamericano'' (North American) is common in [[Latin America]], but suffers from the same kind of ambiguity as ''American'', since Canadians and Mexicans, amongst others, are also North Americans. * In [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], ''norte-americano'' is the most commonly used term. ''Estadunidense'' is gaining some popularity, specifically in [[Brazil]], where its usage traditionally rises during times of tension with the USA. *''Amerikan'' is a derogatory spelling, after the Eastern European spelling made popular in the West by Franz Kafka's 1946 novel. *''Usonian'', from [[Usonia]], a term [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] used to describe his vision for American [[architecture]], homes, and cities, and used by [[John Dos Passos]] in his [[U.S.A. trilogy]]. * The [[Esperanto]] term for the [[United States|United States of America]] is ''Usono''. This is generally thought to come from &quot;[[Usonia]].&quot; In Esperanto, one forms the word for a citizen of a given country using the suffix &quot;-an&quot; which means &quot;member of.&quot; Therefore a citizen of the United States is ''usonano''. (Such derived words are not capitalized.) Esperanto terms for the American geographic regions and their people are ''Ameriko/amerikano'', ''Norda Ameriko/nordamerikano'', ''Meza Ameriko/mezamerikano'', and ''Suda Ameriko/sudamerikano''. *''Usanian'' is derived from the [[Ido]] word ''Usana''. *''[[Yankee]]'', often shortened to ''Yank'', is used all over the world in an informal manner similar to the use of the Mexican word ''[[Gringo]]''. Both terms may occasionally be used in an affectionate or pejorative sense. On occasion some U.S. citizens will take offense at the term ''Yankee'', particularly Southerners (residents of the [[Southeastern United States]]), who use ''Yankee'' to refer to Northerners (residents of the [[Northeastern United States]]), sometimes in a derogatory way. (Some people from [[Scotland]] or [[Wales]] may use ''Yankee'' as a deliberate riposte to people from the US who refer to them as English, from the enduring misconception that [[England]] is coterminous with the [[United Kingdom]].) **The colloquial term ''Yank'' for a U.S citizen, used in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[Australia]], is a derivative of ''Yankee''. In Australia, the [[Cockney]] [[Cockney rhyming slang|rhyming slang]] term ''Sepo'' survives, derived from ''septic tank''. * In [[French language|French]], ''États-Unien(ne)'', ''Étatsunien(ne)'', or ''Étasunien(ne)'' are gaining some popularity. * In [[Italian language|Italian]] the term ''Statunitense'' (from 'Stati Uniti' = 'United States') is quite widespread, especially referring to sporting events. * In [[German language|German]], ''US-Amerikaner'' may be used to avoid ambiguity or to be [[politically correct]], but it may come across as pedantic if used conversationally. ''Amerikaner'' is in general usage in German, and is widely accepted to refer to the United States. ''Ami'' is a colloquialism which unambiguously refers to US citizens. The German usage of ''Ami'' is akin to the Mexican usage of ''[[Gringo]]'', in that it can be neutral, patronizing, or perhaps even affectionate. * In [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] the term ''Bandaríkjamenn'' is quite widespread, Bandaríkin (United States) and menn for (people/persons) ==Less serious alternatives== Less serious terms that have been popular on the Internet at various times include *Leftpondian - from the fact that the USA is on the left side of the Atlantic Ocean (the &quot;pond&quot;) as seen on a map with north at the top. This term is often used to include Canadians as well. *Merkin - from the way some Americans pronounce the word &quot;American&quot;, but also playing on the word's [[merkin|other meaning]]. == See also == * [[Americas (terminology)]] * [[Alternative words for British]] ==Scholarly sources== * [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=58426145 Allen, Irving L. ''The Language of Ethnic Conflict: Social Organization and Lexical Culture'' (1983).] * Herbst, Philip H. ''Color of Words: An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States'' (1997) ISBN 1877864978. ==External links== * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Columnists/Column/0,,234240,00.html &quot;The trouble with Americans&quot;] by [[The Guardian]] on the use of the word &quot;American&quot; meaning &quot;US citizen&quot; ([[September 7]], [[1998]]) [[Category:American culture]] [[es:El uso de la palabra americana/o]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ada programming language</title> <id>1242</id> <revision> <id>41939950</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:42:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ManuelGR</username> <id>36220</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox programming language |name = Ada |logo = [[Image:Ada Lovelace.jpg|157px]] |paradigm = [[multi-paradigm programming language|multi-paradigm]]: [[Concurrent programming language|concurrent]], [[Distributed programming|distributed]], [[Generic programming|generic-programming]], [[Imperative programming|imperative]], [[object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] |year = 1983, last revised 2005 |designer = [[Jean Ichbiah]] |typing = [[Datatype#Static_and_dynamic_typing|static]], [[Datatype#Strong_and_weak_typing|strong]], [[Datatype#safe
uter]]s is designed, developed, manufactured, and marketed by [[Apple Computer]]. Named after the [[McIntosh|McIntosh apple]], the [[Macintosh 128K|original Macintosh]] was released on [[January 24]], [[1984]]. It was the first commercially successful personal computer to use a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) and [[Mouse (computing)|mouse]] instead of the then-standard [[command line interface]]. The current range of Macintoshes varies from Apple's &quot;budget&quot; [[Mac mini]] desktop, to its mid-range server, the [[Xserve]]. Macintosh systems are mainly targeted towards the home, education, and creative professional markets; more recently, the Xserve G5 server has enabled Apple to gain entry to the corporate market. Production of the Macintosh is based upon a [[vertical integration]] model, in that Apple facilitates all aspects of its hardware, and creates its own operating system, the same method used in [[video game console|gaming consoles]] (the original IBM PC was conceived as a vertically integrated platform but in a key decision, Microsoft was able to retain the rights to its software). The [[Mac OS history|original Macintosh operating system]] underwent many major revisions. However, the final version, [[Mac OS 9|Mac OS 9.2.2]], still lacked many modern operating system features. In 2001, Apple introduced the new [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] [[Unix-like|Unix]]-based [[Mac OS X]], featuring improved stability, multitasking and multi-user capability, while supporting older &quot;Classic&quot; applications by providing a [[Classic (Mac OS X)|&quot;Classic&quot; compatibility layer]]. The current version of Mac OS X is [[Mac OS X v10.4|Mac OS X v10.4 Tiger]], which is sold preinstalled in all Macs. (The Xserve comes with [[Mac OS X Server]].) To complement the Macintosh, Apple has developed a series of digital media applications (collectively the [[iLife]] suite), two applications that are geared towards productivity (the [[iWork]] suite), and software aimed at the creative professional market, including [[Final Cut Pro]], [[Shake (software)|Shake]], and [[Aperture (photography software)|Aperture]]. == Current product line == {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- !Image !Name !Type !Market !Description |- |style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:MacminiWhiteBGSmall.jpg|50px|The Mac mini]] |[[Mac mini]] |Desktop |Consumer |The Mac mini is the least expensive Macintosh currently in production, and the only consumer Macintosh desktop that does not ship with a monitor. It comes in two versions, one with a 1.5GHz [[Intel]] [[Intel Core|Core Solo]] and one with a 1.66GHz [[Intel Core|Core Duo]]. |- |style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:IMacG5FR whiteBG.jpg|50px|The iMac G5]] |[[iMac]] |Desktop |Consumer |The iMac is Apple's current flagship consumer desktop computer, powered by the [[Intel]] [[Intel Core|Core Duo]] CPU; the current models are the first in the Macintosh's history to use an Intel processor of any kind. Apple claimed up to 2-3x performance gains at some benchmarks over the previous model, the iMac G5, which is still listed on [http://store.apple.com/1-800-MY-APPLE/WebObjects/AppleStore.woa the online Apple Store], though performance gains in real-world tests are proving less dramatic, except when bound by the graphics card[http://barefeats.com/imcd.html]. |- |style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:EMac.jpg|50px|The eMac]] |[[eMac]] |Desktop |Education |The eMac is a low-end desktop model originally intended for the educational market. It was sold freely to all markets from June 4th, 2002&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2002/jun/04emac.html: Apple To Offer Popular eMac to Consumers], retrieved [[February 10]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; to October 12th, 2005&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.macworld.com/news/2005/10/12/emac/index.php eMac gone for consumers, but available for schools], retrieved [[November 10]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;, but is now once again restricted to educational institutions only. It features a built-in CRT screen and a PowerPC 745x-based G4 processor. |- |style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:Power_Mac_G5.jpg|30px|The PowerMac G5]] |[[Power Mac]] |Desktop |Professional |The Power Mac is Apple's most expensive, high-end workstation computer. The top-of-the-line model currently features two, dual-core [[PowerPC 970|PowerPC G5]] 970MP processors, which Apple has dubbed the &quot;Quad-Core,&quot; though this is a bit of a misnomer, as a true quad-core processor is one die with four cores. |- |style=&quot;text-align:center;;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:IBook_G4.jpg|50px|The iBook G4]] |[[iBook]] |Portable |Consumer |The iBook is Apple's consumer portable. It uses a PowerPC 7447A G4 processor at a lower clock rate than the more full-featured, professional PowerBook line. It is unknown when it will be converted to use Intel chips. |- |style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:AluminiumG4.jpg|50px|The Aluminum PowerBook G4]] |[[PowerBook]] |Portable |Professional |The PowerBook is a high-end portable workstation computer which topped-out with the PowerPC G4. The PowerBook never used the G5 processor, reportedly because power consumption and overheating issues of the G5 made it impractical for portable applications. The 15&quot; model has been replaced by the [[Intel]] [[Intel Core|Core Duo]]-powered [[MacBook Pro]], which Apple is claiming to be significantly faster than the previous PowerBook G4s. However, the 12&quot; and 17&quot; PowerBook are still [http://store.apple.com/1-800-MY-APPLE/WebObjects/AppleStore.woa available] from Apple. |- |style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:MacBook.jpg|50px|The MacBook Pro]] |[[MacBook Pro]] |Portable |Professional |The MacBook Pro is a high-end portable workstation computer which runs an [[Intel]] [[Intel Core|Core Duo]]-powered processor, in 1.83GHz or 2.0GHz models, and for the first time in years, there is an option to upgrade (just the processor) to 2.16GHz on the 2.0GHz model. The MacBook Pro also features a 15.4&quot; TFT Screen, and an innovation called [[MagSafe]], which uses magnets to hold the power adapter in place. The model was announced on [[January 10]], [[2006]] and is now shipping. Apple is claiming it is up to four times faster than the previous [[PowerBook G4]]s at some benchmarks. |- |style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:Xserve G5.jpg|80px|The Xserve G5]] |[[Xserve]] |Server |Enterprise |The Xserve G5 is an enterprise-grade 1U [[rack unit|rack-mount]] server, specifically marketed towards mission critical data centers and enterprise client services. It uses the PowerPC 970FX version of the G5, shipping with either one or two PowerPC G5s. |} The current iMac ships with the [[Apple Mighty Mouse|Mighty Mouse]], a distinctive white [[computer keyboard|keyboard]], [[Bluetooth]] and [[AirPort]] cards, an internal [[iSight]] camera, the [[Apple Remote]] for use with [[Front Row]], and a power cord. A Bluetooth wireless keyboard and mouse are available for additional cost. Although not all models currently come with all of these, it is possible that some of these accessories will come to be standard with other models. Like the Xserve, the iMac G5 uses the PowerPC 970FX G5 at up to 2.1GHz; the new iMac uses the Intel Core Duo at up to 2.0GHz. == History == {{main|History of Apple Computer}} === 1979–84: Development and introduction === [[Image:Mac Design Team.jpg|thumb|250px|A part of the original Macintosh design team, as seen on the cover of Revolution in the Valley. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Left to right: [[George Crow]], [[Joanna Hoffman]], [[Burrell Smith]], [[Andy Hertzfeld]], [[Bill Atkinson]], [[Jerry Mannock]].&lt;/small&gt;]] The Macintosh project started in early 1979 with [[Jef Raskin]], an Apple employee, who envisioned an easy-to-use, low-cost computer for the average consumer. In September 1979, Raskin was given permission to start hiring for the project, and he began to look for an engineer who could put together a prototype. [[Bill Atkinson]], a member of the Lisa team (which was developing a similar but higher-end computer), introduced him to [[Burrell Smith]], a service technician who had been hired earlier that year as Apple employee #282. Over the years, Raskin hired a large development team that designed and built the original Macintosh [[hardware]] and [[Computer software|software]]; besides Raskin, Atkinson and Smith, the team included [[Chris Espinosa]], [[Joanna Hoffman]], [[George Crow]], [[Jerry Manock]], [[Susan Kare]] and [[Andy Hertzfeld]]. Smith's first Macintosh board design was built to Raskin's specifications: it had 64 [[kilobytes]] of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], used the Motorola 6809E [[microprocessor]], and was capable of supporting a 256 × 256 [[pixel]] [[black-and-white]] [[bitmap]] display. (The final product used a 9&quot;, 512x342 [[monochrome]] display.) [[Bud Tribble]], a Macintosh programmer, was interested in running the Lisa's graphical programs on the Macintosh, and asked Smith whether he could incorporate the Lisa’s [[Motorola 68000]] microprocessor into the Mac while still keeping the production cost down. By December 1980, Smith had succeeded in designing a board that not only used the 68000, but made it faster, bumping it from 5 to 8 [[Megahertz]], a 60% clock speed increase; this board also had the capacity to support a 384 × 256 bitmap display. Smith’s design used fewer RAM chips than the Lisa, and because of this, production of the board was significantly more cost-efficient&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?story=Five_Different_Macs.txt Andy Hertzfeld: Five different Macintoshes], retrieved [[November 9]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;. At this time in December 1980, Smith's Macintosh (personally [[Wire wrap|wire-wrap]]ped by hand by Smith himself
was named the new spokesperson for the clothing line 'St. John Knits' starting in the Spring/Autumn 0f 2006. The deal with includes the start-up of a charity headed by Jolie. The charity will focus on children's issues and causes. It has been reported, but not confirmed, that she will also sit on the board of directors and have stock in the company. The deal is also believed to be the biggest celebrity clothing endorsement with the actress receiving US$10-15 million. Other celebrities such as Gwyneth Paltrow receive something about US$5 million to promote luxury clothing and accessories. On 24 October, Angelina Jolie attended the 'First Annual Benefit Gala for the Worldwide Orphans Foundation'. Where she pledged to partner with WHO to treat children in Ethiopia who have been orphaned by AIDS and are HIV positive. &quot;AIDS is chronic and manageable, and does NOT have to kill any longer,&quot; said Jolie. She also announced her plan to support WWO's Paediatric HIV/AIDS Clinic in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and pledged an initial grant. The gala helped the organisation raise $800,000. Dr. Jane Aronson, the organisation's founder, and Ms. Jolie first met through the adoption of her daughter Zahara and Jolie credits the doctor with helping save her daughter's life. ==Adoptions== On March 10, 2002 Jolie adopted her first child, Maddox Chivan Jolie. He was born on [[August 5]], [[2001]] as Rath Vibol in [[Cambodia]]. He was being housed in a Cambodian orphanage when Angelina Jolie saw him for the first time there in a production break for the film ''[[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]]''. After her divorce from her second husband [[Billy Bob Thornton]], Jolie received sole custody for Maddox. In the autumn of [[2004]], it was reported that Jolie had started proceedings to adopt another child, this time from [[Russia]]. However, no adoption ever took place. On March 8, Jolie took part in a Washington Press club luncheon.[http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/news/opendoc.htm?tbl=NEWS&amp;id=422f33944] It was there that she announced the founding of the National Center for Refugee and Immigrant Children in Washington, D.C., an organisation that provides free legal-aid to children who prior to this had no legal representation. Jolie donated $500,000 to the centre which will help keep it afloat for the first two years of its operation. At that same conference she stated that she never intended to adopt a Russian orphan boy. Jolie expressed a deep sadness at the media's exploitation of the child. She stated that she was on business through the United Nations and not looking for a child to adopt. She also mentioned that her son wanted an &quot;African brother or sister&quot; because of his love of Africa and the work he knows she does in that region. Around the same time, Lauryn Galindo, the [[Hawaii]]-based adoption facilitator whose services Jolie had used to adopt Maddox, was sentenced to 18 months in prison after pleading guilty to [[visa (document)|visa]] fraud and [[money laundering]] charges. She had been falsifying records of children to be adopted in visa applications to the [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services]], and several of the children she placed had not been abandoned at all but were enticed away or bought from their birth families. There is no evidence that Maddox was among them, although the investigation is continuing. Maddox Jolie, as he is legally named, was naturalised as a United States citizen some time ago, and there is no indication that that will be rescinded. On [[July 5]], 2005, [[People magazine]] reported that Jolie was in the final stages of adopting a baby girl, who was orphaned by AIDS, from [[Ethiopia]], through the agency [[Wide Horizons for Children]]. Jolie has named her daughter Zahara Marley Jolie. A woman in London has been claiming she is Zahara's birth mother since August 2005. Ms. Jolie has contacted a lawyer in London to look into the matter. On [[September 28]], [[2005]] while making an appearance to discuss America's financial involvement in fighting AIDS globally on CNN's &quot;[[The Situation Room]]&quot; with [[Wolf Blitzer]], Jolie stated that her daughter is an &quot;AIDS orphan&quot;. By that she means her birth mother died from the disease but her daughter does not have the disease. The birth father of Zahara is not known. Her statement made it clear that the birth mother is indeed dead. In late October [[2005]], an Ethiopian judge ruled that there is no evidence to suggest that Ms. Jolie would have to file for re-adoption of her daughter Zahara Marley Jolie. The judge ruled that the woman claiming to be her mother is not the birth mother. Earlier in the summer, another woman had come forward claiming to be the grandmother of Zahara. That claim also proved to be false. American magazine ''[[Us (magazine)|US Weekly]]'' indicated erroneously that Jolie and [[Brad Pitt]] had adopted Zahara together. When the magazine realised its error, the presses were stopped and an apology issued to Jolie and Pitt; printing of the issue resumed with the correction made, though a number of copies with the error were still released to the public. Reportedly, however, Pitt was present when Jolie signed the adoption papers. The agency later said Brad Pitt was not present when Angelina Jolie picked up her daughter. [http://www.imdb.com/news/wenn/2005-07-08/] In [[December]] [[2005]] however , it was confirmed that Pitt was seeking to legally adopt Jolie's two children. In support of this bid (and as part of legal requirements), Jolie took out [[Classified advertising|classified advertisements]] in the [[Los Angeles]] paper, the ''[[Daily Commerce]]'', announcing the name change request, and on January 19, 2006, a judge in California approved this request. The children's legal surnames were formally changed to Jolie-Pitt. [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10927183/] ==Tattoos== [[Image:tigertattooo.jpg|thumb|right|Jolie showing off her largest tattoo, a tiger on her lower back]] Jolie's inventory of tattoos has become the subject of much media attention, and she frequently adds or even changes existing tattoos. She has said that all the tattoos she possesses have a special meaning. Her tattoos include: *the letter [[H]] (for her brother [[James Haven]]) on the inside of her left wrist. *&quot;A prayer for the wild at heart, kept in cages&quot; ([[Tennessee Williams]]) on her left forearm. *a large prayer for her son Maddox on her left shoulder which covers up the Chinese &quot;death&quot; tattoo. *two pointy black tribals on the lower parts of her back. *''Quod me nutrit me destruit'' ([[Latin]] for &quot;What nourishes me also destroys me&quot;) several inches below her navel. *a tilted [[Latin cross]] on the lower left of her abdomen. *a large Asian tiger on her back. *a dragon under the tiger. *XIII (number 13 in [[Roman numerals]]) on her left forearm. * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] for &quot;strength of will.&quot; (العزيمة) on her right forearm. *&quot;know your rights&quot; just under her neck between her shoulders. Lasered/Covered: *a dragon on her left arm (she has been lasering it for some months now but it can still be faintly seen). *&quot;Billy Bob&quot;, the name of her former husband [[Billy Bob Thornton]], on her left arm (like the dragon, it is still somewhat visible despite having been in the process of removal for a long time). *a Chinese character for courage now covered by the Tennessee Williams quote. *a Chinese character for death (死) now covered by the prayer for her son. *a tattoo both Billy Bob Thornton and Angelina had a copy of. It was on her right forearm, now covered by the &quot;strength of will&quot; tattoo. *a dragon she got in Amsterdam while drunk, now covered by the latin cross. *a window on her lower back. On 'Inside the Actors Studio', she explained that she covered this tattoo, because, while she used to spend all of her time staring through windows wishing to be outside, she now lives there all of the time. Jolie has gone on record as saying that a positive effect resulting from the large number of tattoos on her body is that, while she is not opposed to film nudity, filmmakers have been forced to become more creative when plotting any nude or love scenes involving her. Make-up has been used to cover up the tattoos in productions such as the ''Tomb Raider'' films, ''Alexander'', and ''Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith''. ==Academy Awards== *1999 - Best Supporting Actress - &quot;Girl, Interrupted&quot; ==Other trivia== * She has said that she is [[Bisexuality|bisexual]] and once claimed to have been in love with fashion model [[Jenny Shimizu]], her co-star in the film ''Foxfire''. &quot;I would probably have married Jenny if I hadn't married my husband. I fell in love with her the first second I saw her.&quot; * She is [[left-handed]]. * She wears an American-size 9 shoe. * Jolie once described herself as &quot;most likely to sleep with a female fan&quot;. * She speaks &quot;very little [[French language|French]]&quot; according to her book [[Notes from My Travels]]. * The name Angelina actually means &quot;little angel&quot; in [[Italian language|Italian]]. Jolie in French means &quot;pretty&quot;. * She drives a black, Ford truck. * She has a civilian pilot's licence. * She collects knives and has interest in mortuary science. * She was born at 9:09 a.m. in Los Angeles. * Her uncle, [[Chip Taylor]], wrote the songs ''[[Wild Thing]]'' and ''[[Angel of the Morning]]. * She claims to have a fondness for [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool Football Club]], having revealed that her baby son, Maddox, &quot;only wants to play for Liverpool&quot; after he was admitted to Alder Hey Hospital in Liverpool for treatment. * She has continually denied rumours of an [[incest]]uous relationship with her brother, [[James Haven]]. During her acceptance speech for winning the [[Best Actress in a Supporting Role]] award for ''[[Girl, Interrupted (fil
folk tale sequences as separate 16 minute puppet films, bookended by live action sequences showing Asbjørnsen. In 1970, Caprino and his small team of collaborators, started work on a 25 minutes TV special, which would eventually become The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix. Based on a series of books by Norwegian cartoonist and author Kjell Aukrust, it featured a group of eccentric characters all living in the small village of Pinchcliffe. The TV special was a collection of sketches based on Aukrust's books, with no real story line. After 1.5 years of work, it was decided that it didn't really work as a whole, so production on the TV special was stopped (with the exception of some very short clips, no material from it has ever been seen by the public), and Caprino and Aukrust instead wrote a screenplay for a feature film using the characters and environments that had already been built. The result was ThHe Pinchcliffe Grand Prix, which stars Theodore Rimspoke and his two assistants, Sonny Sonny Duckworth, a cheerful and optimistic bird, and Lambert, a nervous, pessimistic and melancholic hedgehog. Theodore works as a bicycle repairman, though he spends most of his time inventing weird Rube Golberg-like contraptions. One day, the trio discover that one of Theodore's former assistants, Rudolph Gore-Slimey, has stolen his design for a race car engine, and has become a world champion Formula 1 driver. Sonny secures funding from an Arab oil sheik who happens to be vacationing in Pinchcliffe, and the trio then build a gigantic racing car, Il Tempo Gigante - a fabulous construction with two engines, radar and its own blood bank. Theodore then enters a race, and ends up winning, beating Gore-Slimey despite his attempts at sabotage. The film was made in 3.5 years by a team of approximately 5 people. Caprino directed and animated, Bjarne Sandemose (Caprino's principal collaborator thoughout his career) built the sets and the cars, and was in charge of the technical side, Ingeborg Riiser modeled the puppets and Gerd Alvsen made the costumes and props. When it came out in 1975, The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix was an enormous success in Norway, selling 1 million tickets in its first year of release. It remains the biggest box office hit of all time in Norway (Caprino Studios claim it has sold 5.5 million tickets to date, though this number appears a bit exaggarated) and was also released in many other countries. To help promote the film abroad, Caprino and Sandemose built a full scale replica of Il Tempo Gigante. It is a fully working car that can reach speeds of 280 km/h. Except for some TV work in the late seventies, Caprino made no more puppet films, focusing instead on creating attractions for a theme park outside Lillehammer based on his folk tale movies, and making tourist films using a custom built multi camera setup that shoots 280 degrees panorama movies. Since Caprino's death, his son Remo has had great success developing a computer game based on The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix. ==External links== * [http://www.caprino.no/en-UK/movies/ Caprino Studios - Official page] {{norway-bio-stub}} :{{film-director-stub}} :{{Euro-writer-stub}} [[Category:1920 births|Caprino, Ivo]] [[Category:2001 deaths|Caprino, Ivo]] [[Category:Norwegian film directors|Caprino, Ivo]] [[no:Ivo Caprino]] [[fr:Ivo Caprino]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Intel 80286</title> <id>15054</id> <revision> <id>41611847</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:32:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ugur Basak Bot</username> <id>735354</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: tr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image: Intel_80286.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An Intel 80286 Microprocessor]] [[Image:Am80286-12.jpg|200px|thumb|AMD 80286 with 12 Mhz.]] The '''Intel 80286''' (also called '''iAPX 286''', for example in the Intel programmer's manual for the 286) is an [[x86]]-family [[16-bit]] [[microprocessor]] that was introduced by [[Intel]] on [[February 1]], [[1982]]. Initially released in 6 and 8 MHz editions, it was subsequently scaled up to 12.5 MHz. (AMD and [[Harris Corporation|Harris]] later pushed the architecture to speeds as high as 20 MHz and 25 MHz, respectively.) It was widely used in [[IBM PC compatible]] [[computer]]s during the mid [[1980s]] to early [[1990s]]. The 80286 performs at twice the speed of its predecessor (the [[Intel 8086]]) per [[clock cycle]], and is able to address up to 16 [[mebibyte|MiB]] of [[Random access memory|RAM]], in contrast to the 1 MiB the 8086 can work with. While [[DOS]] machines were able to utilise this additional RAM capability via [[extended memory]] [[emulation]], few 286-based computers ever saw more than a megabyte of RAM. The 286 was designed to run multitasking applications, including communications (such as automated [[PBX]]s), [[real-time process control]], and multi-user systems. An interesting feature of this processor is that it was the first x86 processor capable of switching from [[real mode]] to [[protected mode]], enabling the use of up to 16 MiB of system memory, and allowing certain degree of protection of the memory zones used by applications. However, the 286 could not revert to real mode without resetting the processor, so protected mode was not widely used until the appearance of its successor, the [[32-bit]] [[Intel 80386]], which could go back and forth between modes easily. == External links == * [http://tuxmobil.org/286_mobile.html Linux on 286 laptops and notebooks] * [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&amp;l0=cl&amp;l1=80286 Intel 80286 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de] * [http://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainid=html/cpu/286.php CPU-INFO: 80286, indepth processor history] {{Intel_processors}} &lt;!-- note: &quot;8286&quot; to get chronological sorting --&gt; [[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 286]] [[de:Intel 80286]] [[es:Intel 80286]] [[fr:Intel 80286]] [[ko:인텔 80286]] [[it:Intel 80286]] [[nl:80286 (processor)]] [[ja:Intel 80286]] [[pl:Intel 80286]] [[pt:Intel 80286]] [[sk:Intel 80286]] [[fi:Intel 80286]] [[tr:I286]] [[zh:Intel 80286]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ivanhoe</title> <id>15055</id> <revision> <id>41692213</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:25:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ryanmcdaniel</username> <id>121715</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Adaptations */ Three movies -&gt; two movies (moved 1982 listing to TV section)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:ivanhoe.jpg|thumb|200px|Ivanhoe book cover]] '''''Ivanhoe''''' is a [[novel]] by [[Sir Walter Scott]]. It was written in [[1819]] and set in [[12th century]] [[England]], an example of [[historical fiction]]. ''Ivanhoe'' is sometimes given credit for helping to increase popular interest in the [[middle ages]] in [[19th century]] [[Europe]]. It is the story of one of the remaining [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] noble families, at a time when the nobility was overwhelmingly [[Normans|Norman]]. It follows the protagonist, Wilfred of Ivanhoe&amp;mdash;a son of a Saxon family out of favor with his father due to his unsuitable courting of a Saxon Princess named Rowena and his allegiance to the Norman king [[Richard I of England]]&amp;mdash;as he comes back from the [[Crusades]]. The legendary [[Robin Hood]], under the title of Locksley, is also a character in the story, and the character Scott gave him in ''Ivanhoe'' shaped the modern idea of Robin Hood, the cheery noble outlaw. Ivanhoe himself spends much of the story out of action, having been seriously wounded in the opening chapters. He is nursed by Rebecca, daughter of Isaac the Jew, but there can never be a romance between them, partly because of her religion and partly because Ivanhoe is already committed to the beautiful Rowena, his childhood love. However, his great enemy, the [[Knights Templar|Templar]] Sir Brian de Bois-Guilbert, finds Rebecca so irresistible that he is prepared to sacrifice everything for her. Many of the book's critics prefer Rebecca as a heroine to the relatively colourless Rowena. In 1850, the novelist [[William Makepeace Thackeray]] wrote a spoof sequel to ''Ivanhoe'' called ''[[Rebecca and Rowena]]''. The location of the novel is centred upon [[South Yorkshire]] and North [[Nottinghamshire]] in [[England]]. Indeed the castle within the story is based upon [[Conisbrough Castle]] near [[Doncaster]] and still stands today as a popular tourist attraction. Reference is made within the story to the Bishop of [[Sheffield]]. These references within the story contribute to the notion that [[Robin Hood]] lived or travelled in and around this area. The ancient town of [[Conisbrough]] is so dedicated to the story of Ivanhoe that many of the streets, schools and public buildings are named either after characters from the book or the 12th Century Castle. ==Characters== * ''Ivanhoe'' * ''Rebecca'' * ''Rowena'' * ''Prince John'' * ''The Black Knight'' * ''Locksley'' * ''Brian De Bois-Guilbert'' * ''Isaac of York'', father of Rebecca * ''Prior Aymer'' * ''Reginald Front-de-Boeuf'' * ''Cedric the Saxon'' * ''Maurice De Bracy'' * ''Waldemar Fitzurse'' * ''Athelstane'' * ''Albert Malvoisin'' * ''Gurth'', Cedric's swineherd * ''Wamba'', Cedric's jester ==Historical Accuracy== Although the general political events depicted in the novel are relatively accurate - it tells of the period of King Richard's imprisonment in Austria following the crusade and his return to England - the story is heavily fictionalized. Most notably, its depiction of an England in which Saxon and Norman nobles are at odds is highly anachronistic - by the late 12th century, there were no such distinctions among an upper class which generally had a common Norman French culture, with elements of English nobility, mainly due to inter-breeding betwee
aying Charlie's mother, her own grandmother), Sir [[Anthony Hopkins]], [[Milla Jovovich]], [[Moira Kelly]], [[Kevin Kline]], [[Diane Lane]], [[Penelope Ann Miller]], [[Paul Rhys]], [[Marisa Tomei]], [[Nancy Travis]], and [[James Woods]]. *In 2001, British comedian [[Eddie Izzard]] played Chaplin in the film, ''[[The Cat's Meow]]'', which theorized about the still-unsolved death of producer [[Thomas Ince]] aboard [[William Randolph Hearst]]'s yacht, of which Chaplin was a passenger of at the time. ==Media== {{multi-video start}} {{multi-video item|filename=Charlie Chaplin, bond of friendship, 1918.ogg|title=&quot;The bond of friendship&quot; |description= A video clip from the silent film, &quot;The Bond&quot; (1918).|format=[[Theora]]}} {{multi-video item|filename=Charlie Chaplin, the Marriage Bond.ogg|title=&quot;The marriage bond&quot; |description= A video clip from the silent film, &quot;The Bond&quot; (1918).|format=[[Theora]]}} {{multi-video item|filename=Charlie Chaplin, The Bond, 1918.ogg|title=&quot;U.S. Liberty Bonds&quot; |description= A video clip from the silent film, &quot;The Bond&quot; (1918).|format=[[Theora]]}} {{multi-video item|filename=Charlie Chaplin gets hit by Cupid.ogg|title=Charlie Chaplin gets hit by Cupid |description= This clip has Chaplin falling in love with a beautiful woman, with some help from Cupid.|format=[[Theora]]}} {{multi-video end}} ==Trivia== *[[Geraldine Chaplin]] played her own grandmother, [[Hannah Chaplin]], in [[Richard Attenborough]]'s [[1992]] film &quot;Chaplin&quot; *A bronze statue to Chaplin was erected in the small seaside town of Waterville, Co. Kerry, Ireland where the star spent many holidays in later life. *A young Chaplin is a character in ''[[Shanghai Knights]]''; the movie presented the fictional idea that Chaplin originally came to America by stowing away with [[Jackie Chan]] and [[Owen Wilson]]'s characters. *It is true that Charlie Chaplin once lost a &quot;Charlie Chaplin look-a-like&quot; competition. As Chaplin became popular throughout America, Chaplin look-a-like competitions became popular. On one occasion, a rising young actor called Bob Hope took first prize! *Chaplin was a friend of [[Luis Buñuel]] in the early 30's. *In a 2005 poll to find ''[[The Comedian's Comedian]]'', he was voted among the top 20 greatest comedy acts ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders. *All his life, Chaplin was known to be an avowed [[atheist]]. He had nothing but contempt for any form of religion. He once joked, &quot;I would love to play the part of Jesus! I fit it perfectly because I am a comedian.&quot; *Chaplin and Hitler were born in the same week in 1889. ==Filmography== ===Short films as actor=== &lt;div style=&quot;width:50%; float:left&quot;&gt; *'''1914''' **''[[A Busy Day]]'' **''[[Caught in a Cabaret]]'' **''[[Caught in the Rain]]'' **''[[Cruel, Cruel Love]]'' **''[[Dough and Dynamite]]'' **''[[The Face on the Bar Room Floor]]'' **''[[The Fatal Mallet]]'' **''[[A Film Johnnie]]'' **''[[Gentlemen of Nerve]]'' **''[[Getting Acquainted]]'' **''[[Her Friend the Bandit]]'' **''[[His Favorite Pastime]]'' **''[[His Musical Career]]'' **''[[His New Profession]]'' **''[[His Prehistoric Past]]'' **''[[His Trysting Place]]'' **''[[Kid Auto Races at Venice]]'' **''[[The Knockout]]'' **''[[Laughing Gas (film)|Laughing Gas]]'' **''[[Mabel at the Wheel]]'' **''[[Mabel's Busy Day]]'' **''[[Mabel's Married Life]]'' **''[[Mabel's Strange Predicament]]'' **''[[Making a Living]]'' **''[[The Masquerader]]'' **''[[The New Janitor]]'' **''[[The Property Man]]'' **''[[Recreation (film)|Recreation]]'' **''[[The Rounders]]'' **''[[The Star Boarder]]'' **''[[Tango Tangles]]'' **''[[Those Love Pangs]]'' **''[[Twenty Minutes of Love]]'' &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;width:50%; float:left&quot;&gt; *'''1915''' **''[[The Bank]]'' **''[[Charlie Chaplin's Burlesque on Carmen]]'' **''[[By the Sea]]'' **''[[The Champion (film)|The Champion]]'' **''[[His New Job]]'' **''[[His Regeneration]]'' **''[[In the Park]]'' **''[[A Jitney Elopement]]'' **''[[A Night Out (film)|A Night Out]]'' **''[[A Night in the Show]]'' **''[[Shanghaied (film)|Shanghaied]]'' **''[[The Tramp (film)|The Tramp]]'' **''[[A Woman]]'' **''[[Work (film)|Work]]'' *'''1916''' **''[[Behind the Screen]]'' **''[[The Count (film)|The Count]]'' **''[[The Fireman (film)|The Fireman]]'' **''[[The Floorwalker]]'' **''[[One A.M.]]'' **''[[The Pawnshop]]'' **''[[Police!]]'' **''[[The Rink]]'' **''[[The Vagabond]]'' *'''1917''' **''[[The Adventurer (film)|The Adventurer]]'' **''[[The Cure (film)|The Cure]]'' **''[[Easy Street (film)|Easy Street]]'' **''[[The Immigrant]]'' *'''1918''' **''[[The Bond]]'' **''[[Shoulder Arms]]'' **''[[A Dog's Life]]'' **''[[Triple Trouble]]'' *'''1919''' **''[[A Day's Pleasure]]'' **''[[Sunnyside (film)|Sunnyside]]'' *'''1921''' **''[[The Idle Class]]'' *'''1922''' **''[[Pay Day (1922 film)|Pay Day]]'' *'''1923''' **''[[The Pilgrim]]'' &lt;/div&gt; ===Feature films=== (as actor and director except as noted) *''[[Tillie's Punctured Romance (1914 film)|Tillie's Punctured Romance]]'' (1914) (actor only) - first feature-length comedy film ever produced. *''[[The Kid (1921 film)|The Kid]]'' (1921) *''[[The Nut]]'' (1921) (cameo only) *''[[Souls For Sale]]'' (1923) (cameo only) *''[[A Woman of Paris]]'' (1923) (cameo, dir) *''[[The Gold Rush]]'' (1925) *''[[A Woman of the Sea]]'' (1926) (produced only) *''[[The Circus]]'' (1928) *''[[Show People]]'' (1928) (cameo only) *''[[City Lights]]'' (1931) *''[[Modern Times]]'' (1936) *''[[The Great Dictator]]'' (1940) *''[[Monsieur Verdoux]]'' (1947) *''[[Limelight (film)|Limelight]]'' (1952) *''[[A King in New York]]'' (1957) *''[[A Countess From Hong Kong]]'' (1967) (directed and makes a cameo appearance) ==See also== *[[List of relationships with age disparity]] *[[Albert Austin]] *[[Edna Purviance]] *[[Henry Bergman]] *[[Eric Campbell]] ==External links == {{wikiquote}} *'''Official Sites''' **[http://www.charliechaplin.com/ Official Charlie Chaplin Website] **[http://www.discoverchaplin.com/ Discover Charlie Chaplin] **[http://www.chaplinmuseum.com/ The Chaplin Museum] **[http://www.charliechaplinarchive.org/ The Charlie Chaplin Archive] *'''Biography''' **[http://www.limelightmovieart.com/galleries/charlie_chaplin.php Charlie Chaplin biography] **[http://www.clown-ministry.com/History/Charlie-Chaplin.html Clown Ministry's biography of Charlie Chaplin] **[http://www.geocities.com/qubestrader/chaplin.html Charlie Chaplin - Biographical Chronology] **[http://www.nettechnowebdesign.com/charlie_chaplin.htm Charlie Chaplin - Biography - Photos - Kiera Chaplin, granddaughter of Charlie Chaplin] *'''Filmography''' **{{imdb name|id=0000122|name=Charles Chaplin}} *'''Fan Sites''' **[http://www.thelittlefellow.org The Little Fellow: A Charlie Chaplin Fan Page] **[http://chaplin.comedyclassics.org Charlie Chaplin Forum - A place for fans to chat] *'''Others''' **[http://www.chaplinreview.com/ Chaplin Review] **[http://silentgents.com/PChaplin.html Charlie Chaplin Photo Galleries] **[http://www.classicmovies.org/articles/aa042201b.htm A collection of tribute webpages to Charlie Chaplin at Classicmovies.org] **[http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~pringle/silent/chaplin/aaronhale.html Chaplin - An essay by Aaron Hale] **[http://wso.williams.edu/~dgerstei/chaplin/intro.html Charlie Chaplin: A WWW Celebration] **[http://www.fadetoblack.com/foi/charliechaplin/index.html Charlie Chaplin FBI File] **[http://www.time.com/time/time100/artists/profile/chaplin.html The TIME 100: Charlie Chaplin] **[http://www.thegoldenyears.org/chaplin.html Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Directors: Charles Chaplin] **[http://www.worldcinemaonline.com/films/184/0/Charlie-Chaplin-Film-Festival.html Download Chaplin's 'Mutual Films' in full screen dvd quality at World Cinema Online] ==Notes== *{{note|birth}} ''Passport to Hollywood: Film Immigrants Anthology''; page 26 ISBN 0-07-070053-2 {{Charlie Chaplin}} [[Category:1889 births|Chaplin, Charlie]] [[Category:1977 deaths|Chaplin, Charlie]] [[Category:Anglicans|Chaplin, Charlie]] [[Category:Atheists|Chaplin, Charlie]] [[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Chaplin, Charlie]] [[Category:British film directors|Chaplin, Charlie]] [[Category:English film actors|Chaplin, Charlie]] [[Category:Entertainers who died in their 80s|Chaplin, Charlie]] [[Category:Erasmus Prize winners|Chaplin, Charlie]] [[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Chaplin, Charlie]] [[Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire|Chaplin, Charlie]] [[Category:British silent film actors|Chaplin, Charlie]] [[Category:Vaudeville performers|Chaplin, Charlie]] {{Link FA|it}} [[ar:تشارلي تشابلن]] [[ast:Charles Chaplin]] [[bg:Чарли Чаплин]] [[bs:Charlie Chaplin]] [[ca:Charles Spencer Chaplin]] [[cs:Charlie Chaplin]] [[cy:Charlie Chaplin]] [[da:Charlie Chaplin]] [[de:Charlie Chaplin]] [[es:Charlie Chaplin]] [[eo:Charlie CHAPLIN]] [[fr:Charlie Chaplin]] [[gl:Charlie Chaplin]] [[hr:Charles Chaplin]] [[it:Charlie Chaplin]] [[he:צ'רלי צ'פלין]] [[hu:Charles Chaplin]] [[nl:Charlie Chaplin]] [[ja:チャーリー・チャップリン]] [[no:Charlie Chaplin]] [[nn:Charlie Chaplin]] [[pl:Charlie Chaplin]] [[pt:Charlie Chaplin]] [[ru:Чаплин, Чарлз Спенсер]] [[sq:Charlie Chaplin]] [[sk:Charlie Chaplin]] [[sr:Чарли Чаплин]] [[fi:Charles Chaplin]] [[sv:Charlie Chaplin]] [[ta:சார்லி சாப்ளின்]] [[th:ชาร์ลี แชปลิน]] [[tr:Charlie Chaplin]] [[zh:查理·卓别林]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cryptology</title> <id>5143</id> <revision> <id>15903373</id> <timestamp>2004-03-21T20:59:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Matt Crypto</username> <id>50457</id> </contributor> <comment>Moved remainder of page to [[Talk:Cryptographic engineering]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cryptography]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cryptography</title> <id>5144</id> <revision> <id>42146312</id> <timestamp>20
als, for prisoners of the [[Russian Civil War]], for officials accused of corruption, sabotage and embezzlement, various political enemies and dissidents, as well as former aristocrats, businessmen and large land owners. The legal base and the guidance for the creation of the system of &quot;corrective labor camps&quot; (Russian: &quot;исправительно-трудовые лагеря&quot;, &quot;Ispravitel'no-trudovye lagerya&quot;), the backbone of what is commonly referred to as the &quot;Gulag,&quot; was a secret decree of [[Sovnarkom]] of [[July 11]] [[1929]] about the utilization of [[penal labor]] (see its [[#wikisource|wikisource reference]]), that duplicated the corresponding appendix to the minutes of [[Politburo]] meeting of [[June 27]], [[1929]]. As an all-[[Soviet Union|Union]] institution and a main administration with the [[OGPU]], the Soviet Secret Police, the GULAG was officially established on [[April 25]], [[1930]] as the &quot;ULAG&quot; by the OGPU order 130/63 in accordance with the [[Sovnarkom]] order 22 p. 248 dated [[April 7]], 1930, and was renamed into GULAG in November. In the early 1930s, a drastic tightening of Soviet penal policy caused a significant growth of the prison camp population. During the period of the [[Great Terror]] ([[1937]]-[[1938]]), mostly arbitrary mass arrests caused another upsurge in inmate numbers. During these years, hundreds of thousands of individuals were arrested and sentenced to long prison terms on the grounds of one of the multiple passages of the notorious [[Article 58]] of the Criminal Codes of the Union republics, which defined punishment for various forms of &quot;counterrevolutionary activities.&quot; The hypothesis that economic considerations were responsible for mass arrests during the period of Stalinism has been refuted on the grounds of former Soviet archives that have become accessible since the 1990s. Nevertheless, the development of the camp system followed economic lines. (To &quot;corrective labor colonies&quot; this applies to a much lesser extent, to special settlements almost not at all.) The growth of the camp system coincided with the peak of the Soviet [[industrialization]] campaign. Hence, most of the camps established to accommodate the masses of incoming prisoners were assigned distinct economic tasks. These included the exploitation of natural resources and the colonization of remote areas as well as the realization of enormous infrastructural facilities and industrial construction projects. In 1931&amp;ndash;32, the Gulag had approximately 200,000 prisoners in the camps; in 1935 &amp;mdash; approximately 800,000 in camps and 300,000 in colonies (annual averages), and in 1939 about 1.3 millions in camps and 350,000 in colonies. (No Citations) During [[World War II]], Gulag populations declined sharply, owing to the mass releases of hundreds of thousands of prisoners who were conscripted and sent directly to the front lines (often into [[penal battalion]]s, who were thrown into the most dangerous battles and experienced high casualty rates) and a steep rise in mortality in [[1942]]&amp;ndash;[[1943]]. After WWII the number of inmates in prison camps and colonies again rose sharply, reaching approximately 2.5 million people by the early [[1950s]] (about 1.7 millions of whom were in camps). While some of these were deserters and war criminals, there were also 339,000 Soviet citizens repatriated from [[Displaced persons camp|DP camps]] in Germany (including 233,000 thousand former military personell) charged with treason and aiding the enemy. Large numbers of civilians from Russian territories which came under foreign occupation and territories annexed by the [[Soviet Union]] after the war were also sent there. It was not uncommon for the survivors of [[Nazi]] camps to be transported directly to the Soviet labour camps. For years after WWII, a significant minority of the inmates were [[Balts]] and [[Ukrainians]] from lands newly incorporated into the USSR, as well as [[Finn]]s, [[Poles]], [[Romania|Romanian]]s and other people from foreign countries cleared of Fascism by the [[Red Army]]. [[POW]]s, in contrast, were kept in a separate camp system, which was managed by a separate main administration with the NKVD/MVD. The state continued to maintain the camp system for a while after Stalin's death in March of [[1953]]. The subsequent [[amnesty]] program was limited to those who had to serve at most 5 years, therefore mostly those convicted of common crimes were then freed. The release of [[political prisoners]] started in [[1954]] and became widespread, and also coupled with mass [[rehabilitation (Soviet)|rehabilitation]]s, after [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s denunciation of [[Stalinism]] in his [[Secret Speech]] at the 20th Congress of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]] in February, [[1956]]. Altogether, according to recent estimates on the basis of archival documents, about 18-20 million people had been prisoners in camps and colonies throughout the period of Stalinism at one point or another. By the end of the 1950s, virtually all &quot;corrective labor camps&quot; were dissolved. Colonies, however, continued to exist. Officially the GULAG was liquidated by the [[MVD]] order 20 of [[January 25]], [[1960]]. The total documentable deaths in the system of corrective-labor camps and colonies from [[1930]] to [[1956]] amount to 1,606,748, including political and common prisoners; note that this number does not include more than 800,000 executions of &quot;counterrevolutionaries&quot; during the period of the &quot;Great Terror&quot;, since they were mostly conducted outside the camp system and were accounted for separately. From 1932 to 1940, at least 390,000 peasants died in places of [[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union|labor settlements]]. One may also assume that many of the survivors suffered permanent physical and psychological damage. &lt;!-- On the number of prisoners and their mortality, see Getty, Rittersporn and Zemskov's paper in the American Historical Review, Vol 98, No 4 --&gt; Deaths at some camps are documented more thoroughly than those at others. == Conditions == [[Image:Belomorkanal.png|left|thumb|250px|Prisoner labour at the construction of [[Belomorkanal]], 1931&amp;mdash;1933]] Extreme production [[quota]]s, brutality, hunger and harsh elements were the major reasons for the Gulag's high fatality rate, which was as high as 80% during the first months in many camps. [[Logging]] and [[mining]] were among the most common of activities, as well as the harshest. In a Gulag mine, one person's production quota (norm) might be as high as 29,000 pounds (13,000 kg) of ore per day, with quotas being pushed up by tufta (&quot;pretending to work&quot;), whereby more work would be reported than had actually been done either through bribery, good relations, sexual favours or deception. Failure to meet a quota resulted in a loss of vital rations (going down to 300 grams of &quot;black rye bread&quot;, 5 grams of flour, 25 grams of buckwheat or macaroni, 27 grams of meat and 170 grams of potato). Lower rationing meant lower productivity, and this [[vicious cycle]] usually had fatal consequences through a condition of being emaciated and devitalized, dubbed &quot;dokhodiaga&quot; (доходяга), a term derived from the russian verb &quot;dokhodit&quot; (to reach (the limit of endurance)) and roughly translated as &quot;goners&quot;. However, the status of ''dokhodyaga'' could also be reached even having the status of ''[[udarnik]]'' (superproductive worker) despite receiving higher rations (in one camp, ''udarniks'' received a kilo of bread a day) and other benefits such as better housing conditions, because the earned extra food often was insufficient to recompense the energy spent on the effort to fulfil the higher quotas, which exceeded the standard norms by 50% or more. Inmates were often forced to work in inhuman conditions. In spite of the brutal climate, they were almost never adequately clothed, fed, or given medical treatment, nor were they given any means to combat the lack of [[vitamin]]s that led to nutritional diseases such as [[scurvy]]. The nutritional value of basic daily food ration varied around 1,200 [[calorie]]s (5,000 [[kilojoule]]s), mainly from low-quality bread distributed by weight. According to the [[World Health Organization]], the minimum requirement for a heavy labourer is in the range of 3,100&amp;ndash;3,900 calories (13,000 to 16,300 kJ) daily. Administrators routinely stole from the camp stockpiles for personal gain, as well as to curry favor with superiors. As a result, inmates were forced to work even harder to make up the difference. Administrators and ''trustees'' (inmates assigned to perform the duties servicing the camp itself, such as cooks, bakers or stockmen, dubbed &quot;pridurki&quot; [translated as &quot;morons&quot; or &quot;fools&quot;, but the real meaning was &quot;the ones who fool around&quot; {instead of doing hard labor}]) skimmed off the medicines, clothing and foodstuffs. == Geography == [[Image:Vorkuta entrance Labor in the USSR is a matter of honor, glory, pride and heroism.jpg|right|thumb|280px|Vorkuta entrance circa early 1950s. The sign reads: &quot;Labour in the USSR is a matter of honour, glory, pride and heroism&quot;.]] In the early days of Gulag the locations for the camps were chosen primarily for the ease of isolation of prisoners. Remote monasteries in particular were frequently reused as sites for new camps. The site on the [[Solovetsky Islands]] in the [[White Sea]] is one of the earliest and also most noteworthy, taking root soon after the Revolution in [[1918]]. The [[colloquial]] name for the islands, &quot;[[Solovki]]&quot;, entered the [[vernacular]] as a [[synonym]] for the labour camp in general. It was being presented to the world as an example of the new Soviet way of &quot;re-education of [[class enemy|class enemies]]&quot; and
el Sánchez Hernández]]. Relations with Honduras deteriorated in the late 1960s. There was a border clash in 1967, and a four-day so-called [[Football war]] broke out in July [[1969]]. The Salvadoran forces that had invaded Honduras were withdrawn, but not until [[1992]] was an agreement settling the border controversy with Honduras signed. Following increasing clashes between the Marxist group Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front ([[Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front|FMLN]]), El Salvadoran Armed Forces (ESAF) and [[right-wing politics|rightist]] vigilantes known as [[death squads]], a civil war broke out that would last for twelve years (1980-1992) and claim the lives of approximately 75,000 people. According to the 1993 United Nations' Truth Commission report, over 96% of the human rights violations carried out during the war were committed by the Salvadoran military or the paramilitary death squads, while 3.5% were committed by the FMLN. Nevertheless, it's necessary to say that this report has been criticized as not being objective enough for an institution like the UN, and that much of the information gathered by the Commission was originated in politically biassed sources, and did not provide legal and material evidence or proof of its conclusions. During the war, a small group of military advisers from the [[United States]] helped to train government forces, which were heavily funded by the U.S. as well. In the meantime, the guerrillas of the FMLN were trained and funded by the communist government of Cuba and the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, as well as supported by several eastern european countries and the USSR itself, creating one of the last scenarios of the Cold War. After the fall of Communism in Europe, the conditions for peace negotiations were finally set. A ceasefire was established in 1992 when the rebels of the FMLN and the government of President [[Alfredo Cristiani]] of the [[Nationalist Republican Alliance]] (ARENA), signed &quot;Peace accords&quot; on [[January 16]], 1992 that assured political and military reforms and punishment for all human rights abuses during the civil war; death squad activity was virtually eliminated. El Salvador is known for the many [[earthquakes]] that occur within its borders. It has been popularly known as the “Valley of the Hammocks” since colonial times. On [[January 13]], [[2001]] an earthquake that measured 7.6 on the [[Richter scale]] caused a [[landslide]] that killed more than 800 people. On [[February 13]], 2001, a second earthquake killed 255 people. ==Geography== ''Main article: [[Geography of El Salvador]]'' See also [[List of cities in El Salvador]] ==Politics== ''Main article: [[Politics of El Salvador]], [[Legislative Assembly of El Salvador]], [[List of political parties in El Salvador]]'' El Salvador is a democratic republic governed by a [[president]] and an 84-member unicameral [[Legislative Assembly]]. The president is elected by [[universal suffrage]] and serves for a five-year term by absolute majority vote. A second round runoff is required in the event that no candidate receives more than 50% of the first round vote. Members of the assembly (called deputies, ''diputados''), also elected by universal suffrage, although according to closed-list proportional representation, serve for three-year terms. The country has an independent judiciary and Supreme Court. The current [[President of El Salvador]] is [[Antonio Saca|Elías Antonio Saca González]], elected on [[21 March]] [[2004]]. He took office on [[1 June]] [[2004]], and his presidential term ends on [[1 June]] [[2009]].[[Image:El Salvador.geohive.gif|thumb|410px|right|[[Subnational|Administrative division]].]] The current legal system of El Salvador, based on civil and Roman law with traces of common law, came into force with the passage of the [[constitution]] on [[23 December]], [[1983]]. * [[La Unión Department|La Union]] * [[Zacatecoluca]] == Political divisions == {{main|Departments of El Salvador}} Many early post-colonial rulers, such as [[Francisco Morazán]] and [[Gerardo Barrios]], were of [[French people|French]] descent and were hence sympathetic to the [[Napoleonic code]], which was successfully adapted to El Salvador. For this reason, the country has French-style territorial divisions. El Salvador is divided into [[Departments of El Salvador|fourteen departments]]: &lt;table align=center&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=center colspan=2&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; #[[Ahuachapán Department|Ahuachapán]] #[[Cabañas Department|Cabañas]] #[[Chalatenango Department|Chalatenango]] #[[Cuscatlán Department|Cuscatlán]] #[[La Libertad Department|La Libertad]] #[[La Paz Department (El Salvador)|La Paz]] #[[La Unión Department|La Unión]] &lt;td&gt; &lt;ol start=8&gt; &lt;li&gt;[[Morazán Department|Morazán]] &lt;li&gt;[[San Miguel Department (El Salvador)|San Miguel]] &lt;li&gt;[[San Salvador Department|San Salvador]] &lt;li&gt;[[San Vicente Department|San Vicente]] &lt;li&gt;[[Santa Ana Department|Santa Ana]] &lt;li&gt;[[Sonsonate Department|Sonsonate]] &lt;li&gt;[[Usulután Department|Usulután]] &lt;/ol&gt; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; == Economy == ''Main article: [[Economy of El Salvador]]'' By [[2005]], El Salvador became the strongest [[economic system|economy]] in Central America. The Salvadoran economy has experienced mixed results from the [[Nationalist Republican Alliance|ARENA]] government's commitment to [[free market]] initiatives and conservative fiscal management that include the [[privatization]] of the [[banking]] system, [[telecommunications]], public pensions, electrical distribution, and some [[electrical generation]], reduction of [[import]] [[duty|duties]], elimination of [[price control]]s, and an improved enforcement of [[intellectual property rights]]. The [[GDP]] variable has been growing at a steady and moderate pace since the signing of peace accords in 1992, in an environment of [[macroeconomic]] stability. A problem that the Salvadoran economy faces is the inequality in the distribution of income. In [[1999]], the richest fifth of the [[population]] received 45% of the country's income, while the poorest fifth received only 5.6%. As of December 1999, net international reserves equaled US$1.8 billion or roughly five months of imports. Having this hard currency buffer to work with, the Salvadoran Government undertook a monetary integration plan beginning [[January 1]], [[2001]], by which the [[U.S. dollar]] became legal tender alongside the [[El Salvadoran colón|colón]], and all formal accounting was undertaken in U.S. dollars. This way, the government has formally limited its possibility of implementing open market monetary policies to influence short term variables in the economy. Since 2004, the colón stopped circulating and is now never used in the country for any type of transaction; however some stores still have prices in both colones and U.S. dollars. In general, people were unhappy with the shift from the colón to the U.S. dollar, because wages are still the same but the price of everything increased. Things that once cost 5 colones now cost $1, which would be 8.75 colones. Some economists claim this rise in prices would have been caused by inflation regardless even had the shift not been made. Some economists also contend that now, according to [[Gresham's Law]], a reversion to the colón would be disastrous to the economy. Some banks however claim that they still do some transactions &lt;i&gt;en colones&lt;/i&gt;, keeping this change from being unconstitutional. The change to the dollar also precipitated a trend toward lower interest rates in El Salvador, helping many to secure credit in order to buy a house or a car; over time, the sense of displeasure with the change has largely disappeared, though the issue resurfaces as a political tool when elections are on the horizon. Among the biggest challenges in El Salvador have been to manage the decline in the coffee sector, which only accounted for 7.0% of exports in [[2004]], and to develop new growth sectors for a more diversified economy. Currently there are fifteen [[free trade zone]]s in El Salvador. The largest beneficiary has been the [[maquila]] industry, which provides 88,700 jobs directly, and consists primarily of cutting and assembling clothes for [[export]] to the [[United States]]. El Salvador signed the [[Central American Free Trade Agreement]] (CAFTA), negotiated by the five countries of [[Central America]] and the [[Dominican Republic]], with the United States in [[2004]]. In order to take advantage of CAFTA, the Salvadoran government is challenged to conduct policies that guarantee better conditions for entrepreneurs and workers to transfer from declining to growing sectors in the economy. El Salvador has already signed free trade agreements with [[Mexico]], [[Chile]], the Dominican Republic, and [[Panama]], and increased its [[exports]] to those countries. El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua also are negotiating a free trade agreement with [[Canada]]. [[Fiscal policy]] has been the biggest challenge for the Salvadoran government. The 1992 peace accords committed the government to heavy expenditures for transition programs and [[social work|social services]]. Although international aid was generous, the government has focused on improving the collection of its current [[revenues]]. A 10% [[value-added tax]] (VAT), implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July [[1995]]. The VAT is the biggest source of revenue, accounting for about 52.3% of total [[tax revenues]] in [[2004]]. Remittances from Salvadorans working in the United States sent to family members are a major source of foreign income and offset the substantial [[trade deficit]] of around $2.9 billion. Remittances have increased steadily in the last decade and reached an all-time high of $2.9 billion in 2005&amp;mdash;approximately 17.1% of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP).
riers) * FWCF (Fellowship of the Worshipful Company of Farriers) A set of four shoes and labour typically costs £50-£60 a set. This may be more or less if you have an unusually large/small/difficult horse or pony, or if it needs remedial shoeing. The feet should be picked out using a hoof pick at least once a day, to remove any stones, mud and dirt and to check that the shoes are in good condition. Feet should be kept clean and dry wherever possible, as wet, dirty conditions may lead to thrush and/or lameness. ===Veterinary care=== ====Vaccinations==== The horse or pony should be vaccinated against equine 'flu and tetanus. You will need to present a vaccination card at many shows. You should register with a veterinary practise incase you need to call them out in an emergency. ====First-aid kit==== You should keep a well-stocked equine (and human) first-aid kit in a place where it is easily accessed. Replace any used/out of date items as soon as possible. Basics any kit should include: * Thermometer * Petroleum jelly (to use as lubrication for thermometer) * Salt (for saline solution) * Cotton wool (for cleaning wounds, not dressing them) * Animalintex/poultice dressing. Even disposable nappies/diapers can be cut and used as a poultice as they draw moisture out of wounds * Gamgee, to be used as padding underneath bandages * Sharp, clean scissors, reserved for first aid kit only * Clean bucket, reserved for first-aid kit only, for washing out wounds * Clean sponge, reserved for first-aid kit only * Antiseptic cream/powder * Bandages - 4x stable bandages, possibly the 'veterinary' type too * Poultice boot * Latex/medical gloves, unused * Clean towel * Soap and nail brush to scrub your hands * Suitable box/container for all of the above, to keep them clean and tidy. ====Worming==== Your horse or pony should be wormed regularly, between every 8-13 weeks depending on the brand of wormer. Ask your vet for a worming programme. Wormers come in the form of a paste or gel in a syringe, or a powder or granules, in a sachet. The sachet wormer is normally mixed in with the horse's feed. The syringe is used to squirt the paste/gel onto the horse's tongue. You should also regularly (at least once a week) remove droppings from your horse's field to reduce numbers of worms. There are several different brands of wormer, using different types of active chemical - which in turn kill different types of worm. You may have to use a different wormer at a certain time of year, to combat a specific worm, for example redworm. =====Active chemicals found in different wormers===== *Fenbendazole *Moxidectin *Ivermectin *Pyrantel *Membendazole *Oxibendazole ====Dental care==== The horse or pony must have its teeth checked by a vet or professional qualified dentist at least once a year, as the teeth can wear down and create sharp edges which may cause problems when eating/being ridden. If the teeth are sharp, the vet/dentist will rasp them until they are smooth. ===Insurance=== The horse or pony should be insured, as veterinary costs can mount up to thousands of pounds, horses are frequently stolen, and can potentially cause serious damage to property/people/other horses which would need to be covered by a third party policy. Tack, which is also expensive to replace and frequently stolen, could also be insured. The horse or pony will need a field and possibly a stable. You can rent a field and/or stable from a livery yard, or buy your own. The horse or pony will always need equine company as they are herd creatures. It is cruel to keep a horse or pony on its own. ===Tack and equipment=== 'Tack' refers to equipment worn by the horse, normally when being ridden or lunged for exercise. The tack may be made from leather, or a synthetic material, which tends to be lighter to carry and cheaper to buy. Tack and rugs can be expensive to buy, but will last for years if cared for. You must clean the tack regularly with water and work saddle soap into the leather to keep it supple. Dry and damaged tack can break, which could cause a serious acccident if you were riding. You should also rinse the bit after every ride, or it will become unpleasant for the horse. The basic tack a horse requires is: - A bridle, including a bit and reins - A saddle, including stirrup leathers, stirrups, and a girth - A numnah or saddlecloth/pad - A headcollar/halter and lead rope Other equipment you may need: - Wheelbarrow - for mucking out and removing droppings from the field - Fork - Shovel - Broom - Buckets - for your horse's water, feed, bathing, tack cleaning etc. - Haynets - Grooming kit - Storage box or locker for your equipment - things tend to walk on livery yards! ===Feeding=== The horse/pony needs approximately 2.5% of its bodyweight in food per day. This may include grass, hay, haylage and hard feed. Most horses and ponies will need a ration of 60-70% grass/hay and 30-40% hard feed. These ratios must be considered when increasing the horses' workload, as the hard feed ration may need to be increased. Make any feeding changes gradually. Feed only good quality hay and feed. Feed plenty of bulk (fibre). Clean fresh water should be available at all times. Leave AT LEAST an hour after feeding before exercising. Keep feeding utensils clean. You wouldn't eat from a dirty plate. Feed according to age/workload/breed ===Other considerations=== Other costs you must consider are hard feed, hay, bedding, riding lessons, show entry fees, transport to shows. Freezemarking or microchipping is another consideration if you are worried about your horse being stolen. A horse is a living animal and needs looking after 365 days a year, including your birthday, Christmas Day, and freezing cold mornings. Whether you do the caring is your choice, but if you cannot provide the daily care a horse needs, you must arrange for livery. If you plan to do the caring, ensure you gain some practical experience by taking a horse-care course. There's often more to it than you would think. ==Miscellaneous== ===Horse meat=== :''Main article: [[horse meat]]'' Horse meat has been used as food for animals and humans throughout the ages. Although consumption by humans is considered abhorrent by some people in the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States|US]] and [[Australia]], it is eaten in many other parts of the world and is an export industry in the USA. [[Mare's milk]] is used by peoples with large horse-herds, such as the [[Mongols]]. They may let it ferment to produce [[kumys]]. However, mares produce a much lower yield of milk than do [[cow]]s. ===Saddling and mounting=== The common European practice and tradition of [[saddle|saddling]] and mounting the horse from the lefthand side is often said to originate from the need to avoid inadvertantly striking the horse with a carried [[sword]] in the process. However, several other explanations are equally plausible. The saddle and the bridle are called tack. There are many other pieces of tack. There is a saddle blanket, which goes under the saddle to protect the horse from getting sores. The saddle has stirrups, which the rider puts their feet in. The bridle also have many parts. The bit is a metal part of the bridle. This is put in a horses mouth to control them. There are hundreds of different bits in the world. One of the most well known bit is the snaffle bit, which is gentle. To mount a horse, you put your left foot in the left stirrup and then hoist your self up using your leg. You swing your right leg over the horse and settle down, being sure not to land on the horse's back too hard. ===Weight=== Light horses such as Arabians, Morgans, Quarter Horses, Paints and Thoroughbreds weigh up to 1300lbs (about 590kg). &quot;Heavy&quot; or draft horses such as Clydesdale, Draft, Percherons, and Shire horses can weigh up to 2800lbs (about 907kg). ===Zodiac=== The '''horse''' features in the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the [[Chinese zodiac]] related to the [[Chinese calendar]]. According to Chinese folklore, each animal is associated with certain personality traits, and those born in the year of the horse are: intelligent, independent and free-spirited. See: [[Horse (Zodiac)]]. ==References== *''Book of Horses: A Complete Medical Reference Guide for Horses and Foals'', edited by Mordecai Siegal. (By members of the faculty and staff, University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine.) Harper Collins, 1996. *''Illustrated Atlas of Clinical Equine Anatomy and Common Disorders of the Horse'', by Ronald J. Riegal, D.V.M. and Susan E. Hakola, B.S., R.N., C.M.I. Equistar Publications, Ltd., 1996. *International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2003. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). ''Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved''. Bull.Zool.Nomencl., 60:81-84. ==See also== *[[List of equine topics]] *[[classic equitation books]] - [[horse gaits]] - [[horse tack]] - [[horse teeth]] - [[Horseshoe]] - [[Equine forelimb anatomy]] - [[Equine colic]] *[[equestrianism]] (horseback riding) *[[List of fictional horses]] *[[List of historical horses]] *[[List of horse accidents]] *[[List of horse breeds]] *[[Trojan Horse]] *[[Cart|Horsecart]] *[[Cart|Horsecart]] *[[Equine coat color genetics]] *Coloring: [[Gray (horse)|gray]]; the [[Creme gene]] for info on palomino, buckskin, smoky black, cremello, perlino, and smoky cream genetics *[[Ehwaz]] *[[Ashvamedha]] *[[Horse meat]] for human consumption *[[Horse reproduction]] *[[Horse breeding]] ==External links== {{commonscat|Equus caballus}} *[http://www.webpony.com/ WebPony Horseworld Connection] - Horse Search Engine, horse news and message board *[http://www.tapestryinstitute.org/horsehuman.html Tapestry Institute's Horse-Human Relationship Program] - Research on and education about the horse-human relationship * [http://www.
it is on the top level of the Colosseum and holding up the least weight. It is similar to the Ionic order, but rather than a scroll, the Corinthian capital consists of rows of [[Acanthus (ornament)|stylized acanthus leaves]]. Many variations have been made on the Corinthian [[Capital (architecture)|capital]]. For instance, the capitals of the Capitol building in [[Washington, DC]] are made up partially of wheat stalks. ==Notable columns== * [[Persepolis]]'s columns * [[Trajan's Column]] * [[Monument to the Great Fire of London]] * [[Nelson's Column]] * [[Kolumna Zygmunta|Sigismund's Column]] * [[Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc]] * [[San Jacinto Monument]] ==See also== {{commons|Column}} * [[Forms in architecture]] * [[Colonnade]] * [[Persian column]] * [[Pilaster]] * [[Buckling]] * [[Marian and Holy Trinity columns]] [[Category:Architectural elements]] [[Category:Architectural history]] [[Category:Buildings and structures]] [[Category:Structural engineering]] [[ca:Columna]] [[de:Säule]] [[es:Columna (Arquitectura)]] [[fr:Colonne (architecture)]] [[nl:Zuil (bouwkunde)]] [[it:Colonna (architettura)]] [[ja:柱]] [[lv:Kolonna]] [[no:Søyle]] [[pl:Kolumna (architektura)]] [[pt:Coluna (arquitetura)]] [[sv:Kolonn]] [[fi:Pylväs]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carmilla</title> <id>6921</id> <revision> <id>42118826</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:12:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Katsuhagi</username> <id>840126</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Plot */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Carmilla''''' is a novella by [[Joseph Sheridan le Fanu]]. First published [[1872]], it tells the story of a young woman's contact with a [[vampire]]. ''Carmilla'' predates [[Bram Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]'' by over twenty years and had a strong influence on Stoker's famous novel. However, ''Carmilla'' was not the first [[vampire]] [[novel]] — both it and the considerably older ''[[The Vampyre]]'' by [[John William Polidori]] probably being too short to hold that title. [[Image:carmilla.jpg|thumb|right|Illustration from ''The Dark Blue'' by D.H. Friston, 1872]] ==Publication== ''Carmilla'' was first published in the magazine ''[[The Dark Blue]]'' in [[1872]], and then in the author's collection of short stories, ''[[In a Glass Darkly]]'' the same year. The story ran in ''The Dark Blue'' in three issues; January (1872), pp. 592-606; February (1872), pp. 701-714; and March (1872), pp. 59-78. There were two original [[illustrators]] for the story, both of which appeared in the magazine but which do not appear in modern printings of the book. The two illustrators, D. H. Friston and M. Fitzgerald, show some inconsistencies in their depiction of the characters, and as such some confusion has been made in identifying the pictures as part of a continuous plot. ==Plot== {{spoiler}} A wealthy [[English people|English]] widower, retired from the Austrian Service, moves to a stately castle in [[Styria (state)|Styria]] with his daughter Laura. When she is six years old, Laura has a vision of a beautiful visitor in her bedchamber. She later claims to have been bitten on the chest, although no wounds are found on her. Twelve years later, Laura and her father are admiring the sunset in front of the castle when her father tells her of a letter he received earlier from his friend General Spielsdorf. The General was supposed to bring his niece to visit the two, but the niece suddenly died under mysterious circumstances. The General ambiguously concludes that he will discuss the circumstances in detail when they meet later. Laura is saddened by the loss of a potential friend, and longs for a companion. A carriage accident outside Laura's home unexpectedly brings a girl of Laura's age into the family's care. Her name is Carmilla. Both girls instantly recognize the other from the 'dream' they both had when they were young. Carmilla appears injured after her carriage accident, but her mysterious mother informs Laura's father that her journey is urgent and cannot be delayed. She arranges to leave her daughter with Laura and her father until she can return in three months. Before she leaves she sternly notes that her daughter will not dispose any information whatsoever about her family, past, or herself and that Carmilla is of sound mind. Laura comments that this information seems needless to say, and her father laughs it off. Carmilla and Laura grow to be very close friends, but occasionally Carmilla's mood abruptly changes. She sometimes makes unsettling romantic advances towards Laura. Carmilla refuses to tell anything about herself or her background, despite questioning from Laura. Her secrecy isn't the only mysterious thing about her. Carmilla sleeps much of the day, and seems to sleepwalk at night. When a funeral procession passes by the two girls and Laura begins singing a hymn, Carmilla bursts out in rage and scolds Laura for singing a Christian song. When a shipment of family heirloom portraits arrive at the castle, Laura finds one of her ancestor, [[Countess]] Mircalla Karnstein, dated two centuries before. The portrait resembles Carmilla exactly, down to the mole on her neck. During Carmilla's stay, Laura has nightmares of a fiendish cat-like beast entering her room at night and biting her on the chest. The beast then takes the form of a female figure and disappears through the door without opening it. Laura's health declines and her father has a doctor examine her. He speaks privately with her father and only asks that Laura never be left unattended. Her father then sets out with Laura in a carriage for the ruined village of Karnstein. They leave a message behind asking Carmilla and one of the governesses entreated to follow after once the perpetually late-sleeping Carmilla wakes up. En route to Karnstein, Laura and her father encounter General Spielsdorf. He tells them his own ghastly story. Spielsdorf and his niece had met a young woman named Millarca and her enigmatic mother at a costume ball. The General's niece was immediately taken with Millarca. The &quot;Countess&quot; convinced the General that she was an old friend of his and asked that Millarca be allowed to stay with them for three weeks while she attended to a secret matter of great importance. The General's niece fell mysteriously ill and suffered exactly the same symptoms as Laura. After consulting with a priestly doctor who he had specially ordered, the General came to the realization that his niece was being visited by a vampire. The general hid in a closet with a sword and waited to see a fiendish cat-like creature stalk around his niece's bedroom and bite her on the neck. He leapt from his hiding place and attacked the beast, who took the form of Millarca. She fled through the locked door, unharmed. The General's niece died immediately afterward. When they arrive at Karnstein the General asks a nearby woodsman where he can find the tomb of Mircalla Karnstein, so that he may remove her head and end the nightmare. The woodsman tells that the tomb was relocated long ago, by the hero who vanquished the vampires that haunted the region. He goes to find his master who knows all the monuments of the Karnstein family. While the General and Laura are left alone in the ruined chapel, Carmilla appears. The General and Carmilla both fly into a rage upon seeing each other and the General attacks her with an axe. Carmilla flees and the General explains to Laura that Carmilla is also Millarca, both anagrams for the original name of the vampire Countess Mircalla Karnstein. The ordeal ends when the Countess's body is exhumed and destroyed. ==Influence== Carmilla, the title character, is the original prototype for a legion of female (and often [[lesbian]]) vampires. Though Le Fanu portrays his vampire's [[sexuality]] with the circumspection that one would expect for his time, the reader can be pretty sure that lesbian attraction is the main dynamic between Carmilla and the narrator of the story. Carmilla selected exclusively female victims, though only became emotionally involved with a few. Carmilla had [[nocturnal]] habits, but was not confined to the darkness. She had unearthly beauty and was able to change her form and to pass through solid walls. Her animal alter ego was a monstrous black cat, not a bat as in ''Dracula''. She did, however, sleep in a coffin. Its setting is a parochial section of Styria state, [[Austria]]. As such it sets the standard for [[Gothic novel|Gothic]] vampire literature — a genre which is not usually dealt with, as vampire stories (such as ''Dracula'') lean more towards horror than Gothic or [[Romanticism#Art and Literature|romantic]] in style of writing. ==Bram Stoker's ''Dracula''== Although Carmilla is a lesser known and far shorter Gothic vampire story than the generally-considered master work of that genre, ''Dracula'', the latter is heavily and directly based upon Le Fanu's short story. Harry Ludlam has said that ''Dracula'' is &quot;the product of [Stoker's] own vivid imagination and imaginative research&quot;, it is clear that Stoker was heavily inspired by Carmilla and based his novel upon this. In the earliest manuscript of ''Dracula'', dated 8 March, [[1890]], the castle is set in Styria, but the setting was changed to [[Transylvania]] six days later, showing that Stoker had full cognition of ''Carmilla'''s influence from the onset of his notes for ''Dracula''. However Stoker's posthumously published [[short story]], ''Dracula's Guest'' is known as the deleted first chapter to ''Dracula'', and shows a more obvious and intact debt to ''Carmilla'', and the setting of Styria remains unchanged. Both stories are told in the [[first person]]. ''Dracula'' expands on the idea of a first person account by creating a series of journal entries and logs of different persons and creating a plausible b
on the other hand, vehemently opposed the war, attacking their tabloid rival ''The Sun'', and claiming it would &quot;damage your mind&quot;. A U.S. fear over the perceived threat of the [[USSR|Soviet Union]] and [[communism|the spread of communism]], along with the certainty that Britain could handle the matter on its own may have factored into this view as well, although assessments of this theory vary. In the context of the [[Cold War]], with the performance of UK forces being watched closely by the Soviet Union, it was preferable for the UK to handle, without assistance, a conflict which was minor in scale compared to an all-out [[NATO]] vs. [[Warsaw Pact]] war. Regardless, American non-interference was vital to the U.S.-British relationship. [[Ascension Island]], a UK possession, was on lease to the Americans, and the British needed to resume its use as a relay point and air base. The most decisive American contribution was [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] missiles of the latest L model (these missiles were much more deadly than older models of the Sidewinder due to their [[all-aspect|all aspect]] capability), spy satellites and intelligence information. [[Margaret Thatcher]] stated that &quot;without the Harrier jets and their immense manoeuvrability, equipped as they were with the latest version of the Sidewinder missile, supplied to us by U.S. Defence Minister Caspar Weinberger, we could never have got back the Falklands.&quot; There were also rumours, later expanded upon by Weinberger, which spoke of lending an aircraft carrier, although this was not public knowledge at the time. It is worth noting that both Weinberger and Reagan would go on to receive honorary knighthoods, the honour of [[Order of the British Empire|Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire]], from [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. American critics of the U.S. role claimed that, by failing to side with Argentina, the U.S. violated its own [[Monroe Doctrine]], ignoring the pre-Monroe Doctrine British settlement. In September 2001, [[Mexico|Mexican]] president [[Vicente Fox]] would cite the conflict as proof of the failure of the [[Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance]], even though Argentina in this case was the aggressor, while the treaty provides for mutual defense and not mutual offense. ===French involvement=== French president [[François Mitterrand]] gave full support to the UK in the Falklands war. As a large part of Argentina's military equipment was French-made, French support was crucial. France provided aircraft, identical to the ones it supplied to Argentina, for British pilots to train against. France provided intelligence to help sabotage the [[Exocet]] missiles it sold to Argentina. In her memoirs [[Margaret Thatcher]] says of Mitterrand that &quot;I never forgot the debt we owed him for his personal support...throughout the Falklands crisis&quot;. Sir [[John Nott]], who was [[Secretary of State for Defence]] during the conflict later acknowledged: &quot;In so many ways Mitterrand and the French were our greatest allies&quot;. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2002%2F03%2F13%2Fnot13.xml] In 2005, a new book on the life of Mitterrand gave a different account of French cooperation, quoting him as saying - &quot;I had a difference to settle with the Iron Lady. That Thatcher, what an impossible woman!&quot;. &quot;With her four nuclear submarines in the south Atlantic, she's threatening to unleash an atomic weapon against Argentina if I don't provide her with the secret codes that will make the missiles we sold the Argentinians deaf and blind.&quot; {{citationneeded}} However there is no evidence for the claim. The effects of France's actions during the war have contributed to Argentina's shift toward American sources for combat aircraft and upgrades (e.g. the [[A-4AR Fightinghawk]], a refurbished [[A-4 Skyhawk]]). The country's national aeronautical manufacturing company [[Lockheed Martin Aircraft Argentina SA|FMA]] (Fábrica Militar de Aviones) is now owned by Lockheed-Martin. Since the end of the war, Latin America has consistently purchased more American and Russian aircraft than French. The last major French combat aircraft sale in Latin America was [[Mirage 2000]]s for [[Peru]] in the late 1980s. ===Latin American support=== In spite of receiving the comprension and affection of all the [[Latin America]]n countries (with the exception of [[Chile]]), [[Peru]] (Peruvian president Belaunde announced that his country was &quot;ready to support Argentina with all the resources it needed.&quot;) and [[Venezuela]] were the only countries that provided military assistance in the form of critical aircraft supplies like long range air fuel tanks. Countries like [[Cuba]] and [[Bolivia]] also offered ground troops but their offers were seen as political [[propaganda]] and not accepted. When the war was over, Argentina received [[Dassault Mirage III|Mirage 5P]] fighter planes from the [[Peruvian Air Force]] and [[Aermacchi MB-326]] and [[Embraer Bandeirante]]s from the [[Brazilian Air Force]]. Neighboring [[Chile]], under [[Pinochet]]'s regime, became the only [[Latin America|Latin American]] country to aid Britain by providing important logistical support during the war. ==War== By mid-April the [[Royal Air Force]] had set up an airbase at Wideawake on the mid-Atlantic island of Ascension, including a sizable force of [[Avro Vulcan|Vulcan]] bombers, [[Handley Page Victor|Victor]] refuelling aircraft, and [[F-4 Phantom]] fighters to protect them. Meanwhile the main British naval task force arrived at Ascension to prepare for war. However a small force had already been sent south to re-capture South Georgia. ===Recapture of South Georgia=== The South Georgia force, ''[[Operation Paraquet]]'', under the command of Major [[Guy Sheridan]] RM, consisted of marines from 42 Commando, a troop of [[Special Air Service]] (''SAS'') and [[Special Boat Service]] (''SBS'') troops who were intended to land [[reconnaissance]] forces for an invasion by the [[Royal Marines]] embarked on [[RFA Tidespring|RFA ''Tidespring'']]. First to arrive was the [[Churchill class submarine|''Churchill'' class submarine]] [[HMS Conqueror (S48)|HMS ''Conqueror'']] on the 19th, and the island was over-flown by a radar-mapping [[Handley Page Victor]] on the 20th. The first landings of SAS troops took place on the 21st, but the weather was so bad that their landings and others made the next day were all withdrawn after several helicopters crashed in fog on [[Fortuna Glacier]]. On the 23rd a submarine alert was sounded and operations were halted, with the ''Tidespring'' being withdrawn to deeper water to avoid interception. On the 24th the British forces regrouped and headed in to attack the submarine, the [[ARA Santa Fe|ARA ''Santa Fe'']], locating it on the 25th and damaging it enough that the crew decided to abandon it. With the ''Tidespring'' now far out to sea and an additional defending force of the submarine's crew now landed, Major Sheridan decided to gather the 75 men he had and make a direct assault that day. After a short forced march the Argentine forces surrendered, making it official the next day. The British Prime Minister, [[Margaret Thatcher]], broke the news to the media telling them to &quot;Just rejoice at that news!&quot;{{fn|1}}. ===The Black Buck Raids=== [[Image:Vulcan.planview.640pix.jpg|thumb|250px|An Avro Vulcan, as used for the Black Buck raids]] On [[May 1]], operations against the Falklands opened with the ''[[Operation Black Buck|Black Buck 1]]'' attack by RAF [[Avro Vulcan]] [[V bomber]]s on the [[airfield]] at Stanley. The Vulcan had originally been designed for medium-range stand-off nuclear missions in Europe and did not have the range to fly to the Falklands, requiring several in-flight refuelling missions. The RAF's tanker planes were mostly converted Victors with similar range, so they too had to be refuelled in the air. Thus, a total force of 11 tankers were required for only two Vulcans, a massive [[logistics|logistical]] effort. In the end only a single bomb hit the runway at Stanley, but the [[Argentine Air Force]] ('''FAA''') realized that the British were likewise capable of hitting targets on the mainland, and immediately moved back all jet fighters in order to protect against this possibility. The attack was therefore a strategic success, hampering Argentine efforts at close air support, reducing the effective loiter time of incoming Argentine aircraft, and compelling them to overfly British forces in any attempt to attack the islands. Nonetheless, whilst Argentine fighters were no longer stationed at the airfield, it was never down and remained strongly used by continuous [[Hercules C-130]] flights until the end of the conflict. The transports continued to fly into [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]] by night, bringing supplies, weapons, vehicles, and fuel into the Falklands and airlifting out the wounded. Argentine air transports continued to slip past the British through the last night of the war. Only minutes after Black Buck, nine [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harriers]] from the ''Hermes'' followed up the raid by dropping [[cluster bomb]]s on Stanley and the smaller grass airstrip at Goose Green. Both missions scored aircraft kills on the ground, as well as causing some damage to the airfield infrastructure. The aircraft had taken off from the deck of HMS ''Invincible'', and although attached BBC reporter [[Brian Hanrahan]] was forbidden to divulge the number of planes involved, he came up with the memorable phrase &quot;I counted them all out and I counted them all back&quot;. Meanwhile the FAA had already launched an attack of their own with Grupo 6 (flying [[IAI Dagger]] Aircraft), on information that landings had already taken place. Four of these planes were lost to Sea Harriers operating from ''Invincible'', while combat bro
cess, it can transfer thermal energy from a cooler system to a warmer one, thereby acting as a [[refrigerator]] rather than a heat engine. The Carnot cycle is a special type of thermodynamic cycle. It is special because it is the most efficient cycle possible for converting a given amount of thermal energy into work or, conversely, for using a given amount of work for refrigeration purposes. &lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; ==The Carnot cycle== [[Image:CarnotCycle1.png|300px|thumb|right|A Carnot cycle acting as a heat engine, illustrated on a temperature-entropy diagram. The cycle takes place between a hot reservoir at temperature T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt; and a cold reservoir at temperature T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;. The vertical axis is temperature, the horizontal axis is entropy.]] The '''Carnot cycle''' when acting as a heat engine consists of the following steps: #'''Reversible [[isothermal]] expansion of the gas at the &quot;hot&quot; temperature, ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''H''&lt;/sub&gt;( Isothermal heat addition ).''' During this step (A to B on diagram) the expanding gas causes the piston to do work on the surroundings. The gas expansion is propelled by absorption of heat from the high temperature reservoir. #'''Reversible [[adiabatic process|adiabatic]] expansion of the gas.''' For this step (B to C on diagram) we assume the piston and cylinder are thermally insulated, so that no heat is gained or lost. The gas continues to expand, doing work on the surroundings. The gas expansion causes it to cool to the &quot;cold&quot; temperature, ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''C''&lt;/sub&gt;. #'''Reversible isothermal compression of the gas at the &quot;cold&quot; temperature, ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''C''&lt;/sub&gt;.( Isothermal heat rejection )''' (C to D on diagram) Now the surroundings do work on the gas, causing heat to flow out of the gas to the low temperature reservoir. #'''Reversible adiabatic compression of the gas.''' (D to A on diagram) Once again we assume the piston and cylinder are thermally insulated. During this step, the surroundings do work on the gas, compressing it and causing the temperature to rise to ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''H''&lt;/sub&gt;. At this point the gas is in the same state as at the start of step 1. &lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; ==Properties and significance== === The temperature-entropy diagram === [[Image:CarnotCycle3.png|300px|thumb|right|A generalized thermodynamic cycle taking place between a hot reservoir at temperature T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt; and a cold reservoir at temperature T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;. By the [[second law of thermodynamics]], the cycle cannot extend outside the temperature band from T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt; to T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;. The area in red &amp;Delta;Q&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt; is the amount of energy exchanged between the system and the cold reservoir. The area in white &amp;Delta; W is the amount of work energy exchanged by the system with its surroundings. The amount of heat exchanged with the hot reservoir is the sum of the two. If the system is behaving as an engine, the process moves clockwise around the loop, and moves counter-clockwise if it is behaving as a refrigerator. ]] The behavior of a Carnot engine or refrigerator is best understood by using a temperature-entropy (TE) diagram, in which the thermodynamic state is specified by a point on a graph with entropy (S) as the horizontal axis and temperature (T) as the vertical axis. For a simple system with a fixed number of particles, any point on the graph will represent a particular state of the system. A thermodynamic process will consist of a curve connecting an initial state (A) and a final state (B). The area under the curve will be :&lt;math&gt;\Delta Q=\int_A^B T\,dS \quad\quad(1)&lt;/math&gt; which is the amount of thermal energy transferred in the process. If the process moves to greater entropy, the area under the curve will be the amount of heat absorbed by the system in that process. If the process moves towards lesser entropy, it will be the amount of heat removed. For any cyclic process, there will be an upper portion of the cycle and a lower portion. For a clockwise cycle, the area under the upper portion will be the thermal energy absorbed during the cycle, while the area under the lower portion will be the thermal energy removed during the cycle. The area inside the cycle will then be the difference between the two, but since the internal energy of the system must have returned to its initial value, this difference must be the amount of work done by the system over the cycle. Mathematically, for a reversible process we may write the amount of work done over a cyclic process as :&lt;math&gt;\Delta W = \oint PdV = \oint (TdS-dU) \quad\quad\quad\quad(2)&lt;/math&gt; Since ''dU'' is an [[exact differential]], its integral over any closed loop is zero and it follows that the area inside the loop on a T-S diagram is equal to the total work performed if the loop is traversed in a clockwise direction, and is equal to the total work done on the system as the loop is traversed in a counterclockwise direction. === The Carnot cycle === [[Image:CarnotCycle2.png|300px|thumb|right|A Carnot cycle taking place between a hot reservoir at temperature T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt; and a cold reservoir at temperature T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;.]] Evaluation of the above integral is particularly simple for the Carnot cycle. The amount of energy transferred as work is : &lt;math&gt;\Delta W = \oint PdV = (T_H-T_C)(S_B-S_A)&lt;/math&gt; The total amount of thermal energy transferred between the hot reservoir and the system will be : &lt;math&gt;\Delta Q_H=T_H(S_B-S_A)\,&lt;/math&gt; and the total amount of thermal energy transferred between the system and the cold reservoir will be : &lt;math&gt;\Delta Q_C=T_C(S_B-S_A)\,&lt;/math&gt;. The efficiency &lt;math&gt;\eta&lt;/math&gt; is defined to be the amount of work divided by the heat transferred between the system and the hot reservoir (T in absolute temperature units, Kelvins): :&lt;math&gt;\eta=\frac{\Delta W}{\Delta Q_H}=1-\frac{T_C}{T_H} \quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad(3)&lt;/math&gt; This efficiency makes sense for a [[heat engine]], since it is the fraction of the heat energy extracted from the hot reservoir and converted to mechanical work. It also makes sense for a refrigeration cycle, since it is the ratio of energy input to the refrigerator divided by the amount of energy extracted from the hot reservoir. &lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------&gt; ===Carnot's theorem=== It can be seen from the above diagram, that for any cycle operating between temperatures &lt;math&gt;T_H&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_C&lt;/math&gt;, none can exceed the efficiency of a Carnot cycle. [[Image:Real_vs_Carnot.jpg|500px|thumb|right|A real engine (left) compared to the Carnot cycle (right). The entropy of a real material changes with temperature. This change is indicated by the curve on a T-S diagram. For this figure, the curve indicates a vapor-liquid equilibrium (''See [[Rankine cycle]]''). Irreversible systems and losses of heat (for example, due to friction) prevent the ideal from taking place at every step.]] '''Carnot's theorem''' is a formal statement of this fact: ''No engine operating between two heat reservoirs can be more efficient than a Carnot engine operating between the same reservoirs.'' Thus, Equation 3 gives the maximum efficiency possible for any engine using the corresponding temperatures. A corollary to Carnot's theorem states that: ''All reversible engines operating between the same heat reservoirs are equally efficient.'' So Equation 3 gives the efficiency of any [[Reversible process|reversible]] [[heat engine]]. ===Efficiency of real heat engines=== Carnot realised that in reality it is not possible to build a [[Thermodynamic reversibility|thermodynamically reversible]] engine, so real heat engines are less efficient than indicated by Equation 3. Nevertheless, Equation 3 is extremely useful for determining the maximum efficiency that could ever be expected for a given set of thermal reservoirs. Although '''Carnot's cycle''' is an idealisation, the expression of Carnot efficiency is still useful. Consider the [[average]] temperatures, : ''&lt;T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;&gt;''&lt;math&gt; = \frac{1}{\Delta S} \int_{Q_{in}} TdS &lt;/math&gt; : ''&lt;T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;&gt;''&lt;math&gt; = \frac{1}{\Delta S} \int_{Q_{out}} TdS &lt;/math&gt; at which heat is input and output, respectively. Replace ''T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;'' and ''T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;'' in Equation (3) by &lt;''T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;''&gt; and &lt;''T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;''&gt; respectively. For the Carnot cycle, or its equivalent, &lt;''T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;''&gt; is the highest temperature available and &lt;''T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;''&gt; the lowest. For other less efficient cycles, &lt;''T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;''&gt; will be lower than ''T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;'' , and &lt;''T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;''&gt; will be higher than ''T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;''. This can help illustrate, for example, why a [[reheater]] or a [[regenerator]] can improve thermal efficiency. :''See also: [[Heat Engine#Efficiency|Heat Engine (efficiency]] and [[Heat Engine#Other criteria of heat engine performance|other performance criteria)]]'' ==References== *{{cite book | author = Kroemer, Herbert; Kittle, Charles | title = Thermal Physics | edition = 2nd ed. | publisher = W. H. Freeman Company | year = 1980 | id = ISBN 0716710889 }} ==External links== *[http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/java/carnot/carnot.html An animation of the Carnot cycle] as a [[java applet]] *[http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0004055 The Carnot cycle as a means by which to scale tem
.PNG|150px|Xavier with the original team of X-Men; Beast, Iceman, Cyclops, Angel, and Marvel Girl. Art by Jack Kirby.|thumb]] Xavier founded [[Xavier Institute for Higher Learning|a school for gifted children]] which had a secret purpose of providing a safe haven for mutants to master their abilities in order to function in the outside world safely. In addition, he sought to foster good mutant-human relations by providing a positive example of mutants with his superhero team, the X-Men. Among the obstacles to that goal was his old friend, Magneto, who had grown harder since the two last met and believed that the only solution to mutant persecution was domination of humanity. Throughout most of his time with the team, Xavier used his telepathic powers to keep in constant contact with his students and provided instructions and advice when needed. In addition, he used a special machine called [[Cerebro]], which enhanced his ability to detect mutants and to allow the team to find new students in need of the school. At one point, he seemed to have died but that turned out to be a former villain named [[Changeling (Marvel Comics)|Changeling]], who had agreed to impersonate Xavier while he went into hiding to plan a defense against an impending alien invasion. Later, Xavier assembled a newer team of X-Men to rescue the original team when they were in trouble and managed the new members as before. He later met and fell in love with the alien Princess [[Lilandra]] from the [[Shi'ar]] Empire and took a sabbatical on her world for a time. ===Rejuvenation=== [[Image:Xavierwalk.png|Xavier starts to walk again. Art by Paul Smith.|150px|thumb]] Later, Xavier was placed under the control of a member of the [[Brood (comics)|Brood]] while the X-Men were fighting them in outer space. During that time, he was compelled to assemble a team of younger mutants collectively called [[The New Mutants]], which were secretly intended to be prime hosts for reproduction of the aliens. Eventually, the X-Men discovered the dire situation and returned to free Xavier, but they were too late to prevent him from being transformed into a Brood Queen. The X-Men and [[Starjammers]] were able to subdue him in this monstrous form, but the only way to restore him was to clone a new body using tissue samples he had previously donated to the Starjammers. This new body had fully-working legs, but he was so accustomed to using his mind to block the previous constant pain of his paralysis that his mind subconsciously gave him [[psychosomatic]] pain whenever he tried to walk, which kept him largely in his wheelchair. Eventually, he overcame this difficulty and sometimes joined the X-Men in the field. ===Leave of absence=== A bit later, Xavier became victim of a [[hate crime]] and was severely injured. [[Callisto (comics)|Callisto]] and her [[Morlocks (comics)|Morlocks]] got him to safety. One of the Morlocks managed to partially restore Xavier's health. However, Callisto warned Xavier that he wasn't fully healed and he would need to spend more time recuperating and not exerting his full strength or powers or his health could fail again. Xavier hid his injuries from the others and tried to resume his life. A reformed Magneto was arrested and put on trial. Xavier attended the trial to defend his friend. Andrea and Andreas Strucker, the children of Baron Von Strucker — who at the time was presumed dead — crashed the courtroom to attack Magneto and Xavier. Xavier was seriously injured. Dying, he asked a shocked Magneto to look after the X-Men for him. Lilandra, who had a psychic bond with Xavier, felt that he was in great danger and headed to Earth. There, she took Xavier with her and the [[Shi'ar]] so their advanced technology could heal him. Magneto was left in charge of his school and some of the X-Men were unwilling to forgive their former enemy, mainly the original five X-Men who left and formed a splinter team called [[X-Factor]]. Magneto worked with the X-Men for several years, but when a misunderstanding caused them to attack him, he felt betrayed and became an enemy again. By this time Xavier had returned to resume his previous responsibilities. He was later injured by his old foe, the [[Shadow King]], returning him to his former paraplegic state. ===Onslaught=== [[Image:onslaught_01.jpg|left|150px|thumb|Onslaught.]] Professor X was for a time the unknowing host of the evil psionic entity [[Onslaught (comics)|Onslaught]]. Months before, Magneto and Xavier had had a falling out. The two were angry with each other and things escalated when [[Colossus (comics)|Colossus]] left the X-Men and joined Magneto and his Acolytes. In a battle where the X-Men were fighting Magneto at his base on Avalon, [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]] tried to kill Magneto who in turn retaliated by ripping out the [[adamantium (comics)|adamantium]] bonded to Wolverine's skeleton. Furious, Xavier wiped Magneto's mind, leaving Magneto in a coma; Magneto would not regain his mind until several months later. The psionic contact brought together Magneto and Xavier's unrepressed anger at humanity, creating the entity known as Onslaught, a creature of pure psionic energy. Onslaught wreaked havoc through the earth until he was destroyed by many of Marvel's superheroes, including [[Avengers (comics)|the Avengers]], [[Fantastic Four|the Fantastic Four]] and [[Hulk (comics)|the Incredible Hulk]]. Xavier was left without his telepathy and feeling guilty about his hand in what happened. He left the X-Men for a while. [[Image:Nx121.jpg|right|150px|thumb|Cassandra Nova.]] ===Cassandra Nova=== Xavier's [[evil twin]] [[Cassandra Nova]], whom Xavier had killed while they were both in their mother's womb, came back and had a group of rogue sentinels destroy Genosha. Magneto, who at the time was the leader of Genosha, presumably died along with everyone else on the island. Nova then took over Xavier's body. Posing as Xavier, she outed him as a mutant to the world before going into space and crippling the Shi'ar empire. The X-Men managed to restore Xavier, but Lilandra believed that too much trouble had come from her and the Shi'ar's involvement with the X-Men and had her marriage with Xavier annulled ===New Worlds=== During this period, a mutant named [[Xorn]] had joined the X-Men. His power was apparently to heal and he restored Xavier's use of his legs. Now outed as a mutant, Xavier began making speeches to the public about mutant tolerance. He also founded the X-Corporation, or X-Corp, with offices all over the world. The purpose of the X-Corp is to watch over mutant rights and help mutants in need. As a result of being outed, the school wouldn't have to hide the fact that it was a school for mutants and it opened its doors for more mutants to come in. Things went downhill, however, when a student named Quentin Quire and his gang caused a riot on the day humans were going to take a tour of the school. As a result, Quire and two innocent students were killed. Not sure if his dream was working, Xavier told everyone that at the end of the term he would step down as being headmaster and that Jean Grey would be replacing him. Xorn then revealed himself to be Magneto, though it was later revealed that he was just an impostor. The impostor crippled Xavier once more before destroying New York. The X-Men managed to defeat the impostor, but not before he killed Jean by giving her an electromagnetic stroke. ===Genosha=== [[Image:Excalibur magneto.jpg|right|150px|thumb|Xavier meets up with Magneto. Art from ''Excalibur'' #1.]] With Jean dead, Xavier left the school to Cyclops and [[Emma Frost]], who had been having a psychic affair behind Jean's back for some time before her death. Xavier then went to Genosha where he met up with the real Magneto. The two resolved their differences once more and worked together to rebuild and restore order to the decimated island nation. Back at the mansion, the [[Danger Room]] gained [[sentience]], rechristened itself &quot;Danger&quot;, assumed a humanoid form and attacked the X-Men before heading over to kill Xavier. With Magneto's help Xavier was able to hold Danger off until the X-Men arrived. Soon after Danger fled, but not before revealing to [[Colossus (comics)|Colossus]] that Xavier had known it had been sentient ever since he upgraded it. Colossus was especially hurt, as he had been held captive and experimented on recently. Ashamed, Xavier tried to explain to them that by the time he realized what was happening, he could see no other course. The X-Men, disgusted with him, left. ===House of M=== Later, Magneto's daughter the [[Scarlet Witch]] suffered a mental breakdown and killed some of the Avengers. Magneto brought her to Xavier and asked him to use his mental powers to help her. Xavier agreed to try, but was unsuccessful. Worried, he ordered a group meeting of the X-Men and the Avengers to decide Wanda's fate. Her brother, [[Quicksilver (comics)|Quicksilver]], believed that the two groups were planning on killing her; and indeed Wolverine and Emma Frost both believed that that was the best option. Going to Genosha where she was located, he convinced her that she could undo her wrongs by using her powers to change reality into a perfect world. Wanda used her magicks and changed the reality into the [[House of M]], a world where mutants were the majority, humans the minority and Magneto their ruler. Here, Magneto and the others believed that Xavier died years ago helping free Genosha. When Layla Miller, a mutant with the ability to restore people's memories, restored the minds of some of the X-Men and Avengers, they headed over to Genosha where they discovered that Magneto had erected a memorial garden for Xavier commemorating his death. They were horrified until [[Cloak and Dagger (comics)|Cloak]] faded into his grave and discovered there was no body. Believing Magneto was somehow responsible, the two groups attacked Magneto a
nd actor (d. [[2004]]) *[[1947]] - [[Gidon Kremer]], Latvian violinist *[[1954]] - [[Neal Schon]], American musician ([[Journey (band)|Journey]]) *[[1956]] - [[Marjorie Russo]], American Poet *[[1957]] - [[Viktor Markin]], Russian athlete *1957 - [[Adrian Smith]], English musician ([[Iron Maiden]]) *[[1962]] - [[Adam Baldwin]], American actor *1962 - [[Grant Show]], American actor *[[1966]] - [[Donal Logue]], Canadian actor *[[1970]] - [[Michael A. Burstein]], American writer *[[1971]] - [[Derren Brown]], British psychological illusionist *1971 - [[Rozonda Thomas]], American singer ([[TLC]]) *[[1978]] - [[James Beattie (footballer)|James Beattie]], English footballer *[[1980]] - [[Chelsea Clinton]], daughter of former U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] *[[1981]] - [[Josh Groban]], American singer *[[1985]] - [[Fefe Dobson]], Canadian singer *1985 - [[Abe Asami]]. Japanese singer and actress. *[[1988]] - [[JD Natasha]], American musician &lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt; ==Deaths== *[[1659]] - [[Henry Dunster]], first President of Harvard College (b. [[1609]]) *[[1699]] - [[Charles Paulet, 1st Duke of Bolton]], English politician (b. c. [[1625]]) *[[1706]] - [[John Evelyn]], English diarist (b. [[1620]]) *[[1720]] - [[Samuel Parris]], English-born Puritan minister (b. [[1653]]) *[[1735]] - [[John Arbuthnot]], English physician and writer (b. [[1667]]) *[[1844]] - [[Nicholas Biddle (1786-1844)|Nicholas Biddle]], President of the Second Bank of the United States (b. [[1786]]) *[[1887]] - [[Alexander Borodin]], Russian composer (b. [[1833]]) *[[1892]] - [[Louis Vuitton]], French luggage maker (b. [[1821]]) *[[1902]] - [[Breaker Morant]], Anglo-Australian soldier executed in Boer War under controversial circumstances (b. [[1864]]) *[[1921]] - [[Schofield Haigh]], English cricketer (b. [[1871]]) *[[1936]] - [[Ivan Pavlov]], Russian physiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1849]]) *[[1941]] - [[William D. Byron]], U.S. Congressman (b. [[1895]]) *[[1964]] - [[Orry-Kelly]], Australian costume designer (b. [[1897]]) *[[1968]] - [[Frankie Lymon]], American singer (b. [[1942]]) *[[1972]] - [[Pat Brady]], American actor and singer (b. [[1914]]) *[[1977]] - [[John Dickson Carr]], American author (b. [[1905]]) *[[1978]] - [[Vadim Salmanov]], Russian composer (b. [[1912]]) *[[1980]] - [[George Tobias]], American actor (b. [[1901]]) *[[1985]] - [[Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.|Henry Cabot Lodge]], American politician (b. [[1902]]) *[[1986]] - [[Jacques Plante]], Canadian hockey player (b. [[1929]]) *[[1989]] - [[Paul Oswald Ahnert]], German astronomer (b. [[1897]]) *1989 - [[Konrad Lorenz]], Austrian zoologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1903]]) *[[1992]] - [[S. I. Hayakawa]], Canadian-American linguist and politician (b. [[1906]]) *[[1993]] - [[Lillian Gish]], American actress (b. [[1893]]) *[[1998]] - [[George H. Hitchings]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1905]]) *1998 - [[J. T. Walsh]], American actor (b. [[1943]]) *[[2002]] - [[Spike Milligan]], British comedian (b. [[1918]]) *[[2003]] - [[John Lanchbery]], English composer (b. [[1923]]) *2003 - [[Fred Rogers]], American children's television actor (b. [[1928]]) *[[2004]] - [[Paul Sweezy]], American economist and editor (b. [[1910]]) *[[2006]] - [[Otis Chandler]], Former Publisher of the [[L.A. Times]] (b. [[1927]]) *2006 - [[Robert Lee Scott, Jr.]], U.S. General, Flying Tiger, author (b. [[1908]]) *2006 - [[Linda Smith (comedian)|Linda Smith]], British comedienne (b. [[1958]]) &lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt; ==Holidays and observances== *[[Roman Empire]] - [[Equirria]], horse races in honour of [[Mars (god)|Mars]] were held. *[[Bahá'í Faith]] - [[Day 2]] of [[Ayyám-i-Há]] ([[Intercalary Days]]) - days in the [[Bahá'í]] calendar devoted to service and gift giving. *[[Dominican Republic]] - [[National Day]]. *[[International Polar Bear Day]]. * First day of [[Maslenitsa]] in [[Russia]] ([[2006]]) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/27 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060227.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=27 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[February 26]] - [[February 28]] - [[January 27]] - [[March 27]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:27 Februarie]] [[ar:27 فبراير]] [[an:27 de frebero]] [[ast:27 de febreru]] [[bg:27 февруари]] [[be:27 лютага]] [[bs:27. februar]] [[ca:27 de febrer]] [[ceb:Pebrero 27]] [[cv:Нарăс, 27]] [[co:27 di frivaghju]] [[cs:27. únor]] [[cy:27 Chwefror]] [[da:27. februar]] [[de:27. Februar]] [[et:27. veebruar]] [[el:27 Φεβρουαρίου]] [[es:27 de febrero]] [[eo:27-a de februaro]] [[eu:Otsailaren 27]] [[fo:27. februar]] [[fr:27 février]] [[fy:27 febrewaris]] [[ga:27 Feabhra]] [[gl:27 de febreiro]] [[ko:2월 27일]] [[hr:27. veljače]] [[io:27 di februaro]] [[id:27 Februari]] [[ia:27 de februario]] [[is:27. febrúar]] [[it:27 febbraio]] [[he:27 בפברואר]] [[jv:27 Februari]] [[ka:27 თებერვალი]] [[csb:27 gromicznika]] [[ku:27'ê reşemiyê]] [[lt:Vasario 27]] [[lb:27. Februar]] [[hu:Február 27]] [[mk:27 февруари]] [[ms:27 Februari]] [[nap:27 'e frevaro]] [[nl:27 februari]] [[ja:2月27日]] [[no:27. februar]] [[nn:27. februar]] [[oc:27 de febrièr]] [[os:27 февралы]] [[pl:27 lutego]] [[pt:27 de Fevereiro]] [[ro:27 februarie]] [[ru:27 февраля]] [[se:Guovvamánu 27.]] [[sco:27 Februar]] [[sq:27 Shkurt]] [[scn:27 di frivaru]] [[simple:February 27]] [[sk:27. február]] [[sl:27. februar]] [[sr:27. фебруар]] [[fi:27. helmikuuta]] [[sv:27 februari]] [[tl:Pebrero 27]] [[tt:27. Febräl]] [[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 27]] [[th:27 กุมภาพันธ์]] [[vi:27 tháng 2]] [[tr:27 Şubat]] [[uk:27 лютого]] [[wa:27 di fevrî]] [[war:Pebrero 27]] [[zh:2月27日]] [[pam:Pebreru 27]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>February 28</title> <id>11311</id> <revision> <id>41935437</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:06:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DJ Clayworth</username> <id>16175</id> </contributor> <comment>remove man with no article</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{FebruaryCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=28}} |} '''February 28''' is the 59th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 306 days remaining, 307 in [[leap year]]s. In a [[common year]] it is the last day of February. ==Events== *[[364]] - [[Valentinian I]] is elevated as [[Roman Emperor]]. *[[1700]] - Today is followed by [[March 1]] in [[Sweden]], thus creating the [[Swedish calendar]]. *[[1784]] - [[John Wesley]] charters the [[Methodism|Methodist Church]]. *[[1827]] - The [[Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad]] is incorporated, becoming the first [[railroad]] in [[USA|America]] offering commercial transportation of both people and freight. *[[1844]] - A gun on [[USS Princeton (1843)|USS ''Princeton'']] explodes while the boat is on a [[Potomac River]] cruise, killing two [[United States Cabinet]] members and several others. *[[1849]] - Regular [[steamboat]] service from the west to the east coast of the [[United States]] begins with the arrival of the [[SS California|SS ''California'']] in [[San Francisco Bay]], 4 months 21 days after leaving [[New York Harbor]]. *[[1850]] - The [[University of Utah]] opens in [[Salt Lake City]], [[Utah]]. *[[1854]] - The [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party of the United States]] is organized in [[Ripon, Wisconsin]]. *[[1861]] - [[Colorado]] is organized as a [[Political divisions of the United States|United States territory]]. *[[1870]] - The [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] is established by decree of Sultan [[Abd-ul-Aziz]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. *[[1883]] - The first [[vaudeville]] theater opens in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. *[[1885]] - The [[American Telephone and Telegraph Company]] is incorporated in [[New York State]] as the subsidiary of American Bell Telephone. (American Bell would later merge with its subsidiary.) * [[1897]] - [[Ranavalona III of Madagascar|Queen Ranavalona III]], the last monarch in [[Madagascar]], was deposed by a [[France|French]] military force. *[[1900]] - The [[Second Boer War]]: The 118-day &quot;[[Siege]] of [[Ladysmith, South Africa|Ladysmith]]&quot; is lifted. *[[1922]] - The [[United Kingdom]] accepts the [[independence]] of [[Egypt]]. *[[1933]] - ''[[Gleichschaltung]]'': The [[Reichstag Fire Decree]] is passed in [[Germany]] a day after the [[Reichstag fire]]. *[[1935]] - [[Nylon]] is discovered by [[Wallace Carothers]]. *[[1939]] - The word &quot;[[Dord]]&quot; is discovered in the ''[[Webster's Dictionary|Webster's New International Dictionary, Second Edition]]'', prompting an investigation. *[[1940]] - [[Basketball]] is [[television|televised]] for the first time ([[Fordham University]] vs. the [[University of Pittsburgh]] in [[Madison Square Garden]]). *[[1947]] - [[February 28 Incident]]: In [[Taiwan]], civil disorder is put down with large loss of civilian lives. *[[1948]] - [[Bud Gartiser]] sets a new world record after clearing the 50-yard low hurdles in 6.8 seconds. *[[1953]] - [[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] announce to friends that they have determined the chemical structure of [[DNA]]; formal announcement [[April 25]] following publication in April [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] (pub. [[April 2]]). *[[1960]] - The [[American national men's hockey team|United States]] defeats [[Czechoslovak national ice hockey team|Czechoslovakia]] 9-4 to win the gold medal at the [[1960 Winter Olympics|Winter Olympics]] in [[Squaw Valley, California]]. *[[1972]] - [[Sino-American relations]]: The [[United States]] and [[People's Republic of Ch
uot; - 7:45 #&quot;You're Gonna Make Me Lonesome When You Go&quot; - 2:58 ===Side 2=== #&quot;Meet Me in the Morning&quot; - 4:19 #&quot;[[Lily, Rosemary and the Jack Of Hearts]]&quot; - 8:50 #&quot;If You See Her, Say Hello&quot; - 4:46 #&quot;Shelter from the Storm&quot; - 4:59 #&quot;Buckets of Rain&quot; - 3:29 ==Personnel== *Bob Dylan - Guitar, Harmonica, Keyboards, Vocals *Bill Peterson - Bass *Eric Weissberg - Banjo, Guitar *Tony Brown - Bass *Charlie Brown - Guitar *Bill Berg - Drums *Buddy Cage - Guitar (Steel) *Barry Kornfeld - Guitar *Richard Crooks - Drums *Paul Griffin - Organ, Keyboards *Gregg Inhofer - Keyboards *Tom McFaul - Keyboards *Chris Weber - Guitar, Guitar (12 String) *Kevin Odegard - Guitar *Phil Ramone - Engineer *Pete Hamill - Liner Notes *Ron Coro - Art Direction [[Category:Bob Dylan albums]][[Category:1975 albums]][[Category:Columbia Records albums]] {{Bob Dylan}} [[de:Blood On The Tracks]] [[fr:Blood on the Tracks]] [[sv:Blood on the Tracks]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>&quot;Love and Theft&quot;</title> <id>3375</id> <revision> <id>42064864</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:49:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dremora</username> <id>139858</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Track listing */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}{{Album infobox | Name = Love and Theft | Type = [[Album (music)|Album]] | Artist = [[Bob Dylan]] | Cover = Loveandtheftcover.jpg| Background = Orange | Released = [[September 11]] [[2001]]| Recorded = [[Spring (season)|spring]] [[2001]]| Genre = [[Folk-Rock|Folk/Rock]] | Length = 57:25 | Label = [[Columbia Records|Columbia]] | Producer = [[Bob Dylan]] (as Jack Frost)| Reviews = &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; * ''[[All Music Guide]]'' [[Image:4hv out of 5.png]] [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:5y62mpzj9f1o~T1 link] * ''[[Blender Magazine|Blender]]'' (Favourable) Oct 2001, p.102 * ''[[The Music Box (magazine)|The Music Box]]'' [[Image:4 out of 5.png]] [http://www.musicbox-online.com/bd-love.html link] * ''[[The Onion]]'' (Favourable) [http://avclub.com/content/node/12923 link] * ''[[PopMatters]]'' (Favourable) [http://www.popmatters.com/music/reviews/d/dylanbob-love.shtml link] * ''[[Q Magazine|Q]]'' (Favourable) Oct 2001, p.122 * [[Robert Christgau]] (A+) [http://www.robertchristgau.com/get_artist.php?name=Bob+Dylan link] * ''[[Rolling Stone Magazine|Rolling Stone]]'' (5/5) [http://www.rollingstone.com/reviews/album/_/id/235544 RS 878] * ''[[Spin Magazine|Spin]]'' (Favourable) Nov 2001, p.127 *''[[Village Voice]]'' (Favourable) [http://www.villagevoice.com/music/0139,tate,28446,22.html 9/26/01]| Last album = ''[[The Essential Bob Dylan]]''&lt;br /&gt;([[2000]])| This album = '''''Love and Theft'''''&lt;br /&gt;([[2001]]) | Next album = ''[[The Bootleg Series Vol. 5: Bob Dylan Live 1975, The Rolling Thunder Revue|The Bootleg Series Vol. 5]]''&lt;br /&gt;([[2002]]) |}} '''''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;''''' is an album by [[Bob Dylan]], released in [[2001]]. Coming four years after the much applauded ''[[Time Out of Mind]]'', ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' was even better received by delighted critics and fans and is widely considered his best album since [[1975]]'s ''[[Blood On The Tracks]]''. It gave Dylan his best trans-atlantic chart showings in over two decades. Going gold in the US, ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' hit #5, and it reached as high as #3 in the UK. Produced by Dylan himself (under his pseudonym of &quot;Jack Frost&quot;), the album is loose, carefree, touching, and even humourous at times. It won the 2002 [[Grammy]] award for &quot;Best Traditional Folk Album&quot; and was nominated for &quot;Album of the Year&quot;. Before that, it topped the ''[[Village Voice]]'''s [[Pazz &amp; Jop]] Critics Poll for 2001. {{RS500|467}} ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' - which was released the same day as the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] tragedy - remains Bob Dylan's latest studio album. The quotation marks in the album title are apparently deliberate, as witnessed by Dylan's official website [http://bobdylan.com/albums] and by the text on the album's cover. ==The recording sessions== Sessions for ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' were held at Sony Music's recording studios in midtown Manhattan, scheduled at approximately 3:30 p.m. every day between May 9th and the 21st in 2001. The players gathered for these sessions were Charlie Sexton on guitar, Larry Campbell on guitar as well as mandolin, violin, and banjo, Tony Garnier on bass, David Kemper on drums and percussion, and Augie Meyers on keyboards and accordion. Augie Meyers, who has known Dylan since the 1960's, had previously played in the Sir Douglas Quintet as well as ''[[Time Out of Mind]]''. (Clay Meyers also contributed bongos on &quot;Tweedle Dee &amp; Tweedle Dum&quot; and &quot;Honest With Me.&quot;) Dylan produced these sessions under the pseudonym, 'Jack Frost,' &quot;because I didn’t feel any additional help was necessary. Not that I want to take credit or draw attention to myself. I don’t want to get flooded with calls from other people, asking me to pilot their records. Heh-heh-heh! It’s not like I'm in need of the work!&quot; In an interview with ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' Meyers said &quot;There was none of this 'Hi, what's happening?' and a bit of BS. It was, 'OK, let's go to work.' After we were through, at ten o'clock at night, it seemed like we'd only been there a couple of hours, because it was so much fun. Every day was a special day, because every day was a new song.&quot; Dylan wrote and re-wrote many of the lyrics to ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' during the recording sessions, right on the spot. Dylan, says Meyers, would &quot;fool around for a while with a song, then we'd cut it. And he'd say, 'I think I'm gonna write a couple more verses,' sit down and write five more verses. Each verse had six or eight lines. It's complicated stuff, and he was doing it right there.&quot; The songs, Meyers adds, were mostly recorded live, including Dylan's vocals. &quot;Bob don't like to overdub much,&quot; Meyers notes. &quot;He would overdub some acoustic guitars, put some mandolin and fiddle on there. Sometimes he'd overdub his voice. If he messed up [a vocal], he'd overdub a word or two.&quot; ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' was notable for using Dylan's touring band during all of the sessions. Dylan had been touring with this unit since June 5, 1999, when Charlie Sexton replaced previous guitarist Bucky Baxter. Meyers was the only session player who was not part of that group, but even he had a relationship with guitarist Larry Campbell, who played with Meyers and Sir Douglas Quintet leader Doug Sahm back in the 1970s. When it came to recording albums, Dylan often hired new session players rather than take his touring band into the studio. However, as many critics and fans had noticed, his live shows were steadily improving throughout the 1990's, and by 2001, his concerts were receiving a great deal of critical acclaim. Some argued that the Sexton-Campbell combo was perhaps his best backing band since the Band in 1974. The shows were marked by tight, focused arrangements that often lent themselves to lively improvisations between Sexton and Campbell. In an interview in ''Guitar World'' Magazine, published several months before Sexton joined the band, Dylan remarked, &quot;if you're going to ask me what's the difference between now and when I used to play in the Seventies, Eighties and even back in the Sixties, the songs weren't arranged. The arrangement is the architecture of the song. And that's why our performances are so effective these days, because measure for measure we don't stray from the actual structure of the song. And once the architecture is in place, a song can be done in an endless amount ofways. That's what keeps my current live shows unadulterated. Because they're not diluted, or they're not jumbled up. They're not scrambled, they're not just a bunch of screaming... a conglomerated sound mix. It's like Skip James...once said: 'I don't want to entertain. What I want to do is impress with skill and deaden the minds of my listeners.' If you listen to his records -- his old records -- you know he can do that. But if you listen to the records he made in the Sixties, when they rediscovered him, you find that there's something missing. And what's missing is that interconnecting thread of the structure of the songs.&quot; Dylan had previously recorded the Oscar-winning song, &quot;Things Have Changed,&quot; using this group, but ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' marked their first appearance on an entire album. At the time, nobody knew it would be their only album together, as the band gradually disbanded after 2002. &quot;I think Bob has got the perfect thing,&quot; Meyers said, while the group was still intact. &quot;Lord help him, if he can go for another ten or twelve years, I think that band will be there with him.&quot; During the recording sessions, Dylan was mindful of past bootleg releases that've &quot;been bought up by so-called hardcore fans of mine, whoever they might be - those folks out there who are obsessed with finding every scrap of paper I’ve ever written on, every single outtake. All right, that’s the world we live in. I accept it’s just the way things are. But the fact is that I can no longer be interested in it [material ‘released’ without his consent in this way]. It’s already been contaminated for me. I turn my back, move on to something else.&quot; As a result of the stricter controls exerted over his own recordings, Dylan was able to keep all of the studio work under wraps. &quot;This time...my original wasn't floating around out there, and I felt able to go back and revisit it. I’
' based on a speech delivered in 1927 and later included in a book of the same title, is considered a classic statement of agnosticism. The essay briefly lays out Russell&amp;#8217;s objections to some of the [[arguments for the existence of God]] before discussing his moral objections to Christian teachings. He then calls upon his readers to &quot;stand on their own two feet and look fair and square at the world,&quot; with a &quot;fearless attitude and a free intelligence.&quot; In 1939, Russell gave a lecture on ''The existence and nature of God'', in which he characterised himself as an agnostic. He said: :The existence and nature of God is a subject of which I can discuss only half. If one arrives at a negative conclusion concerning the first part of the question, the second part of the question does not arise; and my position, as you may have gathered, is a negative one on this matter. (Collected Papers, Vol 10, p.255) However, later in the same lecture, discussing modern non-anthropomorphic concepts of God, Russell states: :That sort of God is, I think, not one that can actually be disproved, as I think the omnipotent and benevolent creator can. (p.258) In Russell's 1947 pamphlet, ''Am I An Atheist Or An Agnostic?'' (subtitled ''A Plea For Tolerance In The Face Of New Dogmas''), he ruminates on the problem of what to call himself: :As a philosopher, if I were speaking to a purely philosophic audience I should say that I ought to describe myself as an Agnostic, because I do not think that there is a conclusive argument by which one prove that there is not a God. :On the other hand, if I am to convey the right impression to the ordinary man in the street I think I ought to say that I am an Atheist, because when I say that I cannot prove that there is not a God, I ought to add equally that I cannot prove that there are not the Homeric gods. In his 1953 essay, ''What Is An Agnostic?'' Russell states: :An agnostic thinks it impossible to know the truth in matters such as God and the future life with which Christianity and other religions are concerned. Or, if not impossible, at least impossible at the present time. However, later in the essay, Russell says: :I think that if I heard a voice from the sky predicting all that was going to happen to me during the next twenty-four hours, including events that would have seemed highly improbable, and if all these events then produced to happen, I might perhaps be convinced at least of the existence of some superhuman intelligence. He didn't say &quot;supreme&quot; or &quot;supernatural&quot; intelligence: these terms are metaphysically loaded. For Russell, then, agnosticism doesn't necessarily assert that it is ''in principle'' impossible to know whether or not there is a God. Moreover, &quot;An Agnostic may think the Christian God as improbable as the Olympians; in that case, he is, for practical purposes, at one with the atheists.&quot; ===Logical positivism=== [[logical positivism|Logical positivists]], such as [[Rudolph Carnap]] and [[A. J. Ayer]], are sometimes thought to be agnostic. Using arguments reminiscent of [[Wittgenstein]]&amp;#8217;s famous &quot;Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent,&quot; they viewed any talk of god(s) as literally [[nonsense]]. For the logical positivists and adherents of similar schools of thought, statements about religious or other transcendent experiences could not have a truth value and were deemed to be without meaning. But this includes all utterances about god(s), ''even'' those agnostic statements that deny knowledge of God(s) are possible. In ''Language, Truth and Logic'' Ayer explicitly rejects agnosticism on the grounds that an agnostic, despite claiming that knowledge of god(s) are not possible, nevertheless holds that statements about god(s) have meaning. This position, however, is valid only in the case of agnostics who define their agnosticism in this fashion. ''[[Ignosticism|Ignostics]]'' define agnosticism in a manner consistent with the logical positivist view, holding theism to be ''incoherent.'' ==References== * ''Collected Essays'', Thomas Huxley, ISBN 1855069229 * ''Man's Place In Nature'', Thomas Huxley, ISBN 037575847X * ''Why I Am Not a Christian'', Bertrand Russell, ISBN 0671203231 * ''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion'', David Hume, ISBN 0140445366 * ''Language, Truth, and Logic'', A.J. Ayer, ISBN 0486200108 ==See also== * [[List of agnostics]] * [[Religious freedom]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * {{gutenberg author| id=R.+G.+Ingersoll | name=Robert G. Ingersoll}} * [http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/humftp/E-text/Russell/agnostic.htm What Is An Agnostic?] by Bertrand Russell, [1953]. * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-03 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Agnosticism * [http://www.iidb.org/vbb/index.php The Internet Infidels Discussion Forums''(Worldwide)'' ] * [http://www.infidels.org/index.shtml The Secular Web] * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] * [http://www.religioustolerance.org/agnostic.htm Religious Tolerance.org - Agnosticism] * [http://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/agnostic.htm Agnostic] * [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE5/Agn-X.html &quot;Agnosticism and Christianity&quot; (1899)] by T. H. Huxley * [http://www.agnosis.org AGNOSIS: The History &amp; Future of Agnosticism] {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:Agnosticism|*]] [[ar:لاأدرية]] [[bg:Агностицизъм]] [[ca:Agnosticisme]] [[cs:Agnosticismus]] [[da:Agnosticisme]] [[de:Agnostizismus]] [[et:Agnostitsism]] [[el:Αγνωστικισμός]] [[es:Agnosticismo]] [[eo:Agnostikismo]] [[fr:Agnosticisme]] [[gd:Adhbharachais]] [[id:Agnostisisme]] [[ia:Agnosticismo]] [[it:Agnosticismo]] [[he:אגנוסטיות]] [[jv:Agnostisisme]] [[ka:აგნოსტიციზმი]] [[lb:Agnostizismus]] [[hu:Agnoszticizmus]] [[nl:Agnosticisme]] [[ja:不可知論]] [[no:Agnostisisme]] [[pl:Agnostycyzm]] [[pt:Agnosticismo]] [[ro:Agnosticism]] [[ru:Агностицизм]] [[sh:Agnosticizam]] [[simple:Agnosticism]] [[sl:Agnosticizem]] [[sr:Агностицизам]] [[fi:Agnostismi]] [[sv:Agnosticism]] [[tr:Agnostisizm]] [[zh:不可知论]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aluminum</title> <id>895</id> <revision> <id>20455286</id> <timestamp>2005-08-07T04:53:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tregoweth</username> <id>7402</id> </contributor> <comment>reinstating #REDIRECT [[Aluminium]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aluminium]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Argon</title> <id>896</id> <revision> <id>41913727</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:05:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Edgar181</username> <id>491706</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 41866142 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{this|a chemical element|Argon (disambiguation)}} {{Elementbox_header | number=18 | symbol=Ar | name=argon | left=[[chlorine]] | right=[[potassium]] | above=[[neon|Ne]] | below=[[krypton|Kr]] | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }} {{Elementbox_series | [[noble gas]]es }} {{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=18 | period=3 | block=p }} {{Elementbox_appearance_img | Ar,18| colorless }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|39.948]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[neon|Ne]]&amp;#93; 3s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 3p&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 8 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[gas]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gplstp | 1.784 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=83.80 | c=-189.35 | f=-308.83 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=87.30 | c=-185.85 | f=-302.53 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 1.18 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 6.43 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 20.786 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | &amp;nbsp; | 47 | 53 | 61 | 71 | 87 | comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic face centered }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | 0 }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | no data }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 1520.6 | 2665.8 | 3931 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|71]] }} {{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-11 m|71]] }} {{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|97]] }} {{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|188]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }} {{Elementbox_magnetic | nonmagnetic }} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 17.72 m}} {{Elementbox_speedofsound_mps | (gas, 27 °C) 323 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-37-1 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=argon | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=36 | sym=Ar | na=0.337% | n=18 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=37 | sym=Ar | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=35 [[day|d]] | dm=[[Electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=? | pn=37 | ps=[[chlorine|Cl]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=38 | sym=Ar | na=0.063% | n=20 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=39 | sym=Ar | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E9 s|269]] [[year|y]] | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=0.565 | pn=39 | ps=[[potassium|K]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=40 | sym=Ar | na=99.600% | n=22 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=42 | sym=Ar | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=32.9 [[year|y]] | dm=&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; | de=0.600 | pn=42 | ps=[[potassium|K]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }} '''Argon''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]]. It has the symbol '''Ar''' and [[atomic number]] 18. The third [[noble gas]], in group 18, argon makes up about 1% of the [[Earth's atmosphere]], making it the most common noble gas
of 1935]]. ===Democratic peace theory=== {{main|Democratic peace theory}} Numerous studies using many different kinds of data, definitions, and statistical analyses have found support for the democratic peace theory. The original finding was that liberal democracies have never made war with one another. More recent research has extended the theory and finds that democracies have few ''[[Militarized Interstate Disputes]]'' (MIDs) causing less than 1000 battle deaths with one another, that those MIDs that have occurred between democracies have caused few deaths, and that democracies have few [[civil wars]]. There are various criticisms of the theory, including specific historic wars and that correlation is not causation. ===Democide=== Research shows that the more democratic nations have much less [[democide]] or murder by government. ===Happiness=== More democracy is associated with a higher average self-reported happiness in a nation. &lt;ref&gt;R.J. Rummel, (2006). [http://freedomspeace.blogspot.com/2006/02/happiness-this-utilitarian-argument.html Happiness -- This Utilitarian Argument For Freedom Is True]. Accessed [[February 22]], [[2006]]. &lt;/ref&gt; these are the democracy so far ==References== ===Citations=== &lt;references/&gt; ===General references=== *Harald Müller, Jonas Wolff (2004): ''Dyadic Democratic Peace Strikes Back: Reconstructing the Social Constructivist Approach After the Monadic Renaissance.'' (Paper, 5th Pan-European International Relations Conference, The Hague, September 9-11, 2004). *Emerson P J. ''Beyond the Tyranny of the Majority'' compares most of the more common voting procedures used in both decision-making and elections; while ''Defining Democracy'' looks at both the historical and current practice in decision-making, elections, and governance. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{wiktionarypar|democracy}} *[http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_democracy/index.html Journal of Democracy] *[http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Politics/Democracy/ Democracy] in the [[Open Directory Project]] *[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-78 Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Democracy] *[http://www.democracywatch.org Democracy Watch (International)] &amp;mdash; Worldwide democracy monitoring organization. *[http://topics.developmentgateway.org/governance dgGovernance] &amp;mdash; Collection of resources on key issues of democracy and nation-building *[http://gsociology.icaap.org/report/polsum.html Brief review of trends in political change: freedom and conflict]. *[http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa10.htm ''The Federalist No. 10'' by James Madison] *[http://www.nytimes.com/cfr/international/20040901facomment_v83n4_siegle-weinstein-halperin.html New York Times argument against the &quot;Development first, democracy later&quot; idea] *[http://www.fareedzakaria.com/articles/other/democracy.html ''The Rise of Illiberal Democracy''] by Fareed Zakaria *[http://www.idea.int/ The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance] '''Critique''' *[http://www.gegenstandpunkt.com/english/state/toc.html The Democratic State - A Critique of Bourgeois Sovereignty] *[http://www.riff-raff.se/en/7/undemocracy.php Riff-Raff] &amp;mdash; Democracy as the Community of Capital - A Provisional Critique of Democracy *[http://web.inter.nl.net/users/Paul.Treanor/democracy.html Why democracy is wrong] *[http://www.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe4.html ''Democracy, The God That Failed'' by Hans-Hermann Hoppe] *[http://www.conservativeclassics.com/books/libertybk/BK08.PDF ''Liberty or Equality'' by Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn] *[http://www.enterstageright.com/archive/articles/0105/0105churchilldem.htm ''Churchill on Democracy Revisited'' by J.K. Baltzersen] *[http://thechinadesk.tripod.com/democracy_the_worst_form_of_government_ever_tried.htm Democracy, the Worst Form of Government ever Tried] *[http://jeffryfisher.net/Statesman/ElectionLaw/Democracy.htm ''Democracy is More Than Just Voting''] '''Alternatives and improvements''' - see also [[e-democracy]], [[Internet democracy]], and [[Futarchy]] *[http://www.panarchy.org/anonymous/democracy.1962.html Democracy with a small &quot;d&quot;] *[http://www.globalpublic.org Advancing Ethics &amp; Democracy] *[http://www.greens.org/s-r/36/36-22.html Democratic Deficit] *[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~DRBR/lowell2.html ''On Democracy'' by James Russell Lowell] *[http://www.opendemocracy.net openDemocracy] &amp;mdash; Global democracy network using information, participation and debate to empower citizens. *[http://simpol.org simpol.org] &amp;mdash; Plan to limit global competition and facilitate the emergence of a sustainable, sane global civilization. *[http://www.sfgd.org Students for Global Democracy] *[http://democraticthinking.blogspot.com Collection of articles discussing democracy in online media] *[http://wiki-law.org/mwiki/index.php?title=Democracy_2.0:_Main_Page Democracy 2.0] [[Category:Democracy]] [[Category:Elections]] [[Category:Forms of government]] {{Link FA|he}} [[af:Demokrasie]] [[ar:ديمقراطية]] [[bg:Демокрация]] [[bn:গণতন্ত্র]] [[bs:Demokracija]] [[ca:Democràcia]] [[cs:Demokracie]] [[da:Demokrati]] [[de:Demokratie]] [[et:Demokraatia]] [[es:Democracia]] [[eo:Demokratio]] [[fa:دموکراسی]] [[fr:Démocratie]] [[gl:Democracia]] [[ko:민주주의]] [[hr:Demokracija]] [[id:Demokrasi]] [[it:Democrazia]] [[he:דמוקרטיה]] [[ka:დემოკრატია]] [[ku:Demokrasî]] [[lt:Demokratija]] [[ln:Demokrasi]] [[hu:Demokrácia]] [[yi:דעמאקראטיע]] [[mk:Демократија]] [[mr:लोकशाही]] [[nl:Democratie]] [[ja:民主主義]] [[no:Demokrati]] [[nn:Folkestyre]] [[pl:Demokracja]] [[pt:Democracia]] [[ru:Демократия]] [[sh:Demokracija]] [[simple:Democracy]] [[sk:Demokracia]] [[sl:Demokracija]] [[fi:Demokratia]] [[sv:Demokrati]] [[th:ประชาธิปไตย]] [[vi:Dân chủ]] [[tr:Demokrasi]] [[uk:Демократія]] [[zh:民主]] [[ki:Ndemookirathĩ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Deduction and induction</title> <id>7960</id> <revision> <id>33011711</id> <timestamp>2005-12-28T17:00:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bachrach44</username> <id>304397</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>link repair ([[Wikipedia:Bad links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">See *[[deductive logic]] and [[Induction (philosophy)|inductive reasoning]] *[[validity]] and [[cogency]] *[http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/dedind.htm Deduction &amp; Induction] {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Documentary Film</title> <id>7961</id> <revision> <id>15905994</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Documentary film]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Logical disjunction</title> <id>7962</id> <revision> <id>41957035</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:48:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>132.248.36.43</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ORGate.png|thumb|right|150px|OR [[logic gate]].]] In [[mathematics]], '''logical disjunction''' (usual symbol '''or''') is a [[logical operator]] that results in true if either of the operands is true. ==Definition== In [[logic]] and [[mathematics]], a '''disjunction''' is an &quot;or statement&quot;. For example &quot;John skis or Sally swims&quot; is a disjunction. Note that in everyday language, use of the word &quot;or&quot; can sometimes mean &quot;either, but not both&quot; (e.g., &quot;would you like tea or coffee?&quot;). In logic, this is called an [[Exclusive disjunction|&quot;exclusive disjunction&quot;]] or &quot;exclusive or&quot; (xor). When used formally, &quot;or&quot; allows for both parts of the or statement (its ''disjuncts'') to be true (&quot;and/or&quot;), therefore &quot;or&quot; is also called ''inclusive disjunction''.{{rf|1|Boole}} For two inputs A and B, the [[truth table]] of the function is as follows. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! A !! B !! A or B |- align=center | F || F || F |- align=center | F || T || T |- align=center | T || F || T |- align=center | T || T || T |} More generally a disjunction is a logical formula that can have one or more [[literal]]s separated only by ORs. A single literal is often considered to be a degenerate disjunction. ==Symbol== The mathematical symbol for logical disjunction varies in the literature. In addition to the abbreviation &quot;or&quot;, one may see *a vee (&quot;&amp;or;&quot;, or ''&amp;amp;#x2228;'') is typically used for disjunction. For example: &quot;''A'' &amp;or; ''B''&quot; is read as &quot;''A'' or ''B''&quot;. Such a disjunction is false if both ''P'' and ''Q'' are false. In all other cases it is true. All the following are disjunctions: ''A'' &amp;or; ''B''&lt;p&gt; ¬''A'' &amp;or; ''B''&lt;p&gt; ''A'' &amp;or; ¬''B'' &amp;or; ¬''C'' &amp;or; ''D'' &amp;or; ¬''E''&lt;p&gt; The equivalent notion in set theory is the [[union (set theory)|set-theoretic union]]. ==Associativity and Commutativity== For more than two inputs, ''or'' can be applied to the first two inputs, and then the result can be ''or'ed'' with each subsequent input: :(''A'' or (''B'' or ''C'')) &amp;hArr; ((''A'' or ''B'') or ''C'') Because or is [[Associativity|associative]], the order of the inputs does not matter: the same result will be obtained regardless of association. The operator xor is also [[Commutativity|commutative]] and therefore the order of the operands is not important: :''A'' or ''B'' &amp;hArr; ''B'' or ''A'' ==Bitwise operation== Disjunction is often used for bitwise operations. Examples: * 0 or 0 = 0 * 0 or 1 = 1 * 1 or 0 = 1 * 1 or 1 = 1 * 1010 or 1110 = 1110 Note that in computer science the OR operator can be used to set a [[bit]] to 1 by OR-ing the bit with 1. == Union =
mained: does a social fact exist because it is functional for the social order or because it is functional for the person? Do uniformities across cultures occur because of organizational needs that must be met everywhere or because of the uniform needs of human personality? For Lévi-Strauss, the choice was for the demands of the social order. He had no difficulty bringing out the inconsistencies and triviality of individualistic accounts. Malinowski said, for example, that magic beliefs come into being when people need to feel a sense of control over events where the outcome was uncertain. In the [[Trobriand Islands]], he found the proof of this claim in the rites surrounding abortions and weaving skirts. But in the same tribes, there is no magic attached to making clay pots even though it is no more certain a business than weaving. So the explanation is not consistent. Furthermore, these explanations tend to be used in an ad hoc, superficial way &amp;#8211; you just postulate a trait of personality when you need it. But the accepted way of discussing organizational function didn't work either. Different societies might have institutions that were similar in many obvious ways and yet served different functions. Many tribal cultures divide the tribe into two groups and have elaborate rules about how the two groups can interact. But exactly what they can do &amp;#8211; trade, intermarry &amp;#8211; is different in different tribes; for that matter, so are the criteria for distinguishing the groups. Nor will it do to say that dividing-in-two is a universal need of organizations, because there are a lot of tribes that thrive without it. For Lévi-Strauss, the methods of [[linguistics]] became a model for all his earlier examinations of society. His analogies are usually from [[phonology]] (though also later from music, mathematics, [[chaos theory]], [[cybernetics]] and so on). &quot;A truly scientific analysis must be real, simplifying, and explanatory,&quot; he says (in ''Structural Anthropology''). Phonemic analysis reveals features that are real, in the sense that users of the language can recognize and respond to them. At the same time, a phoneme is an abstraction from language &amp;#8211; not a sound, but a category of sound defined by the way it is distinguished from other categories through rules unique to the language. The entire sound-structure of a language can be generated from a relatively small number of rules. In the study of the kinship systems that first concerned him, this ideal of explanation allowed a comprehensive organization of data that had been partly ordered by other researchers. The overall goal was to find out why family relations differed in different South American cultures. The father might have great authority over the son in one group, for example, with the relationship rigidly restricted by taboos. In another group, the mother's brother would have that kind of relationship with the son, while the father's relationship was relaxed and playful. A number of partial patterns had been noted. Relations between the mother and father, for example, had some sort of reciprocity with those of father and son &amp;#8211; if the mother had a dominant social status and was formal with the father, for example, then the father usually had close relations with the son. But these smaller patterns joined together in inconsistent ways. One possible way of finding a master order was to rate all the positions in a kinship system along several dimensions. For example, the father was older than the son, the father produced the son, the father had the same sex as the son, and so on; the matrilineal uncle was older and of the same sex but did not produce the son, and so on. An exhaustive collection of such observations might cause an overall pattern to emerge. But for Lévi-Strauss, this kind of work was &quot;analytical in appearance only.&quot; It results in a chart that is far harder to understand than the original data and is based on arbitrary abstractions (empirically, fathers are older than sons, but it is only the researcher who declares that this feature explains their relations). Furthermore, it doesn't explain anything. The explanation it offers is tautological &amp;#8211; if age is crucial, then age explains a relationship. And it does not offer the possibility of inferring the origins of the structure. A proper solution to the puzzle is to find a basic unit of kinship which can explain all the variations. It is a cluster of four roles--brother, sister, father, son. These are the roles that must be involved in any society that has an incest taboo requiring a man to obtain a wife from some man outside his own hereditary line. A brother can give away his sister, for example, whose son might reciprocate in the next generation by allowing his own sister to marry exogenously. The underlying demand is a continued circulation of women to keep various clans peacefully related. Right or wrong, this solution displays the qualities of structural thinking. Even though Lévi-Strauss frequently speaks of treating culture as the product of the axioms and corollaries that underlie it, or the phonemic differences that constitute it, he is concerned with the objective data of field research. He notes that it is logically possible for a different atom of kinship structure to exist &amp;#8211; sister, sister's brother, brother's wife, daughter &amp;#8211; but there are no real-world examples of relationships that can be derived from that grouping. The purpose of structuralist explanation is to organize real data in the simplest effective way. All science, he says, is either structuralist or reductionist. In confronting such matters as the incest taboo, one is facing an objective limit of what the human mind has so far accepted. One could hypothesize some biological imperative underlying it, but so far as social order is concerned, the taboo has the effect of an irreducible fact. The social scientist can only work with the structures of human thought that arise from it. And structural explanations can be tested and refuted. A mere analytic scheme that wishes causal relations into existence is not structuralist in this sense. Lévi-Strauss' later works are more controversial, in part because they impinge on the subject matter of other scholars. He believed that modern life and all history was founded on the same categories and transformations that he had discovered in the Brazilian back country &amp;#8211; ''[[The Raw and the Cooked]], [[From Honey to Ashes]], [[The Naked Man]]'' (to borrow some titles from the ''Mythologies''). For instance he compares anthropology to musical [[serialism]] and defends his &quot;philosophical&quot; approach. He also pointed out that the modern view of primitive cultures was simplistic in denying them a history. The categories of myth did not persist among them because nothing had happened &amp;#8211; it was easy to find the evidence of defeat, [[Migration (human)|migration]], exile, repeated displacements of all the kinds known to recorded history. Instead, the mythic categories had encompassed these changes. He argued for a view of human life as existing in two timelines simultaneously, the eventful one of history and the long cycles in which one set of fundamental mythic patterns dominates and then perhaps another. In this respect, his work resembles that of [[Fernand Braudel]], the [[historian]] of the Mediterranean and 'la longue durée,' the cultural outlook and forms of social organization that persisted for centuries around that sea. == Selected bibliography == *''Les Structures élémentaires de la parenté'' (1949, The Elementary Structures of Kinship, ed. *Rodney Needham, trans. J. H. Bell, J. R. von Sturmer, and Rodney Needham, 1969) *''Race et histoire'' (1952, [[UNESCO]]; Race and History) *''Tristes tropiques'' (1955, trans. John Weightman and Doreen Weightman, 1973) *''Anthropologie structurale'' (1958, Structural Anthropology, trans. Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf, 1963) *''Le Totemisme aujourdhui'' (1962, Totemism, trans. Rodney Needham, 1963) *''La Pensée sauvage'' (1962, The Savage Mind, 1966) *''Mythologiques I-IV'' (trans. John Weightman and Doreen Weightman **''Le Cru et le cuit'', 1964, The Raw and the Cooked, 1969 **''Du miel aux cendres'', 1966, From Honey to Ashes, 1973 **''L'Origine des manières de table'', 1968, The Origin of Table Manners, 1978 **''L'Homme nu'', 1971, The Naked Man, 1981) *''Anthropologie structurale deux'' (1973, Structural Anthropology, Vol. II, trans. M. Layton, 1976) *''La Voie des masques'' (1972, The Way of the Masks, trans. Sylvia Modelski, 1982) *''Paroles donnés'' (1984, Anthropology and Myth: Lectures, 1951-1982, trans. Roy Willis, 1987) *''Le Regard éloigne'' (1983, The View from Afar, trans. Joachim Neugroschel and Phoebe Hoss, 1985) *''La Potière jalouse'' (1985, The Jealous Potter, trans. Bénédicte Chorier, 1988) *''Histoire de lynx'' (1991) *''Regarder, écouter, lire'' (1993, Look, Listen, Read trans. Brian Singer, 1997) ==See also == *[[Evolutionary Principle]] *[[structural anthropology]] *[[structuralism]] == External links == {{wikiquote}} *[http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/VideoTest/levi.ram Lecture: The Birth of Historical Societies (Hitchcock Lectures), October 3 and 4, 1984, UC Berkeley (online audio file)] *[http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/claude_levi-strauss.html Overview, in The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory] *[http://www.academie-francaise.fr/immortels/base/academiciens/fiche.asp?param=647 Claude Lévi-Strauss' profile on the Académie française site] *[http://www.egwald.com/ubcstudent/aboriginal/exchanges.php Linguistic and Commodity Exchanges] by Elmer G. Wiens. Examines the structural differences between barter and monetary commodity exchanges and oral and written linguistic exchanges. {{start box}} {{succession box | title= [[List of members of
r rock fanzines of this period include ''Flash,'' 1972, edited by Mark Shipper, and ''Bam Balam,'' written and published by Brian Hogg in East Lothian, Scotland, beginning in 1974, and in the mid-1970s, [[Back Door Man (fanzine)|Back Door Man]] and [[Denim Delinquent]]. In the post-punk era several well-written fanzines emerged that cast an almost academic look at earlier, neglected musical forms, including Mike Stax' [[Ugly Things]], Billy Miller &amp; Miriam Linna's [[Kicks]], Jake Austen's [[Roctober]][http://www.roctober.com/roctober/], Kim Cooper's [[Scram]], P. Edwin Letcher's [[Garage &amp; Beat]], and the U.K.'s [[Shindig]] and Italy's [[Misty Lane]]. ===Punk fanzines=== &lt;i&gt;Main article: [[Punk zine]]&lt;/i&gt; The [[punk culture|Punk]] explosion in the [[United Kingdom]] led to a massive upsurge of interest in fanzines as an alternative to the mainstream media that was felt to be too [[exploitation|exploitative]], [[capitalist]], and essentially uninterested in the Punk Movement and the concerns of disaffected youth. The first and perhaps still best known UK '[[punkzine]]' was ''[[Sniffin' Glue]]'', produced by [[Deptford, London|Deptford]] punk fan [[Mark Perry]], which ran for 12 issues between [[1976]] to [[1977]]. Other UK fanzines included [[Blam!]], [[New Crimes]], [[Vague fanzine]], [[Juniper beri-beri]] and [[Coolnotes]]. In the US, [[Flipside (fanzine)|Flipside]] and [[Slash (fanzine)]] were important punk fanzines for the LA scene, both debuting in 1977. Among later titles, ''[[Maximum RocknRoll]]'' is a major punk zine, with over 250 issues published. As a result, in part, of the popular and commercial resurgence of punk in the late 1980s and after, with the growing popularity of such bands as [[Sonic Youth]], [[Nirvana]], [[Fugazi]], [[Bikini Kill]], [[Green Day]] and the [[Offspring]], a number of other punk zines have appeared, such as ''[[Punk Planet]], [[Razorcake Magazine]], [[Sobriquet Magazine]]'' and ''[[Slug and Lettuce (fanzine)|Slug and Lettuce]].'' The early American punkzine ''[[Search and Destroy]]'' eventually became the influential fringe-cultural magazine ''[[Re/Search]]''. In the UK [[Fracture (fanzine)|Fracture]] and [[Reason To Believe (fanzine)|Reason To Believe]] have been the main fanzines in the recent past, but both closed their doors in late 2003. Though not technically a 'national' fanzine [[Rancid News]] has to a limited degree filled the gap left by these two zines. ===Role-playing fanzines=== Another sizable group of fanzines arose in [[role-playing game]] (RPG) fandom, where fanzines allowed people to publish their ideas and views on specific games and their [[role-playing campaigns]]. Role-playing fanzines allowed people to communicate in the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] with complete editorial control in the hands of the players, as opposed to the game publishers. These early RPG fanzines were generally typed, sold in an A5 format (in the UK) and were usually illustrated with abysmal or indifferent artwork. A fanzine community developed and was based on sale to a reading public and exchanges by editor/publishers. Many of the pioneers of RPG zinedom got their start in, or remain part of, [[science fiction fandom]]. This is also true of the small but still active [[board game]] fandom scene, the most prolific subset of which is centered around [[play-by-mail game|play-by-mail]] [[Diplomacy game|Diplomacy]]. === Sport === In the [[UK]], most [[Premiership]] or [[The Football League|Football League]] [[football (soccer)|football]] clubs have one or more fanzines which supplement, oppose and complement the club's official magazine or matchday programme. A reasonably priced 'zine has a guaranteed audience, as is the culture of passion in being a football fan. Examples of UK football fanzines include [[TOOFIF]], [[Oxtales]], [[4000 Holes]] and [[War of the Monster Trucks]] (a Sheffield Wednesday Fanzine named after a local TV station elected not to show the final scenes of an unlikely cup victory) a download can be found at the [http://www.sheffieldwednesday.com SheffieldWednesday.com] site . ==Recent developments== In recent years the traditional paper zine has begun to give way to the [[webzine]] (or &quot;e-zine&quot;) that is easier to produce and uses the potential of the Internet to reach an ever larger, possibly global, audience. Nonetheless, printed fanzines are still produced, either out of preference or to reach people who don't have convenient Web access. One example of a zine is [[The Inner Swine]]. Online versions of approximately 200 [[science fiction fanzine]]s will be found at the [http://www.efanzines.com eFanzines] site, along with links to other [[science fiction fanzine|SF fanzine]] sites. ==See also== *[[British small press comics]] *[[Desktop Publishing]] *[[Literature]] *[[List of black metal fanzines]] *[[Printing]] *[[Publishing]] *[[Science Fiction Fandom]] *[[Fandom]] *[[Weblog]] *[[Writing]] *[[Alt.zines]] *[[Fanposter]] ==External links== *[http://www.jessesword.com/sf/view/186 Citations for &quot;fanzine&quot; collected by the Oxford English Dictionary] *[http://www.rehupa.com/apa_hist.htm Origins of the amateur press associations] *[http://fanac.org/fanzines/ Historic science fiction fanzines at Fanac.org] *[http://www.asimovs.com/_issue_0501/thoughtexperiments.shtml An article by critic Roger Ebert describing his involvement with science fiction fanzines in the 1950s.] *[http://scrammagazine.com/shaw.html An interview with Bomp! publisher Greg Shaw discussing his experience as a teenage SF fanzine and rock zine publisher, and the evolution of zines through the '90s.] *[http://www.garageandbeat.com/ Garage &amp; Beat] *[http://www.roctober.com/ Roctober] *[http://www.skipwilliamson.com/UndergroundComix.html The Underground Comix movement began as a network of fanzines.] *[http://www.zinebook.com Zinebook.com] Guide to creating your own fanzine or webzine, based on The Book of Zines by Chip Rowe. [[Category:Fandom]] [[Category:Fanzines|*]] [[Category:Zines]] [[de:Fanzine]] [[es:Fanzine]] [[fr:Fanzine]] [[it:Fanzine]] [[he:פנזין]] [[lt:Fenzinas]] [[nl:Fanzine]] [[no:Fanzine]] [[pt:Fanzine]] [[sv:Fanzine]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Forgotten Futures</title> <id>11102</id> <revision> <id>38820494</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T21:37:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Genesis</username> <id>72450</id> </contributor> <comment>added infobox</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG |title= Forgotten Futures |image= |caption= |designer= [[Marcus L. Rowland]] |publisher= None |date= ''Unknown'' |genre= [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy]] |system= Custom |footnotes= }} '''Forgotten Futures''' is a [[role-playing game]] created by [[Marcus L. Rowland]] to allow people to play in settings inspired by the early days of [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy]]. Rowland pioneered the concept of [[shareware]] role-playing games with this system: users can download the rules from his web site, buy a subscription that entitles them to Forgotten Futures CDs, or buy a copy of the published version of this game. The CDs are also good sources for science fiction books whose copyright has expired. See also: *[[Space 1889]] ==External links== *[http://www.forgottenfutures.com/ Official website] *http://homepage.ntlworld.com/forgottenfutures/ [[Category:Historical role-playing games]] [[Category:Science fiction role-playing games]] [[Category:Steampunk]] {{rpg-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fabritio Caroso</title> <id>11103</id> <revision> <id>29985073</id> <timestamp>2005-12-03T04:20:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LiniShu</username> <id>308788</id> </contributor> <comment>+cat Italian dancers</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fabritio Caroso da Sermoneta''' was a famous Italian [[Renaissance]] [[dancing master]]. He was born around 1526-1535 and died around 1605-1620. His dance manual ''Il Ballarino'' was published in 1581, with a subsequent edition, significantly different, ''Nobiltà de dame'', printed in 1600 and again after his death in 1630. ==External links== * [http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/caroso/ Caroso's ''Il Ballarino''] * [http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/caroso/facsimile/014smallsmall.gif Portrait of Caroso] {{Italy-bio-stub}} [[Category:Dancers|Caroso, Fabritio]] [[Category:Historical dance|Caroso, Fabritio]] [[Category:Italian dancers|Caroso, Fabritio]] [[de:Fabritio Caroso]] [[fr:Fabritio Caroso]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fatah</title> <id>11104</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42086032</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:03:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FedericoEcon</username> <id>873959</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */ rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Palestine}} '''Fatah''' (Arabic: &amp;#1601;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1581;); a reverse [[acronym]] from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name '''Harakat al-Tahrir al-Watani al-Filastini''' (literally: &quot;Palestinian National Liberation Movement&quot;) is a major [[Palestinian]] [[faction]] and the largest constituency of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO), a multi-party [[confederation]]. In the [[January 25]], [[2006]] [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|parliamentary election]], the party lost its majority in the Palestinian parliament to [[Hamas]], and resigned all cabinet positions, choosing to act as the official [[Opposition (politics)|opposition]], though it will remain as [[provisional government|interim]] government until a new cabinet is formed. == Meaning of name == &quot;Fatah&quot; means &quot;conquest&quot; or literally &quot;op
isten]]) |- valign=top |yes|| ''sì'' || {{IPA|/si/}} || (see) || ([[Media:Italian sì.ogg|listen]]) |- valign=top |no|| ''no'' || {{IPA|/no/}} || (no) || ([[Media:Italian no.ogg|listen]]) |- valign=top |sorry|| ''scusa'' || {{IPA|/ˈskuza/}} || (SKOO-za) || ([[Media:Italian scusa.ogg|listen]]) |- valign=top ||| ''scusi'' || {{IPA|/ˈskuzi/}} || (SKOO-zee) (polite treatment) || ([[Media:Italian scusi.ogg|listen]]) |- valign=top |I don't understand|| ''non capisco'' || {{IPA|/noŋ kaˈpisko/}} || (non kuh pee skow) || ([[Media:Italian non capisco.ogg|listen]]) |- valign=top |where's the bathroom?|| ''dov'è il bagno?'' || {{IPA|/doˈvɛ il ˈbaɲːo/}} || (do veh eel bah nyoh) || ([[Media:Italian dov'è il bagno.ogg|listen]]) |- valign=top |generic toast|| ''salute'' || {{IPA|/saˈlute/}} || (sall-OO-teh) || ([[Media:Italian salute.ogg|listen]]) |- valign=top ||| ''cincin'' || {{IPA|/ʧinˈʧin/}} || (cheen cheen) || ([[Media:Italian cincin.ogg|listen]]) |- valign=top |Do you speak english?|| ''Parla inglese?'' || {{IPA|/'parla iŋglɛze/}} || (Par-lah een-gleh-zeh) || ([[Media:Italian parlate inglese.ogg|listen]]) |} == [[Japanese language|Japanese]] == {| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 |- bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; valign=&quot;bottom&quot; ! align=left | Translation ! align=left | [[Kanji]] or [[Kana]] ! align=left | [[Romaji|Rōmaji]] !align=left | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] ! align=left | Approximate pronunciation |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Japanese (''language'') || 日本語 || nihongo || {{IPA|ni&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ho.ɴ.ɣo}} || nee hon go |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Hello! || こんにちは || konnichi wa || {{IPA|ko&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ɴ.ni.cɕi.ɰa}} || kon nee chee wah |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Good evening! || こんばんは || konban wa || {{IPA|ko&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ɴ.ba.ɴ.ɰa}} || kom ban wah |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Good morning! || おはようございます || ohayō gozaimasu (casually shortened to ohayō)|| {{IPA|o&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ha.joː&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ɣo&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;za.i.ma&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;sɯ̥}} || ohio go zah-ee mahss |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Hello? (''on the telephone'') || もしもし || moshi moshi || {{IPA|mo&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ɕi̥.mo.ɕi↗}} || moh-she moh-she |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Good bye! (''farewell'') || さようなら || sayōnara || {{IPA|sa&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;joːna.ɺa}} || sigh yoh nah rah |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Good bye! (''I'll be back.'') || 行って来ます || ittekimasu || {{IPA|i&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;Q.te.ki.ma&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;sɯ̥}} || eat-tay key-mahss |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Good bye! (''Come back soon.'') || 行ってらっしゃい || itterasshai || {{IPA|i&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;Q.te.ɺa.Q.ɕa.i}} || eat-tay rahsh-shy |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | See you later || じゃあまたね || Jâ mata ne || || jah mah-tah nay |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Please give me [...] / Please do [...] || ...下さい || kudasai || {{IPA|ku&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;da.sa&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;i}} || koo-dah-sigh |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Please. (''Go ahead. / Be my guest.'') || どうぞ || dōzo|| {{IPA|do&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ːzo}} || doh-zoh |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Please [...] (''request'') || お願いします || onegai shimasu || {{IPA|o&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ne.ɣa.i.ɕi.ma&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;sɯ̥}} || oh ne-guy she-mahss |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Thank you. || ありがとう || arigatō || {{IPA|a&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ɺi&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ɣa.toː}} || ah-ree-gah-toh |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Excuse me. || すみません || sumimasen || {{IPA|su&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;mi.ma.se.ɴ&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;}} || sue-me-mah-sen |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Sorry. (''informal'') || ごめん || gomen || {{IPA|go&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;me.ɴ}} || go-men |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | I'm sorry. (''formal'') || ごめんなさい || gomen nasai || {{IPA|go&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;me.ɴ.na.sa.i&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;}} || go-men nah-sigh |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | That one. (''near you'') || それ || sore || {{IPA|so&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ɺe}} || so-reh |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | That one. (''over there') || あれ || are || {{IPA|a&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ɺe}} || ah-reh |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | How much? (''price'') || いくらですか || ikura desu ka || {{IPA|i&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ku.ɺa.de.sɯ̥.ka↗}} || ee-koo-rah dess kah |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | English (''language'') || 英語 || eigo || {{IPA|e&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ːɣo}} || ay-go |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Do you speak English? || 英語が話せますか || eigo ga hanasemasu ka || {{IPA|e&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ːɣo.ɣa&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ha&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;na.se.ma&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;sɯ̥.ka↗}} || ay-go gah hah-nah-say-mahss kah |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Yes. || はい || hai || {{IPA|ha&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;i}} || high |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | No. || いいえ || iie || {{IPA|i&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;i.e}} || ee-eh |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Bon appétit! (''corresponds to &quot;I receive&quot; in Japanese'') || いただきます || itadakimasu || {{IPA|i&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ta.da.ki.ma&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;sɯ̥}} || ee-tah-dah-key-mahss |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Thank you for the meal. || ごちそうさまでした || gochisōsama deshita || {{IPA|go&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;cɕi̥.soːsa.ma.de.ɕi̥.ta}} || go-chee-sohsahma h desh-ta |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Where's the bathroom? || トイレはどこですか || toire wa doko desu ka? || {{IPA|to&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;i.ɺe.ɰa&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;do&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ko.de.sɯ̥.ka↗}} || toy-reh wah doh-koh dess kah |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Cheers! (''toast'') || 乾杯 || kanpai || {{IPA|&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ka.ɴ.pa.i}} || cahm-pie |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | foreigner || 外国人 || gaikokujin || {{IPA|ga&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;i.ko.ku&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ʑi.ɴ}} || guy-koh-koo-jin |} == [[Kannada language|Kannada]] ([[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]) == {| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 |- bgcolor=#eeeeee ! align=left | Translation ! align=left | Phrase ! align=left | [[ITRANS]] transliteration ! align=left | Pronunciation ! align=left | Literal meaning |- |Kannada||ಕನ್ನಡ||kannaDa||(kanna Dah ('D' is with retroflex))|| || |- |Hello|| ||namaskAra||(namas kārā)||Salutations|| |- |Hello (informal)|| ||Enu samAchAra||(eh nu sa maah chaah rah)||What's up?|| |- |Good bye (when leaving) || ||hOgibiTTu baruttEne||(hoe gee biTTu barut tey ney ('T' is retroflex))||I will go and come back|| |- |Good bye (when being left)|| ||hOgibiTTu banni||(hoe gee biTTu bun knee ('T' is retroflex)||Go and come back|| |- |How are you?|| ||nIvu hEge iddIra?||(nee voo hey gay id dee rah)|| || |- |Please|| ||dayaviTTu||(da yah viTTu ('T' is retroflex))||With mercy|| |- |Thank you|| ||dhanya vAdagaLu||(dhan yah vaada gaLu ('L' is retroflex))||Many thanks|| |- |That one|| ||adu||(ah du)|| || |- |How much?|| ||eshTu?||(esh Tu ('T' is retroflex)|| || |- |English|| ||aangla||(ahng lah)|| || |- |Yes|| ||houdu||(how doo)|| || |- |No|| ||illa||(ill ah)|| || |} &lt;!-- I have reformatted this using ITRANS/Baraha transliteration. I have also added another coloumn for literal meaning. Can somebody fill up the empty second coloumn with kannaDa lipi --&gt; == [[Khmer language|Khmer]] == {| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 |- bgcolor=#eeeeee ! align=left | Translation ! align=left | Phrase ! align=left | IPA ! align=left | Pronunciation ! align=left | Remarks |- valign=top |- |Khmer||ខ្មែរ || ||khmer |- |hello||សួស្ដី || ||soursdey'' |- |good-bye||លា​ហើយ || ||lea hey'' |- |sorry||សូម​ទោស|| ||som tos|| |- |no problem||គ្មានបញ្ហា || ||kmean panh-ha'' |- |happy new year||សួស្ដី​ឆ្នាំ​ថ្មី || ||soursdey chnamm tmei'' |- |I love Khmer||ខ្ញុំ​ស្រលាញ់​ខ្មែរ || ||knhom sro-lanh khmer'' |- |Thank you||អរគុណ || ||Or kun'' |- |How much||ថ្លៃប៉ុន្មាន || ||Tlai punman'' |- |yes||បាទ &lt;br&gt; ចាស៎ || || bart &lt;br&gt; jah ||(male) &lt;br&gt; (female) |- |no||ទេ || || teh |- |I don't understand||ខ្ញុំ​មិន​យល់​ទេ || || kngom men yol teh |- |where's the toilet?||តើ​បន្ទប់​ទឹក​នៅ​ទី​ណា? || || ter bantub tek nov ti na? |- |Do you speak English?||តើ​អ្នក​និយាយ អង់គ្លេស ទេ? || || ter nak niyay Anglais teh? |} == [[Korean language|Korean]] == ''Note: [[Hangul]]'' [[Revised Romanization of Korean]] ''See also: [[Names of Korea]]'' {| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 |- bgcolor=#eeeeee ! align=left | Translation ! align=left | Phrase ! align=left | [[Revised Romanization of Korean|RR]] ! align=left | IPA ! align=left | Pronunciation ! align=left | Remarks |- valign=top |- |Korean |한국어 |hangugeo |{{IPA|[haːnɡuɡʌ]}} |hahn goo guh | |- |Hello |안녕하세요 |annyeonghaseyo |{{IPA|[anːjʌŋɦasejo]}} |ahn nyuhng ha say yo |formal |- |Hello |안녕 |annyeong |{{IPA|[anːjʌŋ]}} |ahn nyuhng |informal; for friends or someone younger |- |good-bye |안녕히 계세요 |annyeonghi gyeseyo |{{IPA|[anːjʌŋɦiɡesejo]}} |ahn nyuhng hee geh say yo |formal; when leaving (person addressed to is staying) |- |good-bye |안녕히 가세요 |annyeonghi gaseyo |{{IPA|[anːjʌŋɦiɡasejo]}} |ahn nyuhng hee ga say yo |formal; when person addressed to is leaving |- |good-bye |안녕 |annyeong |{{IPA|[anːjʌŋ]}} |ahn nyuhng |informal; for friends or someone younger |- |please may I have |주세요 |juseyo |{{IPA|[ʨusejo]}} |ju say yo |to be used after the object; e.g., Kimbap juseyo. = Sushi roll, please. |- |thank you |고맙습니다 |gomapseupnida |{{IPA|[koːmaps͈ɯmnida]}} |go mahp s'm nee dah | |- |thanks |고마워 |gomawo |{{IPA|[koːmawʌ]}} |go mah wuh |informal; to friends or someone younger |- |that one |저것 |jeogeot |{{IPA|[ʨʌɡʌt]}} |juh gut | |- |how much? |얼마예요? |eolmayeyo |{{IPA|[ʌlmajejo]}} |uhl ma yeh yo |- |yes |네 &lt;br&gt; 예 |ne &lt;br&gt; ye |{{IPA|[ne]}} &lt;br&gt; {{IPA|[jeː]}} |neh &lt;br&gt; yeah | |- |no |아니오 &lt;br&gt; 아뇨 |anio &lt;br&gt; anyo |{{IPA|[anio]}} &lt;br&gt; {{IPA|[anjo]}} |ah-nee-oh &lt;br&gt; ah-nyoh | |- |sorry |미안합니다 |mianhamnida |{{IPA|[mianɦamnida]}} |mee ahn hahm nee dah |- |I don't understand |모르겠습니다 |moreugetsseumnida |{{IPA|[moːɾɯɡets͈ɯmnida]}} |mow l' get s'm nee dah |- |where's the toilet? |화장실이 어디예요? |hwajangsiri eodiyeyo |{{IPA|[hwaʥaŋɕiɾi ʌdijɛjo]}} |hwah jahng shee re
''Genshō Tennō'') ([[680]] &amp;ndash; [[April 21]], [[748]]) was the 44th imperial ruler of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. Her given name was '''Princess Hidaka''' (&amp;#27703;&amp;#39640;&amp;#30343;&amp;#22899;). She was an elder sister of [[Emperor Mommu]] and daughter of Prince [[Kusakabe]] and his wife and later Empress [[Empress Gemmei]], therefore a granddaughter of [[Emperor Temmu]] and [[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]] by her father and a granddaughter of [[Emperor Tenji]] through her mother. She reigned from [[715]] to [[724]]. Her succession was mainly for the purpose to hold the throne until Prince Obito, the son of her deceased younger brother Mommu, later Emperor [[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Shōmu]], would be mature enough ascend to the throne. Obito was appointed to the crown prince in [[714]] by Empress Gemmei. In the next year, 715, Empress Gemmei, then in her fifties, abdicated in favor of her daughter Gensho because of her age and the youth of Obito who was then 14 years old. Obito remained as the crown prince of the new empress. [[Fujiwara no Fuhito]], the most powerful courtier in Gemmei's court, remained so at her court until his death in [[720]]. After his death, Prince [[Nagaya]], a grandson of Emperor Temmu and her cousin, seized power. This power shift was a background of later conflicts between Prince Nagaya and Fuhito's four sons in the reign of Sh&amp;#333;mu. Under her reign, the edition of ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', the first Japanese history book was finished in [[720]]. Organisation of law system was being continued under the initiatives of Fuhito until his death. Later those law and codes were edited and consumed by [[Fujiwara no Nakamaro]], a grandson of Fuhito, and published as ''Yoro ritsuryo'' dated in 718 under the name of Fuhito. Taxation system which had been introduced by [[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]] in the late of the 7th century, began to malfunction in those days. For compensation of decrease of tax revenue, under the initiative of Prince Nagaya, &quot;Act of possession in three generations&quot; was edicted in [[723]]. Under this act, people were allowed to possess the field they cultivated newly in three generations in maximum. In the fourth generation, the right of possession would disappear and the field belong to the national government. This act was under the purpose to motivate new cultivation, but its effect continued about 20 years. In 724 she abdicated in favor of Sh&amp;#333;mu. She did not marry during her life and left no child. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Empress Gemmei]] | after=[[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Sh&amp;#333;mu]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=715-724}} {{end box}} [[Category:680 births|Gensho]] [[Category:748 deaths|Gensho]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Gensho]] [[Category:Japanese women|Gensho]] [[Category:Empresses|Gensho]] [[de:Gensh&amp;#333;]] [[it:Gensho imperatrice del Giappone]] [[ja:&amp;#20803;&amp;#27491;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]] [[zh:&amp;#20803;&amp;#27491;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Empress Koken</title> <id>10431</id> <revision> <id>38718129</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T04:01:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Emperorbma</username> <id>12403</id> </contributor> <comment>+cat Japanese women</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Empress Kōken''' (孝謙天皇 ''Kōken Tennō'') also '''Empress Shōtoku''' (称徳天皇 ''Shōtoku Tennō'') ([[718]] &amp;ndash; [[August 28]], [[770]]{{an|Japanese_dates1 1}}) was both the 46th and 48th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. She first ruled as '''Empress Kōken''' from [[749]] to [[758]]. She abdicated in favor of her second cousin, [[Emperor Junnin]], but six years later she took the crown from him and reascended the throne. Her posthumous name for her second reign ([[764]]-[[770]]) was '''Empress Shōtoku'''. Today, she is remembered chiefly for her affair with a [[Buddhist monk]] named [[Dokyo|Dōkyō]], a man upon whom she heaped titles and power. The affair illustrated the growing power of the [[Buddhist]] priesthood and was a prime factor in [[Emperor Kammu|Emperor Kammu's]] decision to move the capital away from [[Nara, Nara|Nara]] in [[784]]. Shōtoku died of [[smallpox]], after which she was succeeded by her first cousin twice removed, [[Emperor Konin|Emperor Kōnin]]. She should not be confused with [[Prince Shotoku|Prince Shōtoku]] ([[572]]-[[622]]), who was one of the first in Japan to sponsor [[Buddhism]]. ==Notes== #August 28, 770 corresponds to the Fourth Day of the Eighth Month of the Fourth Year of [[Japanese era names|Jingo-keiun]] of the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until [[1873]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Shōmu]] | after=[[Emperor Junnin]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=749-758}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Junnin]] | after=[[Emperor Konin|Emperor Kōnin]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=764-770}} {{end box}} [[Category:718 births|Koken]] [[Category:770 deaths|Koken]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Koken]] [[Category:Japanese women|Koken]] [[Category:Empresses|Koken]] [[de:Kōken]] [[fr:Shotoku]] [[it:Koken imperatrice del Giappone]] [[nl:Keizerin Koken]] [[ja:孝謙天皇]] [[zh:孝謙天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Junnin</title> <id>10432</id> <revision> <id>40620633</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T21:58:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Corruptresearcher</username> <id>80774</id> </contributor> <comment>Translated from the version on Feb 19, 2006 of [[ja:淳仁天皇]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Junnin''' (淳仁天皇 ''Junnin Tennō'') ([[733]]-[[765]]) was the 47th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] from [[758]] to [[764]], according to the traditional order of succession. His name at birth was '''Prince Ōi'''. In the older Japanese documents, he was usually referred as '''Haitei''' (&amp;#24259;&amp;#24093;), the unthroned emperor and the [[posthumous name]] of '''Emepror Junnin''' was given by [[Emperor Meiji]]. ==Life== He was the seventh son of [[Prince Toneri of Japan|Prince Toneri]], a son of [[Emperor Temmu]]. His father died when he was at the age of three, and he was given no rank nor office of the court. His fate was changed in [[757]] when [[Empress Koken|Empress Kōken]], his second cousin, appointed him to her crown prince instead of Prince Funado who had been appointed to this position by the will of the [[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Shōmu]]. In 758 he became emperor on the abdication of Koken. Six years later she forced him to abdicate and reclaimed the throne. Though he technically reigned, he did not feature on the official [[List of Japanese Emperors]] until the late nineteenth century; he had very little power and was a mere figurehead. He died (or was assassinated) while in exile. In some older Japanese documents, he was usually referred as '''Haitei''' (&amp;#24259;&amp;#24093;), the unthroned emperor. In [[1870]] he was titled the Emperor Junnin officially by Emperor Meiji along with [[Emperor Kobun]] and [[Emperor Chukyo]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Empress Koken|Empress Kōken]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Empress Koken|Empress Shōtoku]] | years=758-764}} {{end box}} [[Category:733 births|Junnin]] [[Category:765 deaths|Junnin]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Junnin]] [[cs:Junnin]] [[de:Junnin]] [[it:Junnin imperatore del Giappone]] [[ja:淳仁天皇]] [[zh:淳仁天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Heizei</title> <id>10434</id> <revision> <id>33593262</id> <timestamp>2006-01-02T13:00:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wames</username> <id>351549</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Heizei''' (平城天皇 ''Heizei Tennō'') ([[774]]-[[824]]) was the 51st [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He ruled from [[806]] until his abdication in [[809]] in favor of his younger brother and crown prince [[Emperor Saga|Prince Kamino]], later named Emperor Saga. His title Heizei derived from the official name of the capital in Nara, Heizei Ky&amp;#333;. He was called often '''Nara no Mikado''', the Emperior of Nara. He was the son of the [[Emperor Kammu]] and his empress [[Fujiwara no Otomuro]]. Before he ascended to the throne, his liaison with [[Fujiwara no Kusuko]], the mother of his one consort, caused a scandal. Because of this scandal his father considered depriving him of the rank of [[crown prince]]. After abdicating, he moved to [[Nara, Nara|Nara]] and planed to move the capital again from [[Kyoto]] to [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]. The Emperor Saga pretended to agree with him, but planned to ignore this idea and reduce the influence of the former emperor. In [[810]], he attempted rebellion in Nara with Kusuko, but was defeated. Kusuko committed suicide and Heizei became a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk. His son, crown prince Takaoka, was deprived his office and Saga appointed his own son to be the new crown prince. {{japan-bio-stub}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Kammu]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Saga]] | years=806-809}} {{end box}} [[Category:774 births|Heizei]] [[Category:824 deaths|Heizei]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Heizei]] [[cs:Heizei]] [[de:Heizei]] [[it:Heizei imperatore del Giappone]] [[ja:平城天皇]] [[pl:Heizei]] [[zh:平城天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Saga</title> <id>10435</id> <revision> <id>36705752</id> <timestamp>2006-01-25T22:44:07Z</times
n Lewis’s opposition to live version] * [http://atheism.about.com/od/cslewisnarnia/a/biography.htm Biography from atheistic viewpoint.] * [http://www.malacandra.co.uk Malacandra.co.uk - A Wiki especially for C.S. Lewis fans.] [[Category:1898 births|Lewis, Clive Staples]] [[Category:1963 deaths|Lewis, Clive Staples]] [[Category:Irish people|Lewis, C. S.]] [[Category:British children's writers|Lewis, C. S.]] [[Category:British fantasy writers|Lewis, C. S.]] [[Category:British science fiction writers|Lewis, C. S.]] [[Category:Christian evangelicalism|Lewis, C. S.]] [[Category:Christian writers|Lewis, C. S.]] [[Category:Christian philosophers|Lewis, C. S.]] [[Category:Former students of University College, Oxford|Lewis, C. S.]] [[Category:Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford|Lewis, C. S.]] [[Category:Natives of Belfast|Lewis, C. S.]] [[Category:Irish people|Lewis, C. S.]] [[Category:Anglicans]] [[Category:Natives of Belfast|Lewis, C. S.]] [[bg:Клайв Стейпълс Луис]] [[be:Клайв Стэйплз Льюіс]] [[cs:Clive Staples Lewis]] [[da:Clive Staples Lewis]] [[de:Clive Staples Lewis]] [[es:Clive Staples Lewis]] [[eo:C S LEWIS]] [[fr:Clive Staples Lewis]] [[gl:Clive Staples Lewis]] [[ko:클라이브 스테이플스 루이스]] [[hr:C. S. Lewis]] [[id:C.S. Lewis]] [[it:C. S. Lewis]] [[he:קלייב סטייפלס לואיס]] [[hu:C. S. Lewis]] [[nl:C.S. Lewis]] [[ja:C・S・ルイス]] [[no:C.S. Lewis]] [[nn:C.S. Lewis]] [[pl:Clive Staples Lewis]] [[pt:Clive Staples Lewis]] [[ru:Льюис, Клайв Стэйплз]] [[sq:C. S. Lewis]] [[simple:C. S. Lewis]] [[fi:C. S. Lewis]] [[sv:C.S. Lewis]] [[tr:Clive Staples Lewis]] [[zh:克利夫·史戴普·路易斯]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chinese dominoes</title> <id>5814</id> <revision> <id>21032017</id> <timestamp>2005-08-15T00:56:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Everyking</username> <id>44020</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.14.53.45|203.14.53.45]] to last version by Gwalla</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ChineseDominoes.JPG|thumb|right|A set of Chinese dominoes]] '''Chinese [[domino]]es''' are used in several [[tile-based game]]s, namely, [[Tien Gow]], [[Pai Gow]], [[Gwat Pai]], [[Che Deng]], [[Tiu U]], [[Kap Tai Shap]]. References to Chinese domino tiles can be traced to writings from the [[Song Dynasty (960-1279)|Song Dynasty]] (AD 1120). Chinese dominoes should not be confused with [[mahjong]] tiles, which use a different tileset. Each tile pattern in the Chinese domino set is made up of the outcome of a throw of two six-sided [[dice]]. There are therefore 21 unique patterns. A tile set consists of 32 tiles in two &quot;suits&quot; or groups called &quot;military&quot; and &quot;civilian&quot;. There are no markings on the tiles to distinguish these suits; a player must simply remember which tiles belong to which group. The tile set contains two each of eleven civilian suit tiles (6-6, 1-1, 4-4, 1-3, 5-5, 3-3, 2-2, 5-6, 4-6, 1-6, 1-5) and one each of ten military suit tiles (3-6, 4-5; 2-6, 3-5; 2-5, 3-4; 2-4; 1-4, 2-3; 1-2). Each civilian tile also has a Chinese name (and common rough translation to English): The 6-6 is ''tin'' (&amp;#22825; heaven), 1-1 is ''dei'' (&amp;#22320; earth), 4-4 is ''yan'' (&amp;#20154; man), 1-3 is ''ngo'' (&amp;#40285; goose or &amp;#21644; harmony), 5-5 is ''mui'' (&amp;#26757; plum flower), 3-3 is ''cheung'' (&amp;#38263; long), 2-2 is ''ban'' (&amp;#26495; board), 5-6 is ''fu'' (&amp;#26023; hatchet), 4-6 is ''ping'' (&amp;#23631; partition), 1-6 is ''tsat'' (&amp;#19971;) (long leg seven), and 1-5 is ''luk'' (&amp;#20845;) (big head six). The civilian tiles are ranked according to the Chinese cultural significance of the tile names, and must be memorized. For example, heaven ranks higher than earth; earth ranks higher than man etc. Remembering the suits and rankings of the tiles is easier if one understands the Chinese names of the tiles and the symbolism behind them. The military tiles are named and ranked according to the total points on the tiles. For example, the &quot;nines&quot; (3-6 and 4-5) rank higher than the &quot;eights&quot; (2-6 and 3-5). The military tiles (since there is only one each) are also considered to be five mixed &quot;pairs&quot; (for example, the 3-6 and 4-5 tiles &quot;match&quot; because they have same total points and both in the military suit). Among the military tiles, individual tiles of the same pair (such as 1-4 and 2-3) rank equally. The 2-4 and 1-2 are an odd pair. They are the only tiles in the whole set that don't match other tiles in the normal sense. This pair when played together is considered a suit on its own, called the Gee Joon (&amp;#33267;&amp;#23562; Supreme). It is the highest ranking pair in the game of Pai Gow, though the tiles rank low individually (in their normal order). When a tile of this pair is played individually in the game of Tien Gow, each takes its regular ranking among other military suit tiles according to the total points. The rankings of the individual tiles are similar in most games. However, the ranking of combination tiles is slightly different in Pai Gow and Tien Gow. Using the same coloring scheme of the traditional Chinese dice, every half-domino with 1 or 4 spots has those spots colored red (for example, the 4-5 domino has four red spots and five white spots). The only exception is the pair of 6-6 tiles. Half of the spots on the 6-6 domino are colored red to make them stand out as the top ranking tiles. ==External links== *[http://www.gamecabinet.com/rules/DominoGames.html Rules of Domino games] *[http://members.tripod.com/cp_lai/sky-nine.htm Pictures of the Chinese tiles] *[http://www.ahs.uwaterloo.ca/~museum/Archive/Culin/Dice1893/index.html an article dated back to 1893] [[Category:Chinese dominoes| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Che Deng</title> <id>5815</id> <revision> <id>15904007</id> <timestamp>2005-05-11T10:30:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Oniows</username> <id>91395</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ChineseDominoes.JPG|thumb|right|A set of Chinese dominoes]] '''Che Deng''' (&amp;#26012;&amp;#37336;, Cantonese: che4 deng1) literally means ''diagonal nails'' in [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]]. It is the name of a Chinese game that plays with the [[Chinese dominoes]] set. ''Che'' refers to the diagonal pattern of the &quot;three&quot; pip on the tile. ''Deng'' refers to the &quot;one&quot; pip on the tile. [[Category:Chinese dominoes]] {{game-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cenozoic</title> <id>5816</id> <revision> <id>41939640</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:39:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>63.199.47.31</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* References and further reading */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cenozoic Era''' (sen-oh-ZOH-ik; sometimes '''Caenozoic Era''' in the [[United Kingdom]]) meaning &quot;new life&quot; ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''kaino'' = new + ''zoikos'' = life) is the most recent of the four classic [[geological era]]s. It covers the 65.5 million years since the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]] at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] that marked the demise of the last [[dinosaur]]s and the end of the [[Mesozoic]] Era. The Cenozoic era is ongoing. The Cenozoic is divided into two periods, the [[Palaeogene]] and [[Neogene]], and they are in turn divided into epochs. The Palaeogene consists of the [[Paleocene]], [[Eocene]], and [[Oligocene]] epochs, and the Neogene consists of the [[Miocene]], [[Pliocene]], [[Pleistocene]], and [[Holocene]] epochs, the last of which is ongoing. Previously the Cenozoic was divided into periods (or sub-eras) named the [[Tertiary]] (Paleocene to Pliocene) and [[Quaternary]] (Pleistocene and Holocene). However, they are no longer recognized. ==Life in the Cenozoic Era== The Cenozoic is the '''age of [[mammal]]s'''. During the Cenozoic, mammals diverged from a few small, simple, generalized forms into a diverse collection of terrestrial, marine, and flying animals. The Cenozoic is just as much the age of [[savanna]]s, or the age of co-dependent [[Angiosperms]] (flowering plants) and insects. [[Bird]]s also evolved substantially in the Cenozoic. [[Geology|Geologically]], the Cenozoic is the era when [[continent]]s moved into their current positions. [[Australia-New Guinea]] split from [[Gondwana]] to drift north and, eventually, abut [[South-east Asia]]; [[Antarctica]] moved into its current position over the [[South Pole]]; the [[Atlantic Ocean]] widened and, late in the era, [[South America]] became attached to [[North America]]. ==See also== *[[Geologic Time Scale]] ==References and further reading== *''British Caenozoic Fossils'', 1975, The Natural History Museum, London. {{Phanerozoic Footer}} {{Cenozoic Footer}} {{geology-stub}} [[Category:Cenozoic| ]] [[ast:Cenozoicu]] [[br:Senozoeg]] [[ca:Cenozoic]] [[cs:Kenozoikum]] [[da:Nyere tid (jordalder)]] [[de:Känozoikum]] [[et:Kainosoikum]] [[es:Era Cenozoica]] [[eo:Kenozoiko]] [[fr:Cénozoïque]] [[ko:신생대]] [[it:Cenozoico]] [[he:קנוזואיקון]] [[nl:Cenozoïcum]] [[ja:新生代]] [[no:Kenozoikum]] [[pl:Era kenozoiczna]] [[pt:Cenozóico]] [[sv:Kenozoikum]] [[zh:新生代]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cote dIvoire</title> <id>5818</id> <revision> <id>15904010</id> <timestamp>2004-12-09T01:12:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dryazan</username> <id>75150</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Côte d'Ivoire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Confucianism</title> <id>5820</id> <revision> <id>41910556</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:37:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wayward</username> <id>184087
; |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | A user's '''Contributions''' page can be linked as: [[Special:Contributions/UserName]] or [[Special:Contributions/192.0.2.0]] | &lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt; A user's '''Contributions''' page can be linked as: [[Special:Contributions/UserName]] or [[Special:Contributions/192.0.2.0]] &lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt; |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | * To put an article in a [[Wikipedia:Category]], place a link like the one to the right anywhere in the article. 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An example of the markup is as follows: ** Markup: &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinksneverexpand&quot;&gt; [http://www.sysinternals.com /ntw2k/freeware/winobj.shtml WinObj]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; ** Display: &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinksneverexpand&quot;&gt; [http://www.sysinternals.com/ ntw2k/freeware/winobj.shtml WinObj] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; * See [[Wikipedia:External links]] for style issues. | &lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt; Three ways to link to external (non-wiki) sources: # Bare URL: http://www.nupedia.com/ (bad style) # Unnamed link: [http://www.nupedia.com/] (only used within article body for footnotes) # Named link: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] &lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt; |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | Linking to other wikis: # [[Interwiki]] link: [[Wiktionary:Hello]] # Named interwiki link: [[Wiktionary:Hello|Hello]] # Interwiki link without prefix: [[Wiktionary:Hello|Hello]] * All of these forms lead to the URL http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Hello * Note that interwiki links use the ''internal'' link style. * See [[MetaWikiPedia:Interwiki_map]] for the list of shortcuts; if the site you want to link to is not on the list, use an external link ([[#link-external|see above]]). * See also [[Wikipedia:How to link to Wikimedia projects]]. 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Some uploaded sounds are listed at [[Wikipedia:Sound]]. | &lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt; [[media:Sg_mrob.ogg|Sound]] &lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt; |} ===Images=== Only images that have been uploaded to Wikipedia can be used. To upload images, use the [[Special:Upload|upload page]]. You can find the uploaded image on the [[Special:Imagelist|image list]]. {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- ! What it looks like ! What you type |- valign=&quot;top&quot; |A picture: [[Image:wiki.png]] |&lt;pre&gt;A picture: &lt;nowiki&gt;[[Image:wiki.png]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt; |- valign=&quot;top&quot; |With alternative text: [[Image:wiki.png|jigsaw globe]] |&lt;pre&gt;With alternative text: &lt;nowiki&gt;[[Image:wiki.png|jigsaw globe]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt; * Alternative text, used when a mouse hovers over the image or when the image is not loaded in a text-only browser, or when spoken aloud, is '''strongly''' encouraged. 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For further help on images, including some more versatile abilities, see the topic on [[En:Wikipedia:Extended image syntax|Extended image syntax]]. ===Character formatting=== {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- valign=&quot;top&quot; ! What it looks like ! What you type |- id=&quot;emph&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''Emphasize'', '''strongly''', '''''very strongly'''''. * These are double, triple, and quintuple apostrophes (single-quote marks), not double-quote marks. | &lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt; ''Emphasize'', '''strongly''', '''''very strongly'''''. &lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt; |- valign
Translation''. Premier Publishing, 2001. * [[David Hall]] and [[Roger T. Ames]] ''Dao De Jing: Making This Life Significant'', a philosophical translation including the 1993 Guodian texts. Ballantine Books, New York, 2003. * [[Moss Roberts]], ''Dao De Jing : The Book of the Way''. University of California Press, 2001 and 2004. This translation claims the goal of both improving upon previous translations of Dao De Jing and providing a translation to subsequently improve upon. The book attempts to &quot;reproduce the condensed aphoristic force [of the Dao de Jing], the appeal of [it's] intriguing and often indeterminate syntax, and the prevelence of rhymed vers in [its] original [form]&quot; by avoiding prose and keeping close to the actual text. The book includes per-stanza notes on the 1973 Mawangdui versions and 1993 Guodian version of the texts as well as translation issues and an analysis in the &quot;context of the philosophical debates that raged from the time of Confucius down to the unification of the empire in 221 B.C.&quot; * [[Wayne L. Wang]], ''Dynamic Tao and Its Manifestations: A systematic analysis of Tao philosophy''. Helena Island Publisher, Illinois, 2004. This book brings to light the relationship to modern physics. Today's readers now have a chance to understand without confusion, by using a framework based on clear and systematic Tao principles. * John C. H. Wu, ''Tao Teh Ching''. Shambhala Dragon Editions, 1989. ==See also== * [[Eastern philosophy]] == External links == * Translations in more than twenty-one languages: [http://home.pages.at/onkellotus/ On-line ''Tao Te King'': Original Chinese text with translations, including side-by-side comparison of two or four translations]. Navigation in English or in German. * Translations in English (Waley, Lau), French (Julien), German (Wilhelm) and modern Chinese: [http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Daodejing On-line ''Daodejing'': Original Chinese text arrayed with translations]. * Several translations: [http://www.wrt.org On-line ''Tao Te Ching'']. Western Reform Taoism. * Informal translation by Ron Hogan: [http://www.beatrice.com/TAO.html Tao (The Way)]. * Translation by Stephen Mitchell: [http://www.starstuffs.com/taoteching/ On-line ''Tao Te Ching'']. * Translation by J.H. McDonald: [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~stwright/rel/tao/TaoTeChing.html On-line ''Tao Te Ching'']. Religions and Scriptures. * Translation by Chad Hansen: [http://www.geocities.com/tao4dummies/reading_list.html On-line ''Tao Te Ching'': both English and modern Chinese]. Also ''Zhuangzi''. * Translation by Sonja Elen Kisa: [http://www.kisa.ca/daodejing.html On-line ''Tao Te Ching'' (selected poems)]. * Translation from the City University of Hong Kong: [http://www.ee.cityu.edu.hk/~lmpo/laozi/ On-line ''Tao Te Ching'']. Classical and Vernacular Chinese, and English. * Interpolation by Peter Merel: [http://www.religiousworlds.com/taoism/ttcmerel.html On-line ''Tao Te Ching'']. * Commentary by Swami Nirmalananda Giri: [http://www.atmajyoti.org/spirwrit-taoism.asp Commentary on the Tao Te Ching]. * Word-by-word translations in Pīnyīn/Chinese+English+German: [http://www.tao-te-king.org/index.html 老子Lǎozĭ 道德經Dàodéjīng trilingual]. [[Category:Taoist texts]] [[Category:Philosophy books]] {{Link FA|de}} [[de:Daodejing]] [[et:Daodejing]] [[es:Dao De Jing]] [[eo:Daŭdeĝingo]] [[fr:Dao De Jing]] [[ko:도덕경]] [[it:Tao Te Ching]] [[lv:Daodedzin]] [[nl:Tao Te Ching]] [[ja:老子道徳経]] [[pl:Tao Te Ching]] [[cs:Tao te ťing]] [[pt:Tao Te Ching]] [[ru:Дао Дэ Цзин]] [[fi:Tao Te Ching]] [[sv:Tao Te Ching]] [[vi:Đạo Đức kinh]] [[zh:道德经]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Detroit Lions</title> <id>8577</id> <revision> <id>41637027</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:23:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Supspirit</username> <id>343156</id> </contributor> <comment>rv due to blank page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Detroit Lions | logo = Lions100.png | founded = 1930 | city = Detroit, Michigan | colors = Honolulu Blue, Silver, and Black | coach = [[Rod Marinelli]] | owner = [[William Clay Ford, Sr.]] | general manager = [[Matt Millen]] | mascot = Roary | stations = WKRK (97.1 FM) | announcers = Jim Brandstatter and Dan Miller | hist_yr = 1934 | hist_misc = * [[Portsmouth, Ohio|Portsmouth]] Spartans (1930-1933) | NFL_start_yr = 1930 | division_hist = *Western Division (1933-1949) *National Conference (1950-1952) *Western Conference (1953-1969) **Central Division (1967-1969) *'''[[National Football Conference]] (1970-present)''' **[[NFC Central]] (1970-2001) **'''[[NFC North]] (2002-present)''' | no_league_champs = 4 | no_conf_champs = 4 | no_div_champs = 4 | league_champs = *'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (4)'''&lt;br&gt;1935, 1952, 1953, 1957 | conf_champs = *'''NFL National:''' 1952 *'''NFL Western:''' 1953, 1954, 1957 | div_champs = *'''NFL West:''' 1935 *'''NFC Central:''' 1983, 1991, 1993 | stadium_years = *[[Universal Stadium]] (1930-1933) *[[University of Detroit Stadium]] (1934-1937) *[[Tiger Stadium]] (1935-1974) **a.k.a. Navin Field (1935-1937) **a.k.a. Briggs Stadium (1938-1960) *[[Pontiac Silverdome]] (1975-2001) *'''[[Ford Field]] (2002-present)''' }} The '''Detroit Lions''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Detroit, Michigan]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC North|Northern Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). Originally called the '''Portsmouth Spartans''', the team began play in 1930 as one of the NFL's small town teams in [[Portsmouth, Ohio]]. However, they were forced to move to Detroit in 1934 due to the [[Great Depression]]. The Lions have won four [[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]]. :'''Helmet design:''' Silver helmet with a blue lion outlined in black; black facemask. ==Franchise history== As the Portsmouth Spartans, the franchise played in an [[1932 NFL Playoff Game|unscheduled NFL championship game]] against the [[Chicago Bears]] in 1932. The Spartans-Bears game was played because both teams ended the regular season with the same won-lost percentage (the Spartans finished at 6-1-4 while the Bears were 6-1-6; ties were not reckoned as part of the percentage in the NFL until 1972). Due to blizzard conditions in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], the game was moved from [[Wrigley Field]] indoors to [[Chicago Stadium]], which allowed for only an 80-yard field; some have called the contest the first [[arena football]] game. The Bears won, 9-0, and the resulting interest led to the establishment of Eastern and Western conferences and a regular championship game beginning in 1933. Poor revenues and the [[Great Depression]] led to the team's move from Portsmouth to Detroit in 1934. That season, Detroit hosted its first ever [[Thanksgiving Day]] game, a tradition continued to this day. Under [[quarterback]] [[Dutch Clark]], Detroit won its first NFL championship in 1935. In 1943, the Lions and the [[New York Giants]] played to a 0-0 tie at Detroit - the last time an NFL game has ended with a scoreless tie. Detroit enjoyed its greatest success in the 1950s. Led by quarterback [[Bobby Layne]], they won the league championship in 1952, 1953, and 1957. They defeated the [[Cleveland Browns]] in each of those NFL Championship Games, but also lost to the Browns in the 1954 Championship Game. On [[January 7]], [[1961]], the Lions defeated the Browns 17-16 in the first-ever [[Playoff Bowl]] matching the runners-up from the two conferences into which the NFL was divided at the time (the Lions also appeared in the game in both of the next two years pursuant to their having finished second to the [[Green Bay Packers]] in the Western Conference in all three seasons; the Playoff Bowl was abolished in 1970 when the merger of the NFL and [[American Football League|AFL]] went into full effect). In the mid-1960s, the Lions served as the backdrop for the humorous sports literature of the late [[George Plimpton]], who spent time in the Lions training camp masquerading as a player. This was the basic material for his [[book]] ''[[Paper Lion]]'', later made into a [[film|movie]]. Also during the mid 1960s, [[William Clay Ford, Sr.]] purchased a controlling interest in the team. [[Motown]] [[soul music|soul]] [[singer]] [[Marvin Gaye]] made plans, after the death of duet partner [[Tammi Terrell]], to join the Lions and go into football. He gained weight and trained for his tryout in 1970, but was cut early on. He remained friends with a number of the players, particularly [[Mel Farr]] and [[Lem Barney]], who appear on his 1971 classic single &quot;[[What's Going On (song)|What's Going On]].&quot; In 1980, the Lions drafted [[running back]] [[Billy Sims]] with the first overall pick in the [[NFL Draft]]. Led by Sims, the team got off to a promising start that year and attracted considerable media attention when they adopted &quot;[[Another One Bites The Dust]],&quot; popularized by [[glam rock]] band [[Queen (band)|Queen]], as an unofficial team song. Lions player [[Jimmy Allen|Jimmy &quot;Spiderman&quot; Allen]] recorded his own version of the tune with rewritten lyrics: ''Come and watch them Detroit Lions who no one seems to beat...and another one bites the dust'' which became popular on local Detroit radio. When the dust cleared, though, Detroit finished 9-7 and out of the playoffs, despite a 4-0 start. In 1991, the Lions reached the NFC championship game after having been shut out 45-0 by the [[Washington Redskins]] on opening night, eventually going 12-4. They were inspired late in the season by the loss of guard Mike Utley who sustained a career-ending paralysis injury against the [[St. Louis Rams|Los Angeles Rams]] on November 17, 1991. As Utley was carted off the field in that game, in a true sign of courage, he flashed a &quot;thumbs up&quot; to his teammates
rtened to '''amphibs''', '''phibs''' or popularly known as '''gator freighters''', denotes a range of classes of [[warship]] employed to land and support ground forces on enemy territory by an [[amphibious assault]]. The largest fleet of these types is operated by the [[United States Navy]], including the [[Tarawa class amphibious assault ship|''Tarawa'' class]] dating back to the [[1970s]] and the newer and larger [[Wasp class amphibious assault ship|''Wasp'' class]] ships that debuted in [[1989]]. While grossly resembling [[aircraft carrier]]s, the role of an amphibious assault ship is fundamentally different: its aviation facilities have the primary role of hosting helicopters to support forces ashore rather than to support strike aircraft. ==History== It is often said that amphibious assaults are the hardest of all military operations to coordinate. They need such fine control and such a large degree of coordination that it is only the top tier powers that have the ability to even attempt them seriously, let alone pull them off. The two nations that have made by far the most amphibious assaults during the past century are the United States and United Kingdom. From the great assaults of WWII to the recent attack on the [[Al-Faw Peninsula]] in [[Iraq]], both countries have been at the forefront of developing amphibious assault [[Military doctrine|doctrine]] and shipping. The UK maintains what many would call the second most powerful amphibious assault fleet in the world. ===World War I and interwar period=== The history of the specialist amphibious assault vessel really begins during [[World War II]]. Prior to [[World War I]], amphibious assaults had taken place using conventional boats. The disastrous Gallipoli landings of 1915 (see [[Battle of Gallipoli]]) showed that this type of operation was impossible in the face of modern weapons, especially the machine gun. The [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] did not see much progress in most of the world, the exception being the [[United States Marine Corps|US Marine Corps]]. The small Corps operations of the period in central and south American lead to the development of amphibious assault doctrine much in advance of the rest of the world. By the late 1930s, concrete plans were beginning to form to build the first really specialised amphibious assault ships. Specialised shipping can be divided into two types, most crudely described as ships and craft. In general the ships carry the troops from the port of embarkation to the drop point for the assault and the craft carry the troops from the ship to the shore. Amphibious assaults taking place over short distances can also involve the shore-to-shore technique where landing craft go directly from the port of embarkation to the assault point. ===World War II developments=== Many of the early types of shipping were converted cargo vessels. However, the [[Landing Ship Tank]] (LST) stands out. As the name suggests it is a specialised type for getting tanks or other large vehicles ashore. Unlike the other larger shipping, LSTs could beach and discharge directly onto shore. Beyond the ships carrying the troops, other vessels were needed. It was quickly appreciated that amphibious assaults were such complicated operations that a specialised flagship was needed, with facilities that a normal naval vessel simply could not provide. It was also realised that [[battleship]]s, [[cruiser (warship)|cruisers]] and [[destroyer]]s could not necessary provide all the [[fire support]] (including [[suppressive fire]]) that an assault would need. Therefore specialised shipping was developed that incorporated various direct and indirect fire weapons. These included guns and rockets which could be mounted on landing craft and landing ships. As part of the final barrage before an assault, the landing area would be plastered by these types. Despite all the progress that was seen during WWII, there were still fundamental limitations in the types of coastline that were suitable for assault. Beaches had to be relatively free of obstacles, and have the right tidal conditions and the correct slope. However, the development of the helicopter changed the equation fundamentally. ==Developments in the 1950s, 1960s== The first use of helicopters in an amphibious assault came during the [[United Kingdom|Anglo]]-[[France|French]]-[[Israeli]] invasion of [[Egypt]] in 1956 (the [[Suez War]]). Two British light fleet carriers were pressed into service to carry helicopters, and a [[battalion]]-sized airborne assault was made. One of these [[HMS Bulwark (R08)|''Bulwark'']] was comissioned in the late 50s as a dedicated &quot;commando carrier&quot;. The techniques were developed further by [[United States|American]] forces in the [[Vietnam War]] and refined during training exercises. The modern amphibious assault can take place at virtually any point of the coast, making defending against them extremely difficult. Earlier ships which played a similar role to the current vessels as the heart of an amphibious assault included five [[Iwo Jima class amphibious assault ship|''Iwo Jima'' class]] [[Landing Platform Helicopter]] vessels, built in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] and various converted fleet and escort carriers. The first of the type envisaged was the [[escort aircraft carrier]] [[USS Block Island (CVE-106)|USS ''Block Island'' (CVE-106/LPH-1)]], which never actually saw service as an amphibious assault ship. Delays in the construction of the ''Iwo Jima'' class saw other conversions made as a stopgap measure; three [[Essex class aircraft carrier|''Essex''-class aircraft carriers]] and one [[Casablanca class escort carrier|''Casablanca''-class escort carrier]] were converted into amphibs, the [[Boxer class amphibious assault ship|''Boxer'']] and [[Thetis Bay class amphibious assault ship|''Thetis Bay'' classes]]. The ''Tarawa'' and ''Wasp'' types and their ''Iwo Jima'' class forebears resemble [[aircraft carrier]]s. However, the role of an amphibious assault ship is fundamentally different to that of an aircraft carrier. Its aviation facilities are not to support strike or air defence aircraft, but for hosting helicopters to support forces ashore. ==Smaller ships== Beyond the largest vessels in the fleet, a variety of other specialised types support amphibious assaults. These include the landing platform dock (LPD), landing ship dock (LSD) and command ships (LCC and AGF). Navies other than the USN operate still further types including the older [[tank landing ship|landing ship tank]] (LST), landing ship logistics (LSL) and landing ship medium (LSM). ==Recent innovations== One of the most recent innovations is the [[LCAC]] or Landing Craft Air Cushioned. These large [[hovercraft]] further expand the range of conditions under which an amphibious assault can take place and increase the speed of transfer of assets from ship to shore. ==Wasp and Tarawa air complement== The ''Wasp'' and ''Tarawa'' types do in fact carry a small number of [[AV-8 Harrier II|Harrier jump jet]] attack planes. They also have a secondary role as &quot;[[sea control ship]]s&quot;, carrying more Harriers, something that was first used in combat during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. ==List of amphibious assault ship types== * [[LHA (hull classification symbol)|LHA]] * [[LHD]] * [[LPH]] * [[Amphibious transport dock|LPD]] * [[Dock Landing Ship|LSD]] * [[LSL (Amphibious Assault Ship)|LSL]] * [[LSM]] * [[LST]] * [[LCC]] * [[Landing craft tank|LCT]] * [[Landing Craft Utility|LCU]] * [[AGF]] ==Navies with amphibious assault ships== See [http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/index.html link] for further details of these ships. Also see [[List of amphibious warfare ships]][[Image:FS Mistral 02.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Bâtiment de Projection et de Commandement (BPC) ''Mistral'', French Navy]] United Kingdom ([[Royal Navy]]) * ''[[HMS Ocean (L12)|Ocean]]'' (1995) * ''[[HMS Albion (L14)|Albion]]'' (2001) * ''[[HMS Bulwark (L15)|Bulwark]]'' (2001) France ([[Marine Nationale]]) * ''Mistral'' (2004) * ''Tonnerre'' () * ''Foudre'' (1989?) * ''Siroco'' (1997?) Japan ([[Japan Self-Defense Forces|Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force]]) * ''Osumi'' (1996) * ''Shimokita'' (2000) Korea, South ([[Republic of Korea Navy]]) * ''Dok Do'' (2005 Launched) Italy ([[Marina Militare]]) * ''San Giorgio'' (1987) * ''San Marco'' (1987) * ''San Giusto'' (1993) Malaysia ([[Royal Malaysian Navy|Tentera Laut Diraja Malaysia]]) * ''Sri Inderapura'' (1990) Netherlands ([[Royal Netherlands Navy|Koninklijke Marine]]) * ''Johan de Witt'' (2006) * ''Rotterdam'' (1997) Singapore ([[Republic of Singapore Navy]]) * ''Endurance'' (2000) * ''Resolution'' (2000) * ''Persistance'' (2001) * ''Endeavour'' (2001) Spain ([[Armada Española|Spanish Navy]]) * ''Galicia'' (1997?) * ''Castilla'' (2000?) ==See also== *[[Amphibious Assault Vehicle|AAV]] *[[Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle|EFV]] [[Category:Ship types]] [[fr:Assaut (navire)]] [[no:Amfibisk angrepsskip]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amplify</title> <id>2249</id> <revision> <id>15900680</id> <timestamp>2004-08-28T11:52:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Violetriga</username> <id>90192</id> </contributor> <comment>changed to a redirect page to [[amplification]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[amplification]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abiotic stress</title> <id>2250</id> <revision> <id>28657061</id> <timestamp>2005-11-18T08:46:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>EncycloPetey</username> <id>474828</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>stub sorting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abiotic stress''' is caused in living [[organism]]s by nonliving [[natural environment|environment]]al factors, such as [[drought]], extreme [[temperature]]s, [[soil]] conditions, and high winds. [
rgument for this single substance runs something as follows: :1. Substance exists and cannot be dependent on anything else for its existence. :2. No two substances can share an attribute. ::Proof: If they share an attribute, they would be identical. Therefore they can only be individuated by their modes. But then they would depend on their modes for their identity. This would have the substance being dependent on its mode, in violation of premise 1. Therefore, two substances cannot share the same attribute. :3. A substance can only be caused by something similar to itself (something that shares its attribute). :4. Substance cannot be caused. ::Proof: Something can only be caused by something which is similar to itself, in other words something that shares its attribute. But according to premise 2, no two substances can share an attribute. Therefore substance cannot be caused. :5. Substance is infinite. ::Proof: If substance were not infinite, it would be finite and limited by something. But to be limited by something is to be dependent on it. However, substance cannot be dependent on anything else (premise 1), therefore substance is infinite. :Conclusion: There can only be one substance. ::Proof: If there were two infinite substances, they would limit each other. But this would act as a restraint, and they would be dependent on each other. But they cannot be dependent on each other (premise 1), therefore there cannot be two substances. Spinoza contended that &quot;Deus sive Natura&quot; (&quot;God or Nature&quot;) was a being of infinitely many attributes, of which extension and thought were two. His account of the nature of reality, then, seems to treat the [[physics|physical]] and [[mind|mental]] worlds as two different, parallel &quot;subworlds&quot; that neither overlap nor interact. This formulation is a historically significant [[panpsychism|panpsychist]] solution to the [[mind-body problem]] known as [[neutral monism]]. Spinoza was a thoroughgoing [[determinism|determinist]] who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of [[necessity]]. For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand ''why'' we act as we do. So freedom is not the possibility to say &quot;no&quot; to what happens to us but the possibility to say &quot;yes&quot; and fully understand why things should necessarily happen that way. By forming more &quot;adequate&quot; ideas about what we do and our emotions or affections, we become the adequate cause of our effects (internal or external), which entails an increase in activity (versus passivity). This means that we become both more free and more like God, as Spinoza argues in the Scholium to Prop. 49, Part II. Spinoza's philosophy has much in common with [[Stoicism]] in as much as both philosophies sought to fulfil a therapeutic role by instructing people how to attain happiness (or eudaimonia, for the Stoics). However, Spinoza differed sharply from the Stoics in one important respect: he utterly rejected their contention that [[reason]] could defeat [[emotion]]. On the contrary, he contended, an emotion can be displaced or overcome only by a stronger emotion. For him, the crucial distinction was between active and passive emotions, the former being those that are rationally understood and the latter those that are not. He also held that knowledge of true causes of passive emotion can transform it to an active emotion, thus anticipating one of the key ideas of [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]]. Some of Spinoza's philosophical positions are: * God is the natural world and has no personality. * The natural world is infinite. * There is no real difference between good and evil. * Everything must necessarily happen the way that it does. Therefore, there is no free will. * Everything done by humans and other animals is excellent and divine. * All rights are derived from the State. * Animals can be used in any way by people for the benefit of the human race. ==Philosophy - Ethics== Encapsulated at the start in his ''Treatise on the Improvement of the Understanding'' (''Tractatus de intellectus emendatione'') is the core of Spinoza's ethical philosophy, what he held to be the true and final good. Spinoza held a [[relativism|relativist's]] position, that nothing is good or bad, except to the extent that it is subjectively perceived to be by the individual. For instance, one person may find roasted peanuts tasty and so for her roasted peanuts are good. But another person may be allergic to nuts and so for him peanuts are bad. Spinoza's point is, there is nothing inherent in any thing, like a nut, to make it either good or bad. From this he concluded the ethical ventures of other philosophers had been mistaken. His words put it best themselves. &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;After experience had taught me that all the usual surroundings of social life are vain and futile; seeing that none of the objects of my fears contained in themselves anything either good or bad, except in so far as the mind is affected by them, I finally resolved to inquire whether there might be some real good having power to communicate itself, which would affect the mind singly, to the exclusion of all else: whether, in act, there might be anything of which the discovery and attainment would enable me to enjoy continuous, supreme, and unending happiness. I say 'I finally resolved,' for at first sight it seemed unwise willingly to lose hold on what was sure for the sake of something then uncertain. I could see the benefits which are acquired through fame and riches, and that I should be obliged to abandon the quest of such objects, if I seriously devoted myself to the search for something different and new. I perceived that if true happiness chanced to be placed in the former I should necessarily miss it; while if, on the other hand, it were not so placed, and I gave them my whole attention, I should equally fail...&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I will here only briefly state what I mean by true good, and also what is the nature of the highest good. In order that this may be rightly understood, we must bear in mind that the terms good and evil are only applied relatively, so that the same thing may be called both good and bad according to the relations in view, in the same way as it may be called perfect or imperfect. Nothing regarded in its own nature can be called perfect or imperfect; especially when we are aware that all things which come to pass, come to pass according to the eternal order and fixed laws of nature.&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;However, human weakness cannot attain to this order in its own thoughts, but meanwhile man conceives a human character much more stable than his own, and sees that there is no reason why he should not himself acquire such a character. Thus he is led to seek for means which will bring him to this pitch of perfection, and calls everything which will serve as such means a true good. The chief good is that he should arrive, together with other individuals if possible, at the possession of the aforesaid character. What that character is we shall show in due time, namely, that it is the knowledge of the union existing being the mind and the whole of nature.&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;This, then, is the end for which I strive, to attain to such a character myself, and to endeavour that many should attain to it with me. In other words, it is part of my happiness to lend a helping hand, that many others may understand even as I do, so that their understanding and desire may entirely agree with my own. In order to bring this about, it is necessary to understand as much of nature as will enable us to attain to the aforesaid character, and also to form a social order such as is most conducive to the attainment of this character by the greatest number with the least difficulty and danger.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; ==Modern relevance== [[Albert Einstein]] said that Spinoza was the philosopher who had most influenced his worldview ([[Weltanschauung]]). Spinoza equated God (infinite substance) with Nature, and Einstein, too, believed in an impersonal deity. His desire to understand Nature through physics can be seen as contemplation of God. [[Arne Næss]], the father of the [[deep ecology]] movement, acknowledged drawing much inspiration from the works of Spinoza. In the late twentieth century, there was a great increase in [[philosophical]] interest in Spinoza in [[Europe]], often from a [[left-wing]] and [[Marxist]] perspectives. Notable philosophers [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Antonio Negri]] and [[Étienne Balibar]] have each written books on Spinoza. Other philosophers heavily influenced by Spinoza were [[Constantin Brunner]] and [[John David Garcia]]. [[Stuart Hampshire]] wrote a major English language study of Spinoza, though [[H. H. Joachim]]'s work is equally valuable. Spinoza's portrait featured prominently on the 1000 [[Dutch gulden]] [[banknote]], [[legal tender]] in the [[Netherlands]] until the [[euro]] was introduced in [[2002]]. The highest and most prestigious scientific prize of the Netherlands is named the ''Spinozapremie'' (Spinoza reward). ==Quotes== &lt;!--This data was moved from the old Infobox Philosopher template on September 9. Please move this to Wikiquote--&gt; *&quot;Mind and body are one and the same individual which is conceived now under the attribute of thought, and now under the attribute of extension.&quot; [[Ethics (book)|Ethics]] II prop. 7. *&quot;I have laboured carefully, not to mock, lament, or execrate human actions, but to understand them.&quot; ''A Political Treatise'', 288. *&quot;If the road I have shown to lead to this is very difficult, it can yet be discovered. And clearly it must be very hard when it is so seldom found. For how could it be that it is neglected practically by all
stant teacher at [[Midhurst Grammar School]], in [[West Sussex]], until he won a scholarship to the [[Normal School of Science]] (later the [[Royal College of Science]], now part of [[Imperial College]], [[London]]) in London, studying [[biology]] under [[T. H. Huxley]]. As an alumnus, he later helped to set up the [[Royal College of Science Association]], of which he became the first president in 1909. H. G. studied in his new school until 1887 with an allowance of twenty-one shillings a week thanks to his scholarship. He soon entered the Debating Society of the school. These years mark the beginning of his interest in a possible reformation of society. At first approaching the subject through studying ''[[Republic|The Republic]]'' by [[Plato]], he soon turned to his contemporary ideas of [[socialism]] as expressed by the recently formed [[Fabian Society]] and free lectures delivered at [[Kelmscott House]], the home of [[William Morris]]. He was also among the founders of ''The Science School Journal,'' a school magazine which allowed him to express his views on literature and society. The school year 1886-1887 was the last year of his studies. Having previously successfully passed his exams in both [[biology]] and [[physics]], his lack of interest in [[geology]] resulted in his failure to pass and the loss of his scholarship. H. G. was left without a source of income for a while. His aunt Mary, a cousin of his father, invited him to stay with her for a while, so at least he did not face the problem of housing. During his stay with his aunt, he grew interested in her daughter, Isabel. ===Marriage and liaisons=== In 1891 Wells married his cousin Isabel Mary Wells, but left her in 1894 for one of his students, Amy Catherine Robbins, whom he married in 1895. He had two sons by Amy: George Philip (known as 'Gip') in 1901 and Frank Richard in 1903.{{fn|1}} During his marriage to Amy, Wells had liaisons with a number of women, including [[United States|American]] [[birth control]] activist [[Margaret Sanger]].{{fn|2}} He had a daughter, Anna-Jane, with writer [[Amber Reeves]] in 1909{{fn|1}} and in 1914, a son, [[Anthony West]], by novelist and [[feminist]] [[Rebecca West]], twenty-six years his junior.{{fn|3}} In spite of Amy Catherine's knowledge of some of these affairs, she remained married to Wells until her death in 1927.{{fn|1}} &quot;I was never a great amorist,&quot; Wells wrote in ''[[An Experiment in Autobiography]]'' (1934), &quot;though I have loved several people very deeply.&quot; === Game designer === Seeking a more structured way to play war games, H.G. Wells wrote ''[[Floor Games]]'' (1911) followed by ''[[Little Wars]]'' (1913). ''[[Little Wars]]'' is recognised today as the first [[Miniature_wargaming|recreational wargame]] and Wells is regarded by gamers and hobbyists as &quot;the Father of Miniature Wargaming.&quot; === Writer === Wells' first bestseller was ''[[Anticipations]]'', published in 1901. Perhaps his most explicitly futuristic work, it bore the subtitle &quot;An Experiment in Prophecy&quot; when originally serialised in a magazine. The book is interesting both for its hits (trains and cars resulting in the dispersion of population from cities to suburbs; moral restrictions declining as men and women seek greater sexual freedom) and its misses (&quot;my imagination refuses to see any sort of submarine doing anything but suffocate its crew and founder at sea&quot;). He also visualized the elimination of all 'inefficient' people to make way for the utopian future (&quot;And how will the New Republic treat the inferior races? ... I take it they will have to go&quot;). [[Image:Statue of Tripod.JPG|right|thumb|150px|This is a statue of a [[Tripod (The War of the Worlds)|Tripod]] inspired by the book [[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]] and erected as a tribute to the book's author H. G. Wells. In [[Woking]] town centre, UK.]] His early novels, called &quot;[[scientific romance]]s&quot;, invented a number of themes now classic in [[science fiction]] in such works as ''[[The Time Machine]]'', ''[[The Invisible Man]]'', and ''[[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]]'' (which have all been made into films) and are often thought of as being influenced by the works of [[Jules Verne]]. He also wrote other, non-fantastic novels which have received critical acclaim, including the satire on Edwardian advertising ''[[Tono-Bungay]]'' and ''[[Kipps]]''. Wells also wrote several dozen short stories and novellas, the best known of which is &quot;[[The Country of the Blind]]&quot; (1911). Besides being an important occurrence of blindness in literature, this is Well's commentary on humanity's ability to overcome any inconvenience after a few generations and think that it is normal. Though not a science-fiction novel, radioactive decay plays a small but consequential role in ''[[Tono-Bungay]]''. It plays a much larger role in ''[[The World Set Free]]'' (1914). This book contains what is surely his biggest prophetic &quot;hit.&quot; Scientists of the day were well aware that the natural decay of [[radium]] releases energy at a slow rate for thousands of years. The ''rate'' of release is too slow to have practical utility, but the ''total amount'' released is huge. Wells's novel revolves around an (unspecified) invention that accelerates the process of radioactive decay, producing bombs that explode with no more than the force of ordinary high explosive&amp;mdash; but which &quot;continue to explode&quot; for days on end. &quot;Nothing could have been more obvious to the people of the earlier twentieth century,&quot; he wrote, &quot;than the rapidity with which war was becoming impossible... [but] they did not see it until the atomic bombs burst in their fumbling hands.&quot; [[Leó Szilárd]] acknowledged that the book inspired him to theorise the nuclear chain reaction. Wells also wrote nonfiction. His classic two-volume work ''[[The Outline of History]]'' (1920) set a new standard and direction for popularised scholarship. Many other authors followed with 'Outlines' of their own in other subjects. Wells followed it in 1922 by a much shorter popular work, ''[[A Short History of the World]]'', and two long efforts, ''[[The Science of Life]]'' (1930) and ''[[The Work, Wealth and Happiness of Mankind]]'' (1931). The 'Outlines' became sufficiently common for [[James Thurber]] to parody the trend in his humorous essay ''An Outline of Scientists'' - indeed, Wells's ''Outline of History'' remains in print with a new 2005 edition while ''A Short History of the World'' has been recently reedited (2006). From quite early in his career, he sought a better way to organise society, and wrote a number of [[Utopia|Utopian]] novels. Usually starting with the world rushing to catastrophe, until people realise a better way of living: whether by mysterious gases from a [[comet]] causing people to behave rationally (''[[In the Days of the Comet]]''), or a world council of scientists taking over, as in ''[[The Shape of Things to Come]]'' (1933), which he later adapted for the 1936 [[Alexander Korda]] film, ''[[Things to Come]]''. This depicted, all too accurately, the impending [[World War II|World War]], with cities being destroyed by aerial bombs. He also portrayed social reconstruction through the rise of [[fascism|fascist]] dictators in ''[[The Autocracy of Mr Parham]]'' (1930) and ''[[The Holy Terror]]'' (1939). [[Image:H. G. Wells.jpg|right|thumb|150px|H. G. Wells in [[1943]]]] Wells contemplates the ideas of nature vs nurture and questions humanity in books like ''[[The Island of Dr. Moreau|The Island of Doctor Moreau]].'' Not all his scientific romances ended in a happy Utopia, as the [[Dystopia|dystopian]] ''[[The Sleeper Awakes|When the Sleeper Wakes]]'' (1899) (rewritten as ''[[The Sleeper Awakes]]'', 1910) shows. ''The Island of Doctor Moreau'' is even darker. The narrator, having been trapped on an island of animals vivisected (unsuccessfully) into human beings, eventually returns to England; like [[Gullivers Travels|Gulliver]] on his return from the [[Houyhnhnm]]s he finds himself unable to shake off the perceptions of his fellow humans as barely civilised beasts, slowly reverting back to their animal natures. Wells called his political views socialist, and he was at first quite sympathetic to [[Lenin]]'s attempts at reconstructing the shattered [[Russia]]n economy, as his account of a visit (''[[Russia in the Shadows]]''; 1920) shows. This despite the fact that he was a strongly anti-Marxist socialist who would later state that it would've been better if [[Karl Marx]] was never born. The leadership of [[Joseph Stalin]] led to a change in his view of the Soviet Union even though his initial impression of Stalin was mixed. He disliked what he saw as a narrow orthodoxy and obdurance to the facts in Stalin. However he did give him some praise saying, &quot;I have never met a man more fair, candid, and honest&quot; and making it clear that he felt the &quot;sinister&quot; image of Stalin was unfair or simply false. Nevertheless his criticism of the increasing rigidity of Stalin's rule meant Wells ultimately decided that on balance the Soviet Union had gone horribly wrong.{{fn|4}} Wells also wrote the preface for the first edition of [[W. N. P. Barbellion]]'s diaries, ''The Journal of a Disappointed Man'', published in 1919. Since Barbellion was the real author's pen-name, many reviewers believed Wells to have been the true author of the ''Journal''; Wells always denied this, despite being full of praise for the diaries, but the rumours persisted until Barbellion's death later that year. In 1927, [[Florence Deeks]] sued Wells for plagiarism, claiming that he had stolen much of the content of ''[[The Outline of History]]'' from a work, ''The Web'', she had submitted to the Canadian Macmillan Company, but who held onto the manuscript for eight months before reject
ich might bring the people to any light of knowledge, did yet authorise the works of Chaucer to remain still and to be occupied; who, no doubt, saw into religion as much almost as even we do now, and uttereth in his works no less, and seemeth to be a right Wicklevian, or else there never was any. And that, all his works almost, if they be thoroughly advised, will testify (albeit done in mirth, and covertly); and especially the latter end of his third book of the Testament of Love . . . . Wherein, except a man be altogether blind, he may espy him at the full : although in the same book (as in all others he useth to do), under shadows covertly, as under a visor, he suborneth truth in such sort, as both privily she may profit the godly-minded, and yet not be espied of the crafty adversary. And therefore the bishops, belike, taking his works but for jests and toys, in condemning other books, yet permitted his books to be read.&quot; It is significant, too, that Foxe's discussion of Chaucer leads into his history of &quot;The Reformation of the Church of Christ in the Time of Martin Luther&quot; when &quot;Printing, being opened, incontinently ministered unto the church the instruments and tools of learning and knowledge; which were good books and authors, which before lay hid and unknown. The science of printing being found, immediately followed the grace of God; which stirred up good wits aptly to conceive the light of knowledge and judgment: by which light darkness began to be espied, and ignorance to be detected; truth from error, religion from superstition, to be discerned.&quot; Foxe downplays Chaucer's bawdy and amorous writing, insisting that it all testifies to his piety. Material that is troubling is deemed metaphoric, while the more forthright satire (which Foxe prefers) is taken literally. ==List of Works== The following major works are in rough chronological order but scholars still debate the dating of most of Chaucer's output and works made up from a collection of stories may have been compiled over a long period. ====Major works==== * Translation of [[Roman de la Rose]], possibly extant as [[The Romaunt of the Rose]] * [[The Book of the Duchess]] * [[The House of Fame]] * [[Anelida and Arcite]] * [[The Parliament of Fowls]] * Translation of [[Boethius]]' [[Consolation of Philosophy]] as [[Boece (Chaucer)|Boece]] * [[Troilus and Criseyde]] * [[The Legend of Good Women]] * [[Treatise on the Astrolabe]] * [[The Canterbury Tales]] ====Short poems==== *''An ABC'' *''Chaucers Wordes unto Adam, His Owne Scriveyn'' *''The Complaint unto Pity'' *''The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse'' *''The Complaint of Mars'' *''The Complaint of Venus'' *''A Complaint to His Lady'' *''The Former Age'' *''Fortune'' *''Gentilesse'' *''Lak of Stedfastnesse'' *''Lenvoy de Chaucer a Scogan'' *''Lenvoy de Chaucer a Bukton'' *''Proverbs'' *''To Rosemounde'' *''Truth'' *''Womanly Noblesse'' ====Poems dubiously ascribed to Chaucer==== *''Against Women Unconstant'' *''A Balade of Complaint'' *''Complaynt D'Amours'' *''Merciles Beaute'' *''The Visioner's Tale'' *''The Equatorie of the Planets'' - Rumored to be a rough translation of a Latin work derived from an Arab work of the same title. It is a description of the construction and use of what is called an 'equatorium planetarum', and was used in calculating planetary orbits and positions (at the time it was believed the sun orbited the Earth). The belief this work is ascribed to Chaucer comes from similar 'treatise' on the Astrolabe. However, the evidence Chaucer wrote such a work is questionable, and as such is not included in ''The Riverside Chaucer''. If Chaucer did not compose this work, it was probably written by a contemporary (Benson, perhaps?). (S. Curran) ====Works mentioned by Chaucer, presumed lost==== *''Of the Wreched Engendrynge of Mankynde'', possible translation of [[Innocent III]]'s ''De miseria conditionis humanae'' *''Origenes upon the Maudeleyne'' *''The book of the Leoun'' - An interesting argument. The Book of the Leon is mentioned in Chaucer's retraction at the end of the Canterbury Tales. It is likely he wrote such a work; one suggestion is that the work was such a bad piece of writing it was lost, but if so, Chaucer would not have included it in the middle of his retraction. Indeed, he would not have included it at all. A likely source dictates it was probably a 'redaction of Guillaume de Machaut's 'Dit dou lyon,' a story about courtly love, a subject which Chaucer scholars agree he frequently wrote about (Le Romaunt de Rose). ====Pseudepigraphies and Works Plagiarizing Chaucer==== *''[[The Pilgrim's Tale]]'' -- Written in the sixteenth-century with many Chaucerian allusions *''[[The Plowman's Tale]]'' AKA [http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/plwtlint.htm ''The Complaint of the Ploughman''] -- A [[Lollard]] [[satire]] later appropriated as a [[Protestant]] text *''[[Pierce the Ploughman's Crede]]'' -- A Lollard satire later appropriated by Protestants *[http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/plgtlint.htm ''The Ploughman's Tale''] -- Its body is largely a version of [[Thomas Hoccleve]]'s &quot;Item de Beata Virgine&quot; *[http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/sym4int.htm &quot;La Belle Dame Sans Merci&quot;] -- Richard Roos' translation of a poem of the same name by Alain Chartier *''[http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/shoaf.htm The Testament of Love]'' -- Actually by [[Thomas Usk]] *''[[Jack Upland]]'' -- A Lollard satire *''[[God Spede the Plow]]'' -- Borrows parts of Chaucer's ''Monk's Tale'' ==See also== *[[Literature]] *[[Middle English]] *[[Middle English literature]] *[[Middle English poetry]] *[[Medieval literature]] *[[Chaucer College]], a graduate school of the [[University of Kent]], England; [[North Petherton]]. *[[2984 Chaucer|Asteroid 2984 Chaucer]], named after the poet *The movie ''[[A Knight's Tale (movie)|A Knight's Tale]]'' was very loosely based on [[The Knight's Prologue and Tale|The Knight's Tale]], one of the Canterbury Tales, and a fictionalised Chaucer himself appears as a character in it. ==External links== {{wikisource author}} {{wikiquote}} {{commons}} *{{gutenberg author|id=Geoffrey_Chaucer|name=Geoffrey Chaucer}} * ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6565 Chaucer's Official Life]'' by [[James Root Hulbert]] * [http://www.luminarium.org/medlit/ Anthology of Middle English Literature] * [http://www.bartleby.com/212/0703.html Early Editions of Chaucer] *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20060209.shtml Geoffrey Chaucer] - Radio broadcast, ''[[In Our Time]]'', 9 February 2006, [[BBC Radio 4]] broadcast (includes link to Listen Again) Educational institutions * [http://www.bl.uk/treasures/caxton/homepage.html Caxton's Chaucer] Complete digitized texts of Caxton's two earliest editions of the Canterbury Tales from the British Library * [http://www.unc.edu/depts/chaucer/ Chaucer Metapage] - Project in addition to the 33rd International Congress of Medieval Studies * [http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/index.html Chaucer Page] by [[Harvard University]] * [http://www.towson.edu/~duncan/chaucer/images.htm Three near-contemporary portraits of Chaucer] * [http://www.aberdeen.k12.sd.us] {{Chaucer}} [[Category:1343 births|Chaucer, Geoffrey]] [[Category:1400 deaths|Chaucer, Geoffrey]] [[Category:British civil servants|Chaucer, Geoffrey]] [[Category:English MPs|Chaucer, Geoffrey]] [[Category:English Poets Laureate|Chaucer, Geoffrey]] [[Category:Medieval literature|Chaucer, Geoffrey]] [[Category:Middle English poets|Chaucer, Geoffrey]] {{Link FA|de}} [[be:Джэфры Чосэр]] [[bg:Джефри Чосър]] [[de:Geoffrey Chaucer]] [[als:Geoffrey Chaucer]] [[es:Geoffrey Chaucer]] [[fr:Geoffrey Chaucer]] [[it:Geoffrey Chaucer]] [[nl:Geoffrey Chaucer]] [[ja:ジェフリー・チョーサー]] [[no:Geoffrey Chaucer]] [[pl:Geoffrey Chaucer]] [[pt:Geoffrey Chaucer]] [[ro:Geoffrey Chaucer]] [[ru:Чосер, Джефри]] [[fi:Geoffrey Chaucer]] [[sv:Geoffrey Chaucer]] [[zh:乔叟]] [[he:ג'פרי צ'וסר]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GNOME desktop</title> <id>12788</id> <revision> <id>15910445</id> <timestamp>2002-12-26T20:49:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jizzbug</username> <id>6183</id> </contributor> <comment>redirecting to 'GNOME', because 'GNOME' is more correct than 'GNOME desktop'</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNOME]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gerald Gardner</title> <id>12789</id> <revision> <id>41393823</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:08:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RodCrosby</username> <id>915451</id> </contributor> <comment>most sources say he died on 12th, buried on 13th</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Witchcraft Today book cover.jpg|thumb|The cover of ''[[Witchcraft Today]]'', in which Gardner made the disputed claim to have encountered religious witchcraft survivals in England.]] &lt;!-- FAIR USE of Witchcraft Today book cover.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Witchcraft Today book cover.jpg for rationale. The book is Gardner's best known work. --&gt; '''Gerald Brosseau Gardner''' ([[June 13]] [[1884]] - [[February 12]] [[1964]]) was a [[England|British]] civil servant, amateur [[anthropology|anthropologist]], [[writer]], and [[occultist]] who published some of the definitive texts for modern [[Wicca]], which he was instrumental in founding. == Life == Gardner was born in [[Crosby%2C_Merseyside|Crosby]], near [[Liverpool]], England to a well-off family who had in their service Josephine &quot;Com&quot; McCombie, an Irish nursemaid{{ref|mystica}}. The family business was Joseph Gardner &amp; Sons, the Empire's oldest and largest importer of hardwood. Gardner, who had asthma at the time was suffering and his nursemaid offered to take him to warmer climates in the Conti
www.bremen-tourism.de/ Official visitors information (various languages)] * [http://www.uni-bremen.de/ University of Bremen] * [http://www.hs-bremen.de Hochschule or University of applied sciences] * [http://www.iu-bremen.de/ International University Bremen] * [http://www.panorama-cities.net/bremen/bremen.html City Panoramas Bremen] - Panoramic Views of Bremen's Highlights * [http://www.freimarkt.de/en/index.htm Freimarkt website] === History links === * http://www.genealogy.net/reg/BRE (Genealogical research in Bremen) * http://www.schiffslisten.de (Database: Emigration via Bremen Ports 1920 - 1939) * http://maus.genealogy.net (Die MAUS - Genealogical society of Bremen) * http://www.historic.de (Military History of Bremen 1933-1945) ==References== *&lt;div id=&quot;Kohl&quot; /&gt;{{cite book | author=Tristam Carrington-Windo, Katrin M. Kohl | title=A Dictionary of Contemporary Germany | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=1998 | id=ISBN 1579581145}} [http://print.google.com/print?id=mnPfmoPlrwIC&amp;lpg=64&amp;pg=64&amp;sig=6px9XGkkC3_T_P8U2WftxKu8160 page 64]&lt;/div&gt; *&lt;div id=&quot;Gutmann&quot; /&gt;{{cite book | author=Jürg Andermatt and Hermann Gutmann | title=Bremen | publisher=J. H. Döll, Bremen | year=1986 | id=ISBN 3888080444}}&lt;/div&gt; ==Footnotes== *&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#Kohl|Kohl]] since 1815 *&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#Kohl|Kohl]] claims the Bishopric was created in [[787]] *&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#Kohl|Kohl]] *&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#Kohl|Kohl]] population of around 550,000 in [[1998]] includes 25,000 students *&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#Kohl|Kohl]] [[Category:Bremen]] [[Category:Cities in Germany]] [[Category:German state capitals]] [[Category:Hanseatic League]] [[als:Bremen]] [[ar:بريمن (مدينة)]] [[bg:Бремен]] [[ca:Bremen]] [[cs:Brémy]] [[de:Bremen]] [[et:Bremen]] [[es:Bremen (ciudad)]] [[fa:برمن]] [[fr:Brême (ville)]] [[ko:브레멘]] [[it:Brema (città)]] [[la:Brema]] [[lv:Brēmene]] [[lt:Brėmenas]] [[nl:Bremen (stad)]] [[nds:Bremen]] [[ja:ブレーメン]] [[pl:Brema]] [[pt:Bremen]] [[ru:Бремен]] [[simple:Bremen]] [[sk:Brémy]] [[sv:Bremen]] [[zh:不来梅]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Federal Chancellor</title> <id>3767</id> <revision> <id>21507206</id> <timestamp>2005-08-21T17:03:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Silverhelm</username> <id>385771</id> </contributor> <comment>Destination of redirect changed from &quot;Chancellor&quot; to &quot;Bundeskanzler&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bundeskanzler]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bundestag (Germany)</title> <id>3768</id> <revision> <id>41583184</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:05:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Viking880</username> <id>719668</id> </contributor> <comment>moved image</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsGermany}} The '''Bundestag''' (&quot;Federal [[diet (assembly)|Diet]]&quot;) is the [[parliament]] of [[Germany]]. It was established with [[Germany]]'s constitution of [[1949]] (the ''[[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany|Grundgesetz]]),'' and is the successor of the earlier ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]''. Current [[German order of precedence|Bundestag President]] is [[Norbert Lammert]]. [[Image:Bundestag.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The Bundestag in Berlin. Speaking is [[President of the United States|US President]] [[George W. Bush]]]] ==History== The ''Bundestag'' was also the nickname of the governing body of the [[German Confederation]] from 1815-1866 (officially called ''Bundesversammlung'', &quot;Federal Assembly&quot;). This body met in Frankfurt and was presided over by the [[Austria|Austrian]] delegate. As one of the chief instruments of the reactionary forces opposed to [[democracy]] and [[nationalism]], it was dissolved during the liberal revolution of 1848 but reconvened in 1850. It is a predecessor to the modern Bundestag in name only. While the modern parliament is elected by the people, the Bundestag of the German Confederation was appointed by the various princes and the governments of the free cities. With the dissolution of the German Confederation in 1866 and the founding of the German Empire in 1871, the Reichstag was established as the German parliament in Berlin, and the current parliament building was erected. The Reichstag delegates were elected by direct and equal male suffrage (and not the three-class electoral system prevailing in Prussia until 1918). The Reichstag did not participate in the appointment of the Chancellor until the parliamentary reforms of October 1918. After the Revolution of November 1918 and the establishment of the Weimar Constitution, women were given the right to vote for (and serve in) the Reichstag, and the parliament could use the no-confidence vote to force the chancellor or any cabinet member to resign. The Reichstag ceded its powers to the Reich Government of Chancellor Adolf Hitler in 1933 by passing the infamous [[Enabling Act]]. Afterward it met only rarely to unanimously rubber-stamp the decisions of the government. It was last convened on [[26 April]] [[1942]]. With the new constitution of 1949, the Bundestag was established as the new (West) German parliament. Because [[West Berlin]] was not officially under the jurisdiction of the Constitution and because of the [[Cold War]], the Bundestag met in [[Bonn]] in several different buildings, including (provisionally) a former water works facility. The former Reichstag building housed a history exhibition (&quot;Fragen an die deutsche Geschichte&quot;) and served occasionally as a conference center. Since [[1999]], the German parliament has again assembled in [[Berlin]] in its original [[Reichstag (building)|''Reichstag'']] building, which is still known as the Reichstag. This building dates from the 1870's and burned in 1933, never being actually repaired. It underwent a significant renovation under the lead of British architect [[Norman Foster|Lord Foster of Thames Bank]]. In 2005, a small airplane crashed close to the German parliament. It was then decided to ban private air traffic over Central Berlin. ==Tasks== Together with the [[Bundesrat (Germany)|''Bundesrat'']], the ''Bundestag'' forms the [[legislative branch]] of the [[Politics of Germany|German political system]]; Germany does not have a bicameral parliament in the strict sense though (see [[Bundesrat (Germany)|''Bundesrat'']] for details). [[Image:Bundestag2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Bundestag in Berlin. Speaking is [[President of the French Republic|French President]] [[Jacques Chirac]], who is hugely overshadowed by the [[Federal Eagle]].]] Although most legislation is initiated by the executive branch, the ''Bundestag'' considers the legislative function its most important responsibility, concentrating much of its energy on assessing and amending the government's legislative program. The committees (see below) play a prominent role in this process. Plenary sessions provide a forum for members to engage in public debate on legislative issues before them, but they tend to be well attended only when significant legislation is being considered. The ''Bundestag'' members are the only federal officials directly elected by the public; the ''Bundestag'' in turn elects the [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] and, in addition, exercises oversight of the executive branch on issues of both substantive policy and routine administration. This check on executive power can be employed through binding legislation, public debates on government policy, investigations, and direct questioning of the chancellor or cabinet officials. For example, the ''Bundestag'' can conduct a question hour ''(Fragestunde),'' in which a government representative responds to a previously submitted written question from a member. Members can ask related questions during the question hour. The questions can concern anything from a major policy issue to a specific constituent's problem. Use of the question hour has increased markedly over the past forty years, with more than 20,000 questions being posed during the 1987-90 term. Understandably, the opposition parties are active in exercising the parliamentary right to scrutinize government actions. One striking difference when comparing the ''Bundestag'' with the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] is the lack of time spent on serving constituents in Germany. In part, that difference results from the fact that only 50 percent of ''Bundestag'' deputies are directly elected to represent a specific geographic district; the other half are elected as party representatives (see below). The political parties are thus of great importance in Germany's electoral system, and many voters tend not to see the candidates as autonomous political personalities but rather as agents of the party. Interestingly, constituent service seems not to be perceived, either by the electorate or by the representatives, as a critical function of the legislator. A practical constraint on the expansion of constituent service is the limited personal staff of ''Bundestag'' deputies. Constituent service does, however, take place in the form of the Petition Committee, rather than through individual delegates. In 2004, the Petition Committee received over 18,000 complaints from citizens and was able to negotiate a mutually satisfactory solution to more than half of them. ==Election== Members serve four-year terms; elections are held every four years, or earlier in the relatively rare case that the Bundestag is being dissolved prematurely by the [[President_of_Germany|President]] on the recommendation of the [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]], which has happened three times as o
ambiguation page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[scattering]], a '''differential cross section''' is defined by the [[probability]] to observe a [[scattering theory|scattered particle]] in a given [[quantum state]] per [[solid angle]] unit, such as within a given [[Cone (solid)|cone]] of observation, if the target is irradiated by a [[flux]] of one particle per surface unit: :&lt;math&gt;{d \sigma \over d \Omega}={\hbox{Scattered flux / Unit of solid angle} \over \hbox{Incident flux / Unit of surface}}&lt;/math&gt; [[Image:Cross_section.jpg|600px|thumb|center|definition of cross section]] The '''integral cross section''' is the [[integral]] of the differential cross section on the whole sphere of observation (4&lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt; [[steradian]]): :&lt;math&gt;\sigma=\int d\Omega {d \sigma \over d \Omega}&lt;/math&gt; A cross section is therefore a measure of the effective surface seen by the impinging particles. Its unit is the surface unit. The cross section of two [[elementary_particle|particle]]s (i.e. observed when the two particles are [[collision | colliding]] with each other) is therefore a measure of the interaction event between the two particles. ==Relation to the [[S matrix]]== If the [[reduced mass]]es and [[momentum | momenta]] of the colliding system are ''m&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'', &lt;math&gt;\vec{p}_i&lt;/math&gt; and ''m&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt;'', &lt;math&gt;\vec{p}_f&lt;/math&gt; before and after the collision respectively, the differential cross section in given by &lt;math&gt; {d\sigma \over d\Omega} = (2\pi)^4 m_i m_f {p_f \over p_i} |T_{fi}|^2 &lt;/math&gt; Where the on-shell ''T'' matrix is defined by &lt;math&gt; S_{fi} = \delta_{fi} - 2\pi i \delta(E_f -E_i) \delta(\vec{p}_i-\vec{p}_f) T_{fi} &lt;/math&gt; in terms of the [[S matrix]]. The &lt;math&gt;\delta&lt;/math&gt; function is the distribution called the [[Dirac delta function]]. The computation of the [[S matrix]] is the main aim of the [[scattering theory]]. ==Nuclear physics== In [[nuclear physics]], it is found convenient to express probability of a particular event by a cross section. Statistically, the centers of the atoms in a thin foil can be considered as points evenly distributed over a plane. The center of an atomic projectile striking this plane has geometrically a definite probability of passing within a certain distance (r) of one of these points. In fact, if there are n atomic centers in an area A of the plane, this probability is ''(n&amp;pi;r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)/A'', which is simply the ratio of the aggregate area of circles of radius r drawn around the points to the whole area. If we think of the atoms as impenetrable steel discs and the impinging particle as a bullet of negligible diameter, this ratio is the probability that the bullet will strike a steel disc, i.e., that the atomic projectile will be stopped by the foil. If it is the fraction of impinging atoms getting through the foil which is measured, the result can still be expressed in terms of the equivalent stopping cross section of the atoms. This notion can be extended to any interaction between the impinging particle and the atoms in the target. For example, the probability that an alpha particle striking a beryllium target will produce a neutron can be expressed as the equivalent cross section of beryllium for this type of reaction. In nuclear physics it is conventional to consider that the impinging particles have negligible diameter. Cross sections can be computed for any sort of process, such as capture scattering, production of neutrons, etc. In many cases, the number of particles emitted or scattered in nuclear processes is not measured directly; one merely measures the attenuation produced in a parallel beam of incident particles by the interposition of a known thickness of a particular material. The cross section obtained in this way is called the total cross section and is usually denoted by a &amp;sigma; or &amp;sigma;&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;. The typical nuclear diameter is of the order of 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;12&lt;/sup&gt; cm. We might therefore expect the cross sections for nuclear reactions to be of the order of &amp;pi;''r'',&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; or roughly 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;24&lt;/sup&gt; cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and this unit is given its own name, the [[barn (unit)|barn]], and is the unit in which cross sections are usually expressed. Actually the observed cross sections vary enormously. Thus for slow neutrons absorbed by the (n, gamma) reaction the cross section in some cases is as much as 1,000 barns, while the cross sections for transmutations by gamma-ray absorption are in the neighborhood of 0.001 barns. == [[Radar]] == The (monostatic) [[radar cross section]] is defined as 4 π times the [[radio]] differential cross section at 180 degrees. ==Bibliography== R.G. Newton, Scattering theory of waves and particles, McGraw Hill, 1966 [[Category:Nuclear physics]] [[Category:Particle physics]] [[Category:Scattering]] [[de:Wirkungsquerschnitt]] [[es:Sección eficaz]] [[fr:Section efficace]] [[it:Sezione d'urto]] [[ja:反応断面積]] [[ru:Сечение рассеяния]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cell membrane</title> <id>7481</id> <revision> <id>40894954</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T18:56:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Peruvianllama</username> <id>43680</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.10.221.251|204.10.221.251]] ([[User talk:204.10.221.251|talk]]) to last version by Tycho</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CellMembraneDrawing.jpg|thumb|400px|Drawing of a cell membrane]] A component of every [[cell (biology)|biological cell]], the selectively permeable '''cell membrane''' (or '''plasma membrane''' or '''plasmalemma''') is a thin and structured [[Lipid bilayer|bilayer]] of [[phospholipid]] and [[protein]] [[molecule]]s that envelopes the [[cell (biology)|cell]]. It separates a cell's interior from its surroundings and controls what moves in and out. Cell surface membranes often contain [[Transmembrane receptor|receptor proteins]] and [[Cell adhesion|cell adhesion proteins]]. There are also other proteins with a variety of functions. These membrane proteins are important for the regulation of cell behavior and the organization of cells in tissues. In [[animal]] cells, the cell membrane establishes this separation alone, whereas in yeast, bacteria and plants an additional [[cell wall]] forms the outermost boundary, providing primarily mechanical support. The plasma membrane is only about 10 [[Nanometre|nm]] thick and may be discerned only faintly with a [[transmission electron microscope]]. One of the key roles of the membrane is to maintain the [[cell potential]]. ==A fluid mosaic== The basic composition and structure of the plasma membrane is the same as that of the membranes that surround [[organelle]]s and other subcellular compartments. The foundation is a [[lipid bilayer|phospholipid bilayer]], and the membrane as a whole is often described as a ''fluid mosaic'' &amp;ndash; a two-dimensional fluid of freely diffusing lipids, dotted or embedded with proteins, which may function as channels or transporters across the membrane, or as receptors. The model was first proposed by S.J. Singer (1971) as a lipid protein model and extended to include the fluid character in a publication with G.L. Nicolson in &quot;Science&quot; (1972). Some of these proteins simply adhere to the membrane (''extrinsic'' or ''peripheral'' proteins), whereas others might be said to reside within it or to span it (''intrinsic'' proteins &amp;ndash; more at [[integral membrane protein]]). ''Glycoproteins'' have carbohydrates attached to their extracellular domains. Cells may vary the variety and the relative amounts of different lipids to maintain the fluidity of their membranes despite changes in temperature. [[Cholesterol]] molecules (in case of eukaryotes) or [[hopanoids]] (in case of prokaryotes) in the bilayer assist in regulating fluidity. ==Detailed structure== Phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane are &quot;fluid,&quot; in the sense of free to diffuse and exhibit rapid lateral diffusion. [[Lipid rafts]] and [[caveolae]] are examples of cholesterol-enriched microdomains in the cell membrane. Many proteins are not free to diffuse. The [[cytoskeleton]] undergirds the cell membrane and provides anchoring points for integral membrane proteins. Anchoring restricts them to a particular cell face or surface &amp;ndash; for example, the &quot;apical&quot; surface of [[epithelial cell]]s that line the [[vertebrate]] [[gastrointestinal tract|gut]] &amp;ndash; and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer. Rather than presenting always a formless and fluid contour, the plasma membrane surface of cells may show structure. Returning to the example of epithelial cells in the gut, the apical surfaces of many such cells are dense with involutions, all similar in size. The finger-like projections, called '''microvilli''', increase cell surface area and facilitate the absorption of molecules from the outside. [[Synapse]]s are another example of highly-structured membrane. New material is incorporated into the membrane, or deleted from it, by a variety of mechanicsms. (i) Fusion of intracellular vesicles with the membrane not only excretes the contents of the vesicle, but also incorporates the vesicle membrane's components into the cell membrane. The membrane may form blebs that pinch off to become vesicles. (ii) If a membrane is continuous with a tubular structure made of membrane material, then material from the tube can be drawn into the membrane continuously. (iii) Although the concentration of membrane components in the aqueous phase is low (stable membrane components have low solubility in water), exchange of molecules with thi
eilul Eritrean Youth Web site:] From Scandinavia *[http://alenalki.com/ Alenalki Eritrean Web site:] From Europe *[http://dehai.org Dehai] news mailing list archive (Public forum) *[http://eri24.com/ Eritrean News wire] *[http://ertra.com/ Ertrean news] from USA *[http://allafrica.com/eritrea/ AllAfrica.com - ''Eritrea''] news headline links *[http://dimtsi.com Dimtsi Eritrea News Services] ===Other Web Sites=== *[http://home.planet.nl/~hans.mebrat/ Eritrea:] Hans van der Splinter's very comprehensive site about Eritrea, his wife's homeland *[http://www.erisound.com EriSound:] Live 24/7 Eritrean music. *[http://www.eritreancommunity.com EritreanCommunity.com:] Eritrean Radio, Photo Gallery, Forum, News, Chat. *[http://www.emdhr.org Eritrean Movement for Democracy and Human Rights] South African community-based civic organization ===Overviews=== *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1070813.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Eritrea''] *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/er.html CIA World Factbook - ''Eritrea''] *[http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Eritrea.html Encyclopedia of the Nations - ''Eritrea''] * [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/er/ US State Department - ''Eritrea''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports ===Directories=== *[http://yellowpages.eryp.com International Eritrean Yellowpages] *[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Eritrea.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Eritrea''] directory category of the WWW-VL *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Eritrea/ Open Directory Project - ''Eritrea''] directory category *[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/eritrea.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Eritrea''] directory category ===Tourism=== *{{wikitravel}} {{Africa}} [[Category:1993 establishments]] [[Category:African Union member states]] [[Category:Eritrea|*]] [[Category:Former Italian colonies]] [[Category:East Africa]] [[af:Eritrea]] [[am:ኤርትራ]] [[ang:Eritrea]] [[ar:إريتريا]] [[an:Eritrea]] [[bg:Еритрея]] [[zh-min-nan:Eritrea]] [[be:Эрытрэя]] [[bs:Eritreja]] [[ca:Eritrea]] [[cs:Eritrea]] [[da:Eritrea]] [[de:Eritrea]] [[et:Eritrea]] [[es:Eritrea]] [[eo:Eritreo]] [[eu:Eritrea]] [[fa:اریتره]] [[fr:Érythrée]] [[gd:Eritrea]] [[gl:Eritrea - ኤርትራ]] [[ko:에리트레아]] [[ht:Eritre]] [[hr:Eritreja]] [[io:Eritrea]] [[id:Eritrea]] [[ia:Eritrea]] [[is:Erítrea]] [[it:Eritrea]] [[he:אריתריאה]] [[sw:Eritrea]] [[ku:Erître]] [[la:Erythraea]] [[lv:Eritreja]] [[lt:Eritrėja]] [[li:Eritrea]] [[hu:Eritrea]] [[ms:Eritrea]] [[na:Eritrea]] [[nl:Eritrea]] [[nds:Eritrea]] [[ja:エリトリア]] [[no:Eritrea]] [[nn:Eritrea]] [[pl:Erytrea]] [[pt:Eritreia]] [[ro:Eritreea]] [[ru:Эритрея]] [[sa:एरिट्रिया]] [[sq:Eritrea]] [[simple:Eritrea]] [[sk:Eritrea]] [[sl:Eritreja]] [[sr:Еритреја]] [[fi:Eritrea]] [[sv:Eritrea]] [[tl:Eritrea]] [[ti:ኤርትራ]] [[tr:Eritre]] [[uk:Еритрея]] [[zh:厄立特里亚]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Eritrea</title> <id>9377</id> <revision> <id>41844060</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:40:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Yom</username> <id>713855</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Early history */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{unref}} Eritrea is an ancient name, associated in the past with its [[Greek language|Greek]] form '''Erythraía''' ([[Greek alphabet]] '''&amp;#917;&amp;#961;&amp;#965;&amp;#952;&amp;#961;&amp;#945;&amp;#943;&amp;#945;'''), and its derived [[Latin]] form '''Erythræa'''. In the past, Eritrea had given its name to the [[Red Sea]], then called the ''Erythræan Sea''. [[Eritrea]] officially celebrated its independence on [[May 24]], [[1993]]. == Early history == Central areas of Eritrea and most tribes in today's northern Ethiopia share a common background in the [[kingdom of Axum]] of the first millennium (as well as the first millenium BC kingdom of [[D’mt]]), and in its Oriental-Orthodox christian church, [[Tewahedo]], as well as in its [[Ge'ez]] language. Around 90% of today Eritreans speak languages ([[Tigrinya]] and [[Tigre language|Tigre]]) that are closely related to the now-extinct Geez language - as do Tigrinya-speakers in northern Ethiopia and Amharic-speakers of Ethiopia. Eritrea's highlands tended to be part of Ethiopian feudal politics in most of the second millennium. Various sorts of warlords of [[Tigray]] held sway also in parts of today Eritrea, as they ruled parts of today northern Ethiopia. However, there also existed traditions of self-rule of districts that now are in Eritrea, notably the so-called republic of [[Hamasien]]. A reader should understand that those times were the era of feudalism, and nation-states were unknown, as borders of feudal possessions changed rather rapidly. Eritrean areas were no more saved from Muslim invasions than Ethiopia, either. Particularly the coastline and other lowlands received conquerors, islamization and also speakers of the Arab language. == Italian colonization == Prior to [[Italy|Italian]] colonization in [[1885]], what is now Eritrea had been part of Ethiopia as the province Medri Bahri ([[Tigrinya language|Tigrigna]] for Sealand), though [[Massawa|Mitsiwa]] and some other portions had at times been ruled by the various local or international powers that successively dominated the [[Red Sea]] region. The boundaries of modern Eritrea were established during the period of Italian colonization that began in the late 1800s. An Italian shipping company, Rubatinno Shipping, purchased the port of Assab from a local ruler. In turn, the Italian government took over the port in 1882, hoping to use Eritrea as a launching point for the colonization of Ethiopia. In [[1896]], the Italians used Eritrea as a springboard for their disastrous attempt to conquer [[Ethiopia]]. The Italian presence in the [[Horn of Africa]] was formalized in 1889 with the signing of the [[Treaty of Wuchale]] with [[Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia]] (r. 1889–1913), although Menelik would later renounce the agreement. For the next half-century, relations between Ethiopia and Italy, despite intermittent diplomatic agreements, were strained by repeated Italian efforts to expand their colonial base into [[Somali]] territory and Ethiopia, most notably in 1896, when Ethiopia defeated the Italian army in [[Tigray]]. Italian administration of Eritrea brought improvements in the medical and agricultural sectors of Eritrean society. Furthermore, the Italians employed many Eritreans in public service (in particular in the police and public works departments) and oversaw the provision of urban amenities in [[Asmara]] and [[Massawa]]. In a region marked by cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity, a succession of Italian governors maintained a notable degree of unity and public order. [[Benito Mussolini]]’s rise to power in Italy in [[1922]] brought profound changes to the colonial government in Eritrea. The [[Fascists]] imposed harsh rule that stressed the political and racial superiority of Italians. Segregation was established, and Eritreans were demoted to menial positions in the public sector. Although [[Rome]] continued to implement agricultural reforms, these took place largely on farms owned by Italian colonists. The Fascist dictatorship regarded the colony as a strategic base for future aggrandizement and ruled accordingly. True to form, Italy used Eritrea as a base from which to launch its 1935–36 campaign to colonize Ethiopia. Eritrea was placed under [[British Empire|British]] military administration after the Italian surrender in [[World War II]]. == British administration and federalization == Although Italian colonization in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries gave Eritrea its boundaries, Eritrean separatism as a political goal had its roots in World War II. British forces defeated the Italian army in Eritrea in 1941 at the [[Battle of Keren]] and placed the colony under British military administration until [[Allied forces]] could determine its fate. Absent agreement among the Allies about the status of Eritrea, British administration continued for the remainder of World War II and into [[1950]]. In the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines and parceled off to [[Sudan]] and Ethiopia. The [[Soviet Union]], anticipating a [[communist]] victory in the Italian polls, initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under trusteeship or as a colony. Arab states, seeing Eritrea and its large Muslim population as an extension of the Arab world, sought the establishment of an independent state. In the absence of Allied agreement, and in the face of Eritrean demands for self-determination, a [[United Nations]] (UN) commission was dispatched to the former colony in February 1950 in the hope of finding a solution. The commission proposed the establishment of some form of association with Ethiopia, and the UN General Assembly adopted that proposal along with a provision terminating British administration of Eritrea no later than September 15, 1952. The British, faced with a deadline for leaving, held elections on March 16, 1952, for a representative Assembly of 68 members, evenly divided between Christians and Muslims. This body in turn accepted a draft constitution put forward by the UN commissioner on July 10. On September 11, 1952, Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia (r. 1930–74) ratified the constitution. The Representative Assembly subsequently became the Eritrean Assembly. In [[1952]], the United Nations resolution to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia went into effect. The resolution ignored Eritrean pleas for independence, but guaranteed Eritreans some democratic rights and a measure of autonomy. Almost immediately after the federation went into effect, however, these rights began to be abridged or violated. The details of Eritrea’s association with Ethiopia were established by the [[UN General Assembly]] r
h;[[1330 BC]]), to again make Assyria an independent and conquering power at the expense of [[Babylonia]]; and a time came when the Kassite king in Babylon was glad to marry the daughter of Ashur-uballit, whose letters to [[Akhenaten]] of [[Egypt]] form part of the [[Amarna letters]]. This marriage led to disastrous results, as the Kassite faction at court murdered the Babylonian king and placed a pretender on the throne. Assur-uballit promptly marched into Babylonia and avenged his son-in-law, making [[Kurigalzu]] of the royal line king there. ===Assyrian expansion=== Hanilgalbat was finally conquered under [[Adad-nirari I]], who described himself as a &quot;Great-King&quot; (''Sharru rabû'') in letters to the Hittite rulers. Adad-nirari I's successor, [[Shalmaneser I]] (c. 1300 BC), threw off the pretense of Babylonian suzerainty, made [[Calah]] his capital, and followed up on expansion to the northwest, mainly at the expense of the Hittites, reaching as far as [[Carchemish]] and beyond. Shalmaneser's son and successor, [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]], deposed Kadashman-Buriash of Babylon and ruled there himself as king for seven years, taking on the old title &quot;king of Sumer and Akkad&quot;. Following this, Babylon revolted against Tukulti-Ninurta, and later even made Assyria tributary during the reigns of the Babylonian kings Melishipak II and Marduk-apal-iddin I, another weak period for Assyria. ===Tiglath-Pileser I reaches the Mediterranean Sea=== As the Hittite empire collapsed from onslaught of the [[Phrygians]] (called [[Meshech|Mushki]] in Assyrian annals), Babylon and Assyria began to vie for [[Amorite]] regions, formerly under firm Hittite control. The Assyrian king [[Ashur-resh-ishi I]] defeated [[Nebuchadnezzar I]] of Babylon in a battle, when their forces encountered one another in this region. Ashur-resh-ishi's son, [[Tiglath-Pileser I]], may be regarded as the founder of the first Assyrian empire. In [[1120 BC]], he crossed the [[Euphrates]], capturing Carchemish, defeated the Mushki and the remnants of the Hittites&amp;mdash;even claiming to reach the [[Black Sea]]&amp;mdash;and advanced to the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], subjecting [[Phoenicia]], where he hunted wild bulls. He also marched into Babylon twice, assuming the old title &quot;King of Sumer and Akkad&quot;, although he was unable to depose the actual king in Babylonia, where the old Kassite dynasty had now succumbed to an Elamite one. ===The Society in the Middle Assyrian period=== Assyria had a major problem in keeping the trade routes open. Unlike the situation in the Old Assyrian period, the Anatolian metal trade was effectively cut off by the [[Hittites]] and the [[Hurrians]]. They also controlled the Mediterrenean ports while the [[Kassites]] controlled the river route south to the [[Persian Gulf]]. The Middle Assyrian kingdom was well organized and in firm control by the king. The king also functioned as the High Priest of [[Anshar|Ashur]], the state god. He had certain obligations to fulfil in the cult, and to provide rich resources for the temples. The priesthood became a major power in the Assyrian society. Conflicts with the priesthood probably laid behind the murder of king [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]]. The population of Assyria was rather small and the main cities were [[Assur|Ashur]], [[Kalhu]] and [[Nineveh]], all situated in the [[Tigris]] river valley. All free male citizens were obliged to serve in the army for a time; this system was called the ''ilku''-service. The [[Babylonian law|Middle Assyrian laws]] were compiled during this period. They are notable of the repressive attitude towards women in the society. ==Neo-Assyrian Empire== [[Image:Map of Assyria.png|thumb|300ppx|Assyrian Empire]] ===Assyrian empire-building=== After Tiglath-Pileser I, the Assyrians were in decline for nearly two centuries, a time of weak and ineffective rulers, wars with neighboring [[Urartu]], and encroachments by Aramaean nomads. This long period of weakness ended with the accession in [[911 BC]] of [[Adad-nirari II]]. He brought the areas still nominally under Assyrian vassalage firmly under subjection, deporting populations in the north to far-off places. Apart from pushing the boundary with Babylonia slightly southward, he did not engage in actual expansion, and the borders of the empire he consolidated reached only as far west as the Khabur. He was succeeded by Tukulti-Ninurta II, who made some gains in the north during his short reign. The next king, [[Ashurnasirpal II]] ([[883 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[858 BC]]), embarked on a vast program of merciless expansion, first terrorizing the peoples to the north as far as Nairi, then subjecting the Aramaeans between the Khabur and the Euphrates. His harshness prompted a revolt that was crushed decisively in a pitched, two-day battle. Following this victory, he advanced without opposition as far as the Mediterranean and exacted tribute from [[Phoenicia]]. Unlike any before, the Assyrians began boasting in their ruthlessness around this time. Ashurnasirpal II also moved his capital to the city of Kalhu ([[Nimrud]]). The palaces, temples and other buildings raised by him bear witness to a considerable development of wealth and art. [There is ongoing discussion among academics over the nature of the [[Nimrud lens]], a piece of [[rock crystal]] unearthed by [[John Layard]] in [[1850]], in the Nimrud palace complex in northern [[Iraq]]. A small minority believe that it is evidence for the existence of ancient Assyrian telescopes, which could explain the great accuracy of Assyrian astronomy.] Ashurnasirpal's son, [[Shalmaneser III]] (858 BC&amp;ndash;[[823 BC]]), had a long reign of 34 years, when the Assyrian capital was converted into an armed camp. Each year the Assyrian armies marched out of it to plunder and destroy. Babylon was occupied, and Babylonia reduced to vassalage. He fought against Urartu, and marched an army against an allied army of Syrian states headed by [[Benhadad]] of [[Damascus]], and including [[Ahab]], king of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]], at the [[Battle of Karkar]] in ([[854 BC]]). Despite Shalmaneser's description of 'vanquishing the opposition', it seems that the battle ended in a deadlock, as the Assyrian forces were withdrawn soon afterwards. Shalmaneser retook Carchemish in [[849 BC]], and in [[841 BC]] marched an army against [[Hazael]], King of Damascus, besieging and taking that city. He also brought under tribute [[Jehu]] of Israel, [[Tyre]], and [[Sidon]]. His black [[obelisk]], discovered at Kalhu, records many military exploits of his reign. [http://www.kchanson.com/ANCDOCS/meso/obelisk.html] The last few years of his life were disturbed by the rebellion of his eldest son, that nearly proved fatal. Assur, Arbela and other places joined the pretender, and the revolt was quashed with difficulty by [[Shamshi-Adad V]], Shalmaneser's second son, who soon afterwards succeeded him (824 BC). In the following century, Assyria again experienced a relative decline, owing to weaker rulers (including the Queen [[Semiramis]]) and a resurgence in expansion by Urartu. The notable exception was [[Adad-nirari III]] ([[810 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[782 BC]]), who captured Damascus in 804, bringing Syria under tribute as far south as Samaria and [[Edom]], and who advanced against the [[Medes]], perhaps even penetrating to the [[Caspian Sea]]. ===Second Assyrian Empire=== When [[Nabonassar]] began the neo-Babylonian dynasty in [[747 BC]] Assyria was in the throes of a revolution. Civil war and pestilence were devastating the country, and its northern provinces had been wrested from it by Urartu. In 746 BC Calah joined the rebels, and on the 13th of ''Iyyar'' in the following year, a general named [[Pulu]], who took the name of [[Tiglath-pileser III]], seized the crown, and made sweeping changes to the Assyrian government, considerably improving its efficiency and security. The conquered provinces were organized under an elaborate bureaucracy, with the king at the head &amp;mdash; each district paying a fixed tribute and providing a military contingent. The Assyrian forces at this time became a standing army, that by successive improvements became an irresistible fighting machine; and Assyrian policy was henceforth directed toward reducing the whole civilized world into a single empire, throwing its trade and wealth into Assyrian hands. These changes are often identified as the beginning of the &quot;Second Assyrian Empire&quot;. After subjecting Babylon to tribute, severely punishing Urartu, and defeating the Medes and Hittites, Tiglath-Pileser III directed his armies into Syria, which had regained its independence, and the commercially successful Mediterranean seaports of Phoenicia. He took [[Arpad (Syria)|Arpad]] near [[Aleppo]] in [[740 BC]] after a siege of three years, and reduced [[Hamath]]. Azariah (Uzziah) had been an ally of the king of Hamath, and thus was compelled by Tiglath-Pileser to do him homage and pay yearly tribute. In [[738 BC]], in the reign of [[Menahem]], king of Israel, Tiglath-Pileser III occupied [[Philistines|Philistia]] and invaded Israel, imposing on it a heavy tribute (2 Kings 15:19). [[Ahaz]], king of Judah, engaged in a war against Israel and Syria, appealed for help to this Assyrian king by means of a present of gold and silver (2 Kings 16:8); he accordingly &quot;marched against Damascus, defeated and put Rezin to death, and besieged the city itself.&quot; Leaving part of his army to continue the siege, he advanced, ravaging with fire and sword the province east of the Jordan, Philistia, and [[Samaria]]; and in [[732 BC]] took Damascus, deporting its inhabitants to Assyria. In [[729 BC]], he had himself crowned as &quot;King Pul of Babylon&quot;. Tiglath-Pileser III died in [[727 BC]], and was succeeded by [[Shalmaneser V]], who reorganized the Empire into provinces, replacing troublesome vassal kings with Assyrian govern
re formed when dead marine animals and plants (zooplankton and phytoplankton) sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an anoxic environment (ie lacking in oxygen) and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form. Natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction: :C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 3CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; These hydrocarbons collected in porous rocks, trapped beneath an impermeable cap rock. In contrast to methane, which is constantly reformed in large quantities, higher alkanes rarely develop to a considerable extent in nature. The present deposits will not be reformed once they are exhausted. Solid alkanes occur as [[evaporation]] residues from oil, known as [[tar]]. One of the largest natural deposits of solid alkanes is in the [[asphalt]] lake known as the [[Pitch Lake]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. ==Purification and use== &lt;!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --&gt; [[Image:ShellMartinez.jpg|thumb|right|An [[oil refinery]] at [[Martinez]], [[California]].]] Alkanes are both important raw materials of the chemical industry and the most important fuels of the world economy. The starting materials for the processing are always [[natural gas]] and [[crude oil]]. The latter is separated in an [[oil refinery]] by [[fractional distillation]] and processed into many different products, for example [[gasoline]]. The different &quot;fractions&quot; of crude oil have different boiling points and can be isolated and separated quite easily: within the individual fractions the boiling points lie closely together. The domain of usage of a certain alkane can be determined quite well according to the number of carbon atoms, although the following demarcation is idealized and not perfect. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. [[Methane]] and [[ethane]] are the main componants of natural gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is however easier to transport them as liquids: this requires both compression and cooling of the gas. [[Propane]] and [[butane]] can be liquefied at fairly low pressures, and are well known as '''liquified petroleum gas (LPG)'''. Propane, for example, is used in the propane gas burner, butane in disposable cigarette lighters (where the pressure is a mere 2 [[bar (unit)|bar]]). The two alkanes are used as propellants in [[aerosol spray]]s. From [[pentane]] to [[octane]] the alkanes are highly volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in [[internal combustion engine]]s, as they vaporise easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets which would impair the unifomity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred, as they are much less prone to premature ignition which causes [[Engine knocking|knocking]] than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the [[octane rating]] of the fuel, where [[2,2,4-trimethylpentane]] (''isooctane'') has an arbitrary value of 100 and [[heptane]] has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good solvents for nonpolar substances. Alkanes from [[nonane]] to, for instance, [[hexadecane]] (an alkane with sixteen carbon atoms) are liquids of higher [[viscosity]], less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of [[diesel]] and [[aviation fuel]]. Diesel fuels are charaterised by their [[cetane number]], cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly. Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of [[fuel oil]] and [[lubricating oil]]. In latter function they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as [[paraffin wax]], for example in [[candle]]s. This should not be confused however with true [[wax]], which consists primarily of [[ester]]s. Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in [[bitumen]], used for example in road surfacing. However the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by [[cracking]]. ==Preparation== Numerous ways exist to prepare alkanes in the laboratory. The most well known methods are [[hydrogenation]] of [[alkene]]s and [[hydrolysis]] of [[Grignard reagent]]s. Alkanes can also be prepared directly from [[alkyl halide]]s in the [[Corey-House-Posner-Whitesides reaction]]. The [[Barton-McCombie deoxygenation]] removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols and the [[Clemmensen reduction]] removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes. ==Molecular geometry== &lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt; [[Image:Ch4-hybridisation.png|thumb|right|sp&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;-hybridisation in [[methane]].]] The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the [[electron configuration]] of [[carbon]], which has four [[valence electron]]s. The carbon atoms in alkanes are always [[Orbital hybidisation|sp&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;-hybridised]], that is to say that the valence electrons are said to be in four equivalent orbitals derived from the combination of the 2s-orbital and the three 2p-orbitals. These orbitals, which have identical energies, are arranged spatially in the form of a tetrahedron, the angle of 109.47° between them. ===Bond lengths and bond angles=== &lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt; An alkane molecule has only C&amp;ndash;H and C&amp;ndash;C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of a sp³-orbital of carbon with the 1s-orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap of two sp³-orbitals on different carbon atoms. The [[bond length]]s amount to 1.09×10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;10&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;m for a C&amp;ndash;H bond and 1.54×10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;10&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;m for a C&amp;ndash;C bond. [[Image:Ch4-structure.png|thumb|right|The tetrahedral structure of methane.]] The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp³-orbitals&amp;mdash;they are tetrahedrally arranged, with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae which represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another, while both common and useful, do not correspond with the reality. ===Conformation=== &lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt; The structural formula and the [[bond angle]]s are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule. There is a further [[degree of freedom]] for each carbon&amp;ndash;carbon bond: the [[torsion angle]] between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond. The spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its [[conformation]]. ====Ethane==== &lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt; [[Ethane]] forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes, as there is only one C&amp;ndash;C bond. If one looks down the axis of the C&amp;ndash;C bond, then one will see the so-called [[Newman projection]]: The circle represents the two carbon atoms, one behind the other, and the bonds to hydrogen are represented by the straight lines. The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of 120° between them, resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane. However the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0° and 360°. This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon&amp;ndash;carbon single bond. Despite this apparent freedom, only two limiting conformations are important: [[Image:Newman_projection_ethane.png|thumb|right|200px|Newman projections of the two conformations of ethane: eclipsed on the left, staggered on the right.]] * In the '''eclipsed conformation''', corresponding to a torsion angle of 0°, 120° or 240°, the hydrogen atoms attached to the front carbon are directly in front of those attached to the rear carbon. * In the '''staggered conformation''', corresponding to a torsion angle of 60°, 180° or 300°, the hydrogen atoms attached to the front carbon are exactly in between those attached to the rear carbon. The two conformations, also known as [[rotomer]]s, differ in energy: The staggered conformation is 12.6&amp;nbsp;kJ/mol lower in energy (more stable) than the eclipsed conformation. The explanation for this difference in energy has been the subject of debate, with two main theories predominating: *in the eclipsed conformation, the electrostatic repulsion between the electrons in the carbon&amp;ndash;hydrogen bonds is maximised. *in the staggered conformation, the [[hyperconjugation]] (a form of delocalisation) of the valence electrons is maximised. These two explanations are not contradictory or exclusive; the latter is thought to be the more important for ethane itself. This difference in energy between the two conformations, known as the [[torsion energy]], is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature. There is constant rotation about the C&amp;ndash;C bond, albeit with short &quot;pauses&quot; at each staggered conformation. The time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next, equivalent to the rotation of one CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-group by 120° relative to the other, is of the order of 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;11&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;seconds. ====Higher alkanes==== &lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt; [[Image:Newman_projection_butane.png|t
]], &quot;How do you say Banana Daiquiri in Cuban?&quot; Micheal answers, naturally enough, &quot;Banana Daiquiri&quot;. See also the [[list of cocktails]]. [[Category:Cocktails_with_rum]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bees kiss</title> <id>4902</id> <revision> <id>15903151</id> <timestamp>2004-12-02T21:19:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>UtherSRG</username> <id>33145</id> </contributor> <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]].</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cocktail]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bosons</title> <id>4903</id> <revision> <id>15903152</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CYD</username> <id>45</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Boson]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bill Mumy</title> <id>4904</id> <revision> <id>40438113</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T15:26:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tough Little Ship</username> <id>323118</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:dearboy.jpg|thumb|Bill Mumy]] '''Charles William Mumy Jr.''' (MOO-mee) (born [[February 1]], [[1954]] in [[San Gabriel, California|San Gabriel]], [[California]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[musician]], [[actor]] and a figure in the [[science fiction]] community. He began his professional career at the age of 5 and has worked on over 400 [[television]] shows, 16 [[motion picture]]s, various commercials and scores of voice over work as well as working as a musician, songwriter, recording artist and writer. He is probably best known as &quot;Will Robinson&quot; from the [[1960s]] television series ''[[Lost in Space]]'' and as [[Lennier]], the alien Ambassadorial aide suffering from unrequited love in the series ''[[Babylon 5]]''. He is well known as a player in the original ''[[Twilight Zone]]'', especially in the episode, &quot;[[It's a Good Life (The Twilight Zone)|It's a Good Life]]&quot;, where he played the all powerful and amoral child &quot;Anthony&quot; who completely dominates and terrorizes his town. He later played a grown up father who has a daughter with similar powers in the second revival of the Twilight Zone. He also played a [[Starfleet]] member in the acclaimed ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' episode [[The Siege of AR-558 (DS9 episode)|The Siege of AR-558]]. He requested that he play a human, as he had worn extensive makeup as Lennier. Unlike many child actors, he entered the profession at his own insistence, and his parents took pains to make sure Billy matured properly in his job. His father, who was a cattle rancher, carefully invested Billy's income, and thereby avoided many of the problems of other [[child actor]]s like [[Jackie Coogan]]. Billy was first choice for the role of Eddie [[The Munsters|Munster]] but his parents objected because of the extensive make-up; Billy did appear in one episode as a friend of Eddie. [[Image:B5_lennier.jpg|right|thumb|Bill Mumy as [[Lennier]] in ''[[Babylon 5]]'']] Mumy is also an accomplished musician who plays [[guitar]], [[bass guitar|bass]], [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]]s, [[banjo]], [[mandolin]], [[harmonica]] and percussion. Among his various musical credits Bill has recorded and written songs with America, toured with Shaun Cassidy and played in Rick Springfield's band in the film Hard to Hold. Bill has released a number of solo [[Compact disc|CD]]s, including ''Dying To Be Heard'', ''In The Current'', ''Pandora's Box'', &quot;After Dreams Come True&quot;, &quot;Los Angeles Times&quot; and &quot;Ghosts&quot; as well as 9 albums with partner [[Robert Haimer]] as [[Barnes and Barnes]]. Their most famous hit is the song &quot;Fish Heads&quot; which was named as one of the top 100 videos of all time by Rolling Stone magazine. He is currently a member of the band [[Jenerators]], and they have produced 3 CDs, ''Jenerators'', ''Hitting the Silk'' and &quot;Pony Up&quot;. Most of [http://www.indieclectic.com/artistroom.aspx?gid=10036 Bill's Music] is available for dowload at indiecletic.com Mumy is the co-creator with writer [[Peter David]] of the award winning children's television series ''[[Space Cases]]''. The two have also written screenplays, comic books and short stories together. He currently lives in [[Hollywood Hills]], California with his wife Eileen and their two children, Seth and [[Liliana Mumy|Liliana]]. ==Filmography== * ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' ([[2000 in television|2000]]) (TV) * ''[[The Monkey Prince]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]]) ([[direct-to-video|V]]) ([[voice actor|voice]]) * ''[[Underground Adventure]]'' (1997) (V) (voice) (as Billy Mumy) * ''[[Three Wishes (movie)|Three Wishes]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]) .... Neighbor * ''[[Babylon 5]]'' ([[1994 in television|1994]]) [[television program|TV Series]] * ''[[Double Trouble]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]/I) * ''[[Captain America]]'' ([[1991 in film|1991]]) * ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'' ([[1985 in television|1985]]) ([[television|TV]]) * ''[[Hard to Hold]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]]) * ''[[Twilight Zone: The Movie]]'' ([[1983 in film|1983]]) * ''[[Fish Heads]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]]) * ''[[Sunshine Christmas]]'' ([[1977 in television|1977]]) (TV) * ''[[Sunshine]]'' ([[1975 in television|1975]]) TV Series * ''[[The Rockford Files]]'' ([[1974 in television|1974]]) (TV) * ''[[Papillon (autobiography)|Papillon]]'' ([[1973 in film|1973]]) * ''[[Sunshine (TV)|Sunshine]]'' (1973) (TV) * ''[[Bless the Beasts &amp; Children]]'' ([[1971 in film|1971]]) * ''[[Rascal]]'' ([[1969 in film|1969]]) * ''[[Wild in the Streets]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]]) * ''[[Lost in Space]]'' ([[1965 in television|1965]]) TV Series * ''[[Dear Brigitte]]'' (1965) * ''[[For the Love of Willadean]]'' ([[1964 in television|1964]]) (TV) * ''[[The Fugitive (television series)|The Fugitive]]'' ([[1964 in television|1964]]) (TV) * ''[[Palm Springs Weekend]]'' ([[1963 in film|1963]]) * ''[[A Ticklish Affair]]'' (1963) * ''[[A Child Is Waiting]]'' (1963) * ''[[Sammy the Way Out Seal]]'' ([[1962 in television|1962]]) (TV) * ''[[Tammy Tell Me True]]'' ([[1961 in film|1961]]) * ''[[The Wizard of Baghdad]]'' ([[1960 in film|1960]]) ==External links == * [http://www.billmumy.com/ Official Site] * {{imdb name|id=0612621|name=Bill Mumy}} * {{tvtome person|id=22143|name=Bill Mumy}} * {{memoryalpha}} *[http://www.indieclectic.com/artistroom.aspx?gid=10036 Bill's Music] at [http://www.indieclectic.com/ indieclectic.com] [[Category:1954 births|Mumy, Bill]] [[Category:Babylon 5 cast and crew|Mumy, Bill]] [[Category:Child actors|Mumy, Bill]] [[Category:People from the Greater Los Angeles Area|Mumy, Bill]] [[Category:Television actors|Mumy, Bill]] [[Category:Star Trek actors|Mumy, Bill]] [[Category:Batman actors|Mumy, Bill]] [[Category:Living people|Mumy, Bill]] [[fr:Bill Mumy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bonaparte</title> <id>4905</id> <revision> <id>41348869</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:39:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vladislaus Draculea</username> <id>289450</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the family of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]. There is also an article on the [[Argentina|Argentinian]] [[paleontologist]], [[José Bonaparte]]. For the Olympic medallist, see [[Bonaparte (horse)]].'' Of [[Corsica]]n origin, the '''Bonaparte''' (originally '''Buonaparte''') family is the family of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]], who was elected as first consul of [[France]] on [[November 10]], [[1799]] with the help of his brother, [[Lucien Bonaparte]], president of the [[Council of Five Hundred]] at [[Saint-Cloud]]. Napoleon I was crowned [[Emperor]] of the French [[1804]]-[[1814]], [[1815]]; the Bonaparte family also provided kings of [[Spain]], [[Naples]], [[Kingdom of Holland|Holland]] and [[Kingdom of Westphalia|Westphalia]], and a second French Emperor, [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]]. Supporters of the Bonaparte family's claim to the throne of France are known as [[Bonapartists]]. [[Image:Buonaparte2.jpg|thumb|The original arms of the Buonapartes]] The family originally came from [[Florence]]. The first Buonaparte to move to Corsica was [[Francesco Buonaparte]], who moved there in the [[16th century]], when Corsica was a [[Genoa|Genoese]] possession. The arms of the Buonaparte family were: ''Gules two bends sinister between two stars or''. In [[1804]] Napoleon changed the arms to ''Azure an imperial eagle or''. The change applied to all members of his family except for his brother Lucien, and the son of Jerome's first marriage. Following his conquest of most of [[Western Europe]], the first Napoleon made his elder brother [[Joseph Bonaparte|Joseph]] ([[1768]]-[[1844]]) king first of [[Naples]] and [[Sicily]] ([[1806]]-[[1808]]) and then of [[Spain]] (1808-[[1813]]), his third brother [[Louis Bonaparte|Louis]] ([[1778]]-[[1846]]) king of Holland ([[1806]]-[[1810]]) (subsequently forcing his abdication after his failure to subordinate Dutch interests to those of France) and his youngest brother [[Jérôme Bonaparte]] ([[1784]]-[[1860]]) king of [[Kingdom of Westphalia|Westphalia]], the short-lived realm created from some of the states of northwestern [[Germany]] ([[1807]]-1813). Napoleon's son [[Napoleon II of France|Napoleon Joseph]] ([[1811]]-[[1832]]) was created king of [[Rome]] ([[1811]]-[[1814]]) and was later styled Napoleon II by loyalists of the dynasty, though he never actually ruled as Emperor. Charles Louis Napoleon ([[1808]]-[[1873]]), son of Louis Napoleon, was president of France in [[1848]]-[[1852]] and emperor in [[
ovaries and ovipores. However, they also have one or more pairs of [[spermatheca]]e (depending on the species) that are internal sacs which receive and store sperm from the other worm in copulation. [[Copulation]] and [[reproduction]] are separate processes in earthworms. The mating pair overlap front ends [[ventral]]ly and each exchanges sperm with the other. The cocoon, or egg case, is secreted by the clitellum, the external glandular band which is near the front of the worm, but behind the spermathecae. Some indefinite time after copulation, long after the worms have separated, the clitellum secretes the cocoon which forms a ring around the worm. The worm then backs out of the ring, and as it does so, injects its own eggs and the other worm's sperm into it. As the worm slips out, the ends of the cocoon seal to form a vaguely lemon-shaped incubator ([[cocoon]]) in which the embryonic worms develop. They emerge as small, but fully formed earthworms, except for lacking the sexual structures, which develop later. Some earthworm species are mostly [[parthenogenesis|parthenogenetic]], in which case the male structures and spermathecae may become abnormal, or missing. ==Behavior== One often sees earthworms come to the surface in large numbers after a rainstorm. There are three theories for this behavior. The first is that the waterlogged soil has insufficient oxygen for the worms, therefore, earthworms come to the surface to get the oxygen they need and breathe more easily. Secondly, some species (notably [[Lumbricus terrestris]]) come to the surface to mate. This behavior is, however, limited to a few species. Thirdly, the worms may be using the moist conditions on the surface to travel more quickly than they can underground, thus colonizing new areas more quickly. This is in any event a dangerous activity in the daytime, since earthworms die quickly when exposed to direct sunlight with its strong [[UV]] content, and are vulnerable to predators such as [[birds]]. [[Image:Wormanatomy.png|thumb|350px|Anatomy of the earthworm]] ==Locomotion and importance to soil== Earthworms travel underground by the means of waves of muscular contractions which alternately shorten and lengthen the body. The shortened part is anchored to the surrounding soil by tiny claw-like bristles ([[seta|setae]]) set along its segmented length. The whole process is aided by the secretion of a slimy lubricating mucous. In more compacted soils the earthworm actually eats its way through the soil, cutting a passage with its muscular pharynx and dragging the rest of the body along. The ingested soil is ground up, digested, and the waste deposited behind the worm. This process aerates and mixes the soil, and is often considered greatly helpful by gardeners and farmers. In addition, many earthworms will come to the surface and graze on the higher concentrations of organic matter there, mixing it with the mineral soil. Because a high level of organic matter is associated with soil fertility, an abundance of earthworms is a happy sight for the [[Organic gardening|organic gardener]]. In fact as long ago as 1881 [[Charles Darwin]] wrote: &lt;blockquote&gt;''&quot;It may be doubted whether there are any other animals which have played so important a part in the history of the world, as have these lowly creatures&quot;''&lt;/blockquote&gt; :(''The Formation Of Vegetable Mould Through The Action Of Worms'', Charles Darwin) ==Benefits== The major benefits of earthworm activities to soil fertility can be summarised as: * '''Biological'''. The earthworm is essential to [[compost]]ing; the process of converting dead organic matter into rich [[humus]], a medium vital to the growth of healthy plants, and thus ensuring the continuance of the cycle of fertility. This is achieved by the worm's actions of pulling down below any organic matter deposited on the soil surface (eg, leaf fall, manure, etc) either for food or when it needs to plug its burrow. Once in the burrow, the worm will shred the leaf and partially digest it, then mingle it with the earth by saturating it with intestinal secretions. Worm casts (see below) can contain 40% more humus than the top 6&quot; of soil in which the worm is living. * '''Chemical'''. As well as dead organic matter, the earthworm also ingests any other soil particles that are small enough (including stones up to 1/20 of an inch across) into its 'crop' wherein minute fragments of grit grind everything into a fine paste which is then digested in the stomach. When the worm excretes this in the form of casts which are deposited on the surface or deeper in the soil, a perfectly balanced selection of minerals and plant nutrients is made available in an accessible form. Investigations in the [[United States|US]] show that fresh earthworm casts are 5 times richer in available [[nitrogen]], 7 times richer in available [[phosphate]]s and 11 times richer in available [[potash]] than the surrounding upper 6 inches (150 mm) of soil. In conditions where there is plenty of available humus, the weight of casts produced may be greater than 4.5 kg (10 lb) per worm per year, in itself an indicator of why it pays the gardener or farmer to keep worm populations high. * '''Physical'''. By its burrowing actions, the earthworm is of great value in keeping the soil structure open, creating a multitude of channels which allow the processes of both aeration and drainage to occur. [[Permaculture]] co-founder [[Bill Mollison]] points out that by sliding in their tunnels, earthworms &quot;act as an innumerable army of pistons pumping air in and out of the soils on a 24 hour cycle (more rapidly at night)&quot; (''Permaculture- A Designer's Manual'', Tagari Press, [[1988]]). Thus the earthworm not only creates passages for air and water to traverse, but is itself a vital component in the living biosystem that is healthy soil. It is important that we do not take the humble earthworm for granted. Dr. W. E. [[Shewell Cooper]] observed &quot;tremendous numerical differences between adjacent gardens&quot; (''Soil, Humus And Health''), and worm populations are affected by a host of environmental factors, many of which can be influenced by good management practices on the part of the gardener or farmer. Darwin estimated that [[arable land]] contains up to 53,000 worms per acre (13/m&amp;sup2;), but more recent research from [[Rothamsted Experimental Station]] has produced figures suggesting that even poor soil may support 250,000/acre (62/m&amp;sup2;), whilst rich fertile farmland may have up to 1,750,000/acre (432/m&amp;sup2;). Professor I. L. Heiberg of [[State University of New York]] [[State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry|College of Environmental Science and Forestry]] has stated that in optimum conditions, the worm population may even reach 250,000,000 per acre (62,000/m&amp;sup2;), meaning that the weight of earthworms beneath the farmer's soil could be greater than that of his livestock upon its surface. One thing is certain however: rich, fertile soil that is cared for organically and well-fed and husbanded by its steward will reap its reward in a healthy worm population, whilst denuded, overworked, and eroded land will almost certainly contain fewer, scrawny, undernourished specimens. == Earthworms as invasives == Lumbricid earthworms are invasive to North America and not only have displaced native earthworms in much of the continent, but have invaded areas where earthworms did not formerly exist. There are no native earthworms in much of North America, especially in the north, and the forests there developed relying on a large amount of undecayed leaf matter. The worms decompose that leaf layer, making the habitat unsurvivable for certain species of trees, ferns and wildflowers. Currently there is no economically feasible method for controlling earthworms in forests, besides preventing introductions. Earthworms normally spread slowly, but can be widely introduced by human activities such as construction earthmoving, or by fishermen releasing bait, or by plantings from other areas. Soils which have been invaded by earthworms can be recognized by an absence of palatable leaf litter. For example, in a [[sugar maple]] - [[white ash]] - [[beech]] - [[northern red oak]] association, only the beech and oak leaves will be seen on the forest floor (except during autumn leaf-fall), as earthworms quickly devour maple and ash leaves. [[Basswood]], [[dogwood]], [[elm]], [[poplar]] and [[tuliptree]] also produce palatable foliage. == Special habitats == While, as the name ''earthworm'' suggests, the main habitat of earthworms is in soil, the situation is more complicated than that. The [[brandling worm]] ''Eisenia fetida'' lives in decaying plant matter and manure. ''[[Arctiostrotus vancouverensis]]'' from [[Vancouver Island]] and the [[Olympic Peninsula]] is generally found in decaying conifer logs or in extremely acid humus. ''[[Aporrectodea limicola]]'' and ''[[Sparganophilus]]'' and several others are found in mud in streams. Even in the soil species, there are special habitats, such as soils derived from [[serpentine]] which have an earthworm fauna of their own. ==Ecology== Earthworm populations depend on both physical and chemical properties of the soil, such as soil temperature, moisture, pH, salts, aeration and texture, as well as available food, and the ability of the species to reproduce and disperse. One of the most important environmental factors is [[pH]], but earthworms vary in their preferences. Most earthworms favor neutral to slightly acid soil. However, ''Lumbricus terrestris'' are still present in pH of 5.4 and ''[[Dendrobaena octaedra]]'' at pH of 4.3 and some [[Megascolecidae]] are present in extremely acid humic soils. Soil pH may also influence the numbers of worms that go into diapause. The more acid the soil, the sooner worms went into diapause, and remain in diap
scription]] is in place, under which all men above 18 years of age serve from 6 to 12 months, although service for [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] is not mandatory and inhabitants of [[Åland]] have a different system in place. Also a 13-month-long [[conscientious objector|non-military service]] is possible. As of 1995, women were permitted to serve on a voluntary basis. The defence is based on a large trained reserve. Finland can mobilize 490,000 trained military personnel in a crisis situation. The Finnish Defence Forces are under the command of the Chief of Defence, who is directly subordinate to the [[President of Finland|President of the Republic]] in matters related to the military command. At the moment (February 2006) the Chief of Defence is Admiral [[Juhani Kaskeala]]. Military doctrine: Self-defensive; independent defence of all of domestic territory; [[NATO]] Partnership for Peace affiliate; committed to pan-European (incl. Russia) treaty of trust-enhancing cooperation, such as providing access for international observers during major exercises. In 2005 the Finnish defence ministry announced a cost-cutting plan. The [[Helsinki Air Defence Regiment]] in [[Hyrylä]] and the [[Savo Brigade]] in [[Mikkeli]] will be disbanded in [[2007]]. At the same time Kotka Coastal Command will be disbanded and its duties will be taken over by other units. ==Military branches== *[[Finnish Army]] (Maavoimat) *[[Finnish Navy]] (Merivoimat) *[[Finnish Air Force]] (Ilmavoimat) The [[Finnish Frontier Guard|Frontier Guard]] (Rajavartiolaitos) is under the Ministry of the Interior but can be incorporated into the Defence Forces when required by defence readiness. == Military Ranks == {| border=1 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; |- style=&quot;background-color: #aaaaff;&quot; ! colspan=4 | Army and Air Force Officer Ranks |- style=&quot;background-color: #ccccff;&quot; ! Finnish !! Swedish !! English !! German |- | width=&quot;150&quot; | Kenraali || width=&quot;150&quot; | General || width=&quot;150&quot; | [[General]] || width=&quot;150&quot; | General |- | Kenraaliluutnantti || Generallöjtnant || [[Lieutenant General]] || Generalleutnant |- | Kenraalimajuri || Generalmajor || [[Major General]] || Generalmajor |- | Prikaatikenraali || Brigadgeneral || [[Brigadier General]] || Brigadegeneral |- | Eversti || Överste || [[Colonel]] || Oberst |- | Everstiluutnantti || Överstelöjtnant || [[Lieutenant Colonel]] || Oberstleutnant |- | Majuri || Major || [[Major]] || Major |- | Kapteeni || Kapten || [[Captain]] || Hauptmann |- | Yliluutnantti || Premiärlöjtnant || Senior Lieutenant || Oberleutnant |- | Luutnantti || Löjtnant || [[Lieutenant]] || Leutnant |- | Vänrikki || Fänrik || [[Second Lieutenant]] || Fähnrich |} {| border=1 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; |- style=&quot;background-color: #aaaaff;&quot; ! colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Navy Officer Ranks |- style=&quot;background-color: #ccccff;&quot; ! Finnish !! Swedish !! English |- | width=&quot;150&quot; | Amiraali || width=&quot;150&quot; | Admiral || width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Admiral]] |- | Vara-amiraali || Viceadmiral || [[Vice Admiral]] |- | Kontra-amiraali || Konteradmiral || [[Rear Admiral]] |- | Lippueamiraali || Flottiljadmiral || [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] |- | Kommodori || Kommodor || [[Captain]] |- | Komentaja || Kommendör || [[Commander]] |- | Komentajakapteeni || Kommendörkapten || [[Lieutenant Commander]] |- | Kapteeniluutnantti || Kaptenlöjtnant || [[Lieutenant, Senior Grade]] |- | Yliluutnantti || Premiärlöjtnant || [[Lieutenant]] |- | Luutnantti || Löjtnant || [[Lieutenant, Junior Grade]] |- | Aliluutnantti || Underlöjtnant || [[Sub-Lieutenant]] |} {| border=1 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; |- style=&quot;background-color: #aaaaff;&quot; ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Army and Air Force Enlisted Ranks |- style=&quot;background-color: #ccccff;&quot; ! Finnish !! Swedish !! English |- | width=&quot;150&quot; | Sotilasmestari(*) || width=&quot;150&quot; | Militärmästare || width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Chief Warrant Officer]]&amp;nbsp; |- | Vääpeli(*) || Fältväbel || [[Warrant Officer]]&amp;nbsp; |- | Ylikersantti || Översergeant || [[Staff Sergeant]] |- | Kersantti || Sergeant || [[Sergeant]] |- | Alikersantti || Undersergeant || [[Corporal]] |- | Korpraali || Korpral || [[Lance Corporal]] |- | Sotamies || Soldat || [[Private (rank)|Private]] |} {| border=1 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; |- style=&quot;background-color: #aaaaff;&quot; ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Navy Enlisted Ranks |- style=&quot;background-color: #ccccff;&quot; ! Finnish !! Swedish !! English |- | width=&quot;150&quot; | Sotilasmestari || width=&quot;150&quot; | Militärmästare || width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Chief Warrant Officer]]&amp;nbsp; |- | Pursimies || Båtsman || [[Chief Petty Officer]]&amp;nbsp; |- | Ylikersantti || Översergeant || [[Petty Officer First Class|Petty Officer 1st Class]] |- | Kersantti || Sergeant || [[Petty Officer Second Class|Petty Officer 2nd Class]] |- | Alikersantti || Undersergeant || [[Petty Officer Third Class|Petty Officer 3rd Class]] |- | Ylimatruusi || Övermatros || [[Able Seaman]] |- | Matruusi || Matros || [[Seaman]] |} The rank of ''sotamies'' is not actually given to new recruits anymore, although it was used earlier. The lowest rank is given according to specialization; in the infantry the rank is ''jääkäri'' ([[Jäger (military)|Jaeger]]), artillery has ''tykkimies'' (artilleryman), communications has ''viestimies'' (signaller), [[Guard Jaeger Regiment]] has ''kaartinjääkäri'', and so on. Generally file and rank may be referred to as ''sotamiehet''. Obsolete ranks include: ''ylivääpeli/överfältväbel'' (a rank between Chief Warrant Officer and Warrant Officer), ''kornetti'' (Second Lieutenant in the [[cavalry]]), ''ratsumestari'' (a cavalry Captain), ''prikaati&lt;u&gt;n&lt;/u&gt;kenraali'' (old form for ''prikaatikenraali'') and ''lentomestari''. :Semi-obsolete ranks include those of warrant officers (''vääpeli'', ''sotilasmestari''), as since training of full-time employed NCOs ended in 2001, and those who have recently graduated from the NCO academy usually hold the rank of a Second Lieutenant or a Lieutenant. Those who hold the ranks of ''vääpeli'' or ''sotilasmestari'' are soon to be retired or have been promoted to Second Lieutenant or a Lieutenant to do away with the obsolete ranks. 2001 onwards, the [[National Defence College]] train all new commissioned officers . These obsolete ranks are still used for NCOs in the reserve. The highest attainable rank for conscripts at the end of their mandatory service are lance corporal (file and rank), sergeant (NCOs) and second lieutenant/vänrikki (automatic promotion for officer ''&quot;students&quot;'', in practise the most senior NCO conscripts). [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]] is the only person to have held the title of ''Sotamarsalkka/Fältmarskalk'' ([[Field Marshal]]) and later ''Suomen marsalkka/Marskalk av Finland'' ([[Marshal of Finland]]). Note that both ''Sotamarsalkka'' and ''Suomen marsalkka'' were officially not military ranks, but rather honorary titles. In practice ''Sotamarsalkka'' was treated as a rank, and it had a distinctive rank insignia. As ''Suomen marsalkka'' Mannerheim continued to wear the insignia of ''sotamarsalkka''. == History == The autonomous [[Grand Duchy of Finland]] had its of [[Military of the Grand Duchy of Finland|standing army]] and its own system of [[conscription]]. The [[Guard of Finland]] fought alongside the [[Imperial Russia|imperial]] army in several of Russias wars. [[Russification of Finland|Russification]] efforts after [[1899]] resulted in dodging of the draft and later in the abolishment of conscription. During [[World War I]] Finnish volunteers secretly joined the [[German Empire|Imperial German]] army to receive military traning. These [[Finnish Jäger troops]] arrived in February [[1918]] in the white capital city of [[Vaasa]] and formed the core of the White Army in the [[Finnish Civil War]]. The [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian revolutions]] had caused the creation of [[Red Guards (Finland)|Red]] and [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guard]]s in Finland. On [[January 25]], [[1918]] the [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guard]] were declared to be the official troops of the white government. This marks the formation of the armed forces of the independent Finland. After the [[Finnish Civil War]] the armed forces were organised according to the German system. In February [[1919]] the White Guard separated from the armed forces and became an independent organisation. ===Restrictions on armaments=== The [[Paris Peace Treaty]] after the [[Continuation War]] limited the strength of the Finnish Army to 34,400 men, the Navy to 4,500 men and the maximum displacement of ships in the navy to 10,000 tonnes. The Air Force was limited to 3,000 men and 60 planes. Also certain weapons such as [[guided missile]]s, [[submarine]]s, proximity [[Naval mine|mine]]s, [[torpedo boat]]s, [[bomber]]s with internal bomb racks and any weapons of [[Germany|German]] origin were forbidden. Later &quot;defensive&quot; missiles were allowed. All of the restrictions, except for the ban on [[nuclear weapons]], were unilaterally lifted by president [[Mauno Koivisto]] after the [[breakup of the Soviet Union]]. ==UN peacekeeping operations== Finland has taken part in [[UN peacekeeping]] operations since [[1956]], resulting in total of 43,000 Finnish peacekeepers during that time. In 2003 over a thousand Finnish peacekeepers were involved in UN operations. According to the Finnish law the maximum simultaneous strength of the peacekeeping forces is 2000 soldiers. Since 1996 the [[Pori brigade]] has trained a special jaeger [[battalion]], the Finnish Rapid Deployment Force (FRDF), which can take part in crisis management operations at short notice. Finnish participation in UN peacekeeping operations as o
d the one on the left is said to record the person's bad deeds). === Sawm, fasting === {{main|Sawm}} Observance of the ''sawm'' (fasting), or ''siyam'', involves abstinence from eating, drinking, [[tobacco smoking|smoking]], [[sexual intercourse]], unruly thoughts, and other forms of worldly pleasure. This fasting is ordained in the [[Qur'an]], and is observed by devout Muslims throughout the daylight hours of the 29 or 30 days of the lunar month of [[Ramadan]]. There are some exceptions, for example for children, pregnant women, sick Muslims, laborers, and travelers. The children do not have to fast until puberty, but most start fasting earlier. As well as fasting, Muslims spend more time praying during this period. ''sawm'' is intended to teach patience and self-control, and is seen as a debt owed by the believer to Allah. === Zak&amp;#257;h, the paying of alms === {{main|Zakat}} A major principle of Islam is the belief that all things belong to God and that wealth is only held by human beings in trust. The word zakah means both purification and growth. Each Muslim calculates his or her own zakah individually, and for most purposes this involves the payment each year of two and a half percent of one's capital in excess of one's basic needs. A Muslim may also donate an additional amount as an act of voluntary [[charity]] (''[[sadaqah]]''), in order to achieve additional divine reward. Zakat is calculated on the basis of an amount in excess of what remains, ''after'' the needs of the family have been met. === Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca === {{main|Hajj}} All Muslims that have the financial and physical means to perform hajj are required to do so at least once in their lifetimes. The pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] can only be performed during the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic month]] of [[Dhul Hijja]]. Given only about two million people are allowed by [[Saudi Arabia]] to perform hajj each year and that there are currently over a billion Muslims, it is impossible for every Muslim to complete the hajj even if every Muslim performed it only once in his or her lifetime. ==See also== *[[Hadith]] ==External links== *[http://www.faizani.com/articles/soul.html Islam Way Online - Your Religion and Spirituality Portal] The Five Pillars in the context of Conditional Worship versus Unconditional Worship in Islam *[http://www.toursaudiarabia.com/islam.html Five Pillars of Islam] [[Category:Five Pillars of Islam|*]] [[ar:أركان الإسلام]] [[da:De fem søjler]] [[es:Pilares del Islam]] [[fr:Piliers de l'islam]] [[he:חמשת עמודי האסלאם]] [[it:Cinque pilastri dell'Islam]] [[ja:五行 (イスラム教)]] [[ko:이슬람의 다섯 기둥]] [[ms:Rukun Islam]] [[nl:Vijf zuilen van de islam]] [[pl:Pięć filarów islamu]] [[ru:Пять столпов ислама]] [[sl:Pet stebrov islama]] [[sv:Islams fem pelare]] [[tr:İslam'ın Beş Şartı]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Finance and investment</title> <id>11061</id> <revision> <id>15908844</id> <timestamp>2003-04-11T10:21:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mic</username> <id>6273</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Moving to Finance</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Finance]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Friction</title> <id>11062</id> <revision> <id>42134253</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:19:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.7.12.7</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Coefficient of Friction */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Friction''' is the force that opposes the relative motion or tendency of such motion of two surfaces in contact. It should be understood clearly that friction by itself is not a force. It is a term used to describe the interaction of matter due primarily to Newton's Third Law of Motion. There are only 4 known forces: Strong, Weak, Electro-magnetic and Gravity. ==Equations== The classical approximation of the force of friction known as '''Coulomb friction''' (named after [[Charles-Augustin de Coulomb]]) is expressed as &lt;math&gt;F_f = \mu N&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; is the [[coefficient of friction]], &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is the force [[Normal force|normal]] to the contact surface, and &lt;math&gt;F_f&lt;/math&gt; is the force exerted by friction. This force is exerted in the direction opposite the object's motion. This simple (although incomplete) representation of friction is adequate for the analysis of many physical systems. ==Coefficient of Friction== The '''coefficient of friction''' (also known as the '''frictional coefficient''') is a dimensionless [[scalar]] value which describes the ratio of the [[force]] of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used -- for example, ice on metal has a low coefficient of friction (they slide past each other easily), while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of friction (they do not slide past each other easily). Coefficients of friction need not be less than 1 - under good conditions, a tire on concrete may have a coefficient of friction of 1.7. It is also important to discriminate between sliding (dynamic) friction and static friction. For sliding friction, the force of friction does not vary with the area of contact between the two objects. This means that sliding friction does not depend on the '''size''' of the contact area. When the surfaces are [[adhesive]], Coulomb friction becomes a very poor approximation (for example, [[scotch tape]] resists sliding even when there is no normal force, or a negative normal force). In this case, the frictional force may depend on the area of contact. Some [[drag racing]] tires are adhesive in this way (see, for example, [http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/newton/askasci/1993/physics/PHY2.HTM]). The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction) or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example, a [[curling]] stone sliding along the ice experiences a static force slowing it down. For an example of potential movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward; if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road. The coefficient of friction is an [[empirical]] [[measurement]] -- it has to be measured [[experiment]]ally, and cannot be found through calculations. Rougher surfaces tend to have higher values. Most dry materials in combination give friction coefficient values from 0.3 to 0.6. It is difficult to maintain values outside this range. A value of 0.0 would mean there is no friction at all. Rubber in contact with other surfaces can yield friction coefficients from 1.0 to 2.0. A system with &quot;interlocking teeth&quot; between surfaces may be indistinguishable from friction, if the &quot;teeth&quot; are small, such as the grains on two sheets of sandpaper or even molecular sized &quot;teeth&quot;. ==Types of Friction== ===Static Friction=== Static friction (informally known as [[stiction]]) occurs when the two objects are not moving relative to each other (like a desk on the ground). The ''coefficient of static friction'' is typically denoted as ''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;''. The [[initial force]] to get an object moving is often dominated by static friction. * [[Rolling friction]] occurs moving relative to each other and one &quot;rolls&quot; on the other (like a car's wheels on the ground). This is classified under static friction because the patch of the tire in contact with the ground, at any point while the tire spins, is ''stationary'' relative to the ground. The ''coefficient of rolling friction'' is typically denoted as ''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;''. ===Kinetic Friction=== '''Kinetic (or dynamic) friction''' occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The ''coefficient of kinetic friction'' is typically denoted as ''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;'', and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction. From the mathematical point of view, however, the difference between static and kinematic friction is of minor importance: Let us have a coefficient of friction which depends on the displacement velocity and is such that its value at 0 (the static friction ''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;'' ) is the limit of the kinetic friction ''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;'' for the velocity tending to zero. Then a solution of the contact problem with such Coulomb friction solves also the problem with the original ''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;'' and any static friction greater than that limit. Examples of kinetic friction: * [[Sliding friction]] is when two objects are rubbing against each other. Putting a book flat on a desk and moving it around is an example of sliding friction * [[Fluid friction]] is the friction between a solid object as it moves through a liquid or a gas. The drag of air on an airplane or of water on a swimmer are two examples of fluid friction. When an object is pushed along a surface with coefficient of friction &amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; and a perpendicular (normal) force acting on that object directed towards the surface of magnitude N, then the energy loss of the object is given by: :&lt;math&gt;U = N \mu_k d \,&lt;/math&gt; Where d is the distance travelled by the object whilst in contact with the surface. This equation is identical to [[Energy]] Loss = Force x Distance as the frictional force is a non-conservative force. Note, this equation only applies to kinetic friction, not [[rolling friction]]. Physical deformation is associated with f
ld-style ales fermented in Germany. A long, cold conditioning period yields a cleaner style, free of the esters that one finds in UK ales. *[[Altbier]] *[[Kölsch (beer)|Kölsch]] ===Wheat beer=== [[Wheat beer]] is found mostly in Germany, but examples can also be found in the United States and Belgium. German wheat beers are typically fermented with a yeast that yields [[esters]] with banana- and clovelike flavours. In contrast to most styles, these beers are typically served unfiltered (with the suspended yeast clouding the beverage, thus the German name 'heffe' for yeast). In American microbreweries, wheat beer is usually fermented with a clean yeast and filtered. Often this beer is combined with fruit flavors (e.g. raspberry wheat beers) to create a light, refreshing drink. *Belgian witbier/bière blanche *Weissbier, Hefeweizen and Dunkelweizen ===Specialty ales=== *[[Lambic]] &amp;mdash; a sour ale fermented by wild yeast, sometimes flavored with fruit. *[[Berliner Weisse]] &amp;mdash; a low-strength sour wheat ale originating in [[Berlin]]. *[[Flanders ale]] ([[Saison]], [[Oud bruin|Oud Bruin]], [[Bière de Garde]]) &amp;mdash; a unique farmhouse style sour ale produced primarily in the [[Flanders]] region of Belgium and France. *[[Rauchbier]] &amp;mdash; a style of beer made with smoked malt. While beers called Rauchbier may be ale, the classic examples are technically [[lager|lagers]]. [[Category:Beer]] &lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt; [[da:Ale]] [[de:Ale (Bier)]] [[es:Ale]] [[fr:Ale]] [[nn:Ale]] [[pl:Ale]] [[fi:Ale]] [[sv:Ale (öltyp)]] [[th:เอล (เบียร์)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amateur</title> <id>1049</id> <revision> <id>38085486</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T01:55:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Creidieki</username> <id>68249</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>change wikilink to avoid plural redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|amateur}} The word '''amateur''' has at least two [[connotation]]s. In the first, more widely used manner, it means someone performing some task without pay, in contrast to a &quot;[[professional]]&quot; who would be paid for the same task. In this sense, labeling someone an &quot;amateur&quot; can have a negative connotation. For example, amateur [[athlete]]s in sports such as [[basketball]] or [[Football games|football]] would not be regarded as having ability on par with professional athletes in those [[sport]]s. Where this can be interesting is in the case of the [[Olympic Games]]. Most Olympic events required that the athletes be amateurs, or non-professionals. To receive pay to perform the sport could have disqualified an athlete from an event, as in the case of [[Jim Thorpe]]. Such regulations are now nonexistent for all Olympic sports with the exception of [[boxing]]. Also in the areas of [[computer programming]] and [[open source]], as well as [[astronomy]] and [[ornithology]], many amateurs make very meaningful contributions equivalent to or exceeding those of the professionals. To many, description as an amateur is losing its negative meaning, and actually carries a badge of honor. The other, perhaps somewhat obsolescent usage, stems from the French form of the [[Latin]] root of the word meaning a &quot;lover of&quot;. (''See [[amateurism]]''.) In this sense, retaining its French inflexion (&quot;am-a-tEUR&quot;), an amateur may be as competent as a paid professional, yet is motivated by a love or passion for the activity, like a ''[[connoisseur]]''. In the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th]] centuries ''[[virtuoso]]'' had similar connotations of passionate involvement. Indeed, another thriving example of such work is [[Amateur Dramatics]] - whether [[play]]s or [[musical theater]]. Often performed to high standards (but lacking the budgets of the professional [[West End theatre]]/[[Broadway theatre]]versions) and with an intense passion for the scene. It has been suggested that the crude, all or nothing categories of professional or amateur should be reconsidered. A historical shift is occurring with the rise of [[Pro-Ams]], a new category of people that are pursuing amateur activities to professional standards. == See also == * [[volunteer]] * [[hobby]], particularly for [[Amateur Radio]] (also known as ''ham radio''.) [[category:occupations]] [[da:Amatør]] [[de:Amateur]] [[es:Amateur]] [[fr:Amateur]] [[nl:Amateur]] [[ja:アマチュア]] [[no:Amatør]] [[sv:Amatör]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ambrose Bierce</title> <id>1050</id> <revision> <id>42142615</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:33:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.232.93.170</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrose Gwinnett Bierce''' ([[June 24]], [[1842]]&amp;ndash;[[1914]]?) was an American [[satire|satirist]], [[critic]], [[poet]], [[short story]] [[writer]], [[editor]], and [[journalist]].[[Image:Ambrose_bierce.jpg|thumb|A portrait of Ambrose Bierce, date unknown.]] His clear style and lack of sentimentality have kept him popular when many of his contemporaries have become obscure. His dark, sardonic views and vehemence as a critic, earned him the [[nickname]] &quot;Bitter Bierce&quot;. Such was Bierce's venerable [[reputation]], that it was feared that his judgment on any contemporary fiction of the day could &quot;make or break&quot; a writer's career. ==Early life and military career== Born in a rural area of [[Meigs County]], [[Ohio]], Bierce resided during his adolescence in the town of [[Elkhart, Indiana|Elkhart]], [[Indiana]]. At the outset of the [[American Civil War]], Bierce enlisted in the Ninth Regiment, Indiana Volunteers, as part of the [[Union Army]]. In February [[1862]], he was commissioned as a first lieutenant and served on the staff of Gen. [[William Babcock Hazen]] as a topographical engineer, making maps of likely battlefields. He fought bravely in several of the war's most important battles, at one point receiving newspaper attention for his daring rescue under fire of a gravely wounded comrade at the battle of [[Girard Hill]], [[West Virginia]]. In June, [[1864]], he received a serious head wound at the [[Battle of Kennesaw Mountain]] and spent the rest of the summer on furlough, but returned to active duty in September, and was ultimately discharged from the army in January [[1865]]. His military career, however, resumed when, in the summer of [[1866]], he rejoined Gen. Hazen as part of the latter's [[expedition]] to inspect military outposts across the Western [[plains]]. The expedition proceeded by horseback and wagon from [[Omaha, Nebraska|Omaha]], [[Nebraska]], arriving in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] near the end of the year. ==Journalism== In San Francisco, Bierce resigned from the Army and received the rank of [[brevet (military)|brevet]] Major. He remained there for many years, eventually becoming famous as a contributor and/or editor for a number of local newspapers and periodicals, including ''The San Francisco News Letter'', ''The Argonaut'', and ''The Wasp''. Bierce lived and wrote in [[England]] from [[1872]] to [[1875]]. Returning to the [[United States]], he again took up residence in San Francisco. In [[1879]]&amp;ndash;[[1880]], he went to [[Rockerville]] and [[Deadwood, South Dakota]], in the [[Dakota Territory]], to try his hand as local manager for a [[New York]] [[mining]] company, but when the company failed he returned to San Francisco and resumed his career in [[journalism]]. In [[1887]], he became one of the first regular columnists and editorialists to be employed on [[William Randolph Hearst]]'s newspaper, the ''[[San Francisco Examiner]]'', eventually becoming one of the most prominent and influential among the writers and journalists of the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]]. In December [[1899]], he moved to [[Washington, D.C.]], but continued his association with the [[Hearst newspapers]] until [[1906]]. ===The McKinley accusation=== Because of his penchant for biting social criticism and satire, Bierce's long newspaper career was often steeped in controversy. On several occasions his columns stirred up a storm of hostile reaction which created difficulties for Hearst. One of the most notable of these incidents occurred following the [[assassination]] of President [[William McKinley]] when Hearst's political opponents turned a [[satire|satirical]] [[poetry|poem]] Bierce had written in [[1900]] into a ''[[cause célèbre]]''. Bierce meant his poem, written on the occasion of the assassination of Governor-elect [[William Goebel]] of [[Kentucky]], to express a national mood of dismay and fear, but after McKinley was shot in [[1901]] it seemed to foreshadow the crime: :''The bullet that pierced Goebel's breast'' :''Can not be found in all the West;'' :''Good reason, it is speeding here'' :''To stretch McKinley on his bier.'' Hearst was (presumably) falsely accused by rival newspapers&amp;mdash;and by then [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Elihu Root]]&amp;mdash;of having called for McKinley's assassination. Despite a national uproar that ended his ambitions for the presidency (and even his membership in the [[Bohemian Club]]), Hearst neither revealed Bierce as the author of the poem, nor fired him. ==Literary works== His short stories are considered among the best of the [[19th century]]. He wrote realistically of the terrible things he had seen in the war in such stories as &quot;[[An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge]]&quot;, &quot;[[Killed at Resaca]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Chickamauga]]&quot;. Bierce was reckoned a master of &quot;pure&quot; [[English language|English]] by his contemporaries, and virtually everything that came from his pen was notable for its judicious wording and economy of style. He wrote skillfully in a variety
List of Gambian companies]] *[[List of German companies]] *[[List of Ghanaian companies]] *[[List of Global companies]] *[[List of Grand Cayman Islands companies]] *[[List of Greek companies]] *[[List of Guatemalan companies]] *[[List of Guinea-Bissau companies]] *[[List of Guinean companies]] *[[List of Guyanese companies]] ==H== *[[List of Haitian companies]] *[[List of Honduran companies]] *[[List of Hungarian companies]] ==I== *[[List of Icelandic companies]] *[[List of Indian companies]] *[[List of Indonesian companies]] *[[List of Iranian companies]] *[[List of Iraqi companies]] *[[List of Irish companies]] *[[List of Israeli companies]] *[[List of Italian companies]] *[[List of Ivorean companies]] ==J== *[[List of Japanese companies]] *[[List of Jamaican companies]] *[[List of Jordanian companies]] ==K== *[[List of Kazakhstani companies]] *[[List of Kenyan companies]] *[[List of Kuwaiti companies]] ==L== *[[List of Laotian companies]] *[[List of Latvian companies]] *[[List of Lebanese companies]] *[[List of Lesothan companies]] *[[List of Liberian companies]] *[[List of Libyan companies]] *[[List of Lichtensteinian companies]] *[[List of Lithuanian companies]] *[[List of Luxembourgian companies]] ==M== *[[List of Malawian companies]] *[[List of Malaysian companies]] *[[List of Malian companies]] *[[List of Maltese companies]] *[[List of Mauritanian companies]] *[[List of Mauritian companies]] *[[List of Moldavian companies]] *[[List of Monacan companies]] *[[List of Mongolian companies]] *[[List of Moroccan companies]] *[[List of Mozambican companies]] *[[List of Mexican companies]] *[[List of Myanmar companies]] ==N== *[[List of Namibian companies]] *[[List of Nauruan companies]] *[[List of Nepali companies]] *[[List of New Guinean companies]] *[[List of New Zealand companies]] *[[List of Nicaraguan companies]] *[[List of Nigerian companies]] *[[List of North Korean companies]] *[[List of Norwegian companies]] ==O== *[[List of Omani companies]] ==P== *[[List of Pakistani companies]] *[[List of Palestinian companies]] *[[List of Panamanian companies]] *[[List of Paraguayan companies]] *[[List of Peruvian companies]] *[[List of Philippine companies]] *[[List of Polish companies]] *[[List of Portuguese companies]] *[[List of Puerto Rican companies]] ==Q== *[[List of Qatari companies]] ==R== *[[List of Romanian companies]] *[[List of Russian companies]] *[[List of Rwandan companies]] ==S== *[[List of Saint Lucian companies]] *[[List of Salvadorean companies]] *[[List of Saudi Arabian companies]] *[[List of Senegalese companies]] *[[List of Serbian companies]] *[[List of Sierra Leonean companies]] *[[List of Sikkim companies]] *[[List of Singapore companies]] *[[List of Slovakian companies]] *[[List of Slovenian companies]] *[[List of Somali companies]] *[[List of South African companies]] *[[List of South Korean companies]] *[[List of Spanish companies]] *[[List of Sri Lankan companies]] *[[List of Sudanese companies]] *[[List of Swazi companies]] *[[List of Swedish companies]] *[[List of Swiss companies]] *[[List of Syrian companies]] ==T== *[[List of Tajikistani companies]] *[[List of Tanzanian companies]] *[[List of Thai companies]] *[[List of Togolese companies]] *[[List of Tunisian companies]] *[[List of Turkish companies]] ==U== *[[List of Ugandan companies]] *[[List of Ukrainian companies]] *[[List of Uruguayan companies]] *[[List of UAE companies]] *[[List of United States companies]] *[[List of United States companies by state]] *[[List of Uzbekistani companies]] ==V== *[[List of Venezuelan companies]] *[[List of Vietnamese companies]] ==Y== *[[List of Yemeni companies]] ==Z== *[[List of Zambian companies]] *[[List of Zimbabwean companies]] = By industry = *[[List of advertisement agencies]] *[[List of aerial lift manufacturers]] *[[List of aircraft engine manufacturers]] *[[List of aircraft manufacturers]] *[[List of airlines]] *[[List of automobile manufacturers]] *[[List of banks]] *[[List of board game publishers]] *[[List of brewers]] *[[List of bus companies]] *[[List of cable companies]] *[[List of computer and video game companies]] *[[List of consulting firms]] *[[List of US defense contractors]] *[[List of donut shops]] *[[List of economics consultancies and think tanks]] *[[List of electronic stores]] *[[List of famous department stores]] *[[List of fast-food restaurant chains]] *[[List of food manufacturers]] *[[List of furniture stores]] *[[List of gas stations|List of gas stations (and oil companies)]] *[[List of health care companies]] *[[List of ice cream parlors]] *[[List of karting manufacturers]] *[[List of law firms]] *[[List of packaging companies]] *[[List of pharmaceutical companies]] *[[Lists of public utilities]] **[[List of United States electric companies]] **[[List of United States natural gas companies]] **[[List of United States telephone companies]] **[[List of United States water companies]] *[[List of railway companies]] *[[List of record labels]] *[[List of research companies]] *[[List of restaurant chains]] *[[List of ship companies]] *[[List of software companies]] *[[List of spring water companies]] *[[List of supermarkets]] *[[List of video screen manufacturing companies]] *[[List of web design companies]] *[[List of companies that switched industries]] = By performance = *[[List of companies by revenue]] = Uncategorized = *[[List of companies that have a mascot]] = Related lists = *[[List of missing company articles]] *[[List of organizations]] *[[List of Caribbean companies]] *[[List of European companies]] *[[List of companies named after people]] *[[List of company name etymologies]] *[[List of company registers]] *[[List of commercial pairs]] *[[List of employee-owned companies]] *[[List of enlisted companies]] * [[List of franchises]] *[[Lists of corporate assets]] *[[List of companies listed on the Athens Stock Exchange]] *[[List of companies listed on Bovespa]] *[[List of companies listed on the London Stock Exchange]] *[[Companies listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange]] *[[List of companies listed on NASDAQ]] *[[List of companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange]] *[[List of top United States patent recipients]] *[[List of countries]] =Projects concentrating on gathering company information= *Consumerium - [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], [[Mediawiki]] *CorpKnowPedia - [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], [[Mediawiki]] *[[Stockepedia]] - [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], [[Mediawiki]] *[[Wikicompany]] - [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], [[Mediawiki]] *[[Yellowikis]], open business listings &lt;!-- If you have an interest in the Economics and Business section of Wikipedia, drop by at [[Wikipedia:The Business and Economics Forum|The Business and Economics Forum]]. --&gt; [[el:Κατάλογος εταιρειών]] [[fr:Liste des entreprises]] [[id:Daftar perusahaan]] [[nl:Lijsten van ondernemingen]] [[pt:Listas de empresas]] [[sv:Lista över företag]] [[zh:&amp;#20844;&amp;#21496;&amp;#21015;&amp;#34920;]] [[Category:Lists of companies|*]] [[Category:Structured lists]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of comedians</title> <id>6041</id> <revision> <id>41541444</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:12:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.53.212.40</ip> </contributor> <comment>Removed vanity</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A [[comedian]] is one who entertains through [[comedy]], such as jokes and other forms of [[humour]]. ==Comedians (English language)== === A === * [[Bud Abbott]] (1895-1974) * [[Roger Abbott]] (1946-) * [[Russ Abbott]] (1947-) * [[Chris Addison]] (19??-) * [[Joe Alaskey]] (1949-) * [[Carlos Alazraqui]] (1962-) * [[Jack Albertson]] (1907-1981) * [[Jason Alexander]] (1959-) * [[Dave Allen (comedian)|Dave Allen]] (1936-2005) * [[Gracie Allen]] (1902?-1964) * [[Steve Allen]] (1921-2000) * [[Tim Allen]] (1953-) * [[Woody Allen]] (1935-) * [[Eddie Anderson]] (1905-1977) * [[Louie Anderson]] (1953-) * [[Tom Arnold (actor)|Tom Arnold]] (1959-) * [[Gregg Asch]] (1962-) * [[Arthur Askey]] (1900-1982) * [[Rowan Atkinson]] (1955-) * [[Dave Attell]] (1965-) * [[Roy Atwell]] (1878-1962) * [[Dan Aykroyd]] (1952-) * [[damali ayo]] (1972- living) * [[Richard Ayoade]] (19??-) * [[Hank Azaria]] (1964-) * [[Craig Anton]] (1965-) === B === * [[Georgia Backus]] (1900-1983) * [[David Baddiel]] (1964-) * [[Bill Bailey]] (1964-) * [[Nick Bakay]] (1964-) * [[Lucille Ball]] (1911-1989) * [[Jorn 'Google Hat' Barger]] (1953-) * [[Arj Barker]] (1974-) * [[Ronnie Barker]] (1929-2005) * [[Sacha Baron Cohen]] as [[Ali G]] (1971-) * [[Drew Barr]] (19??-) * [[Carl Barron]] (19??-) * [[Roseanne Barr]] (1952-) * [[Chris Barrie]] (1960-) * [[Dave Barry]] (1947-) * [[Todd Barry]] (1964-) * [[Alfie Bass]] (1921-1987) * [[Norman Beaton]] (1934-1994) * [[James Belushi]] (1954-) * [[John Belushi]] (1949-82) * [[Mitch Benn]] (19??-) * [[Jack Benny]] (1894-1974) * [[Michael Bentine]] (1922-96) * [[Milton Berle]] (1908-2002) * [[Sandra Bernhard]] (1955-) * [[Des Bishop]] (19??-) * [[Jack Black (actor)|Jack Black]] (1969-) * [[Lewis Black]] (1948-) * [[Ben Blue]] (1901-1975) * [[Ray Bolger]] (1904-1987) * [[Fortunio Bonanova]] (1895-1969) * [[Victor Borge]] (1909-2000) * [[Wolfe Bowart]] (19??-) * [[Jo Brand]] (1957-) * [[John Branyan]] (1965-) * [[Rory Bremner]] (1961-) * [[David Brenner]] (1945-) * [[Bernard Bresslaw]] (1934-1993) * [[Jim Breuer]] (1967-) * [[Franny Brice]] (1891-1951) * [[Marcus Brigstocke]] (19??-) * [[Albert Brooks]] (1947-) * [[Mel Brooks]] (1926-) * [[A. Whitney Brown]] (1952-) * [[Arnold Brown (comedian)]] (19??-) * [[Joe E. Brown (comedian)|Joe E. Brown]] (1892-1973) * [[Julie Brown]] (1958-) * [[Lenny Bruce]] (1925-1966) * [[Carol Burnett]] (1933-) * [[Brendon Burns]] (19??-) * [[George Burns]] (1896-1996) * [[Billy Bush]] (1971-) * [[Red Buttons]] (1919-) * [[Ed Byrne]] (197?-) * [[Jason Byrne (comedian)|Jason Byrne]] (197?
not a viperid at all, but rather a member of the cobra family, Elapidae. {| |- ! align=left | Common Name&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;th align=left&gt;Technical Name ! align=left | Geographic Range |- | [[Crossed Viper|European Adder]] or Crossed Viper||''Vipera berus'' |Europe and Asia |- | [[Death Adder]] || ''Acanthophis antarcticus'' | Australia, New Guinea |- | [[Dwarf Sand Adder]] || ''Bitis peringueyi'' | Namibia, Angola |- | [[Horned Adder]] || ''Bitis caudalis'' | South Africa, Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia |- | [[Many-Horned Adder]] || ''Bitis cornuta cornuta'' | Namibia, South Africa |- | [[Namaqua Dwarf Adder]]&amp;nbsp; || ''Bitis schneideri'' | SW South Africa |- | [[Mountain Adder]] || ''Bitis atropos atropos'' | Zimbabwe, South Africa |- | [[Puff Adder]] || ''Bitis arietans arietans'' | Africa, Yemen |- | [[Rhombic Night Adder]] || ''Causus rhombeatus'' | Africa |} ''[[Etymology]]'': The word was ''nædre'' in [[Old English]], which developed into ''nadder'' or ''naddre''; in the 14th century ''a nadder'' was, like ''a napron'', reinterpreted as ''an adder''. It appears with the generic meaning of [[snake|serpent]] in the older forms of many Germanic languages, including [[Old High German]] ''natra'' and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''nadrs''. It is thus used in the Old English version of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Scriptures]] for the devil, the ''serpent'' of [[Genesis]]. The Old English word ''nædre'' is assumed to derive in turn from the [[Old Norse]] word [[eitr]], synonymous with [[snake poison]]. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Vipers]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adirondacks</title> <id>1539</id> <revision> <id>15900007</id> <timestamp>2002-09-13T02:29:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dachshund</username> <id>482</id> </contributor> <comment>-&gt;Adirondack Mountains</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Adirondack Mountains]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aeneas</title> <id>1540</id> <revision> <id>41834762</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:22:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.100.89.65</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Legend */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the Trojan warrior. For the sportsman, see [[Aeneas Williams]].'' [[Image:BarocciAeneas.jpg|thumb|right|350px|''Aeneas flees burning Troy'', [[Federico Barocci]], [[1598]].]] '''Aeneas''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Αινείας, ''Aineías'') was a [[Troy|Trojan]] hero, the son of prince [[Anchises]] and the goddess [[Aphrodite]] ([[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] in Roman sources). He was also the cousin of King [[Priam]] of Troy. The journey of Aeneas from Troy, which led to the founding of the city that would one day become [[Rome]], is recounted in [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]''. He is considered an important figure in [[Greece|Greek]] and [[Rome|Roman]] legend and history. Aeneas is a character in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' and [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]''. == Legend == In the ''Iliad'', Aeneas is the leader of the [[Dardan]]s (allies of the Trojans), and a principal lieutenant of [[Hector]], son of the Trojan king [[Priam]]. In the poem, Aeneas's mother [[Aphrodite]] frequently comes to his aid on the battlefield: he is also a favorite of [[Apollo]]. Even [[Poseidon]], who normally favors the Greeks, comes to Aeneas's rescue when the latter falls under the assault of [[Achilles]], noting that Aeneas, though from a junior branch of the royal family, is destined to become king of the Trojan people. When Troy was [[looting|sacked]] by the Greeks, Aeneas gathered a group, collectively known as the [[Aeneads]], traveled to [[Italy]] and became a progenitor of the [[Roman Kingdom|Romans]]. The Aeneads included his trumpeter [[Misenus]], his father [[Anchises]], his friends [[Achates]], [[Sergestus]] and [[Acmon]], the healer [[Iapyx]], his son [[Ascanius]], and their guide [[Mimas]]. He carried with him the [[Lares]] and [[Penates]], the statues of the household gods of Troy, and transplanted them to [[Italy]]. [[Image:Pierre-Narcisse Guérin 001.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Aeneas tells Dido about the fall of Troy, by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin.]] During his journey, Aeneas and his fleet made landfall at [[Carthage]]. It is at this point that the poem of the ''Aeneid'' begins. Aeneas had a brief affair with the [[Carthaginian]] queen Elissa, also known as [[Dido]], who proposed that the Trojans settle in her land and that she and Aeneas reign jointly over their peoples. However, the messenger god [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] was sent by [[Jupiter]] and Venus to remind Aeneas of his journey and his purpose, thus compelling him to leave secretly and continue on his way. When Dido learned of this, she ordered a funeral pyre to be constructed for herself; and standing on it, she uttered a famous curse that forever would pit Carthage against the Trojans. She then committed suicide by stabbing herself in the chest. When Aeneas later traveled to [[Hades]], he called to her ghost but she neither spoke or acknowledged him. The company stopped on the island of [[Sicily]] during the course of their journey. There Aeneas was welcomed by [[Acestes]], king of the region and son of the river [[Crinisus]] by a [[Dardania]]n woman. When the ship left, [[Achaemenides]], one of [[Odysseus]]' crew who had been left behind, traveled with them. Soon after arriving in Italy, Aeneas made war against the city of [[Falerii]]. [[Latinus]], king of the [[Latin]]s, welcomed Aeneas's army of exiled [[Trojan War|Trojans]] and let them reorganize their life in [[Latium]]. His daughter [[Lavinia]] had been promised to [[Turnus]], king of the [[Rutuli]], but Latinus received a prophecy that Lavinia would be betrothed to one from another land &amp;mdash; namely, Aeneas. Latinus heeded the prophecy, and Turnus consequently declared war on Aeneas at the urging of [[Juno_(mythology)|Juno]], who was aligned with King [[Tarchon]] of [[Etruscan civilization|the Etruscans]] and Queen [[Amata]] of the [[Latins]]. Aeneas' forces prevailed, and Turnus was killed. Aeneas founded the of city [[Lavinium]], named after his wife. He later welcomed Dido's sister, [[Anna Perenna]], who then committed suicide after learning of Lavinia's jealousy. After his death, his mother, [[Aphrodite]] asked [[Zeus]] to make her son immortal. [[Zeus]] agreed and the river god [[Numicius]] cleansed Aeneas of all his mortal parts and [[Aphrodite]] anointed him with Ambrosia and Necar, making him a god. Aeneas was recognized as the god [[Indiges]]. Inspired by the work of [[James Frazer]], some have posited that Aeneas was originally a [[life-death-rebirth]] deity. == Family and legendary descendants == Aeneas had an extensive [[Aeneas's family tree|family tree]]. Aeneas' [[wet-nurse]] was named [[Caieta]]. He was the father of [[Ascanius]] with [[Creusa]], and of [[Silvius]] with Lavinia. [[Ascanius]], the son of Aeneas, also known as [[Iulus]] (or Julius), founded [[Alba Longa]] and was the first in a long series of kings. According to the mythology outlined by Virgil in the ''Aeneid,'' [[Romulus and Remus]] were both descendants of Aeneas through their mother, and thus Aeneas was responsible for founding the Roman people. Some early sources call him their father or grandfather [http://www.4literature.net/Plutarch/Romulus/], but, considering the commonly accepted dates of the fall of Troy ([[1184 BC]]) and the founding of [[Rome]] ([[753 BC]]), this seems unlikely. The Julian family ([[Gens Julia]]) of Rome, whose most famous member was [[Julius Caesar]], traced their lineage to Aeneas's son Ascanius and, in turn, to the goddess Venus. The legendary [[King of the Britons|kings of Britain]] also trace their family through a grandson of Aeneas, [[Brutus of Britain|Brutus]]. See:[[list of the descendants of Aeneas|list of direct descendants]]. ==Classical sources== {{Commonscat|Aeneas}} * [[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' II, 819-21; V, 217-575; XIII, 455-544; XX, 75-352; * [[Apollodorus]], ''[[Bibliotheke]]'' III, xii, 2; * [[Apollodorus]], ''[[Epitome]]'' III, 32-IV, 2; V, 21; * [[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]];'' * [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' XIV, 581-608; * [[Ovid]], ''[[Heroides]],'' VII. {{Roman myth (mortal)}} [[Category: Trojans]] [[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]] [[Category:Roman mythology]] [[de:Aeneas]] [[et:Aineias]] [[es:Eneas]] [[eo:Eneo]] [[fr:Énée]] [[ko:아이네아스]] [[it:Enea]] [[he:איניאס]] [[la:Aeneas]] [[lt:Enėjas]] [[li:Aeneas]] [[nl:Aeneas]] [[ja:アイネイアス]] [[pl:Eneasz (mitologia)]] [[pt:Enéas]] [[ru:Эней]] [[fi:Aineias]] [[sv:Aeneas]] [[tl:Aineías]] [[zh:亞尼斯]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>April 13</title> <id>1541</id> <revision> <id>41867404</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:14:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rklawton</username> <id>754622</id> </contributor> <comment>formatting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt; {| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=13}} |} '''13&amp;nbsp;April''' is the 103rd [[day]] of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (104th in [[leap year]]s). There are 262 days remaining. It is also the [[Ides]] of [[April]]. ==Events== *[[1055]] - [[Pope Victor II|Victor II]] is consecrated [[pope]] *[[1111]] - [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]] is crowned [[Holy Roman Emperor]] *[[1180]] - [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]] issues the [[Gelnhausen Charter]] *[[1204]] - The [[Fourth Crusade]] sacks [[Constantinople]] *[[1598]] - [[Henry IV of France]] issues the [[Edict of Nantes]], allowing [[freedom of religion]] to the [[Huguenot]]s *[[1742]] - The world premiere of George Frideric Handel
]], [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], and [[ESPN]] (ABC and ESPN are both owned by [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]) currently broadcast [[720p]] content. [[NBC]], [[Universal-HD]] (both owned by [[General Electric]]), [[CBS]], [[HBO]]-HD, [[INHD]], [[HDNet]] and [[TNT]] currently broadcast [[1080i]] content. ==Technical details== [[MPEG-2]] is most commonly used as the compression [[codec]] for digital HDTV broadcasts. Although MPEG-2 supports up to [[4:2:2]] YUV chroma subsampling and 10-bit quantization, HD broadcasts use [[4:2:0]] and 8-bit quantization to save bandwidth. Some broadcasters also plan to use [[MPEG-4]]. Some German broadcasters already use MPEG-4 together with DVB-S2 (ProSieben, Sat1 and Three Premiere Channels). Recommended receiver is Humax PR-HD 1000, but others are announced as well as PCI cards. It seems likely that all European HDTV may be MPEG-4 and Ireland, which has not yet started ANY Digital Television, is considering MPEG4 for SD Digital as well as HDTV on Terrestrial broadcasts. HDTV is capable of &quot;[[movie theater|theater]]-quality&quot; audio because it uses the [[Dolby Digital]] (AC-3) format to support &quot;5.1&quot; [[surround sound]]. The pixel aspect ratio of native HD signals is 1.0, or 1 pixel length = 1 pixel width. New HD compression and recording formats such as HDV use rectangular pixels for more efficient compression and to open HDTV acquisition for the consumer market. For more technical details see the articles on [[HDV]], [[ATSC]], [[DVB]], and [[ISDB]], respectively. ==Advantages of HDTV expressed in non-engineering terms== #All commercial HD is digital, so the signal will either deliver a good picture, a picture with large [[pixelation]], a series of frozen pictures, or no picture. You would never get a snowy, washed out, image, or vertical rolling. #Most HD programming and films will be presented in the 16x9 proportioned, semi-[[widescreen]] format (though some films created in even wider ratios will still display &quot;[[letterbox]]&quot; bars on the top and bottom of even 16:9 sets.) Older films and programming that retain their 4:3 ratio display will be presented in a version of letterbox commonly called &quot;[[pillar box (film)|pillar box]]&quot;, displaying bars on the right and left of 16:9 sets (rendering the term &quot;[[Pan and scan|fullscreen]]&quot; a [[misnomer]].) Or, one can usually choose to enlarge the image to fill the screen, however this option will display a distorted, stretched-out picture. #The colors will generally look more realistic, due to the cleaner signal. #The visual information is about 2-5 times more detailed overall. The gaps between scanning lines are smaller or gone. #Two new pre-recorded disc formats will be available in spring 2006. One is called [[HD DVD]], the other is [[Blu-ray]]. Both systems will usually play current DVDs, and attempt to extract a near-HDTV-quality image from them, but they are not compatible with each other. #The increased clarity, and detail make larger screen sizes more comfortable and pleasing to watch. ==Stereoscopic 3D television is far more practical with HD technology== A number of 3D stereoscopic major animation films like ''[[The Polar Express (film)|Polar Express]]'', Disney's ''[[Chicken Little]]'' and 6 more scheduled for 2006 release, are likely to be sold for home display in one or more of the new HD disk systems in 3D. The Discovery HD channel has already provided a small amount of science programing in 3D. Most professionals in 3D technology foresee greater use of stereo visuals and animation as HDTV becomes the norm. == Early systems == === [[SECAM]] 755i=== When Europe resumed TV transmissions after WWII, i.e.&lt;!--extra comma alert--&gt; in the late-1940s and early-1950s, different countries used different resolutions. The UK used [[405-line|405 lines]], most other countries 625 lines (both numbers include the vertical gap, the actual resolution were lower), but France decided in 1948 to go for 819 lines. The French TV system thus became the world's first HDTV system, and, by today's standards, the French system could be called 755i (not all lines could be used for the actual image — some lines were lost during the vertical retrace). The French 819-line (or 755i) HDTV system was introduced in the 1950s. When, in the late-1960s, a second TV channel and color TV were introduced in Europe, the UK dropped its 405-line TV system (completely in 1985) and France dropped its 819-line system, making all European countries agree to use 625 lines (576i) for their TV transmissions. The French &quot;755i&quot; 819-line HDTV system was used in only France, Belgium and Monaco, and in France only for the first French TV channel. It was discontinued in 1986. It was used only for black-and-white TV; color TV in 819-line SECAM never went beyond the experimental stage. It was transmitted only on VHF channels, and a French 819-line TV channel occupied 14 MHz of bandwidth. === MUSE === {{main|Multiple sub-nyquist sampling Encoding}} Japan has the earliest working HDTV system still in use, with design efforts going back to 1979. Japan began broadcasting analog HDTV signals in the early 1990s using an interlaced resolution of 1035 lines (''1035i''). The Japanese [[MUSE]] system, developed by [[NHK]] ''Science and Technical Research Laboratories'' ([[STRL]]) in the 1980s, employed filtering tricks to reduce the original source signal to decrease bandwidth utilization. ==== MUSE in Operation ==== * In the typical setup, three picture elements on a line were actually derived from three separate scans. Moving images were thus blurred in a manner similar to using 16mm movie film for HDTV projection. * Stationary images were transmitted at full resolution. * Whole-camera pans would result in a loss of 50% of horizontal resolution. * Considering the technological limitations of the time, MUSE was a very cleverly-designed analog system. * MUSE had a bit-reduced stereo audio transmission system that was notable in its design as it was not psychoacoustical like Musicam. Though Japan has since switched to a digital HDTV system based on [[Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting|ISDB]], the original MUSE-based BS Satellite channel 9 (NHK BS Hi-vision) is still being broadcast. It broadcasts the same programs as BS-digital channel 103, but will end sometime in 2007. === HD-MAC === {{main|HD-MAC}} The [[European Commission]] established a European standard for uncompressed digital HDTV in a 1986 directive (MAC). However, it never became popular among broadcasters. It was required that all high-powered satellite broadcasters use MAC from that year. Owing to the advance of technology and the launch of middle-powered satellites by [[SES Astra]], broadcasters could avoid MAC, and lower transmission costs. HD-MAC (the high-definition variant of MAC) was left for transcontinental satellite links, however. Another reason for [[HD-MAC]]'s failure is&lt;!--tense alert!--&gt; that it was not realistic to use 36 MHz for a high-definition signal in terrestrial broadcasting ([[standard-definition television|SDTV]] uses 6-, 7- ([[very high-frequency|VHF]]), or 8-MHz ([[ultra-high-frequency|UHF]])). HD-MAC could be used only by cable and satellite providers, where there is a wider bandwidth available. Thus, analog HDTV could not replace conventional SDTV (terrestrial) [[PAL]]/[[SECAM]], making HD-MAC sets unattractive to potential consumers. The HD-MAC standard was abandoned in 1993, and since then all [[European Union|EU]] and [[European Broadcasting Union|EBU]] efforts have focused on the [[DVB]] system (''Digital Video Broadcasting''), which allows both SDTV and HDTV. See also: [http://www.agcom.it/eng/92_38_EEC.htm COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 92/38/EEC] of [[11 May]] [[1992]]. == Contemporary systems == ===Australia=== {{main|High definition television in Australia}} Australia started HD broadcasting in January 2001, but only in August 2003 was HD content mandated. Most cities in Australia that have a population of 40,000 or greater have at least one terrestrial DTV channel available (for example, Albany, [[Western Australia]], has had DTV available for almost a year as of May, 2005). However, most Australian DTV broadcasters are still experimenting with HDTV transmission and DTV delivery. ===Brazil=== Brazilian universities, research and government institutions are discussing the best policies for a digital television system for use in Brazil. A complete testbed is expected for 2006 (see http://sbtvd.cpqd.com.br/ for updates). ===Canada=== In Canada, on [[November 22]] [[2003]], [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] had their first broadcast in HD, in the form of the [[Heritage Classic]] outdoor NHL game between the [[Edmonton Oilers]] and the [[Montreal Canadiens]]. Bell [[ExpressVu]], a Canadian [[satellite]] company, [[Rogers Cable]] and [[Videotron]] provide somewhat more than 21 HDTV channels to their subscribers including [[TSN HD]], SportsNet HD, Discovery HD (Canadian Edition), The Movie Network HD, and several U.S. stations plus some PBS feeds and a couple of pay-TV movie channels. CTV Toronto broadcast in HD along with its western counterpart, BC CTV. They were also the first to broadcast a terrestrial HD digital ATSC signal in Canada. Global joined the crowd in late-2004. Other networks are continuing to announce availability of HD signals. [[CHUM Limited]]'s [[CITY|Citytv]] in [[Toronto]] was the first HDTV broadcaster in Canada, however very few shows are shown in HDTV beyond the well-known ones such as ''CSI'', ''ER'', etc. as of early-2005. CBC officially launched HDTV programming on [[March 5]] [[2005]]. [[Image:Hd-ready.jpg|thumb|right|200px|HD Ready logo]] ===Europe=== {{main|High-definition television in Europe}} Commercial HDTV services began in 2004 with [[Euro1080]], an Belgian MPEG2/DVB-S pay channel. As for 2006, there has been a slow but steady increase
d achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to mounting foreign debt incurred to shore up unprofitable industries. ==Transition to democracy== Hungary's transition to a Western-style democracy was one of the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc. By 1988, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Some of these became reform socialists, while others began movements which were to develop into parties. Young liberals formed the Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz); a core from the so-called Democratic Opposition formed the Association of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), and the national opposition established the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF). Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the 1956 revolution. In 1988, Kádár was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party, and reform communist leader [[Imre Pozsgay]] was admitted to the Politburo. In 1989, the Parliament adopted a &quot;democracy package,&quot; which included trade union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and in October 1989 a radical revision of the constitution, among others. Since then, Hungary has tried to reform its economy and increase its connections with western Europe, hoping to become a member of the [[European Union]] as soon as possible. A Central Committee plenum in February 1989 endorsed in principle the multiparty political system and the characterization of the October 1956 revolution as a &quot;popular uprising,&quot; in the words of Pozsgay, whose reform movement had been gathering strength as Communist Party membership declined dramatically. Kádár's major political rivals then cooperated to move the country gradually to democracy. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991. National unity culminated in [[June]] [[1989]] as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and, symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national round table, comprising representatives of the new parties and some recreated old parties -- such as the Smallholders and Social Democrats -- the Communist Party, and different social groups, met in the late summer of 1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and the transition to a fully free and democratic political system. In October 1989, the communist party convened its last congress and re-established itself as the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP). In a historic session on [[October 16]] - [[October 20]], [[1989]], the Parliament adopted legislation providing for multiparty parliamentary elections and a direct presidential election. The legislation transformed Hungary from a People's Republic into the Republic of Hungary, guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensures separation of powers among the judicial, executive, and legislative branches of government. On the day of the 1956 Revolution, [[October 23]], the Hungarian Republic was officially declared (by the provisional President of the Republic [[Mátyás Szűrös]]), replacing the Hungarian People's Republic. The revised constitution also championed the &quot;values of bourgeois democracy and democratic socialism&quot; and gave equal status to public and private property. == Free Elections and a Democratic Hungary == [[Image:Hu-map.png|right|thumb|Map of Hungary]] The first free parliamentary election, held in May 1990, was a plebiscite of sorts on the communist past. The revitalized and reformed communists performed poorly despite having more than the usual advantages of an &quot;incumbent&quot; party. Populist, center-right, and liberal parties fared best, with the Democratic Forum (MDF) winning 43% of the vote and the Free Democrats (SZDSZ) capturing 24%. Under Prime Minister [[József Antall]], the MDF formed a center-right coalition government with the Independent Smallholders' Party (FKGP) and the Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) to command a 60% majority in the parliament. Parliamentary opposition parties included SZDSZ, the Socialists (MSZP), and the Alliance of Young Democrats (Fidesz). [[Péter Boross]] succeeded as Prime Minister after Antall died in December 1993. The &lt;nowiki&gt;Antall/Boross&lt;/nowiki&gt; coalition governments achieved a reasonably well-functioning parliamentary democracy and laid the foundation for a free-market economy, and the massive worsening of living standards because of the free-market reforms led to a massive loss of support. In May 1994, the socialists came back to win a plurality of votes and 54% of the seats after an election campaign focused largely on economic issues and the substantial decline in living standards since 1990. A heavy turnout of voters swept away the right-of-center coalition but soundly rejected extremists on both right and left. The MSZP, whose politics was as much determined by the socialism of PM [[Gyula Horn]] and a large part of the base, as by the economic focus of its technocrats (educated with a Western orientation in seventies-eighties) and ex-cadre entrepreneur supporters, and its liberal coalition partner SzDSz continued economic reforms and privatization, adopting a painful policy of fiscal austerity (the &quot;Bokros plan&quot;) in 1995. The government pursued a foreign policy of integration with Euro-Atlantic institutions and reconciliation with neighboring countries. But neither an invitation to join NATO nor improving economic indicators guaranteed the governing parties' re-election; dissatisfaction with the pace and style of economic recovery, rising crime, the attempt to re-start the unpopular program of building a dam in the Danube, and cases of government corruption convinced voters to propel center-right parties into power following national elections in May 1998. The Federation of Young Democrats (renamed Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party (MPP) in 1995) captured a plurality of parliamentary seats and forged a coalition with the Smallholders and the Democratic Forum. The new government, headed by 35-year-old Prime Minister [[Viktor Orbán]], promised to stimulate faster growth, curb inflation, and lower taxes. Although the Orbán administration also pledged continuity in foreign policy, and has continued to pursue Euro-Atlantic integration as its first priority, it has been a more vocal advocate of minority rights for ethnic Hungarians abroad than the previous government. In 2002 it was decided that Hungary, together with 9 other countries was to join the [[European Union]] on [[1 January]], [[2004]]. However, the Fidesz lost the next election in April 2002, in which the MSZP and its liberal ally SzDSz 51% won over FIDESZ and its ally MDF 48% in a very fierce fight showing the loss of trust in Fidesz due to professed corruption problems, a style seen as arrogant by parts of the population, and lack of communication between the government and the other parties (and some strategically very bad connections to extreme right-wing parties while electional fights), while also showing the doubt and memories of already mentioned problems with the socialist party's last government. On [[April 12]] [[2003]] Hungary voted for joining the [[European Union]], where 83% of the votes said &quot;Yes&quot; to EU (45% of the population voted). Since the EU already accepted Hungary as a possible member, the 4 leading political parties (MSZP, FIDESZ, SZDSZ and MDF) agreed to establish the required prerequisites and policies and to work together to prepare the country for the accession with the least possible harm to the economy and people while maximising the positive effects on the country. On [[May 1]], [[2004]] Hungary became a member of the EU. ==See also== *[[List of Hungarian rulers]] *[[Heads of state of Hungary]] *[[List of Prime Ministers of Hungary]] *[[Aftermath of World War I]] *[[Timeline of liberal and radical parties in Hungary]] *[[Hungary before the Magyars]] *[[Music history of Hungary]] == External links == *[http://www.badley.info/history/Hungary.country.year.index.html Hungary Chronology World History Database] *[http://www.magyarorszag.hu/angol/orszaginfo/tortenelem/tortenelem History of Hungary] from ''magyarorszag.hu''. *[http://www.hungary.com/corvinus/ The Corvinus Library - History of Hungary] *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/ward_1912.html Cambridge Modern History Atlas] *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/history_shepherd_1911.html Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd] *[http://istvandr.kiszely.hu Istvan Kiszely's Homepage] *[http://historicaltextarchive.com/hungary/shields.html HUNGARIAN Maps and Shields] *[http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&amp;artid=262 Hungarian History] *[http://turulvideo.tk/ Historical movies of the II. World War(Free downloadable)] *[http://www.sibiweb.de/geschi/karten/ Borders in the region between 1000-1995] *[http://www.progenealogists.com/hungary/ Hungarian Genealogical Resources] ===''Encyclopaedia Humana Hungarica'' (1&amp;ndash;5)=== * [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01993/ Emese saga : Hungarian prehistory from the beginnings to King St. Stephen (1038)] * [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01955/ The Vazul-line : Kings of the Árpád dynasty after St. Stephen (1038-1301)] * [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01949/ Knight kings : The Anjou- and Sigismund age in Hungary (1301-1437)] * [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01919/ Pannonian Renaissance : The Hunyadis and the Jagello age (1437-1526)] * [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/ Cross and crescent : The Turkish age in Hungary (1526-1699)] * (The English translations of volumes 6 to 9 are in preparation.) [[Category:History of Europe|Hungary]] [[Category:History of Hungary|*]] {{Link FA|he}} Hi
ven specific responsibilities; if one party did not comply with said agreements, the opposite party was relinquished of all responsibilities detailed in the contract. A key doctrinal difference between Zwingli and other sects of Protestantism was his view on the [[Eucharist]]. Whereas Luther believed that the body and blood of Christ are [[Real Presence|really present]] in the bread and wine of this sacrament (a view often called [[consubstantiation]] by non-Lutherans), Zwingli understood the sacrament to be purely symbolic and [[memorialism|memorial]] in character. Their differences were discussed at the [[Marburg Colloquy]] in 1529. By contrast, the next generation Reformer [[John Calvin]]'s view was that Christ is spiritually but not physically present in the sacrament, but some later [[Calvinist]]s such as [[Charles Hodge]] tend more towards Zwingli's memorialism than Calvin's doctrine. Zwingli was also known for his belief that the Christian sacrament was similar to a military oath or pledge in order to demonstrate an individual's willingness to listen and obey the [[written word of God]]. === Music in the Church === Zwingli was one of the first Protestants to abandon the use of instruments during worship services. In fact, Zwingli was so alarmed by the abuses to which music was put, in his view, that some of his services did not have any music whatsoever. He found instruments to be an offense, quoting the [[ church fathers]] for support. He was attempting to return to a practice followed in most of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches even to this day, but exceeded them in his distaste for music ''per se'', regarding it as a distraction from single attention to the preaching of the word of God. Much of the Reformed movement fell into agreement with the banning of instruments, although none followed the elimination of music. The organ in particular was denounced by leaders of the Reformed churches, as being a prominent example of what they meant by the corruption allowed into worship by the Catholic Church. Zwingli recommended that a better use for an organ would be to sell it and give the money to the poor. This Reformed aversion to musical instruments, first adopted by Zwingli, became at times a sticking point preventing cooperation with the musically rich Lutherans. Non-instrumental singing continues to be a distinctive of some branches of the [[Presbyterian church]], and a few other [[Reformed churches]]. This Presbyterian practice was adopted as being biblical, by some who separated from them following the Campbell branch of the [[Restoration Movement]] known as the [[Church of Christ]], because instruments are not specifically mentioned in the New Testament. The [[Primitive Baptists]] also follow this practice. These Christians believe that the use of instruments is connected with the [[Old Testament]] worship in the [[Temple of Jerusalem]], a form of worship instituted by God but superseded when God raised Christ from the dead, establishing the Church by sending his Holy Spirit, according to their beliefs. ==Zwingli&amp;rsquo;s life== ===Youth=== Zwingli got his early education at [[Weesen, Switzerland|Weesen]] under the guidance of this uncle Bartolomeus, who had moved away from Wildhaus. Before going to the [[University of Vienna]] Zwingli completed his studies in [[Berne, Switzerland|Berne]]. He enrolled in [[Vienna]] in [[1498]], and after having been expelled for a year Zwingli continued his studies there until [[1502]], at which time he transferred to the [[University of Basel]], where he took his B.A. degree [[1504]], and M.Div. in [[1506]]. ===Priesthood=== Just before winning his theological degree Zwingli became [[pastor]] at [[Glarus]], and stayed there for ten years. It was during his stay in Glarus that Zwingli perfected his [[Greek language|Greek]], and also took up the study of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. Apart from studying the languages of the [[Scripture]], he also read [[Erasmus]], which gave his thinking a [[humanities|humanistic]] perspective. The use of Swiss [[mercenary|mercenaries]] was more than common in Europe of the [[16th century]] and this was something that Zwingli opposed, unless commissioned by the [[pope]]. Nevertheless Zwingli took on the job of [[chaplain]] on several occasions, as the youth of his [[parish]] went to Italy as mercenaries. Still, Zwingli's opposition to foreign military service and his growing reputation as a fine preacher and learned scholar led to his election in [[1518]] to priest in the [[Great Minster church]] in Zürich. He had then been a priest in [[Einsiedeln]] for two years. Zwingli's willingness to leave Glarus greatly increased due to stronger pro-French sentiment there, given the fact that Zwingli at this period in his life was strongly on the side of the pope. Zwingli's literary production while still in Glarus made Swiss [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] [[Mattias Schinner]] his friend, and rendered him an annual pension from [[The Vatican|Rome]]. ===Alienation from the Church=== It was not until he was a priest of the Great Minster church that Zwingli publicly started questioning the [[dogma]] of the Catholic Church. He himself claimed to have done so earlier, but this is not corroborated by facts. Zwingli always claimed to be ignorant of what Luther wrote, and that he took part in starting the Reformation in Switzerland independently of Luther. When a preacher of [[indulgence]]s appeared in Zürich in [[1519]], Zwingli opposed him. This was two years after Luther had refuted the practise of indulgence with his [[95 Theses]]. It was only in [[1520]] that Zwingli renounced his papal pension. He then attacked the mercenary system, and convinced Zürich, alone of all the cantons, to refuse the alliance with [[France]] on [[May 5]], [[1521]]. On [[January 11]], [[1522]], all foreign services and pensions were forbidden in Zürich. Owing to Zwingli's success as a politician, which had been boosted by his social efforts during the [[Black Death|plague]] of 1520, his prestige and importance increased. From [[1522]] on he was on track of reforming the church and Christian faith. His first reformatory work, &quot;Vom Erkiesen und Fryheit der Spysen&quot;, was published in the midst of a dispute over the ecclesiastical law of fasting. Zwingli declared the fasting provisions to be mere human commands, not in harmony with the [[Scriptures]], and was by now convinced that the Bible alone, without any reference to the church's [http://www.scripturecatholic.com/oral_tradition.html Sacred Oral Tradition], was the sole source of faith; this he asserted in &quot;Archeteles.&quot; [[image:grossmunster_in_zurich.jpg|left|thumb|220px|[[Grossmünster]] in Zürich: View from rooftop, overlooking church steeple and city. Recent.]] ===Marriage=== When their intimacy passed the bounds of propriety is unknown, but from the spring of 1522 Zwingli and [[Anna Reinhard]] were living together in what was called a &quot;[[clerical marriage]].&quot; Such [[concubine|concubinages]] were not uncommon at the time, as it was assumed that without an extraordinary supply of divine grace it was not possible for a priest to live in absolute purity; and in fact, very few did. Zwingli eventually married Anna, on [[April 2]], [[1524]]. Between 1526 and 1530 the couple had four children. ===The Reformation in Zürich=== After three years of preaching, Zwingli prepared 67 articles (''&quot;Schlussreden&quot;''), intended for a more popular audience than [[95 theses|Luther's]] and covering all the points of the &quot;Gospel,&quot; as he called it. In accordance with the religious policy of the Swiss at that time, there had to be a public debate before radical measures were taken in religious matters. A meeting was called in Zürich [[January 29]], [[1523]], presided over by the [[mayor]]. All the clergy were invited. There was no real debate, only a dialogue between Zwingli and the [[Catholic clergy|vicar-general]] of [[Constance]]. The decision of the [[city council|magistracy]] was that the doctrines Zwingli had preached should be enforced in the [[Canton of Zürich]]. Zwingli's radical followers made the most of the situation. They removed the images and pictures out of the churches, made changes in the [[Liturgy|liturgic]] language of the religious services, and stripped the mass of all its incrustations, as far as possible bringing it back to basics. By the end of [[1524]] the convents for both men and women had been abolished, and music had been silenced in the churches. The mass stood more or less unaltered, since Zwingli hesitated in changing something so wrapped up with the life of the people, before the people were fully prepared to accept a substitute. Zwingli's translation of the bible, the [[Froschauer Bibel]], was printed between 1524 and 1531. At last it was decreed that on Thursday of Holy Week, [[April 13]], [[1525]], in the Great Minster the &quot;[[Eucharist|Lord's Supper]]&quot; would be for the first time observed according to the liturgy Zwingli had composed. On that eventful day men and women sat on opposite sides of the table which extended down the middle aisle, and were served with bread on wooden platters and wine out of wooden beakers. The contrast to the former custom was shocking to many, yet the new way was accepted. With this radical break with the past the Reformation in Zürich was completed. In the same year, Zwingli was called by the honorary title [[Antistes]]. ===The political phase=== The new doctrines were not introduced without opposition. The first opponents of the Reformers were from the ranks of their own party. The peasants could find no reason in the Bible, the sole principle of faith, why they should contribute to their lords' [[tax]]es, [[tithes]], and rent, and they refused to do so. Civil unrest spread everywhere, and was only quelled after long negotiations and some concessions by the Government. The [
hen common in various parts of the United States, or addressed groups of hearers as they invited him. These &quot;conversations&quot; as he called them, were more or less informal talks on a great range of topics, spiritual, aesthetic and practical, in which he emphasized the ideas of the school of American [[Transcendentalist]]s led by Emerson, who was always his supporter and discreet admirer. He dwelt upon the illumination of the mind and soul by direct communion with the Creative Spirit; upon the spiritual and poetic monitions of external nature; and upon the benefit to man of a serene mood and a simple way of life. Alcott's philosophical teaching was, and is still, often thought inconsistent, hazy or abrupt. But though he formulated no system of [[philosophy]], and seemed to show the influence now of [[Plato]], now of [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], or of German thought as filtered through the brain of [[Coleridge]], he was, like Emerson, steadily optimistic, idealistic, and individualistic. The teachings of Dr. [[William Ellery Channing]] a little before had laid the groundwork for the work of most of the Concord Transcendentalists and contributors to ''The Dial'', of whom Alcott was one. In his last years, his daughter, the writer [[Louisa May Alcott]], provided for him. Alcott was gratified at being able to become the nominal, and at times the actual, head of a Concord &quot;Summer School of Philosophy and Literature&quot;, which had its first session in 1879, and in which, in a building next to his house, listeners were addressed during a part of several successive summers on many themes in philosophy, religion and letters. Alcott's published books, all from late in his life, included ''Tablets'' (1868), ''Concord Days'' (1872), and ''Sonnets and Canzonets'' (1882). Earlier he had written a series of ''[[Orpheus|Orphic]] Sayings'' which were published in ''The Dial'' as examples of Transcendentalist thought. The sayings, though called [[oracle|oracular]], were considered sloppy, or vague by contemporary commentators as well as [[twentieth-century]] ones. He left a large collection of personal jottings and memorabilia, most of which remain unpublished. He died in Boston on [[4 March]] [[1888]]. ==References== * Alcott, Amos Bronson. ''Conversations with Children on the Gospels''. * [[Geraldine Brooks]]. &quot;Orpheus at the Plough.&quot; ''[[The New Yorker]]'', [[January 10]], [[2005]], pp. 58-65. ([http://geraldinebrooks.com/march_alcott.shtml The New Yorker article ] is reproduced on author's website) {{1911}} [[Category:1799 births|Alcott, Amos Bronson]] [[Category:1888 deaths|Alcott, Amos Bronson]] [[Category:Alternative education|Alcott, Amos Bronson]] [[Category:Tax resisters|Alcott, Amos Bronson]] [[Category:Teachers|Alcott, Amos Bronson]] [[Category:Transcendentalism|Alcott, Amos Bronson]] [[de:Amos Bronson Alcott]] [[es:Amos Bronson Alcott]] [[gl:Amos Bronson Alcott]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albatross</title> <id>1385</id> <revision> <id>41890958</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:50:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sabine's Sunbird</username> <id>123079</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>references</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the bird family. For other uses, see [[Albatross (disambiguation)]].'' {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Albatross | image = Short tailed albatross.jpeg | image_width = 230px | image_caption = Short-tailed Albatross | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Bird|Aves]] | ordo = [[Procellariiformes]] | familia = '''Diomedeidae''' | familia_authority = [[George Robert Gray|G.R. Gray]], 1840 | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = ''[[Diomedea]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Thalassarche]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Phoebastria]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Phoebetria]]'' }} The '''albatrosses''' are [[seabird]]s in the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Diomedeidae''', which is closely allied to the [[procellariidae|procellarid]]s, [[storm-petrel]]s and [[diving-petrel]]s in the order [[Procellariiformes]] (the tubenoses). They range widely in the [[Southern Ocean]] and the North [[Pacific]]. They are absent from the North [[Atlantic]] although [[fossil]] remains show they once occurred there too. Albatrosses are amongst the largest of [[bird flight|flying]] birds, and the great albatrosses from the [[genus]] ''Diomedea'' have the largest wingspans of any extant birds. Albatrosses are highly efficient in the air, using [[dynamic soaring]] and slope soaring to cover great distances with little exertion. They feed on [[squid]], [[fish]] and [[krill]] by either scavenging, surface seizing or diving. Albatrosses are [[seabird colony|colonial]], nesting for the most part on remote oceanic islands, often with several species nesting together. Breeding pairs form over several years and will remain together for life. A breeding season can take over a year from laying to [[fledge|fledging]], with a single [[egg (biology)|egg]] laid in each breeding season. Nineteen of the 21 species of albatrosses are threatened with [[extinction]]. Numbers of albatrosses have declined in the past due to harvesting for [[feather]]s, but today the albatrosses are threatened by [[introduced species]] such as [[rat]]s and [[feral cat]]s that attack eggs, chicks and nesting adults; by [[pollution]]; and by [[long-line fishing]]. Long-line fisheries pose the greatest threat, as feeding birds are attracted to the [[bait]] and become hooked on the lines and drown. Governments, conservation organisations and fishermen are all working towards reducing this by-catch. ==Albatross biology== ===Taxonomy and evolution=== The albatrosses comprise 21 [[species]] in 4 [[genus|genera]]. The four genera are the [[great albatross]]es (''Diomedea''), the [[mollymawk]]s (''Thalassarche''), the [[North Pacific albatross]]es (''Phoebastria''), and the [[sooty albatross]]es or sooties (''Phoebetria''). Of the four genera, the North Pacific albatrosses are considered to be a sister taxon to the great albatrosses, while the sooty albatrosses are considered closer to the mollymawks. The [[taxonomy]] of the albatross group has been a source of a great deal of debate. The [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]] places seabirds, [[bird of prey|birds of prey]] and many others in a greatly enlarged order [[Ciconiiformes]], whereas the ornithological organisations in North America, Europe, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand retain the more traditional order [[Procellariiformes]]. Within the family, the assignment of genera has been debated for over a hundred years. Originally placed into a single genus, ''Diomedea'', they were split into four different genera in 1852, then lumped back together and split again several times, acquiring 12 different genus names in total (though never more than 8 at one time) by 1965 (''Diomedea'', ''Phoebastria'', ''Thalassarche'', ''Phoebetria'', ''Thalassageron'', ''Diomedella'', ''Nealbutrus'', ''Rhothonia'', ''Julietata'', ''Galapagornis'', ''Laysanornis'', and ''Penthirenia''). By 1965, in an attempt to bring some order back to the classification of albatrosses they were lumped into two genera, ''Phoebetria'' (the 'primitive' sooty albatrosses which most closely seemed to resemble the procellarids) and ''Diomedea'' (the rest)&lt;ref&gt;Alexander, W. B., Fleming C. A., Falla R. A., Kuroda N. H., Jouanin C., Rowan M. K., Murphy R. C., Serventy D. L., Salomonsen F., Ticknell W. L. N., Voous K. H., Warham J., Watson G. E., Winterbottom J. M., and Bourne W. R. P. 1965. &quot;Correspondence: The families and genera of the petrels and their names.&quot; ''Ibis'' '''107''': 401-5.&lt;/ref&gt;. Though there was a case for the simplification of the family (particularly the nomenclature), the classification was pretty much the same as suggested by [[Elliott Coues]] in 1866, paid little attention to more recent studies and even ignored some of Coues's suggestions. More recent research by Gary Nunn of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] ([[1996]]) and other researchers around the world studied the [[mitochondrial DNA]] of all the 14 accepted species, finding that there were four, not two, monophyletic groups within the albatrosses&lt;ref&gt;Nunn, G. B., Cooper, J., Jouventin, P., Robertson, C. J. R. and Robertson G. G. (1996) &quot;Evolutionary relationships among extant albatrosses (Procellariiformes: Diomedeidae) established from complete cytochrome-b gene sequences&quot;. ''Auk'' '''113''': 784-801. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v113n04/p0784-p0801.pdf]&lt;/ref&gt;. They proposed the resurrection of two of the old genus names, ''Phoebastria'' for the North Pacific albatrosses and ''Thalassarche'' for the mollymawks, with the great albatrosses retaining ''Diomedea'' and the sooty albatrosses staying in ''Phoebetria''. Both the [[British Ornithologists' Union]] and the South African authorities split the albatrosses into four genera as Nunn suggested, and the change has been accepted by the majority of researchers as well. While there is some agreement on the number of genera, there is less agreement on the number of species. After his work on albatross genera, Nunn went on to propose 24 different species in 1998&lt;ref&gt;Robertson, C. J. R. and Nunn, G. B. (1998) &quot;Towards a new taxonomy for albatrosses&quot; in: ''Proceedings First International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Albatrosses'', G.Robertson &amp; R.Gales (Eds), Chipping Norton:Surrey Beatty &amp; Sons, 13-19,&lt;/ref&gt;, compared to the 14 then accepted. These changes were not universally accepted; some of his splits have been accepted while others have been rejected&lt;ref&gt;Burg, T.M., &amp; Croxall, J.P., (2004) &quot;Global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex&quot;. ''Molecular Ecology'' '''13''': 2345-2355. [http
el imagery to the death, burial, and resurrection of [[Jesus]]. Recognition of baptisms by other modes and Christian groups vary. Many Baptist churches only recognize baptism by full immersion as being valid, while a few will baptise by sprinkling as a practical alternative for the disabled or elderly or in times of drought. Some Baptist churches will recognize adult baptisms performed in other orthodox Christian churches, while others only recognize baptisms performed in Baptist churches. In rare instances, a church may recognize only its own baptisms as valid. ==== Communion ==== Communion, which is alternately called &quot;The Lord's Supper&quot;, is an ordinance patterned after the [[Last Supper]] recorded in the [[Gospels]] which Jesus says to &quot;do this in remembrance of Me&quot; (Luke 22:19). Participants communally eat the bread and drink the cup that are representative of the body and blood of Jesus. Baptists emphasize that the remembrance is symbolic of Christ's body and reject literal views of communion such as [[transubstantiation]] and [[consubstantiation]] held by other Christian groups based on their interpretation of John 6. 1 Corinthians 11:23-34 is also commonly cited as instructional for the practice of Communion. Many Baptists avoid referring to this ordinance as Communion due to its prominent use by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and instead use the alternate &quot;The Lord's Supper&quot;. The bread used in the service may be cubes of unleavened bread, wafers or small crackers, generally of an unleavened variety which is thought to be the type used at the Last Supper. The general Baptist embracing of the [[Temperance movement]], [[prohibition]], and [[teetotalism]] in the U.S. led to the practice of using non-alcoholic grape juice for the cup, but some Baptists do use wine. The grape juice is typically served in small individual glasses, though some churches use one large cup for the entire congregation. Many church buildings are equipped with round receptacles on the rear of the pews for depositing the empty glasses after the service. Both &quot;elements&quot; of the bread and the cup are usually served by the pastor to the deacons, and by the deacons to the congregation. The general practice is for the elements to be taken by the congregation as a whole as a symbol of unity, first the bread and then the cup separately, although sometimes both elements are taken together. Communion services may be held weekly, monthly, quarterly, or even annually. It usually takes place at the end of a normal service, but may take place at any time during the service. Participation may be either &quot;closed&quot; (only members of that church can participate), &quot;cracked&quot; (members of other Baptist churches may participate, but not of other denominations), or &quot;open&quot; (anyone professing to be a Christian may participate). === Individual soul liberty === The basic concept of individual soul liberty is that, in matters of religion, each person has the liberty to choose what his/her conscience or soul dictates is right, and is responsible to no one but God for the decision that is made. A person may then choose to be a Baptist, a member of another Christian denomination, an adherent to another world religion, or to choose no religious belief system, and neither the church, nor the government, nor family or friends may either make the decision or compel the person to choose otherwise. And, a person may change his/her mind over time. === Separation of church and state === ''Main article: [[Baptists in the history of separation of church and state]]'' Baptists who were imprisoned or died for their beliefs have played an important role in the historical struggle for [[freedom of religion]] and [[separation of church and state]] in [[England]], the [[United States]], and other countries. In [[1612]] [[John Smyth (1570-1612)|John Smyth]] wrote, &quot;the magistrate is not by virtue of his office to meddle with religion, or matters of conscience&quot;. That same year, [[Thomas Helwys]] wrote that the King of England could &quot;command what of man he will, and we are to obey it,&quot; but concerning the church -- &quot;with this Kingdom, our lord the King hath nothing to do.&quot; In [[1614]], [[Leonard Busher]] wrote what is believed to be the earliest Baptist treatise dealing exclusively with the subject of religious liberty. Baptists were influential in the formation of the first civil government based on the separation of church and state in what is now Rhode Island. [[Anabaptists]] and [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] also share a strong history in the development of separation of church and state. The original objection was opposition of the monarchy or government setting religious agenda for churches or a &quot;National Church&quot; and did not imply a retreat by Christians from the political realm or involvement in the political process. Modern debates about church and state separation involve disagreements about the extent to which Christian groups are able to, or should, set the legal and moral agenda for the government, and conversely whether government is preventing Christians and Christian groups from equal access to public forums. Currently in the United States, Baptist involvement in politics often involves controversies concerning [[gambling]], [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], [[abortion]], [[same-sex marriage]], the teaching of [[evolution]] and state-sanctioned public prayer in public [[high school]]s. In parts of the [[Southern United States]] Baptists form a majority of the population and have successfully banned [[dry county|alcohol sales]] and prevented the legalization of certain kinds of gambling. === Two offices (Pastor and Deacon) === Generally Baptists only recognize two Scriptural offices, those of [[pastor]] and [[deacon]]. The office of [[elder (religious)|elder]], common in some [[evangelicalism| evangelical]] churches, is usually considered by Baptists to be the same as that of pastor, and not a separate office. The office of overseer or [[bishop]] is always considered to be the same as that of pastor or [[presbyter]]. The prevalent view among Baptists is that these offices are limited to men only, following the model of [[Christ]] and His [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]]. However, the issue of women pastors/deacons has surfaced as controversy in some churches and denominations. ==== Pastor ==== In the Baptist church, the primary role of pastor is to deliver the weekly sermon. In smaller churches, the pastor will often visit homes and hospitals to call on ill members, as well as homes of prospective members (especially those who have not professed faith). The pastor will also perform weddings and funerals for members, and at business meetings serve as the moderator. The pastor may also be required to find outside work to supplement his income. Larger churches will usually have one or more &quot;associate&quot; pastors, each with a specific area of responsibility, whereby the overall pastor is considered the &quot;senior&quot; pastor. Some examples are: *music (the most common) *youth (in smaller churches, often combined with music) *children *administration (in the larger churches) In the majority of instances, the pastor will be married with children (associate pastors may or may not be married, but if not married will find it difficult to be considered for a senior pastor position by other churches). Some Baptists, especially [[Reformed Baptist]]s, believe in a plurality of elders. In that case usually only full-time paid elders will be called Pastor, while part-time volunteer pastors are more often called Elder, but these are regarded as the same office. ==== Deacon ==== The main role of the deacon is to assist the pastor with members' needs. Deacons also assist during communion. However, in many more modern Baptist churches, deacons have become administrators of the church, i.e. the governing body. In many churches, the pastor takes on the role of spiritual leadership, while a deacon serves as moderator of board meetings. A common practice is for each family to be assigned a specific deacon, to be the primary point of contact whenever a need arises. Some larger megachurches, especially those using cell groups, use the cell group leader(s) to function in the role of deacon(s). Deacons are usually chosen from members who have demonstrated exceptional Christian piety, and serve without pay. == Justification by faith == Justification by faith or [[sola fide]] states that it is by faith alone that Christians receive salvation and not through any works of their own. Baptists have a strong emphasis on the concept of [[salvation]]. [[Baptist]] theology teaches that humans have been contaminated by the sin of Adam and Eve's rebellion against God and that for this sin they are condemned to damnation. The theology holds that [[Christ]] died on the cross to give humans the promise of everlasting life, but that this requires that each individual willfully accepts Christ into his life and repents of sin. Nevertheless, the [[Baptist]] view of [[soteriology]] runs the gamut from [[Calvinism]] to [[Arminianism]]. == Beliefs that vary among Baptists == Because of the congregational style of church governance on doctrine, doctrine on the following issues often varies greatly between one Baptist church and another. * [[doctrine of separation]] * [[Calvinism]]/[[Arminianism]] * the nature of Law and [[Gospel]] * the ordination of women * [[Homosexuality and Christianity|homosexuality]] * [[Separation of church and state]] * the extent to which non-members may participate in communion services * the extent to which [[Mission (Christian)|missionary]] boards should be used to support missionaries * [[Eschatology]] Baptists generally believe in the literal [[Second Coming]] of Christ at which time God will sit in judgment and div
C+ATT ! - ! - ! - | ''[[Trust (album)|Trust]]'' |- | 1981 | &quot;A Good Year For The Roses&quot; | EC+ATT ! #6 ! - ! - | ''[[Almost Blue]]'' |- | 1981 | &quot;Sweet Dreams&quot; | EC+ATT ! #42 ! - ! - | ''[[Almost Blue]]'' |- | 1982 | &quot;I'm Your Toy&quot; | EC+ATT+RSO ! #51 ! - ! - | ''[[Almost Blue]] reissue'' |- | 1982 | &quot;You Little Fool&quot; | EC+ATT ! #52 ! - ! - | ''[[Imperial Bedroom]]'' |- | 1982 | &quot;Man Out Of Time&quot; | EC+ATT ! #58 ! - ! - | ''[[Imperial Bedroom]]'' |- | 1982 | &quot;From Head To Toe&quot; | EC+ATT ! #43 ! - ! - | ''[[Imperial Bedroom]] reissue'' |- | 1982 | &quot;Party Party&quot; | EC+ATT ! #48 ! - ! - | ''Party Party soundtrack'' |- | 1983 | &quot;Pills and Soap&quot; | IMP ! #16 ! - ! - | ''[[Punch the Clock]]'' |- | 1983 | &quot;Everyday I Write the Book&quot; | EC+ATT ! #28 ! #36 ! #33 (MAIN) | ''[[Punch the Clock]]'' |- | 1983 | &quot;Let Them All Talk&quot; | EC+ATT ! #59 ! - ! - | ''[[Punch the Clock]]'' |- | 1984 | &quot;Peace In Our Time&quot; | IMP ! #48 ! - ! - | ''[[Goodbye Cruel World]]'' |- | 1984 | &quot;I Wanna Be Loved&quot; / &quot;Turning The Town Red&quot; | EC+ATT ! #25 ! - ! - | ''[[Goodbye Cruel World]]'' |- | 1984 | &quot;The Only Flame In Town&quot; | EC+ATT ! #71 ! #56 ! #44 (MAIN) | ''[[Goodbye Cruel World]]'' |- | 1985 | &quot;Green Shirt&quot; | EC+ATT ! #68 ! - ! - | ''[[Armed Forces]]'' |- | 1985 | &quot;The People's Limousine&quot; | TCB ! - ! - ! - | ''[[King Of America]] reissue'' |- | 1986 | &quot;Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood&quot; | TCS ! #33 ! - ! #38 (MAIN) | ''[[King Of America]]'' |- | 1986 | &quot;Seven Day Weekend&quot; | JC+EC+ATT ! - ! - ! - | ''[[Blood and Chocolate]] reissue'' |- | 1986 | &quot;Lovable&quot; (US release only) | TCS ! - ! - ! - | ''[[King Of America]]'' |- | 1986 | &quot;Tokyo Storm Warning&quot; | EC+ATT ! #73 ! - ! - | ''[[Blood and Chocolate]]'' |- | 1986 | &quot;I Want You&quot; | EC+ATT ! - ! - ! - | ''[[Blood and Chocolate]]'' |- | 1987 | &quot;Blue Chair&quot; | EC ! - ! - ! - | ''[[Blood and Chocolate]] reissue'' |- | 1987 | &quot;A Town Called Big Nothing&quot; | TMG ! - ! - ! - | ''[[Blood and Chocolate]] reissue'' |- | 1989 | &quot;Veronica&quot; | EC ! #31 ! #19 ! #1 (MOD) / #10 (MAIN) | ''[[Spike]]'' |- | 1989 | &quot;Baby Plays Around&quot; | EC ! #65 ! - ! - | ''[[Spike]]'' |- | 1989 | &quot;...This Town...&quot; | EC ! - ! - ! #4 (MOD) / #41 (MAIN) | ''[[Spike]]'' |- | 1991 | &quot;The Other Side of Summer&quot; | EC ! #43 ! - ! #1 (MOD) / #40 (MAIN) | ''[[Mighty Like a Rose]]'' |- | 1991 | &quot;So Like Candy&quot; | EC ! - ! - ! - | ''[[Mighty Like a Rose]]'' |- | 1993 | &quot;Jacksons, Monk &amp; Rowe&quot; | EC+BQ ! - ! - ! - | ''[[The Juliet Letters]]'' |- | 1994 | &quot;Sulky Girl&quot; | EC ! #22 ! - ! - | ''Brutal Youth'' |- | 1994 | &quot;13 Steps Lead Down&quot; | EC ! #59 ! #115 ! #6 (MOD) | ''Brutal Youth'' |- | 1994 | &quot;You Tripped At Every Step&quot; | EC+ATT ! #83 ! - ! - | ''Brutal Youth'' |- | 1994 | &quot;London's Brilliant Parade&quot; | EC+ATT ! #48 ! - ! - | ''Brutal Youth'' |- | 1996 | &quot;It's Time&quot; | EC+ATT ! #58 ! - ! - | ''All This Useless Beauty'' |- | 1996 | &quot;Little Atoms&quot; | EC+ATT ! #95 ! - ! - | ''All This Useless Beauty'' |- | 1996 | &quot;The Other End Of The Telescope&quot; | EC+ATT ! #96 ! - ! - | ''All This Useless Beauty'' |- | 1996 | &quot;Distorted Angel&quot; | EC+ATT ! - ! - ! - | ''All This Useless Beauty'' |- | 1996 | &quot;All This Useless Beauty&quot; | EC+ATT ! #96 ! - ! - | ''All This Useless Beauty'' |- | 1996 | &quot;You Bowed Down&quot; (US release only) | EC+ATT ! - ! - ! - | ''All This Useless Beauty'' |- | 1999 | &quot;Toledo&quot; | EC+BB ! #72 ! - ! - | ''Painted From Memory'' |- | 1999 | &quot;She&quot; | EC ! #19 ! - ! - | ''[[Notting Hill (film)|Notting Hill]] soundtrack'' |- | 2002 | &quot;Tear Off Your Own Head (It's A Doll Revolution)&quot; | EC ! #58 ! - ! - | ''When I Was Cruel'' |- | 2002 | &quot;45&quot; | EC ! #92 ! - ! - | ''When I Was Cruel'' |- | 2003 | &quot;Smile&quot; (Japanese release only) | EC ! - ! - ! - | ''Cruel Smile'' |- | 2004 | &quot;Monkey To Man&quot; | EC+IMP ! - ! - ! - | ''The Delivery Man'' |} ==Filmography== *1979 film debut as 'Earl Manchester' in ''[[Americathon]]'' *1984 as 'Henry Scully' in UK TV series ''[[Scully (TV series)|Scully]]'' *1985 as inept magician 'Rosco de Ville' in [[Alan Bleasdale]] film ''[[No Surrender]]'' *1987 as 'Hives the Butler' in [[Alex Cox]] film ''[[Straight to Hell]]'', starring [[Joe Strummer]] and [[Courtney Love]] *1996 as himself in ''[[The Larry Sanders Show]]'' *1997 as himself in ''[[Spice World]]'' *1999 as himself in ''[[Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]]'', performing with [[Burt Bacharach]] *1999 as himself in ''[[200 Cigarettes]]'' *2001 as a public defender and a teacher in ''[[Prison Song]]'', *2001 as himself in the final episode of ''[[3rd Rock from the Sun]]'', *2002 as himself in ''[[How I Spent My Strummer Vacation]]'', an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' *2003 [[Academy_award|Academy Award]] nomination for [[Academy Award for Best Song|best original song]] ''The Scarlet Tide'' in ''[[Cold Mountain]]''. *2003 as 'Ben' in the ''[[Frasier]]'' episode &quot;Farewell, Nervosa&quot; *2003 as guest host on ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]'' *2004 performing the [[Cole Porter]] song &quot;Let's Misbehave&quot; in ''[[De-Lovely]]'' ==Select bibliography== * ''Elvis Costello: A Singing Dictionary (ISBN 0-76-921505-X) - Sheet music, chords, and lyrics for works 1977-1980. ==External links== * [http://www.elviscostello.com/ ElvisCostello.com] *{{allmusicguide | id = B5x61mpb39fco | label = Elvis Costello}} *{{imdb name|id=0004845|name=Elvis Costello}} * [http://musicmoz.org/Bands_and_Artists/C/Costello,_Elvis/ MusicMoz entry] * [http://www.elviscostello.info/ The Elvis Costello Home Page] * [http://www.costellonews.com/ Elvis Costello News Blog] * [http://www.elvis-costello.com/ The Trainspotters' Guide To Elvis Costello] * [http://www.astheygo.com/elviscostello.htm Bright Blue Times: The Music of Elvis Costello] * [http://home.cfl.rr.com/jdha/stuff/ecmcotw/ Elvis Costello Mystery Cover] * [http://www.morethings.com/music/costello/ MoreThings] Elvis Costello Is King! * [http://www.nickpipitone.com Elvis protege] [[Category:1954 births|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:Living people|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:British male singers|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:British rock musicians|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:British songwriters|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:Guitarists|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:Keyboardists|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:Londoners|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:Music from London|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:New Wave groups|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:People known by pseudonyms|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:People of Irish descent in Great Britain|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:Singer-songwriters|Costello, Elvis]] [[Category:Vocalists|Costello, Elvis]] [[de:Elvis Costello]] [[fr:Elvis Costello]] [[nl:Elvis Costello]] [[ja:エルビス・コステロ]] [[no:Elvis Costello]] [[pl:Elvis Costello]] [[pt:Elvis Costello]] [[simple:Elvis Costello]] [[sl:Elvis Costello]] [[sv:Elvis Costello]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Epilepsy</title> <id>10511</id> <revision> <id>42096491</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:26:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ikkyu2</username> <id>382739</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Legal implications */ Removed false text (no hard 6 month legal limit in CA *nor* TX law); removed stigmatizing POV language (victim)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Epilepsy | ICD10 = {{ICD10|G|40||g|40}}-{{ICD10|G|41||g|40}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|345}} | }} {{dablink|[[Epilepsy in animals]] and [[List of people believed to have epilepsy]] cover topics complementary to this article, which deals with epilepsy in the general human population.}} '''Epilepsy''' (often referred to as a '''seizure disorder''') is a [[chronic]] [[neurology|neurological]] condition characterized by recurrent unprovoked [[seizure]]s. The condition is named from the Greek ''epilepsis'' (&quot;to take a firm grip on&quot;). It is commonly controlled with medication, although [[Surgery|surgical]] methods are used as well. ==Diagnosis== The diagnosis of epilepsy requires the presence of recurrent, unprovoked seizures; accordingly, it is usually made based on the [[medical history]]. [[Electroencephalography|EEG]], brain [[MRI]], [[SPECT]], [[Positron emission tomography|PET]], and [[magnetoencephalography]] may be useful to discover an [[etiology]] for the epilepsy, discover the affected brain region, or classify the epileptic syndrome, but these studies are not useful in making the initial diagnosis. [[Long-term video-EEG monitoring]] for epilepsy is the gold standard for diagnosis, but it is not routinely employed owing to its high cost and inconvenience. It is, however, sometimes used to distinguish [[psychogenic non-epileptic seizures]] from epilepsy. Convulsive or other seizure-like activity, non-epileptic in origin, can be observed in many other medical conditions, including: *[[psychogenic non-epileptic seizures]] (often wrongly called &quot;pseudoseizures&quot;) *[[tic]]s *[[syncope]] (fainting) *[[narcolepsy]] *[[cataplexy]] *[[parasomnia]]s *[[breath-holding spells]] of childhood *non-epileptic [[myoclonus]] *[[hypoglycemia]] and associated [[neuroglycopenia]] *[[opsoclonus]] *[[hyperekplexia]] *paroxysmal kinesiogenic dyskinesia *infantile gratification / masturbation (onanism){{ref|infantile}} *repetitive behaviors [[Neurologist]]s are often called upon to distinguish among the above diagnoses and epilepsy. Epilepsies are classified five ways: # By their first cause (or [[etiology]]). # By the observable m
rian calendar]] nor the [[Revised Julian calendar]], with their ecclesiastic [[December 25]] thus falling on the secular date of [[January 7]] from 1900 to 2099. This calendrical difference has led to confusion on the part of those unfamiliar with the older calendar. The Orthodox churches begin preparing for Christmas with a fast that begins 40 days before Christmas and ends with Christmas, dubbed the &quot;Feast of the Nativity of our Lord, God, and Saviour Jesus Christ.&quot; In the U.S. and Canada, some Orthodox dioceses allow the parish priest or parish to decide which of the two calendars (i.e., Gregorian versus old Julian) to follow at the parish level and hence the timing of Christmas Day. Dates for the more secular aspects of the Christmas celebration are similarly varied. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Christmas season]] traditionally runs for twelve days beginning on [[Christmas Day]]. These [[twelve days of Christmas]], a period of feasting and merrymaking, end on [[Twelfth Night (holiday)|Twelfth Night]], the eve of the Feast of the [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]]. This period corresponds with the [[liturgy|liturgical season]] of Christmas. [[Medieval]] laws in [[Sweden]] declared a Christmas peace (''julefrid'') to be twenty days, during which fines for [[robbery]] and [[manslaughter]] were doubled. Swedish children still celebrate a party, throwing out the [[Christmas tree]] (''julgransplundring''), on the 20th day of Christmas ([[January 13]], [[Knut]]'s Day). In practice, the Christmas festive period has grown longer in some countries, including the [[United States]] and the United Kingdom, and now begins many weeks before Christmas, allowing more time for shopping and get-togethers. It often extends beyond Christmas Day up to [[New Year's Day]], this later holiday having its own parties. In the [[Philippines]], radio stations usually start playing Christmas music during what is called the &quot;-ber months&quot; (September, October, etc.); this usually marks the start of the Christmas season. Countries that celebrate Christmas on [[December 25]] recognize the previous day as [[Christmas Eve]], and vary on the naming of [[December 26]]. In the [[Netherlands]], [[Germany]], [[Scandinavia]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Poland]], Christmas Day and the following day are called First and Second Christmas Day. In many [[Europe]]an and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries, [[December 26]] is referred to as [[Boxing Day]], while in [[Finland]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Romania]], [[Austria]] and [[Catalonia]] ([[Spain]]) it is known as [[St. Stephen's Day]]. In [[Canadian French]], the December 26 holiday is generally referred to as ''Lendemain de Noël'' (which literally means &quot;the day after Christmas&quot;). ==Regional customs and celebrations== {{main|Christmas worldwide}} [[Image:wiki_christmas.JPG|thumb|left|Many postal services release [[Postage stamp|stamps]] each year to commemorate Christmas. This one is from [[Austria]] and was produced in 1999]] A plethora of customs with secular, religious, or national aspects surround Christmas, varying from country to country. Most of the familiar traditional practices and symbols of Christmas originated in Germanic countries, including the now omnipresent [[Christmas tree]], the [[Christmas ham]], the [[Yule Log]], [[holly]], [[mistletoe]], and the giving of [[presents]] to friends and relatives. These practices and symbols were adapted or appropriated by Christian [[missionaries]] from the earlier [[Germanic paganism| Germanic pagan]] midwinter holiday of [[Yule]]. This celebration of the [[winter solstice]] was widespread and popular in northern Europe long before the arrival of Christianity, and the word for Christmas in the Scandinavian languages is still today the pagan ''jul'' (=yule). Rather than attempting to suppress every pagan tradition, [[Pope]] [[Gregory I]] allowed Christian missionaries to synthesize them with Christianity, allowing many pagan traditions to become a part of Christmas.{{ref|Note2}} The dynamic relationship between religious and governmental authorities and celebrators of Christmas continued through the years. Places where conservative Christian [[theocracy|theocracies]] flourished, as in [[Oliver Cromwell|Cromwellian England]] and in the early [[New England]] [[Thirteen Colonies|colonies]], were among those where celebrations were suppressed.{{ref|Note3}} After the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], Christmas celebrations were banned in the [[Soviet Union]] for the next seventy-five years. Several Christian denominations, notably the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], some [[Puritan]] groups, and some [[fundamentalist Christian]]s, view Christmas as a pagan holiday not sanctioned by the [[Bible]] and refuse to celebrate or recognize it in any way. Incidentally, this was the practice of the Puritans in 17th and 18th Century England and the American Colonies. Christmas was not widely celebrated in New England until after the middle of the [[19th Century]]. In [[Commonwealth]] countries in the [[southern hemisphere]], Christmas is still celebrated on 25 December, despite this being the height of their summer season. This clashes with the traditional winter iconography, resulting in anachronisms such as a red fur-coated Santa Claus surfing in for a turkey barbecue on [[Australia]]'s [[Bondi Beach]]. [[Japan]] has largely adopted the western Santa Claus for its secular Christmas celebration, but their [[New Year's Day]] is considered the more important holiday. Christmas is also known as ''bada din'' (the big day) in [[Hindi]], and revolves there around Santa Claus and shopping. In [[South Korea]], Christmas is celebrated as an official holiday. ===Religious customs and celebrations=== The religious celebrations begin with [[Advent]], the anticipation of Christ's birth, around the start of December. (In most western churches, Advent starts the 4th Sunday before Christmas Day, and thus can last for 21 to 28 days.) These observations may include Advent carols and Advent calendars, sometimes containing sweets and chocolate for children. Christmas Eve and Christmas Day services may include a [[midnight mass]] or a [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] of the [[Nativity]], and feature [[Christmas carol]]s and hymns. ===Secular customs=== Christmas customs and traditions transmitted through mass culture have been adopted by Christians and non-Christians alike, particularly in North America. [[Image:DSC04820.JPG|thumb|250px|right|A Christmas display in a Brazilian shopping mall]] Since the customs of Christmas celebration largely evolved in [[northern Europe]], many are associated with the [[Northern Hemisphere]] winter, the motifs of which are prominent in Christmas decorations and in [[Santa Claus]] stories. ===Santa Claus and other bringers of gifts=== Gift-giving is a near-universal part of Christmas celebrations. The concept of a mythical figure who brings gifts to children derives from [[Saint Nicholas]], a [[bishop]] of [[Myra]] in [[fourth century]] Lycia, [[Asia Minor]]. He made a pilgrimage to Egypt and Palestine in his youth and soon thereafter became Bishop of Myra. He was imprisoned during the persecution of Diocletian and released after the accession of Constantine. He may have been present at the Council of Nicaea, though there is no record of his attendance. He died on [[December 6]] of 345 or 352. In 1087, Italian merchants stole his deceased body at Myra and brought it to Bari in Italy. His relics are still preserved in the church of San Nicola in Bari. To this day, an oily substance known as Manna di S. Nicola, which is highly valued for its medicinal powers, is said to flow from his relics. (Catholic Encyclopedia - http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11063b.htm) The [[the Netherlands|Dutch]] modeled a gift-giving [[Saint Nicholas]] on the eve of his feast day on [[December 6]]. In [[North America]], other colonists adopted the feast of [[Sinterklaas]] brought by the Dutch into their Christmas holiday, and Sinterklaas became [[Santa Claus]], or ''Saint Nick'', known in some West African and the UK countries as Father Christmas. In the Anglo-American tradition, this jovial fellow arrives on Christmas Eve on a [[sleigh]] pulled by [[reindeer]], and lands on the roofs of houses. He then climbs down the [[chimney]], leaves gifts for the children, and eats the food they leave for him. He spends the rest of the year making toys and keeping lists on the behaviour of the children. One belief in the United Kingdom, United States, and other countries passed down through the generations is the idea of lists of good children and bad children. Throughout the year, Santa adds names of children to either the good or bad list depending on their behaviour. When it gets closer to Christmas time, parents use the belief to encourage children to behave well. Those who are on the bad list and whose behaviour has not improved before Christmas are said to receive a [[booby prize]], such as a piece of coal or a [[Switch (rod)|switch]] with which their parents beat them, rather than presents. The [[French language|French]] equivalent of Santa, [[Père Noël]], evolved along similar lines, eventually adopting the Santa image [[Haddon Sundblom]] painted for a worldwide [[Coca-Cola]] advertising campaign in the 1930s. In some cultures Santa Claus is accompanied by [[Knecht Ruprecht]], or [[Black Peter]]. In some versions, [[elf|elves]] in a toy workshop make the holiday toys, and in some he is married to [[Mrs. Claus]]. Many [[shopping mall]]s in [[North America]], the United Kingdom, and [[Australia]] have a holiday mall Santa Claus whom children can visit to ask for presents. [[Image:Jolly-old-saint-nick.gif|left|framed|A classic image of Saint Nick]] In many countries, children leave empty containers for Santa to fill with small gifts such as toys, candy, or fruit. In the United Kingdom, the United States, and [[Canada]] child
f crystalline ferromagnetic (*&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;ferrimagnetic) materials, along with their Curie temperatures in [[kelvin]]s (K). (Kittel, p. 449.)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/caption&gt; &lt;/table&gt; There are a number of crystalline materials that exhibit ferromagnetism (or ferrimagnetism). The table, at right, lists a representative selection of them here, along with their Curie temperatures, the temperature above which they cease to exhibit spontaneous magnetization (see below). Ferromagnetic metal alloys whose constituents are not themselves ferromagnetic in their pure forms are called [[Heusler alloy]]s, named after [[Fritz Heusler]]. One can also make amorphous (non-crystalline) ferromagnetic metallic alloys by very rapid quenching (cooling) of a liquid alloy. These have the advantage that their properties are nearly isotropic (not aligned along a crystal axis); this results in low coercivity, low [[hysteresis]] loss, high permeability, and high electrical resistivity. A typical such material is a transition metal-metalloid alloy, made from about 80% transition metal (usually Fe, Co, or Ni) and a metalloid component ([[Boron|B]], [[Carbon|C]], [[Silicon|Si]], [[Phosphorus|P]], or [[Aluminium|Al]]) that lowers the melting point. One example of such an amorphous alloy is Fe&lt;sub&gt;80&lt;/sub&gt;B&lt;sub&gt;20&lt;/sub&gt; (Metglas 2605) which has a Curie temperature of 647 K and a room-temperature (300 K) saturation magnetization of 125.7 [[tesla (unit)|milliteslas]] (1257 [[gauss]]), compared with 1043 K and 170.7 mT (1707 gauss) for pure iron from above. The melting point, or more precisely the glass transition temperature, is only 714 K for the alloy versus a melting point of 1811 K for pure iron. ==Physical origin== The property of ferromagnetism is due to the direct influence of two effects from [[quantum mechanics]]: [[spin (physics)|spin]] and the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]. The spin of an [[electron]], combined with its [[planetary orbit|orbital]] [[angular momentum]], results in a magnetic [[dipole]] [[Magnetic moment|moment]] and creates a [[magnetic field]]. (The classical analogue of quantum-mechanical spin is a spinning ball of charge, but the quantum version has distinct differences, such as the fact that it has discrete up/down states that are not described by a [[vector (spatial)|vector]]; similarly for &quot;orbital&quot; motion, whose classical analogue is a [[current (electricity)|current]] loop.) In many materials (specifically, those with a filled [[electron shell]]), however, the total dipole moment of all the electrons is zero (e.g., the spins are in up/down pairs). Only atoms with partially filled shells (e.g., unpaired spins) can experience a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external field. A ferromagnetic material has many such electrons, and if they are aligned they create a measurable macroscopic field. These permanent dipoles (often called simply &quot;spins&quot; even though they also generally include orbital angular momentum) tend to align in parallel to an external magnetic field, an effect called [[paramagnetism]]. (A related but much smaller effect is [[diamagnetism]], due to the orbital motion ''induced'' by an external field, resulting in a dipole moment ''opposite'' to the applied field.) Ferromagnetism involves an additional phenomenon, however: the dipoles tend to ''align spontaneously'', without any applied field. This is a purely quantum-mechanical effect. According to classical [[electromagnetism]], two nearby magnetic dipoles will tend to align in ''opposite'' directions (which would create an [[antiferromagnetism|antiferromagnetic]] material). In a ferromagnet, however, they tend to align in the ''same'' direction because of the Pauli principle: two electrons with the same spin state cannot lie at the same position, and thus feel an effective additional repulsion that lowers their electrostatic energy. This difference in energy is called the ''exchange energy'' and induces nearby electrons to align. At long distances (after many thousands of ions), the exchange energy advantage is overtaken by the classical tendency of dipoles to anti-align. This is why, in an equilibriated (non-magnetized) ferromagnetic material, the dipoles in the whole material are not aligned. Rather, they organize into '''magnetic domains''' that are aligned (magnetized) at short range, but at long range adjacent domains are anti-aligned. The transition between two domains, where the magnetization flips, is called a [[Domain wall]] (e.g., a [[Bloch wall|Bloch]]/[[Néel wall]], depending upon whether the magnetization rotates parallel/perpendicular to the domain interface) and is a gradual transition on the atomic scale (covering a distance of about 300 ions for iron). Thus, an ordinary piece of iron generally has little or no net magnetic moment. However, if it is placed in a strong enough external magnetic field, the domains will re-orient in parallel with that field, and will remain re-oriented when the field is turned off, thus creating a &quot;permanent&quot; magnet. This magnetization as a function of the external field is described by a [[hysteresis]] curve. Although this state of aligned domains is not a minimal-energy configuration, it is extremely stable and has been observed to persist for millions of years in seafloor [[magnetite]] aligned by the Earth's magnetic field (whose [[North Pole#Magnetic North|poles]] can thereby be seen to flip at long intervals). The net magnetization can be destroyed by heating and then cooling (''annealing'') the material without an external field, however. As the temperature increases, thermal oscillation, or entropy, competes with the ferromagnetic tendency for dipoles to align. When the temperature rises beyond a certain point, called the '''Curie temperature''', there is a second-order [[phase transition]] and the system can no longer maintain a spontaneous magnetization, although it still responds paramagnetically to an external field. Below that temperature, there is a spontaneous symmetry breaking and random domains form (in the absence of an external field). The Curie temperature itself is a [[critical point]], where the [[magnetic susceptibility]] is theoretically infinite and, although there is no net magnetization, domain-like spin correlations fluctuate at all lengthscales. The study of ferromagnetic phase transitions, especially via the simplified [[Ising model|Ising]] spin model, had an important impact on the development of statistical physics. There, it was first clearly shown that [[mean field theory]] approaches failed to predict the correct behavior at the critical point (which was found to fall under a ''universality class'' that includes many other systems, such as liquid-gas transitions), and had to be replaced by [[renormalization group]] theory. ==Unusual ferromagnetism== In 2004, it was reported that a certain [[allotropy|allotrope]] of [[carbon]], [[nanofoam]], exhibited ferromagnetism. The effect dissipates after a few hours at room temperature, but lasts longer at cold temperatures. The material is also a [[semiconductor]]. It is thought that other similarly-formed materials, such as [[isoelectronic]] compounds of [[boron nitride|boron and nitrogen]], may also be ferromagnetic. The alloy ZnZr&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is also ferromagnetic below 28.5 K. == See also == * [[Antiferromagnetism]] * [[Diamagnetism]] * [[Ferrimagnetism]] * [[Ferromagnetic interaction]] * [[Paramagnetism]] {{magnetic states}} == References == * Charles Kittel, ''Introduction to Solid State Physics'' (Wiley: New York, 1996). * Neil W. Ashcroft and N. David Mermin, ''Solid State Physics'' (Harcourt: Orlando, 1976). * John David Jackson, ''Classical Electrodynamics'' (Wiley: New York, 1999). * E. P. Wohlfarth, ed., ''Ferromagnetic Materials'' (North-Holland, 1980). * &quot;Nanofoam makes magnetic debut,&quot; ''Physics World'' '''17''' (5), 3 (May 2004). * &quot;Heusler alloy,&quot; ''Encyclopedia Britannica Online'', retrieved Jan. 23, 2005. * F. Heusler, W. Stark, and E. Haupt, ''Verh. der Phys. Ges.'' '''5''', 219 (1903). [[Category:Electric and magnetic fields in matter]] [[ca:Ferromagnetisme]] [[cs:Feromagnetismus]] [[de:Ferromagnetismus]] [[es:Ferromagnetismo]] [[nl:Ferromagnetisme]] [[ja:強磁性]] [[pl:Ferromagnetyzm]] [[sl:Feromagnetizem]] [[sv:Ferromagnetism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ferromagnetic</title> <id>11808</id> <revision> <id>15909529</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ferromagnetism]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Francesco Cossiga</title> <id>11809</id> <revision> <id>41337022</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:04:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>83.55.255.157</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Francesco Cossiga2.jpg|thumb|Francesco Cossiga]] [[Francesco Cossiga]] (born in [[Sassari]] on [[July 26]], [[1928]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] politician and former [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Italian Republic]]. He is also a professor of [[law]] at [[university of Sassari]]. ==Early career== Cossiga started his political career during [[World War II]] in groups of Catholic reference. He has been several times a minister for [[Democrazia Cristiana]] (DC); notably during his stay at [[Viminale]] (Ministry for internal affairs) he re-structured Italian [[police]], civil protection and [[secret services]] organisations. He was in charge during the [[kidnapping]] and murdering of [[Aldo Moro]] by [[Red Brigades]] and resigned when Moro was found dead in [[1978]]. ==Election as President of Italy== Resigning from his post,
non-motile cells embedded in mucilage * ''Filamentous'' - a string of non-motile cells connected together, sometimes branching * ''Parenchymatous'' - cells forming a [[thallus (tissue)|thallus]] with partial differentiation of tissues In three lines even higher levels of organization have been reached, leading to organisms with full tissue differentiation. These are the [[brown alga]]e&amp;mdash;some of which may reach 70 m in length ([[kelp]]s)&amp;mdash;the [[red alga]]e, and the [[green alga]]e. The most complex forms are found among the green algae (see [[Charales]]), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The point where these non-algal plants begin and algae stop is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with protective cell layers, a characteristic not found in the other alga groups. == Algae and symbioses== Some species of algae form [[symbiosis|symbiotic relationships]] with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the alga. Examples include: * ''lichens'' - a fungus is the host, usually with a green alga or a cyanobacterium as its symbiont. Both fungal and algal species found in lichens are capable of living independently, although habitat requirements may be greatly different from those of the lichen pair. * ''corals'' - algae known as [[zooxanthella]]e are symbionts with [[coral]]s. Notable amongst these is the dinoflagellate ''Symbiodinium'', found in many hard corals. The loss of ''Symbiodinium'', or other zooxanthellae, from the host is known as [[coral bleaching]]. * ''sponges'' - == Uses of algae == Algae are used by man in a great many ways. Because many species are aquatic and microscopic, they are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. [[Algae culture]] on a large scale is an important type of [[aquaculture]] in some places. ===Energy source=== *Algae can be used to produce [[biodiesel]] (see [[algae culture#biodiesel production|algae culture]]), and by some estimates can produce vastly superior amounts of oil, compared to terrestrial crops grown for the same purpose. Because algae grown to produce biodiesel does not need to meet the requirements of a food crop, it is much cheaper to produce. Also it does not need fresh water or fertilizer (both of which are quite expensive). *Algae can be grown to produce [[hydrogen]]. In 1939 a German researcher named [[Hans Gaffron]], while working at the University of Chicago, observed that the algae he was studying, [[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]] (a green-algae), would sometimes switch from the production of oxygen to the production of hydrogen.[http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,54456,00.html] Gaffron never discovered the cause for this change and for many years other scientists failed in their attempts at its discovery. In the late 1990's professor [[Anastasios Melis]] a researcher at the University of California at Berkeley discovered that if you deprive the algae of sulfur it will switch from the production of oxygen (normal photosynthesis), to the production of hydrogen. He found that the [[enzyme]] responsible for this reaction is [[hydrogenase]], but that the hydrogenase will not cause this switch in the pressence of oxygen. Melis found that depleting the amount of sulfur available to the algae interrupted its internal oxygen flow, allowing the hydrogenase an environment in which it can react, causing the algae to produce hydrogen. [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/10.04/mustread.html?pg=5] [[Chlamydomonas moeweesi]] is also a good strain for the production of hydrogen. *Algae can be grown to produce [[biomass]], which can be burned to produce heat and electricity. [http://pmb.berkeley.edu/newPMB/faculty/melis/melis.shtml pmb.berkeley.edu] ===Pollution control=== * Algae are used in wastewater treatment facilities, reducing the need for more dangerous chemicals. * Algae can be used to capture [[fertilizers]] in runoff from farms. If this algae is then harvested, it itself can be used as fertilizer. * Algae are used by some powerplants to reduce CO2 [[emissions]][http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2006-01-10-algae-powerplants_x.htm]. The CO2 is pumped into a pond, or some kind of tank, on which the algae feed. ===Nutritional value of algae=== *Algae is commercially cultivated as a nutritional supplement. One of the most popular [[microalgal]] species is [[Spirulina]] (Arthrospira platensis), which is a [[Cyanobacteria]] (known as blue-green algae), and has been hailed by some as a superfood. [http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/algae.htm]Other algal species cultivated for their nutritional value include; [[Chlorella]] (a green algae), and [[Dunaliella]] (Dunaliella salina), which is high in [[beta-carotene]] and is used in vitamin C supplements. *Algae is sometimes also used as a food, as in the Chinese &quot;vegetable&quot; known as ''[[fat choy (vegetable)|fat choy]]'' (which is actually a [[cyanobacterium]]). *The oil from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. [[Arachidonic acid]](a polyunsaturated fatty acid), is very high in [[parietochloris incisa]], (a green algae) where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool (Bigogno C et al. Phytochemistry 2002, 60, 497). [http://www.spirulinasource.com/earthfoodch8a.html www.spirulinasource.com] [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~rdb/opa-g137.html www.cfsan.fda.gov] FDA on algal-oil use in food products The natural [[pigment]]s produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical [[dyes]] and coloring agents. [http://www.bgu.ac.il/bgn/Microalgae.html] Many of the paper products used today are not recyclable because of the chemical inks that they use, paper recyclers have found that inks made from algae are much easier to break down. There is also much interest in the food industry into replacing the coloring agents that are currently used with coloring derived from algal pigments. ==See also== * [[Algae culture]] * [[Brown Algae]] * [[Coccolithophore]] * [[Cyanobacteria]] * [[Diatom]] * [[Golden Algae]] * [[Green Algae]] * [[List of publications in biology#Phycology|Important publications in phycology]] * [[Red Algae]] * [[Yellow-Green Algae]] == External links == *[http://www.phyco.org/phyco/index.php/Main_Page www.phyco.org]; a wiki-based site that is focused on energy production from algae. *[http://forums.biodieselnow.com/forum.asp?FORUM_ID=71 biodieselnow.com] biodiesel production-biodiesel from algae *[http://www.algaebase.org/ www.algaebase.org] *[http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/information_about_plants/botanical_info/australian_freshwater_algae2 Australian freshwater algae] - Sydney Botanic Gardens *[http://www.algae.info/ Learn about Algae &amp; Algal Blooms] - Rural Chemical Industries (Aust.) Pty Ltd. *[http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/ Harmful Algal Blooms - &quot;Red tide&quot;] - National Office for Marine Biotoxins and Harmful Algal Blooms, USA. *[http://www.nmnh.si.edu/botany/projects/algae/Alg-Menu.htm Algae Section, National Museum of Natural History] - Smithsonian Institution *[http://www.plantphysiol.org/ www.plantphysiol.org] *[http://www-cyanosite.bio.purdue.edu/ Cyanosite] [[Category:Algae|Algae]] [[Category:Botany]] [[ar:أشنيات]] [[bg:Водорасли]] [[ca:Alga]] [[da:Alge]] [[de:Alge]] [[et:Vetikad]] [[es:Alga]] [[eo:Algo]] [[fr:Algue]] [[gl:Alga]] [[it:Alga]] [[he:אצות]] [[lt:Dumbliai]] [[lv:Aļģes]] [[mk:Алги]] [[nl:Algen]] [[ja:藻類]] [[no:Alge]] [[nn:Alge]] [[pl:Glony]] [[pt:Alga]] [[ru:Водоросли]] [[sl:Alge]] [[sr:Алге]] [[sv:Alg]] [[ta:பாசிகள்]] [[zh:藻類]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Analysis of variance</title> <id>634</id> <revision> <id>41806464</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:50:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Schwnj</username> <id>108312</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ rm commerical link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[statistics]], '''analysis of variance''' ('''ANOVA''') is a collection of [[statistical model]]s and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed [[variance]] into different parts. The initial techniques of the analysis of variance were pioneered by the [[statistician]] and [[geneticist]] [[Ronald Fisher]] in the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]], and is sometimes known as '''Fisher's ANOVA''' or '''Fisher's analysis of variance'''. ==Overview== There are three conceptual classes of such models: *Fixed-effects model assumes that the data come from [[normal distribution|normal populations]] which differ in their means. *Random-effects models assume that the data describe a hierarchy of different populations whose differences are constrained by the hierarchy. *Mixed models describe situations where both fixed and random effects are present. The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum of squares into components related to the effects in the model used. For example, we show the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different levels. (If the treatment levels are quantitative and the effects are linear, a [[linear regression]] analysis may be appropriate.) : &lt;math&gt;SS_{\hbox{Total}} = SS_{\hbox{Error}} + SS_{\hbox{Treatments}}.&lt;/math&gt; The number of [[degrees of freedom]] (abbreviated ''df'') can be partitioned in a similar way and specifies the [[chi-square distribution]] which describes the associated sums of squares. : &lt;math&gt;df_{\hbox{Total}} = df_{\hbox{Error}} + df_{\hbox{Treatments}}.&lt;/math&gt; == Fixed-effects model == The fixed-effects model of analysis of variance applies to situations in which the experimenter has subjected his experimental material to several treatments, each of which affe
he Smurfs]]'' (1981&amp;ndash;1990) *''[[The Snorks]]'' (1984&amp;ndash;1988) *''[[Speed Racer]]'' *''[[Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends]]'' *''[[Spiral zone]]'' (1987) *''[[Spartakus and the Sun Beneath the Sea]]'' (''Les Mondes engloutis'') (1985) *''[[SuperTed]]'' (1983&amp;ndash;1986) *''[[Super Dave]]'' (1987) *''[[Super Mario Bros. Super Show]]'' (1989) *''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1987 TV series)|Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]'' (1987&amp;ndash;1996) *''[[Thundarr the Barbarian]]'' (1980&amp;ndash;1982) *''[[Thundercats]]'' (1985&amp;ndash;1987) *''[[Tom and Jerry (MGM)|The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show]]'' (1980&amp;ndash;1982) *''[[Transformers series|Transformers]]'' (1984&amp;ndash;1987) *''[[Ulysses 31]]'' (1981) *''[[Visionaries: Knights of the Magical Light]]'' (1987) *''[[Voltron]]'' *''[[Wildfire (animated)]]'' (1986&amp;ndash;1987) *''[[The Wuzzles]]'' (1985) ==[[1990s]]== *''[[101 Dalmatians: The Series]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;1999) *''[[2 Stupid Dogs]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1995) *''[[AAAHH!!! Real Monsters]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1998) *''[[Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog]]'' (1993) *''[[The Adventures of Tintin (TV series)|The Adventures of Tintin]]'' (1990) *''[[Æon Flux]]'' (1991&amp;ndash;1995) *''[[Aladdin (television series)|Aladdin: The Series]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1997) *''[[Animaniacs]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1996) *''[[Archie's Weird Mysteries]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2000) *''[[Arthur (cartoon)|Arthur]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;2005) *''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]'' (1992&amp;ndash;1995) *''[[The New Batman Adventures]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;1999) *''[[Beast Wars]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1999) *''[[Beavis and Butt-head]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1997) *''[[Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2001) *''[[Blazing Dragons]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1998) *''[[Bobby's World]]'' (1990&amp;ndash;1998) *''[[Bonkers]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1995) *''[[Bump in the Night]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1995) *''[[Captain Planet and the Planeteers]]'' (1990&amp;ndash;1991) *''[[Captain Simian and the Space Monkeys]]'' *''[[Captain Star]]'' *''[[CatDog]]'' (1998&amp;ndash;2001) *''[[Celebrity Deathmatch]]'' (1998&amp;ndash;2002) *''[[Courage the Cowardly Dog]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2002) *''[[Cow and Chicken]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;1999) *''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' (1998) *''[[The Critic]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1995) *''[[Cro]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1994) *''[[Cybersix]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2000) *''[[Daria]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;2002) *''[[Darkwing Duck]]'' (1991&amp;ndash;1994) *''[[Dennis the Menace (UK)]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1998) *''[[Detention]]'' *''[[Dexter's Laboratory]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1999) *''[[Digimon]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;????) *''[[Dilbert]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2000) *''[[Doug]]'' (1991&amp;ndash;1999) *''[[Duckman]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1997) *''[[Dragon Ball (original series)|Dragon Ball]]'' (1995) *''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;2005) *''[[Earthworm Jim]]'' (1995&amp;ndash;1996) *''[[Ed, Edd n Eddy]]'' (1999&amp;mdash;) *''[[Eek! the Cat]]'' (1992&amp;ndash;1997) *''[[Exosquad]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1994) *''[[Family Guy]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2002, 2005&amp;mdash;) *''[[Freakazoid]]'' (1995&amp;ndash;1997) *''[[Futurama|Futurama]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2003) *''[[Gadget Boy &amp; Heather]]'' (1995) *''[[Garfield and Friends]]'' (1988&amp;ndash;1994) *''[[Gargoyles (animated series)|Gargoyles]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1997) *''[[Goof Troop]]'' (1992&amp;ndash;1993) *''[[Hello Kitty]]'s Paradise'' (1993&amp;ndash;1994) *''[[Hercules: The Animated Series]]'' (1998&amp;ndash;2000) *''[[Hey Arnold!]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;2004) *''[[Home Movies (cartoon series)|Home Movies]]'' *''[[Johnny Bravo]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;2004) *''[[Jungle Cubs]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1998) *''[[Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist]]'' (1995&amp;ndash;2000) *''[[King of the Hill (TV Series)|King of the Hill]]'' (1997&amp;mdash;) *''[[Littlest Pet Shop]] ([[1995]]) *''[[The Little Mermaid (series)|The Little Mermaid]]'' (1992&amp;ndash;1995) *''[[The Magic School Bus]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1997) *''[[Marsupilami]]'' (1995) *''[[McGee and Me]]'' (ABC Special) *''[[Mickey Mouse Works]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2001) *''[[The Mighty Ducks (animated series)|The Mighty Ducks]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1997) *''[[Mike, Lu &amp; Og]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2000) *''[[Monster Force]]'' (1994) *''[[Nightmare Ned]]'' (1997) *''[[No-Talent Ass Clowns]]'' *''[[Oh Yeah! Cartoons]]'' (anthology series) *''[[The Oz Kids]]'' *''[[Pepper Ann]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;2001) *''[[Pinky and the Brain]]'' *''[[The Pirates of Dark Water]]'' *''[[Pokémon (anime)|Pokémon]]'' (1997&amp;mdash;) *''[[The Powerpuff Girls]]'' (1998&amp;ndash;2004) *''[[Quack Pack]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;1998) *''[[Raw Toonage]]'' (1992) *''[[The Ren &amp; Stimpy Show]]'' *''[[Recess (TV series)]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;2003) *''[[Richie Rich (1996 TV series)|Richie Rich]]'' (Film Roman version) *''[[Road Rovers]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1997) *''[[Rocko's Modern Life]]'' (1993-1996) *''[[Rugrats]]'' (1991&amp;ndash;2004) *''[[Sailor Moon]]'' (1995&amp;ndash;2000) *''[[Sabrina, The Animated Series]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2000) *''[[Sam &amp; Max: Freelance Police!!!]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;1998) *''[[Santo Bugito]]'' *''[[Silver Surfer (TV series)]]'' (1998-1999) *''[[Sonic SatAM]] [[1993]] *''[[Sonic Underground]] *''[[South Park]]'' (1997&amp;mdash;) *''[[The Schnookums and Meat Funny Cartoon Show]]'' (1994) *''[[Space Ghost: Coast to Coast]]'' *''[[Spider-Man: The Animated Series]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1998) *''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'' (1999&amp;mdash;) *''[[Starship Troopers]]'' *''[[Stressed Eric]]'' (1998, 2000) *''[[Superman: The Animated Series]]'' *''[[SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1994) *''[[The Sylvester and Tweety Mysteries]]'' *''[[Super Mario World]] (1991-1992) *''[[Super Mario Bros. 3]] (1990-1991) *''[[TaleSpin]]'' (1990&amp;ndash;1995) *''[[Taz-Mania]]'' (1991&amp;ndash;1993) *''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1987 TV series)|Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]'' (1987&amp;ndash;1996) *''[[The Incredible Hulk (TV series) (1996)]] '' (1996-1999) *''[[The Marvel Action Hour]]'' (1994-1996) *''[[The Simpsons]]'' *''[[The Three Friends and Jerry]]'' *''[[The Tick]]'' *''[[Timon and Pumbaa]]'' (1995&amp;ndash;1999) *''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' *''[[The What-A-Cartoon! Show]]'' (anthology series) *''[[The Wheezer Bros.]]'' *''[[What-A-Mess!]]'' (1995) *''[[Where on Earth is Carmen Sandiego?]]'' *''[[Wild West Cowboys of Moo Mesa]]''(1992&amp;ndash;1994) *''[[Wish Kid]]'' (1991) *''[[The Wizard of Oz]]'' (1990) *''[[X-Men (animated series)|X-Men]]'' ==[[2000s]]== *''[[6teen]]''(2004&amp;mdash;) *''[[The Adventures Of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius]]''(2002&amp;mdash;2006) *''[[Alienators: Evolution Continues]]'' *''[[All Grown Up!]]'' (2003&amp;mdash;) *''[[American Dragon: Jake Long]]'' (2005&amp;mdash;) *''[[Aqua Teen Hunger Force]]'' (2000&amp;mdash;) *''[[As Told By Ginger]]''(2000&amp;mdash;2006) *''[[Astro Boy]]'' *''[[Atomic Betty]]'' *''[[Atom: Alpha Teens On Machines]]'' *''[[Avatar: The Last Airbender]]''(2005&amp;mdash;) *''[[Baby Looney Tunes]]'' (2002&amp;ndash;2005) *''[[The Batman (TV series)|The Batman]]'' *''[[Batman Beyond]]'' *''[[The Boondocks (television series)|The Boondocks]]'' (2005&amp;mdash;) *''[[Ben 10]]'' (2006&amp;mdash;) *''[[Beyblade]]'' *''[[Braceface]]''(2001&amp;mdash;2005) *''[[Brandy &amp; Mr. Whiskers]]'' (2004&amp;mdash;) *''[[The Brak Show]]''(2000&amp;mdash;2003) *'' [[Bromwell High]] *''[[Buzz Lightyear of Star Command]]'' (2000&amp;ndash;2003) *''[[The Buzz on Maggie]]'' (2005&amp;mdash;) *''[[Camp Lazlo]]'' (2005&amp;mdash;) *''[[Carl Squared|Carl&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]]'' *''[[ChalkZone]]''(2002&amp;mdash;2005) *''[[Clangers]]'' *''[[Class of the Titans]]'' *''[[Clerks: The Animated Series]]'' *''[[Clone High]]'' *''[[Code Lyoko]]''(2004&amp;mdash;) *''[[Codename: Kids Next Door]]'' *''[[Cyberchase]]'' *''[[Da Boom Crew]]'' *''[[Danny Phantom]]'' (2004&amp;mdash;2007) *''[[Dave the Barbarian]]''(2004&amp;mdash;2005) *''[[Dexter's Laboratory]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2004) *''[[Dragon Ball (original series)|Dragon Ball]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2003) *''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;2005) *''[[Dragon Ball GT]]'' (2003&amp;ndash;2005) *''[[Dragon Booster]]'' *''[[Drawn Together]]''(2004&amp;mdash;) *''[[Duck Dodgers]]''(2003&amp;mdash;2005) *''[[The Emperor's New School]]''(2006&amp;mdash;) *''[[Evil Con Carne]]'' (2003) *''[[The Fairly OddParents]]''(2001&amp;mdash;2006) *''[[Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes]]'' (in development) *''[[Father of the Pride]]'' *''[[Fillmore!]]'' (2002&amp;ndash;2004) *''[[Flint the Time Detective]]'' *''[[Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends]]''(2004&amp;mdash;) *''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]'' (2004&amp;mdash;) *''[[Inuyasha]](1967-) *''[[Gadget and the Gadgetinis]]'' *''[[Game Over (TV series)|Game Over]]'' *''[[Gary the Rat]]''(2003&amp;mdash;) *''[[Get Ed]]'' *''[[God, the Devil and Bob]]'' (2000) *''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]''(2001&amp;mdash;) *''[[Hamtaro]]'' *''[[Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law]]''(2000&amp;mdash;) *''[[Howard Stern, The High School Years]]'' (in development) *''[[Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi]]'' *''[[House of Mouse]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2004) *''[[Invader Zim]]''(2001&amp;mdash;2002) *''[[Jackie Chan Adventures]]''(2000&amp;mdash;2005) *''[[Justice League (animated series)|Justice League]]'' *''[[Justice League Unlimited]]'' *''[[Kim Possible]]'' (2002&amp;ndash;) *''[[Lloyd in Space]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2004) *''[[The Legend of Tarzan]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2003) *''[[The Life and Times of Juniper Lee]]''(2005&amp;mdash;) *''[[Lilo &amp; Stitch: The Series]]'' (2003&amp;ndash;2005) *''[[Martin Mystery]]''(2005&amp;mdash;) *''[[Masters of the Universe]]'' (2002&amp;mdash;) *''[[Medabots]]'' *''[[Megas XLR]]'' *''[[Monkey Dust]]'' *''[[¡Mucha Lucha!]]'' *''[[My Dad the Rock Star]]''(2003&amp;mdash;2005) *''[[My Life as a Teenage Robot]]''(2003&amp;mdash;2006) *''[[Naruto]]''(2005&amp;mdash;) *''[[One Piece]]''(2005&amp;mdash;) *''[[Ozzy &amp; Drix]]'' *''[[Perfect Hair F
en considered the father of Roman poetry. Although only fragments of his works survive, his influence in [[Latin literature]] was significant. Ennius' more famous works include: the ''Epicharmus'', the ''Euhemerus'', the ''Hedyphagetica'', ''Saturae'', and the ''Annals'' (''Annales'' in Latin). The ''Epicharmus'' presented an account of the gods and the physical operations of the universe. In it, the poet dreamed he had been transported after death to some place of heavenly enlightenment. The ''Euhemerus'' presented a theological doctrine of a vastly different type in a mock-simple prose stylemodelled on the Greek of [[Euhemerus]] of Messene and several other theological writers. According to this doctrine, the gods of [[Mount Olympus|Olympus]] were not supernatural powers still actively intervening in the affairs of men, but great generals, statesmen and inventors of olden times commemorated after death in extraordinary ways. The ''Hedyphagetica'' took much of its substance from the gastronomical epic of Archestratus of Gela, a work commonly associated with [[Epicureanism]]. The eleven extant hexameters have prosodical features avoided in the more serious ''Annales''. The remains of six books of ''Saturae'' show a considerable variety of metres. There are signs that Ennius varied the metre sometimes even within a composition. A frequent theme was the social life of Ennius himself and his upper-class Roman friends and their intellectual conversation. The ''Annals'' was an [[Epic poetry|epic poem]] in eighteen books covering Roman history from the fall of [[Troy]] in [[1184 BC]] down to the censorship of [[Cato the Elder]] in [[184 BC]]. It was the first Latin poem to adopt the [[dactylic hexameter]] metre used in Greek epic and didactic, leading it to become the standard metre for these genres in Latin poetry. The ''Annals'' became a school text for Roman schoolchildren, eventually supplanted by [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]''. About 600 lines survive. &quot;The idle mind knows not what it wants.&quot; - Ennius ==Further reading== *R. A. Brooks, ''Ennius and Roman Tragedy'' (1981) *H. D. Jocelyn, ''The Tragedies of Ennius'' (1967) *O. Skutsch, ''The Annals of Quintus Ennius'' (1985) ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/enn.html Fragments of Ennius' ''Annals''] at [[The Latin Library]]; text from Wordsworth (1874), line numbering from Warmington (1935) [[Category:Ancient Romans]] [[Category:Latin authors]] [[Category:Roman era poets]] [[bg:Ений]] [[cs:Quintus Ennius]] [[de:Quintus Ennius]] [[fr:Ennius]] [[is:Enníus]] [[it:Quinto Ennio]] [[la:Quintus Ennius]] [[hu:Quintus Ennius]] [[nl:Quintus Ennius]] [[pl:Enniusz]] [[sk:Quintus Ennius]] [[fi:Ennius]] [[sv:Ennius]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eulers phi function</title> <id>9821</id> <revision> <id>15907686</id> <timestamp>2003-02-22T05:46:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.183.49.2</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euler's_totient_function]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electronic</title> <id>9822</id> <revision> <id>37657859</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T10:39:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zunaid</username> <id>355097</id> </contributor> <comment>Reversion to revision 29617781 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}} '''Electronic''' can refer to many things: *In [[electronics]], devices or parts of devices using electrical signals *[[Electronic music]] or [[electronica]] *The band [[Electronic (band)|Electronic]] or their self-titled debut, ''[[Electronic (album)|Electronic]]''. *Relating to the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], as in [[electronic warfare]] *The [[Electron configuration|configuration of electrons]] in an atom or molecule *Using [[computer file]]s or the [[Internet]], often shortened to &quot;e-&quot;, as in [[e-mail]] for electronic mail {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eris</title> <id>9823</id> <revision> <id>40262707</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T09:03:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: el</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Greek myth (personified)}} :'' '''Eris''' is also a [[genus]] of [[jumping spider]]s. See [[Eris (genus)]].'' '''Eris''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] '''&amp;#7962;ρις''', &quot;Strife&quot;) is the [[goddess]] personifying that quality, her name being translated into Latin as '''Discordia'''. Her Greek opposite is [[Harmonia (Greek goddess)|Harmonia]], whose Latin counterpart is [[Concordia (Roman goddess)|Concordia]]. ==Greek Mythology== In [[Hesiod]]'s ''Works and Days'' 11&amp;ndash;24, two different goddesses named Eris 'Strife' are distinguished: :So, after all, there was not one kind of '''Strife''' alone, but all over the earth there are two. As for the one, a man would praise her when he came to understand her; but the other is blameworthy: and they are wholly different in nature. :For one fosters evil war and battle, being cruel: her no man loves; but perforce, through the will of the deathless gods, men pay harsh '''Strife''' her honour due. :But the other is the elder daughter of dark Night ([[Nyx]]), and the son of [[Cronus]] who sits above and dwells in the [[aether]], set her in the roots of the earth: and she is far kinder to men. She stirs up even the shiftless to toil; for a man grows eager to work when he considers his neighbour, a rich man who hastens to plough and plant and put his house in good order; and neighbour vies with is neighbour as he hurries after wealth. This '''Strife''' is wholesome for men. And potter is angry with potter, and craftsman with craftsman, and beggar is jealous of beggar, and minstrel of minstrel. In Hesiod's ''Theogony'' (226&amp;ndash;232) Strife the daughter of Night is less kindly spoken of as she brings forth other personifications as her children: :But abhorred ''Eris'' ('Strife') bare painful ''Ponos'' ('Toil/Labor'), ''[[Lethe]]'' ('Forgetfulness') and ''Limos'' ('Famine') and tearful ''Algea'' (''Pains/Sorrows''), ''Hysminai'' ('Fightings/Combats') also, ''Malchai'' ('Battles'), ''Phonoi'' ('Murders/Slaughterings'), ''Androctasiai'' ('Manslaughters'), ''Neikea'' ('Quarrels'), ''Pseudea'' ('Lies/Falsehoods'), ''Amphillogiai'' ('Disputes'), ''Dysnomia'' ('Lawlessness') and ''[[Ate]]'' ('Ruin/Folly'), all of one nature, and ''Horkos'' ('Oath') who most troubles men upon earth when anyone wilfully swears a false oath. The other Strife is presumably she who appears in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' Book&amp;nbsp;4 as sister of [[Ares]] and so presumably daughter of [[Zeus]] and [[Hera]]: :Strife whose wrath is relentless, she is the sister and companion of murderous Ares, she who is only a little thing at the first, but thereafter grows until she strides on the earth with her head striking heaven. She then hurled down bitterness equally between both sides as she walked through the onslaught making men's pain heavier. She also has a son whom she named Strife. Zeus sends her to rouse the [[Achaean]]s in Book&amp;nbsp;11 of the same work. The most famous tale of Eris ('Strife') recounts her initiating the [[Trojan War]]. The goddesses [[Hera]], [[Athena]] and [[Aphrodite]] had been invited along with the rest of [[Olympus]] to the forced wedding of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]], who would become the parents of [[Achilles]], but Eris had been snubbed because of her troublemaking inclinations. She therefore (in a fragment from the ''[[Kypria]]'' as part of a plan hatched by Zeus and [[Themis]]) tossed into the party the Apple of Discord, a golden apple inscribed ''[[Kallisti]]''&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; &quot;For the most beautiful one&quot;, or &quot;To the Prettiest One&quot;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; provoking the goddesses to begin quarreling about the appropriate recipient. The hapless [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], Prince of [[Troy]], was appointed to [[Judgement of Paris|select the most beautiful]]. Greek mythological morality being what it was, each of the three goddesses immediately attempted to bribe Paris to choose her. [[Hera]] offered political power; [[Athena]] promised skill in battle; and [[Aphrodite]] tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world: [[Helen]], wife of [[Menelaus]] of [[Sparta]]. [[Paris (mythology)| Paris]] was a red-blooded young man, and while the length of time he meditated on this problem is not recorded, he did eventually award the apple to Aphrodite. In [[Nonnus]]' ''Dionysiaca'', 2.356, when [[Typhon]] prepares to battle with Zeus: :Eris ('Strife') was Typhon's escort in the melée, [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]] ('Victory') led Zeus to battle. ==Discordian Mythology== Eris has been adopted as the matron deity of the modern [[Discordianism|Discordian]] religion. In the process, however, she has lightened up considerably in comparison to the rather malevolent Graeco-Roman original. A quote from the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'', the holy book of the Discordian religion, attempts to clear this up: :One day Mal-2 consulted his [[Pineal gland|Pineal Gland]] and asked Eris if She really created all of those terrible things. She told him that She had always liked the Old Greeks, but that they cannot be trusted with historic matters. &quot;They were,&quot; She added, &quot;victims of indigestion, you know.&quot;[http://www.ology.org/principia/] The story of Eris being snubbed and indirectly starting the Trojan War is recorded in the ''Principia'', and is referred to as the [[Discordianism#The Original Snub|Original Snub]]. ==Eris in popular culture== Eris appears on the Cartoon Network show &quot;''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]''&quot; as
2011]]-[[2015]]. It has been suggested that asteroids might be used in the future as a source of materials which may be rare or exhausted on earth ([[asteroid mining]]). ==Asteroids in fiction and film== Understandably, most fictional depictions of asteroids focus on their potential risk of striking Earth. Representations of the asteroid belt in film tend to make it unrealistically cluttered with dangerous rocks; in reality asteroids, even in the main belt, are spaced extremely far apart. *[[Professor Moriarty]], [[Sherlock Holmes]]' arch-enemy, &quot;is the celebrated author of'' &quot;The Dynamics of an Asteroid&quot;'', a book which ascends to such rarefied heights of pure mathematics that it is said that there was no man in the scientific press capable of criticizing it&quot; ([[The Valley of Fear]], [[1914]], set in [[1888]]). *In ''[[The Little Prince]]'', a [[1943]] novel by [[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]], the [[title role|title character]] lives on an asteroid named &quot;B-6-12&quot;. The [[asteroid moon]] [[Petit-Prince (asteroid)|Petit-Prince]] was named after the character, and [[46610 Bésixdouze]] after his asteroid. *'[[Catch that Rabbit]]', one of the short stories in [[Isaac Asimov]]'s collection ''[[I, Robot]]'' ([[1950]]), takes place on an asteroid, while ''[[Marooned Off Vesta]],'' Asimov's first published story, concerns the plight of a group of astronauts stranded in orbit around the asteroid [[4 Vesta]]. *The Japanese science fiction film ''[[Chikyu Boeigun|The Mysterians]]'' aka ''[[Chikyu Boeigun]]'' ([[1957]]) reveals the solar system's asteroid belt as the remnants of the Mysterian's home planet, Mysteroid, after a nuclear war broke out. *In ''[[Green Slime]]'' (1968), a masterpiece of [[B-movie]]s, a rogue asteroid hurtles toward Earth. The astronauts leave [[Space station|Space Station]] Gamma 3 and place bombs on the asteroid, finding it inhabited by strange blobs of glowing slime that are drawn to the equipment. Unfortunately for everyone some of the slime was carried back on a [[space suit]] and soon evolves into tentacled creatures! See the review: [http://www.badmovies.org/movies/greenslime/]. The movie inspired the classic [[board game]] ''[[Awful Green Things from Outer Space]]''. *In the classic science-fiction movie ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' ([[1968]]), the ''Discovery'' has a scientifically accurate &quot;close approach&quot; by a binary asteroid whilst en route to [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. The scene simply cuts briefly to two lone rocks passing by the ship, with tens of thousands of kilometres to spare. * In [[James P. Hogan (writer)|James P. Hogan]]'s ''Inherit the Stars'' ([[1977]]), first book of the ''Gentle Giants'' series, Minerva was a planet that exploded to form the [[asteroid belt]] 50,000 years ago. *The [[disaster movie]] ''[[Meteor (movie)|Meteor]]'' ([[1979]]) depicts an asteroid named Orpheus hurtling toward Earth after its orbit is deflected by a [[comet]]. *[[Atari]] released the arcade game [[Asteroids]] in [[1979]]. *In ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'' ([[1980]]), [[Han Solo]] enters an asteroid field to flee from the [[Empire_(Star_Wars)|Imperial]] fleet, and [[C-3PO]] thinks it is a bad idea. Han then hides his ship, the ''[[Millennium Falcon]]'' inside a giant asteroid; The ship is then attacked by a vast monster that lives (inexplicably) within the asteroid in the vacuum of space. *In [[Orson Scott Card]]'s ''[[Ender's Game]]'' ([[1985]]), a school on [[433 Eros]] is dedicated to children learning to become fleet commanders. *[[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s novel ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'' ([[1986]]) depicts a journey through the asteroid belt and its ominous parallels with the journey of the ''[[RMS Titanic]]''. *[[L. Neil Smith]]'s novel ''Pallas'' ([[Tor Books]], [[1993]]) depicts a modernized hunting based life on the terraformed asteroid [[Pallas]] and introduces Emerson Ngu. The book was partly insired by the 1987 article &quot;The Worst Mistake in the History of the Human Race&quot; written by [[Jared Diamond]]. The book also includes a brief description of a way to encapsulate the entire surface of a small body such as an asteroid to enable creating an Earthlike environment. *[[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s novel ''[[The Hammer of God]]'' ([[1993]]) depicts mankind's efforts to stop an asteroid named Kali from hitting the Earth. The film ''[[Deep Impact (movie)|Deep Impact]]'' ([[1998]]) was based on Clarke's novel, although in the movie, the asteroid becomes a [[comet]]. *In the [[LucasArts]] game ''[[The Dig]]'' (originally released in [[1995]]) and its novelization, the impact-threatening asteroid Attila turns out to be an alien probe. *In the [[1998]] movie ''[[Starship Troopers]]'', aliens launch an asteroid at Earth, completely wiping out [[Buenos Aires]]. This is the opening move in the war. *The film ''[[Armageddon (movie)|Armageddon]]'' (1998) is also about efforts to stop an asteroid hitting Earth. Its representation of an asteroid (and of space travel in general) is deeply unrealistic. *[[Ben Bova]]'s novel series ''[[The Asteroid Wars]]'' ([[2001]]-[[2004]]) focuses on a war over the mining of the asteroid belt. *In the [[BBC]] [[drama documentary]] ''[[Space Odyssey: Voyage to the Planets]]'' ([[2004]]), the ''Pegasus'' encounters a [[binary asteroid]] from much closer than expected, and dubs the rocks &quot;Hubris&quot; and &quot;Catastrophe&quot; as a result. *An episode of the political television drama, ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'' entitled &quot;Impact Winter&quot; included a subplot in which the [[White House]] staff prepared for a possible asteroid strike on the Earth. (First broadcast on [[December 15]], [[2004]]). ==See also== * [[List of noteworthy asteroids]] * [[List of asteroids]] * [[List of asteroids named after important people]] * [[List of asteroids named after places]] * [[Meanings of asteroid names]] * [[Near-Earth object]] * [[Minor planet]] * [[Asteroid belt]] * [[Pronunciation of asteroid names]] * [[Minor Planet Center]] * [[:Category:Asteroid_groups_and_families|Asteroid groups and families]] * [[:Category:Asteroids|Asteroids]] == References == *McSween and McSween, ''Meteorites and Their Parent Planets'', ISBN 0521587514 == External links == * [http://www.armageddononline.org/asteroid.php Known Asteroid Impacts &amp; Their Effects] * [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/MPNames.html Alphabetical list of minor planet names (ASCII)] (Minor Planet Center) * [http://www.ipa.nw.ru/PAGE/DEPFUND/LSBSS/englenam.htm Alphabetical and numerical lists of minor planet names (Unicode)] (Institute of Applied Astronomy) ('''Warning:''' some ''designation'' here might be incorrect) * [http://newton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/neodys/neoibo Near Earth Objects Dynamic Site] * [http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/astdys/astibo Asteroids Dynamic Site ] Up-to date [[osculating orbit|osculating]] [[orbital elements]] and [[proper orbital elements]]. * [http://quasar.ipa.nw.ru/PAGE/DEPFUND/LSBSS/statmpn.htm Asteroid naming statistics] * [http://neat.jpl.nasa.gov/ Near Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT)] * [http://www.spaceguarduk.com/ Spaceguard UK] * [http://aa.usno.navy.mil/hilton/AsteroidHistory/minorplanets.html When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets?] *[http://www.astrosurf.com/aude/map/us/AstFamilies2004-05-20.htm Large amount of information on asteroid groups collected by Gérard Faure], translation Richard Miles. *[http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/applets/satellites.html Asteroid Simulator with Moon and Earth] &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; &lt;center&gt;''(asteroid navigator) | [[1 Ceres|First asteroid]] | ...''&lt;/center&gt; {{MinorPlanets_Footer}} {{Footer_SolarSystem}} [[Category:Asteroids|*]] {{Link FA|fr}} [[bg:Астероид]] [[ca:Asteroide]] [[cs:Asteroid]] [[da:Småplanet]] [[de:Asteroid]] [[et:Asteroid]] [[es:Asteroide]] [[eo:Asteroido]] [[fr:Astéroïde]] [[gl:Asteroide]] [[ko:소행성]] [[io:Asteroido-zono]] [[id:Asteroid]] [[it:Asteroide]] [[he:אסטרואיד]] [[la:Asteroides]] [[ms:Asteroid]] [[nl:Planetoïde]] [[ja:小惑星]] [[lt:Asteroidas]] [[lv:Asteroīds]] [[no:Asteroide]] [[nn:Asteroide]] [[pam:Asteroid]] [[pl:Planetoida]] [[pt:Asteróide]] [[ro:Asteroid]] [[ru:Астероид]] [[scn:Astiroidi]] [[simple:Asteroid]] [[sk:Asteroid]] [[sl:Asteroid]] [[sr:Астероид]] [[fi:Asteroidi]] [[sv:Asteroid]] [[tl:Asteroyd]] [[tt:Asteroidlar]] [[th:ดาวเคราะห์น้อย]] [[tr:Asteroit]] [[zh:小行星]] [[zh-min-nan:Sió-he̍k-chheⁿ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Allocution</title> <id>794</id> <revision> <id>15899309</id> <timestamp>2005-05-23T05:38:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>208.186.187.78</ip> </contributor> <comment>Restored dropped comma; reformatted cross-reference to 'Confession'.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Generally, '''to allocute''' means &quot;to speak out formally.&quot; In the field of [[apologetics]], allocution is generally done in defense of a belief. In politics, one may allocute before a legislative body in an effort to influence their position on an issue. In law, it is generally meant to state specifically and in detail what one did &lt;nowiki&gt;and/or&lt;/nowiki&gt; why, often in relation to commission of a crime. In most jurisdictions, a defendant is allowed the opportunity to allocute &amp;mdash; that is, explain himself, before sentence is passed. Some jurisdictions hold this as an absolute right, and in its absence, a sentence may potentially be overturned, with the result that a new sentencing hearing must be held. Allocution is sometimes required of a defendant who pleads guilty to a crime in a [[plea bargain]] in exchange for a reduced sentence. In this instance, allocution can serve to provide closure for victims or their families. In principle, it removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant's guilt in the matter. However, there have been many cases in which the def
innish account numbering scheme. *[[France|French]] IBAN format: FRkk BBBB BGGG GGCC CCCC CCCC CKK ::The Bs represent the [[bank code]], the Gs are the [[branch code|code guichet]] *[[Germany|German]] IBAN format: DEkk BBBB BBBB CCCC CCCC CC ::The first eight digits are the [[bank code]] and the last 10 digits an account. *[[Hungary|Hungarian]] IBAN format: HUkk CCCC CCCC CCCC CCCC [CCCC CCCC] ::The 16 or 24 digits represent the account number which already contains the [[bank code]] in the first three digits. *[[Iceland|Icelandic]] IBAN format: ISkk BBBB CCCC CCCC XXXX XXXX XX ::The first 4-digit group represents the [[bank code]], the next two 4-digit goups represent the account and the last ten digits are the account holder's unique ID number, issued by the Bureau of Statistics. *[[Ireland|Irish]] IBAN format: IEkk AAAA BBBB BBCC CCCC CC ::The first 4 alphanumeric characters are the start of the SWIFT code. Then a 6 digit long [[sort code|routing code]] and an 8 digit account code follow, both numeric. *[[Italy|Italian]] IBAN format: ITkk BBBB BBBB BBBX XXXX XXXX XXX ::The first 11 alphanumeric characters represent the bank, the last 12 digits the account. *[[Latvia|Latvian]] IBAN format: LVkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CCCC C ::The first two letters (LV) means Latvia, next is 2 control digits, after bank's [[SWIFT]] code, next is account individual number (which can include both letters and numbers). *[[Netherlands|Dutch]] IBAN format: NLkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CC ::The first 4 alphanumeric characters represent a bank and the last 10 digits an account. *[[Norway|Norwegian]] IBAN format: NOkk BBBB CC CCCCC ::The first 4 alphanumeric characters represent a bank and the last 7 digits an account. *[[Poland|Polish]] IBAN format: PLkk BBBB BBBB MMMM MMMM MMMM MMMM ::The first 8 digits are the bank-branch code and the last 16 are the account number. Within the bank-branch code, the first 3 or 4 digits represent the bank, the next 4 or 3 - the branch, and the last one is the check digit. *[[Romania|Romanian]] IBAN format: ROkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CCCC CCCC ::The first 4 alphanumeric characters represent the bank; according to a rule established by the Romanian National Bank, the BBBB code must be the same with the first 4 characters of the [[Bank_Identifier_Code|bank's identifier code]]. The last 16 represent the specific bank branch and an account, combined any way the bank decides (typically the first 4 among the 16 identify the branch). Some banks include the [[ISO 4217]] currency identifier somewhere in the account name. *[[Slovenia|Slovenian]] IBAN format: SIkk BB BBB CCCCCCCC KK ::The first 2 BB digits represent a bank, the next 3 - the branch. The last 2 digits (KK) are the check digits. IBAN check digits (kk) for Slovenia are 5 and 6. *[[Spain|Spanish]] IBAN format: ESkk BBBB GGGG KKCC CCCC CCCC *[[Sweden|Swedish]] IBAN format: SEkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CCCC CCCC ::The Bs represent the bank code and the Cs the account number. *[[Turkey|Turkish]] IBAN format: TRkk BBBB BRCC CCCC CCCC CCCC CC ::The total number of alphanumeric characters including the country code and the check digits is 26. The first 5 digits represent a bank. The next alphanumeric character, reserved for future use, is set to zero. The following 16 alphanumeric characters represent the specific bank branch and an account. The issuing start date of the Turkish IBAN was [[September 1]], [[2005]] [http://www.tbb.org.tr/IBAN.htm]. ==See also== * [[ISO 9362|Bank Identifier Code]] (BIC) * [[Bank Identification Number]] (BIN) * [[Online banking]] ==External links== *[http://www.ecbs.org/iban/iban.htm ECBS IBAN page] *[http://www.ecbs.org/Download/EBS204_V3.2.PDF ECBS IBAN standard v. 3.2] *A free [http://www.iban-rechner.de/ IBAN calculator and validator] (for German, Austrian and Belgian banks) *A free [http://www.xe.com/idt/ IBAN decoder] (for all countries) *[http://swissiban.com IBAN used in Switzerland] *[http://www.europebanks.info/ibanguide.htm Excellent Guide on IBAN Account Numbers and Payments in Europe] *[http://kernel.umbrella.ro/us/ A LGPL program (source available) for IBAN validation] [[Category:Banking terms and equipment]] [[Category:ISO standards]] [[Category:Identifiers]] [[de:International Bank Account Number]] [[es:International Bank Account Number]] [[fr:ISO 13616]] [[lt:IBAN]] [[nl:IBAN]] [[pl:IBAN]] [[sv:IBAN]] [[sk:Medzinárodné bankové číslo účtu]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Infinitive</title> <id>15254</id> <revision> <id>40809977</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T03:57:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Velho</username> <id>158002</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Defective verbs */ readding link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[grammar]], the '''infinitive''' is the form of a [[verb]] that has no [[inflection]] to indicate [[Grammatical person|person]], [[Grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical mood|mood]] or [[grammatical tense|tense]]. It is called the &quot;infinitive&quot; because the verb is usually not made &quot;[[finite verb|finite]]&quot;, or limited by inflection. In some [[language]]s, however, there are inflected forms of the infinitive denoting attributes such as tense, person and number. It happens for example in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. There are languages that do not have infinitives at all, for example [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Modern Greek]]. In some languages the infinitive can be construed as a [[verbal noun]]. The infinitive is often used as the &quot;[[citation form]]&quot;, as for many languages this is the basic [[lemma (linguistics)|lemma]] form of a verb which is usually presented in dictionaries. In language classes, children are sometimes taught to think of it as the &quot;name&quot; of the verb. ==Infinitives in English== [[English language|English]] has three non-finite verbal forms, but by long-standing convention, the term &quot;infinitive&quot; is applied to only one of these. (The other two are the past- and present-[[participle]] forms, where the present-participle form is also the [[gerund]] form.) In English, a verb's infinitive is its unmarked form, such as &quot;be,&quot; &quot;do,&quot; &quot;have,&quot; or &quot;sit,&quot; often introduced by the [[grammatical particle|particle]] &quot;to.&quot; When this particle is absent, the infinitive is said to be a ''bare infinitive''; when it is present, it is generally considered to be a part of the infinitive, then known as the ''full infinitive'' (or ''to-infinitive''), and some grammarians hold that it should not be separated from the main word of the infinitive. (''See'' [[split infinitive]].) While many other languages, including French and German, use prepositions before the infinitive in much the same way English does (''de faire, zu tun''), grammarians of those languages do not construe the prepositions as part of the infinitive. To this extent, the concept of the full infinitive, though not the construction itself, is uniquely English. &lt;!-- I'm not so sure. Hebrew has something very similar; both &quot;daber&quot; and &quot;l'daber&quot; - &quot;speak&quot; and &quot;to speak&quot; are commonly considered infinitives. --&gt; The bare infinitive and the full infinitive are not generally interchangeable, but the distinction does not generally affect the meaning of a sentence; rather, certain contexts call almost exclusively for the bare infinitive, and all other contexts call for the to-infinitive. ===Uses of the bare infinitive=== The bare infinitive is used in a rather limited number of contexts, but some of these are quite common: *The bare infinitive is used as the [[main verb]] after the dummy auxiliary verb ''do'', or any [[modal auxiliary verb]] (such as ''will'', ''can'', or ''should''), except that ''ought'' usually takes a to-infinitive. So, &quot;I will/do/can/etc. '''see''' it.&quot; *Several common verbs of perception, including ''see'', ''watch'', ''hear'', ''feel'', and ''sense'' take a direct object and a bare infinitive, where the bare infinitive indicates an action taken by the main verb's direct object. So, &quot;I saw/watched/heard/etc. it '''happen'''.&quot; (A similar meaning can be effected by using the present participle instead: &quot;I saw/watched/heard/etc. it '''happening'''.&quot; The difference is that the former implies that the entirety of the event was perceived, while the latter implies that part of the progress of the event was perceived.) *Similarly with several common verbs of permission or causation, including ''make'', ''bid'', ''let'', and ''have''. So, &quot;I made/bade/let/had him '''do''' it.&quot; (However, ''make'' takes a to-infinitive in the passive voice: &quot;I was made '''to do''' it.&quot;) *The bare infinitive is the dictionary form of a verb, and is generally the form of a verb that receives a definition; however, the definition itself generally uses a to-infinitive. So, &quot;The word &amp;#39;'''amble'''&amp;#39; means 'to walk slowly.'&quot; *The bare infinitive form is also the present [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] form and the [[imperative mood|imperative]] form, although most grammarians do not consider uses of the present subjunctive or imperative to be uses of the bare infinitive. ===Uses of the full infinitive=== The full infinitive (or to-infinitive) is used in a great many different contexts: *Apart from in dictionary lemmata, the full infinitive is the most commonly used [[citation form]] of the English verb: &quot;How do we conjugate the verb ''to go''?&quot; *It can serve as an ordinary noun, expressing its action or state in an abstract, general way. So, &quot;'''To be''' is '''to do'''.&quot; (A [[gerund]] can also be used for this: &quot;'''Being''' is '''doing'''.&quot;) *It can serve as an adjective or adverb, expressing purpose or intent. So, &quot;He is &lt;nowiki&gt;[supposed]&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''to
]]s by Descartes. In [[Discourse on Method]], in part two, he introduces the new idea of specifying the position of a [[point (geometry)|point]] or object on a surface, using two intersecting axes as measuring guides. In [[La Géométrie]], he further explores the above-mentioned concepts. == Two-dimensional coordinate system == The modern Cartesian [[coordinate system]] in two dimensions (also called a '''rectangular coordinate system''') is commonly defined by two axes, at [[right angle|right angles]] to each other, forming a plane (an ''xy''-plane). The [[horizontal]] axis is labeled ''x'', and the [[vertical]] axis is labeled ''y''. In a three dimensional coordinate system, another axis, normally labeled ''z'', is added, providing a sense of a third dimension of space measurement. The axes are commonly defined as mutually orthogonal to each other (each at a right angle to the other). (Early systems allowed &quot;oblique&quot; axes, that is, axes that did not meet at right angles.) All the points in a Cartesian coordinate system taken together form a so-called '''Cartesian plane'''. Equations that use the Cartesian coordinate system are called '''Cartesian equations'''. The point of intersection, where the axes meet, is called the ''origin'' normally labeled ''O''. With the ''origin'' labeled ''O'', we can name the ''x'' axis ''Ox'' and the ''y'' axis ''Oy''. The ''x'' and ''y'' axes define a plane that can be referred to as the ''xy'' plane. Given each axis, choose a unit length, and mark off each unit along the axis, forming a grid. To specify a particular point on a two dimensional coordinate system, you indicate the ''x'' unit first ('''abscissa'''), followed by the ''y'' unit ('''ordinate''') in the form ''(x,y)'', an ordered pair. In three dimensions, a third ''z'' unit ('''applicate''') is added, ''(x,y,z)''. The choices of letters come from the original convention, which is to use the latter part of the alphabet to indicate unknown values. The first part of the alphabet was used to designate known values. An example of a [[point_(spatial)|point]] ''P'' on the system is indicated in the picture below using the coordinate (3,5). [[Image:Cartesian coordinates 2D.svg|400px]] The arrows on the axes indicate that they extend forever in the same direction (i.e. infinitely). The intersection of the two x-y axes creates four quadrants indicated by the Roman numerals I, II, III, and IV. Conventionally, the quadrants are labeled counter-clockwise starting from the northeast quadrant. In Quadrant I the values are (''x'',''y''), and II:(-''x'',''y''), III:(-''x'',-''y'') and IV:(''x'',-''y''). (see table below.) {| border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=40% |- ! Quadrant !! x-values !! y-values |- align=center | I || &gt; 0 || &gt; 0 |- align=center | II || &lt; 0 || &gt; 0 |- align=center | III || &lt; 0 || &lt; 0 |- align=center | IV || &gt; 0 || &lt; 0 |} == Three-dimensional coordinate system == Sometime in the early [[19th century]] the third dimension of measurement was added, using the ''z''-axis. [[Image:Cartesian coordinates 3D.png]] The coordinates in a three dimensional system are of the form ''(x,y,z)''. An example of two [[point_(spatial)|point]]s plotted in this system are in the picture above, points ''P''(3,0,5) and ''Q''(&amp;minus;5,&amp;minus;5,7). Notice that the axes are depicted in a world-coordinates orientation with the ''z''-axis pointing up. The ''x''-, ''y''-, and ''z''-coordinates of a point (say ''P'') can also be taken as the distances from the ''yz''-plane, ''xz''-plane, and ''xy''-plane respectively. The figure below shows the distances of point P from the planes. [[Image:Coor planes Color.png|400px]] The ''xy''-, ''yz''-, and ''xz''-planes divide the three-dimensional space into eight subdivisions known as [[octant]]s, similar to the quadrants of 2D space. While conventions have been established for the labeling of the four quadrants of the ''x'-''y'' plane, only the first octant of three dimensional space is labeled. It contains all of the points whose ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' coordinates are positive. That is, no point in the first octant has a negative coordinate. The three dimensional coordinate system provides the physical dimensions of space &amp;mdash; height, width, and length, and this is often referred to as &quot;the three dimensions&quot;. It is important to note that a dimension is simply a measure of something, and that, for each class of features to be measured, another dimension can be added. Attachment to visualizing the dimensions precludes understanding the many different dimensions that can be measured (time, mass, color, cost, etc.). It is the powerful insight of Descartes that allows us to manipulate multi-dimensional object algebraically, avoiding compass and protractor for analyzing in more than three dimensions. === Orientation and &quot;handedness&quot; === The three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system presents a problem. Once the ''x''- and ''y''-axes are specified, they determine the [[line (mathematics)|line]] along which the ''z''-axis should lie, but there are two possible directions on this line. The two possible coordinate systems which result are called 'right-handed' and 'left-handed'. The origin of these names is a trick called the [[right-hand rule]] (and the corresponding left-hand rule). If the forefinger of the right hand is pointed forward, the middle finger bent inward at a right angle to it, and the thumb placed a right angle to both, the three fingers indicate the relative directions of the ''x''-, ''y''-, and ''z''-axes respectively in a ''right-handed'' system. Conversely, if the same is done with the left hand, a left-handed system results. The right-handed system is universally accepted in the physical sciences, but the left-handed is also still in use. [[image:Coordinate system handedness.PNG|center|frame|The left-handed orientation is shown on the left, and the right-handed on the right.]] If a point plotted with some coordinates in a right-handed system is replotted with the same coordinates in a left-handed system, the new point is the mirror image of the old point about the ''xy''-plane. [[image:Right_hand_cartesian.JPG|center|frame|The right-handed Cartesian coordinate system indicating the coordinate planes.]] More ambiguity occurs when a three-dimensional coordinate system must be drawn on a two-dimensional page. Sometimes the ''z''-axis is drawn diagonally, so that it seems to point out of the page. Sometimes it is drawn vertically, as in the above image (this is called a ''world coordinates'' orientation). == Further notes == In [[analytic geometry]] the Cartesian coordinate system is the foundation for the algebraic manipulation of geometrical shapes. Many other coordinate systems have been developed since Descartes. One common set of systems use [[coordinates (elementary mathematics)|polar coordinates]]; astronomers often use [[spherical coordinates]], a type of polar coordinate system. In different branches of mathematics coordinate systems can be transformed, translated, rotated, and re-defined altogether to simplify calculation and for specialized ends. It may be interesting to note that some have indicated that the master artists of the [[Renaissance]] used a grid, in the form of a wire mesh, as a tool for breaking up the component parts of their subjects they painted--a [[trade secret]]. That this may have influenced Descartes is merely speculative. (See [[perspective]], [[projective geometry]].) == References == Descartes, René. Oscamp, Paul J. (trans). ''Discourse on Method, Optics, Geometry, and Meteorology''. [[2001]]. == See also == *[[Solution point]] *[[Graph paper]] == External links == *[http://www.pdfpad.com/graphpaper/ Graph Paper] *[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Calculus/Coordinates.shtml Cartesian Coordinate System] [[Category:Coordinate systems]] [[Category:Elementary mathematics]] [[Category:Dimension]] [[bg:Декартова координатна система]] [[cs:Kartézská soustava souřadnic]] [[de:Kartesisches Koordinatensystem]] [[eo:Kartezia Koordinato]] [[fr:Système de coordonnées cartésiennes]] [[ko:데카르트 좌표계]] [[is:Kartesíusarhnitakerfið]] [[he:מערכת צירים קרטזית]] [[nl:Cartesisch coördinatenstelsel]] [[ja:直交座標系]] [[pl:Kartezjański układ współrzędnych]] [[pt:Sistema de coordenadas cartesiano]] [[ru:Прямоугольная система координат]] [[sk:Karteziánska sústava súradníc]] [[sl:Kartezični koordinatni sistem]] [[sv:Kartesiskt koordinatsystem]] [[vi:Hệ tọa độ Descartes]] [[uk:Декартова система координат]] [[zh:直角坐标系]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Churchill</title> <id>7707</id> <revision> <id>26760920</id> <timestamp>2005-10-29T02:55:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>4.242.147.107</ip> </contributor> <comment>Revert, nevermind</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Winston Churchill]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Commandant of the Marine Corps</title> <id>7708</id> <revision> <id>37716933</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T19:35:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kbdank71</username> <id>197953</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] per [[WP:CFD]] speedy</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Commandant of the United States Marine Corps''' is the highest ranking officer of the [[United States Marine Corps]] and a member of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], reporting to the [[Secretary of the Navy]] but not to the [[Chief of Naval Operations]]. As with the other joint chiefs, the commandant is responsible for ensuring the organization and readiness of his respective service branch and for advising the President. However, as with the other joint chiefs, the commandant has no operational command authority. {| | 1. || [[Samuel Nicholas]] || &amp;nbsp; | ([[No
ed interval [0,1] that is [[surjection|surjective]] (i.e. ''f'' maps from ''C'' onto [0,1]) so that the [[cardinality]] of ''C'' is no less than that of [0,1]. Since ''C'' is a subset of [0,1], its cardinality is also no greater, so it must in fact be equal. To construct this function, consider the points in the [0,&amp;nbsp;1] interval in terms of base 3 (or [[ternary numeral system|ternary]]) notation. In this notation, 1/3 can be written as 0.1&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and 2/3 can be written as 0.2&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, so the middle third (to be removed) contains the numbers with ternary numerals of the form 0.1xxxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; where xxxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is strictly between 00000...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and 22222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. So the numbers remaining after the first step consists of * Numbers of the form 0.0xxxxx... * 1/3 = 0.1&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.022222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; (This alternative &quot;recurring&quot; representation of a number with a terminating numeral occurs in any [[Numeral_system#Positional systems in detail|positional system]].) * 2/3 = 0.122222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.2&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; * Numbers of the form 0.2xxxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; All of which can be stated as those numbers with a ternary numeral 0.0xxxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; or 0.2xxxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; The second step removes numbers of the form 0.01xxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and 0.21xxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, and (with appropriate care for the endpoints) it can be concluded that the remaining numbers are those with a ternary numeral whose first ''two'' digits are not 1. Continuing in this way, for a number not to be excluded at step ''n'', it must have a ternary representation whose ''n''th digit is not 1. For a number to be in the Cantor set, it will not to be excluded at any step, it must have a numeral consisting entirely of 0's and 2's. It is worth emphasising that numbers like 1, 1/3 = 0.1&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and 7/9 = 0.21&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; are in the Cantor set, as they have ternary numerals consisting entirely of 0's and 2's: 1 = 0.2222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, 1/3 = 0.022222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and 7/9 = 0.2022222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. So while a number in ''C'' may have either a terminating or a recurring ternary numeral, only one of its numerals consists entirely of 0's and 2's. The function from ''C'' to [0,1] is defined by taking the numeral that does consist entirely of 0's and 2's, and replacing all the 2's by 1's. In a formula, :&lt;math&gt;f \left ( \sum_{k=1}^\infty a_k 3^{-k} \right ) = \sum_{k=1}^\infty (a_k/2) 2^{-k}&lt;/math&gt; For any number ''y'' in [0,1], its binary representation can be translated into a ternary representation of a number ''x'' in ''C'' by replacing all the 1's by 2's. With this, ''f''(''x'') = ''y'' so that ''y'' is in the range of ''f''. For instance if ''y''=3/5=0.100110011001...&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, we write ''x'' = 0.200220022002...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = 7/10. Consequently ''f'' is surjective; however, ''f'' is ''not'' [[injective function|injective]] &amp;mdash; interestingly enough, the values for which ''f''(''x'') coincides are those at opposing ends of one of the ''middle thirds'' removed. For instance, 7/9 = 0.2022222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and 8/9 = 0.2200000...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; so ''f''(7/9) = 0.101111...&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.11&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = ''f''(8/9). In other words, the &quot;endpoints&quot; of the Cantor set are all numbers with ternary representation consisting of only 0's and 2's. Since there is a clear bijection between the ternary numbers consistings of only the digits 0 and 2 and the binary numbers consisting of the digits 0 and 1, it follows that the number of endpoints in the Cantor set is equal to the number of binary strings. The number of binary strings is uncountable by [[Cantor's diagonal argument]], thus the Cantor set contains an [[countable|uncountable]] number of points, though it contains no interval. This is the paradox of the Cantor set, that it contains as many points as the interval from which it is taken, yet it itself contains no interval. === The Cantor set is a fractal === The Cantor set is the prototype of a [[fractal]]. It is [[self-similar]], because it is equal to two copies of itself, if each copy is shrunk by a factor of 1/3 and translated. Its [[Hausdorff dimension]] is equal to ln(2)/ln(3). It can be formed by intersecting a [[Sierpinski carpet]] with any of its lines of reflectional [[symmetry]] (such as reading the center scanline). === Topological and analytical properties === As the above summation argument shows, the Cantor set is uncountable but has [[Lebesgue measure]] 0. Since the Cantor set is the complement of a [[union (set theory)|union]] of [[open set]]s, it itself is a [[closed set|closed]] subset of the reals, and therefore a [[complete space|complete]] [[metric space]]. Since it is also [[bounded set|bounded]], the [[Heine-Borel theorem]] says that it must be [[compact space|compact]]. For any point in the Cantor set and any arbitrarily small neighborhood of the point, there is some other number with a ternary numeral of only 0's and 2's, as well as numbers whose ternary numerals contain 1's. Hence, every point in the Cantor set is an [[accumulation point]], but none is an [[interior point]]. A closed set in which every point is an accumulation point is also called a [[perfect set]] in [[topology]], while a closed subset of the interval with no interior points is [[nowhere dense]] in the interval. For two points in the Cantor set, there will be some ternary digit where they differ &amp;mdash; one d will have 0 and the other 2. By splitting the Cantor set into &quot;halves&quot; depending on the value of this digit, one obtains a partition of the Cantor set into two closed sets that separate the original two points. In the [[relative topology]] on the Cantor set, the points have been separated by a [[clopen set]]. Consequently the Cantor set is [[totally disconnected]]. As a compact totally disconnected [[Hausdorff space]], the Cantor set is an example of a [[Stone space]]. As a [[topological space]], the Cantor set is [[homeomorphism|homeomorphic]] to the [[product topology|product]] of [[countable|countably many]] copies of the space {0, 1}, where each copy carries the [[discrete space|discrete topology]], as can easily be shown using the ternary expansion used to prove its uncountability. The [[basis (topology)|basis]] for the open sets of the product topology are the [[cylinder set]]s; the homeomorphism maps these to the [[subspace topology]] that the Cantor set inherits from the natural topology on the real number line. The Cantor set is a [[homogeneous space]] in the sense that for any two points ''x'' and ''y'' in the Cantor set ''C'', there exists a homeomorphism ''f'' : ''C'' &amp;rarr; ''C'' with ''f''(''x'') = ''y''. The Cantor set is also homeomorphic to the [[p-adic numbers|p-adic integers]], and, if one point is removed from it, to the p-adic numbers. The Cantor set can be characterized by these properties: every nonempty totally-disconnected perfect compact metric space is homeomorphic to the Cantor set. See [[Cantor space]] for more on spaces homeomorphic to the Cantor set. The Cantor set is &quot;universal in the [[Category theory|category]] of compact metric spaces&quot;. This means that any compact metric space is a continuous image of the Cantor set. This fact has important applications in [[functional analysis]]. == Variants of the Cantor set == :''See main article [[Smith-Volterra-Cantor set]]''. Instead of repeatedly removing the middle third of every piece as in the Cantor set, we could also keep removing any other fixed percentage (other than 0% and 100%) from the middle. The resulting sets are all homeomorphic to the Cantor set and also have Lebesgue measure 0. In the case where the middle 8/10 of the interval is removed, we get a remarkably accessible case &amp;mdash; the set consists of all numbers in [0,1] that can be written as a decimal consisting entirely of 0's and 9's. By removing progressively smaller percentages of the remaining pieces in every step, one can also construct sets homeomorphic to the Cantor set that have positive Lebesgue measure, while still being [[nowhere dense]]. ==Historical remarks== This set would have been considered abstract at the time when Cantor devised it. Cantor himself was led to it by practical concerns about the set of points where a [[Fourier series|trigonometric series]] might fail to converge. The discovery did much to set him on the course for developing an [[axiomatic set theory|abstract, general theory of infinite sets]]. == See also == *[[Cantor function]] *[[Cantor space]] * The Cantor set is the set of all points on the [[Koch curve]] that intersect the original horizontal line segment. * One of the simplest [[Iterated function system]]s generates the Cantor set. * The Cantor set, like [[Cantor dust]], is a kind of [[fractal dust]]. * The [[Horseshoe map|Smale horseshoe map]] has an invariant set that is the Cartesian product of a Cantor set with itself. &lt;!--''(is [[fractal dust]] the same as a [[Fatou set]] ???)''--&gt; ==Historical references== * Georg Cantor, ''On the Power of Perfect Sets of Points'' (''De la puissance des ensembles parfait de points''), Acta Mathematica 2 (1884) English translation reprinted in ''Classics on Fractals'', ed. Gerald A. Edgar, Addison-Wesley (1993) ISBN 0-201-58701-7 ==Modern references== * Lynn Arthur Steen and J. Arthur Seebach, Jr., ''[[Counterexamples in Topology]]''. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978. Reprinted by Dover Publications, New York, 1995. ISBN 0-486-68735-X (Dover edition). ''(See example 29)''. ==External links== * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/do_you_know/Cantor2.shtml
ar points outside of the Soviet Union. During this program a deadly collision between a B-52 and a KC-135 over Spain in [[1966]] occurred. Four megaton-range nuclear bombs were lost (all four later recovered). After this crash, thousands of tons of contaminated radioactive soil had to be brought back to the US. The USAF decided this was too expensive to risk again, and it ended the airborne alert program. The 1973 Arab attack on Israel, and the subsequent threat of a Soviet invasion of Israel, brought the B-52s to their highest state of ground alert (see below). In the late 1960's and 1970s, the B-52s' mission profile changed. As Soviet air defenses improved, high-altitude free-fall bomb penetration missions would have proved nearly suicidal. The bombers were modified to launch &quot;defense suppression&quot; missiles designed to create safe corridors in which the bombers could pass to attack their targets with free-fall bombs. [[Hound Dog (missile)|AGM-28 Hound Dog]] [[supersonic]] [[cruise missiles]] were originally designed for this purpose until effectively replaced by the [[hypersonic]] [[Short-Range Attack Missile]]. Both missiles carried nuclear warheads. With the advent of the [[AGM-86]] [[cruise missile]], B-52s could perform a &quot;stand-off&quot; role of launching cruise missiles at their targets while the bombers could safely avoid Soviet defenses. These pilotless AGM-86s would have flown to their own targets at treetop level, reaching near-[[Mach number|Mach]] speed. The [[Soviet Union]]'s attempt to defend against cruise missiles was extremely expensive and helped bring about that government's demise. In [[1991]] [[President]] [[George H.W. Bush]] ended an era when he took the B-52s off of &quot;alert&quot; duty. ==Combat Record== Source: Michel L. Marshall III, &quot;The Eleven Days of Christmas: America's Last Vietnam Battle&quot;, Encounter Books, San Francisco, 2002.] B-52s were used extensively in the [[Vietnam War]]. The North [[Vietnam]]ese Army (NVA) was terrified of B-52 attacks. Survivors described the experience as akin to an [[earthquake]]. The B-52s' devastating firepower made it the most feared weapon used against the [[Ho Chi Minh Trail]]. B-52s dropped bombs on suspected enemy arms caches and hideouts on the Trail, often inflicting huge losses on the [[Communist]] forces. The zenith of B-52 attacks in Vietnam was Operation Linebacker II, which consisted of waves of B-52s (mostly D models, but some G's with less jamming equipment and a smaller bomb load) bombing [[Hanoi]]. This was called &quot;The Eleven-Day War.&quot; The objective was to force North Vietnam back to the Paris Peace Talks, which up to that point they had refused to do. In Linebacker II, seventeen B-52s were shot down. Many fewer would have been shot down if not for poor planning and inflexibility by the mission planners of the USAF's [[Strategic Air Command]] (SAC). Specifically, SAC ordered B-52s to attack from highly predictable, precisely-timed, repetitive positions and altitudes. This eliminated the element of surprise. The NVA were able to aim their Soviet-built [[SA-2 Guideline]] Surface-to-Air [[Missiles]] (SAMs) by simple timing and [[azimuth]] prediction. Further complicating the situation for the B-52s was the fact that SAC had used the same jamming (electronic countermeasures) techniques for years, thus enabling the NVA to develop counter-countermeasures. SAC ordered the B-52s to make a steep turn after dropping the bombs. This resulted in an interruption in the electronic jamming of NVA radars because the B-52s' jamming antennas, which were located on the bottom of the aircraft, were then pointed away from the radars. To make matters worse, the turn made the B-52s face into a 100-[[mph]] [[headwind]], which slowed their escape. The NVA were surprised at first, but after a few nights of these repetitive tactics, they figured it out. The NVA blasted several B-52s with direct hits. Two were damaged severely and crashed near U-Tapao Royal [[Thai]] Air Base. The situation would have been even worse for the B-52s if not for the inaccuracy of the SA-2 system and the inexperience and errors of its NVA operators. SAC refused to change its tactics even when shown that the existing tactics were ineffective and highly dangerous to the aircraft and crews. In part, this was due to indecision on the part of SAC's commander. Also, because of a &quot;top-down&quot; culture which had been originally established for nuclear war by [[General]] [[Curtis LeMay]], SAC refused to listen to the suggestions of its aircrews. The LeMay culture had discouraged open and frank discussion to the point that only &quot;yes men&quot; made it to the top of the SAC organization where, potentially, they might have been able to prod the SAC commander into a change of tactics. (Surprisingly, NVA records and interviews with former SAM operators show exactly the opposite culture. Realistic discussion and innovation were encouraged among the batteries' commanders.) Ironically, although the NVA had run out of missiles by Day Four of the campaign, and the B-52s could have bombed an undefended Hanoi, SAC was so rattled by its losses that it directed the B-52s to targets outside Hanoi, thus giving the NVA time to reload. After that, B-52 losses mounted again. SAC commanders did their best to suppress revelations about their incompetence, even going so far as to suggest that their one of their critics was mentally unstable. SAC has rewritten history in its official account of Linebacker II. This semi-fiction is still taught at the USAF's Air University at [[Maxwell Air Force Base]], [[Alabama]]. ==After Vietnam== In October 1973, the [[Arab]]s, using [[Soviet]] equipment, attacked [[Israel]], but Israel gained the upper hand. As a result, the Soviet Union threatened to invade Israel. To stop the Soviets, [[President]] [[Richard M. Nixon]] threatened nuclear war. [[Secretary of Defense]] [[Melvin Laird]] ordered the B-52s to an immediate war footing. Fully armed and fueled B-52s waited for the &quot;Go&quot; signal, sitting at the hold lines of their runways. Humiliated, the Soviet Union once again (see [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] above) backed down. In the late 1970s, the B-52D's were retired. The remaining G and H models were used for nuclear standby (&quot;alert&quot;) duty (see above) as part of the United States' nuclear deterrence &quot;triad.&quot; This triad was the combination of nuclear-armed land-based missiles, submarine-based missiles, and manned bombers. After the fall of the Soviet Union, the B-52Gs were destroyed as per the terms of the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START). Today, only the H models remain in service. The B-52 contributed to the U.S. success in [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in [[Afghanistan]], providing the ability to loiter high over the battlefield and provide Close Air Support (CAS) through the use of precision guided munitions. The long range and endurance of the B-52 provided a U.S. presence unmatched by any other combat aircraft. B-52's also played a key role in the second Gulf War in 2002-2003 ([[2003 invasion of Iraq|Operation Iraqi Freedom]]), where they provided close air support and bombing. The Air Force intends to keep the B-52 in service until around [[2050]], an unprecedented length of service for a combat aircraft model (the venerable [[DC-3]], now 70 years old, is still in regular revenue service in civilian hands). This is especially amazing considering that the last plane was built in 1962; the Air Force fully expects to be flying 90-year-old airframes. Periodically, B-52s are rebuilt at the USAF's maintenance depots such as [[Tinker Air Force Base]], [[Oklahoma]]. Therefore, despite their chronological age, their actual service age is quite young. [[Boeing]] has suggested re-engining of the B-52H fleet with the [[Rolls-Royce RB211|Rolls-Royce RB211 534E-4]]. This would involve replacing the eight [[Pratt &amp; Whitney TF33]]s (total thrust 17,000 lb or 605 kN) with four RB211s (total thrust 37,400 lb.). The RR engines will increase the range/payload of the fleet and reduce fuel consumption. However the cost of the project would be significant. Procurement would cost approximately $2.56 billion ($36 million × 71 aircraft). A [[General Accounting Office]] study of the proposal concluded that Boeing's estimated savings of $4.7 billion would not be realized. They found that it would cost the Air Force $1.3 billion over keeping the existing engines. [http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/systems/b-52-upgrade.htm] Another recently approved upgrade for the B-52 is the B-52 SOJ (Stand Off Jammer) program which will allow it to assume an airborne communications/jamming role. Approximately a quarter of the fleet will be converted to take on this mission, with the Air Force seeking funding to convert the entire fleet. The B-52 SOJ will retain all of its bomber functions and capabilities, however now after having expended its weapons load it will continue to loiter over the combat area providing electronic warfare cover for follow on strikes. The additional equipment will be carried in 30 ft external pods under the wings. [http://www.isrjournal.com/story.php?F=1166029] The USAF continues to employ the B-52 because it remains an effective and and the most economical heavy bomber in US service, particularly for the type of conflicts conducted since the end of the Cold War against nations with limited anti-air capabilities. The stealth and speed of the [[B-1 Lancer]] and [[B-2 Spirit]] have only been useful until enemy air defences were destroyed, a task that has been swiftly achieved in recent conflicts. The B-52 boasts the highest mission capable rate of the three types of heavy bombers operated by the USAF. Whereas the B-1 averages a 57% ready rate [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/b-1b.htm] and the B-2 achievs 26% [http://www.fas.org/pub/gen/mswg/stealth/], the B-52 av
slands permit slightly larger clusters. Some of these people are primarily water buffalo herders and lead a seminomadic life. In the winter, when the waters are at a low point, they build fairly large temporary villages. In the summer they move their herds out of the marshes to the river banks. The war has had its effect on the lives of these denizens of the marshes. With much of the fighting concentrated in their areas, they have either migrated to settled communities away from the marshes or have been forced by government decree to relocate within the marshes. Also, in early 1988, the marshes had become the refuge of deserters from the Iraqi army who attempted to maintain life in the fastness of the overgrown, desolate areas while hiding out from the authorities. These deserters in many instances have formed into large gangs that raid the marsh communities; this also has induced many of the marsh dwellers to abandon their villages. The war has also affected settlement patterns in the northern Kurdish areas. There, the persistence of a stubborn rebellion by Kurdish guerrillas has goaded the government into applying steadily escalating violence against the local communities. Starting in 1984, the government launched a scorched-earth campaign to drive a wedge between the villagers and the guerrillas in the remote areas of two provinces of Kurdistan in which Kurdish guerrillas were active. In the process whole villages were torched and subsequently bulldozed, which resulted in the Kurds flocking into the regional centers of Irbil and As Sulaymaniyah. Also as a military precaution, the government has cleared a broad strip of territory in the Kurdish region along the Iranian border of all its inhabitants, hoping in this way to interdict the movement of Kurdish guerrillas back and forth between Iran and Iraq. The majority of Kurdish villages, however, remained intact in early 1988. In the arid areas of Iraq to the west and south, cities and large towns are almost invariably situated on watercourses, usually on the major rivers or their larger tributaries. In the south this dependence has had its disadvantages. Until the recent development of flood control, Baghdad and other cities were subject to the threat of inundation. Moreover, the dikes needed for protection have effectively prevented the expansion of the urban areas in some directions. The growth of Baghdad, for example, was restricted by dikes on its eastern edge. The diversion of water to the Milhat ath Tharthar and the construction of a canal transferring water from the Tigris north of Baghdad to the Diyala River have permitted the irrigation of land outside the limits of the dikes and the expansion of settlement. ==Climate== [[Image:Dust storm over Iran, Iraq.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Dust storms in Iraq, September 2000]] Roughly 90 percent of the annual rainfall occurs between November and April, most of it in the winter months from December through March. The remaining six months, particularly the hottest ones of June, July, and August, are dry. Except in the north and northeast, mean annual rainfall ranges between 10 and 17 [[centimeter]]s (4&amp;ndash;6.7&amp;nbsp;[[inch|in]]). Data available from stations in the foothills and steppes south and southwest of the mountains suggest mean annual rainfall between 32 and 57 centimeters (12.6&amp;ndash;22.4&amp;nbsp;in)for that area. Rainfall in the mountains is more abundant and may reach 100 centimeters (39.4&amp;nbsp;in) a year in some places, but the terrain precludes extensive cultivation. Cultivation on nonirrigated land is limited essentially to the mountain valleys, foothills, and steppes, which have 30 centimeters (12&amp;nbsp;in) or more of rainfall annually. Even in this zone, however, only one crop a year can be grown, and shortages of rain have often led to crop failures. Mean minimum temperatures in the winter range from near freezing (just before dawn) in the northern and northeastern foothills and the western desert to 2-3°[[Centigrade|C]] (35.6&amp;ndash;37.4°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) and 4-5°C (39-41°F) in the alluvial plains of southern Iraq. They rise to a mean maximum of about 15.5°C (60°F) in the western desert and the northeast, and 16.6°C (62°F) in the south. In the summer mean minimum temperatures range from about 22.2°C to about 29°C (72-84°F) and rise to maximums between roughly 37.7 and 43.3°C (100-110°F). Temperatures sometimes fall below freezing and have fallen as low as -14.4°C (6.0°F) at Ar Rutbah in the western desert. They are more likely, however, to go over 46°C (115°F) in the summer months, and several stations have records of over 48°C (118°F). The summer months are marked by two kinds of wind phenomena. The southern and southeasterly sharqi, a dry, dusty wind with occasional gusts of 80 kilometers an hour (50&amp;nbsp;[[Miles per hour|mph]]), occurs from April to early June and again from late September through November. It may last for a day at the beginning and end of the season but for several days at other times. This wind is often accompanied by violent duststorms that may rise to heights of several thousand meters and close airports for brief periods. From mid-June to mid-September the prevailing wind, called the shamal, is from the north and northwest. It is a steady wind, absent only occasionally during this period. The very dry air brought by this shamal permits intensive sun heating of the land surface, but the breeze has some cooling effect. The combination of rain shortage and extreme heat makes much of Iraq a desert. Because of very high rates of evaporation, soil and plants rapidly lose the little moisture obtained from the rain, and vegetation could not survive without extensive irrigation. Some areas, however, although arid do have natural vegetation in contrast to the desert. For example, in the Zagros Mountains in northeastern Iraq there is permanent vegetation, such as oak trees, and date palms are found in the south. ==Area and boundaries== '''Area:'''&lt;br&gt; ''total:'' 437,072 km&amp;sup2; (168,754&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi)&lt;br/&gt; ''land:'' 432,162 km&amp;sup2; (166,859&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi)&lt;br/&gt; ''water:'' 4,910 km&amp;sup2; (1,896&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi) '''Land boundaries:'''&lt;br/&gt; ''total:'' 3,631 km (2,256&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]])&lt;br/&gt; ''border countries:'' [[Iran]] 1,458 km&amp;nbsp;(906&amp;nbsp;mi), [[Jordan]]&amp;nbsp;181&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;(112&amp;nbsp;mi), [[Kuwait]]&amp;nbsp;242&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;(150&amp;nbsp;mi), [[Saudi Arabia]]&amp;nbsp;814&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;(506&amp;nbsp;mi), [[Syria]]&amp;nbsp;605&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;(376&amp;nbsp;mi), [[Turkey]]&amp;nbsp;331&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;(206&amp;nbsp;mi) '''Coastline:''' 58 km (36 mi) '''Maritime claims:'''&lt;br/&gt; ''continental shelf:'' not specified&lt;br/&gt; ''territorial sea:'' 12 [[nautical mile]]s (22.2 km) '''Elevation extremes:'''&lt;br/&gt; ''lowest point:'' Persian Gulf 0 m&lt;br/&gt; ''highest point:'' [[Cheekah Dar]] 3,611&amp;nbsp;m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;11,847&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]] (not Haji Ibrahim&amp;mdash;3,600 [[metre|m]]&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;11,811&amp;nbsp;ft) ==Resources and land use== '''Natural resources:''' petroleum, natural gas, phosphates, sulfur '''Land use:'''&lt;br/&gt; ''arable land:'' 12%&lt;br/&gt; ''permanent crops:'' 0%&lt;br/&gt; ''permanent pastures:'' 9%&lt;br/&gt; ''forests and woodland:'' 0%&lt;br/&gt; ''other:'' 79% (1993 est.) '''Irrigated land:''' 25,500 km&amp;sup2; or 9,850 sq. mi (1993 est.) ==Environmental concerns== '''Natural hazards:''' dust storms, sandstorms, floods '''Environment - current issues:''' government water control projects have drained most of the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting the feeder streams and rivers; a once sizable population of Shi'a Muslims, who have inhabited these areas for thousands of years, has been displaced; furthermore, the destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area's wildlife populations; inadequate supplies of potable water; development of Tigris-Euphrates Rivers system contingent upon agreements with upstream riparian Turkey; air and water pollution; soil degradation (salination) and erosion; desertification '''Environment - international agreements:'''&lt;br/&gt; ''party to:'' Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban&lt;br/&gt; ''signed, but not ratified:'' Environmental Modification :Major ecoregions : [[Ecoregion PA1303|PA1303]] | [[Ecoregion PA1320|PA1320]] :Minor ecoregions : [[Ecoregion PA0446|PA0446]] | [[Ecoregion PA1320|PA1320]] | [[Ecoregion PA0812|PA0812]] | [[Ecoregion PA1207|PA1207]] | [[Ecoregion PA1305|PA1305]] | [[Ecoregion PA1328|PA1328]] | [[Ecoregion PA0906|PA0906]] | [[Ecoregion PA1325|PA1325]] | [[Ecoregion PA1323|PA1323]] ==See also== *[[Iraq]] *[[List of places in Iraq]] ==Sources== *[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies] *''CIA World Fact Book'' {{Asia in topic|Geography of}} [[Category:Geography of Iraq| ]] [[ar:جغرافيا العراق]] [[es:Geografía de Iraq]] [[pt:Geografia do Iraque]] [[sv:Iraks geografi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Iraq</title> <id>14666</id> <revision> <id>41422372</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T05:24:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>71.8.210.135</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Iraq demography.jpg|thumb|200px|Distribution of Religious and Ethnic Groups in Iraq]] Almost 75% of [[Iraq]]'s population live in the flat, alluvial plain stretching southeast toward [[Baghdad]] and [[Basra]] to the [[Persian Gulf]]. The [[Tigris River]] and the [[Euphrates River]] carry about 70 million cubic meters of silt annually to the delta. Known in ancient times as [[Mesopotamia]], the region is the legendary locale of the [[Garden of Eden]]. The ruins of [[Ur]], [[Babylon]], and other ancient cities are here
<page> <title>Celery</title> <id>6535</id> <revision> <id>41749741</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:48:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[urban legend]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Celery | image = Snijselderij Apium graveolens.jpg | image_width = 240px | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Apiales]] | familia = [[Apiaceae]] | genus = ''[[Apium]]'' | species = '''''A. graveolens''''' | binomial = ''Apium graveolens'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] }} '''Celery''' (''Apium graveolens dulce'') is a [[herbaceous]] [[biennial plant]] in the family [[Apiaceae]], native to the [[coast]]s of western and northern [[Europe]], most commonly in ditches and [[saltmarsh]]es. It grows to 1 m tall, with pinnate to bipinnate [[leaf|leaves]] with rhombic leaflets 3-6 cm long and 2-4 cm broad. The [[flower]]s are creamy-white, 2-3 mm diameter, produced in dense compound [[umbel]]s. The [[seed]]s are broad ovoid to globose, 1.5-2 mm long and wide. [[Celeriac]] (''Apium graveolens rapaceum'') is closely related. ==Cultivation and uses== [[Image:Apio.jpg|right|thumb|Blanched celery head.]][[Image:Celery cross section.jpg|right|thumb|Cross-section of a Pascal celery stalk.]] Celery is a very popular [[vegetable]], used primarily in [[salad|salads]] and [[soup|soups]]. In North America, commercial production of celery is dominated by a variety called Pascal celery. Gardeners can grow a range of [[cultivar]]s , many which differ little from the wild species, mainly in having stouter leaf stems. They are ranged under two classes, white and red; the white cultivars being generally the best flavoured, and most crisp and tender. The wild form of celery is known as smallage. It has a furrowed stalk with wedge-shaped leaves, the whole plant having a coarse, rank taste, and a peculiar smell. With cultivation and blanching, the stalks lose their acrid qualities and assume the mild, sweetish, aromatic taste peculiar to celery as a salad plant. The plants are raised from [[seed]], sown either in a hot bed or in the open garden according to the season of the year, and after one or two thinnings out and transplantings they are, on attaining a height of 15-20 cm, planted out in deep trenches for convenience of blanching, which is effected by earthing up to exclude light from the stems. In the past, celery was grown as a vegetable for winter and early spring; because of its antitoxic properties, it was perceived as a cleansing tonic, welcomed after the stagnation of winter. ===Food uses=== As a salad plant, celery, especially if at all &quot;stringy&quot;, is difficult to digest. Celery has 'negative [[calories]]', as the effort to consume it burns more calories than it contains. The net loss in calories is not significant in and of itself, but as with other low calorie and high fiber foods, it can be an asset to dieters because when the stomach is filled up with celery it can quench feelings of hunger while leaving less room for higher calorie foods. It also possesses valuable [[diuretic]] properties. Both blanched and green it is stewed and used in [[soup]]s, the seeds also being used as a flavouring ingredient. Even after long immersion in broth, the stalks remain somewhat crisp, and are useful for adding texture to the soup. In the south of Europe celery is seldom blanched, but is much used in its natural condition. Chopped, it is one of the three vegetables considered the [[holy trinity (cuisine)|holy trinity]] of [[Louisiana Creole cuisine|Louisiana Creole]] and [[Cajun cuisine]]. It is also one of the three vegetables (together with onions and carrots) that constitute the french [[mirepoix (cuisine)|mirepoix]], which is often used as a base for sauces and soups. Celery seed is used as a [[spice]]. When combined with [[edible salt|salt]], the resulting spice blend is called celery salt. Celery salt is used as an alternate to ordinary salt seasoning in various recipes and [[cocktail]]s. It is notably used to enhance the flavor of [[Bloody Mary (cocktail)|Bloody Mary]] and the [[Chicago-style hot dog]]. ===Medicinal uses=== The whole plant is gently stimulant, nourishing, and restorative; it can be liquefied, with the juice taken for joint and urinary tract inflammations, such as [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[cystitis]], or [[urethritis]], for weak conditions, and for nervous exhaustion. The [[seed]]s, harvested after the plant flowers in its second year, are the basis for a [[Homeopathy|homeopathic]] extract used as a [[diuretic]]. The extract is believed to help clear toxins from the system, so are especially good for [[gout]], where [[uric acid]] crystals collect in the joints, and [[arthritis]]. They are also used as a mild digestive stimulant. The extract can be combined with [[almond oil|almond]] or [[sunflower oil|sunflower]] oil, and massaged into arthritic joints or for painful gout in the feet or toes. The root is an effective diuretic and has been taken for urinary stones and gravel. It also acts as a bitter digestive remedy and liver stimulant. A [[tincture]] can be used as a [[diuretic]] in [[hypertension]] and urinary disorders, as a component in arthritic remedies, or as a kidney energy stimulant and cleanser. ===Caution=== * [[Bergapten]] in the seeds could increase photosensitivity, so do not apply the [[essential oil]] externally in bright sunshine. * Avoid the oil and large doses of the seeds during pregnancy: they can act as a uterine stimulant. * Do not ingest seeds intended for cultivation, because they are often treated with fungicides. ==Etymology== There is a widespread [[urban legend|myth]] that the word celery (&quot;The Fast Vegetable&quot;) derives from the [[Latin]] word, ''celer'', meaning ''fast'' or ''swift''. This is entirely false &amp;mdash; there is no connection between them. It actually comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''selinon'', meaning ''[[parsley]]''. A reference to ''selinon'' is found in Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]''. The word ''celeri'' is found as early as a [[9th century]] poem proclaiming the merits and medicinal uses of the plant, written in France or Italy. It passed through Latin, [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[French language|French]] before becoming the modern [[English language|English]] word ''celery''. ==Trivia== *The Class B [[Michigan-Ontario League]], a [[minor league baseball]] league from the early 20th century, included a team called the [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]] Celery Pickers. *[[Dr. Brown's]] makes a celery-flavored [[soft drink]] called [[Cel-Ray]], which is sold mostly in the [[New York City]] region. == References == *[http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/PLANTanswers/publications/vegetabletravelers/celery.html Celery First Used as a Medicine], from a [[Texas A&amp;M University]] website * Harper, Douglas (2001). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=celery Etymology of ''celery'']. Retrieved 2005 [[5 January]]. == External links == *[http://www.kpl.gov/collections/LocalHistory/AllAbout/businesses/Celery.aspx History of commercial celery production in Kalamazoo, Michigan], from that city's website *[http://www.ams.usda.gov/standards/celery.pdf Quality standards] (in [[Portable Document Format|PDF format]]), from the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] website *[http://www.nutritiondata.com/foods-celery011000000000000000000.html Nutritional information], from a commercial, [[AdSense|ad-supported]] website based mostly on USDA data [[Category:Apiaceae]] [[Category:Leaf vegetables]] [[Category:Stem vegetables]] [[Category:Spices]] [[ar:كرفس]] [[bg:Целина]] [[de:Sellerie]] [[es:Apium graveolens]] [[eo:Celerio]] [[fr:Céleri]] [[he:סלרי]] [[hu:Zeller]] [[nl:Snijselderij]] [[ja:セロリ]] [[pl:Seler zwyczajny]] [[sq:Selinoja]] [[fi:Selleri]] [[uk:Селера]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CPM</title> <id>6536</id> <revision> <id>41306343</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T12:20:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ZS</username> <id>488013</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Others */ Second link fix.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The [[TLA|three-letter acronym]] '''CPM''' represents several subjects: ==Politics== * [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] * [[Communist Party of Malaya]] * [[Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova]] ==Physics== * [[Counts per minute]], a unit of [[radioactivity]] * [[continuous phase modulation]] ==Economy== * [[Commercial Property Manager]] * [[corporate performance management]] ==Informatics== * The [[CP/M]] operating system * [[Cost Per Thousand]] a payment measuring process as used in [[E-Marketing]] * [[Cost Per Impression]] another payment measuring process as used in [[E-Marketing]] ==Others== * ''[[Challenge ProMode Arena]]'', formerly Challenge Promode (''CPM''), a ''[[Quake III Arena]]'' [[mod (computer gaming)|mod]]. * [[Critical path|Critical Path Method]] * [[Cost Per Mille|Cost per mille]] * [[Central Park Media]] * [[Church Planting Movement]], used to instantiate region-based activity of [[church planting]] {{TLAdisambig}} __NOTOC__</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Celestines</title> <id>6537</id> <revision> <id>39218746</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T16:21:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Syrthiss</username> <id>334792</id> </contributor> <comment>recat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Celestine]]'' '''Celestines''', a branch of the great [[Benedictine]] [[monasticism|monastic]] [[Order (religious)|order]], foun
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography_of_French_Guiana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Guinea/People</title> <id>10730</id> <revision> <id>15908527</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T16:46:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <comment>correct redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of French Guiana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Guinea/Government</title> <id>10731</id> <revision> <id>15908528</id> <timestamp>2002-10-11T19:30:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_French_Guiana]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_French_Guiana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Guinea/Economy</title> <id>10732</id> <revision> <id>15908529</id> <timestamp>2002-06-22T20:56:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of French Guiana]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Guinea/Communications</title> <id>10733</id> <revision> <id>15908530</id> <timestamp>2002-10-11T19:35:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Communications_in_French_Guiana]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications_in_French_Guiana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Guinea/Transportation</title> <id>10734</id> <revision> <id>15908531</id> <timestamp>2002-10-12T00:08:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to #REDIRECT [[Transportation_in_French_Guiana]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation_in_French_Guiana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Guinea/Military</title> <id>10735</id> <revision> <id>15908532</id> <timestamp>2002-10-12T00:09:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Military_of_French_Guiana]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military_of_French_Guiana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Polynesia</title> <id>10737</id> <revision> <id>41541940</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:16:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Spudtater</username> <id>240830</id> </contributor> <comment>/* History */ -- is a redirect to same page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300px&quot; |+ &lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;Polynésie française&lt;br&gt;Porinetia Farani&lt;/font&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[image:Flag of French Polynesia.svg|140px|Flag of French Polynesia]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Flag of French Polynesia|In detail]] | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:French Polynesia COA.png|135px|Coat of arms of French Polynesia]] |} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray; font-size:smaller&quot;|''National [[motto]]: Tahiti Nui Mare'are'a'' |- | align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:Frenchpolynesia location map.JPG]] |- | [[Official languages]] | [[French language|French]], [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] |- | [[Political status]] | [[Dependent territory]] ([[Collectivité d'outre-mer]]) |- | [[Capital]] | [[Papeete]] |- | Largest [[City]] | [[Papeete]] |- | [[President of French Polynesia|President]] | [[Oscar Temaru]] |- | [[Area]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water | &lt;br /&gt; [[1 E9 m²|4,167 km²]] &lt;br /&gt; 12% |- | [[Population]] &amp;nbsp;- Total ([[As of 2002|2002]]) &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Density]] | &lt;br /&gt; 245,405 &lt;br /&gt; 64/km² |- | [[Currency]] | [[CFP franc]] |- | [[Time zone]] | [[UTC]] -10 |- | [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]] | [[.pf]] |- | [[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]] | 689 |} '''French Polynesia''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Polynésie française'', [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]]: ''Porinetia Farani'') is a [[France|French]] &quot;overseas collectivity&quot; ([[French language|French]]: ''[[collectivité d'outre-mer]]'', or COM) with the particular designation of &quot;overseas country&quot; ([[French language|French]]: ''[[pays d'outre-mer]]'', or ''POM'') in the southern [[Pacific Ocean]]. It is made up of several groups of [[Polynesia]]n [[island]]s, the most famous island being [[Tahiti]] in the [[Society Islands]] group, which is also the most populous island, and the seat of the capital of the territory ([[Papeete]]). Although not an integral part of its territory, [[Clipperton Island]] is administered from French Polynesia. ==Administration== Between [[1946]] and [[2003]], French Polynesia had the status of an overseas territory ([[French language|French]]: ''[[territoire d'outre-mer]]'', or ''TOM''). In [[2003]] it became an overseas collectivity ([[French language|French]]: ''[[collectivité d'outre-mer]]'', or COM). Its statutory law of [[27 February]] [[2004]] gives it the particular designation of &quot;overseas country&quot; to underline the large autonomy of the territory. ==History== France annexed various Polynesian island groups during the nineteenth century. French Polynesia is located in an area of high seismic activity. In September [[1995]], France stirred up widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the [[Mururoa atoll]] after a three-year [[moratorium]]. The tests were suspended in January [[1996]], as France acceded the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]]. ==Politics== ''Main article: [[Politics of French Polynesia]]'' ==Administrative divisions== French Polynesia has 5 administrative subdivisions ([[French language|French]]: ''subdivisions administratives''): * [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) Îles du Vent'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des Îles du Vent'') (the two ''subdivisions administratives'' [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] and [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] are part of the [[Society Islands]]) * [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) Îles Sous-le-Vent'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des Îles Sous-le-Vent'') (the two ''subdivisions administratives'' [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] and [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] are part of the [[Society Islands]]) * [[Marquesas Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) (Îles) Marquises'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Marquises'') * [[Austral Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) (Îles) Australes'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Australes'') (including the [[Bass Islands (French Polynesia)|Bass Islands]]) * [[Îles Tuamotu-Gambier|Tuamotu-Gambier]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier'') (the [[Tuamotus]] and the [[Gambier Islands]]) [[Image:French Polynesia map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of French Polynesia, from the library of UTX]] ==Geography== ''Main article: [[Geography of French Polynesia]]'' The islands of French Polynesia have a total land area of 4,167 km² (1,622 sq. miles) scattered over 2,500,000 km² (965,255 sq. miles) of ocean. It is made up of several groups of islands, the largest and most populated of which is [[Tahiti]]. The island groups are: *[[Austral Islands]] *[[Bass Islands (French Polynesia)|Bass Islands]] ''often considered part of the Austral Islands'' *[[Gambier Islands]] ''often considered part of the Tuamotu Archipelago'' *[[Marquesas Islands]] *[[Society Islands]] (including Tahiti) *[[Tuamotu|Tuamotu Archipelago]] Aside from Tahiti, important [[atoll]]s and islands, and island groups in French Polynesia include [[Bora Bora]], [[Hiva Oa|Hiva `Oa]], [[Huahine]], [[Maiao]], [[Maupiti]], [[Mehetia]], [[Moorea]], [[Nuku Hiva]], [[Raiatea]], [[Tahaa]], [[Tetiaroa]], [[Tubuai (Austral Islands)|Tubuai]], and [[Tupai]]. ==Economy== ''Main article: [[Economy of French Polynesia]]'' French Polynesia has a moderately developed economy, which is dependent on imported goods, tourism, and the financial assistance of mainland France. Tourist facilities are well developed and are available on the major islands.Also, as the noni fruit from these islands is discovered for its medicinal uses, people have been able to find jobs related to this agricultural industry. The legal tender currency of French Polynesia is the [[CFP franc]]; many merchants have been reported to accept other currencies very readily, but many tourists have been disappointed and inconvenienced through assuming they can use US dollars, etc. Few merchants actually wish to bother to calculate the current exchange rate and then make the foreign exchange at a bank. ==Demographics== ''Main article: [[Demographics of French Polynesia]]'' Total population at the 2002 census was 245,405 inhabitants, 83% of whom are Polynesian, 12% Caucasian, and 5% Eastern Asian (mainly [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]])
eter, example programs, and a readme document. The language consists of eight [[command (computing)|command]]s, listed below. A brainfuck program is a sequence of these commands, possibly interspersed with other characters (which are ignored). The commands are executed sequentially, except as noted below. The brainfuck language uses a simple machine model consisting, besides the program, of an array of 30,000 [[byte]] cells [[initialized]] to zero, a movable [[pointer]] into the array (initialized to point to the leftmost byte of the array), and two streams of bytes for input and output (most often connected to a keyboard and a monitor respectively, and using the [[ASCII]] character encoding). ===Commands=== The eight language commands, each consisting of a single character, are the following: {|align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;500&quot; !align=&quot;center&quot; |Character !align=&quot;center&quot; |Meaning |- ||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; ||increment the pointer (to point to the next cell to the right). |- ||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; ||decrement the pointer (to point to the next cell to the left). |- ||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;+&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; ||increment (increase by one) the byte at the pointer. |- ||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;-&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; ||decrement (decrease by one) the byte at the pointer. |- ||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; ||output the value of the byte at the pointer. |- ||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; ||accept one byte of input, storing its value in the byte at the pointer. |- ||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;[&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; ||[[Branch (computer science)|jump]] forward to the command after the corresponding &lt;code&gt;]&lt;/code&gt; if the byte at the pointer is zero. |- ||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;]&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; ||jump back to the command after the corresponding &lt;code&gt;[&lt;/code&gt; if the byte at the pointer is nonzero. |} (Alternatively, the &lt;code&gt;]&lt;/code&gt; command may instead be translated as an unconditional jump '''to''' the corresponding &lt;code&gt;[&lt;/code&gt; command, or vice versa; programs will behave the same but will run more slowly.) Brainfuck programs can be translated into [[C programming language|C]] using the following substitutions, assuming &lt;code&gt;ptr&lt;/code&gt; is of type &lt;code&gt;unsigned char*&lt;/code&gt; and has been initialized to point to an array of zeroed bytes: {|align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;400&quot; !align=&quot;center&quot; |Brainfuck command !align=&quot;center&quot; |C equivalent |- || &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;code&gt;++ptr;&lt;/code&gt; |- || &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;code&gt;--ptr;&lt;/code&gt; |- || &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;+&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;code&gt;++*ptr;&lt;/code&gt; |- || &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;-&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;code&gt;--*ptr;&lt;/code&gt; |- || &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;code&gt;putchar(*ptr);&lt;/code&gt; |- || &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;code&gt;*ptr=getchar();&lt;/code&gt; |- || &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;[&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;code&gt;while (*ptr) {&lt;/code&gt; |- || &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;]&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;code&gt;}&lt;/code&gt; |} As the name suggests, brainfuck programs tend to be difficult to comprehend. Partly this is because any mildly complex task requires a long sequence of commands; partly it is because the program's text gives no direct indications of the program's [[state (computer science)|state]]. These, as well as brainfuck's inefficiency and its limited input/output capabilities, are some of the reasons it is not used for serious programming. Nonetheless, like any [[Turing-complete]] language, brainfuck is theoretically capable of computing any known computable function or simulating any other computational model, if given an unlimited memory store[http://www.iwriteiam.nl/Ha_bf_Turing.html]. A variety of brainfuck programs have been written[http://esoteric.sange.fi/brainfuck/bf-source/prog/]. === brainfuck's formal &quot;parent language&quot; === Except for its two I/O commands, brainfuck is a minor variation of the formal programming language [[P prime prime]] (P&amp;prime;&amp;prime;) created by [[Corrado Böhm]] in 1964. (In fact, using six symbols equivalent to the respective brainfuck commands &lt;tt&gt;+, -, &amp;lt;, &amp;gt;, [, ],&lt;/tt&gt; Böhm provided an explicit program for each of the basic functions that together serve to compute any [[recursive function|partial recursive function]]. So in a very real sense, the first &quot;brainfuck&quot; programs appear in Böhm's 1964 paper &amp;ndash; and they were programs sufficient to prove Turing-completeness.) == Examples == === Hello World! === The following program prints [[Hello world program|&quot;Hello World!&quot;]] and a newline to the screen: ++++++++++ &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt; &gt;+++++++&gt;++++++++++&gt;+++&gt;+&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;- &lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; The initial loop to set up useful values in the array &gt;++. print 'H' &gt;+. print 'e' +++++++. 'l' . 'l' +++. 'o' &gt;++. space &lt;&lt;+++++++++++++++. 'W' &gt;. 'o' +++. 'r' ------. 'l' --------. 'd' &gt;+. '!' &gt;. newline For readability, this code has been spread across many lines and comments have been added. Brainfuck treats all characters but &lt;code&gt;+-&lt;&gt;[],.&lt;/code&gt; as comments so no special syntax for a comment is needed. The code could just as well have been written as: &lt;code&gt; ++++++++++&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;&gt;+++++++&gt;++++++++++&gt;+++&gt;+&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;-&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&gt;++.&gt;+.+++++++..+++.&gt;++.&lt;&lt;+++++++++++++++.&gt;.+++.------.--------.&gt;+.&gt;.&lt;/code&gt; The first line initialises &lt;code&gt;a[0] = 10&lt;/code&gt; by simply incrementing ten times from 0. The loop from lines 2 to 4 effectively sets the initial values for the array: &lt;tt&gt;a[1] = 70&lt;/tt&gt; (close to 72, the [[ASCII]] code for the character 'H'), &lt;code&gt;a[2] = 100&lt;/code&gt; (close to 101 or 'e'), &lt;code&gt;a[3] = 30&lt;/code&gt; (close to 32, the code for space) and &lt;code&gt;a[4] = 10&lt;/code&gt; (newline). The loop works by multiplying the value of &lt;code&gt;a[0]&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt;, by 7, 10, 3, and 1, saving the results in other cells. After the loop is finished, a[0] is zero. &lt;code&gt;&gt;++.&lt;/code&gt; then moves the pointer to &lt;code&gt;a[1]&lt;/code&gt; which holds &lt;code&gt;70&lt;/code&gt;, adds two to it (producing 72 which is the ASCII character code of a capital H), and outputs it. The next line moves the array pointer to &lt;code&gt;a[2]&lt;/code&gt; and adds one to it, producing &lt;code&gt;101&lt;/code&gt;, a lower-case 'e', which is then output. As 'l' happens to be the seventh letter after 'e', to output 'll' we add another seven (&lt;code&gt;+++++++&lt;/code&gt;) to &lt;code&gt;a[2]&lt;/code&gt; and output the result twice. 'o' is the third letter after 'l', so we increment &lt;code&gt;a[2]&lt;/code&gt; three more times and output the result. The rest of the program goes on in the same way. For the space and capital letters, different array cells are selected and incremented or decremented as needed. ===Trivial=== ==== Cell-clear ==== [-] A simple program fragment which sets the current location to 0, by iteratively decrementing until it is equal to 0. ==== Simple loop ==== ,[.,] A continuous loop that takes text input from the keyboard and echoes it to the screen. Note that this assumes the cell is set to 0 when a '&lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt;' command is executed after the end of input (sometimes called end-of-file or &quot;EOF&quot;); implementations vary on this point. For implementations that set the cell to -1 on EOF, or leave the cell's value unchanged, this program would be written &quot;&lt;code&gt;,+[-.,+]&lt;/code&gt;&quot; or &quot;&lt;code&gt;,[.[-],]&lt;/code&gt;&quot; respectively. ==== Moving the pointer ==== &gt;,[.&gt;,] A version of the last one that also saves all the input in the array for future use, by moving the pointer each time. ==== Add ==== [-&gt;+&lt;] This adds the current location (destructively, it is left at zero) to the next location. ==== Conditional loop statements ==== ,----------[----------------------.,----------] This will take lowercase input from the keyboard and make it uppercase. To exit, press the enter key. First, we input the first character using the &lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt; and immediately subtract 10 from it. (Most, but not all, brainfuck implementations use 10 for return.) If the user hits enter, the loop command (&lt;code&gt;[&lt;/code&gt;) will jump past the end of the loop, because we will have set the first byte to zero. If the character input was not a 10, we boldly assume it was a lowercase letter, and enter the loop, wherein we subtract another 22 from it, for a total of 32, which is the difference between an ASCII lowercase letter and the corresponding uppercase letter. Next we output it. Now we input the next character, and again subtract 10. If this character was a linefeed, we exit the loop; otherwise, we go back to the start of the loop, subtract another 22, output, and so on. When we exit the loop, the program terminates, as there are no more commands. ==== Copying a byte ==== (Now things start to get a bit more complicated. We may as well refer to the bytes in the array as [0], [1], [2], and so on.) Brainfuck does not include any operation f
'Mail &amp; Guardian'' of South Africa, [[October 26]], [[2004]]. * '''[http://www.vnunet.com/comment/1158984 Get set for the wiki revolution]''', Lem Bingley, ''IT Week'', [[October 26]], [[2004]]. Bingley suggests wikis will be important for business in the near future. &quot;[I]t's tempting to say that wikis have no relevance for business. But I fully expect that view to be invalidated.&quot; Article mentions Zuckerman's September analysis of WP (and the then-lacking [[Congo civil war]] coverage). * '''Internet site of the week''', Bangkok Post, [[October 27]], [[2004]] (in English) encourages Thais to contribute to the [http://th.wikipedia.org Thai Wikipedia]: &quot;Everyone here agrees that more web content in the Thai language is needed to encourage more young Thais to access the Internet and to benefit from it. So, if you feel you can contribute some knowledge in your domain of expertise in Thai, please pitch in, or you could visit just to read the free content about Thailand.&quot; * '''[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/10/31/weekinreview/31schw.html When No Fact Goes Unchecked]''', New York Times, [[31 October]] [[2004]]. &quot;The current presidential race has even roiled forums built on cooperation and fairness. At Wikipedia, a sprawling, online encyclopedia written and researched by its users, the Bush-Kerry conflict has spilled over into the wording of the candidates' biographies, with each set of partisans editing the other's facts thousands of times in an escalating tit-for-tat.&quot; === November === * '''[http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6298340/site/newsweek/ It's Like a Blog, But It's a Wiki]''', Newsweek, [[1 November]] [[2004]]. &quot;Wales has registered the Wikipedia Foundation as a nonprofit in Florida. He has no full-time employees and no formal funding like venture capital, but this year he's raised $100,000 in small donations from Wikipedia's fans that will pay for the servers that host the site. He's also expanding into projects like the Wiktionary (a dictionary and thesaurus), Wikibooks (textbooks and manuals) and Wikiquote (quotations). The goal: to give &quot;every single person free access to the sum of all human knowledge.&quot; To achieve that, he doesn't even have to send out stickers.&quot; * '''[http://www.keepmedia.com/pubs/LegalAffairs/2004/11/01/636321 Marxist-Lessigism]''', Legal Affairs, [[1 November]] [[2004]]. &quot;Another example is the ''Wikipedia'', an open source, online encyclopedia that is entirely written, edited, and rewritten by anyone who cares to contribute to it. Even though there is no control structure&amp;mdash;there are no editors, nor is there a publisher&amp;mdash;it rivals commercial encyclopedias in scope and quality of coverage.&quot; * '''[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/andrewkantor/2004-11-05-fifthofnovember_x.htm Today's best encyclopedia might surprise you]''', USA Today, [[5 November]] [[2004]]. &quot;Few parents today would settle for something like that Compton's. They might look to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the World Book Encyclopedia, or Encarta &amp;#8211; either in print on or on CD. But they're all posers compared to the Big Gun of the encyclopedia world &amp;#8211; the one that boasts the titles of largest, fastest growing, and most up-to-date. That would be the Wikipedia.&quot; * '''[http://www.pcworld.com/news/article/0,aid,118497,00.asp A Sneak Peek at Trillian 3.0]''', PCWorld, [[5 November]] [[2004]]. A preview of a new Trillian instant messaging application mentions that it will feature &quot;integration with the Wikipedia online encyclopedia&quot;. * '''[http://books.guardian.co.uk/reviews/politicsphilosophyandsociety/0,6121,1344544,00.html All the news that's fit to blog]''', The Guardian, [[6 November]] [[2004]]. Book review of Dan Gillmor's ''We the Media''. &quot;He tells us ... of wikipedia, the online encyclopedia where anyone can write or edit an article, which now has more than one million articles in more than 100 languages.&quot; * '''[http://www.sptimes.com/2004/11/08/Floridian/There_s_no_end_to_it.shtml There's no end to it]''', St Petersburg Times, [[8 November]] [[2004]]. Interview with local resident [[User:Jimbo Wales|Jimmy Wales]], history of Wikipedia, range of articles, editing culture, reliability. * '''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/online/news/0,12597,1346519,00.html Hunting with Firefox]''', [[The Guardian]], [[November 9]], [[2004]]. A leader congratulating the whole open source movement on [[Mozilla Firefox]]'s 1.0 release, it states that &quot;Firefox deserves to succeed, but even if it does not it will have highlighted the astonishing success of open source, well known inside the web community but not outside. Among other services, it has its own operating system ([[Linux]]), an acclaimed alternative to [[Microsoft Office]] ([[OpenOffice.org]]), and its own encyclopedia (Wikipedia) with a million entries. The open source movement has become one of globalisation's unexpected treasures.&quot; * '''[http://www.theonion.com/opinion/index.php?issue=4045&amp;o=2 I Must Take Issue With the Wikipedia Entry for &quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic]''', ''[[The Onion]]'', [[November 10]], [[2004]]. A parodic op-ed piece by a fictional &quot;banned Wikipedia editor&quot; (for being overzealous on [[Talk:Admiral Ackbar]]), in which he complains about the inadequate length of [[&quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic]]. * '''[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/10/arts/10wiki.html Mudslinging Weasels Into Online History]''', [[The New York Times]], [[November 10]], [[2004]]. (Also picked up by CNet News.com [http://news.com.com/On+Wikipedia%2C+mudslinging+spatters+Bush/2100-1028_3-5446570.html] and the International Herald Tribune.) Takes a detailed look at the (still ongoing) shenanigans over Wikipedia's articles on [[George W. Bush]] and [[John Kerry]] and Wikipedians' attempts to keep the articles in compliance with the [[NPOV]] policy. * '''[http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/1112/p18s03-hfes.html Disambiguating George Romney]''', Christian Science Monitor, [[12 November]] [[2004]]. Essay wondering whether the [[George Romney (painter)|English painter]] is related to the [[George W. Romney|former Michigan governor]] notes finding Wikipedia's [[George Romney|disambiguation page]] through a Google search. &quot;The point of the Wikipedia page was to separate out Web pages referring to the painterly Romney from those referring to the political Romneys - the assumption being that one would be interested in one or the other, not both.&quot; * '''[http://www.infotoday.com/newsbreaks/nb041115-3.shtml OCLC and Yahoo! Offer Joint Toolbar]''', Information Today, [[15 November]] [[2004]]. Mentions Wikipedia as one of the partners in Yahoo!'s content acquisition program. * '''[http://www.news-miner.com/Stories/0,1413,113~7244~2536204,00.html Farther-reaching, faster ignorance thanks to Web]''', Fairbanks (AK) Daily News-Miner, [[15 November]] [[2004]]. Director of Fairbanks library system writes: &quot;Librarians abhor using reference sources that don't have established credibility editorial rigor, and while Wikipedia is an interesting social experiment and &quot;includes information more often associated with almanacs, gazetteers and specialist magazines,&quot; it's too untrustworthy to be used as a secondary source.&quot; * '''[http://www.techcentralstation.com/111504A.html The Faith-Based Encyclopedia]''', Tech Central Station, [[15 November]] [[2004]]. Article critical about the quality of Wikipedia. The reviewer (a former editor-in-chief of [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]) illustrates his point with the article on [[Alexander Hamilton]]. &quot;The user who visits Wikipedia [...] is rather in the position of a visitor to a public restroom. It may be obviously dirty, so that he knows to exercise great care, or it may seem fairly clean, so that he may be lulled into a false sense of security. What he certainly does not know is who has used the facilities before him.&quot; (Linked to from [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/11/16/1319242 Slashdot]) **A response: '''[http://abcnews.go.com/Business/SiliconInsider/story?id=88655&amp;page=1 Digital Democratization: The Digital World and Its Rulers Are Undergoing Some Growing Pains]''', ABC News ''Silicon Insider'', [[18 November]] [[2004]]. &quot;Could the Wikipedia do with more oversight on matters of accuracy? Absolutely; and it will only survive the test of the marketplace over time if it does so. But let's not forget, as McHenry seemed to, that the Wikipedia is also only three years old. It and the Web are only now groping their way toward new models of collaboration and valuation — models that I suspect will include greater peer review, Olympics-type grading systems that eliminate the highs and lows, and even, perhaps something like the King James Bible translators, small teams that police themselves for the highest levels of accuracy and quality.&quot; * '''[http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/columns/stopthepresses_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1000724065 How to Integrate Citizen Journalism Into Mainstream News Sites]''', Editor &amp; Publisher, [[19 November]] [[2004]]. Journalism professor refers to the premise of having the audience determine site content as &quot;the Wikipedia argument&quot;. * '''[http://www.econtentmag.com/Articles/ArticleReader.aspx?ArticleID=7360&amp;ContextSubtypeID=13 Would You Trust Joe Isuzu’s Blog?]''', EContentMag.com, [[23 November]] [[2004]] (the time stamp is the 1 December! I've emailed them about this problem). Talks about how journalists should deal with websites and Wikipedia content and how the author believes that new ways of referencing information need to be developed due to sites like Wikipedia. *'''[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,65819,00.html?tw=wn_tophead_1 Wikipedia Creators Move Into News]''', Wired.com, [[29 November]] [[2004]]. Describes Wikinews project and compares it to the existing Wikipedia. &quot;After
]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Greenwich Mean Time</title> <id>12701</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41981474</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:53:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Adrian</username> <id>103917</id> </contributor> <comment>Reverted edits by [[User:150.108.93.211|150.108.93.211]] ([[User talk:150.108.93.211|t]]) ([[Special:Contributions/150.108.93.211|c]]) to last version by Monkeyman</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For alternate meanings of &quot;GMT&quot;, see [[GMT (disambiguation)]].}} '''Greenwich Mean Time''' ('''GMT''') is [[solar time|mean solar time]] at the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]] in [[Greenwich]], [[London]], [[England]], which by convention is at 0 degrees geographic [[longitude]]. Noon Greenwich Mean Time is not necessarily the moment when the [[Sun]] crosses the [[Greenwich meridian]] (and reaches its highest point in the sky in Greenwich) because of Earth's uneven speed in its elliptic [[orbit]] and its axial tilt. This event may be up to 16 minutes away from noon GMT (this discrepancy is known as the [[equation of time]]). The fictitious mean sun is the annual average of this nonuniform motion of the true Sun, necessitating the inclusion of ''mean'' in Greenwich Mean Time. {{Time zones of Europe}} As Great Britain grew into an advanced maritime nation, British mariners kept their timepieces on GMT in order to calculate their longitude &quot;from the Greenwich meridian&quot;. This did not affect shipboard time itself, which was still solar time. This combined with mariners from other nations drawing from [[Nevil Maskelyne]]'s method of [[lunar distance]]s based on observations at Greenwich, eventually led to GMT being used world-wide as a reference time independent of location. Most [[time zone]]s were based upon this reference as a number of hours and half-hours &quot;ahead of GMT&quot; or &quot;behind GMT&quot;. Hourly time signals from Greenwich Observatory were first broadcast on [[5 February]] [[1924]]. The daily rotation of the Earth is somewhat irregular (see [[Delta T|&amp;Delta;T]]) and is slowing down slightly. [[Atomic clock]]s represent a much more stable timebase. On [[1 January]] [[1972]], GMT was replaced as the international time reference by [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC), maintained by an ensemble of atomic clocks around the world. [[Universal Time|UT1]] was introduced to represent &quot;earth rotation time&quot;. [[Leap second]]s are added to or subtracted from UTC to keep it within 0.9 seconds of UT1. Although civil time, e.g., the [[Greenwich Time Signal]] in [[Great Britain]], is now based on UTC, it is still popularly called GMT. It is also called [[Western European Time]] (WET). Those countries marked in dark blue on the map at right use [[European Summer Time]] and advance their clock one hour in summer. In Great Britain, this is known as [[British Summer Time]] (BST); in Ireland it is called Irish Summer Time (IST). Those countries marked in light blue keep their clocks on UTC/GMT/WET year round. In the military, GMT is often referred to as &quot;Zulu&quot; time, ie ''2000 Zulu'' would be 8:00pm in Greenwich. ==See also== *[[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC) *[[Universal Time]] *[[Nautical mile]] *[[Sidereal time]] *[[Solar time]] *[[Swatch Internet Time]] *[[BPM (time service)|BPM]] *[[CHU]] *[[VNG]] *[[WWV]] *[[Western European Time]] *[[Central European Time]] *[[Eastern European Time]] *[[Moscow Time]] *[[Sandringham Time]] ==External links== * [http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com Greenwich Mean Time] * [http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/world.html NIST - World Time Scales] * [http://hpiers.obspm.fr/ International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service] [[Category:Greenwich]] [[Category:Time scales]] [[de:Greenwich Mean Time]] [[es:Greenwich Mean Time]] [[eo:GMT]] [[fr:Greenwich Mean Time]] [[ko:그리니치 평균시]] [[id:GMT]] [[it:GMT]] [[he:שעון גריניץ']] [[nl:Greenwich Mean Time]] [[ja:グリニッジ標準時]] [[no:Greenwich Mean Time]] [[pl:Czas uniwersalny]] [[pt:GMT]] [[ru:Среднее время по Гринвичу]] [[sl:GMT]] [[sv:GMT]] [[tr:GMT]] [[zh:格林尼治標準時間]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GIF</title> <id>12702</id> <revision> <id>41971285</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:32:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.19.54.236</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Alternatives */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rotating earth (small).gif|right|frame|A rotating globe in GIF format. If you look carefully at the seas you can see unevenness caused by the color reduction using an inappropriate technique.]] &lt;!-- the artifacts in the seas would have been avoided if error diffusion, or a similar technique, had been used --&gt; {{Infobox file format| name = Graphics Interchange Format | extension = &lt;tt&gt;.gif&lt;/tt&gt; | mime = &lt;tt&gt;image/gif&lt;/tt&gt; | owner = [[CompuServe]] | ostype = &lt;tt&gt;GIF &lt;/tt&gt; | genre = [[bitmap]] [[Graphics file formats|image format]] | containerfor = | containedby = | extendedfrom = | extendedto = }} {{otheruses}} '''GIF''' (Graphics Interchange Format) is a [[bitmap]] [[Graphics file formats|image format]] for pictures with up to 256 distinct colours from the over 16 million representable in [[truecolor|8 bit rgb]]. The format was introduced by [[CompuServe]] in [[1987]] and has since come into widespread usage on the [[World Wide Web]]. GIFs are [[data compression|compressed]] files, and were adopted to reduce the amount of time it takes to transfer images over a network connection. A GIF file employs [[lossless data compression]] so that the file size of an image may be reduced without degrading the visual quality, provided the image fits into 256 colours. (However, there is a [[hack (technology slang)|hack]] that can overcome this limitation under certain circumstances; see [[#truecolour]].) The GIF format's 256-colour limitation makes it unsuitable for photographs, though losslessly compressed photographs tend to be unacceptably large for the web anyway. On the other hand the lossy [[JPEG]] format does badly on sharp transitions like those in diagrams, producing highly visible artifacts and little file-size reduction. Therefore GIF is normally used for diagrams, buttons, etc., that have a small number of colours, while the JPEG format is used for photographs. Many software developers were caught by surprise when it was revealed that the GIF format had been patented by [[Unisys]], and that they would have to pay royalties for writing programs that generated (or displayed) GIF files. The desire for a comparable format with fewer legal restrictions (as well as fewer technical restrictions such as the number of colours) led to the development of the [[PNG]] (Portable Network Graphics) standard. Although the GIF patents will expire in the near future, PNG is still touted as a technically superior alternative, and has become the third most common image format on the web. The latest expiration date of the GIF-related patents will most probably be Friday, [[11 August]] [[2006]] [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/gif.html]. ==History== The GIF format was introduced in [[1987]] by [[CompuServe]] in order to provide a colour image format for their file downloading areas, replacing their earlier [[run-length encoding|RLE]] format which was black and white only. GIF became popular because it used [[LZW]] [[data compression]], which was more efficient than the [[run-length encoding]] that formats such as [[PCX]] and [[MacPaint]] used, and fairly large images could therefore be downloaded in a reasonable amount of time, even with very slow [[modem]]s. The original version of GIF was called 87a. In [[1989]], CompuServe devised an enhanced version, called 89a [http://www.w3.org/Graphics/GIF/spec-gif89a.txt], that added support for multiple images in a stream, interlacing and storage of application-specific metadata. The two versions can be distinguished by looking at the first six [[byte|bytes]] of the file, which, when interpreted as [[ASCII]], read &quot;GIF87a&quot; and &quot;GIF89a&quot;, respectively. When the World Wide Web gained popularity, GIF became one of the two image formats commonly used on Web sites, the other being the black and white [[XBM]]. [[JPEG]] came later with the Mosaic browser and truecolor displays. The GIF89a feature of storing multiple images in one file, accompanied by control data, is used extensively on the web to produce simple [[computer animation|animations]]. The optional interlacing feature, which stored image scanlines out of order in such a fashion that even a partially downloaded image was somewhat recognizable, also helped GIF's popularity, as a user could abort the download if it was not what was required. GIF images are limited to 256 colours, though it is possible to [[hack (technology slang)|hack]] around this limitation, under certain circumstances, using the animation feature (see [[#truecolour|colour]]). ==Pronunciation== Some English-speakers pronounce the acronym 'GIF' with a [[Stop consonant|plosive]] (as in the word &quot;gift&quot;). Others pronounce it with an [[Affricate consonant|affricate]] (as in the word &quot;giraffe&quot;). There is evidence, including comments from Bob Berry, one of the format's creators, suggesting the affricate pronunciation is correct. Further evidence of the affricate pronunciation comes from Steve Wilhite, another one of the format's creators, who suggested that &quot;Choosy programmers choose GIF&quot;, which suggests using the pronunciation of a popular brand of peanut butter. The creators of the file format pronounced the acronym as &quot;JIF&quot; during its unveiling presentation in the 1980's. This form remains the more popular method of pronouncing the file format as a spoken word, while most Macintosh
s was the first time a computer had ever defeated a world champion in match play. An award-winning [[documentary film]] was made about this famous matchup entitled [[Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine]]. Also, [[IBM]] keeps a web site of the event at http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/. It should be noted that several factors weighed against Kasparov in this match. He was denied access to Deep Blue's recent games, in contrast to the computer's team that could study hundreds of Kasparov's. The relatively fast time control, lack of rest days and other match rules also favored the machine. After the loss, Kasparov said that he sometimes saw deep intelligence and creativity in the machine's moves. He suggested that humans may have helped the machine during the match. In a way, Kasparov's allegations were correct. The rules provided for the developers to modify the program between games, an opportunity they used to shore up weaknesses in the computer's play revealed during the course of the match. Kasparov demanded a rematch, but IBM declined and retired Deep Blue. Kasparov has been credited with the invention of [[Advanced Chess]] in 1998, a new form of chess in which a human and a computer play together. In November 2003, he engaged in a four game match against chess playing computer program [[X3D Fritz]] (which was said to have an estimated rating of 2807), using a virtual board, [[3D glasses]] and a [[speech recognition]] system. After two draws and two wins respectively, the X3D Man-Machine match ended in draw. Kasparov received $175,000 for the result and took home the golden trophy. Kasparov continued to criticize the blunder in the second game that cost him a crucial point. He felt that he had outplayed the machine overall and played well. &quot;I only made one mistake but unfortunately that one mistake lost the game.&quot; ==Trivia== During his PCA World Championship encounter with Nigel Short and on the eve of the thirteenth match game, Kasparov revealed on Channel 4 television that 13 was in fact his lucky number. Born on the 13th April, in 1963 (divisible by 13), he was the thirteenth World Champion. The game was however drawn. ==See also== * [[Kasparov versus The World]] * [[List of people who have beaten Garry Kasparov in chess]] ==External links== &lt;!-- DO NOT ADD chesshere.com SEE THE TALK/DISCUSSION page and explain why chesshere.com (an inferior site) deserves to be listed here. Wikipedia is not a links directory. One link to a database is sufficient and chessgames.com presents the data in a much better way. Continually adding it despite *many* requests for discussion will be taken to mean vandalism. See talk page, explain, and make no further additions until an agreement is made. Keeping article without chesshere.com because that's the way it was. --&gt; *{{fide|id=4100018|name=Garry Kasparov}} *[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=15940 Kasparov's games at chessgames.com] *[http://www.wtharvey.com/kasp.html 100 crucial positions from his games] *[http://www.chessmaniac.com/Games/MyChessViewer/kasparov.htm Garry Kasparov: 1878 Games 1973-1998] *[http://www.GothicChess.com/news.html On Fischer's Challenge to Topalov] *[http://www.bobby-fischer.net/Garry_Kasparov_Retires_Video.html Kasparov Speaks on Retirement] Video clip *[http://www.mark-weeks.com/chess/85kk$$.htm The World Championship of 1985] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4163439.stm Kasparov's political opinion] *More about Kasparov's retirement from [http://www.chesscenter.com/twic/r15.html ''The Week in Chess''] and [http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=2258 Chessbase] *Kasparov is also a contributing editor of ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'': :*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110006444 The Great Game], on retiring to focus on Russian politics, [[March 19]], [[2005]] :*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110005371 Fischer's Price], on Bobby Fischer, [[July 19]], [[2004]] :*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110005100 Stop the Moral Equivalence], on terrorism, [[May 19]], [[2004]] :*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/extra/?id=110004820 Putinocracy], on Putin's regime, [[March 14]], [[2004]] :*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/extra/?id=110003081 Man vs. Machine], on computer chess, [[February 16]], [[2003]] :*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110002087 The War Is Not Yet Won], on war in the Middle East, [[August 5]], [[2002]] {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Anatoly Karpov]]| title=[[World chess champion|World Chess Champion]] | years=1985&amp;ndash;1993 | after=[[Veselin Topalov]] (disputed) }} {{succession box | before=[[Anatoly Karpov]]| title=[[Fédération Internationale des Échecs|FIDE]] world champion | years=1985&amp;ndash;1993 | after=[[Anatoly Karpov]] }} {{succession box | before=''(none)''| title=[[World chess champion|PCA World Chess Champion]] | years=1993&amp;ndash;2000 | after=[[Vladimir Kramnik]] }} {{end box}} [[Category:1963 births|Kasparov, Gary]] [[Category:Armenian chess players|Kasparov, Garry]] [[Category:Azerbaijani chess players|Kasparov, Garry]] [[Category:Chess grandmasters|Kasparov, Garry]] [[Category:Jewish chess players|Kasparov, Garry]] [[Category:Living people|Kasparov, Garry]] [[Category:Russian chess players|Kasparov, Garry]] [[Category:World Chess Champions|Kasparov, Garry]] [[ar:كاسباروف]] [[af:Garry Kasparov]] [[bs:Garry Kasparov]] [[da:Garry Kasparov]] [[de:Garri Kimowitsch Kasparow]] [[et:Garri Kasparov]] [[el:Γκάρι Κασπάροβ]] [[es:Garry Kasparov]] [[fr:Garry Kasparov]] [[hi:गैरी कास्परोव]] [[id:Garry Kasparov]] [[it:Garry Kasparov]] [[he:גארי קספרוב]] [[lt:Garis Kasparovas]] [[lb:Garri Kimowitsch Kasparow]] [[nl:Garri Kasparov]] [[ja:ガルリ・カスパロフ]] [[ka:კასპაროვი, გარი]] [[no:Garry Kasparov]] [[pl:Garri Kasparow]] [[pt:Garry Kasparov]] [[ru:Каспаров, Гарри Кимович]] [[sl:Gari Kasparov]] [[fi:Garri Kasparov]] [[sv:Garri Kasparov]] [[tr:Garri Kasparov]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geheime Staatspolizei</title> <id>12812</id> <revision> <id>15910469</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Camembert</username> <id>3113</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to &quot;Gestapo&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gestapo]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gianlorenzo Bernini</title> <id>12814</id> <revision> <id>15910471</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>151.24.188.173</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Flag of Greenland</title> <id>12815</id> <revision> <id>36403184</id> <timestamp>2006-01-23T20:50:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hede2000</username> <id>284384</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+da:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of Greenland.svg|thumb|250px|[[Image:FIAV_52.png]] Flag of Greenland]] The '''flag of Greenland''' was designed by [[Greenland]] native Thue Christiansen. It features two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a large disk slightly to the hoist side of center. The top half of the disk is red, the bottom half is white. The entire flag measures 12 by 18 parts; each [[stripe]] measures 6 parts; the disk is 8 parts in diameter, horizontally offset by 7 parts from the hoist to the center of the circle, and vertically centered. Its local name in the [[Kalaallisut language|Greenlandic language]] is ''Erfalasorput'', which means &quot;our flag&quot;, but ''Aappalaartoq'' (meaning &quot;the red&quot;) is also used for both the Greenlandic flag and the [[Dannebrog]]. Today Greenlanders display both the ''Erfalasorput'' and the Dannebrog, often side-by-side. Greenland first entertained the idea of a flag of its own in [[1973]] when five Greenlanders proposed a green, white and blue flag. The following year, a newspaper solicited eleven design proposals (all but one of which was a Nordic cross) and polled the people to determine the most popular. The Dannebrog was better liked than any. Little came of this effort. In [[1978]], [[Denmark]] granted home rule to [[Greenland]], making it an equal member of the [[Danish Kingdom]]. The home rule government held an official call for flag proposals, receiving 555 (of which 293 were submitted by Greenlanders). The deciding committee came to no consensus, so more proposals were solicited. Finally the present red-and-white design by Christiansen narrowly won over a green-and-white Nordic cross by a vote of fourteen to eleven. Christiansen's red-and-white flag was officially adopted [[June 21]], [[1985]]. To honor the tenth anniversary of the ''Erfalasorput'', the Greenland Post Office issued commemorative [[Postage Stamp|stamps]] and a leaflet by its creator. He described the white stripe as representing the [[glacier]]s and ice cap; the red stripe, the [[ocean]]; the red semicircle, the [[fjord]]s; and the white semicircle, the [[iceberg]]s and pack ice. The design is also reminiscent of the setting [[sun]] half-submerged below the horizon and reflected on the sea. == External links == * [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gl.html FOTW: Greenland] - History of the ''Erfalasorput'', including the rejected designs [[Category:Greenland]] [[Category:National flags|Greenland, Flag of]] [[cs:Grónská vlajka]] [[da:Grønlands flag]] [[de:Flagge Grönlands]] [[fr:drapeau du Groenland]] [[he:דגל גרינלנד]] [[it:Bandiera della Groenlandia]] [[nl:Vlag van Groenland]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gustav Radbruch</title> <id>12816</id> <revision>
ple tenses and the future tense. The pluperfect aspect is manifest in tenses that use double or triple auxiliary &quot;be&quot; participles like the past pluperfect subjunctive. Perfect tenses use a single auxiliary &quot;be&quot;. =====Mood===== In addition to the four moods (&lt;u&gt;наклонения&lt;/u&gt;) shared by most other European languages - '''[[indicative mood|indicative]]''' (&lt;u&gt;изявително&lt;/u&gt;), '''[[imperative mood|imperative]]''' (&lt;u&gt;повелително&lt;/u&gt;), '''[[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]]''' (&lt;u&gt;подчинително&lt;/u&gt;) and '''[[conditional mood|conditional]]''' (&lt;u&gt;условно&lt;/u&gt;) - in Bulgarian there is one more to describe past unwitnessed events - the '''[[renarrative mood|renarrative]]''' (&lt;u&gt;преизказно&lt;/u&gt;) mood. =====Tense===== There are three grammatically distinctive positions in time — present, past and future — which combine with aspect and mood to produce a number of formations. Normally, in grammar books these formations are viewed as separate tenses — i. e. &quot;past imperfect tense&quot; would mean that the verb is in past tense, in the imperfective aspect, and in the indicative mood (since no other mood is shown). There are more than 30 different tenses across Bulgarian's two aspects and five moods. In the '''indicative mood''', there are three '''simple tenses''': *'''present tense''' is a temporally unmarked simple form made up of the verbal stem of and a complex suffix composed of the vowel /e/, /i/ or /a/ and the person/number ending (&lt;u&gt;пристигам&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I arrive/I am arriving&quot;); only imperfective verbs can stand in the present indicative tense independently; *'''past imperfect tense''' is a simple verb form used to express an action which is contemporaneous or subordinate to other past actions; it is made up of an imperfective verbal stem and the person/number ending (&lt;u&gt;пристигаx&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I was arriving&quot;); *'''past aorist tense''' is a simple form used to express a temporarily independent, specific past action; it is made up of a perfective verbal stem and the person/number ending (&lt;u&gt;пристигнах&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I arrived&quot;); In the '''indicative''' there are also the following '''compound tenses''': *'''future tense''' is a compound form made of the particle &lt;u&gt;ще&lt;/u&gt; and present tense (&lt;u&gt;ще уча&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I will study&quot;); negation is expressed by the construction &lt;u&gt;няма да&lt;/u&gt; and present tense (&lt;u&gt;няма да уча&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I will not study&quot;); *'''past future tense''' is a compound form used to express an action which was to be completed in the past but was future as regards another past action; it is made up of the past imperfect tense of the verb &lt;u&gt;ща&lt;/u&gt; &quot;will, want&quot;, the particle &lt;u&gt;да&lt;/u&gt; &quot;to&quot; and the present tense of the verb (&lt;u&gt;щях да уча&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I was going to study&quot;); *'''present perfect tense''' is a compound form used to express an action which was completed in the past but is relevant for or related to the present; it is made up of the present tense of the verb &lt;u&gt;съм&lt;/u&gt; &quot;be&quot; and the past participle (&lt;u&gt;съм учил&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I have studied&quot;); *'''past perfect tense''' is a compound form used to express an action which was completed in the past and is relative to another past action; it is made up of the past tense of the verb &lt;u&gt;съм&lt;/u&gt; &quot;be&quot; and the past participle (&lt;u&gt;бях учил&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I had studied&quot;); *'''future perfect tense''' is a compound form used to express an action which is to take place in the future before another future action; it is made up of the future tense of the verb &lt;u&gt;съм&lt;/u&gt; &quot;be&quot; and the past participle (&lt;u&gt;ще съм учил&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I will have studied&quot;); *'''past future perfect tense''' is a compound form used to express a past action which is future with respect to a past action which itself is prior to another past action; it is made up of the past future of &lt;u&gt;ща&lt;/u&gt; &quot;will, want&quot;, the particle &lt;u&gt;да&lt;/u&gt; &quot;to&quot;, the present tense of the verb &lt;u&gt;съм&lt;/u&gt; &quot;be&quot; and the past participle of the verb (&lt;u&gt;щях да съм учил&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I would have studied&quot;). The four perfect tenses above can all vary in aspect depending on the aspect of the main-verb participle; they are in fact pairs of imperfective and perfective tenses. Verbs in tenses using past participles also vary in voice and gender. There is only one simple tense in the '''[[imperative mood]]''' - the '''present''' - and there are simple forms only for the second person using the suffixes '''-и'''/'''-й''' for singular and '''-ете'''/'''-йте''' for plural; e.g., &lt;u&gt;уча&lt;/u&gt; &quot;to study&quot;: &lt;u&gt;уч'''и'''&lt;/u&gt;, sg., &lt;u&gt;уч'''ете'''&lt;/u&gt;, pl.; играя &quot;to play&quot;: &lt;u&gt;игра'''й'''&lt;/u&gt;, &lt;u&gt;игра'''йте'''&lt;/u&gt;. There are compound imperative forms for all persons and numbers in the '''present compound imperative''' (&lt;u&gt;да играе&lt;u&gt;) and the '''present perfect compound imperative''' (&lt;u&gt;да е играл&lt;u&gt;). The '''[[conditional mood]]''' consists of five compound tenses, most of which are not grammatically distinguishable. The present, future and past conditional use a special past form of the stem &lt;u&gt;би-&lt;/u&gt; (“be”) and the past participle (&lt;u&gt;бих учил&lt;/u&gt;, “I would study”). The past future conditional and the past future perfect conditional coincide in form with the respective indicative tenses. The '''[[subjunctive mood]]''' is rarely documented as a separate verb form in Bulgarian but nevertheless it is used regularly. The most common form, often mistaken for the present tense, is the '''present subjunctive''' (&lt;u&gt;(пo-добре) да отидa&lt;u&gt; &quot;I had better go&quot;). The difference between the present indicative and the present subjunctive tense is that the subjunctive can be formed by ''both'' perfective and imperfective verbs. It has completely replaced the infinitive and the supine from complex expressions (see below). It is also employed to express opinion about ''possible'' future events. The '''past perfect subjunctive''' (&lt;u&gt;(пo-добре) да бях отишъл&lt;u&gt;, &quot;I had better gone&quot;) refers to ''possible'' events in the past, which ''did not'' take place, and the '''present pluperfect subjunctive''' (&lt;u&gt;да съм бил отишъл&lt;u&gt;), which may be used about both past and future events arousing feelings of incontinence, suspicion, etc. and is impossible to translate in English. The '''past pluperfect subjunctive''' is by far the strangest form (&lt;u&gt;бил съм бил отишъл&lt;u&gt;) and the reason why the subjunctive in Bulgarian is sometimes also called the '''[[dubitative mood|dubitative]]'''. The '''[[renarrative mood]]''' has five tenses. Two of them are simple - '''past aorist renarrative''' and '''past imperfect renarrative''' - and are formed by the '''past participles''' of perfective and imperfective verbs, respectively. There are also three compound tenses - '''past future renarrative''', '''past future perfect renarrative''' and '''past perfect renarrative'''. All these tenses' forms are gender-specific in the singular and exist only in the third person. ====Non-finite verbal forms==== The proto-Slavonic '''[[infinitive]]''' and '''[[supine]]''' have been replaced by phrases with &lt;u&gt;да&lt;/u&gt; (“to”) and present subjunctive tense (&lt;u&gt;искам да уча&lt;/u&gt;, “I want to study”). Bulgarian has the following '''[[participle]]s''': *the '''present active participle''' (&lt;u&gt;сегашно деятелно причастие&lt;u&gt;) is formed from imperfective stems with the addition of the suffixes '''–ащ'''/'''–ещ'''/'''–ящ''' (&lt;u&gt;укрив'''ащ'''&lt;/u&gt;, “concealing”) and is used only attributively; *the '''present passive participle''' (&lt;u&gt;сегашно страдателно причастие&lt;u&gt;) is formed by the addition of the suffix '''-н''' to imperfective stems (&lt;u&gt;укрива'''н'''&lt;/u&gt;, “(being) concealed”); *the '''past active aorist participle''' (&lt;u&gt;минало свършено деятелно причастие&lt;u&gt;) is formed by the addition of the suffix '''–л–''' to perfective stems (&lt;u&gt;укри'''л'''&lt;/u&gt;, “concealed”); *the '''past active imperfect participle''' (&lt;u&gt;минало несвършено деятелно причастие&lt;u&gt;) is formed by the addition of the suffixes '''–ел'''/'''–ал'''/'''–ял''' to imperfective stems (&lt;u&gt;укрив'''ал'''&lt;/u&gt;, “(been) concealing”); it is used only in renarrative (renarrated) mood and is a Bulgarian innovation; *the '''past passive participle''' (&lt;u&gt;минало страдателно причастие&lt;u&gt;) is formed from aorist stems with the addition of the suffixes '''–(е)н–'''/'''–т–''' (&lt;u&gt;укр'''ит'''&lt;u&gt;, &quot;(been) concealed&quot;); it is used predicatively and attributively; *the '''[[adverbial participle]]''' (&lt;u&gt;деепричастие&lt;u&gt;) is formed from imperfective present stems with the suffix '''–(е)йки''' (&lt;u&gt;укрива'''йки'''&lt;/u&gt;, “while concealing”), relates an action contemporaneous with and subordinate to the main verb and is originally a Western Bulgarian form. == Lexis == {{main|Bulgarian lexis}} Most of the word-stock of modern Bulgarian consists of derivations of some 2,000 words inherited from proto-Slavonic through the mediation of Old and Middle Bulgarian. The influence of the old [[Bolgar language]] is relatively insignificant, and a negligible number of words of presumably Bulgar origin have survived in Modern Bulgarian (20 at best according to most estimates, though some scholars will have that number increased up to 200). Thus, the native lexical terms in Bulgarian (both from proto-Slavonic and from the Bulgar language) account for 70% to 75% of the lexic
Italian) ''[[citroncello]]'', based on lemon. This beverage arrived with immigrants from the [[Mezzogiorno]], and is produced both artisanally and industrially (for example, in Mar del Plata). Nevertheless, Argentines are far more adept at non-alcoholic infusions (although now and then both &quot;families&quot; are mixed; the ''[[yerbiao]]'' for example, is mate mixed with ''caña'' or gin). To say that the ''[[Yerba mate|mate]]'' is the favourite drink might be redundant but it must be done; but the fact that the ''mate'' is very consumed by the inhabitants of the ''[[Southern Cone]]'' must not lure the foreigner into thinking that other infusions are rare in the region, in Argentina especially, given that there is a strong European cultural imprint, the consumption of [[coffee]] is very common. And not so long ago [[chocolate]] infusions were common (the eating of chocolate is a Spanish influence&amp;mdash;although the plant originated in Meso-America), this consumption grows during autumn and winter, or in the cold regions of the country; there are two dates where consumption of chocolate infusions is traditional in the primary educational centres: [[25 May]] and [[9 July]], that is, the two national dates of Argentina. The English cultural influx (reinforced at the end of the 19th century and beginnings of the 20th by the resurgence of the Far East) has also made very common the consumption of [[tea]]. To finish the index of infusions consumed in Argentina, it must be said that [[medicinal herbs]] are common in the whole country, and that many of them are drunk infused: [[chamomile]], [[lanceleaf]], ''[[boldo]]'', ''[[poleo]]'', ''[[peperina]]'', ''[[carqueja]]'', ''[[tomillo]]'', ''[[canchalagua]]'', rue (''macho'' and ''hembra'', that is, &quot;male&quot; and &quot;female&quot;), ''malva'', ''romero'', [[passion flower]], ''[[bira bira]]'', ''[[palán palán]]'', ''[[muña muña]]'', to mention only the main ones. Many of these herbs are also used in [[apéritif]]s and [[bitters]], whether alcoholic or not. Common ''restoranes'' or ''restaurantes'' nearly anywhere in Argentina today serve (into the wee hours) quickly prepared meals that in the course of the 20th century came to be known as ''minutas''. Some of the dishes included in the catgory of ''minutas'' are ''[[milanesa]]s'', ''churrascos'', ''bifes'', ''escalopes'', ''tallarines'', ''ravioles'', ''ñoquis'', although some are very typical of locations that sell food: &quot;''bifes a caballo''&quot; (beef steak with two fried eggs), &quot;''milanesa a horse''&quot;, &quot;''milanesa completa''&quot; (a ''milanesa'' with two fried eggs and a garnish of [[french fries|fries]]), &quot;''[[revuelto Gramajo]]''&quot;, &quot;''[[colchón de arvejas]]''&quot;, &quot;''suprema de chicken''&quot; (a kind of chicken ''milanesa''), ''[[matambre]]s'', &quot;''[[lengua a la vinagreta]]''&quot; and &quot;[[sandwich]]es&quot;. The variety of &quot;sandwiches&quot; (called thus in Argentina, as opposed to the Spanish ''emparedado'') are nearly infinite. The most common are those made of ''milanesa'', baked ham and cheese, ''pan de miga'', toasted bread, ''[[pebete]]s'', ''[[pancho]]s'', ''[[choripan]]es'', ''[[morcipan]]es'', etc.; from [[Montevideo]] comes a different species of sandwich called the ''[[chivito (sandwich)|chivito]]'', even though it contains no [[chivito|goat meat]]. It is worth mentioning ''[[picada]]s'', which are consumed in homes or bars, cafés, &quot;''cafetines''&quot; and &quot;''bodegones''&quot;; they consist of an ensemble of plates containing cubes of cheese (typically from Mar del Plata or Chubut), pieces of [[salame]], [[olive]]s in brine, french fries, ''maníes'' ([[peanut]]s), etc.; ''picada''s are eaten accompanied by an alcoholic beverage (&quot;''fernet''&quot;, beer, wine with [[soda]], to give some common examples). To conclude, it should be noted that the people of Argentina greatly enjoy ''helado'' ([[ice cream]], [[sorbet]], etc.), especially the Italian kind. This fondness is not new: from the time of the Spanish colonies there has existed a type of sorbet made from fallen hail or snow. (This has been documented; desserts were made with snow in Mendoza at the beginning of the 19th century.) ==References== *This article draws heavily on the [[:es:Gastronomía de Argentina|corresponding article]] in the Spanish-language Wikipedia, which was accessed in the version of [[August 3]], [[2005]]. ==External links== *[http://www.planetargentina.com/food/index.html Planet Argentina] - Provides comprehensive information on how cuisine and culture are mixed. Includes details on the variety of foods and restaurants. ==See also== *[[Argentine wine]] [[de:Argentinische Küche]] [[es:gastronomía de Argentina]] [[fr:Cuisine argentine]] [[it:Cucina argentina]] [[pt:Culinária da Argentina]] [[Category:Argentine cuisine]] [[Category:Argentine culture]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abattoir</title> <id>2223</id> <revision> <id>15900655</id> <timestamp>2002-06-05T22:54:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bryan Derksen</username> <id>66</id> </contributor> <comment>changed into redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Slaughterhouse]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>April 8</title> <id>2224</id> <revision> <id>42016811</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:09:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>65.148.101.160</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Births */ added Hugo Fregonese</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt; {| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=8}} |} '''April 8''' is the 98th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (99th in [[leap year]]s). There are 267 days remaining. ==Events== *[[217]] - [[Roman emperor]] [[Caracalla]] is [[assassinated]] (and succeeded) by his [[Praetorian Guard]] [[prefect]], [[Marcus Opellius Macrinus]] *[[1203]] - Congress in [[Zenica|Bilino Polje]], where [[Ban Kulin]] officially declared his allegiance to the Catholic Church and denounced the heresy. *[[1730]] - [[Shearith Israel]], the first [[synagogue]] in [[New York City]], is dedicated. *[[1742]] - The first performance of [[George Frideric Handel]]'s oratorio ''[[The Messiah]]'', in [[Dublin]]. *[[1767]] - [[Ayutthaya kingdom]] fell to [[Burma|Burmese]] invaders. *[[1820]] - The [[Venus de Milo]] is discovered on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] island of [[Melos]]. *[[1832]] - [[Black Hawk War]]: Around 300 [[United States]] 6th Infantry troops leave [[Jefferson Barracks, St. Louis]] to fight the [[Sauk]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. *[[1886]] - [[William Ewart Gladstone]] introduces the first [[Home Rule]] bill into the [[House of Commons]]. *[[1893]] - First recorded [[college basketball]] game occurs in [[Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania]] when the [[Geneva College]] Covenanters defeated the [[New Brighton, Pennsylvania|New Brighton]] [[YMCA]]. *[[1895]] - The [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] declared [[income tax]] to be [[unconstitutional]] in [[Pollock v. Farmers' Loan &amp; Trust Co.]] *[[1899]] - [[Martha Place]] becomes the first woman to be executed in an [[electric chair]]. *[[1904]] - [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] sign the ''[[Entente cordiale]].'' *1904 - Longacre Square in [[Midtown Manhattan]] is renamed [[Times Square]] after ''[[The New York Times]]''. *[[1910]] - The [[Los Angeles Motordome]] opened near [[Playa del Rey, California]]. *[[1913]] - The [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] is ratified requiring direct [[election]] of [[United States Senate|Senators]]. *[[1916]] - In [[Corona, California]], auto racer [[Bob Burman]] crashed through a crowd barrier at the last [[Boulevard Race]], killing himself, his mechanic and a track policeman, and badly injuring five spectators. *[[1918]] - [[World War I]]: Actors [[Douglas Fairbanks]] and [[Charlie Chaplin]] sell [[war bond]]s on the streets of [[New York, New York]]'s financial district. *[[1926]] - [[Benito Mussolini]] is &quot;slightly wounded in the nose&quot; after being shot with a revolver by [[Violet Gibson]], an [[Irish people|Irish woman]] and sister of [[Baron Ashbourne]]). *[[1929]] - [[Indian Independence Movement]] At Delhi Central Assembly, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw handouts, and bombs in a corridor not to cause injury and courted arrest. *[[1935]] - The [[Works Progress Administration]] is formed when the [[Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935]] becomes law. *[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Siege of Leningrad]] - [[Soviet Union]] forces open a much-needed [[railway]] link to [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]]. *[[1945]] - At the POW camp at [[Flossenbürg]], pastor and theologian [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]] is hanged. *[[1952]] - In a [[radio]] address to the nation from the [[White House]], President [[Harry S. Truman]] calls for the seizure of all [[steel mill]]s in the [[United States]] in order to prevent a nationwide [[Strike action|strike]]. *[[1953]] - [[Mau Mau]] leader [[Jomo Kenyatta]] is convicted by [[Kenya]]'s [[United Kingdom|British]] rulers. *[[1967]] - In [[Vienna]], [[Austria]], [[Sandie Shaw]] wins the twelfth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for the [[United Kingdom]] singing &quot;Puppet on a String&quot;. *[[1971]] - a 6 pound [[meteorite]] struck the home of Robert and Wanda Donahue in [[Wethersfield, Connecticut]] *[[1974]] - At the Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium, [[Hank Aaron]] breaks [[baseball]] great's [[Babe Ruth]]'s record by hitting his 715th [[home run]]. *[[1975]] - [[Frank Robinson]] of the [[Cleveland Indians]] manages his first game as major league [[baseball]]'s first [[African American]] manager. *1975 - [[Vietnam War]]: After spending a week in [[South Vietnam]],
ng a raspberry-flavored sulfa elixir which had been rushed to market by the S.E. Massengill Company without any testing. About 70 percent of the elixir was [[diethylene glycol]], which is now known to be [[poison]]ous. The resulting scandal and public outcry led to the passage of the [[Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act]] of 1938, which gave the FDA the power to preapprove all new drugs introduced into interstate commerce. * 1990 &amp;mdash; FDA promulgates regulations banning &quot;gifts of substantial value&quot; from drug companies to doctors. Minor gifts (like meals, tickets, and travel) are not banned. * 1992 &amp;mdash; Congress passes a new law creating a faster approvals process to legalize new drugs. The FDA must hire more reviewers and speed up reviews without sacrificing proper study and testing. The drug industry must pay &quot;user fees&quot; with every [[new drug application]]. Approval times drop from 30 to 12 months on average. 60% of new drugs come on the market in the U.S. first, before other countries. Before this law, when the approval process was slower, more new drugs came out in other countries first. * 1997 &amp;mdash; FDA loosens restrictions on consumer advertising. Drug companies are allowed to spend less time describing risks and side effects on [[Television|TV]] commercials. A large increase in TV drug ads caused a large increase in drug sales within months. * Year unknown &amp;mdash; The [[Naval Ordnance Laboratory]] White Oak site was apportioned to the FDA to become its new headquarters. However, budget reductions have delayed the move to White Oak for many FDA offices. == Related legislation == * [[1902]] &amp;mdash; [[Biologics Control Act]] * [[1906]] &amp;mdash; [[Pure Food and Drug Act]] * [[1938]] &amp;mdash; [[Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act]] * [[1944]] &amp;mdash; [[Public Health Service Act]] * [[1951]] &amp;mdash; [[Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act Amendments]] PL 82&amp;ndash;215 * [[1953]] &amp;mdash; [[Flammable Fabrics Act]] PL 83&amp;ndash;88 * [[1960]] &amp;mdash; [[Federal Hazardous Substances Labeling Act]] PL 86&amp;ndash;613 * [[1962]] &amp;mdash; [[Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act Amendments]] PL 87&amp;ndash;781 * [[1965]] &amp;mdash; [[Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act]] PL 89&amp;ndash;92 * [[1966]] &amp;mdash; [[Fair Packaging and Labeling Act]] PL 89&amp;ndash;755 * [[1966]] &amp;mdash; [[Child Protection Act]] PL 89&amp;ndash;756 * [[1970]] &amp;mdash; [[Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act Amendments]] PL 91&amp;ndash;222 * [[1972]] &amp;mdash; [[Consumer Products Safety Act]] PL 92&amp;ndash;573 * [[1976]] &amp;mdash; [[Medical Device Regulation Act]] PL 94&amp;ndash;295 * [[1986]] &amp;mdash; [[Comprehensive Smokeless Tobacco Health Education Act]] PL 99&amp;ndash;252 * [[1988]] &amp;mdash; [[Anti&amp;mdash;drug Abuse Act]] PL 100&amp;ndash;690 * [[1990]] &amp;mdash; [[Nutrition Labeling and Education Act]] PL 101&amp;ndash;535 * [[1992]] &amp;mdash; [[Prescription Drug User Fee Act]] PL 102&amp;ndash;571 * [[1997]] &amp;mdash; [[Food and Drug Modernization Act]] ==Criticism== The FDA has come under much criticism from many groups, including the [[Government Accountability Office]]. FDA regulations are blamed for causing high drug prices, keeping life-saving drugs off the market, prohibiting access to [[Emergency contraception|emergency contraceptives]], and censoring health information about nutritional supplements and foods. Some propose that the FDA be relegated to a voluntary inspection agency in order to remedy these problems. ===Regarding high drug prices=== '''The Cost of Drug Development''' Many maintain that FDA regulations and policy cause unnecessarily high drug prices in America. One concern is the cost of the approval process which may provide a disincentive for firms to develop new drugs, and require high prices to recoup their investment. This however, shows a basic misunderstanding of [[pricing]] theory, which stipulates that prices should be set at the level which maximize revenue, regardless of a firm's costs. Whether the derived profits are 'fair' is another issue (see [[Pharmaceutical Company]]). Critcs of the FDA cite 1995 and 2002 studies by Joseph A. Dimasi which claim that it costs, on the average, approximiately 800 million dollars to bring a drug to market in the U.S. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12457421&amp;dopt=Abstract]. This figure includes the high cost of failed research programs (which it is presumed must be pursued in order that some may suceed), and the drug company's [[oportunity cost of capital]], which is very high because it is compounded over long (15-20 year) development cycles. Dimasi's critics question whether this is a fair allocation of costs, cite his lack of consideration of government research grants and tax rebates, and claim that the scope of the research was too narrow because it only included New Chemical Entities (NCEs). Such critics suggest a revised cost that is under 200 million dollars, about 29% of which is spent on FDA required clinical trials. [http://www.citizen.org/congress/reform/drug_industry/articles.cfm?ID=6532] However, the objective of the DiMasi paper was not to determine &quot;out of pocket&quot; costs for individual projects, but to acertain the &quot;price of innovation&quot; in terms that reflect a firm's incentive to perform research and development of novel pharmaceuticals. Furthermore, under no circumstance would it be reasonable to forgo clinical trials entirely, and a marginal decrease in their size would result in only a marginal decrease in their cost. Critics of DiMasi also allege that there are conflicts of interest because the data was obtained from drug manufactures, and the center which employs Dimasi is partially funded by pharmaceutical companies. '''Competition''' A second way in which the FDA is seen to be responsible for high drug prices is by opposing the importation of cheaper drugs from foreign sources, which is held to be an anti-competitive policy that keeps drug prices artificially high in the United States. Prices of almost all pharmaceutical drugs in Europe are significantly lower than in the U.S. where import is allowed. [http://www.stopfda.org/june99-ripoff.htm] Defenders of the FDA's position point out that importation is not banned by FDA, so long as the imported drug complies with FDA regulations regarding importation. They observe that the FDA requires imported drugs to meet the same safety, efficacy, and manufacturing standards as those manufactured in the United States. These standards are similar in the United States, the European Union, Japan, and most of the world (represented by the the WHO), all of which observe guidelines set forth by the [[International Conference on Harmonization]] (ICH). Although some drugs that are approved by European regulatory agencies are not approved in the U.S., this would not be expected to affect the prices of approved drugs. Where price differences do exist, the lower prices are often due to government imposed price caps, not because of greater competition. In fact, it is common for generic manufacturers to enter the market and begin selling at drastically lower prices very soon after a drug's patent protection is lost. Lower drug prices in Europe and Canada are widely attributed to price controls imposed by governments, rather than to less stringent regulatory requirements. Those who hold this view also contend that these price controls contribute to artificially low revenues, which in turn lead to less available capital for research and development. Because of this, many contend, that international (non-U.S.) economies spend less on research and development than the U.S. [http://www.phrma.org/issues/researchdev/index.cfm]. Some offer the observation that prices of nutritional supplements in Europe are much more expensive in than in the U.S. [http://www.lef.org/magazine/mag2005/jul2005_awsi_01.htm] They note that nutritional supplements are regulated in Europe, but not in the U.S. (as a result of the result of the passage of the [[Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act]] that severely limits the ability of the FDA to regulate them). Many nutritional supplements require a prescription in Europe, but not in the U.S. Hence, they reason that a cause of high pharmaceutical costs in the U.S. is regulation. Consequently, they reason that if the FDA discontinued regulating pharmaceuticals that they would be much more affordable. [http://www.lef.org/magazine/mag2005/mar2005_awsi_01.htm] Requiring individuals to pay to visit a doctor to obtain a [[prescription]] for a drugs further increases costs to the consumer. Many countries have much less strict regulations on what drugs may be dispensed without a prescription. These drugs are available for importation without a prescription in the [[underground economy]] through the internet, but few take advantage of this due to legal fears. ===Regarding drug approval=== One of the key issues of drug safety dealt with by the FDA, and responsible for much recent controversy, is related to the concept of [[patent]]s. When a patent is awarded, the drug's creator is given exclusive manufacturing rights. If the drug is extremely popular, this motivates other companies to invent their own (different) drugs which accomplish the same effect. (Because a drug is patented, they cannot produce the exact same drug). For example, [[Cialis]] was created because of the popularity of [[Viagra]]. However, the question is, when new, competing substances come out should they be approved, not because of their absolute safety, but because of their relative safety compared to an [[approved drug]]. For example, say &quot;drug b&quot; was created to compete with &quot;drug a&quot;. Now if &quot;drug b&quot; was the first one out, and it had a 5 percent c
lpha;&amp;tau;&amp;rho;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;), is given to God alone. Honor and humble reverence, or ''doulia'' (&amp;delta;&amp;omicron;&amp;upsilon;&amp;lambda;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;), is given to the saints. A higher form of doulia, ''hyperdoulia'' (&amp;upsilon;&amp;pi;&amp;epsilon;&amp;rho;&amp;delta;&amp;omicron;&amp;upsilon;&amp;lambda;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;), is given to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]]. The Church erects altars ''to'' God alone, though in honour and memory of the saints and martyrs. There is Scriptural warrant for such honor in the passages where we are bidden to venerate angels (Ex 13:20ff; Jos 5:13ff; Dan 8:15ff; 10:4ff; Luke 2:9ff; Acts 12:7ff; Rev 5:11ff; 7:1ff; Matt 18:10; etc.), whom holy men are not unlike, as sharers of the friendship of God. The basis of prayer to saints is simply that, as believers can help each other with prayers (intercessory prayer) while living, so they may pray for the living after their deaths. Thus, praying to St. Paul is a prayer asking Paul, alive in heaven, to pray for the believer. As Paul's holiness is attested in his beatification and canonization, his prayers will be well received. A different service is provided by the beatified in the celebrations of their [[feast day|feasts]]. In the celebrations of feasts, believers celebrate the holiness of the blessed and are reminded of their good examples. It follows naturally that for the public veneration of saints the ecclesiastical authority of the pastors and rulers of the Church was constantly required. The Church did not grant liturgical honours indiscriminately to all those who had died for the Faith. The first practice of beatification and canonization was directed toward [[martyr]]s. The decision as to the martyr having died for his faith in Christ, and the consequent permission of honor, lay originally with the bishop of the place in which he had borne his testimony. The bishop inquired into the motive of his death and, finding he had died a martyr, sent his name with an account of his martyrdom to other churches, especially neighboring ones, so that, in event of approval by their respective bishops, the cultus of the martyr might extend to their churches also. The honoring of &quot;confessors&quot; -- of those, that is, who died peacefully after a life of heroic virtue -- is not as ancient as that of the martyrs. In the beginning, &quot;confessor&quot; denoted only those who confessed Christ when examined in the presence of enemies of the Faith, or, as [[Pope Benedict XIV]] explains, to those who died peacefully after having confessed the faith before tyrants or other enemies of the Christian religion, and undergone tortures or suffered other punishments of whatever nature. Later on, confessors were those who had lived a holy life and closed it by a holy death in Christian peace. It is in this sense that we now treat of the honor paid to confessors. It was in the fourth century that confessors were first given public ecclesiastical honor, though occasionally praised in ardent terms by earlier Fathers. Still [[Robert Bellarmine]] thought it uncertain when confessors began to be objects of public veneration, and asserted that it was not before 800, when the feasts of Sts. [[Martin of Tours]] and [[Remigius]] are found in the catalog of feasts drawn up by the [[Council of Mainz]]. However, in the [[Greek Orthodox Church|East]], for example, [[Hilarion]], [[Ephrem of Syria]], and other confessors were publicly honoured in the fourth century; and, in the West, St. [[Martin of Tours]], and St. [[Hilary of Poitiers]] were objects of a like honor in the same century. Later on, the names of confessors were inserted in the diptychs, and due reverence was paid them. Their tombs were honored with the same title as those of the martyrs. It remained true, however, that one could not venerate confessors without permission of the ecclesiastical authority. For several centuries the bishops, in some places only the primates and patriarchs, could grant martyrs and confessors public ecclesiastical honor; such honor, however, was always decreed only for the local territory over which the grantors held jurisdiction. Still, it was only the Bishop of Rome's ([[Pope]]'s) acceptance of the honor that made it universal, since he alone could permit or command in the Universal Church. Abuses, however, crept into this form of discipline, due to popular fervour and the carelessness of some bishops in inquiring into the lives of those whom they permitted to be honored as saints. Towards the close of the [[eleventh century]] the popes found it necessary to restrict episcopal authority on this point and decreed that the virtues and miracles of persons proposed for public veneration should be examined in councils. Even after these decrees, &quot;some, following the ways of the pagans and deceived by the fraud of the evil one, venerated as a saint a man who had been killed while intoxicated&quot;. [[Pope Alexander III]] ([[1159]] - [[1181]]) prohibited popular veneration in these words: &quot;For the future you will not presume to pay him reverence, as, even though miracles were worked through him, it would not allow you to revere him as a saint unless with the authority of the Roman Church.&quot; Thus, the pope for the first time reserved the right of beatification. Some bishops did not obey it in as far as it regarded beatification (which right they had certainly possessed before this), so [[Urban VII]] published, in [[1634]], a [[Papal bull|Bull]] which put an end to all discussion by reserving to the [[Holy See]] exclusively not only its immemorial right of canonization, but also that of beatification. {{Catholic}} === Current practice === The [[1983]] reform of the Roman Catholic Church's [[canon law]] has streamlined the procedure considerably compared to the process carried out previously. (See below.) {{canonization}} The process begins at the diocesan level, with the [[bishop]] giving permission to open an investigation of the virtues of the person who is suspected of having been a saint. This investigation may not open until permission is given by the Vatican, and not sooner than five years after the death of the person being investigated. However, the pope has the authority to waive this waiting period, as was done for [[Mother Teresa]] by [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] as well as for John Paul II himself by his immediate successor, [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]]. When sufficient information has been gathered, the subject of the investigation is called a '''&quot;Servant of God&quot;''', and the process is transferred to the [[Roman Curia]]&amp;mdash;the [[Congregation for the Causes of the Saints]]&amp;mdash;where it is assigned a [[postulator]], whose task is to gather all information about the life of the Servant of God. When enough information has been gathered, the congregation will recommend to the [[pope]] that he make a proclamation of the Servant of God's heroic virtue, which entitles him or her to receive the title '''&quot;Venerable&quot;'''. A Venerable has as of yet no [[feast day]], but prayer cards may be printed to encourage the faithful to pray for a [[miracle]] wrought by his or her intercession. The next step depends on whether the Venerable is a [[martyr]]. For a martyr, the pope has only to make a declaration of martyrdom, which then allows [[beatification]], yielding the title '''&quot;Blessed&quot;''' and a feast day in the Blessed's home diocese and perhaps some other local calendars. If the Venerable was not a martyr, it must be proven that a [[miracle]] has taken place by his or her intercession. Today, these miracles are almost always miraculous cures, as these are the easiest to establish based on the Roman Catholic Church's requirements for a &quot;miracle.&quot; (The patient was sick, there was no known cure for the ailment, prayers were directed to the Venerable, the patient was cured, and doctors cannot explain it.) To pass from Blessed to '''Saint''', one (more) miracle is necessary. A saint's feast day is considered universal, and may be celebrated anywhere within the Catholic church, although it may not appear on the general calendar. In the case of persons that common usage has called saints from &quot;time immemorial&quot; (in practice, since before 1500 or so), the Church may carry out a &quot;confirmation of cultus&quot;, which is much simpler. For example, Saint Hermann Joseph had his veneration confirmed by [[Pope John Paul II]]. === Previous practice === ''Main article: [[Historical process of beatification and canonization]]'' The process for making a saint was considerably more involved. To achieve the declaration of venerability, the process was essentially the same, but with more people and reports involved. Beatification of a non-martyr required three miracles if direct witnesses to his or her sanctity could be called, and four if this was not possible. For a martyr, one miracle less was needed, and the requirement of miracles could be waived by the Congregation of Rites. Two additional miracles were required for the canonization. ==See also== *[[List of saints|Partial list of canonized saints]] *[[Beatification]] *[[Litany of the Saints]] ==External links== * [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/practices/honoring_saints/canonization.htm Canonization of Saints] - Describes the significance and process of canonizing saints. *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02364b.htm Entry on canonization and beatification in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''] [[Category:Sainthood]] [[cs:Kanonizace]] [[da:Kanonisering]] [[de:Heiligsprechung]] [[eo:Enkanonigo]] [[fr:Canonisation]] [[id:Kanonisasi]] [[nl:Heiligverklaring]] [[ja:列聖]] [[no:Helligkåring]] [[pl:Kanonizacja]] [[pt:Canonização]] [[ru:Канонизация]] [[sv:Kanonisering]] [[uk:Канонізація]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carolingian renaissance</title>
n such a plasma there are no hadrons; quarks and gluons become free particles. == Experimental observations == The first direct experimental evidence of gluons was found in [[1979]] when [[three jet event]]s were observed at the electron-positron collider called [[PETRA]] at [[DESY]] in [[Hamburg]]. Quantitative studies of [[deep inelastic scattering]] at the [[Stanford Linear Accelerator Center]] had established their existence a decade before that. Experimentally, confinement is verified by the failure of [[free quark search]]es. Neither free quarks nor free gluons have ever been observed. Although there have been hints of exotic hadrons, no glueball has been observed either. Quark-gluon plasma has been found recently at the [[Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider]] (RHIC) at [[Brookhaven National Laboratories]] (BNL). == See also == *[[Quark]]s, [[hadron]]s, [[gauge boson]]s *[[Glueball]]s, [[exotic (hadron)|exotic]]s, [[quark model]] *[[Quantum chromodynamics]], [[standard model]] *[[Three jet events]], [[deep inelastic scattering]] == References and external links == * {{cite book | last = Griffiths | first = David J. | title = Introduction to Elementary Particles | publisher = Wiley, John &amp; Sons, Inc | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0471603864 }} *Kaufmann(ed), Scientific American: Particles &amp; Fields (special edition), 1980 *[http://pdg.lbl.gov/2004/tables/contents_tables.html Summary tables in the &quot;Review of particle physics&quot;] *[http://www.desy.de/pr-info/desyhome/html/presse/glossary.html#G DESY glossary] *[http://www.symmetrymag.org/cms/?pid=1000160 Logbook of gluon discovery] *[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/ParticleAndNuclear/gluons.html Why are there eight gluons and not nine?] {{Elementary}} [[Category:Bosons]] [[Category:Quantum chromodynamics]] [[bg:Глуон]] [[ca:Gluó]] [[de:Gluon]] [[es:Gluón]] [[fi:Gluoni]] [[fr:Gluon]] [[he:גלואון]] [[hu:Gluon]] [[it:Gluone]] [[ja:グルーオン]] [[nl:Gluon]] [[pl:Gluon]] [[pt:Glúon]] [[ru:Глюон]] [[sk:Gluón]] [[sl:Gluon]] [[sr:Глуон]] [[sv:Gluon]] [[uk:Глюон]] [[zh:膠子]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Genesis</title> <id>12667</id> <revision> <id>41910466</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:36:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Blubberbrein2</username> <id>1013417</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about ''Genesis'', the first book of the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] ([[Old Testament]]). See [[Genesis (disambiguation)]] for other usages of the word.}} {{Books of the Old Testament}} {{Books of Torah}} '''Genesis''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: &amp;#915;&amp;#941;&amp;#957;&amp;#949;&amp;#963;&amp;#953;&amp;#962;, having the meanings of &quot;birth&quot;, &quot;creation&quot;, &quot;cause&quot;, &quot;beginning&quot;, &quot;source&quot; and &quot;origin&quot;), also called ''The First Book of Moses'', is the first book of [[Torah]] (five books of [[Moses]]), and is the first book of the [[Tanakh]], part of the [[Hebrew Bible]]; it is also the first book of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Old Testament]]. In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], it is called בראשית (''Bereshit'' or ''B&amp;#601;rê&amp;#353;îth'', {{strong|7225}}), after the first word of the text in Hebrew (meaning &quot;in the beginning of&quot;). This is in line with the pattern of naming the other five books of the [[Pentateuch]]. == Introduction == Genesis begins with creation narrative, or narratives, depending on one's point of view, which may be understood literally, or as allegory. In the same view, its allegory continues to chapter eleven. It thereafter records what is agreed to be historical narrative with the call of Abram (later [[Abraham]]) and his then barren wife Sarai (later Sarah) from Ur (probably in Babylonia) to Canaan (Palestine). It contains the record of Abraham's acceptance by God, and of God's promise to him that through his offspring all people on earth would be blessed (12:3). It records the doings of the first of his descendants, [[Isaac]], and [[Jacob]] (known as Israel), and their families. It ends with Jacob's descendants, the Israelites, in Egypt, in favour with the Pharaoh. Genesis contains the historical presupposition and basis of the national religious ideas and institutions of Israel, and serves as an introduction to its history, laws, and customs. It is the composition of a writer (or set of writers, see [[documentary hypothesis]]), who has recounted the traditions of the Israelites, combining them into a uniform work, while preserving the textual and formal peculiarities incident to their difference in origin and mode of transmission. == Authorship == Genesis as a completed book makes no claims about its authorship; it is an article of Orthodox Jewish faith that the book was dictated, in its entirety, by God to [[Moses]] on [[Mount Sinai, Egypt|Mount Sinai]]. For a number of reasons, this view is no longer accepted by many biblical scholars, and liberal [[Protestant]]s. Instead, they accept a theory whose roots are based on [[cultural evolution]] and [[philosophical naturalism]] which teaches that the text of Genesis as we see it today was redacted together around [[440 BC]] from earlier sources, namely the Sumerians. See the [[Documentary hypothesis]] entry for more information. Other scholars note that when Genesis was compiled, it was made up of earlier documents which were so little changed that even their literary tradition, which put the author's name at the end of each document, was preserved, thus preserving also the authors' true identities. This retains the concept of Moses being the author of Genesis, though making his role more that of an editor who chose the earlier works to include than as an author who wrote every word. [[Image:Genesis on egg cropped.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Bereshit aleph, or the first chapter of Genesis, written on an egg, in the [[Israel Museum]]. ]] == Historical placement of its content == Based on the [[genealogy|genealogies]] in Genesis and later parts of the Bible, both religious [[Jew]]s and Christians have independently worked backwards to find the implied time of the [[creation (theology)|Creation]] of the world, around the beginning of the [[4th millennium BC]]. This dating is based on a literal reading of the creation account and the bases that the six days in which [[God]] created the heavens and the earth were 24-hour [[days]], that [[Adam and Eve|Adam, Eve]], and the [[Garden of Eden]] existed, and that a complete trace of events from Creation to a [[history|historically]] verifiable date is listed in the Biblical account. The absence of independent evidence confirming the Biblical narrative have caused many scholars to question the accuracy or even the veracity of the historical account, and it is now generally accepted by objective historians not to be literally true. This subject is discussed in [[The Bible and history]]. == Christian views == There are numerous references to Genesis in the [[New Testament]]. These references assume an authoritative nature for Genesis. While none of these references explicitly state an author for Genesis there are several places which attribute the books of the law ([[Torah]]) to Moses (Mark 12:19, 26; Luke 24:27). The author of the [[gospel of John]] uses language similar to that in Genesis 1 when personifying the speech of God as the eternal '''Logos''' (''[[Greek language|Greek]]: &amp;lambda;&amp;omicron;&amp;gamma;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf; &quot;reason&quot;, &quot;word&quot;, &quot;speech&quot;''), that is the origin of all things &quot;with God&quot;, and &quot;was God&quot;, and &quot;became flesh and tabernacled among us&quot;. Many Christians interpret this as an example of [[apostle|apostolic]] teaching of the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] and the deity of [[Christ]]; however, Genesis standing alone does not clearly suggest this teaching; it is primarily on the strength of John's testimony that Christians ascribe personality to the creative speech of God, and identify that personality with Jesus ([[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews 1:2,3]], [[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians 1:16,17]] are among other Biblical sources for the belief). == Main themes == *There is only one God, who has created the world. God has called all objects and living beings into existence by His word. *The universe when created was, in the judgment of God, good. Genesis expresses an optimistic satisfaction and pleasure in the world. *God as a personal being, referred to in [[anthropomorph]]ic and [[anthropopath]]ic terms. God may appear and speak to mankind. *Genesis makes no attempt to give a philosophically rigorous definition of God; its description is a practical and historical one. God is treated exclusively with reference to his dealings with the world and with man. *Humankind is the crown of Creation, and has been made in God's image. *All people are descended from Adam and Eve; this expresses the unity of the whole human race. *The Earth possesses for man a certain moral grandeur; man must include God's creatures in the respect that it demands in general, by not exploiting them for his own selfish uses. *Unlike other ancient religious texts from the near-east and middle-east, Genesis posits the existence of a one and only being that may properly be called God. All other non-human intelligences implied or stated to exist in the text may only be considered [[angel]]s or the like. God is presented as being the sole creator of nature, and as existing outside of it and beyond it. *Some historians believe Genesis to be a more recent example of [[Monotheism|monotheistic belief]] than [[Zoroastrianism]], interpreting the commandment &quot;have no other gods before me&quot; as an artifact of early [[henotheism]] among the Jews -- i.e., as evidence that the ''Hebrews'' were not to worship the gods of other peoples, but only their own tribal god. On
atalonia (b. [[1859]]) *[[1938]] - [[Karel Capek]], Czech author (b. [[1890]]) *[[1940]] - [[Agnes Ayres]], American actress (b. [[1898]]) *[[1946]] - [[W. C. Fields]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1880]]) *[[1961]] - [[Otto Loewi]], German-born pharmacologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1873]]) *[[1963]] - [[Tristan Tzara]], Romanian-born writer (b. [[1896]]) *[[1973]] - [[Ismet Inonu]], Turkish statesman (b. [[1884]]) *[[1973]] - [[Gabriel Voisin]], French aviation pioneer (b. [[1880]]) *[[1977]] - [[Charlie Chaplin]], English actor (b. [[1889]]) *[[1979]] - [[Joan Blondell]], American actress (b. [[1906]]) *[[1983]] - [[Joan Miró]], Catalan painter (b. [[1893]]) *[[1989]] - [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]], Romanian dictator (executed) (b. [[1918]]) *[[1989]] - [[Billy Martin]], baseball player and manager (b. [[1928]]) *[[1993]] - [[Pierre Victor Auger]], French physicist (b. [[1899]]) *[[1994]] - [[Zail Singh]], [[President of India]] (b. [[1916]]) *[[1995]] - [[Dean Martin]], American singer and actor (b. [[1917]]) *[[1996]] - [[JonBenét Ramsey]], American beauty queen and murder victim (b. [[1990]]) *[[1998]] - [[John Pulman]], English snooker player (b. [[1926]]) *[[2000]] - [[Willard Van Orman Quine]], American philosopher (b. [[1908]]) *[[2003]] - [[Nicholas Mavroules]], Greek U.S. Congressman from Massachusetts (b. [[1929]]) *[[2005]] - [[Birgit Nilsson]], Swedish soprano (b. [[1918]]) ==Holidays and observances== * '''[[Christmas Day]]''' is a [[Christian]] holiday on this day celebrating the [[Nativity]] of [[Jesus]]. It is a public holiday in many countries including most [[Europe]]an nations, [[Canada]], the [[United States]], [[Mexico]], all [[Central American]] and [[South American]] countries, the [[Philippines]], some [[Africa]]n countries, the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], and various other countries. Many non-Christians, including non-theists, celebrate secular aspects of the holiday, such as decorating [[Christmas tree]]s and exchanging gifts with family and friends. * '''[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]]''' - Nativity of the Lord (Christmas). * '''[[Britain]]''' - a [[quarter day]] in [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Ireland]] (but not in [[Scotland]]) * '''[[Roman festivals]]''' - (re)birth of [[Sol Invictus]], the winter [[solstice]] feast in the [[Roman Empire]] since [[274]] A.D. * '''[[Pakistan]]''' - ''[[Quaid's Day]]'' is celebrated as a national holiday in [[Pakistan]] in honour of the birth of [[Mohammad Ali Jinnah]]. ==External links== *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/25 BBC: On This Day] *[http://www.tnl.net/when/12/25 Today in History: December 25] ---- [[December 24]] - [[December 26]] - [[November 25]] - [[January 25]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:25 Desember]] [[an:25 d'abiento]] [[ar:25 ديسمبر]] [[ast:25 d'avientu]] [[be:25 сьнежня]] [[bg:25 декември]] [[ca:25 de desembre]] [[co:25 di decembre]] [[cs:25. prosinec]] [[csb:25 gòdnika]] [[cy:25 Rhagfyr]] [[da:25. december]] [[de:25. Dezember]] [[el:25 Δεκεμβρίου]] [[eo:25-a de decembro]] [[es:25 de diciembre]] [[et:25. detsember]] [[eu:Abenduaren 25]] [[fi:25. joulukuuta]] [[fo:25. desember]] [[fr:25 décembre]] [[fy:25 desimber]] [[ga:25 Nollaig]] [[gl:25 de decembro]] [[he:25 בדצמבר]] [[hr:25. prosinca]] [[hu:December 25]] [[ia:25 de decembre]] [[id:25 Desember]] [[io:25 di decembro]] [[is:25. desember]] [[it:25 dicembre]] [[ja:12月25日]] [[jv:25 Desember]] [[ka:25 დეკემბერი]] [[ko:12월 25일]] [[ku:25'ê berfanbarê]] [[la:25 Decembris]] [[lb:25. Dezember]] [[lt:Gruodžio 25]] [[mk:25 декември]] [[nl:25 december]] [[nn:25. desember]] [[no:25. desember]] [[oc:25 de decembre]] [[pl:25 grudnia]] [[pt:25 de Dezembro]] [[ro:25 decembrie]] [[ru:25 декабря]] [[scn:25 di dicemmiru]] [[se:Juovlamánu 25.]] [[simple:December 25]] [[sk:25. december]] [[sl:25. december]] [[sr:25. децембар]] [[sv:25 december]] [[th:25 ธันวาคม]] [[tl:Disyembre 25]] [[tr:25 Aralık]] [[tt:25. Dekäber]] [[uk:25 грудня]] [[wa:25 di decimbe]] [[zh:12月25日]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Digital television</title> <id>8271</id> <revision> <id>41914310</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:09:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jkatzen</username> <id>201916</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 41269703 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digital television''' ('''DTV''') uses digital [[modulation]] and compression to broadcast video, audio and data signals to [[television]] sets. ==Introduction== DTV can be used to carry more channels in the same amount of bandwidth than analog TV (6&amp;nbsp;[[Megahertz|MHz]]) and to receive [[high-definition television|high-definition]] programming. The digital signal eliminates common analog broadcasting artifacts such as &quot;ghosting&quot;, &quot;snow&quot;, and static noises in audio. However, when the signal is transmitted at a too low [[data rate]] DTV replaces these artifacts with new [[MPEG]] compression artifacts, such as &quot;blocking&quot;, and may fail to work entirely in situations where analog television would have produced an impaired but watchable picture. Depending on the sophistication and level of the error correction defined by the technical standard that the broadcaster complies with, DTV may either work perfectly or not work at all. The switch-over to a DTV signal often coincides with a change in picture format from an [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of 4:3 to one of 16:9. This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of [[film|movie]]s and human vision. On traditional screens this leads to &quot;[[letterbox]]&quot; black bars above and below the picture due to placing the 16:9 picture in a 4:3 frame. The previous aspect ratio of 4:3 was chosen to match the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] standard ratio of the day. == Market == === Terrestrial === [[Digital terrestrial television]] (DTT) is in the process of deployment in a number of countries. * Governments see DTT as a &quot;futuristic&quot; technology that will push their country to the forefront of the &quot;[[digital revolution]]&quot; and free up existing TV frequencies for resale, for example to communications operators. * Broadcasters see DTT as a way to fight competition from satellite and cable DTV and other digital program distribution technologies, such as [[PVR|personal digital video recorder]]s (PVR) and [[video on demand]] (VoD). They also see in DTV an opportunity to more tightly control the way in which a viewer interacts with and stores content. Tagged DTV content may, for instance, instruct a recording device to destroy a recording after a certain amount of time, without user interaction. See [[Broadcast Flag]]. * Hardware manufacturers see DTT as a way to sell [[set-top box]]es first and new all-in-one [[TV set]]s later. * Consumers see DTT as a way to obtain more programs from their existing [[TV antenna]] at the cost of a set-top box or new television. In some countries, DTT is seen as a technology that is being pushed on a public that does not exhibit much demand for it. This is particularly so in countries where high-definition programs are broadcast terrestrially, since [[HDTV]] sets are at the moment prohibitively expensive, and very little HDTV content exists apart from movies. === Satellite === DTV has been shown to be commercially viable in the satellite television market, where it is used to multiplex large numbers of channels onto the available bandwidth. The business model for satellite DTV in the [[United States|U.S.]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] is similar to that for [[cable TV]]. Satellite DTV operators tend to act as packagers for large numbers of channels, including pay-TV. The greater [[RF]] bandwidth available to satellite operators allows them to out-compete terrestrial DTV operators on both number of channels and picture quality. === Cable === Where an original analog cable set-top box is already required this has to be replaced to receive digital cable. From a user's point of view the main advantage appears to be simply better picture quality and more channel availability, however (depending on the choices operators make regarding set-top box hardware and middleware software) many other features become possible with the transfer away from analog. Often a TV guide (seven-day schedules) with extended information can be viewed, reminders to watch programs can be set and advanced parental censorship on channel content can be exercised. Operators also enjoy better CA (conditional access) on digitally transmitted streams as they can be sent &quot;encrypted&quot; with schemes such as DES encryption to help prevent unauthorized access and protect revenues. Operators wishing to increase the carrying capacity of their original networks have to replace all analog set-top boxes with digital replacements before turning off the analog feeds; this is not a trivial or low-cost solution as literally millions of set-top boxes require replacement. Some of the more advanced cable networks even have the use of a return path (a two-way data communications path to allow DTV set-top boxes to return information back to the operators head-end). This allows them to extend services offered to include interactive web style content viewing, gaming, voting and other &quot;on-demand&quot; services such as control of video on-demand films. === IPTV === ''Main article:'' [[IPTV]] Internet technologies are finally starting to be adapted for use with DTV deployments, meaning a single broadband Internet connection will eventually service one's home providing one with Triple Play (voice over IP, Internet access, and digital television). IPTV is a big step forward when combined with the latest advancements in picture
and form part of the [[ribosome]]s, enabling protein [[synthesis]]. In [[prokaryotes]], all chemical reactions take place in the cytosol. In [[eukaryote]]s, the cytosol contains the cell [[organelle]]s; this is collectively called cytoplasm. In plants, the amount of cytosol can be reduced due to the large [[tonoplast]] (central [[vacuole]]) that takes up most of the cell interior volume. The cytosol also surrounds the [[cytoskeleton]], which is made of fibrous proteins (e.g. [[microfilament]]s, [[microtubule]]s, and [[intermediate filament]]s). In many organisms, the cytoskeleton maintains the shape of the cell, anchors organelles, and controls internal movement of structures (e.g. transport [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s). The cytosol is not a &quot;soup&quot; with free-floating particles, but is highly organized on the molecular level. As the concentration of [[soluble]] molecules increases within the cytosol, an osmotic gradient builds up toward the outside of the cell. Water flows into the cell, making the cell larger. To prevent the cell from bursting apart, molecular pumps in the [[plasma membrane]], the cytoskeleton, the tonoplast or the [[cell wall]] (if present), are used to counteract the osmotic pressure. &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Cytosol.gif]] --&gt; ==Details== Cytosol mostly consists of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as protein). It contains about 20% to 30% [[protein]]. Normal human cytosolic [[pH]] is (roughly) 7.0 (i.e. neutral), whereas the [[pH]] of the [[extracellular fluid]] is 7.4. ==References== ''Life: The Science of Biology''. Purves, Sadava, Orians, Heller. Sunderland, MA. Sinauer Associates, Inc. 2004. ISBN 0716798565 [[Category:Cell biology]] [[de:Cytosol]] [[eo:Citosolo]] [[fr:Cytosol]] [[lb:Zytosol]] [[nl:Cytosol]] [[ja:細胞質基質]] [[sv:Cytosol]] [[zh:原生质]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Compound</title> <id>6782</id> <revision> <id>38622417</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T15:26:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ravn</username> <id>47881</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:D]] &quot;this is not a search index&quot;, please only add links to this page, if there is a significant risk of confusion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Compound''' may refer to: * [[Compound (fortification)]] is an area of land that is surrounded by fences, walls, or [[barbed wire]] and is used for a particular purpose. * [[Chemical compound]], a chemical combination of two or more elements. * [[Compound (linguistics)]], in [[linguistics]], is a word that consists of more than one radical element * [[Compound (music)]], in [[music]] is an attribute of an [[interval]] (wider than one [[octave]]) or [[time signature]] (based on groups of ''three'' notes). {{disambig}} [[simple:Compound]] [[fr:Composite]] [[fr:Composition]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Circumcision</title> <id>6783</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42162439</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:54:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kasreyn</username> <id>72937</id> </contributor> <comment>rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Circumcision''' is the removal of some or all of the [[foreskin]] (prepuce) from the [[penis]]. The [[frenulum]] may also be removed at the same time, in a procedure called '''frenectomy'''. The word &quot;circumcision&quot; comes from [[Latin]] ''circum'' (meaning &quot;around&quot;) and ''caedere'' (meaning &quot;to cut&quot;). [[female genital cutting|Female circumcision]] is a term applied to a variety of procedures performed on the [[female genitalia]]. Except where specified, &quot;circumcision&quot; in this article should be regarded as &quot;male circumcision&quot;. Circumcision as a [[therapeutic]] medical procedure may be recommended to treat a variety of conditions, such as pathological [[phimosis]], chronic inflammations of the penis and [[penile cancer]]. The frequent use of circumcision is often criticised since the indicators for circumcision are regularly misdiagnosed, e.g. confusing normal, congenital infant phimosis with pathological phimosis,[http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/178_04_170203/spi10278_fm.html] and circumcision is often used where less invasive treatments are available and effective. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/dewan] [[Routine]], non-therapeutic [[infant]] circumcision is controversial. National medical associations in America, Canada, and Australia do not recommend routine infant circumcision, and several recommend that doctors discuss the benefits and risks with prospective parents.[http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13585.html] [http://www.aafp.org/x1462.xml] [http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;103/3/686] The [[genital integrity]] movement condemns non-therapeutic infant circumcision as a [[human rights violation]] that they consider comparable to [[female genital cutting]],[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/vanhowe5/] while [[Circumcision advocacy|circumcision advocates]] stress the medical benefits of the procedure.[http://adc.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/archdischild;77/3/258] [[Image:Circumsised penis - Flacid erect2.jpg|thumb|right|A circumcised penis in both flaccid and fully erect states, respectively ([[:Image:Circumsised_penis_-_Flacid_and_Erect_-_High_Res.jpg|larger version]]).]] [[Image:UncirPenisFlaccid1.jpg|thumb|right|Penis, not circumcised, flaccid and erect. ([[:Image:UncirPenisFlaccid1.jpg|larger version]]).]] ==The procedures of circumcision== {{sectstub}} Circumcision is the removal of the [[foreskin]] from the [[penis]]. Clamps, such as the Gomco, Plastibell, and Mogen are commonly used for infant circumcision.[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3225/is_n2_v52/ai_17281985] These are intended to protect the glans from harm, and crush the foreskin to achieve [[hemostasis]]. When the Gomco or Mogen clamp is used, a dorsal slit must be made before application of the clamp. In the case of the Mogen and Plastibell, the foreskin is then surgically removed, while when the Plastibell is used, the foreskin sloughs away along with the clamp in three to seven days. &lt;!-- Depending on how much of the foreskin was removed, it is possible to talk of &quot;tight&quot; and &quot;loose&quot; circumcisions. A [[circumcision scar]] remains.--&gt;&lt;!--Could we have some proper sourcing for this?--&gt; According to a 1998 study, anaesthesia is used by 45% of physicians performing infant circumcision.[http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/101/6/e5] Dorsal penile nerve block is the most commonly used form. Obstetricians were notable in the study for a significantly lower rate of anaesthesia use (25%) than pediatricians or family practitioners. Adult circumcisions are often performed without clamps, and require the following 4 to 6 weeks of abstinence from masturbation or intercourse to allow wound healing. [http://www.aafp.org/afp/990315ap/1514.html] ==Cultures and Religions== :''For information on circumcision in the [[Bible]], see [[Circumcision in the Bible]].'' Some cultures circumcise their males, either shortly after birth, or around puberty as an initiation rite. The practice is most notable among [[Muslim|Muslims]] and [[Jew|Jews]], and is more prevalent in the United States than in other Western nations. ===[[Aesthetics]]=== Circumcision may be undertaken as a [[genital modification and mutilation|body modification of the genitals]] to change the looks of the penis to appeal more to certain [[aesthetics]]. Where infant or childhood circumcision is the norm, people may consider non-circumcised penises to be less preferable sexually, visually or otherwise. &lt;!--In the remaining majority of cultures where circumcision is not the norm, it is considered mutilation.--&gt; In a few cultures, circumcision may be one of other modifications of the penis, such as a [[split penis]] or a [[subincision]]. The [[United States]], [[the Philippines]] and [[South Korea]] are the only countries that circumcise a majority of young males for non-religious reasons. Routine circumcision practices in South Korea are largely the result of American cultural and military influence following the [[Korean War]]. The origin of the practice in the Philippines is uncertain according to one newspaper article [http://www.cirp.org/news/sunstar03-21-05/]. However, Antonio de Morga's &quot;History of the Philippine Islands&quot; (1907) attributes circumcision to Islamic influence [http://www.nalanda.nitc.ac.in/resources/english/etext-project/history/philippine/chapter11.html]. ===[[Coptic Christian]]=== Circumcision is also customary in the [[Coptic Christian]] and [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] religious traditions. It is usually performed on the eighth day of life. ===[[Islam]]=== [[Islam]] stresses form of natural hygiene. Although circumcision is not mentioned in the [[Qur'an]], it is mentioned in some parts of the [[Hadith]]. [[Fiqh]] scholars have different opinions about circumcision in [[Shariah]], depending on which [[Hadiths|Hadith]] are accepted and how they are interpreted. According to [[Imam Abu Hanifa]], [[Imam Malik]] and a majority of others it is a ''recommended'' practice ([[Sunnah]]), but others, including [[Imam Shafi]], consider it ''obligatory''. &lt;!--Moreover, Hadiths describe that the ritual of circumcision was started by [[Abraham]]. --&gt;The timing of Muslim circumcision varies. Some Muslim communities perform circumcision on the eighth day of life, as with Jews, while others perform the rite later. Turkish, [[Balkan]], rural Egyptians and Central Asian Muslims typically circumcise boys between the ages of six and eleven and the event is viewed communally as a joyous occasion and is celebrat
he killed Lamia's children and the grief turned her into a monster. Lamia was cursed with the inability to close her eyes so that she would always obsess over the image of her dead children. Zeus gave her the gift to be able to take her eyes out to rest, and then put them back in. Lamia was envious of other mothers and ate their children. == Other Stories Involving Hera == === [[Cydippe]] === [[Cydippe]], a priestess of Hera, was on her way to a festival in the goddess' honor. The oxen which was to pull her cart were overdue and her sons, [[Biton]] and [[Cleobis]] pulled the cart the entire way (45 stadia, 8 kilometers). Cydippe was impressed with their devotion to her and her goddess and asked Hera to give her children the best gift a god could give a person. Hera ordained that the brothers would die in their sleep. This honor bestowed upon the children was later used by Solon as a proof while trying to convince Croesus that it is impossible to judge a person's happiness until they have died a fruitful death after a joyous life. (according to Herodotus' History book 1.) === [[Tiresias]] === Tiresias was a priest of [[Zeus]], and as a young man he encountered two [[snake]]s mating and hit them with a stick. He was then transformed into a woman. As a woman, Tiresias became a priestess of [[Hera]], married and had children, including [[Manto (Greek mythology)|Manto]]. According to some versions of the tale, Lady Tiresias was a [[prostitute]] of great renown. After seven years as a woman, Tiresias again found mating snakes, struck them with her staff, and became a man once more. As a result of his experiences, [[Zeus]] and [[Hera]] asked him to settle the question of which sex, male or female, experienced more pleasure during [[intercourse]]. Zeus claimed it was women; Hera claimed it was men. When Tiresias sided with Zeus, Hera struck him blind. Since Zeus could not undo what she had done, he gave him the gift of prophecy. An alternative and less commonly told story has it that Tiresias was blinded by [[Athena]] after he stumbled onto her bathing naked. His mother, [[Chariclo]], begged her to undo her curse, but Athena couldn't; she gave him prophecy instead. === [[Chelone]] === At the marriage of Zeus and Hera, a nymph named [[Chelone]] was disrespectful (or refused to attend). Zeus condemned her to eternal silence. === The [[Iliad]] === During the [[Trojan War]], [[Diomedes]] fought with [[Hector]] and saw [[Ares]] fighting on the Trojans' side. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly. Hera, Ares' mother, saw Ares' interference and asked Zeus, Ares' father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield. Hera encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares and he threw his spear at the god. Athena drove the spear into Ares' body and he bellowed in pain and fled to Mt. Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back. === The [[Golden Fleece]] === Hera hated [[Pelias]] for having murdered [[Sidero]], his step-grandmother, in a temple to Hera. She later attempted to manipulate [[Jason]] and [[Medea]] to kill Pelias and succeeded. === The [[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]] === In [[Thrace]], as [[Ovid]] tells in ''Metamorphoses'' 6.87, Hera and Zeus turned King [[Haemus]] and Queen [[Rhodope]] into mountains, the Balkan ([[Haemus Mons]]) and [[Rhodope mountains|Rhodope mountain chain]] respectively for their [[hubris]] in comparing themselves to the gods. == Hera in Neopaganism == Hera is one of the most popular gods among modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] [[sect]]s in the [[United States]], particularly among ''Hellenistic'' [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]]. While most mythology regarding Hera seems to be conveniently omitted by most modern Neopagans, her roles remain much the same as they were in classical Hellenistic Paganism. Hera is seen as the goddess of the home and monogamy, and is believed to inspire love, loyalty, and happiness. Hera is also believed to inspire jealousy and is most commonly worshipped by women. All sects that include the worship of Hera encourage monogamy and the fulfillment of ''domestic duties''. Worship of Hera may include or inspire the collecting of fragrances and ornaments, extravagant home decoration, the burning of oils and incense (particularly within the home), and the spilling of drinks or the burning of bread and other foods as sacrifice. Some have jested that the most common form of worship is the spilling of drinks and the burning of food within the home. ==References== *[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], ''Greek Religion'' 1985. *Burkert, Walter, ''The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age'', 1998 *[[Robert Graves|Graves, Robert]], ''The Greek Myths'' 1955 *[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Carl]], ''The Gods of the Greeks'' 1951 (paperback 1980) *Ruck, Carl A.P., and Danny Staples, ''The World of Classical Myth'' 1994 *[[Jean Seznec|Seznec, Jean]], ''The Survival of the Pagan Gods : Mythological Tradition in Renaissance Humanism and Art,'' 1953 *Slater, Philip E. ''The Glory of Hera : Greek Mythology and the Greek Family'' (Boston: Beacon Press) 1968 (Princeton University 1992 ISBN 0691002223 ) Concentrating on family structure in 5th-century Athens; some of the crude usage of myth and drama for psychological interpreting of &quot;neuroses&quot; is dated. ==External links== {{Commonscat|Hera}} *[http://hellas.teipir.gr/Thesis/Samos/english/tdk158.html The Samos Museum:] cult objects recovered from the Heraion at Samos [[Category:Greek goddesses]] [[Category:Fictional queens]] &lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt; [[bg:Хера]] [[ca:Hera]] [[da:Hera]] [[de:Hera]] [[et:Hera]] [[el:Ήρα (μυθολογία)]] [[es:Hera]] [[eo:Hera]] [[eu:Hera]] [[fa:هرا (همسر زئوس)]] [[fr:Héra]] [[ko:헤라]] [[hr:Hera]] [[it:Era (mitologia)]] [[he:הרה]] [[la:Hera]] [[lt:Hera]] [[lb:Hera]] [[hu:Héra]] [[nl:Hera]] [[ja:ヘラ]] [[no:Hera]] [[pl:Hera]] [[pt:Hera]] [[ro:Hera]] [[ru:Гера (мифология)]] [[sk:Héra]] [[sl:Hera]] [[sr:Хера]] [[fi:Hera (mytologia)]] [[sv:Hera]] [[tr:Hera]] [[uk:Гера]] [[zh:赫拉]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History</title> <id>13209</id> <revision> <id>42067165</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:12:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>UkPaolo</username> <id>269651</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.221.67.5|209.221.67.5]] ([[User talk:209.221.67.5|talk]]) to last version by Rick Norwood</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}} {{commonscat}} {{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[history (disambiguation)]].}} {{dablink|History studies the past in human terms. For the science of locating events in time, unrelated to humans, see [[chronology]].}} '''History''' is [[information]] about the [[past]]. When used as the name of a field of study, ''history'' refers to the study and interpretation of the record of [[human]]s, [[family history|families]], and [[society|societies]]. [[Knowledge]] of history is often said to encompass both knowledge of past events and [[historical thinking]] skills. Traditionally, the study of history has been considered a part of the [[humanities]]. However, in modern [[academia]], history is increasingly classified as a [[social science]], especially when [[chronology]] is the focus. ==Classifications== {{main|Historical classification}} Because history is such a large subject, organization is crucial. While several writers, such as [[H.G. Wells]] and [[Will Durant]] &amp; [[Ariel Durant]], have written universal histories, most historians specialize. There are several different ways of classifying historical information: *Chronological (by date) *Geographical (by region) *National (by nation) *Ethnic (by ethnic group) *Topical (by subject or topic) Some people have criticized historical study, saying that it tends to be too narrowly focused on political events, armed conflicts, and famous people and that deeper and more significant changes in terms of ideas, technology, family life and culture warrant more attention. Recent developments in the practice of history have sought to address this. ==Historical records== [[Historian]]s obtain information about the past from various kinds of sources, including written or printed records, coins or other artifacts, buildings and monuments, and interviews ([[oral history]]). For modern history, primary sources may include photographs, motion pictures, and audio and video recordings. Different approaches may be more common in the study of some periods than in others, and perspectives of history ([[historiography]]) vary widely. Historical records have been maintained for a variety of reasons, including [[administration|administrative]] (such as [[census]]es, [[tax]] records, [[commerce|commercial]] records), [[politics|political]] (glorification or criticism of leaders and notable figures), [[religion|religious]], [[art|artistic]], [[sport|sporting]] (notably the [[Olympics]]), [[genealogy|genealogical]], personal ([[letter]]s), and [[entertainment]]. ==History and prehistory== Traditionally the study of history was limited to the written and spoken word. However with the rise of academic professionalism and the creation of new scientific fields in the 19th and 20th centuries came a flood of new information that challenged this notion — archaeology, anthropology and other social sciences were providing new information and even theories about human history. Some traditional historians questioned whether these new studies were really history, since they were not limited to the written word. A new term, ''[[prehistory]]'', was coined, to encompass the results of these new fields where they yeilded information about times prior to the existence of written records. In the twentieth century the artificial division between history and prehistory was proving problematic. Historians were look
:50:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''EDIF''' stands for '''Electronic Design Interchange Format''', and has been predominantly used as a neutral format in which to store Electronic [[netlist]]s and schematics. == Prehistory == EDIF was an attempt to solve the problem stemmed from considerable competition among companies in [[electronic design|electronic design industry]]. These companies produced their own [[electronic design]] [[database]]s which were highly proprietary. When customers needed to transfer data from one system to another, it was necessary to write translators from one format to other. As the number of formats (''N'') multiplied, the translator issue became an ''N''-squared problem. EDIF originated from a discussion of three men &lt;!--[''who?'']--&gt;, who envisioned a common, neutral format from which all the other formats could be derived, and began work on this neutral format. In November 1983 this effort grew into the EDIF Steering Committee, consisting of representatives of [[Daisy Systems]], [[Mentor Graphics]], [[Motorola]], [[National Semiconductor]], [[Tektronix]], [[Texas Instruments]] and the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. == Syntax == The general format of EDIF involves using parentheses to delimit data definitions, and in this way it superficially resembles [[Lisp programming language|LISP]]. The basic tokens of EDIF 2.0.0 were keywords (like ''library'', ''cell'', ''instance'', etc), strings (delimited with double quotes), integer numbers, and symbolic constants (e.g. ''GENERIC'', ''TIE'', ''RIPPER'' for cell types), and &quot;Identifiers&quot;, which are reference labels formed from a very restricted set of characters. EDIF 3.0.0 and 4.0.0 dropped the symbolic constants entirely, using keywords instead. So, the syntax of EDIF has a fairly simple foundation. == Versions == The 1 0 0 release of EDIF was made in [[1985]]. The first &quot;real&quot; public release of EDIF was version 2 0 0, which was approved in March of [[1988]] as the standard ANSI/EIA-548-1988. It is published in a single volume. The industry tested this release for several years, and committees formed from dozens of companies evaluated its weaknesses, and in September of 1993, released version 3 0 0, given the designation of [[EIA]] standard EIA-618. It later achieved [[ANSI]] and [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] designations. It is published in 4 volumes. EDIF 4 0 0 was released in late August, [[1996]], mainly to add &quot;Printed Circuit Board&quot; extensions to EDIF 3 0 0. This more than doubled the size of EDIF 3 0 0, and is published in HTML format on CD. == Evolution == === Problems with 2 0 0 === To understand the problems users and vendors encountered with EDIF 2 0 0, one first has to picture all the elements and dynamics of the electronics industry. The people who needed this standard were mainly design engineers, who worked for companies whose size ranged from a house garage to multi-billion dollar facilities with thousands of engineers. These engineers worked mainly from schematics and netlists in the late 1980s, and the big push was to generate the netlists from the schematics automatically. The first suppliers were Electronic Design Automation vendors (e.g., Daisy, Mentor, and Valid formed the earliest predominating set). These companies competed vigorously for their shares of this market. Perhaps an analogy of multiple armies fighting a brutal battle for control of the civilian (engineering) population might be appropriate. One of the tactics used by these companies to &quot;capture&quot; their customers was their proprietary databases. Each had special features that the others did not. Once a decision was made to use a particular vendor's software to enter a design, the customer was ever after constrained to use no other software. To move from vendor A's to vendor B's systems usually meant a very expensive re-entry of almost all design data by hand into the new system. This expense of &quot;migration&quot; was the main factor that locked design engineers into using a single vendor. But the &quot;customers&quot; had a different desire. They saw immediately that while vendor A might have a really nice analog simulation environment, vendor B had a much better PCB or silicon layout auto-router. And they wished that they could pick and choose amongst the different vendors. EDIF was mainly supported by the electronics design end-users, and their companies. The EDA vendors were involved also, but their motivation was more along the lines of wanting to not alienate their customers. Most of the EDA vendors produced EDIF 2 0 0 translators, but they were definitely more interested in generating high-quality EDIF readers, and they had absolutely no motivation at all to write any software that generated EDIF (an EDIF Writer), beyond threats from customers of mass migration to another vendor's software. The result was rather interesting. Hardly any software vendor wrote EDIF 2 0 0 output that did not have severe violations of syntax or semantics. The semantics were just loose enough that there might be several ways to describe the same data. This began to be known as &quot;flavors&quot; of EDIF. The programmers who worked on EDIF products were usually competent, hard working people, but the vendor companies did not always feel it important to allocate many resources to EDIF products, even if they sold a large number of them. There were several stories of active products with virtually no-one to maintain them for years. User complaints were merely gathered and prioritized. The harder it became to export customer data to EDIF, the more the vendors seemed to like it. Those who did write EDIF translators found they spent a huge amount of time and effort on generating sufficiently powerful, forgiving, artificially-intelligent readers, that could handle and piece together the poor-quality code produced by the extant EDIF 2 0 0 writers of the day. In designing EDIF 3 0 0, the committees were well aware of the faults of the language, the calumny heaped on EDIF 2 0 0 by the vendors and the frustration of the end users. So, to tighten the semantics of the language, and provide a more formal description of the standard, the revolutionary approach was taken to provide an information model for EDIF, in the information modeling language [[EXPRESS]]. This was a fairly good idea, and helped to better document the standard, but was done more as an afterthought, as the syntax crafting was done independently of the model, instead of being generated from the model. Also, even though the standard says that if the syntax and model disagree, the model is the standard, this is not the case in practice. The [[Backus-Naur form|BNF]] description of the syntax is the foundation of the language inasmuch as the software that does the day-to-day work of producing design descriptions is based on a fixed syntax. The information model also suffered from the fact that it was not (and is not) ideally suited to describing EDIF. It does not describe such concepts as name spaces very well at all, and the differences between a definition and a reference is not clearly describable either. Also, the constructs in EXPRESS for describing constraints might be formal, but constraint description is a fairly complicated matter at times. So, most constraints ended up just being described as comments. Most of the others became elaborate formal descriptions which most readers will never be able to decipher, and therefore may not stand up to automated debugging/compiling, just as a program might look good in review, but a compiler might find some interesting errors, and actually running the program written might find even more interesting errors. (Additionally, analogous EXPRESS compilers/executors didn't exist when the standard was written, and may not still exist today!) But, taking into account these shortcomings, the information model for EDIF 300 is a grand work, and a bedrock for discussions about the domain. === Solutions to EDIF 2 0 0 problems === The solution to the &quot;flavor&quot; problem of EDIF 2 0 0 was to develop a more specific semantic description in EDIF 3 0 0 (1993). Indeed, reported results of people generating EDIF 3 0 0 translators was that the writers were now ''much'' more difficult to get right, due to the great number of semantic restrictions, and the readers are comparatively trivial to develop. The solution to vendor &quot;conflict of interest&quot; was neutral third-party companies, who could provide EDIF products based on vendor interfaces. This separation of the EDIF products from direct vendor control was critical to providing the end-user community with tools that worked well. It formed naturally and without comment. Engineering DataXpress was perhaps the first such company in this realm, with Electronic Tools Company seeming to have captured the market in the mid to late 1990s. Another dynamic in this industry is EDIF itself. Since they have grown to a rather large size, generating readers and writers has become a very expensive proposition. Usually the third-party companies have congregated the necessary specialists and can use this expertise to more efficiently generate the software. They are also able to leverage code sharing and other techniques an individual vendor could not. By [[2000]], almost no major vendor produced its own EDIF tools, choosing instead to [[original equipment manufacturer|OEM]] third-party tools. Since the release of EDIF 4 0 0, the entire EDIF standards organisation has essentially dissolved. There have been no published meetings of any of the technical subcommittees, the EDIF Experts group, etc. Most of the individuals involved have moved on to ot
ged. [http://www.streamingmedia.com/article.asp?id=9080&amp;c=31 Example] of broadcasters concerns. ====Online HD==== [[H.264]] has made significant progress towards becoming a widespread video format on the internet thanks to [[Apple Computer]]'s [[QuickTime]] software supporting the format as of version 7. Since many movie trailers are released in QuickTime format, when movie distributors started releasing HD trailers on the web the format they chose was H.264. H.264 is also used by some for encoding video [[podcast]]s. ====VP6==== [[VP6]] was reported by On2 to have been chosen by [[China]] for use in the [[Enhanced Versatile Disc]] (EVD) format initiative. As reported, this was a result of China's desire to avoid royalties on WM9 or AVC. As an advantage, VP6 would not require royalties on recorded media (although royalties would be charged for player devices at a similar cost as for other codecs). As China starts to dominate manufacturing of TV and DVD units, the country's choice of standards becomes more important for everyone. A low cost for the codec itself is not a significant advantage over DVD, however, as the standalone hardware players will be incompatible with standard [[DVD-Video]] unless the manufacturer pays the royalties for the technologies necessary to make the player DVD-compatible. Very few titles were made available in any market for this format, although it is presumed that many would be needed to drive purchase of incompatible players. It is unlikely any major U.S. studio will commit to movies in this format without some form of copy-protection, which is not yet specified. Soon after the announcement that VP6 would be used on EVD, negotiations between On2 and E-World (the consortium pushing EVD to become a standard) broke down. On2 filed multiple breach of contract claims for arbitration, but in March of 2005 the arbitrator ruled that E-World had not broken the contract and owed nothing to On2. It was unclear to On2 and the arbitrator whether the Chinese government ever approved the EVD proposal as a standard. ====HD DVD and Blu-ray==== Recently, the [[DVD Forum]] and the [[Blu-ray Disc Association]] failed to agree on standards for high-definition 12-cm discs. A [[format war]] is now very likely between the DVD Forum's [[HD DVD]] (formerly &quot;Advanced Optical Disc&quot;) standard and the Blu-ray Disc Association's [[Blu-ray disc]] standard. Both sides of the HD disc camp are likely to leverage studio partners against each other through exclusive arrangements. As a result, this will likely lead to certain films becoming available only on one format. A possible outcome of a messy format war could be the emergence of combo players, as the physical disc sizes are identical. A more likely possibility is that the [[PlayStation 3]] console (manufactured by [[Sony]], the main advocate of Blu-ray discs) will gain a major lead in sales for Blu-ray players when it launches in 2006. The Blu-ray format has already gained a majority support from almost every major movie studio in the U.S., while the HD DVD format has received support from a smaller consortium of companies (Microsoft and Toshiba being the exception), many of whom have also pledged support for Blu-ray anyway. Although they disagree about physical format technology, both the HD DVD and Blu-ray factions have selected the same three video codecs to be mandatory in their designs: specifically, [[MPEG-2]] Part 2, [[VC-1]], and [[H.264]]. There are now some DVD players that will output enhanced or high-definition signals from standard-definition DVDs. These players, however, are not considered to be true HD DVD players since they include only&lt;!--misplaced-modifier alert!--&gt; an integrated scaler to [[upconvert]] the standard-definition DVD video to high-definition video. This upconversion process can improve the perceived picture quality of standard-definition video. Some DVD manufacturers such as [[Philips]] are licensing the [[DivX]] codec in order to play 720p/1080i content recorded on standard consumer DVD-R discs. ====HD cameras==== The standard for consumer/[[prosumer]] HDTV acquisition is [[High-Definition Video]] (HDV). It records [[MPEG-2]]TS compressed HDTV video on standard [[DV]] media (DV or [[MiniDV]] cassette tape) and transfers it using [[Firewire]]. All major Camcorder vendors provide camcorders in this segment. Broadcast-level HD cameras often record to hard-drives via a raw input/output or to tape or flash disks in formats that&lt;!--incorrect-pronoun alert!--&gt; support higher bitrates than [[MiniDV]] cassettes such a DVCPro HD. Recording at 100 Mbits/s, it uses a better color compression method to give better color representation than a standard DV25 or MiniDV cassette and less compression artifacts. == Table of terrestrial HDTV transmission systems == {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Main characteristics of three DTTV systems ! Systems ! ATSC !! [[DVB-T]] !! ISDB-T |- !colspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;| Source coding |- ! Video |colspan=&quot;3&quot;| Main Profile syntax of ISO/IEC 13818-2 ([[MPEG-2]] &amp;ndash; Video) |- ! Audio | ATSC Standard A/52 ([[Dolby AC-3]]) || ISO/IEC 13818-2 (MPEG-2 &amp;ndash; [[MP2|Layer II Audio]]) and Dolby AC-3 || ISO/IEC 13818-7 (MPEG-2 &amp;ndash; [[AAC]] Audio) |- !colspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;| Transmission system |- ! Channel coding |colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- ! Outer coding | R-S (207, 187, t = 10) ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| R-S (204, 188, t = 8) |- ! Outer interleaver | 52 R-S block ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| 12 R-S block |- ! Inner coding | rate 2/3 [[trellis code]] ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[Punctured convolution code|PCC]]: rate 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, 5/6, 7/8; constraint length = 7, Polynomials (octal) = 171, 133 |- ! Inner interleaver | 12 to 1 trellis code || bit-wise, frequency || bit-wise, frequency, selectable time |- ! Data randomization |colspan=&quot;3&quot;| 16-bit [[PRBS]] |- ! Modulation | [[8VSB|8-VSB]] and [[16VSB|16-VSB]] | [[COFDM]] &lt;br&gt; [[QPSK]], [[Quadrature amplitude modulation|16QAM]] and [[64QAM]] &lt;br&gt; Hierarchical modulation: multi-resolution constellation (16QAM and 64QAM) &lt;br&gt; Guard interval: 1/32, 1/16, 1/8 &amp; 1/4 of [[OFDM]] symbol &lt;br&gt; Two modes: 2k and 8k [[Fast Fourier Transform|FFT]] | [[BST-COFDM]] with 13 frequency segments &lt;br&gt; [[DQPSK]], QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM &lt;br&gt; Hierarchical modulation: choice of three different modulations on each segment &lt;br&gt; Guard interval: 1/32, 1/16, 1/8 &amp; 1/4 of OFDM symbol &lt;br&gt; Three modes: 2k, 4k and 8k FFT |} ==References== * [[Federal Standard 1037C|United States Federal Standard 1037C]] * [[DTV channel protection ratios]] * [[DVB]] HDTV standard *[http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_299-ive.pdf Images formats for HDTV], article from the [[European Broadcasting Union|EBU]] Technical Review . *[http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_300-wood.pdf High Definition for Europe - a progressive approach], article from the [[European Broadcasting Union|EBU]] Technical Review . *[http://www.ebu.ch/CMSimages/en/tec_doc_t3299_tcm6-23327.pdf High Definition (HD) Image Formats for Television Production], technical report from the [[European Broadcasting Union|EBU]] *[http://www.ebu.ch/CMSimages/en/tec_doc_t3312-2006_tcm6-42652.pdf Digital Terrestrial HDTV Broadcasting in Europe ], technical report from the [[European Broadcasting Union|EBU]] * [http://www.worldscreen.com/archivenews4.php?filename=harris421.htm TV Azteca Plans HDTV Mexican Rollout] ==See also== * [[Advanced Television Systems Committee]] (ATSC) * [[ATSC tuner]] * [[Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting]] * [[DVB]] (Digital Video Broadcasting) * [[Digital television]] * HDTV input and colorspace ([[YPbPr]]/[[YCbCr]]). * [[HD ready]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{wiktionarypar|HDTV}} * [http://www.atsc.org/guide_default.html ATSC] * [http://www.hdtvmagazine.com HDTV Magazine] HDTV Resource * [http://www.hdbeat.com HD Beat] High definition consumer information, listings and reviews. * [http://www.hometheaternetwork.com/HTN_HDTV1.htm Home Theater Network] What to look for in HDTVs. * [http://www.highdefforum.com HDTV Forum] Your High Definition Forum * [http://www.hidefhardware.com Hi Definition Hardware] Useful information on Hi Definition compatible hardware. * [http://www.hidefster.com/ HDTV Consumer Info] Information for people unfamiliar with HDTV technology. * [http://www.ukhdtv.net UKHDTV.net] UK Resource For HDTV News &amp; Information * [http://www.masterplan0589.com/ HDTV Broadcasting Info] Information for people looking to get HDTV {{TV resolution}} [[Category:High-definition television| High-definition television]] [[Category:Video and movie technology]] [[Category:Digital television]] [[Category:Consumer electronics]] [[ca:HDTV]] [[af:HDTV]] [[de:High Definition Television]] [[es:HDTV]] [[fr:Télévision à haute définition]] [[ko:HDTV]] [[it:HDTV]] [[lt:Raiškioji televizija]] [[nl:HDTV]] [[ja:高精細度テレビジョン放送]] [[no:HDTV]] [[pl:HDTV]] [[sr:Телевизија високе резолуције (HDTV)]] [[fi:HDTV]] [[sv:HDTV]] [[th:โทรทัศน์ความละเอียดสูง]] [[zh:高清晰度电视]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>High Definition TV</title> <id>13620</id> <revision> <id>15911217</id> <timestamp>2004-11-16T21:57:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Joy</username> <id>20318</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>avoid double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[High-definition television]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hadrian</title> <id>13621</id> <revision> <id>42148779</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:30:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Haiduc</username> <id>80885</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Parthia and Asia Minor */ expand on meeting Antinous</comment> <text xml:space="pres
hate speech=== Proponents of limitations on hate speech argue that repeated instances of hate speech do more than express ideas or expresses dissent; rather, hate speech often promotes and results in fear, [[intimidation]] and harassment of individuals, and may result in [[murder]] and even [[genocide]] of those it is targeted against. As such, [[historical revisionism (political)|historical revisionism]] is thought to be a form of [[propaganda]] which, deleting [[memory]] of real events, allows them to repeat themselves (as in the: &quot;Never more!&quot;, following [[World War I]]... and then the [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]]). According to [[Critical race theory|Richard Delgado]], it is possible to identify hate speech on the use of certains key-words, arguing that &quot;Words such as '[[nigger]]' and '[[spick]]' are badges of degradation even when used between friends: ''these words have no other connotation''.&quot; Therefore, the act of calling someone a name should be censored if the name used belongs to a previously-identified hate speech. However, [[Judith Butler]] (1997) claims that &quot;this very statement, whether written in his text or cited here, has another connotation; he has just used the word in a significantly different way.&quot; (Butler considers that &quot;mentioning&quot; a word is an effective &quot;use&quot; of the word in another context) {{ref|Butler}} On this basis, Butler claims that words do not have an absolute meaning, but one that depends on the context. She thus underlines the difficulty of identifying a hate-speech. Ultimately, the state itself defines the limits of acceptable [[discourse]], according to her. However, Butler takes the precaution to explicitly deny being against all forms of limitation of discourse, the object of her book being only to point out the different issues at stake when one address the problem of hate speech and censorship. She points out, for example, that the very act of forbidding hate-speech reconducts this hate-speech, as quoted by juridical authorities, thus leading to a proliferation of this discourse - Butler's reasoning here follows [[Michel Foucault]]'s statement according to which sexuality has not only been censored during the [[Victorian era]]: it was also put in discourse through a &quot;sexuality dispositif&quot;, thus transforming &quot;sex&quot; into what the West names &quot;sexuality&quot;. In this case, censorship of sexuality has made the discourse of sexuality proliferate, with the constitution of a huge amount of scientific or pseudo-scientific litterature on &quot;sexuality&quot;, conceived as the secret of our own [[personal identity|personal identities]]. ===Arguments against legal restrictions=== There are a number of arguments suggested against the prohibition of hate speech: * Prohibiting hate speech interferes with the right of ''free expression'' and free discussion of opinions, a key right in modern [[democracy|democracies]], particularly in the [[media]]. (The United States constitution expressly protects freedom of the press.) This argument from freedom is formally described by [[John Stuart Mill]] in [[On Liberty]]. * What exactly is &quot;hate speech&quot;? A legal definition would need to provide clear guidance to an individual speaker or writer, and to prosecutors, judges and juries involved in the prosecution of &quot;hate speech&quot;. Any ambiguity or lack of clarity and specificity in such definitions would necessarily result in arbitrary and unpredictable decisions. * Specifically, prohibiting &quot;hate speech&quot; would effectively invest government prosecutors with wide discretion to persecute and silence expressions of certain opinions as &quot;hate speech&quot; based on political convenience while ignoring equally &quot;hateful&quot; expressions which have the support of vocal or violent groups. * Hate speech restrictions are attempts to control not only the relevant speech actions, but the thoughts of individuals, and are thus an attempt to create a kind of [[thoughtcrime]]. Some believe governments may be currently enforcing laws that implement a ''de facto'' thoughtcrime regime. * Even if used, hate speech does not necessarily lead to actions, and that where actions are carried out, the speaker of those words cannot be held responsible for the actions of others. Critics of this position hold that position depends on denying what they argue as historical truths (i.e. that hate speech in practice sometimes is used to incite [[murder]] and [[genocide]]). * Prohibiting hate speech does nothing to change the ideas that give rise to the opinions behind the &quot;offensive&quot; terms. On this view, it is agreed that hate speech may be dangerous and should not exist, but suggested that we should not attempt to end it by legislative action, as opposed to debate and discussion. The antirevisionist [[Nizkor Project]] follows such a stance. * In some cases it is held that prohibiting hate speech is part of a campaign of [[political correctness]] intended to censor ''any expression'' of certain ideas, even if there is no accompanying incitement to hatred or criminal action. * Hate speech does not necessarily lead to racial hatred. In fact the opposite is often true... when racists express their views openly, most people are repulsed. As Justice Brandeis famously wrote, &quot;Sunshine is the best disinfectant.&quot; In the United States, where free speech is protected, racist groups such as the KKK are extremely tiny and marginalized. In European countries such as Austria and France, however, racist political parties -- forbidden by law from expressing openly racist views -- have built mass movements. ==Differing concepts of what is offensive== A central aspect of the hate speech debate is that concepts of what is acceptable and unacceptable differ, depending on eras in history and one's cultural and religious background. For example, ''personalised'' criticism of homosexuality and the belief that it is &quot;immoral&quot;, based on a person's religious beliefs, are to some a valid expression of their values, to others an expression of [[homophobia]] and are therefore [[homophobic hate speech]]. Prohibition in such cases is seen by some as an interference in their rights to express their beliefs. To others, these expressions generate harmful attitudes that potentially cause discrimination. Furthermore, words which once &quot;embodied&quot; negative hate speech connotations, such as '[[queer]]' or '[[faggot (slang)|faggot]]' against homosexuals, '[[nigger (word)|nigger]]' against people of [[Africa]]n origin, have themselves been &quot;reclaimed&quot; by their respective communities, who attached more positive meanings to the words, so undermining their value to those who wish to use them in a negative sense. Significations differ following the context, as [[Judith Butler]] argues. Concepts of what qualifies as ''hate speech'' broadened in the late twentieth century to include some views expressed from an ideological standpoint. For instance, some feminists refer to jokes about women or lesbians as hate speech. Just recently in Canada sexual orientation was added to the list of relevant characteristics for protection from hate-speech. Not everyone accepts that there is a comparison between classic forms of hate speech, which were incitement to hate or even physically harm, and the use of language that arguably just shows disrespect. Some discussions between politically [[right wing]] and [[left wing]] can be viewed as hateful, even though the language indulged in by both sides is not normally classified as hate speech. However, some argue that such comments demean and undermine the individuals and so ''should'' qualify as hate speech. Attitudes towards controlling hate speech cannot be reliably correlated with the traditional [[political spectrum]]. In the [[United States]], there is a general consensus that [[free speech]] values take precedence over limiting the harm caused by verbal insult. At the same time, many [[conservatives]] believe verbally expressed &quot;discrimination&quot; against religions, such as [[blasphemy]], should be condemned, while [[liberals]] feel the same way about verbal &quot;discrimination&quot; against identity-related personal characteristics, such as [[homosexuality]]. ==Hate speech codes and censorship in academia== Some United States universities have speech codes that prohibit hate speech. These rules are intended to ensure an atmosphere free from harassment and intimidation, conducive to a learning environment. Many speakers have opposed such speech codes, claiming they constitute a new orthodoxy of [[political correctness]] that represents an erosion of the American commitment to [[freedom of speech]], and-- when implemented in government-funded institutions-- the [[United_States_Constitution/Amendment_One|First Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]]. Some observers believe that speech codes are often used by school administrators to enforce thought conformity and that the accusation of hate speech is often made to suppress points of view that are unfavorable to certain &quot;protected groups&quot;, which represents a significant infringement of the tradition of academic freedom and gives members of these groups an unfair advantage in the marketplace of ideas. Opponents counter that hate speech in fact protects all groups, even though hate speech against certain groups, such as heterosexuals, is rare and thus receives less attention. For example, for a college professor to say, &quot;[[Lesbian]]s should not be schoolteachers,&quot; could be considered hate speech. The professor could be denied tenure, even if he were expressing his religiously-based belief that homosexuals should not be put in positions where they can influence young people. Underlying such a claim is the belief that homosexuals in positions of influence ove
d was deposited by a brother appointed for that purpose, affording no view either inwards or outwards. The above arrangements are found with scarcely any variation in all the charter-houses of western Europe. The [[Yorkshire]] [[Charterhouse]] of [[Mount Grace]], founded by [[Thomas Holland]], the young duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard II. and marshal of England, during the revival of the popularity of the order, about A.D. [[1397]], is the most perfect and best preserved English example. It is characterized by all the simplicity of the order. The church is a modest building, long, narrow and aisleless. Within the wall of enclosure are two courts. The smaller of the two, the south, presents the usual arrangement of church, refectory, etc., opening out of a cloister. The buildings are plain and solid. The northern court contains the cells, 14 in number. It is surrotmded by a double stone wall, the two walls being about 30 ft. or 40 ft. apart. Between these, each in its own garden, stand the cells; low-built two-storied cottages, of two or three rooms on the ground-floor, lighted by a larger and a smaller window to the side, and provided with a doorway to the court, and one at the back, opposite to one in the outer wall, through which the monk may have conveyed the sweepings of his cell and the refuse of his garden to the &quot;eremus&quot; beyond. By the side of the door to the court is a little hatch through which the daily pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by turning at an angle in the wall that no one could either look in or look out. A very perfect example of this hatch---an arrangement belonging to all Carthusian houses--exists at [[Miraflores]], near [[Burgos]], which remains nearly as it was completed in 1480. There were only nine Carthusian houses in England. The earliest was that at [[Witham]] in [[Somerset]], founded by [[Henry II of England|Henry II]], by whom the order was first brought into England. The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of Sheen or Richmond in [[Surrey]], founded by [[Henry V of England|Henry V]] about [[1414]]. The dimensions of the buildings at Sheen are stated to have been remarkably large. The great court measured 300 by 250 ft (91 by 76 m); the cloisters were a square of 500 ft (152 m); the hall was 110 ft (34 m) in length by 60 ft (18 m) in breadth. ==Mendicant Friars== An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete without some account of the convents of the Mendicant or Preaching Friars, including the Black Friars or [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s, the Grey or [[Franciscan]]s, the White or [[Carmelites]], the Eremite or [[Augustinians|Augustinian]], Friars. These orders arose at the beginning of the 13th century, with the growth of towns and cities. Whereas Benedictines and their various branches had worked to achieve self-sufficient agricultural estates, the Mendicant Friars operated differently. Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns, and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their buildings to the requirements of the site. Regularity of arrangement, therefore, was not possible, even if they had studied it. Their churches, built for the reception of large congregations of hearers rather than worshippers, form a class by themselves, totally unlike those of the elder orders in ground-plan and character. They were usually long parallelograms unbroken by transepts. The nave very usually consisted of two equal bodies, one containing the stalls of the brotherhood, the other left entirely free for the congregation. The constructional choir is often wanting, the whole church forming one uninterrupted structure, with a continuous range of windows. The east end was usually square, but the Friars Church at [[Winchelsea]] had a polygonal apse. We not unfrequently find a single transept, sometimes of great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave. This arrangement is frequent in [[Ireland]], where the numerous small friaries afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities of ground-plan. The friars' churches were at first destitute of towers; but in the 14th and 15th centuries, tall, slender towers were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir. The Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally peculiar and characteristic. We miss entirely the regularity of the buildings of the earlier orders. At the Jacobins at Paris, a cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church of two parallel aisles, while the refectory--a room of immense length, quite detached from the cloister--stretched across the area before the west front of the church. At Toulouse the nave also has two parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal, with radiating chapel. The refectory stretches northwards at right angles to the cloister, which lies to the north of the church, having the chapter-house and sacristy on the east. ==Norwich, Gloucester == As examples of English friaries, the Dominican house at [[Norwich]], and those of the Dominicans and Franciscans at Gloucester, may be mentioned. The church of the Black Friars of Norwich departs from the original type in the nave (now St Andrew's Hall), in having regular aisles. In this it resembles the earlier examples of the Grey Friars at Reading. The choir is long and aisleless; an hexagonal tower between the two, like that existing at Lynn, has perished. Thc cloister and monastic buildings remain tolerably perfect to the north. The Dominican convent at Gloucester still exhibits the cloister-court, on the north side of which is the desecrated church. The refectory is on the west side and on the south the dormitory of the 13th century. This is a remarkably good example. There were 18 cells or cubicles on each side, divided by partitions, the bases of which remain. On the east side was the prior's house, a building of later date. At the Grey or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the ordinary type in having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a continuous range of windows. There was a slender tower between the nave and the choir. ==Hulne== Of the convents of the Carmelite or White Friars we have a good example in the Abbey of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first of the order in England, founded A.D. [[1240]]. The church is a narrow oblong, destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by only 26 ft. wide. The cloisters are to the south, with the chapter-house, etc., to the east, with the dormitory over. The prior's lodge is placed to the west of the cloister. The guest-houses adjoin the entrance gateway, to which a chapel was annexed on the south side of the conventual area. The nave of the church of the Austin Friars or Eremites in London is still standing. It is of Decorated date, and has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very light and graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of the cloister of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of [[Christ's Hospital]] (the Blue-Coat School), while they were still standing. Of the Black Friars all has perished but the name. Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of the friars afford little warrant for the bitter invective of the Benedictine of St Alban's, Matthew Paris: &quot;The friars who have been founded hardly 40 years have built residences as the palaces of kings. These are they who, enlarging day by day their sumptuous edifices, encircling them with lofty walls, lay up in them their incalculable treasures, imprudently transgressing the bounds of poverty and violating the very fundamental rules of their profession.&quot; Allowance must here be made for jealousy of a rival order just rising in popularity. ==Cells== Every large monastery had depending upon it smaller foundations known as cells or priories. Sometimes these foundations were no more than a single building serving as residence and farm offices, while other examples were miniature monasteries for 5 or 10 monks. The outlying farming establishments belonging to the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. They were usually staffed by [[lay-brothers]], sometimes under the supervision of a single monk. ==Abbots and abbesses as rulers== Some cities were ruled by heads of a certain abbey. For more information, see [[abbey-principality]]. ==Nunnery== A '''nunnery''' is a convent of nuns. The first nunnery in England was built at [[Folkestone]] in about 635 by [[Eadbald of Kent|King Eadbald]]. ==See also== * [[List of abbeys and priories]] ==External links== {{Commons|Abbey}} *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01010a.htm Abbey] Catholic Encyclopedia *[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/A10_ADA/ABBEY_Lat_abbatia_from_Syr_abb.html Abbey] ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' (1911) *[http://www.sacred-destinations.com/sacred-sites/christian-monasteries.htm Abbeys and Monasteries Index] Sacred Destinations *[http://www.sacred-destinations.com/france/abbeys-of-france.htm Abbeys of France] Sacred Destinations [[Category:Abbeys|*]] [[Category:Art history]] [[ca:Abadia]] [[de:Abtei]] [[es:Abadía]] [[fr:Abbaye]] [[gl:Abadía]] [[it:Abbazia]] [[lb:Abtei]] [[nl:Abdij]] [[pl:Opactwo]] [[pt:Abadia]] [[ru:Аббатство]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Annales School</title> <id>1316</id> <revision> <id>40578874</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T16:05:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.190.157.130</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Annales School''' is a school of historical writing named after the French scholarly journal ''[[Annales d'histoire économique et sociale]]'' (later called ''[[Annales. Economies, sociétés, civilisations]]'', then renamed in [[1994]] as ''[[Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales]]'') where it was first expounded. Annales school history is best known for incorporating [[social science|social scientific]] methods into history. The Annales was founded
rock, formed when molten [[magma]] is trapped beneath the [[Earth]]'s surface and cools into a crystalline mass. The vast majority of the Earth's surface is underlain by gabbro within the [[oceanic crust]], produced by basalt magmatism at [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. ===Petrology=== Gabbro is a extrusive melting lava. Gabbro is dense, greenish or dark-colored and contains varied percentages of [[pyroxene]], [[plagioclase]], [[amphibole]], and [[olivine]] (olivine gabbro when olivine is present in large quantities). [[Quartz]] gabbros are also known to occur and are probably derived from magma that was saturated with [[silica]]. On the other hand, [[essexite]]s represent gabbros whose parent magma had an insufficiency of silica, resulting in the formation of [[nepheline]]. Gabbro is generally coarse grained, with crystals in the size range of 1 mm or greater. Finer grained equivalents of gabbro are called [[diabase]], although the vernacular term ''microgabbro'' is often used when extra descriptiveness is desired. Gabbro may be extremely coarse grained to pegmatitic, and some pyroxene-plagioclase [[cumulate rocks|cumulates]] are essentially coarse grained gabbro, although these may exhibit acicular crystal habits. Gabbro is usually equigranular in texture, although it may be porphyritic at times, especially when plagioclase has grown earlier than the groundmass minerals. ===Distribution=== Gabbro can be formed as a massive uniform intrusion or as part of a layered [[ultramafic intrusions|ultramafic intrusions]] as a [[cumulate rocks|cumulate]] rock formed by settling of pyroxene and plagioclase. Cumulate gabbros are more properly termed pyroxene-plagioclase cumulate. Gabbro is an essential part of the oceanic crust, and can be found in many [[ophiolite]] complexes as parts of zones III and IV (sheeted dyke zone to massive gabbro zone). Long belts of gabbroic intrusions are typically formed at proto-rift zones and around ancient [[rift]] zone margins, intruding into the rift flanks. [[Mantle plume]] hypotheses may rely on identifying similar massive gabbro intrusions and coeval [[basalt]] volcanism. ===Uses=== Gabbro often contains valuable amounts of [[chromium]], [[nickel]], [[cobalt]], [[gold]], [[silver]], [[platinum]], and [[copper]] [[sulfide]]s. Ocellar varieties of gabbro are often used as ornamental facing stones, paving stones and it is also known by the trade name of 'black granite', which is a popular type of headstone used in funerary rites. ===Etymology=== Gabbro was named by the German geologist [[Christian Leopold von Buch]] after a town in the [[Italy|Italian]] [[Tuscany]] region. Essexite is named after the type locality in Essex, Wales. == See also == * [[Igneous rocks]] * [[Cumulate rocks]] ==External links== *[http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/prelim/176_PREL/176IGNE.HTML Ocean Drilling Program Gabbro Petrology] {{mineral-stub}} [[Category:Igneous rocks]] [[cs:Gabro]] [[de:Gabbro]] [[et:Gabro]] [[es:Gabro]] [[fr:Gabbro]] [[ko:반려암]] [[ja:ハンレイ岩]] [[pl:Gabro]] [[sv:Gabbro]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gila monster</title> <id>13147</id> <revision> <id>41241335</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:31:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mmcannis</username> <id>406660</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>-added to cat: [[Category:Fauna of the Sonoran Desert]]-</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Gila Monster | image = gila.monster.750pix.jpg | image_width = 250px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Reptile|Reptilia]] | ordo = [[Squamata]] | familia = [[Helodermatidae]] | genus = '''''[[Heloderma]]''''' | species = '''''H. suspectum''''' | binomial = ''Heloderma suspectum'' | binomial_authority = [[Edward Drinker Cope|Cope]], [[1869]] }} The '''Gila monster''' (''Heloderma suspectum'') is a species of [[lizard]] that was once thought to be one of only two species of [[venom (poison)|venomous]] lizards. (The other is the [[Mexican beaded lizard]].) The Gila (pronounced {{IPA|/'hil&amp;#601;/}}) monster lives in the [[desert]]s of the southwestern [[United States|USA]] and northwestern [[Mexico]]. It is a heavy, slow moving lizard, up to 60&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]] (2&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]]) long. Its skin has the appearance of [[bead]]s in the [[color]]s [[black]], [[pink]], [[orange (color)|orange]], and [[yellow]], laid down in intricate patterns across the body. As mentioned above, it was thought to be one of only two venomous lizards, until recent discoveries have shown that [[iguanas]] and [[monitor lizards]] also produce venom. Unlike a [[snake]], the Gila monster injects venom into its victim not by means of hollow teeth, but through grooves in the teeth of its lower jaw. It produces only small quantities of the [[neurotoxin|neurotoxic]] venom, which is secreted into the lizard's saliva. By chewing its prey, however, it tries to put as much of the poison into the bloodstream of its victim as possible. The Gila monster's bite is normally not fatal to humans (there are no reliable reports of fatalities), but it can bite quickly and is known to hold on strongly. The Gila monster's [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] generally consists of small [[rodent]]s, juvenile [[bird]]s as well as [[egg (biology)|eggs]] of both birds and reptiles. They have few natural predators of their own. The name &quot;Gila monster&quot; refers to the [[Gila River]] Basin in [[Arizona]]. In [[2005]] the [[Food and Drug Administration]] of the United States approved a drug for the management of Type 2 [[diabetes]], [[exenatide|Byetta (exenatide)]], a synthetic version of a protein derived from the Gila monster's saliva. == Subspecies == There exist two subspecies. *[[Heloderma suspectum cinctum]], the [[banded Gila monster]] *[[Heloderma suspectum suspectum]], the [[reticulate Gila monster]] == Conservation status == Gila monsters are a protected species under [[Arizona]] State law in the [[United States]], and may not be collected, killed, or kept in captivity without a permit in that State. They are currently considered threatened, but not endangered. The main threat to the species is human encroachment. They are listed as ''threatened'' under the United States [[Endangered Species Act]], and they appear in Appendix II of [[CITES]]. == Morphology of the skeleton == [[Image:CTHeloderma.jpg|left|300px]] View 3D computed tomographic (CT) animations of the skeleton of adult and juvenile Gila monsters at [http://digimorph.org/specimens/Heloderma_suspectum/juvenile/whole/ DigiMorph.org] &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; == External links == *[http://www.herpetology.com/heloderma.html Heloderma information, list serve, photos and more] [[Category:Helodermas]] [[Category:Fauna of Mexico]] [[Category:Fauna of the Sonoran Desert]] [[Category:Fauna of the United States]] [[de:Gila-Krustenechse]] [[es:Heloderma suspectum]] [[nl:Gila monster]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gene Roddenberry</title> <id>13148</id> <revision> <id>42142913</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:36:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pd THOR</username> <id>138667</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Redirect bypass from [[LGBT Characters in The Star Trek Universe]] to [[LGBT characters in the Star Trek universe]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gene Roddenberry.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Gene Roddenberry, the creator of [[Star Trek]]]] '''Eugene Wesley Roddenberry''' ([[August 19]], [[1921]] – [[October 24]], [[1991]]) was an American scriptwriter and producer. He is best known as the creator of the [[science fiction]] television series ''[[Star Trek]]'', and was one of the first people to be [[space burial|buried in space]]. ==Personal life== Born in [[El Paso, Texas]] to Eugene Edward Roddenberry and Caroline Glen Goldman, Roddenberry spent his boyhood in [[Los Angeles, California]], where his family had moved so his father could pursue a career with the [[Los Angeles Police Department]] (LAPD). Following in his father's footsteps after high school, Roddenberry took classes in police studies at [[Los Angeles City College]], and headed that school's Police Club. In that role, he liaised with the [[Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation|FBI]], thanking them for sending speakers and securing copies of the FBI Code and publications for club use, and attempted to take fingerprint records of the college community for the FBI's Civil Identification Division. He later transferred his academic interest to [[aeronautical engineering]] and qualified for a [[pilot licensing and certification|pilot's license]]. Roddenberry joined the [[U.S. Army Air Corps]] in 1941 and became an aviator. He flew many combat [[B-17]] missions in the [[Pacific Theatre]] and was awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (U.S.)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] and the [[Air Medal]]. After leaving the service, he was a commercial pilot for [[Pan American World Airways]] (Pan Am). Roddenberry left Pan Am to pursue writing for television in Los Angeles. He fell back on his early training as a policeman and joined the LAPD. He served the LAPD from 1949 &amp;ndash; 1956. Roddenberry was married twice. He had two children by his first wife, Eileen Rexroat (to whom he was married 27 years) &amp;mdash; Dawn, and the late Darleen. His second marriage was to [[Majel Barrett]], who played Nurse [[Christine Chapel]] in the original ''Star Trek'' series, [[Lwaxana Troi]], and the voice of the computer in all of the ''Star Trek'' series with the exception of ''Star Trek:Enterprise''. They were married in Japan in a traditional [[Buddhist]]-[[Shinto]] ceremony on August 6, 1969. He had one child, [[Rod Roddenberry]], with Barrett. Gene Rod
Category:Units of temperature]] [[bg:Фаренхайт]] [[ca:Fahrenheit]] [[cs:Stupeň Fahrenheita]] [[da:Fahrenheit]] [[de:Grad Fahrenheit]] [[es:Grado Fahrenheit]] [[fi:Fahrenheit-asteikko]] [[fr:Fahrenheit]] [[gl:Fahrenheit]] [[hu:Fahrenheit]] [[it:Fahrenheit]] [[ja:華氏]] [[ko:화씨]] [[nl:Fahrenheit]] [[no:Fahrenheit]] [[pl:Skala Fahrenheita]] [[pt:Fahrenheit]] [[ru:Градус Фаренгейта]] [[simple:Fahrenheit]] [[sk:Stupeň Fahrenheita]] [[sl:Fahrenheitova temperaturna lestvica]] [[sr:Фаренхајт]] [[sv:Grad Fahrenheit]] [[th:ฟาเรนไฮต์]] [[zh:华氏温标]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Florence</title> <id>11525</id> <revision> <id>41764228</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:01:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Proto</username> <id>224548</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Transportation */ busses --&gt; buses</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;|'''Comune di Firenze''' |- |align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2| {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- |colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|[[Image:FlorenceSymbol-giglio.png|100px|]] |- |colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|City [[Seal (device)|seal]] |} |- |Founded|| [[59 BC]] as ''Florentia'' |- |Region||[[Tuscany]] |- ||[[Mayor]]|| [[Leonardo Domenici]] (''[[Democrats of the Left|Democratici di Sinistra]]'') |- |[[Area]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- City Proper || &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;102 [[1 E6 m²|km²]] |- |[[Population]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- City ([[2004]])&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Metropolitan &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Density]] (city proper) ||&lt;br /&gt; 356,000 &lt;br /&gt; almost 500,000 &lt;br /&gt; 3,453/km² |- |[[Time zone]]||[[Central European Time|CET]], [[UTC]]+1 |- |Latitude&lt;br /&gt;Longitude &lt;br /&gt;||43°47' N&lt;br /&gt;11°15' E |- |align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2|[http://www.comune.firenze.it/ www.comune.firenze.it] |- |align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot;|[[Image:66360262.JPG|right|300px|Florence's world famous skyline]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;An overview of Florence (Italian: Firenze)&lt;/small&gt; |} [[Image:Firenze dot.png|thumb|200px|Florence]] '''Florence''' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Firenze'') is the capital [[city]] of the region of [[Tuscany]], [[Italy]] . From [[1865]] to [[1870]] the city was also the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. Florence lies on the [[Arno River]] and has a population of around 400,000 people, plus a suburban population in excess of 200,000 persons. The greater area has some 956,000 people. A center of medieval [[Europe]]an [[trade]] and [[finance]], the city is often considered the birthplace of the [[Italian Renaissance]] and was long ruled by the [[Medici]] family. Florence is also famous for its fine [[art]] and [[architecture]]. It is said that, of the 1,000 most important European artists of the second millennium, 350 lived or worked in Florence. ==History of Florence== ''Main article: [[History of Florence]]'' Florence's recorded history began with the establishment in [[59 BC]] of a settlement for [[Roman Republic|Roman]] former soldiers, with the name '''Florentia'''. [[Julius Caesar]] had allocated the fertile soil of the valley of the [[Arno]] to his veterans. They built a [[castrum]] in a chessboard pattern of an army camp (''castrum'') , with the main streets, the ''cardo'' and the ''decumanus'', intersecting at the present ''Piazza della Repubblica''. This pattern can still be found in the city center. Florentia was situated at the ''Via Cassia'', the main route between Rome and the North. Through this advantageous position, the settlement could rapidly expand into an important commercial center. Emperor [[Diocletianus]] made Florentia capital of the province of ''Tuscia'' in the 3rd century AD. St Minias was Florence’s first [[martyr]]. He was beheaded at about 250 AD, during the anti-Christian persecutions of the Emperor [[Decius]]. The [[Basilica di San Miniato al Monte]] now stands near the spot. The seat of a bishopric from around the beginning of the 4th century AD, the city experienced subsequent turbulent periods of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], [[Ostrogothic]] rule, during which the city was often besieged and ravaged. The population may have fallen to as few as 1,000 persons. Peace returned under [[Lombard]] rule in the 6th century. Conquered by [[Charlemagne]] in 774, Florence became part of the duchy of Tuscany, with [[Lucca]] as capital. Population began to grow again and commerce prospered. In 854 Florence and [[Fiesole]] were united in one county. [[Margrave]] Hugo chose Florence as his residency instead of Lucca at about 1000 AD. This initiated the Golden Age of Florentine art. In 1013 the construction was begun of the Basilica di San Miniato al Monte. The exterior of the [[Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)|baptistry]] was reworked in Romanesque style between 1059 and 1128. Reviving from the 10th century and governed from [[1115]] by an autonomous commune, the city was plunged into internal strife by the [[13th century|13th-century]] struggle between the [[Ghibellines]], supporters of the [[Germany|German]] emperor, and the pro-[[Papacy|Papal]] [[Guelphs]], who after their victory split in turn into feuding &quot;White&quot; and &quot;Black&quot; factions led respectively by [[Vieri de Cerchi]] and [[Corso Donati]]. (See [[Guelphs and Ghibellines]].) These struggles eventually led to the exile of the White Guelphs, one of whom was [[Dante Alighieri]]. This factional strife was later recorded by [[Dino Compagni]], a White Guelph, in his [[Chronicles of Florence]]. Political conflict did not, however, prevent the city's rise to become one of the most powerful and prosperous in Europe, assisted by her own strong gold currency, the [[guilder|florin]] (introduced in [[1252]]), the eclipse of her formerly powerful rival [[Pisa]] (defeated by [[Genoa]] in [[1284]] and subjugated by Florence in [[1406]][http://www.florence-italy-guide.com/]), and the exercise of power by the mercantile elite following an anti-aristocratic movement, led by [[Giano della Bella]], that resulted in a set of laws called the [[Ordinances of Justice]] ([[1293]]). [[Image:Europa06 211.jpg|300px|thumb|A rare snow-covered Florence]] Of a population estimated at 80,000 before the [[Black Death]] of [[1348]], about 25,000 are said to have been supported by the city's woollen industry: in [[1345]] Florence was the scene of an attempted strike by wool combers (''ciompi''), who in [[1378]] rose up in a brief revolt against oligarchic rule in the [[Revolt of the Ciompi]]. After their suppression, the city came under the sway ([[1382]]-[[1434]]) of the [[Albizzi]] family, bitter rivals of the Medici. [[Cosimo de' Medici]] was the first Medici family member to essentially control the city from behind the scenes. Although the city was technically a democracy of sorts, his power came from a vast [[patronage]] network along with his alliance to the new immigrants, the [[gente nuova]]. The fact that the Medici were bankers to the pope also contributed to their rise. Cosimo was succeeded by his son [[Piero di Cosimo de' Medici|Piero]], who was shortly thereafter succeeded by Cosimo's grandson, [[Lorenzo de' Medici|Lorenzo]] in 1469. Lorenzo was a great patron of the arts, commissioning works by [[Michelangelo]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Sandro Botticelli|Botticelli]]. After Lorenzo's death in 1492 and his son Piero's exile in 1494, the first period of Medici rule ended with the restoration of a republican government, influenced until his execution ([[1498]]) by the teachings of the radical Dominican prior [[Girolamo Savonarola]], whose monomaniacal persecution of the widespread Florentine [[Homosexuality#History|sodomy]] and of other worldly pleasures foreshadowed many of the wider religious controversies of the following centuries. A second individual of unusual insight was [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], whose prescriptions for Florence's regeneration under strong leadership have often been seen as a legitimisation of political expediency and even malpractice. Commissioned by the Medici, Machiavelli also wrote the [[Florentine Histories]], the history of the city. Florentines drove out the Medici for a second time and re-established a [[republic]] on [[May 16]], [[1527]]. Restored twice with the support of both Emperor and Pope, the Medici in 1537 became hereditary dukes of Florence, and in [[1569]] [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Grand Dukes of Tuscany]], ruling for two centuries. Only Republic of [[Lucca]] (later a [[Duchy of Lucca|Duchy]]) was independent from Florence in all Tuscany. The extinction of the Medici line and the accession in [[1737]] of Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine and husband of Maria Theresa of Austria, led to Tuscany's inclusion in the territories of the [[Austria]]n crown. Austrian rule was to end in defeat at the hands of France and the kingdom of [[Sardinia]]-Piedmont in [[1859]], and Tuscany became a province of the united kingdom of [[Italy]] in [[1861]]. Florence replaced Turin as Italy's capital in [[1865]], hosting the country's first parliament, but was superseded by [[Rome]] six years later following its addition to the kingdom. After doubling during the 19th century, Florence's population tripled in the 20th with the growth of tourism, trade, financial services and industry. During [[World War II]] the city experienced a year-long German occupation (1943-1944). The Allied soldiers who died driving the Germans from Tuscany are buried in cemeteries outside the city (Americans about 9 kilometers (6
t is, the seed-containing reproductive parts), including [[berry|berries]], [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s, [[seed]]s, [[capsicum]]s, [[tomato]]es, [[Squash (fruit)|squash]], [[bean]]s, [[pea]]s, and so on. There are different variations of fruitarianism. Some fruitarians will eat only what falls (or would fall) naturally from a plant—fruits, seeds and nuts. Others may eat all biological fruits. The former argue that the [[slippery slope]] of what 'would' fall from the plant leads to including foods that would otherwise be taboo. [[Cereal|Grains]] are usually disallowed, as they are conventionally harvested by cutting down the plant. Most fruitarians are also [[raw food diet|raw foodists]]. ==Motivation== Motivated by religious faith in the [[Old Testament]], some believe fruitarianism was the original diet of humankind in the form of [[Adam and Eve]] and if they are ever to return to an [[Garden of Eden|Eden]]-like [[paradise]] then they will have to go back to [[simple living]], and a holistic approach to health and diet ([[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah 11:6-9]]). Some fruitarians only eat the fruit of a plant so that the plant does not have to be killed. For instance when one eats a root vegetable such as a [[carrot]], the whole carrot plant dies. Fruitarians point out that, in nature, eating some types of fruit actually does the parent plant a favor. Fleshy fruit has evolved with the obvious purpose of being eaten by animals, to achieve [[Biological dispersal|seed dispersal]]. Seeds in fruits will be swallowed and travel through the animal's digestive tract before [[sprouting]] in a pile of ready-made [[fertilizer]], or, in the case of fruits with cores or pits, will be tossed aside to sprout. Without animals eating fruit, the seed would not travel far enough away from the plant to allow the species to proliferate successfully. The benefit of seed spreading, however, depends on the seed (and thus the feces) being returned to [[arable land]] (rather than to [[sewer]]s or [[septic tank]]s which tend to be unfavorable to seed cultivation). Some fruitarians believe that the diet accords them the &quot;supercharged vitality of wild animality.&quot; [http://www.organicsuicide.com.futuresite.register.com/wsn453F.html] ==Famous fruitarians== *[[Mahatma Gandhi]] in his later years. ==Biblical fruitarians== *[[Adam and Eve]] in the [[Garden of Eden]] (''Behold I have given you herb yielding seed. To you it shall be for meat''; [[Book of Genesis|Genesis l:29]]). *There is evidence that the [[Essenes]] were [[raw food diet|raw foodists]] and fruitarians. Some scholars even believe [[Jesus]] to have been an Essene who practiced a mainly fruitarian diet, although this contradicts the mainline [[Bible]]. ==Fictional fruitarians== * The [[K-PAXian]] in [[Gene Brewer]]'s ''[[K-PAX]]'' book series and film. * The [[Eloi]] from [[HG Wells]]'s ''[[The Time Machine]]''. * One of [[Hugh Grant]]'s potential love interests in the film [[Notting Hill]] ==Medical risks== A fruitarian diet can be difficult to follow, and on a long-term basis fruitarians often suffer [[Illnesses related to poor nutrition|health problems caused by nutrient deficiency]]. For example, it may be true that [[Vitamin]] [[Cyanocobalamin|B12]] cannot be found in any fruit matter. Some say the diet is overly rich in [[sugar]], and that this can lead to symptoms suggestive of [[hyperglycemia]] or [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], while it is lacking in [[protein]], [[mineral]]s and [[fat]] [[soluble]] vitamins. Long-term fruitarians may be prone to psychological [[food]] cravings and consequent [[binge-eating]], either of 'allowed' foods or 'illicit' ones. Fruitarians allegedly often develop strong cravings for [[Date (fruit)|dates]] (for their high sugar content) and [[avocado]]s (for their high fat content). Some fruitarians develop a type of [[eating disorder]] called [[orthorexia nervosa|orthorexia]]. Anyone adopting a fruitarian diet should be aware of what nutrients their body needs and what supplements they will have to take. ==See also== *[[Breatharian]] *[[Christian vegetarianism]] *[[Diet (nutrition)]] *[[Fasting]] *[[Jainism]] *[[The Celestine Prophecy]] *[[Natural Hygiene]] *[[New Age]] *[[Nutrition]] *[[Pastafarianism]] *[[Raw food diet]] *[[Simple living]] *[[Veganism]] ==External links== * [http://www.animalsuffering.com/forum/ Animal Rights and cruelty free diets board] - with fruitarian support boards * [http://www.acorn.net/fruitarian/what.html What is fruitarian?] at [http://www.acorn.net/fruitarian/ Fruitarian Network] * [http://www.ecologos.org/ Ecologos] - Offers creditable information on fruitarianism and other dietary practises. [[Category:Diets]] [[Category:Vegetarianism]] [[Category:Veganism]] [[he:פרוקטרייניזם]] [[nl:Fruitarisme]] [[pl:Frutarianizm]] [[sv:Frukterianism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of Afghanistan</title> <id>11288</id> <revision> <id>41701110</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:48:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Commking</username> <id>185652</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>added Josiah Harlan link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wfy}} {{Politics of Afghanistan}} The '''foreign relations of Afghanistan''', like those of each country, have changed along with political, sociological, and economic state of the various parts of [[Afghanistan]]. == Overview == Before the Soviet invasion, Afghanistan pursued a policy of neutrality and nonalignment in its foreign relations. In international forums, Afghanistan generally followed the voting patterns of Asian and African nonaligned countries. Following the Marxist coup of April 1978, the Taraki government developed significantly closer ties with the [[Soviet Union]] and its communist satellites. After the December 1979 invasion, Afghanistan's foreign policy mirrored that of the Soviet Union. Afghan foreign policymakers attempted, with little success, to increase their regime's low standing in the noncommunist world. With the signing of the Geneva Accords, President [[Najibullah]] unsuccessfully sought to end Afghanistan's isolation within the Islamic world and in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. Most Western countries, including the [[United States]], maintained small diplomatic missions in the captial city of [[Kabul]] during the Soviet occupation. (Throughout the Soviet occupation, the U.S. did not recognize the Afghan regimes, and its mission was headed by a Charge d'Affaires rather than an Ambassador.) Many countries subsequently closed their missions due to instability and heavy fighting in Kabul after the Soviet withdrawal in 1989. Many countries initially welcomed the introduction of the [[Taliban]], who they saw as a stabilizing, law-enforcing alternative to the warlords who had ruled the country since the fall of Najibullah's government in 1992. Those countries quickly alienated themselves from the Taliban after seeing learning of the harsh Sharia law being enforced in Taliban-controlled territories. The brutality towards women who attempted to work, learn, or leave the house without a male escort caused outside aid to the war-torn country to be limited. By 2001, only [[Foreign relations of Pakistan| Pakistan]], [[Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia |Saudi Arabia]], and the [[Foreign relations of the United Arab Emirates |United Arab Emirates]] recognized the Taliban. All three countries withdrew recognition Saudi Arabia and the UAE withdrew recognition following the September 11, 2001 bombings. Repeated Taliban efforts to occupy Afghanistan's seat at the UN and OIC were unsuccessful. Following the American Invasion and the [[Bonn Agreement(Afghanistan)|Bonn Agreement]] the new government under the leadership of [[Hamid Karzai]] started to re-establish diplomatic relationships with many countries who had held close diplomatic relations before the communist coup d'etat and the subsequent civil war. == [[Pakistan]] == Two areas--Pashtunistan and Baluchistan--have long complicated Afghanistan's relations with Pakistan. Controversies involving these areas date back to the establishment of the Durand Line in 1893 dividing Pashtun and Baluch tribes living in Afghanistan from those living in what later became Pakistan. Afghanistan vigorously protested the inclusion of Pashtun and Baluch areas within Pakistan without providing the inhabitants with an opportunity for self-determination. Since 1947, this problem has led to incidents along the border, with extensive disruption of normal trade patterns. The most serious crisis lasted from September 1961 to June 1963, when diplomatic, trade, transit, and consular relations between the countries were suspended. The 1978 Marxist coup further strained relations between the two countries. Pakistan took the lead diplomatically in the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference in opposing the Soviet occupation. During the war against the Soviet occupation, Pakistan served as the primary logistical conduit for the Afghan resistance. Pakistan, aided by UN agencies, private groups, and many friendly countries, continues to provide refuge to several million Afghans... Pakistan developed close ties to the Taliban regime, which it believed would offer [[strategic depth]] in any future conflict with India, and extended recognition in 1997. Much of Afghanistan has long relied on Pakistani links for trade and travel to the outside world, and Pakistan views Afghanistan as eventually becoming its primary route for trade with Central Asia, though these plans will of necessity await establishment of secure conditions. == [[Iran]] == Afghanistan's relations with [[Iran]] have fluctuated over the years, with periodic disputes over the water rights of the Helmand River as the main issue of contention. Following the Soviet invasion, which Iran opposed, relations deteriorated.
ortugal becomes king. * [[Iceland]] * Ancient [[Latvia]] - [[Barbes Diena]] observed * [[Feast day]] of [[St Eligius]] * [[Romania]] - [[Union Day]] (the national holiday) * [[Angola]]'s Pioneers' Day * [[World AIDS Day]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/1 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/1 Today in History] ---- [[November 30]] - [[December 2]] - [[November 1]] - [[January 1]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:1 Desember]] [[ar:1 ديسمبر]] [[an:1 d'abiento]] [[ast:1 d'avientu]] [[bg:1 декември]] [[be:1 сьнежня]] [[bs:1. decembar]] [[ca:1 de desembre]] [[ceb:Disyembre 1]] [[cv:Раштав, 1]] [[co:1 di decembre]] [[cs:1. prosinec]] [[cy:1 Rhagfyr]] [[da:1. december]] [[de:1. Dezember]] [[et:1. detsember]] [[el:1 Δεκεμβρίου]] [[es:1 de diciembre]] [[eo:1-a de decembro]] [[eu:Abenduaren 1]] [[fo:1. desember]] [[fr:1er décembre]] [[fy:1 desimber]] [[ga:1 Nollaig]] [[gl:1 de decembro]] [[ko:12월 1일]] [[hr:1. prosinca]] [[io:1 di decembro]] [[id:1 Desember]] [[ia:1 de decembre]] [[is:1. desember]] [[it:1 dicembre]] [[he:1 בדצמבר]] [[jv:1 Desember]] [[kn:ಡಿಸೆಂಬರ್ ೧]] [[ka:1 დეკემბერი]] [[csb:1 gòdnika]] [[ku:1'ê berfanbarê]] [[la:1 Decembris]] [[lt:Gruodžio 1]] [[lb:1. Dezember]] [[hu:December 1]] [[mk:1 декември]] [[ml:ഡിസംബര്‍ 1]] [[ms:1 Disember]] [[nap:1 'e dicembre]] [[nl:1 december]] [[ja:12月1日]] [[no:1. desember]] [[nn:1. desember]] [[oc:1 de decembre]] [[os:1 декабры]] [[pl:1 grudnia]] [[pt:1 de Dezembro]] [[ro:1 decembrie]] [[ru:1 декабря]] [[se:Juovlamánu 1.]] [[sco:1 December]] [[sq:1 Dhjetor]] [[scn:1 di dicèmmiru]] [[simple:December 1]] [[sk:1. december]] [[sl:1. december]] [[sr:1. децембар]] [[fi:1. joulukuuta]] [[sv:1 december]] [[tl:Disyembre 1]] [[tt:1. Dekäber]] [[te:డిసెంబర్ 1]] [[th:1 ธันวาคม]] [[vi:1 tháng 12]] [[tr:1 Aralık]] [[uk:1 грудня]] [[wa:1î d' decimbe]] [[war:Disyembre 1]] [[zh:12月1日]] [[pam:Disiembri 1]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>December 23</title> <id>8358</id> <revision> <id>42162970</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:00:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fallout boy</username> <id>355937</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Births */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 23]]''' is the 357th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (358th in [[leap year]]s). There are 8 days remaining. {{DecemberCalendar}} ==Events== *[[619]] - [[Pope Boniface V|Boniface V]] becomes [[Pope]]. *[[1493]] - Georg Alt's German translation of [[Hartmann Schedel]]'s ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' is published. *[[1783]] - [[George Washington]] resigns as [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[Continental Army]] at the [[Maryland State House]] in [[Annapolis, Maryland]]. *[[1823]] - The poem ''[[A Visit From St. Nicholas]]'' (AKA ''The Night Before Christmas'') is published in the ''Sentinel''. *[[1888]] - [[Vincent Van Gogh]] cuts off the lower part of his left ear, takes it to a brothel, and gives it to a prostitute named Rachel. *[[1913]] - The [[Federal Reserve Act]] is signed into law by President [[Woodrow Wilson]], creating the [[Federal Reserve]]. *[[1916]] - [[World War I]]: [[Battle of Magdhaba]] - [[Allied]] forces defeat [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] forces in [[Egypt]]'s [[Sinai peninsula]]. *[[1936]] - [[Colombia]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]]. *[[1947]] - The [[transistor]] is first demonstrated at [[Bell Laboratories]]. *[[1954]] - The first human [[organ transplant|kidney transplant]] is performed by Dr. [[Joseph E. Murray]] at [[Peter Bent Brigham Hospital]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. *[[1972]] - The [[Nicaraguan]] capital of [[Managua]] is struck by a 6.5 magnitude [[earthquake]], killing more than 10,000. *1972 - [[Immaculate Reception]]: [[Franco Harris]] scores a contentious touchdown from a pass thrown by [[Terry Bradshaw]] in an [[American Football Conference|AFC]] semi-final between the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] and [[Oakland Raiders]] at [[Three Rivers Stadium]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]. *1972 - [[Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571|Andes flight disaster]]: The remaining survivors of the Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 crash are rescued from the [[Andes]] after 73 days, during which time they have had to resort to [[cannibalism]]. *[[1979]] - [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]: [[Soviet]] forces occupy [[Kabul]], the Afghan capital. *[[1982]] - The [[Environmental Protection Agency]] announces it has identified dangerous levels of [[dioxin]] in the soil of [[Times Beach, Missouri]]. *[[1986]] - ''[[Scaled Composites Voyager|Voyager]]'', piloted by [[Dick Rutan]] and [[Jeana Yeager]], lands at [[Edwards Air Force Base]] in [[California]] and becomes the first aircraft to fly non-stop around the world. *[[1990]] - [[History of Slovenia]]: 88% of [[Slovenia]]'s population vote for independence from [[Yugoslavia]] in a referendum. *[[2004]] - [[Macquarie Island]] in the [[Southern Ocean]] is hit by a 8.1 magnitude [[earthquake]]. *[[2005]] - [[Azerbaijan Airlines]] Flight 217 from [[Baku, Azerbaijan]] to [[Aktau, Kazakhstan]] crashed shortly after takeoff killing 23 people. *2005 - [[Chad]] declares a [[state of war]] against [[Sudan]] following a December 18th attack on [[Adre]], which left about 100 people dead. ==Births== *[[1513]] - [[Thomas Smith (diplomat)|Thomas Smith]], English diplomat and scholar (d. [[1577]]) *[[1537]] - King [[John III of Sweden]] (d. [[1592]]) *[[1582]] - [[Severo Bonini]], Italian composer (d. [[1663]]) *[[1597]] - [[Martin Opitz von Boberfeld]], German poet (d. [[1639]]) *[[1613]] - [[Carl Gustaf Wrangel]], Swedish soldier (d. [[1676]]) *[[1621]] - [[Edmund Berry Godfrey]], English magistrate (d. [[1678]]) *1621 - [[Heneage Finch, 1st Earl of Nottingham]], [[Lord Chancellor|Lord Chancellor of England]] (d. [[1682]]) *[[1689]] - [[Joseph Bodin de Boismortier]], French composer (d. [[1755]]) *[[1732]] - [[Richard Arkwright]], English industrialist and inventor (d. [[1792]]) *[[1750]] - King [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony]] (d. [[1827]]) *[[1777]] - Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia]] (d. [[1825]]) *[[1790]] - [[Jean François Champollion]], French Egyptologist (d. [[1832]]) *[[1804]] - [[Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve]], French literary critic (d. [[1869]]) *[[1805]] - [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], American founder of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (d. [[1844]]) *[[1819]] - [[Jan Jakob Lodewijk ten Kate]], Dutch poet and clergyman (d. [[1889]]) *[[1822]] - [[Wilhelm Bauer]], German engineer (d. [[1875]]) *[[1867]] - [[Madame C. J. Walker]], American millionaire (d. [[1919]]) *[[1878]] - [[Stephen Timoshenko]], Ukrainian-born mechanical engineer (d. [[1972]]) *[[1885]] - [[Pierre Brissaud]], French artist (d. [[1964]]) *[[1891]] - [[Alexandr Rodchenko]], Russian painter and photographer (d. [[1956]]) *[[1907]] - [[Avraham Stern]], Polish-born Zionist leader (d. [[1942]]) *[[1908]] - [[Yousuf Karsh]], Turkish-born photographer (d. [[2002]]) *[[1911]] - [[Niels Kaj Jerne]], English-born immunologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1994]]) *[[1918]] - [[Helmut Schmidt]], [[Chancellor of Germany]] *[[1918]] - [[José Greco]], Italian-born flamenco dancer (d. [[2001]]) *[[1922]] - [[Micheline Ostermeyer]], French athlete and musician *[[1923]] - [[Günther Schifter]], Austrian music journalist *1923 - [[Claudio Scimone]], Italian conductor *1923 - [[James Stockdale]], U.S. Navy admiral (d. [[2005]]) *[[1926]] - [[Robert Bly]], American poet *[[1931]] - [[Ronnie Schell]], American actor *[[1933]] - [[Emperor Akihito of Japan|Akihito]], [[Emperor of Japan]] *[[1935]] - [[Paul Hornung]], American football player *[[1936]] - [[Frederic Forrest]], American actor *[[1938]] - [[Bob Kahn]], American Internet pioneer *[[1940]] - [[Jorma Kaukonen]], American musician *[[1941]] - [[Tim Hardin]], American musician (d. [[1980]]) *[[1943]] - [[Mikhail Gromov]], Russian-born mathematician * 1943 - [[Harry Shearer]], American actor * 1943 - [[Silvia Sommerlath]], Queen of Sweden *[[1944]] - [[Wesley Clark]], U.S. general and NATO Supreme Allied Commander *[[1946]] - [[Susan Lucci]], American actress *[[1948]] - [[Jack Ham]], American football player *[[1949]] - [[Adrian Belew]], Guitarist, Singer, Songwriter, Producer *[[1950]] - [[Michael C. Burgess]], American politician *[[1952]] - [[William Kristol]], American political commentator *[[1955]] - [[Bruce Hornsby]], American singer, pianist ([[Bruce Hornsby &amp; the Range]]) *[[1956]] - [[Dave Murray (musician)|Dave Murray]], English musician ([[Iron Maiden]]) *[[1958]] - [[Victoria Williams]], American singer *[[1961]] - [[Carol Smillie]], British television personality *[[1963]] - [[Jim Harbaugh]], American football player *[[1964]] - [[Eddie Vedder]], American musician ([[Pearl Jam]]) *[[1969]] - [[Martha Byrne]], American actress *[[1970]] - [[Catriona LeMay Doan]], Canadian speed skater *[[1971]] - [[Corey Haim]], Canadian actor *[[1971]] - [[Tara Palmer-Tomkinson]], British socialite *[[1975]] - [[Sky Lopez]], American actress *[[1977]] - [[Alge Crumpler]], American football player *[[1978]] - [[Andra Davis]], American football player * 1978 - [[Esthero]], Canadian musician and singer * 1978 - [[Víctor Martínez]], Venezuelan [[Major League Baseball]] player * 1978 - [[Estella Warren]], Canadian model and actress * 1978 - [[Jodie Marsh]], UK based glamour model, Brentwood, Essex *[[1981]] - [[Beth (musician)|Beth]], Spanish singer ==Deaths== *[[910]] - [[Naum of Preslav]], Bulgarian scholar *[[913]] - [[Conrad of Franconia]] *[[1230]] - [[Berengaria of Navarre]], queen of [[Richard I of England]] *[[1556]] - [[Nicholas Udall]], English playwright (b. [[1504]]) *[[1568]] - [[Roger Ascham]], tutor of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] of England *[[1575]] - [[Akiyama Nobutomo]], Japanese warrior
itics, the [[economic crisis]] in the 1980s worsened environmental degradation in Brazil because it led to overexploitation of [[natural resources]], stimulated settlement in fragile lands in both rural and urban areas, and weakened environmental protection. At the same time, however, the lower level of economic activity may have reduced pressure on the environment, such as the aforementioned decreased level of investment in large-scale clearing in the Amazon. That pressure could increase if economic growth accelerates, especially if consumption patterns remain unchanged and more sustainable forms of production are not found. In Brazil public policies regarding the [[environment]] are generally advanced, although their implementation and the enforcement of [[environmental law]]s have been far from ideal. Laws regarding [[forest]]s, [[water]], and [[wildlife]] have been in effect since the 1930s. Brazil achieved significant institutional advances in environmental policy design and implementation after the [[Stockholm Conference on the Environment]] in [[1972]]. Specialized environmental agencies were organized at the federal level and in some states, and many [[national park]]s and reserves were established. By [[1992]] Brazil had established thirty-four national parks and fifty-six [[biological reserve]]s. In 1981 the National Environment Policy was defined, and the National System for the Environment (Sistema Nacional do Meio Ambiente--[[Sisnama]]) was created, with the National Environmental Council (Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente--[[Conama]]) at its apex, municipal councils at its base, and state-level councils in between. In addition to government authorities, all of these councils include representatives of civil society. The [[1988 constitution]] incorporates environmental precepts that are advanced compared with those of most other countries. At that time, the [[Chamber of Deputies]] (Câmara dos Deputados) established its permanent Commission for Defense of the Consumer, the Environment, and Minorities. In 1989 the creation of the Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis--[[Ibama]]) joined together the federal environment secretariat and the federal agencies specializing in [[forestry]], [[rubber]], and [[fisherie]]s. In [[1990]] the administration of [[Fernando Collor de Mello]] (president, 1990-92) appointed the well-known environmentalist [[José Lutzemberger]] as secretary of the environment and took firm positions on the environment and on [[Indian land]]s. In [[1992]] Brazil played a key role at the [[Earth Summit]], not only as its host but also as negotiator on sustainable development agreements, including the conventions on climate and biodiversity. The Ministry of Environment was created in late 1992, after President Collor had left office. In August [[1993]], it became the Ministry of Environment and the [[Legal Amazon]] and took a more pragmatic approach than had the combative Lutzemberger. However, because of turnover in its leadership, a poorly defined mandate, and lack of funds, its role and impact were limited. In 1995 its mandate and name were expanded to include water resources--the Ministry of Environment, Hydraulic Resources, and the Legal Amazon--it began a process of restructuring to meet its mandate of &quot;shared management of the sustainable use of natural resources.&quot; In 1997 the Commission on Policies for Sustainable Development and Agenda 21 began to function under the aegis of the Civil Household. One of its main tasks was to prepare Agenda 21 (a plan for the twenty-first century) for Brazil and to stimulate preparation of state and local agendas. Institutional development at the official level was accompanied and in part stimulated by the growth, wide diffusion, and growing professional development of [[nongovernmental organization]]s ([[NGO]]s) dedicated to environmental and socio-environmental causes. The hundreds of NGOs throughout Brazil produce documents containing both useful information and passionate criticisms. Among the Brazilian environmental NGOs, the most visible are SOS Atlantic Forest ([[SOS Mata Atlântica]]), the Social-Environmental Institute (Instituto Sócio-Ambiental--ISA), the Pro-Nature Foundation (Fundação Pró-Natureza--Funatura), and the Amazon Working Group (Grupo de Trabalho Amazônico--GTA). The Brazilian Forum of NGOs and Social Movements for the Environment and Development and the Brazilian Association of Nongovernmental Organizations (Associacão Brasileira de Organizações Não-Governamentais--ABONG) are national networks, and there are various regional and thematic networks as well. The main international environmental NGOs that have offices or affiliates in Brazil are the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Conservation International (CI), and Nature Conservancy. Especially after the events of the late 1980s, international organizations and developed countries have allocated significant resources for the environmental sector in Brazil. In 1992 environmental projects worth about US$6.8 million were identified, with US$2.6 in counterpart funds (funds provided by the Brazilian government). More than 70% of the total value was for sanitation, urban pollution control, and other urban environmental projects. Thus, the allocation of resources did not accord with the common belief that funding was influenced unduly by alarmist views on deforestation in the Amazon. Among the specific environmental projects with international support, the most important was the National Environmental Plan (Plano Nacional do Meio Ambiente--PNMA), which received a US$117 million loan from the World Bank. The National Environmental Fund (Fundo Nacional do Meio Ambiente--FNMA), in addition to budgetary funds, received US$20 million from the Inter-American Development Bank to finance the environmental activities of NGOs and small municipal governments. The Pilot Program for the Conservation of the Brazilian Rain Forests (Programa Piloto para a Proteção das Florestas Tropicais do Brasil--PPG-7) was supported by the world's seven richest countries (the so-called G-7) and the European Community, which allocated US$258 million for projects in the Amazon and Atlantic Forest regions. The Global Environment Facility (GEF), created in 1990, set aside US$30 million for Brazil, part of which is managed by a national fund called Funbio. GEF also established a small grants program for NGOs, which focused on the cerrado during its pilot phase. The World Bank also made loans for environmental and natural resource management in Rondônia and Mato Grosso, in part to correct environmental and social problems that had been created by the World Bank-funded development of the northwest corridor in the 1980s. Despite favorable laws, promising institutional arrangements, and external funding, the government has not, on the whole, been effective in controlling damage to the environment. This failure is only in small measure because of the opposition of anti-environmental groups. In greater part, it can be attributed to the traditional separation between official rhetoric and actual practice in Brazil. It is also related to general problems of governance, fiscal crisis, and lingering doubts about appropriate tradeoffs between the environment and development. Some of the most effective governmental action in the environmental area has occurred at the state and local levels in the most developed states and has involved NGOs. In 1994 the PNMA began to stress decentralization and strengthening of state environmental agencies, a tendency that subsequently gained momentum. '''Environment - current issues:''' [[deforestation]] in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers the existence of a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; air and water pollution in [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]], and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities &lt;br&gt;''note:'' President [[Fernando Henrique Cardoso|Cardoso]] in September [[1999]] signed into force an environmental crime bill which for the first time defines [[pollution]] and deforestation as crimes punishable by stiff fines and jail sentences '''Environment - international agreements:''' &lt;br&gt;''party to:'' Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]], Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling &lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:'' none of selected agreements ===Rivers and Lakes=== The River Amazon is the widest and second longest river in the world. This huge river waters the majority of the world's rainforests. Another rather large river called the Parana, which has its source in Brazil. It forms the border of Paraguay and Argentina, then winds its way through Argentina and into the Atlantic Ocean along Uruguay. ===Coastline=== '''Coastline:''' 7,367 km (4578 mi) ===Climate=== '''Climate:''' mostly tropical, but temperate in south ===Demographics=== ''Main article: [[Demographics of Brazil]]'' ===Economic Geography=== ''Main article: [[Economy of Brazil]]'' ==Natural Resources== [[Natural resources]] include [[bauxite]], [[gold]], [[iron]] [[ore]], [[manganese]], [[nickel]], [[phosphates]], [[platinum]], [[tin]], [[uranium]], [[petroleum]], [[hydropower]] and [[timber]]. ==Area and land boundaries== '''Area:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 8,514,215 km² (3,287,357 sq. mi) &lt;br&gt;''land:'' 8,456,510 km² (3,265,076 sq. mi) &lt;br&gt;''water:'' 55,455 km² (21,411 sq. mi) &lt;br&gt;''note:'' includes Arquipelago de Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas, [[Tri
<id>13444</id> <revision> <id>41516829</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:07:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.37.60.216</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography | subject_name=Hans Christian Ørsted| image_name=Ørsted.jpg| image_caption=[[Denmark|Danish]] [[physicist]] &amp; [[chemist]] | quotation=unknown| date_of_birth=[[August 14]], [[1777]] | place_of_birth= [[Rudkøbing]], [[Denmark]]| dead=dead | date_of_death=[[March 9]], [[1851]] | place_of_death=[[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]]}} '''Hans Christian Ørsted''' ([[August 14]],[[1777]] &amp;ndash; [[March 9]],[[1851]]) was a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[physicist]] and [[chemist]], influenced by the thinking of [[Immanuel Kant]]. He is best known for discovering the relationship between [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]] known as [[electromagnetism]]. ==Early days == Hans Christian Ørsted was the son of Søren Christian Ørsted and Karen Hermandsen. His father was a [[pharmacist]] of [[Rudkøbing]] on the island of [[Langeland]]. Hans with his brother, Anders Sandøe Ørsted ([[1778]]-[[1860]]), later professor of [[jurisprudence]] and [[politician]], received privately and by self-study an [[primary education|education]] which enabled them to travel in [[1793]] to [[Copenhagen]] and there, the next year, pass the university entrance examination, to which they had submitted themselves. Both brothers early showed signs of exceptional gifts and set themselves great aims for their future. Hans's interest in [[natural science]] was early aroused by working in his father's [[pharmacy]], and so it was natural that he should train for pharmacy, as there were no possibilities of studying physics and chemistry at [[Copenhagen University]] then; it was he who afterwards provided them. As early as [[1797]], he passed the pharmaceutical examination with distinction, and already in [[1796]] and 1797 succeeded in doing the prize papers (about treatise on [[amniotic fluid]]) in both aesthetics and [[medicine]], in each case winning the prize. Two years later he was awarded a doctorate for a dissertation on Kant's philosophy. In 1801, he received a travel scholarship and public grant that enabled him to spend three years traveling in [[Europe]]. While in [[Germany]], he met [[Johann Ritter]], a physicist who believed there was a connection between electricity and magnetism. The connection made sense to Ørsted since he believed in the unity of nature and that a relationship therefore must exist between most natural phenomena. Returning home, in 1806, Ørsted became a professor at the University of Copenhagen, where his first physical researches dealt with electric currents and acoustics. He was the actual founder of physical studies at Copenhagen University. Considerable university activity was developed from his work, leading finally to thorough and systematic teaching of physics and chemistry, together with the establishment of relatively good laboratory conditions. In the years 1812 and 1813 Ørsted went on his second major foreign journey to Germany, Belgium and France. Although still under the influence of the speculative philosophy of nature, he admitted that he had meanwhile moved away from its views and that it was not possible for him to achieve a profitable exchange of ideas between himself and Fichte and Schleiermacher. Back home, he married Birgitte Ballum, with whom he lived a harmonious and very happy married life, having five daughters and three sons. From 1815 to his death he was Secretary to the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. == Discovery of electromagnetism == While preparing for an evening lecture in April [[1820]], Oersted developed an [[experiment]] which provided evidence that surprised him. As he was setting up his materials, he noticed a compass needle deflected from magnetic north when the electric current from the battery he was using was switched on and off. This deflection convinced him that magnetic fields radiate from all sides of a live wire just as light and heat do, and that it confirmed a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. At the time of discovery, Oersted did not suggest any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon, nor did he try to represent the phenomenon in a mathematical framework. However, three months later he began more intensive investigations. Soon thereafter he published his findings, proving that an electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire. The [[CGS]] [[unit]] of [[magnetic induction]] ([[oersted]]) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of electromagnetism. His findings resulted in intensive research throughout the scientific community in electrodynamics. They influenced French physicist [[André-Marie Ampère]]'s developments of a single mathematical form to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors. Ørsted's discovery also represented a major step toward a unified concept of energy. Oersted was not the first person to discover that electricity and magnetism are related. He was preceded in this discovery by 18 years by [[Gian Domenico Romagnosi]], an Italian legal scholar. An account of Romagnosi's discovery was published in [[1802]] in an Italian newspaper, but it was overlooked by the scientific community. In [[1825]], Oersted made a significant contribution to [[chemistry]] by producing [[aluminium]] artificially for the first time. == Society == He appreciated the need to spread knowledge of scientific advance, and in 1824 created the still extremely active &quot;Society for the Dissemination of Natural Science&quot; - a society devoted to the spread of scientific knowledge among the general public. Since 1908 this society has awarded an [[Oersted Medal]] for outstanding contributions by Danish physical scientists. It was on his initiative in 1829 that the Polytechnical Institute in Copenhagen, now the [[Technical University of Denmark]], was established, where engineering received a scientific foundation. He became the first director of this Institute. Apart from these accomplishments, Ørsted wrote poetry and prose. Shortly before his death, he published a series of collected articles under the title &quot;The Soul in Nature&quot;, a masterpiece expressing the essence of his philosophy of life. Finally, there remains to be mentioned Ørsted's great interest in the Danish language, to which he contributed a number of innovations, such as the words &quot;brint&quot; and &quot;ilt&quot;, for hydrogen and oxygen. orange juice Hans Christian Ørsted is one of the most luminous figures in the intellectual life of Denmark. He had lasting influence on many aspects of Danish culture and society. Thus he was one of the first to appreciate and encourage [[Hans Christian Andersen]] when this great Danish writer found the fairy tale as his proper genre. By nature he was a kind and exceedingly helpful man, who was a great inspiration to his associates; but although his dealings were always marked by a high degree of consideration he could in crucial situations display great firmness and resolution, never hesitating to advance radical views and opinions. He is one of those figures in Danish history who appear in so noble a cast that the picture of him and his work comes to seem almost too undifferentiated. On his passing in 1851, Hans Christian Ørsted was interred in the [[Assistens Cemetery|Assistens Kirkegård]] in the [[Nørrebro]] section of Copenhagen. ==See also== *[[James Clerk Maxwell]] *[[physics]] [[Category:1777 births|Ørsted, Hans Christian]] [[Category:1851 deaths|Ørsted, Hans Christian]] [[Category:Danish chemists|Ørsted, Hans Christian]] [[Category:Danish physicists|Ørsted, Hans Christian]] [[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements|Ørsted, Hans Christian]] {{chemist-stub}} {{physicist-stub}} [[af:Hans Christian Oersted]] [[bg:Ханс Кристиян Оерстед]] [[bs:Hans Christian Oersted]] [[ca:Hans Christian Ørsted]] [[cs:Hans Christian Oersted]] [[da:Hans Christian Ørsted]] [[de:Hans Christian Ørsted]] [[es:Hans Christian Oersted]] [[eo:Hans Christian ØRSTED]] [[fr:Hans Christian Orsted]] [[id:Hans Christian Oersted]] [[it:Hans Christian Ørsted]] [[nl:Hans Christian Ørsted]] [[ja:ハンス・クリスティアン・エルステッド]] [[no:Hans Christian Ørsted]] [[pl:Hans Christian Ørsted]] [[pt:Hans Christian Ørsted]] [[ru:Эрстед, Ганс Христиан]] [[sco:Hans Christian Ørsted]] [[sk:Hans Christian Ørsted]] [[sr:Ханс Кристијан Ерстед]] [[fi:Hans Christian Ørsted]] [[sv:Hans Christian Ørsted]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heinrich Rudolf Hertz</title> <id>13445</id> <revision> <id>40364273</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.jpg|thumb|250px|Heinrich Hertz]] '''Heinrich Rudolf Hertz''' ([[February 22]], [[1857]] - [[January 1]], [[1894]]), was the German physicist for whom the [[hertz]], the [[SI]] unit of [[frequency]], is named. In [[1888]], he was the first to demonstrate the existence of [[electromagnetic radiation]] by building apparatus to produce [[radio]] waves. Hertz was born in [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]], to a [[Jew]]ish family that had converted to [[Christianity]]. His father was an advisor in [[Hamburg]], his mother the daughter of a doctor. While going to school at the University of Berlin, he showed an aptitude for sciences as well as languages, learning [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Sanskrit]]. He studied sciences and engineering in the German cities of [[Dresden]], [[Munich]] and [[Berlin]]. He was a student of [[Gustav R. Kirchhoff]] and [[Hermann von Helmholtz]]. He obtained his PhD in [[1880]], and remained a pupil of Helmholtz until 1883 when he took a post as a lec
== [[Image:DisneylandTrainLocomotive.JPG|thumb|Disneyland Railroad engine #2.]] {{main|Disneyland Railroad}} Disneyland incorporates a steam railroad, the Disneyland Railroad. Originally known as the Disneyland and Santa Fe Railroad, it was sponsored by the [[Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway]] until [[1974]]. Laid to three-foot gauge, the most common [[narrow gauge]] measurement used in North America, the track runs in a continuous loop around the park. The train stops at stations in New Orleans Square, Toontown, Tomorrowland, and Main Street. The train passes the &quot;[[Grand Canyon]]/[[Primeval]] World&quot; diorama in a tunnel between the Tomorrowland and Main Street stations. Between the New Orleans Square station and Toontown, it passes an audioanimatronic scene in [[Splash Mountain]]. ===Disneyland Monorail=== &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:MonorailMarkVII.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A rendering of what may become the newest version of the Monorail--the Mark VII.]] --&gt;[[Image:MonorailOverLagoon_wb.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Monorail Blue travels over the currently closed Submarine Voyage lagoon in Tomorrowland.]] {{main|Disneyland Monorail System}} One of Disneyland's signature attractions is its [[ALWEG|Alweg]] [[monorail]] system, installed in [[1959]]. The monorail track has remained almost exactly the same since 1961, aside from small alterations while Disney's California Adventure and Downtown Disney were being built. The trains themselves have received multiple updates; the most recent was in [[1987]] when more modern trains built by [[Ride and Show Entertainment]] eliminated the old ALWEG [[Buck Rogers]]-style trains. The next update will be around [[2006]] or [[2007]]. The monorail shuttles visitors between two stations, one inside the park in Tomorrowland and one in Downtown Disney. It follows a 2.5 mile (4 km) long route designed to show off the park from above. Three generations of monorail trains have been used in the park, since their lightweight construction means they wear out quickly. [[As of 2004]], three monorail trains, Monorail Red, Monorail Blue, and Monorail Purple, are in regular service. A fourth train, Monorail Orange, was removed from service and shipped to Disney's engineering department in Glendale for disassembly and study so that new [[blueprint]]s can be created from it, because ALWEG, the company which built the original monorail trains, has gone out of business, and the current trains, built by [[Ride &amp; Show Entertainment]] in [[1987]], use some of the same parts as the ALWEG trains did. Disneyland had signed a contract with the Alweg company which required the Alweg name to be displayed on the monorail. This conflicted with the contract with the Santa Fe that only their name could be associated with railroad attractions at the park. This caused a rift between Disneyland and the Santa Fe railroad, and eventually caused the breakdown in their relationship and the removal of Santa Fe sponsorship from the Disneyland Railroad. ===Main Street vehicles=== A number of vehicles, including a [[double-decker bus]], a horse-drawn [[streetcar]], an old-fashioned fire engine, and an old-fashioned automobile, are available for rides along Main Street, U.S.A. The fire engine was built for Walt Disney, who used it to drive around the park and host celebrity guests. The horseless carriages are modeled after cars built in 1903. They (as well as the fire truck) have two cylinder, four horsepower (3 kW) engines and manual transmission and steering. ===Skyway=== The [[Skyway (Disney)|Disneyland Skyway]], &quot;the first aerial tramway of its kind in the United States&quot;&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;, was one of the signature attractions at the park. Opened in 1956 by [[Walt Disney]] himself, it shuttled passengers between Fantasyland and Tomorrowland 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, giving passengers fantastic views of Sleeping Beauty Castle, the Matterhorn (which was built around the Skyway in [[1959]]), and the Autopia. A distinctive feature was that Disneyland maintained the 'on-stage/backstage' illusion to Skyway guests, covering any sites that would be unsuitable to guests that were also hidden to guests on foot. Due to the enormous impending cost to retrofit the Skyway for earthquake safety and handicap accessibility, the attraction closed permanently on [[November 10]], [[1994]]. Four years later, Tokyo Disneyland Park removed their Skyway; finally, in [[1999]], Walt Disney World Resort's Magic Kingdom Park removed theirs on the exact date that Disneyland removed theirs. No Skyways are left at any Disney park (Disneyland Park in Paris never had a Skyway attraction). The Tomorrowland station in Disneyland remained and was used as a maintenance bay for [[Rocket Rods]] beginning in [[1998]]. It was removed shortly after the Rocket Rods closed in spring [[2001]]. The Fantasyland station in Disneyland remains but is closed to the public. ===Autopia=== The Disneyland Autopia opened with the park in 1955, and represented a future look at what would become America's multilane limited-access highways that were still being developed ([[Dwight D Eisenhower|President Eisenhower]] had yet to sign the [[Interstate Highway]] legislation at the time Disneyland opened). Robert Gurr designed the original Autopia cars to be reminiscent of [[Ferrari]]s. In [[1967]], the cars were redesigned to resemble the popular [[Chevrolet Corvette]]. This car design was used through [[2000]], when the entire ride was rethemed and modernized. The new cars resemble those used in television commercials for Chevron and are in one of these three styles: * Suzy the zippy compact * Sparky the sports car * Dusty, an S.U.V. ==Live entertainment== [[Image:DisneyParade.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Parade of the Stars in Disneyland from 2004 (closed in early 2005).]] In addition to the attractions, Disneyland provides live entertainment throughout the park. Through the years, this has included: *Throughout the park **Disney characters, who greet visitors, talk with children, and pose for photos. Besides greeting visitors in regular places, they often participate in Disneyland [[parade]]s. *Main Street **Daytime and nighttime parades that celebrate Disney films or seasonal holidays with characters, music, and large floats. Beginning May 2005, &quot;Walt Disney's Parade of Dreams&quot; is presented, celebrating several of the classic Disney stories including [[The Lion King]], [[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)|Alice in Wonderland]], and [[Pinocchio]]. **Elaborate fireworks shows featuring Disney songs and an appearance by &quot;[[Peter Pan]]&quot; character [[Tinker Bell]]. The ''[[Fantasy in the Sky]]'' fireworks premiered in the summer of [[1956]] and lasted through the summer of [[1999]]. [[2000]] and beyond introduced fireworks presentations that have become more elaborate, featuring new pyrotechnics, launch locations, and storylines, such as the show ''[[Believe... There's Magic in the Stars]]'' and the current 50th anniversary celebration fireworks presentation ''[[Remember... Dreams Come True]]''. **The Disneyland Band, which has been part of the park since its opening. They play the role of the Town Band on [[Main Street, U.S.A.]] but also break out into smaller groups like the Main Street Merchants Band, the Firehouse Sax Quartet, and a variety of groups in New Orleans Square. The Disneyland Band was traditionally all male. **The [[Dapper Dans]] [[barbershop quartet]], which often sings on Main Street. **Rod Miller, a [[ragtime]] pianist who has played at Corner Cafe on Main Street since October 1969. *New Orleans Square **[[Fantasmic!]], a popular nighttime show with [[Mickey Mouse]], special effects, floating barges, fountains, lasers, a pirate ship, a forty-five foot fire-breathing [[European dragon|dragon]], fireworks, and thirty-foot-tall &quot;mist screens,&quot; upon which animated scenes are projected. *Frontierland **The Golden Horseshoe Saloon, offering a live stage show with a frontier or [[American Old West|old-west]] feel. The Golden Horseshoe Revue&amp;mdash;an old-west Vaudeville type of show starring Slue Foot (or Sluefoot) Sue and Pecos Bill&amp;mdash;ran until the mid-1980s, when it was replaced by a similar show starring Lily Langtree (or Miss Lily) and Sam the Bartender. Most recently, Billy Hill and the Hillbillies have played their [[guitar]]s and [[banjo]]s in a bluegrass-and-comedy show. **The Laughing Stock Co., providing small humorous skits with an old-west theme. *Fantasyland **[[Merlin (wizard)|Merlin]], who appears in Fantasyland several times a day to help some lucky child pull a [[The Sword in the Stone|sword from an anvil and stone]]. ==Tickets== [[Image:DisneyTicketBook_wbelf.jpg|thumb|Ticket book circa 1975-1977.]] From Disneyland's opening until [[1982]], the price of attractions was in addition to the price of park admission. Park-goers paid a small sum to get into the park, then bought coupons (also called tickets), individually or in booklets, that allowed them access to rides and attractions. The least-expensive &quot;A&quot; tickets gave access to the smaller attractions, while the most-expensive &quot;E&quot; tickets gave access to the newest thrill rides or the most interesting and unusual attractions. This led to the still-popular term &quot;[[E ticket]] ride&quot; for any particularly outstanding, special, or thrilling experience. In the 1970s, nearby [[Six Flags Magic Mountain|Magic Mountain]] introduced a one-price admission ticket which allowed free access to all attractions within the park. This model spread rapidly to all other parks, including Disneyland, because its business advantages were obvious: in addition to guaranteeing that everyone paid a large sum even if they stayed for only a few hours and rode only a few rides, the park no longer had to print tickets or ticket books, staff ticket booths, o
Dover Area School District]]'' on [[December 20]], [[2005]], Judge [[John E. Jones III]] [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: curriculum, conclusion#H. Conclusion|ruled that]] &quot;we have addressed the seminal question of whether ID is science. We have concluded that it is not, and moreover that ID cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents.&quot; ====Peer review==== The failure to follow the procedures of scientific discourse, and the failure to submit work to the scientific community which withstands scrutiny, have weighed very heavily against intelligent design being considered valid science. To date, the intelligent design movement has yet to have an article published in a peer-reviewed [[scientific journal]]. Intelligent design, by appealing to a supernatural agent, conflicts with the naturalistic orientation of science. Dembski, Behe and other intelligent design proponents claim bias by the scientific community is to blame for the failure of their research to be published. Intelligent design proponents believe that the merit of their writings is rejected for not conforming to purely naturalistic non-supernatural mechanisms rather than on grounds of their research not being up to &quot;journal standards&quot;. This claim is described as a [[conspiracy theory]] by some scientists.{{ref|conspiracy_theory}} The issue that the [[scientific method]] is based on [[methodological naturalism]] and so does not accept [[supernatural]] explanations became a sticking point for intelligent design proponents in the 1990's, and is addressed in [[The Wedge Strategy|&quot;The Wedge&quot; strategy]] as an aspect of science that must be challenged before intelligent design could be accepted by the broader scientific community. The debate over whether intelligent design produces new research, as any scientific field must, and has legitimately attempted to publish this research, is extremely heated. Both critics and advocates point to numerous examples to make their case. For instance, the [[John Templeton Foundation|Templeton Foundation]], a former funder of the Discovery Institute and a major supporter of projects seeking to reconcile science and religion, says that they asked intelligent design proponents to submit proposals for actual research, but none were ever submitted. Charles L. Harper Jr., foundation vice president, said that &quot;From the point of view of rigor and intellectual seriousness, the intelligent design people don't come out very well in our world of scientific review.&quot;{{ref|templeton}} At the [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 88 of 139|Kitzmiller trial the judge found]] that intelligent design features no scientific research or testing. The only article published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal that made a case for intelligent design was quickly withdrawn by the publisher for having circumvented the journal's peer-review standards. Written by the Discovery Institute's Center for Science &amp; Culture Director [[Stephen C. Meyer]], it appeared in the peer-reviewed journal ''Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington'' in August [[2004]]. The article was [[Literature_review|literature review]], which means that it did not present any new research, but rather culled quotes and claims from other papers to argue that the [[Cambrian explosion]] could not have happened by naturalistic processes. The choice of venue for this article was also considered problematic, because it was so outside the normal subject matter. (see [[Sternberg peer review controversy]]) In the [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 88 of 139|Kitzmiller trial]], intelligent design proponents referenced just one paper, on simulation modeling of evolution by Behe and Snoke, that mentioned neither irreducible complexity nor intelligent design and that Behe admitted did not rule out known evolutionary mechanisms. Dembski has written that &quot;Perhaps the best reason [to be skeptical of his ideas] is that intelligent design has yet to establish itself as a thriving scientific research program.&quot;{{ref|dembski_research}} In a 2001 interview Dembski said that he stopped submitting to peer-reviewed journals because of their slow time-to-print and that he makes more money from publishing books.{{ref|dembski_pr}} In sworn testimony at the Kitzmiller trial Behe stated that &quot;there are no peer reviewed articles by anyone advocating for intelligent design supported by pertinent experiments or calculations which provide detailed rigorous accounts of how intelligent design of any biological system occurred.&quot;{{ref|behe_peer_review}} Further, as summarized by the judge, Behe conceded that there are no peer-reviewed articles supporting his claims of intelligent design or irreducible complexity. Despite this, the Discovery Institute continues to claim that a number of intelligent design articles have been published in peer reviewed journals,{{ref|di_peer_review}} including in their list the two articles mentioned above. Critics, largely members of the scientific community, reject this claim, pointing out that no established scientific journal has yet published an intelligent design article, and that intelligent design proponents have set up their own journals with &quot;peer review&quot; that consists entirely of intelligent design supporters which lack [[rigor]]. ===Intelligence as an observable quality=== The phrase ''intelligent'' design makes use of an assumption of the quality of an observable [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], a concept that has no [[scientific consensus]] definition. William Dembski, for example, has written that &quot;Intelligence leaves behind a characteristic signature.&quot; Such characteristics of intelligent agency are assumed to be [[observation|observable]] without intelligent design specifying what the criteria for the [[measurement]] of intelligence should be. Dembski, instead, asserts that &quot;in special sciences ranging from [[forensics]] to [[archaeology]] to [[SETI]] (the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence), appeal to a designing intelligence is indispensable.&quot;{{ref|Dembski_nat}} How this appeal is made and what this implies as to the definition of intelligence are topics left largely unaddressed. [[Seth Shostak]], a researcher with the [[SETI Institute]], refutes Dembski's claim, saying that intelligent design advocates base their inference on complexity &amp;mdash; the argument being that some biological systems are too complex to have been made by natural processes &amp;mdash; while SETI researchers are looking primarily for artificiality.{{ref|seti_id}} Critics say that the design detection methods proposed by proponents are radically different from conventional design detection, undermining the key elements that make it possible as legitimate science. Intelligent design proponents, they say, are proposing both searching for a designer without knowing anything about that designer's abilities, parameters, or intentions (which scientists do know when searching for the results of human intelligence) as well as denying the very distinction between natural/artificial design that allows scientists to compare complex designed artifacts against the background of the sorts of complexity found in nature. As a means of criticism, certain [[scientific skepticism|skeptics]] have pointed to a challenge of intelligent design derived from the study of [[artificial intelligence]]. The criticism is a counter to intelligent design claims about what makes a design intelligent, namely that &quot;no preprogrammed device can be truly intelligent, that intelligence is irreducible to natural processes.&quot;{{ref|edis}} In particular, while there is an implicit assumption that supposed &quot;intelligence&quot; or [[creativity]] of a [[computer program]] was determined by the capabilities given to it by the computer [[programmer]], artificial intelligence need not be bound to an inflexible system of rules. Rather, if a computer program can access [[randomness]] as a function, this effectively allows for a flexible, creative, and adaptive intelligence. [[Evolutionary algorithms]], a subfield of machine learning (itself a subfield of artificial intelligence), have been used to mathematically demonstrate that randomness and selection can be used to &quot;evolve&quot; complex, highly adapted structures that are not explicitly designed by a programmer. Evolutionary algorithms use the Darwinian metaphor of random mutation, selection and the survival of the fittest to solve diverse mathematical and scientific problems that are usually not solvable using conventional methods. Furthermore, forays into such areas as [[quantum computing]] seem to indicate that real probabilistic functions may be available in the future. Intelligence derived from randomness is essentially indistinguishable from the &quot;innate&quot; intelligence associated with biological organisms and poses a challenge to the intelligent design conception of whence intelligence itself is derived (namely from a designer). [[Cognitive science]] continues to investigate the nature of intelligence to that end, but the intelligent design community for the most part seems to be content to rely on the assumption that intelligence is readily apparent as a fundamental and basic property of complex systems. ===Arguments from ignorance=== [[Eugenie Scott]], along with Glenn Branch and other critics, has argued that many points raised by intelligent design proponents are [[Argument from ignorance|arguments from ignorance]].{{ref|ncseweb_02}} In the argument from ignorance, one claims that the lack of evidence for one view is evidence for another view. Scott and Branch say that intelligent design is an argument from ignorance because it relies upon a lack of knowledge for its
e ''[[Reichsreform]]'', ten [[Imperial Circle]]s were established in [[1512]]. These were regional groupings of most (though not all) of the various states of the Empire for the purposes of defence and imperial taxation. Each circle had its own ''Kreisrat'' (&quot;Circle Diet&quot;). == Chronology == === From the East Franks to the Investiture Controversy === [[Image:Western empire verdun 843.png|thumb|400px|right|The Western Empire, as divided at [[Treaty of Verdun|Verdun]], [[843]]. From the 'Atlas to Freeman's Historical Geography', edited by J.B. Bury, Longmans Green and Co. Third Edition 1903.]] The Holy Roman Empire is usually considered to have been founded at the latest in [[962]] by [[Otto I the Great]]. Although some date the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire from the coronation of [[Charlemagne]] as Emperor of the Romans in [[800]], Charlemagne himself more typically used the title king of the [[Franks]]. This title also makes clearer that the Frankish Kingdom covered an area that included modern-day [[France]] and [[Germany]] and was thus the kernel of both countries. Most historians therefore consider the establishment of the Empire to be a process that started with the split of the Frankish realm in the [[Treaty of Verdun]] in [[843]], continuing the [[Carolingian]] dynasty independently in all three sections. The eastern part fell to [[Louis the German]], who was followed by several leaders until the death of [[Louis the Child]], the last Carolingian in the eastern part. The leaders of Alamannia, Bavaria, Frankia and Saxonia elected [[Conrad of Franconia|Conrad I]] of the Franks, not a Carolingian, as their leader in [[911]]. His successor, [[Henry the Fowler|Henry (Heinrich) I the Fowler]] (r. 919&amp;ndash;936), a Saxon elected at the Reichstag of [[Fritzlar]] in 919, achieved the acceptance of a separate Eastern Empire by the [[West Franks|West Frankish]] (still ruled by the Carolingians) in 921, calling himself ''rex Francorum orientalum'' (King of the East Franks). He founded the [[Ottonian]] dynasty. Heinrich designated his son Otto to be his successor, who was elected King in [[Aachen]] in [[936]]. His later crowning as Emperor [[Otto I the Great|Otto I]] (later called &quot;the Great&quot;) in [[962]] would mark an important step, since from then on the Empire &amp;ndash; and not the West-Frankish kingdom that was the other remainder of the Frankish kingdoms &amp;ndash; would have the blessing of the Pope. Otto had gained much of his power earlier, when, in [[955]], the [[Magyars]] were defeated in the [[Battle of Lechfeld]]. In contemporary and later writings, the crowning would be referred to as ''[[translatio imperii]]'', the transfer of the Empire from the Romans to a new Empire. The German Emperors thus thought of themselves as being in direct succession of those of the Roman Empire; this is why they initially called themselves ''Augustus.'' Still, they did not call themselves &quot;Roman&quot; Emperors at first, probably in order not to provoke conflict with the Roman Emperor who still existed in [[Constantinople]]. The term ''imperator Romanorum'' only became common under [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor|Conrad II]] later. At this time, the eastern kingdom was not so much &quot;German&quot; as rather a &quot;confederation&quot; of the old Germanic tribes of the Bavarians, Alamanns, Franks and Saxons. The Empire as a political union probably only survived because of the strong personal influence of King Henry the Saxon and his son, Otto. Although formally elected by the leaders of the Germanic tribes, they were actually able to designate their successors. This changed after [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]] died in [[1024]] without any children. [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor|Conrad II]], first of the [[Salian|Salian Dynasty]], was then elected king in [[1024]] only after some debate. How exactly the king was chosen thus seems to be a complicated conglomeration of personal influence, tribal quarrels, inheritance, and acclamation by those leaders that would eventually become the collegiate of [[prince-elector|Electors]]. Already at this time the dualism between the &quot;territories&quot;, then those of the old tribes rooted in the Frankish lands, and the King/Emperor, became apparent. Each king preferred to spend most time in his own homelands; the Saxons, for example, spent much time in palatinates around the [[Harz]] mountains, among them [[Goslar]]. This practice had only changed under [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] (king 983, Emperor 996&amp;ndash;1002), who began to utilize bishopries all over the Empire as temporary seats of government. Also, his successors, [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]], [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor|Conrad II]], and [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]], apparently managed to appoint the dukes of the territories. It is thus no coincidence that at this time, the terminology changes and the first occurrences of a ''regnum Teutonicum'' are found. The glory of the Empire almost collapsed in the [[Investiture Controversy]], in which [[Pope Gregory VII]] declared a ban on King [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]] (king 1056, Emperor 1084&amp;ndash;1106). Although this was taken back after the [[1077]] [[Walk to Canossa]], the ban had wide-reaching consequences. Meanwhile, the German dukes had elected a second king, [[Rudolf of Swabia]], whom Henry IV could only defeat after a three-year war in [[1080]]. The mythical roots of the Empire were permanently damaged; the German king was humiliated. Most importantly though, the church became an independent player in the political system of the Empire. === The Empire under the Hohenstaufen === [[Conrad III]] came to the throne in [[1138]], being the first of the [[Hohenstaufen]] dynasty, which was about to restore the glory of the Empire even under the new conditions of the [[1122]] [[Concordat of Worms]]. It was [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I &quot;Barbarossa&quot;]] (king 1152, Emperor 1155&amp;ndash;1190) who first called the Empire &quot;holy&quot;, with which he intended to address mainly law and legislation. Also, under Barbarossa, the idea of the &quot;Romanness&quot; of the Empire culminated again, which seemed to be an attempt to justify the Emperor's power independently of the (now strengthened) Pope. An imperial assembly at the fields of Roncaglia in [[1158]] explicitly reclaimed imperial rights at the advice of ''quattuor doctores'' of the emerging judicial facility of the University of [[Bologna]], citing phrases such as ''princeps legibus solutus'' (&quot;the leader is not bound by law&quot;) from the ''Digestae'' of the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]]. That the Roman laws were created for an entirely different system and didn't fit the structure of the Empire was obviously secondary; the point here was that the court of the Emperor made an attempt to establish a ''legal'' constitution. Imperial rights had been referred to as ''regalia'' since the Investiture Controversy, but were enumerated for the first time at Roncaglia as well. This comprehensive list included public roads, tariffs, coining, collecting punitive fees, and the investiture, the seating and unseating of office holders. These rights were now explicitly rooted in Roman Law, a far-reaching constitutional act; north of the Alps, the system was also now connected to [[feudal law]], a change most visible in the withdrawal of the feuds of [[Henry the Lion]] in 1180 which led to his public banning. Barbarossa thus managed for a time to more closely bind the stubborn Germanic dukes to the Empire as a whole. Another important constitutional move at Roncaglia was the establishment of a new peace ''(Landfrieden)'' for all of the Empire, an attempt to (on the one hand) abolish private vendettas not only between the many local dukes, but on the other hand a means to tie the Emperor's subordinates to a legal system of jurisdiction and public prosecution of criminal acts &amp;ndash; a predecessor concept of &quot;[[rule of law]]&quot;, in modern terms, that was, at this time, not yet universally accepted. In order to solve the problem that the emperor was (after the Investiture Controversy) no longer as able to use the church as a mechanism to maintain power, the Staufer increasingly lent land to ''ministerialia'', formerly unfree service men, which Frederick hoped would be more reliable than local dukes. Initially used mainly for war services, this new class of people would form the basis for the later [[knights]], another basis of imperial power. Another new concept of the time was the systematic foundation of new cities, both by the emperor and the local dukes. These were partly due to the explosion in population, but also to concentrate economic power at strategic locations, while formerly cities only existed in the shape of either old Roman foundations or older bishoprics. Cities that were founded in the 12th century include [[Freiburg]], possibly the economic model for many later cities, and [[Munich]]. The later reign of the last Staufer Emperor, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], was in many ways different from that of earlier Emperors. Still a child, he first reigned in [[Sicily]], while in Germany, Barbarossa's second son [[Philip of Swabia]] and Henry the Lion's son [[Otto IV]] competed with him for the title of King of the Germans. After finally having been crowned emperor in [[1220]], he risked conflict with the pope when he claimed power over Rome; astonishingly to many, he managed to claim Jerusalem in a [[Crusade]] in [[1228]] while still under the pope's ban. While Frederick brought the mythical idea of the Empire to a last highpoint, he was also the one to initiate the major steps that led to its disintegration. On the one hand, he concentrated on establishing a &amp;ndash; for the times &amp;ndash; extraordinarily modern state in Sicily, with pub
s the Sahara, Egypt would be entirely desert; the Nile River traverses about 1,600 kilometers through Egypt and flows northward from the Egyptian-Sudanese border to the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is a combination of three long rivers whose sources are in central Africa: the White Nile, the Blue Nile, and the Atbarah. The White Nile, which begins at Lake Victoria in Uganda, supplies about 28 % of the Nile's waters in Egypt. In its course from Lake Victoria to Juba in southern Sudan, the elevation of the White Nile's channel drops more than 600 meters. In its 1,600-kilometer course from Juba to Khartoum, Sudan's capital, the river descends only 75 meters. In southern and central Sudan, the White Nile passes through a wide, flat plain covered with swamp vegetation and slows almost to stagnation. The Blue Nile, which originates at Lake Tana in Ethiopia, provides an average of 58 % of the Nile's waters in Egypt. It has a steeper gradient and flows more swiftly than the White Nile, which it joins at Khartoum. Unlike the White Nile, the Blue Nile carries a considerable amount of sediment; for several kilometers north of Khartoum, water closer to the eastern bank of the river is visibly muddy and comes from the Blue Nile, while the water closer to the western bank is clearer and comes from the White Nile. The much shorter Atbarah River, which also originates in Ethiopia, joins the main Nile north of Khartoum between the fifth and sixth cataracts (areas of steep rapids) and provides about 14 % of the Nile's waters in Egypt. During the low-water season, which runs from January to June, the Atbarah shrinks to a number of pools. But, in late-summer, when torrential rains fall on the Ethiopian plateau, the Atbarah provides 22 % of the Nile's flow. The Blue Nile has a similar pattern. It contributes 17 % of the Nile's waters in the low-water season and 68 % during the high-water season. In contrast, the White Nile provides only 10 % of the Nile's waters during the high-water season but contributes more than 80 % during the low-water period. Thus, before the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1971, the White Nile watered the Egyptian stretch of the river throughout the year, whereas the Blue Nile, carrying seasonal rain from Ethiopia, caused the Nile to overflow its banks and deposit a layer of fertile mud over adjacent fields. The great flood of the main Nile usually occurred in Egypt during August, September, and October, but it sometimes began as early as June at Aswan and often did not completely wane until January. The Nile enters Egypt a few kilometers north of Wadi Halfa, a Sudanese town that was completely rebuilt on high ground when its original site was submerged in the reservoir created by the Aswan High Dam. As a result of the dam's construction, the Nile actually begins its flow into Egypt as Lake Nasser, which extends south from the dam 320 kilometers to the border and an additional 158 kilometers into Sudan. Lake Nasser's waters fill the area through Lower Nubia (Upper Egypt and northern Sudan) within the narrow gorge between the cliffs of sandstone and granite created by the flow of the river over many centuries. Below Aswan the cultivated floodplain strip widens to as much as twenty kilometers. North of Isna (160 kilometers north of Aswan), the plateau on both sides of the valley rises as high as 550 meters above sea level; at Qina (about 90 kilometers north of Isna) the 300-meter limestone cliffs force the Nile to change course to the southwest for about 60 kilometers before turning northwest for about 160 kilometers to Asyut. Northward from Asyut, the escarpments on both sides diminish, and the valley widens to a maximum of twenty-two kilometers. The Nile reaches the Delta at Cairo. At Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by silt deposits to form a fertile, fan-shape delta about 250 kilometers wide at the seaward base and about 160 kilometers from north to south. The Nile Delta extends over approximately 22,000 square kilometers (roughly equivalent in area to Massachusetts). According to historical accounts from the first century A.D., seven branches of the Nile once ran through the Delta. According to later accounts, the Nile had only six branches by around the twelfth century. Since then, nature and man have closed all but two main outlets: the east branch, Damietta (also seen as Dumyat; 240 kilometers long), and the west branch, Rosetta (235 kilometers long). Both outlets are named after the ports located at their mouths. A network of drainage and irrigation canals supplements these remaining outlets. In the north near the coast, the Delta embraces a series of salt marshes and lakes; most notable among them are Idku, Al Burullus, and Manzilah. The fertility and productivity of the land adjacent to the Nile depends largely on the silt deposited by floodwaters. Archaeological research indicates that people once lived at a much higher elevation along the river than they do today, probably because the river was higher or the floods more severe. The timing and the amount of annual flow were always unpredictable. Measurements of annual flows as low as 1.2 billion cubic meters and as high as 4.25 billion cubic meters have been recorded. For centuries Egyptians attempted to predict and take advantage of the flows and moderate the severity of floods. The construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam, transformed the mighty river into a large and predictable irrigation ditch. Lake Nasser, the world's largest artificial lake, has enabled planned use of the Nile regardless of the amount of rainfall in Central Africa and East Africa. The dams have also affected the Nile Valley's fertility, which was dependent for centuries not only on the water brought to the arable land but also on the materials left by the water. Researchers have estimated that beneficial silt deposits in the valley began about 10,000 years ago. The average annual deposit of arable soil through the course of the river valley was about nine meters. Analysis of the flow revealed that 10.7 million tons of solid matter passed Cairo each year. Today the Aswan High Dam obstructs most of this sediment, which is now retained in Lake Nasser. The reduction in annual silt deposits has contributed to rising water tables and increasing soil salinity in the Delta, the erosion of the river's banks in Upper Egypt, and the erosion of the alluvial fan along the shore of the Mediterranean Sea. ==Western Desert== The Western Desert covers about 700,000 square kilometers (equivalent in size to Texas) and accounts for about two-thirds of Egypt's land area. This immense desert to the west of the Nile spans the area from the Mediterranean Sea south to the Sudanese border. The desert's Jilf al Kabir Plateau has an altitude of about 1,000 meters, an exception to the uninterrupted territory of basement rocks covered by layers of horizontally bedded sediments forming a massive plain or low plateau. The Great Sand Sea lies within the desert's plain and extends from the Siwah Oasis to Jilf al Kabir. Scarps (ridges) and deep depressions (basins) exist in several parts of the Western Desert, and no rivers or streams drain into or out of the area. The government has considered the Western Desert a frontier region and has divided it into two governorates at about the twenty-eighth parallel: Matruh to the north and New Valley (Al Wadi al Jadid) to the south. There are seven important depressions in the Western Desert, and all are considered oases except the largest, Qattara, the water of which is salty. The Qattara Depression is approximately 15,000 square kilometers (about the size of Connecticut and Rhode Island) and is largely below sea level (its lowest point is 133 meters below sea level). Badlands, salt marshes, and salt lakes cover the sparsely inhabited Qattara Depression. Limited agricultural production, the presence of some natural resources, and permanent settlements are found in the other six depressions, all of which have fresh water provided by the Nile or by local groundwater. The Siwah Oasis, close to the Libyan border and west of Qattara, is isolated from the rest of Egypt but has sustained life since ancient times. The Siwa's cliff-hung Temple of Amun was renowned for its oracles for more than 1,000 years. Herodotus and Alexander the Great were among the many illustrious people who visited the temple in the pre-Christian era. The other major oases form a topographic chain of basins extending from the Al Fayyum Oasis (sometimes called the Fayyum Depression) which lies sixty kilometers southwest of Cairo, south to the Bahriyah, Farafirah, and Dakhilah oases before reaching the country's largest oasis, Kharijah. A brackish lake, Birkat Qarun, at the northern reaches of Al Fayyum Oasis, drained into the Nile in ancient times. For centuries sweetwater artesian wells in the Fayyum Oasis have permitted extensive cultivation in an irrigated area that extends over 1,800 square kilometers. ==Eastern Desert== [[Image:Dust_storms_off_Egypt.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A large plume of Saharan Desert dust (light brownish pixels) were blowing over Libya and Egypt northward over the Mediterranean Sea toward the Middle East, on February 2, 2003.]] The topographic features of the region east of the Nile are very different from those of the Western Desert. The relatively mountainous Eastern Desert rises abruptly from the Nile and extends over an area of approximately 220,000 square kilometers (roughly equivalent in size to Utah). The upward-sloping plateau of sand gives way within 100 kilometers to arid, defoliated, rocky hills running north and south between the Sudan border and the Delta. The hills reach elevations of more than 1,900 meters. The region's most prominent feature is the easterly chain of rugged mountains, the Red Sea Hills, which extend from the Nile Valley eastward to the Gulf of Suez and the
d in the [[Klondike, Yukon|Klondike]] in [[Canada]]. * [[1913]] - Tōhoku Imperial University (modern day [[Tohoku University|Tōhoku University]]) admits its first female students. * [[1915]] - [[World War I]]: Should victory be achieved over the [[Central Powers]], the [[Triple Entente]] promises the Kingdom of [[Serbia]]: the Austro-Hungarian territories of [[Baranja]], [[Srem (region)|Srem]], [[Slavonia]], and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]; and the eastern 2/3 of [[Dalmatia]] (from the river of [[Krka]] to the city of [[Bar, Serbia and Montenegro|Bar]]). * [[1920]] - [[Ray Chapman]] of the [[Cleveland Indians]] is hit in the head by a [[fastball]] thrown by [[Carl Mays]] of the [[New York Yankees]], and dies early the next day. To date, Chapman is the only player to die from injuries sustained in a [[Major League Baseball]] game. * [[1928]] - Murderer [[Carl Panzram]] is arrested in [[Washington, DC]] after killing 20 people. * [[1930]] - The first color sound [[cartoon]], called ''Fiddlesticks'', is made by [[Ub Iwerks]] * [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: - The two-person crew of the U.S. naval blimp L-8 disappear without a trace on a routine anti-submarine patrol over the [[Pacific Ocean]]. The blimp drifts without her crew and crashlands in [[Daly City]], [[California]]. * [[1946]] - The Japan Business Federation, or [[Nihon Keidanren|Keidanren]], is established, and Ichirō Ishikawa is appointed its representative. * [[1954]] - ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' magazine is first published. * [[1960]] - [[Cyprus]] gains its independence from the [[United Kingdom]]. * 1960 - [[Joseph Kittinger]] parachutes from a balloon over [[New Mexico]] at 102,800 feet (31,330 m), setting three records that still stand today: high-altitude jump, [[free-fall]], and fastest speed by a [[human]] without an aircraft. * [[1962]] - [[The Beatles]] fire drummer [[Pete Best]] and replace him with [[Ringo Starr]]. * [[1964]] - [[Vietnam War]]: A ''[[coup d'état]]'' replaces [[Duong Van Minh]] with General [[Nguyen Khanh]] as President of [[South Vietnam]]. A new [[constitution]] is established with aid from the [[U.S. Embassy]]. * [[1966]] - Vietnam War: The [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] begins investigations of Americans who have aided the [[Viet Cong]]. The committee intends to introduce legislation making these activities illegal. Anti-war demonstrators disrupt the meeting and 50 people are arrested. * [[1972]] - The [[Royal Moroccan Air Force]] mistakenly fires upon, but fails to bring down, [[Hassan II of Morocco]]'s plane while he is traveling back to [[Rabat]]. * [[1974]] - [[The Ramones]] play their first ever show at the [[CBGB's]]. * [[1984]] - Carmaker [[John De Lorean]] is acquitted of all eight counts of possessing and distributing [[cocaine]]. * [[1987]] - A [[McDonnell Douglas MD-82]] carrying [[Northwest Airlines flight 255]] crashes on takeoff from [[Detroit Metropolitan Airport]] killing 155 people onboard, with the sole survivor four-year old [[Cecelia Cichan]]). * [[1993]] - The [[Debian]] [[GNU/Linux distribution]] is founded by [[Ian Murdock]]. * [[1996]] - [[Sigma Beta Rho]] is founded at the University of Pennsylvania. * [[2003]] - [[U.S. Representative]] from [[South Dakota]] [[Bill Janklow]] hits and kills a motorcyclist with his car at a rural intersection near [[Trent, South Dakota]]; he will eventually be convicted of [[manslaughter]] and will resign from [[U.S. Congress|Congress]]. * [[2005]] - [[West Caribbean Airways Flight 708]] crashes near [[Machiques]], [[Venezuela]], killing the 160 aboard. ==Births== *[[1355]] - [[Philippa Plantagenet]], Countess of Ulster *[[1378]] - [[Hongxi Emperor]] of China (d. [[1425]]) *[[1557]] - [[Agostino Carracci]], Italian artist (d. [[1602]]) *[[1596]] - [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine]] (d. [[1632]]) *[[1645]] - [[Jean de La Bruyère]], French writer (d. [[1696]]) *[[1650]] - [[Vincenzo Coronelli]], Italian cartographer and encylopedist (d. [[1718]]) *[[1682]] - [[Louis, Duke of Burgundy]], heir to the throne of France (d. [[1712]]) *[[1832]] - [[Wilhelm Wundt]], German psychologist (d. [[1920]]) *[[1845]] - [[Gabriel Lippmann]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1921]]) *[[1860]] - [[Jules Laforgue]], French poet (d. [[1887]]) *[[1862]] - [[Amos Alonzo Stagg]], American coach (d. [[1965]]) *[[1868]] - [[Bernarr McFadden]], American publisher (d. [[1955]]) *[[1884]] - [[Hugo Gernsback]], Luxembourg-born editor and publisher (d. [[1967]]) *[[1888]] - [[T. E. Lawrence]], English writer and soldier (d. [[1935]]) *1888 - [[Armand J. Piron]], American musician (d. [[1943]]) *[[1892]] - [[Otto Messmer]], American cartoonist (d. [[1983]]) *[[1894]] - [[George Meany]], American labor union leader (d. [[1980]]) *[[1895]] - [[Albert Cohen]], Swiss novelist (d. [[1981]]) *1895 - [[Liane Haid]], Austrian actress (d. [[2000]]) *[[1902]] - [[Georgette Heyer]], English novelist (d. [[1974]]) *[[1904]] - [[Wendell Meredith Stanley]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]]) *[[1911]] - [[E. F. Schumacher]], German economist and statistician (d. [[1977]]) *[[1912]] - [[Ted Drake]] English footballer (d. [[1995]]) *[[1913]] - [[Menachem Begin]], [[Prime Minister of Israel]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1992]]) *[[1920]] - [[Charles Bukowski]], American poet (d. [[1994]]) *[[1923]] - [[Millôr Fernandes]], Brazilian cartoonist and playwright *[[1924]] - [[Fess Parker]], American actor *[[1928]] - [[Ann Blyth]], American actress *[[1929]] - [[Helmut Rahn]], German footballer (d. [[2003]]) *[[1930]] - [[Robert Culp]], American actor *1930 - [[Frank Gifford]], American football player and announcer *[[1931]] - [[Eydie Gorme]], American singer *[[1933]] - [[Julie Newmar]], American actress *[[1939]] - [[Trevor Mcdonald]] [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], Television Newsreader *[[1940]] - [[Bruce Beresford]], Australian film director *[[1946]] - [[Massoud Barzani]], Iraqi Kurdish politician *1946 - [[Lesley Ann Warren]], American actress *[[1950]] - [[Hasely Crawford]], Trinidad and Tobago athlete *[[1952]] - [[Reginald VelJohnson]], American actor *[[1953]] - [[Kathie Lee Gifford]], French-born singer and actress *[[1954]] - [[James Cameron]], Canadian film director *[[1957]] - [[Tim Farriss]], Australian lead guitarist (INXS) *[[1958]] - [[Angela Bassett]], American actress *1958 - [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], American singer and actress *[[1960]] - [[Timothy Hutton]], American actor *[[1964]] - [[Jimmy Arias]], American tennis player *[[1967]] - [[Ulrika Jonsson]], Swedish-born television personality *[[1968]] - [[Mateja Svet]], Slovenian alpine skier *[[1972]] - [[Stan Lazaridis]], Australian footballer *[[1974]] - [[Robin Hull]], Finnish snooker player *1974 - [[Krisztina Egerszegi]], Hungarian swimmer *[[1976]] - [[Jonatan Johansson]], Finnish footballer *[[1980]] - [[Vanessa Carlton]], American singer, songwriter, and pianist *1980 - [[Robert Hardy (bassist)|Robert Hardy]], English bassist ([[Franz Ferdinand (band)|Franz Ferdinand]]) *[[1981]] - [[Taylor Rain]], American actress *[[1987]] - [[Kyal Marsh]], Australian actor ==Deaths== *[[1027]] - [[Giorgi I]], King of Georgia (b. [[998]]) *[[1327]] - [[Roch]], French saint *[[1358]] - Duke [[Albert II of Austria]] (b. [[1298]]) *[[1419]] - [[Wenceslaus, King of the Romans]], King of Bohemia (b. [[1361]]) *[[1443]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshikatsu]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1434]]) *[[1518]] - [[Loyset Compère]], French composer *[[1532]] - [[John, Elector of Saxony]] (b. [[1468]]) *[[1661]] - [[Thomas Fuller]], English churchman and historian (b. [[1608]]) *[[1678]] - [[Andrew Marvell]], English poet (b. [[1621]]) *[[1705]] - [[Jakob Bernoulli]], Swiss mathematician and scientist (b. [[1654]]) *[[1733]] - [[Matthew Tindal]], English deist (b. [[1657]]) *[[1791]] - [[Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec]], French soldier and diplomat (b. [[1719]]) *[[1886]] - [[Ramakrishna | Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa]], Indian guru (b. [[1836]]) *[[1893]] - [[Jean-Martin Charcot]], French neurologist (b. [[1825]]) *[[1899]] - [[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]], German chemist (b. [[1811]]) *[[1907]] - [[James Hector]], Scottish geologist (b. [[1834]]) *[[1921]] - King [[Peter I of Serbia]] (b. [[1844]]) *[[1938]] - [[Robert Johnson]], American singer and guitarist (b. [[1911]]) *1938 - [[Andrej Hlinka]], Slovak politician and priest (b. [[1864]]) *[[1948]] - [[Babe Ruth]], baseball player (b. [[1895]]) *[[1949]] - [[Margaret Mitchell]], American novelist (b. [[1900]]) *[[1956]] - [[Bela Lugosi]], Hungarian actor (b. [[1882]]) *[[1957]] - [[Irving Langmuir]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1881]]) *[[1959]] - [[Wanda Landowska]], Polish harpsichordist (b. [[1879]]) *[[1973]] - [[Selman Waksman]], Ukrainain-born biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1888]]) *[[1975]] - [[Vladimir Kuts]], Ukrainian-born runner (b. [[1927]]) *[[1977]] - [[Elvis Presley]], American singer and actor (b. [[1935]]) *[[1979]] - [[John Diefenbaker]], thirteenth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1895]]) *[[1983]] - [[Earl Averill]], baseball player (b. [[1902]]) *[[1989]] - [[Amanda Blake]], American actress (b. [[1929]]) *[[2002]] - [[Abu Nidal]], Palestinian political leader (b. [[1937]]) *2002 - [[Jeff Corey]], American actor (b. [[1914]]) *[[2003]] - [[Idi Amin]], Ugandan dictator (b. [[1928]]) *[[2004]] - [[Ivan Hlinka]], Czech hockey coach (b. [[1950]]) *2004 - [[Robert Quiroga]], American boxer (b. [[1969]]) *[[2005]] - [[Frère Roger]] of Taizé, Swiss monk and mystic (b. [[1915]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Calendar of saints|RC saints]]: feast day of Saint [[Stephen I of Hungary]]; Saint [[Roch]] (helps against plague and skin diseases) *[[August 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)|Eastern Orthodox]]: commemoration of the translation of the [[Image of Edessa|Acheirop
e:Alaska Highway Bridge.jpg|thumb|234px|Bridge on [[Alaska Highway]] between [[Watson Lake]] and [[Whitehorse, Yukon|Whitehorse]].]] Alaska is arguably the least-connected state in terms of road transportation. The state's road system covers a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the [[Alaska Highway]], the principal route out of the state through [[Canada]]. The state capital, [[Juneau]], is not accessible by road, which has spurred several debates over the decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system. One unique feature of the road system is the [[Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel]], which links the [[Seward Highway]] south of Anchorage with the relatively isolated community of [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]]. The tunnel held the title of the longest road tunnel in North America (at nearly 2.5 miles [4&amp;nbsp;km]) until completion of the 3.5 mile (5.6km) [[Interstate 93]] tunnel as part of the &quot;[[Big Dig]]&quot; project in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. The Anderson Tunnel combines a one-lane roadway and train tracks in the same housing. Consequently, eastbound traffic, westbound traffic, and the [[Alaska Railroad]] must share the tunnel, resulting in waits of 20 minutes or more to enter. As reflected on the Alaska Department of Transportation [http://www.dot.state.ak.us/creg/whittiertunnel/index.shtml Tunnel Website], it is now considered &quot;North America's longest railroad-highway tunnel.&quot; The [[Alaska Railroad]] runs from [[Seward, Alaska|Seward]] through [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]], [[Denali]], and [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] to [[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]], with spurs to [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]] and [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]]. The railroad is famous for its summertime passenger services but also plays a vital part in moving Alaska's natural resources, such as coal and gravel, to ports in Anchorage, Whittier and Seward. The Alaska Railroad is the only remaining railroad in North America to use [[caboose]]s on its freight trains. A stretch of the track along an area inaccessible by road serves as the only transportation to cabins in the area. Most cities and villages in the state are accessible only by sea or air. Alaska has a well-developed [[ferry]] system, known as the [[Alaska Marine Highway]], which serves the cities of [[Southeast Alaska|Southeast]] and the [[Alaska Peninsula]]. The system also operates a ferry service from [[Bellingham, Washington|Bellingham]], [[Washington]] up the [[Inside Passage]] to [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]]. Cities not served by road or sea can only be reached by air, accounting for Alaska's extremely well-developed [[Alaskan Bush|Bush]] air services&amp;mdash;an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage itself, and to a lesser extent Fairbanks, are serviced by [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport#Airlines and destinations|many major airlines]]. Air travel is the cheapest and most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]] to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (unofficial sources have estimated the numbers for 2004 at some four million tourists arriving in Alaska between May and September). However, regular flights to most villages and towns within the state are commercially challenging to provide. Alaska Airlines is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger [[Boeing 737]]-200s) from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]], [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]], [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]], [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]], [[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak]], and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities. The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines like: [[Era Aviation]], [[Peninsula Airways|PenAir]], and [[Frontier Flying Service]]. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered Bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the [[Cessna Caravan]], the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities. But perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the Bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is [[Lake Hood Seaplane Base|Lake Hood]], located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and lots of items from stores and warehouse clubs. Another Alaskan transportation method is the [[dogsled]]. In modern times, dog [[mushing]] is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the [[Iditarod]], a 1,150-mile (1850&amp;nbsp;km) trail from Anchorage to Nome. The race commemorates the famous [[1925 serum run to Nome]] in which mushers and dogs like [[Balto]] took much-needed medicine to the [[diphtheria]]-stricken community of [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash prizes and prestige. ==Demographics== {| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot; |- ! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=center | Historical populations |- ! align=center | Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=right | Population |- | colspan=2 |&lt;hr&gt; |- | align=center | [[United States Census, 1950|1950]] || align=right | 128,643 |- | align=center | [[United States Census, 1960|1960]] || align=right | 226,167 |- | align=center | [[United States Census, 1970|1970]] || align=right | 300,382 |- | align=center | [[United States Census, 1980|1980]] || align=right | 401,851 |- | align=center | [[United States Census, 1990|1990]] || align=right | 550,043 |- | align=center | [[United States Census, 2000|2000]] || align=right | 626,932 |} As of 2005, Alaska has an estimated population of 663,661, which is an increase of 5,906, or 0.9%, from the prior year and an increase of 36,730, or 5.9%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 36,590 people derived from its 53,132 births of which 16,542 deaths is subtracted from, and an increase due to net migration of 1,181 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 5,800 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 4,619 people. Alaska is the least densely populated state. ===Race and ancestry=== The racial breakdown of the state is: *67.6% [[Whites|White]] (Non-Hispanic) *15.6% [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] or [[Alaska Native]] *4.1% [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] *4% [[Asian American|Asian]] *3.5% [[Blacks|Black]] *5.4% [[Mixed race]] The largest ancestry groups in the state are: [[German-American|German]] (16.6%), Alaska Native or American Indian (15.6%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (10.8%), [[British American|English]] (9.6%), [[United States|American]] (5.7%), and [[Norwegian-American|Norwegian]] (4.2%). Alaska has the largest percentage of American Indians (16%) of any state. The vast, sparsely populated bush regions of northern and western Alaska are primarily inhabited by Alaska Natives, and they also have a large presence in the southeast. Anchorage, Fairbanks, and other parts of south-central and southeast Alaska have many whites of northern and western European ancestry. The Wrangell-Petersburg area has many residents of Scandinavian ancestry and the Aleutians have many Filipinos. Most of the state's black population lives in Anchorage. [[As of 2000]], 85.7% of Alaska residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 5.2% speak [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American languages]]. [[Spanish language|Spanish]] speakers make up 2.9% of the population, followed by [[Tagalog]] speakers at 1.5% and [[Korean language|Korean]] at 0.8%. ===Religion=== *[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 81% **[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 68% ***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 11% ***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 8% ***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 6% ***[[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] &amp;ndash; 2% ***[[Episcopal]] &amp;ndash; 1% ***[[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] &amp;ndash; 1% **[[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] &amp;ndash; 8% **[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 7% **[[Latter-day Saint]] &amp;ndash; 1% *Other [[religion]]s &amp;ndash; 1% *Not religious/[[agnosticism|agnostic]] &amp;ndash; 17% Notable is Alaska's relatively large [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] [[Christianity|Christian]] population, a result of early [[Russia]]n colonization and [[missionary]] work among indigenous Alaskans. ==Social issues== Alaska has long had a problem with alcohol use and abuse. Many rural communities in Alaska have outlawed its import. &quot;Dry&quot;, &quot;wet&quot;, and &quot;damp&quot; are terms describing a community's laws on liquor consumption. This problem directly relates to Alaska's high rate of [[Fetal Alcohol Syndrome]] (FAS) as well as contributing to the high rate of suicides. This is a controversial topic for many residents. Alaska has also had a problem with &quot;[[brain drain]]&quot; as many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state upon graduating high school. While for many this functions as a sort of [[walkabout]], many do not return to the state. The [[University of Alaska]] has been successfully combating this by offering four-year scholarships to the top 10 percent of Alaska hi
ematic forms. [[Archeocyatha]] abundant in the early Cambrian. [[Trilobite]]s, [[Priapulida]], [[Porifera|sponges]], inarticulate [[brachiopod]]s, and many other forms all common. First [[chordate]]s appear. [[Anomalocaris|anomalocarids]] are top predators. Edicarian animals rare, then die out. | style=&quot;background:#FDCDB8&quot; | 501.0 ± 2.0 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#E8AE97&quot; | [[Middle Cambrian|Middle]] | style=&quot;background:#E8AE97&quot; | 513.0 ± 2.0 |- | style=&quot;background:#E77C72&quot; | [[Early Cambrian|Lower/Early]] | style=&quot;background:#E77C72&quot; | 542.0 ± 1.0 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; |- | rowspan=&quot;10&quot; style=&quot;background:#CCD891&quot; | [[Proterozoic|Proter-&lt;br&gt;ozoic]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#CAA595&quot; | [[Neoproterozoic|Neo-&lt;br&gt;proterozoic]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#EAD8BC&quot; | [[Ediacaran]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | First [[metazoa|multi-celled animals]]. Ediacaran fauna ([[Vendian biota|vendobionta]]) flourish worldwide. Simple [[trace fossil]]s from worm-like animals. First [[Porifera|sponges]]. | style=&quot;background:#EAD8BC&quot; | 630 +5/-30 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#DCABAA&quot; | [[Cryogenian]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Possible [[snowball Earth]] period, [[Rodinia]] begins to break up | style=&quot;background:#DCABAA&quot; | 850 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#CBA46C&quot; | [[Tonian]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | First [[acritarch]] radiation | style=&quot;background:#CBA46C&quot; | 1000 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; |- | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | [[Mesoproterozoic|Meso-&lt;br&gt;proterozoic]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | [[Stenian]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Narrow highly [[metamorphic]] belts due to [[orogeny]] as [[Rodinia]] formed. | style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | 1200 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | [[Ectasian]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Platform cover]]s continue to expand | style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | 1400 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | [[Calymmian]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Platform cover]]s expand | style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | 1600 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; |- | rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | [[Paleoproterozoic|Paleo-&lt;br&gt;proterozoic]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | [[Statherian]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | First [[Eukaryote|complex single-celled life]]. [[Columbia (supercontinent)]]. | style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | 1800 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | [[Orosirian]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | The [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] became [[oxygen]]ic. [[Vredefort crater|Vredefort]] and [[Sudbury Basin]] asteroid impacts. Much [[orogeny]]. | style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | 2050 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | [[Rhyacian]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Bushveld|Bushveld Formation]] formed. [[Huronian]] glaciation. | style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | 2300 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | [[Siderian]] | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[ banded iron formation]]s formed | style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | 2500 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; |- | rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background:#99ADAC&quot; | [[Archean]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; | style=&quot;background:#CBCDC8&quot; | [[Neoarchean]] | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Stabilization of most modern [[craton]]s, possible [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] overturn event | style=&quot;background:#CBCDC8&quot; | 2800 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#B2B5AF&quot; | [[Mesoarchean]] | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | First [[stromatolite]]s | style=&quot;background:#B2B5AF&quot; | 3200 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#999791&quot; | [[Paleoarchean]] | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | First known [[phototroph|oxygen producing]] [[bacteria]] | style=&quot;background:#999791&quot; | 3600 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | [[Eoarchean]] | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | [[Prokaryote|Simple single-celled life]] | style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | 3800 |- | style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | [[Hadean]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5,7&lt;/sup&gt; | style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | [[Lower Imbrian]]&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | c.3850 |- | style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | [[Nectarian]]&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | c.3920 |- | style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | [[Basin groups]]&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | 4100 [[annum|Ma]] - Oldest known rock | style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | c.4150 |- | style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | [[Cryptic era|Cryptic]]&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; | colspan=&quot;4&quot; | 4400 Ma - Oldest known mineral; 4570 Ma - Formation of [[Earth]] | style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | c.4570 |} &lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot;&gt; # Paleontologists often refer to [[faunal stage]]s rather than geologic periods. The stage nomenclature is quite complex. See [http://flatpebble.nceas.ucsb.edu/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=startScale Harland] for an excellent time ordered list of faunal stages. # Dates are slightly uncertain with differences of a few percent between various sources being common. This is largely due to uncertainties in [[radiometric dating]] and the problem that deposits suitable for radiometric dating seldom occur exactly at the places in the geologic column where they would be most useful. The dates and errors quoted above are according to the [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]] 2004 time scale. Dates labeled with a * indicate boundaries where a [[Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point]] has been internationally agreed upon. # Historically, the [[Cenozoic]] has been divided up into the [[Quaternary]] and [[Tertiary]] sub-eras, as well as the [[Neogene]] and [[Paleogene]] periods. However, the International Commission on Stratigraphy has recently decided to stop endorsing the terms Quaternary and Tertiary as part of the formal nomenclature. # In North America, the Carboniferous is subdivided into [[Mississippian]] and [[Pennsylvanian]] Periods. # The [[Proterozoic]], [[Archean]] and [[Hadean]] are often collectively referred to as [[Precambrian|Precambrian Time]], and sometimes also as the [[Cryptozoic]]. # Defined by absolute age ([[Global Standard Stratigraphic Age]]). # Though commonly used, the [[Hadean]] is not a formal eon and no lower bound for the Eoarchean has been agreed upon. The Hadean has also sometimes been called the Priscoan or the Azoic. # These era names were taken from Moon geology. Their use for Earth geology is unofficial. # The start time for the [[Holocene]] epoch is here given as 11,430 years ago ± 130 years (i.e. between about [[9560BC]] and [[9300BC]]). For further discussion of the dating of this epoch, see [[Holocene]]. &lt;/div&gt; ==References== * [http://www.stratigraphy.org/geowhen/ GeoWhen Database ] * [http://www.stratigraphy.org/gssp.htm International Commission on Stratigraphy Time Scale ] * [http://www.chronos.org CHRONOS ] * [http://www.chronos.org/education/educational_resources.html CHRONOS Geologic Time references ] * [http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/geotime/index.htm Nation Museum on Natural History Geologic Time ] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/games/rocky/indextime.html BBC Interactive Time Line] ==See also== * [[Age of the Earth]] * [[Fossils and the geological timescale]] * [[Timeline of evolution]] * [[Cosmological timeline]] * [[Lunar geologic timescale]] * [[Martian geologic timescale]] * [[Anthropocene]] * [[Logarithmic timeline]] ==External links== *[http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect2/Sect2_1b.html NASA: Geologic Time] *[http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.htm GSA: Geologic Time Scale] [[Category:Earth sciences]] [[Category:Geology]] [[Category:Geochronology]] [[Category:Geologic time scale| ]] {{Link FA|pl}} [[ar:مقياس زمني جيولوجي]] [[ast:Escala de los tiempos xeolóxicos]] [[ca:Escala dels temps geològics]] [[cs:Geologická časová osa]] [[cy:Cyfnodau Daearegol]] [[da:Jordens historie]] [[de:Geologische Zeitskala]] [[et:Geokronoloogiline skaala]] [[el:Γεωλογική χρονολογική κλίμακα]] [[es:Geología histórica]] [[eo:Terhistorio]] [[fr:Échelle des temps géologiques]] [[ko:지질 시대]] [[it:Scala dei tempi geologici]] [[he:לוח הזמנים הגאולוגי]] [[la:Aevum geologicum]] [[lt:Geologinė laiko skalė]] [[lb:Geologesch Zäitskala]] [[nl:Geologisch tijdvak]] [[ja:地質時代]] [[no:Jordens tidsaldre]] [[pl:Tabela stratygraficzna]] [[pt:Escala de tempo geológico]] [[ru:Геохронологическая шкала]] [[sl:Geološka doba]] [[su:Geologic timescale]] [[fi:Geologinen ajanlasku]] [[sv:Geologisk tidsskala]] [[vi:Niên đại địa chất]] [[tr:Jeolojik devirler]] [[uk:Геохронологічна таблиця]] [[zh:地質時代]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Giovanni Arduino</title> <id>12969</id> <revision> <id>39654870</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T23:32:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.50.146.252</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Giovanni Arduino''' ([[Turin]], [[June 30]], [[1966]]) is a present-day fiction writer, freelance editor, translator and consultant from [[Moncalieri]], [[Turin]], [[Italy]]. His best-selling novels, which span and mix various genres such as [[young adult]], [[dark fantasy]], modern [[fables]], [[erotica]
itz'']]-class &amp;mdash; The carrier provides a wide range of options to the U.S. government, ranging from simply showing the flag, to attacks on airborne, afloat and ashore targets. Because carriers operate in [[international waters]], their aircraft do not need to secure landing rights on foreign soil. These ships also engage in sustained operations in support of other forces. The carrier is the flagship of the battle group, with the commanding [[rear admiral]] on board, making use of the advanced combat information center and communications suite. * two [[guided missile cruiser]]s, usually [[Ticonderoga class cruiser|''Ticonderoga'']] class &amp;mdash; multi-mission surface combatants, equipped with [[Tomahawk missile]]s for long-range strike capability. * two to three [[guided missile destroyer]]s, usually [[Arleigh Burke class destroyer|''Arleigh Burke'']]-class &amp;mdash; multi-mission surface combatant, used primarily for anti-air warfare (AAW) and anti-submarine warfare (ASW) * a [[frigate]], usually [[Oliver Hazard Perry class frigate|''Oliver Hazard Perry'']]-class &amp;mdash; primarily for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) * two attack [[submarine]]s, usually [[Los Angeles class submarine|'' Los Angeles'']]-class &amp;mdash; in a direct support role seeking out and destroying hostile surface ships and submarines * a combined ammunition, [[Oiler (ship)|oiler]], and [[supply ship]], usually [[fast combat support ship|''Sacramento'']] or ''Supply'' class &amp;mdash; provides logistic support enabling the Navy's forward presence: on station, ready to respond The Carrier Battle Group (CVBG) could be employed in a variety of roles, most of which would involve the gaining and maintenance of sea control: * Protection of economic and/or military shipping. * Protection of a [[USMC|Marine]] amphibious force while en route to, and upon arrival in, an amphibious objective area. * Establishing [[air superiority]] or [[Air supremacy|supremacy]] in an area in combination with land-based aircraft. * Establishing a naval presence in support of national interests. ==History== The CVBG was first used in [[World War II]], primarily in conflicts between the United States and [[Japan]] in the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]. CVBGs at the time consisted of a far larger number of ships than current CVBGs, and this marked the only time CVBGs have fought each other, notably at the [[Battle of Midway]]. During the Cold War, the main role of the CVBG in case of conflict with the [[Soviet Union]] would have been to protect Atlantic supply routes between the United States and Europe. Because the Soviet Union had no large carriers of its own, a situation of duelling aircraft carriers would have been unlikely. The main scenario of interest would have been an attack against a CVBG using large number of anti-ship [[cruise missile]]s. The attempted use of anti-ship missiles against a carrier group was part of [[Argentina]]'s efforts against [[United Kingdom|Britain]] in the [[Falklands War]]. In the late [[20th century|20th]] and early [[21st century|21st]] centuries, most of the uses of CVBGs by the United States have been in situations in which their use has been uncontested. The main scenario involving carriers coming under fire which is of interest to naval strategists has been a conflict between the United States and the [[People's Republic of China]] over [[Taiwan]]. There is a consensus among observers that most of the military effort expended by the [[People's Liberation Army]] since the 1990s has been to at least complicate the deployment of a CVBG in a [[Taiwan straits conflict]]. ==Debate on Future Viability== There is debate in naval warfare circles as to the viability of carrier battle groups in 21st century naval warfare. Proponents of the CVBG argue that it provides unmatched fire power and force projection capabilities. Opponents argue that CVBGs are increasingly vulnerable to [[arsenal ship]]s and [[cruise missile]]s, especially those with [[supersonic]] flight and the ability to do radical trajectory changes to avoid anti-missile systems. It is also noted that that CVBGs were designed for [[Cold War]] scenarios, and are less useful in establishing control of areas close to shore. See also [[Modern naval tactics]]. [[Category:Aircraft carriers]] [[de:Carrier Vessel Battle Group]] [[zh:航空母艦戰鬥群]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CH-46 Sea Knight</title> <id>7773</id> <revision> <id>41656357</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:08:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kross</username> <id>93616</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;310&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;CH-46 Sea Knight&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;3&quot;&gt;[[image:sea.knight.cv-46.750pix.jpg|300px|October 20, 2002: members of the [[Marine expeditionary unit|22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit]] board a CH-46 Sea Knight helicopter on [[USS Saipan (LHA-2)|USS ''Saipan'']], during beach-landing training.]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;'''Description'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Role&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Medium assault helicopter&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Crew&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;3 (2 pilots, crewman) + 25 troops&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;'''Dimensions'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Length&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;84 ft 4 in (overall)&lt;br /&gt;45 ft 8 in (fuselage)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;25.72 m&lt;br /&gt;13.92 m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Width (Fuselage)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7 ft 3 in&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.2 m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Height&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16 ft 8.5 in&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;5.1 m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Rotor diameter&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;51 ft (each)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15.54 m (each)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;'''Weights'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Empty&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15,537 lb&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7,047 kg&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Loaded&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;17,396 lb (with armor, guns and ammo)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7,891 kg&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Maximum take-off&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;24,300 lb&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;11,022 kg&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;'''Powerplant'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Engines&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;2 [[General Electric T58|General Electric T58-GE-16]] turboshaft&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Power&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1,870 shp each&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.4 MW&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;'''Performance'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Maximum speed&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;165 mph&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;265 km/h&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Combat range&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;184 mi&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;296 km&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ferry range&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;420 mi&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;676 km&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Service ceiling&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14,000 ft&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4,267 m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Rate of climb&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2,045 ft/min&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;623 m/min&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;'''Armament'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Guns&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;2 .50-caliber [[machine gun]]s (optional)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Bombs&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;None&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; The '''CH-46D Sea Knight''' [[helicopter]] is a medium lift assault helicopter, used by the [[United States Navy]] for shipboard delivery of cargo, personnel, and search &amp; rescue. The '''CH-46E''' is used by the [[United States Marine Corps]] to provide all-weather, day-or-night assault transport of combat troops, supplies and equipment. Assault Support is its primary function, and the movement of supplies and equipment is secondary. Additional tasks may be assigned, such as combat support, search and rescue, support for forward refueling and rearming points, aeromedic evacuation of casualties from the field, and recovery of [[aircraft]] and personnel. The CH-46 Sea Knight was first procured in [[1960]] under the old designation of '''HRB-1''' to meet the medium-lift requirements of the [[United States Marine Corps]] in all combat and peacetime environments since that time. The final production version was the CH-46F. In all, 524 H-46s were produced for the Navy and Marine Corps. The last Sea Knight rolled off the assembly line in February of 1971. The fleet is currently being maintained until a suitable replacement is approved. On [[September 24]], [[2004]] the USN retired the type, seeing it replaced by the [[SH-60 Seahawk|MH-60 Knighthawk]]. The USMC is replacing its CH-46's with the [[V-22 Osprey]]. The first V-22 squadron, HMM-263, will be stood up in March of 2006 and renamed VMM-263. The replacement process is expected to continue through the other medium helicopter squadrons, into 2014. ===Variants=== * [[CH-113 Labrador]] : Search and rescue version for the Royal Canadian air Force. == General characteristics == *Contractor: Boeing Vertol Company *Introduction date: January [[1978]] [[Image:Canada CH-1
005-12-16T17:57:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.11.202.93</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve"> [[Image:Gg-map.png|right|]] '''[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]''' is situated in Southwestern [[Asia]], bordering the [[Black Sea]], between [[Turkey]] and [[Russia]]. Located in the region known as the Caucasus or Caucasia, Georgia is a small country of approximately 69,875 square kilometers--about the size of [[West Virginia]]. To the north and northeast, Georgia borders the [[Russia]]n republics of [[Chechnya]], [[Ingushetia]], and [[North Ossetia]] (all of which began to seek autonomy from Russia in 1992). Neighbors to the south are Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Turkey. The shoreline of the Black Sea constitutes Georgia's entire western border. '''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|42|00|N|43|30|E|type:country}} ==Topography== [[Image:CaspianSea.A2004274.0955.500m.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Georgia and the Caspian Sea]] Despite its small area, Georgia has one of the most varied topographies of the former Soviet republics. Georgia lies mostly in the [[Caucasus Mountains]], and its northern boundary is partly defined by the Greater Caucasus range. The Lesser Caucasus range, which runs parallel to the Turkish and Armenian borders, and the Surami and Imereti ranges, which connect the Greater Caucasus and the Lesser Caucasus, create natural barriers that are partly responsible for cultural and linguistic differences among regions. Because of their elevation and a poorly developed transportation infrastructure, many mountain villages are virtually isolated from the outside world during the winter. [[Earthquake]]s and [[landslide]]s in mountainous areas present a significant threat to life and property. Among the most recent natural disasters were massive rock- and mudslides in Ajaria in 1989 that displaced thousands in southwestern Georgia, and two earthquakes in 1991 that destroyed several villages in northcentral Georgia and South Ossetia. Georgia has about 25,000 rivers, many of which power small [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] stations. Drainage is into the [[Black Sea]] to the west and through [[Azerbaijan]] to the [[Caspian Sea]] to the east. The largest river is the [[Kura River|Mtkvari]] (formerly known by its Azerbaijani name, ''Kura'', which is still used in Azerbaijan), which flows 1,364 kilometers from northeast Turkey across the plains of eastern Georgia, through the capital, Tbilisi, and into the Caspian Sea. The [[Rioni River]], the largest river in western Georgia, rises in the Greater Caucasus and empties into the Black Sea at the port of [[Poti]]. Soviet engineers turned the river lowlands along the Black Sea coast into prime subtropical agricultural land, embanked and straightened many stretches of river, and built an extensive system of canals. Deep mountain gorges form topographical belts within the Greater Caucasus. ==Climate== Georgia's climate is affected by [[subtropical climate|subtropical]] influences from the west and [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] influences from the east. The Greater Caucasus range moderates local climate by serving as a barrier against cold air from the north. Warm, moist air from the Black Sea moves easily into the coastal lowlands from the west. Climatic zones are determined by distance from the Black Sea and by altitude. Along the Black Sea coast, from [[Abkhazia]] to the Turkish border, and in the region known as the [[Colchis|Kolkhida Lowlands]] inland from the coast, the dominant subtropical climate features high humidity and heavy precipitation (1,000 to 2,000 millimeters per year; the Black Sea port of Batumi receives 2,500 millimeters per year). Several varieties of [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grow in these regions, where the midwinter average temperature is 5° C and the midsummer average is 22° C. The plains of eastern Georgia are shielded from the influence of the Black Sea by mountains that provide a more [[continental climate]]. Summer temperatures average 20° C to 24° C, winter temperatures 2° C to 4° C. Humidity is lower, and rainfall averages 500 to 800 millimeters per year. [[Alpine climate|Alpine]] and [[highland (geography)|highland]] regions in the east and west, as well as a [[semi-arid]] region on the Iori Plateau to the southeast, have distinct microclimates. At higher elevations, precipitation is sometimes twice as heavy as in the eastern plains. In the west, the climate is subtropical to about 650 meters; above that altitude (and to the north and east) is a band of moist and moderately warm weather, then a band of cool and wet conditions. Alpine conditions begin at about 2,100 meters, and above 3,600 meters snow and ice are present year-round. ==Environmental issues== Beginning in the 1980s, Black Sea pollution has greatly harmed Georgia's tourist industry. Inadequate sewage treatment is the main cause of that condition. In Batumi, for example, only 18 percent of wastewater is treated before release into the sea. An estimated 70 percent of surface water contains health-endangering bacteria to which Georgia's high rate of intestinal disease is attributed. The war in Abkhazia did substantial damage to the ecological habitats unique to that region. In other respects, experts considered Georgia's environmental problems less serious than those of more industrialized former Soviet republics. Solving Georgia's environmental problems was not a high priority of the national government in the post-Soviet years, however; in 1993 the minister for protection of the environment resigned to protest this inactivity. In January 1994, the Cabinet of Ministers announced a new, interdepartmental environmental monitoring system to centralize separate programs under the direction of the Ministry of Protection of the Environment. The system would include a central environmental and information and research agency. The Green Party used its small contingent in the parliament to press environmental issues in 1993. '''Natural hazards:''' [[earthquake]]s '''Environment - current issues:''' [[air pollution]], particularly in Rust'avi; heavy pollution of Mtkvari River and the Black Sea; inadequate supplies of potable water; [[soil pollution]] from toxic chemicals '''Environment - international agreements:''' &lt;br&gt;''party to:'' Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands &lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:'' none of the selected agreements ==Area and boundaries== '''Area:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 69,700 km² &lt;br&gt;''land:'' 69,700 km² &lt;br&gt;''water:'' 0 km² '''Area - comparative:''' slightly smaller than South Carolina (US) or [[Benelux]] (EU) '''Land boundaries:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 1,461 km &lt;br&gt;''border countries:'' [[Armenia]] 164 km, [[Azerbaijan]] 322 km, Russia 723 km, Turkey 252 km '''Coastline:''' 310 km '''Maritime claims:''' NA '''Elevation extremes:''' &lt;br&gt;''lowest point:'' Black Sea 0 m &lt;br&gt;''highest point:'' Mt'a Shkhara 5,201 m (peak is not in Georgia)&lt;br&gt; Mt'a Mq'invartsveri ([[Mount Kazbeg|Gora Kazbeg]]) at 5,048 m is the highest peak in Georgia. ==Resources and land use== '''Natural resources:''' forests, hydropower, [[manganese]] deposits, [[iron]] ore, [[copper]], minor [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] deposits; coastal climate and soils allow for important [[tea]] and [[citrus]] growth '''Land use:''' &lt;br&gt;''arable land:'' 9% &lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:'' 4% &lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:'' 25% &lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:'' 34% &lt;br&gt;''other:'' 28% (1993 est.) '''Irrigated land:''' 4,000 km² (1993 est.) ==See also== *[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] *[[Geography of Europe]] ==Sources== *''This article incorporates text from the [[Library of Congress Country Studies]], which are in the [[public domain]].'' *''CIA World Fact Book'' {{Asia in topic|Geography of}} [[Category:Geography of Georgia| ]] [[pt:Geografia da Geórgia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Georgia</title> <id>12060</id> <revision> <id>40043306</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T18:46:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Chaldean</username> <id>743195</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Demographics]] of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] '''Population:''' 4,693,892 (July 2004 est.) '''Age structure:''' *0&amp;ndash;14 years: 18.7% (male 461,967; female 416,898) *15&amp;ndash;64 years: 65.8% (male 1,480,217; female 1,607,509) *65 years and over: 15.5% (male 290,534; female 436,767) (2004 est.) '''Median age:''' *total: 37 years *male: 34.5 years *female: 39.2 years (2004 est.) *'''Population growth rate:''' -0.36% (2004 est.) *'''Birth rate:''' 10.1 births/1,000 population (2004 est.) *'''Death rate:''' 8.98 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.) *'''Net migration rate:''' -4.7 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2004 est.) '''Sex ratio:''' *at birth: 1.16 male(s)/female *under 15 years: 1.11 male(s)/female *15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female *65 years and over: 0.67 male(s)/female *total population: 0.91 male(s)/female (2004 est.) '''Infant mortality rate:''' *total: 19.34 deaths/1,000 live births *female: 16.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2004 est.) *male: 21.5 deaths/1,000 live births '''Life expectancy at birth:''' *total population: 75.62 years *male: 72.35 years *female: 79.44 years (2004 est.) '''Total fertility rate:''' 1.4 children born/woman (2004 est.) '''HIV/AIDS''' *adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2001 est.) *people living with HIV/AIDS: less than 900 (2001 est.) *deaths: less than 100 (2001 est.) '''Nationality:''' *noun: Georgian(s) *adjective: Georgian '''Ethnic groups:''' [[Georgian people|Georgian]] 83.8%, [[Armenians|Armenian]] 5.7%, [[Russians|Russian]] 1.5%, [[Azerbaijanis|Aze
ations over time and according to location. General estimates on the number of those surveyed who identify themselves as lesbian or gay range from 1% to 10% of the population. The [[Kinsey Reports]] of [[1948]] assessed that between 90 to 95 percent of the population were &quot;to a certain degree [[bisexual]].&quot; In the [[United States]] during the [[2004 elections]], exit polls indicated 4% of all voters self-identified as gay or lesbian. However, due to societal pressures, many who are homosexual may not be willing to identify as such, as evident in the recent forced &quot;[[outing]]s&quot; of New Jersey Governor [[Jim McGreevey]] and Spokane, Washington, Mayor [[James E. West|Jim West]]. {{ref|exit_polls}} In [[North Africa]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]], where gender- and age-structured relationships are the rule, male homosexual practices are reported to be widespread, engaged in by many individuals who do not regard themselves as homosexual. ''See [[Homosexuality and Islam]]'' Historically, in areas where same-sex relationships were embedded in the culture, such as [[Ancient Greece]], [[Ancient Rome]], parts of [[Melanesia]], [[Renaissance]] [[Italy]], and pre-modern [[Japan]], homosexual relationships were engaged in by a majority of the male population. ''See [[Pederasty]]'' {{see|Anthropological classification of homosexuality}} ===Biology=== {{main|fetal hormones and sexual orientation}} ====Prenatal hormonal theory==== One recent hypothesis on the formation of sexual orientation is the prenatal hormonal theory. It holds that as prenatal exposure to particular levels of circulating sex hormones determines whether a fetus will acquire male or female traits, so similar exposure determines sexual orientation. However this begins with genetic susceptibility. Twin studies provide strong support for this theory, with a high concordance rate in identical twins, who share 100% of their genetic material. Fraternal twins, as with siblings born at different times, share only 50% of their genetic material on average and are much less likely to both be homosexual. In a fetus that carries the genetic susceptibility for homosexuality, sex hormones from the mother and sex hormones from the gonads of the fetus (to a lesser extent) trigger the expression of those genes. Although identical twins have identical genes and almost always share a placenta, they do have their individual umbilical cords, providing subtle differences in the chemical environment for the developing brain. There are differences in identical twins, such as fingerprints, which are unique in each individual. Fingerprints are formed during the second trimester of pregnancy; lesbians often share a unique fingerprint swirl, adding to the mounting evidence that homosexuality is caused by genetic susceptibility triggered by the prenatal hormonal environment. ====Physiological differences in homosexual persons==== Several recent studies, including pioneering work by [[Simon LeVay]], demonstrate that there are notable differences between the physiology of a heterosexual male and a homosexual male. These differences are primarily noted in the [[brain]], [[inner ear]] and [[olfactory]] sense. LeVay discovered in his double-blind experiment that approximately 10% of human male brains were physiologically different than their heterosexual counterparts. Studies in women have not produced similar findings to date. ====Homosexual behavior in animals==== {{main|Non-human animal sexuality}} [[Image:Gay penguins NY Zoo.jpg|frame|'''Squawk and Milou'''&lt;br&gt; Male chinstrap penguins, one of several homosexual pairs at the [[Central Park Zoo]] in [[Manhattan]].]] Homosexual behaviour is common in the [[animal]] kingdom, especially in species closer to humans on the evolutionary scale, such as the [[hominid|great apes]]. [[Georgetown University]] professor [[Janet Mann]] has specifically theorised that homosexuality, at least in [[dolphin]]s, is an evolutionary advantage that minimises intraspecies aggression, especially among males. *Male [[penguin]] couples have been documented to mate for life, build nests together, and to use a stone as a [[wiktionary:surrogate|surrogate]] egg in nesting and brooding. In [[2004]], the [[Central Park Zoo]] in the [[United States]] replaced one male couple's stone with a fertile egg, which the couple then raised as their own offspring. {{ref|Central_Park_penguin}} [[Germany|German]] and [[Japan|Japanese]] [[zoo]]s have also reported homosexuality among their penguins. This phenomenon has also been reported at Kelly Tarlton's Aquarium in [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]]. {{ref|Auckland_penguin}} *Courtship, mounting, and full [[anal sex|anal penetration]] between bulls is common among [[American bison]]. The [[Mandan]] nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behaviour, to &quot;ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season.&quot; {{ref|Bagemihl}} Also, mounting of one female by another is common among [[cow|cattle]]. (See also, [[Freemartin]]. Freemartins occur because of clearly causal hormonal factors at work during gestation.) *Homosexuality in male sheep (found in 6-10% of rams) is associated with variations in cerebral mass distribution and chemical activity. A study reported in ''[[Endocrinology (journal)|Endocrinology]]'' concluded that biological and physiological factors are in effect. {{ref|sheep_study}} These findings are similar to human findings studied by [[Simon LeVay]]. ===Psychology=== ====Behavioural Studies==== {{main|Kinsey Reports}} At the beginning of the 20th century, early theoretical discussions in the field of [[psychoanalysis]] posited original [[bisexuality]] in human psychological development. Quantitative studies by [[Alfred Kinsey]] in the [[1940s]] and [[Fritz Klein|Dr. Fritz Klein]]'s sexual orientation grid in the [[1980s]] find distributions similar to those postulated by their predecessors. Many modern studies, most notably ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male'' {{ref|Kinsey_male}} and ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'' {{ref|Kinsey_female}} by [[Alfred Kinsey]], have found that the majority of humans have had homosexual experiences or sensations and are bisexual. Contemporary scientific research suggests that the majority of the human population is bisexual, adhering to a fluid sexual scale rather than a category, as Western society typically views sexual nature. The [[Kinsey Reports]] found that approximately [http://www.indiana.edu/~kinsey/publications/duberman.html four percent] of adult Americans were exclusively homosexual for their entire lives, and approximately 10 percent were homosexual in their behaviour for some portion of their lives. Conversely, an even smaller minority of people appear to have had equal sexual experiences with both genders indicating an attraction scale or continuum. However, social pressures influence people to adhere to categories or labels rather than behave in a manner that more closely resembles their nature as suggested by this research. Kinsey himself, along with current [[Queer Theory|queer activist]] groups, focus on the historicity and fluidity of sexual orientation. Kinsey's studies consistently found sexual orientation to be something that evolves in many directions over a person's lifetime; rarely, but not necessarily, including forming attractions to a new gender. Rarely do individuals radically reorient their sexualities rapidly — and still less do they do so volitionally — but often sexualities expand, shift, and absorb new elements over decades. For example, socially normative &quot;age-appropriate&quot; sexuality requires a shifting object of attraction (especially in the passage through adolescence). Contemporary [[queer theory]], incorporating many ideas from [[social constructionism]], tends to look at sexuality as something that has meaning only within a given historical framework. Sexuality, then, is seen as a participation in a larger social discourse, and, though in some sense fluid, not as something strictly determinable by the individual. Most sexual orientation specialists follow the general conclusion of Alfred Kinsey regarding the sexual continuum, according to which a minority of humans are exclusively homosexual or [[heterosexuality|heterosexual]], and that the majority are [[bisexuality|bisexual]]. The consensus of psychologists is that sexual orientation, in most individuals, is shaped at an early age; and is not voluntarily changeable. Other studies have disputed Kinsey's methodology and have suggested that these reports overstated the occurrence of bisexuality and homosexuality in human populations. &quot;His figures were undermined when it was revealed that he had disproportionately interviewed homosexuals and prisoners (many sex offenders).&quot;{{ref|Kinsey}} {{ref|revisiting}} However, Kinsey's idea of a sexuality continuum still enjoys acceptance today and is supported by findings in the human and [[animal kingdom]]s including biological studies of structural brain differences between those belonging to different sexual orientations. More modern and precise research ''Sex in America: A definitive survey'' ([[1995]]) is now available from NORC and the University of Chicago by [[Edward O. Laumann, University of Chicago]]. &quot;Results reported from the study, and included in The Social organisation of sexuality, include those related to sexual practices and sexual relationships, number of partners, the rate of homosexuality in the population (which the study reported to be 1.3% for women within the past year, and 4.1% since 18 years; for men, 2.7% within the past year, and 4.9% since 18 years. Sexologists have attributed discrepancies in some findings to negative societal attitudes towards homosexuality. For example, people may state different sexual orientations depending on whether their immediate social environment is public or pri
lane immediately after death. These two concepts are generally combined in the doctrine of the double judgement where the soul is judged once at death and goes to a temporary heaven, while awaiting a second and final physical judgement at the end of the world. (*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_21071999_en.html&quot; JPII], also see [[eschatology]], [[afterlife]]) ==Location== The idea of Heaven as a physical place has existed since the dawn of religion and human civilization. In some early religions (such as the [[Egyptian mythology|Ancient Egyptian faith]]), Heaven was a physical place far above the Earth in a &quot;dark area&quot; of space where there were no stars, basically beyond the Universe. Departed souls would undergo a literal journey to reach Heaven, along the way to which there could exist hazards and other entities attempting to deny the reaching of Heaven. One popular medieval view of Heaven was that it existed as a physical place above the clouds and that God and the Angels were physically above, watching over man. With the dawn of the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Age of Reason]], science began to challenge this notion; however Heaven as a physical place survived in the concept that it was located far out into space, and that the stars were &quot;lights shining through from heaven&quot;. In [[science fiction]], several films and literature sources have suggested that, through advanced technology, Heaven can be reached by the living through conventional means. Such was the case in the [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] film ''[[The Black Hole]]'', in which a manned spacecraft found both Heaven and Hell located at the bottom of a [[Black Hole]]. In the modern age of science and space flight, it is widely assumed that Heaven is not a physical place in this universe. Religious views, however, still hold Heaven as having a dual status as a concept of mind or heart, but also possibly still a physical place existing on another &quot;plane of existence&quot;, or perhaps at a future time. Obviously, there is no scientific evidence for the existence of such a dimension, an area of the universe, or alternate reality where Heaven physically exists; however in these belief systems, the failure of science to prove or find evidence for its existence is generally of little or no relevance. ==Getting into Heaven== Religions that teach about heaven differ on how (and if) one gets into it. In most, entrance to Heaven is conditional on having lived a &quot;good life&quot; (within the terms of the spiritual system). A notable exception to this is the 'sola fide' belief of mainstream Protestantism, which takes emphasis off having lived a &quot;good life&quot; and teaches that entrance to heaven is conditional on faith in Jesus Christ alone, and not on any other good or bad 'works' one has participated in. Many religions state that those who do not go to heaven go to a place of punishment, [[Hell]], which may or may not be eternal (see [[Annihilationism]]). A very few (the followers of [[universalism]]) believe that everyone will go to Heaven eventually, no matter what they have done or believed on earth. ==Heaven in Roman Catholicism== In [[Roman Catholicism]] Heaven is the Physical Realm of God,the Archangels, the Angels, and the Saints. The present [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] teaching regarding Heaven is found in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'': &quot;Those who die in God's grace and friendship and are perfectly purified live forever... This perfect life with [God]....is called heaven. [It] is the ultimate end and fulfilment of the deepest human longings, the state of supreme, definitive happiness.&quot; Upon dying, the soul goes to what is called &quot;the particular judgement&quot; where their afterlife is decided (e.g. Heaven (after going through Purgatory) or [[Hell]].) This is different from &quot;the general judgement&quot; also known as &quot;the last judgement&quot; which will occur when Christ returns to judge the living and the dead. It is a common Roman Catholic belief that St. Michael the Archangel carries the soul to Heaven. The belief that Saint Peter meets the soul at the &quot;Pearly Gates&quot; is an artistic application of the belief that Christ gave Peter, the first [[Pope]], the keys to Heaven. As Heaven is a place where only the pure are permitted, no person who dies in a state of sin can enter Heaven. ''&quot;Those who die in God's grace and friendship and are perfectly purified live for ever with Christ. They are like God for ever, for they &quot;see him as he is,&quot; face to face.&quot;'' (Catechism of the Catholic Church §1023) ''&quot;Those who die in God's grace and friendship imperfectly purified, although they are assured of their eternal salvation, undergo a purification after death, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of God.&quot;'' (Catechism of the Catholic Church §1054) If one were baptized validly and then died, one would go directly to heaven (in the Roman Catholic belief, the sacrament of [[baptism]] dissolves the eternal and temporal punishment of all sins). If one never committed a mortal [[sin]] and were absolved of all his venial sins just before death, one would go directly to Heaven. Most people who enter Heaven go through [[Purgatory]] (or &quot;place of purification&quot;). In Purgatory, a soul pays off all temporal punishment one deserved for the sins he committed in life. This does not always happen though. If one receive the sacrament of Confession validly, as well as gain a plenary indulgence, and die, one would directly go to heaven. There are many ways to get an indulgence, in various Papal decrees or publications [http://www.zenit.org/english/visualizza.phtml?sid=64735][http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=40979]. To receive a plenary indulgence, one must receive the sacrament of Confession validly, do one's penance, validly receive Communion, say some specified number of [[Our Father]]s, [[Hail Mary]]s and [[Glory Be]]s for the intentions of the Pope, and then perform some act of gaining the indulgence. Of course, one must remain free from all sin, mortal and venial, while doing all these things. Many people believe they need to gain many plenary indulgences so they will not have to spend as much time in purgatory. Many Catholic dissenters claim that if one is actually detached from all [[sin]], one doesn't need the indulgence anyway. ==Heaven in Orthodox Christianity== The teachings of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodox]] communions regarding the Kingdom of Heaven, or Kingdom of God, is basically taken from scripture, and thus many elements of this belief are held in common with other scriptural faiths and denominations. Some specific descriptions of this Kingdom as given in [[Bible]] [[prophecy]] include - (this list is by no means comprehensive): * ''Peaceful Conditions on a New Earth'' - Is. 2:2-4, 9:7, 11:6-9, 27:13, 32:17-18, 33:20-21, 60:17-18, Ez. 34:25-28, 37:26, Zech 9:10, Matt. 5:3-5, Rev. 21 * ''Eternal Rule by a Messiah-King'' - Ps. 72, Jer 31:33-34, Zech 2:10-11, 8:3, 14:9, Matt 16:27, Rev 21:3-4 ** an heir of David, Is. 9:6-7, 11:1-5 * ''Bodily perfection'' - No hunger, thirst, death, or sickness; a pure language, etc. - Is. 1:25, 4:4, 33:24, 35:5-6, 49:10, 65:20-24, Jer. 31:12-13, Ez. 34:29, 36:29-30, Micah 4:6-7, Zeph. 3:9-19, Matt 13:43 * ''Ruined cities inhabited by people and flocks of sheep'' - Is. 32:14, 61:4-5, Ez. 36:10,33-38, Amos 9:14 ==Heaven in Protestant Christianity== Historically, [[Christianity]] has been divided over how people gain entry into Heaven. From the [[16th century|16th]] to the late [[19th century]], [[Christendom]] was divided between the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] views on the one hand, and the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] views on the other. In the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] traditions, entry into Heaven depends upon the Christian receiving God's grace through the activities of the church. This would include [[sacrament]]s such as [[Baptism]], the [[Eucharist]] and [[Confession]]. Roman Catholics believe that entering [[Purgatory]] after death cleanses one of one's [[sin]]s and makes one acceptable to enter Heaven. Many within the [[Anglicanism|Anglican Church]] also hold to this belief, despite their Protestant history. However, in [[Oriental Orthodox Church]]es, it is only [[God]] who has the final say on who enters Heaven, and not the Church. In the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] tradition, entry into Heaven depends upon the Christian receiving God's grace through [[faith]] in [[Jesus]]. Protestant theology holds strongly that when Jesus died on the cross, he took upon himself the punishment for the world's sins. In contrast with the Catholic position (affirmed and described at the [[Council of Trent|Council of Trent]] in the 16th century), most Protestants hold that salvation is obtained &quot;sola gratia, sola fide&quot; - by the grace of God alone, through faith in Christ alone - not through living a good life or through belonging to a particular church organisation. Therefore, any person who sincerely has faith in Christ and asks for God's forgiveness will automatically be granted forgiveness for their sins and has the assurance of going to Heaven. The Protestant tradition is divided into many different strands of thought, though most positions today can be categorised broadly as either [[Calvinist]] or [[Arminianism|Arminianist]]. [[Calvinism]] argues that entry into Heaven has already been [[predestination|predetermined]] by God - that all those who are Christians have in fact been chosen from the beginning of time to be saved. Faith in Christ is still essential, but the reason why a Christian has faith is because
due to two factors: * The rectum and large intestine, unlike the vagina, do not contain their own [[vaginal lubrication|lubricating]] mechanism, which means friction or insertion damage can happen more easily. Also, the [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s in these areas are particularly delicate and susceptible to tearing, and the intestine as a whole twists and is much less strongly muscled and padded, which means physical injury is somewhat easier too. This is especially the case when using [[sex toy]]s, because forceful insertion of large or sharp objects can damage or even rupture it much more easily. * Part of the rectum's function is to absorb fluid into the blood stream, so it has strong blood circulation and is an easy barrier to cross if there is even a small tear in the intestinal lining; therefore infections can be transmitted easily. These risks can be mitigated by the use of [[personal lubricant]] and condoms, and taking care while using sex toys. Like all forms of penetrative sex with a non-exclusive partner, condoms should always be used for anal intercourse, but they should not be considered an absolute safeguard. Oil-based lubricants like [[Petroleum jelly|Vaseline]], however, destroy [[latex]] condoms, and the two should not be used together. Basic blood tests can be used to determine HIV status but may result in &quot;false positives&quot; or &quot;false negatives&quot;, and it is recommended that a person retest every six months to show a reliable reaction. Since the rectal tissues are so easily damaged, and since the anorectal muscles are largely under involuntary control, slow, gentle, and responsive insertion is necessary to avoid pain and tearing. It is also very important to be careful when inserting objects into the anus. Objects with edges or points can cause severe injury. Moreover, objects could get lodged in the rectum, requiring medical intervention; hospital records confirm how inventive human beings can be in discovering objects to insert into their rectums. For this reason, most modern [[dildo]]s are made with flared bases. Additionally, nothing longer than eight inches (20 cm) should be inserted into the rectum without care and preparation. Objects forced more than seven or eight inches (17-20 cm) into the body risk colliding with the [[sigmoid colon]], a bend in the intestine, and in cases of rough handling, trauma can result in internal bleeding with potentially fatal results. Nothing that has been placed in or at the anus, including fingers, should ever contact the vagina or the mouth, either externally or internally, without being thoroughly washed with anti-bacterial soap or a similar disinfectant, to avoid infection caused by the transmission of [[bacteria]] or by feces becoming lodged internally. Condoms can be placed over sex toys and latex or nitrile gloves can be worn to protect the hands and fingers. These should be used once and then discarded. Objects inserted in the anus should be washed carefully after every use. Shared sex toys can also transmit disease or infection, and should be thoroughly cleaned between use or be covered with a condom that is discarded between users. Silicone, metal acrylic, and glass dildos may be sterilized via cleaning and boiling instead. (See [[masturbation]] for more information on the use of sex toys.) Some couples engage in &quot;[[felching]],&quot; where the top sucks out the semen he has deposited in the anus of the bottom as a result of &quot;bareback&quot; anal intercourse. Like [[rimming]], this practice carries with it considerable health risks. Like any form of sex, anal sex is rendered much more dangerous under the influence of [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] or [[Recreational drug use|drugs]], which reduce responses, judgment, and ability to pay attention to one's own needs. ===Condoms &amp; Anal Sex=== [[Condom]]s are known to be less effective and more prone to burst or slip during anal sex than vaginal sex. It has been estimated that condoms fail anywhere from 10% - 32% of the time during anal sex. {{ref|silverman1997}} Due to this [[Durex]] has added a warning to boxes of their condoms saying &quot;for vaginal sex only&quot;. == References == === Footnotes === # {{note|freud1905}} [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:4iwXw_EdfXYJ:facultyweb.anderson.edu/~psycst/perth/Priv/essays.html Freud, S. 1905 - THREE ESSAYS ON THE THEORY OF SEXUALITY] # {{note|burton1885}} [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/burton-te.html Sir Richard Francis Burton: &quot;Terminal Essay&quot;, from his translation of The Arabian Nights, 1885 - Section D: Pederasty] # {{note|silverman1997}} Silverman B G et al, &quot;Use and Effectiveness of Condoms During Anal Intercourse&quot; in ''Sexually Transmitted Diseases'', Vol. 24, No. 1, January 1997, page 14 == Legal issues == ''See [[Sodomy law]].'' == Religious views == ''See [[Religion and sexual orientation]].'' ==Further reading== *Bentley, Toni ''The Surrender: An Erotic Memoir'', Regan Books, 2004. *Houser, Ward ''Anal Sex.'' [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm '''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality.'''] Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. pp. 48-50. *Morin, Jack ''Anal Pleasure &amp; Health: A Guide for Men and Women'', Down There Press, 1998. *Taormino, Tristan ''Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Women'', Cleis Press, 1997, 2006. ==See also== *[[Anal-oral contact]] *[[Anal masturbation]] *[[Anal orgasm]] *[[Ass to mouth]], aka &quot;ATM&quot; or &quot;A2M&quot; *[[Ass to pussy]] *[[Barebacking]] *[[Buggery Act]] (UK) *[[Cum fart]] *[[Fisting]] *[[List of anal sex positions]] *[[Santorum controversy]] *[[Sexual slang]] *[[Splash conception]] *[[Strap-on dildo]] *[[Tristan Taormino]] [[Category:Anal eroticism]] [[Category:Sexology]] [[Category:Sexual acts]] [[bg:Анален секс]] [[cs:Anální sex]] [[da:Analsex]] [[de:Analverkehr]] [[es:Sexo anal]] [[fi:Anaaliseksi]] [[fr:Sodomie]] [[it:Sesso anale]] [[ja:アナルセックス]] [[lt:Analinis seksas]] [[nl:Anale seks]] [[pl:Stosunek analny]] [[pt:Sexo anal]] [[ru:Анальный секс]] [[simple:Anal sex]] [[sv:Analsex]] [[zh:肛交]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arithmetic and Logical Unit</title> <id>2461</id> <revision> <id>15900870</id> <timestamp>2005-04-02T15:48:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wernher</username> <id>19431</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anti-Globalization Movement</title> <id>2462</id> <revision> <id>15900871</id> <timestamp>2004-07-22T01:40:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wclark</username> <id>83717</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixed double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-globalization]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anti-globalization movement</title> <id>2463</id> <revision> <id>24058216</id> <timestamp>2005-09-26T06:57:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fvw</username> <id>20759</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.164.60.250|67.164.60.250]] to last version by Sam Spade</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-globalization]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anti-globalisation movement</title> <id>2464</id> <revision> <id>15900873</id> <timestamp>2004-07-22T01:43:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wclark</username> <id>83717</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixed double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-globalization]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ålesund</title> <id>2465</id> <revision> <id>42082774</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:34:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Orcaborealis</username> <id>389163</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Basics */ adding coldest temperature</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Kommune| name=Ålesund| idnumber=1504| county=[[Møre og Romsdal]]| landscape=[[Sunnmøre]]| capital=Ålesund| governor=[[Arve Tonning]] ([[Høyre|H]])| governor_as_of=2003| arearank=388| area=98| arealand=93| areapercent=0.03| population_as_of=2004| populationrank=18| population=40,001| populationpercent=0.87| populationdensity=430| populationincrease=9.5| language=[[Norwegian language|Neutral]]| lat_deg=62| lat_min=28| lat_sec=40| lon_deg=6| lon_min=11| lon_sec=25| utm_zone=32V| utm_northing=6930569 |utm_easting=0355180| geo_cat=adm2nd| coatofarms=[[Image:Alesund_komm.png|70px]]| map=[[Image:Ålesund kart.png]]| munwebpage=www.alesund.kommune.no| }} == Basics == [[Image:aksla_aalesund_MH5Y3793_2.jpg|320px|left|View from Aksla onto Ålesund]] '''Ålesund''' is a city and [[municipalities of Norway|municipality]] in the [[counties of Norway|county]] of [[Møre og Romsdal]], [[Norway]]. It is a sea port, 236 km north northeast of [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], and is noted for its unique concentration of [[Jugendstil]] or [[Art Nouveau]] [[architecture]]. It occupies seven of the outer islands of the west coast, [[Hessa]], [[Aspøy]] and [[Nørvøy]],Yksnøy, Ellingsøy, Humla and Tørla which enclose the picturesque town. Ålesund has a pronounced [[maritime climate]] with mild and windy winters. The coldest temperature ever recorded at [[Vigra Airport]] is a mere -11&amp;deg;C (12&amp;deg;F). Ålesund received city rights in 1848, it is the administrative center as well as the principal shipping-place of the ''[[Sunnmøre]]'' district, and was one of the chief stations of the [[herring]] fishery in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. Legend has it that ''Gangerolf'', outside of Norway better known as
wo-Disc Special Edition set of all four Burton-Schumacher films in ''Batman: The Motion Picture Anthology 1989-1997''. This included 14 of the 30 minutes of deleted scenes known to exist. ==Trivia== *This is the second time Val Kilmer and [[Michael Gough]] were in a movie together. The first movie was the [[1984]] comedy ''[[Top Secret!]]'', in which Kilmer made his debut. *One other name that was thrown out by [[Warner Bros.]] for ''Batman Forever'' was ''Batman Strikes''. *[[Mel Gibson]] was rumored to be almost cast as Two-Face, and [[Micky Dolenz]] filmed a [[screen test]] to audition for the Riddler. Ironically, in [[1956]], a 10- year-old Dolenz starred in the TV series &quot;Circus Boy&quot; with Robert Lowery, who played Batman in the [[1949]] Columbia serial ''[[Batman serials|Batman and Robin]]''. *Schumacher said he chose Kilmer for the part of Batman after seeing his performance as [[Doc Holliday]] in [[1993]]'s ''[[Tombstone]]'', believing Kilmer had the good looks, the physicality and the acting ability to play both Batman &amp; Bruce Wayne. Unfortunately, the working relationship between Schumacher and Kilmer during filming was said to be very, very tense, with the two frequently arguing over the film's tone and direction and, at one point, reportedly getting into a shoving match with each other (Kilmer reportedly wanted a more serious and dramatic tone as opposed to the more lighthearted one the film was boasting). Nothing of this reported conflict was mentioned in the making of documentaries for the Batman DVD anthology and, in his audio commentary, Schumacher even states that he thinks Kilmer was the best of the Batman actors from this era (though he doesn't talk much about Kilmer during the commentary), and also complimented him on the opening fight sequence between Batman and Two-Face's thugs, citing that Kilmer did most of that fight himself, even while wearing a 50-lb. rubber bat-suit. *In one early 1993 draft, the villains were originally set to be Two-Face and [[Scarecrow (comics)|The Scarecrow]]. *Tim Burton intended to direct the third film in the franchise, but it became clear that Warner Bros. didn't want him to do it. According to the [[audio commentary (DVD)|audio commentary]] on the 2005 ''Batman Returns'' DVD, Burton admits that he didn't exit the series, but rather, was asked not to return. *Detective [[Harvey Bullock]] was originally set to have a small role in the film, but Warner Bros. thought he would be confused with Harvey Dent/Two-Face. *[[Brad Dourif]] was a considered for the role of the Riddler. *[[Robin Williams]] was offered the role of the Riddler, but he refused to consider it pending an apology from Warner Bros. for their casting of the [[Joker (comics)|Joker]] in the original Batman movie; [[Jack Nicholson]] had been the offered the role of Joker first but kept delaying his answer, and Williams was offered the role. The producers turned around and informed Nicholson that Williams was considering the offer, and Nicholson accepted. *Over 40 minutes of the movie was cut to make it more appealing and marketable to viewers with children. It was rumored for some time that this footage would be restored on the 'Director's Cut' DVD released in the upcoming 2005 boxset of the [[1989]]-[[1997]] films. However, Warner Bros. have declared plans for this were abandoned, although the Special Features on the disc will include some deleted scenes separate from the main feature. *[[James Gordon (comics)|Commissioner Gordon]] (played by [[Pat Hingle]]) was originally going to be shot and killed by Two-Face in an early draft, but the idea was turned down when WB wanted a family-friendly Batman film that children could go to. *Chris O'Donnell, [[Corey Feldman]], [[Corey Haim]], and even [[Leonardo DiCaprio]] auditioned for the role of Robin in ''Batman Forever''. Ultimately, O'Donnell won the part over DiCaprio, supposedly because Schumacher thought that audiences would believe the former throwing a punch over the latter. [[Christian Bale]], who played Batman in ''[[Batman Begins]]'', was also considered for Robin. *[[Billy Dee Williams]] agreed to play Harvey Dent in the original ''Batman'', hoping that the role would guarantee he would be playing Two-Face himself in a sequel. However, he was eventually bought out in order to recast the role with Tommy Lee Jones. Many fans have noted that they disliked Jones' manic performance and believed that Williams would have done a better job. *In one scene, Two-Face is repeatedly flipping his coin, trying to get the result he wants. This has irked many comic book fans, who claim that it ignores the character's [[compulsion]], as portrayed in the comic books, to use the coin to decide whether to abide by the law or break it, and to accept whatever action a coin flip dictated. *In an editing mistake during a [[flashback]] scene (in which Harvey Dent becomes Two-Face when a criminal throws [[acid]] in his face), the acid visibly hits Tommy Lee Jones completly in the face before he could cover the one side which would stay normal. *Early in the casting process when Michael Keaton was still attached to play Batman, [[Rene Russo]] was slated to be the love interest and Robin was scripted as a teenager ([[Rikki Lee Travolta]] was approached to play the Boy Wonder, but, while he had the youthful good looks the producers sought, it was decided that the 6-foot tall Travolta was too tall and muscular in comparison to Keaton. *Exploring alternative casting options, comedian [[Marlon Wayans]] was screen tested for the role of Robin. *The movie is 122 minutes long, shorter than the Burton films. * In the comics, Robin is a teenager; Chris O'Donnell was almost 30 years old during filming. In the film, however, he still asks about [[Social Services]] after his parents were killed, implying that he was in fact a teenager. *When Dick is talking to Batman about superhero names he could use, he says [[Nightwing]], which is his current identity in the comics. *Seven-time [[Grammy Award|Grammy]] nominees [[En Vogue]] played [[Prostitution|hooker]]s in the film. Martial-arts expert [[Don &quot;The Dragon&quot; Wilson]] played a gang leader. *In one scene, Bruce Wayne mentions that the travelling circus has moved onto [[Metropolis (comics)|Metropolis]], a clear reference to the fictional city of another [[DC Comics]] character, [[Superman]]. *In the original script, Two-Face's female servants, Sugar and Spice, were known as &quot;Lace&quot; and &quot;Leather&quot;, respectively. ==Soundtrack== Hit singles from the soundtrack include &quot;[[Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me]]&quot; by [[U2]], and &quot;[[Kiss From a Rose]]&quot; by [[Seal (musician)|Seal]], both of which were nominated for [[MTV Movie Awards 1996|MTV Movie Awards]]. &quot;Kiss From A Rose&quot; (whose video was also directed by Schumacher) reached #1 in the US charts as well. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{imdb title|id=0112462|title=Batman Forever}} *[http://www.bullz-eye.com/mguide/reviews_1995/batman_forever.htm Batman Forever review, Batman Forever DVD review] *[http://www.jaypinkerton.com/blog/archives/001381.html#more A Belated Apology to Joel Schumacher (Signed, The Internet)] *[http://www.chicksdigthecar.com Batmobile Forever, Batman Forever Batmobile Fansite] * [http://www.batmanytb.com/movies/batmanforever/index.php Batman Forever @ BYTB: Batman Yesterday, Today and Beyond] {{Batmanmovies}} [[Category:1995 films]] [[Category:Batman films]] [[Category:Films directed by Joel Schumacher]] [[Category:Warner Bros. films]] [[Category:American films]] [[Category:Sequel films]] [[Category:Nicole Kidman films]] [[de:Batman Forever]] [[es:Batman Forever]] [[fr:Batman Forever]] [[it:Batman Forever]] [[pt:Batman Forever]] [[sv:Batman Forever]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Batman: Year One</title> <id>4731</id> <revision> <id>41940848</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:49:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>72.177.139.95</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Synopsis */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Supercbbox| &lt;!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Comics--&gt; title = Batman: Year One | comic_color = background:#8080ff | image = [[Image:Batman407.png|225px]] | caption = Cover to ''Batman'' #407, the conclusion to ''Year One''. Art by David Mazzucchelli. | schedule = Monthly | format = [[Story arc]] | publisher = [[DC Comics]] | date = [[1988]] | issues = 4 |past_current_color=background:#ff9275 | main_char_team = [[Batman]]&lt;BR&gt;[[James Gordon (comics)|Jim Gordon]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Carmine Falcone]] | writers = [[Frank Miller]] | artists = | pencillers = [[David Mazzucchelli]] | inkers = | colorists = [[Richmond Lewis]] | creative_team_month = | creative_team_year = | creators = }} '''''Batman: Year One''''' was the title of a [[comic book]] written by [[Frank Miller]], illustrated by [[David Mazzucchelli]] and colored/painted by [[Richmond Lewis]], released by [[DC Comics]]. The story was first published in issues 404 to 407 of the ongoing ''[[Batman]]'' [[comics|comic]] series in 1987. It was one of the first examples of the ''[[limited series]] within a series'' format that is now very popular in [[comic book]]s. There have been several different reprints of the story: a [[hardcover]], at least two [[Trade paperback (comics)|trade paperback]] editions (one in standard comics paper with simpler coloring and one deluxe version with rich detailing in the colors - both were colored by Richmond Lewis) and it was included in ''The Complete Frank Miller Batman'' leather bound hardcover. == Synopsis == {{Spoiler}} The story recounts the beginning of Bruce Wayne's career as [[Batman]] and [[James Gordon (comics)|Jim Gordon]]'s with the [[Gotham City]] Police Department. Bruce Wayne returns home from training abroad. In Gotham, he bides his time, waiting for the right moment, all the w