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alism1.html A Fatal Instability in Anarcho-Capitalism?] and [http://www.paulbirch.net/AnarchoCapitalism2.html Anarcho-Capitalism Dissolves into City States]
* Tony Hollick's [http://www.la-articles.org.uk/FL-2-2-3.pdf Impossibility of anarcho-capitalism]
* Capitalism.org's [http://capitalism.org/faq/anarchism.htm rejection of the anarchist title]
* [http://www.peikoff.com/opar/anarchism.htm A short selection] by [[Leonard Peikoff]], [[Ayn Rand]]'s intellecutal heir, concerning anarchism
* [http://www.fahayek.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=693&Itemid=1 ''The Anarcho-Libertarian Utopia — A Critique''] by Drieu Godefridi (Hayek Institute)
===Other===
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig6/molyneux1.html''How can anarcho-capitalism function''] , by [[Stefan Molyneux]]
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig6/molyneux4.html''Disproving the state''], by [[Stefan Molyneux]]
* [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:Y6b4hmt1RicJ:rru.worldbank.org/PapersLinks/Open.aspx ''Anarchy and Invention: How Does Somalia's Private Sector Cope Without Government?''] Something resembling rudimentary anarcho-capitalism is developing organically in Somalia
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4020259.stm ''Telecoms thriving in lawless Somalia''] Somali telecommunications infrastructure without government.
* [http://www.somalianarchy.com SomaliAnarchy - "Defending and Celebrating Somalis' Freedom and Prosperity"] Forum and news source for discussion of real-world approximation of anarcho-capitalism now functioning in [[Somalia]]
* [http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/3_1/3_1_2.pdf ''The American Experiment in Anarcho-Capitalism: The Not so Wild, Wild, West''] Anarcho-capitalism in the old "Wild West" in the U.S.
* [http://www.independent.org/issues/article.asp?id=10 ''American Anarchism''] 19th Century Individualist Anarchists influence on Anarcho-Capitalism
* [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest10.htm American Liberal-Anarchism] from ''The Conquest of Power'', by Albert Weisbord
* [http://www.isil.org/resources/introduction.html The Philosophy of Liberty] (animated)
* [http://www.buildfreedom.com/economic/eco_4.html ''Economic Means to Freedom - Part IV: 25 Anarcho-Capitalist Things You Can Do Now!''], by [http://www.FrederickMann.org/ ''Frederick Mann'']
* [http://spoirier.lautre.net/trick.html The liberal theory of power] : a solution to complete anarcho-capitalism with effective solutions to the public good problem and to practical implementation ; it is planned to be implemented by software on the web.
* Peter Sabatini's [http://www.spunk.org/library/otherpol/critique/sp000713.txt Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy]
* [http://www.againstpolitics.com/market_anarchism/no_bogus_anarchy.htm ''On Peter Sabatini's "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy"''] by Richard A. Gardner
* [http://freeweb.supereva.com/super.freeweb/libertarian/en/anarcho.htm?p ''Per l'Anarco-Capitalismo''] by Guglielmo Piombini
* [http://216.239.51.104/u/Mises?q=cache:pRIqRC_6Nz8J:www.mises.org/journals/scholar/Modugno.PDF ''The anarcho-capitalist political theory of Murray N. Rothbard in its historical and intellectual context] by Roberta Modugno Crocetta
== Anarcho-capitalist pod-casts ==
* [http://www.podfeed.net/category_item.asp?id=3476''Freedomain radio''], by [[Stefan Molyneux]]
== Anarcho-capitalist blogs ==
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com''Lewrockwell'']
* [http://freedomain.blogspot.com''Stefan Molyneyux'']
* [http://www.bkmarcus.com/blog/''Lowercase liberty'']
* [http://www.strike-the-root.com''Paul Murphy and others'']
[[Category:Anarchism]]
[[Category:Libertarianism]]
[[Category:Political movements]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
{{Link FA|eo}}
{{featured article}}
[[ca:Anarcocapitalisme]]
[[da:Anarko-kapitalisme]]
[[de:Anarchokapitalismus]]
[[et:Anarhokapitalism]]
[[es:Anarco-capitalismo]]
[[eo:Anarki-kapitalismo]]
[[fr:Anarcho-capitalisme]]
[[ko:아나키자본주의]]
[[io:Anarkio-kapitalismo]]
[[it:Anarco-capitalismo]]
[[nl:Anarcho-kapitalisme]]
[[pl:Anarchokapitalizm]]
[[pt:Anarco-capitalismo]]
[[fi:Anarkokapitalismi]]
[[sv:Anarkokapitalism]]
[[zh:無政府資本主義]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anarcho-capitalists</title>
<id>1026</id>
<revision>
<id>15899532</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-06T13:52:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 9</title>
<id>1027</id>
<revision>
<id>41932073</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:38:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.153.42.89</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Events */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=9}}
|}
'''August 9''' is the 221st day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (222nd in [[leap year]]s), with 144 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[48 BC]] - [[Roman Civil War]]: [[Battle of Pharsalus]] - [[Julius Caesar]] decisively defeats [[Pompey]] at [[Pharsalus]] and Pompey flees to [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]].
*[[378]] - [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]]: A large [[Roman Empire|Roman]] army led by Emperor [[Valens]] is defeated by the [[Visigoths]] in present-day [[Turkey]]. Valens is killed along with 2/3 of his army.
*[[681]] - [[Bulgaria]] is founded as a [[Khanate]] on the south bank of the [[Danube]], after defeating the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] armies of Emperor [[Constantine IV]] south of the [[Danube]] delta.
*[[1048]] - [[Pope]] [[Damasus II]] dies in [[Rome]], after reigning for only 23 days.
*[[1173]] - Construction of the (Leaning) [[Tower of Pisa]] begins, and it takes two centuries to complete.
*[[1483]] - Opening of the [[Sistine Chapel]]
*[[1842]] - [[Webster-Ashburton Treaty]] is signed, establishing the [[United States]]-[[Canada]] border east of the [[Rocky Mountains]].
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Cedar Mountain]] - At [[Cedar Mountain, Virginia]], [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Thomas J. Jackson|Stonewall Jackson]] narrowly defeats [[United States|Union]] forces under General [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]].
*[[1877]] - [[Indian Wars]]: [[Battle of Big Hole]] - A small band of [[Nez Percé]] Indians clash with the [[United States Army]].
*[[1892]] - [[Thomas Edison]] receives a [[patent]] for a two-way [[Telegraphy|telegraph]].
*[[1902]] - [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] is crowned king of the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1936]] - [[1936 Summer Olympics]]: [[Jesse Owens]] wins his fourth [[gold medal]] at the games becoming the first American to win four medals in one [[Olympics]].
*[[1942]] - [[India]]n leader, [[Mohandas Gandhi]] is arrested in [[Bombay]] by [[United Kingdom|British]] forces, launching the [[Quit India Movement]].
*[[1944]] - The [[United States Forest Service]] and the [[Wartime Advertising Council]] release posters featuring [[Smokey the Bear]] for the first time.
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: An [[atomic bomb]] is dropped on the city of [[Nagasaki]], [[Japan]] killing an estimated 70,000-90,000.
*[[1965]] - [[Singapore]] seceded from the newly-formed Federation of Malaysia.
*1965 - [[Space disasters]]: A fire at a Titan missile base near [[Little Rock, Arkansas]] kills 53 construction workers.
*[[1967]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Cochise]] initiated - [[United States Marines]] begin a new operation in the [[Que Son Valley]].
*[[1969]] - Members of a [[cult]] led by [[Charles Manson]] murder five people.
*[[1974]] - [[Richard Nixon]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to resign from office. His [[Vice President of the United States of America|Vice President]], [[Gerald Ford]], becomes president.
*[[1983]] - [[Peter Jennings]] hosts his first broadcast of [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]'s [[ABC World News Tonight|World News Tonight]] as sole anchor.
*[[1986]] - The [[Headington Shark]] is erected in [[Oxford]].
*[[1987]] - 9 people are shot dead and 17 more injured as 19-year old Julian Knight opens fire at random in the [[Hoddle Street Massacre]] in Clifton Hill
*[[1988]] - [[Wayne Gretzky]] is traded from the [[Edmonton Oilers]] to the [[Los Angeles Kings]] in one of the most controversial transactions in [[ice hockey|hockey]] history.
*[[1989]] - [[Kaifu Toshiki]] becomes [[Prime Minister of Japan]].
*[[1993]] - The [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party of Japan]] loses a 38-year hold on national leadership.
*1993 - King [[Albert II of Belgium|Albert II]] of [[Belgium]] is sworn into office.
*[[1995]] - [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]] launches IPO.
*[[1999]] - [[Russia]]n President [[Boris Yeltsin]] fires his Prime Minister, [[Sergei Stepashin]], and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet.
*1999 - The [[Diet of Japan]] enacts a law establishing the [[Flag of Japan|Hinomaru]] and [[Kimi Ga Yo]] as the official [[national flag]] and [[national anthem]].
*[[2000]] - A [[The New Piper Aircraft|Piper]] Navajo and a Piper Seminole collide in mid-air over a housing development in [[Burlington, New Jersey]], killing 11
*[[2001]] - US President [[George W. Bush]] announces his support for federal funding of limited research on embryonic [[stem cell]]s.
*2001 - In [[Jerusalem]], 15 people die and 130 wounded in the [[Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing]].
*[[2005]] - [[STS-114|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']] makes successful touchdown at [[Edwards Air Force Base]], [[California]]
==Births==
*[[1201]] - [[Arnold Fitz Thedmar]], English chronicler (d. [[1274]])
*[[1593]] - [[Izaak Walton]], English angler (d. [[1683]])
*[[1631]] - [[John Dryden]], English [[Poet Laureate]] (d. [[1700]])
*[[1648]] - [[ |
52.21 km&sup2;.
===Climate===
Tropical [[monsoon]]; cool and humid in winter, hot and rainy from spring through summer, warm and sunny in fall
Average temperature: 23 degree Celsius
<br>Average annual precipitation: 2,214 mm
''See also: [[Climate of Hong Kong]]''
===Terrain===
hilly to mountainous with steep slopes; lowlands in north
===Elevation extremes===
<br>''lowest point:'' South China Sea, 0 m
<br>''highest point:'' [[Tai Mo Shan]], 958 m, in the [[New Territories]]
===Principal peaks of Hong Kong===
''Main article: [[List of mountains, peaks and hills in Hong Kong]]''
# Tai Mo Shan - 958 m
# [[Lantau Peak]] (Fung Wong Shan) - 934 m, on [[Lantau Island]]
# [[Sunset Peak]] (Tai Tung Shan) - 869 m, on Lantau Island
# [[Ma On Shan]] - 702 m
# [[Wong Leng]] - 639 m
# [[Kowloon Peak]] (Fei Ngo Shan) - 602 m
# [[Castle Peak, Hong Kong|Castle Peak]] - 583 m
# [[Tate's Cairn]] (Tai Lo Shan) - 577 m
# [[Kai Kung Leng]] - 572 m
# [[Tai To Yan]] - 566 m
# [[Victoria Peak]] - 552 m, on [[Hong Kong Island]]
# [[Needle Hill]] - 532 m
# [[Mount Parker (Hong Kong)|Mount Parker]] - 532 m
# [[Lion Rock]] - 495 m
# [[High West]] - 494 m
# [[Sharp Peak]] (Nam She Tsim) - 468 m
# [[Beacon Hill, Hong Kong|Beacon Hill]] - 457 m
# [[Violet Hill]] - 433 m
# [[High Junk Peak]] (Tiu Yue Yung) - 344 m
===Natural resources===
outstanding deepwater harbour, [[feldspar]]
===Land use===
<br>''arable land:'' 6%
<br>''permanent crops:'' 1%
<br>''permanent pastures:'' 1%
<br>''forests and woodland:'' 20%
<br>''other:'' 72% (1997 est.)
<br>'''Irrigated land:''' 20 km&sup2; (1997 est.)
===Natural hazards===
occasional [[typhoon]]s
===Environment===
====current issues====
*[[Air pollution|air]] and [[water pollution]] from rapid urbanization
*Exploration of natural species by mainland Chinese
''See also: [[Ecology of Hong Kong]]''
===Geography - note===
[[Islands of Hong Kong|235 islands]] including Hong Kong Island, [[Lantau Island]], [[Cheung Chau]], [[Lamma Island]], [[Peng Chau]] and [[Tsing Yi Island]].
==See also==
{{Life in Hong Kong}}
* [[Hong Kong]]
* [[Hong Kong Country Parks & Special Areas]]
* [[Beaches of Hong Kong]]
* [[List of rivers in Hong Kong]]
* [[Shing Mun River]]
* [[List of bays in Hong Kong]]
* [[List of buildings, sites and areas in Hong Kong]]
* [[Geography of China]]
{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}
==External links==
* [http://www.info.gov.hk/landsd/index.htm The Lands Department of the Governement of Hong Kong]
*[http://hkwaterfall.net/hk_falls/hkwf_mnp.htm Waterfalls in Hong Kong]
[[Category:Geography of Hong Kong| ]]
[[ru:Географические данные Гонконга]]
[[zh:香港地理]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Hong Kong</title>
<id>13407</id>
<revision>
<id>41335836</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T17:54:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>HongQiGong</username>
<id>986621</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Demographics of Hong Kong}}
The population of [[Hong Kong]] increased steadily over the last decade of the [[1990s]], reaching about 7.1 million by 2000. Hong Kong is one of the [[List of countries by population density|most densely populated areas in the world]], with an overall density of some 6,300 people per square kilometre. The population density with respect to built-up areas would be even higher, as only a small proportion of land is developed. Despite the population density, Hong Kong is reported to be one of the greenest cities in [[Asia]], with the majority of people living in [[apartment]]s in [[skyscraper|high-rise buildings]], and most land reserved for [[open space]]s, [[country park]]s, and [[woodland]]. The vertical placement of the population explains why the general description of Hong Kong as a ''densely populated, green city'' is not an [[oxymoron]].
==Population==
:7,500 (census in 1841 est.)
:849,800 (census 1931)
:750,000 (1945)
:6,900,000 (2003, UN)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:'' 18% (male 676,756; female 602,434)
<br>''15-64 years:'' 71% (male 2,520,473; female 2,563,355)
<br>''65 years and over:'' 11% (male 342,942; female 410,342) (2000 est.)
<br>''Average age:'' 34
'''Population growth rate:''' 1.35% (2000 est.)
<br>'''Birth rate:''' 11.29 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
<br>'''Death rate:''' 5.93 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
<br>'''Net migration rate:''' 8.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:'' 1.07 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:'' 1.12 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:'' 0.98 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:'' 0.84 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:'' 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''Average marriage age:'''
<br>''male:'' 30
<br>''female:'' 27
'''Infant mortality rate:''' 5.93 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:'' 79.54 years
<br>''male:'' 76.85 years
<br>''female:'' 82.41 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:''' 1.27 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''[[Nationality]]:'''
<br>''noun:'' Chinese<br>residents are called Hongkongers
'''[[Ethnic group]]s:''' Chinese 95%, other 5%
==Religions==
{{main|Religion in Hong Kong}}
[[Image:Church HK Central Filipino.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Filipinos in Hong Kong|Filipino Catholics]] moving out of the [[St Joseph Church]] after a Sunday service in Central.]]
Religion plays an important role in the [[culture of Hong Kong]]. [[Religious freedom]] is one of the fundamental rights enjoyed by Hong Kong residents. It is protected by the [[Basic Law]] and the relevant legislation. There are a large variety of religious groups in the Hong Kong, including [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], [[Sikhism]] and [[Judaism]]. All of these groups have a considerable number of adherents. Apart from offering religious instructions, many major religious bodies have established schools and provided [[social welfare]] facilities.
There are five major festivals in the [[Chinese calendar]], with the [[Chinese New Year|Lunar New Year]] being the most important. Gifts and visits are exchanged among friends and relatives and children receive [[lai see]], or ‘lucky money’. During the [[Ching Ming Festival]] in spring, ancestral graves are visited. In early summer (fifth day of the fifth lunar month), the [[Dragon Boat Festival|Tuen Ng Festival]] is celebrated with dragon boat races and by eating cooked [[glutinous rice]] wrapped in [[nelumbo|lotus]] leaves. The [[Mid-Autumn Festival]] falls on the 15th day of the eighth lunar month. Gifts of [[mooncake]]s, wine and fruit are exchanged and adults and children go into parks and the countryside at night with colourful [[lantern]]s. [[Chung Yeung]] is on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month, when many visit their ancestors’ graves or hike up mountains in remembrance of an ancient Chinese family’s escape from plague and death by fleeing to a mountain top.
==Languages==
[[Image:NathanRoadSign.jpg|thumb|250px|Road signs in Hong Kong are written in both Chinese and English.]]
[[Image:KCR East Tsim Sha Tsui station (2).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Multilingual greetings referring to "Welcome to KCR" (From the top: [[French language|French]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Korean language|Korean]])]]
{{main|Languages of Hong Kong}}
Both [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[English language|English]] are [[official language]]s. Most Hong Kongers speak [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]], specifically the [[Standard Cantonese|dialect]] originated from the areas around present-day [[Guangzhou]]. There are also speakers of other Chinese [[Chinese spoken languages|spoken variant]]s like [[Toisanese]], [[Chaozhou dialect|Teochiu]] and [[Hakka (linguistics)|Hakka]]. Although Cantonese is widely spoken in Hong Kong, [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]] is the official spoken Chinese variant throughout [[China]]. The number of Mandarin learners in Hong Kong had not been large before the [[transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong|handover]] of Hong Kong from the [[United Kingdom]] to the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) in [[1997]]. Some older people in Hong Kong, especially those living in [[walled villages of Hong Kong|walled]] and fishing [[list of villages in Hong Kong|village]]s, speak what are collectively called ''Waitau wah'' (圍頭話, ''lit.'' language used in walled village).
For [[written Chinese]], unlike [[mainland China]], where [[simplified Chinese character]]s are used, [[traditional Chinese character]]s are widely used, and is the de facto writing standard. But owing to the increasing number of tourists from mainland China, simplified Chinese characters are now more frequently used in Hong Kong. Simplified Chinese characters can be frequently found on posters, leaflets, flyers and road signs in the tourist areas in Hong Kong.
English is the major working language in Hong Kong, and is widely used in commercial activities and legal matters. Albeit the sovereignty of Hong Kong has been transferred to the [[People's Republic of China|PRC]] by the [[United Kingdom]] in 1997, English is still one of the [[official language]]s of the Hong Kong, and its official status is enshrined in the [[Basic Law of Hong Kong|Basic Law]].
Many Hong Kongers are literally [[bilingual]] when they speak, as their speech comprises both Cantonese and English. Usually the syntax of their discourse is Cantonese, while filled up with English words and phrases. Some people regard such a way of speaking mere affectation. Others confess that is the only way they can make themselves understood. The hybridization of Cantonese and English are often criticized as "neither Chinese nor English", and the Cantonese speakers that in |
AMD Opteron]] is the server version of the K8. AMD originally designed the Opteron to compete against Intel's [[IA-64]] [[Itanium]] architecture. But the failure of the [[IA-64]] project to leverage volume sales means it now competes with Intel's [[Xeon]] processor. AMD's technical leadership has considerably improved their credibility, and enabled AMD to make increasing market share inroads into the corporate sector.
On [[April 21]], [[2005]] AMD released the world's first x86 server chip built on [[dual core]] technology, which was in the plans of the K8 line of processors from 2001 onward. The initial release were accompanied by the availability of the [[Opteron]] 865, 870, and 875 processors, and the 2xx version followed shortly afterwards.
On [[May 31]], [[2005]] AMD released its first desktop-based [[Multi-core (computing)|dual core processor]] family — the [[Athlon 64 X2]]. Unlike Intel's dual-core designs, the X2 mates two cores into a single chip, rather than two chips into a single package. Intel's method may have theoretical yield advantages, but gives up some performance advantages since interprocessor communication still happens over external pins, rather than internally. The X2 marks a significant step towards even greater productivity and scalability, especially for multi-threaded software applications.
== Geode ==
In August 2003 AMD also purchased the [[Geode (processor)|Geode]] business (originally the [[Cyrix]] [[MediaGX]]) from [[National Semiconductor]] to augment its existing line of embedded x86 processor products. During the second quarter of 2004, it launched new low-power Geode NX processors based on the K7 Thoroughbred architecture with speeds of 667MHz and 1GHz (fanless), and 1.4GHz (TDP 25W).
== Pacifica ==
AMD's Athlon series of processors are slated to include [[virtualization]] through the [[Pacifica]] technology specification. This technology stands in direct competition to [[Intel]]'s 'Silvervale' virtualization technology.
== Current production ==
AMD's main microprocessor manufacturing and design facilities are located in [[Dresden]], [[Germany]]. Between 2003 and 2005, they constructed a second manufacturing (300mm) plant nearby in order to increase the number of chips they can produce, thus becoming more competitive with [[Intel]]. The new plant has been named "Fab 36", in recognition of AMD's 36 years of operation, and is expected to reach full production in mid 2006.
As part of its expanding microprocessor design program, AMD started an engineering design center in [[Bangalore]]. The AMD India Engineering Centre Private Limited, which is started in July, will contribute to the design of future generations of AMD microprocessors. The standalone facility will occupy approximately 38,000 square feet (3,500 m&sup2;) and is located in Richmond Road, Bangalore, Karnataka, India.
== Partnerships ==
[[Image:NVIDIA logo.png|right|150px|NVIDIA Logo]]
AMD continues to use industry partnerships as a means to counter Intel's superior financial resources. Notably [[nVidia]]'s [[nForce2]] chipset generated substantial revenues for nVidia as a popular enthusiast part.
[[HyperTransport]] is a point to point interconnect standard developed by AMD and Alpha Processor Incorporated, and then turned over to an industry standards body for finalization. It is used in the [[nForce3]] and [[nForce4]] chipsets. While not intended as a revenue-generating product line for AMD, by providing technological leadership, AMD enhances its standing within the computer industry. Again, innovation is key to AMD's "Virtual Gorilla" corporate strategy.
AMD has also formed a strategic partnership with IBM, under which AMD gained [[silicon on insulator]] (SOI) manufacturing technology, and detailed advice on 90-nm implementation. IBM holds many patents on SOI technology, and Intel is reluctant to implement the process for this reason, despite the significant reductions in power consumption offered.
AMD is also loosely partnered with end-user companies such as [[HP]], [[Compaq]], [[Asus]], [[Alienware]], [[Acer (company)|ACER]], [[Evesham Technology]] and several others in the area of processor distribution. Due to recent events regarding the lawsuit filed against Intel, AMD has gained a significant amount of marketshare hold in the end-user market.
Unlike some other companies, AMD provided the technical details required for the open source BIOS project [[LinuxBIOS]] [http://www.fsf.org/campaigns/free-bios.html].
== Flash technology ==
While less visible to the general public than its CPU business, AMD is also a global leader in [[flash memory]]. To compete with [[Intel]], AMD established a 50-50 partnership with [[Fujitsu]] called [[FASL]] in 1993, with manufacturing facilities in [[Aizuwakamatsu, Fukushima|Aizu-Wakamatsu]], [[Japan]]. In 2003 the long-term partnership was merged into a new company called [[FASL LLC]], globally branded as [[Spansion]][http://www.spansion.com/], headquartered in [[Sunnyvale, California|Sunnyvale]], [[California]], [[United States|USA]]. Under the deal, AMD took a 60 percent stake, Fujitsu 40 percent. Spansion has recently been spun off into its own IPO where AMD now owns only about 37% of the company.
The new company sells flash memory products through AMD and Fujitsu and their respective sales forces. Notable product families include Mirrorbit flash. In periods the flash business has been extremely profitable, exceeding the financial performance of the CPU division, although the industry is somewhat prone to boom-bust cycles. AMD / Spansion claim a number of important milestones in Flash development [http://www.spansion.com/about/timeline.html].
*1992: "Negative Gate Erase" technology introduced
*1996: Industry's first 2.7-volt flash device
*1997: Industry's first 1.8-volt flash device
*1998: AMD and Fujitsu's first page-mode flash device
*1999: AMD and Fujitsu's first burst-mode flash device
*2001: MirrorBit™ technology introduced
*2002: Advanced Sector Protection introduced
*2003: Industry's first 512-megabit NOR flash memory unveiled
== Lawsuits against Intel Corporation ==
AMD has a long history of litigation with former partner and x86 creator [[Intel]]. In 2005, following an investigation, the Japan Federal Trade Commission found Intel guilty of antitrust violations. On [[June 27]] [[2005]], AMD won an [[antitrust]] suit against Intel in [[Japan]], and on the same day, AMD filed a broad antitrust complaint against Intel in the U.S. Federal District Court in [[Delaware]]. The complaint alleges systematic use of secret rebates, special discounts, threats, and other means used by Intel to lock AMD processors out of the global market.
==See also==
*[[Jerry Sanders]], [[Dirk Meyer]], [[Héctor Ruiz]], [[NexGen]]
*[[Athlon]], [[Duron]], [[Sempron]]
*[[Athlon 64]], [[Opteron]]
*[[Turion]]
*[[Am2900]], [[Am29000]], [[AMD K5]], [[AMD K6]], [[AMD K7]], [[AMD K8]], [[AMD K9]], [[AMD64]]
*[[List of AMD microprocessors]], [[List of AMD CPU slots and sockets]]
*[[List of AMD Athlon microprocessors]], [[List of AMD Athlon XP microprocessors]]
*[[List of AMD Duron microprocessors]], [[List of AMD Sempron microprocessors]]
*[[List of AMD Athlon 64 microprocessors]], [[List of AMD Opteron microprocessors]]
*[[List of AMD Turion microprocessors]]
*[[Comparison of NVIDIA Graphics Processing Units]]
*[[Comparison of ATI Graphics Processing Units]]
*[[Comparison of Intel Central Processing Units]]
*[[Comparison of AMD Central Processing Units]]
==External links==
{{wikinewspar|AMD files antitrust lawsuit against Intel in US federal district court}}
*[http://www.amd.com/ AMD Corporate Website]
*[http://www.digital-daily.com/editorial/amd-history/index.htm AMD: 30 Years of Pursuing the Leader]
*[http://www.siliconvalleyinfozone.com/companies/Advanced_Micro_Devices Silicon Valley InfoZone - Advanced Micro Devices]
*[http://www.thedigerati.us/info/amdcpuchart.html] - AMD CPU Chart
*[http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=co&l1=AMD Cpu-collection.de] - AMD processor images and descriptions
*[http://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainid=html/cpu/amdk5.php CPU-INFO: AMD K5, indepth processor history]
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/10/10037.html Yahoo!] - Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. Company Profile
*[http://www.dvhardware.net/article4650.html AMD goes dual-core]
*[http://www.geek.com/news/geeknews/2005Dec/bch20051215033811.htm Why AMD-MHz don't equal Intel-MHz]
*[http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/Complaint_summary.pdf Summary US antitrust complaint against Intel]
*[http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/AMD-Intel_Full_Complaint.pdf Full text of US antitrust complaint against Intel]
*[http://www.intelvsamd.com/download/AMD-Intel_Full_Complaint.htm Full text of US antitrust complaint against Intel in HTML]
* Pacifica and [[virtualization]]:
** [http://enterprise.amd.com/Enterprise/serverVirtualization.aspx AMD Powerpoint documents on the specification]
** [http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1759,1780606,00.asp AMD Previews 'Pacifica' Virtualization Technology]
** [http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,1644414,00.asp AMD Preps 'Pacifica' Virtualization Technology]
* [http://www.amdcompare.com/prodoutlook/ Near term AMD interactive product outlook]
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<page>
<title>Albrecht Dürer</title>
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<con |
denberry was a [[Secular Humanism|secular humanist]].{{ref|humanist}} After his death, a lipstick-sized capsule of his ashes was sent into space to orbit the earth for six years (after which they burned up in the earth's atmosphere).
==Television career==
Before ''Star Trek'', Roddenberry wrote scripts for many of the popular television series of the 1950s, such as ''[[Have Gun, Will Travel]]''. He produced ''The Lieutenant'', a 1963-1964 NBC series about the [[United States Marines]]. He was also trying to get other science fiction series off the ground, mostly without success.
Roddenberry developed his idea for ''Star Trek'' in 1964. The series was finally picked up by [[Desilu Studios]]. The original $500,000 [[television pilot|pilot]] received minor support from NBC, but the network commissioned an unprecedented second pilot. The series premiered on [[September 8]], [[1966]] and ran for three seasons. Although it was cancelled due to low [[Nielsen Ratings|ratings]], the series gained wide popularity in [[Television syndication|syndication]].
Following the cancellation of ''Star Trek'', Roddenberry pitched four sci-fi tv series concepts that all had pilot movies produced but were not picked up; ''[[The Questor Tapes]]'', ''[[Genesis II]]'', ''[[Planet Earth (TV pilot)|Planet Earth]]'', and ''[[Strange New World]]''. He also co-wrote and was executive producer on the made for TV movie, ''[[Spectre (movie)|Spectre]]'' (1977).
[[Image:Gene1.jpg|left|thumb|Roddenberry listens to a fan after a lecture at the University of Texas at Austin (late 1970s).]]
During the 1970s, Roddenberry also lectured at universities around the country. He amused the attendees with anecdotes from the ''Star Trek'' set, spoke of his visions of the future and showed the ''Star Trek Blooper Reel'', a collection of outtakes from the original series. Fans bestowed upon him the affectionate nickname "The Great Bird of the Galaxy" after a mythical creature referenced in "Man Trap," the first aired episode of Star Trek.
Beginning in 1975, go-ahead was given by Paramount for Roddenberry to develop a sequel "Star Trek" television series based around as many of the original cast as could be recruited. This series was to be the anchor show of a new network, but plans by Paramount for this network were scrapped and plans were changed to do a Star Trek feature film. The result ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]'' had a lukewarm response, but nevertheless, several feature films and a new television series, ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'', were created in the 1980s. Roddenberry was deeply involved with creating and producing ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', although his involvement lessened in seasons 2 and 3 due to deteriorating health. ''Star Trek'' also spawned the television series ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'', ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' and ''[[Star Trek: Enterprise]]''.
Roddenberry only produced the first Star Trek film, ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]''. Due to cost overruns and a problematic relationship with the Paramount management, Roddenberry was ousted and replaced by [[Harve Bennett]]. He continued as executive consultant on the next four films - ''[[Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan]]'', ''[[Star Trek III: The Search for Spock]]'', ''[[Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home]]'' and ''[[Star Trek V: The Final Frontier]]''. The last film based on the original ''Star Trek'' series, ''[[Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country]]'' was dedicated in Roddenberry's memory; he reportedly viewed a version of the film a few days before his death.
In addition to his film and TV work, Roddenberry also wrote the novelization for ''Star Trek: The Motion Picture'', which was published in 1979 and was the first of hundreds of ''Star Trek'' based novels to be published by [[Pocket Books]]. It has been claimed by some that [[Alan Dean Foster]] was the [[ghost writer]] of the book, but this has been debunked, although Foster did contribute to the film's screenplay. Roddenberry talked of writing a second ''Trek'' novel but died before he was able to do so.
==Controversy==
[[Image:Gene_Roddenberry - Star for TV.png|thumb|right|125px|Gene Roddenberry's Star on [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood's]] [[Hollywood Walk of Fame|Walk of Fame]].]]
Writers on ''Star Trek'' have charged that ideas they developed were later passed off by Roddenberry as his own, or that he lied about their contributions to the show at ''Star Trek'' conventions. Roddenberry was confronted by these writers, and apologized to them, but according to his critics, he continued to repeat the false claims.{{ref|contribs}}
In her [[autobiography]], actress [[Nichelle Nichols]] who played [[Uhura]] in the first ''Star Trek'' series, reported having had a love affair with Roddenberry. She felt that his strong and controversial inclination to get her on the show had a lot to do with their relationship.
Roddenberry's life and work has been favorably chronicled in the biography ''Inside Trek: My Secret Life with Star Trek Creator Gene Roddenberry'' by Susan Sackett, his close associate for 17 years. The book has been described as inaccurate by his critics.
Despite his reduced management of ''Star Trek'' near the end of his life, Roddenberry was still respected enough that [[Paramount Pictures]], owners of the various ''Star Trek'' series, agreed to his request that the ''[[Star Trek: The Animated Series|Star Trek Animated Series]]'' not be considered [[Canon (fiction)|canon]] by the studio. According to the reference work ''The Star Trek Chronology'', Roddenberry reportedly considered elements of the fifth and sixth Trek films to be apocryphal, though there is no indication that he wanted them removed from Trek canon.
In 1987, Roddenberry first made a public statement, at a science fiction junket, in a response to a fan's question, that the ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' television series would address what it was like to be [[gay]] in the science fiction future. This would be done in a similar fashion to the way the original series had dealt with ethnicity and gender. Fans still debate to what extent this Roddenberry statement was fullfilled and what is the definitive role of [[LGBT characters in the Star Trek universe|LGBT Characters in The Star Trek Universe]].
==Legacy==
After his death in 1991 in [[Santa Monica, California]], Roddenberry's estate allowed the creation of two long-running television series based upon some of his previously unfilmed story ideas and concepts. ''[[Earth: Final Conflict]]'' and ''[[Andromeda (TV series)|Andromeda]]'' were produced under the guidance of Majel Barrett-Roddenberry. A third Roddenberry storyline was adapted in 1995 as the short-lived [[comic book]] ''Gene Roddenberry's Lost Universe''.
There is an asteroid called [[4659 Roddenberry]] and a [[Impact crater|crater]] on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] that were named in his honor.
==Notes==
# {{note|humanist}} Interview in ''The Humanist'', March/April 1991
# {{note|contribs}} See ''Gene Roddenberry: The Myth and the Man Behind Star Trek'' by Joel Engel, books by Star Trek Producer Herb Solow, science-fiction convention talks by Star Trek writer Dorothy C. Fontana, and books and articles by [[Harlan Ellison]].
==External links==
* [http://www.pathcom.com/~boby/gene.htm Eugene Wesley "Gene" Roddenberry]
* [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/R/htmlR/roddenberry/roddenberry.htm The Museum of Broadcast Communication]
* [http://www.trek5.com/lowerdecks/genepitch.html Roddenberry's original March 1964 pitch outline for Star Trek]
* [http://www.philosophysphere.com/humanist.html Originally published in ''The Humanist'', March/April 1991]
* [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/web/crj0147a.html Strange New Worlds: The Humanist Philosophy of Star Trek] by Robert Bowman, ''Christian Research Journal'', Fall 1991, pp. 20 ff.
* {{imdb name|id=0734472|name=Gene Roddenberry}}
* [http://www.nndb.com/people/503/000022437/ NNDB]
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|DATE OF DEATH=[[October 24]], [[1991]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Santa Monica, California]]
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<page>
<title>Galaxy Quest</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film|
name = Galaxy Quest|
image = Galaxy Quest poster.jpg|
director = [[Dean Parisot]]|
producer = [[Elizabeth Cantillon]]|
writer = [[Robert Gordon (screenwriter|Robert Gordon]]|
starring = [[Tim Allen]],&l |
pense of the truth.[http://www.mackinac.org/archives/1998/sp1998-01.pdf]
==Liberalism against totalitarianism==
Liberalism always defined itself as the freedom from arbitrary tyranny or [[totalitarianism]], which had become the prevelant alternative to liberalism. The term was first used by [[Giovanni Gentile]] to describe the socio-political system set up by [[Mussolini]]. [[Stalin]] would apply it to German Nazi-ism, and after the war it became a descriptive term for the common characteristics of [[fascism|fascist]] and [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] regimes. Totalitarian [[regime|regimes]] sought and tried to implement absolute centralized control over all aspects of society, in order to achieve prosperity and stability. Such governments often justified such absolutism by arguing that the survival of their civilization was at risk. Opposition to totalitarian regimes acquired great importance in liberal and democratic thinking, and totalitarian regimes were often portrayed as trying to destroy liberal democracy.
In Italy and Germany, nationalist governments linked corporate capitalism to the state, and promoted the idea that their nations were culturally and racially superior, and that conquest would give them their rightful "place in the sun". The propaganda machines of these totalitarian states argued that democracy was weak and incapable of decisive action, and that only a strong leader could impose necessary discipline.
The rise of totalitarianism became a lens for liberal thought. Many liberals began to analyze their own beliefs and principles, and came to the conclusion that totalitarianism arose because people in a degraded condition turn to dictatorships for solutions. From this, it was argued that the state had the duty to protect the economic well being of its citizens. As [[Isaiah Berlin]] said, "Freedom for the wolves means death for the sheep." This growing body of liberal thought argued that reason requires a government to act as a balancing force in economics.
Hayek, in his book [[The Road to Serfdom]], believed that the rise of totalitarian regimes, whether they be communist, fascist, or Nazi, were the result of the restriction of economic freedom. Economic freedom was, thus, restricted by government intervention and regulation of the economy. Hayek states:
: "''…economic planning, conducted independently on a national scale, are bound in the aggregate effect to be harmful even from a purely economic point of view and, in addition to produce serious international friction. That there is little hope of international order or lasting peace so long as every country is free to employ whatever measures it desires in its own immediate interest, however damaging they may be to others…''" Hayek, F.A., The Road to Serfdom, The University of Chicago Press, 1944. p. 240.
Here Hayek is demonstrating the rationale behind why economic policies like those subscribed to by Keynesian economists can not and could not be compatible to freedom and peace much in the same way Nazis, Fascists, and Communists failed to retain or create free and peaceful states
The more economic freedom that was lost, he said, the more civil and political freedom would be lost as well. Hayek argued against these "Keynesian" institutions, believing that they can and will lead to the same totalitarian governments Keynesians were attempting to avoid. Hayek saw authoritarian regimes such as the fascist, Nazis, and communists, as the same totalitarian branch that sought the elimination of economic freedom. To him the elimination of economic freedom brought about the elimination of political freedom. Thus the differences between Nazis and communists are only rhetorical. The same outcomes could occur in Britain (or anywhere else) if the state sought to control the economic freedom of the individual with the policy prescriptions outlined by people like Dewey, Keynes, or Roosevelt. H Hayek also saw these economic controls being instituted in the United Kingdom and the United States and warned against these "Keynesian" institutions, believing that they can and will lead to the same totalitarian governments "Keynesians liberals" were attempting to avoid.
Nobel Prize winning economists such as Hayek and Milton Friedman have argued for years that economic freedom leads to greater political and civil rights and those governments who control the economy tend to limit economic rights and eventually will limit political, civil rights of their people. Friedman states,
:"''economic freedom is simply a requisite for political freedom. By enabling people to cooperate with one another without coercion or central direction it reduces the area over which political power is exercised''." Friedman, Milton and Rose Friedman, [[Free to Choose]]: A Personal Statement, Harcort Brace Janovich, 1980, p. 2-3
[[Friedrich von Hayek]] and [[Milton Friedman]] stated that economic freedom is a necessary condition for the creation and sustainability of civil and political freedoms. Hayek believed the same totalitarian outcomes could occur in Britain (or anywhere else) if the state sought to control the economic freedom of the individual with the policy prescriptions outlined by people like Dewey, Keynes, or Roosevelt. Classical liberal studies by the Canadian "conservative" free market oriented [[Fraser Institute]], the American "conservative" free market oriented [[Heritage Foundation]], and the [[Wall Street Journal]] state that there is a relationship between economic freedom and political and civil freedoms to the extent claimed by Friedrich von Hayek. They agree with Hayek that those countries which restrict economic freedom ultimately restrict civil and political freedoms.
==Classical liberalism and freedom==
The major tenenat of liberalism remains freedom of the individual from coersion and tyranny. [[Friedrich von Hayek]] and [[Milton Friedman]] stated that economic freedom is a necessary condition for the creation and sustainability of civil and political freedoms. Hayek believed the same totalitarian outcomes could occur in Britain (or anywhere else) if the state sought to control the economic freedom of the individual with the policy prescriptions outlined by people like Dewey, Keynes, or Roosevelt. (Classical) liberal studies by the Canadian conservative [[Fraser Institute]], the American conservative [[Heritage Foundation]], and the Wall Street Journal argue that there is in fact a relationship between economic freedom and political and civil freedoms as Friedrich von Hayek had once said. They agree with Hayek's statement that those countries which restrict economic freedom ultimately restrict civil and political freedoms. On the other hand, economic freedom does not necesarily imply civil and political freedom.
[[F.A. Hayek]] and [[Milton Friedman]] have both observed that economic freedom is a necessary condition for the creation and sustainability of civil and political freedoms. A link between a lack of economic freedom and human rights violation has been observed over the last century; easily seen by the atrocities committed by the least economically free countries in the world which include [[Nazi]] [[Germany]], [[Soviet]] [[Russia]], [[Communist]] [[China]], [[Khmer Rouge]] [[Cambodia]]...
Hayek believed the same totalitarian outcomes could occur in Britain (or anywhere else) if the state sought to control the economic freedom of the individual with the policy prescriptions outlined by people like [[Dewey]], [[John M. Keynes]], or [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. The facts of history in the post-war era affirmed in his vision the accuracy of his thesis. [[Clement Atlee]]'s [[Labour Party]], after winning a land slide election in post World War II England, encouraged private business owners to hand over their property, nationalized many industries, instituted wage and price controls, and even attempted to place restrictions on their citizens ability to seek employment at will, by requiring citizens to seek permission from the central government. Another example, in the 1960s the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] Government of [[Harold Wilson]] placed a limit of £30 on money people could take abroad to avoid the consequences of an inflatonary policy pursued to create full-employment. Nevertheless, British [[Democracy|democratic]] institutions survived and in 1979 a radical [[Conservative]] government led by [[Margaret Thatcher]] was elected, which, sometimes painfully, re-liberalised the economy.
Recent empirical studies by the [[Frasier Institute]], [[Heritage Foundation]], and the [[Wall Street Journal]] argued that there is in fact a relationship between [[economic freedom]] and political and civil freedoms as [[Friedrich von Hayek]] had once observed. As he stated, those countries which restrict economic freedom ultimately restrict civil and political freedoms.
*http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=pb&id=789
*http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/
==Classical liberalism and rhetorical liberalism as practiced in the United States==
In the [[United States]], the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] has been accused by some of merely paying lip service to classical liberal philosophy since the [[New Deal]] era. Republican president [[Richard Nixon]], for example, instituted price controls on goods during an economic crisis in the 1970s (an act inconsistent with a strict classical liberal view). While the "New Deal" [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration oversaw the deregulation of the airline industry while also restricting the money supply (a harsh [[monetarist]] policy) to combat [[stagflation]] which plagued the United States. Many small liberal gains were achieved under [[Ronald Reagan]] in the 1980s as liberalism gained steam world |
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<comment>/* 1980s */ Removing image with no source information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ecostello2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Declan Patrick Aloysius MacManus, aka Elvis Costello.]]
'''Declan Patrick MacManus''' (born [[August 25]], [[1954]], in [[London]]), better known by his [[stage name]], '''Elvis Costello''', is a popular [[United Kingdom|British]] musician, singer, and [[songwriter]] of [[Irish people|Irish]] ancestry. Some sources list his full given name as '''Declan Patrick Aloysius MacManus''', however Aloysius was not one of his names at birth, being added years later.
Costello was an early participant in London's [[Pub rock (UK)| pub rock]] scene in the mid-1970s, and later became associated with the [[punk rock]] and [[New Wave music|new wave]] musical genres, before establishing himself as a unique and original voice in the 1980s. His output has been wildly diverse: One critic has written that "Costello, the [[popular music|pop]] encyclopedia, can reinvent the past in his own image."[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:ly09kect7q70~T1]
==Biography==
===Early life and career===
MacManus was born in [[St Mary's Hospital (London)|St Mary's Hospital]], [[Paddington]] in [[London]], living in the area until he was sixteen. With an already musical family (his father, [[Ross MacManus]], sang with [[Joe Loss]]), MacManus moved with his mother to [[Liverpool]] in 1971. It was there that he formed his first band, a folk duo called Rusty. After completing secondary school in Liverpool, he moved back to London where he next formed a band called Flip City[http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/flipcity/flipcity.htm], which had a style very much in the pub rock vein. They were active from 1974 through early 1976. Around this time, MacManus adapted the stage name D.P. Costello.
By 1975, MacManus was already a husband and father. To support himself, he worked a number of office jobs, most famously at a cosmetics firm -- immortalized in one of his song lyrics as the "vanity factory" -- where he put in time as a data entry clerk. He continued to write songs, and began aggressively looking for a solo recording contract. On the basis of a demo tape, he was signed to [[Stiff Records]]. His manager at Stiff, [[Jake Riviera]], suggested a name change, using [[Elvis Presley]]'s first name and his maternal grandmother's maiden name to form Elvis Costello.
===1970s===
[[Image:ecostello3.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Elvis Costello, striking an early pose.]]
Costello's first album for Stiff, ''[[My Aim Is True]]'' (1977), was a moderate commercial success (No. 14 in the UK and Top 40 in the US) with Costello appearing on the cover in his trademark oversize glasses, bearing a striking resemblance to a menacing [[Buddy Holly]]. Costello's backing on this first album was provided by American West Coast band Clover, a roots/country outfit who would later become [[Huey Lewis and The News]]. Costello was marketed as a [[New wave music|new wave]] artist or a [[punk rock|punk]]. The same year, Costello recruited his own permanent band, The Attractions, consisting of [[Steve Nieve]] (born Steve Nason; piano), [[Bruce Thomas]] (bass guitar), and [[Pete Thomas]] (unrelated to Bruce Thomas; drums). He released his first major hit single, "Watching The Detectives," recorded with Nieve and the pair of Steve Goulding (drums) and Andrew Bodnar (bass), both members of [[Graham Parker]] & The Rumour.
Stiff was a new independent UK label, formed to provide an outlet for practioners in the then-burgeoning pub rock scene in London. Its records were initially distributed only in the UK, which meant that Costello's first album and singles were initially available in the US as imports only. In an attempt to change this, Costello was arrested for [[busking]] outside of a London convention of CBS (Columbia Records) executives, "protesting" the fact that no US record company had yet seen fit to release Elvis Costello records in the United States. Costello signed to CBS in the US a few months later.
[[Image:Elvis Costello And The Attractions - Radio Radio single picture cover.jpg|thumb|right|The picture cover of ''Radio Radio'']]
In December 1977, Costello and The Attractions appeared on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' as a last minute fill-in for the Sex Pistols. During the live broadcast, Costello played the first few bars of "Less Than Zero," then--much to the shock of the program's producers--stopped and broke into a spirited rendition of the then-unreleased "Radio, Radio" (despite having been denied permission to play that song because of its anti-corporate message). Costello was not invited to perform on ''Saturday Night Live'' again for 12 years (his next appearance finally coming in 1989, when the ''Spike'' album was a U.S. hit).
Following a whirlwind tour with other Stiff artists (captured on the ''Live Stiffs'' album, notable for Costello's recording of the [[Burt Bacharach]]/[[Hal David]] standard "I Just Don't Know What To Do With Myself") the band recorded the frenetic, raucous ''[[This Year's Model]]'' (1978). Some of the more popular tracks include the British hit "(I Don't Want To Go To) Chelsea" and "Lipstick Vogue". A tour of the US and Canada also saw the release of the much bootlegged promo-only "Live At The El Mocambo," which finally saw an official release as part of the "2 1/2 Years" box set in 1993. It was during the ensuing United States tour that Elvis met and developed a relationship with former Playboy model [[Bebe Buell]]. Their on-again-off-again courtship would last until 1984 and would allegedly become a deep well of inspiration for some of Costello's most lovelorn songs.
1979 would arguably see the peak of Costello's commercial success with the release of ''[[Armed Forces]]'' (originally titled "Emotional Fascism"). Both the album and the single "[[Oliver's Army]]" (titled after [[Oliver Cromwell]]) went to No. 2 in the UK. Costello also found time in 1979 to produce the debut album for [[ska]] band [[The Specials]].
His success in the US was severely bruised when, during a drunken argument with [[Stephen Stills]] and [[Bonnie Bramlett]] in a [[Columbus, Ohio]] [[Holiday Inn]] hotel bar, Costello referred to [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] as an "jive-ass [[nigger_(word)|nigger]]," then upped the ante by pronouncing [[Ray Charles]] a "blind, ignorant [[nigger_(word)|nigger]]." Bramlett and friends had evidently been baiting Costello with derisive comments about British rock music in general and "sawed-off Limey"-type comments aimed at him in particular. A contrite Costello apologised at a [[New York City]] press conference a few days later, claiming that he had been drunk and had been attempting to be obnoxious in order to bring the conversation to a swift conclusion, not anticipating that Bramlett would bring his comments to the press. According to Costello, "it became necessary for me to outrage these people with about the most obnoxious and offensive remarks that I could muster." In his liner notes for the expanded version of ''[[Get Happy!!]],'' Costello writes that some time after the incident he had declined an offer to meet Charles out of guilt and embarrassment, though Charles himself had graciously forgiven Costello ("Drunken talk isn't meant to be printed in the paper"). It is notable that Costello worked extensively in Britain's "[[Rock Against Racism]]" campaign both before and after this interlude. This incident specifically inspired his ''Get Happy!'' song [http://www.morethings.com/music/costello/misunderstood.html "Riot Act."]
===1980s===
[[Image:ecostello1.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Elvis Costello, ''King of America.'']]
''[[Get Happy!!]]'' would thus be the first, and - along with ''King Of America'' - possibly most successful, of Costello's many experiments with genres beyond those he is normally associated with (the single, "I Can't Stand Up For Falling Down" was an old [[Sam and Dave]] song, though Costello increased the [[tempo]] considerably). The brevity of the songs (20 tracks in under 50 minutes) suited the band's new style (the Thomas' typically melodic rhythm section and Nieve's reasonable impersonation of [[Booker T Jones]]) as well as the frantic and stressful conditions under which it was written and recorded, crammed between live dates and fuelled by excessive drinking. Lyrically, the songs are full of Costello's signature [[wordplay]], to the point that he later felt he'd become something of a self-parody and toned it down on later releases. He has mockingly described himself in interviews as "rock and roll's Scrabble champion."
1981's ''[[Trust (album)|Trust]]'' had a more [[pop music|pop]] sound, but the overall result was clearly affected by the growing tensions within the band, particularly between Bruce and Pete Thomas. Despite its eclecticism ("Different Finger" had a distinct [[country music|country]] feel) and pop hooks, ''Trust'' was not a major success and the first album since his debut to generate no hit singles.
Following the commercial disappointment of ''Trust'', Costello took a break from songwriting and the band decamped to [[Nashville]] to record ''[[Almost Blue]]'', an album of [[country music]] [[cover song]]s written by the likes of [[Hank Williams]] ("Why Don't You Love Me (Like You Used To Do?)"), [[Merle Haggard]] ("Tonight The Bottle Let Me Down") and [[Gram Parsons]] ("How Much I Lied&quo |
Club, page 2]. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|school-1}} Biography at ArteHistoria. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|arch-grades}} Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 2. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|lunatic}} Biography at ArteHistoria. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|slowdown}} [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_vida/i_vida5.asp Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 5]. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|focus-sagrada}} Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 5. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|death}} Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 5. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|beatify}} Playà Maset, Josep. "The Vatican initiates the beatification process for Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí", in ''[[La Vanguardia]]'', Barcelona, [[12 March]] [[2000]]. [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_links/i_beat4.asp Reproduced at Gaudí and Barcelona Club]. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
==External links==
* [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ Gaudí and Barcelona Club]
* [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_links/i_beat.asp Gaudí's proposed beatification]
* [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Architecture/History/Architects/G/Gaud%ed,_Antoni/ Gaudí category at DMoz]
* [http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/gaudi/barcelona-gaudi.html Gaudí's architecture]
* [http://architect.architecture.sk/antonio-gaudi-architect/antonio-gaudi-architect.php Gaudí's biography]
* [http://usuaris.tinet.org/lgt/ Taller de Escultura Luis Gueilburt – Colección Antoni Gaudí] (in Spanish)
* [http://www.upc.es/web/tallergaudi/ Taller Gaudí UPC] (in Spanish and Catalan)
<!-- Categories -->
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{{Commons|Antoni Placid Gaudí i Cornet}}
[[Category:1852 births|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:1926 deaths|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Architects|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Catalan architects|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Modernisme|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Art Nouveau|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Road accident victims|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church art|Gaudí, Antoni]]
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[bg:Антони Гауди]]
[[ca:Antoni Gaudí i Cornet]]
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[[eo:Antoni GAUDÍ]]
[[fr:Antoni Gaudí]]
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[[he:אנטוני גאודי]]
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[[ja:アントニオ・ガウディ]]
[[no:Antoni Gaudí]]
[[pl:Antoni Gaudí]]
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[[ro:Antoni Gaudí]]
[[ru:Гауди-и-Корнет, Антонио]]
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[[sr:Антони Гауди]]
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[[zh:安东尼·高第]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arahant</title>
<id>2295</id>
<revision>
<id>15900725</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-16T05:46:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nat Krause</username>
<id>40885</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move some info to Arhat and make redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arhat]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adrenal gland</title>
<id>2296</id>
<revision>
<id>40579463</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T16:11:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.192.77.21</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gray1183.png|thumb|300px|[[Gray's Anatomy|Gray's]] Fig. 1183 – Suprarenal glands viewed from the front.]]
[[Image:Gray1184.png|thumb|300px|[[Gray's Anatomy|Gray's]] Fig. 1184 – Suprarenal glands viewed from behind.]]
In [[mammal]]s, the '''adrenal glands''' (also known as '''suprarenal glands''' or colloquially as '''kidney hats''') are the triangle-shaped [[endocrine gland]]s that sit atop the [[kidney]]s; their name indicates that position (''ad'', "near" or "at" + ''renes'', "kidneys"). They are chiefly responsible for regulating the [[stress (medicine)|stress]] response through the [[synthesis]] of [[corticosteroid]]s and [[catecholamine]]s, including [[cortisol]] and [[adrenaline]].
== Overview ==
[[Image:Kidney_section.jpg|thumb|200px|Above each human kidney is one of the two [[adrenal gland]]s.]]
[[Image:Adrenal_cortex_layers.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Layers of the adrenal cortex]]
Anatomically, the adrenal glands are located in the abdomen, situated on the anteriosuperior aspect of the kidneys. In humans, the adrenal glands are found at the level of the 12th [[thoracic vertebra]] and receive their blood supply from the [[adrenal artery|adrenal arteries]].
It is separated into two distinct structures, the [[#Adrenal medulla|adrenal medulla]] and the [[#Adrenal cortex|adrenal cortex]], both of which receive regulatory input from the [[nervous system]]. As its name suggests, the adrenal medulla is at the center of the adrenal gland surrounded by the adrenal cortex.
The ''adrenal medulla'' is the body's main source of the catecholamine hormones [[epinephrine]] and [[norepinephrine]]. By contrast, some cells of the ''adrenal cortex'' belong to the [[hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis]] and are the source of [[cortisol]] synthesis. Other cortical cells produce [[androgen]]s such as [[testosterone]], while some regulate [[water]] and [[electrolyte]] concentrations by secreting [[aldosterone]].
== Adrenal medulla ==
Composed mainly of hormone-producing [[chromaffin cell]]s, the adrenal medulla is the principal site of the conversion of the [[amino acid]] [[tyrosine]] into the catecholamines [[epinephrine]] and [[norepinephrine]] (also called adrenaline and noradrenaline, respectively). Medullary cells are derived from the [[embryo]]nic [[neural crest]] and, as such, are simply modified [[neuron]]s. In particular, they are modified [[postganglionic cell]]s of the [[sympathetic nervous system]] that have lost their [[axon]]s and [[dendrite]]s, receiving innervation from corresponding [[preganglionic fiber]]s. Moreover, as the synapses between pre- and postganglionic fibers are called ''[[autonomic ganglion|ganglia]]'', the adrenal medulla is actually a ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system.
In response to [[stressor]]s such as [[exercise]] or imminent danger, medullary cells release catecholamines into the blood in a 70:30 ratio of epinephrine to norepinephrine. Notable effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine include increased [[heart rate]], [[vasoconstriction|blood vessel constriction]], [[bronchiole]] dilation, and increased [[metabolism]], all of which are characteristic of the [[fight-or-flight response]].
== Adrenal cortex ==
Situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex mediates the stress response through the production of [[mineralocorticoid]]s and [[glucocorticoid]]s, including [[aldosterone]] and [[cortisol]] respectively. It is also a secondary site of [[androgen]] synthesis.
The cortex can be divided into three distinct layers of [[biological tissue|tissue]] based on their organization. The most superficial cortical layer is the [[zona glomerulosa]], which produces [[mineralocorticoid]]s (eg, [[aldosterone]]). Beneath the glomerulosa are the [[zona fasciculata|zonae fasciculata]] and [[zona reticularis|reticularis]], which produce [[glucocorticoid]]s (eg, [[cortisol]]) and weak [[androgen]]s (eg, [[dehydroepiandrosterone]]).
All adrenocortical hormones are synthesised from [[cholesterol]]. Cholesterol is transported into the inner mitochondrial membrane by steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), where it is converted into [[pregnenolone]] by the enzyme CYP11A. Accordingly, production of hormones in all three layers of the adrenal cortex is limited by the transportation of cholesterol into the mitochondria and by its conversion into pregnenolone. Pregnenolone can be either dehydrogenated to [[progesterone]] or hydroxylated to 17-alpha-hydroxypregnenolone. The steps up to this point occur in many steroid-producing tissues. Subsequent steps, however, only occur in the adrenal cortex.
* Progesterone ->(hydroxylation at C21)-> Deoxycorticosterone ->(two further hydroxylations)-> Aldosterone
* Progesterone -> (hydroxylation at C17)-> 17-alpha-hydroxyprogesterone ->(hydroxylation)-> Deoxycortisol ->(hydroxylation)-> Cortisol
The layers of the cortex can be remembered with the [[mnemonic]] ''[[glomerular filtration rate|GFR]]'': '''G''' - ''glomerulosa'', '''F''' - ''fasciculata'', '''R''' - ''reticularis''. Another mnemonic that is used is ''Go Find Rex, Make Good Sex'': '''G''' - ''glomerulosa'', '''F''' - ''fasciculata'', '''R''' - ''reticularis'', '''M''' - ''mineralcorticoids'', '''G''' - ''glucocorticoids'', '''S''' - ''sex hormones''.
===Zona glomerulosa===
The zona glomerulosa is the most superficial layer of the adrenal cortex, lying directly beneath the adrenal gland's capsule. Its cells are arranged in spherical clusters (''glomus'' is [[Latin language|Latin]] for "ball").
In response to increased [[potassium]] levels or decreased blood flow to the kidneys, cells of the zona glomerulosa secrete the mineralocorticoid [[aldosterone]] into the blood as part of the [[renin-angiotensin system]]. Aldosterone regulates the body's concentration of [[electrolyte]]s, primarily [[sodium]] and potassium, by acting on the [[distal convoluted tubule]] of kidney [[nephron]]s to:
* increase sodium reabsorption
* increase potassium [[excretion]]
* increase water reabsorption through [[osmosis]]
===Zona fasciculata===
Cells of the zona fasciculata sit directly beneath the zona glomerulosa and are organized in bundles (or fascicles). The zona chiefly produces glucocorticoids (eg, [[cortisol]]) and a small amount of weak [[androgen]]s (eg, [[dehydroepiandrosterone]]).
Cortical cells responsible for the production of glucocorticoids are the primary effectors of [[adrenocorticotropic hormone]] (ACTH). The [[hypothalamus]] secretes [[corticotropin-releasing hormone]] which stimulates the [[anterior p |
stated "I just won't get down in the gutter with that man". Later, it was revealed that Eisenhower worked behind the scenes to bring McCarthy down.
Eisenhower endorsed the [[Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956]], which created the United States' [[Interstate Highway]]s. It was the largest [[public works]] program in U.S. history, providing a 41,000-mile highway system. Eisenhower had been impressed during the war with the German [[Autobahn]] system, and also recalled his own involvement in a military convoy in 1919 that took 62 days to cross the U.S. Another achievement was a 20% increase in family income during his presidency, of which he was very proud.
[[Image:Eisenhower and Kennedy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Eisenhower and President-elect John F. Kennedy, December, 1960.]]
Eisenhower retained his popularity throughout his presidency. In 1956 he was re-elected by an even wider margin than in 1952, again defeating Stevenson, and carrying such traditional Democratic states as [[Texas]] and [[Tennessee]].
However, there were three [[recessions]] during Eisenhower's administration — July 1953 through May 1954, August 1957 through April 1958, and April 1960 through February 1961. Real [[GDP]] growth averaged just 2.5 percent over those eight years.
Eisenhower had mixed feelings about his Vice President, [[Richard Nixon]], and only reluctantly endorsed him as the Republican candidate at the [[U.S. presidential election, 1960|1960 Presidential election]]. Nixon campaigned against [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] on the great experience he had acquired in eight years as Vice President, but when Eisenhower was asked to name a decision Nixon had been responsible for in that time, he replied (intending a joke): "Give me a week and I might think of something." This was a blow to Nixon, and he blamed Eisenhower for his narrow loss to Kennedy.
===Administration and Cabinet===
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''Dwight D. Eisenhower'''||align="left"|1953&ndash;1961
|-
|align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[Richard Nixon]]'''||align="left"|1953&ndash;1961
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||align="left"|'''[[John Foster Dulles]]'''||align="left"|1953&ndash;1959
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Christian A. Herter]]'''||align="left"|1959&ndash;1961
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[George M. Humphrey]]'''||align="left"|1953&ndash;1957
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Robert B. Anderson]]'''||align="left"|1957&ndash;1961
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||align="left"|'''[[Charles Erwin Wilson|Charles E. Wilson]]'''||align="left"|1953&ndash;1957
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Neil H. McElroy]]'''||align="left"|1957&ndash;1959
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Thomas S. Gates|Thomas S. Gates, Jr.]]'''||align="left"|1959&ndash;1961
|-
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||align="left"|'''[[Herbert Brownell, Jr.]]'''||align="left"|1953&ndash;1957
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William P. Rogers]]'''||align="left"|1957&ndash;1961
|-
|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[Arthur E. Summerfield]]'''||align="left"|1953&ndash;1961
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Douglas McKay]]'''||align="left"|1953&ndash;1956
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Fred A. Seaton]]'''||align="left"|1956&ndash;1961
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||align="left"|'''[[Ezra Taft Benson|Ezra T. Benson]]'''||align="left"|1953&ndash;1961
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||align="left"|'''[[Sinclair Weeks]]'''||align="left"|1953&ndash;1958
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Lewis L. Strauss]]'''||align="left"|1958&ndash;1959
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Frederick H. Mueller]]'''||align="left"|1959&ndash;1961
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||align="left"|'''[[Martin P. Durkin]]'''||align="left"|1953
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[James P. Mitchell]]'''||align="left"|1953&ndash;1961
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare|HEW]]||align="left"|'''[[Oveta Culp Hobby]]'''||align="left"|1953&ndash;1955
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Marion B. Folsom]]'''||align="left"|1955&ndash;1958
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Arthur S. Flemming]]'''||align="left"|1958&ndash;1961
|}
<br clear="all">
===White House staff and advisors===
* [[Emmet John Hughes]]
* [[Sherman Adams]]
* [[James C. Hagerty]]
===Supreme Court appointments===
Eisenhower appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
* [[Earl Warren]] - Chief Justice - 1953
* [[John Marshall Harlan II]] - 1955
* [[William J. Brennan]] - 1956
* [[Charles Evans Whittaker]] - 1957
* [[Potter Stewart]] - 1958
=== States admitted to the Union ===
* [[Alaska]] &ndash; 1959
* [[Hawaii]] &ndash; 1959
==Retirement and death==
[[Image:Eisenhower 62-2-1USN.JPG|thumb|left|Eisenhower with President Kennedy on retreat in 1962.]]
On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised speech from the [[Oval Office]]. In his farewell speech to the nation, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the U.S. armed forces. He described the Cold War saying: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method...A vital element in keeping the peace is our military establishment. Our arms must be mighty, ready for instant action, so that no potential aggressor may be tempted to risk his own destruction."
Earlier in his remarks he had warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals and continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the [[Military-industrial complex]]... Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together."
Once Eisenhower left office his reputation declined, and he was seen as having been a "do-nothing" President. This was partly because of the contrast between Eisenhower and his young, activist successor, John F. Kennedy, but also due to his reluctance to support the civil rights movement or to stop [[McCarthyism]]. Such omissions were held against him during the liberal climate of the 1960s and 1970s. Eisenhower's reputation has risen since that time due to his non-partisan nature, his wartime leadership, his action in Arkansas, his being the last President to balance the budget (before the second Clinton term), and an increasing appreciation of how difficult it is today to maintain a prolonged peace. In [[Historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|recent surveys]] of historians, Eisenhower is often ranked in the top ten among all U.S. Presidents.
Eisenhower is purported to have said that his September 1953 appointment of California Governor Earl Warren as Chief Justice of the United States was "the biggest damn fool mistake I ever made". Some sources place this act on Eisenhower's own list of "My Top Five Lifetime Mistakes". Eisenhower disagreed vigorously with several of Warren's decisions.
Eisenhower retired to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]]. The Gettysburg farm is a [[National Historic Site]] [http://www.nps.gov/eise/]. In retirement, he did not completely retreat from political life; he spoke at the 1964 [[Republican convention]], and also appeared with [[Barry Goldwater]] in a Republican campaign commercial from Gettysburg.[http://livingroomcandidate.movingimage.us/election/index.php?nav_action=election&nav_subaction=overview&campaign_id=168]
[[Image:Eisenhower 67-475-19.jpg|thumb|right|Eisenhower leaving the White House after a visit with President Johnson in 1967.]]
Due to legal issues related to holding a military rank while in a civilian office, Eisenhower resigned his permanent commission as [[General of the Army]] before entering the office of President of the United States. Upon completion of his Presidential term, his commission on the retired list was reactivated and Eisenhower was again commissioned a five star general in the United States |
ng were marketed as 'quality' machines for business use, while the other machines (A500, A500+, A600, A1200) were 'consumer' machines.
* The three most popular low-end models of the Amiga - the 500, 600 and 1200 - each had the name of a [[The B-52's|B-52's]] song written on their [[motherboard]]. The most widely cited reason for this is the designers having been fans of the band. The motherboard of the 500 says "[[Rock Lobster]]", that of the 600 says "[[June Bug (song)|June Bug]]" and that of the 1200 says "[[Channel Z]]". No other models have song names on their motherboards.
* The Amiga 600 was originally supposed to be the Amiga 300, a very low-cost "introductory" model, but in an attempt to cut costs plans from CBM management changed at the last minute, and it was instead marketed as the successor to the 500 and the 500+. The motherboard of the Amiga 600 still says "Amiga 300".
* A common misconception is that before Amiga was sold to Commodore, [[Atari]] was in the running for purchasing the small, [[Los Gatos]]-based company. The misconception further states that after Atari lost the acquisition, it developed the Atari ST to compete with the (then) "Commodore" Amiga.<br/>The truth is that it was Warner's Atari Inc. that had made a deal with Amiga back in 1983 (which can be seen [http://www.atarimuseum.com/articles/mickey.html here]) and not Tramiel's Atari Corp. (which developed the ST). The agreement basically gave Atari Inc. access to the Amiga hardware for their own computer system codenamed "Mickey".<br/>As part of the agreement, Atari would sell "Mickey" (formally the [[Atari 1850XLD]]) as a video game system with no keyboard for 1 year. After that, Atari could then sell a keyboard add-on and sell full blown versions of "Mickey" to the public. Work was started but Atari ran in to the well known financial troubles and Warner wound up breaking up and selling off the parts of Atari Inc.<br/>The consumer division (which included consoles and computers) was sold to former Commodore founder Jack Tramiel. Jack had left Commodore in [[January 1984]] and after taking a short vacation decided to return to the business with his own next generation low cost computer system. So he formed [[Tramiel Technology, Ltd.]] (TTL) with some former Commodore employees and designed what would become known as the ST series of computers. In late [[May 1984]] he purchased Atari Consumer for their manufacturing capabilities and distribution network, which he'd need to manufacture and sell his new computer.<br/>The takeover was completed on [[July 2]]nd, and the truth of the matter is that the ST was 90% finished by the time this occurred. The operating system being the only major work needed to be finished.
Jack and his people had '''no''' idea about the Amiga agreement at the time. When they took over Atari Consumer and formed Atari Corp., all projects were put on hold until they could evaluate them. In the meantime, more engineering and management left Commodore to join up at Jack's new Atari Corp. Within the span of a few weeks, several major occurrences happened.
# In late July, Commodore filed suit against Jack for stealing trade secrets because of this influx of former Commodore employees.
# Commodore bought Amiga.
# During the project evaluations, the Tramiel's discovered Atari Inc.'s previous agreement with Amiga and used it to launch a countersuit against Commodore via Amiga on [[August 13]]th.<br/>All suits were eventually dropped and/or settled out of court.
* [[Steve Jobs]] was shown the original prototype for the first Amiga (Amiga 1000) before it had been purchased by Commodore, and said there was "too much hardware". He was working on [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] at the time.
* Two of the designers of the original Amiga, [[RJ Mical]] and [[Dave Needle]], would later go on to design the [[Atari Lynx]], giving it a framebuffer based display with a blitter very similar to that in the Amiga. The two would also go on to work on the [[3DO Interactive Multiplayer]].
* When [[Great Valley Products]] first released their [[68030]] accelerator board for the Amiga 2000, it ran Apple's MacOS faster than any real Mac. Apple soon caught up, though.
==See also==
*[[AmigaOS]]
*[[Amiga demos]]
*[[Amiga games]]
*[[Unix Amiga Emulator]]
*[[SCA virus]]
*[[Gateway 2000]]
*[[List of arcade games ports to Amiga]]
==References==
*[[John J. Anderson]], "Amiga Lorraine: finally, the 'next generation Atari'?" ''[[Creative Computing]]'', April 1984 [http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n4/150_Amiga_Lorraine_finally_.php]
*[[Dave Haynie]]. "The Amiga A3000+ System Specification". 1991 DevCon Release. July 17, 1991. [http://www.thule.no/haynie/research/a3000p/docs/a3000p.pdf]
==External links==
===News and discussions===
*[http://www.amiga.org/ Amiga.org]
*[http://www.amigaworld.net/ Amigaworld.net] - Official support forum for the [[AmigaOne]].
*[http://www.ann.lu/ ANN]
*[http://obligement.free.fr/ Obligement] - magazine about AmigaOS and MorphOS.
*[http://www.classicamiga.com/ ClassicAmiga.com] - Amiga game database and discussion forum.
*[http://www.lemonamiga.com/ Lemon Amiga] - A friendly Amiga community mostly focusing on games.
*[http://www.abime.net/ Abime.net] - Amiga addicts sanctuary, an Amiga community.
*[http://www.the-amiga-zone.com/ The Amiga Zone] - Amiga emulation and discussion forum.
===Software===
*[http://os.amigaworld.de/index.php?lang=en AmigaOS] - Unofficial AmigaOS Support Homepage
*[http://www.aminet.net/ Aminet] - Public domain and freely available software for AmigaOS.
*[http://www.os4depot.net/ OS4Depot] - Unofficial repository for AmigaOS 4.x software.
*[http://amiga.sourceforge.net/ Amiga.sf] - Your source to Amiga ports.
===Links directory===
* [http://amp.dascene.net/links.php A big Amiga web directory]
===Link pages===
*[http://www.amigarealm.com/ Amiga Realm] - Amiga Internet Directory Service and Archive Resource.
*[http://amiga1200.deviantart.com/ Amiga Links List] - A 'Best of' List of Useful Amiga Links
===History===
*[http://www.amigahistory.co.uk/ Amiga History Guide]
*[http://haynie.amigaworld.de/ The Dave Haynie Archives]
*[http://braeburn.ath.cx/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=1&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0 The History of the Amiga]
*[http://www.amiga.org/modules/xoopsfaq/index.php?cat_id=4#q16 Amiga.org] links
===Other===
*[http://os4.hyperion-entertainment.biz AmigaOS 4.0] - Official OS4 site from Hyperion Entertainment.
*[http://www.freiburg.linux.de/~uae UAE] - UAE Amiga Emulator.
*[http://www.winuae.net WinUAE] - Official Windows port of UAE.
*[http://amp.dascene.net Amiga Music Preservation] - All about the Amiga Audio/Module/Protracker/Mods/Modules scene.
*[http://www.amigawiki.com Amiga Wiki]
*[http://www.blazemonger.com/BM/ BLAZEMONGER] - Amiga humor.
*[http://www.pouet.net Pouet] - A demoscene portal.
*[http://ada.planet-d.net Amiga Demoscene Archive] - Demoscene portal entirely dedicated to Amiga.
*[http://www.amiga-hardware.com/ The Big Book of Amiga Hardware]
*[http://www.softpres.org/ The Software Preservation Society] - Dedicated to the preservation of classic software for the Amiga and other platforms.
*[http://amiga.resource.cx/ The Amiga Hardware Database] - Collection of Amiga hardware expansions and the Amiga models.
*[http://www.jamesalanpatterson.com/amiga.html Jim's Amiga Commercial Page!] - Watch original Amiga commercials.
*[http://hol.abime.net/ Hall Of Light] - The database of Amiga games.
*[http://powerup.amigaworld.de/index.php?lang=en PowerUP] - Unofficial PowerUP Support Homepage.
*[http://grex.amigaworld.de/index.php?lang=en G-Rex PCI] - Unofficial G-Rex PCI Support Homepage.
*[http://www.amiganostalgia.com AmigaNostalgia] - Retro software for all your emulation needs.
{{CBM computers}}
[[Category:Home computers]]
[[Category:Personal computers]]
[[Category:Commodore Amiga|*Amiga]]
[[Category:CBM hardware]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asbestos</title>
<id>1981</id>
<revision>
<id>42044311</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:16:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.75.122.74</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cleanup and the environment */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This page is about the group of minerals. For the locations in [[Quebec]], see [[Asbestos, Quebec|Asbestos]] and [[Asbestos Regional County Municipality, Quebec|Asbestos Regional County Municipality]]}}
[[Image:Asbestos with muscovite.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Fibrous asbestos on [[muscovite]]]]
[[Image:Asbestos2USGOV.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Asbestos]]
[[Image:Asbestos3USGOV.jpg|thumb|200px|Asbestos]]
'''Asbestos''' (a misapplication of [[Latin]]: ''asbestos'' "[[quicklime]]" from [[Greek language|Greek]] ἄσβεστος: a-, "not"; sbestos, "extinguishable") describes any of a group of fibrous [[metamorphic rock|metamorphic mineral]]s of the [[hydrous]] [[magnesium]] [[silicate]] variety. The name is derived for its historical use in lamp wicks; the resistance of asbestos to fire has long been exploited for a variety of purposes. It was used in fabrics such as [[Egypt]]ian burial cloths and [[Charlemagne]]'s tablecloth, which, according to legend, he threw in a fire to clean. Asbestos occurs naturally in many forms (see below); it is mined from metamorphic deposits.
When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or heat, the fibers are typically mixed with [[cement]] or woven into fabric or mats. It is used in [[brake]] shoes and [[gasket]]s for it |
the era was 'power without the price'.
For this reason the ST was most popular in Europe, especially in Germany. Also, the famously very crisp, 640 by 400 pixels picture of its [[monochrome|black & white]] monitor (and unusually steady/easy on the eyes - for the time - 70 Hz refresh rate) made it popular for small-office applications. In fact, an Atari ST and reasonable [[terminal emulation]] software was much cheaper than a [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital]] [[VT220]] terminal, which was normally needed by offices with central computers.
== The enhanced STs ==
For about the first four years, nothing much had changed in the capabilities of the ST [[platform (computing)|platform]], except for new machines being released with greater RAM, and quietly introduced upgrades to the built-in TOS ROMs ('quietly', as they resolved various bugs or added 'missing' features that Atari didn't exactly wish to shout about), from the basic but functional v1.00 of 1985 through to the 'final' (for non-STE or Mega models) and much improved v1.04 'Rainbow TOS' of 1989 (named for the VCS-like scrolling colour bars in the Atari logo found in the top corner of the desktop and in the 'About' screen). In late [[1989]], [[Atari]] released the '''ST<sup>E</sup>''' (also written '''STE''') &mdash; a version of the ST with improvements to the multimedia hardware and operating system.
The STE featured an increased colour palette of 4096 colours from the ST's 512 (though the maximum displayable palette of these without programming tricks was still limited to 16 in the lowest 320x200 resolution), and a new graphics accelerator hardware [[Blitter]] which could quickly move large blocks of data (most particularly, graphics sprites) around in RAM. It also included a new 2-channel digital sound-chip that, like the Amiga, could play 8-bit stereo samples in hardware at up to 50 kHz (the [[General Instruments AY-3-8912|Yamaha YM2149]] could only be coaxed into playing samples by means of software trickery, and then only low-quality 4-bit mono at low sample rates). Two analogue joystick-ports were added (two normal joysticks could be plugged into each port with an adaptor), with all four connectors now being relocated to more easily accessed locations on the side of the case, and RAM was now much more simply upgradable via [[SIMM]]s (previous upgrades requiring soldering new circuit boards or tricky snap-on "piggyback" chips). Despite all of this, it still ran at 8&nbsp;[[megahertz|MHz]], and the enhanced hardware was clearly designed to catch up with, rather than improve upon the standard of the Amiga.
The '''STE''' models initially had serious operating system and hardware addressing conflicts resulting in many [[Application software|application]]s and [[computer game|games]] written for the ST line being unstable or even completely unusable (sometimes, this could be solved by expanding the RAM). To make matters worse, the built in floppy disk drives could not read as many tracks on a floppy disk as the built in floppy disk drives on older models. While this was not a problem for most users, some games used the extra tracks as a crude form of copy protection and as a means of cramming more data on the disk, and formatting as many as 86 tracks on an '80 track' disc was a common space-expanding option in custom formatting utilities. Furthermore, even having a joystick plugged in would sometimes cause strange behaviour with a few applications (such as ''[[First Word Plus]]'').
Very little use was made of the extra features of the STE: STE-enhanced and STE-only software was rare, generally being limited to serious art, CAD or music applications, with few enough even semi-major games taking advantage that they could be counted on your fingers. Quality did, however, seem to substitute for quantity, as the coders who took advantage of the new abilities used them to their fullest (STE-only is as common as STE-enhanced, representing software that would have taken enough of a hit being 'downgraded' to a vanilla machine as to not be worth using). Look in external links for Atari STE fanpage, there you will find what software uses special Atari STE features.
Atari went on to release the [[Atari MEGA STE|Mega STE]], an STE in a grey TT case that ran at a switchable 16&nbsp;MHz, with extended video modes similar to some of those available on the TT or Falcon, high density (1.44 MB) floppy disc drive, and an optional built-in 3.5-inch hard disc. It also shipped with TOS v2.06, that offered some basic cosmetic tweaks to the desktop environment that seemed mainly in order to show off the new capabilities (coloured window elements, program icons as well as drives being placable on the desktop, desktop backgrounds, speed switch), no doubt with a good deal of less obvious tweaking to solve continuing compatibility issues.
At some time during the early '90s, the development of the ST-type computer line forked. On one branch was the high-end workstation-oriented [[Atari TT|TT]] (including the classic 32 MHz, 68030-based TT030 and the newer, less popular 40 MHz TT040), and on the other was the entertainment-oriented [[Atari Falcon|Falcon]] (also 68030-based, operating at only 16 MHz, but with improved video modes and extensive custom chip provision, particularly high quality audio DSPs) &mdash; both of which were supposed to be ST compatible, but not particularly compatible with each other. By then, the Atari ST platform was dying and neither of these two machines took off in anything like the quantities that were hoped. Atari's legendarily bad development and marketing strategies did little to help matters, effectively condemning numerous very technically accomplished but commercially stillborn computers to a premature demise.
Following the implosion of Atari Corp and its dissolution as a going concern in the hardware manufacturing field (the name - along with debts and warehouses of increasingly obsolete stock - being sold on to many holders before ending up in the hands of Mattel), [[Medusa Computer Systems]] manufactured some powerful 3rd-party Atari Falcon/TT-compatible machines that used [[68040]] and [[68060]] processors, based around multimedia (particularly audio but also video), CAD and office uses. Similarly to Amiga, various hardware revivals along similar lines have been mooted, since by other manufacturers, then abandoned.
== Future of the platform ==
Despite the lack of a hardware supplier and commercial software vendors, there is a small active community dedicated to keeping the ST platform alive. There have been advancements in the operating system, software emulators (for Windows, Mac & Linux), and some hardware developments. There are accelerator cards, such as the CT60 & CT63, which is a (much needed) [[68060]] based accelerator card for the Falcon, and there is the [[Atari Coldfire Project]], which aims at developing an Atari-clone based on the [[Coldfire]] processor.
== Software ==
The ST was the first [[home computer]] with built-in MIDI ports, and there was plenty of MIDI-related software for use professionally in music studios, or by amateur enthusiasts. The popular Windows/Macintosh application ''[[Cubase]]'' originated on the Atari ST.
Music [[tracker]] software was popular on the ST, such as the ''[[The Carebears Demo Crew|TCB]] Tracker'', aiding the production of both surprisingly high quality music from the Yamaha synthesizer ('chiptunes') and Amiga-aping (if scratchy-sounding on non-STEs) 'module'-type sample driven pieces.
An innovative music composition program that combined the sample playing abilities of a tracker with conventional music notation (which was usually only found in MIDI software) was called ''Quartet'' (after it's 4-note polyphonic tracker, which displayed one monophonic stave at a time on colour screens).
Also popular on the ST was professional [[Desktop publishing]] software, such as ''Calamus''; office tools such as word processors and spreadsheets; and various CAD and CAM tools from amateur hobbyist to professional grade, all being largely targeted or even limited to high resolution monochrome-monitor owners. Several art programs were available for the system, despite its relatively limited abilities (Neopaint, Degas & Degas Elite, Canvas, Deluxe Paint, Cyberpaint, etc), many featuring surprisingly advanced features such as 3D design, animation, and palette switching tricks for extra on-screen colours (most especially Spectrum512, which boasted an ability to allow every single available colour to be on-screen at once, and up to 46 in each scan line - the STE never had a Spectrum4096, but other more minor applications filled this speciality niche, one even going so far as to trick the shifter into displaying a maximum 19200 colours).
Some arguably over-ambitious (but ultimately functional) arts software was available for the machine, including dedicated 3D modellers, several raytracers (full screen, true colour renders of complex scenes could literally take days to compute for a single frame, and were only viewable with the aforementioned special packages), and even video capture and editing applications using special video capture 'dongles' connected using the cartridge port - low frame rate, mainly silent and monochrome, but progressing to sound and basic colour (in still frames) by the end of the machine's life.
There were many software development tools available for the Atari ST: 68000 assemblers, Pascal and C compilers, and novelty tools such as ''[[Shoot'Em-Up Construction Kit|SEUCK]]''. The ST came bundled with a disk that contained amongst other things ''[[ST BASIC]]'', the first BASIC for the ST. However, due to its poor quality, it was eventually replaced by other BASICs, such as ''[[GFA BASIC]]'', FaST BASIC (notable for being one of the few programs to actually be supplied as a ROM cartridge instead of on disc) and the relativ |
r information on the military capabilities of the [[non-recognized nations|de facto]] [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]], see [[Turkish Cypriot Security Force]]
== Conscription ==
''See main article:'' [[Conscription in Cyprus]]
Military service in the [[Republic of Cyprus]] is mandatory for males. The minimum obligatory service period is 18 months.
All male visitors to the island of military age (16 and over) who have a father of Cypriot extraction are required to obtain an exit visa from a Defence Ministry office.
== Equipment ==
The [[United States of America]] has an arms embargo on any recent US weapons being used by either side. The Greek Cypriot side was recently criticised for acquiring a self-propelled artillery guns (subsequently returned) from the Greek National Army for breaching this embargo.
The Turkish Cypriot side, which controls approximately 38% of the island, has also been heavily criticised for numerous breaches of the embargo.
Standard Infantry equipment used in Cyprus is the G3 Automatic rifle, both by Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot Forces.
[[Image:G3a.jpg|thumb|left|Rifle Training with the G3]]
== Main Battle Tanks ==
* '''AMX30 - (Type: AMX30-B2)'''
[[Image:ARMY_PICS_AMXB2.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot AMX30-B2]]
The French made AMX 30 B2 has been in the arsenal of the Cyprus National Guard since the [[1980s]]. Currently the AMX 30 B2 has undergone several upgrades since its original purpose, none of which is more impressive than the ability to fight in all conditions. Night time fighting ability and the ability to fire while in motion make this main battle tank a worthy opponent on the field of battle.
Most notable of all is that the Cyprus National Guard maintains these vehicles in excellent condition. As a result of their high degree of readiness, and all the upgrades over the years, this tank is capable of continuing its role as the main battle tank of choice for Cypriot field commanders. It might not be as flashy as the T-80U, but its a better work horse in battle.
* [[T-80]] ('''Type: T-80U''')
[[Image:ARMY_PICS_T80.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot T-80U]] [[Image:T80 in field.jpg|thumb|right|Cypriot T-80U during the Nikiforos Training Exercise]]
The T-80U is a next generation platform of armor, which is equivalent in its lethality to all other armor options in the European theatre. Capability of firing both anti-tank missiles and projectiles while moving, the T-80U represents the most durable and capable defensive weapon that the Cypriots have in case of a military conflict.
The T-80U has a crew of three.
* [[M48]] ('''Type: M48A5''', belonging to the Greek Army, stationed in Cyprus)
[[Image:M48A5-2.jpg|thumb|Right|A M48A5 Battle Tank]]
Armament: 1 - 105mm M68 rifled gun
1 - 7.62mm coaxial MG
1 - 12.7mm AA MG
Engine: Continental, AVDS-1790-2D, V-12, diesel super-
charged, 750 hp
Speed; 30 mph
Range: 300 miles
Crew: 4
Weight: 50 tons
This model used the 105mm M68 gun of the M60 tank as well as the diesel engine. The large cupola of the earlier M48s was replaced with an Israeli designed low profile version. Suspension and tracks were upgraded. No longer in service in the U.S. Upgraded by many allied countries to the M60 standard. Final model of the M48 line.
* '''EE-9 Cascavel'''
[[Image:ARMY_PICS_CASCAVEL.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot Cascavel Light Tank]]
In the late 1990's Brazil began to flex its muscles in the weapons market, and one of the results was the introduction of the EE-9 Cascavel to the Cyprus National Guard. The Cascavel is in essence an all-purpose armored vehicle. It can be used to spearhead an attack, or it can be used as a purely defensive weapon, depending on the scenario.
The small frame of the Cascavel makes it difficult to square off with a main battle tank, but that was never its purpose. The Cascavel is meant to give infantry just the right amount of protection to complete its mission. A crew of three mans this vehicle.
== Armoured Personnel Carriers ==
* [[BMP-3]]
[[Image:ARMY_PICS_BMP3.jpg|left|thumb|Cypriot BMP-33]] [[Image:dug-in BMP3.jpg|thumb|right|BMP-3 in cover position during Nikiforos Training Exercise]]
The BMP-3 has been around for over four decades, and has gone through three major variations, the -1, -2 and -3 variants. The latest variant is the BMP-3, which has both troop transport capability, as well as anti-tank and as well as anti-personnel capability. It is also fully amphibious. 10 fully armed soldiers can be transported in this armored infantry vehicle.
The BMP-3 program aims to increase the ability of the Cyprus National Guard to be rapidly mobile in response to the needs of battle. The crew of the BMP-3 includes one driver, and a gunner.
* [[Leonidas]] (APC Designed and Manufactured in Greece)
[[Image:ARMY_PICS_LEONIDAS.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot Leonidas AIFV]]
Developed by a consortium that includes [[Daimler Steyr]] and the [[Hellenic Defence Industry]] (EBO), the "Leonidas" armored infantry fighting vehicle, or AIFV, is the backbone of both the [[Greek Army]] and the Cypriot National Guard. The "Leonidas" can carry 12 fully armed soldiers into battle.
The "Leonidas" is also the progenitor of the "[[Kentauros]]" next generation AIFV that Greece is developing, hoping to capture an export market. "Kentauros" is meant to match the capabilities of the American Bradley AIFV which has seen use in both the first and second Persian [[Gulf war]].
The "Leonidas" has a crew of two.
* [[VAP]]('''Type: VAB VCI''')
[[Image:ARMY_PICS_VAB-VCI.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot VAB-VCI type]]
The French firm [[GIAT]] thought of putting a 30mm anti-infantry gun on top of a VAB troop transport, and the Cyprus National Guard liked that idea and inducted the VAB VCI Variant into its ranks. As a reconnaissance vehicle, the VAB VCI allows for rapid entrance and exit to the field of battle, and the ability with its 30mm gun to do severe damage to soft targets like radar emplacements and low flying objects like helicopters.
The Cyprus National Guard retains high degrees of war-time information gathering capabilities by having weapons like the VAB VCI on hand. The VAB VCI can also transport 8 fully armed me into battle in addition to a driver, a navigator and a gun operator.
* [[VAP]] ('''Type: VAB NG''')
[[Image:ARMY_PICS_VAB NG.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot VAB NG Type]]
The VAB NG has about 1400 improvements from the original model, and the Cyprus National Guard is in the process of making the transition to the NG standard. The VAB NG can carry up to 12 armed soldiers into battle, including a driver and a navigator. The VAB is a product of the French firm GIAT, and is a completely amphibious vehicle, with all terrain capability.
The Cyprus National Guard uses the VAB as a robust troop transporting workhorse, usually in conjunction with the need to pull large transport dollies for water, fuel and ammunition. In this capacity the VAB resembles more a donkey on wheels.
== Mobile Anti-Tank Weapons ==
* '''VAB with''' [[MILAN-3]] '''AT Missile'''
[[Image:ARMY_PICS_VAB-MILAN.jpg|thumb|left|Fully Loaded VAB with 4 MILAN Tubes]]
In the mid-[[1990s]], France's GIAT announced it had developed a new variant of the MILAN anti-tank missile. The variant, known as MILAN-3 was capable of out smarting anti-missile defences, and was capable of destroying armored targets with reactive armor, the latest defence against anti-tank missiles at that time.
GIAT placed the MILAN-3 on top of their already popular VAB troop carrier, and the Cyprus National Guard inducted this lethal defensive weapon into its arsenal. To date only [[Cyprus]], [[France]] and two other countries utilize the VAB MILAN-3 platform.
The VAB Milan-3 can carry 8 troops into battle, with an additional crew of three to drive, navigate and fire the main weapon (MILAN-3)
* '''EE-3 Jararaca with MILAN-3 AT Missile'''
[[Image:ARMY_PICS_Jararaca.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot Jararaca with one MILAN-3 AT Missile]]
Remember earlier when we mentioned the VAB+MILAN-3 combination and how lethal it can be... now imagine placing that kind of firepower on a vehicle with increased fuel efficiency, endurance and speed... what you get is the Jararaca Anti-Tank variant with MILAN-3 launcher.
Each vehicle has a crew of two only, one driver, one gunner. Each vehicle can carry up to 7 (one already loaded, six in the cabin) MILAN-3 missiles. The Cyprus National Guard uses this vehicle as a scout to search and destroy enemy armor.
== Airforce ==
The Republic of Cyprus has no airforce in terms of fighter and bomber airplanes. It mainly consists of Helicopters (both Transport Helicopters and Attack Helicopters), radar systems and major anti-aircraft systems. In terms of Airplanes, two photo-reconnaissance planes are operated, however one of them was lost in a training accident in September 2005 with both pilots dead.
The most tragic accident however occurred on the [[10th July]] [[2002]], when a transport helicopter crashed, killing all five passengers. Within the passengers was the Commander of the National Guard, Lieutenant General Evangelos Florakis. The other four were the Commander of Cypriot Air Force Brigadier Stelios Demenegas, Lieutenant Nikos Georgiou and the two helicopter pilots, Flight Lieutenant Paris Athanasiades and Flank Officer Michalis Shiakallis.
* '''Gazelle Helicopter With HOT AT Missile'''
[[Image:ARMY_PICS_GAZELLE.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot Gazelle Helicopter in Helipad]]
In the late 1980's Cyprus purchased these scout helicopters from France with the purpose of using them for advanced scout missions for search and destroy scenarios. Each Gazelle can carry four HOT missiles into battle.
The HOT missile platform is an older anti-tank missile platform, but it serves the pur |
/www.fisheries.org/ned/chapters/newyork/ New York Chapter]of the American Fisheries Society
*[http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/ National Oceanographic Documentation Center (NOAA)]
*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=aquaculture&search_crit=title&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Aquaculture]
*[http://www.calacademy.org/research/ichthyology/catalog/ A CATALOG OF THE SPECIES OF FISHES] at California Academy of Sciences, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California.
*[http://www.stir.ac.uk/aqua/ INSTITUTE OF AQUACULTURE] at the University of Stirling in the United Kingdom. "an international research and post-graduate training centre which is the largest of its kind in the world."
*[http://www.fishing4info.com/ FISHING FOR INFORMATION HOME PAGE]: Guide to on-line resources in aquaculture, fisheries and aquatic science
*[http://www.asf.ca/ Atlantic Salmon Federation] an international non-profit organization which promotes the conservation and wise management of the Atlantic salmon and its environment.
*[http://www.nalms.org/ North American Lake Management Society]
*[http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/ Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, Massachusetts]
*[http://www.atinet.org Advanced Technology Information Network (Calif Ag Tech Institute)]
*[http://www.cce.cornell.edu CENET, the Cornell Extension NETwork]
*[http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Issues/Lough%20Swilly.html Geographyinaction - Lough Swilly, Ireland example]
*[http://www.imagomundi.org/area-mt/ Aquaculture Resources for Ethno-Anthropologists] News mirror service in the field of aquaculture with focus on his social effects
[[Category:Edible fish]]
[[Category:Fisheries science|Aquaculture]]
[[Category:Hydrography|Aquaculture]]
[[Category:Physical oceanography|Aquaculture]]
[[Category:Sustainability|Aquaculture]]
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[cs:Akvakultura]]
[[de:Aquakultur]]
[[fr:Aquaculture]]
[[he:חקלאות ימית]]
[[nl:Aquacultuur]]
[[no:Akvakultur]]
[[pt:Aquacultura]]
[[simple:Aquaculture]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Kolmogorov complexity</title>
<id>1635</id>
<revision>
<id>40588783</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T17:38:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CSTAR</username>
<id>61089</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Chaitin's incompleteness theorem */ It's not proof of Berry's paradox, but a construction in Berry's paradox.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], the '''Kolmogorov complexity''' (also known as '''descriptive complexity''', '''Kolmogorov-Chaitin complexity''', '''stochastic complexity''', '''algorithmic entropy''', or '''program-size complexity''') of an object such as a piece of text is a measure of the computational resources needed to specify the object. For example consider the following two [[string (computer science)|string]]s of length 100
0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
1100100001100001110111101110110011111010010000100101011110010110001101111111010001100011011001110111
The first string admits a short [[English language]] description namely "50 repetitions of '01'". The second one has no obvious simple description other than writing down the string itself.
More formally, the complexity of a string is the length of the string's shortest description in some fixed description language. The sensitivity of complexity relative to the choice of description language is discussed below. It can be shown that the Kolmogorov complexity of any string cannot be too much larger than the length of the string itself. Strings whose Kolmogorov complexity is small relative to the string's size are not considered to be complex.
The notion of Kolmogorov complexity is surprisingly deep and can be used to state and prove impossibility results akin to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] and [[halting problem|Turing's halting problem]].
Algorithmic information theory is the area of computer science that studies Kolmogorov complexity and other complexity measures on strings (or other [[data structure]]s). The field was developed by [[Andrey Kolmogorov]], [[Ray Solomonoff]] and [[Gregory Chaitin]] starting in the late [[1960s]]. There are several variants of Kolmogorov complexity or algorithmic information. The most widely used one is based on self-delimiting programs and is mainly due to [[Leonid Levin]] (1974).
== Definition==
To define Kolmogorov complexity, we must first specify a description language for strings. Such a description language can be based on a programming language such as [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], or [[Java virtual machine]] bytecode. If '''P''' is a program which outputs a string ''x'', then '''P''' is a description of ''x''. The length of the description is just the length of '''P''' as a character string. In determining the length of '''P''', the lengths of any subroutines used in '''P''' must be accounted for. The length of any integer constant ''n'' which occurs in the program '''P''' is the number of bits required to represent ''n'', that is (roughly) log<sub>2</sub>''n''.
We could alternatively choose an encoding for [[Turing machine|Turing machines]] (TM), where an ''encoding'' is a function which associates to each TM '''M''' a bitstring <'''M'''>. If '''M''' is a TM which on input ''w'' outputs string ''x'', then the concatenated string <'''M'''> ''w'' is a description of ''x''. For theoretical analysis, this approach is more suited for constructing detailed formal proofs and is generally preferred in the research literature. In this article we will use an informal approach.
Fix a description language. Any string ''s'' has at least one description, namely the program
'''function''' GenerateFixedString()
'''return''' ''s''
Among all the descriptions of ''s'', there is one with shortest length denoted ''d''(''s''). In case there is more than one program of the same minimal length, choose one arbitrarily, for example selecting the lexicographically first among them. ''d''(''s'') is the '''minimal description''' of ''s''. The '''Kolmogorov complexity''' of ''s'', written ''K''(''s''), is
:<math>K(s) = |d(s)|. \quad </math>
In the other words, ''K''(''s'') is the length of the minimal description of ''s''.
We now consider how the choice of description language affects the value of ''K'' and show that the effect of changing the description language is bounded.
'''Theorem'''. If ''K''<sub>1</sub> and ''K''<sub>2</sub> are the complexity functions relative to description languages ''L''<sub>1</sub> and ''L''<sub>2</sub>, then there is a constant ''c'' (which depends only on the languages ''L''<sub>1</sub> and ''L''<sub>2</sub>) such that
: <math> |K_1(s) - K_2(s)| \leq c, \quad \forall s </math>
By symmetry, it suffices to prove that there is some constant ''c'' such that for all bitstrings ''s'',
: <math> K_1(s) \leq K_2(s) + c. </math>
To see why this is so, there is a program in the language ''L''<sub>1</sub> which acts as an [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] for ''L''<sub>2</sub>:
'''function''' InterpretLanguage('''string''' ''p'')
where ''p'' is a program in ''L''<sub>2</sub>. The interpreter is characterized by the following property:
: Running InterpretLanguage on input ''p'' returns the result of running ''p''.
Thus if '''P''' is a program in ''L''<sub>2</sub> which is a minimal description of ''s'', then InterpretLanguage('''P''') returns the string ''s''. The length of this description of ''s'' is the sum of
# The length of the program InterpretLanguage, which we can take to be the constant ''c''.
# The length of '''P''' which by definition is ''K''<sub>2</sub>(''s'').
This proves the desired upper bound.
See also [[invariance theorem]].
==Basic results==
In the following, we will fix one definition and simply write ''K''(''s'') for the complexity of the string ''s''.
It is not hard to see that the minimal description of a string cannot be too much larger than the string itself: the program GenerateFixedString above that outputs ''s'' is a fixed amount larger than ''s''.
'''Theorem'''. There is a constant ''c'' such that
:<math> K(s) \leq |s| + c, \quad \forall s </math>
The first surprising result is that there is no way to effectively compute ''K''.
'''Theorem'''. ''K'' is not a [[computable function]].
In other words, there is no program which takes a string ''s'' as input and produces the integer ''K''(''s'') as output. We show this by contradiction. Suppose there is a program
'''function''' KolmogorovComplexity('''string''' ''s'')
that takes as input a string ''s'' and returns ''K''(''s''). Now consider the program
'''function''' GenerateComplexString('''int''' ''n'')
'''for''' i = 1 to infinity:
'''for''' each string s of length exactly i
'''if''' KolmogorovComplexity(''s'') >= ''n''
'''return''' ''s''
'''quit'''
This program calls KolmogorovComplexity as a subroutine. This program tries every string, starting with the shortest, until it finds a string with complexity at least ''n'', then returns that string. Therefore, given any positive integer ''n'', it produces a string with Kolmogorov complexity at least as great as ''n''. The program itself has a fixed length ''U''. The input to the program GenerateComplexString is an integer ''n''; here, the size of ''n'' is measured by the number of bits required to represent ''n'' which is log<sub>2</sub>(''n''). Now consider the following program:
'''f |
ment by getting a false claim allowed or paid;
# Falsely certifying the type or amount of property to be used by the Government;
# Certifying receipt of property on a document without completely knowing that the information is true;
# Knowingly buying Government property from an unauthorized officer of the Government, and;
# Knowingly making, using, or causing to be made or used a false record to avoid, or decrease an obligation to pay or transmit property to the Government.
== 1986 changes ==
(False Claims Act Amendments of 1986, Pub. L. 99-562, Oct. 27, 1986, 100 Stat. 3153)
# The elimination of the "government possession of information" bar against [[qui tam]] lawsuits;
# The establishment of defendant liability for "deliberate ignorance" and "reckless disregard" of the truth;
# Restoration of the "[[burden of proof|preponderance of the evidence]]" standard for all elements of the claim including damages;
# Imposition of treble damages and civil fines of $5,000 to $10,000 per false claim;
# Increased rewards for qui tam plaintiffs of between 15-30 percent of the funds recovered from the defendant;
# Defendant payment of the successful plaintiff's expenses and attorney's fees, and;
# Employment protection for whistleblowers including reinstatement with seniority status, special damages, and double back pay.
== See also ==
*[[U.S. false claims law (in depth)]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.taf.org Taxpayers Against Fraud]
*[http://www.falseclaimslaw.com FalseClaimsLaw.Com]
*[http://www.solari.com/gideon/ False Claims Law Abuse]
*[http://www.quitamonline.com/ Qui Tam your False claims Act Source]
*[http://www.ffhsj.com/quitam/cfc.htm Civil False Claims/Qui Tam Page]
*[http://www.expertlaw.com/library/pubarticles/Employment/qui-tam.html How a Qui Tam Whistleblower Case Works]
[[Category:United States federal legislation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>United States false claims law</title>
<id>11663</id>
<revision>
<id>39821875</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T02:18:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>POV-part</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''The following is an '''in-depth review of false claims law''' in the [[United States]]; an [[False Claims Law|introductory article]] is also available.''
The [[United States]] [[General Accounting Office]] (GAO) estimates that medical [[fraud]] and abuse approaches 10% of all health care expenditures or $100 billion dollars. To reduce this figure, the [[Justice Department]] and private litigators have used the [[False Claims Act]] (FCA) as the fraud fighting weapon of choice. Private litigators are given standing to file civil suit on the Federal government's behalf by the FCA's ''qui tam'', or ''[[whistleblower]]'' provisions. ''Qui tam'' is short for ''qui tam pro domino rege quam pro se ipso in hac parte sequitur'' or "he who brings the action for the king as well as for himself [sic]."
These provisions gained renewed public attention following the False Claims Act Amendments Act of [[1986]]. The 1986 Amendments made it easier for ''qui tam'' relators to file claims and increased the rewards for doing so. Initially, the FCA was used to fight [[defense contractor]] fraud, but it was soon applied to other areas of government spending, including Medicare and Medicaid.
The ''qui tam'' provisions' growing application to medical fraud reflects their effectiveness. In 1988, medical fraud recoveries, using the ''qui tam'' provisions, amounted to a mere one percent of the total ''qui tam'' recoveries, with the majority defense-related. By 1993, that total had grown to 46 percent and has remained over one third of total ''qui tam'' recoveries ever since.
The following summarizes the ''qui tam'' lawsuit from [[plaintiff]] and [[defendant]] perspectives. First, there is a brief review of the history and current scope of the False Claims Act. Second, the elements of a ''qui tam'' action are examined. Third, some strategies for those institutions and individuals who are actual or potential defendants in a ''qui tam'' action are suggested. In conclusion, there is an exploration of the reaction of the health care industry to this powerful law and possible future developments.
== Qui tam's origins ==
In the United States, laws dating back to 1790 authorized private citizens to sue on behalf of the Federal Government. However, the FCA statute being used today passed in March [[1863]], following Congressional reaction to fraud perpetrated by [[Union Army]] suppliers. The triggering incident occurred when a key Union position was jeopardized by the delivery of rifle and ammunition boxes containing only sawdust.
Known as the [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] Law, defendants shown to have defrauded the government faced penalties of double the damages suffered by the government plus a $2,000 civil penalty per false claim. The ''qui tam'' relator received half of the recovered amount.
In [[1943]], Congress amended the FCA following a multitude of "parasitic" lawsuits in which plaintiffs sued based on information already in the government's possession. The Congressional changes barred use of information in the public record and lowered the reward to between ten and 25 percent of any recovery. As a result, until Congress changed the law in 1986, few ''qui tam'' cases were filed.
During the [[1980s]] defense buildup, reports of $400 hammers and $800 toilet seats led Congress to revise the statute. The 1986 FCA amendments raised the reward for ''qui tam'' plaintiffs to between 15 and 30 percent of the recovery, eased restrictions on the use of public information, and inserted provisions to allow the plaintiff to recover damages stemming from workplace retaliation. As a result, ''qui tam'' lawsuits dramatically increased.
== The scope of the False Claims Act ==
The FCA is broadly applicable to almost any situation where federal dollars are involved. Given the Act's current structure it seems that categories of ''qui tam'' cases will grow--limited only by the ''qui tam'' plaintiff's tenacity and ingenuity. This possibility is reflected in the many categories of cases resulting in ''qui tam'' recoveries including, but not limited to:
* failures to report fraud;
* education grants;
* housing programs;
* emergency relief programs;
* fraudulent pre-selection of beneficiaries for Federal programs;
* defense contracting;
* agriculture support programs;
* false certifications of compliance with environmental laws;
* vehicle parts suppliers; and
* Medicare/Medicaid fraud.
Subcategories of medical fraud include:
* double billing;
* use of untrained personnel to provide services;
* failure to supervise unlicensed personnel;
* distribution of unapproved devices or drugs;
* forgery of physician's signatures;
* creation of phony insurance companies or employee benefit plans;
* upcoding;
* unbundling;
* kickbacks;
* services provided without medical necessity;
* fraudulent cost reports;
* inadequate care, and;
* use of substandard equipment.
== Federal health care enforcement initiatives ==
On March 21, 1995, FBI Director [[Louis Freeh]] stated that organized crime has "penetrated virtually every legitimate segment of the health care industry." That is why Attorney General [[Janet Reno]] ranked health care fraud "one of the highest priorities" of the Justice Department. Congress responded to Reno and Freeh by passing the [[HIPAA|Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act]] of 1996 (HIPAA or the Act), found at § 1128C(a) of the [[Social Security Act]].
The Act requires that, after restitution, compensation, and relator's awards are paid, all health care related criminal fines, forfeitures, and civil and administrative penalties and judgements be placed in the Federal Hospital Insurance Trust Fund. The Secretary of [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Health and Human Services]] (HHS) and the [[United States Attorney General|Attorney Genera]]l can then appropriate money from the fund to combat fraud. In 1997, the program's first year, the Attorney General appropriated $104 million from this fund. Separately, the FBI received $47 million. Consequently, all 94 U.S. Attorney's offices have coordinated criminal and civil enforcement teams and the FBI has 370 agents dedicated to health care fraud. The False Claims Act is the statute of choice for the U.S. Attorney's engaged in this effort. In particular, ''qui tam'' cases represent about one third of total recoveries.
The effort has produced dramatic results. In 1997, prosecutors filed 282 criminal indictments and "opened" 4,010 civil matters, a 61 percent increase over 1996. They won $1.2 billion and collected $1.087 billion in judgments, settlements, and administrative fines. Furthermore, over 2,700 individuals and entities were excluded from federal health care programs.
However, the qui tam provisions' greatest impact is in their deterrent effect. Professor William Stringer estimated that the deterrence value of qui tam lawsuits saved the Federal Government between $35.6 billion to $71.3 billion from 1986-1996. Over the next ten years, Professor Stringer projects that the FCA's qui tam provisions will save $105.1 billion to $210.1 billion.
== Initiating a civil action ==
The Attorney General initiates most civil actions for false claims. When private individuals file an action under the FCA it is brought in the government's name. The claim is filed in camera and under seal in the U.S. District Court with jurisdiction over the claim. Copies of the complaint and a written disclosure of all material evidence and information should be served on the local U.S. Attorney and in Washington, D.C. with the U.S. Attorney General.
== Government |
d the team finished last in the league in rushing offense, and near the bottom in rushing defense. Carson was fired after a 2-7 start, and the team finished 3-13, second-worst in the league. After the season [[Bill Belichick]], defensive coordinator of the then-[[Super Bowl]] champion [[New York Giants]], was named head coach, setting off a chain of events that some fans believe led to the demise of the original franchise.
===1991-95: Bill Belichick and Modell's move===
The Browns saw minimal improvement under Belichick in [[1991 NFL season|1991]], finishing 6-10 behind an improved performance by Kosar (18 touchdowns, 9 interceptions) and a breakout season for second-year running back [[Leroy Hoard]].
In [[1992 NFL season|1992]], with Kosar sitting out much of the season and [[Mike Tomczak]] in under center, Cleveland was in the thick of the AFC Central race before dropping their final three games to finish 7-9.
The Browns were split by turmoil in [[1993 NFL season|1993]], when Belichick made the controversial decision of benching Bernie Kosar in favor of [[Vinny Testaverde]], who had been signed from the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]]. The immensely popular Kosar was later released by the team, prompting a heated reaction from fans, mostly aimed at Belichick. After Kosar's release, Cleveland won only two of its final nine games and finished with the same 7-9 record that they did in 1992.
Cleveland righted the ship in [[1994 NFL season|1994]], despite fans still calling for Belichick's head. Testaverde finished with a subpar year in which he threw 18 interceptions to 16 touchdowns, but the defense led the league in yards allowed per attempt and sent four players to the Pro Bowl ([[Rob Burnett (football player)|Rob Burnett]], [[Pepper Johnson]], [[Michael Dean Perry]] and [[Eric Turner]]). The Browns finished 11-5 and made the playoffs for the first time in four seasons. In the wild card round against the [[New England Patriots]], the Browns' defense picked off [[Drew Bledsoe]] three times, with Testaverde completing two-thirds of his passes, to win 20-13. The arch-rival [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] ended the Browns' season in the divisional playoff with a 29-9 blowout.
[[Image:Modell move.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' cover, [[December 4]], [[1995]].]]
Team owner [[Art Modell]] announced on [[November 6]], [[1995]], that he had signed a deal to relocate the Browns to [[Baltimore, Maryland]] for [[1996 NFL season|1996]]. The very next day, on [[November 7]], [[1995]], voters overwhelmingly approved an issue that was placed on the ballot at Art Modell's request, before he made his secret deal, providing $175 million in tax dollars to rebuild [[Cleveland Municipal Stadium]]. Art Modell's plan was later scrapped and additional money was added to demolish the old stadium and construct a new stadium for the Browns.
The announcement was met with unprecedented resistance from Browns fans, with over 100 lawsuits filed by fans, the city of Cleveland, and a host of others, most of which were later settled in their favor. Congress held hearings on the matter. Actor/comedian [[Drew Carey]] returned to his hometown of Cleveland on [[November 26]], [[1995]], to host "Fan Jam" in protest of the proposed move. Virtually all of the team's sponsors immediately pulled their support, leaving Cleveland Municipal Stadium devoid of advertising during the team's final weeks.
The [[1995 NFL season|1995]] season was a disaster on the field, too. After starting 3-1, the rumors and eventual announcement cast a pall on the team, who finished 5-11. When fans in the [[Dawg Pound]] became a little rowdy during their final home game against the [[Cincinnati Bengals]], action moving towards that end zone had to be moved to the opposite end of the field. The Browns won, the only game the team won after the news of Modell's move got out. Grown men sat and wept after the final down was played.
Led by Mayor [[Michael R. White|Mike White]], Cleveland accepted a legal settlement that would keep the Browns legacy in Cleveland. In February 1996, the [[National Football League]] announced that the team would be 'deactivated' for three years, and that [[Cleveland Browns Stadium|a new stadium]] would be built for a new Cleveland Browns team that would begin play in 1999. Modell would in turn be granted a new franchise for Baltimore, the [[Baltimore Ravens]], retaining the current contracts of players and personnel. The Browns' name, colors, history, records, awards and archives would remain in Cleveland.
===1999-Present: Welcome back Browns!===
[[Image:Cleveland Browns B logo.png|right|frame|Browns alternate logo (2003-2004)]]
In early 1998 the [[National Football League]] began its search for an owner for the reborn Browns, finding one later in the year in [[Al Lerner]], a former limited partner of the original Browns and a friend of [[Art Modell]] who assisted in Modell's move to Baltimore. During the period from 1996-1998 other franchises, such as Tampa Bay, threatened their home cities with the possibility of moving to Cleveland in order to put pressure on their respective cities to get more governmental funding for their own stadiums. This despite the fact that Cleveland would not accept such an arrangement. Lerner would usher in the team's rebirth in 1999, but would die in October 2002 - four years to the day he was awarded the new Browns franchise. In death he would turn over the team to a trust controlled by his son, [[Randy Lerner|Randy]].
The team returned with high hopes and expectations, featuring solid ownership, solid general management in the form of former [[San Francisco 49ers]] president [[Carmen Policy]], and head coach [[Chris Palmer (football coach)|Chris Palmer]]. To date though, the franchise has not lived up to its lofty early expectations, with Palmer being dismissed after the 2000 season and Policy leaving the team in 2003 after having "talked the talk" but not "walking the walk". Palmer was succeeded by former [[University of Miami]] coach [[Butch Davis]]. Despite a 2002 AFC Wild Card qualification, the team saw a dismal record during the next two seasons leading to Butch Davis' resignation in December 2004. Offensive Coordinator [[Terry Robiskie]], was named interim head coach for the remainder of the season.
As [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] approached, there was much speculation over who would become the new head coach. On [[January 6]], [[2005]], it was announced that [[Phil Savage]] signed on as general manager. Savage was previously an administrative member for the Baltimore Ravens and the Browns before 1995. After the [[New England Patriots]] victory over the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] at the Super Bowl, Patriots' defensive coordinator [[Romeo Crennel]] signed on as the 11th head coach for the Browns. Robiskie was kept on as part of Crennel's staff.
With the Browns acquiring [[Trent Dilfer]] from the [[Seattle Seahawks]] and [[Reuben Droughns]] from the [[Denver Broncos]], the Browns began 2005 on the wrong foot, losing 27-13 at home to their in-state rival, the [[Cincinnati Bengals]]. They would go on the road and pick up their first win of the year against the [[Green Bay Packers]] (26-24). After losing to the [[Indianapolis Colts]] (13-6), they used their Bye Week to regroup and pick up a comeback victory against the [[Chicago Bears]] (20-10). However, the Browns couldn't keep the momentum going from their win and dropped four of their next five games. A promising 22-0 shutout of the Miami Dolphins proved to be a mirage when the team lost its next three straight games. In the team's final five games, rookie [[Charlie Frye]] served as the team's starting quarterback, winning two of those contests. However, the two victories produced limited offense, while one humiliating 41-0 loss came at the hands of the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] on [[December 24]]. The Browns ended their 2005 campaign at 6-10, tied with the Baltimore Ravens for last place in the AFC North, though they technically finished in fourth place in the AFC North based on a worse division record than the Ravens (1-5 to Baltimore's 2-4). [http://www.nfl.com/standings/conference]
Just prior to the Browns' final game of the [[2005 NFL season]], the team's front office became embroiled in a major controversy that threatened to once again send the team into rebuilding mode. Team president [[John Collins (American Football executive)|John Collins]]' attempt to fire general manager [[Phil Savage]] caused such an uproar that it was Collins who resigned on [[January 3]], [[2006]].
===Season-by-season Records===
{{Start NFL SBS}}
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Cleveland Browns (AAFC)'''
|-
|1946 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st AAFC West || '''Won AAFC Championship'''
|-
|1947 || 12 || 1 || 1 || 1st AAFC West || '''Won AAFC Championship'''
|-
|1948 || 14 || 0 || 0 || 1st AAFC West || '''Won AAFC Championship'''
|-
|1949 || 9 || 1 || 2 || 1st AAFC West || '''Won AAFC Championship'''
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Merged into NFL'''
|-
|1950 || 10 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL AFC || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1951 || 11 || 1 || 0 || 1st NFL AFC || Lost NFL Championship ([[St. Louis Rams|Rams]])
|-
|1952 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFL AFC || Lost NFL Championship ([[Detroit Lions|Lions]])
|-
|1953 || 11 || 1 || 0 || 1st NFL East || Lost NFL Championship ([[Detroit Lions|Lions]])
|-
|1954 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL East || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1955 || 9 || 2 || 1 || 1st NFL East || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1956 || 5 || 7 || 0 || T-4th NFL East || --
|-
|1957 || 9 || 2 || 1 || 1st NFL East || Lost NFL Championship ([[Detroit Lions|Lions]])
|-
|1958 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFL East || Lost Eastern Conference Playoff ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1959 || 7 || 5 || 0 || T-2nd NFL East || --
|-
|1960 || 8 || 3 || 1 || 2nd NFL East || --
|-
|1961 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 3rd NFL East || |
it word machine that sold for about $16,000. The PDP-8 was small enough to fit on a cart. It was simple enough to be used for many roles, and they soon started being sold in huge numbers to new market niches, labs, railways, and all sorts of industrial applications.
The PDP-8 was important historically because it was the first computer that was regularly purchased by a handful of end users as an alternative to using a larger system in a data center. Because of their low cost and portability, these machines could be purchased to fill a specific need, unlike the mainframe systems of the day that were nearly always shared among diverse users. Today the PDP-8 is generally regarded as the first [[minicomputer]].
The PDP-8 spawned a cousin, the [[PDP-12]], which merged data acquisition and display capabilities developed with the NIH-sponsored [[LINC]] computers into the PDP-8 architecture.
=== 16-bit computers ===
Another of the famous machines in the PDP series was the [[PDP-11]], which, following an industry trend for 8-bit bytes, used a 16-bit word. PDP-11 machines started in the market essentially as upscale PDP-8s, but as improvements to [[integrated circuit]]s continued, they eventually were packaged in cases no larger than a modern [[Personal Computer|PC]].
The PDP-11 systems supported several operating systems of the day, including [[Bell Labs|Bell Labs']] new [[Unix|UNIX]] operating system as well as DEC's [[RSX]] and [[RSTS]]. Both [[RSTS]] and [[Unix|UNIX]] were available to educational institutions at little or no cost, and these PDP-11 systems were destined to be the sandbox for a generation of engineers and computer scientists.
The PDP-11's 16-bit, byte-oriented architecture provided a 64KB virtual address space. Most models had a paged physical memory architecture and memory protection features to allow [[time-sharing|timesharing]], and some could support split Instruction & Data spaces for an effective virtual address size of 128KB and a physical address size of up to 4MB.
===18-bit Computers ===
[[Image:Vs-dec-pdp-1.jpg|thumb|PDP-1|220px|right|A typical [[PDP-1]] installation.]]
Through the [[1960s]] DEC produced a series of machines aimed at a price/performance point below [[International Business Machines|IBM]]'s [[mainframe]] machines, typically based on an 18-bit word, using core memory:
the PDP-1, the PDP-2 (proposed, but never built), the PDP-4 (1963), the PDP-7 and [[Programmed Data Processor|PDP-9]] (1965), and finally the [[Programmed Data Processor|PDP-15]] series (starting in 1970 and later sold as the "XVM" series). The PDP-15 was an early user of [[TTL]] [[integrated circuits]]. These computers were moderately powerful computers for their time, mainly used in industrial, scientific, and medical laboratories.
=== 36-bit computers ===
For larger scientific problems DEC produced first the PDP-6 in 1964, using a 36-bit architecture. Using the same word length of the IBM 701-7094 series, which was being replaced by the 32-bit [[IBM 360]] series, provided an alternative growth path for scientific customers.
The successor was the [[PDP-10]] series, eventually being sold as the [[DECsystem-10]] and [[DECSYSTEM-20]]
=== VAX Computer series ===
[[Image:Vax780 small.jpeg|thumb|220px|right|A representative VAX-11/780 system configuration]]
In [[1976]] DEC decided to move to an entirely new 32-bit platform, which they referred to as the ''[[supermini|super-mini]]''. They released this as the [[VAX]] (Virtual Address eXtension) 11/780 in [[1978]], and immediately took over the vast majority of the minicomputer market. Desperate attempts by competitors such as [[Data General]] (which had been formed in [[1968]] by a former DEC engineer who had worked on a 16-bit design that DEC had rejected) to win back market share failed, due not only to DEC's successes, but the emergence of the [[microcomputer]] and [[workstation]] into the lower-end of the minicomputer market. In [[1983]], DEC cancelled their [[Jupiter project|"Jupiter" project]], which had been intended to build a successor to the PDP-10, and instead focused on promoting the VAX as their flagship model.
The VAX series had an instruction set that is rich even by today's standards (as well as an abundance of [[Addressing mode|addressing modes]]). In addition to the paging and memory protection features of the PDP series, the VAX supported [[virtual memory]]. The VAX could use both Unix and DEC's own [[OpenVMS|VMS]] operating system.
At its peak in the late [[1980s]], Digital was the second-largest computer company in the world, with over 100,000 employees. It was during this time that they appeared to gain a feeling of invincibility, and branched out into software, producing products for almost every then "hot" niche. This included their own networking system, [[DECnet]], file and print sharing, relational database, and even [[transaction processing]]. Although many of these products were well designed, most of them were DEC-only or DEC-centric, and customers frequently ignored them and used third party products instead. This problem was further magnified by Olsen's aversion to advertising and his belief that well-engineered products would sell themselves. Hundreds of millions of dollars were spent on these projects, at the same time that workstations based on [[RISC]] architecture were starting to approach the VAX in performance. Blinded by their own success of the [[VAX]]/[[Virtual Memory System|VMS]] products which followed the proprietary model, the company executives would later be blind-sided by commodity hardware in the form of [[Intel]]-based personal computers and standards-based software such as [[Unix]] and [[Internet]] protocols such as [[TCP/IP]]. In the early [[1990s]] DEC found its sales faltering, and its first layoffs followed.
In 1990 DEC was about to launch a new generation of computer disk drives into the marketplace. Code named the [[RA90]], it was the second largest development project ever undertaken by the company. Several major technological innovations were to be simultaneously integrated into this state of the art (at the time) product. Unfortunately, because of product design glitches, the RA90 was very late in coming to market. By the time enough glitches had been resolved to allow limited shipments, competitors had released enhanced technology drives at much lower prices. What could have been a huge win for this organization became a great failure.
=== Alpha ===
During the [[1980s]] DEC made several attempts at designing a [[RISC]] processor to replace the VAX architecture. Eventually, in [[1992]] DEC launched the [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] processor (initially named '''Alpha AXP''', the "AXP" was later dropped). This was a [[64-bit]] [[RISC]] architecture (as opposed to the 32-bit [[CISC]] architecture used in the VAX) and one of the first 64-bit [[microprocessor]] designs. The Alpha offered class-leading performance at its launch, and subsequent variants continued to do so into the [[2000s]]. Alpha-based computers (the DEC AXP series, later the [[AlphaStation]] and [[AlphaServer]] series) superseded both the VAX architecture and the [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]]-based [[DECstation]] line, and could run VMS, [[Unix]] and Microsoft's new server operating system [[Windows NT]].
DEC tried to compete in the Unix market by marketing the VMS operating system as "[[OpenVMS]]" and by selling their own Unix ([[OSF/1 |OSF/1 AXP]], later renamed Digital UNIX), and it began to advertise more aggressively. DEC was simply not prepared to sell into a crowded Unix market however, and furthermore the low end PC-servers running NT (based on [[Intel]] processors) took marketshare from Alpha-based computers. DEC's workstation and server line never gained much popularity beyond former DEC customers.
===Closing DEC's Business===
Ken Olsen was replaced by [[Robert Palmer (computer businessman)|Robert Palmer]] as the company's CEO, but Palmer was unable to stem the tide of red ink and more rounds of layoffs ensued. DEC's database product, [[Oracle Rdb|Rdb]], was sold to [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], and its high-end Storageworks disk unit sold to [[Quantum Corporation]]. In May 1997 DEC sued [[Intel]] for allegedly infringing on its Alpha patents in designing the [[Intel Pentium|Pentium]] chips. A settlement reached in DEC's favor included sale of DEC's chip business to Intel. In 1997, the printer business was sold to [[GENICOM]] who produced models with the Digital logo. About the same time its networking business was sold to [[Cabletron Systems]], and eventually the company itself was sold to [[Compaq]] on [[January 26]], [[1998]]. Compaq itself was taken over by [[Hewlett-Packard]] in 2002.
The Digital logo survived for a while after the company ceased to exist, as the logo of Digital GlobalSoft, an IT services company in India (which was a 51% subsidiary of DEC). Digital GlobalSoft was later renamed "HP GlobalSoft", and no longer uses the Digital logo nor follows the erstwhile Digital culture of engineering predominance.
== Accomplishments ==
Digital supported the [[ANSI]] standards, especially the [[ASCII]] character set, which survives in [[Unicode]] and the [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] character set. Digital's own [[Multinational Character Set]] also had a large influence on the [[Latin-1]] characters in [[ISO 8859-1]] and [[Unicode]].
The first versions of the [[C programming language]] and the [[Unix|UNIX system]] ran on Digital's [[Programmed Data Processor|PDP]] series of computers (first on a PDP-7, then the PDP-11's), which were the first commercially viable [[minicomputer]]s.
Digital also produced the popular [[VAX]] computer family, the [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] (AXP) microprocessor, the first commercially successful workstation (the VT-78), and some commercially unsuccessful personal computers.
Digital produced t |
<id>15909557</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-18T01:44:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
<id>86</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>link fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/GNE Architecture]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>GeorgeWBush</title>
<id>11842</id>
<revision>
<id>15909558</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-19T21:51:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gzornenplatz</username>
<id>50280</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[George W. Bush]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GeekSpeak</title>
<id>11844</id>
<revision>
<id>33326741</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-31T02:07:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Acentam</username>
<id>691168</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A radio program on the Central Coast of California, broadcast weekly by [http://kusp.org KUSP FM] in Santa Cruz since [[1998]] and distributed on the internet since [[2002]].
[http://geekspeak.org GeekSpeak] attempts to bridge the gap between geeks and the rest of humanity through an hour long talk radio program. The show's hosts are a group of local technology afficionados, many with industry experience, who offer light-hearted commentary on current news topics and events while delving deeper into specific areas each week with special guest interviews.
Broadcasts usually conclude with call-in advice, commentary and discussion by telephone and email. A fanbase has developed around the world, with show streams downloaded in excess of 100,000 times.
GeekSpeak was initially conceived and broadcast by Chris Neklason, Peggy Dolgenos and Mark Hanford of [http://www.cruzio.com Cruzio].
Currently, the moderator is [http://lyle.troxell.com/ Lyle Troxell]. [http://geekspeak.org/profiles/geeks/ GeekSpeak Co-Hosts] include:
- Drew Meyer with [http://netapp.com/ Network Appliance]
- Sean Cleveland with [http://nvidia.com Nvidia]
- Miles Elam with [http://surfcontrol.com Surf Control]
- John Tracy with [http://feltongames.com Felton Games]
- Dedi Hubbard with [http://nyu.edu NYU]
See Also: [[Computer jargon]], [[Technobabble]]
"Geekspeak®" is a registered trademark of Online Today, Inc. and David Lawrence, and is used by permission.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GottfriedLeibniz</title>
<id>11845</id>
<revision>
<id>15909560</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gottfried Leibniz]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Guitar</title>
<id>11846</id>
<revision>
<id>42140700</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:15:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.179.36.24|70.179.36.24]] ([[User talk:70.179.36.24|talk]]) to last version by Csmaster</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''guitar''' is a [[string instrument|stringed]] [[musical instrument]]. For right-handed players, the right hand plucks the strings with either the [[fingerpicking|fingers]] or a [[plectrum]] ([[guitar pick]]), while the opposite applies for left handed players (in general). The sound is produced by [[vibrating string]]s, which in turn cause the body and neck of the instrument to resonate.
Guitars may be [[acoustic guitar|acoustic]], [[electric guitar|electric]] (i.e. with electrical amplification) or both. [[Classical guitar]]s are also present in the guitar family. Guitars have a '''body''' acting mostly as a [[resonator]], which can be hollow in acoustic guitars or solid in most electric guitars, and a '''neck'''. Typically, a '''headstock''' extends from the neck for tuning. Guitars are made and repaired by [[luthiers]].
Guitars are used in a variety of musical styles. Guitars are widely known as a solo classical instrument, and the primary instrument in [[blues]] and [[rock music]].
[[Image:Super400.jpg|thumb|right|The [[acoustic archtop guitar]], used in [[Jazz music]], features [[steel string]]s.]]
__TOC__
==History==
[[image:Elam-tar.jpg|thumb|left|Figurines playing the ancestor of the Guitar. Excavated in [[Susa]], [[Iran]]. Dated 2000-1500 BCE. Kept at the [[National Museum of Iran]].]]
Instruments similar to what we know as the guitar have been popular for at least 5,000 [[year]]s. The guitar appears to be derived from earlier instruments known in ancient central Asia. Instruments very similar to the guitar appear in ancient carvings and statues recovered from the old [[Iran]]ian capitol of Susa. The modern word, ''guitar'', was adopted into English from Spanish, possibly from earlier Greek word ''kithara.'' Prospective sources for various names of musical instruments that ''guitar'' could be derived from what appear to be a combination of two [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] roots: ''guit-'', similar to Sanskrit ''sangeet'' meaning "''music''", and ''-tar'' a widely attested root meaning "''chord''" or "''string''"..
The word ''guitar'' may also be a [[Persian language|Persian]] [[loanword]] to [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. The word ''qitara'' is an [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name for various members of the [[lute]] family that preceded the Western guitar. The name ''guitar'' was introduced into [[Spanish language|Spanish]] when guitars were brought into [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] by the [[Moors]] after the [[10th century]]. ([http://www.iranian.com/Music/2002/November/Guitar/index.html See related article]).
[[Image:Jan Vermeer van Delft 013.jpg|thumb|right|The guitar player, by Jan Vermeer van Delft]]
The Spanish ''[[vihuela]]'' appears to be an intermediate form between the ancestral guitar and the modern guitar, with [[lute]]-style [[tuning]] and a small, but guitar-like body. It is not clear whether this represents a transitional form or simply a design that combined features from the two families of instruments. In favor of the latter view, the reshaping of the vihuela into a guitar-like form can be seen as a strategy of differentiating the European lute visually from the Moorish [[oud]]. (See the article on the '''[[lute]]''' for further history.) The Ancient Iranian lute, called ''[[tar (lute)|tar]]'' in [[Persian language|farsi]] also is found in the word guitar. The tar is thousands of years old, and could be found in 2, 3, 5, 6 string variations.
The [[electric guitar]] was invented by [[Anthony Vick]] of [[Winton, North Carolina]], with the help of [[George Beauchamp]] and Paul Berth, in [[1931]]. Rickenbacher was the inventor of the horseshoe-magnet pickup. However, it was [[Danelectro]] that first produced electric guitars for the wider public. Danelectro also pioneered [[Valve amplifier|tube amp]] technology.
==Parts of the guitar==
[[Image:Electric_guitar_parts.jpg|thumb|Parts of typical electric guitar, numbered]]
Guitar consists of several parts. Refer to appropriate article for description of a part:
# [[Headstock]]
# Nut
# [[Machine head]]s
# [[Fret]]s
# [[Truss rod]]
# [[Inlay (guitar)|Inlay]]s
# Neck and [[fretboard]]
# Neck joint
# Body
# [[Pickup (music)|Pickups]]
# Electronics
# Bridge
# [[Pickguard]]
[[Image:Guitar_headstock.jpg|thumb|left|The headstock of an electric guitar, featuring 6 in-line tuning machines.]]
=== Headstock ===
The headstock is located at the end of the guitar neck. It is fitted with the machine head for pitch adjusting. Traditional layout of tuners is "3+3" which means 3 top tuners and 3 bottom ones. Some electric guitars feature 6 in-line tuners or even 4+2.
===Nut===
The nut is a small strip of [[ivory]], bone, [[plastic]], [[brass]], [[graphite]], or other medium-hard material that braces the strings at the joint where the headstock meets the fretboard. It is grooved to hold the strings in place, and it is one of the endpoints of the strings' tension. The material used also affects the sound of the guitar.
===Fretboard===
Also called the '''fingerboard''', the [[fretboard]] is a long plank of wood embedded with metal frets that comprises the top of the neck. It is flat on classical guitars and slightly curved crosswise on acoustic and electric guitars. The curvature of the fretboard is measured by the fretboard radius, which is the radius of a hypothetical circle of which the fretboard's surface constitutes a segment. The smaller the fretboard radius, the more noticeably curved the fretboard is. Pinching a string against the fretboard effectively shortens the vibrating length of the string, producing a higher tone (a string, unfingered, will vibrate from the saddle to the nut; once fingered, it will vibrate only along the distance between the saddle and the fret directly before the finger). Fretboards are most commonly made of [[rosewood]], [[ebony]], [[maple]], and sometimes graphite.
===Frets===
Frets are metal strips (usually nickel alloy) embedded along the fretboard which are placed in points along the length of string that divide it mathematically. When strings are pressed down behind them, frets shorten the strings' vibrating lengths to produce different pitches- each one spaced a half-step apart on the 12 tone scale. For more on fret spacing, see the ''Strings and Tuning'' section below. Frets are usually the first permanent part to wear out on a heavily played electric guitar. They can be re-shaped to a certain extent and can be replaced as needed. Frets also indicate fractions of the length of a string (the string midpoint is at the 12th fret; one-third the length of the string rea |
re [[literary critic]] [[Harold Bloom]]'s recent attempts to identify Gnostic elements in contemporary [[United States|American]] religion, or [[Eric Voegelin]]'s analysis of [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] impulses through the interpretive lens of Gnosticism.
The 'cautious proposal' reached by the conference concerning Gnosticism is described by Markschies:
:In the concluding document of Messina the proposal was 'by the simultaneous application of historical and typological methods' to designate 'a particular group of systems of the second century after Christ' as 'gnosticism', and to use 'gnosis' to define a conception of knowledge transcending the times which was described as 'knowledge of divine mysteries for an élite'. (Markschies, ''Gnosis: An Introduction'', 13)
In essence, it had been decided that 'Gnosticism' would become a historically-specific term, restricted to mean the Gnostic movements prevalent in the 3rd century, while 'gnosis' would be an universal term, denoting a system of knowledge retained 'for a privileged élite'. However, this effort towards providing clarity in fact created more conceptual confusion, as the historical term 'Gnosticism' was an entirely modern construction, while the new universal term 'gnosis' ''was'' a historical term: 'something was being called "gnosticism" that the ancient theologians had called "gnosis" ... [A] concept of gnosis had been created by Messina that was almost unusable in a historical sense' (Markschies, ''Gnosis: An Introduction'', 14-15). In antiquity, all agreed that knowledge was centrally important to life, but few were agreed as to what exactly ''constituted'' knowledge; the unitary conception that the Messina proposal presupposed did not exist.
These flaws have meant that the problems concerning an exact definition of Gnosticism persist. It remains current convention to use 'Gnosticism' in a historical sense, and 'gnosis' universally. Leaving aside the issues with the latter noted above, the usage of 'Gnosticism' to designate a category of religions in the 3rd century has recently been questioned as well. Of note is the work of [[Michael Allen Williams]] in ''Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for the Dismantling of a Dubious Category'', in which the author examines the terms by which gnosticism as a category is defined, and then closely compares these suppositions with the contents of actual Gnostic texts (the newly-recovered Nag Hammadi library was of central importance to his thesis).
Williams argues that the conceptual foundations on which the category of Gnosticism rests are the remains of the agenda of the heresiologists. Too much emphasis has been laid on perceptions of dualism, body- and matter-hatred, and anticosmism, without these suppositions being properly ''tested''. In essence, the interpretive definition of Gnosticism that was created by the antagonistic efforts of the heresiologists has been taken up by modern scholarship and reflected in a ''categorical'' definition, even though the means now exist to verify its accuracy. Attempting to do so, Williams contests, reveals the dubious nature of categorical 'Gnosticism', and he concludes that the term needs replacing in order to more accurately reflect those movements it comprises. Williams' observations have provoked debate; however, to date his suggested replacement term 'the Biblical demirugical tradition' has not become widely used.
==Gnosticism in modern times==
Many culturally significant movements and figures have been influenced by Gnosticism, including, for example, [[Carl Jung]], [[William Blake]] and [[Eric Voegelin]]. This influence has apparently grown since the emergence and translation of the Nag Hammadi library (see [[#The Nag Hammadi library|above]]). See the article [[Gnosticism in modern times]] for a fuller treatment; readers are also recommended to ''The Nag Hammadi Library in English'', edited by [[James M. Robinson]], later editions of which contain an essay on 'The Modern Relevance of Gnosticism', by Richard Smith.
==See also==
*[[Antinomianism]]
*[[Apocrypha]]
*[[Agnosticism]]
*[[Christian theosophy]]
*[[Christian Meditation]]
*[[Esoteric Christianity]]
*[[First Council of Nicaea]]
*[[Gospel]]
*[[Gnosiology]]
*[[Gnosis]]
*[[Manicheanism]]
*[[Mandaeanism]]
*[[Ontology]]
*[[Valentinianism]]
*[[Valentinus]]
*[[Zoroastrianism]]
==References==
===Books===
====[[Primary source]]s====
* {{cite book | authorlink = Bentley Layton | last = Layton | first = Bentley | title = The Gnostic Scriptures | publisher = SCM Press | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0-334-02022-0 | pages = 526 pages }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = James M. Robinson | last = Robinson | first = James | title = The Nag Hammadi Library in English | publisher = | year = 1978 | id = ISBN 0-06-066934-9 | pages = 549 pages }}
====[[Secondary source]]s====
* {{cite book | last = Aland | first = Barbara | title = [[Festschrift]] für Hans Jonas | publisher = Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht | year = 1978 | id = ISBN 3-525-58111-4 }}
* {{cite book | last = Freke | first = Timothy | coauthors = Gandy, Peter | title = The Hermetica: The Lost Wisdom of the Pharaohs | publisher = Tarcher | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0874779502 }}
* {{cite book | last = Freke | first = Timothy | coauthors = Gandy, Peter | title = Jesus and the Lost Goddess : The Secret Teachings of the Original Christians | publisher = Three Rivers Press | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0-00-710071-X }}
* {{cite book | last = Haardt | first = Robert | title = Die Gnosis: Wesen und Zeugnisse | publisher = Otto-Müller-Verlag, Salzburg | year = 1967 | id = | pages = 352 pages }}, translated as {{cite book | last = Haardt | first = Robert | title = Gnosis: Character and Testimony | publisher = Brill, Leiden | year = 1971 | id = }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Stephan A. Hoeller | last = Hoeller | first = Stephan A. | title = Gnosticism - New Light on the Ancient Tradition of Inner Knowing | publisher = | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0-8356-0816-6 | pages = 257 pages }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Hans Jonas | last = Jonas | first = Hans | title = Gnosis und spätantiker Geist vol. 2:1-2, Von der Mythologie zur mystischen Philosophie | publisher = | year = | id = ISBN 3-525-53841-3 }}
* {{cite book | last = King | first = Karen L. | title = What is Gnosticism? | publisher = Harvard University Press | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0-674-01071-X | pages = 343 pages }}
* {{cite book | last = Klimkeit | first = Hans-Joachim | title = Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic Texts from Central Asia | publisher = Harper, San Francisco | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0-06-064586-5 }}
* {{cite book | last = Layton | first = Bentley | editor = edited by L. Michael White, O. Larry Yarbrough | chapter = Prolegomena to the study of ancient gnosticism | title = The Social World of the First Christians: Essays in Honor of Wayne A. Meeks | publisher = Fortress Press, Minneapolis | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0800625854 }}
* {{cite book | author = Layton, Bentley (ed.) | title = The Rediscovery of Gnosticism: Sethian Gnosticism | publisher = E.J. Brill | year = 1981 }}
* {{cite book | last = Longfellow | first = Ki | title = The Secret Magdalene | publisher = | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-9759255-3-9 | pages = 458 pages }}
* {{cite book | last = Markschies | first = Christoph | other = trans. John Bowden | title = Gnosis: An Introduction | publisher = T & T Clark | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-567-08945-2 | pages = 145 pages }}
* {{cite book | last = Mins | first = Denis | title = Irenaeus | publisher = Geoffrey Chapman | year = 1994 | id = }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Elaine Pagels | last = Pagels | first = Elaine | title = The Gnostic Gospels | publisher = | year = 1979 | id = ISBN 0679724532 | pages = 182 pages }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Elaine Pagels | last = Pagels | first = Elaine | title = The Johannine Gospel in Gnostic Exegesis | publisher = | year = 1989 | id = ISBN 1555403344 | pages = 128 pages }}
* Petrement, Simone (1990), ''A Separate God: The Origins and Teachings of Gnosticsim'', Harper and Row ISBN 0060664215
* {{cite book | author = [[Plotinus]] | other = translated by A.H. Armstrong | title = The Enneads | publisher = [[Harvard University|Harvard University Press]] | year = 1966 | id = }}
* {{cite book | last = Puma | first = Jeremy | title = Running Towards the Bomb: Gnosticism and the End of Civilisation | publisher = Geosynchronous Lamps | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 1411645235 }}
* {{cite book | last = Rudolph | first = Kurt | title = Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of Gnosticism | publisher = Harper & Row | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0060670185 }}
* {{cite book | last = Williams | first = Michael | title = Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 0691011273 }}
===Audio lectures===
*[http://www.bcrecordings.net/store/ BC Recordings] - Offers an extensive collecton of downloadable MP3 lecture by Stephan A. Hoeller on Gnosticism.
===Videos===
*''The Naked Truth - Exposing the Deceptions About the Origins of Modern Religions'' (1995). ASIN: 1568890060.
==External links==
All external links are given in alphabetical order by page title or, where available, by author. If you wish to add to the lists, please maintain this layout. Also see the subpages, e.g. [[Gnosticism in modern times]] which have their own link lists, in order to place links in the apropriate page.
===Ancient Gnosticism===
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06592a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Gnosticism]
*[http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm The Cathars of the Languedoc] - A medieval heretical sect, related to Gnosticism.
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/gnostics.html Early Christian Writings] - primary texts
*[http://www.gnosis.org/ Gnostic Society] - multiple texts on Gnosticism and a [http://www.gnosis.org/readlist.htm bibliography] of secondary readi |
in the introduction, we are interested in counting the number of balls of some radius necessary to cover a given set. It is possible to try to do this directly for many sets (leading to so-called box counting dimension), but Hausdorff's insight was to approach the problem indirectly using the theory of [[countably additive measure| measure]] developed earlier in the century by [[Henri Lebesgue]] and [[Constantin Caratheodory]]. In order to deal with the technical details of this approach, Hausdorff defined an entire family of measures on subsets of ''X'', one for each possible dimension ''s'' &isin; <nowiki>[0,&infin;)</nowiki>. For example, if ''X''= '''R'''<sup>3</sup>, this construction assigns an ''s'' dimensional measure ''H''<sup>''s''</sup> to all subsets of '''R'''<sup>3</sup> including the unit segment along the ''x''-axis [0,1] &times; {0} &times; {0}, the unit square on the ''x''-''y'' plane [0,1] &times; [0,1] &times; {0} and the unit cube [0,1] &times; [0,1] &times; [0,1]. For ''s'' = 2, one would expect
* <math> H^2([0,1] \times \{0\} \times \{0\}) = 0 </math>
* <math> 0 < H^2([0,1] \times [0,1] \times \{0\}) < +\infty </math>
* <math> H^2([0,1] \times [0,1] \times [0,1]) = +\infty </math>
The above example suggests that we can define a set ''A'' to have Hausdorff dimension ''s'' if its ''s''-dimensional Hausdorff measure is positive and finite; in fact we have to modify this slightly. The Hausdorff dimension of ''A'' is the cutoff value ''s'' where below ''s'' the ''s''-dimensional Hausdorff measure is &infin; and above ''s'' it is 0. It is possible for the ''s'' dimensional Hausdorff measure of an ''s'' dimensional set to be 0 or &infin;. For instance '''R''' has dimension 1 and its 1-dimensional Hausdorff measure is infinite.
To carry this construction of this measure, we use a theory of measure which is appropriate for metric spaces. Define a family of [[outer measure|metric outer measure]]s on ''X'' using the ''Method'' II construction of outer measures due to Munroe and described in the article [[outer measure]]. Let ''C'' be the class of all subsets of ''X''; for each positive [[real number]] ''s'', let ''p''<sub>''s''</sub> be the function ''A'' &rarr; diam(''A'')<sup>''s''</sup> on ''C''. ''Hausdorff outer measure'' of dimension ''s'', denoted ''H''<sup>''s''</sup> is the outer measure corresponding to the function ''p''<sub>''s''</sub> on ''C''.
Thus for any subset ''E'' of ''X''
:<math> H^s_\delta(E) = \inf\Bigg\{\sum_{i=1}^\infty \operatorname{diam}(A_i)^s\Bigg\}</math>
where the [[infimum]] is taken over sequences {''A''<sub>''i''</sub>}<sub>''i''</sub> which cover ''E'' by sets each with diameter &le; &delta;. Then
:<math> H^s(E) = \lim_{\delta \rightarrow 0} H^s_\delta(E). </math>
We can succinctly (though not in a very useful way) describe the value ''H''<sup>''s''</sup>(''E'') as the [[infimum]] of all ''h'' > 0 such that for all &delta; > 0, ''E'' can be covered by [[countable|countably many]] closed sets of diameter &le; &delta; and the sum of the ''s''-th powers of these diameters is less than or equal to ''h''.
==Results==
The Hausdorff outer measure ''H''<sup>''s''</sup> is defined for all subsets of ''X''. However, we can in general assert additivity properties, that is
: <math> H^s(A \cup B) = H^s(A) + H^s(B) </math>
for disjoint ''A'', ''B'', only when ''A'' and ''B'' satisfy some additional condition, such as both being [[Borel algebra|Borel sets]] (or more generally, that they are both measurable sets). From the perspective of assigning measure and dimension to sets with unusual metric properties such as fractals, however, this is not a restriction.
'''Theorem'''. ''H''<sup>''s''</sup> is a metric outer measure. Thus all Borel subsets of ''X'' are measurable and ''H''<sup>''s''</sup> is a countably additive measure on the &sigma;-algebra of Borel sets.
Clearly, if (''X'', ''d'') and (''Y'', ''e'') are [[isomorphic]] metric spaces, then the corresponding Hausdorff measure spaces are also isomorphic. It is more useful to note however that Hausdorff measure even behaves well under certain bounded modifications of the underlying metric. Hausdorff measure is a [[Lipschitz continuity|Lipschitz]] invariant in the following sense: If ''d'' and ''d''<sub>1</sub> are metrics on ''X'' such that for some ''0< C < &infin;'' and all ''x'', ''y'' in ''X'',
:<math> C^{-1} d_1(x,y) \leq d(x,y) \leq C d_1(x,y) </math>
then the corresponding Hausdorff measures ''H''<sup>s</sup>, ''H''<sub>1</sub><sup>''s''</sup> satisfy
:<math> C^{-s} H^s_1(E) \leq H^s(E) \leq C^s H^s_1(E)</math>
for any Borel set ''E''.
The function ''s'' &rarr; ''H''<sup>''s''</sup>(''E'') is non-increasing.
In fact, it turns out that for all values of ''s'', except possibly one ''H''<sup>''s''</sup>(''E'') is either 0 or &infin;. We say ''E'' has positive finite Hausdorff dimension iff there is a real number 0<''d''< &infin; such that if ''s'' < ''d'' then ''H''<sup>''s''</sup>(''E'') = &infin; and if ''s'' > ''d'', then ''H''<sup>''s''</sup>(''E'') = 0. If
''H''<sup>''s''</sup>(''E'')=0 for all positive ''s'', then ''E'' has Hausdorff dimension 0. Finally, if ''H''<sup>''s''</sup>(''E'')=&infin; for all positive ''s'', then ''E'' has Hausdorff dimension &infin;
The Hausdorff dimension is a well-defined extended [[real number]] for any set ''E'' and we always have 0 &le; ''d''(''E'') &le; &infin;. It follows from the Lipschitz property of Hausdorff measure that Hausdorff dimension is a Lipschitz invariant. Its relation to topological properties is outlined below.
Note that if ''m'' is a positive integer, the ''m'' dimensional Hausdorff measure of '''R'''<sup>n</sup> is a rescaling of usual ''m''-dimensional Lebesgue measure &lambda;<sub>''m''</sub> which is normalized so that the Lebesgue measure of the ''m''-dimensional unit cube [0,1]<sup>''m''</sup> is 1. In fact, for any Borel set ''E'',
:<math> \lambda_m(E) = 2^{-m} \frac{\pi^{m/2}}{\Gamma(\frac{m}{2}+1)} H^m(E). </math>
'''Remark'''. Some authors adopt a slightly different definition of Hausdorff measure than the one chosen here, the difference being that it is normalized in such a way that Hausdorff ''m''-dimensional measure in the case of Euclidean space coincides exactly with Borel measure &lambda;.
See the Federer reference below for additional material on other fractal measures.
== Examples ==
* The [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> has Hausdorff dimension ''n''.
* The [[circle]] S<sup>1</sup> has Hausdorff dimension 1.
* [[Countable set]]s have Hausdorff dimension 0.
* [[Fractal]]s often are spaces whose Hausdorff dimension strictly exceeds the [[topological dimension]]. For example, the [[Cantor set]] (a zero-dimensional topological space) is a union of two copies of itself, each copy shrunk by a factor 1/3; this fact can be used to prove that its Hausdorff dimension is <math> \ln 2/\ln 3, </math> which is approximately <math> 0{.}63 </math> (see [[natural logarithm]]). The [[Sierpinski triangle]] is a union of three copies of itself, each copy shrunk by a factor of 1/2; this yields a Hausdorff dimension of <math> \ln 3/ \ln 2 </math>, which is approximately <math> 1{.}58 </math>.
* [[Spacefilling curve]]s like the [[Peano curve|Peano]] and the [[Sierpiński curve]] by definition have Hausdorff dimension 2.
* The trajectory of [[Brownian motion]] in dimension 2 and above has Hausdorff dimension 2 [[almost surely]].
== Hausdorff dimension and topological dimension ==
Let ''X'' be an arbitrary [[Separable space|separable]] metric space. There is a notion of [[inductive dimension|topological dimension]] for ''X'' which is defined recursively. It is always an integer (or +&infin;) and is denoted dim<sub>top</sub>(''X'').
'''Theorem'''. Suppose ''X'' is non-empty. Then
:<math> \operatorname{dim}_{\mathrm{Haus}}(X) \geq \operatorname{dim}_{\mathrm{top}}(X) </math>
Moreover
:<math> \inf_Y \operatorname{dim}_{\mathrm{Haus}}(Y) =\operatorname{dim}_{\mathrm{top}}(X) </math>
where ''Y'' ranges over metric spaces [[homeomorphic]] to ''X''. In other words, ''X'' and ''Y'' have the same underlying set of points and the metric ''d''<sub>''Y''</sub> of ''Y'' is topologically equivalent to ''d''<sub>''X''</sub>.
These results were originally established by [[Edward Szpilrajn]] (1907-1976). The treatment in Chapter VIII of the Hurewicz and Wallman reference is particularly recommended.
== Self-similar sets ==
Many sets defined by a self-similarity condition have dimensions which can be determined explicitly. Roughly, a set ''E'' is self-similar if it is the fixed point of a set-valued transformation &psi;, that is &psi;(''E'') = ''E'', although the exact definition is given below. The following is Theorem 8.3 of the Falconer reference below:
'''Theorem'''. Suppose
:<math> \psi_i: \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^n, \quad i=1, \ldots , m </math>
are [[contraction|contractive]] mappings on '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> with contraction constant ''r''<sub>''j''</sub> < 1. Then there is a unique ''non-empty'' compact set ''A'' such that
: <math> A = \bigcup_{i=1}^m \psi_i (A). </math>
This follows from [[Banach]]'s [[Contractive mapping |
here reserected with increasing force as art became more and more realistic and with the invention of photography, film and finally emersive computer simulations.
=== Modern Philosophy and Cyberspace ===
Perhaps one of the first indications of cyberspace becoming a topic of deep human consequence arose during the [[1978]] [[Nova Convention]], in a conversation between [[William S. Burroughs]], [[Brion Gysin]], [[Timothy Leary]], [[Les Levine]] & [[Robert Anton Wilson]] about the nature of evolution, time, space and mind. One of the underlying themes in the convention was the disenchantment with the [[Blue Sky Tribe]] and the initial cravings for [[cyberculture|"cyber topics"]] such as [[transhumanism]], [[Gaia theory]] and [[Decentralisation]].
William S. Burroughs' quotes from the convention:
<blockquote>
''"Time is a resource, and time is is running out. We are stuck in this dimension of time."''<br>
<br>
''"This is the space age, and we are here to go.. However, the space program has been restricted to a mediocre elite who —at great expense— have gone to the moon in an aqualung. Now, they're not really looking for space, they're looking for more time. Like the lungfish, and the walking catfish; they weren't looking for a dimension different from water, they were looking for more water".''
<br>
</blockquote>
== See also ==
* [[Cyberpunk]]
* [[Cyberculture]]
* [[Cyberzine]]
* [[Internet art]]
* [[Noosphere]]
* [[Next nature]]
* [[Metaverse]]
* [[Digimon]]
* [[cyber law]]
* [[crypto-anarchism]]
* [[cipherspace]]
* [[information highway]]
* [[social organization of cyberspace]]
* "[[virtual community]]"
* [[The Wired]]
==References ==
* {{cite journal
| author=Jon Ippolito
| title=Cross Talk: Is Cyberspace Really a Space?
| journal=Artbyte
| year=December 1998–January 1999
| pages=12–24
}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.eff.org/~barlow/Declaration-Final.html A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace] by [[John Perry Barlow]]
*[http://www2.fmg.uva.nl/sociosite/websoc/indexE.html Peculiarities of Cyberspace] by Albert Benschop
*[http://www.thiemeworks.com/islands/aug/sexrnc.html Sex, Religion and Cyberspace] by [[Richard Thieme]]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/3328 Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality] by [[Philip Zhai]]
*[http://www.uwichill.edu.bb/bnccde/ph29a/putnam.html Brains in a vat] philosophical argument against the idea that we could be in cyberspace and not know it by [[Hilary Putnam]]
[[Category:Virtual Reality]]
[[Category:Neologisms]]
[[Category:Computing portmanteaus]]
[[cs:Kyberprostor]]
[[de:Cyberspace]]
[[es:Ciberespacio]]
[[fr:Cybermonde]]
[[ja:サイバースペース]]
[[pt:Ciberespaço]]
[[ru:Киберпространство]]
[[tr:Sanal alem]]
[[uk:Кіберпростір]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Maritimes</title>
<id>7382</id>
<revision>
<id>41054706</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T19:37:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>38.112.113.242</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Maritimes - Provinces maritimes.png.png|right|thumb|250px|The Maritime provinces]]
:''See also [[Maritime province]] for disambiguation.''
The '''Maritime provinces''', also the '''Canadian Maritimes''' or simply '''the Maritimes''', is a [[list of regions of Canada#National regions|region]] of eastern [[Canada]] on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast, consisting of the [[provinces and territories of Canada|provinces]] of [[New Brunswick]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Prince Edward Island]]. The Maritimes are located northeast of [[New England]], southeast of [[Quebec]]'s [[Gaspé peninsula]], and southwest of [[Newfoundland]]. (The "[[m]]" in ''[[maritime]](s)'' is typically [[capitalization|capitalized]] only in political references, not generally when describing the eastern coasts.) Note that [[British Columbia]], on the Pacific Coast, is technically a maritime province as well (and contains the country's largest seaport), but is not included in the definition.
[[Newfoundland and Labrador]] is sometimes mistakenly identified as a Maritime province: it is properly part of [[Atlantic Canada]] (with the other three provinces) and, thus, referred to as an Atlantic province. Although it is located on the Atlantic coast, the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] physically separates this province from the Maritimes. It also has a uniquely different history, as the colony (and later [[dominion]]) joined Canada eight decades after the three Maritime provinces. The four provinces of Atlantic Canada, with the two of [[Central Canada]], are sometimes referred to as [[Eastern Canada]].
There was talk of a [[Maritime Union]] of the three provinces to have a greater say in national affairs; however, the first discussions on the subject in [[1864]] at the [[Charlottetown Conference]] led to the larger [[Canadian Confederation]] instead.
== Major population centres ==
Populations are for [[census agglomeration|census agglomerations]] or [[census division|census divisions]], whichever are larger, and may include smaller surrounding communities. Not all geographic areas listed below are urban areas, as much of the landmass for counties and [[regional municipality|regional municipalities]] is predominantly rural.
# [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax Regional Municipality]] (Nova Scotia) &ndash; 359 183
# [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] (New Brunswick) &ndash; 122 678
# [[Moncton]] (New Brunswick) &ndash; 117 727
# [[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton Regional Municipality]] (Nova Scotia) &ndash; 109 300
# [[Fredericton, New Brunswick|Fredericton]] (New Brunswick) &ndash; 78 950
# [[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island|Charlottetown]] (Prince Edward Island) &ndash; 58 358
# [[Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia|Lunenburg County]] (Nova Scotia) &ndash; 47,591
# [[Truro, Nova Scotia|Truro]] (Nova Scotia) &ndash; 44,276
# [[New Glasgow, Nova Scotia|New Glasgow]] (Nova Scotia) &ndash; 36,735
# [[Cumberland County, Nova Scotia|Cumberland County]] (Nova Scotia) &ndash; 32, 605
# [[Yarmouth County, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth County]] (Nova Scotia) &ndash; 26,843
# [[Kentville, Nova Scotia|Kentville]] (Nova Scotia) &ndash; 25,172
# [[Bathurst, New Brunswick|Bathurst]] (New Brunswick) &ndash; 23,935
# [[Edmundston, New Brunswick|Edmundston]] (New Brunswick) &ndash; 22,173
# [[East Hants, Nova Scotia|East Hants Municipal District]] (Nova Scotia) &ndash; 20, 821
# [[Antigonish County, Nova Scotia|Antigonish County]] (Nova Scotia) &ndash; 19,578
# [[Miramichi, New Brunswick|Miramichi]] (New Brunswick) &ndash; 18,508
# [[Campbellton, New Brunswick|Campbellton]] (New Brunswick) &ndash; 16,265 (note part of this CA population is located in Quebec)
# [[Summerside, Prince Edward Island|Summerside]] (Prince Edward Island) &ndash; 16,200
# [[West Hants, Nova Scotia|West Hants Municipal District]] (Nova Scotia) &ndash; 13,780
# [[Oromocto, New Brunswick|Oromocto]] (New Brunswick) &ndash; 8,843
This is only a list of selected populated areas and is incomplete. There are more extensive lists at [[List of communities in Nova Scotia]], [[List of communities in New Brunswick]] and [[List of communities in Prince Edward Island]].
==Society and culture==
Maritime society is based upon a mixture of traditions and class backgrounds. Predominantly rural until recent decades, the region traces many of its cultural activities to those rural resource-based economies of fishing, farming, forestry, and coal mining.
While Maritimers are predominantly of west European heritage ([[Scotland|Scottish]], [[Ireland|Irish]], [[England|English]], [[French people|French]] - also called [[Acadians]]), immigration to industrial Cape Breton during the hey-day of coal mining and steel manufacturing brought people from eastern Europe as well as Newfoundland. The Maritimes also has a [[Black Canadian|black]] population of [[Loyalist]] ancestry, largely concentrated in [[Nova Scotia]], but also in various communities throughout southern New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. The [[Mi'kmaq|Mi'kmaq Nation]]'s reserves throughout Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and eastern New Brunswick dominate aboriginal culture in the region, compared to the much smaller population of the [[Maliseet|Maliseet Nation]] in western New Brunswick.
Cultural activities are fairly diverse throughout the region with music, theatre, and literatary art forms tending to follow the particular cultural heritage of specific locales. Notable Nova Scotian folklorist and cultural historian [[Helen Creighton]] spent the majority of her lifetime recording the various Celtic musical and folk traditions of rural Nova Scotia during the mid-[[20th century]], prior to this knowledge being wiped out by mass media assimilation with the rest of North America. A fragment of Gaelic culture remains in Nova Scotia but primarily on Cape Breton Island.
A trend in Canada has witnessed a "Celtic revival" which saw many Maritime musicians and songs rise to prominence in recent decades. Some companies, particularly breweries such as [[Alexander Keith's]] and [[Moosehead]] have played up a connection between folklore with alcohol consumption during their marketing campaigns. Ironically some Maritime communities were among the strongest supporters of [[prohibition]] (Prince Edward Island lasting until [[1949]]) and many rural communities throughout Nova Scotia remain "dry" to this day.
==Economy==
===Present status===
Unlike the rest of Canada, the Maritime region's population of 1.8 million is geographically distributed throughout the three provinces. [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]], [[Moncton, New Brunswick|Moncton]], [[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Syd |
h he remained on ''Finback'', Bush participated in the rescue of other pilots.
Bush subsequently returned to ''San Jacinto'' in November 1944 and participated in operations in the [[Philippines]]. When ''San Jacinto'' returned to [[Guam]], the squadron, which had suffered 50 percent casualties of its pilots, was replaced and sent to the [[United States]]. Through 1944 he had flown 58 combat missions for which he received the Distinguished Flying Cross, three Air Medals, and the Presidential Unit Citation awarded aboard the ''San Jacinto''.
Because of his valuable combat experience, Bush was reassigned to [[Naval Station Norfolk|Norfolk Navy Base]] and put in a training wing for new torpedo pilots. He was later assigned as a naval aviator in a new torpedo squadron, VT-153. With the surrender of Japan, he was honorably discharged in September 1945 and then entered [[Yale University]].
== Postwar: Yale, family, oil business ==
[[Image:skull_and_bones.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Skull and Bones]] entry from the [[1948]] [[Yale Banner]]. Former President George Herbert Walker Bush is listed fourth down.]]
While at Yale, he joined the [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] [[fraternities and sororities|fraternity]] and was elected President. He also captained the Yale baseball team. A left-handed [[first baseman]], Bush played in the first [[College World Series]]. As a Senior he was, like his son [[George W. Bush]] (1968) and his father [[Prescott S. Bush]] (1917), inducted into the [[Skull and Bones]] [[secret society]] in 1948, helping him to build friendships and political support. Joining the Skull and Bones a year after him at Bush's request was [[William Sloane Coffin]], a fellow classmate from the Phillips Academy. Throughout their lives, they have remained friends despite political disagreement, as Coffin became a notable anti-war activist of the political left.
[[Image:Baseball_cropped.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Captain-elect "Poppy" Bush as featured in a 1948 Yale Banner.]]
He married [[Barbara Bush|Barbara Pierce]] on [[January 6]], [[1945]]. Their marriage produced six children: [[George W. Bush|George W.]], [[Robin Bush|Pauline Robinson]] ("Robin") (1949&ndash;1953, died of [[leukemia]]), [[Jeb Bush|John (Jeb)]], [[Neil Bush|Neil]], [[Marvin Bush|Marvin]], and [[Dorothy Bush|Dorothy Walker]]. The family has built on Bush's political successes, effectiveness as Rockefeller tributaries for four generations of Walkers and Bushes, and those of his father Sen. Prescott Bush, with his son George W. Bush's [[Governor of Texas|Governorship of Texas]] and subsequent election as president, and his son Jeb Bush's election as [[Governor of Florida]]. The Bush political "dynasty" has been compared to that of [[John Adams]] and the [[Kennedy political family|Kennedy family]]. Bush's maternal grandfather was [[George Herbert Walker|George Herbert Walker Sr.]], the founder of G.H. Walker & Co. and namesake of [[golf]]'s [[Walker Cup]]. Bush's uncle [[George Herbert Walker, Jr.]] is the current head of the company. Bush's first cousin [[George Herbert Walker III]] is the U.S. ambassador to Hungary.
Bush ventured into the highly speculative Texas oil exploration business after World War II with considerable success. He secured a position with [[Dresser Industries]]. His son, Neil Mallon Bush, is named after his employer at Dresser, Neil Mallon, who became a close family friend. Dresser Industries, decades later, merged with [[Halliburton]], whose former CEOs include [[Dick Cheney]], George H. W. Bush's Secretary of Defense and, [[as of 2005]], Vice President of the United States.
==Congressman and failed Senate campaigns==
[[Image:Bush reagan.jpg|thumb|300px|Vice President Bush in a meeting with President [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1984.]]
In 1964, Bush ventured into conventional politics by running against Texas' Democratic Senator [[Ralph Yarborough]], making an issue of Yarborough's support of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]. At the time many Southern politicians (including the Republican Sen. [[John Tower]] of Texas) opposed the legislation. Bush called Yarborough an "extremist" and a "left wing demagogue" while Yarborough said Bush was a "[[carpetbagger]]" trying to buy a Senate seat "just as they would buy a seat on the New York Stock Exchange". Bush lost in the 1964 in a Democratic landslide.
Bush did not give up on elective politics, and was elected in 1966 and 1968 to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] from the [[United States House of Representatives, Texas District 7|7th District of Texas]].
Bush lost his second attempt at a Senate seat in 1970 to Democrat [[Lloyd Bentsen]], who had defeated the incumbent Yarborough in the Democratic primary. Coincidently, Bentsen would later became the Democratic Party nominee for Vice President in the 1988 presidential election and, teamed with Massachusetts Governor [[Michael Dukakis]], would lose to the Bush-Quayle ticket; in 1993, Bentsen became Secretary of the Treasury in the Clinton Administration.
==1970s appointive offices==
After the 1970 election loss, President [[Richard Nixon]] appointed Bush to [[United States Ambassadors to the United Nations|United States Ambassador to the United Nations]], at which he served from 1971 to 1973.
After Nixon was re-elected President in 1972, he asked Bush to become Chairman of the [[Republican National Committee]]. Bush held this position during the [[Watergate scandal]], when the popularity of both Nixon and the Republican Party plummeted. Bush defended Nixon steadfastly, but later as Nixon's complicity became clear he focused more on defending the Republican Party while still maintaining loyalty to Nixon.
After Nixon's resignation in 1974, Bush was considered for appointment as the replacement Vice President, but new President [[Gerald Ford]] chose [[Nelson Rockefeller]] instead. Ford appointed Bush to be Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the [[People's Republic of China]]. (Since the United States at the time maintained official relations with the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] and not the PRC, the Liaison Office did not have the official status of an embassy and Bush did not hold the position of "ambassador" even though he unofficially acted as one.)
In 1975, Ford brought Bush back to Washington to become [[Director of Central Intelligence]]. The CIA had been rocked by a series of revelations about illegal and unauthorized activities, and Bush was credited with helping to restore the agency's morale and integrity. <ref>[http://worldroots.com/brigitte/bush.htm George Herbert Walker Bush] - WorldRoots.com, accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]]</ref> In 1999, the CIA headquarters facility in [[Langley, Virginia|Langley]], [[Virginia]] was renamed the George Bush Center for Intelligence. <ref>[http://www.cia.gov/cia/information/bush.html The George Bush Center for Intelligence] - [[CIA]], accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]] </ref>
Bush has since commented that he did not particularly enjoy this string of jobs, saying he never wanted to be a "career bureaucrat". However, had Bush not received this succession of appointments after his Senate defeat in 1970, it is unlikely he would have risen to a level of national prominence in politics.
After a Democratic administration took power in 1977, Bush became Chairman of the First International Bank in Houston. He also became a board member of the [[Committee on the Present Danger]].
==1980 presidential campaign==
In the [[U.S. presidential election%2C 1980|1980 presidential election]], Bush ran for the office, stressing his wide range of government experience. In the contest for the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] nomination, despite Bush's establishment backing, the front-runner was [[Ronald Reagan]], former [[Governor of California]] who was now running for the third time for President.
Bush was not above criticizing Reagan, labeling the latter's [[supply-side economics|supply side]]-influenced plans for massive [[tax cut]]s as "voodoo economics".
Bush won the [[Iowa caucus]] to start the primary season, causing him to tell the press that he had "Big Mo" (meaning [[momentum]]). However, Reagan came back to decisively win the following [[New Hampshire primary]], and Bush's "mo" was gone. <ref>[http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3910349/from/RL.2/ Expectations, momentum, fatal mistakes] - Tom Curry, [[MSNBC]], [[January 15]], [[2004]]</ref> With a growing popularity among the Republican voting base, Reagan won most of the remaining primaries and the nomination.
==Vice President==
{| class="wikitable" width="250" style="float:right; text-align:left; margin:1em 0 1em 1em"
|-
! Order:
| 43rd Vice President
|-
! Term of Office:
| [[January 20]], [[1981]] – [[January 20]], [[1989]]
|-
! Preceded by:
| [[Walter Mondale]]
|-
! Succeeded by:
| [[Dan Quayle]]
|-
! [[President of the United States|President]]:
| [[Ronald W. Reagan]]
|-
! Political&nbsp;party:
| [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|}
After some preliminary discussion of choosing former President [[Gerald Ford]] as his running mate, Reagan selected Bush as his Vice President, placing him on the winning Republican Presidential ticket of 1980. Bush had declared he would never be Reagan's VP. Bush was many things Reagan had not been - a life-long Republican, a combat veteran, and an [[internationalism|internationalist]] with [[United Nations|UN]], [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], and [[China]] experience. Bush was also more moderate in his economic positions and political philosophy than Reagan.
As Vice President, Bush was loyal to Reagan and kept any policy differences hidden. Bush did not wield strong power within the Reagan administration, but had some influe |
an intensive ESA/NASA joint partnership that included dozens of space flights of ESA astronauts in the following years. Beside paying for seats on the [[Space Shuttle]] ESA continued its human space flight cooperation with the [[Soviet Union]] and later [[Russia]], including numerous visits to [[Mir]].
During the latter half of the 1980s European human space flights changed from being the exception to rather constituting a routine and therefore in 1990 the [[European Astronaut Centre]] that is situated in [[Cologne]], [[Germany]] was established. It selects and trains prospective astronauts and is responsible for the coordination with international partners especially with regards to the [[International Space Station]]. [[As of 2005]] the ESA corps officially counts 18 members, including nationals from all big European countries except the [[United Kingdom]].
===ESA Astronaut Corps===
[[Image:ESAastronauts.jpg|thumb|left|270px|ESA astronauts]]
[[Pedro Duque]] (E), [[Gerhard Thiele]] (D), [[Jean-François Clervoy]] (F), [[Umberto Guidoni]] (I), [[Léopold Eyharts]] (F), [[Reinhold Ewald]] (D), [[Roberto Vittori]] (I), [[Claude Nicollier]] (CH). [[Paolo Nespoli]] (I), [[Thomas Reiter]] (D), [[Christer Fuglesang]] (S), [[Frank De Winne]] (B), [[Michel Tognini]] (F), [[Hans Schlegel]] (D), [[Philippe Perrin]] (F), [[André Kuipers]] (NL).
ESA astronauts to have visited the ISS are:
*U. Guidoni (I), ESA, 9th ISS flight (6A) Raffaello [[MPLM]], STS-100/ISS, 19/04/01 - 01/05/01
*[[Claudie Haigneré|C. Haigneré]] (F), CNES Andromède, Soyuz/ISS, 21/10/01 - 31/10/01
*R. Vittori (I), ASI Marco Polo, Soyuz/ISS, 25/04/02 - 05/05/02
*Ph. Perrin (F), NASA/ESA, ISS assembly flight UF-2, STS-111/ISS, 05/06/02 - 19/06/02 (''Remark: was a CNES, not an ESA astronaut at the time of his mission'')
*F. De Winne (B), ESA, Odissea, Soyuz/ISS, 30/10/02 - 10/11/02
*P. Duque (E), ESA, Cervantes, Soyuz/ISS 18/10/03 - 28/10/03
*A. Kuipers (NL), ESA, DELTA Mission, 8S/ISS, 19/04/04 - 30/04/04
*R. Vittori (I), ASI Eneide, Soyuz/ISS, 15/04/05 - 25/04/05
===ESA's own manned launch vehicles===
In the 1980s France pressed for an independent European manned launch vehicle. Around 1985 it was decided to pursue a reusable spacecraft model and starting in November 1987 a project to create a mini-shuttle by the name of [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]] was introduced. The craft itself was modelled comparable to the first proposals of the [[Space Shuttle]] and constituted of a small reusable spaceship that would carry 3 to 5 astronauts and 3 to 4 metric tons of payload for scientific experiments. With a total maximum weight of 21 metric tons it would have started from the parallelly developed [[Ariane 5]] rocket. It was planned solely for use in LEO space flights. The planning and pre-development phase concluded in [[1991]], however the production phase was never fully implemented because at that time the political landscape had changed significantly. With the fall of the [[Soviet Union]] ESA looked forward to a cooperation with [[Russia]] to built a next-generation human space vehicle. Thus the [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]] programme was cancelled in [[1995]] after about 3 billion dollars had been invested.
In the 21st century ESA started new programmes in order to create an own manned spacecraft, most notably among its various projects and proposal is [[Hopper (spacecraft)|Hopper]] where a prototype built by [[EADS]] called [[EADS Phoenix|Phoenix]] has already been tested. While projects such as [[Hopper (spacecraft)|Hopper]] are neither concrete nor to be realised within the next decade, a more interesting possibility has emerged recently. After talks with the [[Russian Space Agency]] in [[2004]] and [[June]] [[2005]] {{ref|kliper}} a cooperation between ESA and the [[Russian Space Agency]] was announced to jointly work on the Russian designed [[Kliper]] shuttle, a reusable spacecraft that would be available for space travel beyond mere LEO (e.g. the moon or even Mars). [[Kliper]] constitutes the [[Russia|Russian]] counterpart to the American [[Crew Exploration Vehicle]] program. It was speculated that Europe could finance the bulk of the development costs of an estimated 3 thousand million euros and that [[Kliper]] would be jointly built and later be able to take off both from [[French Guiana]] and [[Baikonur]].
However ESA's participation, which was expected to be approved in December 2005, was finally not validated by the ESA member states. As a consequence, the participation of ESA remains an outstanding question. The situation is that the executive of ESA and its Human Spaceflight Directorate support Kliper, while the main contributing countries, and in particular Germany, Italy and France, adamantly oppose the initiation of a new human space transportation project, since they consider robotic exploration as their priority.
[[Kliper]] may see its first launch as early as [[2011]].
==ESA projects==
===International Space Station===
[[Image:ISS Columbus module.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The [[Columbus orbital facility]] is a module of the [[International Space Station]](ISS) that ESA developed.]]
With regard to the [[International Space Station|ISS]] ESA is not representing all its member states: 5 of the 16 countries have opted out because of either concerns on the expenses of the project or lack of interest. ESA is taking part in the construction and operation of the [[International Space Station|ISS]] with contributions such as the [[Columbus orbital facility]], a science laboratory module that will be brought into orbit after NASA's [[Space Shuttle]] goes back into service or the [[Cupola (ISS)|Cupola]] observatory module that was completed in July 2005 by [[Alenia Aeronautica|Alenia Spazio]] for ESA. The current estimates for the ISS are approaching 100 billion USD in total (development, construction and 10 years of maintaining the station) of which ESA has committed itself to pay 8 thousand million euros {{ref|ISS}}. About 90 per cent of the costs of ESA's ISS share will be contributed by Germany (41 per cent), France (28 per cent) and Italy (20 per cent). German ESA astronaut [[Thomas Reiter]] is planned be the first long-term ISS crew member in mid [[2006]].
[[As of 2005]], the spacecrafts that establish the supply link to the [[International Space Station|ISS]] are the [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] spacecrafts as well as the [[Space Shuttle]]. The European Space Agency has started to construct a space freighter for the [[International Space Station|ISS]], the [[ATV (spacecraft)|ATV]], an ''Automated Transfer vehicle'' with a cargo capacity of 8 metric tons that will be serving the [[International Space Station|ISS]] beginning [[2007]] {{ref|ATV}}. With the [[Space Shuttle]] reaching its retirement age in [[2010]], until [[NASA]] has a replacement for it (the [[Crew Exploration Vehicle|CEV]] is not expected to make its first operational manned flight before [[2012]]) the [[ATV (spacecraft)|ATV]] together with Progress, Soyuz and the Japanese transporter [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV]] (which will be ready in 2008) will be the only links between Earth and the [[International Space Station|ISS]].
===Current projects already launched===
[[Image:Artemissilex.JPG|thumb|right|220px|ESA's Artemis performing laser-communication with SPOT4(France).]]
* [[Artemis (satellite)|Artemis]] Europe's most advanced telecommunication satellite
* [[Cluster mission|Cluster-2]] a group of four probes studying the magnetosphere.
* [[Double Star Mission]] probe to study effects of the sun on Earth (in cooperation with [[China]])
* [[Envisat]] is the world's largest and most complex environmental satellite.
* [[ERS-2]] is an earth-observing satellite launched in [[1995]]. It is the successor to [[ERS-1]].
* [[GIOVE-A]] Experimental satellite launched Dec 2005 as forerunner for the [[Galileo positioning system]]
* [[Hubble Space Telescope]] built and operated in cooperation with [[NASA]]
* [[Huygens probe]] a space probe to [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]
* [[INTEGRAL|Integral]] the most sensitive gamma-ray observatory ever launched ([[2002]])
* [[Mars Express]] a space probe to [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]
* [[Rosetta space probe|Rosetta]] a space probe launched in [[2004]] that will explore comet [[67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko]] in [[2014]].
* [[Smart 1]] a lunar spaceprobe testing new propulsion technology
* [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]] a space-based observatory to study the sun (together with [[NASA]])
* [[Ulysses (spacecraft)|Ulysses]] built and operated in cooperation with [[NASA]]
* [[XMM-Newton]] an X-ray observatory satellite.
* [[Venus Express]] &mdash; a space probe to [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] which was launched in Nov 2005.
===Current projects to be launched in the near future===
* [[Atmospheric Re-entry Experimental Vehicle]] (AREV) Lifting body experimental vehicle to be launched [[2007]] ([[Kliper]] look alike)
* [[ADM-Aeolus]] &mdash; Due for launch in [[2007]] will measure global wind profiles
* [[BepiColombo]] space probe to [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]
* [[Chandrayaan|Chandrayaan-1]] Indian space probe to the [[Moon]] that will carry ESA-made instruments (to be launched 2007)
* [[Corot (astronomy)|Corot]] &mdash; a space telescope for detecting rocky exoplanets larger than Earth. A project led by [[CNES]]
* [[CryoSat]] &mdash; a three-year radar altimetry mission to determine variations in the thickness of the Earth’s continental ice sheets and marine ice cover. In October 2005 the launcher failed and CyroSat was lost. ESA is evaluating the cost of rebuilding the lost satellite, and, if funds are available, it may be able to launch it in about 3 years time.
* [[ExoMars]] Mars spacecraft and rover to be launched 2011
* [[Galileo positioning system]] a proposed [[satellite positioning system]]
* [[Gaia probe]] space telescope to make a 3-D chart of the galaxy
* [[ |
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<title>Gerald R. Ford</title>
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<title>Gustav I</title>
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<page>
<title>Gregorio Allegri</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gregorio Allegri''' ([[1582]] &ndash; [[February 7]], [[1652]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[composer]] and [[priest]] of the [[Roman School]] of composers. He mainly lived in [[Rome]], and died there.
He studied music under [[Giovanni Maria Nanino|Giovanni Maria Nanini]], the intimate friend of [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina|Palestrina]]. Being intended for the church, he obtained a benefice in the cathedral of [[Fermo]]. Here he composed a large number of [[motet]]s and other sacred music, which, being brought to the notice of [[Pope Urban VIII]], obtained for him an appointment in the choir of the [[Sistine Chapel]] at Rome. He held this from December [[1629]] till his death. In character, he was regarded as singularly pure and benevolent.
Among the musical compositions of Allegri were two volumes of concerti for five voices, published in [[1618]] and [[1619]]; two volumes of motets for six voices, published in [[1621]]; an edition of four-part [[sinfonia]]; five [[mass (music)|masses]], two settings of the [[Lamentations of Jeremiah]], as well as numerous motets which were not published in his lifetime. He was one of the earliest composers for [[string instrument|stringed instruments]], and [[Athanasius Kircher]] has given one specimen of this class of his works in the [[Musurgia]]. Most of Allegri's published music is in the more progressive early Baroque [[concertato]] style, especially the instrumental music. However, his work for the Sistine Chapel is descended from the Palestrina style, and in some cases strips even this refined, simple style of all ornament.
By far the most celebrated composition of Allegri is the [[Miserere (Allegri)|Miserere]]. It is written for two [[choir]]s, the one of five and the other of four voices, and has obtained a considerable celebrity. One of the choirs sings a simple version of the original Miserere chant; the other choir, spatially separated, sings an ornamented "commentary" on the other choir. The Miserere is still sung annually during [[Holy Week]] in the Sistine Chapel. Many have cited this work as an example of the ''stile antico'' or ''prima prattica''. However, its constant use of the dominant seventh chord and its emphasis on polychoral techniques certainly put it out of the range of "prima prattica." A more accurate comparison would be to the works of [[Giovanni Gabrieli]]. The Miserere gained international fame when it was included on the soundtrack for the 1981 film [[Chariots of Fire]].
The Miserere is one of the most often-recorded examples of late Renaissance music, although it was actually written during the chronological confines of the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] era; in this regard it is representative of the music of the Roman School of composers, who were stylistically conservative. The work acquired a considerable reputation for mystery and inaccessibility between the time of its composition and the era of modern recording; the Vatican, wanting to preserve its aura of mystery, forbade copies: unfortunately they were not prepared for a special visit in [[1769]] from a 14-year-old [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], who, on a visit to Rome with his father, heard it but twice and transcribed it faithfully from memory, thus creating the first bootleg copy. In [[1771]] Mozart's copy was procured and published in [[England]] by the famous traveler and music historian [[Dr. Burney]].
However, Burney's edition does not show the ornamentation for which the work was famous, and the music as it is performed now is the result of a strange copyist's error in the 1880s. The curious 'trucker's gear change' from G minor to C minor is because the second half of the verse is the same as the first half, but transposed up a fourth. The original never had a Top C.
The entire music performed at [[Rome]] in [[Holy Week]], Allegri's Miserere included, has been issued at [[Leipzig]] by [[Breitkopf and Hartel|Breitkopf and Härtel]]. Interesting accounts of the impression produced by the performance at [[Rome]] may be found in the first volume of [[Felix Mendelssohn]]'s letters and in Miss Taylor's ''Letters from Italy''.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1582 births|Allegri, Gregorio]]
[[Category:1652 deaths|Allegri, Gregorio]]
[[Category:Baroque composers|Allegri, Gregorio]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Allegri, Gregorio]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic priests|Allegri, Gregorio]]
[[Category:Roman school composers|Allegri, Gregorio]]
[[da:Gregorio Allegri]]
[[de:Gregorio Allegri]]
[[es:Gregorio Allegri]]
[[fr:Gregorio Allegri]]
[[he:גרגוריו אלגרי]]
[[nl:Gregorio Allegri]]
[[ja:グレゴリオ・アレグリ]]
[[pl:Gregorio Allegri]]
[[fi:Gregorio Allegri]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goodness (band)</title>
<id>12500</id>
<revision>
<id>40674643</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T05:27:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stevertigo</username>
<id>4099</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Goodness]] to [[Goodness (band)]]: never use a general term for any extremely finite reference</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[philosophy|philosophical]] concept of '''goodness''' see'' [[Goodness and value theory]].
'''Goodness''' were a [[Rock (music)|rock]] band from [[Seattle, Washington]] ([[United States|U.S.]]), led by [[Carrie Akre]], formerly of [[Hammerbox]] and now a solo artist and member of the rock band [[The Rockfords]].
Goodness did a version of "Electricity, Electricity" for the ''[[Schoolhouse Rock|Schoolhouse Rock! Rocks]]'' tribute disc.
[[As of 2005]], Garth Reeves of Goodness is playing with Darren Loucas (of Juke) and Jeff Fiedler of Sunday Morning Music in an acoustic trio, The Unfaithful Servants of Song.
==External links==
*[http://www.carrieakre.com Carrie Akre official page]
*[http://www.therockfords.com The Rockfords official page]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geoff Hurst</title>
<id>12501</id>
<revision>
<id>41749825</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:49:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Slumgum</username>
<id>580636</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Sir Geoffrey Charles Hurst''', [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]] (born [[December 8]], [[1941]] in [[Ashton-under-Lyne]]) is a [[footballer]] enshrined in the game's history as the only player to have scored a [[hat-trick]] in a [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] final. His three goals came in the [[1966 World Cup|1966 final]] for [[England national football team|England]] in their 4-2 win over [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] at [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]]. Such an achievement was made all the more remarkable by the fact that he was only five months and eight games into his international career, and was not considered his country's premier centre forward.
==Early career==
Hurst was born in [[Ashton-under-Lyne]], [[Lancashire]]. His footballing career began when he was an [[apprentice]] with [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]]. Hurst was initially a strong-running midfielder but was converted to a centre forward by manager [[Ron Greenwood]]. West Ham won the [[FA Cup]] in 1964 with Hurst scoring the second equaliser in a tight and exciting 3-2 victory at Wembley. A year later, Hurst was back at Wembley for the final of the [[Cup Winners' Cup|European Cup Winners Cup]] against [[1860 Munich]], and West Ham won 2-0. The followin |
also initiated the levelling of the enormous differences between the German states, which had been independent in their evolution for centuries, especially with [[legislation]].
The completely different legal histories and judicial systems posed enormous complications, especially for national trade. While a common trade code had already been introduced by the Confederation in 1861 (which was adapted for the Empire and, with great modifications, is still in effect today), there was little similarity in laws otherwise.
In 1871, a common Criminal Code ''(Reichsstrafgesetzbuch)'' was introduced; in 1877, common court procedures were established through the ''Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz'', the ''Zivilprozessordnung'' and the ''Strafprozessordnung'' (court system, civil procedures, and criminal procedures, respectively). In 1873 the constitution was amended to allow the Empire to replace the various and greatly differing Civil Codes of the states (if they existed at all; for example, parts of Germany formerly occupied by Napoleon's France had adopted the French Civil Code, while in Prussia the ''Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht'' of 1794 was still in effect). In 1881, a first commission was established to produce a common Civil Code for all of the Empire, an enormous effort that would produce the ''Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch'' ([[BGB]]), possibly one of the most impressive legal works of the world; it was eventually put into effect on [[1 January]] [[1900]]. It speaks volumes for the conceptual quality of these [[codification]]s that they all, albeit with many amendments, have been in effect until today.
Carrying out many of the same tasks that would have been brought to fruition with the help of a revolution from below, the ultimate effects of conservative modernization are distinct. With real political power still in the hands of the aristocracy, the government sought to preserve as much of the original social framework as they could, even as the economic base of the landowners rapidly diminished in comparison to industry. Unification was followed by a prolonged period of conservative and even authoritarian government. The leadership had to have at hand or be able to construct a sufficiently powerful bureaucratic apparatus, including the agencies of repression, the military and the police. But in place a strong central government would have to establish strong authority and uniform administrative system, and a more or less uniform law code managed to create a sufficiently powerful military machine to be able to make the wishes of its rulers felt in the arena of international politics.
==Militarism==
[[Image:German War Ensign.png|thumb|Military insignia of the German Empire, showing at the upper-left the ''Eiserne Kreuz'' (Iron Cross) in front of the black-white-red flag]]
One of the by-products of conservative modernization was [[militarism]]. To unite the upper classes&mdash;both the military-aristocracy and industrialists&mdash;militarism proved necessary to continue modernization without changing socio-political structures. Each of the elites in the ruling coalition of the Empire found some advantages in formal, overseas expansion: mammoth monopolies wanted imperial support to secure overseas investments against competition and domestic political tensions abroad; bureaucrats wanted more occupations; military officers desired promotion; and the traditional but waning landed gentry wanted formal titles. Observing the rise of trade unionism, socialism, and other protest movements during an era of mass society in both Europe and later North America, the elite in particular was able to utilize nationalistic imperialism to co-opt the support of the industrial working class. Riding the sentiments of the late nineteenth century Romantic Age, imperialism inculcated the masses with neo-aristocratic virtues and helped instill broad, nationalist sentiments. Thus, Prussia&mdash;heir to the garrison state built up by figures such as [[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia|Friedrich Wilhelm I]] and [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick the Great]] in the [[18th century]]&mdash;managed to create a sufficiently powerful military machine not only capable of challenging rivals on the continent such as Austria and France, but able to make its presence known in the arena of international politics.
German imperialists (of the [[Alldeutsche Verband]]), for instance, argued that Britain's world power position gave the British unfair advantages on international markets, thus limiting Germany's economic growth and threatening its security. Many European statesmen and industrialists wanted to accelerate the [[Scramble for Africa]], securing colonies before they strictly needed them. Their reasoning was that markets might soon become glutted, and a nation's economic survival depend on its being able to offload its surplus products elsewhere. In response, British imperialists such as [[Joseph Chamberlain]] thus concluded that formal imperialism was necessary for Britain because of the relative decline of its share of the world's export trade and the rise of German, American, and French economic competition.
Economic trends certainly played a major role, explaining why statesmen from [[Jules Ferry]] to [[Francesco Crispi]] sought new roles for the emerging powers that they led, especially during the Great Depression of [[1873]], but shifts in the European balance of power are what ultimately facilitated formal overseas expansionism. With the reactionary continental order established by the [[Congress of Vienna]] shattered, the allure of imperialism was an option beyond the traditional great powers of [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. The new nation states of [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] were no longer embroiled in continental concerns and domestic disputes as they were before the Franco-Prussian War.
Thus, Bismarck, once openly uninterested in overseas adventurism, was eventually brought to realize the political value of colonies. The absolutist Central Powers, led by a newly unified, dynamically industrializing Germany, with its expanding navy, doubling in size between the Franco-Prussian War and the Great War, were strategic threats to the markets and security of the more established Allied powers and Russia. German [[Colonization of Africa|colonial efforts]] from [[1884]] brought only a small overseas [[German South-West Africa|empire]] compared to those of Britain and France, although in the [[Herero Wars]] it shared with those empires the phenomenon of armed conflict between natives and colonials.
Subsequent German foreign policy initiatives (notably the initiation of a large battle fleet under the naval laws of 1898 and 1900) drove [[United Kingdom|Britain]] into diplomatic alignment (the [[Entente]]) with a [[France|Franco]]-[[Russia]]n alliance already in the offing at the time of Bismarck's fall.
==After Bismarck==
The Empire flourished under Bismarck's guidance until the Kaiser's death (March [[1888]]). In this so-called [[Year of Three Emperors|''Dreikaiserjahr'']] (Year of Three Emperors), [[Friedrich III of Germany (Hohenzollern)|Friedrich III]], his son and successor, only lived 99 days, leaving the crown to a young and impetuous [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]], who forced Bismarck out of office in March 1890.
Within Germany, the opposition [[Social Democratic Party (Germany)|Social Democratic Party]] (SPD) rose to become for a time the strongest socialist party in the world, winning a third of the votes in the January 1912 elections to the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' (imperial parliament). Government nevertheless remained in the hands of a succession of conservative coalitions supported by right-wing liberals or Catholic clericals and heavily dependent on the Kaiser's favour.
[[Image:KaiserBill2.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Kaiser Wilhelm II]]
The shaky [[European]] balance of power broke down when [[Austria-Hungary]], Germany's ally since 1879, declared war on [[Serbia]] (July 1914) after the [[assassination in Sarajevo]] of the heir to the Austrian throne. Germany supported their one loyal ally's objectives in Serbia and gave them a "blank cheque" to pursue whatever means they found necessary there. Serbia was supported by Russia, which in turn was allied with France. Following Russia's decision for [[mobilization|general mobilisation]] (i.e. against both Austria-Hungary and Germany) Germany declared war on both Russia and France in what it called a preventive strike.
This was the beginning of [[World War I]]. Despite early successes, Germany and its allies suffered military defeat in the face of an enemy strengthened after 1917 by the intervention of the [[United States]]. The Kaiser [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] was driven into exile (November 1918) by a revolution led by elements of the opposition SPD and communist groups, who later organised their own abortive bid for power (January 1919).
In June 1919, the [[Treaty of Versailles]] formally ended the war. It was signed in the [[Hall of Mirrors]] at [[Versailles]], the same place where the Second Reich had been proclaimed nearly half a century before. Germany lost territories to France, Belgium, and the reinstated nation of Poland, and elsewhere, and was required to pay reparations for its alleged sole responsibility for the war.
==Legacy==
Bismarck's rule of reactionary co-optation and coercion and his perpetuation of ''Junker'' virtues of [[militarism]], hierarchy, and autocracy can be understood best when one considers that the nation was only recently and in some ways tenuously united; that the large and powerful neighbor, France, had for centuries pursued an active policy of keeping "the Germanies" weak and divided; and that Germany had again and again been the field where the power struggles of other European states and kingdoms were played out, with devastating consequences in most German regions. The |
[Canadian football]] to tackle is to physically interfere with the forward progress of a player in possession of the ball, such that his forward progress ceases and is not resumed, or such that he is caused to touch some part of his body to the ground other than his feet or hands, or such that he is forced to go out of bounds. In any such case, the ball becomes [[Dead ball (American football)|dead]], the down is over, and play ceases until the beginning of the next [[football play|play]]. A tackle is known as a [[quarterback sack]] when the [[quarterback]] is tackled behind the [[line of scrimmage]]. '''Tackle''' is also the name of player positions on both the [[offensive tackle|offensive]] and [[defensive tackle|defensive]] teams. Usually there is a left and right tackle on each team.
==[[Rugby Football]]==
In [[Rugby League]] a '''tackle''' is completed when a player's ball-carrying arm touches the ground at the same time as an opponent has some contact with his body, or when one or more opponents hold a player on his feet so that his momentum (in any direction) ceases, or simply if the [[referee]] calls ''held''. If necessary, the tackled player is then allowed to regain his feet; play continues by means of a ''play-the-ball''.
In [[Rugby Union]] the [[Rugby Union#Tackle|tackle]] is similar to ''Rugby League'', the tackled player must release the ball, but the ball is not dead and a ''[[Rugby union#Ruck|ruck]]'' forms to contest possession of it. Also, players cannot be tackled standing up: they must either be brought to the ground or a ''[[Rugby Union#Maul|maul]]'' forms.
==[[Australian Rules Football]]==
In [[Australian Rules Football|Australian Rules (Aussie Rules)]] the tackle is again similar. However if the tackled player does not dispose of the ball having had opportunity to do so (called the [[holding the ball]] rule), or concedes a penalty in the tackle (i.e. tries to throw the ball when you are only allowed to "handball" or kick it) the tackler is rewarded with a free kick by the [[umpire]]. A tackle must not make contact above the shoulders or below the knees. Players wear little to no padding to cushion the impact of tackles. There are also rules outlawing pushing in the back making tackling more difficult. In addition to tackling, the [[bump (football)|bump]] or ''hip and shoulder'' is a legal aussie rules tactic for both dispossession of the player with the ball and also impeding players involved in a contest but not in possession of the ball. The difference between a bump and a tackle is that arms are not used in a bump, which must be made side-on using the hip or shoulder.
==[[International Rules Football]]==
A hybrid game between [[Gaelic Football]] (which does not allow tackling, but does allow bumping) and Australian rules football (which does allow tackling).
Tackling in International Rules is subject to similar rules as Australian rules football, although tackling is only allowed as low as the waist in International Rules, whereas it is allowed down to the knees in Aussie Rules.
==Association Football (soccer)==
In [[Football (soccer)|Association Football (soccer)]] a player '''tackles''' an opponent by taking control of the ball from them. This is achieved by using either leg to wrest possession from the opponent, or to slide in to kick the ball away. Unless the tackle is seen as an illegal one by the referee (if a player makes no contact with the ball, if he makes contact with his opponent before the ball, or makes unfair contact with the player after playing the ball), play continues following a tackle. Tackles with the use of both legs (rather than just one of them) are often called foul.
==Types of Tackles==
* [[spear tackle]] (dangeous throw) - rugby league, rugby union & Australian rules
* [[slide tackle]] - football (soccer)
* [[high tackle]] (illegal head high tackle) - rugby league & Australian rules
* [[ankle tap]] - rugby union
[[Category:American football terminology]]
[[Category:Rugby union terminology]]
[[Category:Rugby league terminology]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) terminology]]
[[Category:Australian rules football terminology]]
[[de:Tackling]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Play from scrimmage</title>
<id>10668</id>
<revision>
<id>30880083</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-11T01:16:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zzyzx11</username>
<id>182902</id>
</contributor>
<comment>change cat to [[Category:American football terminology]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''play from scrimmage''' is the activity of the games of [[Canadian football]] and [[American football]] during which one team tries to advance the ball or to score, and the other team tries to stop them or take the ball away. Once a play is over, and before the next play starts, the football is considered [[dead ball (football)|dead]]. A game of American football consists of many such plays.
The term is also used to denote a specific plan of action, or its execution, under a particular set of circumstances faced by either team. For instance, the [[offensive team]] may be faced with one or two [[down (football)|downs]] left in a [[football possession|possession]] and still ten or more yards to go to earn a new set of downs. In this instance, they may decide to employ a [[forward pass]]. Well in advance of the particular game, a number of different kinds of [[forward pass]] plays will have been planned out and practiced by the team. They will be designated by obscure words, letters and/or numbers so that the name of a play does not reveal its exact execution to outsiders. The team's coach, or perhaps the [[quarterback]], will choose one of the pre-planned [[forward pass]]ing strategies, and tell the team, during the [[football huddle|huddle]] which one has been chosen. Because of planning and practice, each player will know what his role in the play is to be, and how to execute it. This will be the offensive play.
Conversely, the [[defensive team]] will know that the offense has to cover a good deal of ground in a single play, will expect a forward pass, and will know from earlier study something of the propensities of the offense they face. The [[defensive captain]] is likely to call out a specific [[football formation|formation]] or defensive play, to anticipate and counteract the expected action by the offense.
The play will begin with the [[football snap|snap]] of the ball from the [[football center|center]] to a [[football back|back]], usually the [[quarterback]], and it will end when the effort by the offensive squad to advance the ball has either succeeded in scoring, or has been frustrated by the ball being [[football down|downed]] before the aim of the offensive play is accomplished, or by the defensive squad having managed to come into possession of the ball without first downing it. In the event of change of possession during a play, the team newly in possession of the ball may try to advance it toward their own goal, which the team formerly in possession with naturally resist. Change of possession during a routine play may occur by [[interception]] or by [[fumble]].
Change of possession may also occur in other ways. A change of possession can occur ''on downs'', if the offensive team fails to achieve a [[first down]] or a [[touchdown]] in four attempts. Another way is through a [[change of possession play]], when the offensive team, having surmised the unlikelihood of scoring or achieving a [[first down]] within four attempts, kicks the ball away in what is known as a [[punt (football)|punt]]. [[Kickoff|kickoff]]s and [[free kick]]s are not considered true [[change of possession play]]s.
==See also==
*[[Glossary of American football]]
[[Category:American football terminology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Football player</title>
<id>10669</id>
<revision>
<id>15908468</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-06T17:07:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluelion</username>
<id>8471</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of footballers]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Friedrich Nietzche</title>
<id>10670</id>
<revision>
<id>15908469</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Friedrich Nietzsche</title>
<id>10671</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42112623</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:25:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chef aka Pangloss</username>
<id>557987</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Life */ link and minor correction; see talk page, too</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{toobig}}
{{Infobox_Philosopher |
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
<!-- Philosopher Category -->
region = Western Philosophers |
era = [[19th-century philosophy]] |
color = #B0C4DE |
<!-- Image and Caption -->
image_name = FWNietzscheSiebe.jpg |
image_caption = Friedrich Nietzsche |
<!-- Information -->
name = Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche |
birth = [[October 15]], [[1844]] ([[Röcken|Röcken bei Lützen]], [[Saxony]], [[Prussia]]) |
death = [[August 25]], [[1900]] ([[Weimar]], [[Germany]]) |
school_tradition = Precursor to [[Existentialism]] |
main_interests = [[Ethics]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Aesthetics]], [[Language]] |
influences = [[Jacob Burckhardt|Burckhardt]], [[Socrates]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emerson]] |
ypically a 1% management fee and, optionally, a 10% incentive (performance) fee, in return for their due diligence on and selection of hedge fund managers. Besides lower mininum investment hurdle and diversification, some funds of funds also add value (or "justifying" the extra layer of performance fee) by dynamic allocation to different hedge funds strategies, such as Long/Short Equities, Event Driven, Disstressed Debt, Convertible Arbitrage, Statistical Arbitrage, Macro and Multi-Strategies.
==Comparison to Private Equity funds==
Hedge funds are similar to private equity funds, such as [[venture capital]] funds, in many respects. Both are lightly regulated, private pools of capital that invest in securities and compensate their managers with a share of the fund's profits. Most hedge funds invest in very liquid assets, and permit investors to enter or leave the fund easily. Private equity funds invest primarily in very illiquid assets, such as early-stage companies and consequentially, investors are "locked in" for the entire term of the fund.
Hedge funds are regular investors in private equity companies' acquisition funds.
Between 2004 and February 2006, some U.S. hedge funds adopted 25 month lock-up rules expressly to exempt themselves from the SEC's new registration requirements. They now fall under the registration exemption drafted to exempt private equity funds.
==Comparison to Mutual funds==
Like hedge funds, [[mutual fund]]s are pools of investment capital. However, mutual funds are highly regulated by the SEC. One consequence of this regulation is that mutual funds cannot compensate managers based on the performance of the fund, which many believe dilutes the incentive of the fund managers to perform.
==Hedge fund privacy ==
As private, lightly regulated partnerships, hedge funds do not have to disclose their activities to third parties. This is in contrast to a fully regulated [[mutual fund]] (or unit trust) which will typically have to meet regulatory requirements for disclosure. The hedge funds are typically domiciled in an offshore jurisdiction, e.g. [[Bermuda]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Virgin Islands]], where regulation of investment funds permits wider powers of investment. Hedge funds have to file accounts and conduct their business in compliance with the less onerous requirements of these offshore centres. Investors in hedge funds enjoy a higher level of disclosure than investors in mutual funds including detailed discussions of risks assumed, significant positions, and investors usually have direct access to the investment advisors of the funds. This high level of disclosure is not available to non-investors, hence the notion of privacy attached to hedge funds.
A byproduct of this privacy and the lack of regulation is that there are no official hedge fund statistics. An industry consulting group, HFR (hfr.com), reported at the end of the second quarter [[2003]] there are 5660 hedge funds world wide managing $665 billion. To put that in perspective, at the same time the US mutual fund sector held assets of $7.818 trillion (according to the Investment Company Institute).
The combination of privacy and rich investors means that hedge funds are a target for criticism whenever markets move against some group's interests. For example, hedge funds were widely blamed for the speculative run-up in the bond market that preceded the global bond crisis of [[1994]], although the major players in the bond spree were actually large commercial and [[investment bank]]s.
== Hedge funds ==
Large hedge funds
* [[Andor Capital Management]] ([https://www.andorcap.com/ website])
* [[Angelo, Gordon & Co.]] ([http://www.angelogordon.com/ website])
* [[Bridgewater Associates]] ([http://www.bwater.com/ website])
* [[Citadel Investment Group]] ([http://www.citadelgroup.com/ website])
* [[Clinton Group]] ([http://www.Clinton.com/ website])
* [[D.E. Shaw|D. E. Shaw]] ([http://www.deshaw.com/ website])
* [[Farallon]] ([http://www.faralloncapital.com/ website])
* [[Pequot Capital Management]] ([https://www.pequotcap.com/ website])
* [[Perry Capital]]
* [[Renaissance Technologies]]
* [[SAC Capital Advisors]]
* [[Soros Fund Management]]
* [[Tudor Investment Corporation]] ([http://www.tudorfunds.com/ website])
In Asia
* [[Vision Investment Management]] ([http://www.visioninvestment.com/ website])
== Top earners ==
[[Institutional Investor]] magazine annually ranks top-earning hedge fund managers. Earnings from a hedge fund is simply 100% of the capital gains on the managers own equity stake in the fund and 20% to 50% (depending on policy) of the gains on the other investor's capital.
The 2004 top earner was [[Edward Lampert]] of [[ESL Investments]] Inc. who earned $1.02 billion during the year ([http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=109&STORY=/www/story/05-27-2005/0003695485&EDATE= PR Newswire link]).
== Hedge fund managers ==
*[[Alfred Winslow Jones]]
*[[Bill Fleckenstein]]
*[[David Gerstenhaber]]
*[[David Shaw (CEO)|David Shaw]]
*[[David Tepper]]
*[[Doug Kass]]
*[[Edward Lampert]]
*[[Edward O. Thorp]]
*[[Eric Mindich]]
*[[Estlander & Rönnlund]]
*[[Stephen Peak]]
*[[George Soros]]
*[[Jim Cramer]]
*[[James Harris Simons|Jim Simons]]
*[[Joel Greenblatt]]
*[[Julian Robertson]]
*[[Kenneth C. Griffin]]
*[[Michael Steinhardt]]
*[[Seth Tobias]]
*[[Stanley Druckenmiller]]
*[[Steven A. Cohen]]
== See also ==
*[[Derivatives market]]
*[[Venture capital]]
==Further reading==
* Lhabitant, François-Serge, ''Hedge Funds: Quantitative Insights'', John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
<!-- Wikipedia is not a link farm. Before adding a link, read [[Wikipedia:External links]] to see if it complies]] -->
==External links==
===General===
*[http://www.library.hbs.edu/guides/hedgefunds/ Harvard Business School's Baker Library Guide to Hedge Funds]
*[http://mutualfunds.about.com/cs/hedgefunds/l/blhedgefunds.htm Hedge Funds vs. Mutual Funds]
*[http://www.hedgefundsreview.com Hedge Funds Review - Technical features and news on investing in and managing hedge fund products]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,1575639,00.html ''The long and short''] - ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[September 24]] [[2005]] - This article explains hedge funds in layman's terms, why they are of interest to the general reader and contains interviews with fund managers.
*[http://www.global-derivatives.com/download/files.php?func=download&id=87 Hedge Fund Strategies (global-derivatives.com)]
*[http://www.hedgefundtips.org Hedge Fund Tips] - Nonprofit consumer guide
*[http://moneyscience.org/tiki/tiki-view_blog.php?blogId=4 Hedge Fund News, Jobs and Links at MoneyScience.org]
*[http://moneyscience.org/tiki/tiki-read_article.php?articleId=79 Hedge Fund Blogs, Books and Resources at MoneyScience.org]
*[http://hedgefund.net Hedge Fund Data, News, & Averages at HedgeFund.net]
===Trade associations===
*[http://www.aima.org/ Alternative Investment Management Association (AIMA)]
*[http://www.thehfa.org/Aboutus.cfm the Hedge Fund Association (HFA)]
*[http://www.mfainfo.org/ Managed Funds Association (MFA)]
===Indices===
*[http://www.hedgefundresearch.com/ HFRI Monthly Performance Indices]
*[http://www.hedgeindex.com/ CSFB/Tremont Hedge Fund Indices - Home Page]
*[http://www.djhedgefundindexes.com/ DOW Jones Hedge Fund Indexes]
*[http://www2.standardandpoors.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=sp/Page/IndicesIndexPg&r=1&l=EN&b=4&s=132&xcd=HEDGE S&P Hedge Fund Indices]
*[http://hedgefund.net/marketing_index.cfm?template=realtime.html&val=rtime/ HedgeFund.net HFN Averages]
===Hedge Fund Research===
*[http://www.hedgefundresearch.com/ HFR Database and HFR Industry Reports]
*[http://icf.som.yale.edu/research/hedgefund.shtml Hedge Fund Research Initiative] of the International Center for Finance at the [[Yale School of Management]]
*[http://www.hedgefund.net/HFN_Averages_January_06_Report.pdf/ HFN Averages January Performance Report]
*[http://www.hedgefund.net/Strategy_Focus_Report_022806.pdf/ HedgeFund.net Strategy Focus Report: HFN Small/Micro Cap Average]
{{finance-footer}}
[[category:Funds]]
[[de:Hedge-Fonds]]
[[fr:Gestion alternative]]
[[ja:&#12504;&#12483;&#12472;&#12501;&#12449;&#12531;&#12489;]]
[[zh:对冲基金]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hydrocodone</title>
<id>14413</id>
<revision>
<id>42147808</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:21:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shanel</username>
<id>301280</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.108.220.245|64.108.220.245]] ([[User talk:64.108.220.245|talk]]) to last version by Cjewell</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="infobox bordered" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="250px"
|-
| bgcolor="#ffffff" align="center" colspan="2" |
[[Image:Hydrocodone.png|Hydrocodone chemical structure]]<br/>
''Hydrocodone''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | ''4,5a-Epoxy-3-methoxy-17-methylmorphinan-6-one tartrate (1:1) hydrate (2:5)''
|- align="center" style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray"
| '''[[CAS number]]''' <br/> 125-29-1
| '''[[ATC code]]''' <br/> R05DA03
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>21</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | 299.368
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Metabolism
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | Hepatic
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Elimination half-life]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | 4–8 hours
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolo |
38}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs]] | before=[[Thomas Inskip, 1st Viscount Caldecote|Sir Thomas Inskip]] | after=[[Thomas Inskip, 1st Viscount Caldecote|The Viscount Caldecote]] | years=1939&ndash;1940}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for War|War Secretary]] | before=[[Oliver Stanley]] | after=[[David Margesson, 1st Viscount Margesson|David Margesson]] | years=1940}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | before=[[Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|The Viscount Halifax]] | after=[[Ernest Bevin]] | years=1940&ndash;1945}}
{{succession box | title=[[Leader of the House of Commons]] | before=[[Stafford Cripps|Sir Stafford Cripps]] | after=[[Herbert Morrison (politician)|Herbert Morrison]] | years=1942&ndash;1945}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | before=[[Herbert Morrison (politician)|Herbert Morrison]] | after=[[Harold Macmillan]] | years=1951&ndash;1955}}
{{succession box two to two| title1=[[Conservative Party (UK)|Leader of the British Conservative Party]] | title2=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] | before=[[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]] | after=[[Harold Macmillan]] | years1=1955&ndash;1957 | years2=1955&ndash;1957}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Earl of Avon]] | before=New Creation | after=[[Nicholas Eden, 2nd Earl of Avon|Nicholas Eden]] | years=}}
{{end box}}
==External links==
http://www.discoverychannel.co.uk/alteredstatesmen/feature3.shtml
{{UKDeputyPrimeMinisters}}
{{UKPrimeMinisters}}
{{ConservativePartyLeader}}
[[Category:1897 births|Avon]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Avon]]
[[Category:British Army officers|Avon]]
[[Category:British MPs|Avon]]
[[Category:British Secretaries of State|Avon]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Avon]]
[[Category:Former students of Christ Church, Oxford|Avon]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Avon]]
[[Category:Leaders of the British Conservative Party|Avon]]
[[Category:Lords Privy Seal|Avon]]
[[Category:members of the Privy Council|Avon]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Avon]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom|Avon]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Avon]]
[[de:Anthony Eden]]
[[es:Anthony Eden]]
[[fr:Anthony Eden]]
[[it:Anthony Eden]]
[[nl:Anthony Eden]]
[[ja:アンソニー・イーデン]]
[[pl:Anthony Eden]]
[[pt:Anthony Eden]]
[[fi:Anthony Eden]]
[[sv:Anthony Eden]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amateur Radio</title>
<id>1053</id>
<revision>
<id>15899558</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T19:01:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Amateur radio]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Amateur radio]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>All Souls Day</title>
<id>1055</id>
<revision>
<id>42078634</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:58:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Ced. Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the religious holiday|the 2005 film|All Souls Day (film)|All Souls Day}}
[[Image:Allsoul.jpg|thumb||300px|All Souls' Day by William Bouguereau]]
'''All Souls' Day''' (formally, ''Commemoratio omnium Fidelium Defunctorum'' or Commemoration of all the Faithful Departed), also called '''Defuncts' Day''' in Mexico and Belgium, is the day set apart in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] for the commemoration of the [[afterlife|faithful departed]]. The celebration is based on the doctrine that the souls of the faithful which at death have not been cleansed from [[venial sin]]s, or have not atoned for past transgressions, cannot attain the [[beatific vision]], and that they may be helped to do so by [[prayer]] and by the sacrifice of the [[mass (liturgy)|mass]].
The feast falls on [[November 2]]. Traditionally, because [[Requiem]] [[Masses]] could not be celebrated on Sundays before Vatican II, the feast was transferred to [[November 3]] if [[November 2]] is a Sunday, but this is no longer observed in the [[Novus Ordo]].
==Christian origin==
The practice of setting apart a special day for intercession for certain of the faithful departed is very old. But the first feast of general intercession was first established by [[Odilo]], [[abbot]] of [[Cluny]] (d. 1048). The legend is given by [[Peter Damiani]] in his ''Life of St Odilo.'' According to this, a [[pilgrim]] returning from the [[Holy Land]] was cast by a [[storm]] on a desolate island. A hermit living there told him that amid the rocks was a chasm communicating with [[purgatory]], from which perpetually rose the groans of tortured souls. The hermit also claimed he had heard the [[demon]]s complaining of the efficacy of the prayers of the faithful, and especially the [[monk]]s of Cluny, in rescuing their victims. Upon returning home, the pilgrim hastened to inform the abbot of Cluny, who then set [[2 November]] as a day of intercession on the part of his community for all the souls in purgatory. The decree ordaining the celebration is printed in the Bollandist [[Acta Sanctorum]] (Saec. VI, pt. i. p. 585). From Cluny the custom spread to the other houses of the Cluniac order, was soon adopted in several [[diocese]]s in [[France]], and spread throughout the Western Church. In time the entire month of [[November]] became associated with prayer for the departed in the Western Catholic tradition. Nonetheless the [[2 November]] retained a special status as a day set apart for that purpose.
==Protestantism==
At the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] the celebration of All Souls' Day was abolished in the [[Church of England]], though it was renewed in certain churches in connection with the "Catholic revival" of the 19th century. The observance was restored with the publication of the 1980 [[Alternative Service Book]], and it features in [[Common Worship]].
Among continental [[Protestantism|Protestant]]s its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained. Even [[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Luther]]'s influence was not sufficient to abolish its celebration in [[Saxony]] during his lifetime; and, though its Ecclesiastical sanction soon lapsed even in the [[Lutheran]] Church, its memory survives strong in popular custom. Just as it is the custom of [[French people]], of all ranks and creeds, to decorate the graves of their dead on the ''jour des morts'', so [[German people]] stream to the graveyards once a year with offerings of [[flower]]s.
==Pagan roots==
Certain popular beliefs connected with All Souls' Day are of [[Paganism|pagan]] origin and immemorial antiquity. Thus the dead are believed by the peasantry of many Catholic countries to return to their former homes on All Souls' Night and partake of the food of the living. In [[Tyrol]], cakes are left for them on the table and the room kept warm for their comfort. In [[Brittany]], people flock to the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel bare-headed at the graves of their loved ones, and to toll the hollow of the [[tomb stone|tombstone]] with [[holy water]] or to pour libations of [[milk]] on it, and at bedtime the supper is left on the table for the souls. This tradition, though, certainly does not make Catholicism a pagan religion at all since it is the first Christian Church and denomination for over a 1,000 years.
==See also==
* [[Office of the Dead]]
* [[Samhain]]
* [[Halloween]]
* [[Day of the Dead]]
* [[Zaduszki]]
==External links==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01315b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: All Souls' Day]
* [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Saints/faqs.asp American Catholic - Saints FAQs, All Saints and All Souls Days]
[[Category:Liturgical Calendar]]
[[de:Allerseelen]]
[[ja:死者の日]]
[[la:Commemoratio Omnium Fidelium Defunctorum]]
[[nl:Allerzielen]]
[[pt:Dia dos fiéis defuntos]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andreas Vesalius</title>
<id>1056</id>
<revision>
<id>31724752</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-17T12:28:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.65.45.123</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Vesalius]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anatole France</title>
<id>1057</id>
<revision>
<id>42022625</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:24:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zdravko mk</username>
<id>693044</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Famous sayings */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{French literature (small)}}
'''Anatole France''' ([[April 16]], [[1844]] &ndash; [[October 12]], [[1924]]) was the [[pen name]] of French author '''Jacques Anatole François Thibault'''. He was born in [[Paris|Paris, France]], and died in [[Tours]], [[Indre-et-Loire]], [[France]]. In addition to being a celebrated author, Anatole was also documented to have a brain volume just two-thirds the normal size.
In [[1896]], he was made a member of the [[Académie française]].
In the [[1920s]] France's writings were put on the [[Index of Forbidden Books]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. He was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1921]].
==Works, partial list==
* ''[[Penguin Island (book)|Penguin Island]]'', ''L'Île des Pingouins''
* ''The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard'', ''Le Crime de Sylvester Bonnard''
* ''Thaïs''
* ''The Human Tragedy'', ''L'Humaine Tragedie''
* ''The Queen Pedauque'', ''La Rotisserie de la Reine Pedauque''
* ''The Red Lily'', ''Le Lys Rouge''
* ''The Revolt of the Angels'', ''La Revolte des Anges''
* ''Crainquebille; Putois; Riquet; et Plusieurs Autres Recits Profitables''
* ''Les Sept Femmes de la Barbe-Bleue et Autres Contes Merveilleux''
* |
te with the [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] for military support, and above all for more aeroplanes. Negotiations were successful with the last two on [[July 25]], and aeroplanes began to arrive in [[Tetouan]] on [[August 2]]. [[August 5]], with this fresh air support, he was able to break the blockade and send a ship convoy with some 2,000 soldiers.
In early August, the situation in western [[Andalusia]] was stable enough to allow him to organize a column (some 15,000 men at its height), under the command of then Lieutenant-Colonel [[Juan Yagüe]], which would march through [[Extremadura]] towards [[Madrid]]. [[August 11]], [[Mérida]] was taken, and [[August 15]] [[Badajoz]], thus joining both nationalist-controlled areas.
On [[September 21]], with the head of the column at the town of [[Maqueda]] (some 80 km away from Madrid), Franco ordered a detour to free the besieged garrison at the [[Alcázar]] of [[Toledo (Spain)|Toledo]], which was achieved [[September 27]]. This decision was controversial even then, but resulted in an important propaganda success, both for the nationalist party and for Franco himself.
===Rise to power===
The designated leader of the uprising, Gen. [[José Sanjurjo]] had died on [[July 20]] in an air crash. The nationalist leaders managed to overcome this through regional commands: ([[Emilio Mola|Mola]] in the North, [[Gonzalo Queipo de Llano|Queipo]] in [[Andalusia]], Franco with an independent command and [[Miguel Cabanellas|Cabanellas]] in [[Aragon]]), and a coordinating [[junta]] nominally led by the last, as the most senior general.
On [[September 21]], it was decided that Franco was to be commander-in-chief, and [[September 28]], after some discussion, also head of government. On [[October 1]], [[1936]] he was publicly proclaimed as ''Generalissimo'' of the Nationalist army and ''Jefe del Estado'' ([[Head of State]]).
===Military command===
From that time until the end of the war, Franco personally guided military operations. After the failure to take [[Madrid]] in November [[1936]], Franco settled to a piecemeal approach to winning the war, rather than bold maneuvering. As with his decision to relieve the garrison at Toledo, this approach has been subject of some debate; some of his decisions, such as in June [[1938]] when he preferred to head for [[Valencia]] instead of [[Catalonia]], remain particularly controversial.
His army was supported by troops from [[Nazi Germany]] (the [[Condor Legion]]) and, above all, [[Fascist]] [[Italy]] (''[[Corpo Truppe Volontarie]]''), but the degree of influence of both powers on Franco's direction of war seems to have been very limited. [[António de Oliveira Salazar]]'s [[Portugal]] also openly assisted the Nationalists from the start.
===Political command===
He managed to fuse the [[ideologically]] incompatible national-syndicalists [[Falange]] ("[[phalanx]]", a [[far-right]] Spanish [[political party]] with ideology similar to that of [[Mussolini]]'s movement) and the [[Carlism|Carlist]] monarchist parties under his rule.
From early [[1937]] every death sentence had to be signed (or acknowledged) by Franco.
===The end of the war===
On [[March 4]][[1939]] an upraising broke out within the Republican camp, claiming to forestall an intended Communist coup by prime minister Juan Negrín. Led by Colonel [[Segismundo Casado]] and [[Julián Besteiro]], the rebels gained control over [[Madrid]]. They tried to negotiate a settlement with Franco, who refused anything but [[unconditional surrender]]. They gave way; Madrid was occupied on [[March 27]], and the republic fell. The war officially ended on [[April 1]], [[1939]].
During the 1940s, some [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] resistance to Franco was to be found in isolated rural areas such as the [[Val d'Aran]] in [[Catalonia]].
==Spain under Franco==
{{main|Spain under Franco}}
{{wikisourcepar|Relations of Members of the United Nations with Spain}}
{{wikisourcepar|Condecoraciones otorgadas por Francisco Franco a Benito Mussolini y a Adolf Hitler}}
Spain was bitterly divided and economically ruined as a result of the civil war.
After the war a very harsh repression began, with hundreds of thousands of summary executions, an unknown number of political prisoners and thousands of people in exile, largely in France and Latin America. The 1940 shooting of the president of the [[Generalitat de Catalunya|Catalan government]], [[Lluís Companys]], was one of the most notable cases of this early repression, while the major groups targeted were real and suspected [[leftists]], ranging from the moderate, democratic left to [[Communists]] and [[Anarchists]], the Spanish [[intelligentsia]], [[atheists]] and military and government figures that had remained loyal to the Madrid government during the war. The bloodshed in Spain did not end with the cessation of hostilities, many political prisoners suffered execution by the fire squad, because of the accusation of treason.
In September 1939, [[World War II]] broke out in Europe, and although [[Adolf Hitler]] met Franco in [[Hendaye]], France ([[October 23]], [[1940]]), to discuss Spanish entry on the side of the [[Axis Powers|Axis]], Franco's demands (food, military equipment, [[Gibraltar]], [[French North Africa]], etc.) proved too much and no agreement was reached. Contributing to the disagreement was an ongoing dispute over German mining rights in Spain. Some historians argue that Franco made demands that he knew Hitler would not accede to in order to stay out of the war. Other historians argue that he simply had nothing to offer the Germans. After the collapse of France in June 1940, Spain adopted a pro-Axis non-belligerency stance (for example, he offered Spanish naval facilities to German ships) until returning to complete neutrality in 1943 when the tide of the war had turned decisively against Germany. Some volunteers spanish troops - not stately accepted by Franco - (''[[División Azul]]'', or "Blue Division") to fight on the [[Eastern Front (WWII)|Eastern Front]] against the [[comunism]]. During the war Franco's Spain also proved to be a safe haven for 350 000{{citationneeded}} European Jews fleeing from deportation to the concentration camps from occupied France.
With the end of World War II, Franco and Spain were forced to suffer the economic consequences of the isolation imposed on it by nations such as the United Kingdom and the United States. This situation ended in part when, due to Spain's strategic location in light of [[Cold War]] tensions, the [[United States]] entered into a trade and military alliance with Spain. This historic alliance commenced with U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]]'s visit in [[1953]] which resulted in the [[Pact of Madrid]]. This launched the so-called "[[Spanish Miracle]]," which developed Spain from [[autarky]] into [[capitalism]]. Spain was admitted in the [[United Nations]] in [[1955]]. In spite of this opening, Franco almost never left Spain once in power.
Lacking any strong ideology, Franco initially sought support from [[National syndicalism]] (''nacionalsindicalismo'') and the [[Roman Catholic Church]] (''nacionalcatolicismo''). His coalition-ruling single party, the [[Movimiento Nacional]], was so heterogeneous as to barely qualify as a party at all, and certainly not an ideological monolith like the Fascio di Combattimento ([[Fascist Party]]) or the ruling block of [[Antonio Salazar]]. His Spanish State was chiefly a conservative&mdash;even traditionalist&mdash;rightist regime, with emphasis on order and stability, rather than a definite political vision.
In [[1947]] Franco proclaimed Spain a [[monarchy]], but did not designate a monarch. This gesture was largely done to appease monarchist factions within the Movimiento. Although a self-proclaimed monarchist himself, Franco had no particular desire for a king. As such, he left the throne vacant, with himself as ''de facto'' [[regent]]. He wore the uniform of a captain general (a rank traditionally reserved for the King), resided in the Pardo Palace, appropriated the kingly privilege of walking beneath a [[baldachin|canopy]], and his portrait appeared on most Spanish coins. Indeed, although his formal titles were ''Jefe del Estado'' (Chief of State) and ''Generalísimo de los Ejércitos Españoles'' (Highest General of the Spanish Armed Forces), he was referred to as ''por la gracia de Dios, Caudillo de España y de la Cruzada'', or "by the grace of God, the Leader of Spain and of the Crusade" ("[[by the grace of God]]" is a technical, legal phrase which indicates sovereign dignity in [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]], and is only used by monarchs).
During his rule non-government [[trade union]]s and all political opponents across the [[political spectrum]], from [[communism|communist]] and [[anarchism|anarchist]] organizations to [[liberal democracy|liberal democrats]] and [[Catalan nationalism|Catalan]] or [[Basque nationalism|Basque]] nationalists, were suppressed. The only legal "trade union" was the government-run [[Sindicato Vertical]].
In order to build a uniform Spanish nation, the public usage of languages other than [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (especially [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Galician language|Galician]] and [[Basque language]]s) was strongly repressed. [[Language politics in Francoist Spain]] stated that all government, notarial, legal and commercial documents were drawn up exclusively in Spanish and any written in other languages were deemed null and void. The usage of other than Spanish languages was banned on road and shop signs, advertising and in general all exterior images of the country.
All cultural activities were subject to [[censorship]], and many were plainly forbidden on various, many times spurious, grounds (political or moral). This cultural policy relaxed with time, most notably after 1960.
The enforceme |
[[1850]] &ndash; [[January 5]], [[1891]]), [[United States|American]] [[opera]] singer, was born in [[Chicago, Illinois]] and studied in [[Milan]] and [[Paris]]. She had a fine [[soprano]] voice, and appeared first in opera in [[London]] under Colonel Mapleson's direction at [[Covent Garden]], also singing at important concerts. She organized an opera company known by her name, and toured extensively in the [[United States]], where she enjoyed considerable reputation. In [[1873]] she married E. J. Wetherell (Wethereil). She died at [[Salt Lake City]].
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbott, Emma}}
{{opera-singer-stub}}
[[Category:1850 births|Abbott, Emma]]
[[Category:1891 deaths|Abbott, Emma]]
[[Category:Sopranos|Abbott, Emma]]
[[Category:American opera singers|Abbott, Emma]]
[[de:Emma Abbott]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epimetheus</title>
<id>10121</id>
<revision>
<id>29602954</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-29T17:01:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kjkolb</username>
<id>107439</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed link pipes as per Manual of Style for disambiguation pages</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Epimetheus''' may mean one of several things:
*[[Epimetheus (mythology)]] the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]].
*[[Epimetheus (moon)]] the [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]].
*[[1810 Epimetheus]] is an [[asteroid]].
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Épiméthée]]
[[it:Epimeteo]]
[[ja:エピメテウス (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[pl:Epimeteusz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Akihito of Japan</title>
<id>10122</id>
<revision>
<id>15907956</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-06T04:10:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stevertigo</username>
<id>4099</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect:[[Akihito]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elizabeth I</title>
<id>10123</id>
<revision>
<id>34271630</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-07T19:45:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gazpacho</username>
<id>74520</id>
</contributor>
<comment>reverted to last version by Conversion Script</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elizabeth I of England]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Shomu</title>
<id>10125</id>
<revision>
<id>34381108</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-08T17:10:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YurikBot</username>
<id>271058</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: zh</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Shōmu''' (聖武天皇 ''Shōmu Tennō'') ([[701]] - May 2, 756{{an|Japanese_dates1 1}}) was the 45th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He was the son of [[Emperor Mommu]] and Fujiwara no Miyako, a daughter of [[Fujiwara no Fuhito]]. Shōmu's aunt and predecessor, [[Empress Gensho|Empress Genshō]], gave him the throne when she abdicated in [[724]]. In, [[749]], Shōmu himself abdicated in favor of his daughter, [[Empress Koken|Empress Kōken]], but continued to control the government.
Shōmu is mainly remembered for commissioning the sixteen-meter high statue of the [[Vairocana Buddha]] in the [[Todaiji temple|Tōdaiji Temple]] of [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]. At the time, this was such a massive undertaking that later chroniclers accuse him of having completely exhausted the country's reserves of [[bronze]] and [[precious metal]]s. The former emperor personally painted in the statue's eyes at the opening ceremony in [[752]] and declared himself a servant of the [[Three Jewels|three treasures]]: the [[Buddha]], [[Dharma|Buddhist teachings]] and the [[Sangha|Buddhist community]], making this the closest anyone ever came to declaring Japan a Buddhist nation. He likewise established the system of [[provincial temple]]s.
Shōmu is also known as the first emperor whose consort was not born into the imperial household. His consort Kōmyō was a [[Fujiwara]] woman. The two had a son who died in childhood.
==Notes==
#Japanese dates correspond to the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until [[1873]]. May 2, 756 of the Japanese calendar corresponds to [[June 4]], [[756]] of the [[Julian calendar]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/nara/TODAIJI18.htm Vairocana Buddha at the temple of Todaiji]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Empress Gensho|Gensh&#333;]] | after=[[Empress Koken|K&#333;ken (later Shotoku)]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=724-749}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:701 births|Shomu]]
[[Category:756 deaths|Shomu]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Shomu]]
[[de:Shōmu]]
[[fr:Shomu Tenno]]
[[it:Shomu imperatore del Giappone]]
[[nl:Shomu]]
[[ja:聖武天皇]]
[[zh:聖武天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Kammu</title>
<id>10126</id>
<revision>
<id>41111082</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T02:56:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Corruptresearcher</username>
<id>80774</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Genealogy */ wikify</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kanmu.jpeg|frame|right|Emperor '''Kammu''']]
'''Emperor Kammu''' (桓武天皇 ''Kammu Tennō'', alternative transliteration '''Kanmu''') ([[737]]&ndash;[[806]]) was the 50th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession.
During his reign ([[781]]&ndash;[[806]]) the capital of Japan was moved from [[Heijokyo|Heijōkyō]] in [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], first to [[Muko, Kyoto|Nagaoka]], and then to [[Kyoto|Heian]]. This marks the beginning of the [[Heian era]] in Japanese history. He was an active emperor who set up new government organisations and fought the [[Ezo]] tribes in the north of the country.
== Politics ==
Earlier Imperial sponsorship of Buddhism, beginning with [[Prince Shotoku|Prince Shōtoku]] (574&ndash;622), had lead to a general politicization of the clergy, along with an increase in intrigue and corruption. In [[784]] Kammu shifted his capital from [[Nara, Nara|Nara]] to [[Nagaoka]] in a move that was said to be designed to edge the powerful Nara Buddhist establishments out-of-state politics&mdash;while the capital moved, the major Buddhist temples, and their officials, stayed put. Indeed there were a steady stream of edicts issued from 771 right through the period of Kukai's studies which, for instance, sought to limit the number of Buddhist priests, and the building of clan temples. However the move was to prove disastrous and was followed by a series of natural disasters including the flooding of half the city. In [[785]] the principal architect of the new capital, and royal favourite, Fujiwara no Tanetsugu, was assassinated.
Meanwhile Kammu's armies were pushing back the boundaries of his empire. This led to an uprising, and in [[789]] a substantial defeat for Kammu's troops. Also in 789 there was a severe draught and famine&mdash;the streets of the capital were clogged with the sick, and people avoiding being drafted into the military, or into forced labour. Many disguised themselves as Buddhist priests for the same reason. Then in [[794]] Kammu suddenly shifted the capital again, this time to Heian-ky&#333;, which is modern day [[Kyoto]]. The new capital was started early the previous year, but the change was abrupt and led to even more confusion amongst the populace.
Politically Kammu shored up his rule by changing the syllabus of the university. [[Confucius|Confucian]] ideology still provided the raison d'être for the Imperial government. In [[784]] Kammu authorised the teaching of a new course based on the [[Annals of Spring and Autumn]] based on two newly imported commentaries: Kung-yang, and Ku-liang. These commentaries used political rhetoric and promote a state in which the Emperor as "son of Heaven" should extent his sphere of influence to barbarous lands, thereby gladdening the people. In [[798]] the two commentaries became required reading at the government university.
Kammu also sponsored the travels of the monks [[Saicho|Saichō]] and [[Kukai|Kūkai]] to [[China]], from where they returned to found the Japanese branches of, respectively, [[Tendai]] and [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]] [[Buddhism]].
==Genealogy==
Kammu was the son of [[Emperor Konin|Emperor Kōnin]].
According to the ''[[Shoku Nihongi]],'' (続日本紀), Emperor Kammu's mother Yamato no Niigasa, later [[Takano no Niigasa]], was a descendant of [[King Muryeong of Baekje]], [[Korea]]. Kammu was born before his father ascended to the throne.
After his father Kōnin became emperor, Kammu's half brother was appointed to the rank of crown prince. Later Kammu was named to succeed father instead of his brother.
Later, when he ascended to the throne, Kammu appointed his young brother, Prince Sawara, whose mother was Takano no Niigasa, as crown prince. Prince Sawara was later expelled and died in exile.
Kammu had many consorts and [[concubine]]s, and as a result he had many sons and daughters. Among them, three sons would eventually ascend to the imperial throne: [[Emperor Heizei]], [[Emperor Saga]] and [[Emperor Junna]].
Some of his descendants (known as the Kammu Taira or [[Kammu Heishi]]) took the [[Taira]] surname, and in later generations became prominent warriors. Examples include [[Taira no Masakado]], [[Taira no Kiyomori]], and (with a further surname change) the [[Hojo clan|Hōjō clan]]. The [[waka]] poet [[Ariwara no Narihira]] was one of his grandsons.
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Konin|Emperor Kōnin]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Heizei]] | years=781-806}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:737 births|Kammu]]
[[Category:806 deaths|Kammu]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kammu]]
[[d |
selles ilus on jääv,
:Tagasi homsest toob tänane päev.
''Lyrics by [[Tõnu Trubetsky]]''
==Numbers==
:0 - null
:1 - üks
:2 - kaks
:3 - kolm
:4 - neli
:5 - viis
:6 - kuus
:7 - seitse
:8 - kaheksa
:9 - üheksa
:10 - kümme
:11 - üksteist
:12 - kaksteist
:13 - kolmteist
:20 - kakskümmend
:21 - kakskümmend üks
:22 - kakskümmend kaks
:29 - kakskümmend üheksa
:30 - kolmkümmend
:90 - üheksakümmend
:100 - (üks)sada
:101 - sada üks
:110 - sada kümme
:112 - sada kaksteist
:120 - sada kakskümmend
:190 - sada üheksakümmend
:200 - kakssada
:900 - üheksasada
:1000 - tuhat
:1000000 - miljon
==Reference==
Mati Hint. ''Häälikutest sõnadeni.'' Valgus 1978, Tallinn.
==See also==
*[[List of tongue-twisters#Estonian|Estonian tongue-twisters]]
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=et}}
*An [http://www.eki.ee/cgi-bin/inglise.cgi?if=en Estonian-English dictionary (Institute of the Estonian Language)]
*An [http://www.ibs.ee/dict/ English-Estonian dictionary (Institute of Baltic Studies)]
*An [http://aare.pri.ee/dictionary.html?switch=en Estonian-English-Estonian dictionary]
* A [http://glos.net.ru/est.php Russian-Estonian dictionary]
* Estonica.org article about the [http://www.estonica.org/eng/lugu.html?menyy_id=61&kateg=38&alam=44 Estonian language]
* [http://www.einst.ee/literary/ Estonian literary magazine]
* [http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&to_lang=21&lang-Estonian/ Learn and listen to useful expressions in Estonian]
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Estonian-english/ Estonian English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
{{Official EU languages}}
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Estonian culture]]
[[Category:Finno-Ugric languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Finland]]
[[Category:Languages of Estonia]]
[[af:Esties]]
[[ar:لغة إستونية]]
[[bs:Estonski jezik]]
[[ca:Estonià]]
[[cs:Estonština]]
[[de:Estnische Sprache]]
[[et:Eesti keel]]
[[el:Εσθονική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma estonio]]
[[eo:Estona lingvo]]
[[eu:Estoniera]]
[[fr:Estonien]]
[[gl:Lingua estoniana]]
[[io:Estoniana linguo]]
[[id:Bahasa Estonia]]
[[it:Lingua estone]]
[[he:אסטונית]]
[[kw:Estonek]]
[[la:Lingua Estonica]]
[[li:Estisch]]
[[lt:Estų kalba]]
[[hu:Észt nyelv]]
[[mk:Естонски јазик]]
[[mo:Лимбa ecтoнэ]]
[[nl:Estisch]]
[[ja:エストニア語]]
[[no:Estisk språk]]
[[nn:Estisk språk]]
[[pl:Język estoński]]
[[pt:Língua estoniana]]
[[ro:Limba estonă]]
[[ru:Эстонский язык]]
[[se:Esttegiella]]
[[sl:Estonščina]]
[[fi:Viron kieli]]
[[sv:Estniska]]
[[tr:Estonca]]
[[zh:爱沙尼亚语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E-Prime</title>
<id>10224</id>
<revision>
<id>41460528</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:15:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dmlandfair</username>
<id>296817</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Discouraged forms */ it's always means "it is"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the interactive-experiment design software, see [[E-Prime (software)]]''
'''E-Prime''', short for '''English Prime''', refers to a modification of the [[English language]] that prohibits the use of the [[verb]] &quot;[[Copula|to be]]&quot; in all its forms.
== History ==
One of Korzybski's students, D. David Bourland, Jr. proposed E-prime as an addition to [[Alfred Korzybski]]'s [[general semantics]] some years after Korzybski's [[death]] in [[1950]]. Bourland coined the term in an [[essay]] in [[1965]] entitled ''A Linguistic Note: Writing in E-Prime'' (originally published in the ''General Semantics Bulletin''). It quickly became controversial within general semantics, partly because sometimes practioners of General Semantics saw Bourland as attacking the verb 'to be' as such, and not just certain usages.
Korzybski had found two forms of the verb 'to be' - the 'is' of identity and the 'is' of predication - to have structural problems. For example, the sentence "The coat is red" has no observer, but "We see the coat as red" (here "we" indicates observers) appears more correct as to the facts about light waves and colour as determined by [[modern science]], i.e., [[colour]] results from a reaction in the [[human brain]]. Korzybski advocated raising one's awareness of structural issues generally through training in general semantics.
== The different functions of 'to be' ==
In use, the verb 'to be' has several distinct functions:
* '''Identity''', of the form "''noun'' be ''noun''" ''[The cat is an animal]''
* '''Predication''', of the form "''noun'' be ''adjective''" ''[The cat is furry]''
* '''Auxiliary''', of the form "''noun'' be ''verb''" ''[The cat is sleeping]''; ''[The cat is bitten by the dog]''
* '''Existence''', of the form "''noun'' be" ''[There is a cat]''
* '''Location''', of the form "''noun'' be ''place''" ''[The cat is on the mat]''
Bourland sees specifically the &quot;identity&quot; and &quot;predication&quot; functions as [[:wikt:pernicious|pernicious]], but advocates eliminating all forms for the sake of simplicity. In the case of the "existence" form (and less [[idiomatic]]ally, the "location" form), one can simply substitute the verb "exists".
== Criticism ==
Note that E-Prime forces a writer to choose verbs and meanings carefully: the elimination of "to be" implicitly eliminates the [[passive voice]] and [[Imperfective aspect|progressive aspect]]. Since many stylists argue that these occur too frequently in sloppy English writing, this constraint alone accounts for much of the appeal of E-Prime to some of its advocates. Of course it may also generate difficulties for some writers as they learn to use E-Prime.
E-Prime's advocates may also assert that its use leads to a less dogmatic style of [[language]] that reduces the possibility for misunderstanding and for [[conflict]]. Detractors might observe that some languages already treat equivalents of the verb "to be" very differently without giving any obvious advantages to their speakers. For instance, [[Arabic language|Arabic]], like [[Russian language|Russian]], already lacks a verb form of "to be" or "is" in the present tense. If one wanted to assert, in Arabic, that "an apple is red", one would not literally say "the apple looks red", but "the apple red". In other words, speakers can communicate the verb form of "to be" - and/or its E-Prime equivalents - with their semantic advantages and disadvantages, even without the existence of the word itself (though without resolving the ambiguities that E-Prime seeks to alleviate). Similarly, the [[Ainu language]] consistently does not distinguish between "be" and "become"; thus ''ne'' means both "be" and "become", and ''pirka'' means "good", "be good", and "become good" equally. Many languages &mdash; for instance [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] &mdash; already distinguish "existence"/"location" from "identity"/"predication".
Less compatibility exists between E-Prime and [[Charles Kay Ogden]]'s [[Basic English]] because Basic English has a closed set of verbs - excluding verbs such as "become", "remain", and "equal" that E-Prime uses to replace or precisify states of "being". Changes such as those proposed for E-Prime also might eliminate enough ways to express [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] in [[African American Vernacular English]] to prove unworkable if applied indiscriminately to such language.
==Discouraged forms==
''To be'' falls in the set of [[irregular verb]]s in English; some individuals, especially those who have learned English as a second language, may have difficulty recognizing all its forms. In addition, speakers of [[colloquial]] English frequently [[Contraction (linguistics)|contract]] ''to be'' after [[pronoun]]s or before the word ''[[Negation#Grammar|not]]''. E-Prime would prohibit the following words as forms of ''to be'':
*''be''
*''being''
*''been''
*''am''
*''is''; ''isn't''
*''are''; ''aren't''
*''was''; ''wasn't''
*''were''; ''weren't''
*[[Contraction (linguistics)|Contractions]] formed from a [[pronoun]] and a [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] of ''to be'':
**''I'm''
**''you're''; ''we're''; ''they're''
**''he's''; ''she's''; ''it's''
*E-Prime likewise prohibits contractions of ''to be'' found in nonstandard [[dialect]]s of English, such as the following:
**''[[ain't]]''
**''[[hain't]]'' (when derived from ''ain't'' rather than ''haven't'')
===Allowed words===
E-prime does not prohibit the following words, because they do not derive from forms of ''to be''. Some of these serve similar grammatical functions (see [[auxiliary verb]]s).
*''become''
*''has''; ''have''
*''I've''; ''you've''
*''do''; ''does''; ''doing''; ''did''
*''can''; ''could''
*''will''; ''would''
*''shall''; ''should''
*''ought''
===Allowed words with prohibited homophones or homographs===
The following words may either look ([[homograph]]) or sound ([[homophone]]) like a form of the word ''to be'', but they do not have the same meaning.
*''its'', the [[possessive case]] of the singular [[gender-neutral pronoun]]
*''it's'' and more generally ''’s'' when derived from 'has'
*''hain't'' (in nonstandard dialects when derived from ''haven't'' rather than ''ain't'')
*[[Noun]]s that sound like forms of the verb ''to be'':
**''[[bee]]'', meaning an insect or [[spelling bee|a contest]]
**''[[being]]'' when used as a noun, as in [[Virginia Woolf]]'s statement, "The artist after all is a solitary ''being''"
**''[[B]]'', ''[[M]]'', and ''[[R]]'', names of the letters (although ''M'' is pronounced distinctly from ' |
de plan fulfillment possible and earned bonus funds of various sorts for the enterprise. These bonuses were not allocated indiscriminately for gross output but were awarded for such accomplishments as the introduction of innovations or reduction of labor costs.
The system functioned smoothly only when its component parts were staffed with individuals whose values coincided with those of the regime or at least complemented regime values. Such a sharing took place in part through the integrative force of the party organs whose members occupied leading positions in the economic structure. Efforts were also made to promote a common sense of purpose through mass participation of almost all workers and farmers in organized discussion of economic planning, tasks, and performance. An East German journal reported, for example, that during preliminary discussion concerning the 1986 annual plan, 2.2 million employees in various enterprises and work brigades of the country at large contributed 735,377 suggestions and comments. Ultimate decision making, however, came from above.
The private sector of the economy was small but not entirely insignificant. In 1985 about 2.8 percent of the net national product came from private enterprises. The private sector included private farmers and gardeners; independent craftsmen, wholesalers, and retailers; and individuals employed in so-called free-lance activities (artist, writers, and others). Although self-employed, such individuals were strictly regulated. in 1985, for the first time in many years, the number of individuals working in the private sector increased slightly. According to East German statistics, in 1985 there were about 176,800 private entrepreneurs, an increase of about 500 over 1984. Certain private sector activities were quite important to the system. The SED leadership, for example, had been encouraging private initiative as part of the effort to upgrade consumer services.
In addition to those East Germans who were self-employed full time, there were others who engaged in private economic activity on the side. The best known and most important examples were families on collective farms who also cultivated private plots (which can be as large as 5,000 m²). Their contribution was significant; according to official sources, in 1985 the farmers privately owned about 8.2 percent of the hogs, 14.7 percent of the sheep, 32.8 percent of the horses, and 30 percent of the laying hens in the country. Professionals such as commercial artists and doctors also worked privately in their free time, subject to separate tax and other regulations. Their impact on the economic system, however, was negligible.
More difficult to assess, because of its covert and informal nature, was the significance of that part of the private sector called the "second economy." As used here, the term includes all economic arrangements or activities that, owing to their informality or their illegality, took place beyond state control or surveillance. The subject has received considerable attention from Western economists, most of whom are convinced that it is important in CPEs. In the mid-1980s, however, evidence was difficult to obtain and tended to be anecdotal in nature.
One kind of informal economic activity included private arrangements to provide goods or services in return for payment. An elderly woman might have hired a neighbor boy to haul coal up to her apartment, or an employed woman might have paid a neighbour to do her washing. Closely related would be instances of hiring an acquaintance to repair a clock, tune up an automobile, or repair a toilet. Such arrangements take place in any society, and given the serious deficiencies in the East German service sector, they may have been more necessary than in the West. They were doubtlessly common, and because they were considered harmless, they were not the subject of any significant governmental concern.
There was another kind of private economic activity, however, that did concern the government: the stealing and selling of goods for profit by individuals who had ready access to them. For example, an individual might siphon gasoline from a public vehicle and sell it to a friend. No statistics are available on such practices. Surface impressions, however, suggest that they are not very common or significant, certainly not as significant as may be the case in other socialist states where they were reportedly quasi-institutionalized.
Another common activity that was troublesome if not disruptive was the practice of offering a sum of money beyond the selling price to individuals selling desirable goods, or giving something special as partial payment for products in short supply. Such ventures may have been no more than offering someone Trinkgeld (a tip), but they may have also involved Schmiergeld (money used to "grease" a transaction) or Beziehungen (special relationships). Opinions in East Germany varied as to how significant these practices were. But given the abundance of money in circulation and frequent shortages in luxury items and durable consumer goods, most people were perhaps occasionally tempted to provide a "sweetener," particularly for such things as automobile parts or furniture.
These irregularities did not appear to constitute a major economic problem. However, the East German press occasionally reported prosecutions of particularly egregious cases of illegal "second economy" activity, involving what are called "crimes against socialist property" and other activities that are in "conflict and contradiction with the interests and demands of society" (as one report described the situation).
==Culture==
===Music===
For ideological reasons artists were expected to sing songs only in German at first, which changed with the end of the sixties. This seemed a logical constraint by the Party leaders but it was rather unpopular among young people. There was strict rules that regulated that all artistic activity ought to be censored for any open or implied anti-socialist tendencies. The band [[Renft]], for example, was prone to political misbehaviour, which eventually led to its split.
The [[Puhdys]] and [[Karat (Band)|Karat]] were some of the most popular mainstream bands, managing to hint at critical thoughts in their lyrics without being explicit. Like most mainstream acts, they appeared in popular youth magazines such as ''Neues Leben'' and ''Magazin''. Other popular rock bands were: [[Wir]], [[Dean Reed]].
Influences from the West were heard everywhere, because TV and radio that came from the ''Klassenfeind'' (enemy of the working class) could be received in many parts of the East, too (a notorious exception being [[Dresden]], with its geographically disadvantageous position in the [[Elbe]] valley, giving it the nickname of “Valley of the Clueless”). The Western influence led to the formation of more "underground" groups with a decisively western-oriented sound. A few of these bands were [[Die Skeptiker]], as well as [[Feeling B]].
Classical music was highly supported, so that there existed over 50 classical symphony orchestras in a country with a population about 16 million.
Look also:
*[[Thomanerchor]] [[Leipzig]]
*[[Dresden Staatskapelle|Staatskapelle]] [[Dresden]]
*[[Berliner Sinfonie Orchester]]
*[[Staatsoper Unter den Linden]] [[Berlin]]
In fact that [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] was born in East German territory, his birthplace in [[Eisenach]] was turned into a museum of his life, which, among other things, included more than 300 instruments from Bach's life. In 1980 this museum was receiving more than 70,000 visitors annually.
In Leipzig, an enormous archive with recordings of all of Bach's music was compiled, along with many historical documents and letters both to and from him.
Every other year, school children from across East Germany gathered for a Bach competition held in East Berlin. Every four years an international Bach competition for keyboard and strings was held.
Also [[Goethe|Goethe's]], [[Schiller|Schiller's]] or [[Martin Luther]]'s birthplace turned into museums. In the GDR there existed over 300 of these folklore museums.
===Theater===
East German theater was in the beginning strongly dominated by [[Bertolt Brecht]], who brought back a lot of artists from antifascist resistance and reopened ''Theater am Schiffbauerdamm'' with his [[Berliner Ensemble]]. On the other side, some streams tried to establish pure workers theater, played by workers with plays about workers.
After Brecht died, there were a lot of conflicts beetween the artists and his family (around [[Helene Weigel]]) about the heritage of Brecht. [[Heinz Kahlau]], [[Slatan Dudow]], [[Erwin Geschonneck]], [[Erwin Strittmatter]], [[Peter Hacks]], [[Benno Besson]], [[Peter Palitzsch]] and [[Ekkehard Schall]] are counted among Bertolt Brecht's scholars and followers.
In the 1950s the Swiss [[Benno Besson]] had success with "The Dragon" by [[Jewgenij Schwarz]], so that he travelled with [[Deutsches Theater]] all-around Europe and Asia (also in Japan). He became the Intendant at [[Volksbühne]] in the 1960s and worked often with [[Heiner Müller]].
Because of censorship a lot of artists left the GDR from 1975. A parallel development was that some artists went to small-city theaters, to create theater beyond [[Berlin]]. For example [[Peter Sodann]] founded the [[neues theater]] in [[Halle/Saale]] and [[Frank Castorf]] was at theater [[Anklam]].
Theater and Cabaret had a very important status in the GDR for the people and so it was a very active and movable scene, which was reason for its contention with the state. Benno Besson said once about that: ''"At least they took us serious, we had a bearing."''
Important theaters:
*[[Deutsches Theater]] [http://www.deutsches-theater.de]
*[[Berliner Ensemble]] [http://www.berliner-ensemble.de]
*[[Volksbühne]] [ht |
ion and movie actress; most notibly for her role as [[Penelope Halliwell]] on the series ''[[Charmed]]''
*[[Shel Silverstein]], famous children's author; born and raised in Chicago
*[[Adlai Stevenson II]], governor, 1952 and 1956 Presidential candidate; buried in [[Bloomington, Illinois]]
*[[Oprah Winfrey]], talk show host, richest African American woman, director of Harpo; maintains a residence on Lake Michigan in the [[Streeterville]] section of [[Chicago, Illinois]]
==Rogues gallery==
*[[William Stratton]], Governor, charged with tax evasion, acquitted
*[[Orville Hodge]], State Auditor, imprisoned for embezzlement
*[[Otto Kerner, Jr.]], Governor, federal judge, imprisoned for bribery.
*[[Paul Powell]], Secretary of State, died with shoeboxes full of money (but never indicted)
*[[Daniel Walker]], Governor, imprisoned for financial fraud
*[[Dan Rostenkowski]], U.S. Congressman, imprisoned for mail fraud
*[[George Ryan]], Secretary of State, Governor, on trial (2005) for corruption
== State symbols ==
[[Image:Cardinal.jpg|thumb|300px|The Cardinal is the state bird of Illinois]]
*[[State animal]]: [[White-tailed deer]] (''Odocoileus virginianus'')
*[[State amphibian]]: [[Tiger Salamander|Eastern Tiger Salamander]] (''Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum'')
*[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]: [[Northern Cardinal|Cardinal]] (''Cardinalis cardinalis'')
*[[List of U.S. state capitals|State capital]]: [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]]
*[[State dance]]: [[Square dance]]
*[[State fish]]: [[Bluegill]] (''Lepomis macrochirus'')
*[[State flower]]: Purple [[violet (plant)|violet]] (''Viola sororia'')
*[[State fossil]]: [[Tully Monster]] (''Tullimonstrum gregarium'')
*[[State insect]]: [[Monarch butterfly]]
*[[State mineral]]: [[Fluorite]]
*[[List of U.S. state mottos|State motto]]: "State sovereignty, national union"
*[[State grass|State prairie grass]]: Big Bluestem (''Andropogon gerardii'')
*[[State reptile]]: [[Painted Turtle]] (''Chrysemys picta'')
*[[State slogan]]: "Land of Lincoln"
*[[State snack]]: [[Popcorn]]
*[[State soil]]: [[Drummer Silty Clay Loam]]
*[[State song]]: "[[Illinois (state song)|Illinois]]"
*[[State tree]]: [[White oak]] (''Quercus alba'')
== See also ==
*[[Little Egypt (region)|Little Egypt]]
*[[Fort Sheridan, Illinois]]
*[[List of ZIP Codes in Illinois]]
*[[U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Illinois]]
*[[Illinois State Parks]]
*[[Popcorn]]
*[[Chicago]]
== References ==
* Biles, Roger. ''Illinois: A History Of The Land And Its People'' (2005).
* Cole, Arthur Charles. ''The Era of the Civil War, 1848-1870'' (1919)
* Davis, James E. ''Frontier Illinois'' (1998).
*Gove, Samuel K. and James D. Nowlan. ''Illinois Politics & Government: The Expanding Metropolitan Frontier'' (1996). Government text with guide to further sources.
* Hallwas, John E. ed., ''Illinois Literature: The Nineteenth Century'' (1986)
* Horsley, A. Doyne. ''Illinois: A Geography'' (1986)
* Howard, Robert P. ''Illinois: A History of the Prairie State'' (1972).
* Jensen, Richard. ''Illinois: A History'' (2001). Uses a traditional-modern-postmodern model.
* Keiser, John H. ''Building for the Centuries: Illinois 1865-1898'' (1977)
* Meyer, Douglas K. ''Making the Heartland Quilt: A Geographical History of Settlement and Migration in Early-Nineteenth-Century Illinois'' (2000)
*Kleppner, Paul. Political Atlas of Illinois (1988). Maps for 1980s.
* Pease, Theodore Calvin. ''The Frontier State, 1818-1848'' (1918). Volume II of a series published by the Illinois Centennial Commission
* [http://history.alliancelibrarysystem.com/IllinoisAlive/files/bp/htm7/bp000182.cfm Peck, J. M. A Gazetteer of Illinois (1837)].
* Sutton, Robert P. ed. ''The Prairie State: A Documentary History of Illinois'' (1977).
* WPA. ''Illinois: A Descriptive and Historical Guide'' (1939). One of the most famous surveys--covers every town and city and much more.
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Illinois}}
* [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/ ''Encyclopedia of Chicago'' (2005)]
*[http://www.illinois.gov State of Illinois Web Site]
:*[http://www.illinois.gov/facts/symbols.cfm Illinois State Symbols]
*[http://www.ecanned.com/indsum/level1/IL/index.html Illinois Employment] - State and County Data
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/17000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
{{Illinois}}
{{United_States}}
[[Category:Illinois|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
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[[ko:일리노이 주]]
[[hi:इलिनाय]]
[[id:Illinois]]
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[[he:אילינוי]]
[[ka:ილინოისი (შტატი)]]
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[[mk:Илиноис]]
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[[ja:イリノイ州]]
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[[zh:伊利诺州]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Imaginary numbers</title>
<id>14850</id>
<revision>
<id>15912381</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Imaginary number]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ian Murdock</title>
<id>14851</id>
<revision>
<id>41918076</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:40:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.144.77.46</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Add succession box</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ian Murdock''' is the founder of the [[Debian]] project and the commercial [[Progeny Debian]] distribution.
He wrote the [[Debian Manifesto]] in [[1993]] while a student at [[Purdue University]], where he earned his [[bachelor's degree]].
He named Debian after himself and his (then) girlfriend (now wife) ''Deb''ra. He also founded the company [[Progeny Linux Systems]].
{{compu-bio-stub}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Debian Project Leader]]|years=August&nbsp;1993 &ndash; March&nbsp;1996|before=Founder of the Debian project|after=[[Bruce Perens]]}}
{{end box}}
== External links ==
*[http://ianmurdock.com/ ianmurdock.com]
*[http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/2841 LinuxJournal article on Debian from 1994]
*[http://www.progeny.com/ Progeny]
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[[tr:Ian Murdock]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Idol worship</title>
<id>14852</id>
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<id>15912383</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-05T23:08:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MyRedDice</username>
<id>5862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Idolatry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indiana</title>
<id>14853</id>
<revision>
<id>41954389</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:29:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.72.59.219</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Miscellaneous information */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{US state |
Name = Indiana |
Fullname = State of Indiana |
Flag = Indiana state flag.png |
Flaglink = [[Flag of Indiana]] |
Seal = Indiana state seal.png |
Map = Map of USA highlighting Indiana.png |
Nickname = The [[Hoosier]] State |
Motto = State sovereignty, national union |
Capital = [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] |
LargestCity = [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] |
Governor = [[Mitch Daniels]] (R)|
Senators = [[Richard Lugar]] (R)
[[Evan Bayh]] (D) |
PostalAbbreviation = IN |
OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] |
AreaRank = 38<sup>th</sup> |
TotalArea = 94,321 |
LandArea = 92,897 |
WaterArea = 1,424 |
PCWater = 1.5 |
PopRank = 14<sup>th</sup> |
2000Pop = 6,080,485 |
DensityRank = 16<sup>th</sup> |
2000Density = 65.46 |
AdmittanceOrder = 19<sup>th</sup> |
AdmittanceDate = [[December 11]], [[1816]] |
TimeZone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-5/[[Daylight Saving Time|-4]]</small><br/>[[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: UTC-6/[[Daylight saving time|-5]] <small>(extreme northwest and southwest)</small> |
Latitude = 37°47'N to 41°46'N |
Longitude = 84°49'W to 88°4'W |
Width = 225 |
Length = 435 |
HighestElev = 383 |
MeanElev = 210 |
LowestElev = 98 |
ISOCode = US-IN |
Website = www.in.gov |
}}
:''This article is about the U.S. state. See also [[Indiana, Pennsylvania]] (U.S.) and [[Indiana, São Paulo]] ([[Brazil]].)''
'''Indiana''', meaning the '''"Land of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]],"''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] of the [[United States of America]]. Its [[capital]] is [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]]. The U.S. postal abbreviation for the state is '''IN'''.
A [[Residency|resident]] of Indiana is called a [[Hoosier]] (which is also the name used for a student of [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]], [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]]).
The [[USS Indiana|USS ''Indiana'']] was named in honor of this state.
== History ==
The area of Indiana has been settled since before the developmen |
an be expressed as
:<math>E = PRMLUL^{-1}M^{-1}R^{-1}P^{-1}</math>
After each key press the rotors turn, changing the transformation. For example, if the right hand rotor <math>R</math> is rotated <math>i</math> positions, the transformation becomes <math>\rho^iR\rho^{-i}</math>, where <math>\rho</math> is the [[cyclic permutation]] mapping <tt>A</tt> to <tt>B</tt>, <tt>B</tt> to <tt>C</tt>, and so forth. Similarly, the middle and left-hand rotors can be represented as <math>j</math> and <math>k</math> rotations of <math>M</math> and <math>L</math>. The encryption function can then be described as:
:<math>E = P(\rho^iR\rho^{-i})(\rho^{j}M\rho^{-j})(\rho^{k}L\rho^{-k})U(\rho^kL^{-1}\rho^{-k})(\rho^{j}M^{-1}\rho^{-j})(\rho^{i}R^{-1}\rho^{-i})P^{-1}</math>
== Procedures for using the Enigma==
[[Image:Kenngruppenheft.jpg|right|thumbnail|320px|In use, the Enigma required a list of daily key settings as well as a number of auxiliary documents. The procedures for German Naval Enigma were more elaborate, and secure, than the procedures used in other services. The Navy [[codebook]]s were also printed in red, water-soluble ink on pink paper so that they could easily be destroyed if they were at risk of being seized by the enemy. The above codebook was taken from captured [[U-boat]] ''[[U-505]]''.]]
In German military usage, communications were divided up into a number of different networks, all using different settings for their Enigma machines. These communication nets were termed ''keys'' at [[Bletchley Park]], and were assigned [[codename]]s, such as ''Red'', ''Chaffinch'' and ''Shark''. Each unit operating on a network was assigned a settings list specifying the Enigma for a period of time. For a message to be correctly encrypted and decrypted, both sender and receiver have to set up their Enigma in the same way; the rotor selection and order, the starting position and the plugboard connections need to be identical; these settings have to be agreed on beforehand, and were distributed in [[codebook]]s.
An Enigma machine's initial state, the [[cryptographic key]], has several aspects:
* Wheel order (''Walzenlage'') &mdash; the choice of rotors and the order in which they are used.
* Initial position of the rotors: &mdash; chosen by the operator, different for each message.
* Ring settings (''Ringstellung'') &mdash; the position of the alphabet ring relative to the rotor wiring.
* Plug settings (''Steckerverbindungen'') &mdash; the connections of the plugs in the plugboard.
Enigma was designed to be secure even if the rotor wiring was known to an eavesdropper, although in practice the wiring was kept secret. With secret wiring, the total number of possible configurations has been calculated to be around 10<sup>114</sup> (approximately 380 bits); with known wiring and other operational constraints, this is reduced to around 10<sup>23</sup> (76
bits)<ref>http://www.nsa.gov/publications/publi00004.cfm</ref>. Users of Enigma were assured of its security by the large number of possibilities; it was not feasible for an adversary to even begin to try every possible configuration in a [[brute force attack]].
===Indicators===
Most of the key was kept constant for a set time period, typically a day. However, a different initial rotor position was chosen for each message, because if a number of messages are sent encrypted with identical or near-identical settings, a cryptanalyst has several messages "in depth", and might be able to attack the messages using [[frequency analysis]]. To counter this, a different starting position for the rotors was chosen for each message; a similar concept to an [[initialisation vector]] in modern cryptography. The starting position was transmitted along with the ciphertext. The exact method used is termed the "indicator procedure" &mdash; weak indicator procedures allowed the initial breaks into Enigma.
[[Image:Enigma-rotor-windows.jpg|left|thumbnail|320px|Figure 2. With the inner lid placed down, the Enigma is ready for use. The finger wheels of the rotors protrude through the lid, allowing the operator to manually set the rotors, and the current position &mdash; here <tt>RDKP</tt> &mdash; is visible to the operator through a set of windows.]]
One of the earliest indicator procedures was exploited to make the initial breaks into the Enigma by Polish cryptanalysts. The procedure was for the operator to set up his machine in accordance with his settings list, which included a global initial position for the rotors (''Grundstellung'' &mdash; "ground setting"), <tt>AOH</tt>, say. The operator would turn his rotors until <tt>AOH</tt> was visible through the rotor windows. At this point, the operator would choose his own, arbitrary starting position for that particular message. An operator might select <tt>EIN</tt>, and this became the ''message settings'' for that encryption session. The operator would then type <tt>EIN</tt> into the machine, twice, to allow for detecting transmission errors. The results would be an encrypted indicator &mdash; the <tt>EIN</tt> typed twice might turn into <tt>XHTLOA</tt>, which would be transmitted along with the message. Finally, the operator would then spin the rotors to his message settings, <tt>EIN</tt> in this example, and the text of the actual message was typed in.
At the receiving end the operation was reversed. The operator set the machine to the initial settings and typed in the first six letters of the message (<tt>XHTLOA</tt>). In this example, <tt>EINEIN</tt> would be produced. By moving his rotors to <tt>EIN</tt>, the receiving operator would then type in the rest of the ciphertext, deciphering the message.
The weakness came from two factors: the use of a global ground setting &mdash; this was later changed so that the operator selected his initial position to encrypt the indicator, and sent the initial position in the clear. The second problem was the repetition of the indicator, which was actually a security flaw. The message key was encoded twice, resulting in a relation between first and fourth, second and fifth, and third and sixth character. This security problem enabled the Polish Cipher Bureau to break the pre-war Enigma messages. However, from 1940 on, the Germans changed the procedures to increase the security.
During the Second World War, German operators used the codebooks only to set up the rotors and ringsettings. For each message, he selected a random startposition, let's say <tt>WZA</tt>, and random message key, let's say <tt>SXT</tt>. He moved the rotors in the <tt>WZA</tt> startposition, and encoded the messagekey <tt>SXT</tt>. Let us presume that the result was <tt>UHL</tt>. He sets up the message key <tt>SXT</tt> as startposition, and encodes the message. Next, he transmits the startposition <tt>WZA</tt>, the encoded message key <tt>UHL</tt> together with the message. The receiver sets up the startposition according the first trigram, <tt>WZA</tt> and decodes the second trigram, <tt>UHL</tt>, to obtain the <tt>SXT</tt> message key. Next, he uses this <tt>SXT</tt> message key as startposition to decode the message. This way, each ground setting was different and the new procedure avoided the security flaw of double encoded message keys.
===Abbreviations and guidelines===
The Army Enigma machine only used the 26 alphabet characters. Signs were replaced by rare character combinations. A space was omitted or replaced by an X. The X was generally used as point or full stop. Some signs were different in other parts of the armed forces. The Wehrmacht replaced a comma by ZZ and the question sign by FRAGE or FRAQ. The Kriegsmarine however, replaced the comma by Y and the question sign by UD. The combination CH, as in Acht (eight) or Richtung (direction) were replaced by Q (AQT, RIQTUNG). Two, three or four zeros were replaced by CENTA MILLE and MYRIA.
Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe transmitted the messages in groups of five characters. The Kriegsmarine, using the four rotor Enigma, applied four letter groups. Frequently used names or words were to be varied as much as possible. Words like Minensuchboot (minesweeper) could be written as MINENSUCHBOOT, MINBOOT, MMMBOOT or MMM354. To make cryptanalysis harder, more than 250 characters in one message were forbidden. Longer messages were divided in several parts, each using its own message key. For more details see Tony Sale's translations of "General Procedure"<ref>[http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/documents/egenproc/eniggnix.htm]</ref> and "Officer and Staff procedure"<ref>[http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/documents/officer/officerx.htm]</ref>.<br clear="all" />
== History and development of the machine ==
Far from being a single design, there are numerous models and variants of the Enigma family. The earliest Enigma machines were commercial models dating from the early 1920s. Starting in the mid-1920s, the various branches of the German military began to use Enigma, making a number of changes in order to increase its security. In addition, a number of other nations either adopted or adapted the Enigma design for their own cipher machines.
{| style="margin: 1em auto 0 auto;"
| [[Image:Enigmas.jpg|640px|thumbnail|A selection of seven Enigma machines and paraphernalia exhibited at the USA's [[National Cryptologic Museum]]. From left to right, the models are: 1) Commercial Eni |
ded. We will board a bustling boat which will take us to [[Jaffa, Israel|Jaffa]].” On the show, the girl then approached Arafat, who kissed her on both cheeks. ''The Inquirer'' continued:
:"In a show about the opening of Palestinian schools, girls in frilly white dresses were shown dancing with [[Kalashnikov]] rifles that they twirled like batons. In another broadcast, a schoolboy, asked what he got out of summer camp, answered: 'I am defending the homeland and undergo training like army drills.' "
:"There is a children's quiz show about great figures in Palestinian history &mdash; many of whom are considered heroes by Palestinians, but [[terrorism|terrorists]] by Israelis. One show featured [[Izz ad-Din al-Qassam]], a [[shaikh]] who was killed by the British in 1935. The military wing of [[Hamas]], which has carried out many terrorist bombings in Israel, was named for Qassam. The heroine of another episode was [[Dalal al-Maghribi]], a woman who commanded a bus hijacking near [[Haifa]] in 1978. Thirty-four Israelis and nine Palestinian commandos, Maghribi among them, were killed. The quiz-show emcee referred to Maghribi as "our sacred martyr."
Senior PA officials also regularly engage in hostile [[propaganda]] against Israel, and Arafat has taken no action against them. For example, the Deputy Minister of the PA Ministry of Supplies has accused Israel of giving Palestinian Arabs “food containing material that causes [[cancer]] and [[hormone]]s that harm male virility and other spoiled food products in order to poison and harm the Palestinian population.” ([[Yediot Ahronot]], [[June 25]], [[1997]])
The [[PLO]]'s representative to the [[United Nations]] in [[Geneva]] has accused Israel of injecting “300 Palestinian children with [[HIV]].” ([[Jerusalem Post]], [[March 17]] [[1997]])
The director of the Inspection Department of the PA Ministry of Supplies has claimed that Israeli chewing gums sold in PLO-controlled areas “contain a sexually-stimulating [[adrenaline]] substance.” (Jerusalem Post, [[March 27]] [[1997]])
=== The [[Palestinian Authority]]'s view of Jews ===
Many senior PA officials and the PA-controlled media have also repeatedly made statements denigrating Jewish religious beliefs and Jewish history, such denying that modern Jews have any connection to the Jews in the Bible; that Jews have any historical connection to Jerusalem; and that the Western Wall has any religious significance in [[Judaism]]. (See ''[[Israeli-Palestinian history denial]]'' for details.) These same PA officials and the PA-controlled media have also repeatedly made statements distorting or denying [[the Holocaust]].
In some cases, they have claimed that Jews invented the “myth” of [[Nazi]] genocide in order to gain world sympathy and reparations money. In other instances, they have acknowledged that some Jews were murdered by the Nazis, but charged that Jews vastly exaggerated the death toll for political purposes.
[[Mahmoud Abbas]] (Abu Mazen), Arafat's number-two man and the architect of the [[Oslo Accords]], is the author of a book claiming that the Nazis may have really killed less than one million Jews. (Jerusalem Post, [[January 26]], [[1995]]) Numerous senior PA officials, [[Left-Wing]] and [[Right-wing]] Americans, Israeli Soldiers and Jewish intellectuals have also compared Israel to the Nazis, in one noted case declaring that Israel's treatment of Arabs is even worse than the Nazis' treatment of Jews, although such a claim is generally perceived as a tremendous exaggeration in light of factual realities.
===[[Hizbullah]]'s [[Al-Manar]] TV channel===
Jewish groups and European observers allege that [[Hizbullah]]'s [[Al-Manar]] TV channel frequently airs [[antisemitic]] broadcasts, blaming the Jews for a Zionist [[conspiracy]] against the Arab world, and often airing excerpts from the [[Protocols of the Elders of Zion]], which the Encyclopædia Britannica describes as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century.".
Al-Manar recently aired a drama series, called "The Diaspora", which observers allege is based on historical anti-Semitic allegations. [[BBC]] reporters who watched the series said that: <blockquote> Correspondents who have viewed The Diaspora note that it quotes extensively from the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a notorious 19th Century publication used by the Nazis among others to fuel race hatred. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3581514.stm] </blockquote>
In another incident, an Al-Manar commentator recently referred to "Zionist attempts to transmit [[AIDS]] to Arab countries". Al-Manar officials deny broadcasting anti-Semitic incitement and state that their position is anti-Israeli, not anti-Semitic.
Due to protests by the [[CRIF]] umbrella group of French Jews regarding allegations of anti-Semitic content, [[France|French]] Prime Minister [[Jean-Pierre Raffarin]] called for a ban on Al-Manar broadcasting in France on [[December 2]], [[2004]]; just two weeks after al-Manar was authorised to continue broadcasting in Europe by France's media watchdog agency. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4064317.stm]
On [[December 13]], [[2004]], [[France]]'s highest administrative court banned [[Hizbullah]]'s ''Al-Manar'' TV station on the grounds that it consistently incites racial hatred and [[antisemitism]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4093579.stm (BBC)]
On [[December 17]], [[2004]], The United States followed the lead of the French government, and placed Al-Manar on the [[U.S. State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations]]. This measure was aimed at forcing the companies which currently transmit Al-Manar to the United States via [[satellite]] to drop the controversial station or face criminal prosecution.
===Anti-Semitic laws and policies in Arab countries===
The [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] Ministry of Tourism announced on its web site in early 2004, that visas to enter the country will not be issued to "Jewish people."[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3493448.stm].
The [[Jordan]]ian Nationality Law of 1954 states that "Any man in the [[West Bank]] will be a Jordanian subject if he is not Jewish."
== Quotes ==
* "The volume of anti-Semitic books and articles published, the size and number of editions and impressions, the eminence and authority of those who write, publish and sponsor them, their place in school and college curricula, their role in the mass media, would all seem to suggest that classical anti-Semitism is an essential part of Arab intellectual life at the present time-almost as much as happened in Nazi Germany, and considerably more than in late nineteenth and early twentieth century France." (Bernard Lewis, ''Semites and Antisemites'' New York/London: Norton, 1986, p. 286)
* The Jews have been amongst the most active advocates of destruction in many lands... It is well known that the disintegration of Russia was wholly or in great part brought about by the Jews, and a large proportion of the defeat of Germany and Austria must also be put at their door. (Musa Khazem El Husseini, Mayor of Jerusalem to Winston Churchill, March 1921, quoted in Benny Morris, Righteous Victims, Knopf 1999 Page 99)
* "No more than 400,000 Jews were killed by the Nazis." "It is well-known that every year the Jews exaggerate what the Nazis did to them," said the moderator of a cultural affairs program on Palestinian Authority Television, during an [[August 25]], [[1997]]. "They claim there were 6 million killed, but precise scientific research demonstrates that there were no more than 400,000."
* "Zionists forged Holocaust claims." On [[September 3]] [[1997]], the PA newspaper Al-Hayat Al-Jadidah featured an article by Palestinian Arab author Nabil Salam, which declared: "Since its establishment, the racist Zionist entity has been implementing various forms of terrorism on a daily basis which are a repetition of the Nazi terror. This proves the shared roots of Nazi and Zionist thought. This also explains the cooperation between the Jews and Nazis during World War II, through which was revealed the forged claims of the Zionists regarding the alleged acts of slaughter perpetrated against the Jews during the same period."
* "Zionists were partners with the Nazis in the Holocaust." Mahmoud Abbas (Abu Mazen), the number 2 official in the [[PLO]] and architect of the [[Oslo Accords]], authored and has refused to retract a book claiming that "the [[Zionist]] movement was a partner in the massacre of the Jews." The book is entitled ''The Other Side: The Secret Relationship Between Nazism and the Zionist Movement'', and uses the statements of German Jewish Zionists who supported Hitler to suggest that they supported the Nazis, and thus [[the Holocaust]]. The book also claims that the Nazis may have really killed less than one million Jews, and that the rest were killed by Soviets. (Jerusalem Post, [[26 January]] [[1995]])
== Jewish-Arab dialogue ==
There are a number of [[projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs]], and projects which include Jewish-Islamic theological dialogue. One of their goals is to reduce Jewish-Arab tensions and to foster coexistence.
==See also==
*[[Peace process]]
*[[Islam and anti-Semitism]]
*[[Religious pluralism]]
*[[Anti-Zionism#Arab anti-Zionism|Arab anti-Zionism]]
*[[Anti-Arabism]]
*[[Islamophobia]]
==External links==
*[http://www.nahost-politik.de/friedensbewegung/antisemitismus.htm Reflections of the Israeli Leftist Uri Avnery about Palestinians and Anti-semitism]
*[http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw98-9/arab.html Arab Anti-Semitism in 1998/99] - summary of Arab anti-Semitism, by the [[University of Tel Aviv]]
*[http://www.adl.org/main_Arab_World/default.htm Anti-Semitism in the Arab Wor |
l care for weaned young orphans.
If challenged by a younger or even by an outsider male, a silverback will scream, beat his chest, shake broken-off branches at the intruder, bare his teeth then charge forward. If he is killed by disease, accident, fighting or poachers, the group will split up or be taken over in its entirety by a male descendant or even an unrelated male; there is a strong risk that a new male may kill the infants of the dead silverback.
== Intelligence ==
Gorillas are closely related to humans and are considered highly intelligent. A few individuals in captivity, such as [[Koko (gorilla)|Koko]], have been taught a subset of [[sign language]] (see [[animal language]] for a discussion).
=== Natural tool use by all the "great apes" ===
[[Image:Gorrila tool use-Efi.jpg||thumb|200px|right|A female gorilla exhibiting tool use by using a tree trunk as a support whilst fishing.]]
The following observations were made by a team led by Thomas Breuer of the Wildlife Conservation Society in September [[2005]]. Gorillas are now known to use [[tool]]s in the wild. A female gorilla in the [[Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park]] in the [[Republic of Congo]] was recorded using a stick to gauge the depth of water whilst crossing a [[swamp]]. A second female was seen using a tree stump as a bridge and also as a support whilst fishing in the swamp. This means that all of the [[great ape]]s are now known to use tools. [http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030380].
In September of 2005, a two and a half year old gorilla in the Republic of Congo was discovered using rocks to smash open palm nuts. The old assumption that higher "animals", like gorillas, don't use tools, was wrong. (Sea otters use rocks on their chests to break sea urchins). Great apes are endowed with a semi-precision grip, and certainly have been able to use both simple tools and even weapons, by improvising a club from a convenient fallen branch. With training, in 20th Century carnival and circus acts , chimpanzees have been taught to operate simple motorbikes. A baboon in South Africa operated a remotely located railroad switch, to help his companion, a disabled rural rail junction master.
[http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/africa/10/18/nutcracking.gorillas.ap/index.html].
[[Image:Gorilla beringei graueri01.jpg|thumb|left|''Gorilla beringei graueri'']]
<br clear=all>
==Gorillas in pop culture==
{{main|Gorillas in popular culture}}
Giant gorillas have been a recurring theme in film since the 1930s. Following their popularity in the 1930s and 40s, most notably in the films [[King Kong]] and [[Mighty Joe Young]], gorillas came to be heavily featured in [[comic book]]s. Short contrived gorilla plots where often included so that they could appear on the cover to boost sales.
Gorilla suits are an eternally popular gag costume, appearing in large numbers of TV shows since the 1950s. A number of sports teams have a gorilla as a mascot usually personified by an actor in a gorilla suit.
<!--please make fictional-gorilla additions to the sub-article at the link noted here -->
==See also==
*[[List of apes]] &mdash; notable individual apes
*[[Dian Fossey]] &mdash; researcher and activist
== External links ==
{{commons|Gorilla}}
{{3d commons|Gorilla}}
{{Wikispecies|Gorilla}}
{{wikinews|Researchers: Wild gorillas seen using tools}}
*[http://bagheera.com/inthewild/van_anim_gorilla.htm Bagheera] An educational website about Earth's Endangered Animals.
*[http://www.gorilla-haven.org/ghfamous.htm Gorilla Haven] - information about gorillas
*[http://homepage.mac.com/wildlifeweb/gorillas/ Gorillas Online] - natural history, genetics, conservation and photos
*[http://www.koko.org/ The Gorilla Foundation], home of Koko the gorilla famous for her sign language skills
*[http://homepage.mac.com/wildlifeweb/gorillas/images/ Tim Knight's Gorilla Gallery] - gorilla pictures
*[http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/gorilla Primate Info Net ''Gorilla'' Factsheet] - taxonomy, ecology, behavior and conservation
*[http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-gorilla.html San Diego Zoo Gorilla Factsheet] - features a video and photos
*[http://www.worldwildlife.org/gorillas/ World Wildlife Fund: Gorillas] - conservation, facts and photos
*[http://www.berggorilla.org/ Mountain Gorilla] - and also a lot of facts about gorillas
*[http://www.rozhlas.cz/unmasking/portal/ Gorillas at Prague Zoo] - hit reality-tv show (24/7) of live gorillas at the Prague Zoo
[[Category:Apes]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]
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[[zh:大猩猩]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Greek Element</title>
<id>12547</id>
<revision>
<id>15910229</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Classical element]]
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<page>
<title>GURPS Supers</title>
<id>12549</id>
<revision>
<id>38278133</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T07:17:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dahak</username>
<id>764263</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title=GURPS Supers
|image=[[Image:GURPS_Supers.jpg||200px]]
|caption=''GURPS Supers'' 2<small>nd</small> edition cover
|designer=Loyd Blankenship
|publisher=[[Steve Jackson Games]]
|date=[[1989]]
|system=[[GURPS]]
|genre=Super-hero
}}
'''GURPS Supers''' is a [[tabletop role-playing game|tabletop-style]] [[role-playing game]] published by [[Steve Jackson Games]], based on the [[superhero]] genre.
''GURPS Supers'' is a set of rules extensions for Steve Jackson Games' [[GURPS]] (Generic Universal Role Playing System) to cover role-playing campaigns with superhero characters and adventures. It has rules for creating superhero characters, with many example characters. Players can choose from several different basic types of superhero characters that influence how the character's powers selected. Players can select from a wide variety of powers and their modifications given in ''GURPS Supers'', augmented by those in the ''GURPS Basic'', plus any other GURPS book included by the campaign. The rules book includes how to create superhero campaigns, and ways for the [[game master]] to customize the style of the campaign.
As part of the GURPS system, ''GURPS Supers'' has the advantage of easily allowing the exchange player's characters or ideas between any the numerous other role-playing campaigns and genres supported by GURPS. It also has the disadvantage of tending to shift the typical superhero campaign to the more "realistic", or gritty, style of GURPS, rather than the more brash and glorious style of the [[Silver Age of Comic Books]], and favors more human, lower-powered heroes rather than the more extreme high-powered ones. Many of the superpowers unique to ''GURPS Supers'' appear as Advantages and Disadvantages in the [[GURPS 4e Basic Set]].
There are two editions to ''GURPS Supers''. The first edition was printed in [[1989]] &mdash; the second edition in [[1990]]. The first edition had groupings of character powers that were not used in the second edition. Both are based on the Third Edition of ''GURPS Basic''. There are various aids, supplements and ready-made adventures available, including ''GURPS Supers Adventures'', ''GURPS Supers: Death Wish'', ''GURPS Supers: School of Hard Knocks'', ''Hellboy Sourcebook and Roleplaying Game'' (based on the [[Hellboy]]) series, and ''GURPS Wild Cards'' (based on [[Wild Cards]] series).
For the 4th edition of GURPS, GURPS Supers was replaced by the more generic [[GURPS Powers]].
==See also==
* [[List of role-playing games]]
==External links==
* [http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/books/Supers/ Commercial official web page]
* [http://www.comicbooklife.com/pag/pp/08_18_99.html A Brief History of Super-Hero Gaming: Part II]
* [http://www.rpg.net/news+reviews/ RPGNet Reviews]
[[Category:GURPS|Supers]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Gallifrey</title>
<id>12550</id>
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<id>40613871</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T21:03:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TimPope</username>
<id>203786</id>
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<minor />
<comment>link fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gallifrey2.jpg|thumb|250px|A Vardan spaceship approaches Gallifrey from space (from ''[[The Invasion of Time]]'').]]
'''Gallifrey''' is a [[List of Doctor Who planets|fictional planet]] in the long-running [[United Kingdom|British]] [[science fiction on television|science fiction television]] series ''[[Doctor Who]]''. The planet is home to both [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|the Doctor]], and others of his race, the [[Time Lord|Time Lords]]. It is supposed to be located in the constellation of Kasterborous, at "galactic coordinates ten-zero-eleven-zero-zero by zero-two from galactic zero centre", some 250 million [[light years]] away from [[Earth]]. During the first decade of the television series, the Doctor's home planet was not identified by name. The name was first used in the [[1973]] serial ''[[The Time Warrior]]''.
It is never definitively stated "when" the appearances of Gallifrey in the television series take place. As the planet is often reached by means of time travel it could conceivably exist anywhere in the past or future relative to our present. The |
om the student or the Rabbi who makes use of it from the duty of examining each paragraph on its own merits, and subjecting it to the same rules of interpretation that were always applied to Tradition". ([[Solomon Schechter]].)
Conservative Judaism holds that [[halakha]] (Jewish law) is normative, i.e. that halakha is something that Jewish people must strive to actually live by in their daily lives. This would include the laws of [[Shabbat]] (the Jewish Sabbath); the laws of [[kashrut]] (keeping kosher); the practice of thrice daily [[Jewish services|prayer]]; observance of the Jewish holidays and life-cycle events.
At the same time, Conservative Jews find it repugnant to coerce anyone into following religious practices. Thus, Conservative Judaism holds that Jewish law is normative, but not enforced. That is, Jewish law encompasses actions that Jews actually ought to be following in their daily lives, even though there is no enforcement of these rules. (See also, the various positions within contemporary Judaism as regards [[Halakha#How_Halakha_is_viewed_today | Halakha]] and [[Talmud#The_Talmud_in_modern-day_Judaism | the Talmud]].)
A number of studies have shown that there is a large gap between what the Conservative movement teaches and what most of its laypeople have incorporated into their daily lives. In practice, the majority of people who have come to join Conservative synagogues only follow all these laws rarely. Most do follow most of the laws some of the time, but only a minority follow most or all of the laws all of time. There is a substantial committed core, consisting of the lay leadership, [[rabbi]]s, cantors, educators, and those who have graduated from the movement's religious day schools and [[summer camp]]s, that do take Jewish law very seriously. Recent studies have shown an increase in the observance of members of the movement.
Conservative Jews believe that movements to its left, such as [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]], have erred by rejecting the traditional authority of [[Halakha|Jewish law and tradition]]. They believe that the [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jewish]] movements, on the theological right, have erred by slowing down, or stopping, the historical development of Jewish law: "Conservative Judaism believes that scholarly study of Jewish texts indicates that Judaism has constantly been evolving to meet the needs of the Jewish people in varying circumstances, and that a central halakhic authority can continue the halakhic evolution today." (Soc.Culture.Jewish Usenet Newsgroup FAQ)
There is a separate article which has details on [[Conservative responsa]], the legal opinions and rulings of Conservative and Masorti Judaism. Conservative responsa are written by the Rabbinical Assembly's [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]].
=== Views of other Jewish denominations ===
Conservative Judaism holds that Orthodox Judaism is a valid and legitimate form of
rabbinic Judaism and respects the validity of its rabbis. Conservative Judaism holds that both Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have made major breaks with the historic definition of Judaism, both by their rejection of Jewish law as normative, and by their unilateral acts in creating a separate definition of Jewishness (i.e. the Reform movement's ruling in 1982, accepting patrilineal descent as an additional way of defining Jewishness). Despite the Conservative movement's disagreement with the more liberal movements, it does respect the right of Reform and Reconstructionist Jews to interpret Judaism in their own way. Thus the Conservative movement recognizes the right of Jews to form such denominations, and recognizes their clergy as rabbis, but often does not accept their specific decisions as valid.
The Conservative position is that Orthodoxy had deviated from historical Judaism through an excessive concern with recent codifications of Jewish law. The Conservative movement consciously rejects the Orthodox understanding of Jewish history, which entails near-total deference to seemingly infallible rabbis, and instead holds that a more fluid model is both necessary, and theologically and historically justifiable. The Conservative movement makes a conscious effort to use historical sources to determine what kind of changes to Jewish tradition have occurred, how and why they occurred, and in what historical context. With this information they believe that can better understand the proper way for rabbis to interpret and apply Jewish law to our conditions today. See also under [[Modern_Orthodox_Judaism#Conservative_Judaism|Modern Orthodox Judaism]].
[[Mordecai Waxman]], a leading figure in the Rabbinical Assembly, writes that "Reform has asserted the right of interpretation but it rejected the authority of legal tradition. Orthodoxy has clung fast to the principle of authority, but has in our own and recent generations rejected the right to any but minor interpretations. The Conservative view is that both are necessary for a living Judaism. Accordingly, Conservative Judaism holds itself bound by the Jewish legal tradition, but asserts the right of its rabbinical body, acting as a whole, to interpret and to apply Jewish law." (Mordecai Waxman ''Tradition and Change: The Development of Conservative Judaism'')
== Movement organization ==
In the more limited sense of the term, Conservative Judaism is a unified movement; the international body of Conservative rabbis is the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] (RA), the organization of synagogues is the [[United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism]] (USCJ), and the primary seminaries are the [[Jewish Theological Seminary]] of America (JTS) in New York City and the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies in Los Angeles. Conservative Judaism outside the USA is often called Masorti Judaism; Masorti rabbis belong to the Rabbinical Assembly.
Other seminaries include the [http://www.uj.edu University of Judaism] in Los Angeles, California; the Marshall Meyer Seminario Rabbinico Latinoamericano in Argentina; and Machon Schechter (in [[Jerusalem]].)
Many Jews both inside and outside of this formal Conservative movement identify Conservative Judaism as a worldview which is significantly larger than tha USCJ and RA. Sociologically and religiously, there is social and religious overlap between the USCJ, the Union for Traditional Judaism, much of the [[Havurah movement]], and the growing number of synagogues which are not affiliated, but which identify themselves as ''Traditional-Egalitarian''. Rabbis trained at JTS and the Ziegler School often serve these synagogues and chavurot, and members of these synagogues and chavurot often pray at, or are members of, USCJ synagogues.
Rabbi Ismar Schorsch, chancellor of JTS, claims that the Conservative movement, which he is a primary voice of, is the primary source for the religious energy of post-denominationalism. He points to Hadar as an example.
Examples of Traditional-Egalitarian chavurot that are identified as Conservative include ''Kehilat Hadar'', in [[Manhattan]], whose membership is largely Conservative. [[Ismar Schorsch]], Chancellor of JTS, has said that "The Hadar movement could not be mistaken for anything but a Conservative synagogue: It's fully egalitarian and seriously Jewish. The ritual is neither Reform nor Orthodox; it's quintessentially Conservative." (''Beyond Dogma'')
== Jewish identity ==
Conservative Judaism maintains the Rabbinic understanding of Jewish identity: A Jew is someone who was born to a Jewish mother, or who converts to Judaism in accordance with Jewish law and tradition. Conservatism thus rejects patrilineal descent, which is accepted by the Reform movement. Conservative Rabbis are not allowed to perform intermarriages (marriages between Jews and non-Jews). However, the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism has a more nuanced understanding of this issue than does Orthodoxy. In a press release it has stated:
:"In the past, intermarriage...was viewed as an act of rebellion, a rejection of Judaism. Jews who intermarried were essentially excommunicated. But now, intermarriage is often the result of living in an open society....If our children end up marrying non-Jews, we should not reject them. We should continue to give our love and by that retain a measure of influence in their lives, Jewishly and otherwise. Life consists of constant growth and our adult children may yet reach a stage when Judaism has new meaning for them. However, the marriage between a Jew and non-Jew is not a celebration for the Jewish community. We therefore reach out to the couple with the hope that the non-Jewish partner will move closer to Judaism and ultimately choose to convert. Since we know that over 70 percent of children of intermarried couples are not being raised as Jews...we want to encourage the Jewish partner to maintain his/her Jewish identity, and raise their children as Jews."
== Important figures ==
*[[Elliot N. Dorff]] Professor of philosophy at the Univ. of Judaism professor, theologian, member of the [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]]
* [[Bradley Shavit Artson]] Dean of the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies at the University of Judaism, author, theologian, and public speaker
*[[Louis Finkelstein]] Talmud scholar
*[[Zecharias Frankel]] - founder of positive-historical Judaism.
*[[Neil Gillman]] Theologian, JTS Philosophy Professor
*[[Louis Ginzberg]] Talmud scholar and halakhic expert, early member of the [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]]
*[[Robert Gordis]] Rabbi, Theologian, Educator
*[[Judith Hauptman]] JTS Talmud scholar
*[[Jules Harlow]] - Primary liturgist of the Conservative movement
*[[Abraham Joshua Heschel]] Theologian and social activist
*[[Louis Jacobs]] - Rabbi, founder of Masorti Judaism in the [[United Kingdom]]
*[[David Lieber]]President Emeritus of the University of Judaism, past President of the Rabbinical Assembly, Ed |
of the nearby secant lines, choose a small number ''h''. ''h'' represents a small change in ''x'', and it can be either [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] or negative. The slope of the line through the points (''x'',''f(x)'') and (''x+h'',''f(x+h)'') is
:<math>{f(x+h)-f(x)\over h}.</math>
This expression is [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s '''[[difference quotient]]'''. The '''derivative of''' '''''f''''' '''at''' '''''x''''' is the limit of the value of the difference quotient as the secant lines get closer and closer to being a tangent line:
:<math>f'(x)=\lim_{h\to 0}{f(x+h)-f(x)\over h}.</math>
[[Image:Lim-secant.png|thumb|300px|Tangent line as limit of secants.]]
If the derivative of ''f'' exists at every point ''x'' in the domain, we can define the '''derivative of''' '''''f''''' to be the function whose value at a point ''x'' is the derivative of ''f'' at ''x''.
Since immediately [[substitution|substituting]] 0 for ''h'' results in [[division by zero]], calculating the derivative directly can be unintuitive. One technique is to simplify the [[numerator]] so that the ''h'' in the [[denominator]] can be cancelled. This happens easily for [[polynomial]]s; see [[calculus with polynomials]]. For almost all functions however, the result is a mess. Fortunately, many [[Derivative (examples)|guidelines]] exist.
==Notations for differentiation==
===Lagrange's notation===
The simplest notation for differentiation that is in current use is due to [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] and uses the [[Prime (mark)|prime mark]]:
{|
|-
|style="text-align: right; height: 2.75em"|<math>f'(x) \;</math>
|for the first derivative,
|-
|style="text-align: right; height: 2.75em"|<math>f''(x) \;</math>
|for the second derivative,
|-
|style="text-align: right; height: 2.75em"|<math>f'''(x) \;</math>
|for the third derivative, and
|-
|style="text-align: right; height: 2.75em"|<math>f^{(n)}(x) \;</math>
|for the ''n''th derivative, provided ''n'' > 3
|}
===Leibniz's notation===
The other common notation is [[Leibniz's notation for differentiation]] which is named after [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]]. For the function whose value at ''x'' is the derivative of ''f'' at ''x'', we write:
:<math>\frac{d\left(f(x)\right)}{dx}.</math>
With Leibniz's notation, we can write the derivative of ''f'' at the point ''a'' in two different ways:
:<math>\frac{d\left(f(x)\right)}{dx}\left.{\!\!\frac{}{}}\right|_{x=a} = \left(\frac{d\left(f(x)\right)}{dx}\right)(a).</math>
If the output of ''f''(''x'') is another variable, for example, if ''y''=''f''(''x''), we can write the derivative as:
:<math>\frac{dy}{dx}.</math>
Higher derivatives are expressed as
:<math>\frac{d^n\left(f(x)\right)}{dx^n}</math> or <math>\frac{d^ny}{dx^n}</math>
for the ''n''-th derivative of ''f''(''x'') or ''y'' respectively. Historically, this came from the fact that, for example, the 3rd derivative is:
:<math>\frac{d \left(\frac{d \left( \frac{d \left(f(x)\right)} {dx}\right)} {dx}\right)} {dx}</math>
which we can loosely write as:
:<math>\left(\frac{d}{dx}\right)^3 \left(f(x)\right) =
\frac{d^3}{\left(dx\right)^3} \left(f(x)\right).</math>
Dropping brackets gives the notation above.
Leibniz's notation allows one to specify the variable for differentiation (in the denominator). This is especially relevant for [[partial derivative|partial differentiation]]. It also makes the [[chain rule]] easy to remember:
:<math>\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{dy}{du} \cdot \frac{du}{dx}.</math>
(In the formulation of calculus in terms of limits, the "du" terms ''cannot'' literally [[Cancellation property|cancel]], because on their own they are undefined; they are only defined when used together to express a derivative. In [[nonstandard analysis]], however, they can be viewed as [[infinitesimal]] numbers that cancel.)
===Newton's notation===
[[Newton's notation for differentiation]] (also called the dot notation for differentiation) requires placing a dot over the function name:
:<math>\dot{x} = \frac{dx}{dt} = x'(t)</math>
:<math>\ddot{x} = x''(t)</math>
and so on.
Newton's notation is mainly used in [[mechanics]], normally for time derivatives such as velocity and acceleration, and in [[ODE]] theory. It is usually only used for first and second derivatives.
===Euler's notation===
[[Leonhard Euler|Euler]]'s notation uses a [[differential operator]], denoted as ''D'', which is prefixed to the function with the variable as a subscript of the operator:
{|
|-
|style="text-align: right; height: 2.75em"|<math>D_x f(x) \;</math>
|for the first derivative,
|-
|style="text-align: right; height: 2.75em"|<math>{D_x}^2 f(x) \;</math>
|for the second derivative, and
|-
|style="text-align: right; height: 2.75em"|<math>{D_x}^n f(x) \;</math>
|for the ''n''th derivative, provided ''n'' > 1
|}
This notation can also be abbreviated when taking derivatives of expressions that contain a single variable. The subscript to the operator is dropped and is assumed to be the only variable present in the expression. In the following examples, ''u'' represents any expression of a single variable:
{|
|-
|style="text-align: right; height: 2.75em"|<math>D u \;</math>
|for the first derivative,
|-
|style="text-align: right; height: 2.75em"|<math>D^2 u \;</math>
|for the second derivative, and
|-
|style="text-align: right; height: 2.75em"|<math>D^n u \;</math>
|for the ''n''th derivative, provided ''n'' > 1
|}
Euler's notation is useful for stating and solving [[linear differential equation]]s.
==Critical points==
Points on the [[graph of a function|graph]] of a function where the derivative is undefined or equals [[0 (number)|zero]] are called ''critical points'' or sometimes ''[[stationary point]]s'' (in the case where the derivative equals zero). If the second derivative is positive at a critical point, that point is a [[local minimum]]; if negative, it is a [[local maximum]]; if zero, it may or may not be a local minimum or local maximum. Taking derivatives and solving for critical points is often a simple way to find local minima or maxima, which can be useful in [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimization]]. In fact, local minima and maxima can only occur at critical points or endpoints. This is related to the [[extreme value theorem]].
==Physics==
Arguably the most important application of calculus to [[physics]] is the concept of the "'''time derivative'''"—the rate of change over time—which is required for the precise definition of several important concepts. In particular, the time derivatives of an object's position are significant in [[Newtonian physics]]:
* [[Velocity]] (instantaneous velocity; the concept of average velocity predates calculus) is the derivative (with respect to time) of an object's [[Displacement (distance)|position]].
* [[Acceleration]] is the derivative (with respect to time) of an object's velocity, that is, the second derivative (with respect to time) of an object's position.
For example, if an object's position on a line is given by <math>x(t) = -16t^2 + 16t + 32</math>; then, the object's velocity is <math>\dot x(t) = x'(t) = -32t + 16</math>, and the object's acceleration is <math>\ddot x(t) = x''(t) = -32</math>.
If the [[velocity]] of a [[automobile|car]] is given, as a function of [[time]], then, the derivative of said function with respect to time describes the [[acceleration]] of said car, as a function of time.
==Rules for finding the derivative ==
In many cases, complicated limit calculations by direct application of Newton's difference quotient can be avoided using differentiation rules.
* ''Constant rule'': The derivative of any [[constant]] is [[0 (number)|zero]].
** ''Constant multiple rule'': If ''c'' is some [[real number]]; then, the derivative of <math>cf(x)</math> equals ''c'' [[multiplication|multiplied]] by the derivative of ''f''(''x'') (a consequence of linearity below).
* ''[[Linearity of differentiation|Linearity]]'': <math>(af + bg)' = af' + bg'</math> for all functions ''f'' and ''g'' and all real numbers ''a'' and ''b''.
* ''[[Calculus with polynomials|Power rule]]'': If <math>f(x) = x^r</math>, for some [[real number]] ''r''; <math>f'(x) = rx^{r-1}</math>.
* ''[[Product rule]]'': <math> (fg)' = f'g + fg'</math> for all functions ''f'' and ''g''.
* ''[[Quotient rule]]'': <math>(f/g)' = (f'g - fg')/(g^2)</math> unless ''g'' is zero.
* ''[[Chain rule]]'': If <math>f(x) = h(g(x))</math>, then <math>f'(x) = h'(g(x)) g'(x)</math>.
* ''[[Inverse function]]'': If the function <math>f(x)</math> has an inverse <math>g(x) = f^{-1}(x)</math>, then <math>g'(x) = 1/f'(f^{-1}(x))</math>.
* ''Derivative of one variable with respect to another when both are functions of a third variable'': Let <math>x = f(t)</math> and <math>y = g(t)</math>. Now <math>d y/d x = (d y/d t)/(d x/d t)</math>. This is the chain rule in the Leibniz notation.
In addition, the derivatives of some common functions are useful to know. See the [[table of derivatives]].
As an example, the derivative of
:<math>f(x) = 2x^4 + \sin (x^2) - \ln (x)\;e^x + 7</math>
is
:<math>f'(x) = 8x^3 + 2x\cos (x^2) - \frac{1}{x}\;e^x - \ln (x)\;e^x.</math>
== Using derivatives to graph functions ==
Derivatives are a useful tool for examining the [[graph of a function|graphs of functions]]. In particular, the points in the interior of the domain of a real-valued function whic |
]], the [[Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front|FMLN]] of [[El Salvador]], the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|FSLN]] of [[Nicaragua]], and [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|ELN]] and [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]] rebels in Colombia.
Cuba supported the Sandinista leadership of Nicaragua and the [[New Jewel Movement]] government of [[Grenada]]. Following the aforementioned countries' successful revolutions in 1979, [[Fidel Castro]] is known to have boasted, "Now there are three of us." Guerrilla groups supported by Cuba became quite active in the '70s and '80s, particularly in [[Central America]], with El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua perhaps becoming the most unstable countries as Cuba assisted Marxist rebel coalitions dissatisfied with their respective governments.
===Black Panthers===
In the '60s and '70s, Cuba openly supported the black nationalist and Marxist-oriented [[Black Panther Party]] of the U.S. Many members found their way into Cuba for political asylum, where Cuba welcomed them after they had been convicted of crimes in the U.S.
===Palestinians===
Cuba has also lent support to [[Palestinian]] [[nationalism|nationalist]] groups against [[Israel]]. Fidel Castro claims Israel practices "[[Zionism|Zionist]] Fascism." Cuba has also lent support to the prominent [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) and the lesser-known [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) both received training from Cuba's General Intelligence Directorate, as well as financial and diplomatic support from the Cuban government.
===Irish Republicans===
The [[Irish Republican]] political party, [[Sinn Fein]] (linked to the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]]) is also known to have close political links to the Cuban government. In the past [[Fidel Castro]] has expressed support for the Irish Republican cause of a [[United Ireland]].
===Africa===
In [[sub-Saharan Africa]] Cuba sent troops along with the Soviet Union to aid the [[Mozambican Liberation Front|FRELIMO]] and [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola|MPLA]] dictatorships in [[Mozambique]] and [[Angola]], respectively, while they were fighting U.S. and [[South Africa]]n-backed insurgent groups [[Mozambican National Resistance|RENAMO]] (supported by [[Rhodesia]] as well) and [[National Union for Total Independence of Angola|UNITA]]. He also aided the Communist regime of [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] in [[Ethiopia]] during its conflict with [[Somalia]].
Fidel Castro has a good personal relationship with former [[South Africa]]n president [[Nelson Mandela]] that arises out of Cuba's support for Mandela's [[African National Congress]] organization in the '70s and '80s.
==Post-Cold War Foreign Relations==
In the post-Cold War environment, guerrilla warfare in Latin America has largely subsided, and the region has established democratic institutions, though countries such as Peru and Colombia were still undergoing internal wars against prolonged insurgencies, while several others also suffered from severe economic strife. Cuba continued to provide assistance, of a more political than an outright military or economic nature, to some of the region's revolutionary groups, but with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the establishment of peace in most of the developing [[Western Hemisphere]], Cuba is not the influential Latin American power it once was.
While it is commonly said that Cuba no longer exerts a revolutionary influence on the region, in reality the situation is ambiguous at best [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_espionage_and_related_extraterritorial_activity_revised]. Cuba today works with a growing bloc of Latin American politicians opposed to the "[[Washington consensus]]," the American attitude that [[free trade]], open markets, and [[privatization]] will lift poor third world countries out of economic stagnation. Castro has condemned [[neoliberalism]] as a destructive force in the developing world. Cuba has continued in its support of destabilization efforts notably with this alliance with the militarily powerful President [[Hugo Chávez]] of [[Venezuela]], and with its support of the President of the Bolivian Coca growers union of [[Evo Morales]].
Currently, Cuba has diplomatically friendly relationships with Presidents Hugo Chávez of [[Venezuela]], [[Lula da Silva]] of [[Brazil]], and [[Nestor Kirchner]] of [[Argentina]], with Chavez as perhaps his staunchest ally in the post-Soviet era. Cuba has sent thousands of teachers and medical personnel to Venezuela to assist Chavez's [[socialism|socialist]] and populist-oriented economic programs. Chavez, in turn provides Cuba with lower priced petroleum. Cuba's debt for oil to Venezuela is believed to be on the order of one billion US dollars [http://havanajournal.com/business_comments/A1221_0_4_0_M/].
==Cuban-American relations==
Because of Cuba's Marxist-Leninist government, the power of the [[Cuban-American lobby]], especially in [[Florida]], and Castro's almost 50 years of rigid one man rule plus his constant support of destabilization relations around the world, the relations between Cuba and the United States have long been very poor. Under President [[John F. Kennedy]], the [[CIA]] launched the failed [[Bay of Pigs invasion]] in an attempt to topple [[Fidel Castro]]. The CIA also embarked on a number of failed baroque assassination attempts. As a result of the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] of 1962 the United States promised to not invade Cuba, but continued to employ strict economic sanctions.
American diplomatic representation in Cuba is handled by the [http://havana.usinterestsection.gov/ US Interests Section in Havana],which is housed by the Embassy of [[Switzerland]]. Cuba has an Interests Section in [[Washington D.C]]. Both sides handle [[Visa (document)|visa]] processing, consular issues and facilitate limited contact between the two governments.
Despite the end of the Cold War and the normalization of American relations with such countries as the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[Vietnam]], the U.S. still has a strong policy against trade with Cuba and trade is limited to cash purchases of food and medicine. This includes travel restrictions and laws against American companies operating there. These measures were further strengthened by the [[Helms-Burton Act]] of [[1996]] which attempted to punish any foreign companies operating in Cuba, especially those using expropriated US assets.
The US continues to operate a naval Base at [[Guantanamo Bay]]. It is leased to the US and only mutual agreement or US abandonment of the area can terminate the lease.
According to the [[CIA]]'s Factbook, Cuba's territorial waters and air space serve as transshipment zone for [[cocaine]] bound for the US and [[Europe]].
Cuba is listed by the U.S. as one of the "[[outposts of tyranny]]" since the [[George W. Bush|Bush administration]].
==Cuban-Canadian relations==
Perhaps mostly because of the restrictions the [[United States]] placed on [[Cuba]], [[Canada]] has a strong trade relationship with the country; [[Cuba]] is also one of Canadians' most popular travel destinations. Relations between [[Cuba]] and [[Canada]] have been close since before Castro came to power. Following the Cuban revolution, [[Canada]]-based banks were the only ones not nationalized. Furthermore Cuba has given Canadian companies relaxed access to assets expropriated from US companies [http://www.fiu.edu/~fcf/twocomp.html] (most notably mining interests [http://www.american.edu/TED/cubamine.htm]). Canada is outwardly annoyed by American attempts to pressure it to stop trading with Cuba, the [[Helms-Burton Act]] being particularly aggravating. In 1996 a [[Private Member's Bill]] was introduced, but not made law, in the [[Canadian parliament]]; this law called the [[Godfrey-Milliken Bill]] was in response to the extra-territoriality of the aforementioned Act. Canada also protests US preclearance customs agents in Canadian airports who try to catch American citizens travelling to Cuba in defiance of US law.
Former [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]], the late [[Pierre Trudeau]], and especially his ex-wife [[Margaret Trudeau]] were personal friends of Castro. In fact Castro proceeded directly to the Notre Dame in [[Montreal]] to pay his last respects to his old friend. Castro was among Pierre Trudeau's pallbearers at [[State funeral of Pierre Trudeau|his funeral]].
==See also==
[[Cocktail Wars]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cubaminrex.cu/English/index.asp Cuban Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
*[http://www.un.int/cuba/Pages/main1ingles.htm Cuban Mission to the United Nations]
*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/cuba/cuba003.htm Text of U.S.- Cuban agreement on military bases]
'''Representations of other countries in Cuba'''
*[http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/cuba British Embassy in Havana]
*[http://www.indembassyhavana.cu/ Embassy of India in Havana]
*[http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cuba/menu-en.asp The Canadian Embassy in Cuba]
*[http://havana.usinterestsection.gov/ U.S. Interests Section in Havana]
'''Cuban represntations to other countries'''
*[http://www.embacubalebanon.com/Menu-e.htm Cuban Embassy in Lebanon]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Cuba| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cyprus</title>
<id>5593</id>
<revision>
<id>42143335</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:40:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.44.217.224</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Cypress]] (a common misspelling) for other meanings.''
{{Infobox Country
|native_name = Republic of Cyprus<br>Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία<br>Kypriakí Dimokratía <small>([[Greek language|Greek]])</small> <br> Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti <small>([[Turkish language|Turkish]])</small>
|common_name = Cyprus
|im |
rd, which was quite expensive.
A 1992 biography by Stephen Manes and Paul Andrews (ISBN 0385420757) calls the trust fund story one of the "fictions" surrounding Gates's fortune.
Exceptionally intelligent, Gates excelled in elementary school, particularly in [[mathematics]] and the [[sciences]]. Bill Gates went to Lakeside, Seattle's most exclusive preparatory school where tuition in 1967 was $5,000 (Harvard tuition that year was $1760). Lakeside rented time on a [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[PDP-10]], which Bill was able to use to pursue an interest in computers, a rare opportunity at the time.
Gates was a member of the [[Boy Scouts of America]] and attained the rank of [[Life Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Life Scout]]. While in high school, he and [[Paul Allen]] founded [[Traf-O-Data]], a company which sold traffic flow data systems to state governments. He also helped to create a payroll system in COBOL, for a company in Portland, Oregon.
According to a press inquiry he scored 1590 on his [[SAT]]s<ref>SAT score from [http://theweekmagazine.com/article.aspx?id=803 The Week Magazine]</ref>, which allowed Gates to enroll in [[Harvard University]] pursuing a [[Bachelors of Science]] in [[Computer Science]] in [[1973]], where he met his future [[business]] partner, [[Steve Ballmer]]. During his second year at Harvard, Gates (along with [[Paul Allen]] and [[Monte Davidoff]]) co-wrote [[Altair BASIC]] for the [[Altair 8800]]. Gates dropped out of Harvard during his third year to pursue a career in [[software development]].
On [[December 13]], [[1977]], Gates was briefly jailed in Albuquerque for racing his [[Porsche 911]] in the New Mexico desert. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/152803.stm]
== Microsoft==
[[Image:Time magazine 4 16 84.jpg|right|thumb|200px|In 1984, Bill Gates appeared on the cover of ''[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]'' Magazine; he has appeared seven more times.]]
{{main|Microsoft}}
After reading the January 1975 issue of ''[[Popular Science]]'' that demonstrated the [[Altair 8800]], Gates called [[MITS]] (Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems), the creators of the new microcomputer, to inform them that he and others had developed a version of the [[programming language]] [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] for the platform. This was untrue, as Gates and Allen had never used an Altair previously nor developed any code for it. Within a period of eight weeks they developed an Altair [[emulator]] that ran on a minicomputer, and then the BASIC interpreter. Allen and Gates flew to MITS to unveil the new BASIC system. The demonstration was a success and resulted in a deal with MITS to buy the rights to Allen and Gates's BASIC for the Altair platform. It was at this point that Gates left Harvard along with Allen to found Micro-Soft, which was later renamed the [[Microsoft]] Corporation.
In February 1976, Gates published his often-quoted "[[Open Letter to Hobbyists]]", that claimed that most users of his software had stolen it and that this would prevent the development of good software, and that no hobbyist could afford to produce, distribute, and maintain high-quality software without payment. This letter was deeply unpopular with many programmers who were doing just that, but was to gain significant support from Gates' business partners and allies and became part of the movement which led to [[closed-source]] becoming the dominant model of software production.
Despite Microsoft's reliance on closed source, Gates has said that he collected discarded program listings at Harvard and learned programming techniques from them. Some people have accused him of being inconsistent in this regard. It has also been pointed out that Microsoft often produces products that incorporate ideas developed outside Microsoft, such as [[GUI]]s, the BASIC programming language, or [[compressed file system]]s, without paying royalties to the companies that developed them. Some of these matters have gone to court. [[Apple v. Microsoft]] concluded that Microsoft had not infringed Apple's intellectual property (partly because Apple had, apparently, licensed parts of the Macintosh user interface to Microsoft); [[Stac Electronics]] prevailed in its claim against the [[DoubleSpace]] file system. The BASIC question has not been litigated, but the trend in US law, supported by [[Lotus v. Borland]], is that intellectual property applies to program implementations, not interfaces.
When IBM decided to build the hardware for a desktop personal computer in 1980, it needed to find an operating system. Microsoft did not have any operating system at this point. The most popular microcomputer operating system at the time was [[CP/M]] developed by [[Digital Research]] in Monterey. The CP/M [[BIOS]] allowed software written for the [[Intel 8080]]/[[Zilog Z80]] family of [[microprocessors]] to run on many different models of computer from many different manufacturers. This device-independence feature was essential for the formation of the consumer software industry, as without it software had to be re-written for each different model of computer. Bill Gates referred IBM to [[Gary Kildall]], the founder of [[Digital Research]], but when they did not reach immediate agreement with him they went back to Gates who offered to fill their need himself. He did it by buying a [[CP/M]] clone called [[QDOS]] ("Quick and Dirty Operating System") from [[Tim Paterson]] of [[Seattle Computer Products]] for $56,000, which Microsoft renamed [[PC-DOS]].
Later, after [[Compaq]] licensed Phoenix Technologies' clone of the IBM [[BIOS]], the market saw a flood of IBM PC clones. Microsoft was quick to use its position to dominate the home computer operating system market. Microsoft began licensing its OS for use on non-IBM [[PC clone]]s, and called that version [[MS-DOS]] (for Microsoft [[Floppy disk|Disk]] [[Operating System]]). By marketing MS-DOS aggressively to manufacturers of IBM-PC clones, Microsoft went from a small player to one of the major software vendors in the home computer industry. Microsoft continued to develop operating systems as well as [[software applications]]. In the early 1980's they created [[Microsoft Windows]] which was similar to Apple Computer's Macintosh OS [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), both based on the human interface work at [[Xerox PARC]]. The first versions of the Windows OS did not sell well as stand-alone applications but started to be shipped pre-installed on many systems. Because of this, by the late-1980s [[Microsoft Windows]] had begun to make serious headway into the IBM-compatible PC software market. The release of [[Windows 3.0]] in 1990 was a tremendous success, selling around 10 million copies in the first two years and cementing Microsoft's dominance in operating systems. (See ''[[History of Microsoft Windows]]'' for more details)
[[Image:Gates Dreaming.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Gates with [[Steve Jurvetson]] of [[Draper Fisher Jurvetson|DFJ]], Stratton Sclavos of [[Verisign]] and [[Greg Papadopoulos]] of [[Sun Microsystems]], [[October 1]], [[2004]]]]
Microsoft eventually went on to be the largest software company in the world, earning Gates enough money to make him the wealthiest person in the world (according to [[Forbes Magazine]]) for several years. Gates served as the [[CEO]] of the company until 2000 when [[Steve Ballmer]] took the position. Gates continues to serve as a chairman of the board at the company and also as a position he created for himself entitled "Chief Software Architect". Microsoft has thousands of patents, and Gates has nine patents to his name.
Since Microsoft's founding and [[as of 2006]], Gates has had primary responsibility for Microsoft's product strategy. He has aggressively broadened the company's range of products, and wherever Microsoft has achieved a dominant position he has vigorously defended it. Many decisions that have led to [[antitrust]] litigation over Microsoft's [[business practices]] have had Gates's approval. In the 1998 ''[[United States v. Microsoft]]'' case, Gates gave deposition testimony that several journalists characterized as evasive. He argued over the definitions of words such as "compete", "concerned", "ask", and "we." [http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9811/17/judgelaugh.ms.idg/index.html] BusinessWeek reported, "early rounds of his deposition show him offering obfuscatory answers and saying 'I don't recall' so many times that even the presiding judge had to chuckle. Worse, many of the technology chief's denials and pleas of ignorance were directly refuted by prosecutors with snippets of e-mail Gates both sent and received." [http://www.businessweek.com/1998/48/b3606125.htm]
==Personal life==
Bill Gates married [[Melinda Gates|Melinda French]] of [[Dallas, Texas]] on [[January 1]], [[1994]]. Melinda gave birth to three children, Jennifer Katharine Gates (1996), Rory John Gates (1999) and Phoebe Adele Gates (2002).
He has two younger sisters, one named Kristanne and one named Libby.
[[Bill Gates' house]] is one of the most expensive houses in the world, and is a modern 21st century [[earth sheltering|earth-sheltered home]] in the side of a hill overlooking [[Lake Washington]] in [[Medina, Washington]]. According to [[King County, Washington|King County]] public records, [[as of 2006]], the total assessed value of the property (land and house) is $125 million, and the annual [[property tax]] is just under $1 million. Also among Gates's private acquisitions is the [[Codex Leicester]], a collection of writings by [[Leonardo da Vinci]] which Gates bought for [[USD|$30.8 million]] at an auction in 1994 and a rare [[Gutenberg Bible]].
[[Image:BillGates and Lula1852.jpeg|thumb|right|Gates and [[Brazil]]ian President [[Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva]] at the [[World Economic Forum|WEF]] in [[Davos]], [[January 26]], [[2003]]]]
In 2000 |
r="#ddeeff" | Renal
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | Category C (USA)
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Legal status]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971|Class A]] (UK), [[Controlled Substances Act|Schedule II/III]] (USA)
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Routes of administration
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | Oral
|-
|}
'''Hydrocodone''' or '''dihydrocodeinone''' (marketed as '''Vicodin''', '''Anexsia''', '''Dicodid''', '''Hycodan''', '''Hycomine''', '''Lorcet''', '''Lortab''', '''Norco''', '''Tussionex''', '''Vicoprofen''') is an [[opioid]] derived from either of the naturally occurring [[opiates]] [[codeine]] or [[thebaine]]. Hydrocodone is an orally active [[narcotic]] [[analgesic]] and [[antitussive]]. The typical therapeutic dose of 5 to 10 [[Milligram|mg]] is [[Pharmacology|pharmacologically]] equivalent to 30 to 60 mg of oral [[codeine]].{{ref|tarascon}} Sales and production of this [[medication|drug]] have increased significantly in recent years, as have diversion and illicit use.
Hydrocodone is commonly available in tablet, capsule and syrup form.
As a [[narcotic]], hydrocodone relieves [[pain]] by binding to [[Opioid receptor|opioid receptors]] in the [[brain]] and [[spinal cord]]. It may be taken with or without food, but should never be combined with alcohol. It may interact with [[monoamine oxidase inhibitors]], as well as other drugs that cause drowsiness. It is in [[Food and Drug Administration | FDA]] [[pregnancy category]] C: its effect on an unborn [[embryo]] or [[fetus]] is not clearly known and pregnant women should consult their physicians before taking it. Common [[Adverse drug reaction|side effects]] include [[dizziness]], [[lightheadedness]], [[nausea]], [[sedative | drowsiness]], [[euphoria]], [[vomit | vomiting]], and [[constipation]]. Some less common side effects are [[allergy | allergic reaction]], [[blood]] disorders, changes in mood, mental fogginess, [[anxiety]], [[lethargy]], difficulty [[urination | urinating]], [[spasm]] of the [[ureter]], irregular or depressed [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] and [[rash]].
Hydrocodone can be habit-forming, and can lead to physical and psychological [[addiction]]. In the [[United States|U.S.]], pure hydrocodone and forms containing more than 15 mg per dosage unit are called [[hydrocodone compounds]] and are considered [[Controlled Substances Act|Schedule II]] drugs. Those containing less than 15 mg per dosage unit are Schedule III drugs. Hydrocodone is typically found in combination with other drugs such as [[paracetamol]] (acetaminophen), [[aspirin]], [[ibuprofen]] and [[homatropine|homatropine methylbromide]]. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] it is listed as a [[Class A drug]] under the [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971]].
The presence of acetaminophen in hydrocodone-containing products deters many drug users from taking excessive amounts. However, some users will get around this by extracting a portion of the acetaminophen using hot/cold water, taking advantage of the water-soluble element of the drug. It is not uncommon for addicts to have liver problems from taking excessive amounts of acetaminophen over a long period of time--taking 10–15 grams of acetaminophen in a period of 24 hours typically results in severe [[hepatotoxicity]]. It is this factor that leads many addicts to use only single entity opiates such as [[Oxycodone|OxyContin]].
Symptoms of hydrocodone overdosage include respiratory depression, extreme somnolence, coma, stupor, cold and/or clammy skin, sometimes [[bradycardia]], and [[hypotension]]. A severe overdose may involve circulatory collapse, [[cardiac arrest]] and/or [[death]].
==How Supplied==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:center; margin-left:3px;text-size:100%; text-align:right"
|align=center colspan=3| '''HOW SUPPLIED '''
|-
|align=center colspan=2| '''(by Watson Laboratories, Inc.) ''' || '''Trademark Names'''
|-
|'''Hydrocodone Bitrate / <br>[[Paracetamol|Acetaminophen]] Tablets USP''' || '''Appearance'''||
|-
|'''2.5mg / 500mg''' || white tablets bisected on one side & debossed with '''WATSON 388''' on the other side|| Lortab 2.5/500
|-
|'''5mg / 400mg''' || ||Zydone 5/400
|-
|'''5mg / 500mg''' || white tablets bisected on one side & debossed with '''WATSON 349''' on the other side||Lortab 5/500,<br>Vicodin 5/500
|-
|'''7.5mg / 325mg''' || light orange tablets bisected on one side & debossed with '''WATSON 3203''' on the other side||Norco 7.5/325
|-
|'''7.5mg / 400mg''' || ||Zydone 7.5/400
|-
|'''7.5mg / 500mg''' || white tablets bisected on one side & debossed with '''WATSON 385''' on the other side||Lortab 7.5/500
|-
|'''7.5mg / 650mg''' || pink tablets bisected on one side & debossed with '''WATSON 502''' on the other side||Anexsia 7.5/650
|-
|'''7.5mg / 750mg''' || white tablets bisected on one side & debossed with '''WATSON 387''' on the other side||Vicodin ES,<br> Vicodin 7.5/750
|-
|'''10mg / 325mg''' || yellow tablets bisected on one side & debossed with '''WATSON 853''' on the other side||Norco 10/325
|-
|'''10mg / 400mg''' || ||Zydone 10/400
|-
|'''10mg / 500mg''' || blue tablets bisected on one side & debossed with '''WATSON 540''' on the other side||Lortab 10/500
|-
|'''10mg / 650mg''' || light green tablets bisected on one side & debossed with '''WATSON 503''' on the other side||Lorcet10/650
|-
|'''10mg / 660mg''' || white tablets bisected on one side & debossed with '''WATSON 517''' on the other side||Vicodin HP,<br> Vicodin 10/660
|-
|'''10mg / 750mg''' || yellow tablets bisected on one side & debossed with '''WATSON 853''' on the other side||Maxidone
|}
==Notes==
# {{note|tarascon}} ''Tarascon Pocket Pharmacopoeia''.
==External links==
*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202390.html NIH Hydrocodone Drug Info]
{{Analgesics}}
[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Antitussives]]
[[Category:Class A drugs]]
[[Category:Opioids]]
[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[Category:Schedule III controlled substances]]
[[Category:Semisynthetic opioids]]
[[th:ไฮโดรโคโดน]]
[[de:Hydrocodon]]
[[hu:Hidrokodon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hashish</title>
<id>14415</id>
<revision>
<id>41751064</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:02:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Rumor]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
[[Image:Hashish.jpg|thumb|185px|right|Confiscated hashish from the [[United States]] [[Drug Enforcement Administration]]. The way it breaks up into hard, small pieces suggests it is a low-quality "soap bar" type of hash. (see section below) ]]
'''Hashish''' (often shortened to '''hash''', and also referred to by countless [[slang]] terms such as '''shit''' or '''chocolate''') is a [[psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] [[Cannabis (drug)|drug]] derived from the ''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' plant. It is solid, of varying hardness and pliability, softening under heat. Its colour can vary from reddish brown to black, and can also be greenish or golden. It is usually smoked in [[smoking pipe|pipes]], and sometimes in [[spliff|joints]] mixed with [[tobacco]] or ''Cannabis'' buds. It can also be added to cookies or other food and ingested. Hash is used for its relaxing and mind-altering effects. Many people have claimed that using it gives them great insights.
Hashish is comprised of the compressed [[trichome]]s collected from the leaves and flowers of a mature, flowering ''Cannabis'' plant. Certain strains of ''Cannabis'' are [[cannabis cultivation|cultivated]] specifically for their ability to produce large quantities of [[trichomes]], and are thus called ''hash plants''. Trichomes are small glandular hairs containing plant resins which appear on the leaves and stems of the ''Cannabis'' plant.
== History ==
According to the [[11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica|1911 Encyclopedia Britannica]], the word [[assassin]] derives from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word &#1581;&#1588;&#1617;&#1575;&#1588;&#1610;&#1606; (ha&scaron;&scaron;&#257;&scaron;&#299;n), or [[Hashshashin]], an [[Islam]]ic [[sect]] of militants founded by [[Hasan-i Sabbah]] who were supposedly avid hash-eaters. This is also the view expressed by [[Charles Baudelaire]] in his ''Artificial Paradises'' of 1857.
It is believed that hash first orginated from Central Asia, as these regions were some of the first to be populated by the ''Cannabis'' plant, which may have originated in the [[Himalayas]]. Hash quickly spread around the world after the Arabs began to gather and trade it. Production of hash later spread to North Africa (most prominently [[Morocco]]) and the Middle East ([[Lebanon]]). Consumption of hashish saw a dramatic increase in the 20th century. It became popular pastime in [[Europe]] and America, gaining prominence in the [[hippie]] scene. The greatest export of hashish was in the 1960s and 1970s. Hashish levels declined significantly in the United States starting in the 1980s due to several reasons including the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. This helped increase the popularity of [[marijuana]] use in America, and encouraged new growing methods such as growing marijuana indoors.
Hashish is traditionally found in a belt extending from [[North Africa]] to North [[India]]. Hashish is produced in [[desert]] conditions and is almost never cultivated in the tropics. It is far more popular in Europe than in the United States as [[Morocco]] is the world's biggest producer while it has not been traditionally produced in the |
as vicar, but his cousin was restored to his position upon his restoration three years later. Finally, in [[1745]], the two agreed to alternate as vicars, with Bavaria starting first. This arrangement was upheld by the Reichstag in [[1752]]. In [[1777]] the question became moot when the Elector Palatine inherited Bavaria. On many occasions, however, there was no interregnum, as a new king had been elected during the lifetime of the previous Emperor.
[[Frankfurt, Germany|Frankfurt]] has regularly served as the site of the election since the fifteenth century, but elections have also been held at [[Cologne]] ([[1531]]), [[Regensburg]] ([[1575]] and [[1636]]), and [[Augsburg]] ([[1653]] and [[1690]]). An elector could appear in person or could appoint another elector his proxy. More often, an electoral suite or embassy was sent to cast the vote; the credentials of such representatives were verified by the Archbishop of Mainz, who presided over the ceremony. The deliberations were held at the city hall, but voting occurred in the cathedral. In Frankfurt, a special electoral chapel, or ''Wahlkapelle'', was used for elections. Under the Golden Bull, a majority of electors sufficed to elect a king, and each elector could cast only one vote. Electors were free to vote for whomsoever they pleased (including themselves), but dynastic considerations played a great part in the choice. Electors drafted a ''Wahlkapitulation'', or electoral capitulation, which was presented to the king-elect. The capitulation may be described as a contract between the princes and the king, the latter conceding rights and powers to the electors and other princes. Once an individual swore to abide by the electoral capitulation, he assumed the office of King of the Romans.
In the [[10th century|10th]] and [[11th century|11th centuries]], electors often acted merely to confirm hereditary succession in the Saxonian, Franconian, and [[Hohenstaufen|Staufen]] dynasties. After these lines ended in extinction, the electors began to elect kings from different families so that the throne would not once again settle within a single dynasty. For a short time, the monarchy was elective both in theory and in practice; the arrangement, however, did not last, since the powerful House of Habsburg managed to secure succession within their dynasty during the fifteenth century. The Habsburg Archdukes of Austria (and later Kings of Hungary and Bohemia) were all elected kings from [[1438]] until [[1740]], when the archduchy was inherited by a woman, [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]]. The House of Wittelsbach came to power for a short period of time, but in [[1745]], Maria Theresa's husband, [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I]] of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty, became King; all of his successors were also from the same family. Hence, for the greater part of the Empire's history, the role of the electors was largely ceremonial.
==High Offices==
[[Image:Bavaria arms.jpg|thumb|250px|The Arms of [[Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria|Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria]], Arch-Steward and Prince-Elector]]
Each elector held a "High Office of the Empire" and was a member of the (ceremonial) [[Imperial Household]]. The three spiritual electors were all [[Arch-Chancellors]]: the [[Archbishop of Mainz]] was [[Arch-Chancellor of Germany]], the [[Archbishop of Trier]] was [[Arch-Chancellor of Burgundy]], and the [[Archbishop of Cologne]] was [[Arch-Chancellor of Italy]]. The [[King of Bohemia]] held the office of the [[Arch-Cupbearer]], the [[Elector Palatine]] that of [[Arch-Steward]], the [[Elector of Saxony]] that of [[Arch-Marshal]], and the [[Elector of Brandenburg]] that of [[Arch-Chamberlain]]. When the [[Duke of Bavaria]] replaced the Elector Palatine in [[1623]], he assumed the latter's office of Arch-Steward. When the Count Palatine was granted a new electorate, he assumed the position of [[Arch-Treasurer of the Empire]]. When the Duke of Bavaria was banned in [[1706]], the Elector Palatine returned to the office of Arch-Steward, and in [[1710]] the Elector of Hanover was promoted to the post of Arch-Treasurer. Matters were complicated by the Duke of Bavaria's restoration in [[1714]]; the Elector of Bavaria resumed the office of Arch-Steward, while the Elector Palatine returned to the post of Arch-Treasurer. The Electors of Hanover, however, continued to be styled Arch-Treasuers, though the Elector Palatine was the one who actually exercised the office until [[1777]], when he inherited Bavaria and the Arch-Stewardship. After 1777, no further changes were made to the Imperial Household; new offices were planned for the Electors admitted in [[1803]], but the Empire was abolished before they could be created.
Many High Officers were entitled to use "augmentations" on their [[heraldry|coats of arms]]; these augmentations, which were special marks of honour, appeared in the centre of the electors' shields (as shown in the image on the right) above the other charges (in heraldic terms, the augmentations appeared in the form of inescutcheons). The Arch-Steward used ''gules an orb Or'' (a gold orb on a red field &mdash; illustrated on the right). The Arch-Marshal utilised the more complicated ''per fess sable and argent, two swords per saltire gules'' (two red swords arranged in the form of a [[saltire]], on a black and white field). The Arch-Chamberlain's augmentation was ''azure a sceptre per pale Or'' (a gold sceptre on a blue field), while the Arch-Treasurer's was ''gules the crown of Charlemagne Or'' (a gold crown on a red field). As noted above, the Elector Palatine and the Elector of Hanover styled themselves Arch-Treasurer from [[1714]] until [[1777]]; during this time, both electors used the corresponding augmentations. The three Arch-Chancellors and the Arch-Cupbearer did not use any augmentations.
The electors discharged the ceremonial duties associated with their offices only during coronations, where they bore the crown and regalia of the Empire. Otherwise, they were represented by holders of corresponding "[[Hereditary Offices of the Household]]". The Arch-Cupbearer was represented by the [[Cupbearer]] (the [[Count of Althann]]), the Arch-Steward by the [[Steward]] (the [[Count of Waldburg]]), the Arch-Chamberlain by the [[Chamberlain]] (the [[Count of Hohenzollern]]), the Arch-Marshal by the [[Marshal]] (the [[Count of Pappenheim]]), and the Arch-Treasurer by the [[Treasurer]] (the [[Count of Sinzendorf]]).
==See also==
* [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], another contemporaraneous elective monarchy
==References==
*Bryce, J. (1887). ''The Holy Roman Empire,'' 8th ed. New York: Macmillan.
*"Germany." (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica,'' 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
==External links==
*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/medieval/golden.htm The Avalon Project. (2003). "The Golden Bull of the Emperor Charles IV 1356 A.D."]
*[http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/reichsstande.htm Oestreich, G. and Holzer, E. (1973). "Übersicht über die Reichsstände." In Gebhardt, Bruno. ''Handbuch der Deutschen Geschichte,'' 9th ed. (Vol. 2, pp. 769-784). Stuttgart: Ernst Ketler Verlag.]
*[http://www.heraldica.org/topics/royalty/royalstyle.htm Velde, F. R. (2003). "Royal Styles."]
*[http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/hre.htm Velde, F. R. (2004). "The Holy Roman Empire."]
[[Category:Titles]]
[[Category:Holy Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Princes|*]]
[[bg:Курфюрст]]
[[cs:Kurfiřt]]
[[da:Kurfyrste]]
[[de:Kurfürst]]
[[es:Príncipe elector]]
[[eo:Princo-elektisto]]
[[fa:امرای انتخاباتی]]
[[fr:Prince-Électeur]]
[[is:Kjörfursti]]
[[it:Principe elettore]]
[[nl:Keurvorst]]
[[ja:選帝侯]]
[[no:Kurfyrste]]
[[pl:Elektorzy Rzeszy]]
[[pt:Príncipe-eleitor]]
[[ru:Курфюрст]]
[[sk:Kurfirst]]
[[sv:Kurfurste]]
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[[zh:选帝侯]]
{{featured article}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Howard Hughes</title>
<id>14059</id>
<revision>
<id>42150952</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:51:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Check-Six</username>
<id>667312</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Air crash "tune-up"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=Howard Robard Hughes, Jr.
|image_name=Hughes11.jpg
|image_caption=
|dead=dead
|date_of_birth=[[December 24]], [[1905]]
|place_of_birth=[[Houston, Texas|Houston]], [[Texas]], [[USA]]
|date_of_death=[[April 5]], [[1976]]
|place_of_death=Houston, Texas
}}
{{otherpeople|Howard Hughes}}
'''Howard Robard Hughes Jr.''' ([[December 24]], [[1905]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[April 5]], [[1976]]) was at times an [[aviator]], an [[engineer]], an [[industrialist]], a [[movie producer]], a [[playboy (disambiguation)|playboy]], an [[eccentricity (behaviour)|eccentric]] and one of the wealthiest people in the world. He is famous for building the Hercules airplane, commonly known as the [[Spruce Goose]], and for his debilitating eccentric behavior later in life.
==Birth==
Hughes was born in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], [[Texas]], [[United States|USA]], on [[December 24]], [[1905]] although the precise date of his birth is doubted by some biographers. His parents were Allene Gano Hughes and [[Howard R. Hughes Sr.]], who invented the [[Drill bit#Oil and Gas well drilling bits|dual cone roller bit]], which allowed rotary drilling for oil in previously inaccessible places. He founded [[Hughes Tool Company]] to commercialize this invention. His parents died while he was still in his teens, and he inherited a substantial part of his father's fortune.[http://history1900s.about.com/od/peoplewhomadeanimpact/p/howardhughes.htm]
==Education==
As a teenager, Hughes declared that his goals in life were to become the world's best [[golf|golfer]], the world's best [[Aviator|pilot]], and the world's best [[film|movie]] producer. Despite attendi |
arbohydrates may slow digestion and reduce early insulin secretion. Some forms of this respond to treatment with a [[glucosidase inhibitor]], which slows [[starch]] digestion.
[[Reactive hypoglycemia]] with demonstrably low blood glucose levels is most often a predictable nuisance which can be avoided by consuming fat and protein with carbohydrates, by adding morning or afternoon snacks, and reducing alcohol intake.
Idiopathic postprandial syndrome without demonstrably low glucose levels at the time of symptoms can be more of a management challenge. Many people find improvement by changing eating patterns (smaller meals, avoiding excessive sugar, mixed meals rather than carbohydrates by themselves), reducing intake of stimulants such as [[caffeine]], or by making lifestyle changes to reduce stress. See the following section of this article.
==Hypoglycemia as American folk medicine==
'''Hypoglycemia''' is also a term of contemporary American [[folk medicine]] which refers to a recurrent state of symptoms of altered mood and subjective cognitive efficiency, sometimes accompanied by [[adrenergic]] symptoms, but '''''not''''' necessarily by ''measured'' low blood glucose. Symptoms are primarily those of altered mood, behavior, and mental efficiency. This condition is usually treated by dietary changes which range from simple to elaborate.
This condition therefore overlaps with the definition and forms of hypoglycemia described in the remainder of this article but is not entirely congruent. When low glucose levels can be measured, this condition is what is usually described by physicians as [[idiopathic]] [[reactive hypoglycemia]]. When glucose levels are not low enough to distinguish the patient's glucose from normal levels, this type of "hypoglycemia" does not carry the same risks of coma or brain damage as measurable hypoglycemia that meets the Whipple criteria. A variety of terms have been used in the medical literature: functional hypoglycemia, [[idiopathic postprandial syndrome]], pseudohypoglycemia, nonhypoglycemia, and "hypoglycemia". The terms range from favorable to pejorative and reflect the range of attitudes of physicians as much as the nature of the condition.
Advising people on management of this condition is a significant "sub-industry" of alternative medicine. More information about this form of "hypoglycemia", with far more elaborate dietary recommendations, is available on the internet and in health food stores. Most of these websites and books describe a conflated mixture of reactive hypoglycemia and idiopathic postprandial syndrome but do not recognize a distinction. The value of these recommendations is unproven.
==See also==
*[[glucose]]
*[[diabetic coma]], [[diabetic hypoglycemia]]
*[[hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia]], [[congenital hyperinsulinism]]
*[[idiopathic hypoglycemia]], [[idiopathic postprandial syndrome]], [[reactive hypoglycemia]]
==External links==
*[http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/hypoglycemia/ The National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse]
*[http://www.hypoglycemia.asn.au Hypoglycemic Health Association of Australia]
*[http://www.hypoglycemia.org The Hypoglycemia Support Foundation Inc.]
*[http://www.low-sugar.com Low-Sugar.com]
[[Category:Medical emergencies]]
[[Category:Metabolic disorders]]
[[de:Hypoglykämie]]
[[es:Hipoglucemia]]
[[eo:Hipoglikemio]]
[[fr:Hypoglycémie]]
[[it:Ipoglicemia]]
[[he:היפוגליקמיה]]
[[nl:Hypoglykemie]]
[[no:Hypoglykemi]]
[[pl:Hipoglikemia]]
[[pt:Hipoglicémia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of historical anniversaries</title>
<id>13316</id>
<revision>
<id>39018938</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T03:57:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andrew Levine</username>
<id>32383</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fr:Liste des anniversaires historiques</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Condensed list of historical anniversaries.
{|
|-
| [[January]]
| <small>[[January 1|1]] [[January 2|2]] [[January 3|3]] [[January 4|4]] [[January 5|5]] [[January 6|6]] [[January 7|7]] [[January 8|8]] [[January 9|9]] [[January 10|10]] [[January 11|11]] [[January 12|12]] [[January 13|13]] [[January 14|14]] [[January 15|15]] [[January 16|16]] [[January 17|17]] [[January 18|18]] [[January 19|19]] [[January 20|20]] [[January 21|21]] [[January 22|22]] [[January 23|23]] [[January 24|24]] [[January 25|25]] [[January 26|26]] [[January 27|27]] [[January 28|28]] [[January 29|29]] [[January 30|30]] [[January 31|31]]</small>
|-
| [[February]]
| <small>[[February 1|1]] [[February 2|2]] [[February 3|3]] [[February 4|4]] [[February 5|5]] [[February 6|6]] [[February 7|7]] [[February 8|8]] [[February 9|9]] [[February 10|10]] [[February 11|11]] [[February 12|12]] [[February 13|13]] [[February 14|14]] [[February 15|15]] [[February 16|16]] [[February 17|17]] [[February 18|18]] [[February 19|19]] [[February 20|20]] [[February 21|21]] [[February 22|22]] [[February 23|23]] [[February 24|24]] [[February 25|25]] [[February 26|26]] [[February 27|27]] [[February 28|28]] [[February 29|(29)]] [[February 30|((30))]]</small>
|-
| [[March]]
| <small>[[March 1|1]] [[March 2|2]] [[March 3|3]] [[March 4|4]] [[March 5|5]] [[March 6|6]] [[March 7|7]] [[March 8|8]] [[March 9|9]] [[March 10|10]] [[March 11|11]] [[March 12|12]] [[March 13|13]] [[March 14|14]] [[March 15|15]] [[March 16|16]] [[March 17|17]] [[March 18|18]] [[March 19|19]] [[March 20|20]] [[March 21|21]] [[March 22|22]] [[March 23|23]] [[March 24|24]] [[March 25|25]] [[March 26|26]] [[March 27|27]] [[March 28|28]] [[March 29|29]] [[March 30|30]] [[March 31|31]]</small>
|-
| [[April]]
| <small>[[April 1|1]] [[April 2|2]] [[April 3|3]] [[April 4|4]] [[April 5|5]] [[April 6|6]] [[April 7|7]] [[April 8|8]] [[April 9|9]] [[April 10|10]] [[April 11|11]] [[April 12|12]] [[April 13|13]] [[April 14|14]] [[April 15|15]] [[April 16|16]] [[April 17|17]] [[April 18|18]] [[April 19|19]] [[April 20|20]] [[April 21|21]] [[April 22|22]] [[April 23|23]] [[April 24|24]] [[April 25|25]] [[April 26|26]] [[April 27|27]] [[April 28|28]] [[April 29|29]] [[April 30|30]]</small>
|-
| [[May]]
| <small>[[May 1|1]] [[May 2|2]] [[May 3|3]] [[May 4|4]] [[May 5|5]] [[May 6|6]] [[May 7|7]] [[May 8|8]] [[May 9|9]] [[May 10|10]] [[May 11|11]] [[May 12|12]] [[May 13|13]] [[May 14|14]] [[May 15|15]] [[May 16|16]] [[May 17|17]] [[May 18|18]] [[May 19|19]] [[May 20|20]] [[May 21|21]] [[May 22|22]] [[May 23|23]] [[May 24|24]] [[May 25|25]] [[May 26|26]] [[May 27|27]] [[May 28|28]] [[May 29|29]] [[May 30|30]] [[May 31|31]]</small>
|-
| [[June]]
| <small>[[June 1|1]] [[June 2|2]] [[June 3|3]] [[June 4|4]] [[June 5|5]] [[June 6|6]] [[June 7|7]] [[June 8|8]] [[June 9|9]] [[June 10|10]] [[June 11|11]] [[June 12|12]] [[June 13|13]] [[June 14|14]] [[June 15|15]] [[June 16|16]] [[June 17|17]] [[June 18|18]] [[June 19|19]] [[June 20|20]] [[June 21|21]] [[June 22|22]] [[June 23|23]] [[June 24|24]] [[June 25|25]] [[June 26|26]] [[June 27|27]] [[June 28|28]] [[June 29|29]] [[June 30|30]]</small>
|-
| [[July]]
| <small>[[July 1|1]] [[July 2|2]] [[July 3|3]] [[July 4|4]] [[July 5|5]] [[July 6|6]] [[July 7|7]] [[July 8|8]] [[July 9|9]] [[July 10|10]] [[July 11|11]] [[July 12|12]] [[July 13|13]] [[July 14|14]] [[July 15|15]] [[July 16|16]] [[July 17|17]] [[July 18|18]] [[July 19|19]] [[July 20|20]] [[July 21|21]] [[July 22|22]] [[July 23|23]] [[July 24|24]] [[July 25|25]] [[July 26|26]] [[July 27|27]] [[July 28|28]] [[July 29|29]] [[July 30|30]] [[July 31|31]]</small>
|-
| [[August]]
| <small>[[August 1|1]] [[August 2|2]] [[August 3|3]] [[August 4|4]] [[August 5|5]] [[August 6|6]] [[August 7|7]] [[August 8|8]] [[August 9|9]] [[August 10|10]] [[August 11|11]] [[August 12|12]] [[August 13|13]] [[August 14|14]] [[August 15|15]] [[August 16|16]] [[August 17|17]] [[August 18|18]] [[August 19|19]] [[August 20|20]] [[August 21|21]] [[August 22|22]] [[August 23|23]] [[August 24|24]] [[August 25|25]] [[August 26|26]] [[August 27|27]] [[August 28|28]] [[August 29|29]] [[August 30|30]] [[August 31|31]]</small>
|-
| [[September]]
| <small>[[September 1|1]] [[September 2|2]] [[September 3|3]] [[September 4|4]] [[September 5|5]] [[September 6|6]] [[September 7|7]] [[September 8|8]] [[September 9|9]] [[September 10|10]] [[September 11|11]] [[September 12|12]] [[September 13|13]] [[September 14|14]] [[September 15|15]] [[September 16|16]] [[September 17|17]] [[September 18|18]] [[September 19|19]] [[September 20|20]] [[September 21|21]] [[September 22|22]] [[September 23|23]] [[September 24|24]] [[September 25|25]] [[September 26|26]] [[September 27|27]] [[September 28|28]] [[September 29|29]] [[September 30|30]]</small>
|-
| [[October]]
| <small>[[October 1|1]] [[October 2|2]] [[October 3|3]] [[October 4|4]] [[October 5|5]] [[October 6|6]] [[October 7|7]] [[October 8|8]] [[October 9|9]] [[October 10|10]] [[October 11|11]] [[October 12|12]] [[October 13|13]] [[October 14|14]] [[October 15|15]] [[October 16|16]] [[October 17|17]] [[October 18|18]] [[October 19|19]] [[October 20|20]] [[October 21|21]] [[October 22|22]] [[October 23|23]] [[October 24|24]] [[October 25|25]] [[October 26|26]] [[October 27|27]] [[October 28|28]] [[October 29|29]] [[October 30|30]] [[October 31|31]]</small>
|-
| [[November]]
| <small>[[November 1|1]] [[November 2|2]] [[November 3|3]] [[November 4|4]] [[November 5|5]] [[November 6|6]] [[November 7|7]] [[November 8|8]] [[November 9|9]] [[November 10|10]] [[November 11|11]] [[November 12|12]] [[November 13|13]] [[November 14|14]] [[November 15|15]] [[November 16|16]] [[November 17|17]] [[November 18|18]] [[November 19|19]] [[November 20|20]] [[November 21|21]] [[November 22|22]] [[November 23|23]] [[November 24|24]] [[November 25|25]] [[November 26|26]] [[November 27|27]] [[November 28|28]] [[November 29|29]] [[November 30 |
onal Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion
* National Center for Environmental Health
* National Center for Health Marketing
* [[National Center for Health Statistics]]
* [[National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention]]
* National Center for Infectious Diseases
* National Center for Injury Prevention and Control
* National Center for Public Health Informatics
* [http://www.cdc.gov/nip National Immunization Program]
* National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Headquartered in [[Atlanta, Georgia]], the CDC is an agency of the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]]. Previously known as the '''Communicable Disease Center''' until [[1946]] and as the '''Center for Disease Control''' until
[[1970]], the agency was founded in 1946 to help control malaria. The CDC has remained at the forefront of public health efforts to prevent and control infectious and chronic diseases, injuries, workplace hazards, disabilities, and environmental health threats.
==Goals==
The CDC states that it has two primary health protection goals:
#''Health promotion and prevention of disease, injury, and disability: All people, especially those at higher risk due to health disparities, will achieve their optimal lifespan with the best possible quality of health in every stage of life.''
#''Preparedness: People in all communities will be protected from infectious, occupational, environmental, and terrorist threats.''
==Workforce==
The workforce at CDC/ATSDR totals more than 9,000 employees in 170 occupations with a public health focus, including physicians, statisticians, epidemiologists, laboratory experts, behavioral scientists, and health communicators.
Although its national headquarters is in Atlanta, more than 3,000 CDC employees work at other locations throughout the United States. Additional CDC staff are deployed to countries around the globe, assigned to almost all state health departments, and dispersed to numerous local health agencies on both long- and short-term assignments.
The CDC campus in Atlanta houses facilities for the research of extremely dangerous biological agents, in a setting well represented in the Dustin Hoffman film "Outbreak" although the actual location depicted in the film was supposed to be the Army's USAMRIID bio-research facility.
==Additional information==
CDC also publish the peer-reviewed journal ''Emerging Infectious Diseases''.
==External links==
*[http://www.cdc.gov Official site]
*[http://www.ecdc.eu.int/ European Center for Disease Control and Prevention] at Solna, Sweden
[[Category:Atlanta-based organizations]]
[[Category:United States Department of Health and Human Services]]
[[de:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]
[[es:Centros para el Control y la Prevención de Enfermedades de los Estados Unidos]]
[[fr:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]
[[ja:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention；CDC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chandrasekhar limit</title>
<id>6813</id>
<revision>
<id>41654884</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:56:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antonio Prates</username>
<id>958079</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding Schemberg`s role</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chandrasekhar limit''', also known as '''Schenberg-Chandrasekhar limit''', is the maximum [[mass]] of a [[white dwarf]], a type of [[star]], and is approximately [[1 E30 kg|3 &times; 10<sup>30</sup> kg]], around 1.44 times the mass of the [[Sun]]. This number is a bit different in various articles, from 1.2 to 1.46 times the mass of the Sun and depends on the [[chemistry|chemical]] composition of the star. The limit was first discovered and calculated by the [[ethnic Indian|Indian]] [[physicist]] [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]], working with the [[Brazil|Brazilian]] physicist [[Mário Schenberg]].
The heat generated by a star due to [[nuclear fusion]] of [[atom]]s of lighter [[chemical element|elements]] into heavier ones pushes the [[stellar atmosphere|atmosphere]] of the star out. As the star runs out of fuel the atmosphere collapses back on the star's core, pulled by the star's own [[gravity]]. If the star has a mass below the Chandrasekhar limit this collapse is limited by [[electron degeneracy pressure]], which results in a stable white dwarf. If the star has a mass above the Chandrasekhar limit it has sufficient gravity to collapse past the white dwarf stage and become a [[neutron star]], [[black hole]], or possibly a theoretical [[quark star]]. If a stable white dwarf in a [[Binary system (astronomy)|binary system]] with a giant star [[accretion (science)|accretes]] enough material to exceed the Chandrasekhar limit, the star collapses and becomes a [[supernova|type I supernova]]. The remnant of the collapse is unlikely to be a neutron star as the explosion is violent enough to rip the white dwarf clean apart, leaving no star at all.
The Chandrasekhar limit arises from taking account of the effects of [[quantum mechanics]] in considering the behaviour of the electrons providing the degeneracy pressure supporting the white dwarf. Electrons, being [[fermion]]s, cannot be at equal [[energy level]]s, so that, when an electron gas is cooling down, it is impossible for them to be given all minimal energy. Plenty of electrons will have to stay at higher energy levels and will thus give a certain pressure, which is purely quantum mechanical in its nature.
In the classical approximation a white dwarf may be arbitrarily massive with its volume '''inversely''' proportional to its mass. In the quantum mechanical calculation the typical energies to which degeneracy pressure forces the electrons in a massive white dwarf are non-negligible relative to their rest masses and a limiting mass emerges for a self-gravitating, spherically symmetric body supported by degeneracy pressure.
When Chandrasekhar first proposed his ideas, he was vehemently opposed by the British physicist [[Arthur Stanley Eddington|Arthur Eddington]]. Embittered, Chandrasekhar moved to the United States where he remained at the [[University of Chicago]] for the most part.
==External links==
*[http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1983/chandrasekhar-lecture.html Chandrasekhar's Nobel Lecture, 1983]
[[Category:Astrophysics]]
[[bg:Граница на Чандрасекар]]
[[ca:Límit de Chandrasekhar]]
[[de:Chandrasekhar-Grenze]]
[[es:Límite de Chandrasekhar]]
[[fr:Limite de Chandrasekhar]]
[[gl:Límite de Chandrasekhar]]
[[ko:찬드라세카 한계]]
[[id:Batas Chandrasekhar]]
[[it:Limite di Chandrasekhar]]
[[he:גבול צ'נדראסקאר]]
[[nl:Chandrasekhar-limiet]]
[[ja:チャンドラセカール限界]]
[[nn:Chandrasekhargrensa]]
[[pl:Granica Chandrasekhara]]
[[ru:Предел Чандрасекара]]
[[ta:சந்திரசேகர் வரையரை]]
[[vi:Giới hạn Chandrasekhar]]
[[zh:錢德拉塞卡極限]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Congregationalist church governance</title>
<id>6814</id>
<revision>
<id>42154011</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:22:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Paul foord</username>
<id>240061</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ dab United and uniting churches</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Congregationalist church governance''', often known as '''congregationalism''', is a system of church governance in which every local [[congregation (worship)|congregation]] is independent. The [[Anabaptist]] movement, [[Baptist]]s and others besides the [[Congregational church]]es are organized according to it. In [[Christianity]], it is distinguished from [[presbyterian church governance]], which is governance by a structure of democratically-elected representative bodies of clergy and lay "elders", and from [[episcopalian church governance]], which is governance by a hierarchy of [[bishop]]s.
Congregationalism is not limited only to organization of Christian congregations. The principles of congregationalism have been inherited by the [[Unitarian Universalist Association]], some of which are Christian assemblies, by direct historical descent from the Congregational Church.
==The basics of congregationalism in Christianity==
Congregationalism is the theory that (1) every local church is a full realization in miniature of the entire Church of Jesus Christ; and (2) the Church, while on earth, besides the local church, can '''only''' be invisible and ideal. While other theories may insist on the truth of the former, the latter precept of Congregationalism gives the entire theory a unique character among plans of church government. There is no other reference than the local congregation for the "visible church" in Congregationalism. And yet, the connection of all Christians is also asserted, albeit in a way that can't be clearly or consistently described. This first, foundational principle by which Congregationalism is guided results in the extreme limitation of authority, confining it to operate with the consent of each gathering of believers.
Although "congregational rule" may seem to suggest that pure democracy reigns in Congregational churches, this is usually not really the case. It is granted, with rare exception, that God has given the government of the Church into the hands of an ordained ministry. What makes Congregationalism unique is its system of checks and balances, which constrains the authority of the minister, the lay officers, and the members.
Most importantly, the boundaries of the powers of the ministers and church officers are set by clear and constant reminders of the freedoms guaranteed by the Gospel to the laity, and to every person. With that freedom, as the shepherd in a Congregationalist church is quite likely to frequently remind his flock, comes the responsibility upon each member to govern himself under Christ. T |
was prosecuted for [[seditious]] [[libel]], sentenced to be [[pilloried]], fined 200 marks, and be detained at the Queen's pleasure. In despair he wrote to [[William Paterson (banker)|William Paterson]], the London Scot, and founder of the [[Bank of England]] and part instigator of the [[Darién scheme]], who was in the confidence of [[Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer]], leading Minister and [[spymaster]] in the [[English Government]]. Harley accepted Defoe's services and released him in [[1703]]. He immediately published ''The Review'', which appeared weekly, then three times a week, written mostly by himself. This was the main mouthpiece of the English Government promoting the [[Act of Union 1707]].
Defoe began his campaign in ''The Review'' and other pamphlets aimed at English opinion, claiming that it would end the threat from the north, gaining for the [[Treasury]] an "inexhaustible treasury of men", a valuable new [[market]] increasing the power of [[England]]. By September [[1706]] Harley ordered Defoe to [[Edinburgh]] as a [[secret agent]], to do everything possible to help secure acquiescence of the [[Treaty]]. He was very conscious of the risk to himself. Thanks to books such ''The Letters of Daniel Defoe'', (edited by GH Healey, Oxford 1955) which are readily available far more is known about his activities than is usual with such agents.
His first reports were of vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. "A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind," he reported. Years later [[John Clerk of Penicuik]], a leading Unionist, wrote in his memoirs that,
:"He was a [[spy]] among us, but not known as such, otherwise the Mob of [[Edinburgh]] would pull him to pieces."
Defoe being a [[Presbyterian]], who suffered in England for his convictions, was accepted as an adviser to the [[General Assembly of the Church of Scotland]] and committees of the [[Parliament of Scotland]]. He told Harley that he was "privy to all their folly", but "Perfectly unsuspected as with corresponding with anybody in England." He was then able to influence the proposals that were put to Parliament and reported back:
:"Having had the honour to be always sent for the committee to whom these amendments were referrèd, I have had the good fortune to break their measures in two particulars via the bounty on Corn and proportion of the Excise."
For Scotland he used different arguments, even the opposite of those he used in England, for example, usually ignoring the English doctrine of the [[Sovereignty]] of Parliament, telling the Scots that they could have complete confidence in the guarantees in the Treaty. Some of his pamphlets were purported to be written by Scots, misleading even reputable [[historians]] into quoting them as evidence of Scottish opinion of the time. The same is true of a massive history of the Union which Defoe published in [[1709]] and which some historians still treat as a valuable contemporary source for their own works. Defoe took pains to give his history an air of objectivity by giving some space to arguments against the Union, but always having the last word for himself.
He disposed of the main Union opponent, [[Andrew Fletcher]] of Saltoun, by just ignoring him. Nor does he account for the deviousness of the [[Duke of Hamilton]], the official leader of the Squadrone Volante against the Union, who finally acted against his comrades in the decisive stages of the debate. Hamilton was to lead an Anti-Union Rebellion of [[1708]], where [[Covenanters]] had marched from [[Galloway]] (and were betrayed at [[Dumfries]]) to unite with [[Jacobites]] at Edinburgh. A [[Highland]] Army camped outside Edinburgh were given the keys by the town guard to let them in. The Illustrious Duke failed to turn up, due to a toothache, and the [[France|French]] [[frigates]] in the [[Firth of Forth]] had to turn back.
Defoe made no attempt to explain why the same Parliament of Scotland which was so vehement for its [[independence]] from [[1703]] to [[1705]] became so supine in [[1706]]. He received very little reward from his paymasters and, of course, no recognition for his services by the government. He made use of his Scottish experience to write his ''Tour thro' the whole Island of Great Britain'', published in 1726, where he actually admitted that the increase of trade and population in Scotland, which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union, was "not the case, but rather the contrary".
Defoe's description of [[Glasgow]] (Glaschu) as a "Dear Green Place" has often been misquoted as a [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] translation for the town. The Gaelic ''Glas'' could mean grey or green, ''chu'' means dog or hollow. ''Glaschu'' probably actually means 'Green Hollow'. The "Dear Green Place", like much of Scotland, was a hotbed of unrest against the Union. The local [[St George's-Tron Church, Glasgow|Tron]] [[minister of religion|minister]] urged his congregation "to up and anent for the City of God". The 'Dear Green Place' and "City of God" required government troops to put down the rioters tearing up copies of the Treaty, as at almost every [[mercat cross]] in Scotland.
When Defoe revisited in the mid [[1720s]] he claimed that the hostility towards his party was, "because they were English and because of the Union, which they were almost universally exclaimed against."
==Quotations==
* One day, about noon, going towards my boat, I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a man's naked foot on the shore, which was very plain to be seen on the sand. (''Robinson Crusoe'')
* Wherever God erects a house of prayer the Devil always builds a chapel there; And 'twill be found, upon examination, the latter has the largest congregation. (''The True-Born Englishman'', 1701)
==See also==
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[English Dissenters]]
* [[Libertatia]]
== Bibliography ==
* Daniel Defoe, ''A General History of the Pyrates'' ISBN 0486404889 (Dover Publications, 1999) (on Libertatia, a pirate utopia)
==External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author|id=Daniel_Defoe|name=Daniel Defoe}}
* [http://www.online-literature.com/defoe/ Daniel Defoe fiction] at [http://www.online-literature.com The Literature Network]
* [http://librivox.org/robinson-crusoe-by-daniel-defoe/ Free audiobook] of ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' from [http://www.librivox.org Librivox]
[[Category:1660 births|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:1731 deaths|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:English satirists|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:English essayists|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:English journalists|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:English novelists|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:English spies|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:Neoclassicism|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:Presbyterians|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:Londoners|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:Literary dunces|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[bg:Даниел Дефо]]
[[ca:Daniel Defoe]]
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[[eo:Daniel DEFOE]]
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[[he:דניאל דפו]]
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[[zh:丹尼尔·笛福]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 8</title>
<id>8194</id>
<revision>
<id>42007897</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:41:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv nonsense</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''December 8''' is the 342nd day (343rd in leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 23 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[1609]] - [[Biblioteca Ambrosiana]] opens its reading room, the second public library of Europe.
*[[1854]] - [[Pope Pius IX]] proclaims the dogma of [[Immaculate Conception]], which holds that [[the Virgin Mary]] was born free of [[original sin]].
*[[1869]] - [[Timothy Eaton]] founds [[Eaton's|T. Eaton Co. Limited]] in [[Toronto]], [[Canada]].
*[[1886]] - The [[American Federation of Labor]] is founded by [[Samuel Gompers]] in [[Columbus, Ohio]].
*[[1907]] - King [[Gustaf V of Sweden]] accedes to the Swedish throne.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: [[Battle of the Falkland Islands]] - The [[Kaiserliche Marine]] under the command of Admiral Graf [[Maximilian von Spee]] is engaged by the [[Royal Navy]].
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Pacific War]] - After the [[Japanese Empire|Japanese]] [[attack on Pearl Harbour]] the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes a [[Declaration of war by the United States|declaration of war]] against Japan.
*1941 - World War II: Pacific War - [[China]] officially declares war against [[Japanese Empire|Japan]], after the Japanese attack on [[Pearl Harbour]].
*1941 - World War II: Pacific War - [[The Netherlands]] issues a proclamation in which it declares war against [[Japanese Empire|Japan]], after the Japanese attack on [[Pearl Harbour]].
*1941 - World War II: [[Battle of Hong Kong]] - The Japanese invade the [[British Crown Colony]] of [[Hong Kong]] less than 8 hours after the attack on Pearl Harbour.
*1941 - [[Holocaust]]: [[Gas van]]s are first used as a means of execution, at the [[Chelmno concentration camp]] near [[Łódź]] in [[Poland]].
*[[1949]] - [[Chinese Civil War]]: The capital of the [[Republic of China]] is moved from [[Nanjing]] to [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]].
*[[1959]] - [[President of the United States]], [[Eisenhower]] watches [[Pakistan]] vs [[Australia]] cricket test match at [[Karachi]].
*[[1966]] - The Greek ferry ''[[Heraklion]]'' sinks in a storm in the [[Aegean Sea]], killing over 200.
*[ |
that Powers followed orders, did not divulge any critical information to the Soviets, and conducted himself "as a fine young man under dangerous circumstances."
After his return, Powers worked for [[Lockheed]] as a test pilot from [[1963]] to [[1970]]. In 1970, he co-wrote a book about the Incident, called ''Operation Overflight: A Memoir of the U-2 Incident''. He died in a [[helicopter]] crash in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] on [[August 1]], [[1977]], while working as a radio traffic reporter for the radio station [[KNBC]]. The crash of his helicopter was apparently caused by a malfunctioning [[fuel gauge]] which had been repaired without his knowledge. Survived by his wife Sue, and two children Dee and Francis Gary Jr., he was buried in [[Arlington National Cemetery]].
In [[1998]], information was declassified revealing that Powers' fateful mission had actually been a joint USAF/CIA operation. In [[2000]], on the 40th anniversary of Powers being shot down, his family was finally presented with his posthumously awarded [[Prisoner of War Medal]], [[Distinguished Flying Cross (USA)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] and [[National Defense Service Medal]].
When asked how high he was flying on [[1 May]] [[1960]], he would often reply, "not high enough."
== External links ==
* [http://www.foia.cia.gov/search.asp?pageNumber=1&freqReqRecord=GaryPowers.txt CIA FOIA documents on Gary Powers]
== Cultural References ==
Francis Gary Powers was mentioned several times in the [[1991]] film Final Approach starring [[James Sikking]] ([[Hill Street Blues]]) and [[Hector Elizondo]] ([[Pretty Woman ]])
Francis Gary Powers was portrayed by [[Lee Majors]] in a 1976 movie, '''''Francis Gary Powers: The True Story of the U-2 Spy Incident''''' that dramatized the incident of 1960.
[[Category:1929 births|Powers, Francis Gary]]
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[[Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery|Powers, Francis Gary]]
[[Category:People from Kentucky|Powers, Francis Gary]]
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[[fi:Gary Powers]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gastrointestinal Tract</title>
<id>12889</id>
<revision>
<id>15910539</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-09T07:03:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jaknouse</username>
<id>3212</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect to Gastrointestinal tract</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gastrointestinal tract]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gospel of James</title>
<id>12890</id>
<revision>
<id>41634327</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:59:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Blainster</username>
<id>31831</id>
</contributor>
<comment>del redundant phrase</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Early Christian Writings |
|title=Gospel of James
|attribution=[[James the Just]]
|sources=[[Gospel of Matthew]], [[Gospel of Luke]], [[Septuagint]], extracanonical traditions
|date=140-170 CE
|location=
|manuscripts=
|audience=
|theme=Virginity of Mary and early life of Jesus
}}
The '''''Gospel of James''''' also sometimes known as the '''''Infancy Gospel of James''''' or the '''''Protevangelium of James''''' probably written about AD 150. It is an [[apocrypha|apocryphal gospel]], that was widely read but never accepted into the New Testament [[Biblical canon|canon]]. The ''Gospel of James'' may be the earliest surviving document attesting the veneration of [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] and claiming her continuing virginity. <!--possible earlier ones need to be identified if they exist-->
==Authorship and date==
The document presents itself as written by James: "I, James, wrote this history in Jerusalem." Thus the purported author is [[James the Just]], which the text claims to be a son of Joseph from a prior marriage, and thus a step-brother of Jesus.
Scholars have established that, based on the style of the language and the theological concerns, and the fact that the author is apparently not aware of contemporary Jewish customs, the work is [[pseudepigraphical]] (written by someone other than the person it claims to be written by). The echoes and parallels of the Old Testament appear to derive from its Greek translation, the [[Septuagint]], as opposed to the [[hebrew language|hebrew]] [[Masoretic Text]], which is noticeable due to several peculiarities and variations present in the Septuagint.
The ''Gospel of James'' depends on hints in the [[Septuagint]] (Greek translation of the Old Testament), and embellishes on what is told of events surrounding Mary, prior to, and at the moment of, Jesus' birth, in the ''[[Gospel of Matthew]]'', and in the ''[[Gospel of Luke]]''.
As for its estimated date, the consensus is that it was actually composed some time in the [[2nd century]] AD. The first mention of it is by [[Origen]], who says the text, like that of a "Gospel of Peter", was of dubious, recent appearance, and shared with that book the claim that the 'brethren of the Lord' were sons of Joseph by a former wife. In the same train of thought, though, he admits that, while the notion might seem pious, it was not unlikely that the obvious interpretation of Scripture (that Mary bore them for Joseph) was true and acceptable.
==Manuscript tradition==
Some indication of the popularity of the ''Infancy Gospel of James'' may be drawn from the fact that about one hundred and thirty Greek manuscripts containing it have survived. The ''Gospel of James'' was translated into Syriac, Ethiopic, Coptic, Georgian, Old Slavonic, Armenian, Arabic, Irish and Latin. Though no early Latin versions are known, it was relegated to the apocrypha in the [[Decretum Gelasianum|Gelasian decretal]], so must have been known in the West. As with the canonical gospels, the vast majority of the manuscripts come from the tenth century or later. The earliest known manuscript of the text, a papyrus dating to the 3rd or early 4th century, was found in [[1958]]; it is kept in the [[Bodmer Library]], [[Geneva]] (Papyrus Bodmer 5). Of the surviving Greek manuscripts, the fullest surviving text is a 10th century codex in the [[Bibliotheque Nationale]], Paris (Paris 1454).
==Genre==
The ''Gospel of James'' is one of several surviving [[Infancy Gospels]] that give an idea of the miracle literature that was created to satisfy the hunger of early Christians for more detail about the early life of their Savior. Such literature is filled with ignorance of Jewish life, unlike the many consistent details in the Bible, which is obviously a library of Jewish books. Interestingly enough, not one work of the genre under discussion is in any Bible. In Greek such an infancy gospel was termed a ''protevangelion'', a "pre-Gospel" narrating events of Jesus' life before those recorded in the four canonical gospels. Such a work was intended to be "apologetic, doctrinal, or simply to satisfy one's curiosity" [http://www.osjoseph.org/stjoseph/apocrypha/]. The literary genre that these works represent shows stylistic features that suggest dates in the second century and later. Other "infancy gospels" in this tradition include ''[[The Infancy Gospel of Thomas]]'', the ''[[Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew]]'' (based on the Protevangelium of James, and on the Infancy Gospel of Thomas), and the so-called ''[[Arabic Infancy Gospel]]''; all of which were [[New Testament apocrypha|regarded by the church as apocryphal]].
==Content==
[[Image:GaudFerrariAnnuncJoachAnna.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Annunciation to Joachim and Anna'', fresco detail by Gaudenzio Ferrari, 1544&ndash;45: Extra-canonical legends surrounding Mary's birth became an integral element of Roman Catholicism.]]
The ''Gospel of James'' is in three equal parts, of eight chapters each -
*the first contains the story of Mary's own unique birth and childhood, and assignment to the temple
*the second concerns the crisis posed by Mary's becoming a woman and thus her imminent pollution of the temple, her assignment to Joseph as guardian, and the tests of her virginity,
*the third relates the Nativity, with the visit of midwives, hiding of Jesus from [[Herod the Great]] in a feeding trough, and even the parallel hiding in the hills of John the Baptist and his mother (Elizabeth) from [[Herod Antipas]].
One of the work's high points is the Lament of [[Saint Anne|Anna]]. A primary theme is the work and grace of [[God]] in Mary's life, Mary's personal purity, and [[perpetual virginity of Mary|her perpetual virginity]] before, during, and after the birth of Jesus, as confirmed by the midwife after she gave birth, and tested by "Salome" who is perhaps intended to be [[Salome (disciple)|Salome, later the disciple of Jesus]] who is mentioned in the [[Gospel of Mark]] as being at the Crucifixion.
Besides the perpetual virginity of Mary, this is also the earliest text that explicitly claims that [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]] was a widower, with children, at the time that Mary is entrusted to his care. This is the feature which appears in its earliest mention, which is in a text of [[Origen]], who adduces it to demonstrate that the 'brethren of the Lord' were sons of Joseph by a former wife. Since the text was regarded as heresy by the time of the [[Decretum Gelasianum|Gelasian Decree]], its dismissal may be due in part to this reading of the ''adelpoi'', which corresponded to the develop |
s.google.ca/group/alt.war.biological alt.war.biological] Usenet - Google
*[http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0113.pdf Rapport counter measures of Coalition in War of Gulf]
*[http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics]
[[Category:Biological warfare| ]]
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[[pl:Bro&#324; biologiczna]]
[[ru:&#1041;&#1080;&#1086;&#1083;&#1086;&#1075;&#1080;&#1095;&#1077;&#1089;&#1082;&#1086;&#1077; &#1086;&#1088;&#1091;&#1078;&#1080;&#1077;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Nehemiah</title>
<id>4362</id>
<revision>
<id>39032075</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T06:09:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Asparagus</username>
<id>35278</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
The '''Book of Nehemiah''' is a book of the [[Hebrew Bible]], known to Jews as the [[Tanakh]] and to Christians as the [[Old Testament]]. It is historically regarded as a continuation of the [[Book of Ezra]].
Traditionally, the author of this book is believed to be [[Nehemiah]] himself; many modern scholars dispute this. There are portions of the book written in the first person (ch. 1-7; 12:27-47, and 13). But there are also portions of it in which Nehemiah is spoken of in the third person (ch. 8; 9; 10). Some, following the traditional attribution to Nehemiah, suppose that these portions may have been written by [[Ezra]] (of this, however, there is no distinct evidence), and had their place assigned them in the book probably by Nehemiah, as the responsible author of the whole book, with the exception of ch. 12:11, 22, 23. Other authors think that the historical order of events in both Ezra and Nehemiah has become jumbled, from which they conclude that at least the final arrangement and revision of their text must have occurred at a later period.
If Nehemiah was the author, the date at which the book was written was probably about [[431 BC|431]] - [[430 BC]], when Nehemiah had returned the second time to [[Jerusalem]] after his visit to [[Iran|Persia]].
The book consists of four parts:
#An account of the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem, and of the register Nehemiah had found of those who had returned from [[Babylon]] (ch. 1-7).
#An account of the state of religion among the [[Jew]]s during this time (8-10).
#Increase of the inhabitants of Jerusalem; the census of the adult male population, and names of the chiefs, together with lists of priests and [[Levite]]s (11-12:1-26).
#Dedication of the wall of Jerusalem, the arrangement of the [[Second Temple|temple]] officers, and the reforms carried out by Nehemiah (12:27-ch. 13).
This book closes the history of the Old Testament, if [[Book of Esther|Esther]] is considered unhistorical. [[Malachi]] the prophet was possibly contemporary with Nehemiah.
[[Category:Old Testament books]]
[[de:Buch Nehemia]]
[[es:Libro de Nehemías]]
[[fr:Livre de Néhémie]]
[[ko:느헤미야 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Nehemia]]
[[he:ספר נחמיה]]
[[jv:Nehemia]]
[[nl:Nehemia]]
[[ja:ネヘミヤ記]]
[[fi:Nehemian kirja]]
[[sv:Nehemja]]
[[zh:尼希米記]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Jeremiah</title>
<id>4363</id>
<revision>
<id>41493114</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T19:06:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>201.44.114.184</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
:''For '''jer''', an alternate spelling for the reduced vowels in Common Slavic, see [[yer]].''
The '''Book of Jeremiah''', or '''Jeremiah''' (&#1497;&#1460;&#1512;&#1456;&#1502;&#1456;&#1497;&#1464;&#1492;&#1493;&#1468; ''Yirmiyahu'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]), is a book that is part of the [[Hebrew Bible]], [[Judaism]]'s [[Tanakh]], and later became a part of [[Christianity]]'s [[Old Testament]]. It was originally written in a complex and poetic Hebrew (apart from verse 10:11, curiously written in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]), recording the words and events surrounding the life of the [[Jew]]ish [[prophet]] Jeremiah who lived at the time of the destruction of [[Solomon's Temple]] in [[Jerusalem]] during the fall of the [[Kingdom of Judah]] at the hands of [[Babylonia]].
==Contents==
It consists of twenty-three separate and independent sections, arranged in five sub-sections or "books".
#The introduction, ch. 1.
#Reproofs of the sins of the Jews, consisting of seven sections, (1.) ch. 2; (2.) ch. 3-6; (3.) ch. 7-10; (4.) ch. 11-13; (5.) ch. 14-17:18; (6.) ch. 17:19-ch. 20; (7.) ch. 21-24.
#A general review of all nations, in two sections, (1.) ch. 46-49; (2.) ch. 25; with an historical appendix of three sections, (1.) ch. 26; (2.) ch. 27; (3.) ch. 28, 29.
#Two sections picturing the hopes of better times, (1.) ch. 30, 31; (2.) ch. 32,33; to which is added an historical appendix in three sections, (1.) ch. 34:1-7; (2.) ch. 34:8-22; (3.) ch. 35.
#The conclusion, in two sections, (1.) ch. 36; (2.) ch. 45.
In Egypt, after an interval, Jeremiah is supposed to have
added three sections, viz., ch. 37-39; 40-43; and 44.
The principal Messianic prophecies are found in 23:1-8;
31:31-40; and 33:14-26.
[[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]]'s prophecies are noted for the frequent repetitions found in them of the same words and phrases and imagery. They cover the period of about 30 years. They are not recorded in the order of time. When and under what circumstances this book assumed its present form we know not.
==Prophecies of Jeremiah==
(From the [[public domain]] [[Jewish Encyclopedia]])
*A proclamation of the certain fall of Jerusalem made, according to the superscription to Zedekiah and the people, during the [[siege of Jerusalem]], i.e., about 588 B.C. (xxi. 1-10);
*Prophecies against the kings of Judah in the time of Jehoiakim (608;xxi. 11-xxii. 19), completed by the passage xxii. 20-30, descriptive of the leading away of Jehoiachin into captivity (597);
*threats against the "unfaithful shepherds" (i.e., the prophets), the promise of peace and of the real shepherd (after 597), and warnings against false prophets and godless priests (perhaps in the time of Jehoiakim; xxiii. 1-8, 9-40);
*vision of the two baskets of figs, illustrating the fate of the captives and of those who were left behind, from the period after the first deportation by Nebuchadnezzar, in 597 (xxiv.);
*threats of punishments to be inflicted on Judah and the surrounding nations, in the fourth year of Jehoiakim, i.e., the year of the battle of Carchemish (605; xxv.);
*the first of the historical passages recounting Jeremiah's prophecy in the Temple (comp. vii.), his arrest, his threatened death, and his rescue, in which connection the martyrdom of the prophet Uriah is briefly mentioned (xxvi.).
*Utterances from the time of Zedekiah (see § II.), with an appendix, the last connected prophecy of any length, in ch. xxxv., treating of the fidelity of the Rechabites and of the unfaithfulness of Judah. This dates from a somewhat earlier period, that of Jehoiakim (because certainly before 597), and thus forms a transition to the first passages of the narrative sections.
==Septuagint version==
The [[Septuagint]] version of this book is, in its arrangement and in
other particulars, different from others. The septuagint omits 10:6-8; 27:19-22; 29:16-20; 33:14-26; 39:4-13; 52:2, 3, 15, 28-30, etc. About 2,700 words in all of the original are omitted.
According to the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]], ''a comparison of the Masoretic text with the Septuagint throws some light on the last phase in the history of the origin of the Book of Jeremiah, inasmuch as the translation into Greek was already under way before the work on the Hebrew book had come to an end... The two texts differ above all in that the Septuagint is much shorter... Even if the text of the Septuagint is proved to be the older, it does not necessarily follow that all these variations first arose after the Greek translation had been made, because two different editions of the same text might have been in process of development side by side...''
==Qumran version==
The Book of Jeremiah has also been found among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] in cave 4 in [[Qumran]]. One text is the hebrew variant of the [[Septuagint]] version. This may shed some light on why the Septaugint version differs from the [[masoretic]] version. It was previously thought that the difference was due to poor translation, but it is now thought by many that the masoretic version has been reworked, or that there were two versions of this book.
==Online Translations and commentaries on the Book of Jeremiah==
*Original Hebrew text:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1101.htm &#1497;&#1512;&#1502;&#1497;&#1492;&#1493; ''Yirmiyahu'' - Jeremiah] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]])
*Translations into English
**[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
***[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et1101.htm Jeremiah at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
*** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15756 Yirmiyahu - Jeremiah (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
**[[Christian]] translations:
*** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/24_jeremiah.htm Jeremiah at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
***{{biblegateway||Jeremiah}}
==External links==
* (Jewish En |
erback, Simon & Schuster, 2000
* [[Stephen Hawking]], ed. ''On the Shoulders of Giants'', ISBN 0-7624-1348-5 Places selections from Newton's ''Principia'' in the context of selected writings by [[Copernicus]], [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]], [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]].
* James Gleick, ''Isaac Newton'', Knopf, 2003, hardcover, 288 pages, ISBN 0375422331
* Gale E. Christianson, ''In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton and His Times'' Collier MacMillan, 1984, 608 pages
* Harlow Shapley, S. Rapport, H. Wright, ''A Treasury of Science''; "Newtonia" pp. 147-9; "Discoveries" pp. 150-4. Harper & Bros., New York, 1946.
* William C. Dampier & M. Dampier, ''Readings in the Literature of Science,'' Harper & Row, New York, 1959.
</div>
===External links===
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
{{commons|Isaac Newton}}
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Newton.html Portraits of Issac Newton]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Isaac_Newton|name=Isaac Newton}}
*[http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95dec/newton.html ''Sir Isaac Newton Scientist and Mathematician'' by Lucidcafé]
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Physics/History/People/Newton,_Isaac/ Isaac Newton Directory]
*[http://www.newtonproject.ic.ac.uk/ Newton Research Project]
*[http://www.skepticreport.com/astrology/newton.htm Rebuttal of Newton as an astrologer]
*[http://www.galilean-library.org/snobelen.html Newton Reconsidered], an interview with Newton scholar Stephen D. Snobelen at the Galilean Library
*[http://www.huntington.org/LibraryDiv/Newton/Newtonexhibit.htm March 5-June 12, 2005 Isaac Newton's personal copy of Principia on display at] [[Huntington Library]]
*[http://www.pierre-marteau.com/currency/ed/newton-intro.html Newton's Reports as Master of the Royal Mint]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/newton/ Newton's Dark Secrets] [[Nova (TV series)|NOVA]] television programme.
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Newton}}
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-stm/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Newton's views on space, time, and motion]
*[http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/09/sir-isaac-newton.html Sir Isaac Newton] an article that traces his life and achievements.
*[http://www.tqnyc.org/NYC051308/index.htm Newton's Castle] Educational material about Newton
*[http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/collections/newton The Chymistry of Isaac Newton] Research about Isaac Newton's Alchemical writings
*[http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/ The Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences]
[[Category:Isaac Newton| ]]
[[Category:1643 births|Newton, Issac]]
[[Category:1727 deaths|Newton, Issac]]
[[Category:Alchemists|Newton, Issac]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Newton, Isaac]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Newton, Isaac]]
[[Category:Antitrinitarianism|Newton, Isaac]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Newton, Isaac]]
[[Category:British MPs|Newton, Isaac]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Newton, Isaac]]
[[Category:English inventors|Newton, Isaac]]
[[Category:English mathematicians|Newton, Isaac]]
[[Category:English physicists|Newton, Isaac]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Newton, Isaac]]
[[Category:Natives of Lincolnshire|Newton,Isaac]]
[[Category:Physicists|Newton,Isaac]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Royal Society|Newton, Isaac]]
[[Category:Unitarians|Newton, Isaac]]
{{Link FA|es}}
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[ar:إسحق نيوتن]]
[[ast:Isaac Newton]]
[[bg:Исак Нютон]]
[[bs:Isaac Newton]]
[[ca:Isaac Newton]]
[[cs:Isaac Newton]]
[[cy:Isaac Newton]]
[[da:Isaac Newton]]
[[de:Isaac Newton]]
[[et:Isaac Newton]]
[[es:Isaac Newton]]
[[eo:Isaac NEWTON]]
[[eu:Isaac Newton]]
[[fa:ایساک نیوتن]]
[[fo:Isaac Newton]]
[[fr:Isaac Newton]]
[[ga:Isaac Newton]]
[[gl:Isaac Newton]]
[[ko:아이작 뉴턴]]
[[hi:सर आइजैक न्यूटन]]
[[hr:Isaac Newton]]
[[io:Isaac Newton]]
[[id:Isaac Newton]]
[[ia:Isaac Newton]]
[[is:Isaac Newton]]
[[it:Isaac Newton]]
[[he:אייזיק ניוטון]]
[[jv:Isaac Newton]]
[[sw:Isaac Newton]]
[[la:Isaacus Newtonus]]
[[lv:Īzaks Ņūtons]]
[[lt:Izaokas Niutonas]]
[[hu:Isaac Newton]]
[[mk:Исак Њутн]]
[[ms:Isaac Newton]]
[[nl:Isaac Newton]]
[[ja:アイザック・ニュートン]]
[[no:Isaac Newton]]
[[nn:Isaac Newton]]
[[pl:Isaac Newton]]
[[pt:Isaac Newton]]
[[ro:Isaac Newton]]
[[ru:Ньютон, Исаак]]
[[sq:Isaac Newton]]
[[scn:Isaac Newton]]
[[simple:Isaac Newton]]
[[sk:Isaac Newton]]
[[sl:Isaac Newton]]
[[sr:Исак Њутн]]
[[fi:Isaac Newton]]
[[sv:Isaac Newton]]
[[tl:Isaac Newton]]
[[ta:ஐசாக் நியூட்டன்]]
[[th:ไอแซก นิวตัน]]
[[vi:Isaac Newton]]
[[tr:Isaac Newton]]
[[uk:Ньютон Ісаак]]
[[zh:艾萨克·牛顿]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Industrial revolution</title>
<id>14628</id>
<revision>
<id>15912166</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Industrial Revolution]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inventor</title>
<id>14629</id>
<revision>
<id>35830156</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T16:53:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.1.206.94|72.1.206.94]] ([[User talk:72.1.206.94|talk]]) to last version by Antandrus</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''inventor''' is a person who creates new [[invention]]s, typically technical devices such as mechanical, electrical or software devices or methods. Although some inventors may also be [[scientist]]s, most of them are [[engineer]]s in fact as they base their work on the discoveries of other scientists, experimenting with practical applications and combinations of those discoveries, and with improvements and combinations of existing devices, to create new useful devices.
[[Inventor (patent)|Inventorship]] is a key determination in establishing [[patent]] rights. The system of patents was established to encourage inventors by granting limited-term, limited [[monopoly]] on inventions determined to be sufficiently [[Novelty (patent)|novel]], [[Inventive step and non-obviousness|non-obvious]], and [[Utility (patent)|useful]]. In the U.S. the patent right originates from the [[intellectual property clause]] of the [[United_States_Constitution/Article One|Constitution]].
The capacity to invent can be developed. See [[TRIZ]], the theory of inventive [[problem-solving]].
== Etymology ==
The word "inventor" comes form the [[latin]] verb ''invenire'', ''invent-'', to find. [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=inventor&db=*][http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=invent]
== Inventors clubs ==
Inventors clubs provide a support infrastructure for inventors, especially useful for lone inventors who otherwise may not have anyone impartial they can freely talk to about their inventions.
There are hundreds, if not thousands of such clubs around the world (see also national associations or local UK clubs on [http://www.wrti.org.uk/clubs WRTI Clubs], the web site of the [[Wessex Round Table of Inventors]]).
==See also==
* [[List of inventors]]
* [[List of engineers]]
* [[List of scientists]]
* [[History of Science and Technology]]
* [[Inventor's notebook]]
* [[Inventor (patent) | Inventorship]]
* [[Autodesk Inventor]] for the 3D modeling [[CAD]] [[application_software|application]]
* [[Inventor's Day]]
==External links==
*[http://eepatents.com/collection.html A collection of patents for pioneering electrical engineering technologies, including some by the inventors listed above]
* [http://www.inventions.org/ Inventors Assistance League] (Non-profit organization operating since 1963)
* Associations of inventors
** [http://www.erfinder.at/tag-der-erfinder/ European Inventor's Day (German)] (''Tag der Erfinder'') ([[Germany]])
** [http://www.inventor.hu/ Association of Hungarian Inventors (MAFE)] ([[Hungary]])
** [http://www.uppfinnareforeningen.se/ The Swedish Inventors' Association] ([[Sweden]])
** [http://www.wrti.org.uk Wessex Round Table of Inventors] ([[Wessex Round Table of Inventors|WRTI]]) ([[United Kingdom]])
** [http://www.communityconnection.org/resource_pages/42646.html Inventors Association of St. Louis (IASL)] ([[United States]])
** [http://www.younginventorsinternational.com/ Young Inventors International] (Non-profit organization helping inventors and innovators under the age of 35)
[[Category:Inventors|*]]
[[Category:Patent law]]
[[da:Opfinder]]
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[[id:Penemu]]
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[[nl:Uitvinder]]
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[[pt:Inventor]]
[[sl:Izumitelj]]
[[sv:Uppfinnare]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iberian peninsula</title>
<id>14630</id>
<revision>
<id>15912168</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-18T11:22:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tannin</username>
<id>6169</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Iberian Peninsula]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Immanuel Kant</title>
<id>14631</id>
<revision>
<id>41945480</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:24:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>199.254.165.254</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Example of the first formulation: */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Kantianism}}
{{Infobox_Philosopher |
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
<!-- Philosopher Category -->
region = Western Philosophers |
era = [[18th-century philosophy]],<br>[[Age of Enlightenment]] |
color = #B0C4DE |
<!-- Image and Caption -->
image_name = kant.jpg |
image_caption = Immanuel Kant in middle age |
<!-- Information -->
name = Immanuel Kant|
birth = [[April 22]], [[1724]] ([[Königsb |
feat of Yusef outside [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]]. Abd ar-Rahman's army was so ill provided that he mounted almost the only good war-horse in it; he had no banner, and one was improvised by unwinding a green [[turban]] and binding it round the head of a spear. The turban and the spear became the banner of the Spanish Umayyads.
The long reign of Abd ar-Rahman was spent in a struggle to reduce his anarchical [[Arab]] and [[Berber]] subjects to order. They had never meant to give themselves a master, and they chafed under his hand, which grew continually heavier. In [[763]] he was compelled to fight at the very gate of his capital with rebels acting on behalf of the Abbasids, and had won a signal victory; he cut off the heads of the leaders, filled them with [[salt]] and [[camphor]] and sent them in defiance to the eastern caliph.
In his final years, Abd ar-Rahman had to contend with a succession of palace conspiracies, which he repressed brutally. Nevertheless, the dynasty he founded secured Umayyad control of Spain until [[1031]].
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abd-ar-Rahman I}}
{{1911}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box two to one|
before1=[[Marwan II]] |
title1=[[Umayyad|Umayyad Leader]] |
years1= 756-788|
before2= |
title2= [[Emir of Cordoba]] |
years2= |
after=[[Hisham I]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba]]
[[Category:History of Spain]]
[[ar:عبد الرحمن الداخل]]
[[de:Abd ar-Rahman I.]]
[[es:Abderramán I]]
[[pt:Abderramão I]]
[[sv:Abd ar-Rahman I]]
[[zh:阿卜杜勒·拉赫曼一世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abd ar-Rahman II</title>
<id>2677</id>
<revision>
<id>42155840</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:41:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FeanorStar7</username>
<id>160806</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+cats</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For indivduals with the same or similar name, see [[Abd-ar-Rahman]]''
'''Abd ar-Rahman II''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عبد الرحمن الثاني) &lrm; ([[788]]-[[852]]) was an Arab-Spanish ruler. The son of [[Emir]] [[Al-Hakam I]], he became Emir of [[Córdoba, Spain]] in [[822]] and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against [[Alfonso II of Asturias]], whose southward advance he halted ([[822]]-[[842]]). In [[837]] he suppressed a revolt of [[Christians]] and [[Jew]]s in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] and repulsed an assault by [[Scandinavia]]n sea rovers in [[844]], and afterwards constructed a fleet and naval [[arsenal]] at [[Seville]] to repel future raids. Famous for his public building program in Córdoba, he died there in 852. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well-known as a patron of the arts. He was also involved in the execution of [[Christians]] who blasphemed the name of [[Allah]]. Those killed are known as the [[Martyrs of Cordoba]].
{| align="center" cellpadding="2" border="2"
|-
| width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2" | Preceded by:<br />'''[[al-Hakam I]]'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Umayyad|Umayyad Leader]]'''
| width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2" | Succeeded by:<br />'''[[Muhammad I of Umayyad|Muhammad I]]'''
|-
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Emir of Cordoba]]'''
|}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abd-ar-Rahman II}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba]]
[[Category:History of Spain]]
[[Category:788 births]]
[[Category:852 deaths]]
[[de:Abd_ar-Rahman_II.]]
[[es:Abderramán_II]]
[[pt:Abderramão II]]
[[sv:Abd ar-Rahman II]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abd-ar-Rahman III</title>
<id>2678</id>
<revision>
<id>40006417</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T13:07:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Slav]] to [[Slavic peoples]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For indivduals with the same or similar name, see [[Abd-ar-Rahman]]''
'''Abd-ar-Rahman III, ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''عبد الرحمن الثالث ''') ''' [[Emir of Cordoba|Emir]] and [[Caliph of Cordoba]] ([[912]]-[[961]]) was the greatest and most successful of the princes of the [[Ummayads|Ummayad]] dynasty in [[Spain]]. He ascended the throne when he was barely twenty-two and reigned for half a century. His life was so completely identified with the government of the state that he offers less material for biography than his ancestor [[Abd-ar-Rahman I]]. Abd-ar-Rahman III was the grandson of his predecessor, [[Abdallah ibn Muhammad|Abdullah]], one of the [[Spain|Spanish]] Umayyads.
Abd-ar-Rahman came to the throne when the country was exhausted by more than a generation of tribal conflict among the [[Arabs]], and of strife between them and the Muslims of native Spanish descent. Spaniards who were openly or secretly [[Christianity|Christians]] had acted with the [[renegade]]s. These elements, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse from supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab [[aristocracy]]. These restless nobles were the most serious of Abd-ar-Rahman's enemies. Next to them came the [[Fatimids]] of [[Egypt]] and northern [[Africa]], who claimed the [[caliphate]] based on descent from the Prophet [[Muhammad]], and who aimed at extending their rule over the [[Muslim]] world. Abd-ar-Rahman subdued the nobles by means of a mercenary army consisting of [[Slavic peoples|Slav]]s.
He repelled the Fatimids, partly by supporting their enemies in [[Africa]], and partly by claiming the caliphate for himself. In the [[10th century]] Abd-ar-rahman III declared himself as the Caliphate of Cordoba, effectively breaking all ties with the [[History of early Arab Egypt|Egyptian]] and [[History of Syria|Syrian]] caliphs. His ancestors in [[Spain]] had been content with the title of [[sultan]]. The caliphate was thought only to belong to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]. But the force of this tradition had been so far weakened that Abd-ar-Rahman could proclaim himself caliph on [[January 16]], [[929]], and the assumption of the title gave him increased prestige with his subjects, both in [[Spain]] and Africa.
After he was defeated by the Christians at [[Alhandega]] in [[939]] through the treason of the Arab nobles in his army (see [[History of Spain]]) he never again took the field.
{| align="center" cellpadding="2" border="2"
|-
| width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2" | Preceded by:<br />'''[[Abdallah ibn Muhammad|Abdallah]]'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Umayyad|Umayyad Leader]]'''
| width="30%" align="center" rowspan="3" | Succeeded by:<br />'''[[al-Hakam II]]'''
|-
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Emir of Cordoba]]'''
|-
| width="30%" align="center" | '''&mdash;'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Caliph of Cordoba]]'''
|}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abd-ar-Rahman III}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba]]
[[Category:History of Spain]]
[[Category:912 births|Abd-ar-Rahman III]]
[[Category:961 deaths|Abd-ar-Rahman III]]
[[ca:Abd al-Rahman III]]
[[de:Abd ar-Rahman III.]]
[[es:Abderramán III]]
[[fr:Abd al-Rahman III]]
[[pt:Abderramão III]]
[[sv:Abd ar-Rahman III]]
[[zh:阿卜杜勒·拉赫曼三世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abd ar-Rahman IV</title>
<id>2679</id>
<revision>
<id>32221817</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-21T10:18:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mustaqbal</username>
<id>691745</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For indivduals with the same or similar name, see [[Abd-ar-Rahman]]''
'''Abd ar-Rahman IV Mortada''' ('''عبدالرحمن''') was the [[Caliph of Cordoba]] in the [[Umayyad]] dynasty in [[Spain]], succeeding [[Suleiman II]], in [[1017]]. That same year, he was murdered at [[Cadiz]] while fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by the very supporters which had brought him into power. His brief reign was similar to that of [[Abd ar-Rahman V|Abd ar-Rahman V Mostadir]].
{| align="center" cellpadding="2" border="2"
|-
| width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2" | Preceded by:<br />'''[[Suleiman II of Umayyad|Suleiman II]]'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Umayyad|Umayyad Leader]]'''
| width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2" | Succeeded by:<br />'''[[Abd-ar-Rahman V|Abd Ar-Rahman V]]'''
|-
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Caliph of Cordoba]]'''
|}
{{royal-stub}}
[[Category:Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba]]
[[Category:History of Spain]]
[[Category:1017 deaths|Abd ar-Rahman IV]]
[[de:Abd ar-Rahman IV.]]
[[sv:Abd ar-Rahman IV]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abd ar-Rahman V</title>
<id>2680</id>
<revision>
<id>37477799</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T05:52:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wilis.azm</username>
<id>843798</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For individuals with the same or similar name, see [[Abd-ar-Rahman]]''
({{lang-ar|عبد الرحمن الخامس}})
In the agony of the [[Umayyad]] dynasty in [[Spain]], two princes of the house were proclaimed [[Caliph of Cordoba]] for a very short time, '''[[Abd-ar-Rahman IV]]''' Mortada ([[1017]]), and '''Abd-ar-Rahman V''' Mostadir ([[1023]]-[[1024]]). Both were the mere puppets of factions, who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-Rahman IV was murdered the same year he was proclaimed at [[Cadiz]], in flight from a battle in which he had been |
ultra-low to low-income families to 44%-62% progressively for middle class families. 850,000 Danes (31% of everyone employed and 44% of all full-time employees) pay a marginal income tax of 62%. The number of Danes paying a marginal income tax of 62% in 2006 is expected to be 925,000.
==Greenland and the Faroe Islands==
:''Main articles: [[Economy of the Faroe Islands]] and [[Economy of Greenland]]
Greenland suffered negative economic growth in the early 1990s, but since 1993 the economy has improved. A tight fiscal policy by the Greenland Home Rule Government since the late 1980s helped create a low inflation rate and surpluses in the public budget, but at the cost of rising foreign debts of the Home Rule Government's commercial entities. Since 1990, Greenland has registered a foreign trade deficit.
Following the closure of Greenland's last lead and zinc mine in 1989, Greenland's economy is solely dependent on the fishing industry and Danish grants. Despite resumption of several interesting hydrocarbon and [[mineral]] exploration activities, it will take several years before production may materialize. Greenland's shrimp fishery is by far the largest income earner, since cod catches have dropped to historically low levels. Tourism is the only sector offering any near-term potential, and even this is limited due to the short season and high costs. The public sector plays a dominant role in Greenland's economy. Grants from mainland Denmark and EU fisheries payments make up about one-half of the home-rule government's revenues.
The Faroe Islands also depend almost entirely on fisheries and related exports. Without Danish Government bailouts in 1992 and 1993, the Faroese economy would have gone bankrupt. Since 1995, the Faroese economy has seen a noticeable upturn, but remains extremely vulnerable. Recent off-shore oil finds close to the Faroese area give hope for Faroese deposits, too, which may lay the basis for an economic rebound over the longer term.
==Economy - overview==
This thoroughly modern market economy features high-tech [[agriculture]], up-to-date small-scale and corporate industry, extensive government [[social welfare|welfare]] measures, comfortable living standards, and high dependence on [[foreign trade]]. [[Denmark]] is a net exporter of food. The center-left coalition government is concentrating on reducing the unemployment rate and turning the budget deficit into a surplus, as well as following the previous government's policies of maintaining low inflation and a current account surplus. The coalition also vows to maintain a stable currency. The coalition has lowered marginal income tax rates while maintaining overall tax revenues; boosted industrial competitiveness through labor market and tax reforms; increased research and development funds; and improved welfare services for the neediest while cutting paperwork and delays. Denmark chose not to join the 11 other [[European Union]] members who launched the [[euro]] on [[1 January]] [[1999]].
==National accounts==
'''GDP:'''
Table showing selected PPP GDPs and growth - 2002 to 2006 est.:
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|-----
! style="background:#efefef;" | Year
! style="background:#efefef;" | GDP <br /> <small>in billions of USD PPP <br /> </small>
! style="background:#efefef;" | % GDP Growth
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2002
| 166.876 || 0.5
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2003
| 170.798 || 0.7
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2004
| 178.477 || 2.4
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2005
| 187.721 || 2.2
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2006
| 195.581 || 2.1
|- align="right"
|}
purchasing power parity - $178.477 billion (2004 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:''' 2.4% (2003 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $30,600 (2004 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
2%
<br>''industry:''
22.1%
<br>''services:''
75.9% (2003 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
2%
<br>''highest 10%:''
24% (2000 est.)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.1% (2003 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
2.863 million (2003 est.)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
services 79%, industry 17%, agriculture 4% (2002 est.)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
6.1% (2003)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$118.5 billion
<br>''expenditures:''
$116 billion, including capital expenditures of $500 million (2003 est.)
'''Industries:'''
[[food]] processing, machinery and equipment, [[textile]]s and [[clothing]], [[chemical]] production, [[electronics]], construction, [[furniture]], and other [[wood]] products, [[shipbuilding]], [[windmills]]
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
0.3% (2003 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
35,470 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
*fossil fuel: 82.7%
*hydro: 0.1%
*other: 17.3% (2001)
*nuclear: 0%
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
32,410 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
8,775 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
8,199 GWh (2001)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[cereal|grain]], [[potato]]es, [[rapeseed]], [[sugar beet]]s; [[beef]], [[dairy products]]; [[fish]]
'''Exports:'''
$49.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery and instruments, [[meat]] and meat products, [[fuels]], [[dairy products]], [[ship]]s, [[fish]], [[chemical]]s, [[windmills]]
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Germany]] 18.7%, [[Sweden]] 12.6%, [[UK]] 8.5%, [[United States]] 6.2%, [[Norway]] 5.7%, [[France]] 5.1%, [[Netherlands]] 4.7% (2003)
'''Imports:'''
$54.47 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment, [[petroleum]], [[chemical]]s, [[cereal|grain]] and [[food]]stuffs, [[textile]]s, [[paper]]
'''Imports - partners:'''
Germany 23.1%, Sweden 13%, UK 7%, Netherlands 6.9%, France 4.9%, Norway 4.5%, [[Italy]] 4.1% (2003)
'''Debt - external:'''
$14.7 billion (2005), $21.7 billion (2000)
'''Economic aid - donor:'''
ODA, $1.63 billion (1999)
'''Currency:'''
1 Danish krone (DKK) = 100 øre
'''Exchange rates:'''
Danish kroner per US dollar - 6.18 (2006), 6.5877 (2003), 7.8947 (2002), 8.3228 (2001), 8.0831 (2000), 6.9762 (1999)
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
'''Seaports:''' [[Aalborg]], [[Aarhus]] ....
==See also==
*[[Danish mortgage market]]
*[[List of Danish companies]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.oecd.org/denmark/ OECD's Denmark country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/denmark/ OECD Economic Survey of Denmark]
===Europe===
*[[Economy of Europe]]
{{EU countries}}
{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economies by country|Denmark]]
[[Category:Economy of Denmark| ]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]
[[da:Danmarks økonomi]]
[[es:Economía de Dinamarca]]
[[he:כלכלת דנמרק]]
[[pt:Economia da Dinamarca]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Denmark</title>
<id>8036</id>
<revision>
<id>33810163</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-04T05:32:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gimboid13</username>
<id>185410</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted disambiguation from [[Telegraph]] to [[Telegraphy]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
3.488 million (2004)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
5.118 million (2004)
'''Telephone system:'''
excellent [[telephone]] and [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] services
<br>''domestic:''
buried and submarine cables and [[microwave radio]] relay form trunk network, 4 cellular radio communications systems
<br>''international:''
18 submarine fiber-optic cables linking [[Denmark]] with [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Russia]], [[Poland]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Faroe Islands]], [[Iceland]], and [[Canada]]; [[satellite]] earth stations - 6 [[Intelsat]], 10 [[Eutelsat]], 1 [[Orion (satellite)|Orion]], 1 [[Inmarsat]] (Blaavand-Atlantic-East); note - the [[Nordic countries]] ([[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], and [[Sweden]]) share the Danish earth station and the [[Eik]], Norway, station for world-wide [[Inmarsat]] access
'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM 2, FM 355, shortwave 0, DAB 1 (with 17 channels) (2005)
'''Radios:'''
6.02 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
42 (plus 44 repeaters) (September 1995)
'''Televisions:'''
3.121 million (1997)
'''[[Internet]] Service Providers (ISPs):'''
12 (1999)
'''Internet Users:''' Dial up: 1.682.781 (2004) XDSL: 638.121 (2004) Cable modem: 345.618 (2004)
'''[[Country codes]]/[[ccTLD]]:''' [[.dk]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Denmark]]
[[Category:Communications in Denmark| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Denmark</title>
<id>8037</id>
<revision>
<id>40362424</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
<br>''total:''
2,859 km (508 km privately owned and operated)
<br>''standard gauge:''
2,859 km 1.435-m gauge (600 km electrified at 25kV AC; 760 km double track) (1998)
== Railway links with adjacent countries ==
* [[Transportation in Sweden|Sweden]] - yes - same gauge - voltage change [[25kVAC]]/[[15kVAC]].
* [[Transportation in Germany|Germany]] - yes - same gauge - voltage change [[25kVAC]]/[[15kVAC]].
The [[Oresund Bridge]] provides a rail connection with [[Malmö]], [[Sweden]].
There is a railway connection from [[Hambu |
ome evidence&mdash;in the form of the ''[[Baghdad Battery|Baghdad Batteries]]'' from some time between 250 BCE and 640 CE (while Baghdad was under [[Parthian]] and [[Sassanian]] dynasties of ancient [[Persian Empire|Persia]]) of [[galvanic cell]]s having been used in ancient times. Such ancient knowledge in the history of electricity bears no known continuous relationship to the development of modern batteries. The hypothesis that these devices had an electrical function, while plausible, remains unproven, as with devices discovered in Egyptian digs that are alleged to be batteries as well.
In 1748, [[Benjamin Franklin]] coined the term ''battery'' to describe the simple [[capacitor]] he experimented with, which was an array of charged glass plates. He adapted the word from its earlier sense meaning ''a beating'', which is what an electric shock from the apparatus felt like. In those days, the entertaining effect of an [[electric]] [[shock]] was one of the few uses of the technology. Other experimenters made batteries from a number of [[Leyden jar]]s connected in [[Series and parallel circuits|parallel]]. The definition was later widened to include an [[array]] of [[electrochemical cell]]s or [[capacitor]]s. The [[Voltaic pile]] was a chemical battery developed by the Italian physicist [[Alessandro Volta]] in 1800. Volta researched the effects which different metals produced when exposed to salt water. In 1801, Volta demonstrated the Voltaic cell to [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] (who later ennobled him for his discoveries). The discoverer of biological electricity, [[Luigi Galvani]], researched the same effect with two pieces of the same metal exposed to salt water.
The scientific community at this time called this battery a ''pile'', ''accumulator'', because it held charge, or ''artificial electrical organ''.
In 1800, [[William Nicholson]] and [[Anthony Carlisle]] used a battery to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen. Sir [[Humphry Davy]] researched this chemical effect at the same time. Davy researched the decomposition of substances (called [[electrolysis]]). In 1813, he constructed a 2,000-plate paired battery in the basement of Britain's [[Royal Society]], covering 889 ft&sup2; (83 m&sup2;). Through this experiment, Davy deduced that electrolysis was the action in the voltaic pile that produced electricity. In 1820, the [[United Kingdom|British]] researcher [[John Frederic Daniell]] improved the voltaic cell. The [[Daniell cell]] consisted of [[copper]] and [[zinc]] plates and copper and zinc [[sulfate]]s. It was used to operate telegraphs and doorbells. Some early battery researchers called the Daniell cell a ''gravity cell'' because gravity kept the two [[sulfate]]s separated. The name ''crowfoot cell'' was also commonly used because of the shape of the zinc electrode used in the batteries. Between 1832 and 1834, [[Michael Faraday]] conducted experiments with a [[ferrite ring]], a [[galvanometer]], and a connected battery. When the battery was connected or disconnected, the galvanometer deflected. Faraday also developed the principle of [[ion]]ic mobility in chemical reactions of batteries. In 1839, [[William Robert Grove]] developed the first [[fuel cell]], which produced [[electric]]al [[energy]] by combining [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. Grove developed another form the electric cell using zinc and platinum electrodes. These electrodes were exposed to two acids separated by a diaphragm.
In the 1860s, [[Georges Leclanché]] of [[France]] developed a [[carbon]]-[[zinc]] battery. It was a wet [[electrochemical cell|cell]], with electrodes plunged into a body of [[electrolyte]] [[fluid]]. It was rugged, manufactured easily, and had a decent shelf life. An improved version called a dry cell was later made by sealing the cell and changing the fluid electrolyte to a wet paste. The Leclanché cell is a type of primary (non-rechargeable) battery. In the 1860s, [[Gaston Planté|Raymond Gaston Planté]] invented the [[lead-acid battery]]. He immersed two thin solid lead plates separated by rubber sheets in a dilute sulfuric acid solution to make a secondary (rechargeable) battery. The original invention had a short shelf life, though. Around 1881, [[Émile Alphonse Faure]], with his colleagues, developed batteries using a mixture of [[lead]] [[oxide]]s for the positive plate electrolyte. These had faster reactions and higher efficiency. In 1878, the air cell battery was developed. In 1897, [[Nikola Tesla]] researched a lightweight [[carbide]] cell and an oxygen-hydrogen storage cell. In 1898 [[Nathan Stubblefield]] received approval for a battery patent (US600457): this electrolytic coil patent is referred to as an "[[earth battery]]".
In 1900, [[Thomas Edison]] developed the [[nickel]] storage battery. In 1905, Edison developed the [[nickel]]-[[iron]] battery. Like all electrochemical cells, Edison's produced a [[Current (electricity)|current]] of [[electron]]s that flowed only in one direction, known as [[direct current]]. In [[World War II]], [[Samuel Ruben]] and [[Philip Mallory|Philip Rogers Mallory]] developed the [[mercury (element)|mercury]] cell. In the 1950s, [[Russell Ohl|Russell S. Ohl]] developed a wafer of [[silicon]] that produced free [[electron]]s. In 1954, [[Gerald Pearson|Gerald L. Pearson]], [[Daryl Chapin|Daryl M. Chapin]], and [[Calvin Fuller|Calvin S. Fuller]] produced an array of several such wafers, making the first solar battery or [[solar cell]]. In the 1950s, Ruben improved the [[alkaline]] [[manganese]] battery. In 1956, [[Francis Thomas Bacon]] developed the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell. In 1959, [[Lewis Urry]] developed the small [[alkaline]] battery at the [[Energizer Holdings|Eveready Battery Company]] laboratory in [[Parma]], [[Ohio]]. In the 1960s, German researchers invented a gel-type electrolyte lead-acid battery. [[Duracell]] was formed in 1964.
==Environmental considerations==
Since their development over 250 years ago, batteries have remained among the most expensive energy sources, and their manufacture consumes many valuable resources and often involves hazardous chemicals. For this reason many areas now have battery [[recycling]] services available to recover some of the more toxic (and sometimes valuable) materials from used batteries.
==The future==
Initial research indicates that [[nanotechnology]] batteries employing [[carbon nanotubes]] will have twice the life of traditional modern batteries.
A new form of battery is in development called [[Power Paper]]. This thin, flexible battery comes in the form of ink cells which can be printed on to virtually any surface and produce power.
Future cell management is able to condition one cell while the others are in operation, so a much longer operation is possible.
==See also==
* [[Memory effect]]
* [[List of energy topics]]
===People/inventors===
* [[John Frederic Daniell]]
* [[Thomas Edison]]
* [[Luigi Galvani]]
* [[Moritz von Jacobi]]
* [[Georges Leclanché]]
* [[Slavoljub Penkala]]
* [[Nikola Tesla]]
* [[Alessandro Volta]]
===Related electrical topics===
* [[Contact tension]]
* [[Potential difference]]
* [[Electric vehicle]]
* [[Electrical efficiency]]
* [[Electricity]]
* [[Electrochemical cell]]
* [[Electrochemical potential]]
* [[Electrochemistry]]
* [[Electromotive force]]
* [[Electroplating]]
* [[Energy storage]]
* [[Lead-acid battery]]
* [[Local battery]]
* [[Power supply]]
* [[Direct current]]
* [[Solar power]]
* [[Renewable energy]]
* [[Peukert's Law]]
{{wikibookspar||Constructing school science lab equipment/Cell holder}}
{{Wikibookspar||Electronics:Batteries}}
{{Wikibookspar||Electronics:Cells}}
===Related electronics concepts===
* [[Series and parallel circuits]]
* [[Secondary cell]]
* [[Electrode]]
* [[Electrolytic capacitor]]
* [[Fuel cell]]
* [[Galvanic cell]]
* [[Ignition system]]
* [[Lemon battery]]
* [[Jump start]]
* [[Lantern]]
* [[Flywheel energy storage]]
* [[Rechargeable battery]]
* [[Maximum power theorem]]
* [[Nernst equation]]
* [[Superconducting magnetic energy storage]]
* [[Grid energy storage]]
===Chemicals used in construction===
* [[Sulfur]]
* [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]]
* [[Sulfuric acid]]
* [[Zinc]]
* [[Ammonium chloride]]
* [[Antimony]]
* [[Cadmium]]
* [[Silver]]
* [[Nickel]]
* [[Nickel metal hydride]]
* [[Lithium]]
* [[Hydride]]
* [[Cobalt]]
* [[Manganese]]
* [[Nitroglycerin]]
* [[Rubidium]]
* [[Thionyl chloride]]
* [[Lead]]
* [[Titanium]]
=== Related inventions ===
* [[Baghdad Battery]]
* [[Voltaic pile]]
* [[Timeline of invention]]
* [[List of inventors]]
* [[Smart Battery Data]] battery warns device when it is going flat.
* [[Lithium polymer]]
===Other===
* [[Gas-electric hybrid engine]]
* [[Hybrid car]]
* [[Regenerative braking]]
* [[Waste]]
* [[CMOS battery]]
* [[Battery room]]
==External links==
*[http://www.radioshack.com/uc/index.jsp?page=researchLibraryArticle&articleUrl=..%2Fgraphics%2Fuc%2Frsk%2FResearchLibrary%2FBuyersGuides%2Fresearch%2FBatteries01.html RadioShack Guide to Batteries]
*[http://www.societyofrobots.com/batteries.shtml Quick Battery Guide For Robot Creators]
*[http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-b02-batt-nonr.htm Electrochemistry Encyclopedia NONRECHARGEABLE BATTERIES]
*[http://www.windsun.com/batteries/battery_Glos.htm Battery Glossary & Terminology]
*[http://www.freeenergynews.com/Directory/Battery/index.html Battery Technologies] - Directory page covering theory, research and development, and market devices that improve the trend toward clean, renewable energy. (''FreeEnergyNews'')
*[http://fhapgood.fastmail.fm/microturbine.htm ''The Microturbine'', battery technology as "the Next Big Thing" by Fred Hapgood]
*[http://www.exide.com/ Exide Technologies, a typical manufacturer of batteries for industrial and other applications]
*[http://www.buchmann.ca/default.asp Batteries in a Portable World - A Handbook on rechargeable batteries for non-engineers] - Has a comprehensive FAQ sec |
uced [[Lutheran Protestantism]] to the Faroes, to replace [[Catholicism]]. This process took five years to complete, in which time Danish was used instead of [[Latin]] and church property was transferred to the state. The bishopric at Kirkjubøur, south of [[Torshavn|Tórshavn]], where remains of the cathedral may be seen, was also abolished.
After Köppen, others took over the trading monopoly, though the economy suffered as a result of the war between Denmark and Sweden. During this period of the monopoly most Faroese goods ([[wool]] products, fish, meat) were taken to the [[Netherlands]] where they were sold at pre-determined prices. However, the guidelines of the trading agreement were often ignored or corrupted. This caused delays and shortages in Faroese supplies. Subsequently they produced poorer quality goods, and received poorer quality goods themselves. With the trading monopoly nearing collapse smuggling and piracy were rife. Denmark tried to solve the problem by giving the Faroes to [[Christoffer von Gabel]] (and later on his son, Frederick) as a personal feudal estate. However, von Gabel was harsh and repressive, breeding much resentment from the Faroese. This caused Denmark, in the [[17th century]], to take the islands and trading monopoly back themselves. However, they too struggled to keep the economy going, and many merchants were running at a loss. Finally, on the 1st January [[1856]] the trading monopoly was abolished.
[[Denmark]] retained possession of the [[Faroes]] at the [[Peace of Kiel]] in [[1814]], but lost [[Norway]].
In [[1816]] the [[Løgting]] (the Faroese parliament) was officially abolished and replaced by a Danish judiciary. Danish was introduced as the main language, whilst Faroese was discouraged. In [[1849]] a new constitution came into power in Denmark. This new constitution was announced in the Faroes in 1850, giving the Faroese two seats in the [[Rigsdag]] (Danish parliament). However, the Faroese managed to re-establish the [[Løgting]] as a county council with an advisory role in 1952, with many people hoping to eventually achieve independence. The late 1800's saw increasing support for the home rule/independence movement, though not all people supported it. Meanwhile, the Faroese economy was growing with the introduction of large-scale fishing. The Faroese were allowed access to the large Danish waters in the North Atlantic. Living standards subsequently improved and there was a population increase. Faroese became a standardised written language in [[1890]].
During the [[World War II|Second World War]] Denmark was invaded and occupied by [[Nazi Germany]]. The [[Great Britain|British]] subsequently took control of the Faroes to stop the same thing happening to the Faroes and thus losing important shipping lines. The [[Løgting]] was set up as a legislative body, with a Danish prefect retaining executive power. The Faroese [[Merkið|flag]] was recognized by British authorities. Some people tried to declare complete independence in this period.
== Post-WWII: Home Rule ==
A high degree of self-governance was attained in [[1948]] with the passing of the Act of Faroese Home Rule. Faroese was now an official language, though Danish is still taught as a second language in schools. The Faroese [[Merkið|flag]] was also officially recognised by Danish authorities.
In [[1973]] Denmark joined the [[European Community]] (now European Union). The Faroes refused to join, mainly over the issue of fishing limits.
The 1980's saw an increase in support for Faroese independence. Unemployment was very low, and the Faroese were enjoying one of the world's highest standards of living. The Faroese economy though was almost entirely reliant on fishing. The early 1990's saw a dramatic slump in fish stocks, which were being overfished with new high-tech equipment. During the same period the government was also enagaged in massive overspending, associated with the [[Big 80s]]. National debt was now at 9.4 billion Danish krones (DKK). Finally, in October [[1992]], the Faroese national bank (Sjóvinnurbankin) called in receivers and were forced into asking Denmark for a broad financial bailout. The initial sum was 500 million DKK, though this enetually grew to 1.8 billion DKK (this was in addition to the annual grant of 1 billion DKK). Austerity measures were introduced: public spending was cut, there was a [[tax]] and [[VAT]] increase and public employees were given a 10% wage-cut. Much of the fishing industry was put into recievership, with talk of cutting down on the number of fish-farms and ships.
It was during this period that many Faroese (6%) decided to emigrate, mainly to Denmark. Unemployment rose, up to as much as 20% in [[Tórshavn]], with it being higher in the outlying islands.
In [[1993]] the Sjóvinnurbankin merged with the Faroes second largest bank, Føroya Banki. A third was declared bankrupt and folded. Meanwhile, there was a growing international boycott of Faroese produce over the [[grindadráp]] (whaling) issue. The independence movement dissolved on the one hand while Denmark found itself left with the Faroe Islands' unpaid bills on the other.
The measures largely worked. Unemployment peaked in January [[1994]] at 26%, since which it fell (10% in mid-[[1996]], 5% in April [[2000]]). The fishing industry was not curtailed as much as was being considered, so it survived largely intact. Fish stocks also rose, with the annual catch being 100,000 in 1994, to 150,000 in [[1995]]. In [[1998]] it was 375,000. Emigration also fell to 1% in 1995, and there was a small population increase in 1996. Oil has been discovered nearby as well. By the early 2000's, weakness in the Faroese economy had been eliminated and, accordingly, many minds turned once again to the possibility of independence from Denmark. However, a planned referendum on a roadmap towards independence in [[2001]] was called off following Danish Prime Minister [[Poul Nyrup Rasmussen]] saying that Danish money grants would be phased out within four years if there was a 'yes' vote.
The Faroese ethnic group is of primarily norse viking descent or irish.
== See also ==
* [[Timeline of the Faroe Islands]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.historyofnations.net/europe/faroeislands.html History of Faroe Islands] - Information on the history of the Faroe Islands from the 9th Century to the present.
[[Category:History of Europe|Faroe Islands]]
[[Category:History of the Faroe Islands|History of the Faroe Islands]]
[[da:Færøernes historie]]
[[de:Geschichte der Färöer]]
[[fo:Føroya søga]]
[[sv:Färöarnas historia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of the Faroe Islands</title>
<id>10699</id>
<revision>
<id>35991286</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T19:31:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] delete duplicated word "or".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Faroes030417-nasa(2).jpg|thumb|Faroe Islands NASA satellite image]]
[[Image:Beinisvord, westcoast of suduroy, faroe islands.JPG|thumb|View of the westcoast of [[Suðuroy]]]]
The [[Faroe Islands]] are an [[island]] group off the coast of Northern [[Europe]], between the [[Norwegian Sea]] and the north [[Atlantic Ocean]], about one-half of the way from [[Iceland]] to [[Norway]]. Its coordinates are
{{coor d|62|N|7|W|}}. It is 1,399 square kilometres in area, and includes no major lakes or rivers. There are 1,117 kilometres of coastline, and no land boundaries with any other country.
The Faroe Islands generally have cool summers and mild winters, with a usually overcast sky and frequent [[fog]] and heavy [[wind]]s. Although at a high latitude, due to the [[Gulf Stream]], their climate is ameliorated. The islands are rugged and rocky with some low peaks; the coasts are mostly bordered by cliffs. The Faroes are notable for having the highest sea cliffs in Europe, and some of the highest in the world otherwise. The lowest point is at [[sea level]], and the highest is at [[Slættaratindur]], which is 882 metres above sea level. The landscape made roadbuiling difficult, and only recently has this been remedied by building tunnels.
Many of the Faroese islands tend to be long and thin. Their appearance on a map has been likened by some to sliced bread.
[[Natural resource]]s include [[fish]], [[whale]]s and [[hydropower]].
== Statistics ==
; Location:
: Northern [[Europe]], island group between [[Norway]] and [[Iceland]] in [[Atlantic Ocean]], north of the [[United Kingdom]].
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
:* {{coor dm|62|00|N|06|47|W|type:country}}
:* North: Enniberg, 62°29′,2 N
:* South: Sumbiarsteinur, 61°21′,6 N
:* West: Gáadrangur, 7°40′,1 W
:* East: Stapi, 6°21′,5 W
; Map references:
: [[Europe]]
; Area:
:* Total: 1,399 [[Square kilometre|km²]]
:* Land: 1,399 km²
:* Water: 0 km² (some lakes and streams)
; Area--comparative:
: Eight times the size of Washington, DC
; Land boundaries:
: 0 km
; Coastline:
: 1,117 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Continental shelf: 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km) or agreed boundaries or median line
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) or agreed boundaries or median line
:* Territorial sea: 3 nautical miles (6 km)
; Climate:
: Temperate; moderated by [[North Atlantic drift|North Atlantic Current]]; mild, windy winters; cool summers, damp in the South and West. Arctic climate in some mountains.
; Terrain:
: Rugged, rocky, some low peaks; cliffs along most of coast. The coasts are deeply indented with fjords, and the narrow passages between islands are agitated by strong tidal currents.
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Atlantic Ocean]] 0 m
:* Highest point: [[Slættaratindur]] 882 m
; Natural resources:
: [[Fish]], [[Whale|Whales,]] [[hydropower]], possible [[petroleum]] and [[gas]].
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 2.14%
:* Permane |
undercroft of the adjacent building by mining and then plant the explosives under the meeting chamber in the House of Lords. This plan was abandoned, however, when Thomas Percy, one of the conspirators, was able to arrange the rent of an undercroft directly below the House of Lords.
Fawkes assisted in filling the room with gunpowder which was concealed beneath bric-a-brac in the undercrofts of the House of Lords building. By March [[1605]] they had filled the undercroft underneath the House of Lords with 36 barrels belonging to John Whynniard, concealed under a store of winter fuel. The barrels contained an estimated 2.5 tonnes of [[gunpowder]]. Had they been successfully ignited, the explosion could have reduced many of the buildings in the Old Palace of Westminster complex, including the [[Westminster Abbey|Abbey]], to rubble and would have blown out windows in the surrounding area of about a 1 kilometre radius.
According to the confession made by Fawkes on 5 November 1605, he left [[Dover]] on about Easter [[1605]] for [[Calais]]. He then traveled to [[St Omer]] and on to [[Brussels]], where he met with Hugh Owen, and Sir William Stanley. Next, he made a pilgrimage in Brabant. He returned to England at the end of August or early September, again by way of Calais.
[[Guy Fawkes]] was left in charge of executing the plot, while the other conspirators fled to [[Dunchurch]] in [[Warwickshire]] to await news. Once the parliament had been destroyed, the other conspirators planned to incite a revolt in the Midlands.
== The raid ==
During the preparation, several of the conspirators had been concerned about fellow Catholics who would be present on the appointed day, and inevitably killed. One conspirator, possibly Francis Tresham, wrote a letter of warning to [[William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle|Lord Monteagle]], a prominent Catholic. Lord Monteagle received it on Saturday, [[October 26]]. The other conspirators learned of the letter the following day, but resolved to go ahead with their plan, especially after Fawkes inspected the undercroft and found nothing had been touched. Meanwhile, however, Monteagle had shown the letter to [[Robert Cecil]], the [[Secretary of State (United_Kingdom)|Secretary of State]].
The tip-off led to a search of the vaults beneath the House of Lords, including the undercroft, during the early morning of the 5th of November (according to the [[Gregorian Calendar]]). [[Thomas Knyvet]], a [[Justice of the Peace]], and a party of armed men, discovered Fawkes posing as "Mr John Johnson". He was discovered possessing a watch, slow matches and touchpaper. The barrels of gunpowder were discovered and Fawkes was arrested. Far from denying his intentions during the arrest, Fawkes stated that it had been his purpose to destroy the King and the Parliament.
==The interrogation==
Fawkes was brought into the king's bedchamber at one o'clock in the morning, where the ministers had hastily assembled. He maintained an attitude of defiance, making no secret of his intentions. When the king asked why he would kill him, Fawkes replied that the pope had excommunicated him, that dangerous diseases require a desperate remedy. He also expressed to the Scottish courtiers who surrounded him that one of his objects was to blow the Scots back into [[Scotland]].
Later in the morning, before noon, he was again interrogated. He was questioned on the nature of his accomplices, the involvement of Thomas Percy, what letters he had received from overseas, and whether he had spoken with Hugh Owen.
[[Image:guy_fawkes_torture_signatures.jpg|thumb|220px|Top: "Guido" signed under torture<br />Bottom: Signature 8 days later]]
He was taken to the [[Tower of London]] and there interrogated under [[torture]]. Torture was forbidden except by the express instruction of the monarch or the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]], In a letter of [[November 6]], [[James I of England|King James I]] stated:
:"The gentler tortours are to be first used unto him, ''et sic per gradus ad maiora tenditur'' [and thus by increase to the worst], and so God speed your goode worke".
Fawkes initially resisted torture, but verbally confessed on [[November 8]]. He revealed the names of his co-conspirators, and recounted the full details of the plot on [[November 9]]. On [[November 10]] he made a signed confession, although his signature was written in a trembling state, having been under torture on [[the rack]].
==Trial and executions==
On hearing of the failure the conspirators fled towards Huddington Court, but heavy rain slowed their travels. Many of them were caught by [[Richard Walsh]], the Sheriff of Worcestershire, when they arrived in [[Stourbridge]].
The remaining men attempted a revolt in the [[Midlands]]. This failed, and came to an end at [[Holbeach House]] in [[Staffordshire]], where there was a dramatic shoot-out ending with the death of Catesby, and capture of several principal conspirators. Jesuits and others were then rounded up in other locations in Britain, with some being killed during interrogation. Robert Wintour managed to remain on the run for two months until he was captured at Hagley Park.
A nominal [[Trial (law)|trial]] ensued on [[January 27]], [[1606]], at which the sentences had already been predetermined. On [[January 31]], Fawkes, Wintour, and a number of others implicated in the conspiracy were taken to [[Old Palace Yard]] in [[Westminster]], where they were [[Drawing and quartering|hanged, drawn and quartered]].
==Aftermath==
According to historian [[Antonia Fraser|Lady Antonia Fraser]], the gunpowder was taken to the [[Tower of London]] magazine. It would have been reissued or sold for recycling if in good condition. According to historian [[Ronald Hutton]], however, it was discovered to be "decayed". This could imply that it was rendered harmless due to having separated into its component chemical parts, as happens with gunpowder when left to sit for too long &ndash; if Fawkes had ignited the gunpowder, during the opening, it would only have resulted in a damp splutter. Alternatively, "decayed" may refer to the powder being damp and sticking together, making it unfit for use in firearms. In this case the explosive capabilities of the barrels would not be greatly affected.
A test using decayed gunpowder carried out in for an [[ITV]] programme in [[2005]]{{ref|Hammond}} which enacted the explosion (see below) established that the impact of gunpowder's compression in barrels would have counteracted any deterioration in quality. In addition mathematical calculations showed that Fawkes, who was skilled at the use of gunpowder, used double the amount of gunpowder needed. So even if some had deteriorated to the point of unusability (something judged highly unlikely by the experts) the amount of powder in it could still have blown up the chamber and killed all in it.
A sample of the gunpowder may have survived. In March [[2002]], workers investigating archives of [[John Evelyn]] at the [[British Library]] found a box containing various samples of gunpowder and several notes that suggested they were related to the Gunpowder Plot:
#"Gunpowder 1605 in a paper inscribed by John Evelyn. Powder with which that villain Faux would have blown up the parliament.",
#"Gunpowder. Large package is supposed to be Guy Fawkes' gunpowder.", and
#"But there was none left! WEH 1952".
== Historical impact ==
The plot backfired spectacularly upon England's Catholics. It halted any moves towards [[Catholic Emancipation]]: they would have to wait another 200 years until they received approximately equal rights. Some scholars argue that, in London, interest in evil, Satanism, and terror heightened by the Gunpowder Plot partly inspired [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Macbeth]]''.
== Commemoration of the plot ==
[[Image:Bonfire4.jpg|thumb|Bonfires are lit every 5th of November to commemorate the plot.]]
The fifth of November is variously called [[Firework Night]], [[Bonfire Night]] or [[Guy Fawkes Day]].
An [[Act of Parliament]] (3 James I, cap 1) was passed to appoint 5th November in each year as a day of thanksgiving for "the joyful day of deliverance". The Act remained in force until [[1859]]. On 5 November 1605, it is said the populace of London celebrated the defeat of the plot by fires and street festivities. Similar celebrations must have taken place on the anniversary and, over the years, became a tradition - in many places a holiday was observed. (It is not celebrated in [[Northern Ireland]]).
It is still the custom in Britain on, or around, 5th November to let off [[fireworks]]. For weeks previously, children have been making guys - effigies supposedly of Fawkes - nowadays usually formed from old clothes stuffed with newspaper, and equipped with a grotesque mask, to be burnt on the November 5th bonfire. The word '[[guy]]' came thus in the 19th century to mean a weirdly dressed person, and hence in the 20th century in the [[USA]] to mean, in [[slang]] usage, any male person.
Institutions and towns may hold firework displays and bonfire parties, and the same is done,
despite the danger of fireworks, on a smaller scale in back gardens throughout the country. In
some areas, such as Lewes and Battle in Sussex, there are extensive processions and a great
bonfire. Children exhibit effigies of Guy Fawkes in the street to collect money for fireworks.
The Houses of Parliament are still searched by the [[Yeomen of the Guard]] before the State
Opening which since [[1928]] has been held in November. Ostensibly to ensure no latter-day Guy
Fawkes is concealed in the cellars, this is retained as a picturesque custom rather than a serious anti-terrorist precaution. It is said that for superstitious reasons no State Opening will be held on 5 November, but this is untrue. The State Opening was on 5 Novemb |
esents about 15% to 20% of immunoglobulins in the blood, although it is primarily secreted across the [[mucosal]] tract into the [[stomach]] and [[intestines]]. It is also found in maternal [[milk]], [[tears]] and [[saliva]]. This immunoglobulin helps to fight against pathogens that contact the body surface, are ingested, or are inhaled. It does not activate complement, and opsonises only weakly. Its heavy chains are of the type &alpha;. It exists in two forms, IgA1 (90%) and IgA2 (10%) that differ in the structure. IgA1 is composed like other proteins, however in IgA2 the heavy and light chains are not linked with disulfide but with [[noncovalent]] bonds. Though IgA2 is less in serum, it accounts for major secretory antibody.
The IgA found in secretions have a special form. They are dimeric molecules, linked by two additional chains. One of these is the J chain (from ''j''oin), which is a [[polypeptide]] of molecular mass 1,5 kD, rich with [[cysteine]] and structurally completely different from other immunoglobulin chains. This chain is formed in the antibodies secreting cells. The dimeric form of IgA in the outer secretions has also a polypeptide of the same molecular mass (1,5 kD) that is called the secretory chain and is produced by the [[epithelial cells]]. It is also possible to find trimeric and even tetrameric IgA.
===IgM===
IgM forms polymers where multiple immunoglobulins are covalently linked together with disulfide bonds, usually as a pentamer or a hexamer. It has a large molecular mass of approximately 900 kD (in its pentamer form). The J chain is attached to most pentamers, while hexamers do not possess the J chain due to space constraints in the complex. Because each monomer has two antigen binding sites, an IgM has 10 of them, however it cannot bind 10 antigens at the same time because they hinder each other. Because it is a large molecule, it cannot diffuse well, and is found in the interstitium only in very low quantities. IgM is primarily found in serum; however, because of the J chain, it is also important as a secretory immunoglobulin. Due to its polymeric nature, IgM possesses high avidity, and is particularly effective at [[complement system|complement]] activation. It is also a so-called "natural antibody": it is found in the serum without any evidence of prior contact with antigen.
In germline cells, the gene segment encoding the &mu; constant region of the heavy chain is positioned first among other constant region gene segments. For this reason, IgM is the first immunoglobulin expressed by mature B cells.
===IgD===
IgD makes up about 1% in the plasma membranes in B-lymphocytes. It is monomeric with the &delta; heavy chain. While IgD's function is not yet completely understood, it is often coexpressed with IgM, and is used as a marker of mature, naive B cells. It is believed that, together with membrane bound IgM, IgD functions as the antigen recognition receptor in B cells. It may also be involved in the differentiation of B cells into plasma and memory cells.
===IgE===
[[Immunoglobulin E|IgE]] is a monomeric immunoglobulin with the heavy chain &epsilon;. It contains a high proportion of carbohydrates. Its molecular mass is 190 kD. It can be found on the surface of the plasma membrane of [[basophil granulocyte|basophils]] and [[mast cell]]s of [[connective tissue]]. IgE plays a role in immediate [[hypersensitivity]] and the defense against [[parasite]]s such as worms. The IgE antibodies are present also in outer excretions. They do not activate complement. Only IgE is heat-labile.
==Function==
The antibodies have two primary functions:
* they bind antigens -- see [[#The humoral immune response|below]]
* they combine with different immunoglobulin receptors specific for them and exert effector functions. These receptors are isotype-specific, which gives a great flexibility to the immune system, because different situations require only certain immune mechanisms to respond to antigens.
Affinity vs Avidity
* Affinity is the binding strength of the antibody to the antigen.
* Avidity is the number of antigen binding sites.
For example, IgG has higher affinity than IgM, but IgM has higher avidity.
===The humoral immune response===
When a [[macrophage]] ingests a [[pathogen]], it attaches parts of the pathogen's [[protein]]s to a [[major histocompatibility complex|class II MHC]] protein. This complex is moved to the outside of the [[cell membrane]], where it can be recognized by a [[T lymphocyte]], which compares it to similar structures on the cell membrane of a [[B lymphocyte]]. If it finds a matching pair, the T lymphocyte activates the B lymphocyte, which starts producing antibodies. A B lymphocyte can produce antibodies only against the structure it presents on its surface.
Antibodies exist freely in the bloodstream or bound to cell membranes. They are part of the [[humoral immune system]]. Antibodies exist in clonal lines that are specific to only one [[antigen]], e.g., a virus hull protein. In binding to such antigens, they can cause [[agglutination (biology)|agglutination]] and [[precipitation (chemistry)|precipitation]] of antibody-antigen products primed for phagocytosis by [[macrophages]] and other cells, [[antagonism|block]] viral receptors, and stimulate other [[immune response]]s, such as the [[complement system|complement pathway]].
Antibodies that recognize viruses can block these directly by their sheer size. The virus will be unable to dock to a cell and infect it, hindered by the antibody. They can also agglutinate them so the phagocytes can capture them.
Antibodies that recognize bacteria mark them for ingestion by macrophages. Together with the [[blood plasma|plasma]] component [[complement system|complement]], antibodies can kill bacteria directly. They neutralize toxins by binding with them.
It is important to note that antibodies cannot attack pathogens within cells, and certain viruses "hide" inside cells (as part of the [[lysogenic cycle]]) for long periods of time to avoid them. This is the reason for the chronic nature of many minor skin diseases (such as [[cold sores]]); any given outbreak is quickly suppressed by the immune system, but the infection is never truly eradicated because some cells retain viruses that will resume the apparent symptoms later.
==Medical applications==
Detection of particular antibodies is a very common form of medical diagnostics. [[Serology]] depends on these methods. [[Autoimmune disorder]]s can often be traced to antibodies that bind the body's own epitopes; many can be detected through [[blood test]]s.
"Designed" [[monoclonal antibody]] therapy is already being employed in a number of diseases (including [[rheumatoid arthritis]]) and in some forms of [[cancer]]. [[As of 2005|Presently]], many antibody-related therapies are undergoing extensive [[clinical trial]]s for use in practice.
==Biochemical applications==
In [[biochemistry]], antibodies are used for immunological identification of proteins, using the [[Western blot]] method. A similar technique is used in [[ELISPOT]] and [[ELISA]] assays, in which detection antibodies are used to detect cell secretions such as cytokines or antibodies. Antibodies are also used to separate proteins (and anything bound to them) from the other molecules in a cell lysate.
These purified antibodies are often produced by injecting the antigen into a small mammal, such as a mouse or rabbit. Blood isolated from these animals contains ''[[polyclonal antibody|polyclonal antibodies]]'' -- multiple antibodies that stick to the same antigen. The [[serum]] (=blood from which blood-clotting proteins and red-blood cells were removed), also known as the [[antiserum]], because it now contains the desired antibodies, is commonly purified with Protein A/G purification or antigen affinity chromatography. If the lymphocytes that produce the antibodies can be isolated and immortalized, then a ''[[monoclonal antibodies|monoclonal antibody]]'' can be obtained.
Antibodies are also widely used in [[immunohistochemical staining]].
==See also==
* [[Immunology]]
* [[Immunosuppressive drug]]
* [[Monoclonal antibody]]
==References==
*Pier GB, Lyczak JB, and Wetzler LM. (2004). ''Immunology, Infection, and Immunity''. ASM Press. ISBN 1555812465
*Rhoades, Rodney and Richard Pflanzer (2002). ''Human Physiology'' (4<sup>th</sup> ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0534421741
==External links==
*[http://www.ihcworld.com/ihcmall Search and Find Antibodies]
*[http://www.immunoportal.com Antibody Search & Antibody Staining Protocols]
*[http://www.ihcworld.com/antibody_staining.htm Antibody Staining Protocol Database]
*[http://www.cellsalive.com/antibody.htm How Lymphocytes Produce Antibody]
*[http://www.lymphomation.org/tests-immunoglobulins.htm Lymphomation: Immunoglobulins]
*[http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0000016 Recombination and the Evolution of the Adaptive Immune System]
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<page>
<title>Alessandro Scarlatti</title>
<id>2363</id>
<revision>
<id>41377357</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:07:27Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:alessandro-scarlatti.jpg|thumb|200px|Alessandro Scarlatti]]
'''Alessandro Scarlatti''' ([[May 2]], [[ |
>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to the contemporary American major league baseball team. For other meanings, see [[Baltimore Oriole (Disambiguation)]]''.
{{MLB infobox Orioles}}
The '''Baltimore Orioles''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]. They are in the [[American League East|Eastern Division]] of the [[American League]]. They are owned by attorney [[Peter Angelos]].
==Milwaukee Brewers==
The modern Orioles can trace their franchise link back to the Milwaukee Brewers of the [[Western League (U.S. baseball)|Western League]], beginning in 1894 when the league reorganized. The Brewers were there when the WL renamed itself the [[American League]] in 1900, and when the league declared itself a major league in 1901, the Brewers were a charter member.
==St.Lous Browns==
After only a single season as a bona fide major league club, the team moved to St. Louis and renamed themselves the "Browns", in reference to the original name of the legendary 1880s club that by 1902 was known as the [[St. Louis Cardinals|Cardinals]]. The Browns ranged from mediocre to cellar-dwelling for much of their time in St. Louis. They had two competitive periods, in the early 1920s, when they contended but were not good enough to catch strong teams of that time such as the Yankees and the Senators, and the early 1940s, the war years, when they finally hit paydirt briefly.
===War Era===
During the war, the Browns won their only St. Louis based American League pennant in [[1944]], but they faced their local rivals, the more successful Cardinals, and lost the 1944 World Series, 4-2. They were one of only three teams at the time (the others being the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]] and the [[Philadelphia Phillies]]) to have never won a [[World Series]].
==Relocation==
Half a century of mostly sub-par baseball, coupled with the success of their rivals (and tenants) the Cardinals, eventually forced new Browns majority owner [[Bill Veeck]] to consider moving his franchise in 1951. The Browns had been candidates for relocation earlier: in [[1941]], the Browns had come close to moving to [[Los Angeles]], nearly two decades before big league baseball eventually arrived in [[California]]. The American League even drew up a schedule including Los Angeles, but the bombing of [[Pearl Harbor]] killed the move. Veeck attempted to move the Browns back to Milwaukee (where he had owned the [[Milwaukee Brewers minor league|Brewers]] of the [[American Association (20th century)|American Association]] in the 1940s), but the move was blocked by the other American League owners, seemingly for reasons that were more personal than business related.
In [[1953]], the Cardinals were bought by the [[Anheuser-Busch]] [[brewery]]. Veeck realized that the Cardinals now had overwhelming resources at their command. However, he was still rebuffed by the owners. Faced with threats of losing his franchise, Veeck finally sold his team to a Baltimore-based group led by attorney Clarence Miles. With Veeck "out of the way", the American League owners quickly approved the relocation of the team to Baltimore. The team immediately took on the nickname "Orioles", a name with a long and storied history in the city:
==Baltimore Orioles==
===Early Orioles===
* In the [[1890s]], a powerful and innovative [[National League]] Orioles squad included several future [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Famers]], such as [[Willie Keeler|"Wee" Willie Keeler]], [[Wilbert Robinson]], [[Hughie Jennings]] and [[John McGraw (baseball)|John McGraw]]. They won three straight pennants, and participated in all four of the [[Temple Cup]] Championship Series, winning the last two of them. That team had started as a charter member of the [[American Association (19th century)|American Association]] in 1882. Despite its on-field success, it was one of the four teams contracted out of existence by the National League after the [[1899]] season. Its best players (and its manager, [[Ned Hanlon]]) regrouped with the [[Brooklyn Dodgers]], turning that team into a contender.
* In 1901, Baltimore and McGraw were awarded an expansion franchise in the growing American League, but again the team was sacrificed in favor of a [[New York City]] franchise, as the team was transferred to the city in 1903. After some early struggles, that team eventually became baseball's most successful franchise - the [[New York Yankees]].
* As a member of the high-minor league level [[International League]], the Orioles competed at what is now known as the AAA level from 1903-1953. Baltimore's own [[Babe Ruth|George Herman Ruth]] - nicknamed "Babe" - pitched for the Orioles before being sold to the AL [[Boston Red Sox]] in [[1916 in sports|1916]]. The Orioles of the IL won several league championships, first a lengthy run in the 1910s and 1920s, and then dramatically in 1944, after they had lost their home field [[Oriole Park]] in a disastrous mid-season fire. The huge post-season crowds at their temporary home, [[Memorial Stadium (Baltimore)|Municipal Stadium]], caught the attention of the big league brass and helped open the door to the return of major league baseball to Baltimore. Thanks to the big stadium, that "Junior World Series" easily outdrew the major league World Series which, coincidentally, included the team that would move to Baltimore 10 years later and take up occupancy in the rebuilt version of that big stadium.
=== Modern Orioles ===
The new AL Orioles took about six years to become competitive. By the early 1960's, stars such as [[Brooks Robinson]], [[Boog Powell|John "Boog" Powell]], and [[Dave McNally]] were being developed by a strong farm system.
====Robinson Brothers====
In 1966, the Orioles traded with the [[Cincinnati Reds]] and acquired slugging outfielder [[Frank Robinson]]. Robinson went on to become the first player to win the [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|Most Valuable Player]] award in each league while hitting for the [[Triple crown (baseball)|Triple Crown]] (leading the American League in [[batting average]], [[home runs]], and [[runs batted in]].) The Orioles won their first ever American League championship in 1966, and in a major upset, swept the World Series by out-dueling the Los Angeles Dodgers aces Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale.
====Glory====
The Orioles farm system had begun to produce a number of high quality players and coaches who formed the core of winning teams; from 1966 to [[1983]], the Orioles won three World Series titles (1966, [[1970]], and 1983), six American League pennants, and five of the first six American League Eastern Division titles. They played baseball the "Oriole Way", an organizational ethic best described by longtime farm hand and coach Cal Ripken Sr's phrase "'''perfect''' practice makes perfect". The "Oriole Way" was a belief that hard work, professionalism, and a strong understanding of fundamentals were the keys to sucess at the major league level. It was based on the belief that if every coach, at every level, taught the game the same way, the organization could produce "replacement parts" that could be substituted seamlessly into the big league club with little or no adjustment. This led to an unprecidented run of success from 1966 to 1983 which saw the Orioles become the envy of the league, and the winningest team in baseball.
====Weaver Ball====
During this rise to prominence, "Weaver Ball" came into vogue. Named for fiery manager Earl Weaver, "Weaver Ball" is defined by the Oriole trifecta of "Pitching, Defense, and the Three-Run Home Run".
When an Oriole GM was told by a reporter that Earl Weaver, as the skipper of a very talented team, was a "push-button manager" he replied "''Earl built the machine and installed all the buttons!''".
As the Robinson boys grew older, newer stars emerged including multiple [[Cy Young Award]] winner [[Jim Palmer]] and switch-hitting first baseman [[Eddie Murray]]. With the decline and eventual departure of two local teams - the [[National Football League|NFL's]] [[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]] and baseball's [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Washington Senators]], the Orioles' excellence paid off at the gate, as the team cultivated a large and rabid fan base at old Memorial Stadium.
====Ripken Era===
In 1981, [[Cal Ripken, Jr.]], the son of former Oriole player and manager [[Cal Ripken, Sr.]] joined the Orioles organization, and went on to become the face of the Oriole team until his retirement in 2001. While setting several records for offensive and defensive performance as a shortstop, Cal will be remembered most for his streak of consecutive games played. Ripken played in every game from May 30, 1982 until September 20, 1998, breaking [[Lou Gehrig]]'s record by three full seasons.
1991 marked the last year in Memorial Stadium.
===Camden Yards===
In 1992, with grand ceremony, the Orioles began their season in a brand new ballpark, [[Oriole Park at Camden Yards]], and thus retiring [[Memorial Stadium]] in the major league baseball world. In 1993, [[Peter Angelos]] bought the Baltimore Orioles, which returned the team to local ownership. However, Angelos' ownership resulted in a number of controversies.
===1995-1999===
Angelos hired [[Pat Gillick]] as GM for the Orioles in 1995. Gillick went on to bring in several premium players like [[B.J. Surhoff]], [[Randy Myers]], and [[Roberto Alomar]]. Under Gillick and manager [[Davey Johnson]], the Orioles made their first return trip to post-season play by winning the A.L. Wild Card spot in the 1996 season. The Orioles followed up by winning the A.L. East Division title in 1997 by going "wire to wire" (being in first place from the first day of the season to the last |
with a point in the [[basin of attraction]] of the attractor, and then simply plot its subsequent orbit. Because of the topological transitivity condition, this is likely to produce a picture of the entire final attactor.
[[Image:Damped_driven_chaotic_pendulum_-_double_period_behavior.png|thumb|right|300px|Phase diagram for a damped driven pendulum, with double period motion]]
For instance, in a system describing a pendulum, the phase space might be two-dimensional, consisting of information about position and velocity. One might plot the ''position'' of a [[pendulum]] against its ''velocity''. A pendulum at rest will be plotted as a point, and one in periodic motion will be plotted as a simple closed curve. When such a plot forms a closed curve, the curve is called an [[orbit (mathematics)|orbit]]. Our pendulum has an infinite number of such orbits, forming a [[pencil (mathematics)|pencil]] of nested ellipses about the origin.
===Strange attractors===
While most of the motion types mentioned above give rise to very simple attractors, such as points and circle-like curves called ''[[limit cycle]]s'', chaotic motion gives rise to what are known as ''[[strange attractor]]s'', attractors that can have great detail and complexity.
For instance, a simple three-dimensional model of the [[Edward Lorenz|Lorenz]] weather system gives rise to the famous [[Lorenz attractor]]. The Lorenz attractor is perhaps one of the best-known chaotic system diagrams, probably because not only was it one of the first, but it is one of the most complex and as such gives rise to a very interesting pattern which looks like the wings of a butterfly. Another such attractor is the [[Rössler Map]], which experiences period-two doubling route to chaos, like the logistic map.
Strange attractors occur in both [[continuous function|continuous]] dynamical systems (such as the Lorenz system) and in some [[discrete mathematics|discrete]] systems (such as the [[Hénon map]]). Other discrete dynamical systems have a repelling structure called a [[Julia set]] which forms at the boundary between basins of attraction of fixed points - Julia sets can be thought of as strange ''repellers''. Both strange attractors and Julia sets typically have a [[fractal]] structure.
The [[Poincaré-Bendixson theorem]] shows that a strange attractor can only arise in a continuous dynamical system if it has three or more dimensions. However, no such restriction applies to discrete systems, which can exhibit strange attractors in two or even one dimensional systems.
==History==
The roots of chaos theory date back to about 1900,
in the studies of [[Henri Poincaré]] on the problem of the motion of three objects in mutual gravitational attraction, the so-called [[three-body problem]].
Poincaré found that there can be orbits which are nonperiodic, and yet not forever increasing nor approaching a fixed point.
Later studies, also on the topic of nonlinear differential equations,
were carried out by [[George David Birkhoff|G.D. Birkhoff]], [[Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov|A.N. Kolmogorov]], [[Mary Lucy Cartwright|M.L. Cartwright]], [[John Edensor Littlewood|J.E. Littlewood]], and [[Stephen Smale]].
Except for Smale,
these studies were all directly inspired by physics: the three-body problem in the case of Birkhoff,
turbulence and astronomical problems in the case of Kolmogorov,
and radio engineering in the case of Cartwright and Littlewood.
Although chaotic planetary motion had not been observed, experimentalists had encountered
turbulence in fluid motion and nonperiodic oscillation in radio circuits
without the benefit of a theory to explain what they were seeing.
Chaos theory progressed more rapidly after mid-century, when it first became evident for some scientists that [[linear theory]], the prevailing system theory at that time, simply could not explain the observed behavior of certain experiments like that of the [[logistic map]]. The main catalyst for the development of chaos theory was the electronic [[computer]]. Much of the mathematics of chaos theory involves the repeated iteration of simple mathematical formulas, which would be impractical to do by hand. Electronic computers made these repeated calculations practical. One of the earliest electronic digital computers, [[ENIAC]], was used to run simple weather forecasting models.
An early pioneer of the theory was [[Edward Lorenz]] whose interest in chaos came about accidentally through his work on [[weather]] prediction in [[1961]]. Lorenz was using a basic [[computer]], a [[Royal McBee]] [[LGP-30]], to run his weather simulation. He wanted to see a sequence of data again and to save time he started the simulation in the middle of its course. He was able to do this by entering a printout of the data corresponding to conditions in the middle of his simulation which he had calculated last time.
To his surprise the weather that the machine began to predict was completely different from the weather calculated before. Lorenz tracked this down to the computer printout. The printout rounded variables off to a 3-digit number, but the computer worked with 6-digit numbers. This difference is tiny and the consensus at the time would have been that it should have had practically no effect. However Lorenz had discovered that small changes in initial conditions produced large changes in the long-term outcome.
Yoshisuke Ueda independently identified a chaotic phenomenon as such by using an analog computer on November 27, 1961. The chaos exhibited by an analog computer is truly a natural phenomenon, in contrast with those discovered by a digital computer. Ueda's supervising professor, Hayashi, did not believe in chaos throughout his life, and thus he prohibited Ueda from publishing his findings till 1970.
The term '''chaos''' as used in mathematics was coined by the applied mathematician [[James A. Yorke]].
The availability of cheaper, more powerful computers broadens the applicability of chaos theory. Currently, chaos theory continues to be a very active area of research.
==Mathematical theory==
[[Mathematician]]s have devised many additional ways to make quantitative statements about chaotic systems. These include:
* [[fractal dimension]] of the attractor
* [[Lyapunov exponent]]s
* [[recurrence plot]]s
* [[Poincaré map]]s
* [[bifurcation diagram]]s
* [[Transfer operator]]
=== Minimum complexity of a chaotic system ===
Many simple systems can also produce chaos without relying on [[differential equation]]s, such as the [[logistic map]], which is a difference equation ([[recurrence relation]]) that describes population growth over time.
Even [[discrete]] systems, such as [[cellular automata]], can heavily depend on initial conditions. [[Stephen Wolfram]] has investigated a cellular automaton with this property, termed by him ''[[rule 30]]''.
==Other examples of chaotic systems==
* [[Double pendulum]]
* [[Logistic map]]
* [[Henon map|Hénon map]]
* [[Lorenz attractor | Lorenz model]]
* [[Horseshoe map| Smale horseshoe]]
* [[Dynamical billiards]]
* [[Chua's circuit]]
* [[Rössler Map]]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/Sam/sam.html Swinging Atwood's Machine (SAM)]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/bb.html Bouncing Ball]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/string_web_page/index.html Mechanical Strings]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/rip_web_page/index.html Capillary Ripples]
==Application==
Chaos theory is applied in many scientific disciplines: [[mathematics]], [[physics]], [[engineering]], [[economics]], [[population dynamics]], [[psychology]], etc.
==See also==
* [[Anosov diffeomorphism]]
*[[Bifurcation theory]]
*[[Complexity]]
*[[Dynamical system]]
*[[Fractal]]
**[[Benoit Mandelbrot]]
**[[Mandelbrot set]]
**[[Julia set]]
*[[Edge of chaos]]
*[[Mitchell Feigenbaum]]
*[[Predictability]]
*[[Chaos Data Analyzer]]
==References==
===Textbooks===
*{{cite book | author=Gutzwiller, Martin | title=Chaos in Classical and Quantum Mechanics | publisher=Springer-Verlag New York, LLC | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0387971734}}
*{{cite book | author=Moon, Francis | title=Chaotic and Fractal Dynamics | publisher=Springer-Verlag New York, LLC | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0471545716}}
*{{cite book | author=Tufillaro, Abbott, Reilly | title=An experimental approach to nonlinear dynamics and chaos | publisher=Addison-Wesley New York | year=1992 | id=ISBN 0201554410}}
*{{cite book | author=Gollub, J. P.; Baker, G. L. | title=Chaotic dynamics | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0521476852}}
*{{cite book | author=Baker, G. L. | title=Chaos, Scattering and Statistical Mechanics | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0521395119}}
*{{cite book | author=Alligood, K. T. | title=Chaos: an introduction to dynamical systems | publisher=Springer-Verlag New York, LLC | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0387946772}}
*{{cite book | author=Kiel, L. Douglas; Elliott, Euel W. | title=Chaos Theory in the Social Sciences | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0472084720}}
*{{cite book | author=Strogatz, Steven | title=Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0738204536}}
*{{cite book | author=Sprott, Julien Clinton | title=Chaos and Time-Series Analysis | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0198508409}}
*{{cite book | author=Hoover, William Graham | title=Time Reversibility, Computer Simulation, and Chaos | publisher=World Scientific | year=1999,2001 | id=ISBN 981-02-4073-2}}
===Semitechnical and popular works===
*''The Beauty of Fractals'', by H.-O. Peitgen and P.H. Richter
*''Chance and Chaos'', by [[David Ruelle]]
*''Computers, Pattern, Chaos, and Beauty'', by [[Clifford A. Pickover]]
*''Fractals'', by Hans Lauwerier
*''Fractals Everywhere'', by [[Michael Barnsley]]
*''Order Out of Chaos'', by [[Ilya Prigogine]] and Isabelle Stengers
*''Chaos and Life'', by Richard J Bird
*''Does God Play Dice?'', by [[Ian Stewart (mathematician)|Ian Stewart]]
*''The Scien |
ed it actually depicts the arrest of a German passerby who tried to save Princip from being lynched.]]
The organiser of that plot, [[Dragutin Dimitrijević]], the chief of the Intelligence Department in the Serbian Army and head of the Black Hand, learned that Archduke Franz Ferdinand was planning to visit Sarajevo in June 1914.
Dimitrijevic was concerned about Ferdinand's plans to grant concessions to the South Slavs. Dimitrijevic feared that if this happened, an independent Serbian state would be more difficult to achieve. Therefore, he sent two members of the Black Hand group, [[Nedeljko Čabrinović]] and [[Trifko Grabež]] from Serbia, along with Princip, to assassinate him. They met up with other Black Hand members in Sarajevo, Muhamed Mehmedbašić, Danilo Ilić, Vaso Cubrilović, Cvijetko Popović, Miško Jovanović and Veljko Cubrilović. Each man was armed with a pistol, explosives and a cyanide pill, as each of the assassins had agreed that they would commit suicide after their actions to avoid implicating other members of the plot.
===Timeline===
However, [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]] decided to go to the hospital and visit the victims of Čabrinović's bomb. In order to avoid the city centre, General Oskar Potiorek decided that the royal car should travel straight along the Appel Quay to the Sarajevo Hospital. However, Potiorek forgot to inform the driver, [[Franz Urban]], about this decision. On the way to the hospital, Urban took a right turn into Gebet Street.
Gavrilo Princip had gone into Moritz Schiller's cafe for a sandwich, having apparently given up, when he spotted Ferdinand's car as it drove past, having taken the wrong turn. After realizing the mistake, the driver put his foot on the brake, and began to back up. In doing so he moved slowly past the waiting Gavrilo Princip. Gavrilo Princip stepped forward, drew his gun, and at a distance of about five feet, fired several times into the car. Franz Ferdinand was hit in the neck and Sophia in the [[abdomen]]. Sophia, who was later found to be with child at the time of her death, died instantly. Ferdinand, who in disbelief of her death insisted that she wake up, fainted within five minutes and died soon after.
===Capture and imprisonment===
Princip tried to kill himself first by ingesting [[cyanide]], and then with his gun, but he vomited the poison (which Čabrinović had also done, leading the police to believe the group had been deceived and bought a much weaker poison), and the gun was wrestled from his hand before he had a chance to fire another shot. Having been too young at the time of the assassination (19) to face the death penalty, Princip received the maximum sentence of twenty years in prison, where he was held in harsh conditions worsened by the war. He died of [[tuberculosis]] on [[April 28]], [[1918]] at [[Theresienstadt]]. At the time of his death Princip weighed around 40 kilograms (88 pounds).
===Other Information===
The gun used by Princip was a [[John Browning|Browning]] M 1910 [[semi-automatic pistol]] in 7.65×17mm ([[.32 ACP]]) caliber. It was recently found and recovered in the home of the Italian Copei family, and is now in display at the [[Heeresgeschichtliches_Museum|Museum of Military History, Vienna, Austria]]. The second bullet fired by Princip, killing Ferdinand, is stored as a museum exhibit in the [[Konopiště]] Castle near the town of [[Benešov]], [[Czech Republic]].
Scottish rock band [[Franz_Ferdinand_(band)|Franz Ferdinand]], in fact named after the archduke, wrote a song about the shooting of their namesake titled "All For You, Sophia". The lyrics include the following lines: "Bang, bang Gavrilo Princip/Bang, bang shoot me Gavrilo/Bang, bang, the first six are for you/Bang, bang, the seventh is for me".
[[Category:1894 births|Princip, Gavrilo]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greenwich Village</title>
<id>13011</id>
<revision>
<id>41944601</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:17:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mareino</username>
<id>114034</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm {{Infobox London place| (bad code). add "City" -- there is a Greenwich, NY upstate that happens to be a village</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about Greenwich Village in New York City. For other uses see [[Greenwich (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Arch in washington square park 02.jpg|thumb|The Washington Square Arch]]
'''Greenwich Village''' (pronounced ''"Grennich"'' Village; also called simply ''the Village'') is a largely residential area on the west side of downtown (southern) [[Manhattan]] in [[New York City]].
==Location==
The neighborhood is roughly bounded by [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] on the east, the [[Hudson River]] on the west, [[Houston Street (Manhattan)|Houston Street]] on the [[south]], and [[14th Street (Manhattan)|14th Street]] on the [[north]]. The neighborhoods surrounding it are the [[East Village, Manhattan|East Village]] to the east, [[SoHo]] to the south, and [[Chelsea, Manhattan|Chelsea]] to the north. The [[East Village, Manhattan|East Village]], which was formerly known as the [[Bowery]] or north [[Lower East Side]], is occasionally referred to as part of Greenwich Village, but is more properly considered its own neighborhood.
The district was better known as Washington Square in the 19th century.
== Layout ==
[[Image:West4thand12th.JPG|left|thumb|Photo of the intersection of West 4th and West 12th Streets in Greenwich Village (W. 12th runs left-right)]][[Image:West4thand12th3.JPG|right|thumb|Another photo of the intersection]]
As Greenwich Village was once a rural hamlet, entirely separate from New York, its street layout does not coincide with most of Manhattan's more formal [[grid plan]] (based on the [[Commissioners' Plan of 1811]]). Greenwich Village was allowed to keep its street pattern when the plan was implemented, which has resulted in a neighborhood whose streets are dramatically different, in layout, from the ordered structure of other parts of town. Many of the neighborhood's streets are narrow and some curve at odd angles. Additionally, unlike most of Manhattan, streets in the Village typically are named rather than numbered. While there are some numbered streets in the Village, even they do not always conform to the usual grid pattern when they enter the neighborhood. For example, [[West 4th Street (Greenwich Village)|West 4th Street]], which runs east-west outside of the Village, turns and runs north, crossing West 12th Street.
[[Image:Greenwich Village map circa 1860 - Project Gutenberg eText 16907.jpg|thumb|Map of old Greenwich Village. A section of Bernard Ratzer's map of New York and its suburbs, made circa 1866 for [[Henry Moore (governor)|Henry Moore]], Royal Governor of New York, when Greenwich was more than two miles from the city.]]
== History ==
Greenwich Village is located on what was once marshland. In the 16th century Native Americans referred to it as Sapokanikan ("tobacco field"). The land was cleared and turned into pasture by Dutch settlers in the 1630s who named their settlement Noortwyck. The English conquered the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam in 1664 and Greenwich Village developed as a hamlet separate from the larger (and fast-growing) Manhattan. It officially became a village in 1712 and is first referred to as Grin'wich in 1713 Common Council records. In 1822, a [[yellow fever]] epidemic in New York encouraged residents to flee to the healthier air of Greenwich Village, and afterwards many stayed.
Greenwich Village is generally known as an important landmark on the map of [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] culture. The neighborhood is known for its colorful, artistic residents and the alternative culture they propagate. Due in part to the progressive attitudes of many of its residents, the Village has traditionally been a focal point of new movements and ideas, whether political, artistic, or cultural. This tradition as an enclave of avant-garde and alternative culture was established by the beginning of the 20th Century when small presses, art galleries, and experimental theater thrived.
During the golden age of bohemian Greenwich Village became famous for eccentrics such as [[Joe Gould]] (profiled at length by [[Joseph Mitchell]]) and [[Maxwell Bodenheim]], as well as greats on the order of [[Eugene O'Neill]]. Political rebellion also made its home here, whether serious ([[John Reed (journalist)|John Reed]]) or frivolous ([[Marcel Duchamp]] and friends set off balloons from atop Washington Square arch, proclaiming the founding of "The Independent Republic of Greenwich Village").
The Village again became important to the bohemian scene during the [[1950s]], when the [[Beat Generation]] focused their energies there. Fleeing from what they saw as oppressive social conformity, a loose collection of writers, poets, artists, and students (later known as the [[Beats]]) moved to Greenwich Village, in many ways creating the Eas |
ot;Poke poke poke, is that all you do?". Many of the humourous phrases came from movies and comics, like the famous "Help! Help! I'm being repressed!" from [[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]], or "Spider's sense... tingling" from [[Spider-Man]].
* In the ''Warcraft'' series, clicking on a "critter" repeatedly about 20 times will make it explode semi-violently.
* In Blizzard's MMORPG game (''World of Warcraft''), clicking on a friendly NPC repeatedly will invoke humorous sound bites, with the most famous being the gnome's "Blah blah blah blah blah."
* The ''Starcraft cheat'' "operation cwal" was formed after a group, who looked forward to the release of ''Starcraft'' and did many things to prove how much they loved ''Starcraft.'' Blizzard, noticing this group, named a cheat after them which stands for "can't wait any longer." Primarily the group wrote fan fiction about special operatives raiding the Blizzard headquarters in order to free the game.
* The games ''Starcraft'' and ''Warcraft'' are rumored to be based on the tabletop wargames ''Warhammer'' and ''Warhammer 40,000''; it is rumored that Warcraft was supposed to be a Warhammer PC game in development but a fall out between UK-based [[Games Workshop]], the creators of the two tabletop games, and Blizzard occured. One link to this rumor can be found in ''Warcraft III''; if a griffon rider is repeatedly clicked, he would eventually say "This Warhammer cost me 40K."
* The three founders of the company are UCLA graduates. This is likely the reason why typing in "UCLA" as a cheat code in Warcraft II causes the words "Go Bruins!" to be displayed on the screen.
==See also==
* [[BlizzCon]]
* [[Blizzard North]]
==External links==
*[http://www.blizzard.com Blizzard's website]
*[http://www.battle.net Battle.Net website]
*[http://www.worldofwarcraft.com World of Warcraft community website]
*[http://www.blizzard.com/press/acquisition.shtml Press release announcing their acquiring of Swingin' Ape]
*[http://www.cwal.net/ Operation CWAL]
===The Bnetd case===
*[http://www.battle.net/support/emulationfaq.shtml Blizzard's official statement on battle.net emulators]
*[http://www.visi.com/~tneu/blizzard.html A rebuttal to Blizzard's official emulation statement]
*[http://research.yale.edu/lawmeme/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=149 Yale LawMeme's analysis of the case]
*[http://www.eff.org/IP/Emulation/Blizzard_v_bnetd/ EFF page on case]
{{Blizzard}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beckers Milk</title>
<id>4877</id>
<revision>
<id>38964967</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T20:49:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.139.30.75</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Becker's Milk''' is a franchised chain of [[convenience store]]s in [[Ontario]], [[Canada]].
Becker's was acquired by Silcorp, parent company of rival [[Mac's Convenience Stores]] in the 1990s. Silcorp itself was acquired by [[Alimentation Couche-Tard]] in 1999. Since that merger, the Becker's name is being slowly retired, as Couche-Tard focuses on its core Mac's banner.
[[Category:Convenience stores]]
[[Category:Retail companies of Canada]]
[[fr:Beckers Milk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Robert Bellarmine</title>
<id>4878</id>
<revision>
<id>41738518</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:34:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ze miguel</username>
<id>457631</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added quote</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Robert Bellarmine, the Catholic Saint. For the Louisville, Kentucky college, see '''[[Bellarmine University]]'''. For the San Jose, California boys' high school, see '''[[Bellarmine College Preparatory]]'''.''
{{NPOV}}
'''Roberto Francesco Romolo Cardinal Bellarmino''' ('''Saint Robert Bellarmine'''), a [[Saint]] and [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], was born
at [[Montepulciano]] in [[Tuscany]], [[Italy]], [[October 4]], [[1542]]; died in [[Rome]] [[September 17]], [[1621]]. He is one of only 33 [[Doctor of the Church|Doctors of the Church]].
[[Image:Bellarmine 3.jpg|right|frame|St. Robert Cardinal Bellarmine]]
He was a nephew of [[Pope Marcellus II]], and came of a noble though impoverished family. His abilities showed themselves early; as a boy he knew [[Virgil]] by heart, and composed a number of poems in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Latin]]; one of his hymns, on [[Mary Magdalene]], is included in the Roman Catholic [[breviary]].
His father destined him for a political career, hoping that he might restore the fallen glories of the house; but his mother wished him to enter the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]], and her influence prevailed. He entered the Roman novitiate in [[1560]], remained in Rome three years, and then went to a Jesuit house at [[Mondovi]], in [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]]. Here he learned [[Greek language|Greek]], and taught it as fast as he learned it.
His systematic study of [[theology]] began at [[Padua]] in [[1567]] and [[1568]], where
his teachers were [[Thomism|Thomists]]. But in 1569 he was sent to finish it at Louvain, where he could obtain a fuller acquaintance with the prevailing heresies. Having been ordained there, he quickly obtained a reputation both as a professor and a preacher, in the latter capacity drawing to his pulpit both Catholics and Protestants, even from distant parts.
He was the first Jesuit to teach at the university, where the subject of his course was the ''Summa'' of [[Thomas Aquinas]]; he also made extensive studies in the Fathers and medieval theologians, which gave him the material for his book ''De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis'' (Rome, 1613), which was later revised and enlarged by [[Sirmond]], [[Labbeus]], and [[Oudin]].
==In Rome - The ''Disputationes''==
Bellarmine's residence in Leuven lasted seven
years. His health was undermined by study and
asceticism, and in [[1576]] he made a journey to Italy to restore it. Here he was detained by the commission given him by [[Pope Gregory XIII]] to lecture on polemical theology in the new Roman College.
He devoted eleven years to this work, out of whose activities grew his celebrated ''Disputationes de controversiis christianae fidei'', first published at [[Ingolstadt]], 4 vols., [[1581]]-[[1593]]. It occupies in the field of dogmatics the same place as the ''Annales'' of Baronius in the field of history. This monumental work was the earliest attempt to systematize the various controversies of the time, and made an immense impression throughout Europe, the blow it dealt to Protestantism being so acutely felt in Germany and England that special chairs were founded in order to provide replies to it. Nor has it even yet been superseded as the classical book on its subject-matter, though, as was to be expected, the progress of criticism has impaired the value of some of its historical arguments.
Both were the fruits of the great revival in [[religion]] and learning which the Catholic Church had witnessed since [[1540]]. Both bear the stamp of their period; the effort for literary elegance (so-called "maraviglia"), which was considered the principal thing at the beginning of the [[sixteenth century]], had given place to a desire to pile up as much material as possible, to embrace the whole field of human knowledge, and incorporate it into theology.
The first volume treats of the Word of [[God]], of [[Christ]], and of the [[pope]]; the second of the authority of [[Ecumenical council|councils]], and of the Church, whether militant, expectant, or triumphant; the third of the [[sacrament]]s; and the fourth of [[Divine grace|grace]], [[free will]], [[justification (theology)|justification]], and [[good works]].
The most important part of the work is contained in the five books on the Catholic pontiff. In these, after a speculative introduction on forms of [[government]] in general, holding [[monarchy]] to be relatively the best, he says that a monarchical government and the related [[temporal power]] are necessary for the Church, to preserve unity and order in it.
Such power he considers to have been established by the commission of Christ to [[St. Peter|Peter]]. He then proceeds to demonstrate that this power has been transmitted to the successors of Peter, admitting that a heretical pope may be freely judged and deposed by the Church since by the very fact of his [[heresy]] he would cease to be pope, or even a member of the Church; this is almost like an echo of the great councils of the [[fifteenth century]].
The third section discusses the [[antichrist]]; Bellarmine gives in full the theory set forth by the [[Church Fathers|Greek and Latin Fathers]], of a personal Antichrist to come just before the end of the world and to be accepted by the [[Jew]]s and enthroned in the [[Temple in Jerusalem|temple]] at [[Jerusalem]] &mdash; thus endeavoring to dispose of the Protestant exposition which saw Antichrist in the pope.
The fourth section sets forth the pope as the supreme judge in matters of faith and morals, though making the concessions (confirmed indeed by the [[First Vatican Council]]) that the pope may err in questions of fact which may be kno |
gold, and his confession is verified by the finding of the treasure buried in his tent, so Achan is taken into the valley of [[Achor]], where he is stoned and burned to death.
*'''The [[Second Battle of Ai]]''' (8:1-29) - 30,000 Israelites set an ambush of Ai overnight, and in the morning another Israelite force attack and then feign retreat, drawing the forces of Ai far away from the city. When Joshua raises his lance, the 30,000 men preparing the ambush strike, while Joshua start attacking again, thus surrounding Ai's forces. The entire city is burned and its inhabitants slaughtered, the king of Ai being hung on a tree, and his body being thrown into a pit.
*'''The [[Ritual of Ebal and Gerizim]]''' (8:30-35) - Joshua erects an altar on Mount Ebal and makes offerings upon it, and carving into it the law of Moses. The people are arranged into two sections, with one facing [[Ebal]] and the other facing [[Gerizim]]. They each read the blessings and curses specified in [[Deuteronomy]] as appropriate.
*'''The [[Hivite Treaty]]''' (9) - The [[Hivites]] fool the Israelites into thinking them foreigners, and gain a non-aggression treaty from the Israelites. Even after its detection, the fraud is not abrogated, though the Hivites are punished by being treated as the lowest social class (referred to via the Hebrew [[idiom]] "hewers of wood and drawers of water for the altar of Yhwh").
[[Image:Dore_joshua_sun.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Joshua commands the sun to stand still in the sky]]
*'''The [[five kings of the Amorites]]''' (10) - [[Adonizedek]], king of [[Jerusalem]], brings about an alliance of the "five kings of the Amorites" (himself, and the kings of [[Hebron]], [[Jarmuth]], [[Lachish]], and [[Eglon]]), and they besiege the Hivites in [[Gibeon]], whom they perceive as [[treason|traitors]]. The Hivites implore Joshua's help, and so he launches a surprise night attack, causing the Amorites to panic and flee as far as [[Beth-horon]]. Although a night attack, a poem is quoted from the [[Sefer haYashar (Biblical references)|Book of Jasher]], which states that the sun stood still at Gibeon, and the moon in the valley of [[Ajalon]], in order that Joshua could complete the battle. The five kings hide in a cave, but are discovered and trapped there until their army has been completely obliterated, at which point they are then hung.
*'''The [[battle against Hazor]]''' (11:1-20, 23). [[Jabin]], King of [[Hazor (archaeological site)|Hazor]], his army, and those of his [[vassel]]s, rendezvous at [[Merom]]. Joshua, however, executes a swift attack and is able to defeat them. Pursuing them to a great distance, he hamstrings their horses, burns their chariots, captures Hazor, slaughters its inhabitants, and burns it to the ground. Lesser royal residences are also captured and slaughtered, although the cities on the hill remain.
*'''The [[Anakim]]''' (11:21-22). The sons of [[Anak]] are driven away from the mountains and [[Hebron]] by Joshua, somewhat contradicting the accounts later in the [[Book of Judges]] which says that it was [[Caleb]] who did this.
;The section concerning the [[division of Canaan]] contains brief narrative portions and long lists of places, interweaving:
*The framing narrative, describing the process by which the land was divided (12:1-6, 13:1-14, 13:21b-22, 13:32-14:3, 15:63, 16:10-17:6, 17:12-18:10, 19:51, and 22:1-9). First a description is given of the domains east of the Jordan which were conquered and given to Reuben, Gad, and Machir (half of Manasseh). After God gives Joshua a gloss concerning the unconquered region, he reminds him about Reuben, Gad, and Machir (half of Manasseh), already having been allocated land by Moses, and about the Levites not being given territory, only cities. The territory is handed out by lot, Judah gaining the first lot, although they fail to drive out the Canaanites living in Jerusalem. Then the [[house of Joseph]] gets its territory, Ephraim failing to drive out the Canaanites of [[Gezer]], and it is pointed out that the daughters of [[Zelophehad]], part of the tribe of Manasseh, are also given territory of their own. The house of Joseph is given the mountain region, including the forest, and is told that they will be able to drive out the Canaanites living there despite the presence of [[iron]] chariots. The Israelites then assemble at [[Shiloh]], and Joshua sends out a survey team. When the survey is complete, the remaining land is divided amongst the lesser tribes. Finally, the tribes whose lands are east of the Jordan are allowed to go to their lands.
*The '''[[Joshua King List]]''' (12:7-24). A list of 31 cities which were conquered and had kings.
*A description of the '''[[boundaries of the Israelite Tribes]]'''. The description of the boundaries of Judah (15:1-12) and of Benjamin (18:11-20) is quite distinct from the list of their cities, unlike the descriptions of the borders of the other tribes. The boundaries of Ephraim (16:4-9) and (half of) Manasseh (17:7-11) are unusual in that they also include [[enclave]]s in some of the territory of the surrounding tribes, the boundaries of them as a whole are also given (16:1-3). Descriptions of the boundaries of the other tribes are also given - Reuben (13:15-16, 20, 23a), Gad (13:24-27), Machir (half of Manasseh) (13:29-31), Zebulon (10-14), Issachar (22a), Asher (24, and 26b-29a), and Naphtali (19:32-34) - except for those of Levi (who only have cities), Dan, and Simeon, for whom only cities are listed.
*The '''[[lists of cities of the Israelites by tribe]]'''. The lists for Judah (15:20-62) and Benjamin (18:21-28) are extremely extensive, leading many to suspect it was originally derived from an administrative document. The lists for the other territorial tribes - Reuben (13:16-21a and 13:23b), Gad (13:24-28), Simeon (19:1-9), Zebulon (19:10-16), Issachar (19:17-23), Asher (19:25-31), Naphtali (19:32-39), Dan (19:40-46) - are each partly mixed with the descriptions of their boundaries, though other parts stand unfettered. The list for the tribe of Levi (21:1-45) is broken into its three clans, and is somewhat more verbose. Conversely, there isn't really a list at all for either Ephraim or Manasseh.
*'''The [[Anakim]]''' (14:6-15, and 15:13-14). [[Caleb]] reminds Joshua of his loyalty and requests [[Hebron]] as his personal portion. The request is granted, and Caleb drives out the sons of Anak which are residing there.
*The '''story of [[Othniel]]''' (15:15-19). Caleb marches against [[Kiriath-sepher]], promising to give his daughter, [[Achsah]], in marriage to whoever conquers it. His nephew, Othniel, takes up the challenge and so gains her hand in marriage. Achsah asks for a greater dowry from her father, and so is given the ''upper and lower pools'' in addition to the land in the Negev she has already been allocated.
*The '''attack on [[Leshem]]''' (19:47-48). The territory of the tribe of Dan is too small for them so they attack Leshem, slaughtering its inhabitants, and refounding it under the name ''Dan''.
*'''Joshua's portion''' (19:49-50). Joshua himself is given [[Timnah-serah]], which he has requested, in the territory of Ephraim.
*The '''appointment of [[cities of refuge]]''' (20) also including a brief list naming the cities.
*The '''[[altar of Ed]]''' (22:10-34) When they return to their lands, Reuben, Gad, and Machir (half of Manasseh) build a ''conspicuously large'' altar. The other tribes take offense at this, since they believe it suggests that they are claiming their altar is the main one, so they prepare for war. However, they first send [[Phinehas]] and princes from each of the tribes, to adminish them. Reuben, Gad, and Machir, respond to this by stating that the altar is only a symbol of their loyalty, and not something to be used, so Phinehas and his party are relieved, and abandon their plans for war. The altar is named ''Ed'' (which translates as ''witness'') in memory.
;The section concerning Joshua's final words involves:
*'''Joshua's final speech''' (23-24). Joshua, now old, calls an assembly, and when it meets, he admonishes the people to remain loyal to the Torah of Moses. Joshua then gathers all the tribes together at Shechem, where he admonishes people to remain loyal to the Torah of Moses<!-- no, this isn't a mistake, it does occur twice -->, recounting certain prior events. Joshua then sets up a large stone beneath a tree, within the holy ground at Shechem, in witness to a promise of the people to be faithful. Joshua then dies, as shortly thereafter does Eleazar. The [[Bones of Joseph]] are also buried there by the tree and stone pillar, on a piece of ground that [[Jacob]] had purchased for 100 ''pieces of money''.
== The ethical problem of war and genocide ==
One difficulty in this book arises out of the command given by God to completely exterminate the Canaanites.
[[Liberal Christianity|Liberal theologians]] see this as an ethically unjustifiable order to commit [[genocide]], which is inconsistent with the overall view in the Hebrew and Christian scriptures of God as a loving, compassionate Creator. They see it as a theological polemic, with the majority of events invented during or after the [[Babylonian captivity]], to encourage faithfulness to the Jewish creed at a time when it was being threatened. For instance, Morton (pp. 324-325) says that Joshua "should be understood as a rite of ancient peoples (Israel among them) whereby within the context of their times, they attempted to please God (or the gods)".
[[evangelicalism|Conservative theologians]], who see the book as a historically accurate account written during or soon after the life of Joshua, give one of the following explanations to this problem:
# War was an essential part of the history of the Near East in the fifteenth century BCE. Although it is still sinful, some commentators argue that the book shows God using sinful activities in order to accomplish hi |
rialism in the Pacific were to become a major and costly facet of U.S. life in the 20th century, with massive conflicts with Japan, Korea, and Vietnam laying in the future. Whether such involvement was essential to U.S. national interests became a poignant and at times painful dialogue in the late [[1960s]].
==World War I: Changes in Imperialism==
World War I brought about the fall of several empires in Europe. This had repercussions around the world. The defeated[[Central Powers]] included [[Germany]] and the Turkish [[Ottoman Empire]]]. [[Germany]] lost all of its colonies in Asia. German New Guinea, a part of [[Papua New Guinea]], became administered by [[Australia]]. German possessions and concessions in [[China]], including [[Qingdao]], became the subject of a controversy during the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] when the [[Beiyang Army|Beiyang]] government in China agreed to cede these interests to [[Japan]], to the anger of many Chinese people. Although the Chinese diplomats refused to sign the agreement, these interests were ceded to [[Japan]] with the support of the [[United States]] and [[Britain]].
[[Turkey]] gave up her [[Arab]] provinces; [[Syria]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and [[Mesopotamia]] (now [[Iraq]]) came under French and British control as [[League of Nations Mandates]]. The discovery of [[petroleum]] first in [[Iran]] and then in the Arab lands in the interbellum provided a new focus for activity on the part of Britain, France, and the [[United States]].
==Japan==
{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
In [[1641]], all Westerners were thrown out of Japan. For the next two centuries, Japan was free from Western influence, except for at the port of [[Nagasaki]], which Japan allowed Dutch merchant vessels to enter on a limited basis.
Japan's freedom from Western penetration ended on [[July 8]], [[1853]], when [[Commodore Perry]] of the [[U.S. Navy]] sailed a squadron of black-hulled war ships into Edo (modern Tokyo) harbor. The Japanese told Perry to sail to Nagasaki but he refused. Perry sought to present a letter from U.S. President [[Millard Fillmore]] to the emperor which demanded concessions from Japan. Japanese authories responded by stating that they could not present the letter directly to the emperor, but scheduled a meeting on [[July 14]] with a representative of the emperor. On July 14, the squadron sailed towards the shore, giving a demonstration of their cannon's firepower thirteen times. Perry landed with a large detachment of Marines and presented the emperor's representative with Fillmore's letter. Perry said he would return, and did so, this time with even more war ships. The U.S. show of force led to Japan's concession to the [[Convention of Kanagawa]] on [[March 31]], [[1854]]. These events made Japanese authorities aware of the fact that the country had fallen behind the Western powers technologically and needed to industrialize in order to keep their autonomy. This realization ultimately led to the [[Meiji Restoration]].
The Meiji Restoration of 1868 led to administrative modernization and subsequent rapid economic development. Japan had little natural resources of her own and needed both overseas markets and sources of raw materials, fuelling a drive for imperial conquest which began with the defeat of China in 1895.
Taiwan, ceded by the Qing Empire, became the first Japanese colony. In 1899 Japan won agreement from the [[great powers]]' to abandon extra-territoriality, and an alliance with Britain established it in 1902 as an international power. Its spectacular defeat of Russia in 1905 gave it the southern portion of the island of [[Sakhalin]], the former Russian lease of the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] with Port Arthur ([[Lüshunkou]]), and extensive rights in [[Manchuria]] (see the [[Russo-Japanese War]]). In 1910, Korea was annexed to the Japanese empire.
Japan was now one of the most powerful forces in the [[Far East]], and in 1914 it entered [[World War I]] on the side of Britain, seizing German-occupied [[Jiaozhou Bay|Kiaochow]] and subsequently demanding Chinese acceptance of Japanese political influence and territorial acquisitions ([[Twenty-One Demands]], 1915). [[May Fourth Movement|Mass protests in Peking]] in 1919 coupled with Allied (and particularly U.S.) opinion led to Japan's abandonment of most of the demands and Jiaozhou's return (1922) to China.
Japan's rebuff was perceived in Tokyo as only temporary, and in 1931 Japanese army units based in Manchuria seized control of the region; full-scale war with China followed in 1937, drawing Japan toward an overambitious bid for Asian hegemony ([[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]), which ultimately led to defeat and the loss of all its overseas territories after World War II (see [[Japanese expansionism]] and [[Japanese nationalism]]).
==Postwar era==
{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
===Decolonization and the rise of nationalism in Asia===
In the aftermath of the Second World War, European colonies, controlling more than one billion people throughout the world, still ruled most of the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. However, the image of European preeminence was shattered by the wartime Japanese occupations of large portions of British, French, and Dutch territories in the Pacific. The destabilization of European rule led to the rapid growth of nationalist movements in Asia—especially in [[Indonesia]], [[Malaya]], [[Burma]], and French Indochina.
The war, however, only accelerated forces already in existence undermining Western imperialism in Asia. Throughout the colonial world, the processes of urbanization and capitalist investment created professional merchant classes that emerged as new Westernized elites. While imbued with Western political and economic ideas, these classes increasingly grew to resent their unequal status under European rule.
====The British in South Asia and the Middle East====
{{sect-stub}}
In India, the westward movement of Japanese forces toward Bengal had led to major concessions on the part of British authorities to Indian nationalist leaders. In [[1947]], Britain, devastated by war and embroiled in economic crisis at home, granted the subcontinent its independence as two nations: [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. The following year independence was granted to Burma and [[Ceylon]].
In the Middle East, Britain granted independence to [[Jordan]] in [[1946]] and two years later ended its mandate of Palestine, an action that led to the creation of the state of [[Israel]] and decades of bitter wars between this new nation and the Arab world continuing to this day. (''see'' [[Arab-Israeli conflict]])
====The Dutch East Indies ====
Following the end of the war, nationalists in [[Indonesia]] demanded complete independence from the Netherlands. A brutal conflict ensued, and finally, in 1949, through [[United Nations]] mediation, the Dutch East Indies achieved independence, becoming the new nation of Indonesia. Dutch imperialism molded this new multi-ethnic state comprising roughly 3,000 islands of the Indonesian archipelago with a population at the time of over 100 million.
The end of Dutch rule opened up latent tensions between the roughly 300 distinct ethnic groups of the islands, with the major ethnic fault line being between the [[Javanese]] and the non-Javanese.
====The United States in the Pacific====
In the Philippines, the U.S. remained committed to its previous pledges to grant the grant the islands their independence, but on its own terms. The Philippines remained under pressure to adopt a political and economic system derived from their old imperial masters.
This aim was greatly complicated by the rise of new political forces. During the war, the ''[[Hukbalahap]]'' (People's Army), which had strong ties to the [[Communist Party of the Philippines]] (PKP), fought against the Japanese occupation of the Philippines and won strong popularity among many sectors of the Filipino working class and peasantry. In [[1946]], the PKP participated in elections as part of the Democratic Alliance. But with the onset of the [[Cold War]], its growing political strength drew a reaction from the ruling government and the United States, resulting in the repression of the PKP and its associated organizations. In [[1948]], the PKP began organizing an armed struggle against the government and continued U.S. military presence. In [[1950]], the PKP created the People's Liberation Army (''Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan''), which mobilized thousands of troops throughout the islands. The insurgency lasted until [[1956]], when the PKP gave up armed struggle.
In [[1968]], the PKP underwent a split, and in 1969 the [[Maoist]] faction of the PKP created the [[New People's Army]]. Maoist rebels re-launched an armed struggle against the government and the U.S. military presence in the Philippines, which continues to this day.
====France in Indochina====
=====Postwar resistance to French rule=====
France remained determined to retain its control of Indochina. However, in [[Hanoi]], in 1945, a broad front of nationalists and socialists led by [[Ho Chi Minh]] established an independent Republic of Vietnam, commonly referred to as the [[Vietminh]] regime by Western outsiders. France, seeking to regain control of Vietnam, countered with a vague offer of self-government under French rule. France's offers were unacceptable to Vietnamese nationalists; and in December [[1946]] war broke out between France and the Vietminh. Meanwhile, the French managed to set up a puppet regime in [[Saigon]] in 1950. The U.S. then recognized the regime in Saigon, and provided the French military effort massive military aid.
The French were also forced to deal with resistance in Cambodia. In 1945, Cambodia declared gained its independence as the [[Kingdom of Kampuchea]], with [[Sihanouk]] installed as monarch and [[Son Ngoc Thanh]] acting as prime minister. The French wanted to |
orce Irish republicanism|physical force Irish republican]] movements. In the version from their 1988 concert film ''[[Rattle and Hum]]'', Bono led the audience in a chant of "No more!" and used the song as a platform to denounce some [[Irish-Americans]] that he believed knew little about the real complexities of the Northern Ireland conflict yet funded the paramilitary republican movement and "the glory of dying for the revolution."
The [[John Lennon]] album ''[[Sometime In New York City]]'' features a [http://www.lyricsfreak.com/l/lennon-john/82536.html song] titled "Sunday Bloody Sunday", inspired by the incident, as well as the [http://celtic-lyrics.com/lyrics/314 song] [[The Luck Of The Irish]], which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general. (Lennon was of Irish descent.)
[[Paul McCartney]] (also of Irish descent) issued a [http://celtic-lyrics.com/lyrics/582 single] shortly after Bloody Sunday titled "Give Ireland Back To The Irish", expressing his views on the matter.
The events of the day have also been dramatized in the two 2002 [[film]]s, ''[[Bloody Sunday (movie)|Bloody Sunday]]'' (starring [[James Nesbitt]]) and ''Sunday'' by [[Jimmy McGovern]]. Their portrayal of events is much closer to the opinion of the protestors and media witnesses than the official explanation of events offered by the [[British Army]].
==External links==
*[http://www.bloody-sunday-inquiry.org/ The Saville Inquiry]<br />
*[http://www.bloodysundaytrust.org The Bloody Sunday Trust]<br />
*[http://www.madden-finucane.com/case_index/bloody_sunday/index.htm Madden & Finucane Bloody Sunday Index]<br />
*[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/bsunday/bs.htm CAIN Web Service]<br />
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/ Guardian Coverage]<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/in_depth/northern_ireland/2000/bloody_sunday_inquiry/ BBC Coverage]
*[http://www.imdb.com/Title?0280491 "Bloody Sunday" film from 2002]
*[http://www.sundayfilm.net/Default.htm "Sunday" film 2002]
===The events of the day===
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/flash/0,6189,184944,00.html Guardian Interactive Guide]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/northern_ireland/2000/bloody_sunday/map/default.stm BBC Interactive Guide]
===Contemporary newspaper coverage===
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,184928,00.html "13 killed as paratroops break riot"] from The Guardian, Monday [[January 31]] [[1972]]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,184927,00.html "Bogsiders insist that soldiers shot first"] from The Guardian, Tuesday [[February 1]] [[1972]]
===Importance and impact===
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,491660,00.html "Shootings 'triggered decades of violence'"]
==Further reading==
*{{cite book | author=[[Tony Geraghty]] | title=The Irish War | publisher= Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0801871174}}
*{{fnb|1}}{{cite book | author=[[Don Mullan]] | title=Eyewitness Bloody Sunday | publisher=Wolfhound: Printing Press | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-86327-586-9}}
*{{cite book | author=[[Dr Raymond McClean]]| title=The Road To Bloody Sunday (revised edition)| publisher=Guildhall: Printing Press | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-946451-37-0}} [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/bsunday/mcclean.htm (extracts available online)]
*{{cite book | author=[[Eamonn McCann]] | title=Bloody Sunday In Derry | publisher=Brandon : Printing Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0863221394}}
{{Link FA|he}}
[[Category:1972]]
[[Category:Derry]]
[[Category:Government reports]]
[[Category:History of Northern Ireland]]
[[Category:Sunday]]
[[de:Blutsonntag (Nordirland 1972)]]
[[es:Domingo Sangriento (1972)]]
[[fr:Bloody Sunday (1972)]]
[[it:Bloody Sunday (1972)]]
[[he:יום ראשון הארור]]
[[nl:Bloederige Zondag (1972)]]
[[pl:Krwawa niedziela (Irlandia Północna 1972)]]
[[sv:Bloody Sunday]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bruno of Querfurt</title>
<id>5031</id>
<revision>
<id>40330172</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T21:33:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.158.215.159</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ be:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Saint Bruno of Querfurt''' (c. [[970]]-[[1009]]), also known as '''Brun''' and '''Boniface''' is sometimes called the Apostle of the Prussians.
===Noble Born===
Bruno was from a noble family of [[Querfurt]], [[Saxony]]. He is said to have been a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]]. At the age of six he was sent to be educated in Magdeburg, seat of [[Adalbert of Magdeburg|Saint Adalbert]]. While still a youth he was made a canon of [[Magdeburg]] cathedral.
===Age of 15===
The fifteen-year-old Otto III made Bruno a part of his royal court. While in Rome for Otto's imperial coronation, Bruno met [[Adalbert of Prague]], who was martyred a year later. Bruno spent much time at the monastery where Adalbert had become a monk and where abbot [[John Canaparius]] wrote a life of Saint Adalbert . Bruno entered a monastery near [[Ravenna]], founded by Otto, and underwent severe [[ascetic]] training under the guidance of [[Saint Romuald|St. Romuald]].
===Papal Appointment===
The pope appointed Bruno to mission among the pagan peoples of eastern Europe. Because of conflict between the Empire and [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus I]], duke of Poland, Bruno set out from [[Mainz]] for [[Hungary]]. There he went to the places that Saint Adalbert of Prague had attended.
===Resistance of Greek Monks in Hungary===
Bruno tried to convert the leader of "Black Hungary" named Achtum or Axum, but he encountered strong opposition, including that of the Greek monks there.
===Journey to the Black Sea===
After this failure, Bruno went to [[Kiev]], where Grand Duke [[Vladimir I, Prince of Kiev|Vladimir I]] authorised him to make converts among the [[Pechenegs]] north of the [[Black Sea]] between the [[Danube]] and the [[Don River, Russia|Don]] rivers. The Pechenegs were considered the fiercest of all the pagan peoples, but Bruno spent five months there and baptized many. He helped to bring about a peace treaty between them and the Kiev ruler.
===Journey to Poland===
After consecrating a bishop of the area he went to Poland.
In Poland he consecrated a bishop from Sweden. While there he found out that his friend Benedict and four companions had been killed by robbers in 1003.
===Wrote the History of the Five Martyred Brothers===
Bruno took eyewitness accounts and wrote down a touching history of the so-called Five Martyred Brothers.
===Exhortation for Clemency towards Boleslaus I===
In 1008 Bruno wrote a letter to [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II.]]. Exhorting him to show clemency towards [[Boleslaus I]].
===Attempted to Found a Mission in Prussia===
At the end of 1008 Bruno and eighteen companions set out to found a mission among the [[Prussians]], but met with little success. They then traveled to the north-east, preaching everywhere they went.
===Journey to Lithuania===
In 1009 at the [[Baltic Sea]] coast near [[Braunsberg]] they were martyred. Annals of the monastery of Quedlinburg wrote about it. It was the first time [[Lithuania]] was mentioned. Duke Boleslaus bought the bodies and had them brought to Poland. They were laid probably in [[Przemy&#347;l]] south-east of Poland where historians place Bruno's diocese.
Soon after his death Bruno and his companions were revered as martyrs and Saint Bruno was [[canonized]].
===Historical Basis for his Existence===
Archaeological work conducted in 1961 found XI century chapel in the underground of the current latin basilica. There were 19 bodies found there including one buried in special niche in the wall of the chapel.
The city of [[Braunsberg]] (earlier ''Brunsberg'') in east [[Prussia (province)| Prussia]] was named for Saint Bruno.
Saint Bruno of Querfuhrt is unlikely to be the same Saint Bruno that witnessed the miracle of the Doctor of Paris in 1038 AD - now known as the Legend of [[Cenodoxus]] - and which inspired him to found the Brotherhood of Carthusia outside of Paris.
[[Category:German saints]]
[[Category:Missionaries]]
[[be:Бруна Квэрфурцкі]]
[[de:Bruno von Querfurt]]
[[pl:Bruno z Kwerfurtu]]
[[ru:Бруно Кверфуртский]]
[[sv:Bonifatius (Preussen)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bo Diddley</title>
<id>5033</id>
<revision>
<id>41738307</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:31:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.125.157.239</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Link to spanish Wikipedia</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BoDiddley.jpg|right|thumb|225px|Bo Diddley's emphasis on [[rhythm]] largely influenced [[popular music]], especially that of [[rock and roll]] in the [[1960s]].]]
'''Bo Diddley''' (born [[December 30]], [[1928]]) "'''The Originator'''", is an influential [[United States|American]] [[rock and roll]] singer, songwriter, and guitarist. He is often cited as a key figure in the transition of [[blues]] into [[rock and roll]], by introducing more insistent, driving [[rhythm]]s and a harder-edged guitar sound.
He was born '''Otha Ellas Bates''' in [[McComb, Mississippi]] and later took the name '''Ellas McDaniel''', after his adoptive mother, Gussie McDaniel. He adopted the [[stage name]] Bo Diddley, which is probably a southern black slang phrase meaning "nothing at all", as in "he ain't bo diddley". Another source says it was his nickname as a [[Golden Gloves]] [[boxing|boxer]]. The nickname is also linked to the [[diddley bow]], a one stringed instrument used in the south by mainly black musicians in the fields.
He was given a guitar by his sister as a youth, but also took [[violin]] lessons. He was inspired to become a musician by seeing [[John Lee |
ndle 30
simultaneous calls ( 64Kb/s each). DASS2 is still offered by BT and other UK
carriers. Q931 is the name of the CCITT document that describes the agreed
signalling format for International ISDN. The CCITT used to be International
Telegraph and telephone
Consultative Committee. This is the organisation that set out the
internationally agreed standards for telecommunications. This organisation has
subsequently evolved into the ITU. In the United Kingdom the Q931 based
protocol is ETS300 ( also known ass Euro ISDN ). This is a very close
implementation of the original CCITT specification. This is a 2Mb/s service as
with DASS2 but the feature capability is far greater and has negated the
problems associated with DASS2 including echo problems and circuit spikes. In
the UK both DASS 2 and Euro ISDN ( ETS300 ) lines are available to customers
with EuroISDN as the prefered signaling type. Customers will normally choose
the desired signalling system, as this will be dictated by their CPE equipment,
usually a PABX. (CPE- Customer Premises equipment)
Most modern PABXs can handle many different types of signalling system, however
the trend seems to be away from the DASS2 which is no longer being developed by
BT and have been known to deny problems with their DASS2 circuits, and more
towards the internationally recognised Q931 standard. The Q931 standard is an
international standard utilised by many countries telephony service providers.
The CCITT specify the standards for the Layer 1,2 and layer 3 signalling
messages. The Layer 3 messages are the messages that actually control the call
setup, cleardown, and routing.
The Layer 3 messages or Call Control messages are the minimum messages that must
be understood by the interfacing equipment. Individual service providers may
publish their own documentation that details further messages that will be
transported in addition to Q931 messages. There are a number of additional
European documents that cover supplementary services. These cover features that
may be instigated by exchanges via the
ISDN and require a higher degree of Layer 3 implementation.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Devanāgarī</title>
<id>8968</id>
<revision>
<id>42110445</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:10:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magicalsaumy</username>
<id>504515</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{IndicText}}
'''Devanāgarī''' (देवनागरी &mdash;, pronounced {{IPA|[d̪e:vən̪ɑɡəɾi]}}, in English [[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|[&#716;de&#618;v&#601;&#712;n&#593;:ɡ&#601;ɹi:]}} ([[ISCII]] – IS13194:1991) [http://tdil.mit.gov.in/isciiapril03.pdf]) is an [[abugida]] [[writing system]] used to [[writing|write]], either along with other scripts, or exclusively, several [[India]]n languages, including [[Sanskrit]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Bihari language|Bihari]], [[Bhili language|Bhili]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]] from [[Nepal]]. It is written and read from left to right.
The transliteration used in this article follows the popular [[National Library at Calcutta romanization]]. The [[ITRANS]] [http://www.aczoom.com/itrans/#itransencoding] is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanagari into [[ASCII]] that is widely used on [[Usenet]]. In ITRANS, the word Devanagari is written as "devanaagarii".
==Origins==
{{alphabet}}
Devanagari emerged around [[1200]] AD out of the [[Siddham]] script, gradually replacing the earlier, closely related [[Sharada script]] (which remained in parallel use in [[Kashmir]]). Both are immediate descendants of the [[Gupta script]], ultimately deriving from the [[Brahmi|Brāhmī]] script attested from the [[3rd century BC]]; Nagari appeared in approx. the [[8th century]] as an eastern variant of the [[Gupta script]], contemporary to [[Sharada]], its western variant. The descendants of Brahmi form the [[Brahmic family]], including the alphabets employed for many other South and South-East Asian languages.
===Etymology===
''Nāgarī'' is in [[Sanskrit]] the feminine of ''nāgara'' "urban(e)", an adjectival [[vrddhi]] derivative from ''nagara'' "city"; the feminine form is used because of its original application to qualify the feminine noun ''lipi'' "script" ("urban(e) script", i.e. the script of the cultured). There were several varieties in use, one of which was distinguished by affixing ''[[deva]]'' "deity" to form a [[tatpurusha]] compound meaning the "urban(e) [script] of the deities (= gods)", i.e. "divine urban(e) [script]". However, the widespread use of "Devanagari" is a relatively recent phenomenon; well into the twentieth century, and even today, simply "Nagari" was (and is) also in use for this same script. The rapid spread of the usage of "Devanagari" seems also to be connected with the almost exclusive use of this script in colonial times (particularly by European scholars) to publish works in Sanskrit (held by many to be the language of the gods), even though traditionally nearly all indigenous scripts have actually been employed for this language. This has led to the establishment of such a close connection between the script and Sanskrit that it is erroneously widely regarded as "the Sanskrit script" today.
Interpreted by [[popular etymology]] to refer to a "City of the Gods", the name in certain [[Yoga|Yogic]] traditions <!-- which ones?--> was taken to refer to the body of the individual. The philosophy behind this is that when one [[meditation|meditates]] on the specific [[sound]]s of the Devanagari alphabet, the written forms appear spontaneously in the mind.
==Principles==
Devanagari has 12 ''svara'' (pure sounds, or [[vowel]]s) and 34 ''vyanjana'' (ornamented sounds, [[consonant]]s). An ''[[akshara]]'' is formed by the combination of zero or one ''vyanjana'' and one or more ''svar'', and represents a phonetic unit of the ''[[shabda]]'' (utterance). The ''akshara'' is written by applying standard diacritical modifiers to the ''vyanjana'' corresponding to the ''svara''. An ''akshara'' is usually more basic and predictable than the [[syllable]] in English. For example, the English 'cat' (considered to have just one syllable) is written as two ''aksharas'', the 'k-a' and the 'ta'.
The ''svara'' and ''vyanjana'' are ordered and grouped logically for studying or reciting. Thus the pure sounds, 'a', 'i', 'u' and their lengthened versions ('aa', 'ii', 'uu') are followed by the combined ('ae', 'ai', 'o', 'ou'), nasal ('.m') and aspirated ('.h') forms. The ''vyanjana'' themselves are grouped into 6 groups (rows) of 5 (columns). The first five rows progress as velar, palatal, retroflex, dental and labial, corresponding to utilizing or touching the tongue to progressively outer parts of the mouth when making the sound. Additional ''vyanjana'' are technically sonorants, sibilants or widely used conjunct forms. For each row or group, the columns logically progress to softer sounds, paired with aspirated forms, ending in the nasal form for that group.
Devanagari is written from left to right. In Sanskrit, words were written together without spaces, so that the top bar is unbroken, although there were some exceptions to this rule. The break of the top line primarily marks [[breath group]]s. In modern languages, word breaks are used. Languages written with Devanagari require no case distinction.
The Devanagari writing system can be called an [[abugida]], as each consonant has an inherent vowel (a), that can be changed with the different vowel signs. Most consonants can be joined to one or two other consonants so that the inherent vowel is suppressed. The resulting conjunct form is called a [[Ligature (typography)|ligature]]. Many ligatures appear simply as two individual consonants joined together, and so are a form of ligature. Some ligatures are more elaborately formed and not as easily recognized as containing the individual consonants.
When reading Sanskrit written in Devanagari, the pronunciation is completely unambiguous. Similarly, any word in Sanskrit is considered to be written only in one manner (discounting modern typesetting variations in depicting conjunct forms). However, for modern languages, certain conventions have been made (e.g. truncating the vowel form of the last consonant while speaking, even as it continues to be written in full form). There are also some modern conventions for writing English words in Devanagari.
Certain Sanskrit texts and ''mantras'' are typically written with additional diacritical marks above and below the ''akshara'' to denote pitch and tempo, to ensure completely accurate reproduction of the sound.
==Symbols of Devanagari==
{{IPA notice}}
All the vowels in Devanagari are attached to the top or bottom of the consonant or to an &lt;aa&gt; vowel sign attached to the right of the consonant, with the exception of the &lt;i&gt; vowel sign, which is attached on the left. In the Devanagari vowel table below, the "Letter" column contains the symbol used when a vowel occurs without a consonant, the "Vowel sign with &lt;p&gt;" column contains the symbol used when a vowel is attached to a consonant, shown with the &lt;p&gt; letter as an example, the "Unicode name" column contains the name given in the [[Unicode]] specification for the vowel, and the "IPA" column contains the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] character(s) corresponding to the Hindi pronunciation of the Devanagari character.
===Vowels===
The vowels of the devanagari script with their word-initial devanagari symbol, diacritical mark with the consonant &#2 |
thing they all have in common is a state mandate to teach fourth grade students about the history of California, including the role of the early missions; most schools implement this by requiring students complete a [[California 4th Grade Mission Project|multiple medium project]].
== Sports ==
California's large population has helped to make it home to many professional sports teams, including fifteen [[major professional sports league]] franchises, far more than any other state. However, since the re-location of the [[Los Angeles Raiders]] and [[Los Angeles Rams]] in the 1990s, it could be argued that no one city is able to lay claim to a "[[U.S. cities with teams from four major sports|Grand Slam]]" (i.e. having a team in each of the four leagues) unless Oakland, San Francisco and San Jose are counted as being in a single metropolitan area. California hosted the [[1960 Winter Olympics]] at [[Squaw Valley]], the [[1932 Summer Olympics|1932]] and [[1984 Summer Olympics]] in [[Los Angeles]], as well as the [[1994]] [[Football World Cup 1994|FIFA World Cup]] and several [[Superbowl]]s. Each year, the [[California State Games]] take place here.
===Major league teams===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
'''[[Major League Baseball]]'''
*[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]]
*[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
*[[Oakland Athletics]]
*[[San Diego Padres]]
*[[San Francisco Giants]]
'''[[National Basketball Association]]'''
*[[Golden State Warriors]]
*[[Los Angeles Clippers]]
*[[Los Angeles Lakers]]
*[[Sacramento Kings]]
'''[[National Football League]]'''
*[[Oakland Raiders]]
*[[San Diego Chargers]]
*[[San Francisco 49ers]]
{{col-3}}
'''[[National Hockey League]]'''
*[[Anaheim Mighty Ducks]]
*[[Los Angeles Kings]]
*[[San Jose Sharks]]
===Other teams===
'''[[Arena Football League]]'''
*[[San Jose Sabercats]]
*[[Los Angeles Avengers]]
'''[[Major League Soccer]]'''
*[[Club Deportivo Chivas USA]]
*[[Los Angeles Galaxy]]
'''[[Women's National Basketball Association]]'''
*[[Los Angeles Sparks]]
*[[Sacramento Monarchs]]
{{col-end}}
== Transportation ==
[[Image:Glendalefreeway.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Caltrans builds tall "stack" [[Interchange (road)|interchange]]s whose soaring ramps offer stunning views.]]California's vast terrain is connected by an extensive system of [[freeway]]s, [[expressway]]s, and [[highway]]s, all maintained by [[Caltrans]] and patrolled by the [[California Highway Patrol]], except for the numbered expressways in [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]] which were built and maintained by the county itself. The main north-south arteries are [[U.S. Highway 101]], which runs close to the coast from the state's border with [[Oregon]] to downtown [[Los Angeles]], and [[Interstate 5]], which runs inland from the Oregon to [[Mexico]] borders, bisecting the entire state. California is known for its [[car culture]], and its residents typically take to the roads for their commutes, errands, and vacations, giving California's cities a reputation for severe [[traffic congestion]]. Almost all California highways are non-toll roads. Notable exceptions are any major bridges.
As for air travel, [[Los Angeles International Airport]] and [[San Francisco International Airport]] are major hubs for trans-Pacific and transcontinental traffic. There are about a dozen important commercial [[airport]]s and many more [[general aviation]] airports throughout the state's 58 counties.
California also has several important [[seaport]]s. The giant seaport complex formed by the [[Port of Los Angeles]] and the [[Long Beach, California#Shipping and transportation|Port of Long Beach]] in Southern California is the largest in the country and responsible for handling about a fourth of all container cargo traffic in the United States. The [[Port of Oakland]] handles most of the ocean containers passing through Northern California.
[[Image:La city hwys.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Stack [[Interchange (road)|interchange]] in [[Los Angeles]]]]
Intercity rail travel is provided by [[Amtrak]]. Los Angeles and San Francisco both have [[subway]] networks, in addition to [[light rail]]. San Jose and Sacramento have only light rail, though portions of San Jose light rail serve as [[EL Trains]]. [[Metrolink]] [[commuter rail]] serves much of Southern California, and [[Caltrain]] commuter rail connects San Jose and [[Gilroy, California|Gilroy]] (commute hour only) to San Francisco. [[Altamont Commuter Express]] (ACE) connects [[Tracy, California|Tracy]], [[Livermore, California|Livermore]] and other edge cities with San Jose. [[BART]], an express rail service, connects San Francisco and Oakland to Millbrae in the southwest, Fremont in the southeast, Dublin and Pleasanton in the east, Richmond in the north, and Pittsburg in the northeast. Despite its name, it does not encompass the entire Bay Area; the [[North Bay (California)|North Bay]] and [[Santa Clara Valley|South Bay]] regions are not currently included in the system. [[San Diego]] has [[San Diego Trolley|Trolley]] light rail and [[San Diego Coaster|Coaster]] commuter rail services. Nearly all counties operate [[bus]] lines, and many cities operate their own bus and light rail lines as well.
Both [[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound]] and Amtrak provide intercity bus service.
The rapidly growing population of the state is straining all of its transportation networks. A regularly recurring issue in California politics is whether the state should continue to aggressively expand its freeway network or concentrate on improving mass transit networks in urban areas.
The California High Speed Rail Authority was created some years back by the state to implement an extensive 700 mile (1127&nbsp;km) rail system. Construction is pending approval of the voters during next November's General Election where a 9 billion dollar state bond would have to be approved.
==References==
# {{note|origin_of_nickname}} {{note_label|origin_of_nickname|1|a}} The California Secretary of State's statement on the [http://www.ss.ca.gov/executive/ca_roster/1999/1999_miscellany.pdf origin of 'The Golden State' as California's nickname].
# {{note|native_grasses}} [[United States Department of Agriculture]] [http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may04/grass0504.htm article on California's perennial native grasses]
# {{note|econ}} {{cite web
| title = Cal Facts 2004
| work = California Legislative Analyst's Office
| url = http://www.lao.ca.gov/2004/cal_facts/2004_calfacts_econ.htm
| accessdate = 2005-08-02
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Chartkoff | first = Joseph L.
| coauthors = Chartkoff, Kerry Kona
| date = 1984
| title = The archaeology of California
| location = Stanford
| publisher = Stanford University Press
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Fagan | first = Brian
| date = 2003
| title = Before California: An archaeologist looks at our earliest inhabitants
| location = Lanham, MD
| publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Moratto | first = Michael J.
| coauthors = Fredrickson, David A.
| date = 1984
| title = California archaeology
| location = Orlando
| publisher = Academic Press
}}
==See also==
{{sisterlinks|California}}
*[[List of California-related topics]]
*[[List of California state highways]]
*[[César Chávez]] - César Chávez Day is a holiday, [[March 31]].
*[[California English]]
*[[Cuisine of California]]
*[[List of California counties]]
*[[List of California politicians]]
*[[List of California state prisons]]
*[[List of cities in California]]
*[[List of cities in California (by population)]]
*[[List of professional sports teams in California]]
*[[Lists of school districts in California by county]]
*[[Music of California]]
*[[Origin of the name California]]
*[[Protected areas of California]]
*[[USS California|USS ''California'']]
*[[Northern California]]
==External links==
*[http://www.ca.gov/ State of California Official Website]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.ecanned.com/indsum/level1/CA/index.html California Employment] - State and County Data
*[http://countingcalifornia.cdlib.org/ Counting California]
*[http://www.dmv.org/ca-california/department-motor-vehicles.php California DMV]
{{California}}
{{United_States}}
[[Category:California|*]]
[[Category:States of the American West]]
[[Category:1850 establishments]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[ar:كاليفورنيا]]
[[bg:Калифорния]]
[[ca:Califòrnia]]
[[cs:Kalifornie]]
[[cy:California]]
[[da:Californien]]
[[de:Kalifornien]]
[[eo:Kalifornio]]
[[es:California]]
[[et:California]]
[[fa:کالیفرنیا]]
[[fi:Kalifornia]]
[[fr:Californie]]
[[ga:California]]
[[gd:California]]
[[gl:California]]
[[haw:Kaleponi]]
[[he:קליפורניה]]
[[hr:Kalifornija]]
[[hu:Kalifornia]]
[[id:California]]
[[ilo:California]]
[[it:California]]
[[ja:カリフォルニア州]]
[[ka:კალიფორნია]]
[[ko:캘리포니아 주]]
[[la:California]]
[[lb:Kalifornien]]
[[lt:Kalifornija]]
[[lv:Kalifornija]]
[[mk:Калифорнија]]
[[nl:Californië]]
[[nn:California]]
[[no:California]]
[[os:Калифорни]]
[[pl:Kalifornia]]
[[pt:Califórnia]]
[[ro:California]]
[[ru:Калифорния]]
[[sco:California]]
[[simple:California]]
[[sk:Kalifornia]]
[[sl:Kalifornija]]
[[sq:Kalifornia]]
[[sr:Калифорнија]]
[[sv:Kalifornien]]
[[th:มลรัฐแคลิฟอร์เนีย]]
[[tl:California]]
[[tr:Kaliforniya]]
[[uk:Каліфорнія]]
[[vi:California]]
[[zh:加利福尼亚州]]
[[zh-min-nan:California]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Columbia River</title>
<id>5408</id>
<revision>
<id>41841704</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:21:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>143.166.226.19</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* In the movies */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Columbia River Gorge.jpg|thumb|right|350px|[[Columbia River Gorge]], Washington or North side]]
The '''Columbia River''' (French: ''fleuve Columbia'') is a [[river]] situated in [[British Columbia]] and the [[Pacific Northwest]] of the |
ed back to the Chevette and Viva by 1977 as Holden's range expanded to include mid-sized cars (the Torana and Sunbird). Isuzu (selling the Gemini) and Vauxhall (with the last Chevette) disappeared on the launch of the Holden Gemini TE series in 1981, while Bedford met its demise with the assembly of the last CF vans in 1984.
As 1983 began, Holden began fielding something close to a full range: the Gemini as the entry-level car, the Camira as the mid-sized one, and the Commodore in the large sector.
However, the Australian Holden Camira (JB series) fared so badly in New Zealand that local GM bosses decided to replace it with a completely different model based on the [[Isuzu Aska]] (or JJ) from [[Japan]]. This was known as the JJ Camira, and proved to be much better than its Australian-sourced predecessor. The Isuzu-based model survived until Holden introduced the ultimate Camira, the JE, which made it across the [[Tasman Sea]] in 1987.
As the 1980s continued and Holden's future became uncertain, General Motors New Zealand Ltd. pondered the reintroduction of other GM brands. In around 1985, there were strong rumours, and a GM report, that indicated that Holden would cease to exist in its current form, and that its models would be exclusively designed offshore. Certainly what was happening in Australia did not instil confidence: rebadged Suzukis, Nissans and Isuzus were occupying the bottom end of the range, while the Commodore was about to shift to a Japanese-designed three-litre engine.
Therefore, Opel made a small reintroduction with a tiny selection of highly priced models (Kadett GSE, Ascona GT, Senator, Monza). Research showed that Pontiac had a good reputation, so rather than follow the Australian route with a rebadged Toyota Corolla, GM New Zealand brought in the Opel Kadett based LeMans from [[GM Daewoo Motors|Daewoo]] of [[South Korea]], attempting to fill both the compact and mid-sized sectors until the arrival of the Opel Vectra. Despite the car's origins and place of manufacture, it was marketed in New Zealand as 'American'.
In the late 1980s, General Motors New Zealand attempted to use many makes and have 'GM' as the main brand. Therefore, the mainstream range in 1989 consisted of:
* [[Holden Barina]] (a rebadged [[Suzuki]] Cultus/Swift)
* [[Pontiac LeMans]] (imported from [[Daewoo]] of Korea)
* [[Opel Vectra]]
* [[Opel Calibra]]
* [[Holden Commodore]] and Calais
* [[Holden Statesman]]
* [[Holden Holden YB Piazza|Holden Piazza]]
Commercials bore the Isuzu name. This, however, created little brand loyalty and consumers did not accept 'GM' as a brand.
It was only in [[1994]], with Holden's future more secure, that General Motors New Zealand finally became Holden New Zealand. The Opel name was dropped, and the [[Opel Vectra|Vectra]] was rebadged as a Holden, even though it was then not available in Australia. The [[General Motors Astra|Astra]] was introduced the following year, identical Opel-badged models, [[grey import|imported second hand]] from [[Japan]], already being sold locally.
Early models of the Holden Astra and Vectra in New Zealand differed from those sold in Australia, in that they had a distinctive grille with a 'V' containing the Holden badge, similar to that used by Vauxhall in the UK. Later on this was changed to bring the New Zealand model range in line with Australia.
Similarly, the [[Isuzu Trooper]] off-road vehicle was rebadged the Holden Jackaroo, as in Australia, although owing to the widespread availability of the identical Isuzu Bighorn as a used Japanese import, that name was used on brand new models imported by Holden New Zealand. For a very brief, and with hindsight anomalous, period during 1998-1999, the [[Holden Frontera]] was sold new in New Zealand as the Isuzu Wizard, though things have now been brought into line with Australia.
There are still differences between the Holden model ranges in Australia and New Zealand. It was only in August 2005 that the wagon version of the Holden Astra went on sale in Australia, while in New Zealand, the Astra wagon is to be dropped, like the [[Opel Zafira|Zafira]] in 2004. The Astra Turbo, and Tigra have also been released in Australia, but will not be sold in New Zealand.
==Export markets==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:MonaroPoliceCar.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Holden Monaro Police Car. Melbourne, Victoria in Australia.]] -->The Holden Commodore is as popular in [[New Zealand]] (where it has hit the number-one slot in the sales' charts from time to time) as it is in Australia, often being used as a police car. It is also sold in [[South Africa]], [[Thailand]], and parts of the [[Middle East]] badged as a [[Chevrolet Lumina]], and in [[Brazil]] as the [[Chevrolet Omega]]. Holden's exports to the Middle East and Brazil were the first [[left hand drive]] cars built since the [[1960s]], when it sold cars in [[Hawaii]]. HSV's modified vehicles are also sold in the [[United Kingdom]]. A modified version of the Holden Monaro is sold in the [[United States]] as the [[Pontiac GTO]]. The Holden Monaro is sold under that name through [[Vauxhall Motors|Vauxhall]] dealerships in the [[United Kingdom]]. Holden also exports its Statesman sedan to the [[Middle East]] as the [[Chevrolet Caprice]], to [[South Korea ]]as the [[Daewoo]] Statesman, and [[China]] as the [[Buick]] Royaum. [[Fiji]], [[Singapore]], [[Brunei]] and [[Indonesia]] have also been Holden export markets.
==Sports vehicles==
Between 1968 and 1974, GMH sold a two-door variant of their full-size Holden sedan as the [[Holden Monaro|Monaro]], with great success. A revived Monaro, based on the previous model Commodore, has attracted wide attention since being shown as a [[concept car]] at Australian [[motor show]]s, and a large waiting list after it was put into production. The revived [[Holden Monaro|Monaro]] was released in the Australian market in October 2001. Starting with the [[2004]] model year, the [[Holden Monaro|Monaro]] has been exported to the [[United States]], rebadged as the [[Pontiac]] [[Pontiac GTO|GTO]], and the [[Middle East]], rebadged as the Chevrolet Lumina Coupe. It is sold in limited numbers in the UK as the [[Vauxhall Motors|Vauxhall]] Monaro.
[[Holden Special Vehicles]] ('''HSV''') is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Holden selling extensively modified, high-performance Commodore variants (including the Monaro and the Statesman). . Holdens have been a staple of domestic [[touring car racing]] since the 1960s, and the quasi-factory Holden Racing Team has been dominant in [[V8 Supercar]] racing.
==See also==
*[[List of automobile manufacturers]]
*[[General Motors]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.holden.com.au/ Holden Australia] <br>
* [http://www.holden.co.nz/ Holden New Zealand] <br>
* [http://www.hsv.com.au/ Holden Special Vehicles] (HSV)
* [http://www.holdenhistory.com/ Holden History fan site]
* [http://www.myholden.com/ Fans' photos albums]
* [http://www.oldholden.com/ OldHolden info database fan site]
* [http://www.oldholden.com/fxfjclub/holden1.htm Origins of Holden, including the original 1946 prototype]
* [http://homepages.paradise.net.nz/richa306/pictures/thumbs/holden.htm Holden model guide]
* [http://www.vlturbo.com/ VLTurbo.com - VL Commodore information, Pictures, and more]
* http://holdenworld.tt.cx
* [http://www.hsv.org.uk UK HSV and Monaro Owners Club]
* [http://www.ls6.com.au LSx Advanced Automotive Forum]
{{General Motors brands}}
<!-- Categories -->
[[Category:Automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Australian automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Holden]]
[[Category:Australian brandnames]]
[[Category:General Motors]]
[[de:Holden]]
[[fr:Holden (constructeur automobile)]]
[[nl:Holden (auto)]]
[[ja:ホールデン (自動車)]]
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[[sv:Holden]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hank Greenberg</title>
<id>13627</id>
<revision>
<id>41169720</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T14:26:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm caps in section header.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox baseball player | name=Hank Greenberg | image name=HGreenberg.jpg
| birthdate= [[January 1]], [[1911]]
| birthplace= [[New York, New York]]
| dead=dead
| deathdate= [[September 4]], [[1986]]
| deathplace= [[Beverly Hills, California]]
| debutdate= [[September 14]], [[1930]]
| debutteam= [[Detroit Tigers]]
| debutopponent= [[New York Yankees]]
| debutstadium= [[Navin Field]]
| teams= [[Detroit Tigers]] ([[1930 in sports|1930]]-[[1946 in sports|1946]])<BR>[[Pittsburgh Pirates]] ([[1947 in sports|1947]])
| HOFer=HOFer
| inductiondate=[[1956 in sports|1956]]
| careerhighlights=<nowiki></nowiki>
* Won [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|AL MVP]] twice, in 1935 and 1940.
* Lead the AL in homeruns four times.
* Set the record for most multi-homer games in a season, with 11 in [[1937 in sports|1937]].
* Hit 58 homeruns in the [[1938 in sports|1938 season]], two less than [[Babe Ruth]]'s single-season record.
* His 9th inning grand-slam on the final game of the [[1945 in sports|1945 season]] won the pennant for the Tigers.
* Topped 100 RBI in seven seasons.
* His 183 RBI in 1937 ranks 3rd all-time for a single season.
* Played in four All-Star games.
}}
:''This article is about the baseball player. For the insurance mogul nicknamed Hank Greenberg, see [[Maurice R. Greenberg]].''
'''Henry Benjamin "Hank" Greenberg''' ([[January 1]], [[1911]] - [[September 4]], [[1986]]), nicknamed "Hammerin' Hank", was an [[United States|American]] player in [[Major League Baseball]].
==Early Life==
{{MLB HoF}}
He was born in [[New York City]] to an [[Orthodox Jew]]ish family and attended [[James Monroe]] High School in [[the Bronx]], where he was an outstanding all-around athlete. His preferred sport was baseball, and |
s|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[de:Elbridge Gerry]]
[[id:Elbridge Gerry]]
[[it:Elbridge Gerry]]
[[ja:エルブリッジ・ゲリー]]
[[pl:Elbridge Gerry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Encryption</title>
<id>10294</id>
<revision>
<id>41922198</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:13:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ArnoldReinhold</username>
<id>84951</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ rm entries covered in templates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about algorithms for encryption and decryption. For an overview of cryptographic technology in general, see [[cryptography]]. For the movie, see [[Encrypt (film)]].''
In [[cryptography]], '''encryption''' is the process of obscuring [[information]] to make it unreadable without special knowledge. While encryption has been used to protect communications for centuries, only organizations and individuals with an extraordinary need for secrecy had made use of it. In the mid-1970s, strong encryption emerged from the sole preserve of secretive government agencies into the public domain, and is now employed in protecting widely-used systems, such as Internet [[e-commerce]], [[mobile telephone]] networks and bank [[automatic teller machine]]s.
Encryption can be used to ensure secrecy, but other techniques are still needed to make communications secure, particularly to verify the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, a [[message authentication code]] (MAC) or [[digital signature]]s. Another consideration is protection against [[traffic analysis]].
Encryption or software [[code obfuscation]] is also used in software [[copy protection]] against [[reverse engineering]], unauthorized application analysis, cracks and software piracy used in different encryption or [[obfuscating software]]
== Ciphers ==
A '''cipher''' is an [[algorithm]] for performing [[encryption]] (and the reverse, '''decryption''') &mdash; a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative term is '''encipherment'''.
The original information is known as ''[[plaintext]]'', and the encrypted form as '''ciphertext'''. The ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but is not in a format readable by a human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it; it should resemble random gibberish to those not intended to read it.
The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, called a [[key (cryptography)|key]] or, in traditional [[NSA]] parlance, a '''cryptovariable.''' The encrypting procedure is varied depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. A key must be selected before using a cipher to encrypt a message. Without the same key, it should be difficult, if not impossible, to decrypt the resulting ciphertext into readable plaintext.
"Cipher" is alternatively spelled "cypher"; similarly "ciphertext" and "cyphertext", and so forth. The word descends from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word for zero: ''{{IPA|s&#803;}}ifr'' or صِفْر, like (the Italian) ''zero'' (which remained in use for 0, the crucial innovation in positional Arabic versus Roman numerals) but soon was used for any decimal digit, even any number. While it may have come to mean encoding because that often involved numbers, a theory says conservative Catholic opponents of the Arabic (heathen) numerals equated it with any 'dark secret'.
== Ciphers versus codes ==
: ''Main article: [[Code (cryptography)]]''
In non-technical usage, a "(secret) [[code (cryptography)|code]]" is the same thing as a cipher. Within technical discussions, however, they are distinguished into two concepts. Codes work at the level of meaning &mdash; that is, words or phrases are converted into something else. Ciphers, on the other hand, work at a lower level: the level of individual letters, small groups of letters, or, in modern schemes, individual bits. Some systems used both codes and ciphers in one system, using [[superencipherment]] to increase the security.
Historically, cryptography was split into a dichotomy of codes and ciphers, and coding had its own terminology, analogous to that for ciphers: "''encoding'', ''codetext'', ''decoding''" and so on. However, codes have a variety of drawbacks, including susceptibility to [[cryptanalysis]] and the difficulty of managing a cumbersome [[codebook]]. Because of this, codes have fallen into disuse in modern cryptography, and ciphers are the dominant technique.
== Types of cipher ==
There are a variety of different types of encryption. Algorithms used earlier in the [[history of cryptography]] are substantially different from modern methods, and modern ciphers can be classified according to how they operate and whether they use one or two keys.
Historical pen and paper ciphers used in the past are sometimes known as [[classical cipher]]s. They include [[substitution cipher]]s and [[transposition cipher]]s. During the early [[20th century]], more sophisticated machines for encryption were used, [[rotor machine]]s, which were more complex than previous schemes.
Encryption methods can be divided into [[symmetric key algorithm]]s([[Private-key cryptography]]) and [[asymmetric key algorithm]]s([[Public-key cryptography]]). In a [[symmetric key algorithm]] (e.g., [[Data Encryption Standard|DES]] and [[Advanced Encryption Standard|AES]]), the sender and receiver must have a shared key set up in advance and kept secret from all other parties; the sender uses this key for encryption, and the receiver uses the same key for decryption. In an [[asymmetric key algorithm]] (e.g., [[RSA]]), there are two separate keys: a ''public key'' is published and enables any sender to perform encryption, while a ''private key'' is kept secret by the receiver and enables only him to perform decryption.
Symmetric key ciphers can be distinguished into two types, depending on whether they work on blocks of symbols of fixed size (''[[block cipher]]s''), or on a continuous stream of symbols (''[[stream cipher]]s'').
== See also ==
* [[Famous ciphertexts]]
* [[Private-key cryptography]] ([[symmetric key algorithm]])
* [[Public-key cryptography]] ([[asymmetric key algorithm]])
== External links ==
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/crypto/intro.htm An Introduction to the Use of Encryption]
*[http://www.securitydocs.com/Encryption SecurityDocs] Resource for Encryption Whitepapers
*[http://www.mycrypto.net/encryption/crypto_algorithms.html Encryption Algorithms]
*[http://www.snapfiles.com/freeware/security/fwencrypt.html Freeware Encryption Software]
*[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/RSAEncryption.html RSA Encryption]
*[http://www.nabble.com/Encryption-f942.html Encryption Forum]
*[http://www.securestandard.com/Cryptology SecureStandard] Directory of Encryption Whitepapers
*[http://www.elfqrin.com/codecracker.html Code Cracker] Cracks many classic encryption codes (up to the 20th century)
{{classical_cryptography}}
{{stream_ciphers}}
{{block_ciphers}}
{{Public-key cryptography}}
[[Category:Computer security]]
[[Category:Cryptography]]
[[da:Kryptering]]
[[de:Verschlüsselung]]
[[eo:Ĉifrado]]
[[fr:Chiffrement]]
[[id:Enkripsi]]
[[is:Dulkóðun]]
[[nl:Encryptie]]
[[ja:暗号]]
[[pl:Szyfr]]
[[ru:Шифрование]]
[[simple:Encryption]]
[[sv:Kryptering]]
[[th:การเข้ารหัส]]
[[vi:Mã hóa]]
[[zh:加密]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elias Lonnrot</title>
<id>10295</id>
<revision>
<id>15908116</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-04T23:42:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Den fjättrade ankan</username>
<id>8624</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elias Lönnrot]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EPR paradox</title>
<id>10296</id>
<revision>
<id>40577554</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T15:52:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Linas</username>
<id>159886</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv fiddling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[quantum mechanics]], the '''EPR paradox''' (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen) is a [[thought experiment]] which demonstrates that the result of a measurement performed on one part of a quantum system can have an instantaneous effect on the result of a measurement performed on another part, regardless of the distance separating the two parts. Although this may seem incompatible with [[special relativity]], which states that [[information theory|information]] cannot be transmitted faster than the [[speed of light]], this is not the case. "EPR" stands for [[Albert Einstein]], [[Boris Podolsky]], and [[Nathan Rosen]], who introduced the thought experiment in a [[1935]] paper to argue that quantum mechanics is not a complete physical theory. It is sometimes referred to as the '''EPRB paradox''' for [[David Bohm]], who converted the original thought experiment into something closer to being experimentally testable.
Although originally devised as a thought experiment that should expose quantum mechanics' incompleteness, actual experimental results, carried out when technology later became available, do demonstrate the non-local effect, effectively retorting against the EPR trio's original purpose.
The "spooky action at a distance" that so disturbed EPR consistently occurs in numerous and widely replicated experiments.
Einstein never really accepted quantum mechanics as a "real" and complete theory, struggling to the end of his career (and life) for an inter |
|P
|[[Image:Chess pll44.png|20px|Pawn]]
|-
|[[Knight (chess)|Knight]]
|N
|[[Image:Chess nll44.png|20px|Pawn]]
|-
|[[Bishop (chess)|Bishop]]
|B
|[[Image:Chess bll44.png|20px|Pawn]]
|-
|[[Rook (chess)|Rook]]
|R
|[[Image:Chess rll44.png|20px|Pawn]]
|-
|[[Queen (chess)|Queen]]
|Q
|[[Image:Chess qll44.png|20px|Pawn]]
|-
|[[King (chess)|King]]
|K
|[[Image:Chess kll44.png|20px|Pawn]]
|-
|}
When a game of chess begins, one player controls the sixteen white pieces while the other uses the sixteen black pieces. The colors are chosen either by a friendly agreement, by a [[game of chance]], or by a [[tournament]] director. White always moves first and therefore has a slight advantage over black. The [[chess piece]]s should be set up on a standard [[chessboard]] with a white square in the near right hand corner.
Each kind of chess piece moves a different way. The [[Rook (chess)|rook]] moves any number of spaces vertically or horizontally, while the [[bishop (chess)|bishop]] moves any number of spaces in any direction diagonally (meaning a bishop will always remain on the same color). The [[Queen (chess)|queen]] is a combination of the rook and bishop (it can move any number of spaces diagonally, horizontally, or vertically). The [[king (chess)|king]] can move only one square horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. The [[knight (chess)|knight]] can jump over occupied squares and moves two spaces horizontally and one space vertically (or vice versa), making an L shape; a knight in the middle of the board has eight squares it can move to.
With the exception of the knight, pieces cannot jump over each other. One's own pieces ("friendly pieces") cannot be passed if they are in the line of movement, and a friendly piece can never replace another friendly piece. Enemy pieces cannot be passed, but they can be "captured". When a piece is captured (or taken), the attacking piece replaces the enemy piece on its square ([[en passant]] being the only exception). The king cannot be captured in regular chess, only put in [[check]]. If a player is unable to get their king out of check it is called [[checkmate]] and they have lost the game.
[[Pawn (chess)|Pawns]] capture differently than they move; they can capture an enemy piece on either of the two spaces adjacent to the space in front of them (i.e., the two squares diagonally in front of them), but cannot move to these spaces if they are vacant; conversely, a pawn can move forward one square, but only if that square is unoccupied. Alternatively, a pawn can move two squares forward if it has not moved yet and both squares are empty. If a pawn advances all the way to the eighth rank, it can be promoted to any other piece, except a King or another pawn.
Chess games do not have to end in checkmate. Either player may resign if the situation looks hopeless; also, games may end in a [[Draw (chess)|draw]] (tie). A draw can occur in many situations, including mutual agreement to draw, draw by insufficient material, [[stalemate]], [[threefold repetition]] or the [[fifty move rule]].
Until the 1970s, at least in English-speaking countries, chess games were recorded and published using [[descriptive chess notation]]. This has been supplanted by the more compact [[algebraic chess notation]]. Several notations have emerged, based upon algebraic chess notation, for recording chess games in a format suitable for computer processing. Of these, [[Portable Game Notation]] (PGN) is the most common. Apart from recording games, there is also a notation [[Forsyth-Edwards Notation]] for recording specific positions. This is useful for adjourning a game to resume later or for conveying chess problem positions without a diagram.
To better understand rules of chess, please see a [[sample chess game]], which explains chess through a simple demonstration, move after move.
===Strategy and tactics===
: ''Main article: [[Chess strategy and tactics]]''
[[Chess opening]]s are a sequence of moves, often memorized, which will help a player build up their position and prepare for the [[middlegame]]. Openings are often designed to take hold of the center of the board (e4, e5, d4 and d5), develop pieces, protect the king, and create a strong pawn structure. [[Hypermodernism (chess)|Hypermodernism]] advocates the control of the center not by using pawns but with distant pieces. It is often important for a player to [[Castling|castle]] (a special move that moves the king from the center of the board two squares towards one of the corners) to protect the king. See the [[list of chess openings]] for more information.
{{Chess diagram|=
| tright
|
|=
8 | |rd|kd| | | | | |=
7 | | | | | | | | |=
6 | | | | |nd| | | |=
5 | | | | | |bl| | |=
4 | |nl| | | | | | |=
3 | | | | | | | | |=
2 | | | | | | | | |=
1 | |ql| |kl| | | | |=
|In this position, the black knight on e6 is pinned to its king by the white bishop, and the white knight is pinned to the queen on b1.
}}
When taking and trading pieces, the [[chess piece point value]]s becomes important. Valuations differ slightly from book to book, but generally, queens are worth 9 points, rooks are worth 5, bishops and knights are worth 3, and pawns are worth 1. Since the king's loss ends the game it is invaluable. The actual value and importance of a piece will vary based upon its position and the stage of the game. If a player performs a [[Sacrifice (chess)|sacrifice]] (e.g. [[exchange sacrifice]]), they are choosing to ignore the standard valuation of their pieces for positional or tactical gains. The beginning player should be aware that points are not an inherent part of the game; there is no scoring and chess was played long before the idea of assigning points to pieces. Instead, points are used by a player to consider whether he will come out materially better than his opponent in an exchange of pieces. For instance, to lose two pawns (2 points) in taking the opponent's knight (3 points) puts one ahead in material by one point. Such an advantageous exchange of pieces may, however, be a poor tactic if it leaves the opponent with an exploitable advantage in the way the pieces are positioned on the board.
Chess combinations and [[:Category:Chess traps|traps]] do not appear out of thin air. Usually they are present because the opponent has certain weaknesses in their position. These types of "weaknesses" include: pinned pieces, overloaded pieces, weaknesses around the opponents king, weak squares, unprotected pieces, weak colour complexes, pieces not able to come back to defend the king, etc. These "weaknesses" can then be expoloitable with a chess combination that is often built out of a number of tactical "methods". Such weaknesses are often created in the opponent's position in the first place by threats, provocative moves, and generally strong "positional play", etc.
Chess combinations often include a number of types of tactic "methods" which many middlegame books classify and provide examples of. Such common "methods" include Pins, Forks, Skewers, Discovered checks, Zuichenzugs, Deflections, Decoys, Sacrifices, Forcing moves, and even "Quiet moves" - which can be devastating moves that leave the oppponent in Zugzwang, or an otherwise lost position. In many combinations of Alexander Alekhine, there is often a very subtle "quiet move" which breaks the Camel's back. For clarification, it should be noted that a "pin" is a tactical "method"- the act of pinning the opponents pieces. But a "pinned piece" is a specific type of weakness in the opponents position, which when identified, could be exploited with a tactical combination.
A [[Fork (chess)|fork]] is a situation where a piece is moved such that it attacks (forks) two other pieces simultaneously. It usually is difficult for the other player to protect both of their pieces in one move. [[Pin (chess)|Pins]] are used to prevent the movement of an enemy piece by threatening any pieces behind it should it move. [[Skewer (chess)|Skewer]]s are a kind of reverse pin where the more valuable piece is placed in front of a less important one. A [[discovered attack]] is an attack where a piece moves and uncovers a line for another piece which does the attacking. Other tactical elements include: [[zwischenzug]], [[undermining (chess)|undermining]], [[Overloading (chess)|overloading]], and [[Interference (chess)|interference]].
A few common positional elements which high level Chess players routinely must assess include Pawn structure, King safety, Space, the presence of pawn islands, isolated pawns, backward pawns, doubled pawns. In addition there are factors such as the two bishops which compensate each others weaknesses. Most middlegame books recommend that once an assessment of the elements of the position has taken place, it is then recommended to try and form a "plan" to create an advantage. Once a plan is formulated, it is then recommended to try and ensure the plan is feasible through the process of checking concrete variations.
Great chess writer [[Aron Nimzowitsch]] outlined in the classic work "My system" a number of middlegame positional principles such as "Rook on the 7th rank", "Undermining the pawn chain", "Restrain, blockade and destroy". This work has influenced generations of modern chess players in how they think in the middlegame.
During the [[endgame]], pawns and kings become relatively more powerful pieces as both sides often try to [[Promotion (chess)|promote]] their pawns. If one player has a large material advantage, checkmate may happen quickly in the endgame. If the game is relatively even, [[tablebase]]s and [[endgame study]] are essential. Controlling the [[Tempo (chess)|tempo]] (time used by each move) becomes especially important when fewer pieces are lef |
est, a person with a broken bone in the West (i.e. a routine, "straightforward" condition) would almost never see a Chinese medicine practitioner or visit a [[martial art]]s school to get the bone set, whereas this is routine in China. As another example, most TCM hospitals in China have [[electron microscope]]s and many TCM practitioners know how to use one.
This is not to say that TCM techniques are considered worthless in the West. In fact, Western pharmaceutical companies have recognized the value of traditional medicines and are employing teams of scientists in many parts of the world to gather knowledge from traditional healers and medical practitioners. After all, the active ingredients of most modern medicines were discovered in plants or animals. The particular contribution of Western medicine is that it strictly applies the [[scientific method]] to promising traditional treatments, separating those that work from those that do not. As another example, most Western hospitals and increasing numbers of other clinics now offer [[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]] or [[qigong]] classes as part of their [[inpatient]] and [[community health]] programs.
Most Chinese in China do not see traditional Chinese medicine and Western
medicine as being in conflict. In cases of emergency and crisis situations,
there is generally no reluctance in using conventional Western medicine. At the
same time, belief in Chinese medicine remains strong in the area of
maintaining health. To put it simply, you see a Western doctor
if you have acute [[appendicitis]], but you do exercises or take Chinese herbs to keep your
body healthy enough to prevent appendicitis, or to recover more quickly from the surgery. Very few practitioners of Western medicine in China reject traditional Chinese medicine, and most doctors in China will use some elements of Chinese medicine in their own
practice.
A degree of integration between Chinese and Western medicine also exists in China. For instance, at the Shanghai cancer hospital, a patient may be seen by a multidisciplinary team and be treated concurrently with radiation surgery, Western drugs and a traditional herbal formula.
It is worth noting that the practice of Western medicine in China is somewhat different from that in the West. In contrast to the West, there are relatively few [[allied health professional]]s to perform routine medical procedures or to undertake procedures such as [[massage]] or [[physical therapy]].
In addition, Chinese practitioners of Western medicine have been less impacted by trends in the West that encourage patient empowerment, to see the patient as an individual rather than a collection of parts, and to do nothing when medically appropriate. Chinese practitioners of Western medicine have been widely criticized for overprescribing drugs such as [[corticosteroid]]s or [[antibiotic]]s for common [[virus|viral]] infections. It is likely that these medicines, which are generally known to be useless against viral infections, would provide less relief to the patient than traditional Chinese herbal remedies.
== TCM and Animals ==
As animal products are used in Chinese formulas, [[vegan]]s and [[vegetarians]] should inform their practitioner, if their beliefs forbid the ingestion of animals. Often alternative substances can be used.
The use of [[endangered species]] is controversial within TCM. In particular, the belief that [[tiger]] penis and [[rhinoceros]] horn are [[aphrodisiac|aphrodisiacs]] has been blamed for depleting these species in the wild.
The [[animal rights]] movement notes that a few traditional Chinese medicinal solutions use bear [[bile]]. To extract maximum amounts of the bile, the bears are often fitted with a sort of permanent [[catheter]]. The treatment itself and especially the extraction of the bile is very painful, causes damage to the intestines of the bear, and often even kills the bears. However, due to international attention on the issues surrounding its harvesting, bile is now rarely used by practitioners outside of China.
==See also==
* [[History of traditional Chinese medicine]]
* [[Public health in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Kampo|Traditional Japanese medicine]] (Kampo)
* [[Traditional Korean medicine]]
==References==
* Chang, Stephen T. <cite>[http://www.bodhibooksellers.com/tao/store.book.great.tao.html The Great Tao]</cite>; Tao Longevity; ISBN 0942196015 [[Stephen T. Chang]]
* Kaptchuck, Ted J., <cite>The Web That Has No Weaver</cite>; Congdon & Weed; ISBN 0809229331Z
* Maciocia, Giovanni, <cite>The Foundations of Chinese Medicine: A Comprehensive Text for Acupuncturists and Herbalists</cite>; Churchill Livingstone; ISBN 0443-039801
* Ni, Mao-Shing, <cite>The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Medicine : A New Translation of the Neijing Suwen with Commentary</cite>; Shambhala, 1995; ISBN 1570620806
* Holland, Alex <cite>Voices of Qi: An Introductory Guide to Traditional Chinese Medicine</cite>; North Atlantic Books, 2000; ISBN 1556433263
* Unschuld, Paul U., <cite>Medicine in China: A History of Ideas</cite>; University of California Press, 1985; ISBN 0520050231
* Qu, Jiecheng, <cite>[http://www.cp1897.com.hk/html/profess/chime/essays/profess0403s02.htm When Chinese Medicine Meets Western Medicine - History and Ideas] (in Chinese)</cite>; Joint Publishing (H.K.), 2004; ISBN 9620423364
* Chan, T.Y. (2002). Incidence of herb-induced aconitine poisoning in Hong Kong: impact of publicity measures to promote awareness among the herbalists and the public. ''Drug Saf.'' 25:823–828.
* Benowitz, Neal L. (2000) Review of adverse reaction reports involving ephedrine-containing herbal products. ''Submitted to U.S. Food and Drug Administration.'' Jan. 17.
==External links==
*[http://www.satcm.gov.cn/ State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine for the People's Republic of China]
*[http://www.satcm.gov.cn/english_satcm/eindex.htm State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine for the People's Republic of China (English)]
*[http://www.acumedic.com/ Acumedic - The Comprehensive Organisation for Acupuncture, Chinese and Herbal Medicine]
*[http://www.jcm.co.uk/ Journal of Chinese Medicine]
*[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Chinese-medicine.html General information about Chinese Medicine]
*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/chinese/chinesehome.html Classics of Traditional Chinese Medicine], by the National Library of Medicine (NLM)
*[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Chinese-medicine-diabetes-background.html Modern Medicine and Traditional Chinese Medicine - Diabetes]
*[http://odp.od.nih.gov/consensus/cons/107/107_statement.htm Acupuncture. NIH Consensus Statement 1997 Nov 3-5; 15(5):1-34.]
*[http://www.csicop.org/si/9509/chi.html China, Chi, and Chicanery] (a sceptical view)
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15510787 Effects of acupuncture on gastroparesis study]
*[http://www.commonweal.org/pubs/choices/19.html Traditional Chinese Medicine--A Favored Adjunctive Therapy for American Cancer Patients]
*[http://www.jyi.org/volumes/volume6/issue5/features/feng.html Merging Chinese Traditional Medicine into the American Health System]
*[http://www.chinesemedicinesampler.com/theorybasic.html The Chinese Medicine Sampler]- Historical Roots of Traditional Chinese Medicine
* [http://www.watchtower.org/library/g/2000/11/8/article_01.htm ''A Visit to a Chinese Pharmacy''], a virtual tour
* [http://www.famouschinese.com/jsp/medline/chinese_medicine_medline.html Chinese medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture Medline] Most recent research articles on Chinese medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture from Medline/Entrez PubMed
* [http://www.danreid.org/daniel-reid-chinese-medicine-books.htm A selection of best-selling books on Traditional Chinese Medicine] By well known author and chinese health and healing expert, Daniel Reid
[[Category:Traditional Chinese medicine|*]]
[[de:Traditionelle Chinesische Medizin]]
[[es:Medicina china tradicional]]
[[he:רפואה סינית]]
[[it:Medicina tradizionale cinese]]
[[ja:伝統中国医学]]
[[ko:한의학]]
[[pt:Medicina Tradicional Chinesa]]
[[vi:Đông y]]
[[zh:中医学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chemical bond</title>
<id>5993</id>
<revision>
<id>41290326</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T08:46:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>165.21.154.115</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ionic bonding */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''chemical bond''' is the physical phenomenon of [[chemical substance]]s being held together by attraction of [[atom]]s to each other through sharing, as well as exchanging, of [[electron]]s -or [[electrostatic force]]s. In general, strong chemical bonds are found in [[molecule]]s, [[crystal]]s or in solid metal and they organize the atoms in ordered [[structure]]s. Weak chemical bonds are classically explained to be effects of [[polarity]], or the lack of it, of strong bonds.
In theory, all bonds can be explained by quantum theory, but in practice, chemical bonds are divided in several categories. Simplifications of quantum theory have been developed to describe and predict the bonds and their properties. These theories include [[octet rule|octet]] theory, [[valence bond theory]], [[orbital hybridization]] theory, [[VSEPR theory]], [[ligand field theory]] and [[LCAO]] -method. [[Electrostatics]] and other physical theories are used to describe bond polarities and the effects they have on chemical substances. Actual chemical bonds are not exactly described by these theories, due to [[uncertainty principle]]. However, in combination, they constitute a powerful theory, which can be applied in almost all of chemistry.
In quantum mechanics, in simplified terms, electrons are located on an [[atomic orbital]] (AO), but in a strong chemical bond, they form a [ |
glorified war as an end it itself and determinant of truth and worthiness. An affinity to these ideas can be found in [[Social Darwinism]]. These ideas are in direct opposition to the ideas reason or rationalism characteristic of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], from which liberalism and, later, Marxism would emerge.
Fascism is also typified by totalitarian attempts to impose state control over all aspects of life: political, social, cultural, and economic. The fascist state regulates and controls (as opposed to nationalizing) the means of production. Fascism exalts the [[nation]], [[state]], or [[race]] as superior to the individuals, institutions, or groups composing it. Fascism uses explicit [[populism|populist]] rhetoric; calls for a heroic mass effort to restore past greatness; and demands loyalty to a single leader, often to the point of a [[cult of personality]].
Fascism attracted political support from diverse sectors of the population, including [[big business]], [[farmers]] and [[landowner]]s, [[nationalism|nationalists]], and [[reactionary|reactionaries]], disaffected [[World War I]] veterans, intellectuals such as [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]], [[Curzio Malaparte]] and [[Martin Heidegger]] to name a few, [[conservatism|conservatives]] and [[small business]]men, and the poor to whom they promised work and bread.
[[fascist (epithet)|The word has become a slur]] throughout the [[political spectrum]] since the failure of the [[Axis powers]] in World War II, and it has been extremely uncommon for any political groups to call themselves "fascist" since 1945. In contemporary political discourse, adherents of some political ideologies tend to associate fascism with their enemies, or define it as the opposite of their own views. There are no major self-described fascist parties or organizations anywhere in the world.
==Definition==
Many diverse regimes have self-identified as fascist, and defining fascism has proved complicated and contentious. Historians, political scientists, and other scholars have engaged in long and furious debates concerning the exact nature of fascism and its core tenets. Since the 1990s, however, there has been a growing move toward some rough consensus reflected in the work of Payne, Eatwell, Griffin, and Paxton. See [[Fascism and ideology]].
The word "fascism" comes from '''''[[fascio]]''''' (plural: ''fasci''), which may mean "bundle," as in a political or militant group or a nation, but also from the ''[[fasces]]'' (rods bundled around an axe), which were an [[ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] symbol of the authority of [[magistrate]]s. The Italian ''Fascisti'' were also known as [[Black Shirts]] for their style of uniform incorporating a black shirt (See Also: [[political colour]]).
[[Merriam-Webster]] defines fascism as "a political philosophy, movement, or regime (as that of the Fascisti) that exalts nation and often race above the individual and that stands for a centralized autocratic government headed by a dictatorial leader, severe economic and social regimentation, and forcible suppression of opposition"{{ref|MW}}. The [[American Heritage Dictionary]] instead describes it as "A system of government that exercises a dictatorship of the extreme right, typically through the merging of state and business leadership, together with belligerent nationalism."{{ref|AHD}}.
Mussolini defined fascism as being a [[right-wing]] ideology in opposition to [[socialism]], [[liberalism]], [[democracy]] and [[individualism]]. He said in ''The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism'':
:"Granted that the 19th century was the century of socialism, liberalism, democracy, this does not mean that the 20th century must also be the century of socialism, liberalism, democracy. Political doctrines pass; nations remain. We are free to believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to the 'right', a Fascist century. If the 19th century was the century of the individual (liberalism implies individualism) we are free to believe that this is the 'collective' century, and therefore the century of the State." [http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm]
Fascism is associated by many scholars with one or more of the following characteristics: a very high degree of [[nationalism]], economic [[corporatism]], a powerful, [[dictatorship|dictatorial]] leader who portrays the [[nation]], [[state]] or [[collective]] as superior to the individuals or groups composing it.
Stanley Payne's ''Fascism: Comparison and Definition'' (1980) uses a lengthy itemized list of characteristics to identify fascism, including the creation of an authoritarian state; a regulated, state-integrated economic sector; '''[[fascist symbolism]]'''; anti-[[liberalism]]; [[anti-communism]] {{ref|Payne}}. A similar strategy was employed by [[semiotics|semiotician]] [[Umberto Eco]] in his popular essay ''Eternal Fascism: Fourteen Ways of Looking at a Blackshirt''{{ref|Eco}}. More recently, an emphasis has been placed upon the aspect of populist fascist rhetoric that argues for a "re-birth" of a conflated [[nation]] and ethnic people{{ref|Griffin}}.
Many scholars hold that fascism as a social movement employs elements from the political left, but eventually allies with the political right, especially after attaining state power. See: [[Fascism and ideology]].
Fascism has expressed itself through both political and economic practices, and academics have examined these elements both together and in isolation. [[Hannah Arendt]], whose focus is largely political, argues that regimes commonly thought of as fascist, such as Nazism, belong to a larger category of [[totalitarianism]]s, including communist dictatorships, such as that of [[Joseph Stalin]]{{ref|Arendt}}. Thayer Watkins, a professor of Economics from [[San Jose State University]], identifies fascism as aligned with '''[[corporatism]]''', a form of economic oppression that he argues includes most of the world's governments{{ref|Watkins}}. Watkins, who some accuse of being out of step with the academic mainstream, considers Mussolini's Fascist regime to be merely one example of the corporatist states that emerged during the [[Great Depression]], including such diverse political systems as that of [[Spain]], [[Argentina]] and the [[United States]].
After the defeat of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany in World War II, the term has taken on an extremely pejorative meaning, largely in reaction to the [[crimes against humanity]] committed by the Nazis. Today, very few groups proclaim themselves fascist, and the term is often used to describe individuals or political groups who are perceived to behave in an authoritarian or totalitarian manner; by silencing opposition, judging personal behavior, promoting racism, or otherwise attempting to concentrate power and create hate towards the "enemies of the state". Because of the term's use as a pejorative, there is a great deal of controversy surrounding the question of what political movements and governments belong to fascism.
==Italian Fascism==
===Early history===
{{main|Fascio}}
===Mussolini's Fascism===
[[Image:Benito Mussolini in Yugoslavia crop.JPG|thumb|[[Benito Mussolini]] in [[Yugoslavia]], c. 1942.]]
As a political and economic system in Italy, fascism combined elements of corporatism, [[totalitarianism]], [[nationalism]], [[militarism]] and anti-Communism. In an article in the 1932 ''Enciclopedia Italiana'', written by [[Giovanni Gentile]] and attributed to [[Benito Mussolini]], fascism is described as a system in which "The State not only is authority which governs and molds individual wills with laws and values of spiritual life, but it is also power which makes its will prevail abroad... For the Fascist, everything is within the State and... neither individuals nor groups are outside the State... For Fascism, the State is an absolute, before which individuals or groups are only relative... Liberalism denied the State in the name of the individual; Fascism reasserts the rights of the State as expressing the real essence of the individual." {{ref|Gentile}}
It discussed other political and social doctrines of the time by describing fascism as: "the resolute negation of the doctrine underlying so-called scientific and Marxian socialism... and as rejecting (in democracy) "the absurd conventional lie of political equalitarianism, the habit of collective irresponsibility, the myth of felicity and indefinite progress". {{ref|Gentile}}
"Fascism is definitely and absolutely opposed to the doctrines of liberalism, both in the political and economic sphere. ... The Fascist State lays claim to rule in the economic field no less than in others; it makes its action felt throughout the length and breadth of the country by means of its corporate, social, and educational institutions, and all the political, economic, and spiritual forces of the nation, organised in their respective associations, circulate within the State."{{ref|Mussolini1}}
Another central theme of Italian fascism was the struggle against what it described as the corrupt "[[plutocracy|plutocracies]]" of the time, France and Britain in particular.
Italian Fascism is often considered to be a proper noun and thus denoted by a capital letter "F", whereas generic fascism is conventionally represented with the lower-case character "f". Italian Fascism is considered a model for other forms of fascism, yet there is disagreement over which aspects of structure, tactics, culture, and ideology represent a "fascist minimum" or core.
''[[Doctrine of Fascism|A Doctrine of Fascism]]'' was written by [[Giovanni Gentile]], a [[neo-Hegelianism|neo-Hegelian]] philosopher who served as the official philosopher of fascism. Mussolini signed the article and it was officially attributed to him. In it |
nce. Other ordained leaders include priests (or presbyters) and deacons. Laity participate fully in the life and governance of the Church.
The Church holds its [[General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America|General Convention]] every three years. The General Convention is bicameral. There is the House of Bishops and the House of Deputies, which is made up of priests, deacons, and lay persons. Each diocese elects four clergy and four laypeople as deputies. The head of the House of Bishops is the [[Presiding Bishop]] of the Episcopal Church. The current presiding bishop is The Most Reverend [[Frank Tracy Griswold]], whose term ends in 2006. The head of the House of Deputies is the president who is either a lay person or priest. The last General Convention was held in [[2003]]. The next one will be held in 2006, in [[Columbus, Ohio]].
===Provinces===
The Episcopal Church in the United States has nine ecclesiastical provinces, numbered as follows (Divided by State, not Diocese).
#[[New England]]
#[[New York]], [[New Jersey]], [[Haiti]], [[United States Virgin Islands]], and [[Convocation of American Churches in Europe]]
#[[Delaware]], [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], [[Maryland]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Virginia]], [[West Virginia]]
#[[Alabama]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Florida]], [[Kentucky]], eastern [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]], [[North Carolina]], [[South Carolina]], [[Tennessee]]
#[[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Michigan]], eastern [[Missouri]], [[Ohio]], [[Wisconsin]]
#[[Colorado]], [[Iowa]], [[Minnesota]], [[Montana]], [[Nebraska]], [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Wyoming]]
#[[Arkansas]], [[Kansas]], western [[Louisiana]], western [[Missouri]], [[New Mexico]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Texas]],
#[[Alaska]], [[Arizona]], [[California]], [[Hawaii|Hawai‘i]], [[Idaho]], [[Oregon]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], [[Taiwan]], [[Washington]]
#[[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Honduras]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Venezuela]]
Each province is subdivided into dioceses. However, the senior bishop of a province is not an archbishop nor are there any archbishops in the Episcopal Church in the United States. See:
[[Dioceses of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]
===Congregations===
Each diocese is composed of [[congregation (worship)|congregations]] of various kinds: [[cathedral|cathedrals]], [[parish|parishes]], [[mission]]s and [[chapel]]s.
A [[cathedral]] acts as the [[motherchurch|mother church]] of the diocese, and is often the home of a parish as well. The cathedral of each diocese is the seat of the bishop of that diocese. Most, but not all dioceses have a cathedral. A few have two cathedrals or a cathedral and a ''pro-cathedral''. Others designate a conference or retreat centre chapel as a cathedral. Usually a cathedral is led by a priest called a [[dean (religion)|dean]]. A cathedral's lay governing body is known as a chapter, although some cathedrals have a [[vestry]] as well.
Most congregations are parishes. A parish is a self-sustaining congregation, not financially supported by the diocese. The ordained leader of a parish is a priest, usually called a [[rector]]. The two primary lay leaders of each congregation are the [[churchwarden|wardens]], sometimes referred to as senior and junior. In addition to the rector and wardens, there are additional lay persons elected to support the mission and ministry of the congregation. The rector, the wardens, and these laity comprise what is known as the vestry. The number of these additional laity vary depending on the size of the congregation.
A mission is a congregation supported in part by the diocese. It is governed similarly to a parish but is more directly responsible to its diocese and bishop. A mission is led by a clergyperson usually called a [[vicar]]. Instead of a vestry, a mission's lay leadership is called either a mission committee or a bishop's committee.
A chapel may be connected to another institution, such as a school or hospital or it may be a congregation that is active for only part of the year. The latter are usually found in resort areas and are often called "summer chapels". The clergyperson in charge of a chapel is usually known as a [[chaplain]], but a summer chapel may instead have a vicar.
==Beliefs and Practices==
===Overview===
The Episcopal Church is considered often a middle-road between the [[Protestant]] Church and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The liturgy, or the practice of the people in worship, resembles the [[Roman Catholic Church]], distinguished by the use of the [[Book of Common Prayer]] (see below). Within the Episcopal Church there are varying degrees of liturgical practice. Often a congregation or particular service is commonaly called "low church" or "high church". In theory, a "high church" congregation would embellish the basic worship with more specialized ritual. In contrast, a "low church" would have less embellishment, or may incorporate other embellishments such as praise and worship music. Though most Episcopalians refer to their churches by these lables, often there is overlapping. Within the Episcopal Church one finds praise and worship music, Anglican chant, liturgical dance, charismatic hand postures, robed clergy, and clergy in street clothing. As varied as services can be, the central binding aspect is the Book of Common Prayer or supplemental liturgies.
The Episcopal Church holds to the [[Nicene Creed]] as the main statement of faith, however the Church finds the [[Apostle's Creed]] sufficient in Ecumenical matters.
====Saints====
The concept of "Saint" in the Episcopal Church is highly influenced by the Catholic tradition. The level of veneration given to Saints is, in general, much more Protestant. In general, Episcopalians do not pray to or invoke Saints as intercessors. The Saints are used as examples in history of good Christian men and women instead. With that understanding, one sees a wider variety of people thought of as "Saints" in the Episcopal Church, such as [[Martin Luther King]] or [[Samuel Seabury]]. In addition, the Church holds that all members are Saints of God, and hold the potential to be an example to others. The Episcopal Church has a book called "Lesser Feasts and Fasts" which containes feast days for the various men and women the Church wishes to honor.
====Liberal and Conservative====
The theologies of various doctrines are often varied within the Episcopal Church. There are traditional standings held by the Church, yet theologians with more liberal interpretations. The Episcopal Church prides itself in allowing a place for both sides to be included. In general, however, members of the Episcopal Church are moderate to liberal on most social issues, and mainline to liberal on some theological issues.
===The Book of Common Prayer===
'''[[Image:Bcp79.jpg|thumbnail|right|1979 ''Book of Common Prayer'']]'''<!--an open book might be a better picture than a closed one, and perhaps the red binding found in church editions would be better than the black one found on personal editions?-->
The Episcopal Church publishes its own [[Book of Common Prayer]] (BCP), containing most of the worship services (or "liturgies") used in the Episcopal Church. Because of its wide-spread use in the church, the BCP is both a reflection of and a source of theology for Episcopalians. The current edition dates from [[1979]] and represents more than just a revision of earlier books. It is marked by an attempt to return to practices of the early church, full lay participation in all services, and the recovery of the [[Eucharist]] as the principal service of the church.
Previous American BCPs were issued in [[1789]], [[1892]], and [[1928]]. (A proposed BCP was issued in [[1786]] but not adopted.) The BCP is in the [[public domain]]; however, any new revisions of the BCP are copyrighted until they are approved by the General Convention. After this happens, the BCP is placed into the public domain.
==See also==
*[[List of Presiding Bishops in the Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Complete List of Presiding Bishops]]
*[[Anglican Communion]]
*[[Anglican Communion Network]]
*[[Churches Uniting in Christ]]
*[[Anglo-Catholicism]]
===Colleges Affiliated with the Episcopal Church===
*[[Bard College]], [[Annandale-on-Hudson, New York]]
*[[Clarkson College]], [[Omaha, Nebraska]]
*[[Columbia University]], [[New York, New York]]
*[[Hobart and William Smith Colleges]], [[Geneva, New York]]
*[[Kenyon College]], [[Gambier, Ohio]]
*[[St. Augustine College]], [[Chicago, Illinois]]
*[[St. Augustine's College]], [[Raleigh, North Carolina]]
*[[St. Paul's College]], [[Lawrenceville, Virginia]]
*[[Sewanee, The University of the South|University of the South]], [[Sewanee, Tennessee]]
*[[Voorhees College]], [[Denmark, South Carolina]]
===Seminaries of the Episcopal Church===
*[[Berkeley Divinity School]] at Yale, [[New Haven, Connecticut]]
*[[Bexley Hall (Seminary)]], [[Rochester, New York]] and [[Columbus, Ohio]]
*[[The Church Divinity School of the Pacific]], [[Berkeley, California]]
*[[Episcopal Divinity School]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
*[[Episcopal Theological Seminary of the Southwest]], [[Austin, Texas]]
*The [[General Theological Seminary]], [[New York City]]
*[[Nashotah House]], [[Nashotah, Wisconsin]]
*[[Seabury-Western Theological Seminary]], [[Evanston, Illinois]]
*School of Theology at [[Sewanee, The University of the South|University of the South]], [[Sewanee, Tennessee]]
*[[Trinity Episcopal School for Ministry]], [[Ambridge, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Virginia Theological Seminary]], [[Alexandria, Virginia]]
== Further Reading ==
*Addison, James Thayer. (1951). ''The Episcopal Church in the United States 1789-1931''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
*Albright, Raymond W. (1964). ''A History of the Protesta |
for Howard. Unlike the modern, stereotypical view of a brainless barbarian (mainly from his appearances in movies and comics), Howard originally created Conan as a thoughtful but melancholic figure who often battled with [[clinical depression|depression]], much like Howard himself (the writer eventually committed [[suicide]]). However, Howard's Conan is unaffected by such feelings:
::''Let teachers and priests and philosophers brood over questions of reality and illusion. I know this: if life is an illusion, then I am no less an illusion, and being thus, the illusion is real to me. I live, I burn with life, I love, I slay, and I am content.'' (Howard, ''[[Queen of the Black Coast]]'', Weird Tales, May 1934).
==The Original Robert E. Howard Conan Stories==
[[Image:Weird Tales QotBC.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Cover of ''[[Weird Tales]]'' issue May 1934 featuring Conan and [[Bêlit]] from ''[[Queen of the Black Coast]]'', one of [[Robert E. Howard]]'s original Conan stories.]]
===Conan stories published in ''Weird Tales''===
* "[[The Phoenix on the Sword]]" (novelette; ''WT'' 20 6, Dec 1932)
* "[[The Scarlet Citadel]]" (novelette; ''WT'' 21 1, Jan 1933)
* "[[The Tower of the Elephant]]" (novelette; ''WT'' 21 3, Mar 1933)
* "[[Black Colossus]]" (novelette; ''WT'' 21 6, Jun 1933)
* "[[Xuthal of the Dusk]]"' (novelette; ''WT'' 22 3, Sep 1933, as "The Slithering Shadow")
* "'[[The Pool of the Black One]]" (novelette; ''WT'' 22 4, Oct 1933)
* "[[Rogues in the House]]" (novelette; ''WT'' 23 1, Jan 1934)
* "[[Iron Shadows in the Moon]]" (novelette; ''WT'' 23 4, Apr 1934, as "Shadows in the Moonlight")
* "[[Queen of the Black Coast]]" (novelette; ''WT'' 23 5, May 1934)
* "[[The Devil in Iron]]" (novelette; ''WT'' 24 2, Aug 1934)
* ''[[The People of the Black Circle]]'' (novella; ''WT'' 24 3-5, Sep/Oct/Nov 1934)
* "[[A Witch Shall be Born]]" (novelette; ''WT'' 24 6, Dec 1934)
* "[[Jewels of Gwahlur]]" (novelette; ''WT'' 25 3, Mar 1935)
* ''[[Beyond the Black River]]'' (novella; ''WT'' 25 5-6, May/Jun 1935)
* "[[Shadows in Zamboula |Man-Eaters of Zamboula]]" (novelette; ''WT'' 26 5, Nov 1935, as "Shadows in Zamboula")
* ''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'' (novel; ''WT'' 26 6 & 25 1-4, Dec 35/Jan/Feb/Mar/Apr 1936)
* ''[[Red Nails]]'' (novella; ''WT'' 28 1-3, Jul/Aug-Sep/Oct 1936)
===Conan stories by Howard not published in his lifetime===
* ''[[The Frost Giant's Daughter]]''. Originally a Conan story, but after being rejected, Howard revised it. Retitled as ''The Gods of the North'', the main character's name changed to "Amra of Akbitana." The original version has inter alia been published in 2003 in ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian''.
* ''[[The God in the Bowl]]''. Published inter alia in 2003 in ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian''.
* ''[[The Vale of Lost Women]]''. Published inter alia in 2003 in ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian''.
* ''[[The Black Stranger]]''. Rewritten by [[L. Sprague de Camp]] as ''The Treasure of Tranicos''. Howard's version published in 1987 in ''Echoes of Valor''.
===Unfinished Conan stories by Howard===
* ''The Snout in the Dark''. Fragment.
* ''Drums of Tombalku''. Fragment.
* ''The Hall of the Dead''. Synopsis only.
* ''The Hand of Nergal''. Fragment.
* There also exist a number of untitled synopses of Conan stories.
===Other Conan related material by Howard===
* ''Wolves Beyond the Border'' - a non-Conan story set in Conan's world. Fragment.
* ''[[The Hyborian Age]]'' - an essay on the [[Hyborian Age]], the fictional setting of the Conan stories. Published in 2003 in ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian''.
* ''[[Cimmeria (Poem)|Cimmeria]]'' - a poem written by Howard in 1932. Published in 2003 in ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian''.
===Textual history===
Following Howard's death, the copyright of the Conan stories passed through several hands. Eventually, under the guidance of [[L. Sprague de Camp]] and [[Lin Carter]], the stories were expurgated, revised, and (in some cases) completely rewritten. For more than fifty years, Howard's original Conan stories remained out of print. In the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], the copyright holders took Howard's stories out of print entirely, while continuing to sell pastiche works by other authors (see below).
Then, in [[2000]], [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz Science Fiction]], a British publisher, issued a two-volume, complete edition of Howard's Conan stories as part of their Fantasy Masterworks imprint (including several stories which had never seen print in their original form). Gollancz' edition used the original versions of the stories as published in Weird Tales.
In [[2003]], a British publisher named [[Wandering Star]] made an effort to both restore Howard's original manuscripts and to provide a more scholarly and historical view of the Conan stories. They published deluxe hardcover editions in England, which are being republished in the USA by the Del Rey imprint of [[Ballantine Books]]. The first book, ''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume One (1932-1933)'' (2003; vt ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian'' 2003 US) includes Howard's notes on the fictional setting, as well as letters and poems concerning the genesis of his ideas. It also includes the first thirteen Conan short stories Howard wrote, published between [[1932]] and [[1934]]. This volume has been followed by ''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Two (1934)'' (2004; vt ''The Bloody Crown of Conan'' (2005 US), with the final title forthcoming in fall 2005: ''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Three (1935-1936)'' (2005; vt ''The Conquering Sword of Conan'' 2005 US). Between the three books, readers will finally have all of the original unedited Robert E. Howard stories available for the first time.
==Book editions==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:ffrazetta2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|One of the many classic illustrations of Conan painted by [[Frank Frazetta]] for paperback editions.]] -->
The character of Conan has proven durably popular, resulting in pastiche Conan stories being assembled by later writers such as [[Lin Carter]], [[L. Sprague de Camp]], [[Karl Edward Wagner]], [[John Maddox Roberts]], [[Andrew J. Offutt]], [[J. Ramsey Campbell]], [[Poul Anderson]], [[Richard A. Lupoff]], [[Björn Nyberg]], [[Robert Jordan]], [[Steve Perry (author)|Steve Perry]], [[Leonard Carpenter]] and [[John C. Hocking]]. Some of these pastiches have finished incomplete Conan manuscripts by Howard (listed above). Others were created by rewriting Howard stories which originally featured entirely different characters from entirely different milieus. Most, however, are completely original works. In total, more than fifty pastiche novels and dozens of short stories featuring the Conan character have been written by authors other than Howard. The notable book editions of the Conan stories are:
===The [[Gnome Press]] editions, 1959-1957===
The Gnome Press edition of Conan was the first hardcover collection of Howard's Conan stories, and included the earliest pastiches.
*''Conan the Conqueror'' (AKA ''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'') (1950)
*''The Sword of Conan'' (1952)
*''King Conan'' (1953)
*''The Coming of Conan'' (1953)
*''Conan the Barbarian'' (1954)
*''Tales of Conan'' (1955) (originally non-Conan Howard stories rewritten as Conan stories by L. Sprague de Camp)
*''The Return of Conan'' (1957) (pastiche by Björn Nyberg and L. Sprague de Camp)
===The Lancer/Ace paperback editions, 1966-1977===
[[Image:Conan usurper.jpg|thumb|175px|right|The cover of ''Conan the Usurper'' (1967) by [[Frank Frazetta]] (artist).]]
The first comprehensive paperback edition, which compiled the existing Howard stories and pastiches together with new pastiches in chronological order, to form a complete account of Conan's life. Lancer Books went out of business before bringing out the entire series, the publication of which was completed by Ace Books.
Undertaken under the direction of De Camp and Carter, this edition includes all the original Howard material, including that left unpublished in his lifetime and fragments and outlines. However, De Camp and Carter heavily edited much of the material, even seriously rewriting some stories (like "The Treasure of Tranicos") and completing the stories that were not in finished form. They also rewrote several non-Conan Howard stories, mostly historical exotica situated in the [[Levant]] at the time of the crusades, to turn them into Conan yarns. Pastiches written entirely by themselves were added as well. In the following list, volumes 6 and 10&ndash;12 don't contain a word by Howard. Of the thirty-five stories in the other eight volumes, nineteen were published or completed by Howard during his lifetime, but with an undetermined amount of new edits, ten are "collaborations" rewritten from other complete manuscripts or completed from his incomplete manuscripts, fragments or synopses, and six are the sole work of De Camp and Carter. Many purist Howard fans have taken exception to these editorial practices.
#''Conan'' (1968) (by Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter)
#''Conan of Cimmeria'' (1969) (by Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter)
#''Conan the Freebooter'' (1968) (by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp)
#''Conan the Wanderer'' (1968) (by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp)
#''Conan the Adventurer'' (1966) (by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp)
#''Conan the Buccaneer'' (1971) (by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter)
#''Conan the Warrior'' (1967) (by Robert E. Howard)
#''Conan the Usurper'' (1967) (by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp)
#''Conan the Conqueror'' (AKA ''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'') (1967) (by Robert E. Howard)
#''Conan the Avenger'' (AKA ''The Return of Conan'') (1968) (by Bjorn Nyberg and L. Sprague de Camp)
#''Conan of Aqui |
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SLIPS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SLiRP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
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slog '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Sloop '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
slop '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
slopsucker '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Slot 1 '''DONE'''<br>
Slot 2 '''DONE'''<br>
Slot A '''DONE'''<br>
slurp '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
sm '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
smail '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
SMALGOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SMALL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Small-C '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Small Computer System Interface '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
small-office/home-office '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Small Outline DIMM '''DONE'''<br>
Smalltalk '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Smalltalk-80 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Smalltalk/V '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
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SMART '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
smart '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Smart Battery Data '''DONE'''<br>
smart card '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Smartdrive '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric<br>
SMARTdrv '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric<br>
smart terminal '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info, obsolescent term<br>
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SMB '''DONE''' - merged<br>
smbclient '''DONE''' - merged<br>
smblib '''DONE''' - merged<br>
SMBus '''DONE'''<br>
SMCC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SMDS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SMG '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SMI '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SMIL '''DONE''' - merged<br>
smiley '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
S-MIME '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SML '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SML# '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sml2c '''DONE''' - merged into SML programming language<br>
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smoke '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
smoke and mirrors '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
smoke-emitting diode '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
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SNMP agent '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SNMPv2 '''DONE''' - merged into SNMP<br>
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solid-state storage device<br>
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some random X '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
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SORCERER '''NO IMPORT'' - esoteric<br>
sorcerer's apprentice mode '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
sort '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
sorting '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SOS '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
sound '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
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sound card '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
soundex '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
source '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
source code '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
source code escrow '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
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source routing '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric<br>
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space-ca |
[Kafka (disambiguation)]]''.
'''Franz Kafka''' ([[July 3]], [[1883]] &ndash; [[June 3]], [[1924]]) was one of the major [[German-language]] [[novel|novelists]] and [[short story]] writers of the [[20th century]], most of whose works were published posthumously. He was born in [[Prague]] of [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] [[Jew]]ish descent; his unique body of writing continues to draw interest from critics and readers alike.
== Life ==
'''Kafka''' was born [[July 3]], [[1883]], into a middle-class, [[German language|German-speaking]] [[Judaism|Jewish]] family in [[Prague]], the capital of [[Bohemia]], a kingdom that was then a part of the Dual Monarchy of [[Austria-Hungary]]. His father, Hermann Kafka ([[1852]]-[[1931]]), came to Prague from [[Osek]], a small Czech-speaking Jewish village near [[Písek]] in southern Bohemia. After working as a traveling sales representative, he had established himself as an independent retailer of men's and women's fancy goods and accessories. Kafka's mother, Julie Kafka, born Löwy ([[1856]]-[[1934]]), was the daughter of a prosperous brewer in [[Podebrady]] and was better educated than her husband. Kafka had two brothers, Georg and Heinrich, each of whom died before reaching the age of two (before Kafka was six), and three younger sisters, Elli (1889–1941), Valli (1890–1942) and Ottla (1892–1943), all of whom died in [[Nazi concentration camps]].
Although Kafka learned German as his first language, both parents also spoke [[Czech language|Czech]]. The logo of Hermann's business, which had as many 15 employees, was a [[jackdaw]] (''kavka'' in Czech). (Later, Kafka acquired some knowledge of [[French language]] and culture; one of his favorite authors was [[Flaubert]].)
On business days, both parents were absent from the home. Julie Kafka had a say in the management of her husband's business and worked in it as many as 12 hours a day. The children were largely reared by a succession of governesses and servants.
From 1889 to 1893, Kafka attended the ''Deutsche Knabenschule'', the German-language boys elementary school at the ''Fleischmarkt'' (meat market), the street now known as Masná Street in Prague. Subsequently he was admitted to the rigorous classics-oriented state "humanistic" ''gymnasium'' (academic secondary school with eight grade levels, where German was also the language of instruction) at Staroměstské náměstí, within the Kinsky Palace in the Old Town. He completed his [[Matura]] exams in [[1901]]. Admitted to the [[Charles University of Prague|Charles University of Prague]], Kafka first studied chemistry, but switched after a short time to law, which offered a range of career possibilities, pleased his father, and required a longer course of study that gave Kafka time to take classes in German studies and art history.
Kakfa obtained the degree of Doctor of Law in [[1906]] and performed an obligatory year of unpaid service as law clerk for the civil and criminal courts. For nearly a year he worked for Assicurazioni Generali, an aggressive Italian insurance company, then, with the help of a friend, found more congenial employment with the Worker's Accident [[Insurance]] Institute for the Kingdom of Bohemia. He often referred to his job as insurance officer as a "Brotberuf" (German: "Bread-job") -- a job done just to pay one's bills.
In [[1917]] he began to suffer from [[tuberculosis]], which would require frequent convalescence during which he was supported by his family, most notably his sister Ottla, with whom he had much in common.
[[Image:Kafka monument.jpg|right|thumb|Bronze statue of Franz Kafka in Prague]]
While at school he took an active role in organizing literary and social events, doing much to promote and organize performances for the [[Yiddish theatre]], despite the misgivings of even close friends such as [[Max Brod]], who usually supported him in everything else. Despite his fear of being perceived as both physically and mentally repulsive, he impressed others with his boyish, neat, and austere good looks, a quiet and cool demeanor, obvious intelligence and dry sense of humor.
Kafka struggled fitfully to come to terms with his domineering father. In the early 1920s he developed an intense relationship with Czech journalist and writer [[Milena Jesenská]]. In [[1923]] he briefly moved to [[Berlin]] in the hope of distancing himself from his family's influence to concentrate on his writing. In Berlin he lived with [[Dora Diamant]], a 19-year-old kindergarten teacher from an orthodox Jewish family, who was independent enough to have escaped her past in the ghetto. Dora became his lover, and influenced Kafka's interest in the [[Talmud]].
While it is generally agreed that Kafka suffered from [[clinical depression]] and [[social anxiety]] throughout his entire life, he suffered from [[migraine]]s, insomnia, [[constipation]], boils, and other ailments, all usually brought on by excessive stresses and strains. He attempted to counteract all of this by a regimen of [[Naturopathic Medicine|naturopathic]] treatments, such as a [[Vegetarian cuisine|vegetarian]] diet and the consumption of large quantities of unpasteurized milk (the latter possibly the causal factor of his tuberculosis).
However, Kafka's tuberculosis worsened; he returned to Prague, then went to a [[sanatorium]] near [[Vienna]] for treatment, where he died on [[June 3]], [[1924]], apparently from starvation. (The condition of Kafka's throat made it too painful to eat, and since [[intravenous therapy]] had not been developed, there was no way to feed him (a fate bearing some resemblance to those of Gregor in the ''Metamorphosis'' and the main character of ''A Hunger Artist''). His body was ultimately brought back to Prague where he was interred on [[June 11]], [[1924]], in the New Jewish Cemetery in [[Žižkov|Prague-Žižkov]].
[[Image:Grave of Kafka.JPG|thumb|200px|left| Franz Kafka's grave in Prague-Žižkov]]
Kafka published only a few short stories during his lifetime, a small part of his work, and consequently his writing attracted little attention until after his death. Prior to his death, he instructed his friend and [[literary executor]] [[Max Brod]] to destroy all of his manuscripts. His lover, Dora Diamant, partially executed his wishes. The majority of his last writings in Dora's possession, including up to 20 notebooks and 35 letters, she secretly kept, until they were confiscated by the Gestapo in 1933. An ongoing international search is being conducted for these missing Kafka papers. Brod overrode Kafka's instructions and instead oversaw the publication of most of his work in his possession, which soon began to attract attention and high critical regard.
All his published works, except several Czech letters to Milena Jesenská, were written in German.
==Critical interpretation==
There have been many critics who have tried to make sense of Kafka's works by interpreting them through certain schools of literary criticism&mdash;as [[modernism|modernist]], [[magical realism|magical realist]], and so on. The apparent hopelessness and the absurdity that seem to permeate his works are considered emblematic of [[existentialism]]. Others have tried to locate [[Marxism|Marxist]] influence in his satirization of bureaucracy in pieces such as ''[[In the Penal Colony]]'', ''[[The Trial]]'', and ''[[The Castle]]'', whereas others point to [[anarchism]] as an inspiration for Kafka's anti-bureaucratic viewpoint. Still others have interpreted his works through the lens of Judaism (because he was Jewish and had an interest in Jewish culture, though he only cultivated it late in life)&mdash;[[Borges]] made a few perceptive remarks in this regard; through [[Freud|Freudianism]] (because of his familial struggles); or as allegories of a metaphysical quest for [[God]] ([[Thomas Mann]] was a proponent of this theory). Themes of alienation and persecution are repeatedly emphasized, and this emphasis&mdash;notably in the work of [[Marthe Robert]]&mdash;partly inspired the counter-criticism of [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Felix Guattari]], who argued that there was much more to Kafka than the stereotype of a lonely figure writing out of anguish, and that his work was more deliberate, subversive and yet "joyful" than it appears to be. Biographers have said that it was common for Kafka to read chapters of the books he was working on to his closest friends, and those readings usually concentrated themselves on the constant, but many times ignored, humorous side of his prose. [[Milan Kundera]] refers the essentially surrealist humour of Kafka as a main predecessor of later artists such as [[Federico Fellini]], [[Gabriel García Márquez]], [[Carlos Fuentes]] and [[Salman Rushdie]]. For Márquez it was as he said the reading of Kafka's ''[[The Metamorphosis]]'' that showed him "that it was possible to write in a different way".
== Kafka in visual media ==
''For a full list of films [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0434525/ The IMDb filmography]''
* [[Orson Welles]] wrote and directed an adaptation of ''[[The Trial]]'' in [[1962]] starring [[Anthony Perkins]]. Welles considered it to be his best film.
* A film in which [[Jeremy Irons]] stars as the eponymous author was released in 1991. Directed by [[Steven Soderbergh]], the movie mixes his life and fiction providing a semi-biographical presentation of Kafka's life and works. The story concerns Kafka investigating the disappearance of one of his work colleagues. The plot takes Kafka through many of the writer's own works, most notably ''[[The Castle]]'' and ''[[The Trial]]''.
* ''Franz Kafka's 'It's a Wonderful Life' '' ([[1993]]) is a short film written and directed by [[Peter Capaldi]] and starring [[Richard E. Grant]] as Kafka. The film blends "[[The Metamorphosis|Metamorphosis]]" with [[Frank Capra]]'s ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]''.
* Another 1993 film portrayed ''[[The Trial]]'' starri |
les have a median income of $46,216 versus $35,682 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the town is $28,199. 4.6% of the population and 3.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 3.9% of those under the age of 18 and 6.5% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== Points of interest ==
* [[Fairbanks House, Dedham|Fairbanks House]]
* [[Museum of Bad Art]]
* [[Mother Brook]] (first man made water way in The United States)
==Further reading==
* Lockridge, Kenneth A. (1985). ''A New England Town: The First Hundred Years: Dedham, Massachusetts, 1636-1736'' (2nd ed.). W. W. Norton. ISBN 0393954595.
* Cremin, Lawrence A., "American Education: The Colonial Experience 1607-1783," First Edition, New York, Harper & Row, Publishers, 1970.
== External links ==
* Dedham's web site is http://www.town.dedham.ma.us/.
* [http://www.rongolini.com/masshist.htm "Taxation for Religion in Early Massachusetts" - Ronald Golini] mentions the role of the 1818 "Dedham case"
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.244609|-71.165531}}
[[Category:Towns in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Norfolk County, Massachusetts]]
{{Massachusetts}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Death factory</title>
<id>8546</id>
<revision>
<id>32881952</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-27T15:32:22Z</timestamp>
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<username>RussBot</username>
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<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Death camp" +"Nazi extermination camp"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nazi extermination camp]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Deuteronomy</title>
<id>8547</id>
<revision>
<id>41980376</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:45:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.221.33.91</ip>
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<comment>/* Summary of the book */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Torah}}
'''Deuteronomy''' is the fifth book of the [[Hebrew Bible]]. It is part of [[Judaism]]'s [[Torah]] - the first segment of the [[Tanakh]]. It later became part of [[Christianity]]'s [[Old Testament]]. Its [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name is '''''Devarim''''' &#1491;&#1489;&#1512;&#1497;&#1501; ("words"), which comes from the opening phrase "Eleh ha-devarim" ("These are the ''words''..."). The term can also stretch to mean "discourses" or "talks", as is generally the case with the Greek word "[[logos]]".
== Origin of the name Deuteronomy ==
The English name, "Deuteronomy", comes from the name which the book bears in the [[Septuagint]] (&#916;&#949;&#965;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#972;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#957;) and in the [[Vulgate]] (Deuteronomium). This is based upon the erroneous Septuagint rendering of "mishneh ha-torah ha-zot" (xvii. 18), which grammatically can mean only "a repetition [that is, a copy] of this law," but which is rendered by the Septuagint &#964;&#8056; &#916;&#949;&#965;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#972;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#964;&#959;&#8166;&#964;&#959;, as though the expression meant "this repetition of the law." While, however, the name is thus a mistranslation, it is not inappropriate; for the book does include, by the side of much new material, a repetition or reformulation of a large part of the laws found in the non-priestly sections of [[Exodus]].
Ιθθ== Summary of the book ==
Deuteronomy consists chiefly of three discourses said to have been delivered by [[Moses]] a short time before his death, given to the [[Israelites]], in the plains of [[Moab]], in the penultimate month of the final year of their wanderings through the wilderness.
The first discourse (1-4) is a historical recollection, recapitulating the chief events of the past forty years in the wilderness, with earnest hortatory exhortations to obedience to the divine ordinances, and warnings against the danger of forsaking the God of their fathers.
The second discourse (5-26) is, in effect, the main body of the whole book, and is composed of two distinct addresses. The first of these (5-11), forms a second introduction, expanding on the [[Ten Commandments]] given at [[Mount Sinai, Egypt|Mount Sinai]]. This other, second, address (12-26) is the [[Deuteronomic Code]], a series of [[mitzvot]] (''commands''), forming extensive laws, admonitions, and injunctions to the Israelites, regarding how they ought to conduct themselves in [[Canaan]], the land they regard to have been promised by [[Yahweh]] as their permanent home.
The concluding third discourse (27-30) is hortatory, relating almost wholly to the solemn sanctions of the law, the blessings to the obedient, and the curse that would fall on the rebellious. In this discourse, the Israelites are solemnly adjured to adhere faithfully to the covenant between them and Yahweh, and so secure for themselves, and for their posterity, the promised blessings.
After the final discourse, the text describes Moses preparing himself to die. As the main part of preparation, Moses is described as conditionally renewing the [[covenant]] between Yahweh and the Israelites, the condition being the loyalty of the people, and at the same time, [[Joshua]] is also appointed by Moses as heir, a leader to lead the people into Canaan.
These addresses to the people are followed by what is generally regarded as three short appendices, namely:
*The [[Song of Moses]], apparently being created by Moses by the request of [[Yahweh]] (32:1-47).[[]]ôΝΜ
*The [[Blessing of Moses]], which is pronounced upon the individual [[tribes of Israel]] (33)
*The story of the death of Moses (32:48-52), and subsequent burial (34).
==Analysis of authorship==
=== Early Jewish analysis ===
Several [[Talmud]] rabbis were the first to notice problems concerning the supposed premise that Moses wrote the entire five books of the torah. Basing themselves on this premise, they asked how he could possibly have written the text describing his own death and burial, as well as describing, after his own death, that ''... there arose not a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses''. While some contended that he wrote them prophetically, the dominant opinion of these rabbis seems to be that Joshua wrote them and appended them to the text.
Later Jewish biblical [[exegesis|exegetes]], such as [[Abraham ibn Ezra]] (c.[[1093]] - [[1167]]) also noted the distinctly different meditative style, and language, of Deuteronomy and stated that a number of verses must have been written by a later author, again, probably, in their view, [[Joshua]]. Similarly, in his introduction to Deuteronomy, Don [[Isaac Abravanel]] ([[1437]] - [[1508]]) was adamant that the book had a different author, than did the first four books of the [[Torah|Pentateuch]]. Both ibn Ezra, and Don Abravanel, prefigured more contemporary exponents of multiple authorship.
These writers had no problem identifying a period for the text to have been written within. At the end of the [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]], there is an enigmatic story of the religious reform conducted during the reign of King [[Josiah]], also recounted more briefly in the [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 34:3. After eradicating the rival cultic centres to [[Jerusalem]], Josiah purged the Temple in Jerusalem of pagan influences ([[621 BC]]). During the process of cleansing, [[Hilkiah]], the High Priest, found a ''lost scroll'' of the Torah, whose laws were happily in complete accord with the reforms then being instituted.
The biblical story continues that Josiah and Hilkiah went to [[Huldah]], the Prophetess to confirm that this was indeed a lost book of the law. She did so, adding that failure to comply would result in the fulfillment of the curses described in the book, and as a result, a ceremony, only otherwise mentioned in Deuteronomy, was arranged. In this ceremony, the king read the entire scroll that was found, to the people assembled for [[Sukkot]], in order to renew the covenant between them and the Law, in a re-enactment of the events at Mount Sinai.
Several rabbis in the Talmud cite a longstanding tradition, echoed by most modern researchers, that the scroll discovered by Hilkiah was none other than Deuteronomy, lost but now recovered by Hilkiah. Deuteronomy is the only book of the Pentateuch to mention the centralisation of worship into a single location where sacrifices were permitted to be offered. In effect, this was the very essence of Josiah's reform.
These rabbis also point to various aspects of the story, which are somewhat enigmatic, in their efforts to understand what had actually happened. For example, they ask why the king and high priest chose to go to an otherwise unknown prophetess for confirmation of the text, when there were two major prophets, [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]], and [[Zechariah]], living at that time. The answer they give is far from satisfactory: Zechariah was home sick that day, and Jeremiah was away on business.
In fact, this answer may actually be an indication of the historical importance of the Reform and the conflict it would have generated among the masses. Rather than have it originate with overly zealous religious leaders (the prophets), it came from the king and high priest, both of whom were political. By attributing the book to Moses, it could have the same authority as the other books, and its precepts would be similarly observed and respected.
=== Apologetics ===
Most [[Orthodox Judaism]] scholars and Jews and many [[fundamentalist]] Christians believe, despite the ideas raised by the Talmudic rabbis, that the origina |
- Exhaustive link directory.]
* [http://www.southerncrosspipeband.com The Southern Cross Pipe Band of Montevideo, Uruguay]
* [http://www.prydein.com/pipes/ Bagpipe iconography - Paintings and images of the pipes.]
* [http://www.rspba.org The Royal Scottish Pipe Band Association]
* [http://www.edintattoo.co.uk The Edinburgh Military Tattoo]
* [http://www.geocities.com/blackbeardian/LonePiper/fergusmain.html Uncle Fergus' Bagpipers' Paradise!]
* [http://www.bagpipejourney.com/ Andrew Lenz's Bagpipe Journey - Reference information.]
* [http://www.tritonus.ch/Schweizer%20Sackpfeifen/sackpfeifen.htm Swiss Bagpipe]
* [http://www.78thfrasers.net The 78th Fraser Highlanders Pipe Band (first non-Scottish pipe band to win the World Pipe Band Championships)]
* [http://www.mcnabbs.org/andrew/comments/pipemusic Introduction to Bagpipe Music (Great Highland Bagpipe)]
* [http://www.ppbso.org/ Pipers and Pipe Band Society of Ontario]
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[[wa:Pupsak]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bedrock Records</title>
<id>3952</id>
<revision>
<id>41117501</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T03:59:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.192.104.10</ip>
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<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bedrock Records''' is an [[England|English]] [[record label]] for [[trance music|trance]], [[house music|house]] and [[techno music|techno]] started by [[Nick Muir]] and [[John Digweed]].
It is based around a [[nightclub]] in [[London]] also called Bedrock.
==See also==
* [[List of record labels]]
* [[List of electronic music record labels]]
Classic Bedrock releases include "Set in Stone", "Forbidden Zone", "Heaven Scent", and "Beautiful Strange"
==External links==
* [http://www.bedrock.org.uk Official site]
{{record-label-stub}}
[[Category:British record labels]]
[[Category:Electronic music record labels]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Big beat</title>
<id>3953</id>
<revision>
<id>41445534</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T10:29:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MilkMiruku</username>
<id>35699</id>
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<comment>mention of [[Wall Of Sound (record label)|Wall Of Sound]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Big beat''' (sometimes '''chemical breaks''') is a term devised in the mid 1990s by the British music press as a way of describing the work of [[The Chemical Brothers]], but was defined by the work of [[Fatboy Slim]]. Big beat tend to feature distorted, compressed [[breakbeat]]s at moderate tempos (usually between 110 to 136 [[beats per minute]]), acidic [[synthesizer]] lines and heavy jazz loops. They are often punctuated with punkish-style vocals and driven by intense, distorted basslines with conventional [[pop music|pop]] and [[techno music|techno]] song structures. Big beat is also characterised by a strong psychedelic influence stemming from the influence of The Beatles, Led Zeppelin's breakbeats, and the [[acid house]] musical movement.
==History==
At a time when electronic dance music tended to have deliberately artificial, robotic and repetitious [[drum beat|drum beats]] mixed with sampled drum loops, the Chemical Brothers took the unusual step of recreating rock-style drum lines with individually-sampled drums, their music consequently combining elements of dance and rock music. The term caught on, and was subsequently applied to a wide variety of acts, notably [[Bentley Rhythm Ace]], [[Lionrock]], Monkey Mafia, [[Death In Vegas]] and [[David Holmes (musician)|David Holmes]].
Other 'big beat' acts include [[Overseer]], [[Mr. Oizo]], many artists signed to [[Brighton|Brighton's]] [[Skint Records|Skint]] label and [[London|London's]] [[Wall Of Sound (record label)|Wall Of Sound]] label, and to some extent the later work of [[The Prodigy]]. By the time of the latter's successful 1997 album ''[[The Fat of the Land]]'', the music press were increasingly drawn to using the catch-all term '[[electronica]]' to describe the big beat sound, and the term 'big beat' itself is now rarely used.
==Notable big beat artists==
*[[Bentley Rhythm Ace]]
*[[Boom Boom Satellites]]
*[[The Chemical Brothers]]
*[[The Crystal Method]]
*[[Death in Vegas]]
*[[David Holmes (musician)|David Holmes]]
*[[Fatboy Slim]]
*[[Lionrock]]
*[[Monkey Mafia]]
*[[Mr. Oizo]]
*[[Overseer]]
*[[The Prodigy]]
*[[Propellerheads]]
==See also==
*[[Acid house]]
*[[Breakbeat]]
*[[Electronica]]
==External links==
* [http://www.thedjlist.com/djs/genre/breaksBigBeat The DJ List's Big Beat artists]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Biochemistry</title>
<id>3954</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-22T15:12:48Z</timestamp>
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<username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
<id>294180</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.142.199.226|209.142.199.226]] ([[User talk:209.142.199.226|talk]]) to last version by 144.137.40.150</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Biochemistry''' is the study of the [[chemistry]] of [[life]], a bridge between [[biology]] and chemistry that studies how complex [[chemical reaction]]s give rise to life. It is a hybrid branch of chemistry which specialises in the chemical processes in living [[organism]]s. This article only discusses terrestrial biochemistry ([[carbon]]- and [[water]]-based), as all the life forms we know are on [[Earth]]. Since life forms alive today are believed to have descended from the same [[common descent|common ancestor]], they naturally have similar biochemistries, even for matters which would appear to be essentially arbitrary, such as the [[genetic code]] or [[chirality (chemistry)|handedness]] of various biomolecules. It is unknown whether alternate biochemistries are possible or practical.
Biochemistry is the study of the structure and function of [[cell (biology)|cellular components]], such as [[protein]]s, [[carbohydrate]]s, [[lipid]]s, [[nucleic acid]]s, and other [[biomolecule]]s. [[Chemical biology]] aims to answer many questions arising from biochemistry by using tools developed within [[chemical synthesis|synthetic chemistry]].
Although there is a vast number of different biomolecules, they tend to be composed of the same repeating subunits (called ''[[monomer]]s''), in different orders. Each class of biomolecules has a different set of subunits. Recently, biochemistry has focused more specifically on the chemistry of [[enzyme]]-[[catalysis|catalyzed]] reactions, and on the properties of proteins.
The biochemistry of [[cell metabolism]] and the [[endocrine system]] has been extensively described. Other areas of biochemistry include the [[genetic code]] ([[DNA]], [[RNA]]), [[protein synthesis]], [[cell membrane]] transport, and [[signal transduction]].
== Development of biochemistry ==
Originally, it was generally believed that life was not subject to the laws of science the way nonlife was. It was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life (from other, previously existing biomolecules). Then, in [[1828]], [[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]] published a paper about the synthesis of [[urea]], proving that [[organic chemistry|organic]] compounds can be created artificially. The dawn of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, [[diastase]], in [[1833]] by [[Anselme Payen]]. Although the term “biochemistry” seems to have been first used in 1881, it is generally accepted that the formal coinage biochemistry occurred in [[1903]] by Carl Neuber, a German [[chemist]]. Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-[[20th century]], with the development of new techniques such as [[chromatography]], [[X-ray diffraction]], [[Nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]], [[radioisotopic labelling]], [[electron microscope|electron microscopy]] and [[molecular dynamics]] simulations. These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and [[metabolic pathway]]s of the [[cell (biology)|cell]], such as [[glycolysis]] and the [[citric acid cycle|Krebs cycle]] (citric acid cycle).
Today, the findings of biochemistry are used in many areas, from [[genetics]] to [[molecular biology]] and from [[agriculture]] to [[medicine]]. The first application of biochemistry was probably the making of [[bread]] using [[yeast]], about 5000 years ago.
==Carbohydrates==
{{main|Carbohydrate}}
[[Image:Saccharose.png|thumb|[[Sucrose]]: ordinary table sugar and probably the most familiar carbohydrate.]]
The function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure. [[Sugar]]s are carbohydrates, although there are carbohydrates that are not sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other type of biomolecule. The simplest type of carbohydrate is a [[monosaccharide]], which among other properties contains [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]] in a ratio 1:2:1 (generalized formula C<sub>''n''</sub>H<sub>2''n''</sub>O<sub>''n''</sub>, where ''n'' is at least 3). [[Glucose]], one of the most important carboyhydrates, is an example of a monosaccharide. So is [[fructose]], the sugar that gives [[fruit]]s their sweet taste.
Two monosaccharides can be joined together us |
ropa Island]]
* [[European Union]]
===F===
* [[Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)]]
* [[Faroe Islands]] (finished)
* [[Fiji]]
* [[Finland]]
* [[France]]
* [[French Guiana]]
* [[French Polynesia]]
* [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]
===G===
* [[Gabon]]
* [[The Gambia]]
* [[Gaza Strip]] '''See also:''' [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]]
* [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (Updated to 2004)
* [[Germany]]
* [[Ghana]]
* [[Gibraltar]]
* [[Glorioso Islands]]
* [[Greece]]
* [[Greenland]] (finished)
* [[Grenada]]
* [[Guadeloupe]]
* [[Guam]]
* [[Guatemala]]
* [[Guernsey]]
* [[Guinea]]
* [[Guinea-Bissau]]
* [[Guyana]]
===H===
* [[Haiti]]
* [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]
* [[Holy See|Holy See (Vatican City)]]
* [[Honduras]]
* [[Hong Kong]]
* [[Howland Island]]
* [[Hungary]]
===I===
* [[Iceland]] (finished)
* [[India]] (updated to 2003 (Transportation/Communication)
* [[Indian Ocean]]
* [[Indonesia]]
* [[Iran]]
* [[Iraq]]
* [[Ireland]]
* [[Isle of Man]]
* [[Israel]] '''See also:''' [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]]
* [[Italy]]
===J===
* [[Jamaica]]
* [[Jan Mayen]] (finished)
* [[Japan]]
* [[Jarvis Island]]
* [[Jersey]]
* [[Johnston Atoll]]
* [[Jordan]]
* [[Juan de Nova Island]]
===K===
* [[Kazakhstan]]
* [[Kenya]]
* [[Kingman Reef]]
* [[Kiribati]]
* [[Korea, North]]
* [[Korea, South]]
* [[Kuwait]]
* [[Kyrgyzstan]]
===L===
* [[Laos]]
* [[Latvia]]
* [[Lebanon]]
* [[Lesotho]] (finished)
* [[Liberia]]
* [[Libya]]
* [[Liechtenstein]]
* [[Lithuania]]
* [[Luxembourg]]
===M===
* [[Macau]]
* [[Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of]] (finished)
* [[Madagascar]]
* [[Malawi]]
* [[Malaysia]]
* [[Maldives]]
* [[Mali]]
* [[Malta]]
* [[Marshall Islands]]
* [[Martinique]]
* [[Mauritania]]
* [[Mauritius]]
* [[Mayotte]]
* [[Mexico]]
* [[Micronesia|Micronesia, Federated States of]]
* [[Midway Islands]]
* [[Moldova]]
* [[Monaco]]
* [[Mongolia (country)|Mongolia]]
* [[Montserrat]]
* [[Morocco]]
* [[Mozambique]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 8 Nov 2003
===N===
* [[Namibia]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 2 Nov 2003
* [[Nauru]]
* [[Navassa Island]]
* [[Nepal]]
* [[Netherlands]]
* [[Netherlands Antilles]]
* [[New Caledonia]]
* [[New Zealand]] (Updated to 2003) [[User:RossA|RossA]] 07:07, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)
* [[Nicaragua]]
* [[Niger]]
* [[Nigeria]]
* [[Niue]]
* [[Norfolk Island]]
* [[Northern Mariana Islands]]
* [[Norway]] (finished)
===O===
* [[Oman]]
===P===
* [[Pacific Ocean]]
* [[Pakistan]]
* [[Palau]]
* [[Palmyra Atoll]] (finished)
* [[Panama]]
* [[Papua New Guinea]]
* [[Paracel Islands]]
* [[Paraguay]]
* [[Peru]]
* [[Philippines]]
* [[Pitcairn Islands]]
* [[Poland]]
* [[Portugal]]
* [[Puerto Rico]]
===Q===
* [[Qatar]]
===R===
* [[Reunion]]
* [[Romania]]
* [[Russia]]
* [[Rwanda]]
===S===
* [[Saint Helena]]
* [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
* [[Saint Lucia]]
* [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]]
* [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
* [[Samoa]]
* [[San Marino]]
* [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]
* [[Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Senegal]]
* [[Serbia and Montenegro]] - almost updated to 2003 data; have not done demographics or government)
* [[Seychelles]]
* [[Sierra Leone]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 15 November 2003
* [[Singapore]]
* [[Slovakia]]
* [[Slovenia]]
* [[Solomon Islands]]
* [[Somalia]]
* [[South Africa]] - finished
* [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]
* [[Southern Ocean]]
* [[Spain]]
* [[Spratly Islands]]
* [[Sri Lanka]]
* [[Sudan]]
* [[Suriname]]
* [[Svalbard]] (finished)
* [[Swaziland]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 12 Nov 2003
* [[Sweden]] (finished)
* [[Switzerland]]
* [[Syria]]
===T===
* [[Taiwan]]
* [[Tajikistan]]
* [[Tanzania]]
* [[Thailand]]
* [[Togo]]
* [[Tokelau]]
* [[Tonga]]
* [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
* [[Tromelin Island]]
* [[Tunisia]]
* [[Turkey]]
* [[Turkmenistan]]
* [[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
* [[Tuvalu]]
===U===
* [[Uganda]] (finished)
* [[Ukraine]]
* [[United Arab Emirates]]
* [[United Kingdom]]
* [[United States]]
* [[Uruguay]]
* [[Uzbekistan]]
===V===
* [[Vanuatu]]
* [[Venezuela]]
* [[Vietnam]]
* [[Virgin Islands]]
===W===
* [[Wake Island]]
* [[Wallis and Futuna]]
* [[West Bank]] '''See also:''' [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]]
* [[Western Sahara]]
* "World" entry under [[Earth]] (finished)
===Y===
* [[Yemen]]
===Z===
* [[Zambia]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 13 Dec 2003
* [[Zimbabwe]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 13 Nov 2003
----
Naming issues:
* [[Myanmar]] - entry is under Burma
* [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]] - separate entries under West Bank and Gaza Strip
----
The Department of State info is at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/bgn/ ; I'm going about adding that alphabetically, as well; it's taking some time because not all of the text can be cut and pasted directly, at least not without looking sloppy. Much of it has to be integrated or left unadded, and some of their information, oddly enough, conflicts with the CIA info, esp. in re: economic figures. The status of that is [[wikipedia:Status of the porting of U.S. Dept of State info|here]]
:''See also :'' [[CIA World Factbook]]
----
'''NOTE ON SERBIA & MONTENEGRO/YUGOSLAVIA ENTRIES''': Prior to the 2001 ''World Factbook'', the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was listed as ''Serbia & Montenegro''. This was done because the US Government did not recognize the government of former leader [[Slobodan Milosevic]]. This fact was clearly made known in the entry:
''Serbia and Montenegro have asserted the formation of a joint independent state, but this entity has not been formally recognized as a state by the US. The US view is that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) has dissolved and that none of the successor republics represents its continuation.''
After Milosevic was ousted in 2000, the CIA started to refer to the nation as Yugoslavia. When dealing with older editions of the Factbook before 2001, the data listed under ''Serbia and Montenegro'' is for the former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and not the new state that came into effect in Feburary 2003.
----
==Environmental Agreements==
([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/appendix/appendix-c.html Appendix C] in the CIA World Factbook)
*[[Basel Convention]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
**[[Nitrogen Oxide Protocol]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
**[[POP Air Pollution Protocol]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
**[[Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
**[[Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[MARPOL 73/78|Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, 1973]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
[[Category:Wikipedia maintenance|{{PAGENAME}}]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Compost</title>
<id>5966</id>
<revision>
<id>41762308</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:44:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.79.251.50</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Compost.jpg|right|A handful of compost]]
[[Image:Compost bin.jpg|thumb|250px|A compost bin full of autumn oak leaves]]
'''Compost''' is the decomposed remnants of [[organic compound|organic]] materials (those with [[plant]] and [[animal]] origins). Compost is used in [[gardening]] and [[agriculture]], mixed in with the [[soil]]. It improves soil structure, increases the amount of [[organic matter]], and provides nutrients. [[Biodegradation]] is the means by which organic matter is recycled in its environment.
Compost is a common name for [[humus]], which is the result of the [[decomposition]] of organic matter. Decomposition is performed primarily by [[microorganism|microbes]], although larger creatures such as [[nematode]] and [[oligochaete]] worms (see [[vermicomposting]]), and [[ant]]s, contribute to the process. Decomposition occurs naturally in all but the most hostile environments, such as buried in [[landfill]]s or in extremely arid [[desert]]s, which prevent the microbes and other decomposers from thriving.
'''Composting''' is the ''controlled'' decomposition of organic matter. Rather than allowing nature to take its slow course, a composter provides an optimal en |
and humour. It was then passed to Morton during [[1924]] though it is likely there was a period when they overlapped. Morton wrote the column until [[1975]]; it was revived in the early [[1990s]] and continues today, written by [[William Hartston]]. The column is unsigned except by "Beachcomber" and it was not publicly known that Morton (or, come to that, Wyndham-Lewis) wrote it until the [[1930s]]. Although there have been three humorous "Beachcomber" columnists to date, the name is mainly associated with Morton who has been credited as an influence by [[Spike Milligan]] amongst others. Morton introduced the recurring characters and continuing stories that were a major feature of the column during his 51-year run.
The format of the column was a random assortment of small paragraphs which were otherwise unconnected. These could be anything, such as
*court reports, often involving Twelve Red-Bearded Dwarves before Mr Justice Cocklecarrot
*angry exchanges of letters between characters such as Florence McGurgle and her dissatisfied boarders
*interruptions from "Prodnose", representing the public, who would then be roundly cursed by the author and kicked out
*installments of serials that could stop, restart from earlier, be abandoned altogether or change direction abruptly without warning
*parodies of poetry or drama, particularly of the extremely "literary" type such as [[Ibsen]]
*news reports from around the country
or just anything that the author thought funny at the time. Morton's other interest, [[France]], was occasionally represented by epic tales of his rambling walks through the French countryside. These were ''not'' intended as humour.
"By The Way" was very popular with the readership, one of the reasons it lasted so long. Its style and randomness could be off-putting, however, and it is safe to say the humour could be something of an acquired taste. Oddly, one of the column's greatest opponents was Express Newspaper's owner, [[Lord Beaverbrook]], who had to keep being assured the column was indeed funny. Another prominent critic was [[George Orwell]] but "By The Way" was one of the only features kept continuously running in the often seriously reduced Daily Express throughout [[World War II]], where Morton's lampooning of [[Hitler]], including the British invention of Bracerot to make the Nazi's trousers fall down at inopportune moments, was regarded as valuable for morale.
The column was daily until [[1965]] when it was changed to weekly. It was then cancelled in [[1975]] and revived as a daily piece in the early 1990s where it continues to the present day in much the same format.
==Other formats==
The [[Will Hay]] film [[Boys Will Be Boys]] ([[1935]]) was set at Morton's [[Narkover]] school.
In [[1969]], [[Spike Milligan]] based a BBC television series named ''The World of Beachcomber'' on the columns. According to Milligan, the columns had been an influence on the comedic style of his radio series, ''[[The Goon Show]]''. A small selection was issued on a 1971 [[LP (format)|LP]] and a 2-cassette set of the series' soundtrack was made available in the late 1990s.
In [[1994]], [[BBC]] [[Radio 4]] broadcast the first of three series based on Morton's work. This featured [[Richard Ingrams]], [[John Wells]], [[Patricia Routledge]] and [[John Sessions]] from compilations prepared by [[Mike Barfield]]. Series 1 was also made available as a 2-cassette set.
==Bibliography==
===Books featuring Wyndham-Lewis' work===
*''A London Farrago'' (1922)
===Books featuring Morton's work===
'''Original collections'''
*''Mr Thake'' (1929)
*''Mr Thake Again''
*''By The Way'' (1931)
*''Morton's Folly''
*''The Adventures of Mr Thake''
*''Mr Thake and the Ladies''
*''Stuff and Nonsense''
*''Gallimaufry''
*''Sideways Through Borneo''
*''A Diet of Thistles''
*''A Bonfire of Weeds''
*''I Do Not Think So''
*''Fool's Paradise''
*''Captain Foulenough and Company''
*''Here and Now''
*''The Misadventures of Dr Strabismus''
*''The Tibetan Venus''
*''Merry-Go-Round'' (1958)
'''Later omnibus editions'''
*''The Best of Beachcomber'' (ed. [[Michael Frayn]], 1963)
*''Beachcomber: the works of J. B. Morton'' (ed. [[Richard Ingrams]], 1974, Muller, London)
*''Cram Me With Eels, the Best of Beachcomber's Unpublished Humor'' (ed. [[Mike Barfield]], 1995, Mandarin, London (ISBN 074931947X))
==Other uses==
The term '''''beachcomber''''' also refers to someone who searches along a shore, generally for salable items such as shells or coins.
==External links==
* [http://www.edwards.eclipse.co.uk/beachcom.htm A fan site]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/articles/w/worldofbeachcomb_1299002088.shtml BBC page about ''The World of Beachcomber'']
[[Category:Collective pseudonyms]]
[[Category:Humorists]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bill Joy</title>
<id>3965</id>
<revision>
<id>38914382</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T13:45:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.252.25.11</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''William Nelson Joy''' (born [[1954]]), commonly known as '''Bill Joy''', co-founded [[Sun Microsystems]] in [[1982]] along with [[Vinod Khosla]], [[Scott McNealy]] and [[Andy Bechtolsheim]], and served as chief scientist at the company until [[2003]].
==Early career==
After growing up in rural [[Michigan]] Joy received his B.S. in [[Electrical Engineering]] from the [[University of Michigan]] and his M.S. in Electrical Engineering and [[Computer Science]] from [[UC Berkeley]].
Bill Joy was the person largely responsible for the authorship of Berkeley [[Unix|UNIX]], also known as [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], from which spring many modern forms of UNIX, including [[FreeBSD]], [[NetBSD]], and [[OpenBSD]]. Some of his most notable contributions were [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP/IP]], the [[vi]] editor, [[Network File System|NFS]], and the [[csh]] shell.
==Sun==
In [[1983]] he co-founded Sun Microsystems.
There is a story about him:
[[DARPA]] had contracted [[Bolt, Beranek and Newman|BBN]] to add TCP/IP, devised by [[Vinton Cerf]] and [[Robert E. Kahn|Bob Kahn]], into Berkeley UNIX. Joy had been instructed to plug BBN's stack into Berkeley Unix. But Joy refused to do so. In his opinion, BBN's TCP/IP wasn't good enough. So he wrote his own high-performance TCP/IP stack.
As [[John Gage]] tells it, "BBN had a big contract to implement TCP/IP, but their stuff didn't work, and Joy's grad student stuff worked. So they had this big meeting and this grad student in a T-shirt shows up, and they said, 'How did you do this?' And Bill said, 'It's very simple -- you read the protocol and write the code.'" Others dispute this version of events.
In [[1986]], Joy was awarded a [[Grace Murray Hopper Award]] by the [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] for his work on the Berkeley UNIX Operating System.
Joy was also a primary figure in the development of the [[SPARC]] microprocessors, the [[Java programming language]], and [[Jini]].
On [[September 9]], [[2003]] Sun announced that Bill Joy was leaving the company and that he "is taking time to consider his next move and has no definite plans".
==Technology fears==
In [[2000]] he gained notoriety with the publication of his article in ''[[Wired Magazine]]'', "[[Why the future doesn't need us]]", in which he declared, in what some have described as a "neo-[[Luddite]]" position, that he was convinced that growing advances in [[genetic engineering]] and [[nanotechnology]] would bring [[existential risk|risks]] to humanity. He argued that intelligent [[robot]]s would replace humanity, at the very least in intellectual and social dominance, in the relatively near future. One of those whom he admitted had set him thinking along this path was [[Theodore Kaczynski]], the anti-technology murderer known as [[the Unabomber]].
==Post-Sun activities==
In late [[2003]] Joy founded a capital venture firm, HighBar Ventures, with two Sun colleagues. In January [[2005]] he was named a partner in venture capital firm [[Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield & Byers]].
Bill Joy is married and lives with his four children in [[Aspen, Colorado|Aspen]], [[Colorado]].
Bill Joy once said, "My method is to look at something that seems like a good idea and assume it's true." [http://www.shirky.com/writings/group_enemy.html]
==External links==
*[http://archive.salon.com/tech/fsp/2000/05/16/chapter_2_part_one/index.html BSD Unix: Power to the people, from the code] - Salon article
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.04/joy_pr.html ''Why the future doesn't need us''], ''Wired'', April 2000
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.12/billjoy.html?pg=2&topic=&topic_set= Interview] ''Wired'', December 2003
*[http://www.tecsoc.org/innovate/focusbilljoy.htm Bill Joy's Hi-Tech Warning]
*[http://technetcast.ddj.com/tnc_catalog.html?item_id=245 Bill Joy], techcast.ddj.com
*[http://news.com.com/2100-1012_3-5073205.html?tag=fd_top Co-founder Joy to leave Sun], news.com, [[September 9]] [[2003]]
*[http://www.fortune.com/fortune/technology/articles/0,15114,490598-1,00.html ''Joy After Sun''], interview with Brent Schlender for ''Fortune'', [[September 29]] [[2003]]
<!-- *[http://www.sun.com/aboutsun/media/ceo/mgt_joy.html Bio from Sun Microsystems] see link below for archive of this -->
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20030401125050/www.sun.com/aboutsun/media/ceo/mgt_joy.html Internet archive of biography from Sun Microsystems in 2003]
*[http://news.com.com/Talking+tech+with+Bill+Joy/2008-1014_3-5647645.html CNet Interview: Talking tech with Bill Joy] - [[31 March]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.pbs.org/cringely/nerdtv/shows/#3 NerdTV interview] (video, audio, and transcript available) - [[30 June]] [[2005]]
*[http://docs.freebsd.org/44doc/usd/12.vi/paper.html |
if administered regularly.
The long-term duration of protection from varicella vaccine is unknown, but there are now persons vaccinated more than thirty years ago with no evidence of waning immunity, while others have become vulnerable in as few as 6 years. Assessments of duration of immunity are complicated in an environment where natural disease is still common, which typically leads to an overestimation of effectiveness, and we are only now entering an era in the US where the long-term efficacy of varicella vaccine can be accurately gauged (Goldman, 2005).
== Controversy ==
{| class="infobox bordered" style="width: 25em; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"
|+ style="font-size: larger;" | '''Pox Parties'''
|-
! Pox Party:
| A party held by parents for the purpose of infecting their children with childhood diseases.
Similar ideas have applied to other diseases eg [[Measles]] but are now discouraged by doctors and health services.
The rationale is that guests exposed to the [[varicella]] virus will contract the disease and
develop strong and persistent [[Immune system|immunity]], at an age before disaster is likely particularly from Chickenpox or [[Rubella]].
Such parties are now less common in mainstream communities.
The first reference to this is the [http://www.library.ucla.edu/libraries/biomed/smallpox/wortleyletter.html letter] of [[Mary Wortley Montagu|Lady Montagu]] to [[Sarah Chiswell]] describing the parties people in Istanbul made for the purpose of [[variolation]] - an effective effort to survive [[Smallpox]] which she imported to England.
}
|-
! On TV:
| Portrayed in TV cartoons (South Park "[[Chickenpox (South Park)|Chickenpox]]" and [[The Simpsons]] "[[Milhouse of Sand and Fog]]".)
|-
| colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller;" | {{{footnotes|}}}
|}
Mortality due to primary varicella has declined significantly in countries which make wide use of the varicella vaccine. Zoster (Shingles) occurs decades after varicella and unsurprisingly zoster incidence has not declined in multiple studies. It is too early to observe the effect on [[Postherpetic neuralgia]] (PHN).
It is common ground that the perverse effect of an increase in the more dangerous shingles may increase after introduction of varicella vaccine (Yih, ''et al.'', 2005). [http://www.herpesdoctor.com/node/506]. There is no evidence this has occurred yet, and it might occur due to falls produced by other causes of decreased childhood infection. Observation continues.
Vaccination is common in the US, 41 of the 50 states require parents to immunize their children, it is not routine in the UK. Debate continues in the UK on the time when it will be desirable to adopt routine chickenpox vaccination, and in the US opinions that it should be dropped, individually, or [[anti-vaccinationist|along with ''all'' immunizations]], are also voiced.
'''Duration of Immunity:''' Some vaccinated children have been found to lose their protective antibody in as little as five to eight years. The officially expected span is only 20 years. As time goes on, boosters may be determined to be necessary, and introduced. It is common ground that if immunity declines rapidly, in the absence of re-challenge with wild virus then failure to boost immunity is likely to leave those immunised as children vulnerable to Varicella either as Chickenpox or Shingles and that in that case the disease is more dangerous than it is in childhood.
Catching wild chickenpox as a child has been thought to commonly result in lifelong immunity, indeed parents have deliberately ensured this in the past with "pox parties" (and similarly for some other diseases such as [[Rubella]]. Doctors generally don't advise it.). Historically exposure of adults to spotty children has boosted their immunity, reducing the risk of shingles[http://www.herpesdoctor.com/node/506] . Second episodes of chickenpox have been rare, but occur and probably more frequently in the UK latterly{{fact}}<!--it is an impresion, a clinical impression, but it needs checking and counting and not quoting AKM --> and definitely more frequently in the vaccine group. In one study, 30% of children had lost the antibody after five years, and 8% had already caught "wild" chickenpox in that five year period[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=121373].
<!-- immunocompromise is a different topic really -->
The CDC and corresponding national organisations are carefully observing the failure rate which may be high compared with other modern vaccines - large outbreaks of chickenpox having occurred at schools which required their children to be vaccinated [http://www.wfsb.com/Global/story.asp?S=1025686][http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/113/3/455][http://www.al.com/news/huntsvilletimes/index.ssf?/base/news/113464189674151.xml&coll=1][http://www.wpmi.com/news/state/story.aspx?content_id=90C8BF3E-0658-408B-80A8-E4854B229B45][http://health.yahoo.com/ency/healthwise/hw208205].
'''Immunocompromise'''
The mortality rate in immunocompromised patients with disseminated herpes zoster is 5-15%, with most deaths from pneumonia. Vaccines, unfortunately are less effective among these high-risk patients, as well as being more dangerous because it is an attenuated live virus (see last footnote), but clearly immunisation before immunocompromise would be desirable.
==References==
* {{cite journal | author=G.S. Goldman. | title=Universal varicella vaccination: efficacy trends and effect on herpes zoster | journal=International Journal of Toxicology| volume=24| issue=4 | year=2005 | pages=205-213 | id=PMID 16126614}}
* {{cite journal | author=Yih WK, Brooks DR, Lett SM, Jumaan AO, Zhang Z, Clements KM, Seward JF. | title=The incidence of varicella and herpes zoster in Massachusetts as measured by the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) during a period of increasing varicella vaccination coverage, 1998-2003 | journal=BMC Public Health | volume=5| issue=1 | year=2005 | pages=68-68 | id=PMID 15960856}}
* Bernstein, Henry, M.D. [http://www.familyeducation.com/experts/advice/0,1183,25-26758,00.html "Pediatrics Questions and Answers by Dr. Henry Bernstein: Who Discovered Chickenpox?"] ''Family Education Network'' (retrieved [[16 October]], [[2005]])
* [http://www.vaccineinformation.org/varicel/qandavax.asp "Chickenpox (Varicella) Vaccine."] (September [[2003]]), ''Immuunization Action Coalition'' (retrieved [[16 October]] [[2005]])
* [http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbrank.pl "International Data Base: Countries Ranked by Population."] ([[August 26]], 2005), [[United States Census Bureau]] (retrieved [[16 October]] [[2005]])
* Seward JF, Watson BM, Peterson CL, Mascola L, Pelosi JW, Zhang JX, Maupin TJ, Goldman GS, Tabony LJ, Brodovicz KG, Jumaan AO, Wharton M. Varicella disease after introduction of varicella vaccine in the United States, 1995-2000. ''[[JAMA]]'' 2002;287:606-11.
* Oxman MN, Levin MJ, Johnson GR, Schmader KE, Straus SE ''et al''. A vaccine to prevent herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia in older adults. ''[[N Engl J Med]]'' 2005;352:2271-84. PMID 15930418.
* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Varicella-related deaths--United States, January 2003-June 2004. ''MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep'' 2005;54:272-4. [http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/PDF/wk/mm5411.pdf Fulltext]. PMID 15788992.
* Brisson M, Gay NJ, Edmunds WJ, Andrews NJ. Exposure to varicella boosts immunity to Herpes-zoster: implications for mass vaccination against varicella. Vaccine 2002; 20: 2500-7.
* Thomas SL, Wheeler JG, Hall AJ. Contacts with varicella or with children and protection against herpes zoster in adults: a case-control study. Lancet 2002; published online [[2 July]]. (http://image.thelancet.com/extras/01art6088web.pdf)
==See also==
* [[Cowpox]]
* [[List of diseases]]
* [[List of vaccine-related topics]]
* [[Monkeypox]]
* [[Shingles]]
* [[Smallpox]]
* [[Vaccination schedule]]
* [[Vaccine controversy]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cdc.gov/nip/diseases/varicella/default.htm CDC.gov] - 'Varicella Disease (Chickenpox): Varicella, although a common disease, can be dangerous and even deadly' [[Center for Disease Control]]
[[Category:Infectious diseases]]
[[Category:Pediatrics]]
[[bg:Варицела]]
[[de:Windpocken]]
[[es:Varicela]]
[[eo:Varioleto]]
[[fr:Varicelle]]
[[id:Cacar air]]
[[it:Varicella]]
[[he:אבעבועות רוח]]
[[ja:水痘]]
[[nl:Waterpokken]]
[[pl:Ospa wietrzna]]
[[pt:Varicela]]
[[sk:Ovčie kiahne]]
[[fi:Vesirokko]]
[[sv:Vattkoppor]]
[[th:โรคอีสุกอีใส]]
[[zh:水痘]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Catullus</title>
<id>5768</id>
<revision>
<id>41444038</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T10:05:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ian Pitchford</username>
<id>230605</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gaius Valerius Catullus''' (ca. [[84 BC]]-ca. [[54 BC]]) was one of the most influential Roman [[poet]]s of the [[1st century BC]]. His work is still widely studied, and his perennial influence continues to be seen in poetry and other forms of art.
==Biography==
Little about Catullus's life is known for sure. Most sources, including [[Suetonius]] and fellow poet [[Ovid]] (Amores III.XV), agree that he was born in or near [[Verona, Italy|Verona]], although the [[Palatine Hill]] of [[Rome]] has been mentioned as an alternative ''nati loci'' (place of birth). His was a leading [[Equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] family from Verona, but he lived in [[Rome]] most of his life. In [[57 BC]], he accompanied his friend [[Gaius Memmius (Poet)|Memmius]] to [[Bithynia]], where Memmius had received a [[propraetor]]'s post. Catullus's only political office was one year on the staff of the governor of Bithynia.
It |
ots] \,</math>
The following is an infinite [[generalized continued fraction]] expansion of ''e'':
:<math>e= 2+\frac{1}{1+\frac{1}{2+\frac{2}{3+\frac{3}{\ddots}}}}.</math>
The number ''e'' is also equal to the sum of the following [[infinite series]]:
:<math>e = \left [ \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^k}{k!} \right ]^{-1}</math>
:<math>e = \left [ \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{1-2k}{(2k)!} \right ]^{-1}</math>
:<math>e = \frac{1}{2} \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{k+1}{k!}</math>
:<math>e = 2 \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{k+1}{(2k+1)!}</math>
:<math>e = \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{3-4k^2}{(2k+1)!}</math>
:<math>e = \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{3k^2+1}{(3k)!}</math>
:<math>e = \left [ \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{4k+3}{2^{2k+1}\,(2k+1)!} \right ]^2</math>
:<math>e = \frac{-12}{\pi^2} \left [ \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{1}{k^2} \ \cos \left ( \frac{9}{k\pi+\sqrt{k^2\pi^2-9}} \right ) \right ]^{-1/3} </math>
:<math>e = \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{k^2}{2(k!)}</math>
The number ''e'' is also given by several [[infinite product]] forms including the [[Pippenger product]]
:<math> e= 2 \left ( \frac{2}{1} \right )^{1/2} \left ( \frac{2}{3}\; \frac{4}{3} \right )^{1/4} \left ( \frac{4}{5}\; \frac{6}{5}\; \frac{6}{7}\; \frac{8}{7} \right )^{1/8} \cdots </math>
as well as,
:<math> \frac{2\cdot 2^{(\ln(2)-1)^2} \cdots}{2^{\ln(2)-1}\cdot 2^{(\ln(2)-1)^3}\cdots }</math>
The number ''e'' is equal to the [[limit of a sequence|limit]] of several [[infinite sequences]]:
:<math> e= \lim_{n \to \infty} n\cdot\left ( \frac{\sqrt{2 \pi n}}{n!} \right )^{1/n} </math> and
:<math> e=\lim_{n \to \infty} \frac{n}{\sqrt[n]{n!}} </math> (both by [[Stirling's formula]]).
The symmetric limit,
:<math>e=\lim_{n \to \infty} \left [ \frac{(n+1)^{n+1}}{n^n}- \frac{n^n}{(n-1)^{n-1}} \right ]</math>
may be obtained by manipulation of the basic limit definition of ''e''. Another limit is
:<math>e= \lim_{n \to \infty}(p_n \#)^{1/p_n} </math>
where <math> p_n </math> is the ''n''th [[prime number|prime]] and <math> p_n \# </math> is the [[primorial]] of the ''n''th prime.
It was shown by Euler that the infinite [[tetration]]
:<math> x^{x^{\cdot^{\cdot^{\cdot}}}}, </math>
converges only if <math>e^{-e} \le x \le e^{1/e}. </math>
==Non-mathematical uses of ''e''==
One of the most famous mathematical constants, ''e'' is also frequently referenced outside of mathematics. Some examples are:
* In the [[IPO]] filing for [[Google]], in [[2004]], rather than a typical round-number amount of money, the company announced its intention to raise $2,718,281,828, which is, of course, ''e'' billion [[United States dollar|dollars]] to the nearest dollar.
* Google was also responsible for a mysterious billboard [http://mattwalsh.com/twiki/pub/Main/GoogleBillboardContestFindingPrimesInE/IMG_0742.JPG] that appeared in the heart of [[Silicon Valley]], and later in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], which read ''{first 10-digit prime found in consecutive digits of ''e''}.com''. Solving this problem and visiting the web site advertised led to an even more difficult problem to solve. (The first 10-digit prime in ''e'' is 7427466391, which surprisingly starts as late as at the 101st digit.) [http://www.mkaz.com/math/google/]
* The famous [[Computer Science|computer scientist]] [[Donald Knuth]] let the version numbers of his book [[METAFONT]] approach ''e'' (the versions are 2, 2.7, 2.71, 2.718, etc.).
==References==
* Maor, Eli; ''e: The Story of a Number'', ISBN 0691058547
* O'Connor, J.J., and Roberson, E.F.; ''The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive'': [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/e.html "The number ''e''"]; University of St Andrews Scotland (2001)
==Notes==
{{ent|1|OConnor}} O'Connor, "The number ''e''"
==External links==
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/127 The number ''e'' to 1 million places] and [http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmltest/rjn_dig.html 2, 5, or 10 million places]
* [http://members.aol.com/jeff570/constants.html Earliest Uses of Symbols for Constants]
* [http://www.austms.org.au/Modules/Exp/ e the EXPONENTIAL - the Magic Number of GROWTH] - Keith Tognetti, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia
* [http://members.optusnet.com.au/exponentialist/The_Scales_Of_e.htm 'The Scales Of e' demonstrates that fixed rate and variable rate compound growth are both exponential in nature.]
[[Category:Transcendental numbers]]
[[Category:Mathematical constants]]
[[Category:Exponentials]]
[[Category:Logarithms]]
[[Category:Famous numbers|2.71828]]
[[ar:إي (ثابت رياضي)]]
[[ca:Nombre e]]
[[cs:Eulerovo číslo]]
[[da:E (tal)]]
[[de:Eulersche Zahl]]
[[es:Número e]]
[[eo:E (matematiko)]]
[[fr:Constante mathématique e]]
[[gl:Número e]]
[[ko:E (수학상수)]]
[[it:℮ (costante matematica)]]
[[he:℮ (קבוע מתמטי)]]
[[la:Numerus Euleri]]
[[lt:Skaičius e]]
[[hu:Euler-féle szám]]
[[nl:E (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:ネイピア数]]
[[no:E (matematikk)]]
[[pl:Podstawa logarytmu naturalnego]]
[[pt:Número de Euler]]
[[ru:E (математическая константа)]]
[[sk:Eulerovo číslo]]
[[sl:E (matematična konstanta)]]
[[fi:Neperin luku]]
[[sv:E (tal)]]
[[zh:E (数学常数)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Euler - Maclaurin formula</title>
<id>9635</id>
<revision>
<id>15907508</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euler-Maclaurin_formula]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Euler-MacLaurin formula</title>
<id>9636</id>
<revision>
<id>15907509</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-17T11:44:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Euler-Maclaurin formula]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euler-Maclaurin formula]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Euler-Maclaurin formula</title>
<id>9637</id>
<revision>
<id>37835402</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T12:33:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jitse Niesen</username>
<id>14515</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Applications */ The Euler-Maclaurin formula is also used for the error analysis in [[numerical quadrature]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Euler-Maclaurin formula''' provides a powerful connection
between integrals (see [[calculus]]) and sums. It can be used to approximate
integrals by finite sums, or conversely to evaluate finite sums and infinite series using integrals and the machinery of calculus. The formula was
discovered independently by [[Leonhard Euler]] and [[Colin Maclaurin]]
around [[1735]]. Euler needed it to compute slowly converging infinite series while Maclaurin used it to calculate integrals.
If ''n'' is a [[natural number]] and ''f''(''x'') is a smooth (meaning: sufficiently often [[derivative|differentiable]]) [[function (mathematics)|function]] defined for all [[real number]]s ''x'' between 0 and ''n'', then the integral
:<math>I=\int_0^n f(x)\,dx</math>
can be approximated by the sum
:<math>
S=\frac{f\left( 0\right) }{2}+f\left( 1\right) +\cdots+f\left( n-1\right) +
\frac{f\left( n\right) }{2}
</math>
We can use two expressions for <math>S</math> :
:<math>S=-\frac{f\left( 0\right) +f\left( n\right) }{2}+\sum_{k=0}^{n}f\left(
k\right) </math>
or
:<math>S=\frac{f\left( 0\right) +f\left( n\right) }{2}+\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}f\left(
k\right) </math>
(see [[trapezoidal rule]]). The Euler-Maclaurin formula provides expressions for the difference between the sum and the integral in terms of the higher derivatives ''f''<sup>(''k'')</sup> at the end points of the interval 0 and ''n''. For any natural number ''p'', we have
:<math>S-I=\sum_{k=1}^p\frac{B_{2k}}{(2k)!}\left(f^{(2k-1)}(n)-f^{(2k-1)}(0)\right)+R</math>
where, ''B''<sub>2</sub> = 1/6, ''B''<sub>4</sub> = &minus;1/30, ''B''<sub>6</sub> = 1/42, ''B''<sub>8</sub> = &minus;1/30, ... are the [[Bernoulli numbers]].
''R'' is an error term which is normally small if ''p'' is large enough and can be estimated as
:<math>\left|R\right|\leq\frac{2}{(2\pi)^{2p}}\int_0^n\left|f^{(2p+1)}(x)\right|\,dx.</math>
By employing the [[substitution rule]], one can adapt this formula also to functions ''f'' which are defined on some other [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] of the real line.
==Applications==
If ''f'' is a [[polynomial]] and ''p'' is big enough, then the remainder term vanishes. For instance, if ''f''(''x'') = ''x''<sup>3</sup>, we can choose ''p'' = 2 to obtain after simplification
:<math>\sum_{i=0}^n i^3=\left(\frac{n(n+1)}{2}\right)^2.</math>
With the function ''f''(''x'') = log(''x''), the Euler-Maclaurin formula can be used to derive precise error estimates for [[Stirling's approximation]] of the [[factorial]] function.
The Euler-Maclaurin formula is also used for detailed error analysis in [[numerical quadrature]]; in particular, extrapolation methods depend on it.
==Derivation==
The Euler-MacLaurin formula can be understood as a curious application of some ideas from [[Hilbert space]]s and [[functional analysis]]. Let <math>B_n(x)</math> be the [[Bernoulli polynomial]]s. A set of functions [[dual space|dual]] to the Bernoulli polynomials are given by
:<math>\tilde{B_n}(x)=\frac{(-1)^{n+1}}{n!} \left[
\delta^{(n-1)}(1-x) - \delta^{(n-1)}(x) \right]</math>
where &delta; is the [[Dirac delta function]]. The above is a formal |
aspects of [[Holy See|Vatican]] [[politics]] were ambiguous and contradictory, not at all a valid support in his action of pursuing a fair agreement with the Empire; this lack of coherence in the Church's actions had therefore irritated Charles V, was the sense of his argument.
Against any expectation, he received the excuses of the Pope and great honours by the emperor. Today it seems quite certain that Castiglione had no responsibility in the ''Sacco'', and he had played honestly his role in Spain. Also, a popular story about his death due to remorse found no confirmation: he died by [[Black Death]].
In [[1528]], the year before his death, the book by which he is most famous, ''[[The Book of the Courtier]]'' (''[[Il Cortegiano]]''), was published in Venice by Andrea d'Asolo (father-in-law of [[Aldus Manutius]]). The book is based upon Castiglione's times at the court of [[Duke Guidobaldo Montefeltro]] of Urbino. It describes the ideal [[noble court|court]] and [[courtier]], going into great detail about the [[philosophy|philosophical]] and cultured discussions that occurred at Urbino. The book defined the ideal Renaissance gentleman. In the [[Middle Ages]], the perfect gentleman was a [[chivalry|chivalrous]] knight who distinguished himself by his prowess on the battlefield. Castiglione's book changed that; now the perfect gentleman had to be educated in the classics as well. The book was soon translated into [[Spanish (language)|Spanish]], [[German (language)|German]], [[French (language)|French]], and [[English (language)|English,]] and 108 editions were published between 1528 and [[1616]]. [[Pietro Aretino]]'s ''La cortigiana'' is a [[parody]] of this famous work.
Castiglione's minor works are less known, yet still interesting. Love sonnets and four ''Amorose canzoni'' he wrote with reference to his [[Platonic love]] for Elisabetta Gonzaga, with a style that recalls very intensively [[Francesco Petrarca]]'s through [[Pietro Bembo]]'s ones. Pre-romantics will find in his sonnet ''Superbi colli e voi, sacre ruine'' a focal inspiration, however more written by the [[man of letters]] than by the poet.
Latin poems are to be remembered, together with his elegy for the death of Raphael ''De morte Raphaellis pictoris'' , and the other elegy in which he imagined his wife (dead) was writing him. In Italian prose is remembered a prologo for Bibbiena's ''Calandria''.
His letters are another point of interest, describing not only the man and his personality, but also details about the famous people he met and frequented, or about his diplomat activity; they are considered very important for political, literary, and historical studies.
He died in [[Toledo, Spain]].
[[Category:1478 births|Castiglione]]
[[Category:1529 deaths|Castiglione]]
[[Category:Italian Renaissance authors|Castiglione]]
[[Category:Italian writers|Castiglione]]
[[Category:Italian diplomats|Castiglione]]
[[Category:Natives of Mantua|Castiglione]]
[[Category:Rhetoricians|Castiglione, Baldassare]]
[[de:Baldassare Castiglione]]
[[fr:Baldassare Castiglione]]
[[hr:Baldassare Castiglione]]
[[ja:バルダサーレ・カスティリオーネ]]
[[pl:Baldassare Castiglione]]
[[pt:Baldassare Castiglione]]
[[ru:Кастильоне, Бальдассаре]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Baralong Incident</title>
<id>4794</id>
<revision>
<id>30033207</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-03T18:34:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sawran</username>
<id>615090</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Removed extra "they"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Baralong Incident''' was a naval engagment of the [[World War I|First World War]] on [[August 19]], [[1915]] involving [[HMS Baralong|HMS ''Baralong'']], the [[Unterseeboot 27|UB-27]], and the transport ''Nicosian''. Lieutenant [[Godfrey Herbert]] RN of the HMS ''Baralong'' sank UB-27 which had been preparing to sink a nearby transport ship. About a dozen of the sailors manage to escape the sinking submarine, and Herbert, fearing they would scuttle the ''Nicosian'', ordered the sailors to be shot at as they swam towards the transport and then sent a boarding party aboard that ship to prevent any attempts at sinking it.
It has been a controversial event, and many historians agree it was a [[war crime|violation of protocol]] to order the sailors attacked. Other historians debate this analysis (such as if the order was a violation), or debate aspects of the records, and have been either harsher or more lenient. There are widely available German, British, and American records, which all agree on certain facts, but there are a number of details of the incident which may or may not have been fabricated from a less notable or extensive violation.
These mostly center on the number of people that actually escaped the sinking sub, to be killed later, and if the captain was actually right to order the crew that did escape attacked and was not willing to freighter cargo, and any civilians that were still aboard it. Also, it is not known to what extent the escaping sailors had made an effort to surrender, as soldiers that attempt to flee are generally shot at in a time of war.
It should be noted submarine crews on both sides were not treated well since they did not generally take prisoners of ships they sunk either, as there were no accommodations onboard a submarine for this, and in [[Unrestricted submarine warfare]]. Survival would depend on other ships being around to rescue, or on occasion, if it was possible, to get into lifeboats. Poor treatment of an enemy who used what was viewed as a more cruel weapon was common, for example, the soldiers who operated [[flame-thrower]]s in WWI were many times not taken prisoner, but killed, to discourage the use of it.
On [[August 19]], [[1915]], about 100 miles south of [[Queenstown, Ireland]], U-27, commanded by ''Kapitänleutnant'' [[Wegener]], stopped the British steamer ''Nicosian'' In accordance with the rules laid down by the [[London Treaty]]. U-27 discovered that ''Nicosian'' was carrying munitions and 250 American mules intended for the use of the British army in France. The freighter's crew and passengers had abandoned their ship in lifeboats, and the U-boat was preparing to sink the freighter when the [[Q-Ship]] ''Baralong'', commanded by Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, which was disguised as a cargo vessel and was flying the [[Stars and Stripes]], arrived on the scene. Herbert would not have been aware that the ship was only filled with mules though, nor that the crew had mostly been evacuated.
The U-boat, knowing that the [[United States]] was neutral, remained on the surface until ''Baralong'' opened fire at a range of 600 yards and quickly sank U-27. In Herbert's report to the Admiralty, he stated that he feared the survivors from the U-boat's crew would board the freighter and scuttle it, so he ordered the twelve [[Royal Marines]] on board his ship to shoot the survivors in the water. Four U-boat crewman succeeded in climbing the ladders still hanging from ''Nicosian''’s sides, so Herbert sent a boarding party of marines to ''Nicosian'', who killed the sailors.
If the escaping crew had in fact scuttled the freighter, not only would the lives of the civilian crew of the freighter been in danger but it could be counted as negligence on the part of the captain to have allowed the freighter to be scuttled. Only moments before ''Baralong'' began her attack, the submarine had been preparing to sink the freighter. As she sank, there were only moments to decide between continuing the attack or to cease fire, and risk the freighter being scuttled. It is not known if the escaping sailors had in fact intended to scuttle the freighter.
The Admiralty, upon receiving Herbert's report, immediately ordered its suppression (though it was not destroyed and is now available), but the American mule drivers, who had watched the sequence of events from their lifeboats, returned to the United States and told the American press that the British, while flying the [[flag of the United States]], had murdered the German sailors.
The German government demanded that Herbert be tried for murder, but the British government dismissed the charges, offering explanations that the ''Baralong'' crew may have been upset because eight British steamers had been sunk that day on the [[Western Approaches]], and ''Baralong'' may have heard their calls for help.
The outrage the Baralong incident aroused in Germany was used by the [[Kaiserliche Marine]] to justify increased cruelty at sea during [[World War I]] and especially in [[World War II]] under [[Nazi Germany]]. A [[Kriegsmarine]] submarine flotilla formed on [[June 25]], [[1938]], was named "Wegener" in memory of this incident.
==See also==
*[[Unrestricted submarine warfare]]
*[[Merchant raiders]]
*[[Commerce raiding]]
*[[Tonnage war]]
== References ==
Massie, Robert K.: ''Castles of Steel: Britain, Germany, and the Winning of the Great War at Sea''. 2003, Random House, New York.
[[Category:World War I]]
[[Category:U-boats involved in international incidents]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Banda</title>
<id>4795</id>
<revision>
<id>37042801</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T04:31:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>*drew</username>
<id>91902</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+id:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Banda''' may refer to:
*the off-stage musicians in many [[opera]]s, such as in ''[[Don Giovanni]]'', ''[[Rigoletto]]'' or ''[[Aida]]'' or the costumed musicians on-stage, as in the festivities of ''[[L'Elisir d'Amore]]'' or ''[[Carmen]]''.
*[[Banda music]] - traditional [[Music of Mexico|Mexican music]].
*[[Banda Islands]], [[Banda Aceh]] or [[Banda Sea]] in [[Indonesia]].
*[[Banda, India|Banda City]] and [[Banda_District]] in [[India]].
*[[Hastings Banda]], fo |
IRECT [[Eigenvalue, eigenvector and eigenspace]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Engineering</title>
<id>9251</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:13:22Z</timestamp>
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<username>KocjoBot</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}
'''Engineering''' is the application of [[science|scientific]] and [[technology|technical]] knowledge to solve human problems. Engineers use imagination, judgment, reasoning and experience to apply [[science]], technology, [[mathematics]], and practical [[experience]]. The result is the [[design]], [[production|production]], and operation of useful [[object (philosophy)|object]]s or [[process]]es.
==Methodology==
The crucial and unique task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and integrate the [[constraint]]s on a design in order to produce a successful result. It is usually not enough to build a technically successful product; it must also meet further requirements. Constraints may include available resources, physical or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, [[producibility]], and [[serviceability]]. By understanding the constraints, engineers derive [[specifications]] for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated.
===Problem solving===
Engineers use their knowledge of [[science]], [[mathematics]], and [[empirical knowledge|appropriate experience]] to find suitable solutions to a [[problem]]. Creating an appropriate [[mathematical model]] of a problem allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions. Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must evaluate the different [[design choice]]s on their merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements. [[Genrich Altshuller]], after gathering statistics on a large number of [[patent]]s, suggested that [[compromise]]s are at the heart of "[[level of invention|low-level]]" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core [[contradiction]] causing the [[problem]].
Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: [[prototype]]s, [[scale model]]s, [[simulation]]s, [[destructive testing|destructive test]]s, [[nondestructive testing|nondestructive tests]], and [[stress test]]s. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected. Engineers as professionals take seriously their responsibility to produce designs that will perform as expected and will not cause unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically include a [[factor of safety]] in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. However, the larger the safety factor, the less efficient the design may be.
===Computer use===
As with all modern scientific and technological endeavours, computers and software play an increasingly important role. Numerical methods and simulations can help predict design performance more accurately than previous approximations.
Using [[computer-aided design]] (CAD) software, engineers are able to more easily create drawings and models of their designs. Computer models of designs can be checked for flaws without having to make expensive and time-consuming prototypes. The computer can automatically translate some models to instructions suitable for automatic machinery (e.g., [[CNC]]) to fabricate (part of) a design. The computer also allows increased reuse of previously developed designs, by presenting an engineer with a library of predefined parts ready to be used in designs.
Of late, the use of [[FEM|finite element method analysis]] (FEM analysis or FEA) software to study stress, temperature, flow as well as electromagnetic fields has gained importance. In addition, a variety of software is available to analyse dynamic systems.
Electronics engineers make use of a variety of circuit [[schematic]]s software to aid in the creation of circuit designs that perform an electronic task when used for a [[printed circuit board]] (PCB) or a computer chip.
The application of computers in the area of engineering of goods is known as [[Product Lifecycle Management]] (PLM).
==Etymology==
It is a myth that ''engineer'' originated to describe those who built [[engine]]s. In fact, the words ''engine'' and ''engineer'' (as well as ''ingenious'') developed in parallel from the Latin root ''ingeniosus'', meaning "skilled". An engineer is thus a clever, practical, problem solver. The spelling of ''engineer'' was later influenced by back-formation from ''engine''. The term later evolved to include all fields where the skills of application of the [[scientific method]] are used. In some other languages, such as Arabic, the word for "engineering" also means "geometry".
The fields that became what we now call engineering were known as the [[mechanic arts]] in the 19th century.
==Engineering in a Social Context==
Engineering is a subject that ranges from large collaborations to small individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are beholden to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The result of this is that large-scale engineering projects often lose much of their original purpose to some form of bureaucracy. The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are [[pro bono]] engineering and [[open design]] engineering.
==Cultural presence==
Historically, engineering has been seen as a somewhat dry, uninteresting field in [[popular culture]], and has also been thought to be the domain of [[nerd]]s (with little of the romance that attaches to [[hacker]] culture). For example, the cartoon character [[Dilbert]] is an engineer.
This has not always been so - most British school children in the 1950s were brought up with stirring tales of 'the Victorian Engineers', chief amongst whom where the Brunels, the Stephensons, Telford and their contemporaries.
In [[science fiction]] engineers are often portrayed as highly knowledgeable and respectable individuals who understand the overwhelming future technologies often portrayed in the genre. The ''[[Star Trek]]'' characters [[Montgomery Scott]] and [[Geordi La Forge]] are famous examples.
Engineers are often respected and ridiculed for their intense beliefs and interests. Perhaps because of their deep understanding of the interconnectedness of many things, engineers such as Governor [[John H. Sununu]],
New York City Mayor [[Michael_Bloomberg#Personal_life_and_business_career | Michael Bloomberg]] and
Nuclear Physicist [[Edward_Teller#Early_life_and_education | Edward Teller]], are often driven into politics to "fix things" for the public good.
Occasionally, engineers may be recognized by the "[[Iron Ring]]"--a stainless steel or iron ring worn on the little (fourth) finger of the dominant hand. This tradition was originally developed in Canada in [[the Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer]] as a symbol of pride and obligation for the engineering profession. Some years later this practice was adopted in the United States. Members of the US [[Order of the Engineer]] accept this ring as a pledge to uphold the proud history of engineering. A [[Professional Engineer]]'s name often has the [[post-nominal letters]] PE or P.Eng.
Engineers still only need a [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's degree]] to obtain a lucrative position that receives respect from the public. This is not the case in many other professions.
==Legislation==
In most modern countries, certain engineering tasks, such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, and chemical plants, must be approved by a [[Professional Engineer]] or a [[Chartered Engineer]].
Laws protecting public health and safety mandate that a [[professional]] must provide guidance gained through [[education]] and experience. In the United States, each state tests and licenses [[Professional Engineer]]s.
The federal government, however, supervises aviation through the Federal Aviation Regulations administrated by the Dept. of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. Designated Engineering Representatives approve data for aircraft design and repairs on behalf of the Federal Aviation Administration.
Even with strict testing and licensure, engineering disasters still occur. Therefore, the [[Professional Engineer]] or [[Chartered Engineer]] adheres to a strict code of [[ethics]]. Each engineering discipline and professional society maintains a code of ethics, which the members pledge to uphold.
In Canada the profession in each province is governed by its own engineering association. For instance, in the Province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with 5 or more years of experience in an engineering-related field will need to be certified by the Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists (APEGBC) in order to become a Professional Engineer.
Refer also to the [[Washington accord]] for international accreditation details of professional engineering degrees.
==Comparison to other disciplines==
===Science===
:''You see things; and you say "Why?" But I dream things that never were; and I say "Why not?"'' ''&mdash;[[George Bernard Shaw]]''
Engineering is concerned with the design of a solution to a practical problem. A [[scientist]] may ask ''why'' a problem arises, and proceed to research the answer to the question or actually solve the problem in his first try, perhaps creating a [[mathematical model]] of his observations. By contrast, engineers want to know ''how'' to solve a problem, and ''how'' to implement that solution. I |
ith this addition as without. The <font color = "red">J&#9830;</font> is a bonus card players desire to take in tricks, worth -10 points (or -11). However it is not normally required to shoot the moon. In some books, this card is the <font color = "red">10&#9830;</font>. Because this slows the progression of scores, Omnibus hearts is normally played to a lower threshold score of 52, 61 or 75. Some people also play that taking no tricks is worth -5 points. Shooting the moon may require taking all of the hearts and <font color = "red">J&#9830;</font> and Q&spades;. Also shooting the moon may be with either -13 (to the winner) or +26 (to the other players) - winner's choice. Note with <font color = "red">J&#9830;</font> = -11, and Q&spades; = +13 and 13 hearts, the total score for each turn is 15, making adding up the score easier if only one player has taken the majority of the tricks.
'''Target scores:''' Hearts is sometimes played with positive bonuses applied to attaining certain exact scores: it is sometimes played that any player able to score ''exactly'' 50 points is reset to zero, and any player scoring ''exactly'' 100 is reset to 50.
'''Ten of clubs:''' Sometimes, the 10&clubs; is played as a penalty card, doubling a player's take for the round. In the Omnibus variant, the 10&clubs; may be either a penalty or a benefit card, depending upon other cards taken by that player. This rule is rarely observed today.
'''Shooting the sun:''' Some hearts players assign a premium to the accomplishment of taking all tricks, doubling the 26-point bonus to 52.
'''Spot hearts:''' This is a hearts variant where higher-ranking hearts carry greater penalty values than lower-ranked hearts. Specifically, each heart is worth its numerical value in points (<font color = red>2&hearts;</font> = 2, ..., <font color = "red">K&hearts;</font> = 13, <font color = "red">A&hearts;</font> = 14). The Q&spades; is then worth 25 penalty points. There are now 129 penalty points assessed each round, and the threshold score is usually 500. Shooting the moon may be worth either the sum of all the cards combined, or the rule may simply not be observed. In variations on this the points are as follows: <font color = red>2&hearts;</font> = 2, ..., <font color = "red">10&hearts;</font> = 10, <font color = "red">J&hearts;</font> = 10,<font color = "red">Q&hearts;</font> = 10,<font color = "red">K&hearts;</font> = 10, <font color = "red">A&hearts;</font> = 15 and Q&spades; = 25.
'''Complex hearts:''' This is a variant reportedly invented by [[Richard Garfield]].
Complex hearts is a Hearts variant using the [[complex number]] system for scoring. Play rules are no different than those of conventional Hearts. Hearts earn their captor 1 point a piece, the Queen of Spades earns <math>13i</math>, and the Jack of Diamonds earns -10 points. The 10&clubs; provides a <math>2i</math> multiplier on a player's score for the round.
The loser of a game is the first player whose score, in [[absolute value]], exceeds 100. The winner is the player whose absolute value is smallest. (The absolute value of a complex number <math>a + bi</math> is <math>\sqrt{a^2 + b^2}</math>.)
This means that the <font color = "red">J&#9830;</font> is not ''always'' a benefit card, nor are the traditional penalty cards always undesirable. For example, netting the 10&clubs; and Q&spades; together will result in a score change of -26, possibly counteracting some unwanted Hearts. Likewise, a player with a negative score (in terms of the [[real number | real]] part) would be penalized for taking the Jack of Diamonds, but rewarded for taking Hearts.
The Queen of Spades is especially dangerous in this variant, because the only way to counteract its effect is to capture the <font color = "red">J&#9830;</font>-10&clubs; combination, which produces a score change of <math>-20i</math>.
Complex analogues of "shooting the moon" vary, but one possibility is to allow a person who accomplishes this to add <math>\pm 13 \pm 13i</math> to each player's score, the signs chosen at the shooter's discretion.
== Strategy of hearts ==
Hearts is classified, in references such as ''Hoyle's Rules of Games'', as a children's game, but, in fact, there is depth to the game.
Heart's strategic element first appears in the 3-card player-to-player pass. Intuitively, the function of this pass is to rid one's hand of undesirable cards, or to get a head start on clearing a suit. However, this is not always the best strategy.
As there is only one winner and three losers in hearts, the most advanced strategy appears when the three losing players team up to give the leader points. Playing the queen and other point cards only when the player with the lowest score can take them, passing favorable cards to trailing players, and setting up the leader all require teamwork and unselfish play. Second place is no better than fourth place, and thus it profits a player nothing to give points to the player with the highest score(high) ending the game while sitting in second place.
=== Spades ===
Imagine a hand containing the 3, 4, and King of Spades. It would seem that to pass these spades would be a great decision; it would rid the hand of a usually undesirable card (the King) and open a void in the spade suit. Yet in fact, most Hearts players would consider this a poor decision; were this player passed a Queen, and no other spades, he would now hold a singleton Queen, one of the worst hand configurations in the game. Holding the Queen of spades is considered desirable if the Queen is "protected" by at least three (ideally four or more) other spades. If this is not the case, the Q&#9824; is a liability and should be ruffed at the first possible opportunity.
If a player is dealt only high spades (Queen, King and/or Ace) the player will generally pass them, as the odds are in their favor they won't be passed the remaining spades, however it occasionally happens that one will be passed the remaining high spades.
If a player has several low spades (lower than Queen) and a King and/or an Ace, these cards are generally high priority to pass, unless passing to the right. When a player has several spades and a high spade and is passing to the right, generally they will have an opportunity to get rid of the high spade (or choose to use a lower card to avoid the Queen) when the player to their left starts a trick.
=== Hearts ===
Low (2, 3, 4) hearts are considered highly desirable, high hearts (Q, K, A) very undesirable. Starting with all three (QKA of Hearts), though is highly desirable, and generally a hand where a player will try to shoot the moon (as described below.)
The term "covering" is used to describe the common practice of passing the second highest heart (generally the 10 or lower) in order to prevent anyone else from shooting the moon. Occasionally, a player will pass a Jack or Queen as their cover card if they only have high hearts. This player is responsible for playing the higher heart to stop a player if they attempt to shoot the moon. Passing the highest heart (thus making it possible one player has all the high hearts), or not playing the cover card is called "dodging" or "ducking" and is considered poor sportsmanship normally.
=== Clubs ===
Since the 2 of clubs is always the first card played, some players opt to pass this card as if it were a high card. The reason being that having the 2 of clubs does not enable you to play a high club on the first hand. If the game is being played with the optional restriction on playing point cards on the first trick, the first trick must be safe and the player should try to use his high clubs immediately.
When point cards are not allowed on the first trick, the Ace of Clubs is considered by many a great card, and is generally not passed. Having the Ace of Clubs enables a player to start the next trick with whatever suit they desire. This can be especially useful if the player only has one card in a suit left. Passing a high club is generally considered foolish, because it will just be played on the first hand. The most dangerous clubs are the 9, 10 and J, as the 2, Q, K, and A generally see play on the first hand, thus making those three the highest three cards left.
When point cards are allowed on the first trick, however, many players adopt aggressive passing strategies to void themselves in clubs so as to play high hearts or the Queen of Spades on unsuspecting players following the strategies outlined in the previous paragraph. Under these rules, it is sometimes advisable to keep the 2 of clubs and pass higher clubs to cover the initial trick. When a player has all high clubs, it is advisable to pass them, especially if it is possible to get rid of all of them through passing and then begin laying points immediately.
=== Diamonds ===
Diamonds are generally passed in an attempt to short them. Generally passing all or the highest diamonds is the preferred strategy of most players as there is very little risk in shorting Diamonds. In some variations of the game, the 10 or J of Diamonds subtracts points, in which case high Diamonds are preferred.
=== Balanced hands ===
Balanced hands (4-3-3-3 suit split) are undesirable because they make it difficult to clear a suit.
=== Clearing a suit ===
During play, a common strategy is to attempt to '''clear''' or '''short''' a suit, or to make a void in it so that potentially dan |
ringways.
Some major examples are:
*[[R0 road (Belgium)|R0]][http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/rb0.html] is the outer ringway of Brussel; The [[R20 road (Belgium)|R20]] and [[R20 road (Belgium)|R20]] are parts of inner ringways arround [[Brussels]].
*[[R1 road (Belgium)|R1]][http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/rb1.html] is the southern half ringway and [[R2 road (Belgium)|R2]][http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/rb2.html] is the northern half ring way around [[Antwerp]]
*[[R3 road (Belgium)|R3]][http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/rb3.html] is the outer ringway and [[R9 road (Belgium)|R9]] is the inner ring way around [[Charleroi]]. The outer ring is the only ring in Belgium to be a full ring (using part of the [[E42 road (Belgium)|E42]]), and the inner ring is counterclockwise-only.
*[[R4 road (Belgium)|R4]][http://www.autosnelwegen.net/be/frames.html?/be/rb4.html] is the outer ringway and [[R40 road (Belgium)|R40]] is the inner ring way around [[Ghent]]
*[[R8 road (Belgium)|R8]][http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/rb8.html] is the outer ringway and [[R36 road (Belgium)|R36]] is the inner ring way around [[Kortrijk]]
*[[R23 road (Belgium)|R23]] is the ringway around [[Leuven]]
*[[R30 road (Belgium)|R30]] is the ringwau around [[Bruges]]
===National roads===
The national roads[http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/nb.html] are marked with a letter '''N''' and a number.
The principal national roads diverge from Brussels in clockwisely:
*[[N1 road (Belgium)|N1]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Mechelen]] - [[Antwerp]]
*[[N2 road (Belgium)|N2]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Leuven]] - [[Diest]] - [[Hasselt]] - [[Maastricht]]
*[[N3 road (Belgium)|N3]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Leuven]] - [[Tienen]] - [[Sint-Truiden]] - [[Liège (city)|Li&egrave;ge]] - [[Aachen]]
*[[N4 road (Belgium)|N4]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Wavre]] - [[Namur (city)|Namur]] - [[Marche-en-Famenne]] - [[Bastogne]] - [[Arlon]]
*[[N5 road (Belgium)|N5]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Philippeville]] - [[Charleroi]]
*[[N6 road (Belgium)|N6]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Halle, Belgium|Halle]] - [[Soignies]] - [[Mons]]
*[[N7 road (Belgium)|N7]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Halle, Belgium|Halle]] - [[Ath]] - [[Doornik]]
*[[N8 road (Belgium)|N8]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Ninove]] - [[Oudenaarde]] - [[Kortrijk]] - [[Ypres]] - [[Veurne]] - [[Koksijde]]
*[[N9 road (Belgium)|N9]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Aalst]] - [[Ghent]] - [[Eeklo]] - [[Bruges]] - [[Ostend]]
Secondary national roads intersect these.
==Waterways==
2,043 km (1,532 km in regular commercial use)
==Pipelines==
Crude oil 161 km; petroleum products 1,167 km; natural gas 3,300 km
==Ports and harbours==
===Sea ports===
[[Antwerp]] (one of the world's busiest ports) [http://www.portofantwerp.com/ Port of Antwerp]<br>
{| style="margin-left: 5%;" width="50%" border="1"
|-
| 2003 || unloaded || loaded || total
|-
| Total volume in tonnes || 77,596,356
| 65,278,156 || 142,874,512
|-
| Container volume in TEU || 2,642,338
| 2,803,100 || 5,445,437
|-
| Barge traffic in tonnes || 33,990,726
| 42,623,875 || 76,614,601
|}
{| style="margin-left: 5%;" width="50%" border="1"
|-
| 2004 || unloaded || loaded || total
|-
| Total volume in tonnes || 83,109,485
| 69,217,080 || 152,326,565
|-
| Container volume in TEU || 2,946,297
| 3,117,450 || 6,063,746
|-
| Barge traffic in tonnes || 35,969,512
| 45,969,918 || 81,939,430
|}<div style="margin-left: 5%;">Source: Antwerp Port Authority</div>
[[Zeebrugge]] (Port suburb of [[Bruges]]) [http://www.zeebruggeport.be/ Port of Bruges]<br>
[[Ghent]] [http://www.havengent.be/ Port of Ghent]<br>
[[Ostend]] [http://www.portofoostende.be/ Port of Ostend]<br>
===Main inland ports===
[[Brussels]] (also accessible for ocean-going ships) [http://www.havenvanbrussel.irisnet.be/ Port of Brussels]<br>
[[Liège (city)|Liège]] (one of the busiest in Europe) [http://www.liege.port-autonome.be/ Port of Liège]<br>
===European portuary context===
European Sea Ports Organisation [http://www.espo.be/ ESPO]<br>
European Federation of Inland Ports [http://www.inlandports.be/ FEPI]<br>
Inland Navigation Europe [http://www.inlandnavigation.org/ INE]<br>
2002 ranking of world ports by tonnage and by container volume (in TEU) [http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0104779.html Port ranking]
==Merchant marine==
<br />''total:''
22 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 35,075 GRT/57,347 DWT
<br />''ships by type:''
cargo 7, chemical tanker 8, petroleum tanker 7 (1999 est.)
==Airports==
''Main article: [[List of airports in Belgium]].''
42 (1999 est.)
=== with paved runways ===
<br />''total:''
24
<br />''over 3,047 m:''
6, including [[Brussels International Airport]].
<br />''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
8
<br />''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
3
<br />''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
<br />''under 914 m:''
6 (1999 est.)
=== with unpaved runways ===
<br />''total:''
18
<br />''914 to 1,523 m:''
2
<br />''under 914 m:''
16 (1999 est.)
===Heliports===
1 (1999.)
==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000.''
== See also ==
*[[Belgium]]
[[Category:Transportation in Belgium| ]]
[[fr:Transport en Belgique]]
[[lt:Belgijos transportas]]
[[nl:Vervoer in België]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Belgium/Military</title>
<id>3547</id>
<revision>
<id>15901869</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:37:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Military of Belgium</comment>
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<page>
<title>Belgium/Transnational issues</title>
<id>3548</id>
<revision>
<id>15901870</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:39:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Foreign relations of Belgium</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Belgium]]</text>
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<title>Belgium/Belgie</title>
<id>3549</id>
<revision>
<id>15901871</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.94.122.xxx</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Belgium]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Belgium/Foreign relations</title>
<id>3550</id>
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<id>15901872</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:38:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
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<comment>move to Foreign relations of Belgium</comment>
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<page>
<title>Belgium/facts</title>
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<id>24631762</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-03T09:32:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fermion</username>
<id>70681</id>
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<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Belgium]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>Belize/History</title>
<id>3552</id>
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<id>15901874</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-01T16:07:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Belize]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>Belize/People</title>
<id>3554</id>
<revision>
<id>15901875</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T15:36:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Belize]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Government of Belize</title>
<id>3555</id>
<revision>
<id>15901876</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:47:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
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<comment>move to Politics of Belize</comment>
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<page>
<title>Economy of Belize</title>
<id>3556</id>
<revision>
<id>41349270</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:42:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gene.arboit</username>
<id>278325</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fr:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''The Economy of [[Belize]]'''
{{Economy of Belize table}}
[[Forestry]] was the only economic activity of any consequence in Belize until well into the [[20th century]] when the supply of accessible timber began to dwindle. Cane [[sugar]] then became the principal export and recently has been augmented by expanded production of [[citrus]], [[banana]]s, [[seafood]], and [[apparel]]. The country has about 8,090 km² of [[arable land]], only a small fraction of which is under cultivation. To curb land speculation the government enacted legislation in [[1973]] that requires non-Belizeans to complete a development plan on land they purchase before obtaining title to plots of more than 10 acres (40,000 m&sup2;) of rural land or more than one-half acre (2,000 m&sup2;) of urban land.
Domestic industry is limited, constrained by relatively high-cost labor and energy and a small domestic market. The [[United States]] Embassy in [[Belize City]] knows of some 185 [[United States]] companies that have operations in Belize, including [[M |
uring the Civil War: 'People's War', 'partisan warfare', and 'raiding warfare'. The concept of 'People's war,' first described by Clausewitz in ''On War'', was the closest example of a mass guerrilla movement in the era. In general, this type of irregular warfare was conducted in the hinterland of the Border States (Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, and northwestern Virginia), and was marked by a vicious neighbor against neighbor quality. One such example was the opposing irregular forces operating in Missouri and northern Arkansas from [[1862]] to [[1865]], most of which were pro-[[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] or pro-[[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] in name only and preyed on civilians and isolated military forces of both sides with little regard of politics. From these semi-organized guerrillas, several groups formed and were given some measure of legitimacy by their governments. [[Quantrill's Raiders]], who terrorized pro-Union civilians and fought Federal troops in large areas of Missouri and Kansas, was one such unit. Another notorious unit, with debatable ties to the Confederate military, was led by [[Champ Ferguson]] along the Kentucky-Tennessee border. Ferguson became one of the only figures of Confederate cause to be executed after the war. Dozens of other small, localized bands terrorized the countryside throughout the border region during the war, bringing total war to the area that lasted until the end of the Civil War and, in some areas, beyond.
Partisan warfare, in contrast, more closely resembles Commando operations of the 20th century. Partisans were small units of conventional forces, controlled and organized by a military force for operations behind enemy lines. The 1862 Partisan Ranger Act passed by the Confederate Congress authorized the formation of these units and gave them legitimacy, which placed them in a different category than the common 'bushwhacker' or 'guerrilla'. [[John Singleton Mosby]] formed a partisan unit during the [[American Civil War]] which was very effective in tying down Federal forces behind Union lines in northern Virginia in the last two years of the war.
Lastly, deep raids by conventional cavalry forces were often considered 'irregular' in nature. The "Partisan Brigades" of [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]] and [[John Hunt Morgan]] operated as part of the cavalry forces of the [[Confederate Army of Tennessee]] in [[1862]] and [[1863]]. They were given specific missions to destroy logistical hubs, railroad bridges, and other strategic targets to support the greater mission of the Army of Tennessee. By mid-1863, with the destruction of Morgan's raiders during the [[Morgan's Raid|Great Raid of 1863]], the Confederacy conducted few deep cavalry raids in the latter years of the war, mostly due to the losses in experienced horsemen and the offensive operations of the Union army. Federal cavalry conducted several successful raids during the war but in general used their cavalry forces in a more conventional role. A good exception was the 1863 [[Grierson's Raid]], which did much to set the stage for General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]'s victory during the [[Vicksburg Campaign]].
Federal counter-guerrilla operations were very successful in preventing the success of Confederate guerrilla warfare. In [[Arkansas]], Federal forces used a wide variety of strategies to defeat irregulars. These included the use of Arkansas [[Unionist]] forces as anti-guerrilla troops, the use of riverine forces such as gunboats to control the waterways, and the [[provost marshal]] military law enforcement system to spy on suspected guerrillas and to imprison those captured. Against Confederate raiders, the Federal army developed an effective cavalry themselves and reinforced that system by a large number of blockhouses and fortification to defend strategic targets. Federal attempts to defeat Mosby's Partisan Rangers fell short of success due to Mosby's use of very small units (10&ndash;15 men) operating in areas considered friendly to the Rebel cause.
In the late [[20th century]] several historians have focused on the non-use of guerrilla warfare to prolong the war. Near the end of the war, there were those in the [[Confederate]] government, notably [[Jefferson Davis]] who advocated continuing the southern fight as a guerrilla conflict. He was opposed by generals such as [[Robert E. Lee]] who ultimately believed that surrender and reconciliation were better than guerrilla warfare.
===Guerrilla warfare during the Second Sino-Japanese War===
Despite a common misconception, both Nationalist and Communist forces were active underground resistance in Japanese-occupied areas during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]. Even before the outbreak of total war in [[1937]], partisans were already present in [[Manchuria]] hampering Japan's occupation of the region. After the initial phases of the war, when large swaths of the [[North China Plain]] rapidly fell to the Japanese, underground resistance, supported by either Communist sympathisers or composed of disguised Nationalist soldiers, would soon rise up to combat the garrison forces. They were quite successful, able to sabotage railorad routes and ambush reinforcements. Many major campaigns, such as the four failed invasions of [[Changsha]], were caused by overly-stretched supply lines, lack of reinforcements, and ambushes by irregulars. The Communist cells, many having decades of prior experience in guerrilla warfare against the Nationalists, usually fared much better, and many Nationalist underground groups were subsequently absorbed into Communist ones. Usually in Japanese-occupied areas, the IJA only controlled the cities and railroad routes, with most of them countryside either left alone or with active guerrilla presence. The [[People's Republic of China]] has emphasised their contribution to the Chinese war effort, going as far to say that in addition to a "overt theatre", which in many cases they deny was effective, there was also a "covert theatre", which they claim did much to stop the Japanese advance.
=== Guerrilla Warfare in the Chinese Civil War ===
Both before and after the Sino-Japanese War, there was continuous fighting between Nationalists and Communists. The Communists used a mix of Guerrilla Warfare and [[Mobile Warfare]], with guerrillas harassing and regular armies striking unexpectedly. On several different fronts, most notably Manchuria, this mix wore down the much larger Nationalist forces.
===Guerrilla Warfare in the Pacific and East Asian theatre of World War II===
There was guerrilla fighting in [[Pacific War|Pacific and East Asian theatre of World War II]]. Japan's invasion of China also prompted guerrilla activity in rural areas of occupied China. The Chinese became increasingly successful during the war, and tied down Japanese troops in China throughout the war. US troops working with Filipino guerrillas conducted guerrilla warfare against the Japanese in the Philippines, as did Allied forces in the [[South-East Asian theatre of World War II|South-East Asian theatre]].
See also [[OSS Detachment 101]], [[V Force]], [[Force 136]], [[Special Operations Australia]] (codenamed Force 137), [[Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army]], [[Viet Minh]]
=== Guerrillas in Israel and the Palestinian Territories===
European Jews fleeing from [[anti-Semitic]] violence (especially Russian [[pogroms]]) immigrated in increasing numbers to [[Palestine]]. When the British restricted Jewish immigration to the region (see [[White Paper of 1939]]), Jewish Palestinians began to use a type of guerrilla warfare for two purposes: to bring in more Jewish refugees, and to turn the tide of British sentiment at home. Jewish groups such as the [[Stern Gang]] and the [[Irgun]] - many of whom had experience in the Warsaw ghetto battles against the Nazis, fought British soldiers whenever they could, including the bombing of the [[King David Hotel]]. This act of violence, while certainly guerrilla warfare, cannot be considered terrorism because of the warning given hours beforehand for civilians to leave. Terrorism, by definition, involves the deliberate targeting of civilians, which early Israelis did not consider justifiable.
The creation of the state of Israel might be considered one of the greatest achievements of guerrilla warfare. The Jewish forces were a spontaneous group of civilians working without formal military structure, fighting the British Empire that had just emerged victorious from World War II.
(Read about the amalgamation of these guerrilla groups into the [[Israel Defence Force]] and subsequent victory over its Arab neighbors in the [[1948 War of Independence]])
Palestinians initiated their own guerrilla warfare against the new Jewish state, including [[Yasser Arafat]], whose PLO called for the destruction of Israel in 1964, 3 years before the [[Six-Day War]]. The use of terrorism has become the norm for the Palestinian cause, targeting women and children in addition to Israeli combatants. This guerrilla warfare, unlike the type used by Jews pre-1948, is contrary to the rules of war and the [[Geneva Conventions]] because of its deliberate targeting of innocent civilians.
=== Guerrillas in Latin America ===
In the [[Mexican Revolution]] from 1913 to 1920, the populist revolutionary leader [[Emiliano Zapata]] employed the use of predominately guerrilla tactics. His forces, composed entirely of peasant farmers turned soldiers, wore no uniform and would easily blend into the general population after an operation's completion. They would have young soldiers, called "dynamite boys", hurl cans filled with explosives into enemy barracks, and then a large number of lightly armed soldiers would emerge from the surrounding area to attack it. Although Zapata's forces met considerable success, his strategy backfired as government troops, unable to distinguish his soldiers from the no |
ion), and ''[[Kaaawa]]'' in {{Unicode|Hawaiʻi}} (although this is a common misspelling of ''{{Unicode|Kaʻaʻawa}}'' in [[Hawaiian]], the {{Unicode|ʻokina}} being a [[glottal stop]]). The famous Welsh placename ''[[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch]]'' contains the letter ''l'' four times in a row, but the ''llll'' is considered by some to be the single Welsh [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] ''ll'' twice, rather than the English ''l'' four times
Constructions such as ''zzzzzz'' (sound of a person snoring, representing sleep), ''shhhhhh'' (quiet!), and ''aaaaargh'' (cry of distress) are not normally recognised as legitimate words.
''[[Bookkeeper]]'' has three consecutive doubled letters (some also allow ''subbookkeeper'' which has four).
Words in which no letter is used more than once are called ''isograms'' (though its use in this sense is [[slang]] restricted to those who enjoy recreational linguistics, and not commonly found in dictionaries). ''Uncopyrightable'', with fifteen letters, is the longest common isogram in English (some also allow ''uncopyrightables''). ''Dermatoglyphics'' shares the distinction but is a less well-known word; ''subdermatoglyphic'' is two letters longer but even more obscure &mdash; it has only one report of alleged live use (an article in ''Annals of Dermatology''), and supposedly means "of or pertaining to the patterns on the lower [[skin]] layers". The words ''blepharoconjunctivitis'' and ''pneumoventriculography'' (as well as several others) contain 16 of the 26 letters of the alphabet, though they are not isograms as some letters are repeated.
Long words with just two, three, four... distinct letters include ''booboo'', ''deeded'', ''muumuu'' (2 distinct letters, 6 letters in total); ''assesses'', ''referrer'' (3, 8); ''senselessness'' (4, 13); ''defenselessness'' (6, 15); ''disinterestedness'' (7, 17); and ''institutionalisation'' (8, 20).
The following table lists words that repeat the given letter many times. The number of repetitions is shown in brackets. If the word with the most repetitions is dubious (for example, it is hyphenated, arguably should be hyphenated, is a proper name, or seems artificial) then further candidates with fewer repetitions are offered. Where there are many candidate words with the same number of repetitions only the shortest or commonest (judged subjectively) is listed.
{| cellspacing="6"
! width=5% valign="top" align="left" style="font-weight:normal"|'''''a'''''
! width=95% valign="top" align="left" style="font-weight:normal"|''taramasalata'' (6) &ndash; a fish roe paste
|- valign="top"
|'''''b'''''
|''bibble-babble'' (6) &ndash; babble <br>''flibbertigibbet'' (4) &ndash; a silly woman
|- valign="top"
|'''''c'''''
|''pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis'' (6) &ndash; a famously long word for a respiratory disease<br>''micrococcic'' (5) &ndash; relating to ''[[micrococcus]]'', a type of bacterium
|- valign="top"
|'''''d'''''
|''dodecahemidodecahedron'' (5) &ndash; a type of polyhedron (solid geometrical figure)
|- valign="top"
|'''''e'''''
|''[[ethylenediaminetetraacetate]]'' (7) &ndash; a chemical compound, used as a drug<br>''degenerescence'' (6) &ndash; decay
|- valign="top"
|'''''f'''''
|''riffraff'' (4) &ndash; undesirable people
|- valign="top"
|'''''g'''''
|''Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch'' (7) &ndash; a famously long Welsh placename<br>''hugger-muggering'' (5) &ndash; acting secretly<br>''giggling'' (4) &ndash; laughing in a silly manner
|- valign="top"
|'''''h'''''
|''High-Churchmanship'' (5) &ndash; the state of being a High-Churchman, that is, supporting the High Church (a faction of the Anglican church)<br>''[[Rhamphorhynchus]]'' (4) &ndash; a genus of dinosaurs
|- valign="top"
|'''''i'''''
|''floccinaucinihilipilification'' (9) &ndash; a famously long word meaning "the action of estimating as worthless"<br>''indivisibilities'' (7) &ndash; a supposed plural of ''indivisibility''<br>''indivisibility'' (6) &ndash; the state of being indivisible
|- valign="top"
|'''''j'''''
|''jejunojejunostomy'' (4) &ndash; a surgical procedure carried out on the intestine
|- valign="top"
|'''''k'''''
|''knickknack'' (4) &ndash; a small article of little value
|- valign="top"
|'''''l'''''
|''[[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch]]'' (11) &ndash; a famously long Welsh placename<br>''[[Llullaillaco]]'' (6) &ndash; a mountain in the Andes<br>''skillfully'' (4) &ndash; with skill
|- valign="top"
|'''''m'''''
|''[[mammogram]]'' (4) &ndash; a breast X-ray
|- valign="top"
|'''''n'''''
|''nonannouncement'' (6) &ndash; absence of an announcement<br>''inconveniencing'' (5) &ndash; causing difficulty for
|- valign="top"
|'''''o'''''
|''pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis'' (9) &ndash; a famously long word for a respiratory disease<br>''[[Chrononhotonthologos]]'' (7) &ndash; the name of a play by English writer Henry Carey<br>''odontonosology'' (6) &ndash; dentistry
|- valign="top"
|'''''p'''''
|''whippersnapper'' (4) &ndash; a young, impertinent person
|- valign="top"
|'''''q'''''
|''[[Albuquerque]]'' (2) &ndash; a city in New Mexico<br>''quinquennium'' (2) &ndash; a period of five years<br>''[[riqq]]'' (2) &ndash; a type of Egyptian tambourine
|- valign="top"
|'''''r'''''
|''strawberry-raspberry'' (6) &ndash; a Japanese plant<br>''refrigerator'' (4) &ndash; an appliance for keeping food cool
|- valign="top"
|'''''s'''''
|''possessionlessness'' (8) &ndash; the state of being without possessions<br>''senselessness'' (6) &ndash; lack of sense
|- valign="top"
|'''''t'''''
|''tittle-tattle'' (6) &ndash; gossip<br>''anticonstitutionalist'' (5) &ndash; someone who opposes a constitution
|- valign="top"
|'''''u'''''
|''{{Unicode|humuhumunukunukuapuaʻa}}'' (9) &ndash; a Hawaiian fish<br>''unscrupulous'' (4) &ndash; lacking morals
|- valign="top"
|'''''v'''''
|''ovoviviparous'' (3) &ndash; producing eggs that hatch within the body
|- valign="top"
|'''''w'''''
|''wow-wow'' (4) &ndash; a type of gibbon<br>''powwow'' (3) &ndash; a Native American gathering<br>''[[swallowwort]]'' (3) &ndash; any of several plants
|- valign="top"
|'''''x'''''
|''[[hexahydroxycyclohexane]]'' (3) &ndash; a chemical compound, part of the vitamin B complex<br>''executrix'' (2) &ndash; a female executor
|- valign="top"
|'''''y'''''
|''[[polysyndactyly]]'' (4) &ndash; webbing of the hands or feet
|- valign="top"
|'''''z'''''
|''razzmatazz'' (4) &ndash; showy spectacle
|}
Ignoring the 20-letter play title ''[[Chrononhotonthologos]]'', the longest words containing only one of the five regular vowels (overlooking y) may be the 17-letter ''proctocolonoscopy'' and ''synchrocyclotrons''. A candidate for longest word containing only one type of consonant is the 10-letter ''coucicouci'', a word apparently included in at least one version of ''Roget's Thesaurus'' to mean "imperfect", but otherwise almost unknown. 9-letter words are ''[[allolalia]]'' (a type of speech disturbance) and ''Coccaceae'' (an obsolete name for a family of bacteria).
===Unusual word endings===
''[[Wiktionary:dreamt|Dreamt]]'' and its derivatives are the only common English words that end in ''mt''. In American English, which prefers ''dreamed'', there are none. Derivatives include ''undreamt'' (typically used only in the phrase "undreamt of"), ''daydreamt'', and the rarer ''outdreamt'' and ''redreamt''. Other ''-mt'' words include the [[Scots language|Scots]] word ''fremt'' (usually ''fremd'' or ''fremmit''[http://www.dsl.ac.uk/dsl/getent4.php?query=fremd&sset=1&fset=20&printset=20&searchtype=full&dregion=form&dtext=both]) meaning "foreign" or "estranged" and, familiar but of foreign origin, ''[[Klimt]]'', the Austrian painter.
Despite the assertions of a well-known puzzle, modern English does not have three common words ending in ''-gry''. ''[[Angry]]'' and ''[[hungry]]'' are the only ones. There are, however, a number of rare and obsolete words; see [[Gry]] for a further discussion.
''-mt'' and ''-gry'' are possibly the best-known unusual word endings, but there are many others exhibited by only one or two everyday words. Some examples, excluding derivative words, are ''-ln'' (''kiln'', ''Lincoln''), ''-bt'' (''doubt'', ''debt''), ''-igy'' (''effigy'', ''prodigy''), ''-nen'' (''linen''), and ''cay'' (''decay'', ''Biscay'').
===Unusual word beginnings===
Words beginning with a double letter are generally very rare. The most common combination is probably ''oo-'' (''oodles'', ''oolong'', ''oomph'', ''oops'', ''ooze'', and a number of less familiar examples, mostly technical words incorporating the prefix ''oo-'', meaning "egg"), followed by ''aa-'' (familiar examples being ''aardvark'' and ''Aaron''), and ''ee-'' (''eel'', ''eerie'', ''eek'', ''eesome'' (attractive)).
Otherwise such words are unlikely to be considered part of the English vocabulary, and almost entirely of foreign origin. Some examples are ''Ccoya'' (Inca queen), ''ʻiʻiwi'' (a Hawaiian bird), ''llama'', ''llano'' (a grassy plain), and ''llanero'' (someone who lives on a ''llano''). There are, however, numerous Welsh placenames beginning ''Ll-'' (e.g. ''[[Llandudno]]'', ''[[Llanberis]]'') &ndash; plus the familiar persona |
inor />
<comment>spacing</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eleanor.jpg|right|frame|Eleanor of Aquitaine]]
'''Eleanor of Aquitaine''' ([[Bordeaux]], [[France]], c. [[1124]] &ndash; [[March 31]], [[1204]] in [[Fontevrault]], [[Anjou]]) was one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in Europe during the [[Middle Ages]]. She was [[Queen consort]] of both [[France]] and [[England]]. She is well known for her involvement in the [[Second Crusade]].
== Biography ==
=== Early Life ===
The oldest of three children, her father was [[William X of Aquitaine|William X]], [[Duke of Aquitaine]], and her mother was [[Aenor de Châtellerault]], the daughter of Aimeric I, Vicomte of [[Chatellerault]]. William's and Ænor's marriage had been arranged by his father, [[William IX of Aquitaine]] the [[Troubador]], and her mother, Dangereuse, William IX's long-time mistress. Eleanor was named after her mother and called ''Aliénor'', which means ''other Aenor'' in the ''langue d'oc'' ([[Occitan language]]), but it became ''Eléanor'' in the northern ''[[Oil language]]'' .
She was raised in one of Europe's most cultured courts, the birthplace of [[courtly love]]. She was highly educated for a woman of the time, and knew how to read, how to speak [[Latin]], was well versed in music and literature, and enjoyed riding, hawking, and hunting. She was regarded as one of the most beautiful women of her time; most likely she was blonde and blue-eyed as that was the standard of beauty of the day. She became heiress to [[Aquitaine]], the largest and richest of the provinces that would become modern [[France]], when her brother, William Aigret, died as a baby. She had only one other sibling, a younger sister named Petronilla.
=== Marriage to Louis VII of France ===
William X died on [[Good Friday]], [[1137]] while on a pilgrimage to [[Spain]]. Eleanor, about the age of 15, became the Duchess of Aquitaine, and thus the most eligible heiress in Europe. As these were the days when kidnapping an heiress was seen as a viable option for attaining title, William wrote a [[will (law)|will]] on the very day he died, instructing that she marry [[Louis VII of France]]. The marriage, on [[July 22]], [[1137]], brought to France the area from the river [[Loire]] to the [[Pyrenees]]: most of what is today the southwest of France. However, there was a catch: the land would remain independent of France, and Eleanor's oldest son would be both King of France and [[Dukes of Aquitaine family tree|Duke of Aquitaine]]. Thus, her holdings would not be merged with France until the next generation. She gave Louis a wedding present that is still in existence, a [[rock crystal vase]] on display at the [[Louvre]].
Something of a free spirit, Eleanor was not popular with the staid northerners (particularly, according to sources, Louis's mother, [[Adélaide de Maurienne]]), who thought her flighty and a bad influence. Her conduct was repeatedly criticized by Church elders (particularly [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] and [[Abbot Suger]]) as indecorous. The King, however, was madly in love with his beautiful and worldly bride, and granted her every whim, even though her behavior baffled and vexed him to no end.
=== Crusade ===
Though Louis was a pious man he soon came into violent conflict with Pope Innocent II. The archbishopric of Bourges became vacant, and the king supported as candidate the chancellor Cadurc, against the pope's nominee Pierre de la Chatre, swearing upon relics that so long as he lived Pierre should never enter Bourges. This brought the [[Interdict (Roman Catholic Church)|interdict]] upon the king's lands.
Louis became involved in a war with [[Theobald II of Champagne]], by permitting [[Raoul I of Vermandois]] and seneschal of France, to repudiate his wife, Theobald's niece, and to marry [[Petronilla of Aquitaine]], Eleanor's sister. Eleanor urged Louis to support her sister's illegitimate marriage to Raoul of Vermandois. Champagne also sided with the pope in the dispute over Bourges. The war lasted two years (1142&ndash;44) and ended with the occupation of Champagne by the royal army. Louis was personally involved in the assault and burning of the town of [[Vitry]]. More than a thousand people who had sought refuge in the church died in the flames. Overcome with guilt, Louis declared on Christmas Day 1145 at Bourges his intention of going on a crusade.
On [[Easter]] [[1146]] both Eleanor and Louis took up the cross during a sermon preached by [[Bernard of Clairvaux]]. She was followed by some of her royal ladies in waiting as well as 300 non-noble vassals. She insisted on taking part in the [[Crusades]] as the feudal leader of the soldiers from her duchy. The story that she and her ladies dressed as [[Amazons]] is disputed by serious historians. However, her testimonial launch of the [[Second Crusade]] from [[Vézelay]], the rumored location of [[Mary Magdalene]]'s burial, dramatically emphasized the role of women in the campaign.
The Crusade itself was something of a [[disaster]]. Louis was a weak and ineffectual military leader with no concept of maintaining troop discipline or morale, or of making informed and logical tactical decisions. The French army was betrayed by [[Manuel I Comnenus]], [[Byzantine Emperor]], who feared that their aims would jeopardize the tenuous safety of his empire. A particularly poor decision to camp one night in a lush valley surrounded by tall peaks in hostile territory led to an attack by the Turks, who slaughtered as many as 7000 Crusaders. As this decision was made by Eleanor's vassal, [[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey the Fair, Count of Anjou]] (with whom it was rumored that she had an affair), many believed that it was her directive. This did nothing for her popularity in [[Christendom]]. Eleanor's reputation was further sullied by her supposed affair with her uncle [[Raymond of Poitiers]], [[Prince of Antioch]].
=== Divorce from Louis ===
Even before the Crusade, Eleanor and Louis were becoming estranged. The city of Antioch had been annexed by Bohemond of Hauteville in the First Crusade, and it was now ruled by her flamboyant uncle, [[Raymond of Poitiers | Raymond of Antioch]] (rumored to be her lover), who had gained the principality by marrying its reigning Princess, [[Constance of Antioch]]. Clearly, Eleanor supported his desire to re-capture the nearby [[County of Edessa]], the cause of the Crusade. Louis was directed by the Church to visit [[Jerusalem]] instead. When Eleanor declared her intention to stand with Raymond and the Aquitaine forces, Louis had her brought out by force. His long march to Jerusalem and back north debilitated his army, but her imprisonment disheartened her knights, and the divided Crusade armies could not overcome the Muslim forces. For reasons unknown, likely the Germans' insistence on conquest, the Crusade leaders targeted [[Damascus]], an ally until the attack. Failing in this attempt, they retired to Jerusalem, and then home.
When they passed through [[Rome]] on the way to Paris, [[Pope Eugene III]] tried to reconcile Eleanor and Louis. Eleanor conceived their second daughter, [[Alix of France]] (their first was [[Marie de Champagne|Marie]]), but there was no saving the marriage. In [[1152]]; it was annulled on the grounds of [[consanguinity]]. Her estates reverted to her and were no longer part of the French royal properties.
However, while in the eastern Mediterranean Eleanor learned about maritime conventions developing there: the beginnings of what would become [[Admiralty law|admiralty law]]. She introduced those conventions in her own lands, for instance on the island of [[Oleron]] in [[1160]], and later into England as well. She was also instrumental in developing trade agreements with Constantinople and ports of trade in the Holy Lands.
=== Marriage to Henry II of England ===
On [[May 18]], [[1152]], six weeks after her annullment, Eleanor married [[Henry II of England|Henry Plantagenet, Count of Anjou and Duke of Normandy]]. She was about 11 years older than he, and related to him in the same degree as she had been to Louis. One of Eleanor's rumored lovers was Henry's own father, [[Geoffrey of Anjou]], who, not surprisingly, advised him not to get involved with her. Over the next 13 years, she bore Henry five sons and three daughters: [[William, Count of Poitiers|William]], [[Henry the Young King|Henry]], [[Richard I of England|Richard]], [[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany|Geoffrey]], [[John I of England|John]], [[Matilda of England|Matilda]], [[Leonora of Aquitaine|Eleanor]], and [[Joan of England|Joan]].
Despite her reputation in later historical accounts, Eleanor was incensed by Henry's philandering; their son, William, and Henry's illegitimate son, Geoffrey, were born months apart. Henry fathered other illegitimate children throughout most of their marriage.
Some time between [[1168]] and [[1170]], she instigated a separation, deciding to establish a new court in her own territory of [[Poitou]]. In Poitiers, she reached the height of her powers creating the Court of Love. A small fragment of her codes and practices was written by [[Andreas Capellanus]].
Henry concentrated on controlling his increasingly-large empire, badgering Eleanor's subjects in attempts to control her [[patrimony]] of Aquitaine and her court at [[Poitiers]]. Straining all bounds of civility, Henry had Archbishop [[Thomas Becket]] murdered at the altar of the church in [[1170]] (though there is considerable debate as to whether it was truly Henry's intent to be permanently rid of his archbishop). This aroused not only Eleanor's horror and contempt, but most of Europe's.
=== Revolt and Imprisonment ===
In [[1173]], aggrieved at his lack of power and egged on by his father's enemies, the younger Henry launched the [[Revolt of 1173-1174]], joined by Richard and Geoffrey, and supported by several powerful English barons, as well as Louis VII and [[William I |
are so chosen as to afford the best means of protection from an enemy's fire. Huge earth [[parapet]]s cover these buildings, which are further strengthened, where possible, by [[traverse]]s protecting the entrances. For the purpose of filling, emptying, and examining [[cannon]] cartridges and shell, a [[laboratory]] is generally provided at some distance from the magazine. The various stores for explosives are classified into those under magazine conditions (such as magazines, laboratories, and cartridge stores) and those with which these restrictions need not be observed (such as ammunition and shell stores). The interior walls of a magazine are lined, and the floors laid so that there may be no exposed [[iron]] or [[steel]]. At the entrance, there is a lobby or barrier, inside which persons about to enter the magazine change their clothes for a special suit, and their boots for a pair made without nails. In an ammunition or shell store these precautions need not be taken except where the shell store and the adjacent cartridge store have a common entrance; persons entering may do so in their ordinary clothes. A large work may have a main magazine and several subsidiary magazines, from which the
stock of cartridges is renewed in the cartridge stores attached to each group of guns or in the expense cartridge stores and cartridge recesses. The same applies to main ammunition stores which supply the shell stores, expense stores, and recesses.
The supply of ammunition are either for [[gun]]s forming the movable armament or for guns placed in permanent positions. The movable armament will consist of guns and [[howitzer]]s of small and medium caliber, and it is necessary to arrange suitable expense cartridge stores and shell stores close to the available positions. They can generally be constructed to form part of the permanent work in the projected face of traverses or other strong formations, and should be arranged for a twenty-four hour supply of ammunition. These stores are refilled from the main magazine every night under cover of darkness. Light [[railway]]s join the various positions. The guns mounted in permanent emplacements are divided into groups of two or three guns each, and usually each group will require but one calibre of ammunition. A cartridge store, shell store and a general store, all well ventilated, are arranged for the especial service of such a group of guns. In the cartridge store the cylinders containing the cartridges are so placed and labeled that the required charge, whether reduced or full, can be immediately selected.
In the shell store, the common shell are separated from the armour-piercing or [[shrapnel]]. Each nature of projectile is painted in a distinctive manner to render [[identification]] easy. The fuzes and tubes are placed in the general store with the tools and accessories belonging to the guns. The gun group is distinguished by some letter and the guns of the group by numerals; thus <nowiki>A/1</nowiki> is number one gun of group A. The magazine and shell stores are also indicated by the group letter, and so that mistakes, even by those unaccustomed to the fort, may be avoided, the passages are pointed out by finger posts and direction boards. For the immediate service of each gun, a few cartridges and projectiles are stored in small receptacles (called cartridge and shell recesses respectively) built in the parapet as near the gun position as practicable. In some cases, a limited number of projectiles may be placed close underneath the parapet if this is conveniently situated near the [[breech]] of the gun and not exposed to [[hostile fire]].
In order to supply the ammunition sufficiently rapidly for the efficient service of modern guns, [[hydraulic]], [[electric]], or hand-power, [[hoist]]s are employed to raise the cartridges and shell from the cartridge store and shell store to the gun floor, whence they are transferred to a derrick or loading tray attached to the mounting for loading the gun.
Projectiles for [[British ordnance terms#BL|BL]] guns above 6 inch (152 mm) calibre are stored in shell stores ready filled and fuzed standing on their bases, except shrapnel and high-explosive shell, which are fuzed only when about to be used. Smaller sizes of shells are laid on their sides in layers, each layer pointing in the opposite direction to the one below to prevent [[injury]] to the driving bands. Cartridges are stored in [[brass]] corrugated cases or in [[zinc]] cylinders. The corrugated cases are stacked in layers in the magazine with the mouth of the case towards a passage between the stacks, so that it can be opened and the cartridges removed and transferred to a leather case when required for transport to the gun. Cylinders are stacked, when possible, vertically one above the other. The charges are sent to the gun in these cylinders, and provision is made for the rapid removal of the empty cylinders.
The number and nature of rounds allotted to any fortress depends on questions of [[policy]] and location, the degrees of resistance the nature of the works and personnel could reasonably be expected to give, and finally on the nature of the armament. That is to say, for guns of large calibre three hundred to four hundred rounds per gun might be sufficient, while for light QF guns it might amount to one thousand or more rounds per gun.
=== Modern Era ===
Modern ammunition includes not only shells for tube artillery and [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s, but increasingly aircraft-delivered [[bombs]], [[smart bombs]], [[rockets]] and other explosive-bearing projectiles. The destructive power and lethality of these systems is difficult to appreciate. A single [[cluster bomb]], deliverable by any of the above systems, can sow grenade-sized bomblets across a 100 yard (90m) [[football]]-sized field in sufficient density to kill any persons present, even in trenches and wearing body armor.
See [[ammo dump]] for discussion of modern ammunition storage facilities.
== Supply of ammunition in the field ==
With every successive improvement in military arms there has necessarily been a corresponding modification in the method of supplying ammunition and in the quantity required to be supplied. When hand-to-hand weapons were the principal implements of battle, there was no such need. But in the [[Middle Ages]], the [[archery|archers]] and crossbowmen had to replenish the shafts and bolts expended in action, and during a [[siege]], [[rock (geology)|stone]] bullets of great size, as well as heavy [[arrow]]s, were freely used. The [[missile]]s of those days were however interchangeable, and at the [[battle of Towton]] ([[1461]]), part of the [[War of the Roses]], the commander of the [[York]]ist archers induced the enemy to fire arrows in order to obtain them for firing back. This interchangeability of war material was even possible for many centuries after the invention of firearms. At the [[battle of Liegnitz]] ([[1760]]) a general officer was specially commissioned by [[Frederick the Great]] to pack up and send away, for [[Prussia]]n use, all the [[musket]]s and ammunition left on the field of battle by the defeated [[Austria]]ns.
Captured material is utilized whenever possible at the present time. In the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], the [[Japan]]ese went so far as to prepare beforehand spare parts for the [[China|Chinese]] guns they expected to capture. Though it is rare to find a modern army trusting to captures for arms and ammunition; almost the only instance of the practice is that of the [[Chilean Civil War]] ([[1891]]) in which the army of one belligerent was almost totally dependent upon this means of replenishing stores of arms and cartridges. But what was possible with weapons of comparatively
rough make is no longer to be thought of in the case of modern arms.
The [[Lee-Metford]] bullet of 0.303 inch (7.7 mm) diameter can scarcely be used in a rifle of smaller caliber, and in general the minute [[accuracy]] of parts in modern weapons makes interchangeability almost impossible. Further, owing to the rapidity with which, in modern arms, ammunition is expended, and the fact that, as battles are fought at longer ranges than formerly, more shots have to be fired in order to inflict heavy losses, it is necessary that the reserves of ammunition should be as close as possible to the troops who have to use them. This was always the case even with the older firearms, as, owing to the great weight of the ammunition, the [[soldier]] could only carry a few rounds. Nevertheless it is only within the past seventy years that there has grown up the elaborate system of ammunition supply which now prevails in all regularly organized armies. That which is described in the present article is the [[United Kingdom|British]], as laid down in the official [[Combined Training]] ([[1905]]) and other manuals. The new system designed for stronger divisions, and others, vary only in details and nomenclature.
==Ammunition for infantry==
Ammunition for infantry refers to the [[ammunition]] carried by a typical foot ([[infantry]]) [[soldier]]. Someone serving in the infantry generally carries, in pouches, [[bandolier]]s, etc., one hundred rounds of [[small arms|small-arms]] ammunition (S.A.A.), and it is usual to supplement this,
when an action is imminent, from the regimental reserve (see below).
Like any trade, the proper tools are necessary for the task at hand. Infantry need to be provided with the weapons and ammunition to deal with the expected threat, be it another foot soldier, a mounted warrior, armoured vehicle or aircraft.
===History===
Every reduction in the [[caliber]] (size) of the [[rifle|rifle's]] ammunition means an increase in the number of rounds carried. One hundred rounds of the [[Martini-Henry]] ammunition
weighed 10 pounds 10 ounces (4.8 kg); the same weight gives 155 rounds of 0.303 in (7.7 mm) ammunition and at 0.256 in (6.5 mm) the number of rounds is still |
-siam-dong]], [[paw-tsaynob in snow]] (&#38634;&#35041;&#34171;), [[prahok]], [[sake]], [[seokbakji]], [[soy sauce]], [[szechwan cabbage]] (&#22235;&#24029;&#27873;&#33756;), [[tai-tan tsoi]], [[takuan]], [[tempeh]], [[totkal kimchi]], [[tsa tzai]], [[yen tsai]] (&#37251;&#33756;), [[stinky tofu]]
** [[Central Asia]]: [[kumis]] (mare milk), [[kefir]], [[shubat]] (camel milk)
** [[India]]: [[achar]], [[gundruk]], [[Mixed pickle]], [[Idli]]
* [[Africa]]: [[hibiscus]] seed, hot pepper sauce, [[lamoun makbouss]], [[mauoloh]], [[msir]], [[mslalla]], [[oilseed]], [[ogili]], [[ogiri]], [[Garri]]
* [[Americas]]: [[cheese]], [[pickling]] (pickled vegetables), [[sauerkraut]], [[lupin]] seed, [[oilseed]], [[chocolate]], [[vanilla]], [[fermented fish]], fish heads, [[walrus]], seal oil, birds (in [[Inuit]] cooking)
* [[Middle East]]: [[kushuk]], [[lamoun makbouss]], [[mekhalel]], [[torshi]], [[tursu]]
* [[Europe]]: [[cheese]], [[sauerkraut]], soured milk products such as [[Quark (food)|quark]], [[kefir]] and [[filmjölk]], [[Surströmming|fermented Baltic herring]], sausages
==See also==
* [[Industrial fermentation]] <!-- the article should be written -->
* [[Fermentation lock]]
==References==
*Steinkraus, K. H., Ed. (1995). Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods. New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc.
*The 1811 ''Household Cyclopedia''
[[Category:Oenology]]
[[Category:Fermented beverages|*]]
[[Category:Brewing]]
[[Category:Food science]]
[[Category:Metabolism]]
[[Category:Food preservation]]
[[Category:Alchemical processes]]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Food science]]
[[Category:Microbiology]]
[[Category:Mycology]]
[[bg:Ферментация]]
[[cs:Kvašení]]
[[da:Fermentering]]
[[de:Fermentation]]
[[et:Anaeroobne glükolüüs]]
[[es:Fermentación]]
[[fa:تخمیر]]
[[fr:Fermentation]]
[[ko:발효]]
[[id:Fermentasi]]
[[it:Fermentazione]]
[[he:תסיסה]]
[[lt:Fermentacija]]
[[nl:Fermentatie]]
[[ja:醗酵]]
[[pl:Fermentacja]]
[[pt:Fermentação]]
[[sq:Fermentimi]]
[[simple:Fermentation]]
[[sr:Ферментација]]
[[su:Fermentasi]]
[[sv:Fermentering]]
[[tr:Fermantasyon]]
[[zh:发酵]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Forcemeat</title>
<id>11415</id>
<revision>
<id>32700315</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-25T19:35:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bunchofgrapes</username>
<id>198074</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{ingredient-stub}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Forcemeat''' is a mixture of ground, raw or cooked [[meat]], [[poultry]], [[fish]], [[vegetable]]s or [[fruit]] mixed with [[bread]] crumbs and seasoning. The mixture is usually ground several times to obtain a very smooth paste. A forcemeat can be used in other [[food]]s (for example for stuffing a chicken or turkey) or by itself.
==See also==
*[[Ground beef]]
*[[Pemmican]]
*[[Sausage]]
{{ingredient-stub}}
[[Category:Meat]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Four Schools of Madhhab</title>
<id>11416</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2004-03-29T23:52:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
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<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Madhhab]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Forseti</title>
<id>11417</id>
<revision>
<id>40804265</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T03:06:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rvolz</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* References */ Changed cite format per Wiki guidelines.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the folk music band, see [[Forseti (band)]].''
{{unsourced}}
'''Forseti''' ([[Old Norse]] "the presiding one", actually "[[president]]" in Modern [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Faroese language|Faroese]]) is the [[Æsir]] god of [[justice]], [[peace]] and [[truth]] in [[Norse mythology]]. He was the son of [[Balder]] and [[Nanna]]. His home was [[Glitnir]], its name, meaning ''shining'', referring to the hall's silver ceiling and golden pillars, which radiated light that could be seen from a great distance.
Forseti was considered the wisest and most eloquent of gods of [[Asgard]]. In contrast to his fellow god [[Tyr]], who presided over the bloody affairs of [[carnal law]], Forseti presided over disputes resolved by [[mediation]]. He sat in his hall, dispensing justice to those who sought it, and was said to be able to always provide a solution that all parties considered fair. Like his father Balder, he was a gentle god and favored peace so all judged by him could live in safety as long as they upheld his sentence. Forseti was so respected that only the most solemn oaths were uttered in his name.
He is not mentioned as a combatant at [[Ragnarok]], so it is assumed that as a god of peace he abstained from battle.
He is thought to have been the chief god or ancestor of the Frisians.
==Heligoland==
Forseti's place of worship was [[Heligoland]]. According to legend, twelve '''Asegeir''' or ''old ones'' once wandered all over [[Scandinavia]] gathering local laws. They wanted to get the best laws from all the tribes and compile them into one set of laws applicable to all of them, thus uniting them in peace.
It is said that after gathering laws from all the regions, they embarked on a sea voyage to a remote place where they could safely discuss the process of compilation. However, a vicious storm arose and while at the mercy of sea they invoked the name of Forseti to save them from peril. They noticed that a 13th person appeared in the boat and safely led it to a deserted island. There, the person (presumably Forseti himself) split the earth and a spring was formed. Having [[consecration|consecrated]] the place he dictated the unified [[Legal code|code of laws]] that merged all the best regulations of various local laws and suddenly vanished. [http://marklander.ravenbanner.com/forseti%20BC.html]
The island became a place of worship to Forseti and the spring was its holy place. The island's integrity was respected by all Norsemen and no warrior dared to make a raid there in fear of the punishment that would result in being cast down to the kingdom of [[Hel (goddess)|Hel]] rather than upwards to [[Valhalla]]. All major legal assemblies gathered at the island. The disputes were undertaken in the [[light]] of day only, and never in winter as it was believed that [[darkness]] was [[anathema]] to truth and just resolve.
==Other Spellings==
* German form: ''Forasizo''
* Frisian form: ''Fosite'', ''Foiste''
==See also==
[[Poetic Edda]]
----
Note that in today's [[Iceland]], the president is called a "Forseti".
==References==
* {{Cite book|last=Davidson|first=H. R. Ellis|title=Gods and Myths of Northern Europe|location=England|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1990|others=orig. pub. 1965|id=ISBN 0-140-13627-4}}
{{NorseMythology}}
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[[sv:Forsete]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Fiorello H. LaGuardia</title>
<id>11418</id>
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<id>40527133</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T05:25:46Z</timestamp>
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<minor />
<comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:U.S. Representatives from New York]] → [[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from New York]]. Requested change by [[User:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''LaGuardia redirects here. For the airport, see [[LaGuardia Airport]].''
[[Image:la guardia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Fiorello Henry LaGuardia]]
'''Fiorello Enrico LaGuardia''' ([[December 11]], [[1882]]&ndash;[[September 20]], [[1947]]) was the [[Mayor of New York]] from [[1934]] to [[1945]]. He was popularly known as "the Little Flower," the translation of his [[Italian language|Italian]] first name, also perhaps a reference to his short stature of just 5 feet. According to modern historians, LaGuardia is considered one of New York City's greatest mayors because of his role in leading New York during the Great Depression.
LaGuardia was born in [[The Bronx]] to an [[Italian people|Italian]] lapsed-[[Catholic]] father and a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] mother of [[Jewish]] origin from [[Trieste]], and he was raised an [[Episcopalian]]. His middle name was changed to '''Henry''' when he was a child. He spent most of his childhood in [[Prescott, Arizona]]. The family moved to his mother's hometown of [[Trieste, Italy]], after his father was discharged from his bandmaster position in the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] in 1898. LaGuardia served in U.S. consulates in [[Budapest]], [[Trieste]], and [[Fiume]] (1901&ndash;1906). Fiorello returned to the U.S. to continue his education at [[New York University]], and during this time he worked for [[New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty for Children]] and as a translator for the U.S. [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|Immigration Service]] at [[Ellis Island]] (1907&ndash;1910).
He became the Deputy [[Attorney General]] of [[New York]] in 1914. In 1916 he was elected to the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] where he developed a reputation as a fiery and devoted reformer. In Congress, LaGuardia represented then-Italian [[East Harlem]].
La Guardia briefly (1917 - 1919) served in the armed forces, commanding the [[U.S. Air Force]] on the Italian/Austrian front in [[World War I]], rising up to the rank of major.
In [[1921]] his wife died of [[tuberculosis]], L |
to [[Paris]] at the age of 16. After Eton, Bond attended and continued his education at [[Fettes College]] in [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]], his father's old school. In "[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"Octopussy"|Octopussy]]", Fleming writes that Bond briefly attended the [[University of Geneva]]. With the exception of Fettes, Bond's attendance at these schools parallels Fleming's own life, as he attended these same schools. The film version of James Bond tacks on the additions of Bond being a graduate with a [[academic degree|degree]] in [[Asian languages|Oriental languages]] from [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], as stated in ''You Only Live Twice''. He also attends (presumably at some point) [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] to study [[Danish language|Danish]] in ''Tomorrow Never Dies'', although in the film he's not there to study at all. Bond can speak a variety of different languages, most notably [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]], although many times the languages Bond claims to know are contradicted between the film series, Fleming's novel series, and even later films and continuation novels.
In 1941, Bond lied about his age in order to enter the [[Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve]] during [[World War II]], from which he emerged with the rank of [[Commander]]. Bond maintains this rank while in the employ of the British Secret Service and through further continuation novels and in the films, however, Gardner promoted Bond to [[Captain]] in ''[[Win, Lose or Die]]''. Since Benson's Bond was [[Reboot (continuity)|rebooted]], Bond became a Commander again.
===007===
It is never stated when James Bond became a 00 agent. According to Fleming, after joining the RNVR, Bond is mentioned as to traveling to America, Hong Kong, and Jamaica. It is believed that it is during this time that Bond perhaps joined another organisation such as the [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]], the 00 Section of the British Secret Service, or perhaps as a commando in Fleming's own 30 Assault Unit (30 AU). One supporting reason is that Fleming describes Bond in the [[Ardennes]] firing a [[bazooka]] in 1944. This action really doesn't make any sense since Bond is supposedly in the [[Royal Navy]]. It can be assumed that by this time Bond has moved on to another organisation. In Bond's obituary from ''You Only Live Twice'', [[M (James Bond)|M]] alludes to Bond's rank as being cover.
<blockquote>
''To serve the confidential nature of his duties, he was accorded the rank of lieutenant in the Special Branch of the R.N.V.R., and it is a measure of the satisfaction his services gave to his superiors that he ended the war with the rank of Commander.'' &mdash; M
</blockquote>
Bond earns his stripes in the 00 Section by completing two tasks, which Fleming outlines in ''Casino Royale''. The first is the assassination of a [[Japan]]ese cipher expert on the thirty-sixth floor of the [[GE Building|RCA Building]] at [[Rockefeller Center]] in [[New York City]]. The second was the assassination of a [[Norwegian]] who became a double agent and betrayed two British agents. Bond travels to [[Stockholm]] where he kills the man in his sleep with a knife.
According to Bond, obtaining a 00 number is not hard so long as you're prepared to kill. Throughout Fleming's novel, further continuation novels, and even the films, Bond's attitude toward his job is similar. Bond dislikes taking life&mdash;resorting to flippant jokes and off-hand remarks as after-the-fact relief, often misinterpreted as cold-bloodedness. Pearson's biography (disputed canonically) suggests Bond first killed as a teenager. The novel ''Goldfinger'' begins with Bond being haunted by memories of a small-time, [[Mexico|Mexican]] gunman he had killed with his bare hands days earlier and on film, specifically in ''[[The World Is Not Enough]]'', he admits that cold-blooded killing is a filthy business. Nonetheless, James Bond does kill when needed, and on film commits acts that might be considered [[murder]] in other circumstances (in ''[[Dr. No]]'', shooting Professor Dent in the back; killing the unarmed [[Elektra King]] in ''The World Is Not Enough''). The literary James Bond was reserved in his licenced killing, sometimes disobeying his orders to kill if the mission could be accomplished by other means. Such is the case in "[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"The Living Daylights"|The Living Daylights]]" where Bond makes a last second decision to disobey his orders and not kill an assassin. Instead Bond intentionally wounds the assassin and still manages to accomplish the mission. He later feels so strongly about his decision that he actually hopes [[M (James Bond)|M]] fires him for it; there are Fleming works in which Bond does not kill anyone.
The cinematic James Bond (introduced in 1962) already had a history with the Secret Service. In ''Dr. No'', when reluctantly re-equipped with a 7.65 mm [[Walther PPK]] pistol replacing his [[Beretta]] automatic pistol, agent 007 protests, telling [[M (James Bond)|M]] that he has used the weapon for 10 years, suggesting he has been a secret agent for at least that long. Since ''Dr. No'' in both the literary and cinematic versions, Bond has used a Walther PPK in almost every adventure. In the film ''Tomorrow Never Dies'', Bond updates his gun to the latest model of the [[Walther P99]]. In the novels, Gardner replaced the PPK (eventually) with an [[ASP (handgun)|ASP 9mm]].
===Description and love life===
In the novels (notably ''From Russia, With Love''), Bond's physical description has generally been consistent: a three-inch, vertical scar on his left cheek (absent from the cinematic version); blue-grey eyes; a "cruel" mouth; short, dark hair, a comma of which falls on his forehead (greying at the temples in Gardner's novels); and (after ''[[Casino Royale]]'') the faint scar of the [[Russian language|Russian]] [[cyrillic]] letter "Ш" (SH) on the back of one of his hands (carved by a [[SMERSH (James Bond)|SMERSH]] agent).
In both the literary and cinematic versions of ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'', James Bond marries, but his bride, [[Tracy Bond|Teresa di Vicenzo]] (Tracy), is killed on their wedding day by his archenemy, [[Ernst Stavro Blofeld]]; the event resonates in both versions of the character for many years thereafter. In the novels, Bond gets [[revenge]] in the following novel, ''You Only Live Twice'', when he by chance comes across Blofeld in [[Japan]], whilst the cinematic Bond takes on Blofeld in ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]'' with an ambiguous result. Later, in the pre-titles sequence of ''[[For Your Eyes Only]]'', Bond dispatches a bald, wheelchair-bound man who bears a startling resemblance to Blofeld. The character is not named for legal reasons connected with Eon's ongoing dispute with Kevin McClory and many have speculated that this episode represents both Bond closing the book on Blofeld and Eon demonstrating to McClory that they had no dependence on the Blofeld character.
Bond had one child, by Kissy Suzuki in ''You Only Live Twice'', although he did not know of the boy's existence until sometime later. Exactly when he learned this is not known; however he is aware of his son, James Suzuki, by the time of Raymond Benson's short story "[[James Bond uncollected short stories#"Blast From the Past|Blast From the Past]]."
===Alternate biographies===
An interesting, if wholly [[canon (fiction)|noncanonical]], conjecture about the Bond lineage can be found in [[Alan Moore|Alan Moore's]] comic book series, ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'', set in [[Victorian England]]. In it, the portly, sinister, and secretive MI6 agent placed in charge of the League is named [[Campion Bond]]. His superior, the overall director of the top-secret team, is code-named [[M (James Bond)|M]], an obvious reference to the Bond mythos. Later in "League," it is revealed that this "M" is none other than Professor James Moriarty, the archnemesis of Sherlock Holmes. The second miniseries would continue the Holmes link, as MI6 would be taken over by Mycroft Holmes as the new "M." Although Moore makes no overt connection between Bond and Campion, the saturation of literary reference in the comics has led fans to propose that Campion is meant to be an ancestor of the modern secret agent. His first name, Campion, is believed to be a reference to fictional detective [[Albert Campion]].
A second (non-canonical) son is suggested in the [[Marvel Comics]] series [[Master of Kung Fu]]. Clive Reston, a supporting character in the series, resembles Bond in many respects and is an MI6 agent himself. While it is never stated explicitly, dialogue strongly hints that Reston is Bond's son and the grand-nephew of [[Sherlock Holmes]]. In his fictional biographies, author [[Philip Jose Farmer]] suggests that Bond belongs in the [[Wold Newton family]] tree along with [[Tarzan]], [[Doc Savage]], and many other fictional heroes. Followers of Farmer's speculations have greatly elaborated on Bond's family.
==Novels==
===By [[Ian Fleming]]===
[[Image:IanFleming.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Ian Fleming. Photo: [[Horst Tappe]].]]
In February 1952, Ian Fleming began work on his first James Bond novel. At the time, Fleming was the Foreign Manager for [[Kemsley Newspapers]], an organisation owned by the ''[[London Sunday Times]]''. Upon accepting the job, Fleming asked that he be allowed two months vacation per year. Every year thereafter until his death in 1964, Fleming would retreat for the first two months of the year to his Jamaican estate, Goldeneye, to write a James Bond novel.
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
*[[1953 in literature|1953]] ''[[Casino Royale]]''
*[[1954 in literature|1954]] ''[[Live and Let Die]]''
*[[1955 in literature|1955]] ''[[Moonraker]]'' |
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<comment>/* Criticism */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dairy products''' are generally defined as [[food]]stuffs produced from [[milk]]. A production plant for such processing is called a [[dairy]]. Raw milk for processing generally comes from [[cattle|cow]]s, but occasionally from other [[mammal]]s such as [[domestic goat|goats]], [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[water buffalo]], [[yak]]s, or [[horse]]s.
[[Image:Dairy farm.jpg|thumb|200px|Dairy farm]]
==Types of dairy products==
There are more than 30 main products made from milk with a number of sub-products in each category. Dairy products include:
*[[Milk]], after optional [[homogenization]], [[pasteurization]], in several grades after standardization of the fat level
**[[Cream (food)|Cream]], the fat skimmed off the top of milk or separated by machine-centrifuges
***[[Sour cream]], cream that has been [[fermentation|fermented]] by the bacteria ''[[Streptococcus]] lactis'' and ''Leuconostoc citrovorum''
***[[Crème fraîche]], slightly fermented cream
**[[Cultured buttermilk]], fermented concentrated (water removed) milk using the same bacteria as sour cream
**[[Powdered milk|Milk powder]] (or powdered milk), produced by removing the water from milk
*** Whole milk & buttermilk
*** [[Skim milk]]
*** Cream
*** High milk-fat & nutritional powders (for infant formulas)
*** Cultured and confectionery powders
**[[Condensed milk]], milk which has been concentrated by evaporation, often with sugar added for longer life in an opened can
**[[Evaporated milk]], (less concentrated than condensed) milk without added sugar
**[[Khoa (food)|Khoa]]
**[[Infant formula]], dried milk powder with specific additives for feeding human infants
*[[Butter]], mostly milk fat, produced by churning cream
**[[Buttermilk]], the liquid left over after producing butter from cream, often dried as [[livestock]] food
**[[Ghee]], clarified butter, by gentle heating of butter and removal of the solid matter
** [[Anhydrous]] milkfat
*[[Cheese]], produced by coagulating milk, separating from whey and letting it ripen, generally with [[bacterium|bacteria]] and sometimes also with certain [[mold]]s
**[[Curd]]s, the soft curdled part of milk (or skim milk) used to make cheese (or casein)
**[[Whey]], the liquid drained from curds and used for further processing or as a livestock food
**[[Cottage cheese]]
**[[Cream cheese]], produced by the addition of cream to milk and then curdled to form a rich curd or cheese made from skim milk with cream added to the curd
**[[Fromage frais]]
* [[Casein]]
** [[Caseinates]]
** Milk [[protein]] concentrates and isonates
** [[Whey]] protein concentrates and isonates
** [[Hydrolysates]]
** [[Mineral]] concentrates
*[[Yoghurt|Yogurt]], milk fermented by ''[[Streptococcus]] salivarius ssp. thermophilus'' and ''[[Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus]]'' sometimes with additional bacteria, such as ''[[Lactobacillus]] acidophilus''
**[[Ayran]]
**[[Lassi]]
*[[Gelato]], slowly frozen milk and water
*[[Ice cream]], slowly frozen cream and emulsifying additives
**[[Ice milk]]
**[[Frozen custard]]
**[[Frozen yogurt]], yogurt with emulsifiers that is frozen
*Other
**[[Kumiss]]/[[Airag]]
**[[Viili]]
**[[Kajmak]]
**[[Kephir]]
**[[Filmjölk]]
**[[Piimä]]
[[Got Milk?]] is an international organization supporting dairy products, especially [[milk]].
== History ==
Most dairy products were developed in [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]]; the people of these continents have traditionally been the most active in terms of exploiting [[cattle]] as a primary food source. Some dairy products originate from other countries, like [[India]]n [[ghee]]. A small number of non-[[cow]] dairy products exist like [[Italy|Italian]] [[water buffalo]] [[mozzarella]] cheese, [[yak]] butter in [[Tibet]] or the fermented [[horse]] milk drink called [[airag]] in [[Mongolia]].
Dairy products were exported to the rest of the world during the 16th and 17th centuries. They are now universally popular, despite the fact that some people cannot consume them in adulthood because of [[lactose intolerance]].
== Criticism ==
[[Vegan]]s and some [[vegetarian]]s avoid dairy products due to various reasons, such as [[ethic]]al, [[health]], [[environment]]al considerations, and others.
== Eggs as dairy? ==
[[Egg (food)|Egg]]s and milk products are in some circumstances grouped together under the heading of dairy, probably because fresh eggs were often sold by milkmen. For example, the [[Open Directory Project]] at one point listed cooking eggs as a subcategory of cooking dairy products. However, dictionary definitions of "dairy" are limited to milk products and, as a result, will always exclude eggs and egg products.
== Beef as dairy? ==
Although milk comes from cows, [[beef]] is not considered a dairy product. Dairy products are considered by some to be [[vegetarian]] while beef, as meat, is not.
==External links==
{{cookbook}}
* [http://www.gotmilk.com/ Got Milk?]
* [http://www.moomilk.com MooMilk.com -- Dairy Industry information for children and dairy professionals]
* [http://www.nzmp.com/cda/frontpage/0,,c400210_g400076,00.html NZMP list of ingredients manufactured from milk]
* [http://www.food-info.net/uk/qa/dairy.htm Questions and Answers on dairy products]
* [http://www.idswageningen.nl International Dairy School]
[[Category:Dairy products|*]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[da:Mælkeprodukter]]
[[de:Milchprodukt]]
[[es:Producto lácteo]]
[[fa:لبنیات]]
[[fr:Produit laitier]]
[[he:מוצרי חלב]]
[[ja:乳製品]]
[[lt:Pieno produktas]]
[[nl:Zuivelproduct]]
[[ru:Молочные продукты]]
[[sl:Mlečni izdelek]]
[[zh:奶制品]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Desert</title>
<id>8098</id>
<revision>
<id>41340752</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T18:34:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ScottMainwaring</username>
<id>288266</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv - Mojave or Sonoran deserts are not "prominently discussed" here (see [[Wikipedia:Categorization]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Saudi-desert.gif|thumb|right|300px|Desert view in Saudi Arabia. The vast majority of the kingdom is sand desert, with distinct features and characteristics that clearly differ between one area and another.]]
In [[geography]], a '''desert''' is a landscape form or region that receives little [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] - less than 250 [[millimeter|mm]] (10 [[inch|in]]) per year. Deserts have a reputation for supporting very little life. Compared to wetter regions this may be true, although upon closer examination, deserts often harbor a wealth of life that usually remains hidden (especially during the daylight) to preserve moisture. Approximately one-third of Earth's land surface is desert.
Desert landscapes have certain common features. Desert soil is often composed mostly of rocky surfaces called [[reg]]s. [[Sand dunes]] called [[Erg (disambiguation)|erg]]s and stony or [[hamada]] surfaces compose the minority of desert surfaces. Exposures of [[Rock (geology)|rocky]] terrain are typical, and reflect minimal soil development and sparseness of vegetation. Bottom lands may be [[salt]]-covered flats. [[Eolian]] (wind-driven) processes are major factors in shaping desert landscapes.
Deserts sometimes contain valuable mineral deposits that were formed in the arid environment or that were exposed by erosion. Because deserts are dry, they are ideal places for human artifacts and fossils to be preserved.
In the [[Köppen climate classification]] system, they are classed as (BW).
==Types of desert==
[[Image:Désert-du-Thar.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The [[Thar Desert]] near [[Jaisalmer]], [[India]]]]
Most classifications rely on some combination of the number of days of [[rain]]fall, the total amount of annual rainfall, temperature, [[humidity]], or other factors. In [[1953]], [[Peveril Meigs]] divided desert regions on Earth into three categories according to the amount of precipitation they received. In this now widely accepted system, extremely arid lands have at least 12 consecutive months without rainfall, arid lands have less than 250 millimeters of annual rainfall, and semiarid lands have a mean annual precipitation of between 250 and 500 millimeters. Arid and extremely arid land are deserts, and semiarid grasslands generally are referred to as [[steppes]].
However, lack of rainfall alone can't provide an accurate description of what a desert is. For example, [[Phoenix, Arizona]] receives less than 250 millimeters, (10 inches), of precipitation per year, and is immediately recognized as being located in a desert. The [[North Slope]] of Alaska's [[Brooks Range]] also receives less than 250 millimeters of precipitation per year, but is not generally recognized as a desert region.
The difference lies in something termed "potential [[evapotranspiration]]."
The water budget of an area can be calculated using the formula P-PE+/-S, whereby P is precipitation, PE is potential evapotranspiration rates and S is amount of surface storage of water.
Evapotranspiration is the combination of water loss through atmospheric [[evaporation]], coupled with the evaporative loss of water through the life processes of plants. Potential evapotranspiration, then, is the amount of water that ''could'' evaporate in any given region. [[Tucson, Arizona]] receives about 300 millimeters, (12 inches), of rain per year, however about 2500 millimeters, (100 inches), of water could evaporate over the course of a year. In other words, about 8 times more water could evaporate from the region than actually falls. Rates of evapotranspiration in other regions such as Alaska are much lower, so while the |
ains nothing because in order for us to be here to ponder the universe, it had to be such that we can exist. According to [[Peter Schaefer (author)|Peter Schaefer]], that "critics call it a truism" is not a failure of the weak anthropic principle, since how can you refute a statement by saying that it is true?
Brandon Carter presented his ideas about the anthropic principle in a 1974 publication of the [[International Astronomical Union]]. Later, in 1983, he claimed that, in its original form, the principle was meant only to caution astrophysicists and cosmologists of possible errors in the interpretation of astronomical and cosmological data unless the biological constraints of the observer were taken into account. In 1983 he also included the warning that the inverse was true for evolutionary biologists; Carter claimed that in interpreting the evolutionary record, one must take into account the astrophysical restraints of the process. Working with this in mind, Carter concluded that the evolutionary chain probably could include only one or two highly improbable links given the available time interval. A. Feoli and S. Rampone ("Is the Strong Anthropic Principle Too Weak," 1999) argued that the estimated size of our universe and number of planets allows a higher bound, indicating no evidence for intelligent design in evolution.
There was renewed scientific interest in the anthropic principle in the late-1990s motivated by observational [[cosmology]] and theoretical work in [[quantum gravity]]. The theoretical work involved attempting to unify gravity with the other forces. While there were a number of promising developments, they all seemed to suffer from the problem that the fundamental physical constants seemed to be unconstrained. The observational motivation came from cosmological observations which gave firm values for quantities such as the matter density of the universe. Contrary to expectations, the value was not one, but 0.3, which is a non-obvious value.
Some alternatives to the anthropic principle do exist, the most optimistic being that a [[Theory of everything]] will ultimately be discovered, uniting all forces in the universe and deriving the properties of all the particles in the universe from scratch. Some candidates include [[M-Theory]] and various theories of [[quantum gravity]], although much of this is speculative. Another possibility is [[Lee Smolin]]'s model of [[Cosmological natural selection]], also known as [[Fecund universes]], which proposes that universes give "offspring" which are more plentiful if they happen to possess features common to our universe.
Recent publications (2004) by [[Stephen Hawking]] suggest that our universe is much less 'special' than the proponents of the anthropic principle claim it is. According to Hawking, there is a 98% chance that a universe of a type as ours will come from a [[Big Bang]]. Further, using the basic wavefunction of the universe as basis, Hawking's equations indicate that such a universe can come into existence without relation to anything prior to it, meaning that it could come out of nothing. As of 2004, however, these publications and the theories in them are still subject to scientific debate, and in the past, Hawking himself has asked, "What is it that breathes fire into the [[physical law|equations]] and makes a universe for them to describe?...Why does the universe go to all the bother of existing?" (Hawking, 1988).
== Anthropic principle in string theory ==
{{main|anthropic landscape}}
[[String theory]] predicts a large number of possible universes, called the backgrounds or [[vacua]]. The set of these of vacua is often called the anthropic landscape or string landscape. Some physicists, such as [[Leonard Susskind]], argue that the existence of a large number of vacua puts the anthropic reasoning on firm ground. Others, most notably [[David Gross]] but also [[Lubos Motl]] and [[Peter Woit]], argue that this is not predictive. [[Steven Weinberg]] described the anthropic principle as a "turning point" in the history of science in his 2005 paper on the string landscape, "Living in the multiverse".
== Anthropic bias and anthropic reasoning ==
In [[2002]], [[Nick Bostrom]] asked "Is it possible to sum up the essence of [[observation selection effect]]s in a simple statement?" He concluded that it might be, but that:
:Many 'anthropic principles' are simply confused. Some, especially those drawing inspiration from Brandon Carter's seminal papers, are sound, but... they are too weak to do any real scientific work. In particular, I argue that existing methodology does not permit any observational consequences to be derived from contemporary cosmological theories, in spite of the fact that these theories quite plainly can be and are being tested empirically by astronomers. What is needed to bridge this methodological gap is a more adequate formulation of how observation selection effects are to be taken into account.
His [[Self-Sampling Assumption]] is "that you should think of yourself as if you were a random observer from a suitable reference class." This he expands into a model of [[anthropic bias]] and [[anthropic reasoning]] under the uncertainty introduced by not knowing your place in our [[universe]] - or even who "we" are. This may also be a way to overcome various [[cognitive bias]] limits inherent in the humans doing the observation and sharing [[models of our universe]] using [[mathematics]], as suggested in the [[cognitive science of mathematics]].
== See also ==
*[[Fine-tuned universe]]
*[[Doomsday argument]]
*[[Inverse gambler's fallacy]]
*[[Big bounce|Big Bounce]]
*[[Anthropic landscape]]
*[[Cosmological natural selection]]
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Hawking | first = Stephen W.
| year = 1988
| title = A Brief History of Time
| pages = p.174
| location = New York
| publisher = Bantam Books
| id = ISBN 0-553-34614-8
}}
==External links==
* {{cite journal
| author = Kane, Gordon L., Malcolm J. Perry, and Anna N. Zytkow
| title=The Beginning of the End of the Anthropic Principle
| journal = New Astron.
| volume = 7
| year = 2002
| pages = 45–53
| id={{arxiv|archive=astro-ph|id=0001197}}
}}
* [http://arXiv.org/find/astro-ph/1/OR+ti:+AND+anthropic+principle+abs:+AND+anthropic+principle/0/1/0/all/0/1 debate among scientists on arxiv.org]
* Anthropic Reasoning, Stephen Hawking [http://www.phys.cwru.edu/events/cerca_video_archive.php Kavli-CERCA Conference Video Archive]
* {{cite journal
| author = A. Feoli, and S. Rampone
| id = {{arxiv|archive=gr-qc|id=9812093}}
| title = Is the Strong Anthropic Principle too weak?
|journal = Nuovo Cim.
| volume = B114
| year = 1999
| pages = 281–289
}}
* [http://www.epicidiot.com/evo_cre/13cards.htm Evolutionary Probability and Fine Tuning]
* [http://www.epicidiot.com/evo_cre/vr_privileged_planet.htm Critical review of "The Privileged Planet"]
* Living in the multiverse Steven Weinberg (2005) [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0511037 arXiv:hep-th/0511037]
== Footnote ==
{{fnb|(1)}} The principle had, however, been invoked before then, e.g. in 1957, R.H. Dicke wrote: 'The age of the Universe "now" is not random but conditioned by biological factors ... [changes in the values of the fundamental constants of physics] would preclude the existence of man to consider the problem.' (R.H. Dicke, ''Principle of Equivalence and Weak Interactions'', Rev.Mod.Phys. 29, 355 (1957).) Even earlier statements of the principle may be found in [[Alfred Russel Wallace]]'s book ''Man's Place in the Universe'', which was first published in 1903. For example: "such a vast and complex universe as that which we know exists around us, may have been absolutely required ... in order to produce a world that should be precisely adapted in every detail for the orderly development of life culminating in man." (pp. 256-7 in the 1912 edition).
It also has analogs in, e.g., [[Karl Marx]]'s theory of [[historical materialism]]: "The first premise of all human history is, of course, the existence of living human individuals. Thus the first fact to be established is the physical organisation of these individuals and their consequent relation to the rest of nature." (''The German Ideology'', [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01a.htm#a2 ch. 1])
[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[ca:Principi antròpic]]
[[de:Anthropisches Prinzip]]
[[es:Principio antrópico]]
[[fr:Principe anthropique]]
[[it:Principio antropico]]
[[he:הטיעון האנתרופי]]
[[nl:Antropisch principe]]
[[pl:Zasada antropiczna]]
[[ru:Антропный принцип]]
[[sl:Antropično načelo]]
[[vi:Nguyên lý vị nhân]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Application program</title>
<id>2793</id>
<revision>
<id>15901183</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-06T02:21:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>R. S. Shaw</username>
<id>102175</id>
</contributor>
<comment>chg redir from comp soft to app soft</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Application software]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Australian Army</title>
<id>2795</id>
<revision>
<id>42143017</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:37:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>OneEuropeanHeart</username>
<id>633536</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>organised and corrected links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Australian Army}}
[[Image:Australianarmy.gif|right|thumb|The Australian Army Emblem]]
The '''Australian Army''' is [[Australia|Australia's]] military land force. It is part of the [[Australian Defence Force]] (ADF) along with the [[Royal Australian Navy]] and the [[Royal Australian Air Force]].
The Australian Army is commanded by the Chief of the Army (CA), who is re |
<username>Android79</username>
<id>88250</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Goyk|Goyk]] ([[User talk:Goyk|talk]]) to last version by Bota47</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the composer, see [[Antony Hopkins]].''
[[Image:Anothony hopkins in fastest indian.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hopkins in ''[[The World's Fastest Indian]]'']]
[[Image:Heyes.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hopkins in ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'']]
'''Sir''' '''Anthony Hopkins''' ({{IPA2|'æntəni 'hɒpkɪnz}}) [[Commander of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[December 31]], [[1937]]) is a [[Welsh]]-born [[actor]] who was born '''Philip Anthony Hopkins''' in Margam, near [[Port Talbot]], [[Wales]]. His parents were the late Richard Arthur Hopkins and Muriel Yeats, who is a distant relation of poet [[William Butler Yeats]]. He was influenced and encouraged to become an actor by fellow Welshman [[Richard Burton]], whom he met briefly at the age of fifteen. Hopkins eventually moved to London where he trained as an actor at [[RADA]].
He is an acknowledged [[alcoholism|alcoholic]] who has been abstinent since [[1975]]. He now resides in the United States where he became a [[naturalization|naturalized citizen]] on [[April 12]], [[2000]]. However, as a dual national, he retains his [[British honours system|knighthood]] and can use the title 'Sir' in the UK, but not in the US, since it is considered 'inappropriate' according to the British consulate. Proud of his [[United States|American]] citizenship, Hopkins stated that as soon as he became a citizen of the country, he went on a 3,000 mile road trip across [[United States|America]].
Hopkins has been married three times. His first two wives were Petronella Barker (1967-[[1972]]) and Jennifer Lynton (1973-[[2003]]). He is now married to [[Stella Arroyave]]. He has a daughter named Abigail Hopkins (born 1968) from his first marriage.
His most famous role was the portrayal of the [[cannibalism|cannibalistic]] [[serial killer]] [[Hannibal Lecter]] in the film ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'' (for which he won the [[Academy Award for Best Actor]]) opposite [[Jodie Foster]] as [[Clarice Starling]], who also won the [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] that year. In fact the film won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] as well that year, no doubt due to the electrifying interplay between Hopkins and Foster. It is the shortest lead acting Oscar-winning performance ever, as Hopkins is only on the screen for about sixteen minutes. Hopkins reprised the role of Dr. Lecter twice in ''[[Hannibal (film)|Hannibal]]'' and ''[[Red Dragon]]''. Lecter first appears in the film ''[[Manhunter (film)|Manhunter]]'', in which the role was played by [[Brian Cox]]. ''Red Dragon'' was a remake of ''Manhunter'', which allowed Hopkins to play Lecter in adaptations of all three Lecter novels. Lecter's slurping sound from ''Silence of the Lambs'' was apparently improvised; although, Hopkins admits during the Criterion Laserdisc commentary track it may have been influenced by [[Bela Lugosi]] (with no remembrance which movie it would be from). All three films were based on the bestselling novels by [[Thomas Harris]], who reportedly was very pleased with Hopkins' portrayal of Lecter.
Hopkins has also been Oscar-nominated for ''[[The Remains of the Day]]'' (1993), which was based on the award-winning novel by [[Kazuo Ishiguro]]. Other Oscar-nominated performances include ''[[Nixon (movie)|Nixon]]'' (1995) and ''[[Amistad (1997 movie)|Amistad]]'' (1997). He also won the [[BAFTA Award for Best Actor]] for his perfomances in ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'' and ''[[The Remains of the Day]]''.
He has played many famous historical and fictional characters including: [[Zorro]] (''The Mask of Zorro'' 1998), [[Quasimodo]] (''[[The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1982 film)|The Hunchback of Notre Dame]]'' [[1982]]), [[Othello]] (''Othello'' 1981), [[Pablo Picasso]] (''Surviving Picasso'' 1996), [[Richard Nixon]] (''Nixon'' 1995), [[Titus Andronicus]] (''Titus'' 1999), [[John Quincy Adams]] (''[[Amistad (1997 movie)|Amistad]]'' [[1997]]), [[Adolf Hitler]] (''The Bunker'' 1981), [[John Dutton Frost|John Frost]] (''A Bridge Too Far'' 1977) [[Charles Dickens]] (''The Great Inimitable Mr. Dickens'' 1970), [[William Bligh]] (''The Bounty'' 1984), [[Richard Lionheart]] (''[[The Lion in Winter]]'' [[1968]]), [[David Lloyd George]] (''Young Winston'' 1972), [[Abraham Van Helsing]] (''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' [[1992]]), [[Yitzak Rabin]] (''[[Victory at Entebbe]]'' [[1976]]) and [[C. S. Lewis]] (''[[Shadowlands]]'' [[1993]]).
He was made a [[Order of the British Empire|Commander of the British Empire]] (CBE) in 1987, and knighted in 1993.
Today, Hopkins also takes time to support various [[philanthropy|philanthropic]] groups. Hopkins was past Gala Fundraiser Guest of Honour for Women in Recovery, Inc., a [[Venice, California]]-based non-profit organization offering rehabilitation for women in need. He is also a volunteer teacher at the Ruskins School of Acting in Santa Monica, California where he also resides.
He has offered his support to various charities and appeals, notably becoming President of the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]'s [[Snowdonia]] Appeal, raising funds for the preservation of the [[Snowdonia National Park]] and to aid the Trust's efforts to purchase parts of [[Snowdon]]. A book celebrating these efforts ''Anthony Hopkins' Snowdonia'' was published together with Graham Nobles.
In [[2006 in film|2006]], Hopkins was the recipient of the [[Golden Globe]] [[Cecil_B._DeMille_Award|Cecil B. DeMille Award]] for lifetime achievement.
===Selected filmography===
* ''[[The Lion in Winter]] '' (1968)
* ''[[The Looking Glass War]]'' (1969)
* ''[[Hamlet (1969 film)|Hamlet]]'' (1979)
* ''[[The Great Inimitable Mr. Dickens]]'' (1970)
* ''[[The Three Sisters (film)|The Three Sisters]]'' (1970)
* ''[[Young Winston]]'' (1972)
* ''[[War and Peace]]'' (1972)
* ''[[A Doll's House (film)|A Doll's House]]'' (1973)
* ''[[The Girl from Petrovka]]'' (1974)
* ''[[QB VII]]'' (1974)
* ''[[Juggernaut (film)|Juggernaut]]'' (1974)
* ''[[Dark Victory]]'' (1976)
* ''[[The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case]]''([[1976]])
* ''[[A Bridge Too Far]]'' (1977)
* ''[[Audrey Rose]]'' (1977)
* ''[[Magic (film)|Magic]]'' (1978)
* ''[[International Velvet]]'' (1978)
* ''[[Mayflower: The Pilgrims' Adventure]]'' (1979)
* ''[[The Elephant Man (movie)|The Elephant Man]]'' (1980)
* ''[[A Change of Seasons]]'' (1980)
* ''[[The Bunker]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Peter and Paul]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Othello (1981 television)|Othello]]'' (1981)
* ''[[The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1982 film)|The Hunchback of Notre Dame]]'' (1982)
* ''[[A Married Man]]'' (1983)
* ''[[The Bounty]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Hollywood Wives]]'' (1985)
* ''[[Guilty Conscience (film)|Guilty Conscience]]'' (1985)
* ''[[Mussolini And I]]'' (1985)
* ''[[The Good Father]]'' (1985)
* ''[[84 Charing Cross Road]]'' (1987)
* ''[[Desperate Hours]]'' (1990)
* ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'' (1991)
* ''[[Freejack]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]])
* ''[[Chaplin]]'' (1992)
* ''[[The Efficiency Expert]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Spotswood (film)|Spotswood]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Howards End]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' (1992)
* ''[[The Remains of the Day (film)|The Remains of the Day]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Shadowlands]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Legends of the Fall]]'' ([[1994 in film|1994]])
* ''[[The Road to Wellville]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]])
* ''[[Nixon (film)|Nixon]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Surviving Picasso]]'' (1996)
* ''[[Amistad (1997 film)|Amistad]]'' (1997)
* ''[[The Edge (1997 film)|The Edge]]'' (1997)
* ''[[The Mask of Zorro]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Meet Joe Black]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Instinct (film)|Instinct]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Titus (film)|Titus]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Mission: Impossible II]]'' (2000)
* ''[[How The Grinch Stole Christmas]]'' (2000) (voice only)
* ''[[The Devil and Daniel Webster]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Hannibal (film)|Hannibal]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Hearts in Atlantis (film)|Hearts in Atlantis]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Red Dragon]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Bad Company]]'' (2002)
* ''[[The Human Stain]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Alexander (film)|Alexander]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Proof (2005 film)|Proof]]'' (2005)
* ''[[The World's Fastest Indian]]'' (2005)
* ''[[All the King's Men (2006 film)|All the King's Men]]'' (2006)
* ''[[Bobby (2006 film)|Bobby]]'' (2006, filming)
* ''[[Fracture (film)|Fracture]]'' (2006, filming)
* ''[[Beowulf (2007 film)|Beowulf]]'' (2007, filming)
* ''[[Papa]]'' (2007, pre-production)
* ''[[Ray Gun (film)]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Harry and the Butler]]'' (2006, announced)
==Trivia==
* Was playing [[King Lear]] on stage at the National Theater while [[Brian Cox]] was playing Hannibal Lecter in ''[[Manhunter (film)|Manhunter]]''. Years later, during production of ''The Silence of the Lambs'', Cox was playing King Lear at the National Theater.
* Has received two Oscar nominations for playing U.S. Presidents. He played [[Richard Nixon]] in ''[[Nixon (film)|Nixon]]'', and [[John Quincy Adams]] in ''[[Amistad (1997 film)|Amistad]]''.
* The drama school at the [[Southern Institute of Technology]] in [[New Zealand]] was named after him when he was in [[Invercargill]] filming [[The World's Fastest Indian]].
==External links==
*{{imdb name | id=0000164 | name=Anthony Hopkins}}
*[http://hannibalstudiolo.com/phpBB2/index.php The Hannibal Lecter Studiolo]
*[http://www.planethopkins.co.uk Planet Hopkins] A comprehensive fan-based website.
*[http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/anthony_hopkins.html Anthony Hopkins] - A timeline of his life
[[Category:1937 births|Hopkins, Anthony]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar|Hopkins, Anthony]] <!-- The Silence of the Lambs -->
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|Hopkins, Anthony]] <!-- Amistad (1997 movie) -->
[[Category:Film actors|Hopkins, Anthony]]
[[Category:Natives of Neath Port Talbot|Hopkins, Anthony]]
[[Category:Natura |
22:31:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Heywøød</username>
<id>991509</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed redundant categories</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = F-Zero: Maximum Velocity
|image = [[Image:Fzeromv.jpg|center|170px|F-Zero: Maximum Velocity box art]]
|developer = [[Nintendo]]
|publisher = [[Nintendo]]
|designer = [[Takehiro Izushi]], [[Hitoshi Yamagami]]
|engine =
|released = [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|22px|Japan]] [[March 21]], [[2001]]<br />[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|22px|North America]] [[June 10]], [[2001]]<br />[[Image:European flag.svg|22px|Europe]] [[June 22]], [[2001]]
|genre = [[Racing game]]
|modes = [[Single-player]], [[multiplayer]]
|ratings = [[Computer Entertainment Rating Organization|CERO]]: [[Image:Mark d.gif|15px]] All ages<br>[[ESRB]]: [[Image:ESRB_E.png|12px|E]] Everyone
|platforms = [[Game Boy Advance]]
|media = 32-[[megabit]] [[cartridge]]
|requirements =
|input =
}}
[[Image:Fzero 0604 screen013.jpg|thumb|right|A Cloud Carpet race in F-Zero: Maximum Velocity.]]
'''''F-Zero Maximum Velocity''''' ('''''F-Zero for Game Boy Advance''''' in Japan) is a futuristic racing game for [[Game Boy Advance]].
It allows for competition against simulated opponents or human opponents. You must race hovering vehicles along long courses at extremely high speeds and win while avoiding crashes. The game was released at the same time as the system, on [[March 21]], [[2001]] in Japan, [[June 10]], 2001 in North America and across Europe on [[June 22]], 2001.
==Gameplay Basics==
===Races===
Every race consists of five laps around a race track. The race will end prematurely if the player lands outside of the track after a jump, destroys their car by depleting its energy, completes a lap in too low of a rank, or drops to 20th place; all of these conditions necessitate the player using an extra life (if available in the Grand Prix) to try again.
===Boost===
At the end of every lap the player is given one boost. This boost may be used at any time during a game by pressing both shoulder buttons at the same time. A boost will dramatically increase a player's speed, but will decrease their ability to turn. A boost used before a jump will make the player jump farther, allowing the player to use a shortcut.
===Turning===
There are different ways to turn your vehicle without hitting the wall: the shoulder buttons slide the vehicle in each direction and tapping the acceleration button rapidly makes turning considerably easier. This is important because the courses in the game contain many sharp turns, sometimes 180 degrees.
==Grand Prix==
The Grand Prix is the main single player component of ''Maximum Velocity''. It consists of four series (one hidden), each containing five races. The player needs to be in the top three at the end of the last lap in order to continue to the next race. If the player is unable to continue, the player will lose a life and can try the race again. If the player runs out of lives, then the game ends, and the player has to start the series from the beginning.
===Courses===
====Pawn Grand Prix====
#Bianca City: Stretch Circuit (also known as Pwn 1)
#Stark Farm: First Circuit
#Empyrean Colony: Dash Circuit
#Stark Farm: Second Circuit
#Cloud Carpet: Long Jump
====Knight Grand Prix====
#Tenth Zone East: Snake Circuit
#Beacon Port: Crossroads Circuit
#Synobazz: Explosive Circuit
#Ancient Mesa: Split Circuit
#Stark Farm: Third Circuit
====Bishop Grand Prix====
#Bianca City: Tightrope Circuit
#Ancient Mesa: Skating Circuit
#Crater Land: Skid Zone
#Cloud Carpet: Icarus Circuit
#Bianca City: Ultimate Circuit
====Queen Grand Prix====
#Crater Land: Loop Circuit
#Tenth Zone East: Plummet Circuit
#Empyrean Colony: Twist Circuit
#Fire Field: Land Mine Circuit
#Fire Field: Warrior Circuit
==Championship==
Championship is another single player component. It is basically the same as a "Time Attack" mode, except the player can only race on one, special course: the Synobazz Championship Circuit. This special course is not selectable in Multi Cartridge vs.
==Multiplayer==
''Maximum Velocity'' can be played in two multiplayer modes using the Game Boy Advance link cable, with one cartridge, or one cartridge per player. Two to four Players can play in both modes.
===Single cartridge===
In single cart, only one player needs to have a cartridge. The other players will boot off of the link cable network from the player with the cart using the GBA's [[GBA Network Boot|netboot]] capability. All players drive a generic craft, and the game can only be played on one level, Silence. Silence's name comes from the fact that it has no sound.
===Multi cartridge===
In multi cart, each player needs to have a cartridge to play.
This has many advantages over single cart:
*All players can use any machine in this game that has been unlocked by another player.
*Players can select any course in this game.
*After race is finished, all of the player's ranking data are mixed and shared ("Mixed ranking" stored in each cart).
==Points of Interest==
Maximum Velocity is a continuation of the ''[[F-Zero series|F-Zero racing game series]]'', the previous game being ''[[F-Zero X]]'' ([[1998]]) for the [[Nintendo 64]]. It is the only US-released F-Zero game without [[Captain Falcon]], Samurai Goroh, Pico, or Dr. Stewart. Maximum Velocity is the first F-Zero title on the [[Game Boy Advance]], first F-Zero game with 3 save slots and also the first F-Zero game to feature customizable controls.<br>
By chronology, Maximum Velocity takes place a quarter of a century after F-Zero X. Aside from the main [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]] console sequel ''[[F-Zero GX]]'' ([[2003]]), two GBA sequels have been released since: ''[[F-Zero: GP Legend (game)|F-Zero: GP Legend]]'' ([[2004]]) and ''F-Zero: Climax'' ([[2005]]).<br>
The current World Champion of F-Zero: Maximum Velocity is from Japan, and is one of several hundred competitors. Similar competition also exists on other games in the F-Zero franchise.
==External links==
*[http://www.mrfixitonline.com/List.asp?ListId=493 F-Zero Maximum Velocity World Records Page]
<br>
{{F-Zero series}}
[[Category:F-Zero series]]
[[Category:Game Boy Advance games]]
[[Category:2001 computer and video games]]
[[fr:F-Zero: Maximum Velocity]]
[[ja:F-ZERO FOR GAMEBOY ADVANCE]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First-person shooter</title>
<id>11791</id>
<revision>
<id>41663010</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:36:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.44.25.182</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Selected important games in FPS development */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Doom ingame 2.png|thumb|right|265px|''[[Doom]]'', one of the games that defined the first-person shooter genre.]]
A '''first-person shooter''' ('''FPS''') is a combat [[Computer and video games|computer or video game]] genre, which is characterized by the player’s on-screen view of the game simulating that of the character or First Person view.
Games like ''[[Battlezone]]'', or many [[flight simulator]]s might at first seem to be included in this broad definition, however, in the early [[1990s]], the term came to define a more specific type of game with a first-person view, almost always centered around the act of aiming and shooting weapons and usually limited ammunition. [[On-rails shooter]]s are often viewed from a first-person perspective but are a sub-genre of FPS rather than a FPS proper.
The modern FPS [[video game genres|genre]] emerged during the early 1990s, at the point when home computers became sufficiently powerful to draw basic [[3D graphics]] in realtime. The breakthrough games were [[id Software]]'s ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' and ''[[Doom]]''. The latter, in particular, defined the genre so emphatically that FPS games were commonly referred to as "[[Doom clone]]s" for a significant period after its release.
First-person shooters have been subject to substantial [[video game controversy|controversy]] due to the levels of violence included in most games, and the visual realism that can be more inherent in the shooting of things in a first-person perspective.
==Overview==
The first-person shooter can be considered a sub-genre of [[shooter game]]s, though almost all other two dimensional shooter games, especially [[shoot 'em up]]s, are more concerned with the gameplay mechanic of dodging than of precise aiming. The term FPS has recently come to refer to games where the player has full control over a character and can interact directly with the environment, although any game in first perspective that is a shooter is considered an FPS, for example [[Duck Hunt]] is an FPS game.
Many '''[[third-person shooter]]s''' (where the player sees the game world from a viewpoint above and behind the main character) are commonly treated as first-person shooters, due to similarities in gameplay. In some cases (for example, ''[[Unreal Tournament 2004]]'', ''[[Command & Conquer: Renegade]]'', ''[[Star Wars Battlefront II]]'', ''[[Oddworld: Stranger's Wrath]]'' or ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'') it is possible to toggle the game between both viewpoints.
===Sub-genres===
The realism in FPS games can vary from [[arcade shooter]]s, which are fast paced and have unrealistic elements (such as the player being able to shrug off bullets or falling large distances) to levels approaching reality, where players are routinely killed by a single shot. In practice, most games fall somewhere between the two.
Distinct FPS sub-genres exist, which use a similar viewpoint and mechanics, but emphasise different aspects of FPS gameplay.
* The [[stealth-based game]] or "first-person sneaker" centers on avoiding detection by opponents (for example, ''[[Thief (computer game)|Thief]]'', ''[[Splinter Cell|Splinter |
ot Chadian Christians have been numerous enough and organized enough to have attracted more converts since that time is unknown.
==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==
===Population===
:9,826,419 (July 2005 est.)
===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 47.9% (male 2,365,277/female 2,337,388)
:15-64 years: 49.4% (male 2,323,110/female 2,528,086)
:65 years and over: 2.8% (male 109,535/female 163,023) (2005 est.)
===Median age===
:Total: 16.02 years
:Male: 15.32 years
:Female: 16.71 years (2005 est.)
===Population growth rate===
:2.95% (2005 est.)
===Birth rate===
:45.98 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Death rate===
:16.41 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Net migration rate===
:-0.11 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.04 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.67 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 93.82 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 103.03 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 84.24 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 47.94 years
:Male: 46.84 years
:Female: 49.09 years (2005 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:6.32 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 0.8% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 20,000(2003 est.)
:Deaths: 1,800 (2003 est.)
===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne disease: malaria
:Water contact disease: schistosomiasis
:Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis (2004)
===Nationality===
:Noun: Chadian(s)
:Adjective: Chadian
===Ethnic groups===
:200 distinct groups; in the north and center: Arabs, Gorane ([[Toubou]], Daza, Kreda), Zaghawa, Kanembou, Ouaddai, Baguirmi, Hadjerai, Fulbe, Kotoko, Hausa, Boulala, and Maba, most of whom are Muslim; in the south: [[Sara people|Sara]] (Ngambaye, Mbaye, Goulaye), Moundang, Moussei, Massa, most of whom are Christian or animist; about 1,000 French citizens live in Chad
===Religions===
:[[Muslim]] 51%, [[Christian]] 35%, [[animist]] 7%, other 7%
===Languages===
:French (official), Arabic (official), [[Sara language|Sara]] (in south), more than 120 different languages and dialects
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write French or Arabic
:Total population: 47.5%
:Male: 56%
:Female: 39.3% (2003 est.)
==References==
{{CIAfb}}
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Geography of Chad]]
[[Category:Chadian society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Chad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Chad</title>
<id>5332</id>
<revision>
<id>36871925</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T00:38:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobblewik</username>
<id>51235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{election chad}}
A strong executive branch headed by President [[Idriss Déby]] dominates the [[Chad]]ian political system. Following his military overthrow of [[Hissène Habré]] in December 1990, Déby won presidential elections in 1996 and 2001. The constitutional basis for the government is the 1996 constitution, under which the president was limited to two terms of office until Déby had that provision repealed in 2005. The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the Council of State (or cabinet), and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad&rsquo;s parastatal firms. In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the National Assembly President and Council of State, may declare a state of emergency. Most of the Déby's key advisors are members of the [[Zaghawa]] clan, although some southern and opposition personalities are represented in his government.
According to the 1996 constitution, National Assembly deputies are elected by universal suffrage for 4-year terms. Parliamentary elections are scheduled for spring 2002. The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year, starting in March and October, and can hold special sessions as necessary and called by the prime minister. Deputies elect a president of the National Assembly every 2 years. Assembly deputies or members of the executive branch may introduce legislation; once passed by the Assembly, the president must take action to either sign or reject the law within 15 days. The National Assembly must approve the prime minister&rsquo;s plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no-confidence. However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch&rsquo;s program twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections. In practice, the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through the MPS party structure.
Despite the constitution&rsquo;s guarantee of judicial independence from the executive branch, the president names most key judicial officials. The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councilors chosen by the president and National Assembly; appointments are for life. The Constitutional Council, with nine judges elected to 9-year terms, has the power to review all legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption. The constitution recognizes customary and traditional law in locales where it is recognized and to the extent it does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality for all citizens.
== Government ==
'''Country name:'''
<br>''conventional long form:''
Republic of Chad
<br>''conventional short form:''
Chad
<br>''local long form:''
Republique du Tchad
<br>''local short form:''
Tchad
'''Data code:'''
CD
'''Government type:'''
republic
'''Capital:'''
[[N'Djamena]]
'''Administrative divisions:'''
14 prefectures ([[prefecture]]s, singular - prefecture); Batha, Biltine, Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti, Chari-Baguirmi, Guera, Kanem, Lac, Logone Occidental, Logone Oriental, Mayo-Kebbi, Moyen-Chari, Ouaddai, Salamat, Tandjile
'''Independence:'''
[[11 August]] [[1960]] (from France)
'''National holiday:'''
Independence Day, [[11 August]] (1960)
'''Constitution:'''
passed by referendum [[31 March]] [[1996]]
'''Legal system:'''
based on French civil law system and Chadian customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal
'''Executive branch:'''
<br>''chief of state:''
President Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY (since [[4 December]] [[1990]])
<br>''head of government:''
Prime Minister Pascal YOADIMNADJI (since [[3 February]] [[2005]])
<br>''cabinet:''
Council of State, members appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
<br>''elections:''
president elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms; if no candidate receives at least 50% of the total vote, the two candidates receiving the most votes must stand for a second round of voting; last held [[20 May]] [[2001]] (next to be held [[2006]]); prime minister appointed by the president
<br>''election results:''
Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY reelected president; percent of vote - Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY 63%, Ngarlegy YORONGAR 16%, Saleh KEBZABO 7%
'''Legislative branch:'''
bicameral according to constitution, consists of a National Assembly (155 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) and a Senate (not yet created and size unspecified, members to serve six-year terms, one-third of membership renewable every two years)
<br>''elections:''
National Assembly - last held [[21 April]] [[2002]] (next to be held in April [[2006]])
<br>''election results:''
percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - MPS 110, RDP 12, FAR 9, RNDP 5, URD 5, UNDR 3, others 11
'''Judicial branch:'''
Supreme Court; Court of Appeal; Criminal Courts; Magistrate Courts
'''Political parties and leaders:'''
Federation Action for the Republic or FAR [Ngarlejy YORONGAR]; National Rally for Development and Progress or RNDP [Mamadou BISSO]; National Union for Democracy and Renewal or UNDR [Saleh KEBZABO]; Patriotic Salvation Movement or MPS [Mahamat Saleh AHMAT, chairman]; Rally for Democracy and Progress or RDP [Lol Mahamat CHOUA]; Union for Renewal and Democracy or URD [Gen. Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE]; Viva Rally for Development and Progress or Viva RNDP [Delwa Kassire COUMAKOYE]
'''International organization participation:'''
ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AU, BDEAC, CEMAC, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, ITU, MIGA, NAM, OIC, ONUB, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOCI, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO
'''Flag description:'''
three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; similar to the flag of Romania; also similar to the flags of Andorra and Moldova, both of which have a national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; design was based on the flag of France
:''See also :'' [[Chad]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Chad| ]]
[[fr:Politique du Tchad]]
[[pt:Política do Chade]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Chad</title>
<id>5333</id>
<revision>
<id>38982216</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:53:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Briaboru</username>
<id>284038</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
{{Economy of Chad table}}
'''Economy - overview:'''
Landlocked [[Chad]]'s economic development suffers from its geographic remoteness, drought, lack of infrastructure, and political turmoil. About 85% of the population |
])
*[[814]] - [[Angilbert]], Frankish monk and confidant of [[Charlemagne]]
*[[901]] - [[Thabit ibn Qurra]], Arab astronomer and mathematician (b. [[826]])
*[[999]] - [[Pope Gregory V]]
*[[1139]] - Prince [[Yaropolk II of Kiev]] (b. [[1082]])
*[[1294]] - [[Kublai Khan]] of the Mongol Empire (b. [[1215]])
*[[1379]] - [[Albert II of Mecklenburg]]
*[[1405]] - [[Tamerlane]], of the Mongol Empire.
*[[1455]] - [[Fra Angelico]], Italian artist (b. [[1395]])
*[[1478]] - [[George, Duke of Clarence]], brother of [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] and [[Richard III of England]] (executed) (b. [[1449]])
*[[1535]] - [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]], astrologer and alchemist (b. [[1486]])
*[[1546]] - [[Martin Luther]], German religious reformer (b. [[1483]])
*[[1564]] - [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]], Italian artist (b. [[1475]])
*[[1583]] - [[Antonio Francesco Grazzini]], Italian writer (b. [[1503]])
*[[1654]] - [[Jean-Louis Guez de Balzac]], French writer (b. [[1594]])
*[[1683]] - [[Nicolaes Pieterszoon Berchem]], Dutch painter (b. [[1620]])
*[[1712]] - [[Louis, Duke of Burgundy]], heir to the throne of France (b. [[1682]])
*[[1718]] - [[Pierre Antoine Motteux]], French-born English dramatist (b. [[1663]])
*[[1743]] - [[Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici]], last of the Medicis (b. [[1667]])
*[[1748]] - [[Otto Ferdinand Graf von Abensperg und Traun]], Austrian field marshal (b. [[1677]])
*[[1772]] - [[Johann Hartwig Ernst, Count von Bernstorff]], Danish statesman (b. [[1712]])
*[[1778]] - [[Joseph Marie Terray]], French statesman (b. [[1715]])
*[[1780]] - [[Kristijonas Donelaitis]], Lithuanian poet (b. [[1714]])
*[[1788]] - [[John Whitehurst]], English clockmaker and scientist (b. [[1713]])
*[[1803]] - [[Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim]], German poet (b. [[1719]])
*[[1931]] - [[Milan Sufflay]], Croatian politician (b. [[1879]])
*[[1933]] - [[James J. Corbett]], American boxer (b. [[1866]])
*[[1938]] - [[David King Udall]], American politician (b. [[1851]])
*[[1942]] - [[Albert Payson Terhune]], American author (b. [[1872]])
*[[1956]] - [[Gustave Charpentier]], French composer (b. [[1860]])
*[[1957]] - [[Henry Norris Russell]], American astronomer (b. [[1877]])
*[[1966]] - [[Robert Rossen]], American screenwriter, producer, and director (d. [[1908]]
*[[1967]] - [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], American physicist (b. [[1904]])
*[[1973]] - [[Frank Costello]], Italian-born gangster (b. [[1891]])
*[[1977]] - [[Andy Devine]], American actor (b. [[1905]])
*[[1978]] - [[Maggie McNamara]], American actress (b. [[1928]])
*[[1981]] - [[John Knudsen Northrop]], American aircraft designer (b. [[1895]])
*[[1982]] - [[Ngaio Marsh]], New Zealand author (b. [[1895]])
*[[1993]] - [[Kerry Von Erich]], American professional wrestler (b. [[1960]])
*1993 - [[Jacqueline Hill]], British actress (b. [[1929]])
*[[1997]] - [[Emily Hahn]], American writer (b. [[1905]])
*[[1998]] - [[Harry Caray]], baseball broadcaster (b. [[1914]])
*[[1999]] - [[Noam Pitlik]], American actor and director (b. [[1932]])
*[[2001]] - [[Balthus]], French-Polish painter (b. [[1908]])
*2001 - [[Charles Trenet]], French singer (b. [[1913]])
*2001 - [[Dale Earnhardt]], American race car driver (b. [[1951]])
*2001 - [[Eddie Mathews]], baseball player (b. [[1931]])
*[[2003]] - [[Isser Harel]], Israeli Mossad leader (b. [[1912]])
*[[2004]] - [[Jean Rouch]], French filmmaker and ethnologist (b. [[1917]])
*[[2006]] - [[Frederik Rreshpja]], Albanian poet (b. [[1946]])
*2006 - [[Richard Bright (actor)|Richard Bright]], American actor (b. [[1937]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Independence Day]] in [[The Gambia]], ([[1965]])
==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/18 BBC: On This Day]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060218.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
*[http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=18 On This Day in Canada]
----
[[February 17]] - [[February 19]] - [[January 18]] - [[March 18]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:18 Februarie]]
[[ar:18 فبراير]]
[[an:18 de frebero]]
[[ast:18 de febreru]]
[[bg:18 февруари]]
[[be:18 лютага]]
[[bs:18. februar]]
[[ca:18 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 18]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 18]]
[[co:18 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:18. únor]]
[[cy:18 Chwefror]]
[[da:18. februar]]
[[de:18. Februar]]
[[et:18. veebruar]]
[[el:18 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:18 de febrero]]
[[eo:18-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 18]]
[[fo:18. februar]]
[[fr:18 février]]
[[fy:18 febrewaris]]
[[ga:18 Feabhra]]
[[gl:18 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 18일]]
[[hr:18. veljače]]
[[io:18 di februaro]]
[[id:18 Februari]]
[[ia:18 de februario]]
[[is:18. febrúar]]
[[it:18 febbraio]]
[[he:18 בפברואר]]
[[jv:18 Februari]]
[[ka:18 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:18 gromicznika]]
[[ku:18'ê reşemiyê]]
[[la:18 Februarii]]
[[lt:Vasario 18]]
[[lb:18. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 18]]
[[mk:18 февруари]]
[[ms:18 Februari]]
[[nap:18 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:18 februari]]
[[ja:2月18日]]
[[no:18. februar]]
[[nn:18. februar]]
[[oc:18 de febrièr]]
[[pl:18 lutego]]
[[pt:18 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:18 februarie]]
[[ru:18 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 18.]]
[[sco:18 Februar]]
[[sq:18 Shkurt]]
[[scn:18 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 18]]
[[sk:18. február]]
[[sl:18. februar]]
[[sr:18. фебруар]]
[[fi:18. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:18 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 18]]
[[tt:18. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 18]]
[[th:18 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:18 tháng 2]]
[[tr:18 Şubat]]
[[uk:18 лютого]]
[[wa:18 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 18]]
[[zh:2月18日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 18]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fe</title>
<id>11364</id>
<revision>
<id>15909114</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-01T10:17:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<comment>upd .redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FE]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Floor Leader</title>
<id>11365</id>
<revision>
<id>41921826</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:10:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.144.122.253</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve" />
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fabio Taglioni</title>
<id>11366</id>
<revision>
<id>25928190</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-19T16:25:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hooperbloob</username>
<id>113077</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+wikilink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fabio Taglioni''' (Lugo di Romagna, [[September 10]], [[1920]] &ndash; [[July 18]], [[2001]] in [[Bologna]], [[Italy]]) was chief designer and technical director of [[Ducati Motor Holding]] from [[1954]] until [[1989]]. His [[Desmodromic valve|desmodromic]] V-twin design is still used in all current [[Ducati]] [[motorcycle]] [[engine]]s. Among the many race victories of his early desmo twin, the 1978 legendary return of [[Mike Hailwood]] at the [[Isle of Man]] is perhaps the most memorable.
{{Italy-bio-stub}}
[[Category:1920 births|Taglioni]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Taglioni]]
[[Category:Industrial designers|Taglioni]]
[[Category:Natives of Emilia-Romagna|Taglioni]]
[[de:Fabio Taglioni]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fourth-generation programming language</title>
<id>11367</id>
<revision>
<id>41910915</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:40:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
<id>603177</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.219.41.150|212.219.41.150]] to last version by FlaBot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''fourth-generation programming language''' (abbreviated '''4GL''') is a [[programming language]] designed with a specific purpose in mind, such as the development of commercial business software. Such languages arose after the introduction of modern, block-structured [[third-generation programming language]]s, which improved the process of software development. However, it was still frustrating, slow, and error prone to program computers. This led to the first "programming crisis", in which the amount of work that might be assigned to programmers greatly exceeded the amount of programmer time available to do it. Meanwhile, a lot of experience was gathered in certain areas, and it became clear that certain applications could be generalized by adding limited programming languages to them.
The term 4GL was first used by [[James Martin]] in his [[1982]] book ''[[Applications Development Without Programmers]]'' to refer to non-procedural, high-level [[specification language]]s. Nevertheless, the great majority of 4GL users would describe themselves as programmers and most 4GLs allowed for (or required) system logic to be written in a proprietary [[macro language]] or a 3GL.
All 4GLs are designed to reduce programming effort, the time it takes to develop software, and the cost of software development. They are not always successful in this task, sometimes resulting in inelegant and unmaintainable code. However, given the right problem, the use of an appropriate 4GL can be spectacularly successful.
A number of different types of 4GLs exist:
*[[Report-generator programming language|Report generator]]s take a description of the data format and the report to generate and from that they either generate the required report directly or they generate a program to generate the report.
*Similarly, [[forms-generator programming language|forms generator]]s manage online interactions with the application system users or generate programs to do so.
*More ambitious 4GLs (sometimes termed ''fourth generation environments'') attempt to automatically generate whole systems from the outputs of [[CASE]] tools, specifications of screens and reports, and possibly also the specification of some additional processing logic.
So |
of 1812]], Ramsay established Dalhousie as a college open to all people regardless of class or creed. At the laying of the cornerstone on [[May 22]], [[1820]], Lord Dalhousie said that this University was "founded on the principles of religious tolerance." Dalhousie remained one of only three universities founded on secular constitutional premises until as late as the [[1950]]s. Although it was technically founded in 1818, Dalhousie did not have a student population until about [[1860]].
Dalhousie was distinctive as an urban institution. This status was seen not only, in the early days at least, in the use of much of the college's lowest floor as vault space for [[Oland Brewery]], but also in the consistent drawing of about one-third of the student body from the Halifax-[[Dartmouth, Nova Scotia (former city)|Dartmouth]] urban area and in the college's ability to draw upon local professional populations in the establishment of professional faculties such as medicine ([[1868]]) and [[Dalhousie Law School|law]] ([[1883]]). Finances remained difficult into the [[1880s]], but by the end of that decade the accumulated donations of the wealthy alumnus [[George Munro]] had provided the stimulus that led to growth in student numbers and the emergence of Dalhousie as a centre of scholarship acknowledged throughout the dominion.
[[image:DalhousieWinter.jpg|thumb|400px|Dalhousie University, January 2005]]
In [[1920]] the [[University of King's College]] in [[Windsor, Nova Scotia]], English Canada's oldest degree granting institution, burned down. Through a grant from the [[Carnegie Foundation|Carnegie Foundation]], King's College was able to relocate to Halifax and entered into a partnership with Dalhousie University. While often seen as a separate but integrated institution it shares Dalhousie's Arts and Sciences Faculty, but offers several interdisciplinary humanities degree programmes, such as Contemporary Studies, History of Science and Technology and Early Modern Studies.
Dalhousie expanded its presence in south-end Halifax during the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] when it built the Dalplex athletic facility, the Killam Library, the Life Sciences Centre, and a district heating plant, all on what is referred to as the Studley Campus (the main campus). Also at this time, Dalhousie built the Tupper Building for its Faculty of Medicine and expanded existing buildings to house the Faculty of Dentistry and College of Pharmacy, all on the adjacent Carleton Campus, located immediately to the east of the Studley Campus, and co-located with two of Halifax's teaching hospitals (the Victoria General Site of the Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre and the [[IWK Health Centre]] for Women, Children, and Youth).
Following a period of government-mandated consolidation of post-secondary institutions during the [[1990s]], the [[Technical University of Nova Scotia]] was merged with Dalhousie University in [[1997]]. It was initially known as Dalhousie University Polytechnic, or DalTech, but in [[2000]] the DalTech nickname was dropped and the engineering, architecture and computer science faculties of TUNS are fully integrated into Dalhousie University. The faculties of engineering and architecture are located on what is known as the Sexton Campus, farther east from the Carleton Campus and closer to downtown Halifax. The faculty of [[computer science]] moved to its own building on Studley Campus in [[1999]].
== Faculties ==
Dalhousie comprises eleven faculties:
* [http://architectureandplanning.dal.ca/index.shtml Architecture and Planning]
* [http://artsandsocialsciences.dal.ca/index.html Arts and Social Sciences]
* [http://www.cs.dal.ca/ Computer Science]
* [http://www.dentistry.dal.ca/ Dentistry]
* [http://engineering.dal.ca/index.htm Engineering]
* [http://www.dalgrad.dal.ca/ Graduate Studies]
* [http://healthprofessions.dal.ca/ Health Professions]
* [http://law.dal.ca/index.html Law]
* [http://management.dal.ca/ Management]
* [http://www.medicine.dal.ca/ Medicine]
* [http://science.dal.ca/index.html Science]
== Current Issues ==
In [[2004]], 10,878 full-time [[undergraduate]] students and 2,734 full-time graduate students enrolled at Dalhousie{{fn|1}}. The university is facing serious financial problems in the early 21st century, forcing it to rapidly raise tuition fees. Even with the increased [[tuition]] fees Dalhousie is facing some financial problems such as being able to pay for more than $100 million (Canadian) in deferred maintenance. In [[2002]] there was a month long strike by the professors at the university demanding, among other things, that retiring professors be replaced by an equivalent new professor in hopes of maintaining the level of full professors at the university; the number of full-time professors had been declining for some years. The professors' demands on this issue were met.
The university is going through a building phase. A new building for the Faculty of Computer Science opened in October [[1999]] followed shortly thereafter by the [[Marion McCain Arts and Social Sciences Building]]. The [[Howe Hall]] residence was expanded with the addition of [[Fountain House]] and a new residence was also built, named Risley Hall. The [[Kenneth C. Rowe Management Building]] opened in September [[2005]].
== Trivia ==
* The current campus was designed by [[Andrew R. Cobb (Architect)|Andrew R. Cobb]].
* The school's [[Canadian Interuniversity Sport]] athletic teams are called the [[Dalhousie Tigers]].
* The first Friday in February of each year is [[Munro Day]], a holiday celebrating financial contributions made to the school in its infancy by [[George Munro]].
* The newest building built on the Dalhousie Campus is the Kenneth C. Rowe Management Building.
* Dalhousie's campus newspaper, the [http://www.dalgazette.ca/ Dalhousie Gazette], was founded in 1868, making it the oldest student newspaper in Canada and one of the oldest continuously-running student newspapers in North America.
==Noted Faculty Members==
{{expandsect}}
* Dr. [[Jonathan Borwein]] - [[Computer Science]], [[Experimental mathematics]]
* Dr. [[David M. Cameron]] - [[Political Science]]
* Dr. [[Keith R. Thompson]] - [[Oceanography]], [[Statistics]]
==Noted Alumni==
* [[Richard Bedford Bennett]], [[Prime Minister of Canada]]
* [[Alexa McDonough]]
* [[Ian Hanomansing]], Television Journalist
==See also==
* [[Dalhousie Law School]]
* [[Dalhousie Tigers]] - varsity athletics teams
* [[Dalhousie Student Union]]
* [[Fraternities and sororities at Dalhousie University]]
* [[Rebecca Cohn Auditorium]], a concert hall in the Dalhousie Arts Centre
* [[Dalplex]] fitness centre
==External links==
* [http://www.dal.ca/ Dalhousie University]
* [http://www.dalgazette.ca/ Dalhousie Gazette] - Student Newspaper
* [http://www.cs.dal.ca/cam/ Webcam views of Dalhousie]
* [http://www.cs.dal.ca/ Dalhousie University Faculty of Computer Science]
* [http://my.dsu.ca/ DSU Events Posting]
* [http://law.dal.ca/ Dalhousie Law School]
* [http://www.utpjournals.com/product/chr/764/lives7.html Review of ''The Lives of Dalhousie University'']
* [http://www.dalhousielodge.org/earls.htm The Earls of Dalhousie]
==Notes==
{{fnb|1}} [[Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada]] (2005). [http://www.aucc.ca/can_uni/our_universities/dalhousie_e.html The Directory of Canadian Universities - Dalhousie University]. Retrieved [[November 16]], [[2005]].
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<page>
<title>Diffusion</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the physical mechanism of diffusion. For alternative meanings, see'' [[diffusion (disambiguation)]].
[[Image:Diffusion.en.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Schematic drawing of the effects of diffusion through a [[semipermeable membrane]].]]
[[Image:Diffusion animation.gif|thumb|400px|This animation illustrates the process of gaseous diffusion. The colored blocks represent molecules that are experiencing [[Brownian motion]]. Over time, the two colors will be approximately evenly distributed between the top and bottom halves.]]
'''Diffusion''', being the spontaneous spreading of [[matter]] ([[particle_(ecology)|particle]]s), [[heat]], or [[momentum]], is one type of [[transport phenomena]]. Diffusion is the movement of particles from higher chemical potential to lower chemical potential (chemical potential can in most cases of diffusion be represented by a change in concentration). It is readily observed for example when dried foodstuff like spaghetti is cooked; water molecules diffuse into the spaghetti strings, making them thicker and more flexible. It is a physical process rather than a [[chemical reaction]], which requires no net [[energy]] expenditure. In [[cell biology]], diffusion is often described as a form of [[passive transport]], by which substances cross [[cell membrane|membranes]].
== Examples of diffusion ==
*A balloon filled with helium will deflate a little bit every day, because helium atoms diffuse out of the balloon through its wall
*When spaghetti is cooked, water molecules diffuse into the spaghetti strings, making them thicker and more flexible. Adding salt to the water reduces diffusion by reducing the [[osmotic pressure]].
*Carbon dioxide bubbles in soft drinks start as small nuclei and grow because of the diffusion of carbon dioxide molecules towards them
*Heat diffuses through the walls of a mug filled with hot coffee
*A gas distributes itself over a room by diffusion
*A sugar cube in a glass of water that is not stirred will dissolve slowly and the sugar molecules will distribut |
alkaline metals are highly reactive. Caesium, being one of the heavier [[alkaline]] [[metal]]s, is also one of the most reactive and is highly [[explosive]] in cold [[water]]. Caesium should be considered highly [[toxic]]. Some of its [[radioisotope]]s are even more toxic. [[Caesium hydroxide]] is an extremely strong [[base]], and can attack [[glass]].
==See also==
*[[Cs-137]]
*[[Goiânia accident]] - a major radioactive contamination incident involving a small rod of caesium chloride.
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/55.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Cesium]
==External links==
{{Commons|Caesium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cs/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Caesium]
*[http://www.cs.rochester.edu/users/faculty/nelson/cesium/cesium_faq.html FAQ from alt.cesium newsgroup]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Alkali metals]]
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<page>
<title>Comment</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:57Z</timestamp>
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<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
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<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
In [[computer programming]], '''comments''' are a [[programming language]] construct that provides a mechanism for embedding information in the [[source code]] that is (generally) ignored by [[compiler]]s but may be of use to [[software developer]]s or other [[programming tool]]s that process the source.
Comments may be one of the most talked about language constructs within computer programming circles. They are a subject that crosses programming language boundaries and anybody who writes software can have their own opinion about them as there is almost no experimental evidence backing up any of the claims made about comments. Some people believe that comments are unnecessary because code should be written in a way that makes it self explanatory (it is not uncommon to encounter source code that contains no comments); other people believe that source code should be extensively commented (it is not uncommon for over 50% of the non-whitespace characters in source code to be contained within comments).
==Types==
There are generally two types of comments: '''block comments''' and '''line comments'''.
'''Block comments''' are delimited by a sequence of characters that mark the start of the comment and continue until the sequence of characters that mark the end of the comment. Block comments are allowed to span multiple lines of the source code. Typically, block comments do not nest, so any comment start delimiter encountered within a comment body is ignored. Some languages allow nested block comments to facilitate using comments to comment-out blocks of code that may itself contain block comments.
'''Line comments''' on the other hand either start with a comment delimiter and continue until the end of the line, or in some cases, start at a specific column (character line offset) in the source code and continue until the end of the line.
Many programming languages employ both block and line comments with different comment delimiters. For example, [[C++]] has block comments delimited by <code>/*</code> and <code>*/</code> that can span multiple lines and line comments delimited by <code>//</code>.
==Usage==
Comments could summarise code or explain the programmer's intent. This is called the ''why rather than how'' approach. The two are often close, but not always. According to this school of thought, restating the code in plain English may be a waste of time; the need to explain the code may be a sign that it is too complex and should be rewritten.
:"Don't document bad code &ndash; rewrite it" (''[[The Elements of Programming Style (book)|The Elements of Programming Style]]'', [[Brian Kernighan|Kernighan]] & [[P. J. Plauger|Plauger]]).
:"Good comments don't repeat the code or explain it. They clarify its intent. Comments should explain, at a higher level of abstraction than the code, what you're trying to do." (''[[Code Complete]]'', [[Steve McConnell|McConnell]])
Comments could also be used to guide a new programmer through source code that performs some task. In this case almost every line could be commented. New programmers can gain much insight in various branches of programming and computer science by reading through extensively commented source code. Typical things that could be commented on are function calls and arguments, algorithms used, and caveats.
Sometimes a programmer thinks up a neat trick to perform a certain task. Comments could in this case provide an explanation of the trick used. Although the ''why rather than how'' approach discourages such comments, sometimes an explanation is just what is needed to make a future programmer understand what a certain piece of source code is doing. This might especially be true in the case of rarely-used optimizations, constructs or function-calls. For example, a programmer may add a comment to explain why an [[insertion sort]] was chosen instead of a [[quicksort]], as the former is, in theory, slower than the latter. This could be written as follows:
list = [f (b), f (b), f (c), f (d), f (a), ...];
// Need a stable sort. Besides, the performance really does not matter.
insertion_sort (list);
[[Logo]]s, diagrams, and [[flowcharts]] consisting of [[ASCII art]] constructions can be inserted into source code formatted as a comment. Additionally, [[copyright]] notices can be embedded within source code as comments.
In debugging, programmers will sometimes mark a code fragment as a comment, such that the program will not compile or interpret it. This is called ''commenting out'' the fragment.
==Styles==
Comment styles are often agreed upon before a project starts. Usually programmers prefer styles that are easy to modify and difficult to break.
For example, C-style comments could look like this
/*
This is the comment body.
*/
or maybe this
/***************************\
* *
* This is the comment body. *
* *
\***************************/
If a programmer's editor doesn't manage the second variant automatically, it may discourage changes to the comments, thus leading to comments which are out of date with respect to the code. On the other hand, the visibility of the second comment variant is much higher.
Some people, such as [[Allen Holub]] (in his book ''Enough Rope to Shoot Yourself in the Foot'', ISBN 0-07-029689-8, 1995, McGraw-Hill), advocate aligning the left edges of comments:
/* This is the style recommended by Holub for C and C++.
* It is demonstrated in ''Enough Rope'', in rule 29.
*/
/* This is another way to do it, also in C.
** It is easier to do in editors that do not automatically indent the second
** through last lines of the comment one space from the first.
** It is also used in Holub's book, in rule 31.
*/
Different styles can be chosen for different areas of code, from individual lines to paragraphs, routines, files, and programs. If the syntax supports both line comments and block comments, one approach is to use line comments only for minor comments (declarations, blocks and edits) and to use block comments to descibe higher-level abstractions (functions, classes, files and modules).
Certain projects try to define rules like "one comment every ten lines". They can be counterproductive when adhered to with too much rigor, but might still be of use when one wants to quickly judge after writing a body of code whether one needs to check if enough comments are in place.
==Automatic documentation generation==
Some programming tools can read structured information in comments in order to generate documentation automatically. Automatic documentation generation from the comments in the source code allows the documentation of the interface and use of the code to be maintained in the source file with the code, but to be viewed in independent stand-alone documentation. Keeping the documentation close to the code makes it easier, and thus more likely, to keep the documentation up to date with changes in the code.
Examples of documenation generators include the [[javadoc]] program, designed to be used with the [[Java programming language]], [[Ddoc]] for the [[D programming language]] and [[doxygen]], to be used with [[C++]], [[C programming language|C]], Java, [[Interface description language|IDL]] and others.
[[C Sharp programming language|C#]] implements a similar feature called "XML Comments" which are read by [[IntelliSense]] from the compiled [[.NET Framework|.NET]] assembly. The next revision of [[Visual Basic]] will also feature this.
==Other uses==
Developer tools might store "meta" data in comments, such as insert positions for automatic header file inclusion, commands to set the file's [[syntax highlighting]] mode, or the file's [[revision control|revision number]]. These functional control comments are commonly referred to as [[annotation]]s.
==Examples==
===Summary===
(''the word "<code>''comment''</code>" in italics is used here, as an example of a comment''):
* [[Ada programming language|Ada]], [[Eiffel programming language|Eiffel]], [[Occa |
y as much as 60 ha (150 acres) of land, the average course has 30 ha (75 acres) of maintained turf. (Sources include the National Golf Foundation and the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America [GCSAA].)
Golf courses are built on many different types of land, including sandy areas along coasts, abandoned farms, strip mines and quarries, deserts and forests. Many Western countries have instituted significant environmental restrictions on where and how courses can be built.
In some parts of the world, attempts to build courses and resorts have led to significant protests along with vandalism and violence by both sides. Although golf is a relatively minor issue compared to other [[land-ethics]] questions, it has symbolic importance as it is a game normally associated with the wealthier Westernized population, and the culture of colonization and globalization of non-native land ethics. Resisting golf [[tourism]] and golf's expansion has become an objective of some [[land reform|land-reform]] movements, especially in the [[Philippines]] and [[Indonesia]].
In [[Saudi Arabia]], golf courses have been constructed on nothing more than oil-covered sand. However, in some cities such as [[Dhahran]], modern, grass golf courses have been built recently.
In [[Coober Pedy]], [[Australia]], there is a famous golf course that consists of nine holes dug into mounds of sand, diesel and oil and not a blade of grass or a tree to be seen. You carry a small piece of [[astroturf]] from which you tee.
In [[New Zealand]] it is not uncommon for rural courses to have greens fenced off and sheep graze the fairways.
Many golf courses have been displaced by urban planning practices. Many things that displace golf courses range from [[neighborhood]]s to [[shopping mall]]s.
==See also==
* [[Golf glossary]]
* [[List of golfers]]
* [[List of golfers with most major title wins]]
* [[Golfers with most PGA Tour wins]]
* [[PGA TOUR]]
* [[PGA European Tour]]
* [[Ryder Cup]]
* [[Golf instruction]]
* [[2005 in golf]]
* [[Nineteenth hole]]
* [[Word golf]]
* [[Perl Golf]]
* [[Urban Golf]]
==External links==
* [http://www.theherald.co.uk/news/54020.html Golf: the royal and ancient Chinese game]
* [http://www.usga.org/ United States Golf Association]
* [http://www.iagcp.org/ International Association of Golf Club Presidents]
* [http://www.internationalgolffederation.org/ International Golf Federation]
* [http://www.ega-golf.ch/ European Golf Association]
[[Category:Golf| ]]
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<page>
<title>Gustav Robert Kirchhoff</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gustav Kirchhoff]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Gustav Kirchhoff</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Gustav Kirchhoff.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Gustav Kirchhoff]]
'''Gustav Robert Kirchhoff''' ([[March 12]], [[1824]] &ndash; [[October 17]], [[1887]]), a [[Germany|German]] [[physicist]] who contributed to the fundamental understanding of [[electrical circuit]]s, [[spectroscopy]], and the emission of [[black-body]] radiation by heated objects. He coined the term "black body" radiation in [[1862]], and two sets of independent concepts in both circuit theory and thermal emission are named "[[Kirchhoff's laws]]" after him.
Gustav Kirchhoff was born in [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]], [[Prussia]] (now Kaliningrad, [[Russia]]), the son of Friedrich Kirchhoff, a lawyer, and Johanna Henriette Wittke. He graduated from the Albertus University of Königsberg (now Kaliningrad) in 1847 and married Clara Richelot, the daughter of his mathematics professor Friedrich Richelot. In the same year, they moved to [[Berlin]], where he stayed until he received a professorship at [[Breslau]] (now Wroclaw).
Kirchhoff formulated his [[Kirchhoff's circuit laws|circuit laws]], which are now ubiquitous in [[electrical engineering]], in [[1845]], while still a student. He proposed his [[Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation|law of thermal radiation]] in [[1859]], and gave a proof in [[1861]]. At Breslau, he collaborated in spectroscopic work with [[Robert Bunsen]], he was a co-discoverer of [[caesium]] and [[rubidium]] in 1861 while studying the chemical composition of the [[Sun]] via its spectral signature.
Later, he postulated three empirical laws describing the [[optical spectrum|spectral]] composition of [[light]] emitted by incandescent objects.
#A hot solid object produces light with a continuous spectrum.
#A hot tenuous gas produces light with [[spectral line]]s at discrete [[wavelength]]s (i.e. specific colors) which depend on the energy levels of the atoms in the gas. (''See also:'' [[emission spectrum]])
#A hot solid object surrounded by a cool tenuous gas (i.e. cooler than the hot object) produces light with an almost continuous spectrum which has gaps at discrete wavelengths depending on the energy levels of the atoms in the gas.
The existence of these discrete lines was later explained by the [[Bohr model]], which helped lead to the development of [[quantum mechanics]].
==See also==
* [[Kirchoff's voltage law]]
* [[Kirchhoff's current law]]
* [[Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor]]
== References ==
* [http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/kirchhoff.htm Short biography]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Kirchhoff}}
[[Category:1824 births|Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert]]
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<page>
<title>G. K. Chesterton</title>
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<comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gkc.jpg|thumb|right|G.K. Chesterton]]
'''Gilbert Keith Chesterton''' ([[29 May]], [[1874]] &ndash; [[14 June]], [[1936]]) was a prolific [[England|English]] writer of the early 20th century. He was both a popular and an influential writer during this period, inspiring many historic figures with his works. He was notably concerned in what he wrote with religious matters, and was received into the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in 1922.
Chesterton has been called the "prince of paradox". He wrote in an off-hand, whimsical prose studded with startling formulations. For example: "Thieves respect property. They merely wish the property to become their property that they may more perfectly respect it."
==Life==
[[Image:Gkc16.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Chesterton at the time of his engagement, 1898]]
Born in [[Campden Hill]], [[Kensington]], [[London]], Chesterton was educated at [[St Paul's School]], and later went to the [[Slade School of Art]] in order to become an illustrator. In 1900, Chesterton was asked to write a few magazine articles on art criticism, which sparked his interest in writing. He went on to become one of the most prolific writers of all time.
Chesterton was a large man, standing 6 feet 4 inches (1.93 m) and weighing around 21 [[stone (weight)|stone]] (134 kg or 294 lb). His girth gave rise to a famous anecdote. During World War I a lady in London asked why he wasn't 'out at the Front'; he replied 'if you go round to the side, you will see that I am'. He usually wore a cape and a crumpled hat, with a swordstick in hand, and had a cigar hanging out of his mouth. Chesterton rarely remembered where he was supposed to be going and would even miss the train that was supposed to take him there.
It was not uncommon for him to send a telegram to his wife, Frances Blogg, whom he married in 1901, from some distant (and incorrect) location writing such things as, "Am at Market Harborough. Where ought I to be?" to which she would reply, "Home."
Once ''[[The Times]]'' invited several eminent authors to write essays on the theme, "What's Wrong with the World?". Chesterton's contribution took the form of a letter:
:''Dear Sirs,''
:''I am.''
:''Sincerely yours,''
:''G. K. Chesterton''
Typically, Chesterton here combined wit with a serious point (human sinfulness) and self-deprecation.
Chesterton lo |
es. In addition, the Chinese Communists were able to fill the political vacuum left in Manchuria after Soviet forces withdrew from the area and thus gained China's prime industrial base. The Chinese Communists were able to fight their way from the North and Northeast and virtually all of [[mainland China]] was taken by the end of 1949. On [[October 1]], [[1949]], Mao Zedong proclaimed the [[People's Republic of China]]. Chiang Kai-shek and 600,000 Nationalist troops and 2 million refugees, predominantly from the government and business community, fled from the mainland to the island of Taiwan. In December 1949 Chiang proclaimed [[Taipei]] the temporary capital of the Republic of China and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China.
The continued hostility between the Communists on the mainland and the Nationalists on Taiwan would continue throughout the Cold War. Though the United States refused to aide Chiang Kai-shek in his hope to "recover the mainland," it continued supporting the Republic of China with military supplies and expertise to prevent Taiwan from falling into Communist hands. Through the support of the Western bloc (most Western countries continued to recognize the ROC as the sole legitimate government of China), the Republic of China on Taiwan retained [[China and the United Nations|China's seat in the United Nations]] until 1971.
== The Korean War ==
{{main|Korean War}}
In early 1950 came the first U.S. commitment to form a peace treaty with Japan that would guarantee long-term U.S. military bases. Some observers (including [[George F. Kennan|George Kennan]]) believed that the Japanese treaty led [[Stalin]] to approve a plan to invade U.S.-supported [[South Korea]] on [[June 25]], [[1950]]. [[Korea]] had been divided at the end of World War II along the 38th parallel into Soviet (Northern) and American (Southern) occupation zones, in which a communist government was installed in the North by the Soviets and a capitalist government in the South came to power after UN-supervised elections in 1948. Fearing that a united communist Korea could neutralize U.S. power in Japan and encourage communist movements world-wide, Truman committed U.S. forces and obtained help from the [[United Nations]] to drive back the North Koreans, to Stalin's surprise. In a historic diplomatic blunder, the Soviets boycotted the [[UN Security Council]], and thus its power to veto Truman's action in the UN, because the UN would not admit the [[People's Republic of China]] and continued to recognize the [[Republic of China]] on Taiwan as the sole legitimate Chinese government.
However, Truman would offset this with his own monumental, historic error: allowing his forces to go to the Chinese-Korean border. Communist China responded with massive attack in November 1950 that decimated U.S.-led forces as well as their own. Fighting stabilized along the 38th parallel, which had separated the Koreas, but [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] now faced a hostile China, a Sino-Soviet partnership, and a bloated defense budget that quadrupled in eighteen months.
==Culture and Media==
[[Image:DuckandCover.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The title screen from ''Duck and Cover''.]]
Fear of a nuclear war saw the production of public safety films by the [[Federal Government of the United States|United States federal government]]'s [[Civil Defense]] branch that demonstrated ways on protecting oneself from a Soviet nuclear attack. The [[1951]] children's film, ''[[Duck and Cover (film)|Duck and Cover]]'' is a prime example.
==External links==
*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/marshall/large/documents/index.php?documentdate=0000-00-00&documentid=18&pagenumber=1&studycollectionid=mp Draft, Report on Communist Expansion, February 28, 1947]
==References==
===Overviews===
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102121190 Ball, S. J. ''The Cold War: An International History, 1947-1991'' (1998) ] British perspective
* Brzezinski, Zbigniew. ''The Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century'' (1989);
* Gaddis, John Lewis. ''The Cold War: A New History'' (2005), most important recent overview
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100560159 Gaddis, John Lewis. ''Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War'' (1987)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98423566 Gaddis, John Lewis. ''Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy'' (1982)]
* LaFeber, Walter. ''America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945-1992'' 7th ed. (1993)
* Mitchell, George. ''The Iron Curtain: The Cold War in Europe'' (2004)
* Ninkovich, Frank. ''Germany and the United States: The Transformation of the German Question since 1945'' (1988)
* Paterson, Thomas G. ''Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan'' (1988)
* Sivachev, Nikolai and Nikolai Yakolev, ''Russia and the United States'' (1979), by Soviet historians
* Ulam, Adam B. ''Expansion and Coexistence: Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917-1973'', 2nd ed. (1974)
* Walker, J. Samuel. "Historians and Cold War Origins: The New Consensus", in Gerald K. Haines and J. Samuel Walker, eds., ''American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review'' (1981), 207-236.
* Cumings, Bruce ''The Origins of the Korean War'' (2 vols., 1981-90), friendly to North Korea and hostile to U.S.
* Gaddis, John Lewis. ''The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941-1947'' (1972)
* Holloway, David . ''Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1959-1956'' (1994)
* Goncharov, Sergei, John Lewis and Xue Litai , ''Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao and the Korean War'' (1993)
* Leffler, Melvyn. ''A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration and the Cold War'' (1992).
* Mastny, Vojtech. ''Russia's Road to the Cold War: Diplomacy, Warfare, and the Politics of Communism, 1941-1945'' (1979)
==Significant Documents==
*[[Potsdam Declaration]]: [[July 26]], [[1945]]. A formal statement issued by [[Harry S. Truman]] ([[United States|U.S.]]), [[Winston Churchill]] ([[United Kingdom]]), and [[Chiang Kai-Shek]] ([[China]]) which outlined the terms for a [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender|Japanese surrender]].
*[[Baruch Plan]]: [[1946]]. A proposal by the U.S. to the [[United Nations Atomic Energy Commission]] (UNAEC) to a) extend between all nations the exchange of basic scientific information for peaceful ends; b) implement control of atomic energy to the extent necessary to ensure its use only for peaceful purposes; c) eliminate from national armaments atomic weapons and all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction; and d) establish effective safeguards by way of inspection and other means to protect complying States against the hazards of violations and evasions. When the Soviet Union was the only member State who refused to sign, the U.S. embarked on a massive nuclear weapons testing, development, and deployment program.
*[[George F. Kennan]]: [[1946]]/[[1947]]. The Long Telegram and The '''[[X Article]]''', formally titled "'''The Sources of Soviet Conduct'''. The article describes the concepts that would become the bedrock of American Cold War policy and was published in ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' in 1947. The article was an expansion of a well-circulated top secret [[State Department]] cable called the [[X Article]] and became famous for setting forth the doctrine of [[containment]]. Though the article was signed [[pseudonym]]ously by "X," it was well known at the time that the true author was Kennan, the [[Subordinate#Social hierarchies|deputy]] chief of mission of the [[United States]] to the Soviet Union from 1944 to 1946, under [[ambassador]] [[W. Averell Harriman]].
*[[Paul Nitze]] [[April 14]], [[1950]]: [[NSC-68]] was a [[classified information|classified]] report written by and issued by the [[United States National Security Council]]. The report outlined the [[National Security Strategy of the United States]] for that time and provided a comprehensive analysis of the capabilities of the [[Soviet Union]] and of the [[United States of America]] from military, economic, political, and psychological standpoints. NSC-68's principal thesis was that the Soviet Union intended to become the single dominant world power. The report argued that the [[Soviet Union]] had a systematic strategy aimed at the spread of Communism across the entire world, and it recommended that the United States government adopt a policy of [[containment]] to stop the further spread of [[Communism]]. NSC-68 outlined a drastic [[foreign policy]] shift from defensive to active containment and advocated aggressive military preparedness. NSC-68 would shape government actions in the [[Cold War]] for the next 20 years and has subsequently been labeled the "blueprint" for the Cold War.
{{start box}}
{{ColdWar |
before= [[Origins of the Cold War|1917-1946<br>Origins of the Cold War]] |
title= [[Cold War|History of the Cold War]]<p>[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|80px]][[Image:Flag of the Soviet Union.svg|83px]] |
after= [[Cold War (1953-1962)|1953-1962<br>Escalation and Crisis]] |
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:Cold War]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crony capitalism</title>
<id>5249</id>
<revision>
<id>41528910</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:35:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>142.132.72.223</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">"'''Crony capitalism'''" or "'''crapitalism'''" is a [[pejorative]] term describing a [[capitalist]] economy in which success in [[business]] depends on an extremely close relationship between the businessman and the state institutions of [[politics]] and [[government]], rather than by the espoused "equitable" concepts of the [[free market]], open [[competition]], and [[economic |
ation of what a typical "frybrained teenager" would sound like, incorporating the raspy laugh of the aforementioned classmate.
It is a popular myth at the [[University of California, San Diego]] (where Judge attended college) that the appearances of Beavis and Butt-Head were modeled on faculty at its Department of Physics. Their real-life models are said to be David Kleinfeld and James Branson.
==The characters==
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<div style="margin-left: 60px;">[[Wikiquote]] has a collection of quotations related to:
<div style="margin-left: 10px;">'''''[[Wikiquote:Beavis and Butthead|Beavis and Butt-Head]]'''''</div>
</div>
</div>
Beavis and Butt-Head are high school freshmen whose lifestyles revolve around [[Television|TV]], [[nachos]], [[Fruity Whips]], [[shopping mall|shopping malls]], [[heavy metal music]], and trying to [[sexual slang|"score with chicks"]]. Beavis wears a blue [[Metallica]] T-shirt, while Butt-Head wears a gray [[AC/DC]] T-shirt. (On some merchandising items these were changed to shirts saying "Skull" and "Death Rock" due to trademark and licensing legalities.) Both Beavis and Butt-Head constantly snicker.
Their full names were never mentioned on the show. However it was suggested, in the feature-length film ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do America'', that Butt-Head's name is actually "Butt Head". When one of the elderly female characters asks him his last name, he tells her it's "Head", adding "My first name's Butt". In an episode of the TV show, he mentions having a cousin named [[dickhead|Richard Head]], a play off of the term 'Dick Head.' In another episode contradictory to this, he forges his mom's signature on a permission slip as "Mrs. Butt-Head."
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Picture !! Name !! Description
|-
|align="center"| [[Image:Bb beavis.JPG|120px]]
| [[Beavis]]
| Has blonde hair, an underbite, and a fixated stare on his face which almost never looks straight but to the side. Grunts when he laughs and his voice is reminiscent of horror film characters played by actor [[Peter Lorre]]. The more slapstick and excitable of the two leads; Beavis is oblivious of the obvious, and has a more passive demeanor that contrasts with Butthead's more aggressive personality. Though the designated "dumber" of the two &mdash; he has a tendency to be witty and, ironically, when discussing various subjects that neither of them understand, Beavis often is the most likely to guess the truer mechanisms at work. Beavis is highly impressionable, and it is implied in several episodes that he would be less of a troublemaker if removed from Butt-Head's influence. Beavis has a sugar-induced alter-ego named "Cornholio."
|-
|align="center"| [[Image:Bb butthead.JPG|120px]]
| [[Butthead]]
| Has brown hair, dental braces and his eyes are squinted. His top gums are often exposed and he speaks nasally with a deep voice and a slight lisp, repeatedly punctuating his speech with "uhh…" Calmer, cockier, and marginally more intelligent than Beavis; Butt-Head is oblivious of subtleties, but is usually 100% confident in everything he says and does &mdash; no matter how ridiculous or inane it is. Definitely the "leader" of the duo, he also derives pleasure from being regularly abusive to Beavis.
|-
|align="center"| [[Image:BB_TomAnderson.jpg]]
| [[Tom Anderson]]
| The near-sighted, elderly neighbor of Beavis and Butt-Head. Most often, he hires them to do odd jobs, which results in them destroying his yard, home, or personal belongings. Due to his poor eyesight and mild senility, he never recognizes the two when they return for more chaos. He served in World War II and in the Korean War as part of the Navy. This character would be retooled as the basis for Hank Hill in Judge's next show [[King of the Hill]].
|-
|align="center"| [[Image:BB VanDriessen.jpg]]
| [[David Van Driessen]]
| A teacher at Highland High school, and arguably the only person who cares about Beavis and Butt-Head. Van Driessen is a hippie with a forgiving nature and gentle demeanor. His attempts to teach Beavis and Butt-Head useful life lessons typically ends in disaster, as they almost always deduce the wrong message. He has been shown teaching classes on Biology, Art, Animation, Economics, Health, History, Literature, etc.
|-
|align="center"| [[Image:BB Buzzcut.jpg]]
| [[Coach Buzzcut|Bradley Buzzcut]]
| Another of the duo's high school teachers, and the antithesis of Van Driessen. Loud-mouthed, angry and volatile; Buzzcut is a former [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] and, with the possible exception of Principal McVicker, hates the duo more than any other character. He is often charged with administering discipline. Like Mr. Van Driessen, he teaches a number of classes, including P.E., Health, and Math.
|-
|align="center"| [[Image:BB McVicker.jpg]]
| [[Principal McVicker]]
| Principal of Highland High and, arguably, Beavis and Butt-Head's biggest enemy. The two have unintentionally ruined his life, and have driven him so far to the edge of sanity that he has a drawer of stress medication, drinks while at school, and occasionally wets his pants. He often stutters, stammers and shakes, and regularly schemes with Buzzcut to come up with ways to either humiliate and/or eradicate the pair from their lives. Many episodes begin with Beavis and Butt-Head in his office. They refer to him as "McDicker." He is possibly deceased, due to a heart attack.
|-
|align="center"| [[Image:BB Daria.jpg]]
| [[Daria Morgendorffer]]
| Daria is a sarcastic, vaguely alt-rockerish, nerdy girl who attends Highland High with Beavis and Butt-Head. She is one of the few people who sees the two for what they truly are and doesn't naively believe that they just need to be reached, nor does she get stressed out by their idiocy. While not above taking jabs at them for their lack of intelligence, she also offers help and advice from time to time, and probably respects them a little more than most do. The duo nicknamed her "Diarrhea." She eventually went on to star in her own spinoff series, ''[[Daria]]''.
|-
|align="center"| [[Image:BB Todd.jpg]]
| [[Todd Ianuzzi]]
| Todd is a twenty-something thug who is rude, arrogant, and violent. Because of this, Beavis and Butt-Head look up to him and aspire to be included in his gang. Todd despises the two, but will take advantage of them when he needs something, such as money or a place to hide from other gangs or the police. Todd's face is covered with acne and he always wears mirrored sunglasses. He drives a primer patched green hotrod, often onto lawns, through garbage cans and over Beavis and Butt-Head's bikes. He wears a mechanic's shirt with the sleeves torn off and his name on it.
|-
|align="center"| [[Image:BB Stewart.jpg]]
| [[Stewart (Beavis and Butt-head)|Stewart Stevenson]]
| A nerdy, short kid who looks up to Beavis and Butt-Head and thinks they are his best friends. In actuality, Beavis and Butt-Head think little of Stewart, are only willing to hang out with him on their own terms, and don't usually appreciate it when he imposes himself on them. Stewart wears a shirt with the logo for "[[Winger]]" on the front.
|-
|align="center"| [[Image:BB Stevensen.jpg]]
| '''Mr. Stevenson'''
| Father of Stewart. He hates Beavis and Butt-Head, but occasionally becomes side-stepped by exasperating situations that subsequently render him more tolerant of them for the moment. His love of [[pornography]] provides Beavis and Butt-Head with most of their access to naked women while they pillage through the Stevenson home. Mr. Stevenson was, at one point, shown as a teacher at Highland High, but later was no longer depicted in this position.
|}
===Minor supporting characters===
*'''Mrs. Stevenson'''. Stewart's mother and good-natured housewife, who is depicted as something of an airhead. She believes that Beavis and Butt-Head are good friends with her son but is oblivious to their antics and cheerfully welcomes them in the door. The duo pay her little respect or attention except in regard to her large breasts. In the season 2 episode ''Stewart's House'', she had a Southern accent, but for the rest of the series she possesses a thick [[Midwestern]] accent.
*'''Lolita and Tanqueray'''. Two trailer-trash vamps. They usually exploited their sexuality in order to manipulate the duo out of their money, concert tickets, or some other thing that they wanted. They almost made out with Beavis and Butt-Head on the set of a youth talk show because "they were feelin' horny" but ended up making out with stagehands instead (to Beavis' dismay) when the duo were momentarily distracted. It is also implied that the two once appeared in a sexually explicit video of some sort.
*'''Clark Cobb'''. Cobb is the owner of Cobb's Family Hardware and a card-carrying member of the Christian Businessmen's Association. He has a sock puppet named Socko, which he uses to try to teach evangelical lessons.
*'''Burger World Manager'''. The duo refer to him as "That Manager dude." He shows more patience with the two than some of the other characters, but he often gets tired of their incompetence and goofing off on the job. The fact that he hasn't fired them yet either points out that he holds sympathy for the boys' stupidity, or that he is as incompetent as they are.
*'''Maxi Mart Owner'''. This working stiff wears a " |
field, and so on. By this means an EM wave is produced which propagates through space.
=== Properties ===
Electric and magnetic fields exhibit the property of superposition. This means that the field due to a particular particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field adds to the fields due to other causes. (As magnetic and electric fields are vector fields, this is the [[vector (spatial)|vector]] addition of all the individual electric and magnetic field vectors.) As a result, EM radiation is influenced by various phenomena such as [[refraction]] and [[diffraction]]. For example, a travelling EM wave incident on a particular arrangement of [[atom]]s induces oscillation in the atoms and thus causes them to emit their own EM waves. These emissions interfere with the impinging wave and alter its form.
In refraction, a wave moving from one medium to another of a different density changes its speed and direction when it enters the new medium. The ratio of the refractive indices of the media determines the extent of refraction. Refraction is the mechanism by which light disperses into a [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]] when it is shone through a prism.
The [[physics]] of electromagnetic radiation is [[electrodynamics]], a subfield of [[electromagnetism]].
EM radiation exhibits both wave properties and particle properties at the same time (see [[wave-particle duality]]). These characteristics are mutually exclusive and appear separately in different circumstances: the wave characteristics appear when EM radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances, and the particle characteristics are evident when measuring small distances and timescales. These characteristics have been confirmed by a large number of experiments.
===Wave model===
An important aspect of the wave nature of light is [[frequency]]. The frequency of a wave is its rate of oscillation and is measured in [[hertz]], the [[SI]] unit of frequency, equal to one oscillation per [[second]]. Light usually comprises a spectrum of frequencies which sum to form the resultant wave. In addition, frequency affects properties like [[refraction]], in which different frequencies undergo a different level of refraction.
A wave has troughs and crests. The [[wavelength]] is the distance from crest to crest. Waves in the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size from very long radio waves the size of buildings, to very short gamma-rays smaller than the size of the nucleus of an atom. Frequency has an inverse relationship to the concept of wavelength. When waves travel from one medium to another, their frequency remains exactly the same - only their speed changes.
Waves can also be described by their [[radiant energy]].
[[Interference]] is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern. The way that these coincide causes different types of interference.
=== Particle model===
In the particle model of EM radiation, EM radiation is [[quantum|quantized]] as particles called [[photon]]s. Quantisation of light represents the discrete packets of energy which constitute the radiation. The frequency of the radiation determines the magnitude of the energy of the particles. Moreover, these particles are emitted and absorbed by charged particles, so photons act as transporters of [[energy]].
A photon absorbed by an [[atom]] excites an [[electron]] and elevates it to a higher [[energy level]]. If the energy is great enough, so that the electron "jumps" to a high enough energy level, it may escape the positive pull of the nucleus and get liberated from the atom in a process called [[ionization]]. Conversely, an electron which descends to a lower energy level in an atom emits a photon of light equal to the energy difference.
The energy levels of electrons in atoms are discrete. Therefore, each element has its own characteristic frequencies.
Together these effects explain the absorption spectra of [[light]]. The dark bands in the spectrum are due to the atoms in the intervening medium which absorb different frequencies of the light. The composition of the medium through which the light travels determines the nature of the absorption spectrum. For instance, in a distant star, dark bands in the light it emits are due to the atoms in the atmosphere of the star. These bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in the atoms. A similar phenomenon occurs for emission. As the electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum which represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons is exhibited. This is manifested in the emission spectrum of [[nebula]]e. Today, scientists use this phenomenon to observe what elements a certain star is composed of. It is also used in the determination of the distance of a given star, using the so-called [[red shift]]
===Speed of propagation===
Any electric charge which accelerates, or any changing magnetic field, produces electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic information about the charge travels at the speed of light. Accurate treatment thus incorporates a concept known as [[retarded time]] (as opposed to advanced time, which is unphysical in light of [[causality]]), which adds to the expressions for the electrodynamic [[electric field]] and [[magnetic field]]. These extra terms are responsible for electromagnetic radiation. When any wire (or other conducting object such as an [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]) conducts [[alternating current]], electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the electric current. Depending on the circumstances, it may behave as a [[wave]] or as [[photon|particle]]s. As a wave, it is characterized by a velocity (the [[speed of light]]), [[wavelength]], and [[frequency]]. When considered as particles, they are known as [[photon]]s, and each has an energy related to the frequency of the wave given by [[Max Planck|Planck's]] relation ''E = h&nu;'', where ''E'' is the energy of the photon, ''h'' = 6.626 &times; 10<sup>-34</sup> J·s is [[Planck's constant]], and ''&nu;'' is the frequency of the wave.
One rule is always obeyed regardless of the circumstances. EM radiation in a vacuum always travels at the [[speed of light]], ''relative to the observer'', regardless of the observer's velocity. (This observation led to [[Albert Einstein]]'s development of the theory of [[special relativity]].)
In a medium (other than vacuum), [[velocity of propagation]] or [[refractive index]] are considered, depending on frequency and application. Both of these are ratios of the speed in a medium to speed in a vacuum.
== Electromagnetic spectrum ==
{{main|electromagnetic spectrum}}
[[Image:spectrum.png|right|frame|'''Legend:'''<br />
&gamma; = [[Gamma ray]]s<br />
HX = Hard [[X-ray]]s<br />
SX = Soft X-Rays<br />
EUV = Extreme [[ultraviolet]]<br />
NUV = Near ultraviolet<br />
[[Visible light]]<br />
NIR = Near [[infrared]]<br />
MIR = Moderate infrared<br />
FIR = Far infrared<br />
<br />
'''[[Radio waves]]:'''<br />
EHF = [[Extremely high frequency]] (Microwaves)<br />
SHF = [[Super high frequency]] (Microwaves)<br />
UHF = [[Ultrahigh frequency]]<br />
VHF = [[Very high frequency]]<br />
HF = [[High frequency]]<br />
MF = [[Medium frequency]]<br />
LF = [[Low frequency]]<br />
VLF = [[Very low frequency]]<br />
VF = [[Voice frequency]]<br />
ELF = [[Extremely low frequency]]]]
Generally, EM radiation is classified by wavelength into [[electrical energy]], [[radio]], [[microwave]], [[infrared]], the [[visible region]] we perceive as light, [[ultraviolet]], [[X-ray]]s and [[gamma rays]].
The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths. When EM radiation interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries.
[[Spectroscopy]] can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible range of 400 nm to 700 nm. A common laboratory spectroscope can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm. More in-depth information about the physical properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device. It is widely used in [[astrophysics]]. For example, many [[hydrogen]] [[atom]]s [[emission|emit]] [[radio wave]]s which have a [[wavelength]] of 21.12 [[centimetre|cm]].
=== Light ===
{{main|light}}
EM radiation with a [[wavelength]] between approximately 400 [[nanometre|nm]] and 700 nm is detected by the [[human]] [[eye]] and perceived as visible [[light]].
If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum shines on an object, say, a bowl of fruit, this results in our [[visual perception]] of identifying information from the scene. Our brain's visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this not-entirely-understood "psychophysical phenomenon," most humans perceive a bowl of fruit.
In the vast majority of cases, however, the information carried by light is not directly apprehensible by human senses. Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum; so, too, can human technology manipulate a broad range of wavelengths. [[Optical fiber]] transmits light which, although not suitable for direct viewing, can carry data. Those data can be translated into sound or an image. The coded form of such data is similar to that used with radio waves.
=== Radio waves ===
{{main|radio wave}}
[[Radio wave]]s carry information by varying amplitude and by varying frequency within a frequency band.
When EM radiation impinges upon a [[conductor (material)|conductor]], it couples to the conductor, travels along it, and [[radio frequency induction|induces]] an electric current on the surface of that cond |
to power'' and the ''thought of the eternal recurrence'', were to be thought together.
== Place in contemporary ethical theory ==
Nietzsche's work addresses [[ethics]] from several perspectives; in today's terms, we might say his remarks pertain to [[meta-ethics]], [[normative ethics]], and [[descriptive ethics]].
As far as [[meta-ethics]] is concerned, Nietzsche can perhaps most usefully be classified as a [[moral skepticism|moral skeptic]]; that is, he claims that all ethical statements are false, because any kind of correspondence between ethical statements and "moral facts" is illusory. (This is part of a more general claim that there is no universally true fact, roughly because none of them more than "appear" to correspond to reality). Instead, ethical statements (like all statements) are mere "interpretations."
Sometimes, Nietzsche may seem to have very definite opinions on what is moral or immoral. Note, however, that Nietzsche's moral opinions may be explained without attributing to him the claim that they are "true." For Nietzsche, after all, we needn't disregard a statement merely because it is false. On the contrary, he often claims that falsehood is essential for "life." Interestingly enough, he mentions a 'dishonest lie,' discussing Wagner in ''[[The Case of Wagner]]'', as opposed to an 'honest' one, saying further, to consult Plato with regards to the latter, which should give some idea of the layers of paradox in his work.
In the juncture between [[normative ethics]] and [[descriptive ethics]], Nietzsche distinguishes between "master morality" and "slave morality." Although he recognises that not everyone holds either scheme in a clearly delineated fashion without some syncretism, he presents them in contrast to one another. Some of the contrasts in master vs. slave morality:
* "[[Goodness and value theory|good]]" and "[[bad]]" interpretations vs. "good" and "[[evil]]" interpretations
* "aristocratic" vs. "part of the 'herd'"
* determines values independently of predetermined foundations (nature) vs. determines values on predetermined, unquestioned foundations (Christianity).
These ideas were elaborated in his book ''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]'' in which he also introduced the key concept of [[resentment|ressentiment]] as the basis for the slave morality.
:''The revolt of the slave in morals begins in the very principle of ''ressentiment'' becoming creative and giving birth to values &mdash; a ''ressentiment'' experienced by creatures who, deprived as they are of the proper outlet of action are forced to find their compensation in an imaginary revenge. While every aristocratic morality springs from a triumphant affirmation of its own demands, the slave morality says 'no' from the very outset to what is 'outside itself,' 'different from itself,' and 'not itself'; and this 'no' is its creative deed.'' (''On the Genealogy of Morals'')
Nietzsche's assessment of both the antiquity and resultant impediments presented by the ethical and moralistic teachings of the world's [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] religions eventually led him to his own [[epiphany]] about the nature of God and morality, resulting in his work ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]''.
Nietzsche is also well-known for the statement "God is dead". While in popular belief it is Nietzsche himself who blatantly made this declaration, it was actually placed into the mouth of a character, a "madman," in ''The Gay Science''. It was also later proclaimed by Nietzsche's [[Zarathustra (fictional philosopher)|Zarathustra]]. This largely misunderstood statement does not proclaim a physical death, but a natural end to the belief in God being the foundation of the western mind. It is also widely misunderstood as a kind of gloating declaration, when it is actually described as a tragic lament by the character Zarathustra.
"God is Dead" is more of an observation than a declaration. Nietzsche did not advance arguments for [[atheism]], but merely observed that, for all practical purposes, his contemporaries lived "as if" God were dead. Nietzsche believed this "death" would eventually undermine the foundations of morality and lead to [[moral relativism]] and [[moral nihilism]]. To avoid this, he believed in re-evaluating the foundations of morality and placing them not on a pre-determined, but a natural foundation through comparative analysis.
== Political views ==
While a political tone is easy to discern in Nietzsche's writings, his work does not in any sense propose or outline a 'political project'. The man who stated that 'The will to a system is a lack of integrity' was consistent in never devising or advocating a specific system of governance - just as, being an advocate of individual struggle and self-realization, he never concerned himself with mass movements or with the organization of groups and political parties. In this sense, Nietzsche could almost be called an anti-political thinker.
However, Nietzsche's ideas have served as inspiration for many political thinkers and theorists, from [[Adolf Hitler]] to [[Ayn Rand]]. In particular, the fact that Nietzsche was held in high regard by the [[Nazism|Nazis]] has served to associate many of his philosophical concepts with Nazi practices in the popular imagination. One can only speculate as to the opinion that Nietzsche might have had of Nazism had he lived to see it. During his lifetime, Nietzsche rejected some of the views that would later be central to Nazi doctrine (such as [[anti-Semitism]], [[racism]], and, to some extent, [[nationalism]]), while at the same time he promoted other views that would later be embraced by the Nazis (such as strong [[Führerprinzip|individual leadership]] and the concept of the [[Übermensch|Overman]], which the Nazis adopted as part of their idea of the [[Master race]]).
Nietzsche often referred to the common people who participated in mass movements and shared a common mass psychology as "the rabble", and "the herd." He valued [[individualism]] above all else, and was particularly opposed to [[pity]] and [[altruism]] (one of the things that he seems to have detested the most about [[Christianity]] was its emphasis on pity and how this allegedly leads to the elevation of the weak-minded). While he had a dislike of the state in general, Nietzsche also spoke negatively of anarchists and made it clear that only certain individuals should attempt to break away from the herd mentality. This theme is common throughout ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra''.
One central political theme running through much of Nietzsche's work is [[Social Darwinism]] - the idea that the strong have a natural right to dominate the weak, and that feelings such as [[compassion]] and [[mercy]] are burdens to be overcome. This has influenced a great variety of political movements in the century that has elapsed since Nietzsche's death, and, because all those movements claim Nietzsche as part of their intellectual legacy, it is often difficult to distinguish Nietzsche's own views from the views of those who claim to follow him. As noted above, Nazism is perhaps the most prominent political movement inspired by Nietzsche. The Nazis interpreted Nietzsche's ideas of master and slave, of the struggle between the strong and the weak, as referring to nations and races; thus they saw master races and slave races, and regarded [[war]] as the act through which strong nations come to dominate weak ones. But this interpretation is by no means universally held. Nietzsche's thought has been a major influence on [[Ayn Rand]]'s [[Objectivist philosophy]] and other schools of thought that support [[laissez-faire]] [[capitalism]]. Their interpretation of Nietzsche places emphasis on the struggle between weak and strong individuals rather than nations. They regard the [[free market]] as the mechanism which allows superior individuals to fully express their superiority, and they argue that the state should not intervene on behalf of the inferior.
== Gender views ==
Nietzsche's comments on women have provoked a great deal of discussion. Given modern sensitivities regarding the sexes and the rise of feminism, Walter Kaufmann has gone so far as to call these remarks an embarrassment. The fact that Nietzsche also mocked men and manliness has not saved him from the charge of sexism. However, the women he came into contact with typically reported that he was amiable and treated their ideas with much more respect and consideration than they generally expected from educated men in that period of time, amidst various sociological circumstances of the time (e.g., patriarchy). Much of Nietzsche's commentary on women (and men) should be read in light of his revaluation of values and his continuing encouragements for humanity to reach for something higher - why, for example, push for women's involvement in politics when women can direct their energies toward something more? Moreover, some of his statements on women seem to prefigure the criticisms of postfeminism against prior feminisms, particularly those that claim prior feminisms do violence to women by positing and privileging Woman in their place. In this connection Nietzsche was acquainted with the work On Women by Schopenhauer and was probably influenced by it to some degree. As such, some statements scattered throughout his works seem to attack women in a similar vein.
Nietzsche's view of women is informed foremost by their role (rather, potential) as mothers, and does not extend much further than that. "Let your hope say: 'May I bear the Overman!'" he councils them in 'Old and Young Women' (Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Book I, sec. 18). Considering that Nietzsche places the creation of things greater than oneself as the central task of a noble life, this is a very |
]]
[[pl:Humanae Vitae]]
[[ru:Humanae vitae]]
[[sv:Humanae Vitae]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Wikipedia</title>
<id>14072</id>
<revision>
<id>42011724</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:15:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Larry Sanger</username>
<id>216</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Wikipedia]]''', a project to produce a [[free content]] [[encyclopedia]] that could be edited by anyone, formally began on [[15 January]] [[2001]] as a complement to the similar, but expert-written, [[Nupedia]] project. It has since replaced Nupedia, growing to become a large global project. As of 2006, it includes millions of articles and pages worldwide, and content from hundreds of thousands of contributors.
==Antecedents==
The concept of gathering all of the world's knowledge in a single place goes back to the ancient [[Library of Alexandria]] and [[Pergamon]], but the modern concept of a general purpose, widely distributed, printed [[encyclopedia]] dates from shortly before [[Denis Diderot]] and the [[18th century]] [[encyclopedist]]s. The idea of using automated machinery beyond the [[printing press]] to build a more useful encyclopedia can be traced to [[H. G. Wells]]' short story ''[[World Brain]]'' ([[1937]]) and [[Vannevar Bush]]'s future vision of the [[microfilm]] based [[Memex]] in ''[[As We May Think]]'' ([[1945]]). Another milestone was [[Ted Nelson]]'s [[Project Xanadu]] in [[1960]].
With the development of the [[Internet]], many people attempted to develop [[Internet encyclopedia project]]s. [[Free software]] exponent [[Richard Stallman]] described the usefulness of a "Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource" in [[1999]]. He described Wikipedia's formation as "exciting news" and his [[Free Software Foundation]] encourages people "to visit and contribute to the site". One never-realized predecessor was the [[Interpedia]], which [[Robert McHenry]] has linked conceptually to Wikipedia.
==Formulation of the idea==
Wikipedia was founded as a feeder project for [[Nupedia]], an earlier (now defunct) project founded by [[Jimmy Wales]] to produce a free encyclopedia. Nupedia had an elaborate multi-step [[peer review]] process, and required highly qualified contributors. The writing of articles was slow throughout 2000, the first year that project was online, despite having a mailing-list of interested editors and a full-time editor-in-chief, [[Larry Sanger]].
During Nupedia's first year, Wales and Sanger discussed various ways to supplement Nupedia with a more open, complementary project. Jeremy Rosenfeld, a Bomis employee, introduced Wales to the concept of a [[wiki]]. Independently, [[WikiWikiWeb:BenKovitz|Ben Kovitz]], a [[computer programmer]] and regular on [[Ward Cunningham]]'s wiki (the [[WikiWikiWeb]]), introduced Sanger to wikis over dinner on [[January 2]], [[2001]]. Sanger thought a wiki would be a good platform to use, and proposed that a [[UseModWiki]] (then v. 0.90) be set up for Nupedia. Wales set one up and put it online on [[January 10]].
==Beginnings of a new project==
[[Image:Wiki logo Nupedia.jpg|right|The Wikipedia logo used until late 2001]]
There was considerable resistance on the part of Nupedia's editors and reviewers to the idea of associating Nupedia with a wiki-style website. Sanger suggested giving the new project its own name, ''Wikipedia'', and Wikipedia was soon launched on its own domain, <tt>wikipedia.com</tt>, on [[January 15]]. This day is now known as "[[Wikipedia Day]]" within the community.
The [[bandwidth]] and [[server]] (located in San Diego) used for these projects were donated by Bomis. Many current and past [[Bomis]] employees have contributed some content to the encyclopedia; notably [[Tim Shell]], co-founder and current CEO of Bomis, and programmer Jason Richey.
[[Image:UuU.png|thumb|left|This is the '''UuU''' edit, the first edit that is still on Wikipedia to this day, as it appears today using the ''Nostalgia'' skin.]]
The first edits ever made on Wikipedia are believed to be test edits by [[Jimmy Wales|Wales]], however the oldest article still preserved is (as documented at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia's_oldest_articles Wikipedia:Wikipedia's oldest articles]) the article [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=UuU&oldid=291430 UuU], created by the user <tt>Eiffel.demon.co.uk</tt> on [[16 January]] [[2001]], at 21:08 UTC. This was on the second day after the start of Wikipedia.
The project received many new participants after being mentioned three times on the [[Slashdot]] website &mdash; two minor mentions on [[March 5]] [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=01/03/02/1422244&tid=99] and [[March 29]] [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=01/03/29/2035230&tid=95], [[2001]], and then a prominent pointer to a story on the community-edited technology and culture website [[Kuro5hin]] on [[July 25]] [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2001/7/25/103136/121]. Between these relatively rapid influxes of traffic, there has been a steady stream of traffic from other sources, especially [[Google]], which alone sent hundreds of new visitors to the site every day.
[[Image:Wiki logo The Cunctator.png|right|The Wikipedia logo, designed by The Cunctator, used from late 2001 until 2003]]
The project passed 1,000 articles around [[February 12]], [[2001]], and 10,000 articles around [[September 7]]. In the first year of its existence, over 20,000 encyclopedia entries were created &mdash; a rate of over 1,500 articles per month. On [[August 30]], [[2002]], the article count reached 40,000. The rate of growth has more or less steadily increased since the inception of the project, except for a few software- and hardware-induced slow-downs.
==International expansion==
The international expansion of the project also took place during this period. In [[May 2001]], the first wave of non-English Wikipedias were launched (in [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[German language|German]], [[Esperanto]], [[French language|French]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], soon joined by [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] [http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Announcements_May_2001], [http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=International_Wikipedia&action=history]). In September, [http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Announcements_September_2001] a further commitment to the multilingual provision of Wikipedia was made. At the end of the year, when international statistics first began to be logged, [[Afrikaans]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], and [[Serbocroatian language|Serbocroatian]] versions were announced. [http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:International_wikipedias_statistics]
==Continuing growth==
===2002===
[[Image:Size_of_wikipedia_graph_sep_2002.png|right|thumb|300px|Size of Wikipedia, until September 2002.]]
[[Image:Wikipedia_growth_rate_sep_2002.png|right|thumb|300px|Wikipedia growth rate, until September 2002.]]
[[Image:Wikipedia_daily_traffic_sep_2002.png|right|thumb|300px|Wikipedia traffic rate, until September 2002.]]
* Until [[January 2002]], Sanger was employed by Bomis as editor-in-chief of Nupedia and the unofficial leader of Wikipedia. Funding ran out, however, and Sanger resigned from both positions in [[March 2002]].
* In [[February 2002]], most participants of the [[:es:|Spanish Wikipedia]] broke away to establish the ''[[Enciclopedia Libre]]''. <!-- neither this article nor that article mention *why*. Refs needed --> The project is occasionally visited by "vandals" who remove valid articles or post inappropriate content. While such vandalism is generally quickly reverted, the project's main page was, for a time, subjected to repeated vandalism. This led to the protection of the page so that it could only be changed by administrators.
* On [[April 4]], [[2002]] ''Brilliant Prose'', since renamed to ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_Articles Wikipedia:Featured Articles]'', was moved to the Wikipedia Namespace from the article namespace. At that time, selection was informal; the ''Featured Articles Candidacy process'' was not to be instituted for several years yet.
* In [[August 2002]], shortly after Jimbo Wales announced that he would never run commercial [[advertisement]]s on Wikipedia, the [[URL]] of Wikipedia was changed from ''wikipedia.com'' to ''wikipedia.org'' (see: [[.com]] and [[.org]]).
* In the same [[summer]], policy and style issues were clarified with the creation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style Wikipedia:Manual of Style], along with a number of other policies and guidelines.
* In [[October 2002]], Derek Ramsey ("Ram-Man") started to use a "bot", or program, to add a large number of articles about [[United States]] towns; these articles were automatically generated from [[U.S. census]] data. Occasionally, similar bots had been used before for other topics. These articles were generally well received, but some users criticized them for their uniformity and generally machine-like writing style (for example, see [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=La_Grange%2C_Illinois&oldid=2963634 this version] of a town article).
* In [[December 2002]], the first sister project, [[Wiktionary]], was created; aiming to produce a [[dictionary]] and [[thesaurus]] of the words in all languages. It uses the same software as Wikipedia.
===2003===
* In [[January 2003]], support for mathematical formulas in [[TeX]] was added. The code was contributed by [[Tomasz Wegrzanowski]]. |
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