text
stringlengths 1.83k
10k
|
|---|
is uncertain when Catullus died. Some ancient sources tell he died from exhaustion at the age of thirty. He is traditionally said to have lived from [[84 BC]] until [[54 BC]]; these dates are based on the [[allusion]]s he makes in his poetry. Subsequently, his poems were appreciated by other poets and intellectuals, but politicians like [[Cicero]] despised them for their supposed amorality. Catullus was never considered one of the canonical school authors. Nevertheless, he greatly influenced later poets, including [[Ovid]], [[Horace]], and even [[Virgil]]; after his rediscovery in the [[Middle Ages]], Catullus again found admirers. Still, his writing style, which is frequently explicit, was shocking to many readers, both ancient and modern, and until recently it was not easy to find an equally explicit translation of some of his poems. [[Jacob Rabinowitz]] has since remedied this.
==Poetry==
===Sources and organization===
Catullus's poems have been preserved in three scrolls that were copied from one (of two) copies made from a lost scroll discovered around 1300. These three surviving copies are stored at the [[National Library]] in [[Paris]], the [[Bodlean Library]] at [[Oxford]], and the [[Vatican Library]] in Rome. These scrolls recorded Catullus's work in an [[anthology]] of 116 ''carmina'', which can be divided into three formal parts: sixty short poems in varying metres, called ''[[polymetra]]'', eight longer poems, and forty-eight [[epigram]]s. The poems were presumably not arranged by the Catullus himself because of their chronological incongruity.
The longer poems differ from the ''polymetra'' and the epigrams not only in length but also in their subjects: There are seven [[hymn]]s and one mini-[[epic poetry|epic]].
The ''polymetra'' and the epigrams can be divided into three major [[thematic]] groups (ignoring a rather large number of poems eluding such categorization):
* poems to and about his friends (e.g., an invitation like poem 13).
* [[erotic]] poems: some of them indicate [[homosexuality|homosexual]] penchants ([[Catullus 50|50]] and [[Catullus 98|98]]), but most are about women, especially about one he calls "[[Lesbia]]" (in honor of the poetess [[Sappho]] of [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], source and inspiration of many of his poems); [[philologist]]s have taken considerable efforts to discover her real identity, and many concluded that Lesbia was [[Clodia]], sister of the infamous [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]] and a woman known for her generous sexuality, but this identification rests on some rather fragile assumptions. In the 116 poems found of Catullus, the poet displays a wide range of highly emotional and seemingly contradictory responses to Lesbia, ranging from tender love poems, to sadness and disappointment, and bitter [[sarcasm]].
* [[invective]]s: some of these often rude and sometimes downright [[obscene]] poems are targeted at friends-turned-traitors (e.g., poem [[Catullus 30|30]]) and other lovers of [[Lesbia]], but many well known poets, [[politician]]s (e.g., [[Julius Caesar]]) and [[rhetor]]s, including [[Cicero]], are thrashed as well. However, many of these poems are humorous and craftily veil the sting of the attack. For example, Catullus writes a poem mocking a pretentious descendent of a [[freedman]] who emphasizes the letter "h" in his speech because it makes him sound more like a learned [[Greeks|Greek]] by adding unnecessary Hs to words like ''insidias'' (ambushes).
* [[condolences]]: some poems of Catullus are, in fact, serious in nature. One poem, [[Catullus 96|96]], comforts a friend in the death of a loved one (presumably his wife or mistress), while several others, most famously [[Catullus 101|101]], lament the death of his dear brother.
All these poems describe the [[Epicurean]] lifestyle of Catullus and his friends, who, despite Catullus's temporary political post in Bithynia, lived withdrawn from [[politics]]. They were interested mainly in [[poetry]] and [[love]]. Above all other qualities, Catullus seems to havesought ''venestus'', or charm, in his acquaintances, a theme which he explores in a number of his poems. The ancient Roman concept of ''virtus'' (i.e. of [[virtue]] that had to be proved by a political or military career), which [[Cicero]] suggested as the solution to the societal problems of the late [[Roman Republic|Republic]], meant little to them.
But it is not the traditional notions Catullus rejects, merely their monopolized application to the ''[[vita activa]]'' of politics and [[war]]. Indeed, he tries to reinvent these notions from a personal point of view and to introduce them into human relationships. For example, he applies the word ''fides'', which traditionally meant faithfulness towards one's political allies, to his relationship with Lesbia and reinterprets it as unconditional faithfulness in love. So, despite seeming frivolity of his lifestyle, Catullus measured himself and his friends by quite ambitious standards.
===Intellectual influences===
Catullus's [[poetry]] was greatly influenced by the [[ancient Greece|Greek]] ''[[neoteroi]]'', or "new poets". [[Callimachus]] influenced Catullus especially, having propagated a new style of poetry which deliberately turned away from the classical [[epic poetry]] in the tradition of [[Homer]]. Catullus and [[Callimachus]] did not describe the feats of ancient [[hero]]es and [[god]]s, focusing instead on small-scale personal themes. Although these poems sometimes seem quite superficial and their subjects often are mere everyday concerns, they are accomplished works of art. Catullus described his work as ''expolitum'', or polished, to show that the language he used was very carefully and artistically composed. In contrast with the epic poetry of his time, Catullus's work was intended to evoke emotion and feeling.
Catullus was also an admirer of [[Sappho]], a poetess of the [[7th century BC]], and is the source for much of what we know or infer about her. [[Catullus 51]] is a translation of [[Sappho 31]], and [[Catullus 61|61]] and [[Catullus 62|62]] are certainly inspired by and perhaps translated directly from lost works of Sappho. Both of the latter are ''[[Epithalamium|epithalamia]]'', a form of [[laudatory]] or erotic wedding-poetry that Sappho had been famous for but that had gone out of fashion in the intervening centuries. Catullus sometimes used a meter that Sappho developed, called the [[Sapphic strophe]]. In fact, Catullus may have brought about a substantial revival of that form in Rome. Also well known as he stole several poems from the poetess of Lesbos : Sappho ?
==See also==
* [[Catullus 1]]
* [[Catullus 2]]
* [[Catullus 3]]
* [[Catullus 4]]
* [[Catullus 6]]
* [[Catullus 7]]
* [[Catullus 8]]
* [[Catullus 9]]
* [[Catullus 10]]
* [[Catullus 11]]
* [[Catullus 12]]
* [[Catullus 13]]
* [[Catullus 14]]
* [[Catullus 14b]]
* [[Catullus 23]]
* [[Catullus 24]]
* [[Catullus 29]]
* [[Catullus 49]]
* [[Catullus 51]]
* [[Catullus 85]] (aka ''Odi et Amo'')
* [[Catullus 96]]
* [[Catullus 101]]
* [[Catullus 109]]
* [[Catullus 116]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisourcelang|la|Catullus|Catullus}}
* Catullus' work in Latin and over 25 other languages at ''Catullus Translations'': http://www.negenborn.net/catullus/
* Find other Catullus-minded people and discuss his works with them at the ''Catullus Forum'': http://www.negenborn.net/catullus/forum/
* The complete poems of Catullus at ''[[The Latin Library]]'': http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/catullus.shtml
*[http://3quarksdaily.blogs.com/3quarksdaily/2005/08/moday_musing_.html Summer Lyrics] Short essay on Catullus by Morgan Meis of [http://3quarksdaily.com ''3 Quarks Daily'']
* Poems of Catullus in Latin/English: <br>http://www.vroma.org/~hwalker/VRomaCatullus/list.html
[[Category:54 BC deaths]]
[[Category:84 BC births]]
[[Category:Roman era poets]]
[[cs:Gaius Valerius Catullus]]
[[da:Gaius Valerius Catullus]]
[[de:Catull]]
[[eo:Katulo]]
[[es:Cayo Valerio Catulo]]
[[eu:Catullus]]
[[fr:Catulle]]
[[hu:Catullus]]
[[it:Gaio Valerio Catullo]]
[[ja:ガイウス・ウァレリウス・カトゥルス]]
[[la:Caius Valerius Catullus]]
[[nl:Gaius Valerius Catullus]]
[[pl:Katullus]]
[[pt:Catulo]]
[[ru:Гай Валерий Катулл]]
[[sv:Catullus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>C. S. Forester</title>
<id>5769</id>
<revision>
<id>40877520</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T16:39:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pegship</username>
<id>355698</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Afr Q link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
[[Image:CS Forester - Hunting The Bismarck book cover.jpg|thumb|right|The cover of the 1974 paperback edition of one of Forester's non-fiction titles: ''Hunting The Bismarck'']]
'''Cecil Scott Forester''' was the [[pen name]] of '''Cecil Louis Troughton Smith''' ([[August 27]] [[1899]] – [[April 2]], [[1966]]), an [[England|English]] novelist who rose to fame with tales of adventure with military themes. His most notable works were the 11-book [[Horatio Hornblower]] series, about naval warfare during the [[Napoleon|Napoleonic era]], and ''[[The African Queen (novel)|The African Queen]]'' ([[1935 in literature|1935]]; filmed in [[1951 in film|1951]] by [[John Huston]]).
Born in [[Cairo]], Forester had a complicated life, including imaginary parents, a secret marriage and a debilitating illness. He was educated at [[Alleyn's School]] and [[Dulwich College]] in [[Dulwich]], South [[London]]. During [[World War II]] he moved to the United States where he wrote [[propaganda]] to help get that country to enter the war on the Allied side, and eventually settled in [[Berkeley, California]]. He married Kathleen Belcher in 1926, had two sons, and divorced in 1945. The eldest son, [[John Forester]] is a noted [[cycling]] activist and wrote a biography of his father. In 1947, C. S. Forester secretly married a woman named Dorothy Foster. He su
|
still another verse:
:Shall I be wafted through the skies,
:on flowery beds of ease,
:where others strive to win the prize,
:and sail through bloody seas.
This verse has been recorded by [[Pete Seeger]] and [[Arlo Guthrie]].
The verse really belongs with the hymn, "Am I a Soldier of the Cross?" by [[Isaac Watts]].
==Recordings==
The hymn has been recorded by countless artists over the last century. Two versions have made the [[UK Singles Chart]]; between 1970 and 1972, a version by [[Judy Collins]] spent 67 weeks in the charts, a record for a female artist, and peaked at number 5. In 1972, an instrumental version by the Pipes and Drums and Military Band of the [[Royal Scots Dragoon Guards]] spent five weeks at number one, also reaching the top spot in Australia. Likewise another artist, [[Hayley Westenra]], released this song on her album [[Pure (album)| Pure]] and this album did incredibly well, selling 19,068 copies in its first week of sales alone.
In addition to recording the hymn, [[Joan Baez]] also opened the US portion of [[Live Aid]], the legendary [[1985]] concert for [[African]] famine relief, with a performance of "Amazing Grace".
Folk singer [[Arlo Guthrie]] closes many of his concerts with a version of "Amazing Grace" that includes a spoken retelling of its origin.
The composer [[Frank Ticheli]] has written a version of Amazing Grace that is frequently performed by various wind ensembles throughout the United States.
Celtic-influenced [[punk rock|punk]] band the [[Dropkick Murphys]] have made several recordings of Amazing Grace, all of which feature the use of bagpipes.
[[Christian metal]] band [[Stryper]] recorded a [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] version of Amazing Grace, titled ''10,000 years'', which came out in their album 2005 album [[Reborn (album)|Reborn]]
[[Chris Squire]] of [[Yes (band)|Yes]] also has recorded a bass solo version of Amazing Grace on the Rhino's rerelease of '[[Going For The One]]' album.
Another version was used as the ending song for the Japanese drama series Shiroi Kyoto(2003-2004 version).
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing grace.ogg|title=Amazing grace|description=from the Library of Congress' ''John and Ruby Lomax 1939 Southern States Recording Trip''; performed by Mr. and Mrs. N.V. Braley on [[5 May]] [[1939]] at the home of Beal D. Taylor near [[Medina, Texas]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing grace2.ogg|title=Amazing grace|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing Grace-organ.ogg|title=Amazing grace|description=Performed on an Organ|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==External links==
*[http://www.texasfasola.org/biographies/johnnewton.html Amazing Grace: The Story of John Newton]
*[http://christianmusic.about.com/od/whosingsthat/qt/qtamazinggrace.htm Who Has Recorded Amazing Grace?]
*[http://www.easybyte.org Easybyte] - free easy piano arrangement of Amazing Grace
*[http://www.snopes.com/religion/amazing.htm Amazing Grace] myths at the [[Urban Legends Reference Pages]]
*[http://artofthestates.org/cgi-bin/piece.pl?pid=288 Art of the States: Amazing Grace] variations on the hymn by composer John Harbison
[[chr:ᎤᏁᎳᏅᎢᎤᏪᏥ]]
[[de:Amazing Grace]]
[[fr:Amazing Grace]]
[[ja:&#12450;&#12513;&#12452;&#12472;&#12531;&#12464;&#12464;&#12524;&#12452;&#12473;]]
[[sv:Amazing Grace]]
[[Category:Christian hymns]]
[[Category:British poems]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>America Online</title>
<id>1397</id>
<revision>
<id>42160722</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:35:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ww2censor</username>
<id>631250</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* AOL users' reputation */ Claris Em@iler</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = America Online |
company_logo = [[Image:AOL logo.png]] |
company_type = Jointly owned by [[Time Warner]] (95%) and [[Google]] (5%) |
company_slogan = |
foundation = 1985|
location = [[Dulles, Virginia]]|
key_people = [[Jonathan Miller (America Online)|Jonathan Miller]], [[Ted Leonsis]]|
num_employees = about 20,000|
industry = [[Internet]] & [[Telecommunication|Communications]]|
products = [[Internet service provider|ISP]]|
revenue = [[image:green up.png]]$8.7 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2004]])|
homepage = [http://aol.com www.aol.com]
}}
'''America Online''', or '''AOL''' for short, is a U.S.-based [[online service provider]], [[Internet service provider]], and media company operated by [[Time Warner]]. Based in [[Dulles, Virginia|Dulles]], [[Virginia]], a community in [[Loudoun County, Virginia]], with regional branches around the world, it is by far the most successful proprietary online service, with more than 32 million subscribers at one point in the [[United States of America|US]], [[Canada]], [[Germany]], [[France]], the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|United Kingdom]], [[Latin America]] (declared bankrupt in 2004), [[Japan]] and formerly [[Russia]]. In early 2005, AOL [[Hong Kong]] stopped its service. In the fall of 2004, AOL reported total subscribers had dropped to 24 million, a drop of over a quarter of its subscribers.[http://isp-planet.com/research/rankings/2003/usa_insight_q32003.html] In late 1996, AOL suspended all dialup service within [[Russia]] in the face of massive billing [[fraud]], forcing the company into a rare case of full market retreat.
For many Americans through the mid to late [[1990s]], AOL ''was'' the Internet, but the rise of high-speed Internet access from cable and telephone companies as well as the increasing sophistication of the public in handling browsers and other Internet utilities has cut into its user base. In 2000 AOL and [[Time Warner]] announced plans to merge, and the deal was approved by the [[Federal Trade Commission]] on [[January 11]] [[2001]]. This merger was primarily a product of the Internet mania of the late 1990's, known as the [[Internet bubble]]. The subsequent massive decline in value of stocks such as AOL resulted in much recrimination over the merger. Also, the merger with AOL allowed for Time Warner to vote off WCW ( World Championship Wrestling ).
News reports in the fall of 2005 indicated a renewed interest in buying out AOL. Suitors such as [[Microsoft]], [[Google]], [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]] and [[Comcast]] have had discussions with [[Time Warner]] about a possible purchase, and on [[December 16]], [[2005]], Time Warner and Google announced that they were starting exclusive talks for Google to purchase $1 billion in AOL stock, a 5% share.
Although its dialup market is shrinking as more members switch to high-speed services, the success of its AOL for Broadband program has helped it to maintain members that would otherwise totally drop the AOL service. This combined with its growing advertising revenue through its relationship with Google, AOL collected 8.7 billion US dollars in revenue for 2004.
==History==
[[Image:AOL.gif|thumbnail|The AOL logo used until late 2004|150 px|right]]
AOL began as a short-lived venture called Control Video Corporation (or CVC), founded by [[William von Meister]]. Its sole product was an online service called [[Gameline]] for the [[Atari 2600]] [[video game console]] after von Meister's idea of buying music on demand was rejected by [[Warner Brothers]]. (Klein, 2003) Subscribers bought a [[modem]] from the company for $49.95 and paid a one-time $15 setup fee. Gameline permitted subscribers to temporarily download games and keep track of high scores, at a cost of approximately $1 an hour.
In 1983 the company nearly went [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]], and an investor in Control Video, [[Frank Caufield]], had a friend of his, [[Jim Kimsey]], brought in as a manufacturing consultant. That same year, [[Steve Case]] was hired as a part-time consultant; later on that year, he joined the company as a full-time marketing employee upon the joint recommendations of von Meister and Kimsey. Kimsey went on to become the [[Chief Executive Officer]] (CEO) of the newly-renamed Quantum Computer Services in 1985 after von Meister was quietly dropped from the company.
Case himself rose quickly through the ranks; Kimsey promoted him to vice-president of marketing not long after becoming CEO, and later promoted him further to executive vice-president in 1987. Kimsey soon began to groom Case to ascend to the rank of CEO when he himself retired, which Case did in 1991.
Kimsey changed the company's strategy, and in 1985 launched a sort of mega-[[Bulletin board system|BBS]] for [[Commodore 64]] and [[Commodore 128|128]] computers, originally called [[Quantum Link]] ("Q-Link" for short). In May [[1988]], Quantum and Apple launched [[AppleLink]] Personal Edition for [[Apple II family|Apple II]] and [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] computers. After the two companies parted ways in October [[1989]], Quantum changed the service's name to America Online. [http://www.thocp.net/timeline/1989.htm], [http://apple2history.org/history/ah22.html] <!--both links retrieved Sep 24 2005--> In August [[1988]], Quantum launched [[PC Link]], a service for IBM-compatible [[personal computer|PC]]s developed in a joint venture with the [[Tandy Corporation]].
In February 1991 AOL for [[DOS]] was launched using a [[GeoWorks]] interface followed a year later by AOL for Windows. In October [[1991]], Quantum changed its name to America Online. These changes coincided with growth in pay-based BBS services, like [[Prodigy (ISP)|Prodigy]], [[CompuServe]], and [[GEnie]]. AOL discontinued Q-Link and PC Link in the fall of 1994.
{| border="1"
| colspan="2" | '''AOL release timeline'''
|-
| 1991
| AOL for [[MS-DOS|DOS]] launched
|-
| 1993
| AOL for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] launched
|-
| 1
|
ics cultivation and control ===
Colombia is the world's leading supplier of refined cocaine and a growing source for heroin. More than 90% of the cocaine that enters the United States is produced, processed, or transshipped in Colombia. The cultivation of coca more than doubled in 1999 to 302,500 acres (1224&nbsp;km&sup2;) from 125,700 acres (509&nbsp;km&sup2;) in 1995, primarily in areas where government control is weak.
Despite the death of Medellin cartel drug kingpin [[Pablo Escobar]] in 1993 and the arrests of major Cali cartel leaders in 1995 and 1996, Colombian drug cartels remain among the most sophisticated criminal organizations in the world, controlling cocaine processing, international wholesale distribution chains, and markets. In 1999 Colombian police arrested over 30 narcotraffickers, most of them extraditable, in "Operation Millennium" involving extensive international cooperation. More arrests were made in a following "Operation Millennium II."
Colombia is engaged in a broad range of narcotics control activities. Through aerial spraying of herbicide and manual eradication, Colombia has attempted to keep coca, opium poppy, and cannabis cultivation from expanding. The government has committed itself to the eradication of all illicit crops, interdiction of drug shipments, and financial controls to prevent money laundering. Alternative development programs were introduced in 1999.
Corruption and intimidation by traffickers complicate the drug-control efforts of the institutions of government. Colombia passed revised criminal procedures code in 1993 that permits traffickers to surrender and negotiate lenient sentences in return for cooperating with prosecutors. In December 1996 and February 1997, however, the Colombian Congress passed legislation to toughen sentencing, asset forfeiture, and money-laundering penalties.
In November 1997, the Colombian Congress amended the constitution to permit the extradition of Colombian nationals, albeit not retroactively. In late 1999, President Pastrana authorized the first extradition in almost 10 years of a Colombian trafficker to stand trial for U.S. crimes. Three such extraditions to the United States have taken place, the most recent in August 2000, with cases against others pending in Colombian courts.
{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}
[[category:Government of Colombia]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Colombia, Foreign affairs of]]
[[no:Colombias utenrikspolitikk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of the Czech Republic</title>
<id>5846</id>
<revision>
<id>38900463</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T10:28:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Akamad</username>
<id>292168</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 38900368 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Location:'''
Central Europe, southeast of Germany
[[Image:Ez-map.png|right|Map of the Czech Republic]]
'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor dm|49|45|N|15|30|E|}}
'''Map references:'''
Europe
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
78,866 km²
<br>''land:''
77,276 km²
<br>''water:''
1,590 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than [[South Carolina]]
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br>''total:''
1,881 km
<br>''border countries:''
[[Austria]] 362 km, [[Germany]] 646 km, [[Poland]] 658 km, [[Slovakia]] 215 km
'''Coastline:'''
0 km (landlocked)
'''Maritime claims:'''
none (landlocked)
'''Climate:'''
temperate; hot summers; cold, cloudy, white winters
'''Terrain:'''
[[Bohemia]] in the west consists of rolling plains, hills, and plateaus surrounded by low mountains; [[Moravia]] in the east consists of very hilly country
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
[[Elbe]] River 115 m
<br>''highest point:''
[[Sněžka]] 1602 m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[hard coal]], [[soft coal]], [[kaolin]], [[clay]], [[graphite]], [[timber]]
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
41%
<br>''permanent crops:''
2%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
11%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
34%
<br>''other:''
12% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
240 km² (1993 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
flooding
'''Environment - current issues:'''
air and water pollution in areas of northwest Bohemia and in northern Moravia around [[Ostrava]] present health risks; acid rain damaging forests
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol,
Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol
<br>'''Geography - note:'''
landlocked; strategically located astride some of oldest and most significant land routes in Europe; Moravian Gate is a traditional military corridor between the North European Plain and the [[Danube]] in central Europe
:''See also :'' [[Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Geography of the Czech Republic| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Czech Republic]]
[[lt:Čekijos geografija]]
[[pt:Geografia da República Checa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of the Czech Republic</title>
<id>5848</id>
<revision>
<id>40945513</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T01:13:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
<id>87110</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Czech Republic}}
'''Politics of the [[Czech Republic]]''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[List of Prime Ministers of the Czech Republic|Prime Minister]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of parliament, the [[Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic|Chamber of Deputies]] (''Poslanecká Sněmovna'') and the [[Senate of the Czech Republic|Senate]].
==Political developments==
The [[Czech Republic|Czech]] [[politics|political]] scene supports a broad spectrum of [[political party|parties]] ranging from the semi-reformed [[Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia|Communist Party]] on the far left to various nationalistic parties on the extreme right. Generally, the (liberal) right beyond the specific case of huge [[Civic Democratic Party]] is splintered and has failed in several attempts to unite.
Czech voters returned a split verdict in the June [[2002]] parliamentary elections, giving the left-of-center [[Czech Social Democratic Party|Social Democrats]] (ČSSD) and Communists majority, without any posibility to form functional [[government]] together due to [[Vladimír Špidla]]'s strong anticommunism. The results produced a ČSSD coalition government with [[Christian Democratic Union - Czechoslovak People's Party|Christian Democrats]] (KDU-ČSL) and [[Freedom Union-Democratic Union|Liberals]] (US-DEU), while [[Civic Democratic Party|Civic Democrats]] (ODS) and Communists (KSČM) took place in opposition. The vote ratio was the tiniest 101:99. After many buffetings and, finally, catastrophic results of the June 2004 [[European Parliament]] elections the government was reshuffled on the same basis but with Špidla ousted after a revolt in his own party.
As the system in Czech conditions repeatedly produces very weak governments (a specific problem is about 20% support of the Communists shunned by all the other parties) there is a constant talk about changing it but without much chance of really pushing the reform through. An attempt to increase majority elements by tweaking the system parameters (more smaller districts etc.) by ČSSD and ODS during their "opposition agreement" 1998-2002 was vehemently opposed by smaller parties and blocked by the Constitutional Court as going too much against the constitution-stated proportional principle.
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[List of presidents of the Czech Republic|President]]
|[[Václav Klaus]]
|[[Civic Democratic Party|ODS]]
|[[7 March]] 2003
|-
|[[List of Prime Ministers of the Czech Republic|Prime Minister]]
|[[Jiří Paroubek]]
|[[Czech Social Democratic Party|ČSSD]]
|May [[2005]]
|}
The president is elected by Parliament for a five-year term; election last held [[28 February]] [[2003]]. The prime minister is appointed by the president. Cabinet appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
The [[Prime Minister]] is the head of government and wields considerable powers, including the right to set the agenda for most foreign and domestic policy, mobilize the parliamentary majority, and choose governmental ministers.
[[Václav Klaus]], now [[President]] of the Czech Republic, former Prime Minister and chairman of Civic Democrats (ODS) remains one of the country's most popular politicians. As formal head of state, he is granted limited specific powers such as the right to enact a veto on legislation, nominate [[Constitutional Court]] judges, appoint the prime minister and dissolve parliament under certain special and rare conditions.
==Legislative branch==
The [[Parliament of the Czech Republic|Parliament]] (''Parlament České Republiky'') has [[bicameralism|two chambers]]. The [[Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic|Chamber of Deputies]] (''Poslanecká Sněmovna'') has 200 members, elected for a four year term by [[proportional representat
|
ted=
|similar aircraft=
<!-- aircraft with similar role, era, and capability -->
* [[Sukhoi Su-25]]
|sequence=
* [[A-7 Corsair II|A-7]] - [[AV-8 Harrier|AV-8]] - [[Northrop YA-9|YA-9]] - '''A-10''' - [[A-12 Avenger II|A-12]]
|lists=
<!-- lists of similar aircraft (aircraft from the same nation, with the same mission profile, etc.) -->
* [[List of attack aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
|see also=
* [[A-10 Thunderbolt II in popular culture]]
}}
[[Category:Anti-tank aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. attack aircraft 1970-1979]]
[[da:A-10 Thunderbolt II]]
[[de:Fairchild-Republic A-10]]
[[eo:A-10]]
[[fa:آ-۱۰ تاندربولت ۲]]
[[fi:A-10 Thunderbolt II]]
[[fr:Fairchild A-10 Thunderbolt]]
[[gl:A-10 Thunderbolt II]]
[[id:A-10 Thunderbolt II]]
[[ja:A-10 (攻撃機)]]
[[ms:A-10 Thunderbolt II]]
[[nl:A-10 Warthog]]
[[pl:Fairchild A-10 Thunderbolt II]]
[[pt:A-10 Thunderbolt II]]
[[zh:A-10雷電II疣豬攻擊機]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A-10 Warthog</title>
<id>3154</id>
<revision>
<id>15901517</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Lockheed AC-130</title>
<id>3155</id>
<revision>
<id>41446919</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T10:49:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Apyule</username>
<id>103276</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Civilian casualties and controversy */ remove contradictory statement</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
[[Image:AC-130.jpg|250px|right|thumb|An AC-130, illustrating the port-side armament.]]
The '''AC-130 Gunship''' is an armed variant of the [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]] [[C-130 Hercules]]. Manufacturing is a cooperation between [[Boeing]] and [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]].
The primary missions of the [[United States Air Force]]'s '''AC-130H Spectre''' and '''AC-130U Spooky''' [[gunship]]s are [[close air support]], [[air interdiction]], and force protection. Missions in close air support are troops in contact, [[convoy]] [[escort]] and urban operations. Air interdiction missions are conducted against planned targets or targets of opportunity. Force protection missions include [[air base]] [[Defense (military)|defense]] and facilities defense.
==Equipment==
These heavily armed aircraft incorporate side-firing weapons integrated with sophisticated sensor, navigation and fire control systems to provide targeted firepower or area saturation whilst spending long periods flying over their target area at [[night]] and in adverse [[weather]]. The sensor suite consists of a [[television]] sensor, [[infrared]] sensor, and [[radar]]. These sensors allow the gunship to visually or electronically identify friendly ground forces and targets in most conditions. The AC-130U is equipped with the [[AN/APQ-180]], a [[synthetic aperture radar]] for long-range target detection and identification. The gunship's navigational devices include the [[inertial navigation]] systems and [[global positioning system]]. The AC-130U employs technologies developed in the [[1990 in aviation|1990s]] and can attack two targets simultaneously. It also has twice the [[munitions]] capacity of the AC-130H.
==History==
[[Image:AC-130 firing night.gif|right|250px|thumb|Weapons fire during a night mission.]]
* '''First flight:''' AC-130H: [[1966 in aviation|1966]] ''' (AC-130U: [[20 December]] [[1990 in aviation|1990]])
* '''Entered service:''' AC-130H: [[1972 in aviation|1972]] (AC-130U: [[1995 in aviation|1995]])
The AC-130 gunship has a combat history dating to the [[Vietnam War]], where it replaced the [[AC-47 Spooky|AC-47]] and the [[AC-119 gunship|AC-119]]. Gunships destroyed more than 10,000 trucks and were credited with many crucial close air support missions. During [[Invasion of Grenada|Operation Urgent Fury]] in [[Grenada]] in [[1983 in aviation|1983]], AC-130s suppressed enemy air defense systems and attacked ground forces enabling the successful assault of the Point Salines Airfield via [[airdrop]] and air land of friendly forces. The AC-130 aircrew earned the [[Lt. Gen. William H. Tunner Award]] for the mission.
AC-130s also had a primary role during [[Operation Just Cause]] in [[Panama]] in [[1989 in aviation|1989]] when they destroyed [[Military of Panama|Panama Defense Force]] headquarters and numerous command and control facilities. Aircrews earned the [[Mackay Trophy]] for the most meritorious flight of the year and the [[Tunner Award]] for their efforts.
During Operation [[Desert Storm]], AC-130s provided close air support and force protection (air base defense) for ground forces. Gunships were also used during operations [[Operation Restore Hope]] and [[United Shield]] in [[Somalia]], providing close air support for [[United Nations]] ground forces. More recently, gunships played a pivotal role in supporting the [[NATO]] mission in [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]. The AC-130H provided air interdiction against key targets in the [[Sarajevo]] area.
In [[1997 in aviation|1997]], gunships were diverted from [[Italy]] to provide combat air support for U.S. and allied ground troops during the evacuation of American noncombatants in [[Albania]]. Gunships also were part of the buildup of U.S. forces in [[1998 in aviation|1998]] to convince [[Iraq]] to comply with U.N. weapons inspections. Gunships were later used in the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] and the [[2003 Iraq War]].
====Current deployment====
The AC-130H is produced at a cost of $132.4 million U.S. Dollars, and the AC-130U is produced at a cost of $190 million U.S. Dollars (fiscal [[2001 in aviation|2001]] constant dollars). Currently there are eight AC-130H and thirteen AC-130U aircraft in active duty service.
The AC-130 gunship series is one of the most expensive aircraft ever made due to its unique nature. In all deployments these aircraft are to be escorted by two [[F-15 Eagle]]s each, flying [[combat air patrol]] due to the value of both the aircraft and its mission.
==Civilian casualties and controversy==
The use of gunships in general and the AC-130 in particular has been controversial at times. Although the onboard systems are effective at identifying targets, it is unable to reliably tell whether those targets are civilians or military. Incidents of attacks on demonstrations[http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Apr2003/n04162003_200304161.html] and weddings[http://foi.missouri.edu/whistleblowing/uswarned.html] have been explained by celebratory firing of small-caliber weapons (e.g., [[AK-47]]s). Further, in combat areas such as [[Vietnam]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]], fighters tend to be mixed with, or are in fact a part of the local population, often claimed to be a deliberate use of civilians as "[[human shield]]s". This intermingling of population with fighters means that attacks on military targets risk civilian casualties, since it is impossible to distinguish un-uniformed combatants from noncombatants.
The greater accuracy of attacks from the AC-130 has been claimed [http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/1019/p3s1-usmi.htm] to reduce accidental casualties compared to high-level bombing.
==Specifications (AC-130U)==
===General characteristics===
* '''Crew:''' 13
** '''5 Officers:''' pilot, copilot, navigator, fire control officer, electronic warfare officer
** '''8 Enlisted:''' flight engineer, TV operator, infrared detection set operator, loadmaster, four aerial gunners
* '''Length:''' 97 ft 9 in (29.8 m)
* '''Wingspan:''' 132 ft 7 in (40.4 m)
* '''Height:''' 38 ft 6 in (11.7 m)
* '''Wing area:''' ft&sup2; (m&sup2;)
* '''Empty:''' lb ( kg)
* '''Loaded:''' lb (kg )
* '''Maximum takeoff:''' 155,000 lb (69,750 kg)
* '''Powerplant:''' 4x [[Allison T56]]-A-15 turboprops, 4,910 shaft hp (3,700 kW) each
===Performance===
* '''Maximum speed:''' 300 mph (483 km/h) Mach .4
* '''Range:''' 2,200 nautical miles (4,070 km) ('''AC-130H:''' 1,300 nautical miles (2,400 km))
* '''Service ceiling:''' 30,000 ft (9,144 m) ('''AC-130H:''' 25,000 ft (7,576 m))
* '''Rate of climb:''' ft/min ( m/min)
* '''Wing loading:''' lb/ft&sup2; ( kg/m&sup2;)
* '''Power/mass:'''
==Armament Configuration Breakdown (By Model)==
*'''AC-130A Project Gunship II'''
** 4x [[Minigun|7.62mm GAU-2/A Minigun]] (Fitted to MXU-470/A mounts)
** 4x [[M61 Vulcan|20mm M61 cannon]]
*'''AC-130A Surpise Package and Pave Pronto and AC-130E Pave Spectre'''
** 4x [[Minigun|7.62mm GAU-2/A Minigun]] (Fitted to MXU-470/A mounts)
** 2x [[M61 Vulcan|20mm M61 cannon]]
** 2x [[Bofors 40 mm gun|40mm L60 Bofors cannon]]
*'''AC-130E Pave Aegis and AC-130H Pave Spectre II'''
** 2x [[M61 Vulcan|20mm M61 cannon]]
** 1x [[Bofors 40 mm gun|40mm L60 Bofors cannon]]
** 1x [[M102 howitzer|105mm M102 howitzer]]
*'''AC-130U'''
** 1x [[GAU-12 Equalizer|25mm GAU-12/U]] [[Gatling gun]]
** 1x [[Bofors 40 mm gun|40mm L60 Bofors cannon]]
** 1x [[M102 howitzer|105mm M102 howitzer]]
A new program has been initiated to upgrade the armament of existing AC-130s still in service. On the drawing board are plans to replace the GAU-12/U with a member of the Bushmaster family, whether it be an existing [[M242|25mm M242 cannon]] or a newer [[Bushmaster II]] or [[Bushmaster III]] cannon. There are also plans to look into replacing the M102 howitzer with a breach loading 120mm mortar of some make and model, and also to give the AC-130 a standoff capability using either the [[AGM-114 Hellfire]] or [[Hydra 70|APKWS]].
==External links==
* [http://www.spectre-association.org/history/historySpectre.htm The history of the Gunship] from the Spectre Association website.
* [http://www.spectre-association.org/aircraft/listingsA.htm AC-130A aircraft names, tail numbers and current loca
|
ng some forms of black market activity into legal - and therefore controllable - channels, Havana in 1993 legalized self-employment for some 150 occupations. The government tightly controls the small private sector, which has fluctuated in size from 150,000 to 209,000, by regulating and taxing it. For example, owners of small private restaurants (''[[paladar]]es'') can seat no more than 12 people and can only employ family members to help with the work. Set monthly fees must be paid regardless of income earned and frequent inspections yield stiff fines when any of the many self-employment regulations are violated. Rather than expanding private sector opportunities, in recent years, the government has been attempting to squeeze more of these private sector entrepreneurs out of business and back to the public sector. Many have opted to enter the informal economy or black market. In recent years there has developed what is called "urban agriculture," production which takes place on small parcels of land in the cities. Growing [[organopónicos]] (organic gardens) in the private sector has been attractive to city dwelling small producers who get to sell their products in the same place where they produce them, avoiding taxes and enjoying a measure of government help from the Ministry of Agriculture (MINAGRI) in the form of seed houses and advisors.
==Connection with Venezuela==
The relationship cultivated between Cuba and [[Venezuela]] in recent years has resulted in agreements that Venezuela provide cheap oil in exchange for Cuban "missions" of doctors which aid and help to improve the Venezuelan health care system. Cuba, with the highest per capita number of physicians in the world, sends tens of thousands of doctors to other countries as aid, as well as for obtaining favorable economic terms of trade.
== Statistics ==
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $32.13 billion (2003 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
11.8% (2005 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $2,900 (2003 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
5.5%
<br>''industry:''
26.9%
<br>''services:''
67.6% (2003 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
4.1% (2003 est.)
'''Labour force:'''
4.58 million economically active population
<br>''note:''
state sector 78%, non-state sector 22% (2003 est.)
'''Labour force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 24%, industry 25%, services 51%
'''Unemployment rate:'''
2.3% (official figure, 2004)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$17.21 billion
<br>''expenditures:''
$18.28 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2003 est.)
'''Industries:'''
sugar, biotechnological products, petroleum, food, tobacco, textiles, chemicals, paper and wood products, metals (particularly nickel), cement, fertilizers, consumer goods, agricultural machinery
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2.4% (2003 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
14,380 GWh (2003)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
89.52%
<br>''hydro:''
0.65%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
9.83% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
13.38 TWh (2003)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (2003)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (2003)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
sugarcane, tobacco, citrus, coffee, rice, potatoes, beans; livestock
'''Exports:'''
$1.467 billion (f.o.b., 2003 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
sugar, medical products, nickel, tobacco, shellfish, citrus, coffee
'''Exports - partners:'''
Netherlands 21.6%, Canada 17.6%, Russia 10.8%, Spain 8.6%, China 7.2% (2003 est.)
'''Imports:'''
$4.531 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
petroleum, food, machinery, chemicals
'''Imports - partners:'''
Spain 16.3%, Venezuela 12.3%, Italy 8.4%, USA 8.3%, China 7.5%, Canada 5.3%, Mexico 5.2%, France 4.8% (2003 est.)
'''Debt - external:'''
$12.52 billion (convertible currency); another $15 billion owed to Russia (2003 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$68.2 million (1997 est.)
'''Currency:'''
1 Cuban peso (CUP) = 100 centavos
'''Exchange rates:'''
Cuban pesos (CUP) per US$1 - 25 (2005) (nonconvertible, official rate, linked to the US dollar)
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
==See also==
* Cuba, the cow [[Ubre Blanca]]
* [[List of Cuban companies]]
* [[United States embargo against Cuba]]
==External links==
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/05/20/time.letter/index.html What Castro wants]- Time Story about the U.S. embargo.
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Cuba| ]]
[[Category:WTO members|Cuba]]
[[es:Economía de Cuba]]
[[fr:Économie de Cuba]]
[[pt:Economia de Cuba]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cuba/Communications</title>
<id>5589</id>
<revision>
<id>15903791</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-19T08:01:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.253.64.7</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Cuba]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Cuba</title>
<id>5590</id>
<revision>
<id>35788585</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T07:41:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DirkvdM</username>
<id>223783</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Transportation in [[Cuba]]''':
[[image:cuba_public_transportation.jpg|thumb|300px|Alternative public transportation in [[Trinidad, Cuba|Trinidad]] <br><br>Photograph by Dirk van der Made]]
==[[Railway]]s==
*''total:'' 4,226 km
*''standard gauge:'' 4,226 km 1.435-m gauge (140 km electrified)
*''note:'' an additional 7,742 km of track is used by sugar plantations; about 65% of this track is standard gauge; the rest is narrow gauge (2003)
==Roads==
[[Highway]]s:
*''total:'' 60,858 km
*''paved:'' 29,820 km (including 638 km of expressway)
*''unpaved:'' 31,038 km (1999 est.)
Public transportation includes many 'camellos' (so called for their two humps) and 1500 old Dutch buses, which the [[Netherlands]] donated to Cuba in the mid 1990's.
==[[Waterway]]s==
240 km
==[[Seaport]]s and [[harbour]]s:==
[[Cienfuegos]], [[Havana]], [[Manzanillo, Cuba|Manzanillo]], [[Mariel]], [[Matanzas]], [[Nuevitas]], [[Santiago de Cuba]]
==[[Merchant marine]]==
*''total:'' 13 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 54,818 GRT/81,850 DWT
*''ships by type:'' bulk 3, cargo 4, liquified gas 1, petroleum tanker 3, refrigerated cargo 2
*''registered in other countries:'' 35 (2003 est.)
==Airlines==
Besides the state owned airline Cubana ([[Cubana de Aviación]]), the two major Cuban airlines are Aero Caribbean ([http://www.aero-caribbean.com www.aero-caribbean.com]) and Aerogaviota ([http://www.aerogaviota.com www.aerogaviota.com]), both of whom operate modern European and Russian aircraft.
==[[Airport]]s==
* 170 (2003 est.)
===Airports with paved runways===
*''total:'' 79
*''over 3,047 m:'' 7
*''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 9
*''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 20
*''914 to 1,523 m:'' 6
*''under 914 m:'' 37 (2003 est.)
===Airports with unpaved runways===
*''total:'' 91
*''914 to 1,523 m:'' 29
*''under 914 m:'' 62 (2003 est.)
==External links==
*[http://www.philseed.com/Cuba.html photos of antique Cuban cars]
{{North America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Cuba|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cuba/Military</title>
<id>5591</id>
<revision>
<id>15903793</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-19T08:02:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.253.64.7</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Cuba]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Cuba</title>
<id>5592</id>
<revision>
<id>41872937</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:19:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.20.77.128</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cuba}}
[[Cuba]]'s once-ambitious foreign policy has been scaled back and redirected as a result of economic hardship and the end of the [[Cold War]]. However, with the support and funding by [[Hugo Chavez]] of [[Venezuela]], "advancing the cause of socialism" in Latin America has regained vigor. Now this trend appears to include [[Evo Morales]], leader of [[coca]] growers, recently elected president of [[Bolivia]].
Cuba aims to find new sources of trade, aid, and foreign investment, and to promote opposition to [[United States|U.S.]] policy, especially the [[trade embargo]] and the [[1996 Libertad Act]]. Cuba has relations with over 160 countries and has civilian assistance workers -- principally medical -- in more than 20 nations. This is commonly believed to be a significant source of income for the Castro government (e.g., exchanged for oil from Venezuela), and thus promoted officially even though occasionally some defect e.g., [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/ArticleNews/TPStory/LAC/20051026/CUBANS26/TPNational/Canada], [http://www.tillsonburgnews.com/story.php?id=192513].
==Cuban Intervention: 1959 - Early 1990s==
Aided by a massive buildup of Soviet advisors, military personnel, and advanced weaponry during the Cold War, Cuba became a staunch ally of the USSR during Castro's rule, modeling its political structure after that of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]]. Due to this huge amount of support, Cuba became a major sponsor of Marxist "wars of national liberation" not only in Latin America, but worldwide.
===Latin America===
Cuba's support extended to groups such as the [[Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity|URNG]] of [[Guatemala
|
Popular Front]] politician and Prime Minister (d. [[1956]])
*1887 - [[Georg Trakl]], Austrian poet (d. [[1914]])
*[[1893]] - [[Gaston Julia]], French mathematician (d. [[1978]])
*[[1894]] - [[Norman Rockwell]], American artist, illustrator (d. [[1978]])
*[[1898]] - [[Alvar Aalto]], Finnish architect (d. [[1976]])
*[[1899]] - [[Lao She]], Chinese writer (d. [[1966]])
*[[1904]] - [[Luigi Dallapiccola]], Italian composer (d. [[1975]])
*1904 - [[Pretty Boy Floyd]], American gangster (d. [[1934]])
*[[1907]] - [[James Michener]], American author (d. [[1997]])
*[[1909]] - [[Simone Weil]], French philosopher (d. [[1943]])
*[[1911]] - [[Robert Earl Jones]], American actor
*[[1918]] - [[Joey Bishop]], American comedian and actor
*1918 - [[Helen Stephens]], American runner
*[[1920]] - [[Henry Heimlich]], American physician
*[[1925]] - [[John Fiedler]], American voice actor
*[[1926]] - [[Shelley Berman]], American comedian
*[[1927]] - [[Val Doonican]], Irish singer and entertainer
*[[1930]] - [[Gillian Ayres]], English painter
*[[1932]] - [[Peggy Ann Garner]], American actress (d. [[1984]])
*[[1933]] - [[Paul Sarbanes]], U.S. Senator
*[[1938]] - [[Victor Buono]], American actor (d. [[1982]])
*[[1939]] - [[Michael Cimino]], American film director
*[[1940]] - [[Fran Tarkenton]], American football player
*[[1941]] - [[Neil Bogart]], music company executive (d. [[1982]])
*[[1943]] - [[Blythe Danner]], American actress
*1943 - [[Dennis Edwards]], American singer ([[The Temptations]])
*[[1945]] - [[Bob Griese]], American football player
*[[1947]] - [[Paul Auster]], American novelist
*1947 - [[Dave Davies]], British musician ([[The Kinks]])
*1947 - [[Melanie Safka]], American singer-songwriter
*[[1948]] - [[Carlos Felipe Ximenes Belo]], East Timor politician, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]
*[[1948]] - [[Henning Mankell]], Swedish Author
*[[1949]] - [[Hennie Kuiper]], Dutch cyclist, World Champion in 1975
*[[1950]] - [[Morgan Fairchild]], American actress
*1950 - [[Pamela Franklin]], American actress
*[[1952]] - [[Fred Lynn]], baseball player
*[[1954]] - [[Tiger Williams]], Canadian ice hockey players
*[[1955]] - [[Stephen Euin Cobb]], American novelist
*1955 - [[Kirsty Wark]], British broadcast journalist
*[[1956]] - [[Nathan Lane]], American actor
*1956 - [[Lee Ranaldo]], American musician ([[Sonic Youth]])
*[[1958]] - [[N. Gregory Mankiw]], American economist
*[[1959]] - [[Thomas Calabro]], American actor
*1959 - [[Laurence Tolhurst]], British musician ([[The Cure]])
*[[1960]] - [[Kerry Von Erich]], American professional wrestler (d. [[1993]])
*[[1961]] - [[Keith Gordon]], American actor and director
*[[1965]] - [[Maura Tierney]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Warwick Davis]], British actor
*[[1971]] - [[Sarah Kane]], English playwright (d. [[1999]])
*[[1972]] - [[Mart Poom]], Estonian soccer player
*[[1974]] - [[Miriam Yeung]], Hong Kong actress and singer
*[[1976]] - [[Isla Fisher]], Australian actress
*1976 - [[Dwayne Rudd]], former American football player
*[[1977]] - [[Spencer Presley]], Great all around American
*[[1980]] - [[Sarah Lewitinn]], American writer and DJ
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[619]] - [[Laurence of Canterbury]], second [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
*[[699]] - Saint [[Werburgh]]
*[[1014]] - King [[Sweyn I of Denmark]]
*[[1116]] - King [[Coloman of Hungary]] (b. [[1070]])
*[[1399]] - [[John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster]] (b. [[1340]])
*[[1428]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshimochi]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1386]])
*[[1451]] - [[Murad II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1404]])
*[[1468]] - [[Johannes Gutenberg]], German publisher
*[[1566]] - [[George Cassander]], Flemish theologian (b. [[1513]])
*[[1619]] - [[Henry Brooke, 8th Baron Cobham]], English conspirator (b. [[1564]])
*[[1737]] - [[Tommaso Ceva]], italien mathematician (b. [[1648]])
*[[1802]] - [[Pedro Rodríguez, Conde de Campomanes]], Spanish statesman and writer (b. [[1723]])
*[[1862]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Biot]], French physicist (b. [[1774]])
*[[1889]] - [[Belle Starr]], American outlaw (b. [[1848]])
*[[1922]] - [[John Butler Yeats]], Northern Irish artist (b. [[1839]])
*[[1924]] - [[Woodrow Wilson]], [[President of the United States]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1856]])
*[[1956]] - [[Émile Borel]], French mathematician, politician, statesman, and resistance figher (b. [[1871]])
*[[1959]] - Also known as [[The Day the Music Died]] because of the deaths of:
**[[The Big Bopper]], American singer (b. [[1930]])
**[[Buddy Holly]], American singer (b. [[1936]])
**[[Ritchie Valens]], American singer (b. [[1941]])
*[[1960]] - [[Fred Buscaglione]], Italian singer and actor (b. [[1921]])
*[[1964]] - Sir [[Albert Richardson]], English architect (b. [[1880]])
*[[1967]] - [[Joe Meek]], English record producer (b. [[1929]])
*[[1985]] - [[Frank Oppenheimer]], American physicist (b. [[1912]])
*[[1989]] - [[John Cassavetes]], American actor, director, and writer (b. [[1929]])
*[[1991]] - [[Nancy Kulp]], American actress (b. [[1921]])
*[[1996]] - [[Audrey Meadows]], American actress (b. [[1926]])
*[[1998]] - [[Karla Faye Tucker]], American murderer (b. [[1959]])
*[[2000]] - [[Richard Kleindienst]], American politician (b. [[1923]])
*[[2003]] - [[Lana Clarkson]], American actress (murdered) (b. [[1962]])
*2003 - [[Kid Gavilan]], Cuban boxer (b. [[1926]])
*[[2005]] - [[Corrado Cardinal Bafile]], Italian Catholic cardinal (b. [[1903]])
*2005 - [[Ernst Mayr]], German-born biologist (b. [[1904]])
*2005 - [[Zurab Zhvania]], [[Prime Minister of Georgia]] (b. [[1963]])
*[[2006]]- [[Al Lewis]], American actor (b. 1923)
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Saint Blaise]] [[Roman Catholics]] visit churches to have their throats blessed.
* [[Boy Scouts of America|Boy Scout]] Sunday; this could be any Sunday during the month. It varies by unit and locale. Scouts go to their places of worship in uniform and help with the service.
* Feast day of [[Saint Werburgh]].
* [[Japan]] - the festival of [[Setsubun]] before spring.
* [[Mozambique]] - [[Heroes' Day]].
* [[United States]] - [[Four Chaplains]] Day.
==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=03 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060203.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/3 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[February 2]] - [[February 4]] - [[January 3]] - [[March 3]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[Category:Days|February 03]]
[[Category:Days]]
[[af:3 Februarie]]
[[ar:3 فبراير]]
[[an:3 de frebero]]
[[ast:3 de febreru]]
[[bg:3 февруари]]
[[be:3 лютага]]
[[bs:3. februar]]
[[ca:3 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 3]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 3]]
[[co:3 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:3. únor]]
[[cy:3 Chwefror]]
[[da:3. februar]]
[[de:3. Februar]]
[[et:3. veebruar]]
[[el:3 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:3 de febrero]]
[[eo:3-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 3]]
[[fo:3. februar]]
[[fr:3 février]]
[[fy:3 febrewaris]]
[[ga:3 Feabhra]]
[[gl:3 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 3일]]
[[hr:3. veljače]]
[[io:3 di februaro]]
[[id:3 Februari]]
[[ia:3 de februario]]
[[ie:3 februar]]
[[is:3. febrúar]]
[[it:3 febbraio]]
[[he:3 בפברואר]]
[[jv:3 Februari]]
[[ka:3 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:3 gromicznika]]
[[ku:3'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 3]]
[[lb:3. Februar]]
[[li:3 februari]]
[[hu:Február 3]]
[[mk:3 февруари]]
[[mr:फेब्रुवारी ३]]
[[ms:3 Februari]]
[[nap:3 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:3 februari]]
[[ja:2月3日]]
[[no:3. februar]]
[[nn:3. februar]]
[[oc:3 de febrièr]]
[[os:3 февралы]]
[[pl:3 lutego]]
[[pt:3 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:3 februarie]]
[[ru:3 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 3.]]
[[sco:3 Februar]]
[[sq:3 Shkurt]]
[[scn:3 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 3]]
[[sk:3. február]]
[[sl:3. februar]]
[[sr:3. фебруар]]
[[fi:3. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:3 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 3]]
[[tt:3. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 3]]
[[th:3 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:3 tháng 2]]
[[tr:3 Şubat]]
[[uk:3 лютого]]
[[wa:3 d' fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 3]]
[[zh:2月3日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 3]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Free On-line Dictionary of Computing</title>
<id>11324</id>
<revision>
<id>41747552</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:24:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aksi great</username>
<id>504572</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 40882604 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Free On-line Dictionary of Computing''' ('''FOLDOC''') is an online, searchable encyclopedic [[dictionary]] of [[computing]] subjects. It was founded in [[1985]] by '''Denis Howe''' and is hosted by [[Imperial College, London]]. Howe has served as the Editor-in-Chief since the dictionary's inception, with visitors to the website able to make suggestions for additions or corrections to articles.
The dictionary incorporates the text of other free resources, such as the [[Jargon File]], as well as covering many other computing-related topics. It is available via many [[Mirror (computing)|mirrors]], and due to its availability under the [[GFDL]], a [[copyleft]] licence, it has in turn been incorporated in whole or part into other [[free content]] projects, such as [[Wikipedia]].
FOLDOC is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], Version 1.1 or any later version published by the [[Free Software Foundation]]; with no Invariant Sections, Front-, or Back-Cover Texts.
==See also==
*[[:Category:FOLDOC sourced articles|FOLDOC sourced articles]]
*[[Template:FOLDOC| FOLDOC template]]
*[[Wikipedia:Foldoc license|FOLDOC licensing]]
==External links==
*[http://foldoc.org/ The Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]
*[http://foldoc.org/foldoc/mirrors.html FOLDOC Mirror Sites]
[[Category:Online dictionaries]]
[[Category:Technical communication]]
[[es:Free On-line Dictionary of
|
can actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1923]] - [[Rhonda Fleming]], American actress
*[[1927]] - [[Vernon Washington]], American actors (d. [[1988]])
*[[1928]] - [[Jimmy Dean]], American singer
* 1928 - [[Gus Mercurio]], American-born Australian actor
* 1928 - [[Eddie Fisher (singer)|Eddie Fisher]], American singer and actor
*[[1933]] - [[Doyle Brunson]], American poker player
*[[1939]] - [[Kate O'Mara]], British actress
*[[1940]] - [[Bobby Hatfield]], American singer ([[Righteous Brothers]]) (d. [[2003]])
*[[1943]] - [[Ronnie Spector]], American singer ([[Ronettes]])
*[[1945]] - [[Harriet Miers]], [[White House counsel]]
*[[1947]] - [[Ian Anderson (singer and musician)|Ian Anderson]], Scottish musician ([[Jethro Tull (band)|Jethro Tull]])
*[[1947]] - [[Anwar Ibrahim]], Former Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia
*[[1952]] - [[Daniel Hugh Kelly]], American actor
*[[1959]] - [[Rosanna Arquette]], American model and actress
*[[1960]] - [[Antonio Banderas]], Spanish actor
*[[1962]] - [[William Knight]], American Scientist
*[[1963]] - [[Andrew Sullivan]], English-born journalist
*[[1965]] - [[Claudia Christian]], American actress
* 1965 - [[Mike Smith (jockey)|Mike Smith]], American jockey
* 1965 - [[John Starks (basketball player)|John Starks]], American basketball player
*[[1967]] - [[Riddick Bowe]], American boxer
* 1967 - [[Mart Sander]], Estonian singer and actor
*[[1971]] - [[Roy Keane]], Irish footballer
* 1971 - [[Mario César Kindelán Mesa]], Cuban amateur boxer
* 1971 - [[Justin Theroux]], American actor
* 1971 - [[Sal Fasano]], American baseball player
*[[1972]] - [[Angie Harmon]], American model and actress
* 1972 - [[Christofer Johnsson]], Swedish heavy metal musician
*[[1973]] - [[Lisa Raymond]], American tennis player
*[[1974]] - [[David Sommeil]], French footballer
*[[1977]] - [[Danny Griffin]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Kaysar Ridha]], Reality TV Star
*[[1982]] - [[Devon Aoki]], American model and actress
<!-- Please do not add your own birthday or anyone without a Wikipedia article to this list. Thank you.-->
==Deaths==
*[[612 BC]] - [[Sinsharishkun]], Assyrian king
*[[Anno Domini|AD]] [[258]] - [[Saint Lawrence]], martyr
*[[1535]] - [[Ippolito de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (poisoned) (b. [[1509]])
*[[1633]] - [[Anthony Munday]], English writer (b. [[1553]])
*[[1637]] - [[Johann Gerhard]], German Lutheran leader (b. [[1582]])
*[[1653]] - [[Maarten Tromp]], Dutch admiral (b. [[1598]])
*[[1655]] - [[Alonso de la Cueva]], Spanish cardinal and diplomat (b. [[1572]])
*[[1723]] - [[Guillaume Dubois]], French cardinal and statesman (b. [[1656]])
*[[1759]] - King [[Ferdinand VI of Spain]] (b. [[1713]])
*[[1784]] - [[Allan Ramsay (1713-1784)|Allan Ramsay]], Scottish painter (b. [[1713]])
*[[1802]] - [[Franz Aepinus]], German scientist (b. [[1724]])
*[[1806]] - [[Michael Haydn]], Austrian composer (b. [[1737]])
*[[1839]] - [[John St Aubyn]], British fossil collector (b. [[1758]])
*[[1862]] - [[Shusaku Honinbo]], Japanese Go player (b. [[1829]])
*[[1875]] - [[Karl Andree]], German geographer (b. [[1808]])
*[[1896]] - [[Otto Lilienthal]], German aviation pioneer (b. [[1848]])
*[[1945]] - [[Robert Goddard (scientist)|Robert Goddard]], American rocket scientist (b. [[1882]])
*[[1948]] - [[Montague Summers]], English writer (b. [[1880]])
*[[1963]] - [[Estes Kefauver]], U.S. Senator from Tennessee (b. [[1903]])
*[[1976]] - [[Bert Oldfield]], Australian test cricketer (b. [[1894]])
*[[1979]] - [[Walter Gerlach]], German physicist (b. [[1889]])
*[[1980]] - [[Yahya Khan]], [[President of Pakistan]] (b. [[1917]])
*[[1993]] - [[Øystein Aarseth]], Norwegian musician ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]) (b. [[1968]])
*[[1997]] - [[Conlon Nancarrow]], American composer (b. [[1912]])
*[[2002]] - [[Michael Houser]], American guitarist ([[Widespread Panic]]) (b. [[1962]])
*2002 - [[Kristen Nygaard]], Norwegian computer scientist (b. [[1926]])
*[[2003]] - [[Carmita Jiménez]], Puerto Rican singer
*[[2005]] - [[Lee Seung Seop]], Korean gamer
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Opalia]], festival in honor of [[Ops]]
*Ancient [[Latvia]] - [[Labrenca Diena]] held
* [[Independence Day]] in [[Public holidays in Ecuador|Ecuador]] -- Movement began in [[Quito]] in [[1809]]. Independence not achieved till May 1822.
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/10 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050810.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
----
[[August 9]] - [[August 11]] - [[July 10]] - [[September 10]] -- [[List of historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[ilo:Agosto 10]]
[[af:10 Augustus]]
[[ar:10 أغسطس]]
[[an:10 d'agosto]]
[[ast:10 d'agostu]]
[[bg:10 август]]
[[be:10 жніўня]]
[[bs:10. avgust]]
[[ca:10 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 10]]
[[cv:Çурла, 10]]
[[co:10 d'aostu]]
[[cs:10. srpen]]
[[cy:10 Awst]]
[[da:10. august]]
[[de:10. August]]
[[et:10. august]]
[[el:10 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:10 de agosto]]
[[eo:10-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 10]]
[[fo:10. august]]
[[fr:10 août]]
[[fy:10 augustus]]
[[ga:10 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:10 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 10일]]
[[hr:10. kolovoza]]
[[io:10 di agosto]]
[[id:10 Agustus]]
[[ia:10 de augusto]]
[[ie:10 august]]
[[is:10. ágúst]]
[[it:10 agosto]]
[[he:10 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:10 Agustus]]
[[ka:10 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:10 zélnika]]
[[ku:10'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 10]]
[[lb:10. August]]
[[li:10 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 10]]
[[mk:10 август]]
[[ms:10 Ogos]]
[[nap:10 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:10 augustus]]
[[ja:8月10日]]
[[no:10. august]]
[[nn:10. august]]
[[oc:10 d'agost]]
[[pl:10 sierpnia]]
[[pt:10 de Agosto]]
[[ro:10 august]]
[[ru:10 августа]]
[[sq:10 Gusht]]
[[scn:10 di austu]]
[[simple:August 10]]
[[sk:10. august]]
[[sl:10. avgust]]
[[sr:10. август]]
[[fi:10. elokuuta]]
[[sv:10 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 10]]
[[tt:10. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 10]]
[[th:10 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:10 tháng 8]]
[[tr:10 Ağustos]]
[[uk:10 серпня]]
[[wa:10 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 10]]
[[zh:8月10日]]
[[pam:Agostu 10]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Audio file format</title>
<id>2316</id>
<revision>
<id>38985203</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T23:14:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Samuella</username>
<id>190760</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Vorbis clarification</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
An '''audio file format''' is a [[container format]] for storing [[Sound|audio]] data on a [[computer]] system. There are many file formats for storing audio files.
The general approach towards storing digital audio formats is to [[sample (signal)|sample]] the audio voltage (corresponding to a certain position in the membrane of a speaker) in regular intervals (e.g. 44,100 times per second for [[CDDA]] or 48,000 or 96,000 times per second for [[DVD]] video) and store the value with a certain resolution (e.g. 16 bits per sample in CDDA). Therefore [[sample rate]], [[resolution]] and number of channels (e.g. 2 for stereo) are key parameters in audio file formats.
It is important to distinguish between a [[file format]] and a [[codec]]. Even though most audio file formats support only one [[audio codec]], a file format may support multiple codecs, as [[AVI]] does.
There are three major groups of audio file formats:
* uncompressed formats, such as [[WAV]], [[AIFF]] and [[Au file format|AU]].
* formats with [[lossless data compression|lossless]] compression, such as [[FLAC]], [[Monkey's Audio]] ([[filename extension]] APE), [[WavPack]], [[SHN|Shorten]], [[TTA]], [[Apple Lossless]] and lossless [[Windows Media Audio]] (WMA).
* formats with [[lossy data compression|lossy]] compression, such as [[MP3]], [[Vorbis]] (filename extension OGG), lossy [[Windows Media Audio]] (WMA) and [[Advanced Audio Coding|AAC]].
Lossy file formats are based on [[psychoacoustic model]]s that leave out sounds that humans cannot or can hardly hear, e.g. a low volume sound after a big volume sound. [[MP3]] is such an example.
Lossless audio formats (such as [[TTA]]) provide compression about 2:1, but no data/quality is lost in the compression - when uncompressed, the data will be identical to the original. Lossless audio codecs are a good choice to keep the music's original quality. For example, using the free [[TTA]] lossless audio codec you can store up to 20 audio CDs from your music collection on one single DVD-R for playback.
As of [[2002]], one of the most popular audio file formats was [[MP3]], which uses the [[MPEG-1]] audio layer 3 codec to provide acceptable lossy compression for music files. The compression is about 10:1 compared with uncompressed WAV files (in a standard compression scheme), therefore a [[CD]] with MP3 files can store about 10 hours of music, compared to one hour of the standard [[CDDA]], which uses uncompressed PCM.
There are many newer audio formats and codecs claiming to achieve improved compression and quality over MP3. [[Vorbis]] is an [[software patent|unpatented]], [[free software|free]] codec. Microsoft has its [[Windows Media Audio]] format.
[[Audio data compression#Lossless Compression|Lossless compression]] of sound is not nearly as widely used outside of professional applications, as lossy compression can provide a much greater [[data compression ratio]] with nearly the same [[transparency (data compression)|apparent quality]].
There are many uncompressed data formats, the most popular of them being [[WAV]], which is a flexible file format designed to store multiple types of audio data. It is a good file format for storing and archiving an original recording, though less so than losslessly compressed formats, for it encodes all sounds, whether complex or absolutely silent, with the same number of bits. The WAV format is based on the [[RIFF]] file format, which is similar to the [[Interchange File Format|IFF]] format.
[[BWF]] (Broadcast Wave Format) is a standard audio format created by the [
|
ch as the fact that his predecessor St. Ignatius had not been validly deposed. This deposition was not accepted by the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Church at the time, but was within a few years. In any case, after the death of St. Ignatius, Photios was reinstated as Patriarch and reconciled with the Papacy.
**[[Council of Sutri]], ([[1046]]), resolved dispute over papacy.
* 9 (cor) [[First Lateran Council]], ([[1123]]) Dealt with one of the pressing issues of the time, the question of the rights of the Catholic Church and those of the Holy Roman Emperors with respect to the investment of bishops.
==== #8 and #9 for some Eastern Orthodox ====
The next two are regarded as ecumenical by some in the [[Orthodox Church]] but not by other Eastern Orthodox Christians, who instead consider them to be important local councils.
* 8 (eo). [[Fourth Council of Constantinople]], ([[879]]&ndash;[[880]]); restored St. [[Photius]] to his See in Constantinople and anathematized any who altered the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed.
* 9 (eo). [[Fifth Council of Constantinople]], ([[1341]]&ndash;[[1351]]); affirmed hesychastic theology according to St. [[Gregory Palamas]] and condemned the Westernized philosopher [[Barlaam of Calabria]].
**[[Synod of Jerusalem]], ([[1672]]), defined Orthodoxy relative to Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, defined Greek Orthodox [[Biblical canon|canon]].
=== Councils #10 to #21 for Catholics ===
* 10. [[Second Council of the Lateran]], ([[1139]]) - mostly repeated [[First Council of the Lateran]]. Clerical marriages declared invalid, clerical dress regulated, attacks on clerics punished by [[excommunication]]
* 11. [[Third Council of the Lateran]], ([[1179]]) - limited papal electees to the cardinals alone, condemned [[simony]], forbade the promotion of anyone to the episcopate before the age of thirty.
* 12. [[Fourth Council of the Lateran]], ([[1215]]) - dealt with [[transubstantiation]], papal primacy and conduct of clergy. Also said Jews and Muslims should wear a special dress to enable them to be distinguished from Christians.
* 13. [[First Council of Lyons]], ([[1245]]) - set a red hat for [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]], and a levy for the Holy Land
* 14. [[Second Council of Lyons]], ([[1274]])
* 15. [[Council of Vienne]], ([[1311]]&ndash;[[1312]]) - Disbanded [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]]
** [[Council of Pisa]], ([[1409]]) is not officially recognized because was not called by a pope.
* 16. [[Council of Constance]], ([[1414]]&ndash;[[1418]]), resolved dispute over papacy.
** [[Council of Siena]], ([[1423]]&ndash;[[1424]]) is the high point of [[conciliarism]], emphasizing the leadership of the bishops gathered in council.
* 17. [[Council of Basel]], Ferrara and Florence, ([[1431]]&ndash;[[1445]]); reconciliation with the Orthodox Church, which, however, was not accepted in following years by the Christian East. In this council, other unions were achieved with various Eastern Churches as well.
* 18. [[Fifth Council of the Lateran]], ([[1512]]&ndash;[[1517]]); attempted reform of the Church.
* 19. [[Council of Trent]], ([[1545]]&ndash;[[1563]], discontinuously); response to the challenges of [[Calvinism]] and [[Lutheranism]]; imposition of uniformity in liturgy in the Roman Rite (the "[[Tridentine Mass]]"), clearly defined [[Biblical canon|canon]].
* 20. [[First Vatican Council]], [[1870]]; clarification of the doctrine of [[papal infallibility]]; rejected by [[Old Catholic Church]]
* 21. [[Second Vatican Council]], ([[1962]]&ndash;[[1965]]); renewal of the Roman liturgy "according to the pristine norm of the Fathers"; pastoral decrees on the nature of the Church and its relation to the modern world; restoration of a theology of communion; promotion of Scripture and biblical studies; ecumenical progress towards reconciliation with other Churches.
== Acceptance of the councils ==
=== Mormonism: accept none ===
[[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] rejects the early ecumenical councils for what they see as misguided human attempts without divine assistance to decide matters of doctrine as though doctrine were to be handed down by [[democracy|democratic]] debate or [[politics]] rather than by [[revelation]]. That convening such councils was even considered is evidence enough to them that the original Christian church had fallen into [[Great Apostasy|apostasy]] and was no longer directly led by divine authority. They see the calling of such councils, for example, by an unbaptized (let alone unordained) Roman Emperor as preposterous and assert that the emperors used the councils to exercise their influence to shape and institute Christianity to their liking.
===Nontrinitarian churches: accept none ===
The first and subsequent councils are not recognized by nontrinitarian churches: [[Arianism|Arians]], [[Unitarians]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] et al.
=== The Assyrian Church: accept #1, and #2 ===
The [[Assyrian Church of the East]] only accepts the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople.
=== Oriental Orthodoxy: accept #1, #2, and #3 ===
The [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Communion only accepts Nicaea I, Constantinople I and the Council of Ephesus.
=== Protestantism: accept #1-#7 with reservations ===
Many [[Protestantism|Protestants]] (especially those belonging to the magisterial traditions, such as [[Lutheranism]] and [[Anglicanism]]) accept the teachings of the first seven councils, but do not ascribe to the councils themselves the same authority as Catholics and the Eastern Orthodox do.
Some Protestants, including some [[fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist]] and [[Nontrinitarianism|nontrinitarian]] churches, condemn the ecumenical councils for other reasons. Independency or [[congregationalism]] among Protestants involves the rejection of any governmental structure or binding authority above local congregations; conformity to the decisions of these councils is therefore considered purely voluntary and the councils are to be considered binding only insofar as those doctrines are derived from the Scriptures. Many of these churches reject the idea that anyone other than the authors of Scripture can directly lead other Christians by original divine authority; after the [[New Testament]], they assert, the doors of revelation were closed. They consider new doctrines not derived from the sealed [[Biblical canon|canon]] of Scripture to be both impossible and unnecessary, whether proposed by church councils or by more recent [[prophet]]s. Supporters of the councils contend that the councils did not create new doctrines but merely elucidated doctrines already in Scripture that had gone unrecognized.
=== Eastern Orthodoxy: accept #1-#7; some also accept #8(eo), #9(eo) ===
As far as some Eastern Orthodox are concerned, since the Seventh Ecumenical Council there has been no synod or council of the same scope as any of the Ecumenical councils. Local meetings of hierarchs have been called "pan-Orthodox", but these have invariably been simply meetings of local hierarchs of whatever Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions are party to a specific local matter. From this point of view, there has been no fully "pan-Orthodox" ('''Ecumenical''') council since [[787]]. Unfortunately, the use of the term "pan-Orthodox" is confusing to those not within Eastern Orthodoxy, and it leads to mistaken impressions that these are ''ersatz'' ecumenical councils rather than purely local councils to which nearby Orthodox hierarchs, regardless of jurisdiction, are invited.
Others, including 20th century theologians Metropolitan [[Hierotheos (Vlachos)]] of [[Nafpaktos]], Fr. [[John S. Romanides]], and Fr. [[George Metallinos]] (all of whom refer repeatedly to the "Eighth and Ninth Ecumenical Councils"), Fr. [[George Dragas]], and the [[1848]] [[Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs]] (which refers explicitly to the "Eighth Ecumenical Council" and was signed by the [[patriarch]]s of [[Constantinople]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Antioch]], and [[Alexandria]] as well as the Holy Synods of the first three), regard other synods beyond the [[Second Council of Nicaea|Seventh Ecumenical Council]] as being ecumenical. Those who regard these councils as ecumenical often characterize the limitation of Ecumenical Councils to only seven to be the result of [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] influence in Russia, part of the so-called "Western Captivity of Orthodoxy."
=== Roman Catholicism: accept #1-#7, #8(cor), #9(cor), #10-#21 ===
Both the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches recognize seven councils in the early years of the church, but Catholics also recognize fourteen councils called in later years by the Pope, whose authority the Eastern Orthodox deny as they consider Rome to currently be in [[schism]]. The status of these councils in the face of a Catholic-Orthodox reconciliation would depend upon whether one accepts Roman Catholic ecclesiology (papal primacy) or Orthodox ecclesiology (collegiality of autocephalous churches). In the former case, the additional councils would be granted the status of '''Ecumenical'''. In the latter case, they would be considered to be local synodal decisions with no authority among the other autocephalous churches.
The first seven councils were called by the emperor (first the Christian [[Roman Emperors]] and later the so-called [[Byzantine Emperors]], i.e., the Roman Emperors with the capital in the East). Most historians agree that the emperors called the councils to force the Christian bishops to resolve divisive issues and reach consensus. They hoped that maintaining unity in the Church would help maintain unity in the Empire. The relationship of the [[Papacy]] to the validity of these councils is the ground of much controversy between Roman Catho
|
, 2005
==See also==
*[[Sergei Kovalev]]
==Quotes==
* "In this pamphlet, advanced for discussion by its readers, the author has set himself the goal to present, with the greatest conviction and frankness, two theses that are supported by many people in the world. These are:
*# The division of mankind threatens it with destruction… Only universal cooperation under conditions of intellectual freedom and the lofty moral ideals of socialism and labor, accompanied by the elimination of dogmatism and pressure of the concealed interests of ruling classes, will preserve civilization…
*# The second basic thesis is that intellectual freedom is essential to human society — freedom to obtain and distribute information, freedom for open-minded and unfearing debate and freedom from pressure by officialdom and prejudices. Such a trinity of freedom of thought is the only guarantee against an infection of people by mass myths, which, in the hands of treacherous hypocrites and demagogues, can be transformed into bloody dictatorship. Freedom of thought is the only guarantee of the feasibility of a scientific democratic approach to politics, economics and culture." (''Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom'', in ''[[The New York Times]], July 22, 1968) [http://www.aip.org/history/sakharov/essay.htm]
* "I foresee a universal information system (UIS), which will give everyone access at any given moment to the contents of any book that has ever been published or any magazine or any fact. The UIS will have individual miniature-computer terminals, central control points for the flood of information, and communication channels incorporating thousands of artificial communications from satellites, cables, and laser lines. Even the partial realization of the UIS will profoundly affect every person, his leisure activities, and his intellectual and artistic development. …But the true historic role of the UIS will be to break down the barriers to the exchange of information among countries and people." (Saturday Review/World, August 24, 1974) [http://www.aip.org/history/sakharov/humrt.htm]
{{commons|Andrei Sakharov}}
==External links==
* [http://www.aip.org/history/sakharov/index.htm Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights]. Web exhibit at the American Institute of Physics
* [http://people.bu.edu/gorelik/AIP_Sakharov_Photo_Chrono/AIP_Sakharov_Photo_Chronology.html Andrei Sakharov: Photo-chronology]
* "''[http://www.nobel-winners.com/Peace/sakharov.html Andrey Dmitriyevich Sakharov]''". Timeline of Nobel Winners.
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/interview/holloway18.html David Holloway on: Andrei Sakharov]
* [http://www.wiriworlds.com/Michael/sakharov/ Andrei Sakharov Museum in Moscow Virtual Tour]
* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Sakharov,+Andrei Annotated bibliography of Andrei Sakharov from the Alsos Digital Library]
; In Russian
*[http://www.sakharov-archive.ru/ Sakharov Archive]
*[http://www.sakharov-center.ru/ Sakharov Museum and Public Center: Peace, Progress and Human Rights]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Seán MacBride]] <br> [[Eisaku Sato]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1975 | after = [[Betty Williams (Northern Irish)|Betty Williams]] <br> [[Mairead Corrigan]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1921 births|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[Category:1989 deaths|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[Category:Russian physicists|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[Category:Soviet dissidents|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[Category:Soviet nuclear program|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[bg:Андрей Сахаров]]
[[be:Андрэй Сахараў]]
[[da:Andrej Sakharov]]
[[de:Andrei Dmitrijewitsch Sacharow]]
[[et:Andrei Sahharov]]
[[fr:Andreï Dmitrievitch Sakharov]]
[[io:Andrei Saharov]]
[[he:אנדריי סחרוב]]
[[nl:Andrej Sacharov]]
[[ja:アンドレイ・サハロフ]]
[[ka:სახაროვი, ანდრეი]]
[[no:Andrej Sakharov]]
[[pl:Andriej Sacharow]]
[[pt:Andrei Sakharov]]
[[ro:Andrei Saharov]]
[[ru:Сахаров, Андрей Дмитриевич]]
[[fi:Andrei Saharov]]
[[sv:Andrej Sacharov]]
[[uk:Сахаров Андрій Дмитрович]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astrobiology</title>
<id>2787</id>
<revision>
<id>41062475</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T20:41:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TheloniousMONK</username>
<id>183339</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Research Outcomes */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}
'''Astrobiology''' is an interdisciplinary field, combining aspects of [[astronomy]], [[biology]] and [[geology]], which is focused primarily on the study of the [[origin of life|origin]], distribution and [[evolution]] of life. It comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''astron'' = star, ''bios'' = life and ''logos'' = word/science), and is also known as '''exobiology''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''exo'' = out) or '''xenobiology''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''xenos'' = foreign).
Some major astrobiological research topics include:
* What is life?
* How did life arise on [[Earth]]?
* What kind of environments can life tolerate?
* How can we determine if life exists on other planets?
'''Exobiology''' and '''xenobiology''' are terms also found in [[science fiction]], although typically such terms refer to the speculative biology of an [[extraterrestrial]]. A xenobiologist is usually a human [[physician|doctor]] or [[biologist]] who is expert on the [[physiology]] of alien organisms and life forms.
== Overview ==
Although astrobiology is an emerging field, the question of whether [[life]] exists elsewhere in the [[universe]] is a [[verifiable]] hypothesis and thus a valid line of [[science|scientific]] enquiry. Astrobiology does not claim to be a pure scientific discipline in the sense of [[physics]] or [[biology]] but rather represents an effort by researchers in different disciplines to try and answer questions about life by drawing on knowledge of multiple scientific fields.
A particular focus of current astrobiology research is the search for life on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that Mars has previously had a considerable amount of [[water]] on its surface; water is considered to be an essential precursor to the development of life, although this has not been conclusively proven.
Missions specifically designed to search for life include the [[Viking program]] and [[Beagle 2]] probes, both directed to Mars. The Viking results were inconclusive and Beagle 2 failed to transmit from the surface and is assumed to have crashed. A future mission with a strong astrobiology role would have been the [[Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter]], designed to study the frozen moons of Jupiter&mdash;some of which may have liquid water&mdash;had it not been canceled.
=== Research Outcomes ===
[[As of 2006]], there is no definite evidence of extraterrestrial life. However examination of [[ALH84001|meteorites]] from [[Antarctica]] which are thought to have originated from the planet [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] have provided what some scientists believe to be microfossils of extraterrestrial life, although that interpretation of the evidence is still controversial. In 2004, the spectral signature of [[methane]] was detected in the martian atmosphere by both Earth-based telescopes as well as by the [[Mars Express]] probe. Methane has a relatively short [[half-life]] in the martian atmosphere, so there must be a recent source of it. Since one possible source, active volcanism, has thus far not been detected on Mars, this has led scientists to speculate that the source could be ([[microorganisms|microbial]]) life.
Missions to other planets (such as [[Beagle 2: Evolution]] to Mars and [[Cassini probe|Cassini]] to [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn's]] moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]) hope to further explore the possibilities of life on other [[planet]]s in our [[solar system]].
Secondary questions, such as the availability of suitable worlds and chemical precursors, have had much success. The "wobble method" and transit method (see [[Extrasolar planet]]) have found that planets are more common than previously postulated, although usually different from our own. It has been proposed that our solar system is of an aberrant layout, though another possibility is that current searches are biased toward non-Solar layouts. Improved detection methods and increased observing time will undoubtedly discover more planetary systems, and possibly ones more like ours.
The progress of [[infrared astronomy]] and [[submillimetre astronomy]] has "opened" additional star systems. Infrared searches have detected belts of dust and asteroids around distant stars, underpinning the formation of planets. Some infrared images purportedly contain direct images of planets, though this is disputed. Infrared and submillimetre [[spectroscopy]] has identified a growing number of chemicals around stars which underpin the origin or maintenance of life.
== Methodology==
=== Narrowing the task ===
''Main article: [[Planetary habitability]]''
When looking for life in other planets, some simplifying assumptions are useful to reduce the size of the task of astrobiologists. One is to assume that the vast majority of life-forms in our galaxy are based on [[Carbon based life|carbon chemistries]], as are all life-forms on Earth. While it is possible that [[Alternative biochemistry|non carbon-based life]] exists, carbon is well known for the unusually wide variety of molecules that can be formed around it.
The presence of liquid water is also a useful assumption, as it is a common molecule and provides an excellent environment for the formation of complicated carbon-based molecules that could eventually lead to the emergence of life. Some researchers posit environments of ammonia, or more l
|
ot become malignant nor normally cause any lung impairment.
*''diffuse pleural thickening'' &#8211; similar to above and can sometimes be associated with asbestosis. Usually no symptoms shown but if extensive can cause [[lung]] impairment.
==Litigation==
{{main|Asbestos and the law}}
In the United States, asbestos was one of the first hazardous air [[pollutant]]s regulated under Section 112 of the [[Clean Air Act (USA) (1970)|Clean Air Act]] of [[1970]]. One estimate says that, in the 20th century, more than 100 million Americans were exposed to asbestos in the workplace.[http://www.actuary.org/pdf/casualty/mono_dec01asbestos.pdf]
Today, lawsuits claiming that asbestos caused plaintiffs' diseases form a gigantic part of the total amount of lawsuits pending in American courts, with a cost of tens of billions of dollars for expenses, settlements, and judgments to date. The original asbestos manufacturers were driven into [[Chapter 11]] [[bankruptcy]]; plaintiffs have moved to suing corporations who had more peripheral connections to asbestos; the original plaintiffs have gone from those who had mesothelioma and other serious asbestos-related health problems to include those who merely were exposed to asbestos and wished to recover for their fear of future injury.[http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1032128856491] Nearly every American industry has had asbestos defendants, and over 70 corporations have filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy in the face of heavy liability claims.[http://www.actuary.org/pdf/casualty/mono_dec01asbestos.pdf], [http://www.asbestossolution.org/bankruptcies.doc] Since the late 1970s, approximately 6% of all filings in American courts each year were related to asbestos, leading to its perception as a sort of [[poster child]] of [[tort reform]] and the rampant lawsuit excesses of the United States. A [[RAND]] [http://www.rand.org/publications/MG/MG162/ study] found that less than half the money spent on asbestos litigation went to injured parties, as opposed to attorneys' fees and administrative costs. [[As of 2004]], asbestos cases result in about 600 to 700 appellate opinions per year (that is, including both federal and state courts); this number does not include other cases that were not appealed, or were settled or otherwise abandoned before trial. Estimates of total American deaths attributable to asbestos range from 200,000 to 265,000 (according to the March 1991 Report of the Judicial Conference Ad Hoc Committee on Asbestos Litigation). The number of suits has increased, although the leading epidemiological study, cited by attorneys on both sides, suggests that deaths peaked in the 1990s. However, others contend that deaths from asbestosis and mesothelioma have not yet peaked.[http://www.ewg.org/reports/asbestos/facts/fact1.php]
"Asbestos litigation today is, for the most part, a massively fraudulent enterprise that can rightfully take its place among the pantheon of such great American swindles as the [[Yazoo land scandal|Yazoo land frauds]], [[Credit Mobilier]] and [[Teapot Dome]]," said [[Lester Brickman]], a professor at [[Cardozo Law School]], in a recent speech on the phenomenon.[http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/cjf_40.htm] For example, [[Fred Baron|Baron & Budd, P.C.]], a renowned [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] plaintiff's firm, is alleged to have coached clients how to provide winning testimony against asbestos defendants.[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/T?&report=sr118&dbname=cp108] In recent years, there have been many scandals over asbestos litigation because of the number of cases involving [[plaintiff]]s who had suffered no injury other than asymptomatic pleural plaques. An investigation into claims filed for alleged [[silicosis]] found that 65% of the plaintiffs claiming to be suffering from silicosis had previously recovered from asbestos defendants by alleging that they had [[asbestosis]].[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/09/business/09tort.html?pagewanted=all], [http://www.caller2.com/2005/pics/PTO29jurisdiction.pdf] Many attorneys, including [[Peter Angelos]], have become rich because they established lucrative relationships with unions that steered potential asbestos plaintiffs to their law firms in exchange for questionable financial relationships with union executives.[http://www.pointoflaw.com/articles/26WMEL.pdf], [http://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/mojo_400/7_angelos.html] In the mass screenings that would take place, it is alleged that asbestos-related ailments were systematically overdiagnosed.[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=490682]
Because many companies filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in view of claims from plaintiffs (some of whom may have been uninjured), and because some of the earlier manufacturer bankruptcy proceedings underestimated future asbestos liability, many seriously injured workers received as little as ten cents on the dollar of the compensation due them.[http://www.shb.com/FileUploads/elephantinemass_725.pdf], [http://www.newamerica.net/index.cfm?pg=article&DocID=278]
Asbestos-related cases were a rare sight on the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] [[docket]] prior to 1980, but since then, the Court has dealt with asbestos-injury cases in 1986, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1999, and 2002. The 1997 and 1999 cases both involved giant settlement [[class action]]s that were designed to stabilize the liability of the largest defendants. Both settlements were ultimately overturned by the Court because they resolved the rights of future claimants who, because they were currently unknown, could not be given the notice that [[due process]] requires.
[[Texas]] passed a reform bill requiring neutral medical screening in asbestos claims. Georgia passed a reform bill that requires an out-of-state plaintiff to provide "prima facie evidence of physical impairment" that shows "to a reasonable degree of certainty" that exposure to asbestos was "a substantial contributing factor" to the plaintiff's injuries. Plaintiffs' attorneys in the state complain that this would foreclose "98%" of the pending claims, and that the law is unconstitutional.[http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1127133334895]
Congress is considering legislation, the [[Fairness in Asbestos Injury Resolution Act of 2005]], that would establish a $140 billion trust fund to supplant litigation as a means to compensate victims of asbestos. Trial lawyers protest that the trust fund would undercompensate injured workers, while some [[conservative]]s argue that the trust fund does not do enough to prevent fraud; would override state reforms in Texas, Ohio, and Georgia; and would be too "leaky" to prevent future litigation problems.
Asbestos liability is one of the largest issues facing the global insurance industry today, with the industry contending that many are suing because they have been exposed but have not as yet contracted asbestos-related lung diseases, which have latency periods of 10-40 years, and because lawyers spend millions each year advertising to promote such lawsuits.[http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1032128833445], [http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1032128856491], [http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/nj/taylor2002-10-01.htm]
In [[Australia]], public attention was drawn in mid-2004 to [[James Hardie]]'s handling of its asbestos injury liabilities, following the revelations of a [[New South Wales]] government-sanctioned inquiry.
In [[Brazil]], prohibition of extraction and use of asbestos is currently under consideration.
In [[Japan]] too, recently there has been a spurt of lawsuits involving actual or potential damage due to the use of asbestos in schools and public places, following public outcry over asbestos-related deaths.
==Removal of asbestos==
[[Image:Asbestos-warning.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Structures containing asbestos are marked]]
Many buildings contain asbestos, which was used in spray-applied [[flame retardant]], thermal system insulation, and in a variety of other materials. Typically, asbestos was "[[Flocking_(texture)|flocked]]" above false ceilings, inside technical ducts, and in many other small spaces where firefighters would have difficulty gaining access. Structural components like asbestos panels were also used. In residences, it was often a component of a type of flocked acoustic ceiling called "popcorn ceiling", until its production was banned in the U.S. in 1978. However, the ban allowed installers to use up remaining stocks, so houses built as late as 1986 could still have asbestos in their acoustic ceilings. The only way to be sure is to remove a sample and have it tested by a competent laboratory.
Depending on how and where asbestos was applied, it might not pose any risk to most users of the building. If the fibers cannot dislodge themselves, they cannot be inhaled, and thus the risk is absent.
However, with certain ways of applying asbestos, particularly flocking, asbestos fibers may gradually drop off into the air. Furthermore, in all cases, asbestos poses special hazards to maintenance personnel who have to drill holes in walls for installation of cables or pipes.
Also, even if the workers are protected, such maintenance operation may release fibers into the air, which may be inhaled by other users later. As a consequence, interventions in areas where asbestos is present often have to follow stringent procedures.
The removal of asbestos from a building is quite difficult because of the above constraints. If removal is to be performed when users are still present in the building, it is usually necessary to relocate some of them temporarily. Typically, the part of the building from which asbestos is being removed has to be sealed off in order to prevent contamination of the other areas.
Even if the building is closed to normal users, it is necessary to seal it off from outside atmosphere so th
|
rol]], '''[[Communication]], [[Navigation]], [[Surveillance]]'''
** often associated with the acronym ATM ([[Air Traffic Management]]) as '''CNS/ATM'''.
* the [[central nervous system]]
* the title granted to a [[Clinical Nurse Specialist]]
* the [[mnemonic]] for the demogroup [[Conspiracy (demogroup)|Conspiracy]]
* the [[IATA]] code for [[Cairns International Airport]]
* in [[microbiology]], '''[[coagulase]] negative [[staphylococcus]]'''; a term to describe all staphylococcus species that are not [[staphylococcus aureus]]
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Central nervous system</title>
<id>7251</id>
<revision>
<id>41349360</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:43:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robth</username>
<id>573348</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert to revision 41303195 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Central nervous system.svg|thumb|200px|A diagram showing the CNS:<br />'''1.''' Brain<br />'''2.''' Central nervous system<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<small>(brain and spinal cord)</small><br>'''3.''' Spinal cord]]
The '''central nervous system''' ('''CNS''') represents the largest part of the [[nervous system]]. Together with the [[peripheral nervous system]], it has a fundamental role in the control of behavior.
Since the strong theoretical influence of [[cybernetics]] in the fifties, the CNS is conceived as a system devoted to information processing, where an appropriate motor output is computed as a response to a sensory input. Yet, many threads of research suggest that motor activity exists well before the maturation of the sensory systems and then, that the senses only influence behaviour without dictating it. This has brought the conception of the CNS as an autonomous system.
The whole CNS originates from the [[neural plate]], a specialised region of the [[germ layer|ectoderm]], the most external of the three embryonic layers. During embryonic development, the neural plate folds and forms the [[neural tube]]. The internal cavity of the neural tube will give rise to the ventricular system. The regions of the neural tube will differentiate progressively into transversal systems. First, the whole neural tube will differentiate into its two major subdivisions: [[spinal cord]] (caudal) and [[brain]] (rostral). Consecutively, the brain will differentiate into [[brainstem]] and [[prosencephalon]]. Later, the brainstem will subdivide into [[rhombencephalon]] and [[mesencephalon]], and the prosencephalon into [[diencephalon]] and [[telencephalon]].
The CNS is covered by the [[meninges]], the brain is protected by the skull and the spinal cord by the vertebrae. The rhombencephalon gives rise to the [[pons]], the [[cerebellum]] and the [[medulla oblongata]], its cavity becomes the fourth ventricle. The mesencephalon gives rise to the [[tectum]], [[pretectum]], [[cerebral peduncle]] and its cavity develops into the [[mesencephalic duct]] or cerebral aqueduct. The diencephalon gives rise to the [[subthalamus]], [[hypothalamus]], [[thalamus]] and [[epithalamus]], its cavity to the third ventricle. Finally, the telencephalon gives rise to the [[striatum]] (caudate nucleus and putamen), the [[hippocampus]] and the [[neocortex]], its cavity becomes the lateral (first and second) ventricles.
The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of [[vertebrates]] and during evolution. The major trend that can be observed is towards a progressive telencephalisation: while in the reptilian brain that region is only an appendix to the large olfactory bulb, it represent most of the volume of the mammalian CNS. In the human brain, the telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the mesencephalon. Indeed, the [[allometry|allometric]] study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through [[cranial endocast]]s.
==Parts of the CNS==
<!-- I'm using Netscape-Composer to edit this table - Rto -->
<!-- Don't add too much structures to this list... there is
another page for that ("List of regions in the human brain"-->
<center>
<table style="width:75%" border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td colspan="82">[[Spinal Cord]] </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="4">[[Brain]]</td>
<td rowspan="2">[[Brainstem]]</td>
<td>[[Rhombencephalon]]</td>
<td>
[[Pons]],
[[Cerebellum]],
[[Medulla oblongata]]
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Mesencephalon]]</td>
<td>
[[Tectum]],
[[Cerebral peduncle]],
[[Pretectum]],
[[Mesencephalic duct]]
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">[[Prosencephalon]]</td>
<td>[[Diencephalon]]</td>
<td>
[[Epithalamus]],
[[Thalamus]],
[[Hypothalamus]],
[[Subthalamus]],
[[Pituitary Gland]],
[[Pineal Gland]],
[[Third ventricle]]
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Telencephalon]]</td>
<td>
[[Basal ganglia]],
[[Rhinencephalon]],
[[Amygdala]],
[[Hippocampus]],
[[Neocortex]],
[[Lateral ventricles]]
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
==See also==
* [[Glossary of anatomical terminology, definitions and abbreviations]]
* [[List of regions in the human brain]]
* [[Central nervous system infection]]
==External links==
* [http://www.sylvius.com Sylvius: 400+ structure neuroanatomical visual glossary; used by over half of U.S. medical schools]
* [http://primate-brain.org High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases]
* [http://www.marymt.edu/~psychol/brain.html Human Brains: A Learning Tool].
* [http://www.humannervoussystem.info Explaining the human nervous system].
* [http://www.backrack.co.uk/nervous_index.shtml Nervous System - Back Pain - Anatomy (info on nerve pairs)].
{{nervous system}}
[[Category:Central nervous system|*]]
[[Category:Nervous system]]
[[ar:جهاز عصبي مركزي]]
[[da:Centralnervesystemet]]
[[de:Zentralnervensystem]]
[[es:Sistema nervioso central]]
[[fr:Système nerveux central]]
[[io:Centrala nervaro]]
[[is:Miðtaugakerfið]]
[[it:Sistema nervoso centrale]]
[[he:מערכת העצבים המרכזית]]
[[lt:Centrinė nervų sistema]]
[[nl:Centraal zenuwstelsel]]
[[no:Sentralnervesystem]]
[[pl:Ośrodkowy układ nerwowy]]
[[pt:Sistema nervoso central]]
[[ru:Центральная нервная система]]
[[sk:Centrálna nervová sústava]]
[[fi:Keskushermosto]]
[[sv:Centrala nervsystemet]]
[[uk:Центральна нервова система]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cell cycle</title>
<id>7252</id>
<revision>
<id>41675405</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T00:09:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>142.103.205.100</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''cell cycle''', or '''cell division cycle''', is the cycle of events in a [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[cell (biology)|cell]] from one cell division to the next. It consists of [[interphase]], [[mitosis]], and usually [[cell division]].
The cell cycle is regulated by [[cyclin]]s and [[cyclin-dependent kinase]]s.
[[Leland H. Hartwell]], [[R. Timothy Hunt]], and [[Paul M. Nurse]] won the [[2001]] [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for their discovery of these central molecules in the regulation of the cell cycle.
==Phases==
[[image:cell_cycle.png|frame|Schematic of the cell cycle. I=Interphase, M=Mitosis. The duration of mitosis in relation to the other phases has<br> been exaggerated in this diagram]]
The phases of the cell cycle are:
*The [[G0 phase|'''G<sub>0</sub> phase'''s]] is a period in the [[cell cycle]] where cells exist in a [[quiescence|quiescent]] state.
Interphase- usually 90% of the cycle and can divide into subphases:
**The [[G1 phase|'''G<sub>1</sub> phase''']] is the first growth phase.
**[[S phase|'''S phase''']], during which the [[DNA]] is [[DNA replication|replicated]], where S stands for the Synthesis of DNA.
**[[G2 phase|'''G<sub>2</sub> phase''']] is the second growth phase, also the preparation phase for the cell.
*[[M phase|'''M phase''']] or [[mitosis]] and [[cytokinesis]], the actual [[cell division|division]] of the cell into two daughter cells.
A surveillance system, so-called "[[cellular checkpoint|checkpoints]]", monitor the cell for DNA damage and failure to perform critical processes.
Checkpoints can block progression through the phases of the cell cycle if certain conditions are not met. For instance, there is a checkpoint which monitors [[DNA replication]] and keeps cells from proceeding to [[mitosis]] before DNA replication is completed. Similarly, the [[spindle checkpoint]] blocks the transition from [[metaphase]] to [[anaphase]] within [[mitosis]] if not all [[chromosomes]] are attached to the [[mitotic spindle]].
If this system senses a problem, a network of [[signal transduction|signaling molecule]]s instructs the cell to stop dividing. They can let the cell know whether to repair the damage or initiate [[programmed cell death]], a form of which is called [[apoptosis]]. Programmed cell death ensures that the damaged cell is not further propagated. For example, a certain protein, called [[p53]], acts to accept signals provoked by DNA damage. It responds by stimulating the production of inhibitory proteins that then halt the DNA replication process. Without proper p53 function, DNA damage can accumulate unchecked. A direct consequence is that the damaged gene progresses into a cancerous state. Today, defects in p53 are associated with a variety of [[cancer]]s, including some [[breast cancer|breast]] and [[colon cancer]]s.
Some c
|
([[Francis Ford Coppola]])
*[[Academy Award for Film Editing]] ([[Lisa Fruchtman]], [[Gerald B. Greenberg]], [[Richard Marks]] and [[Walter Murch]])
*[[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium]] ([[Francis Ford Coppola]] & [[John Milius]])
*[[Writers Guild of America|WGA Award for Best Drama Written Directly for the Screen]] ([[John Milius]] & [[Francis Ford Coppola]])
*[[Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media|Grammy Award for Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture]] ([[Carmine Coppola]] & [[Francis Ford Coppola]])
==Quotes==
* "You smell that? Do you smell that? ... Napalm, son. Nothing else in the world smells like that. I love the smell of napalm in the morning. You know, one time we had a hill bombed, for twelve hours. When it was all over I walked up. We didn't find one of 'em, not one stinkin' dink body. The smell, you know that gasoline smell, the whole hill. Smelled like ... victory. Someday this war's gonna end." - Lt. Col. Bill Kilgore
* "I watched a snail crawl along the edge of a straight razor. That's my dream. That's my nightmare. Crawling, slithering, along the edge of a straight razor, and surviving." - Col. Walter E. Kurtz (on tape)
* "We train young men to drop fire on people, but their commanders won't allow them to write <nowiki>'fuck'</nowiki> on their airplanes because ... it's obscene!" - Col. Walter E. Kurtz
* "They were gonna make me a major for this, and I wasn't even in their fuckin' army anymore." - Captain Willard
* "Charging a man with murder in this place was like handing out speeding tickets at the Indy 500" - Willard, when beginning his assigned mission
* "What are they going to say? That he was a kind man? That he was a wise man? That he had plans? Bullshit!" - The photojournalist to Willard, on how Kurtz will be remembered
* "Never get out of the boat!" - Chef
* "I wanted a mission, and for my sins they gave me one. Brought it up to me like room service. It was a real choice mission, and after it was done, I'd never want another." - Willard.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0078788|title=Apocalypse Now}}
*{{filmsite|id=apoc|title=Apocalypse Now}}
<!-- Robert Duvall -->
[[Category:1979 films]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee (film)]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Films based on short fiction]]
[[Category:Films directed by Francis Ford Coppola]]
[[Category:Palme d'Or winners]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry]]
[[Category:Vietnam War films]]
[[Category:Anti-Military Movies]]
[[da:Apocalypse Now]]
[[de:Apocalypse Now]]
[[es:Apocalypse Now]]
[[fr:Apocalypse Now]]
[[io:Apocalypse Now]]
[[it:Apocalypse Now]]
[[he:אפוקליפסה עכשיו]]
[[nl:Apocalypse Now]]
[[ja:地獄の黙示録]]
[[no:Apokalypse nå!]]
[[pl:Czas Apokalipsy]]
[[pt:Apocalypse Now]]
[[ru:Апокалипсис сегодня (фильм)]]
[[sk:Apokalypsa (film)]]
[[sv:Apocalypse]]
[[zh:现代启示录]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AlbaniaCommunications</title>
<id>807</id>
<revision>
<id>15899321</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:51:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Communications in Albania]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Albania]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfred Hitchcock</title>
<id>808</id>
<revision>
<id>42010697</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:03:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.5.197.100</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Hollywood */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name = Alfred Hitchcock
| image = Alfred Hitchcock.JPG
| caption = Alfred Hitchcock introduces the ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'' episode "The Sorcerer's Apprentice."
| birth_date = [[13 August]] [[1899]]
| birth_place = [[Leytonstone]], [[London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]
| death_date = [[29 April]] [[1980]]
| death_place = [[Bel-Air, Los Angeles, California|Bel Air]], [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]]
| occupation = [[film]] [[film director|director]] and [[film producer|producer]]
| spouse = [[Alma Reville]]
}}
'''Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock''' [[Order of the British Empire|KBE]] ([[13 August]] [[1899]]&ndash;[[29 April]] [[1980]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]]-born [[film]] [[film director|director]] and [[film producer|producer]], closely associated with the [[suspense]] [[thriller]] genre. He began directing in the [[United Kingdom]] before working mostly in the [[United States]] from 1939 onwards, taking out dual citizenship in 1956. He directed more than fifty feature films in a career spanning six decades, from the [[silent film]] era, through the invention of [[talkie]]s, to the [[color]] era. Hitchcock remains one of the best known and most popular directors of all time, famous for his expert and largely unrivaled control of pace and suspense throughout his movies.
Hitchcock's films draw heavily on both [[fear]] and [[fantasy]], and are known for their droll humour. They often portray innocent people caught up in circumstances beyond their control or understanding. This often involves a ''[[transference]] of guilt'' in which the "innocent" character's failings are transferred to another character and magnified. Another common theme is the exploration of the compatibility of men and women; Hitchcock's films often take a [[cynicism|cynical]] view of traditional romantic relationships.
Although Hitchcock was an enormous [[superstar|star]] during his lifetime, he was not usually ranked highly by contemporaneous [[film critic]]s. ''[[Rebecca (film)|Rebecca]]'' was the only one of his films to win the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]], although four others were nominated. Hitchcock never won the Academy Award for Best Director. He was awarded the [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]] for lifetime achievement in 1967, but never personally received an [[Academy Award|Academy Award of Merit]]. The [[French New Wave]] critics, especially [[Éric Rohmer]], [[Claude Chabrol]], and [[François Truffaut]], were among the first to promote his films as having [[artistic merit]] beyond entertainment. Hitchcock was one of the first directors to whom they applied their [[auteur theory]], which stresses the artistic authority of the director in the film-making process.
Through his fame, public persona, and degree of creative control, Hitchcock transformed the role of the director, which had previously been eclipsed by that of the producer. He is seen today as the quintessential director who managed to combine art and entertainment in a way very few have ever matched. His innovations and vision have influenced a great number of filmmakers, producers, and [[actor]]s.
==Biography==
<!--- The following is okay, with more biographical material, some trimming of minor films, and less of a "laundry-list" exposition --->
===Early life===
Alfred Hitchcock was born on [[August 13]], [[1899]], in [[Leytonstone]], [[London]], the second son and youngest of the three children of William Hitchcock, a greengrocer, and his wife, Emma Jane Hitchcock (nee Whelan). His family was mostly [[Irish Catholic]]. Hitchcock was sent to Catholic boarding schools in London. He has said his childhood was very lonely and sheltered.
At an early age, after acting childishly, Hitchcock claimed that his father sent him to the local police station carrying a note. When he presented the police officer on duty with the note, he was locked in a cell for a few moments, petrifying the young child. This was a favorite anecdote of his, one which is often suggested to be the cause for the theme of distrust of police which runs through many of his films.
At 14, Hitchcock lost his father and left the Jesuit-run [[St Ignatius' College]] in [[Stamford Hill]], his school at the time, to study at the School for Engineering and Navigation. After graduating, he became a [[technical drawing|draftsman]] and [[advertising]] designer with a cable company.
About that time, Hitchcock became intrigued by [[photography]] and started working in film in London. In 1920, he obtained a full-time job at Islington Studios under its American owners, [[Famous Players Film Company|Players]]-Lasky, and their British successors, [[Gainsborough Pictures]], designing the titles for silent movies.
===Pre-war British career===
As a major talent in a new industry with plenty of opportunity, he rose quickly. In 1925, [[Michael Balcon]] of Gainsborough Pictures gave him a chance to direct his first film, ''[[The Pleasure Garden (1925 film)|The Pleasure Garden]]'', made at the [[Universum Film AG|Ufa studios]] in Germany. However, the commercial failure of this film, and his second, ''[[The Mountain Eagle]]'', threatened to derail his promising career, until he attached himself to the thriller genre. The resulting film, ''[[The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog]]'', was released in [[1927 in film|1927]] and was a major commercial and critical success. Like many of his earlier works it was influenced by [[German Expressionism|Expressionist]] techniques he had witnessed first hand in Germany. In it, attractive blondes are strangled and the new lodger ([[Ivor Novello]]) in the Bunting family's upstairs apartment falls under heavy suspicion. This is the first truly "Hitchcockian" film, incorporating such themes as the "wrong man".
Following the success of ''The Lodger'', Hitchcock began his first efforts to promote himself in the media, and hired a publicist to cement his growing reputation as one
|
defendant then bears the [[burden of proof|burden of proving]] in court that his copying should nonetheless be excused as a fair use of the plaintiff's work.
Because of the defendant's burden of proof, some copyright owners frequently make claims of infringement even in circumstances where the fair use defense would likely succeed in hopes that the user will refrain from the use rather than spending resources in his defense. This type of frivolous lawsuit is part of a much larger problem in First Amendment law; see ''[[Strategic lawsuit against public participation]]''.
Because paying a royalty fee may be much less expensive than having a potential copyright suit threaten the publication of a completed work in which a publisher has invested significant resources, many authors may seek a license even for uses that copyright law ostensibly permits without liability.
==Fair use and parody==
Producers or creators of [[parody|parodies]] of a copyrighted work have been sued for infringement by the targets of their ridicule, even though such use may be protected as fair use. The fair use cases addressing parodies distinguish between parodies &mdash; using a work in order to poke fun or comment on the work itself &mdash; and satires &mdash; using a work to poke fun or comment on something else. Courts have been more willing to grant fair use protections to parodies than to satires, but the ultimate outcome in either circumstance will turn on the application of the four fair use factors.
In ''[[Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music]]'' ([[1994]]), the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] recognized parody as a fair use, even when done for profit. [[Roy Orbison]]'s publisher, [[Acuff-Rose Music Inc.]], had sued [[2 Live Crew]] in [[1989]] for their use of Orbison's "[[Oh, Pretty Woman]]" in a mocking rap version with altered lyrics. The Supreme Court viewed 2 Live Crew's version as a ridiculing commentary on the earlier work, and ruled that when the parody was itself the product rather than used for mere advertising, commercial sale did not bar the defense. The ''Campbell'' court also distinguished parodies from [[satire]], which they described as a broader social critique not intrinsically tied to ridicule of a specific work, and so not deserving of the same use exceptions as parody because the satirist's ideas are capable of expression without the use of the other particular work.
In a more recent parody case, ''[[Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin]]'', a suit was brought unsuccessfully against the publication of ''[[The Wind Done Gone]]'', which reused many of the characters and situations from ''[[Gone with the Wind]]'', but told the events from the point of view of the slaves rather than the slaveholders. The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit|Eleventh Circuit]], applying ''Campbell'', recognized that ''The Wind Done Gone'' was a protected parody, and vacated the [[U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Georgia|district court's]] injunction against its publication.
==Fair use on the Internet==
A recent court case, ''[[Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation]],'' provides and develops the relationship between [[thumbnail]]s, [[inline linking]] and fair use. In the lower District Court case on a motion for [[summary judgment]] Arriba Soft was found to have violated copyright without a fair use defense in the use of thumbnail pictures and inline linking from Kelly's website in Arriba's image [[search engine]]. That decision was appealed and contested by Internet rights activists such as the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]], who argued that it is clearly covered under fair use. On appeal, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals found that the thumbnails were fair use and remanded the case to the lower court for trial after issuing a revised opinion on [[July 7]], [[2003]]. The remaining issues were resolved with a default judgement after Arriba Soft had experienced significant financial problems and failed to reach a negotiated settlement.
==Common misunderstandings==
<!-- if you see any really draw-dropping misunderstandings, please add them here-->
Because of the deliberate ambiguity of fair use, it is commonly misunderstood. Here are some of the more common misunderstandings with explanations of why they are wrong:
*''It's copyrighted, so it can't be fair use''. Fair use describes conditions under which copyrighted material may be used without permission. If a work is not copyrighted, it's in the public domain and can legally be used without regard to fair use law.
*''Acknowledgement of the source makes a use fair''. Giving the name of the photographer or author may help, but it is not sufficient on its own. Note that [[plagiarism]] is a matter of professional ethics, not of copyright &mdash; copyright law protects exact expression, ''not'' ideas, and so while citing the source for an idea prevents plagiarism, it is not necessarily needed to avoid infringing copyright if exact words are not used. On the other hand, one can plagiarize a work that is not protected by copyright.
*''Noncommercial use is invariably fair''. Not true, though a judge may take the profit motive or lack thereof into account.
*''The lack of a copyright notice means the work is public domain''. Not ''always'' true. United States law in effect since [[March 1]], [[1989]] has made copyright the default for newly created works. For works produced between [[January 1]], [[1978]] and [[March 1]], [[1989]], copyright notice is required; however, registration was not required [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ1.html#pub]. Any American works that did not have formal registration or notice fell into the Public Domain if registration was not made in a timely fashion. For international works, the situation is even more complex. International authors who failed to provide copyright notice or register with the U.S. copyright office are given additional contemporary remedies which may restore American copyright protection given certain conditions. International authors/corporations who fail to meet these remedies forfeit their copyright. An example of a company who failed to prove copyright was [[Roland Corporation]] and their claimed copyright on the sounds contained in their [[MT-32]] synthesizer.
*''It's okay to quote up to 300 words''. The 300-word limit is reported to be an unofficial agreement, now long obsolete, among permissions editors in the New York publishing houses: 'I'll let you copy 300 words from our books if you let us copy 300 words from yours.' It runs counter to the substantiality standard. As explained above, the substantiality of the copying is more important than the actual amount. For instance, copying a complete short poem is more substantial than copying a random paragraph of a novel; copying an 8.5x11-inch photo is more substantial than copying a square foot of an 8x10-foot painting.
==Fair use and trademark law==
In the U.S., there is also a fair use defense in [[trademark]] law based on similar principles as the doctrine under copyright (such as free speech), but with different exceptions. Fair use is consistent with the more limited protection granted to trademarks, generally specific only to the particular product market and geographic area of the trademark owner.
Most trademarks are adopted from words or symbols already common to the culture (such as [[Apple Computer|Apple]]), instead of being invented by the mark owner (such as [[Kodak]]). Courts have recognized that ownership in the mark cannot prevent others from using the word or symbol in these other senses, such as if the trademark is a descriptive word or common symbol such as a pine tree. This means that the less distinctive or original the trademark, the less able the trademark owner will be to control how it is used.
A nonowner may also [[Nominative use|use a trademark ''nominatively'']]&mdash;to refer to the actual trademarked product or its source. In addition to protecting product criticism and analysis, U.S. law actually encourages nominative usage by competitors in the form of comparative advertising.
Both of these exceptions require that the mark not be used by the nonowner in a way that would be likely to confuse consumers about the source of their (or the trademark owner's) product. Generally this translates into the requirement, similar to that in fair use under copyright, that no more of the trademark is used than is necessary for the legitimate purpose. For instance, a word mark is preferred to a logo, and a word mark in the same style of type as surrounding text is preferred to a word mark in distinctive type.
==Comparison with other countries==
The United States and the [[Philippines]] are the only countries with a fair use doctrine. However, comparable copyright limitations can be found in many nations' copyright statutes, though these differ in scope. Most other [[common law]] countries have a related doctrine known as ''[[fair dealing]]'', which is defined in a constrained manner through an enumerated list of causes for exemption that allows little room for [[case law|judicial interpretation]]. [[Civil law (legal system)|Civil law]] countries have codified similarly specific and narrowly drawn exceptions. Fair use, however, tends to be an open-ended legal doctrine, as statutory factors are balanced by U.S. judges on a case-by-case basis rather than strictly applied.
==See also==
* [[Berne three-step test]]
* [[Fair dealing]]
* [[Digital rights management]]
==External links and sources==
* [http://copylaw.com/new_articles/fairuse.html Fair Use in a Nutshell: A Roadmap to Copyright's Most Important Exception] &ndash; By Lloyd J. Jassin; from CopyLaw.com
* [http://fairuse.stanford.edu/index.html Copyright and Fair Use] &ndash; From Stanford University Libraries
** [http://fairuse.stanford.edu/primary_materials/cases/ariba_soft.pdf Revised
|
[[European Commission]], the [[US Department of Justice]] and the [[Federal Communications Commission|US Federal Communications Commission]] and looked set to proceed. However on [[1 October]] [[1997]] [[Worldcom]] made a rival bid for MCI which was followed by a counter bid from [[GTE]]. MCI accepted the Worldcom bid and BT pulled out of its deal with a generous severance fee of $465 million. BT made even more money when it sold its stake in MCI to Worldcom in [[1998]] for £4,159 million on which it made an exceptional pre-tax profit of £1,133 million. It also avoided being mired in the later Worldcom scandal.
BT also bought from MCI its 24.9 per cent interest in Concert Communications making Concert a wholly owned part of BT.
BT then later had a dalliance with [[AT&T]] as a possible alternative global partner but nothing came of this.
More recently BT has acquired Italy's second largest operator, Albacom, providing BT with another major network outside the UK. In February 2005 the Infonet acquisition was a fact, giving BT entry into geographies it had no presence yet. At last it bought Radianz, which might use old technology, but also expandanded BT's coverage, provided BT with more buying power in certain countries and gave access to the financial markets.
===Yell Group and O2 demergers===
In June 2001 BT's directory business was demerged as [[Yell Group]].
A larger demerger followed in November of the same year, when the former mobile telecommunications business of BT, BT Cellnet, was hived off as a separate business named "[[O2 plc|mmO<sub>2</sub>]]". This included BT owned or operated networks in other countries, including BT Cellnet (UK), Esat Digifone (Ireland), and Viag Interkom (Germany). All networks now owned or operated by mmO<sub>2</sub> (except [[Manx Telecom]]) were renamed as O<sub>2</sub>.
This was a move designed to remove the burden of debt with which the company had encumbered itself, much of which was acquired during the bidding round for the [[3G|3rd generation mobile telephony]] (commonly known as [[3G]]) licenses. The de-merger was accomplished via a share-swap, all British Telecommunications plc shareholders received 1 mmO<sub>2</sub> plc and 1 BT Group plc (of which British Telecommunications is now a wholly owned subsidiary) share for each share they owned. British Telecommunications plc was de-listed on [[16 November]] 2001 and the two new companies started trading on [[19 November]]. mmO<sub>2</sub> plc was replaced by [[O2 plc|O<sub>2</sub> plc]] in a further share-swap in [[2005]].
=== BT as it is today ===
In April [[2003]], BT launched its new corporate identity. The "BT" logotype from 1991 was retained, but the piper was replaced by a "connected world". Esat BT retained the piper for nearly two years after it was dropped by its parent.
[[Oftel]]'s strategy for telecoms deregulation in the UK through the 1990s was to drive down BT's market share. It aimed to achieve this by restrictions on the size of its price increases and by forcing it to allow other telcos to gain access to the connection between the exchange and the customers premises.
This has been successful in the area of telephony resale through Independent Service Providers (ISPs) but has left BT as the dominant operator in [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]] connections and local loop provision.
In [[2003]] BT resumed its participation in the UK mobile market with the launch of BT Mobile. The company denies the move is a U-turn, describing the sell-off of mmO2 as the best move for shareholders and investors. BT wishes to reach younger consumers who use BT's fixed line services less than previous generations. BT Mobile is a reseller of mobile services supplied by the UK's mobile operators and no longer owns a mobile network.
BT has also re-entered the market for hardcopy telephone directories, an offering which it curiously classifies as 'New Wave'.
''Openreach'' was announced in September [[2005]] at the instigation of [[Ofcom]] to provide an open and equal service of provision and repair in the "last mile" of copper wire. This business was formed from 25,000 engineers previously employed by BTs Retail and Wholesale divisions. It is designed to ensure that other Independent telephone service providers (ISPs) have exactly the same operational conditions as parts of the BT group. It opened for business on 11 Jan [[2006]].
==== BT Broadband ====
BT Broadband is an [[Asymmetric_Digital_Subscriber_Line | ADSL]] ISP in the United Kingdom, operating under the BT Retail division of BT Group PLC. There are currently four different packages available based on usage guidelines.
BT Broadband uses the BT CentralPlus scheme, and so are unable to offer static IP addresses.
==Financial performance==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year ended
! Turnover (£m)
! Profit/(loss) before tax (£m)
! Net profit/(loss) (£m)
! Basic [[earnings per share|eps]] (p)
|-
| [[31 March]] [[2005]]
| 18,623
| 2,343
| 1,821
| 21.4
|-
| [[31 March]] [[2004]]
| 18,519
| 1,945
| 1,414
| 16.4
|-
| [[31 March]] [[2003]]
| 18,727
| 3,157
| 2,686
| 31.2
|-
| [[31 March]] [[2002]]
| 20,559
| 1,461
| 995
| 12.0
|-
| [[31 March]] [[2001]]
| 20,427
| (1,031)
| (1,810)
| (27.7)
|-
| [[31 March]] [[2000]]
| 18,715
| 2,942
| 2,055
| 31.7
|-
| [[31 March]] [[1999]]
| 16,953
| 4,295
| 2,983
| 46.3
|-
| [[31 March]] [[1998]]
| 15,640
| 3,219
| 1,706
| 26.7
|-
| [[31 March]] [[1997]]
| 14,935
| 3,203
| 2,077
| 32.8
|-
| [[31 March]] [[1996]]
| 14,446
| 3,019
| 1,986
| 31.6
|-
| [[31 March]] [[1995]]
| 13,893
| 2,662
| 1,731
| 27.8
|-
| [[31 March]] [[1994]]
| 13,675
| 2,756
| 1,767
| 28.5
|-
| [[31 March]] [[1993]]
| 13,242
| 1,972
| 1,220
| 19.8
|-
| [[31 March]] [[1992]]
| 13,337
| 3,073
| 2,044
| 33.2
|}
==Market Position & Power== [[Image:FTSE-350-DIA-Sept05.png|thumb|Market share data, Sept 2005]]
In 1984 the Telecommunications Act set the framework for a competitive market for telecoms services by abolishing BT's exclusive right to provide services. In the early 1990s the market was opened up and a number of new national Public Telecommunications Operators (PTOs) were given licences. This ended the duopoly that had existed in the 1980s when only BT and Mercury were licensed to provide fixed line telecom networks in the UK.
==Future==
BT's [[BT 21CN|21st Century Network (21CN)]] is a network transformation project which will see the UK's telephone network move from the present AXE/[[System X (telephony)|System X]] Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) to an [[Internet Protocol]] (IP) system.
BT envisages annual savings of £1 billion when the transition to the new network is complete (the majority of customers should be transferred by 2008). Capital expenditure is put at £10 billion over the next five years.
See also:
* [[Local loop unbundling]], [[System X (telephony)|System X]]
== BT's "Web patent" ==
In 2001 BT discovered it owned a [[patent]] ({{US patent|4873662}}) which it believed gave it patent rights on the use of [[hyperlink]] technology on the [[World Wide Web]]. The corresponding UK patent had already expired, but the US patent is valid until [[2006]].
Opponents of BT's claim held that the patent had never been valid, due to prior art by both [[Douglas Engelbart]] and [[Ted Nelson]]'s [[Project Xanadu]]. Nevertheless on [[February 11]], [[2002]], BT began a court case relating to its claims in a US federal court against the [[Internet service provider]] [[Prodigy (ISP)|Prodigy Communications Corporation]]. The U.S. court ruled on [[August 22]], [[2002]] that the BT patent was not applicable to Web technology, and granted Prodigy's request for summary judgement. [http://www.nswscl.org.au/journal/51/Glen_Sauer.html See BT&#8217;s &#8220;Hyperlinking&#8221; Patent Litigation Fails] The issue of prior art was thus not addressed.
== See also ==
* [[BT Ireland]]
* [[Telecomsoft]]
* [[Prestel]]
* [[O2 plc]]
* [[BT Archives]]
==External links==
* [http://www.groupbt.com/ BT Group Home page]
** [http://www.bt.com/ BT Home page]
*** [http://www.bt.com/at_home.jsp BT At home]
*** [http://www.bt.com/broadband/bb_info.jsp?showsub=internet_at_home&showsub3=I@H_Broadband&obsType=LINK&obsOID=80830&vStore=1120&obsPage=/athome/at_home_2level.jsp&obsNoSee=Y BT Broadband]
*** [http://www.bt.com/in_business.jsp BT Business]
*** [http://www.businessshop.bt.com BT Business Store]
*** [http://www.bt.com/cs BT Convergent Solutions]
*** [http://www.bt.com/mobile BT Mobile]
*** [http://www.bt.com/btfusion BT Fusion]
*** [http://www.bt.com/broadband BT Wholesale Broadband]
*** [http://www.bt.com/shop BT Shop]
*** [http://www.btplc.com/Thegroup/BTsHistory/BTgrouparchives/index.htm Archive for BT and its predecessors]
** [http://www.openreach.co.uk/ Openreach home page]
===Data===
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/41/41763.html Yahoo! - BT Group plc Company Profile]
===Other===
* [http://www.btplc.com/Thegroup/BTsHistory/Eventsintelecommunicationshistory/Eventsintelecommunicationshistory.htm BT's 'Events in Telecommunications History' webpage]
* [http://www.connected-earth.com/Journeys/Prideofownership/TheForceofPublicOpinion/Thetelephonedilemma/NationalTelephoneCompany/NTC-NationalTelephoneCompany-1881.htm National Telephone Company history]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/sci/tech/newsid_798000/798475.stm BBC news story on BT's claimed 'web patent']
* [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=%274873662%27.WKU.&OS=PN/4873662&RS=PN/4873662 BT's patent text at USPTO]
* [http://www.nysd.uscourts.gov/courtweb/pdf/D02NYSC/02-07733.PDF Patent case court judgement against BT]
* [http://www.zyra.org.uk/phone.htm A few things you should know abo
|
however the injectors were mounted directly in the top of the combustion chamber rather than in a separate pre-combustion chamber. Examples are vehicles such as the Ford Transit and the Austin Rover Maestro and Montego with their Perkins Prima engine. The problem with these vehicles was the harsh noise that they made and particulate (smoke) emissions. This is the reason that in the main this type of engine was limited to commercial vehicles (the notable exceptions being the Maestro, Montego and Fiat Croma passenger cars). Fuel consumption was about 15% to 20% lower than indirect injection diesels which for some buyers was enough to compensate for the extra noise.
This type of engine was transformed by electronic control of the injection pump, pioneered by Volkswagen Audi group with the Audi 100 TDI introduced in 1989. The injection pressure was still only around 300 bar, but the injection timing, fuel quantity, exhaust gas recirculation and turbo boost were all electronically controlled. This gave much more precise control of these parameters which made refinement much more acceptable and emissions acceptably low. Fairly quickly the technology trickled down to more mass market vehicles such as the Mark 3 Golf TDI where it proved to be very popular. These cars were both more economical and more powerful than indirect injection competitors of their day.
====Common rail direct injection====
{{main|Common rail}}
In older diesel engines, a distributor-type injection pump, regulated by the engine, supplies bursts of fuel to injectors which are simply nozzles through which the diesel is sprayed into the engine's combustion chamber.
In common rail systems, the distributor injection pump is eliminated. Instead an extremely high pressure pump stores a reservoir of fuel at high pressure - up to 1,800 bar (180[[megapascal|MPa]]) - in a "common rail", basically a tube which in turn branches off to computer-controlled injector valves, each of which contains a precision-machined nozzle and a plunger driven by a [[solenoid]].
Most European automakers have common rail diesels in their model lineups, even for commercial vehicles. Some Japanese manufacturers, such as Toyota, Nissan and recently Honda, have also developed common rail diesel engines.
Different car makers refer to their common rail engines by different names, e.g. DaimlerChrysler's CDI, Ford Motor Company's TDCi (most of these engines are manufactured by PSA), Fiat Group's (Fiat, Alfa Romeo and Lancia) JTD, Renault's DCi, GM/Opel's CDTi (most of these engines are manufactured by Fiat, other by Isuzu), Hyundai's CRDI, Mitsubishi's D-ID, PSA Peugeot Citroen's HDI, Toyota's D-4D, Volkswagen's TDi, and so on.
====Unit direct injection====
This also injects fuel directly into the cylinder of the engine. However, in this system the injector and the pump are combined into one unit positioned over each cylinder. Each cylinder thus has its own pump, feeding its own injector, which prevents pressure fluctuations and allows more consistent injection to be achieved. This type of injection system, also developed by Bosch, is used by Volkswagen AG in cars (where it is called Pumpe Düse - literally "pump nozzle"), and most major diesel engine manufacturers, in large commercial engines (Cat, Cummins, Detroit Diesel). With recent advancements, the pump pressure has been raised to 2,050 bar (205 [[megapascal|MPa]]), allowing injection parameters similar to common rail systems.
==Types of diesel engines==
There are two classes of diesel engines: two-stroke and four-stroke.
Most diesels generally use the [[four-stroke cycle]], with some larger diesels operating on the [[two-stroke cycle]].
Normally, banks of [[cylinder (engine)|cylinder]]s are used in multiples of two, although any number of cylinders can be used as long as the load on the crankshaft is counterbalanced to prevent excessive [[vibration]]. The [[inline-6]] is the most prolific in medium- to heavy-duty engines, though the [[V8]] and [[straight-4]] are also common.
As a footnote, Pre 1949, Sulzer experimented with 2 stroke engine with boost pressures as high as 6 atmospheres where all of the output power was taken from an exhaust turbine. The 2 stroke pistons directly drove air compressor pistons to make a positive displacement gas generator. Opposed pistons were connected by linkages instead of crankshafts. Several of these units could be connected together to provide power gas to one large output turbine. The overall thermal efficiency was roughly twice that of a simple gas turbine. (Source 'Modern High-Speed Oil Engines Volume II' by C.W.Chapman published by 'The Caxton publishing co. ltd.' reprinted in July 1949)
==Advantages and disadvantages versus spark-ignition engines==
Diesel engines are more efficient than gasoline (petrol) engines of the same power, resulting in lower fuel consumption. A common margin is 40% more miles per gallon for an efficient turbodiesel; for example, the current model [[Skoda Octavia]], using [[Volkswagen]] engines, has a combined Euro mpg of 38.2mpg for the 102bhp petrol engine and 53.3mpg for the 105bhp — and heavier — diesel engine. The higher compression ratio is helpful in raising efficiency, but [[diesel fuel]] contains approximately 30% more energy per unit volume than [[gasoline]], and this is the crucial factor.
Naturally aspirated diesel engines are more massive than [[gasoline engine]]s of the same power for two reasons; the first is that it takes a larger capacity diesel engine than a gasoline engine to produce the same power. This is essentially because the diesel cannot operate as quickly — the "rev limit" is lower — because getting the fuel-air mixture into a diesel engine is more difficult than a gasoline engine [http://www.perkins.com/perkins/cda/articleDisplay/1,4094,7___32_____7_10020408,00.html]. The second reason is that a diesel engine must be stronger to withstand the higher combustion pressures needed for ignition.
Yet it is this same build quality that has allowed some enthusiasts to acquire significant power increases with [[turbocharger|turbocharged]] engines through fairly simple and inexpensive modifications. A gasoline engine of similar size cannot put out a comparable power increase without extensive alterations because the stock components would not be able to withstand the higher stresses placed upon them. Since a diesel engine is already built to withstand higher levels of stress, it makes an ideal candidate for [[Engine tuning|performance tuning]] with little expense. However it should be said that any modification that raises the amount of fuel and air put through a diesel engine will increase its operating temperature which will reduce its life and service interval requirements. These things are issues with newer, lighter, "high performance" diesel engines which aren't "overbuilt" to the degree of older engines and are being pushed to provide greater power in smaller engines.
The addition of a turbocharger or [[supercharger]] to the engine (see [[turbodiesel]]) greatly assists in increasing [[fuel economy]] and power output. Boost pressures can be higher on diesels than gasoline engines, and the higher [[compression ratio]] allows a diesel engine to be more efficient than a comparable spark ignition engine. Although the [[Heat of combustion|calorific value]] of the fuel is slightly lower at 45.3MJ/kg (mega[[joule]]s per [[kilogram]]) to gasoline at 45.8MJ/kg, diesel fuel is much heavier and fuel is sold by volume, so diesel contains more energy per litre or gallon.
The increased fuel economy of the diesel over the petrol engine means that the diesel produces less [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) per unit distance. Recently, advances in production and changes in the political climate have increased the availability and awareness of [[biodiesel]], an alternative to petroleum-derived diesel fuel with a much lower net-sum emission of CO<sub>2</sub>, due to the absorption of CO<sub>2</sub> by plants used to produce the fuel.
Diesel engines produce very little carbon monoxide as they burn the fuel in excess air except at full load, at which point a full [[Stochiometry | stochiometric]] quantity of fuel is injected per cycle. However, they can produce black soot from their exhaust, consisting of unburned carbon compounds. This is often caused by worn injectors, which do not atomize the fuel sufficiently, or a faulty engine management system which allows more fuel to be injected than can be burned with the available air. Particles of the size normally called PM10 (particles of 10 micrometres or smaller) have been implicated in health problems, especially in cities. Modern diesel engines catch the soot in a [[particle filter (automotive)|particle filter]], which when saturated is automatically regenerated by burning the particles. Other problems associated with the exhaust gases (nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides) can be mitigated with further investment and equipment; some diesel cars now have catalytic converters in the exhaust.
The lack of an electrical [[ignition]] system greatly improves the reliability. The high durability of a diesel engine is also due to its overbuilt nature (see above) as well as the diesel's combustion cycle, which creates less-violent changes in pressure when compared to a spark-ignition engine, a benefit that is magnified by the lower rotating speeds in diesels. Diesel fuel is a better lubricant than gasoline so is less harmful to the oil film on [[piston ring]]s and [[cylinder]] bores; it is routine for diesel engines to cover 250,000 miles or more without a rebuild.
Unfortunately, due to the greater compression force required and the increased weight of the stronger components, starting a diesel engine is a harder task. More [[torque]] is required to push the engine through compression.
Either an
|
ning of the [[Mesolithic]] age in most of Europe; but in regions such as the [[Middle East]] and [[Anatolia]] with a very early [[neolithisation]], [[Epipaleolithic]] is preferred in place of Mesolithic. Cultures in this period include: [[Hamburgian]], [[Federmesser]], and the [[Natufian culture]].
Both are followed by the aceramic Neolithic ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] and [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]]) and the pottery [[Neolithic]].
==Further reading==
*Neil Roberts ''The Holocene: an environmental history'' (Blackwell Publishing)
==See also==
* [[Holocene extinction event]]
* [[Holocene calendar]]
* [[Geologic timescale]]
* [[Centuries]]
* [[10th millennium BC]]
* [[The Great Story]]
[[Category:Holocene| ]]
[[ast:Holocenu]]
[[ca:Holocè]]
[[da:Holocæn]]
[[de:Holozän]]
[[et:Holotseen]]
[[es:Holoceno]]
[[fr:Holocène]]
[[ko:홀로세]]
[[it:Olocene]]
[[he:הולוקן]]
[[lb:Holozän]]
[[nl:Holoceen]]
[[ja:完新世]]
[[pl:Holocen]]
[[pt:Holoceno]]
[[ru:Голоцен]]
[[sv:Holocen]]
[[zh:全新世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homosexual</title>
<id>13472</id>
<revision>
<id>15911079</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-22T22:29:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BanyanTree</username>
<id>137674</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv to last edit by Montrealais, please see the talk page for why this is a redirect to [[Homosexuality]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Homosexuality]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heterosexual</title>
<id>13473</id>
<revision>
<id>15911080</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heterosexuality]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harbor</title>
<id>13475</id>
<revision>
<id>41897904</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:28:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.198.194.122</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Largest harbors */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><div class="messagebox merge"><!--PNG images containing transparencies do not display properly for some users. Please consider this fact before replacing the already tiny GIF file.-->[[Image:Mergefrom.gif|left]] It has been suggested that ''[[:{{NAMESPACE}}:Natural harbor|Natural harbor]]'' be [[Wikipedia:Merging and moving pages|merged]] into this article or section. ([[:{{NAMESPACE}} talk:{{PAGENAME}}|Discuss]])</div>[[Category:Articles to be merged|{{PAGENAME}}]]
:''See also the '''[[Harbour compiler]]''', a compiler for the [[Clipper programming language]].''
{| align=right
|[[Image:Fishguard_Cwm_Harbour_macccam.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low tide in Cwm Harbour, [[Fishguard]], [[Pembrokeshire]], [[Wales]]]]
|-
|[[Image:harbour.clovelly.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The tiny harbour at the village of [[Clovelly]], [[Devon]], [[England]]]]
|}
A '''harbor''' ([[American English|AmE]]), '''harbour''' ([[Commonwealth English|CwE]]) or '''haven''' is a place where ships may shelter from the [[weather]] or are stored. Harbors can be man-made or natural. A man-made harbor will have sea walls or [[Breakwater (Coast)|breakwaters]] and may require [[dredging]]. A '''[[natural harbor]]''' is surrounded on most sides by land.
Harbors and [[port]]s are often confused. A port is a man-made [[coast]]al or riverine facility where [[boat]]s and [[ship]]s can load and unload. It may consist of [[quay]]s, [[wharf]]s, [[jetty|jetties]], [[pier]]s and [[slipway]]s with [[crane (machine)|crane]]s or ramps. A port may have magazine buildings or warehouses for storage of goods and a [[transport]] system, such as [[railway]], [[road transport]] or [[pipeline transport]] facilities for relaying goods inland.
During the [[D-Day]] operations of [[1944]], two artificial harbors (codenamed [[Mulberry Harbour|Mulberry]]) were built just off the invasion [[beach]]es.
Natural harbors have long been of great strategic and economic importance. Many of the great cities of the world are located on a natural harbor.
==Ice-free harbors==
For harbors near the [[geographical pole|pole]]s, being [[ice]]-free is an important advantage, ideally all-year round. Examples are [[Murmansk]] (Russia), [[Petsamo]] (Russia, formerly Finland), [[Hammerfest]], [[Vardø]], and [[Prince Rupert Harbour|Prince Rupert]] or [[Halifax Harbour|Halifax]] ([[Canada]]).
==Largest harbors==
The following places are large natural harbours:
* [[San Francisco Bay]] in the [[United States]]
* [[Mumbai]] in [[India]]
* [[Boston]] in the [[United States]]
* [[Port Jackson|Sydney Harbour]] in [[Australia]]
* [[Rio de Janeiro]], Guanabara Bay, in [[Brazil]]
* Bahia de Todos os Santos, [[Salvador]], in [[Brazil]]
* [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] in [[Canada]]
* [[Poole]] in the [[United Kingdom]]
* [[Cork]] in the [[Republic of Ireland]]
* [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]] in the United Kingdom
* [[Freetown|Freetown Harbour]] in [[Sierra Leone]]
* [[Pearl Harbor]], west of [[Honolulu]], [[Hawaii]]
Artificial harbors are frequently built for use as ports. The largest artificially created harbor is located in [[Rotterdam]], [[The Netherlands]].
Other famous harbors include:
*[[Hampton Roads]] in [[Virginia]], [[United States]]
*[[Keppel Harbour]] in [[Singapore]]
*[[Upper New York Bay]] in [[New York Harbor]], [[United States]]
*[[Victoria Harbour]] in [[Hong Kong]], [[People's Republic of China]]
== See also ==
* [[Dock (maritime)|Dock]]
* [[dockyard|Dockyard]]
* [[marina|Marina]], [[List of Marinas]]
* [[quay|Quay]]
* [[seaport|Seaport]], [[List of seaports]]
* [[wharf|Wharf]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours| Harbours]]
[[Category:Coastal construction]]
[[br:Porzh (evit listri)]]
[[cs:Přístav]]
[[da:Havn]]
[[de:Hafen]]
[[fa:لنگرگاه]]
[[fr:Port (marine)]]
[[nl:Haven]]
[[nds:Haven]]
[[no:Havn]]
[[ru:Порт]]
[[simple:Harbor]]
[[sv:Hamn]]
[[ta:துறைமுகம்]]
[[tr:Liman]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homophobia</title>
<id>13476</id>
<revision>
<id>42055664</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:22:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GilliamJF</username>
<id>506179</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''homophobia''''' means a "fear of or contempt for homosexuality or homosexuals" or the fear of becoming homosexual. It is derivable from the words [[homosexuality|homosexual]] and [[phobia|Φοβος]] (meaning "fear" or "panic" in [[Greek language|Greek]]). The term itself is, however, often broadened to encompass other feelings such as aversion to, disagreement with, disapprobation of, disparagement of, or discrimination against [[homosexual]] people, their lifestyle, their sexual behavior, or culture {{ref|dictionary}} and is generally used to assert [[bigotry]]. Frequently, moral or ideological condemnation is also described as "homophobia".
==Etymology==
According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], the word ''homophobia'' in the meaning "fear or hatred of homosexuals and homosexuality" was first used in print in [[Time Magazine]] in 1969. It was coined by clinical psychologist [[George Weinberg]], who claims to have first thought of it while speaking at a [[homosexuality|homophile]] group in 1965 {{ref|weinberg}} and popularized by his book ''Society and the Healthy Homosexual'' in 1971. It combines the Greek terms ''phobos'', meaning "fear" or "panic", and ''homos'', which means "the same". The "homo" in homophobia comes from the word [[homosexuality|homosexual]], not to be confused with the [[Latin]] ''homo'', meaning man (as in [[homo sapiens]]).
A possible (and etymologically more precise) precursor was ''homoerotophobia'', coined by Dr [[Wainwright Churchill]] in ''Homosexual Behavior Among Males'' in 1967.
==Dual associations and usage controversy==
Most people who discuss prejudice against [[LGBT]] people use the term "homophobia" as a parallel to [[racism]] or [[sexism]] (which refers to gender prejudice). [[Heterosexism]] and [[sexualism]] have been proposed as alternatives which are more [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] parallel, and which do not have the association with phobia. The term "homosexualism" is a rarely-used synonym of [[homosexuality]]. [[Queer Theory]] and [[critical theory]] use the terms [[heterocentric]] and [[heteronormativity]] to refer to similar [[ontological]] assumptions. [[Heterosexualism]] is an ambiguous term which is used either as a synomym for [[heterosexuality]] or [[heterosexism]] (prejudice against homosexuals).
Homophobia as a clinically diagnosed medical condition is quite uncommon, especially compared to the prevalence of political, personal, or moral disapproval of homosexuality in general. Clinical homophobia is not listed in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]. As behaviors and thoughts that are frequently considered homophobic are often not fear based but instead reflect a disapproval of homosexuality, recent psychological literature has favored the term ''homonegativity.''
For more information on medically diagnosed phobia, see [[phobia]]. For something that might be described as "medical homophobia", see [[homosexual panic]].
Just as some people use the term "homophobia" to stress the association between prejudice and a fear or medical disorder, others criticize it as being an unnecessarily or even maliciously [[loaded term|loaded]] with those associations, and may avoid using it as a result.
There is also considerable debate over the term's usage as a label for opponents of certain categories of social policy, with the debate centering upon the question of wheth
|
amp>
<contributor>
<username>Daibhid C</username>
<id>47619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Public holidays */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" align="right" width="325" style="margin-left:0.5em;"
|align="center" colspan="2" | '''Ankh-Morpork'''<br />(Modern Morporkian)<br />
'''Ankhius et Morporkia'''<br /> ([[Minor Discworld concepts#Latatian|Latatian]], the Old Language)<br />
|-
|align="center" colspan="2" |
[[Image:Discworld-ankh-morpork-amoswolfe.png|300px|center|Coat of arms of Ankh-Morpork]]
[[Coat of arms]]: A shield, quartered by a river (the [[Ankh (river)|Ankh]]) and tower (the Tower of Art). The quarters bear two moneybags, a field of [[cabbage]]s and the unmarked black field of the [[Havelock Vetinari|Vetinaris]]. <br /> The shield is supported by two hippopotami and crested with a [[morepork|morpork]] holding an [[ankh]].
|-
|align="center" colspan="2" | [[motto]]s: ''Quanti canicula ille in fenestra''<br /> (Latatian: How much is that small dog in the window)<br />
''Merus in pectum et in aquam''<br />(Latatian: Pure in heart and water)
|-
|Official [[language]] || Morporkian is [[de facto]]
|-
|Patrician || Lord [[Havelock Vetinari]]
|-
|[[Area]] || Approx 50 mile&sup2; (130 km&sup2; including surrounding fiefdom
|-
|[[Population]] || Approx. 1,000,000 (including surrounding fiefdom)
|-
|Establishment || Founded 2564 years before AM dating <br /> Modern city-state established 4th Grune 1688 AM
|-
|[[Currency]] || Ankh-Morpork Dollar
|-
|[[National anthem]] || ''[[We can rule you wholesale|We Can Rule You Wholesale]]''
|}
'''Ankh-Morpork''' is a [[fiction]]al [[city-state]] which features in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Discworld]]'' series of fantasy novels. As cities go, it is on the far side of corrupt and polluted, and is subject to outbreaks of comedic violence and brou-ha-ha on a fairly regular basis. It is home to the [[Unseen University]], a centre of magical learning.
Ankh-Morpork is also the mercantile capital of the [[Discworld (world)|Discworld]], and the books give an excellent flavour of a "working" quasi-medieval city. Even when it is under attack from a [[European dragon|dragon]], the vegetable carts still have to come in.
In ''[[The Art of Discworld]]'' Pratchett explains that the city is similar to [[Tallinn]] and central [[Prague]], but adds that it has elements of 18th century [[London]], 19th century [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] and modern [[New York, New York|New York]]. He also states that since the creation of ''The Streets of Ankh-Morpork'', he has tried to ensure that the descriptions of character movements and locations in the books match the Ankh-Morpork map; this has allowed him, and fans of the series, to visualise the story more clearly. Ankh-Morpork is also referred to as "The Big Oyster", or "The Big Wahooni" on occasions, further increasing the bond with "The Big Apple", New York.
==Geography==
Ankh-Morpork lies on the River Ankh (the most polluted waterway on the Discworld), where the fertile loam of the [[Sto Plains]] (similar to [[Western Europe]]) meets the [[Circle Sea]] (the Discworld's version of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]). This, naturally, puts it in an excellent trading position.
Lying approximately equidistant from the cold Hub and tropical Rim, Ankh-Morpork is in the Discworld's equivalent of the [[temperate]] zone.
The name "Ankh-Morpork" refers to both the city itself, a [[defensive wall|walled city]] about a mile (1.6 km) across, and the surrounding suburbs and farms of its [[fiefdom]].
The central city divides more or less into Ankh (the posh part) and Morpork (the humble part, which includes the slum area known as "the Shades"), which are separated by the River Ankh.
Ankh-Morpork is built on black loam, broadly, but mostly what it is built on is more Ankh-Morpork. Because of the nature of the Ankh-Morpork citizenry and the flooding of the River Ankh, they figured it was simply easier to build on top of the existing buildings when the sediment grew too high, rather than excavate them out. This has resulted in two things: Firstly, many people own basements and have no idea they do. Secondly, there is a "cave network" below Ankh-Morpork made up of old streets and abandoned sewers &ndash; these "unknown basements" allow people to get around relatively unimpeded. The city's [[dwarf]] population have extended this into a complex network of tunnels, which has recently been made municipal property.
===The River Ankh===
Even before it enters Ankh-Morpork, the River Ankh is full of [[silt]] from the plains; by the time it gets to the seaward side of the city, "even an [[agnostic]] could walk across it".
The citizens of the city are strangely proud of this fact, even going so far as to say that "it is easier to suffocate than drown in the Ankh." They also claim it to be the purest water on the Disc, as "Anything that's passed through so many kidneys has to be very pure indeed." Owing to the build-up of centuries, the bed of the river is higher than some parts of the city. When winter snows swell the flow, the low-rent areas of Morpork flood. In spring some parts catch fire, and others sprout small trees.
In the times when the city catches fire, the river gates are closed, and the river rises and smothers the flames.
In both ''[[Men At Arms]]'' and the computer game ''[[Discworld Noir]]'', the Ankh is described as "the only river in the world on which you could draw a chalk outline".
==History==
According to legend, the first city of Ankh-Morpork was founded thousands of years ago by twin brothers who were raised by a [[hippopotamus]] (an allusion to the myth of [[Romulus and Remus]]). It is in memory of this that the hippo is the royal animal of Ankh. The original city was little more than a walled keep, surrounding the Tower of Art, a building of mysterious origin.
At one point it had an empire, similar to the [[Roman Empire]], that covered half the continent including the neighbouring country of [[Klatch]]. These were the days of the "Pax Morporkia," another reference to Rome and their [[Pax Romana]].
The empire was largely the creation of General [[Minor Discworld characters#General Tacticus|Tacticus]] (an obvious pun or [[word play|play on word]]s), the greatest military mind in history. Tacticus refused to accept that the Empire was growing too big to control, and was finally shipped off to be king of [[Genua]]. As king he decided that the greatest threat to Genua was the Empire, and [[Declaration of war|declared war]] on it.
This was a [[Golden Age]], ruled by the Kings of Ankh, who are recalled in legend as wise, noble and fair. The line died out approximately 2000 years before the present, giving way to real kings who were realistically corrupt and peverse and ultimately leading to the collapse of the empire.
Shortly before this, however, the mage [[Albert (Discworld)|Alberto Malich]] had founded Unseen University in the Tower of Art, and Ankh-Morpork continued as a service town for the wizards.
Royalty became extremely debased and the later kings of Ankh-Morpork are recalled in history as power-mad and corrupt, or just mad; some are mentioned by name in ''[[Men at Arms]]'':
*Queen Alguinna IV
*King Artorollo (a contemporary of Alberto Malich)
*King Cirone IV
*Queen Coanna
*King Loyala the Aaargh (Had a 1.13 second rule from coronation to assassination) - ''[[The Discworld Companion]]''
*King Ludwig the Tree (Known to issue royal proclamations on the need to develop a new type of frog and similar important matters, and also responsible for the city motto "Quanti Canicula Ille In Fenestra")- ''[[The Discworld Companion]]''
*King Paragore
*King Tyrril (ruled circa AM 907)
*King Veltrick III
*Webblethorpe the Unconscious
The last and worst - the euphemistically-remembered Lorenzo the Kind (the full extent of whose infamy is not revealed, save that he was said to be "very fond of children" and had in his dungeons "machines for . . .") - was overthrown in the Ankh-Morpork Civil War of 1688 (dating from the founding of UU). The question of what to do with the deposed king (no judge would try him) was settled when he was executed by the then Commander of the City Watch, Suffer-Not-Injustice [[Samuel Vimes|Vimes]]. Known as "Old Stoneface," his regicide resulted in his being banned from bearing arms (These events parallel the [[English Civil War]] of the [[1640s]], and the execution of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] by [[Oliver Cromwell]]). Afterwards "Old Stoneface" (an ancestor of the current City Watch Commander [[Samuel Vimes]]) and his Ironheads ( a play on "[[Roundheads]]") attempted to introduce [[democracy]], but the people voted against it. After "Old Stoneface" himself was overthrown, Ankh-Morpork reverted to a non-hereditary [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] system, where the leaders are still ruthless tyrants, but don't have the audacity to invoke divine right. It is, however, rumoured that the royal blood line continued and that the true king, Ironfoundersson, walks the streets of the city on a nightly basis. The [[Havelock Vetinari|Patrician]] rules the city, and operates a specialised form of "One Man, One Vote" democracy: the Patrician is the Man, and he has the Vote.
Under the Patricians the city has become the mercantile and [[political capital]] of the Discworld, so much so that the Sto Plains operates under a new Pax Morporkia, which operates not on the principle of "If you fight, we will kill you," but on the
|
CD''') is the [[currency]] of eight members of the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]]. It has existed since [[1965]] and is normally abbreviated with the [[dollar sign]] '''$''', or alternatively '''EC$''' to distinguish it from other [[dollar]]-denominated currencies. It is divided into 100 [[cent (currency)|cent]]s.
The East Caribbean dollar is [[Fixed exchange rate|pegged]] to the [[US dollar]] at USD 1= XCD 2.7000 since [[1976]].
Six of the members using the XCD are independent states: [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Dominica]], [[Grenada]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], and [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]. The other two are [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Overseas territory|overseas territories]]: [[Anguilla]] and [[Montserrat]]. The only OECS member state not using the Eastern Caribbean dollar is [[British Virgin Islands]].
The Eastern Caribbean dollar is issued by the [[Eastern Caribbean Central Bank]] based in Saint Kitts and Nevis. The bank was established by an agreement (the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank Agreement) signed at [[Port of Spain]] on [[July 5]] [[1983]], as successor to the Eastern Caribbean Currency Authority. The currency is a successor to the [[West Indies dollar]] used by the extinct [[West Indies Federation]].
[[Coin]]s in circulation
*1 cent
*2 cent
*5 cent
*10 cent
*25 cent
*1 dollar
[[Banknote]]s in circulation
*5 dollars
*10 dollars
*20 dollars
*50 dollars
*100 dollars
==Current XCD exchange rates==
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=AUD&to=XCD&submit=Convert AUD] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=CAD&to=XCD&submit=Convert CAD] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=EUR&to=XCD&submit=Convert EUR] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=GBP&to=XCD&submit=Convert GBP] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=INR&to=XCD&submit=Convert INR] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=NZD&to=XCD&submit=Convert NZD] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=USD&to=XCD&submit=Convert USD]
==See also==
* [[Currency Union]]
==External links==
* [http://www.eccb-centralbank.org Eastern Caribbean Central Bank]
* [http://www.eccb-centralbank.org/Currency/security-feat.asp Banknotes]
* [http://www.eccb-centralbank.org/Currency/cur_newcoins.asp Coins]
{{AmericanCurrencies}}
[[Category:Monetary unions]]
[[ca:Dòlar del Carib Oriental]]
[[de:Ostkaribischer Dollar]]
[[es:Dólar Caribe-Este]]
[[fr:Dollar de la Caraïbe orientale]]
[[he:דולר מזרח קריבי]]
[[it:Dollaro dei Caraibi Orientali]]
[[ja:東カリブ・ドル]]
[[lt:Rytų Karibų doleris]]
[[nl:Oost-Caribische dollar]]
[[pl:Dolar wschodniokaraibski]]
[[sv:Östkaribisk dollar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erythromycin</title>
<id>10090</id>
<revision>
<id>41604750</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T13:14:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
<id>665998</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>opthalmic--->ophthalmic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Erythromycin''' is a [[macrolide]] [[antibiotic]] which has an antimicrobial spectrum similar to or slightly wider than that of [[penicillin]], and is often used for people who have an [[allergy]] to penicillins. For respiratory tract infections, it has better coverage of atypical organisms, including [[mycoplasma]]. It is also used to treat outbreaks of [[chlamydia]], [[syphilis]], and [[gonorrhea]]. Structurally, this macrocyclic compound contains a 14-membered [[lactone]] ring with ten asymmetric centers and two sugars (L-cladinose and D-desoamine), making it a compound very difficult to produce via synthetic methods.
Erythromycin is produced from a strain of the [[actinomyces]] ''[[Saccaropolyspora erythraea]]'', formerly known as ''Streptomyces erythraeus''.
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="250px" align="right" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff" align="center" colspan=2|[[Image:Erythromycin.png|center|200px|Chemical structure of erythromycin.]]<br /><small>Erythromycin A</small>
|-
|align="center" colspan=2 style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;"|<font size="-1">(3R*, 4S*, 5S*, 6R*, 7R*, 9R*, 11R*, 12R*, 13S*, 14R*)-4-((2,6-Dideoxy-3-C-methyl-3-O-methyl-a-L- ribo- hexopyranosyl) -oxy) -14- ethyl-7,12,13- trihydroxy - 3,5,7,9,11,13-hexa methyl-6- ((3,4,6-trideoxy-3-(dimethylamino)-b-D-xylo- hexopyranosyl)oxy)oxacyclotetradecane-2,10-dione</font>
|-
|bgcolor="#efefef"|[[Molecular mass | Molecular Weight]]
|bgcolor="#dfefff"|733.93
|-
|bgcolor="#efefef"|Empiric Formula
|bgcolor="#dfefff"|C<sub>37</sub>H<sub>67</sub>NO<sub>13</sub>
|-
|bgcolor="#efefef"|[[ATC code]]
|bgcolor="#dfefff"|J01FA01
|-
|bgcolor="#efefef"|Metabolism
|bgcolor="#dfefff"|Liver
|-
|bgcolor="#efefef"|[[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical) | Pregnancy category]]
|bgcolor="#dfefff"|B ([[United States|USA]]) <br /> A ([[Australia|Aus]])
|}
== History ==
Abelardo Aguilar, a Filipino scientist, sent some soil samples to his employer [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] in [[1949]]. Eli Lilly&#8217;s research team, led by J. M. McGuire, managed to isolate Erythromycin from the metabolic products of a strain of ''Streptomyces erythreus'' found in the samples. The product was subsequently launched in [[1952]] under the brand name '''Ilosone&reg;''' (after the [[Philippines|Philippine]] region of [[Iloilo]] where it was originally collected from). Erythromycin was formerly also called '''Ilotycin&reg;'''. In 1981, Nobel laurate (1965 in chemistry) and Professor of Chemistry at [[Harvard University]] ([[Cambridge, MA]]) [[Robert Burns Woodward|Robert B. Woodward]] and a large team of researchers reported the first stereocontrolled asymmetric chemical synthesis of Erythromycin A.
== Available forms ==
Erythromycin is available in enteric-coated tablets, oral suspensions, ophthalmic solutions, ointments, gels and injections.
== Mechanism of action ==
Erythromycin prevents [[bacterium|bacteria]] from growing, by interfering with their [[protein biosynthesis|protein synthesis]]. Erythromycin binds to the subunit 50S of the bacterial [[ribosome]], and thus inhibits the translation of [[peptide]]s.
== Pharmacokinetics ==
Erythromycin is easily inactivated by gastric acids, therefore all orally administered formulations are given as either enteric coated or as more stable salts or [[ester]]s. Erythromycin is very rapidly absorbed, and diffused into most tissues and [[phagocyte]]s. Due to the high concentration in phagocytes, erythromycin is actively transported to the site of infection, where during active phagocytosis, large concentrations of erythromycin are released.
== Metabolism ==
Most of erythromycin is metabolised by demethylation in the liver. Its main elimination route is in the bile, and a small portion in the urine. Erythromycin's half-life is 1.5 hours.
== Side-effects ==
Gastrointestinal intestinal disturbances such as [[diarrhea]], [[nausea]], [[abdominal pain]] and [[vomiting]] are fairly common so it tends not to be prescribed as a first-line drug. More serious side-effects, such as reversible [[deafness]] are rare. Allergic reactions, while uncommon, may occur, ranging from [[urticaria]] to [[anaphylaxis]]. [[Cholestatic]] [[jaundice]], [[Stevens-Johnson syndrome]] and [[toxic epidermal necrolysis]] are some other rare side effects that may occur.
Erythromycin has been shown to increase the probability of [[pyloric stenosis]] in children whose mothers took the drug during the late stages of pregnancy or while nursing.
== Contraindications ==
Earlier case reports on sudden death prompted a study on a large cohort that confirmed a link between erythromycin, [[ventricular tachycardia]] and sudden cardiac death in patients also taking drugs that prolong the metabolism of erythromycin (like [[verapamil]] or [[diltiazem]]) by interfering with [[CYP3A4]] (Ray ''et al'' 2004). Hence, erythromycin should not be administered in patients using these drugs, or drugs that also prolong the QT time. Other examples include [[terfenadine]] (Seldane, Seldane-D), [[astemizole]] (Hismanal), [[cisapride]] (Propulsid, withdrawn in many countries for prolonging the QT time) and [[pimozide]] (Orap).
==References==
* Ray WA, Murray KT, Meredith S, Narasimhulu SS, Hall K, Stein CM. Oral Erythromycin and the Risk of Sudden Death from Cardiac Causes. [[N Engl J Med]] 2004;351:1089-96.
* British National Formulary "BNF 49" March 2005.
[[Category:Macrolide antibiotics]]
[[de:Erythromycin]]
[[fr:Érythromycine]]
[[no:Erythromycin]]
[[nn:Erythromycin]]
[[th:อิริโทรมัยซิน]]
[[tr:Eritromisin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Environmental law</title>
<id>10091</id>
<revision>
<id>41770462</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:57:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ctj</username>
<id>717240</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>preventative -> preventive, and not always called env. impact. ass'ments</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Environmental law''' is a body of [[law]], which is a system of complex and interlocking rules, regulations and policies which seeks to protect the [[natural environment]] which may be affected, impacted or even endangered by human activities. Most environmental laws regulate the quantity and nature of impacts of human activities: for example, setting allowable levels of [[pollution]]. Other environmental laws are preventive in nature and seek to asses
|
'am'' in many [[dialect]]s)
== Examples ==
{| border="0" style="padding:8px; border: solid silver 1px"
!E-Prime
!Standard English
|-
|colspan="2"|
----
|-
|| These short examples illustrate some of the ways to modify standard English writing to use E-Prime.
|| These are some short examples to illustrate some of the ways that standard English writing can be modified to use E-Prime.
|-
|colspan="2"|
----
|-
|| Roses seem red;<br />Violets seem blue.<br />Honey pleases me,<br />And so do you.
|| [[Roses are red]];<br />Violets are blue.<br />Honey is sweet,<br />And so are you.
|-
|colspan="2"|
----
|-
|| Alice began to tire of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister read, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, 'and what use does a book have,' thought Alice 'without pictures or conversation?'
:&mdash;modified from [[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]''
|| Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, 'and what is the use of a book,' thought Alice 'without pictures or conversation?'
:&mdash;[[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]''
|}
== Examples of Literal Translation vs. Translation "in the spirit" of E-Prime ==
In the original verse (''Roses are red/Violets are blue/Honey is sweet/And so are you'') the speaker expresses a belief in absolutes: "just as it is true that roses are red and honey is sweet, it is true that you are as sweet as honey". But E-Prime seeks to avoid this type of thinking and writing.
''First Example of Literal Translation''
An E-Prime translation attempting to preserve the literal meaning of the original might read:
Roses look red;<br />Violets look blue.<br />Honey pleases me,<br />And so do you.
''Second Example of Literal Translation''
The following example sacrifices the metaphor implied in line 4 of the original ("You are honey-sweet") to preserve one literal meaning of line 3, namely that honey ''tastes'' sweet, and therefore replaces line 4 with simile meaning something close to the original: "honey tastes sweet, and something of your nature makes you ''as'' sweet at that."
Roses look red;<br />Violets look blue.<br />Honey tastes sweet,<br />As sweet as you.
(''This example assumes the speaker does not mean the addressee of the poem "tastes sweet," but does mean something like "I find you sweet as honey," and attempts to preserve the meter and rhyme of the original while still avoiding any form of the verb "to be.'')
''An Example of Translation "in the spirit" of e-Prime''
In an attempt to subtract the assumption of absolutes ("what is") in the original, and to illustrate thought and perspective more in the spirit of E-Prime, the following translation attempts to state meaning directly from a hypothetical speaker's personal feelings toward the addressee, and express that meaning through the filter of that speaker's perceptions of the natural world. Therefore, the translation below changes the meaning of the poem.
Roses seem red;<br />Violets seem blue.<br />I like honey,<br />And I like you.
That version has attempted to say something close to "I perceive the natural world in the way most people do. (Few people would dispute that the most common rose-variety seems red to the human eye, or that violets can appear blue.) Therefore, when I tell you I like honey, I tell you I like a thing most would agree tastes sweet and may also perceive as a pleasing thing in other ways. Therefore by claiming to like honey and to like you, I claim to make that statement with a certainty as absolute as human perception allows.
==See also==
*[[General Semantics]]
*[[Grammatical voice]]
*[[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]
==External links==
*[http://www.e-prime.com E-Prime] - Practice your E-Prime in an online discussion forum
*[http://www.nobeliefs.com/eprime.htm Toward understanding E-prime]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041012070736/http://objectz.com/columnists/eandd/ Working with E-Prime] - detailed article
*[http://www.xenodochy.org/gs/e-prime.html E-prime: The Spirit and the Letter, by Ralph E. Kenyon Jr.]
*[http://learn-gs.org/library/elaine-eprime.htm Discovering E-Prime, by Elaine C. Johnson]
*[http://www.hilgart.org/papers_html/091S196.B07.html E-Prime and Linguistic Revision, by C. A. Hilgartner]
*[http://learn-gs.org/library/etc/49-2-french.pdf The Top Ten Arguments Against E-Prime (PDF)] - by James D. French, arguing for moderation in use of ''to be'' rather than abstinence
[[Category:Forms of English]]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[simple:E Prime]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elliptic curve</title>
<id>10225</id>
<revision>
<id>41551518</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T02:35:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dmharvey</username>
<id>277018</id>
</contributor>
<comment>wfy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''elliptic curve''' is a [[plane curve]] defined by an equation of the form
:''y''<sup>2</sup> = ''x''<sup>3</sup> + ''a'' ''x'' + ''b'',
which is non-singular; that is, its graph has no [[cusps]] or self-intersections. (When the [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of the coefficient field is equal to 2 or 3, the above equation is not quite general enough to comprise all non-singular [[cubic curve]]s; see [[#Elliptic curves over a general field|below]] for a more precise definition.)
One finds that elliptic curves correspond to embeddings of the [[torus]] into the [[complex projective plane]]; such embeddings generalize to arbitrary [[field (mathematics)|field]]s, and so it is said that elliptic curves are [[non-singular]] [[projective variety|projective]] [[algebraic curve]]s of [[genus (mathematics)|genus]] 1 over a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K'', together with a distinguished point defined over ''K''. The natural [[group (mathematics)|group]] structure of a torus manifests itself in a curious geometric way on an elliptic curve; the set of points of the curve form an [[abelian group]].
Elliptic curves are especially important in [[number theory]], and constitute a major area of current research; for example, they were used in the proof, by [[Andrew Wiles]] (assisted by one of his former PhD students, [[Richard Taylor]]), of [[Fermat's last theorem]]. They also find applications in [[cryptography]] (see the article [[elliptic curve cryptography]]) and [[integer factorization]].
<small>An elliptic curve is '''''not''''' the same as an [[ellipse]]: see [[elliptic integral]] for the origin of the term. </small>
==Elliptic curves over the real numbers==
Although the formal definition of an elliptic curve is fairly technical and requires some background in [[algebraic geometry]], it is possible to describe some features of elliptic curves over the [[real numbers]] using only high school [[algebra]] and [[geometry]].
In this context, an elliptic curve is a [[plane curve]] defined by an equation of the form
:<math>y^2 = x^3 + ax + b</math>,
where ''a'' and ''b'' are real numbers. This type of equation is called a [[Weierstrass equation]].
For example, the following graphs illustrate the elliptic curves given by the equations <math>y^2 = x^3 - x</math> and <math>y^2 = x^3 - x + 1</math>.
[[image:ECexamples01.png]]
The definition of elliptic curve also requires that the curve be [[non-singular]]. Geometrically, this means that the graph has no [[cusps]] or self-intersections. Algebraically, this involves calculating the [[discriminant]],
: <math>\Delta = -16(4a^3 + 27b^2)</math>
The curve is non-singular if the discriminant is not equal to zero. (Although the factor &minus;16 seems irrelevant here, it turns out to be convenient in more advanced study of elliptic curves.)
If the curve is non-singular, then its graph has ''two'' components if the discriminant is positive, and ''one'' component if it is negative. For example, in the graphs shown above, the discriminant in the first case is 64, and in the second case is &minus;368.
==The group law==
By adding a "point at infinity", we obtain the projective version of this curve. If ''P'' and ''Q'' are two points on the curve, then we can uniquely describe a third point which is the intersection of the curve with the line through ''P'' and ''Q''. If the line is tangent to the curve at a point, then that point is counted twice; and if the line is parallel to the ''y''-axis, we define the third point as the point "at infinity". Exactly one of these conditions then holds for any pair of points on an elliptic curve.
[[image:ECClines.png]]
It is then possible to introduce a [[group (mathematics)|group operation]], "+", on the curve with the following properties: we consider the point at infinity to be 0, the identity of the group; and if a straight line intersects the curve at the points ''P'', ''Q'' and ''R'', then we require that ''P'' + ''Q'' + ''R'' = 0 in the group. One can check that this turns the curve into an [[abelian group]], and thus into an [[abelian variety]]. It can be shown that the set of ''K''-rational points (including the point at infinity) forms a [[subgroup]] of this group. If the curve is denoted by ''E'', then this subgroup is often written as ''E''(''K'').
The above group can be described algebraically as well as geometrically. Given the curve ''y''<sup>2</sup> = ''x''<sup>3</sup> &minus; ''px'' &minus
|
<br>
LIF<br>
LIFE<br>
Life<br>
life<br>
life-cycle<br>
Life is hard<br>
LIFIA<br>
LIFO<br>
lifted domain<br>
LIGHT<br>
light client<br>
light-emitting diode<br>
light-emitting resistor<br>
light pipe<br>
light-weight<br>
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol '''DONE'''<br>
light-weight process<br>
like kicking dead whales down the beach<br>
like nailing jelly to a tree<br>
like this<br>
Lila<br>
Lilith<br>
LILLIAC IV<br>
lilo<br>
Lily<br>
LIMDEP<br>
LIM EMS<br>
LIMP<br>
[http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?Laboratory+Instrument+Computer Linc] (Laboratory Instrument Computer)<br>
Lincoln Reckoner<br>
LINCtape<br>
Linda<br>
LindaLISP<br>
line<br>
line 666<br>
linear address space<br>
linear argument<br>
linear assignment<br>
linear function<br>
Linear Graph Notation<br>
linear logic<br>
linear map<br>
linear programming<br>
linear space<br>
linear sweep<br>
linear transformation<br>
linear type<br>
line conditioning<br>
line eater<br>
line editor<br>
line feed<br>
line noise<br>
line printer<br>
line probing<br>
lines of code<br>
lines per minute<br>
line starve<br>
Lingo<br>
LINGOL<br>
link<br>
Link Access Procedure on the D channel<br>
Link Access Protocol Balanced<br>
Link Access Protocol for Modems<br>
Link Control Protocol<br>
link-dead<br>
linked list<br>
linker '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
link farm<br>
link rot<br>
links<br>
Link State Routing Protocol<br>
LINPACK<br>
lint<br>
Linux<br>
Linux Documentation Project<br>
Linux Network Administrators' Guide<br>
lion food<br>
Lions Book<br>
LIPL<br>
liquid crystal display<br>
LIS<br>
LISA<br>
Liskov substitution principle<br>
Lisp<br>
*LISP<br>
LISP 1<br>
LISP 1.5<br>
LISP 2<br>
LISP70<br>
LISP A<br>
LISP Extended Algebraic Facility<br>
Lispkit<br>
Lispkit Lisp<br>
Lisp-Linda<br>
Lisp Machine<br>
LISP Machine LISP<br>
Lisp Object-Oriented Programming System<br>
LISP, Objects, and Symbolic Programming<br>
Lisptalk<br>
LispView<br>
list<br>
list comprehension<br>
List Enhanced<br>
listless<br>
Listproc<br>
lists<br>
Listserv<br>
Liszt<br>
lite<br>
literal<br>
literate programming<br>
literature<br>
LITHE<br>
lithium lick<br>
LitProg<br>
LITTLE<br>
little-endian<br>
Little Smalltalk<br>
live data<br>
Live Free Or Die!<br>
livelock<br>
LiveScript<br>
liveware<br>
lk<br>
LL<br>
LLC<br>
LLGen<br>
LLM3<br>
LLNL<br>
LLP<br>
LM3<br>
LMAO<br>
LML<br>
LM-Prolog<br>
LMTP<br>
LNF<br>
LO<br>
L&amp<br>O<br>
load balancing<br>
lobotomy<br>
LOC<br>
local area network<br>
Local Area Transport<br>
local bus<br>
locale<br>
local echo<br>
localisation<br>
localised<br>
locality<br>
local loop<br>
local loopback addresses<br>
locals<br>
LocalTalk<br>
location<br>
locked and loaded<br>
locked up<br>
lock-in<br>
Locus<br>
Loebner Prize<br>
{log}<br>
logarithmus dualis<br>
LogC<br>
logic<br>
logical<br>
logical address<br>
Logical Block Addressing<br>
logical complement<br>
Logical Link Control -- '''DONE'''<br>
logical relation<br>
logical shift<br>
logical shift left<br>
logical shift right<br>
Logical Unit<br>
Logical Unit 6.2<br>
Logical Unit Number<br>
logic bomb<br>
Logic Design Language<br>
logic emulator<br>
Logic for Computable Functions<br>
logic gate<br>
logic programming<br>
Logic Replacement Technology<br>
logic variable<br>
LOGIN<br>
login<br>
LOGISCOPE<br>
Loglan<br>
Loglan'82<br>
Loglan-88<br>
LOGLISP<br>
LOGO<br>
LOGOL<br>
logon<br>
Lojban<br>
LOL<br>
LOLITA<br>
Lolli<br>
LOM<br>
longitudinal parity<br>
Longitudinal Redundancy Check<br>
LOOK<br>
look and feel<br>
Looking Glass<br>
LOOKS<br>
loop<br>
loop combination<br>
loop fusion<br>
LOOPN<br>
LOOPS<br>
loop through<br>
loose bytes<br>
LOP<br>
lord high fixer<br>
Lore<br>
Lorem ipsum<br>
Lorenz attractor<br>
lose<br>
loser<br>
losing<br>
loss<br>
lossage<br>
lossless<br>
lossy<br>
lost in the noise<br>
lost in the underflow<br>
LOTIS<br>
LOTOS<br>
lots of MIPS but no I/O<br>
Lotus 1-2-3<br>
[[Lotus Software|Lotus Development Corporation]] '''DONE''' (Lotus Software)<br>
Lotus Notes<br>
Lout<br>
love<br>
low-bandwidth<br>
low earth orbit<br>
Lower Layer Protocol<br>
lower set<br>
Low Insertion Force<br>
LOWL<br>
low-level language<br>
low pass filter<br>
Low Voltage Differential<br>
LPAC<br>
LPC<br>
LPF<br>
LPG<br>
LPI<br>
LPL<br>
lpm<br>
LP MUD<br>
lpr<br>
LPS<br>
lp spooler<br>
LPT<br>
lr<br>
LRC<br>
LRLTRAN<br>
LRU<br>
ls<br>
LSA<br>
LSB<br>
LSE<br>
LSL<br>
LSML<br>
L-Soft<br>
LSP<br>
LSR<br>
LSSD<br>
LSYD<br>
lt<br>
LT-2<br>
LTL<br>
LTR<br>
LTR3<br>
lu<br>
LU6.2<br>
lub<br>
Lubarsky's Law of Cybernetic Entomology<br>
Lucent Technologies<br>
LUCID<br>
Lucid Emacs<br>
Lucinda<br>
Lucy<br>
LUG<br>
luminance<br>
lump uncurrying<br>
LUN<br>
[[lunatic fringe]]<br>
Lund Simula<br>
Lund Software House AB<br>
lurk<br>
lurker<br>
lurking<br>
luser<br>
Luser Attitude Re-adjustment Tool<br>
LUSTRE<br>
lv<br>
lvalue<br>
LVD<br>
LWP<br>
ly<br>
LYaPAS<br>
Lycos<br>
lynix<br>
LYNX<br>
Lynx<br>
LynxOS<br>
Lynx Real-Time Systems<br>
LYRIC<br>
LZ77 compression<br>
LZ78 compression<br>
LZ compression<br>
lzexe<br>
LZH compression<br>
LZW compression<br>
M<br>
m2<br>
M2toM3<br>
M3<br>
m4<br>
M5<br>
ma<br>
MAC<br>
Mac<br>
Mac-1<br>
MAC-360<br>
MAC address<br>
MACAnalyst<br>
Macaulay<br>
MacBinary<br>
MACDesigner<br>
macdink<br>
MACE<br>
Mach '''DONE''' as [[Mach kernel]]<br>
[[Machiavelli]]<br>
machinable<br>
[[machine]]<br>
[[machine code]]<br>
machine cycle<br>
machine language<br>
machine learning<br>
Mach Interface Generator<br>
machoflops<br>
Mac II<br>
Mac IIcx<br>
[[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]<br>
Macintosh Common Lisp<br>
Macintosh file system<br>
Macintosh II<br>
Macintosh IIcx<br>
Macintosh Operating System<br>
Macintosh user interface<br>
Macintoy<br>
Macintrash<br>
MACL<br>
MacLisp<br>
MacMinix<br>
[[Mac OS]]<br>
Mac Playmate<br>
MacPPP<br>
MACRO<br>
macro<br>
macro-<br>
macrology<br>
Macromedia<br>
Macro SAP<br>
macrotape<br>
MACSYMA<br>
MacTCP<br>
MacX<br>
MAD<br>
Mad/1<br>
Madaline<br>
MADCAP<br>
MADTRAN<br>
maggotbox<br>
MAGIC<br>
[[Magic (software)|magic]]<br>
magic bullet<br>
magic cookie<br>
magic number<br>
Magic Paper<br>
magic smoke<br>
Magic Switch Story<br>
Magma<br>
Magma2<br>
MagmaLISP<br>
magnetic disk<br>
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition<br>
magnetic tape<br>
magnetic tape drive<br>
magneto-optical disk<br>
MAGNUM<br>
Magritte<br>
mail<br>
Mail Application Programming Interface<br>
mail bomb<br>
mailbox<br>
mail bridge<br>
Mail Exchange Record<br>
mail exploder<br>
mail filter<br>
mail gateway<br>
mail hub<br>
mailing list<br>
mail merge<br>
mail path<br>
.mailrc<br>
mail server<br>
mail user agent<br>
Mail Users' Shell<br>
MAINBOL<br>
Main Distribution Frame<br>
mainframe<br>
main loop<br>
main memory<br>
MAINSAIL<br>
maintainer<br>
maintainer script<br>
maintenance<br>
Maisie<br>
major delivery<br>
Majordomo<br>
major release<br>
Make<br>
Makedoc<br>
makefile<br>
Maker Interchange Format<br>
MAL<br>
Malamud<br>
MALI<br>
mall<br>
malloc<br>
MAN<br>
man<br>
management<br>
Management Information Base<br>
Management Information System<br>
Manchester Autocode<br>
Manchester encoding<br>
Mandala<br>
Mandelbrot, Benoit<br>
Mandelbrot set<br>
mandelbug<br>
manged<br>
mangle<br>
mangler<br>
mango<br>
man page<br>
mantissa<br>
manual testing<br>
Manufacturer Resource Planning<br>
Manufacturers Automation Protocol<br>
Manufacturing
|
mponents pass through the system at different rates they become separated in time, like runners in a mass-start foot race. Each component has a characteristic time of passage through the system, called a "retention time." Chromatographic separation is achieved when the retention time of the [[analyte]] differs from that of other components in the sample.
A '''chromatograph''' takes a chemical mixture carried by [[liquid]] or [[gas]] and separates it into its component parts as a result of differential distributions of the [[solute]]s as they flow around or over a stationary liquid or solid phase. Various techniques for the separation of complex mixtures rely on the differential affinities of substances for a gas or liquid mobile medium and for a stationary [[absorption|absorbing]] medium through which they pass; such as [[paper]], [[gelatin]], [[alumina]] or [[silica]].
''Analytical chromatography'' is used to determine the identity and concentration of molecules in a mixture. ''Preparative chromatography'' is used to purify larger quantities of a molecular species. Most of the following refers to analytical chromatography.
== History ==
It was the [[Russia]]n [[botanist]] [[Mikhail Tsvet]] (Mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet) who invented the first chromatography technique in [[1901]] during his research on [[chlorophyll]]. He used a liquid-adsorption column containing [[calcium carbonate]] to separate plant [[pigment]]s. The method was described on December 30, 1901 at the XI Congress of Naturalists and Doctors (XI съезд естествоиспытателей и врачей) in St. Petersburg. The first printed description was in [[1903]], in the Proceedings of the [[Warsaw]] Society of Naturalists, section of biology. He first used the term ''chromatography'' in print in [[1906]] in his two papers about chlorophyll in the German botanical journal, ''Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft''. In [[1907]] he demonstrated his chromatograph for the German Botanical Society. The phenomenon of precipitational separation was observed before Tsvet as well. His contribution was turning the phenomenon into the method of scientific analysis.
The Greek word ''chroma'' in ''chroma''tography means ''color'' in English and refers both to Tsvet's name that is literally translated from Russian as ''color'' and to the color of the plant pigments he was separating at that time.
In [[1952]] [[Archer John Porter Martin]] and [[Richard Laurence Millington Synge]] were awarded the Chemistry Nobel Prize "for their invention of partition chromatography". [http://www.nobel.se/chemistry/laureates/1952/]
The technology of chromatography advanced rapidly throughout the 20th century. Researchers found that the principles underlying Tsvet's chromatography could be applied in many different ways, giving rise to the different varieties of chromatography described below. Simultaneously, advances continually improved the technical performance of chromatography, allowing increasingly similar molecules to be resolved.
== Chromatography theory ==
Chromatography is a separation method that exploits the differences in partitioning behavior between a '''mobile phase''' and a '''stationary phase''' to separate the components in a mixture. Components of a mixture may be interacting with the stationary phase based on charge, relative solubility or adsorption. There are two theories of chromatography, the plate and rate theories.
=== Retention ===
The retention is a measure of the speed at which a substance moves in a chromatographic system. In continuous development systems like HPLC or GC, where the compounds are eluted with the eluent, the retention is usually measured as the ''retention time'' ''R''<sub>''t''</sub> or ''t''<sub>''R''</sub>, the time between injection and detection. In interrupted development systems like TLC the retention is measured as the ''retention factor'' ''R''<sub>''f''</sub>, the run length of the compound divided by the run length of the eluent front:
: <math>R_f = \frac{distance\ moved\ by\ compound} {distance\ moved\ by\ eluent}</math>
The retention of a compound often differs considerably between experiments and laboratories due to variations of the eluent, the stationary phase, temperature, and the setup. It is therefore important to compare the retention of the test compound to that of one or more standard compounds under absolutely identical conditions.
=== Plate theory ===
The plate theory of chromotography was developed by [[Archer John Porter Martin]] and [[Richard Laurence Millington Synge]]. The plate theory describes the chromotography system, the mobile and stationary phases, as being in equilibrium. The partition coefficient ''K'' is based on this equilibrium, and is defined by the following equation:
: <math>K = \frac{Concentration\ of\ solute\ in\ stationary\ phase} {Concentration\ of\ solute\ in\ mobile\ phase}</math>
''K'' is assumed to be independent of concentration, and can change if experimental conditions are changed, for example temperature is increased or decreased. As ''K'' increases, it takes longer for solutes to separate.
For a column of fixed length and flow, the retention time <math>(t_R)</math> and retention volume <math>(V_r)</math> can be measured and used to calculate ''K''.
<!--==Rate theory==-->
== Paper chromatography ==
''See the article [[paper chromatography]]''
[[Image:Cromatography tank.png|thumb|200px|In paper chromatography, chemical interactions with the paper make compounds travel at different rates.]]
<!--Some of this may be moved to the paper chromatography article, now a stub-->
A small spot of solution containing the sample is applied to a strip of ''[[chromatography paper]]'' about one centimeter from the base. This sample is ''adsorbed'' onto the paper. This means that the sample will contact the paper and may form interactions with it. Any substance that will react with (and thus bond to) the paper cannot be measured using this technique. The paper is then dipped in to a suitable [[solvent]] (such as [[ethanol]] or [[water]]) and placed in a sealed container. As the solvent rises through the paper it meets the sample mixture which starts to travel up the paper with the solvent. Different [[chemical compound|compound]]s in the sample mixture travel different distances according to how strongly they interact with the paper. Paper chromatography takes some time and the experiment is usually left to complete for some hours.
The final ''chromatogram'' can be compared with other known mixture chromatograms to identify sample mixes. ''Two-way paper chromatography'' involves using two solvents and rotating the paper 90<sup>o</sup> in between. This is useful for separating complex mixtures of similar compounds.
This method is only very rarely employed and has been largely replaced by thin layer chromatography (see below.) It remains a powerful pedagogical tool, however.
== Thin layer chromatography (TLC) ==
[[Image:TLC_black_ink.jpg|thumb|200px|Separation of black ink on a TLC plate.]]
In ''thin layer chromatography'' or ''TLC'' the stationary phase consists of a thin layer of adsorbent like [[silica gel]], [[aluminium oxide|alumina]], or [[cellulose]] on a flat carrier like a [[glass]] plate, a thick aluminum foil, or a plastic sheet.
The process is similar to paper chromatography with the advantage of faster runs, better separations, and the choice between different adsorbents.
TLC is a standard laboratory method in [[organic chemistry]]. Because of its simplicity and speed TLC is often used for monitoring [[chemical reaction]]s and for the qualitative analysis of reaction products.
TLC plates are made by mixing the adsorbent with a small amount of [[inert]] binder like [[calcium sulfate]] (gypsum) and water, spreading the a thick slurry on the carrier, drying the plate, and activation of the adsorbent by heating in an oven.
The thickness of the adsorbent layer is typically around 0.1&ndash;0.25&nbsp;mm for analytical purposes and around 1&ndash;2&nbsp;mm for preparative TLC.
Several methods exists to make colorless spots visible:
* Often a small amount of a [[fluorescent]] dye is added to the adsorbent that allows the visualization of [[UV]] absorbing spots under a [[blacklight]] ("UV<sub>254</sub>").
* [[Iodine]] vapors are a general unspecific color reagent.
* Specific color reagents exist into which the TLC plate is dipped or which are sprayed onto the plate.
Once visible, the ''R''<sub>''f''</sub> values of the spots can be determined. These values should be the same regardless of the extent of travel of the solvent, and in theory are independent of a single experimental run. They do depend on the solvent used, and the type of TLC plate.
Thin Layer Chromatography is also used in finding which pigments a plant contains. By taking extract of the plants cellulose and applying the technique, one can adaquately find the pigments.
It is used to detect pesticide or insecticide residues in food. Thin-layer chromatography is also used in forensics to analyze the dye composition of fibers.
== Column chromatography ==
Column chromatography utilizes a vertical glass column filled with some form of solid support with the sample to be separated placed on top of this support. The rest of the column is filled with a solvent which, under the influence of gravity, moves the sample through the column. Similarly to other forms of chromatography, differences in rates of movement through the solid medium are translated to different exit times from the bottom of the column for the various elements of the original sample.
[[Image:columnchromatography.gif|thumb|right|400px|A picture of a standard column chromatography and a flash column chromatography setup]]
In 1978, W. C. Stills introduced a mod
|
ss="thumbcaption">3. Surface tension is broken</div>
|<div class="thumbcaption">4. Ejected water spouts upward and falls back</div>
|}
</div>
</div>
Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of [[water]], [[heat]], and fortuitous [[plumbing]]. The combination exists in few places on Earth. The five largest geyser fields in the world are (Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff R.M. 2003; Bryan 1995):
*1. [[Yellowstone National Park]], [[Wyoming]], [[United States]]
*2. [[Dolina Geiserov]], [[Kamchatka Peninsula]], [[Russia]]
*3. [[El Tatio]], [[Chile]], [[South America]]
*4. [[Taupo Volcanic Zone]], [[North Island]], [[New Zealand]]
*5. [[Iceland]], [[Europe]]
There used to be two large geysers fields in [[Nevada]]---[[Beowawe, Nevada|Beowawe]] and [[Steamboat Springs (geyser)|Steamboat Springs]]---but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local [[water table]] to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained. There are more individual geysers around the world, in [[California]], [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]], [[Mexico]], [[Dominica]], [[Azores]], [[Kenya]] and [[Japan]], but no other large clusters.
Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and between three and five hundred geysers. Yellowstone includes the tallest active geyser ([[Steamboat Geyser]] in [[Norris Geyser Basin]]) and the renowned ([[Old Faithful Geyser]] in [[Upper Geyser Basin]]).
Many of New Zealand&rsquo;s geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is [[Whakarewarewa]] at [[Rotorua]]. Two thirds of the geysers at [[Orakei Korako]] were flooded by the Ohakuri hydroelectric dam in 1961. The [[Wairakei]] field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958. The Taupo Spa field was lost when the [[Waikato River]] level was deliberately altered in the 1950s. The [[Rotomahana]] field was destroyed by the [[Mount Tarawera]] eruption in 1886. The [[Waimangu Geyser]] which existed from 1900 to 1904 was the largest geyser ever known. It ceased to erupt after a landslide covered its crater. Small numbers of geysers still exist at other places within the Taupo Volcanic Zone including [[Ketetahi]], [[Tokaanu]] and [[Waiotapu]].
==Misnamed geysers==
In a number of places where there is geothermal activity wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. Though these so-called ''artificial geysers'', technically known as ''erupting geothermal wells'', are not true geysers, they can be quite spectacular. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in [[Calistoga, California]], is an erupting geothermal well.
Sometimes drilled cold-water wells erupt in a geyser-like manner due to the build-up of pressure from dissolved carbon dioxide in the water. These are not true geysers either, but are often called ''cold-water geysers''. The best known of these is probably [[Crystal Geyser]], near [[Green River, Utah]] ([[Glennon, J.A.]] and Pfaff, R.M. 2005).
A ''perpetual spouter'' is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers either.
==Geysers on Triton==
[[Image:Geysers on Triton.gif|thumb|right|250px|Dark streaks deposited by geysers on Triton]]
One of the great surprises of the [[Voyager 2]] flyby of [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] in 1989 was the discovery of geysers on its moon, [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]. Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8&nbsp;km above the surface, and depositing material up to 150&nbsp;km downstream.
All the geysers observed were located between 40&deg; and 60&deg;S, the part of Triton's surface close to the subsolar point. This indicates that solar heating, although very weak at Triton's great distance from the Sun, probably plays a crucial role. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a semi-[[Transparency (optics)|transparent]] layer of frozen [[nitrogen]], which creates a kind of [[greenhouse effect]], heating the frozen material beneath it until it breaks the surface in an eruption. A temperature increase of just 4 [[kelvin|K]] above the ambient surface temperature of 38 K could drive eruptions to the heights observed.
Geothermal energy may also be important. Unusually for a major satellite, Triton orbits Neptune in a [[retrograde]] orbit&mdash;that is, in the opposite direction to Neptune's rotation. This generates [[tidal force]]s which are causing Triton's orbit to decay, so that in a few million years time it will collide with Neptune. The tidal forces may also generate heat inside Triton, in the same way as [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s gravity generates tidal forces on [[Io (moon)|Io]] which drive its extreme volcanic activity.
Each eruption of a Triton geyser may last up to a year, and during this time about 0.1&nbsp;km&sup3; of material may be deposited downwind. Voyager's images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity.
==References==
*Bryan, T. Scott (1995). ''The geysers of Yellowstone''. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. ISBN 087081365X
*[[Glennon, J.A.]], Pfaff, R.M. (2003). ''The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field, Antofagasta Region, Chile'', Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8. pp. 31-78.
*[[Glennon, J.A.]] (2005). ''About Geysers'', website: http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers.
*[[Glennon, J.A.]], Pfaff, R.M. (2005). ''The operation and geography of carbon-dioxide-driven, cold-water geysers'', GOSA Transactions, vol. 9, pp. 184-192.
*Kelly W.D., Wood C.L. (1993). ''Tidal interaction: A possible explanation for geysers and other fluid phenomena in the Neptune-Triton system'', in Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Part 2: 789-790.
*Rinehart, J.S. (1980) Geysers and Geothermal Energy. Springer-Verlag, 223 p.
*Schreier, Carl (2003). ''Yellowstone's geysers, hot springs and fumaroles (Field guide)'' (2nd ed.). Homestead Pub. ISBN 0943972094
*Soderblom L.A., Becker T.L., Kieffer S.W., Brown R.H., Hansen C.J., Johnson T.V. (1990). Triton's geyser-like plumes - Discovery and basic characterization. ''Science'' 250: 410-415.
==See also==
*[[List of geysers]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Geyser}}
*[http://www.nps.gov/yell/nature/geothermal/geysers.htm ''Geysers and How They Work'' by Yellowstone National Park]
*[http://www.geyserstudy.org/ Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA)]
*[http://www.yellowstone.net/geysers/ Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions]
*[http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/ ''About Geysers'' by Alan Glennon]
*[http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/crystalgeyser/ ''Cold Water Geysers'' by Alan Glennon]
*[http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm ''Geysers'', The UnMuseum]
*[http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/geysers/index.html ''Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources'']
*[http://www.wyojones.com/geysers.htm ''What's Up with Geysers?'' by WyoJones]
[[Category:Hydrothermal vents]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[da:Gejser]]
[[de:Geysir]]
[[et:Geiser]]
[[el:Θερμοπίδακας]]
[[es:Géiser]]
[[eo:Gejsero]]
[[fr:Geyser]]
[[gl:Geyser]]
[[it:Geyser]]
[[he:גייזר]]
[[lt:Geizeris]]
[[nl:Geiser (bron)]]
[[ja:間欠泉]]
[[pl:Gejzer]]
[[pt:Géiser]]
[[sv:Gejser]]
[[uk:Гейзер]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gaussian elimination</title>
<id>13035</id>
<revision>
<id>41117634</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T04:00:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Babbage</username>
<id>29688</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>style</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''Gaussian elimination''' or '''Gauss&ndash;Jordan elimination''', named after [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] and [[Wilhelm Jordan]] (many regard Gaussian elimination as the front half of the complete Gauss&ndash;Jordan elimination), is an algorithm in [[linear algebra]] for determining the solutions of a [[system of linear equations]], for determining the [[rank of a matrix|rank]] of a [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrix]], and for [[matrix inversion|calculating the inverse]] of an invertible square matrix. When applied to a matrix, Gaussian elimination produces what is called
"reduced row echelon form".
== History ==
The method is named after the [[mathematician]] [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], but the earliest presentation of it can be found in the important Chinese mathematical text ''Jiuzhang suanshu'' or ''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]'', dated approximately 150 B.C.E.
== Numerical analysis ==
The [[computational complexity theory|computational complexity]] of Gaussian elimination is [[Big O notation|O]](''n''<sup>3</sup>); that is, the number of operations required is (approximately) [[proportional]] to ''n''<sup>3</sup> if the matrix size is ''n'' × ''n''.
This algorithm can be used on a computer for systems with thousands of equations and unknowns. It is, however, numerically unstable, at least on pathological examples; that is, floating-point errors committed throughout the computation are accumulated and may result in results far from the correct solution. For this reason and for reasons of its prohibitive cost on large matrices, iterative methods, generally based on finding a fixed point of a [[contraction mapping]] (see [[Banach fixed point theorem]]), are generally preferred for larger systems; there also exist specific methods for even larger systems whose coefficients follow a regular pattern. See [[system of linear equations]]. Gaussian elimination is, however, a good met
|
</tr>
<tr><td> '''[[chough|choughs]]''' </td><td>A clattering of choughs</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[coot|coots]]''' </td><td>A cover of coots</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[coot|coots]]''' </td><td>A raft of coots</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[cormorant|cormorants]]''' </td><td>A flight of cormorants</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[crane (bird)|cranes]]''' </td><td>A sedge of cranes</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[crow|crows]]''' </td><td>A horde of crows</td><td> <center>Uncertain</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[crow|crows]]''' </td><td>A hover of crows</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[crow|crows]]''' </td><td>A murder of crows</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[crow|crows]]''' </td><td>A muster of crows</td><td> <center>Uncertain</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[crow|crows]]''' </td><td>A parcel of crows</td><td> <center>Uncertain</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[crow|crows]]''' </td><td>A storytelling of crows</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[curlew|curlews]]''' </td><td>A head of curlews</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[dotterel|dotterel]]''' </td><td>A trip of dotterel</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[dove|doves]]''' </td><td>A dole of doves</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[dove|doves]]''' </td><td>A dule of doves</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[dove|doves]]''' </td><td>A flight of doves</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[dove|doves]]''' </td><td>A piteousness of doves</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[dove|doves]]''' </td><td>A pitying of doves</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[dove|doves]]''' </td><td>A prettying of doves</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[duck|ducks]]''' </td><td>A dopping of ducks (diving)</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[duck|ducks]]''' </td><td>A plump of ducks (flying)</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[duck|ducks]]''' </td><td>A paddling of ducks (on water)</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[duck|ducks]]''' </td><td>A flush of ducks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[duck|ducks]]''' </td><td>A raft of ducks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[duck|ducks]]''' </td><td>A team of ducks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[dunlin|dunlin]]''' </td><td>A fling of dunlin</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[eagle|eagles]]''' </td><td>A convocation of eagles</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[falcon|falcons]]''' </td><td>A cast of falcons</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[finch|finches]]''' </td><td>A charm of finches</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[finch|finches]]''' </td><td>A trembing of finches</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[finch|finches]]''' </td><td>A trimming of finches</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[flamingo|flamingoes]]''' </td><td>A stand of flamingoes</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[goldfinch|goldfinches]]''' </td><td>A drum of goldfinches</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[goldfinch|goldfinches]]''' </td><td>A troubling of goldfinches</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[goldfinch|goldfinches]]''' </td><td>A charm of goldfinches</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[goose|geese]]''' </td><td>A wedge of geese (flying)</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[goose|geese]]''' </td><td>A flock of geese</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[goose|geese]]''' </td><td>A gaggle of geese</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[goose|geese]]''' </td><td>A nide of geese</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[goose|geese]]''' </td><td>A skein of geese</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[goose|geese]]''' </td><td>A plump of geese (on water)</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[goshawk|goshawks]]''' </td><td>A flight of goshawks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[grouse|grouse]]''' </td><td>A covey of grouse</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[grouse|grouse]]''' </td><td>A lek of grouse</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[grouse|grouse]]''' </td><td>A pack of grouse</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[guillemot|guillemots]]''' </td><td>A bazaar of guillemots</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[guinea fowl|guinea fowl]]''' </td><td>A confusion of guinea fowl</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[gull|gulls]]''' </td><td>A colony of gulls</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[gull|gulls]]''' </td><td>A screech of gulls</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[hawk|hawks]]''' </td><td>A cast of hawks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[hawk|hawks]]''' </td><td>A kettle of hawks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[heron|herons]]''' </td><td>A siege of herons</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[hummingbird|hummingbirds]]''' </td><td>A charm of hummingbirds</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[jay|jays]]''' </td><td>A band of jays</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[jay|jays]]''' </td><td>A party of jays</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[jay|jays]]''' </td><td>A scold of jays</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[lapwing|lapwings]]''' </td><td>A deceit of lapwings</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[lapwing|lapwings]]''' </td><td>A desert of lapwings</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[lark|larks]]''' </td><td>An exaltation of larks</td><
|
[[French language|French]].
This form is not to be confused with ''[[hendecasyllabic verse|hendecasyllabics]]'', a quantitative meter used by [[Catullus]].
[[Category:Poetic form]]
[[de:Endecasillabo]]
[[it:Endecasillabo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hebrides</title>
<id>14155</id>
<revision>
<id>42162087</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:50:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Manxruler</username>
<id>299164</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the '''Hebrides''' islands in Scotland. See also the [[New Hebrides]] for the islands constituting [[Vanuatu]].''
[[Image:Hebridesmap.png|thumb|300px|The Hebrides]]
The '''Hebrides''' comprise a widespread and diverse [[archipelago]] off the west coast of [[Scotland]], and in [[geology|geological]] terms are composed of the oldest rocks in the [[British Isles]]. They can be divided into two main groups:
* [[Inner Hebrides]], including [[Isle of Skye|Skye]], [[Isle of Mull|Mull]], [[Islay]], [[Jura, Scotland|Jura]], [[Staffa]] and the [[Small Isles]]
* [[Outer Hebrides]], including [[Lewis]] and [[Harris]], [[Berneray, North Uist, Scotland|Berneray]], [[North Uist]], [[South Uist]], [[Barra]] and [[St Kilda, Scotland|St Kilda]]
The Hebrides as a whole are sometimes referred to as the [[Western Isles]], but this term is more accurately applied just to the Outer Hebrides.
The Hebrides are probably the best-known group of [[list of islands of Scotland|Scottish islands]], but other groups include the [[islands of the lower Firth of Clyde]] and the [[Northern Isles]]. The islands in the Clyde, especially [[Isle of Arran|Arran]], are sometimes mistakenly called Hebrides too.
''The Hebrides'', also known as ''[[Fingal's Cave]]'', is a famous overture written by [[Felix Mendelssohn]] while residing on these islands.
The majority of native [[Scottish Gaelic]] speakers live on, or come from, the Hebrides. [[Sabhal Mòr Ostaig]], the Gaelic college is based on Skye and Islay. Especially on the Outer Hebrides, the language is still very viable.
==The Hebrides under Norse control==
The Hebrides began to come under [[Norse]] control and settlement already before the [[9th century AD]]. The Norse control of the Hebrides was formalized in [[1098]] when [[Edgar of Scotland]] formally signed the islands over to [[Magnus III of Norway]]. The Scottish acceptance of Magnus III as King of the Isles came after the Norwegian king had conquered the Orkney Islands, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man in a swift campaign earlier the same year, directed against the local Norwegian leaders of the various islands. By capturing the islands Magnus III wanted to assume more direct royal control over the islands which had been seized by Viking groups centuries earlier.
The Norwegian control of both the Inner and Outer Hebrides would see almost constant warfare until being ultimately resolved by the partioning of the Western Isles in [[1156]]. The Outer Hebrides would remain under the [[Kingdom of Mann and the Isles]] while the Inner Hebrides broke out under [[Somerled]], the Norse-Celtic kinsman of both [[Lulach]] and the Manx royal house. Although the Inner Hebrides, from 1156 known as the Kingdom of the Hebrides, still nominally was under the sovereignty of Norway, the leaders were Scottish in language and culture rather than Norse.
After his victory of 1156 Somerled went on to two years later seize control over the Isle of Man itself and become the last King of the Isle of Man and the Isles to rule over all the islands the kingdom had once included. After Somerled's death in [[1164]] the rulers of Mann would no longer be in control of the Inner Hebrides.
In the [[1266]] [[Treaty of Perth]] the Outer Hebrides, along with the Isle of Man, were yielded to the [[Kingdom of Scotland]].
==See also==
*[[Geology of the United Kingdom]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[Kingdom of Mann and the Isles]]
*[[Somerled]]
*[[List of Kings of the Isle of Man and the Isles]]
*[[List of Kings of the Isle of Man]]
*[[Outer Hebrides]]
*[[Inner Hebrides]]
==References==
*Ross, David (2005) ''Scotland - History of a Nation''
[[Category:Islands of Scotland]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes]]
{{Template:Hebrides}}
[[da:Hebriderne]]
[[de:Hebriden]]
[[et:Hebriidid]]
[[eo:Hebridaj Insuloj]]
[[fr:Hébrides]]
[[ko:헤브리디스 제도]]
[[it:Isole Ebridi]]
[[nl:Hebriden]]
[[ja:ヘブリデス諸島]]
[[no:Hebridene]]
[[nn:Hebridane]]
[[pl:Hebrydy]]
[[pt:Hébridas]]
[[fi:Hebridit]]
[[sv:Hebriderna]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Human rights law</title>
<id>14157</id>
<revision>
<id>15911730</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-05T16:39:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.241.204.1</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Human rights law''' is a system of laws, both domestic and international which is intended to promote [[human rights]]. Human rights law includes a number of treaties which are intended to punish some violations of human rights such as [[war crime]]s, [[crime against humanity|crimes against humanity]] and [[genocide]]. There are also a number of international courts which have been constituted to judge violations of human rights including the [[European Court of Human Rights]] and the [[International Criminal Court]].
One concept within human rights law is that of [[universal jurisdiction]]. This concept, which is not widely accepted, is that any nation is authorized to prosecute and punish violations of human rights wherever and whenever they may have occurred.
The [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] is a statement of human rights adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. By itself it is a statement of principles widely understood to be asperational and its legal effect is primarily persuasive. A number of subsequent treaties give varying legal effect to some of its provisions.
{{Law-stub}}
[[Category:Human rights]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HMS Dreadnought</title>
<id>14158</id>
<revision>
<id>36389179</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T19:02:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Merchbow</username>
<id>802509</id>
</contributor>
<comment>highlighted the famous one</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Six ships and one submarine of the [[Royal Navy]] have borne the name '''HMS ''Dreadnought''''' in the expectation that they would "dread nought", i.e. "fear nothing", "but God". The sixth ship was one of the Royal Navy's most famous vessels.
* ''Dreadnought'' of 40 guns is mentioned as in service in [[1553]], but its existence is doubtful.
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (1573)|first ''Dreadnought'']] was a 41-gun ship launched in [[1573]], rebuilt in [[1592]] and [[1614]], then broken up in [[1648]].
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (1691)|second ''Dreadnought'']] was a 60-gun [[4th rate]] launched in [[1691]], rebuilt in [[1706]] and broken up [[1748]].
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (1742)|third ''Dreadnought'']] was a 60-gun [[4th rate]] launched in [[1742]] and sold [[1784]].
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (1801)|fourth ''Dreadnought'']] was a 98-gun [[2nd rate]] launched in [[1801]], converted to a [[hospital ship]] in [[1827]], and broken up [[1857]].
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (1875)|fifth ''Dreadnought'']] was a [[battleship]] launched in [[1875]] and hulked in [[1903]], then sold in [[1908]].
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (1906)|sixth ''Dreadnought'']] was a revolutionary [[battleship]], launched in [[1906]] and sold for breakup in [[1921]].
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (S101)|seventh ''Dreadnought'' (S101)]] was the UK's first nuclear-powered [[submarine]].
{{shipindex}}
[[Category:Royal Navy ship names|Dreadnought]]
[[ja:ドレッドノート]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hartmann Schedel</title>
<id>14159</id>
<revision>
<id>41558206</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T03:32:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>89.50.230.62</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Illustrations in the World Chronicle */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hartmann Schedel''', a german [[humanist]] and [[historian]] (* [[February 13]], [[1440]] in Nuremberg, † [[November 28]], [[1514]] in Nuremberg), was one of the first [[cartographer]]s to make use of the [[printing press]].
Many of the maps in his "[[Nuremberg Chronicle|Schedelsche Welt Chronik]]" (Schedel's World Chronicle, also known as Nuremberg Chronicle) show cities and countries illustrated for the first time ever.
The World Chronicle was published [[1493]] in [[Nuremberg]] and is therefore an [[incunabulum]].
With the recent establishment of the printing press by [[Johann Gutenberg]] it rapidly became feasible to print books and maps for a larger customer basis, whereas earlier books had been extremely rare, due to them having to be handwritten.
== Illustrations in the World Chronicle ==
<gallery>
Image:Schedel konstantinopel.jpg|[[Constantinopolis]]
Image:Nuernberg schedel.JPG|Nuremberg
Image:Hartmann-schedel-hierosolima-1493 2-BW-1147x965.jpg|The oldest printed map of [[Jerusalem]]
Image:Cairo map1492 schedel.jpg|Map of [[Cairo]]
Image:Nuremberg chronicles - Dance of Death (CCLXIIIIv).jpg|Dance of Death
Image:Schedel judenfeindlichkeit2.jpg|Hostility to [[Jews]]
Image:Schedel register.jpg|Registry
</gallery>
{{geoscientist-stub}}
[[Category:German cartographers|Schedel]]
[[Category:Nuremberg]]
[[de:Hartmann Schedel]]
[[pt:Hartmann Schedel]]
[[fr:Hartmann Schedel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hexameter</title>
<id>14160</id>
<revision>
<id>41660710</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:11:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: nn</
|
}}
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Faroese language|D]]
[[Category:Icelandic language|D]]
[[Category:Middle English language|D]]
[[Category:Old English language|D]]
[[Category:Uncommon Latin letters|D]]<!-- I know this is wrong, but it makes more sense to sort this with D than after Z in the category. [[User:OwenBlacker|OwenBlacker]] 19:58, Nov 16, 2004 (UTC) -->
<!--Other languages-->
[[ang:Ð]]
[[da:Ð]]
[[de:Ð]]
[[es:Ð]]
[[fr:Ð]]
[[ja:Ð]]
[[nl:Ð]]
[[nn:Ð]]
[[pl:Ð]]
[[sv:Ð]]
[[zh:Ð]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eth, Nord</title>
<id>10217</id>
<revision>
<id>40000937</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T11:56:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Olivier</username>
<id>3808</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eth''' is a [[commune in France|commune]] of the [[Nord (département)|Nord]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' in northern [[France]].
[[Category:Communes of Nord]]
{{PasdeCalais-geo-stub}}
[[fr:Eth (commune)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic data interchange</title>
<id>10219</id>
<revision>
<id>15908047</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-24T15:33:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Patrick</username>
<id>4388</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronic Data Interchange]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eubacteria</title>
<id>10220</id>
<revision>
<id>23621705</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-20T20:29:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tylerni7</username>
<id>171734</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirected to the wrong place</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bacteria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euphrates</title>
<id>10221</id>
<revision>
<id>40938525</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T00:16:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>3345345335534</username>
<id>264107</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Italicized Syriac transliteration of the river.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_river | river_name = Euphrates
| image_name = Tigr-euph.png
| caption = Map of the [[Tigris]]-[[Euphrates]] Watershed
| origin = Eastern [[Turkey]]
| mouth = [[Shatt al Arab]]
| basin_countries = [[Turkey]], [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]]
| length = 2,800 km
| elevation = 4,500 m
| discharge = 818 m&sup3;/s
| watershed = 765,831 km&sup2;
}}
The '''Euphrates''' (the traditional [[Greek language|Greek]] name for the [[river]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: الفرات; ''Al-Furat'', [[Old Persian]]: ''Ufrat'', [[Syriac]]: ܦܪܘܬ/ܦܪܬ; ''Prâth/Frot'', [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''F&#305;rat'', Assyrian [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]: ''Pu-rat-tu'', [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ''פְּרָת'') is the westernmost of the two great rivers that define [[Mesopotamia]] ([[Beth Nahrain]] in [[Syriac]]), the other being the [[Tigris]]. The form ''Euphrates'' may originate from Old [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Avestan]] (Old-Iranian) ''huperethuua'' "good to cross over," from hu- "good" + peretu- "ford," [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=euphrates&searchmode=none] but the [[Sumerian]] ruler [[Gudea]] called the river ''buranun'' in a [[Sumerian language]] inscription about 1600 years before [[Indo-European]] [[Old Persian]] speakers conquered Mesopotamia.
==Course of the Euphrates==
The river is approximately 2,780 kilometers (1,730 miles) long. It is formed by the union of two branches, the [[Karasu River|Kara]] (the western Euphrates), which rises in the highlands of eastern Turkey north of [[Erzurum]] and the [[Murat River|Murat]] (the eastern Euphrates), which issues from an area southwest of [[Mount Ararat]], north of [[Lake Van]]. The upper reaches of the Euphrates flow through steep canyons and gorges then southeast across [[Syria]] and then through [[Iraq]]. The [[Khabur River|Khabur]] and the [[Balikh River]] join the Euphrates in eastern Syria.
[[Image:Boat on Euphrates.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Boat on the Shatt-al-Arab]]
Both rivers have their origins in Turkey. Downstream, through its whole length, the Euphrates receives no further water flow. North of [[Basra]], in southern Iraq, the river merges with the Tigris to form the [[Arvand/Shatt al-Arab]], which in turn empties into the [[Persian Gulf]].
The river used to divide into many channels at Basra, forming an extensive marshland, but the marshes were largely drained by the [[Saddam Hussein]] government in the [[1990s]] as a means of driving out the rebellious [[Marsh Arabs]]. Since the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], the drainage policy has been reversed, but it remains to be seen whether the marshes will recover.
The Euphrates is only navigable by very shallow-draft boats, which can reach as far as the Iraqi city of [[Hit, Iraq|Hit]], located 1,930 kilometers (1,200 miles) upstream and which is only 53 meters (58 yards) above sea level. Above Hit, however, shoals and rapids make the river commercially unnavigable. Its annual inundation, caused by snowmelt in the mountains of northeastern Turkey, has been partly checked by new dams and reservoirs in the upper reaches. A 885 kilometer (550-mile) canal links the Euphrates to the Tigris to serve as a route for river barges.
[[Image:ArRaqqahEuphrates.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Euphrates River near [[Ar Raqqah]], Syria]]
<div style="clear:left" />
==Euphrates in the Bible==
The river Euphrates is one of the four rivers that flow from the [[Garden of Eden]] according to [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 2:14. It is the fourth river, after the [[Pishon]], the [[Gihon]], and the [[Tigris]], to form from the river flowing out of the garden. The river also marked one of the boundaries of the land promised by [[God]] to [[Abraham]] and his descendants. In the [[Hebrew Bible]], it is often referred to simply as "The River" (''ha-nahar'').
The word Euphrates is a translation for the word "Gush forth or "break forth". It has always been asumed to mean "river" but this is not explicitly stated. It literally means "breaking forth of liquid". The river Euphrates was named from this root word, "To gush forth".
In the [[Book of Revelation]], it is prophesied that in the "[[near future]] the Potamos Euphrates or "breaking forth like water" of the middle east will dry up in preparation for the [[Battle of Armageddon]].
==Islamic prophecies==
In [[Islam]], some of the [[hadith]]s of [[Muhammad]] suggest that the Euphrates will dry up, revealing unknown treasures that will be the cause of strife and war.
*''Soon the river Euphrates will disclose the treasure [the mountain] of gold. So, whoever will be present at that time should not take anything of it.'' — [[Sahih Bukhari]].
*''God's Messenger (may God bless him and grant him peace) said: "The Hour will not come to pass before the river Euphrates dries up to unveil the mountain of gold, for which people will fight. Ninety-nine out of one hundred will die [in the fighting], and every man among them will say: 'Perhaps I may be the only one to remain alive'."'' — [[Sahih Bukhari]], [[Sahih Muslim]].
*''The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) said: "The Euphrates reveals the treasures within itself. Whoever sees it should not take anything from it". — Al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, Al-Burhan fi `Alamat al-Mahdi Akhir az-Zaman, p. 28.
*''It [the Euphrates] will uncover a mountain of gold [under it].'' — [[Sunan Abi Da'ud]].
==Euphrates in history==
The Euphrates provided the water that led to the first flowering of civilisation in [[Sumeria]], dating from about the [[4th millennium BC]]. Many important ancient cities were located on or near the riverside, including [[Mari]], [[Sippar]], [[Nippur]], [[Shuruppak]], [[Uruk]], [[Ur]] and [[Eridu]]. The river valley formed the heartlands of the later empires of [[Babylonia]] and [[Assyria]]. For several centuries, the river formed the eastern limit of effective [[Egypt]]ian and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] control and western regions of the [[Persian Empire]].
==Controversial issues==
As with the Tigris there is much controversy over rights and use of the river. The [[Southeastern Anatolia Project]] in Turkey involves the construction of 22 dams and 19 power plants by [[2005]], the biggest development project ever undertaken by Turkey. The first of the dams was completed in [[1990]]. Southeast Turkey is still struggling economically, adding fuel to the discontent expressed by Turkey's [[Kurd]]ish minority centered there. The Turkish authorities hope that the project will provide a boost to the region's economy, but domestic and foreign critics have disputed its benefits as well as attacking the social and environmental costs of the scheme.
In Syria the [[Tabaqah Dam]] (completed in [[1973]] and sometimes known simply as the '''Euphrates Dam''') forms a reservoir, Lake Assad, that is used for irrigating cotton. Syria has dammed its two tributaries and is constructing another dam. Iraq has seven dams in operation, but water control lost priority during Saddam Hussein's regime. Since the collapse of Ba'ath Iraq in [[2003]], water use has come once again to the fore. The scarcity of water in the Middle East leaves Iraq in constant fear that Syria and Turkey will use up most of the water before it reaches Iraq. As it is, irrigation in southern Iraq leaves little water to join the Tigris at the Shatt-al-Arab.
==See also==
* [[Cradle of Humanity]]
* [[List of places in Iraq]]
* [[Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh]]
==External links==
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=518&letter=E ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':] Euphrates; discusses the Old Test
|
a period of prosperity and growth because of a sharp increase in the price of [[petroleum]], Iraq's main [[export]]. New [[infrastructure]] including modern [[sewage]], [[water]], and [[highway]] facilities were built during this period. However, the [[Iran-Iraq War]] of the 1980s was a difficult time for the city, as money flowed into the army and thousands of residents were killed. Iran launched a number of [[missile]] attacks against Baghdad, although they caused relatively little damage and few casualties.
===Recent Times===
[[Image:FlyingoverBaghdad12april03.JPG|thumb|250px|Image taken flying over Baghdad on April 12, 2003]]
[[Image:Baghdad-smoke-satellite.jpg|thumb|250px|A satellite [[false-color]] image of Baghdad, taken [[March 31]], [[2003]]. The image shows smoke rising from pools of burning oil spread along "Canal Road" and other locations. Ditches full of oil were created shortly before the war to obscure visibility (black) and vegetation (red).]]
The [[Persian Gulf War]] of 1991 caused severe damage to Baghdad, particularly its transportation, power, and sanitary infrastructure. However, [[President of the United States|President]] [[George H. W. Bush]] decided not to have U.S. troops advance to and capture Baghdad, thus leaving [[Saddam Hussein]] in power - perhaps in part because of the heavy [[civilian]] casualties that would likely have resulted from an attack on the city. President Bush also wished to avoid a costly occupation.
Baghdad was bombed very heavily in March and April 2003 in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], and fell under US control by [[April 7]]-[[April 9]]. Additional damage was caused by the severe [[looting]] during the days following the end of the war. With the deposition of [[Saddam Hussein]]'s regime, the city was occupied by [[United States Army|U.S. troops]]. The [[Coalition Provisional Authority]] established a three-square-mile (8-km²) "[[Green Zone]]" within the heart of the city from which it ruled Iraq during the period before the new Iraqi government was established. The [[Coalition Provisional Authority]] ceded power to the interim government at the end of June 2004 and dissolved itself.
On [[September 23]], [[2003]], a [[Gallup]] poll indicated that about two-thirds of Baghdad residents said that the removal of the Iraqi leader was worth the hardships they encountered, and that they expected a better life in five years' time. As time passed, however, support for the occupation declined dramatically. In April 2004, ''[[USA Today]]'' reported that a follow-up [[Gallup]] poll in Baghdad indicated that "only 13 percent of the people now say the invasion of Iraq was morally justifiable. In the 2003 poll, more than twice that number saw it as the right thing to do."[http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2004-04-28-poll-cover_x.htm]
Most residents of Baghdad became impatient with the occupation because essential services such as [[electricity]] were still unreliable more than a year after the invasion. In the hot summer of 2004, electricity was only available intermittently in most areas of the city. An additional pressing concern was the lack of security. The [[curfew]] imposed immediately after the invasion had been lifted in the winter of 2003, but the city that had once had a vibrant [[night life]] was still considered too dangerous after dark for many citizens. Those dangers included [[kidnapping]], [[sexual assault]] and the risk of being caught in fighting between security forces and [[insurgent|insurgents]].
==Government==
The City of Baghdad has 89 official neighborhoods within 9 districts. These official subdivisions of the city served as administrative centers for the delivery of municipal services but until 2003 had no political function. Beginning in April 2003, the U.S. controlled Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) began the process of creating democratic local government institutions. The process initially focused on the election of neighborhood councils in the official neighborhoods, elected by neighborhood caucuses. CPA convened a series of meetings in each neighborhood to explain local government, to describe the caucus election process and to encourage participants to spread the word and bring friends, relatives and neighbors to subsequent meetings. Each neighborhood process ultimately ended with a final meeting where candidates for the new neighborhood councils identified themselves and asked their neighbors to vote for them. Once all 88 (later increased to 89) neighborhood councils were in place, each neighborhood council elected representatives from among their members to serve on one of the city's nine district councils. The number of neighborhood representatives on a district council is based upon the neighborhood’s population. The next step was to have each of the nine district councils elect representatives from their membership to serve on the 37 member Baghdad City Council. This three tier system of local government connected the people of Baghdad to the central government through their representatives from the neighborhood, through the district, and up to the city council.
The same process was used to provide representative councils for the other communities in Baghdad Province outside of the City itself. There, local councils were elected from 20 neighborhoods (Nahia) and these councils elected representatives from their members to serve on six district councils (Qada). As within the City, the district councils then elected representatives from among their members to serve on the 35 member Baghdad Regional Council.
The final step in the establishment of the system of local government for Baghdad Province was the election of the Baghdad Provincial Council. As before, the representatives to the Provincial Council were elected by their peers from the lower councils in numbers proportional to the population of the districts they represent. The 41 member Provincial Council took office in February, 2004 and served until National elections held in January 2005, when a new Provincial Council was elected.
This system of 127 separate councils may seem overly cumbersome but Baghdad Province is home to approximately seven million people. at the lowest level, the neighborhood councils, each council represents an average of 74,000 people.
==Geography==
[[Image:Bagdad-sat.JPG|220px|thumb|A satellite image of Baghdad.]]
[[Image:ClimateBaghdadIraq.PNG|thumb|right|200px|Average temperature (red) and precipitations (blue) in Baghdad]]
Baghdad sits on the [[Tigris]] River at a point where the Tigris is about 30 [[mile]]s (50 [[kilometre|km]]) from the [[Euphrates|Euphrates River]]. The city is mostly flat, with the western side of the city having wider [[boulevard|boulevards]], more expensive homes and more government buildings. Low-income housing is generally located in the east.
Although the city itself, with its riverside location, has a number of green spaces, residents often feel the influence of the [[desert]] to the south and west in the form of [[sandstorm|sandstorms]].
Historically Baghdad was of great importance to international trade. [[Commerce]] routes from [[India]], [[Iran|Persia]] and [[Europe]] met at the city. Today, the affluent neighborhood of [[Kerrada]] is Baghdad's business district. Baghdad is still an important node for road, air and train traffic. The city's main [[airport]] is [[Baghdad International Airport]] (formerly Saddam International Airport).
==Culture==
Baghdad has always played an important role in Arab cultural life and has been the home of noted writers, musicians and visual artists.
===Institutions===
Some of the important cultural institutions in the city include:
* [[Iraqi National Orchestra]] &ndash; Rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during the [[second Gulf War]], but have since returned to normal.
* [[National Theatre of Iraq]] &ndash; The [[theatre]] was [[looting|looted]] during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Invasion of Iraq]], but efforts are underway to restore the theatre. [http://csmonitor.com/2003/0716/p01s04b-woiq.htm].
The live [[theatre]] scene received a boost during the 1990s when UN [[sanctions]] limited the import of foreign [[film|films]]. As many as 30 movie theatres were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of [[comedy|comedies]] and [[drama|dramatic]] productions.[http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0102-04.htm]
Institutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include the [[Academy of Music]], [[Institute of Fine Arts]] and the [[Music and Ballet School]]. Baghdad is also home to a number of [[museum|museums]] which housed [[artifacts]] and relics of [[Ancient civilization|ancient civilizations]]; many of these were stolen, and the museums looted, during the widespread chaos immediately after [[United States|U.S.]] forces entered the city.
During the [[2003 occupation of Iraq]], [[AFN Iraq]] ("Freedom Radio") broadcast news and entertainment within Baghdad, among other locations.
===Sights and monuments===
Points of interest include the [[National Museum of Iraq]], whose priceless collection of artifacts was looted during the 2003 invasion, the iconic [[Hands of Victory]] arches, and the [[Baghdad zoo]]. Thousands of ancient manuscripts in the National Library were destroyed when the building burnt down during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. The [[Al Khadimiya Mosque]] in the northwest of Baghdad (in [[Kazimain]]) is one of the most important Shi'ite religious buildings in Iraq. It was finished in 1515 and the 7th ([[Musa ibn Jafar al-Kazim]]) and the 9th [[Imam]]s ([[Mohammad al-Taqi]]) were buried here.
One of the oldest buildings is the 12th century or 13th century [[Abbasid Palace]].
==References==
# ''Islam Art and Architecture''. Markus Hattstein, Peter Delius. 2000. p96. ISBN 3-8290-2558-0
# ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. Donald R. Hill. 1994
|
een quite affected, not only with Hitler's proposed solutions to the threat of communism and his renunciation of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], but also with the man himself. Several weeks later he attended another rally, though this one was presided over by [[Goebbels|Joseph Goebbels]]. Speer was disturbed by the way he had whipped the crowd into a frenzy, playing on their hopes. Although Goebbels' performance offended Speer, he could not shake the impressions Hitler made on him. The next day he joined the Nazi Party as member number 474,481. In this same year ([[1931]]) he married [[Margarete Weber]].
Speer's first major commission as a Party member came in [[1932]] when [[Karl Hanke]] (whose [[villa]] Speer previously worked on) recommended him to Goebbels to help renovate the new District Headquarters in [[Berlin]], and, later, to renovate Goebbels' [[Propaganda]] Ministry. Goebbels was impressed with his work and recommended him to Hitler, who assigned him to help [[Paul Troost]] renovate the Chancellery in Berlin. Speer's most notable work on this assignment was the addition of the famous balcony from which Hitler often presented himself to crowds that assembled below. Speer subsequently became a prominent member of Hitler's inner circle and a very close friend to him, winning a special place with Hitler that was unique amongst the Nazi leadership. Hitler, according to Speer, was very contemptuous towards anybody he viewed as part of the [[bureaucracy]], and prized fellow artists like Speer whom he felt a certain kinship with, especially as Hitler himself had previously entertained architectural ambitions.
==First Architect of the Reich==
When Troost died in [[1934]], Speer was chosen to replace him as the Party's chief architect. One of his first commissions after promotion was perhaps the most familiar of his designs: the [[Zeppelintribune]], the [[Nuremberg]] parade grounds seen in [[Leni Riefenstahl]]'s propaganda masterpiece, ''[[Triumph of the Will]]''. In his autobiography, Speer claimed that, upon seeing the original design, he made a derogatory remark to the effect that the parade ground would resemble a "rifle club" meet. He was then challenged to create a new design.
The grounds were based on ancient [[Doric order|Doric]] architecture of the [[Pergamon Altar]] in [[Anatolia]], but magnified to an enormous scale, capable of holding two hundred and forty thousand people. At the 1934 Party rally on the parade grounds, Speer surrounded the site with one hundred and thirty [[anti-aircraft]] [[searchlight|searchlights]]. This created the effect of a "cathedral of light," (which referenced [[columns]]) or, as it was called by [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Ambassador|Ambassador]] [[Sir Neville Henderson]], a "cathedral of ice".
Nuremberg was also to be the site of many more official Nazi buildings, most of which were never built; for example, the German Stadium would have held another four hundred thousand spectators as the site of the [[Aryan Games]], a proposed replacement for the [[Olympic Games]]. While planning these buildings, Speer invented the theory of "[[ruin value]]." According to this theory, enthusiastically supported by Hitler, all new buildings would be constructed in such a way that they would leave aesthetically pleasing ruins thousands of years in the future. Such ruins would be a testament to the greatness of the [[Third Reich]], just as ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] or [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ruins were symbols of the greatness of their civilizations.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:German pavilion 1937 exhibition.jpg|frame|right|Speer's German pavilion at the [[Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937)|1937 international exposition in Paris]].]] -->
In [[1937]] Speer designed the [[Germany|German]] Pavilion for the [[Exposition Internationale de Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937)|1937 international exposition in Paris]]. Speer's work was located directly across from the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Pavilion and was designed to represent a massive defense against the onslaught of [[communism]]. Both pavilions were awarded gold medals for their designs.
Speer was also directed to make plans to rebuild Berlin, which was to become the [[capital]] of a "Greater Germany" &mdash; [[Welthauptstadt Germania]]. The first step in these plans was the [[Olympic Stadium, Berlin|Olympic Stadium]] for the [[1936 Summer Olympics]], designed by [[Werner March]]. Speer also designed the [[new German Reichs Chancellery|new Reichs Chancellery]], which included a vast hall designed to be twice as long as the [[Hall of Mirrors]] in the [[Palace of Versailles]]. Hitler wanted him to build a third, even larger Chancellery, although it was never begun. The second Chancellery was damaged by the [[Battle of Berlin]] in [[1945]] and was eventually demolished by the Soviet occupiers after the war.
[[Image:Adolf Hitler in Paris.jpg|thumb|left|210px|Speer (left) with Hitler and [[Arno Breker]] in Paris, [[June 23]], [[1940]].]]
Almost none of the other buildings planned for Berlin were ever built. Berlin was to be reorganized along a central three-mile-(five km) long avenue. At the north end, Speer planned to build the ''[[Volkshalle]]'' &mdash; an enormous [[dome|domed]] building, based on [[St. Peter's Basilica]] in [[Rome]]. The dome of the building would have been impractically large; it would be over seven hundred feet (over two hundred meters) high and eight hundred feet (three hundred meters) in diameter, sixteen times larger than the dome of St. Peter's. At the southern end of the avenue would be an [[arch]] based on the [[Arc de Triomphe]] in Paris, but again, much larger; it would be almost four hundred feet (120 m) high, and the Arc de Triomphe would have been able to fit inside its opening. The outbreak of [[World War II]] in [[1939]] led to the abandonment of these plans.
During his involvement in the rebuilding of Berlin, he was allegedly responsible for the forced evictions of [[Jew]]s from their houses to make room for his grand plans, and for re-housing German citizens affected by this work. He was also listed as being present at the 1943 [[Posen Conference]], a charge Speer later contested by saying that he had in fact left early.
Speer did have an architectural rival: [[Hermann Giesler]], whom Hitler also favored. There were frequent clashes between the two in regard to architectural matters and in closeness to Hitler.
==Minister of Armaments==
Hitler was always a strong supporter of Speer, in part because of Hitler's own frustrated artistic and architectural visions. A strong affinity developed between Hitler and the ambitious young architect early in their professional relationship. For Speer, serving as architect for the head of the German state and being given virtual ''carte blanche'' as to expenses, presented a tremendous opportunity. For Hitler, Speer seemed to be capable of translating Hitler's grandiose visions into tangible designs which expressed what Hitler felt were [[Nazism|National Socialist]] principles.
After Minister of Armaments and War Production [[Fritz Todt]] was killed in an airplane crash in [[1942]], Hitler appointed Speer as his successor in all of his posts. Hitler's affinity for Speer and the architect's efficiency and avoidance of party squabbling are believed to have been considerations in Speer's promotion. In his autobiography, Speer recounts that the power-hungry but lazy [[Hermann Göring]] raced to Hitler's headquarters upon word of Todt's death, hoping to claim the office. Hitler instead presented Göring with the ''fait accompli'' of Speer's appointment.
Faced with this new responsibility, Speer tried to put the German economy on a war footing comparable to that of the [[Allied]] nations, but found himself incessantly hindered by party politics and lack of cooperation from the Nazi hierarchy. Nevertheless, by slowly centralizing almost all industry control and cutting through the dense [[bureaucracy]], he succeeded in multiplying war production four times over the next two and a half years, with it actually reaching its peak in 1944 during the height of the [[Allied]] [[Strategic bombing during World War II | strategic bombing campaign]]. Another big hurdle in his way was the Nazi policy excluding women from factory work, a serious hindrance in war production and a problem unknown to Germany's enemies, who all made full use of the female workforce. To fill this gap, Speer made heavy use of foreign labor, a considerable portion of it [[forced labor]].
Speer was considered one of the more "rational" members of the Nazi hierarchy, in contrast to the raging [[Hitler]], grotesque [[Hermann Göring|Göring]], fanatical [[Goebbels]], and perverse [[Himmler]].
Speer's name was found on the list of members of a post-Hitler government envisioned by the [[July 20 plot]] to kill Hitler.
However, the list had an annotation "if possible" by his name, which Speer credits with helping save his life from the extensive purges that followed the scheme's failure.
By his own account, Speer considered [[assassin|assassinating]] Hitler in [[1945]] by releasing poison gas into the air intake vent on the [[Führerbunker]], but backed down for a number of reasons. Independent evidence for this is sparse. Some credit his revelation of this plan at the [[Nuremberg trials]] as being pivotal in sparing him the [[death sentence]], which the [[Soviet]]s had pushed for.
Hitler continued to consider Speer trustworthy, though this trust waned near the war's end as Speer, at considerable risk, campaigned clandestinely to prevent the implementation of Hitler's [[scorched earth]] policy on both German soil and occupied territories. Speer worked in association with General [[Gotthard Heinrici]], whose troops fighting in
|
e."
:<span style="font-variant:small-caps">No. Humans need fantasy to be human. To be the place where the falling angel meets the rising ape.</span>
:"Tooth fairies? Hogfathers?"
:<span style="font-variant:small-caps">Yes. As practice. You have to start out learning to believe the ''little'' lies.</span>
:"So we can believe the big ones?"
:<span style="font-variant:small-caps">Yes. Justice. Mercy. Duty. That sort of thing.</span>
:"They're not the same at all!"
:<span style="font-variant:small-caps">Take the universe and grind it down to the finest powder and sieve it through with the finest sieve and then ''show'' me one atom of justice. And yet you act as if there were some sort of rightness in the universe by which it may be judged.</span>
:"Yes. But people have ''got'' to believe that or what's the ''point''&mdash;"
:<span style="font-variant:small-caps">My point exactly.</span>
:&ndash; ''Hogfather''
Also in the Elves books he presents elves as nasty, evil creatures, as they are in original English folk songs and stories e.g. [[Tam Lin]] <!-- Yes, the Faerie folk or Fae ARE Elves. Fairies (note different spelling) are Tinkerbell's mob There are even Tam Lin Allusions in Lords & Ladies IIRC Wikipedia only has a Fairy article which vaguely mentions that Elves & faeries are linked -->, quite in contrast with how they were portrayed by [[Tolkien]] which is more commonly known these days.
"Elves are wonderful. They provoke wonder.<br/>
Elves are fantastic. They create fantasies.<br/>
...<br/>
Elves are terrific. They beget terror.<br/>
The thing about words is that meanings can twist just like a snake..."<br/>
''Lords and Ladies''<br/>
A large portion of ''Carpe Jugulum'' is about internal "struggles", and how pieces of our mind do not always agree with other pieces of our mind (And how some of us feel we have "Darker" selves within us, that we keep deep, deep down). Aside from the obviously "split" mind character (Perdita and Agnes), it is shown that even characters as decisive as Granny Weatherwax have inner "selves" that they struggle with.
===Villains===
One interesting element of Discworld, certainly one that distinguishes it from much other fantasy, is its relative lack of recurring or overarching villains. This is mainly a tribute to the complexity of Pratchett's characters; many of his potential villains, such [[Lord Vetinari]] and [[Lord Downey]], are too multifaceted to be simplistically characterised as "evil", while other more standard villains, such as [[Minor Discworld characters#Lord Rust|Lord Rust]], are depicted merely as egocentric dullards. Principal villains in Discworld novels tend to die or be put similarly out of action by the story's end. The [[Lovecraftian]] creatures from the [[Dungeon Dimensions]] cannot be considered evil in any true sense, since they are utterly amoral and have no true motivations. There are however, two groups of villains that featured prominently in many of the stories and have, in their own ways, come to represent the force of evil in the Discworld. They are the [[Discworld gods#The Auditors of Reality|Auditors of Reality]] and the [[elf (Discworld)|Elves]]. These two races are, in many respects, opposite ends of the same spectrum. The Auditors, cosmic bureaucrats who prefer a universe where electrons spin, rocks float in space and imagination is dead, represent the perils of handing yourself over to a completely materialist and deterministic vision of reality, devoid of the myths and stories that make us human. The Elves, innately psychopathic beings who seek to dominate us by usurpring our free will with glamour and false magic, represent the dangers of giving yourself over completely to stories and superstition. Together they appear to reflect the philosophy Pratchett expresses in ''[[Hogfather]]''; that while the stories we weave may not be true, we still need them to continue our existence.
==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[Discworld (world)]]
*[[Discworld characters]]
==External links==
* [http://www.terrypratchettbooks.org/ Terry Pratchett Unseen Message Board] A Discworld fan's site with live chat, forum discussions and get-togethers.
* [http://www.avidgamers.com/Otherside/ When Dragons Belch and Hippos Flee], An Aknh-Morpork RolePLay site, where you can be your favorite character!
* [http://www.adventureclassicgaming.com/index.php/site/features/177/ A discussion of the Discworld computer and console games], Adventure Classic Gaming, 2003.
* [http://www.discworldmonthly.co.uk Discworld Monthly] (free monthly newsletter about Terry Pratchett OBE and his Discworld and other novels.)
* [http://www.discworld.com/ Terry Pratchett's: Only You Can Save Mankind - The Musical] A single page from 2004. No longer under construction.
* [http://www.electric-escape.net/pratchett/ Terry Pratchett Quotes archive] A searchable database of quotes from Terry Pratchett's novels.
* [http://www.lspace.org/books/reading-order-guides/the-discworld-reading-order-guide-colour-1-25.gif A 30kb .gif showing the interrelationships between the books and series within Discworld]
* [http://www.byenighte.com/ GURPS Discworld Bye Nighte]
* [http://discworld.atuin.net/ Discworld MUD] Allows you to enter the Discworld and become a wizard or assassin, or whatever you choose.
* [http://bb.tpdw.com The Watch House] An unofficial messageboard for discussing Discworld and other related topics
* [http://www.dwcon.org Discworld Convention 2006] The original Discworld Convention, in Leicestershire, Britain in August 2006
* [http://www.ausdwcon.org Nullus Anxietas] The Australian Discworld Convention
{{Discworld}}
[[Category:Discworld]]
[[Category:Fantasy series]]
[[bg:Светът на диска]]
[[cs:Zeměplocha]]
[[da:Diskverden]]
[[de:Scheibenwelt]]
[[el:Δισκόκοσμος]]
[[es:Mundodisco]]
[[fr:Disque-monde]]
[[gl:Mundodisco]]
[[he:עולם הדיסק]]
[[hu:Korongvilág]]
[[it:Mondo Disco]]
[[lb:Discworld]]
[[nl:Schijfwereld]]
[[no:Skiveverdenen]]
[[pl:Świat Dysku]]
[[pt:Discworld]]
[[ru:Плоский мир]]
[[sv:Skivvärlden]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Django Reinhardt</title>
<id>9039</id>
<revision>
<id>42002361</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:48:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>138.130.0.201</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Django&Grappelli.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Django (left) & Grappelli (right).]]
'''Jean Baptiste "[[Django]]" Reinhardt''' ([[January 23]], [[1910]] &ndash; [[May 16]], [[1953]]) was a [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[Roma and Sinti|Gypsy]] [[jazz]] [[musician|musician]]. He was one of the first important jazz musicians to be born in Europe. His most renowned tunes include "Minor Swing", "Tears", "Belleville" and "Nuages" ([[French language|French]], meaning "Clouds"). Django is pronounced '''zhane'''-go (with a long 'a').
==Biography==
Born in [[Liberchies]], [[Pont-à-Celles]], [[Belgium]], Reinhardt spent most of his youth in [[gypsy]] encampments close to [[Paris]], [[France]], playing [[banjo]], [[guitar]] and [[violin]] from an early age professionally at dance halls in [[Paris]]. He started first on the [[violin]] and eventually moved on to a [[banjo-guitar]] that had been given to him, and his first known recordings (in [[1928]]) were of him playing the banjo (a banjo guitar has six strings and is tuned like a [[guitar]]).
[[Image:Django_Reinhardt.jpg|thumb|Django Reinhardt as a boy]]
At the age of 18, Reinhardt was injured in a fire that ravaged the [[convoy|caravan]] he shared with his first wife where he almost lost a leg. The third and fourth digits on his left hand (his [[fret]]ting hand) were burned badly. Reinhardt focused on the guitar and developed an original style of playing that emphasized his undamaged fingers.
In 1934, Louis Vola formed the "[[Quintette du Hot Club de France]]" with Reinhardt, [[violin]]ist [[Stéphane Grappelli]], Reinhardt's brother [[Joseph Reinhardt|Joseph]] and [[Roger Chaput]] on guitar, and [[Louis Vola]] on bass. He produced numerous recordings at this time, and played with many American Jazz legends such as [[Coleman Hawkins]], [[Benny Carter]] , [[Rex Stewart]] and [[Louis Armstrong]]
As [[World War II]] was declared, the [[quintet]] was on tour in the [[United Kingdom]]. Reinhardt returned to [[Paris]] at once, leaving his wife behind. Grappelli remained in the [[United Kingdom]] for the duration of the war, and Reinhardt reformed the quintet in [[Paris]] with [[Hubert Rostaing]] on [[clarinet]] in place of Grappelli's violin.
Reinhardt survived [[World War II]] unscathed, unlike many other gypsies who perished in the concentration [[death camp]]s of the [[Nazi]]s. He had the help of a [[Luftwaffe]] official named [[Dietrich Schulz-Köhn]], a.k.a. Doktor Jazz, who deeply admired his music. In [[1943]] he married Sophie Ziegler in Salbris, with whom he had a son; [[Babik Reinhardt]], who went on to become a respected guitarist in his own right.
After the war, Reinhardt rejoined Grappelli in the UK, and went on to tour the [[United States]], opening for [[Duke Ellington]], and playing at [[Carnegie Hall]]. Unfortunately and despite Reinhardt's great pride in touring with Ellington (one of his two letters to Grappelli relates this excitment), he wasn't really integrated into the band. He only played a few tunes at the end of the show as Duke didn't write any special arrangements for him. He returned to France with broken dreams, but continued to play and make many recordings.
Django Reinhardt was among the first people in [[France]] to appreciate and understand the music of [[Charlie Parker]] and [[Dizzy Gillespi
|
l Sharp]] who worked in the early [[20th century]] to preserve a great body of English rural folk song, music and dance, under the aegis of what became and remains the [[English Folk Dance and Song Society]] (EFDSS). Sharp also worked in America, recording the folk songs of the Appalachian Mountains in 1916-1918 in collaboration with [[Maud Karpeles]] and [[Olive Dame Campbell]].
Around this time, composers of [[European classical music|classical music]] developed a strong interest in folk song collecting, and a number of outstanding composers carried out their own field work on folk song. These included [[Percy Grainger]] and [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]] in England and [[Béla Bartók]] in Hungary. These composers, like many of their predecessors, incorporated folk material into their classical compositions.
In America, during the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], the [[Library of Congress]] worked through the offices of musicologist [[Alan Lomax]] and others to capture as much American field material as possible.
Often, fieldworkers in folk song hoped that their work would restore folk music to the people. For instance, Cecil Sharp campaigned, with some success, to have English folk songs (in his own heavily edited and expurgated versions) to be taught to schoolchildren.
One theme that runs through the great period of scholarly folk song collection is the tendency of certain members of the "folk", who were supposed to be the object of study, to become scholars and advocates themselves. For example, [[Jean Ritchie]] was the youngest child of a large family from Viper, Kentucky that had preserved many of the old Appalachian folk songs. Ritchie, living in a time when the Appalachians had opened up to outside influence, was university educated and ultimately moved to New York City, where she made a number of classic recordings of the family repertoire and published an important compilation of these songs.
==Folk revivals==
As folk traditions decline, there is often a conscious effort to resuscitate them. Such efforts are often exerted by bridge figures such as Jean Ritchie, described above. Folk revivals also involve collaboration between traditional folk musicians and other participants (often of urban background) who come to the tradition as adults.
The folk revival of the 1950's in Britain and America had something of this character. In [[1950]] Alan Lomax came to [[United Kingdom|Britain]], where at a Working Men's Club in the remote Northumberland mining village of Tow Law he met two other seminal figures: [[A.L._Lloyd|A.L.'Bert' Lloyd]] and [[Ewan MacColl]], who were performing folk music to the locals there. Lloyd was a colourful figure who had travelled the world and worked at such varied occupations as sheep-shearer in [[Australia]] and [[sea shanty|shanty-man]] on a whaling ship. MacColl, born in Salford of Scottish parents, was a brilliant playwright and songwriter who had been strongly politicised by his earlier life. MacColl had also learned a large body of Scottish traditional songs from his mother. The meeting of MacColl and Lloyd with Lomax is credited with being the point at which the British [[roots revival]] began. The two colleagues went back to London where they formed the [[Ballads and Blues Club]] which eventually became renamed the [[Singers' Club]] and was the first, as well as the most enduring, of what became known as [[folk clubs]]. As the [[1950s]] progressed into the [[1960s]], the folk revival movement built up in both Britain and America.
Another example is the Hungarian model, the ''[[tanchaz]]'' movement. This model involves strong cooperation between musicology experts and enthusiastic amateurs, resulting in a strong vocational foundation and a very high professional level. They also had the advantage that rich, living traditions of Hungarian folk music and folk culture still survived in rural areas, especially in [[Transylvania]]. The involvement of experts meant an effort to understand and revive folk traditions in their full complexity. Music, dance, and costumes remained together as they once had been in the rural communities: rather than merely reviving folk music, the movement revived broader folk traditions. Started in the [[1970s]], ''tanchaz'' soon became a massive movement creating an alternative leisure activity for youths apart from discos and music clubs&mdash;or one could say that it created a new kind of music club. The ''tanchaz'' movement spread to ethnic Hungarian communities around the world. Today, almost every major city in the U.S. and Australia has its own Hungarian folk music and folk dance group; there are also groups in Japan, Hong Kong, Argentina and Western Europe.
See also: [[blues]], [[Harry Everett Smith]].
==The emergence of popular folk artists==
During the twentieth century, a crucial change in the history of folk music began. Folk material came to be adopted by talented performers, performed by them in concerts, and disseminated by recordings and broadcasting. In other words, a new genre of [[popular music]] had arisen. This genre was linked by nostalgia and imitation to the original traditions of folk music as it was sung by ordinary people. However, as a popular genre it quickly evolved to be quite different from its original roots.
Confusingly, popular (''i.e.'', commercially-disseminated) music based on a folk tradition is called "folk music", no matter how different it may be from a folk music rooted in the community. As a result, some individuals in a modern society are unaware that folk music of the original variety ever existed. For instance, many Americans, including some musicians, appear to believe that "folk music" has always meant a genre of song dominated by simplistic guitar accompaniments and primarily oriented towards political protest, humourous schtick, and/or obssessive musing on bad relationships and other personal "issues."
The rise of folk music as a popular genre began with performers whose own lives were rooted in the authentic folk tradition. Thus, for example, [[Woody Guthrie]] began by singing songs he remembered his mother singing to him as a child. Later, in the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], Guthrie both collected folk music and also composed his own songs, as did [[Pete Seeger]], who was the son of a professional [[musicologist]]. Through dissemination on commercial recordings, this vein of music became popular in the United States during the [[1950s]], through singers like [[the Weavers]] (Seeger's group), [[Burl Ives]], [[Harry Belafonte]] and the [[Kingston Trio]], who tried to reproduce and honor the work that had been collected in preceding decades. The commercial popularity of such performers probably peaked in the U.S. with the [[ABC Hootenanny]] [http://www.tvtome.com/Hootenanny/] television series in 1963, which was cancelled after the arrival of the Beatles, the "British invasion" and the rise of folk-rock.
The itinerant folksinger lifestyle was exemplified by [[Ramblin' Jack Elliott]], a disciple of Woody Guthrie who in turn influenced [[Bob Dylan]]. Sometimes these performers would locate scholarly work in libraries and revive the songs in their recordings, for example in [[Joan Baez]]'s rendition of "Henry Martin," which adds a [[guitar]] accompaniment to a version collected and edited by Cecil Sharp. Publications like [[Sing Out!]] [http://singout.org/] magazine helped spread both traditional and composed songs, as did folk-revival-oriented record companies.
Many of this group of popular folk singers maintained an idealistic, leftist/progressive political orientation. This is perhaps not surprising. Folk music is easily identified with the ordinary working people who created it, and preserving treasured things against the claimed relentless encroachments of [[capitalism]] is likewise a goal of many politically progressive people. Thus, in the [[1960s]] such singers as [[Joan Baez]], [[Phil Ochs]] and [[Bob Dylan]] followed in [[Woody Guthrie|Guthrie's]] footsteps and to begin writing "[[protest song|protest music]]" and [[topical song]]s, particularly against the [[Vietnam War]], and likewise expressed in song their support for the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]]. The influential Welsh-language singer-songwriter, [[Dafydd Iwan]], may also be mentioned as a similar example operating in a different cutural context. Some critics, especially proponents of the ethnocentric [[Neofolk]] genre, claim that this type of American 'progressive' folk is not folk music at all, but 'antifolk'. This is based on the idea that as liberal politics generally eschews the importance of ethnicity, it is incompatible with all [[folkish]] traditions. Proponents of this view often cite [[romantic nationalism]] as the only political tradition that 'fits' with folk music.
In [[Ireland]], [[The Clancy Brothers & Tommy Makem]] (although the members were all Irish born, the group became famous while based in New York's Greenwich Village, it must be noted), [[The Dubliners]], [[Clannad]], [[Planxty]], [[The Chieftains]], [[The Pogues]] and a variety of other folk bands have done much over recent years to revitalise and repopularise [[Irish traditional music]]. These bands were rooted, to a greater or lesser extent, in a living tradition of Irish music, and they benefitted from collection efforts on the part of the likes of [[Seamus Ennis]] and [[Peter Kennedy]], among others.
In [[Hungary]], the group [[Muzsikas|Muzsikás]] and the singer [[Marta Sebestyen|Márta Sebestyén]] became known throughout the world due to their numerous American tours and their participation in the Hollywood movie ''[[The English Patient]]'' and [[Marta Sebestyen|Sebestyén's]] work with the [[Deep Forest]] band.
===The blending of folk and popular genres===
The experience of the last century suggests th
|
e heart of the question is .... whether we are going to treat our fellow Americans as we want to be treated."
It could be argued that the ethics of reciprocity may replace all other moral principles or at least that it is superior to it. This guiding rule may or may not explictly tell one which actions or treatments are right or wrong. But the golden rule '''can''' provide one with moral coherence -- it is a consistency principle. One's actions are to be consistent with mutual love and respect to other fellow humans. Arising as it does in nearly all written-language cultures on the Earth, the ethic of reciprocity is a tool that differing cultures can readily use in handling [[conflict |conflicts]]. Given the modern global trend of political, social, and economic integreation (see [[globalisation]]), the golden rule of ethic may be becoming even more relevant and important than ever.
== Reciprocal altruism and Tit for tat ==
In [[evolutionary biology]], [[reciprocal altruism]] is a form of [[altruism]] in which one organism provides a benefit to another in the expectation of future reciprocation. This is equivalent to the [[Tit for tat]] strategy in [[game theory]] for the [[iterated prisoner's dilemma]]. Four main conditions of the strategy are
:1. Unless provoked, the agent will always cooperate
:2. If provoked, the agent will retaliate
:3. The agent is quick to forgive
:4. The agent must have a 2/3 chance of competing against the opponent more than once.
For several decades Tit-for-Tat was the most effective strategy for playing the game, winning in annual automated tournaments against (generally far more complex) strategies created by teams of computer scientists, economists, and psychologists. Moreover, Tit-for-Tat still is the most effective strategy if you compare the average performance of each competing team. Game theorists informally believed the strategy to be optimal (although no proof was presented).
This imply that ethics of reciprocity may be somewhat compatible with both recipocal altruism and cooperative egoism providing philosophical middle ground between [[Altruism (ethics)|ethical altruism]] and [[ethical egoism]]. However, it should be noted that in the game of iterated prisoner's dilemma, each players are set as equal. If one player is dominant in the game from the outset, it may be advantageous for such player to abandaon the coporation and betray other players, resulting in suboptimal outcome from collective point of view.
The ethics of reciprocity, on the other hand, presupose from the outset that everyone is equal no matter what. However, many actual articulation of ethics of reciprocity in history provide an exemption in the context of the violation of co-operation from the other party. This indicate that the golden rule may have had significant utilitarian justification as well as deontological justriciation.
== Right and Duty ==
{{sect-stub}}
'''[[Deontological ethics]]''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Deon'' meaning ''obligation'') or '''Deontology''' is an [[ethical]] theory holding that decisions should be made solely or primarily by considering one's duties and the rights of others. Deontology posits the existence of [[a priori]] [[moral]] obligations, further suggesting that people ought to live by a set of permanently defined principles that do not change merely as a result of a change in circumstances.
Secondly, the ethics of reciprocity should not be confused with another major ethical principle, often know as [[Wiccan Rede]], [[harm principle]], or [[Non-aggression principle|liberty principle]] (non-aggression principle) which is an ethical prohibition against aggression. This rule is also an ethical rule of "licence" or "[[right]]", that is people can do anything they like as long as it does not harm others. This rule does not compel one to help the other in need. On the other hand, "the golden rule is a good standard which is further improved by doing unto others, wherever possible, as ''they'' want to be done by." [[Karl Popper]] (''The Open Society and Its Enemies, Vol. 2)
Lastly, the ethic of reciprocity or Golden Rule of ethics, should not be confused with a "rule" in the semantic or logical sense. A logical loophole in the positive form of Golden "rule" is that it would require a [[Sadism and masochism|masochist]] to harm others, even without their consent, if that is what the masochist would wish for themselves. This loophole can be addressed by invoking a supplementary rule, which is sometimes called the [[silver rule]]. This states "treat others in the way that they wish to be treated". However, the silver rule may create another logical loophole. In a situation where an individual's background or belief may offend the sentiment of the majority (such as homosexuality or blasphemy), the silver rule may imply ethical majoritarianism if the Golden rule is enforced as if it were a law. An absurd example may be Adolf Hitler's reference to [[Otto Weininger]], which was something in the effect of "There was only one decent Jew, and he killed himself." Weininger was a Christian convert with Jewish background who was well known for his view about supposed superiority of Christianity and Christian character over Judaism and Jewishness.
== Religion ==
{{sect-stub}}
=== Buddhism ===
Ethics of reciprocity is fundamental to Buddhism. This is partly due to the fact that Buddhism, unlike theistic religions, does not rely on divine revelation. Therefore, in Buddhism, all aspects of teaching are regarded as wisdom rather than supernaturally derived and are to be undertaken voluntarily rather than as "commandments." For example, the first of the [[Five Precepts]] (Panca-sila) of Buddhism is to abstain from destruction of life. The justification of the precept is given in Chapter 10 of the Dhammapada, which states:
:"Everyone fears punishment; everyone fears death, just as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill. Everyone fears punishment; everyone loves life, as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill."
According to the second of [[Four Noble Truths]] of Buddhism, egoism (desire, craving or attachment) are rooted in ignorance and is considered as the cause of all suffering. Consequently, kindness, compassion and equanimity is regarded as the untainted aspect of human nature.
=== Christianity ===
=== Hinduism ===
=== Islam ===
=== Judaism ===
== History ==
*~[[20th century BC|1970]]-[[1640s BC|1640 BCE]] "Do for one who may do for you, / That you may cause him thus to do." - ''The [[Tale]] of the [[Eloquent Peasant]]'' 109-110, [[Ancient Egypt]], tr. [[R.B. Parkinson]].
*~[[13th century BC|1280 BCE]] "You shall not take vengeance or bear a grudge against your countrymen. Love your fellow as yourself: I am the LORD." - [[Tanakh]], new [[JPS]] translation, [[Leviticus]] 19:18, [[Judaism]].
*~[[7th century BC|700 BCE]] "That nature only is good when it shall not do unto another whatever is not good for its own self." - [[Dadistan-i-Dinik]] 94:5, [[Zoroastrianism]].
*? BCE "Whatever is disagreeable to yourself do not do unto others." - [[Shayast-na-Shayast]] 13:29, Zoroastrianism.
*~[[5th century BC|500 BCE]] "Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful." - [[Udana-Varga]] 5:18, [[Buddhism]].
*~[[5th century BC|500 BCE]] "The Sage...makes the self of the people his self." ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' Ch 49, tr. Ch'u Ta-Kao, Unwin Paperbacks, 1976. [[Daoism]]
*~[[5th century BC|500 BCE]] "What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others." ''[[Analects of Confucius]]'' 15:24, [[Confucianism]], tr. [[James Legge]].[http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Lunyu&no=415]
* ~[[5th century BC|500 BCE]] "Now the man of perfect virtue, wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others. To be able to judge of others by what is near in ourselves; this may be called the art of virtue." ''Analects of Confucius'' 6:30, Confucianism, tr. [[James Legge]]. [http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Lunyu&no=150]
*~[[5th century BC|500 BCE]] "one word that can serve as a principle of conduct for life [is] reciprocity. Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire." - [[Doctrine of the Mean]] 13.3, Confucianism.
*~[[5th century BC|500 BCE]] "Therefore, neither does he cause violence to others nor does he make others do so." - Acarangasutra 5.101-2, [[Jainism]].
*~[[2nd century BC|200 BCE]] "What you hate, do not do to anyone." - [[Deuterocanonical|Deuterocanonical Bible]], [[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]], [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]] 4:15, [[Roman Catholic Church]] and [[Judaism]].
*~[[150 BC|150 BCE]] "This is the sum of duty: Do naught unto others which would cause you pain if done to you." - Mahabharata 5:1517, [[Brahmanism]] and [[Hinduism]].
*~[[1st century|100 CE]] "What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow man. This is the [[Torah|law]]: all the rest is commentary." - [[Hillel the Elder]]; [[Talmud]], Shabbat 31a, [[Judaism]].
*~[[1st century|100 CE]] "In everything, do unto others as you would like them to do unto you; that is the meaning of the [[Torah|law]] and the [[Neviim|prophets]]." - [[Sermon on the Mount]], [[NRSV]], [[Gospel of Matthew]] 7:12, [[Christianity]]
*~[[1st century|100 CE]] "What you would avoid suffering yourself, seek not to impose on others." - [[Epictetus]].
*~[[7th century]] "Do unto all men as you would wish to have done unto you; and reject for others what you would reject for yourself." - [[Hadith]], [[Islam]].
*? CE "And if thine eyes be turned towards justice, choose thou for thy neighbour that which thou choosest for thyself." - Epistle to
|
an alternative to [[Christmas]], taking advantage of the fact that Newton's birthday falls on [[25 December]].
In July 1992, the [[Isaac Newton Institute|Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences]] was opened at Cambridge University - it is regarded as the [[United Kingdom]]'s national institute for mathematical research.
== Newton's Three Laws ==
The famous three laws of Newton, paraphrased.
# Newton's First law (also known as the Law of [[Inertia]]) states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest and that an object that is in motion tends to stay in motion unless acted upon by a net external force.
# Newton's Second law states that [[F=ma]], or [[force]] equals mass (in [[kilogram]]s) times [[acceleration]] (in metres per second squared (m/s²)). In other words, the acceleration produced by a net force on an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force and inversely proportional to the mass.
# Newton's Third law states that whenever one body exerts a force on another, the second body exerts the same amount of force, in the opposite direction.
== Newton's apple ==
[[Image:Newton's tree, Botanic Gardens, Cambridge.JPG|thumb|right|A reputed descendant of Newton's apple tree, found in the Botanic Gardens in [[Cambridge]], [[England]].]]
A popular story claims that Newton was inspired to formulate his theory of universal gravitation by the fall of an apple from a tree. Cartoons have gone further to suggest the apple actually hit Newton's head, and that its impact somehow made him aware of the force of gravity. There is no basis to '''''that''''' interpretation, but the story of the apple may have something to it. John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the royal mint and husband of Newton's niece, described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:
<blockquote>
In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge ... to his mother in Lincolnshire & while he was musing in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon thought he to himself & that if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a-calculating what would be the effect of that superposition... (Keesing, R.G., The History of Newton's apple tree, Contemporary Physics, 39, 377-91, 1998)
</blockquote>
The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed [http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Sgravity/htm calculate the Moon's orbital period], and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it '''universal gravitation'''.
''(From earlier entry)'' &nbsp; &nbsp; A contemporary writer, [[William Stukeley]], recorded in his ''Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life'' a conversation with Newton in Kensington on [[15 April]] [[1726]], in which Newton recalled "when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. It was occasioned by the fall of an apple, as he sat in contemplative mood. Why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground, thought he to himself. Why should it not go sideways or upwards, but constantly to the earth's centre." In similar terms, [[Voltaire]] wrote in his ''Essay on Epic Poetry'' (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree." These accounts are exaggerations of Newton's own tale about sitting by a window in his home ([[Woolsthorpe Manor]]) and watching an apple fall from a tree.
==Writings by Newton==
* ''[[Method of Fluxions]]'' (1671)
* ''[[De Motu Corporum in Gyrum]]'' (1684)
* ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' (1687)
* ''[[Opticks]]'' (1704)
* ''[http://www.pierre-marteau.com/currency/ed/newton-intro.html Reports as Master of the Mint]'' (1701-1725)
* ''[[Arithmetica Universalis]]'' (1707)
* ''[[An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture]]'' (1754)
* ''Short Chronicle'', ''The System of the World'', ''Optical Lectures'', ''Universal Arithmetic'', ''The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, Amended'' and ''De mundi systemate'' were published posthumously in 1728.
==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 90%">
* {{fnb|1}} The remainder of the dates in this article follow the Gregorian calendar.
* {{fnb|2}} Westfall (pp. 530–531) notes that Newton apparently abandoned his alchemical researches.
* {{fnb|3}} Westfall, p. 44.
* {{fnb|4}} Westfall, p. 595.
* {{fnb|5}} ''Principia'', Book '''III'''; cited in; ''Newton’s Philosophy of Nature: Selections from his writings'', p. 42, ed. H.S. Thayer, Hafner Library of Classics, NY, 1953.
* {{fnb|6}} ''A Short Scheme of the True Religion'', manuscript quoted in ''Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton'' by Sir David Brewster, Edinburgh, 1850; cited in; ''ibid'', p. 65.
* {{fnb|7}} Pfizenmaier, T.C., "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?" ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''68'''(1):57–80, 1997.
* {{fnb|8}} Yates, Frances A. ''The Rosicrucian Enlightenment.'' London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972.
* {{fnb|8}} Jacob, Margaret C. ''The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689-1720.'' p28.
* {{fnb|9}} Jacob, Margaret C. ''The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689-1720.'' p37 and p44.
* {{fnb|10}} Westfall, Richard S. ''Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England.'' Yale University Press, New Haven: 1958. p200.
* {{fnb|11}} Fitzpatrick, Martin. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The Enlightenment, politics and providence: some Scottish and English comparisons.” ''Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p64.
* {{fnb|12}} Frankel, Charles. ''The Faith of Reason: The Idea of Progress in the French Enlightenment.'' King’s Crown Press, New York: 1948. p1.
* {{fnb|13}} Germain, Gilbert G. ''A Discourse on Disenchantment: Reflections on Politics and Technology.'' p28.
* {{fnb|14}} Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The emergence of Rational Dissent.” ''Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p19.
* {{fnb|15}} Westfall, Richard S. ''Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England.'' p201.
* {{fnb|16}} Marquard, Odo. "Burdened and Disemburdened Man and the Flight into Unindictability," in ''Farewell to Matters of Principle.'' Robert M. Wallace trans. London: Oxford UP, 1989.
* {{fnb|17}} Jacob, Margaret C. ''The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689-1720.'' p100-101.
* {{fnb|18}} Jacob, Margaret C. ''The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689-1720.'' p61.
* {{fnb|19}} Cassels, Alan. ''Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World.'' p2.
* {{fnb|20}} Delambre, M. "Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le comte J. L. Lagrange," in ''Oeuvres de Lagrange'', I. Paris, 1867, p. xx. [http://www.rit.edu/~flwstv/newton.html (cited by Fred L. Wilson)]
</div>
==See also==
* [[History of calculus]]
* [[Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy]]
* "[[Standing on the shoulders of giants]]"
==Resources==
===References===
<div style="font-size: 80%">
* {{cite book | authorlink = Eric Temple Bell | last = Bell | first = E.T. | title = Men of Mathematics | location = New York | publisher = Simon and Schuster | year = 1937 | id = ISBN 0671464000 }} [http://scidiv.bcc.ctc.edu/Math/Newton.html Excerpt]
* {{cite book | last = Christianson | first = Gale | title = In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & his times | location = New York | publisher = Free Press | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0029051908 }}
* {{Web reference | URL = http://www.wamu.org/audio/dr/03/06/r2030613.ram | title = interview with James Gleick: "Isaac Newton" (Pantheon) | work = WAMU's The Diane Rehm Show Friday, June 13, 2003 (RealAudio stream) | year = 2005 | date = March 8 }}
* {{Web reference | URL = http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Newton.html | title = Sir Isaac Newton | work = School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland | year = 2005 | date = March 8 }}
* {{Web reference | URL = http://www.newtonproject.ic.ac.uk/ | title = The Newton Project | work = Imperial College London | year = 2005 | date = March 8 }}
* {{cite book | last = Westfall | first = Richard S. | title = Never at Rest | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1980, 1998 | id = ISBN 0521274354 }}
* {{cite book | last = Craig | first Sir John | title = Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters | work = Notes and Records of the Royal Society (18) | publisher = London:The Royal Society | year = 1963 }}
===Further reading===
* [[John Maynard Keynes]], ''Essays in Biography'', W W Norton & Co, 1963, paperback, ISBN 039300189X. Keynes had taken a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.
* Isaac Newton, ''Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy'', edited by [[I. Bernard Cohen]] ISBN 0-674-46853-8 Harvard 1958,1978
* [[Michael H. Hart]], ''[[The 100]]'', Carol Publishing Group, July 1992, paperback, 576 pages, ISBN 0806513500
* Simmons, J, ''The giant book of scientists -- The 100 greatest minds of all time'', Sydney: The Book Company, (1996)
* Isaac Newton (1642-1727), ''The Principia'': a new Translation, Guide by I. Bernard Cohen ISBN 0-520-08817-4 University of California 1999 ''Warning: common mistranslations exposed!''
*[[David Berlinski|Berlinski, David]], ''Newton's Gift:How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of our World'', ISBN 0684843927 (hardback), also in pap
|
onastical 'pioneering' (especially by the benedictine and cistercian orders) and some feudal lords actively attracting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions &ndash; even when they did so to launch or encourage cities, there always was an agricultural belt around and even quite some within the walls.
When on the other hand demography took a real blow by such causes as the [[Black Death]] or devastating warfare (e.g. [[Genghis Khan]]'s [[Mongol]] hords in eastern and central Europe, [[Thirty Years War]] in Germany) this could lead to settlements being abandoned, leaving land to be reclaimed by nature.
The large-scale building of wooden sail ships by European (coastal) naval owers since the 15th century for exploration, colonization, slave &ndash; and other trade on the high seas and (often related) naval warfare (the failed invasion of England by the [[Spanish Armada]] in 1559 and the [[battle of Lepanto]] 1577 are early cases of huge waste of prime timber; each of Nelson's Royal navy war ships at Trafalgar had required 6000 mature oaks) and piracy meant that whole woody regions were over-harvested, as in Spain, were this contributed to the paradoxical weakening of the domestic economy since Columbus' discovery of America made the colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade ...) predominant.
In ''Changes in the Land'' (1983), [[William Cronon]] collected 17th century [[New England]] Englishmen's reports of increased seasonal flooding during the time that the forests were initially cleared, though no connection was made at the time.
=== Industrial pressure===
The massive use of [[charcoal]] on an industrial scale was a new acceleration of the onslaught on western forests; even in Stuart England, the relatively primitive production of charcoal has already reached an impressive level.
One of the best documented and successful attempts at [[reforestation]] was effected by the [[Prussia]]n government in the mid-19th century to save the [[Curonian Spit]] from being engulfed by dunes.
=== Recent changes ===
The rate of clearance increased during the second half of the [[19th century]] due to [[agriculture|agricultural]] expansion in [[Europe]]. Deforestation rates peaked in New England about 1900 and in the [[Great Lakes]] region of the [[United States]] in the late 19th century. Rates of tropical deforestation have increased substantially into the [[post-war]] period as logging operations became mechanised.
Growing worldwide demand for [[wood]] to be used for fire wood or in construction, paper and furniture - as well as clearing land for commercial and industrial development (including [[road construction]]) have combined with growing local populations and their demands for agricultural expansion and wood fuel to endanger ever larger forest areas.
Agricultural development schemes in [[Mexico]], [[Brazil]] and [[Indonesia]] moved large populations into the [[rainforest]] zone, further increasing deforestation rates. One fifth of the world's tropical rainforest was destroyed between 1960 and 1990. Estimates of deforestation of tropical forest for the 1990s range from ca. 55,630 [[square kilometre|km²]] to ca. 120,000 km² each year. At this rate, all tropical forests may be gone by the year 2090.
== Environmental effects ==
=== Atmospheric pollution ===
Deforestation is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced [[greenhouse effect]]. Trees and other plants remove [[carbon]] (in the form of [[carbon dioxide]]) from the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] during the process of [[photosynthesis]]. Both the decay and burning of wood releases much of this stored carbon back to the atmosphere. A.J.Yeomans asserts in [http://www.yeomansplow.com.au/priority-one.htm Priority One] that overnight a stable forest releases exactly the same quantity of carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. Others state
that mature forests are net sinks of CO<sub>2</sub> (see [[Carbon dioxide sink]] and [[Carbon cycle]]).
=== Wildlife ===
Some forests are rich in [[biological diversity]]. Deforestation can cause the destruction of the habitats that support this biological diversity - thus causing population shifts and [[extinction]]s.
=== Hydrologic cycle and water resources ===
Trees, and plants in general, affect the [[hydrological cycle]] in a number of significant ways:
* their canopies intercept [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]], some of which evaporates back to the atmosphere;
* their litter, stems and trunks slow down runoff;
* their roots create macropores - large conduits - in the soil that increase infiltration;
* they transport water from the soil to the atmosphere via [[transpiration]];
* their litter and organic residue change soil properties that affect the capacity of soil to store water.
As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem function or human services.
=== Soil erosion ===
Deforestation generally increases rates of soil [[erosion]], by increasing the amount of [[runoff]] and reducing the protection of the soil from tree litter. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of roads and the use of mechanized equipment.
China's Loess Plateau was cleared of forest millennia ago. Since then it has been eroding, creating dramatic incised valleys, and providing the sediment that gives the Yellow River its yellow color and that causes the flooding of the river in the lower reaches (hence the river's nick-name 'China's sorrow').
Removal of trees does not always increase erosion rates. In certain regions of southwest US, shrubs and trees have been encroaching on grassland. The trees themselves enhance the loss of grass between tree canopies. The bare intercanopy areas become highly erodible. The US Forest Service, in Bandelier National Monument for example, is studying how to restore the former ecosystem, and reduce erosion, by removing the trees.
=== Landslides ===
Tree roots bind soil together, and if the soil is sufficiently shallow they act to keep the soil in place by also binding with underlying [[bedrock]]. Tree removal on steep slopes with shallow soil thus increases the risk of [[landslide]]s.
== Alternatives ==
=== Produce substitution ===
A proposed solution to deforestation is to reduce consumption of forest based products. Switching to brick, stone, [[concrete]], [[fiberglass]] and plastic for construction, or the use of [[hemp]] for paper products are amongst options often considered. However, these options do present their own downsides. Construction materials require fossil fuel derived materials to produce and tend to degrade much more slowly. Conversion of forestlands to agricultural lands to produce hemp can cause deforestation itself. Deforestation can also occur in mining and petroleum exploration.
=== Farming ===
Agriculture is one of the primary causes of deforestation. Once forestland is converted to agricultural land it is rarely allowed to regenerate back into forestland. However many farmers are now reforesting their land into tree plantations. Although an intensively managed tree plantation does not fully recreate the [[biodiversity]] found in less intensively managed forestlands, it still will provide more biodiversity than a monoculture hemp or potato plantation.
New methods are being developed to farm more food crops on less farm land, such as high-yield [[hybrid]] crops, [[greenhouse]], [[autonomous building]] gardens, and [[hydroponic]]s. The reduced farm land is then dependent on massive chemical inputs to maintain necessary yields. In cyclic [[agriculture]], cattle are grazed on farm land that is resting and rejuvenating. Cyclic agriculture actually increases the fertility of the soil. Selective over farming can also increase the nutrients by releasing such nutrients from the previously inert subsoil. The constant release of nutrients from the constant exposure of subsoil by slow and gentle erosion is a process that has been ongoing for billions of years. Slash-and-burn agriculture has recently needed re-evalution as it appears to be more sustainable than originally believed.
[[Poaceae|Grass]] is encouraged to grow on the resting farm land. The cows eat the grass and leave behind their dung, which is also a source of fertilizer. This process can reduce deforestation by using farmland to graze instead of using forest land if this is considered advantagious.
== Social change ==
Some societies are making efforts to stop or slow deforestation. In [[China]], where large scale destruction of forests has occurred, the government has required that every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 and 60 plant three to five trees per year or do the equivalent amount of work in other forest services. The government claims that at least 1000 million trees have been planted in China every year since 1982. In western countries, increasing consumer demand for wood products that have been produced and harvested in a sustainable manner are causing forest landowners and forest industries to become increasingly accountable for their forest management and timber harvesting practices.
The [[Arbor Day Foundation]]'s Rain Forest Rescue program is a charity that helps to prevent deforestation. The charity uses donated money to buy up and preserve rainforest land before the lumber companies can buy it. The Arbor Day Foundation then protects the land from deforestation. This also locks in the way of life of the primitive tribes living on the forest land..
==See also==
* [[Desertification]]
* [[Forestry]]
* [[Illegal logging]]
* [[List of environment topics]]
* [[Overpopulation]]
*
|
n 1903 against the favored [[National League]] team, the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]].In the following decade, the club won four World Series championships in a six-year span despite changing ownership several times. The 1912 and 1915 clubs featured an outfield considered to be among the finest in the game: [[Tris Speaker]], [[Harry Hooper]] and [[Duffy Lewis]], as well as superstar pitcher [[Smokey Joe Wood]]. The Sox won the Fall Classic both years.
The Red Sox were owned by [[Joseph Lannin]] from 1913 to 1916, who signed [[Babe Ruth]], commonly seen as the best player in baseball history. In 1919, the team's new owner, [[Harry Frazee]], sold Ruth to the [[New York Yankees]]. Legend has it that he did so in order to finance a [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] play ''[[No, No, Nanette|No, No Nanette]]'' starring 'a friend', but the play actually did not open on Broadway until 1925.
Rather, the Red Sox, White Sox and Yankees had a detente, the teams being referred to as the "Insurrectos," whose actions antagonized then AL president [[Ban Johnson]]. Alhough Frazee owned the Boston Red Sox franchise, he did not own Fenway Park (this was owned by the Fenway Park Trust), making his ownership a precarious one — Johnson could move another team into Fenway Park in Boston. Despite the fact Ruth held the single season homerun record (hitting 29 in 1919[http://www.baseball-reference.com/leaders/HR_leagues.shtml]), Frazee sold Ruth because he needed the money to purchase Fenway Park (which he did in 1920), the Red Sox franchise was in serious debt, Ruth was a serious disciplinary problem (and continued to be one in New York), and letting the Yankees have a box office attraction would help the then mediocre Yankees, who had sided with Frazee in conflicts with "the Loyal Five" other AL teams and Ban Johnson[http://espn.go.com/mlb/s/2002/0718/1407265.html].
The contract was a straight sale; the Red Sox got no players in return. This transaction would later become the source of the [[Curse of the Bambino]] legend, which suggested that the club was doomed to years of futility as a result of the trade. Frazee also unloaded a number of other Hall of Fame quality players to the Yankees for other reasons. [[Carl Mays]] quit the team in mid-game and refused to return; his trade was essentially a salvage operation. Other Frazee-era players went to New York as part of Frazee's financial strategy after he decided to leave baseball, having been driven out by Ban Johnson, including [[Sad Sam Jones]] and [[Waite Hoyt]]. These players (some of them Hall of Fame members) formed the nucleus of the first championship Yankee teams of the 1920s.
===The Ted Williams Era===
[[Image:Tedwilliams and tomyawkey.jpg|left|frame|Ted Williams & Tom Yawkey]]
The Red Sox were purchased in 1933 by a wealthy, shy young man named [[Tom Yawkey]] who began pumping money into the team. In 1939, the Red Sox purchased the contract of [[outfielder]] [[Ted Williams]], then playing in the [[Pacific Coast League]], ushering in an era of the team sometimes called the "Ted Sox". Williams was perhaps the most obsessive hitter in baseball history, and is generally considered the greatest hitter of all time because of his ability to hit for both power and average. Stories of his being able to hold a bat in his hand and correctly estimate its weight down to the ounce have floated around baseball circles for decades. ''Science of Hitting'', his book on the subject, is considered by some as a bible of hitting theory and science. He is also the last player to hit over .400 for a full season, which he did in 1941.
With Williams, the Red Sox went to the World Series in 1946, but lost to the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] in seven games, in part because of the use of the "Williams Shift", in which the shortstop would move to the right side of the infield to make it harder for the left-handed-hitting Williams to hit to that side of the field. Some have claimed that Williams was too proud to hit to the other side of the field, not wanting to let the Cardinals take away his game. He did not hit well in the Series, gathering only five singles in 25 at-bats, for a .200 average. However, his performance may have also been influenced by an elbow injury he had received a few days before when he was hit by a pitch in an exhibition game. In any case, 1946 would be the only year that Williams would play in a World Series.
The Red Sox featured several other very good players during the 1940s, including SS [[Johnny Pesky]] (for whom the right field foul pole in Fenway - "Pesky's Pole" - is named), 2B [[Bobby Doerr]], and CF [[Dom DiMaggio]] (brother of [[Joe DiMaggio|Joe]]). Despite this, they lost the pennant by one game in 1948 (losing a one-game playoff to the Indians, the first in American League history) and 1949 (losing the final two games of the season to the Yankees).
[[Image:Oldredsoxlogo.gif|thumb|Red Sox logo from 1950-1961]]The 1950s were a lean time for the Red Sox. After Williams returned from the [[Korean War]], many of the best players from the late 1940s had retired or been traded. The stark contrast in the team led critics to call the Red Sox' daily lineup "Ted Williams and the Seven Dwarfs". Also, unlike many other teams, they refused to sign black players, even passing up chances at future Hall-of-Famers [[Jackie Robinson]] and [[Willie Mays]], both of whom tried out for Boston and were highly praised by team scouts. Ted Williams hit .388 at the age of 38 in 1957, but there was little else for Boston fans to root for. Williams retired at the end of the 1960 season, famously hitting a home run in his final at-bat. The Sox finally became the last Major League team to sign an [[African American]] player when they signed modest [[Infielder|infielder]] [[Pumpsie Green]] in 1959.
Supposedly the right-field bullpens in Fenway Park were built in part for Williams' left-handed swing, and are sometimes called "Williamsburg".
===Carl "Yaz" Yastrzemski and the Impossible Dream===
<!--No Source Information: [[Image:Carl yastrzemski.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Carl "Yaz" Yastrzemski]]-->
The 1960s also started poorly for the Red Sox, though 1961 saw the debut of [[Carl Yastrzemski|Carl "Yaz" Yastrzemski]], who would become one of the best hitters of the pitching-rich decade.
Red Sox fans recollect 1967 as the year of the "Impossible Dream." The slogan refers to the hit song from the popular musical play "[[Man of La Mancha]]." The team had finished the 1966 season in ninth place, but they found new life with Yastrzemski leading the team to the World Series. Yastrzemski won the American League [[Triple crown (baseball)|Triple Crown]] and put on one of the greatest displays of hitting down the stretch in baseball history. But the Red Sox lost the series - again to the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] in seven games. The 1967 season is remembered as one of the great pennant races in baseball history because four teams were in the AL pennant race until almost the last game.
Although the Red Sox would be competitive for much of the next seven seasons, they never finished higher than second. The closest they came to a divisional title was 1972, when oddly they lost by a half-game to the [[Detroit Tigers]]. The start of the season was delayed by a players' strike, and the Red Sox further lost a game to a rainout that was never ordered to be replayed, which caused the Red Sox to lose the division by a half-game.
The Red Sox won the AL pennant in 1975, with Yastrzemski surrounded by other stars such as rookie outfielders [[Jim Rice]] and [[Fred Lynn]] (who won both the AL [[MLB Rookie of the Year award|Rookie of the Year]] and [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP]] awards), veteran outfielder [[Dwight Evans]], catcher [[Carlton Fisk]], and pitchers [[Luis Tiant]] and eccentric junkballer [[Bill Lee]]. In the playoffs, the Sox swept [[Catfish Hunter]] and the [[Oakland A's]] in three games.
Game 6 of the [[1975 World Series]], against the [[Cincinnati Reds]]' "Big Red Machine," is regarded by many as the greatest game in baseball postseason history. It was an extra-inning drama that featured dramatic home runs by [[Bernie Carbo]] and Fisk (the latter was the famous, game-winning "body English" homerun), as well as a sensational game-saving catch by Dwight Evans. Despite the series-tying win, the Red Sox lost Game 7, and this time it would be Yaz who never again played in a World Series.
In 1978, the Red Sox and the Yankees were involved in one of the most memorable pennant races in baseball history. Despite being 14 1/2 games behind the Red Sox in July, on September 10th, after completing a 4-game sweep of the Red Sox, the Yankees pulled into a tie for the divisional lead.
For the final three weeks of the season, the teams fought closely and exchanged the lead frequently. By the final day of the season, the Yankees' magic number to win the division was one - that is, either a win over Cleveland or a Boston loss to Toronto would clinch the division for the Yankees. However, New York lost 9-2 and Boston won 5-1, forcing a one-game playoff to be held at Fenway Park on Monday, October 2nd.
Although most people remember [[Bucky Dent]]'s three-run home run in the 7th inning off [[Mike Torrez]] just over the [[Green Monster (Fenway Park)|Green Monster]] which gave the Yankees a 4-2 lead, it was [[Reggie Jackson]]'s solo home run in the 8th that proved the difference in what would be a 5-4 Yankee win, which ended with Yastrzemski popping out to third base with [[Rick Burleson]] representing the tying run at third.
===The '86 World Series and Morgan's Magic===
After the [[1978 in baseball|1978]] playoff, the Red Sox wouldn't reach the postseason for the next seven years, finishing no higher than third during this period. Yastrzemski retir
|
entures of Huckleberry Finn''''' ([[1885 in literature|1885]]) by [[Mark Twain]] (Samuel Clemens) is commonly accounted as one of the first [[Great American Novel]]s. It was also one of the first novels ever written in the vernacular, or common speech, being told in the first person by the [[eponym]]ous [[List of characters in the Tom Sawyer series|Huckleberry "Huck" Finn]], best friend of [[Tom Sawyer]] (hero of three other Mark Twain books). The book was first published on [[February 18]], [[1885]]. ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' is also a great example of a [[bildungsroman]].
In ''[[The Green Hills of Africa]]'', [[Ernest Hemingway]] placed the novel in historical context:
:"All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called ''Huckleberry Finn''… But it's the best book we've had. All American writing comes from that. There was nothing before. There has been nothing as good since."
[[Norman Mailer]], likewise, had great praise saying, "The mark of how good ''Huckleberry Finn'' has to be is that one can compare it to a number of our best modern American novels and it stands up page for page."<!--Where?-->
The book is noted for its innocent young protagonist, its colorful description of people and places along the [[Mississippi River]], and its sober and often scathing look at entrenched attitudes, particularly [[racism]], of the time. The drifting journey of Huck and his friend Jim, a runaway [[slavery|slave]], down the Mississippi River on their raft, may be one of the most enduring images of [[escape]] and [[freedom]] in all of [[American literature]].
Although the book has been popular with young readers since its publication, and taken as a sequel to the comparatively innocuous ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'' (which had no particular social message), it has also been the continued object of study by serious literary critics. Although the Southern society it satirized was already 40 years in the past by the time of publication, it immediately became controversial, and has remained so to this day (see "Controversy" below).
{{spoiler}}
[[Image:Mark_twain2.JPG|frame|250px|right|Mark Twain]]
Many white characters in the story are depicted as foolish, cruel or selfish, in contrast to the main black character, [[Jim the slave|Jim]], who is depicted as wise and unselfish, albeit uneducated and superstitious. The story is set before the [[American Civil War]], probably in the [[1830s]]. Huck, as we know from ''Tom Sawyer'', is a loose-living young [[vagabond]] with no mother and an [[alcoholism|alcoholic]] father. He meets Jim, a slave who is about to be sold down the river and separated from his wife and children, and they attempt to go down the [[Mississippi River]] and then up the [[Ohio River|Ohio]] to freedom. The book tells of their [[adventure]]s together.
Family is one of the most important themes in the book. The attempt by Huck's father to gain custody of him in order to steal the money Huck and Tom had found in the previous book precipitates his flight, staging his own murder to get away. One of the major plot devices in the book is Jim's hiding the death of Huck's father from him. As they travel the river, Huck is frequently involved with families who attempt to adopt him.
Another theme is the life on the [[Mississippi River]], alternately idyllic and threatening. In true [[picaresque novel|picaresque]] fashion, Huck and Jim encounter all the varieties of humanity as they travel: murderers, thieves, [[Confidence trick|confidence men]], good people and [[hypocrite]]s.
In the middle of the story, Mark Twain comments on the irrationality of pride and honor, as Huck sees brutal, cold-blooded murders committed by two feuding families. Later on, a southern [[aristocrat]] coldly kills a drunk man yelling empty threats at him, and the village turns the incident into a sort of circus, ignoring the dead man's daughter while trying to start a [[lynch mob]], which quickly disintegrates after being mocked by the murderer himself. The King and Duke, two infamous characters of the novel, attempt to con three orphaned girls out of their late uncle's life savings. Towards the end of the book, they are [[Tarring and feathering|tarred and feathered]], and carried out of town on a rail, symbolizing how equally evil a village of people can be. In fact, it is repeatedly shown that Jim, the [[fugitive]] slave, is one of the only characters in the novel with a [[conscience]].
It is commonly said that the beginning and ending of the book, the parts in which Tom Sawyer appears as a character, detract from its overall impact. Others feel Tom serves to start the story off and to bring it to a conclusion, and that Tom's ridiculous schemes have the [[paradox]]ical effect of providing a framework of 'reality' around the mythical river voyage. Much of the boyhood innocence and romantic depictions of nature occur in the first sixteen chapters and the last five, while the middle of the story shows the harsh realities of [[antebellum]] society.
Another theme is Huck's gradual acceptance of Jim as a man, strong, brave, generous, and wise (though realistically portrayed as imperfect).
Its themes on [[religion]] are almost as strong as its race theme. Huck himself comes across as religious but having trouble believing in [[God]]: although he tries to pray, he finds it to be a waste of time. In fact, Huck comes across as one of the most unbiased, open-minded characters of popular literature as he continually questions his own motivation and life in general throughout the book.
In another amusing commentary on 19th century society, Twain includes the character of a deluded, unemployed drunkard who insists upon being addressed as "Your Majesty" and claims to be the long-lost son of [[Louis XVI]] and Queen [[Marie-Antoinette]], who were both executed by French republicans in [[1793]]. Their son, [[Louis XVII]], died in a republican jail in [[1795]], but many pretenders appeared all over the world claiming to be the young boy-king of [[France]]. By the middle of the century they were becoming increasingly absurd and unbelievable.
==Controversy==
[[Image:Huckleberry-finn-with-rabbit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Huckleberry Finn]]
Although the [[Concord, Massachusetts]] library banned the book shortly after its publication because of its "tawdry subject manner" and "the coarse, ignorant language in which it was narrated", the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' came quickly to its defense on March 29, [[1885]]:
:"Running all through the book is the sharpest [[satire]] on the ante-bellum estimate of the slave. Huckleberry Finn, the son of a worthless, drunken, poor white man, is troubled with many [[qualm]]s of conscience because of the part he is taking in helping the negro to gain his freedom. This has been called exaggerated by some critics, but there is nothing truer in the book."[1]
In the United States, occasional efforts have been made to restrict the reading of the book. In addition to its Concord ban, it has, at various times, also been:
* excluded from the juvenile sections of the [[Brooklyn]] Public library and other libraries
* removed from reading lists due to alleged racism (e.g., in March of [[1995]] it was removed from the reading list of 10th grade English classes at National Cathedral School in [[Washington, DC]], according to the ''[[Washington Post]]'' (a [[New Haven, Connecticut]] correspondent to [[Banned Books Online]] reports it has been removed from a public school program there as well).
* removed from school programs at the behest of groups maintaining that its frequent use of the word ''[[nigger_(word)|nigger]]'' implies that the book as a whole is [[racist]], despite what defenders maintain is the overwhelmingly anti-racist plot of the book, its satirical nature, and the anachronism of applying current definitions of polite speech to past times.
[[Russell Baker]] wrote:
:"The people whom Huck and Jim encounter on the Mississippi are drunkards, murderers, bullies, swindlers, lynchers, thieves, liars, frauds, child abusers, numskulls, hypocrites, windbags and traders in human flesh. All are white. The one man of honor in this phantasmagoria is 'Nigger Jim,' as Twain called him to emphasize the irony of a society in which the only true gentleman was held beneath contempt."[http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/hentoff112999.asp]
The [[American Library Association]] ranked ''Huckleberry Finn'' the fifth most frequently challenged (in the sense of attempting to ban) book in the United States during the [[1990s]].
A character in the [[1969]] [[Nero Wolfe]] novel ''Death of a Dude'' by [[Rex Stout]] opines that "All right, then, I'll go to hell," Huck's pronouncement on his own fate for his decision to help Jim escape, is the single greatest sentence in American literature. While that is rather a large claim, many critics would likely agree that this is ''one of'' the greatest lines in American literature.
==References and external links==
{{wikisource}}
* [http://www.randomhouse.com/highschool/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780553210798&view=tg Teacher's Guide] at Random House
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/banned-books.html Banned Books Online]
* [http://www.boondocksnet.com/twainwww/hf_debate.html Hucklebery Finn Debated]
* {{gutenberg|no=76|name=The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn}}
* [http://www.mtwain.com/Adventures_Of_Huckleberry_Finn/index.html Adventures of Huckleberry Finn] - searchable, indexed e-text.
* [http://mark-twain.classic-literature.co.uk/the-adventures-of-huckleberry-finn/ Adventures of Huckleberry Finn] - Full text in easy to read HTML format.
* Audiobook recording with accompanying text of [http://content.loudlit.org/audio/hfinn_java/pages/01_01_hfinn.htm "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn"].
*[http://
|
- [[President of the United States|US President]] [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] signs the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] into [[United States law]].
*[[1984]] - [[Pop music|Pop]] star [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] releases ''[[Purple Rain (album)|Purple Rain]]'', the album which would launch him to superstardom.
*[[1986]] - A low-pressure system that redeveloped off the [[New South Wales]] coast dumps a record 328 millimetres (13 inches) of rain in a day on [[Sydney]].
*[[1988]] - "[[Police riot]]" in [[New York City]]'s [[Tompkins Square Park]]
*[[1990]] - [[Gulf War]]: The [[United Nations Security Council]] orders a global [[trade embargo]] against [[Iraq]] in response to Iraq's invasion of [[Kuwait]]
*[[1991]] - [[Tim Berners-Lee]] releases files describing his idea for the [[World Wide Web]].
*1991 - [[Doi Takako]], chair of the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)]], becomes [[Japan|Japan's]] first female speaker of the [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]].
*[[1993]] - [[Louis Freeh]] is confirmed by the [[United States Senate]] to be the director of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
*1993 - ''[[The Fugitive (1993 film)|The Fugitive]]'' opens in theaters, starring [[Harrison Ford]] and [[Tommy Lee Jones]].
*[[1996]] - [[NASA]] announces that the [[ALH 84001]] meteorite, thought to originate from [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], contains evidence of primitive life-forms.
*[[1997]] - [[Microsoft]] buys $150 million worth of shares of financially troubled [[Apple Computer]].
*1997 - [[Korean Air Flight 801]], a [[Boeing 747]]-300, crashes into the jungle on [[Guam]] on approach to airport, killing 228.
*[[2000]] - The [[Roman Catholic Church]]'s [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], under Prefect [[Pope Benedict XVI|Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger]], publishes ''[[Dominus Iesus]]'', notable for its lack of the [[filioque clause]] in the [[Latin]] text of the [[Nicene Creed]].
*[[2001]] - White House briefing entitled [[Bin Laden Determined to Strike in U.S.]] delivered to [[George W. Bush]]. This document foreshadowed the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].
*[[2002]] - [[Marquis de la Fayette]] is made [[Honorary Citizen of the United States]]
*2002 - [[Manindra Agrawal|Manindra Agrawal et al]] prove the long standing [[AKS primality test|number theory conjecture]] in the article entitled "Primes in P".
==Births==
*[[1180]] - [[Emperor Go-Toba]] of Japan (d. [[1239]])
*[[1504]] - [[Matthew Parker]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (d. [[1575]])
*[[1619]] - [[Barbara Strozzi]], Italian singer and composer (d. [[1677]])
*[[1638]] - [[Nicolas Malebranche]], French philosopher (d. [[1715]])
*[[1644]] - [[Louise de la Vallière]], French mistress of [[Louis XIV of France]] (d. [[1710]])
*[[1656]] - [[Claude de Forbin]], French naval commander (d. [[1733]])
*[[1697]] - [[Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1745]])
*[[1715]] - [[Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues]], French writer (d. [[1747]])
*[[1766]] - [[William Hyde Wollaston]], English chemist (d. [[1828]])
*[[1768]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Bessières]], French marshal (d. [[1813]])
*[[1809]] - [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]], English poet (d. [[1892]])
*[[1844]] - [[James Henry Greathead]], British engineer (d. [[1896]])
*1844 - [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] (d. [[1900]])
*[[1868]] - [[Paul Claudel]], French poet (d. [[1955]])
*[[1874]] - [[Charles Fort]], American writer and researcher (d. [[1932]])
*[[1877]] - [[Wallace H. White, Jr.]], U.S. Senator from Maine (d. [[1952]])
*[[1880]] - [[Hans Moser (actor)]], Austrian actor (d. [[1964]])
*[[1881]] - [[Leo Carrillo]], American actor (d. [[1961]])
*1881 - [[Alexander Fleming]], Scottish scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1955]])
*1881 - [[Louella Parsons]], American gossip columnist (d. [[1972]])
*[[1889]] - [[John Middleton Murry]], English poet (d. [[1957]])
*[[1892]] - [[Hoot Gibson]], American actor (d. [[1962]])
*[[1893]] - [[Wright Patman]], American politician (d. [[1976]])
*[[1900]] - [[Cecil H. Green]], American geophysicist and businessman (d.[[2003]])
*[[1902]] - [[Dutch Schultz]], American bootlegger and gangster (d. [[1935]])
*[[1911]] - [[Lucille Ball]], American actress and comedian (d. [[1989]])
*[[1916]] - [[Richard Hofstadter]], American historian (d. [[1970]])
*[[1917]] - [[Robert Mitchum]], American actor (d. [[1997]])
*[[1922]] - Sir [[Freddie Laker]], English entrepreneur
*[[1923]] - [[Jess Collins]], American artist (d. [[2004]])
*[[1928]] - [[Andy Warhol]], American artist (d. [[1987]])
*[[1932]] - [[Howard Hodgkin]], British painter and print-maker
*[[1934]] - [[Piers Anthony]], English writer
*[[1937]] - [[Barbara Windsor]], English actress
*[[1938]] - [[Paul Bartel]], American actor, writer, and director (d. [[2000]])
*[[1941]] - [[Lyle Berman]], American poker player
*[[1943]] - [[Jon Postel]], Computer Scientist
*[[1946]] - [[Roh Moo-hyun]], [[President of South Korea]]
*1946 - [[Masaaki Sakai]], Japanese comedian
*[[1949]] - [[Alan Campbell (pastor)|Alan Campbell]], Northern Irish clergyman
*1949 - [[Clarence Richard Silva]], Catholic Bishop of Honolulu
*[[1951]] - [[Daryl Somers]], Australian television personality
*[[1957]] - [[Jim McGreevey]], Governor of New Jersey
*[[1962]] - [[Michelle Yeoh]], Hong Kong actress
*[[1963]] - [[Kevin Mitnick]], computer hacker
*[[1965]] - [[Yuki Kajiura]], Japanese composer
*[[1969]] - [[Elliott Smith]], American musician (d. [[2003]])
*[[1970]] - [[M. Night Shyamalan]], Indian-born film director, writer, producer, and actor
*[[1971]] - [[Merrin Dungey]], American actress
*[[1972]] - [[Geri Halliwell]], British singer
*[[1973]] - [[Asia Carrera]], American actress
*[[1976]] - [[Melissa George]], Australian actress
*[[1978]] - [[Billy Klippert]], Canadian singer
*[[1979]] - Steven McCrory, IP Solutions Specialist
*[[1982]] - [[Adrianne Curry]], American reality television
*[[1983]] - [[Robin van Persie]], Dutch football player
*[[1990]] - [[JonBenét Ramsey]], American beauty queen and murder victim (d. [[1996]])
<!--Do not add yourself, or anyone else that does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list.-->
==Deaths==
*[[258]] - Saint [[Pope Sixtus II]]
*[[523]] - Saint [[Pope Hormisdas]]
*[[1162]] - [[Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona]]
*[[1195]] - [[Henry the Lion]], Duke of Saxony and Bavaria (b. [[1129]])
*[[1221]] - Saint [[Dominic de Guzman|Dominic]], Spanish founder of the Dominicans (b. [[1170]])
*[[1272]] - King [[Stephen V of Hungary]]
*[[1414]] - King [[Ladislas of Naples]] (b. [[1377]])
*[[1458]] - [[Pope Callixtus III]] (b. [[1378]])
*[[1623]] - [[Anne Hathaway (Shakespeare's wife)]] (b. [[1556]])
*[[1628]] - [[Johannes Junius]], Mayor of Bamberg (b. [[1573]])
*[[1637]] - [[Ben Jonson]], English writer (b. [[1572]])
*[[1645]] - [[Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex]], English merchant (b. [[1575]])
*[[1660]] - [[Diego Velázquez]], Spanish painter (b. [[1599]])
*[[1679]] - [[John Snell]], English royalist (b. [[1629]])
*[[1695]] - [[François de Harlay de Champvallon]], French Catholic archbishop (b. [[1625]])
*[[1753]] - [[Georg Wilhelm Richmann]], Russian physicist (struck by lightning) (b. [[1711]])
*[[1759]] - [[Eugene Aram]], English philologist (b. [[1704]])
*[[1794]] - [[Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst]], British politician (b. [[1714]])
*[[1850]] - [[Edward Walsh]], Irish poet (b. [[1805]])
*[[1866]] - [[John Mason Neale]], English divine, scholar and hymnwriter (b. [[1818]])
*[[1904]] - [[Eduard Hanslick]], Austrian music critic (b. [[1825]])
*[[1914]] - [[Ellen Louise Wilson]], [[First Lady of the United States]], first wife of President [[Woodrow Wilson]] (b. [[1860]])
*[[1931]] - [[Bix Beiderbecke]], American musician (b. [[1903]])
*[[1942]] - [[Jonathan Campbell]], American film pioneer (b. [[1875]])
*[[1945]] - [[Wu, Prince of Korea|Prince Wu of Korea]] (b. [[1912]])
*[[1946]] - [[Tony Lazzeri]], baseball player (b. [[1903]])
*[[1959]] - [[Preston Sturges]], American playwright, screenwriter, and director (b. [[1898]])
*[[1964]] - Sir [[Cedric Hardwicke]], English actor (b. [[1893]])
*[[1966]] - [[Cordwainer Smith]], American writer (b. [[1913]])
*[[1969]] - [[Theodor Adorno]], German sociologist and philosopher (b. [[1903]])
*[[1973]] - [[Fulgencio Batista]], Cuban dictator (b. [[1901]])
*[[1974]] - [[Gene Ammons]], American jazz saxophonist (b. [[1925]])
*[[1976]] - [[Gregor Piatigorsky]], Russian cellist (b. [[1903]])
*[[1978]] - [[Pope Paul VI]] (b. [[1897]])
*[[1979]] - [[Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen]], German biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1911]])
*[[1983]] - [[Klaus Nomi]], German singer (b. [[1944]])
*[[1985]] - [[Forbes Burnham]], [[President of Guyana]] (b. [[1923]])
*[[1987]] - [[Quinn Martin]], American television producer (b. [[1922]])
*[[1991]] - [[Harry Reasoner]], American reporter (b. [[1923]])
*[[1993]] - [[Tex Hughson]], baseball player (b. [[1916]])
*[[1994]] - [[Domenico Modugno]], Italian singer and songwriter (b. [[1928]])
*[[1998]] - [[Andre Weil]], French mathematician (b. [[1906]])
*[[2001]] - [[Jorge Amado]] de Faria, Brazilian writer (b. [[1912]])
*[[2002]] - [[Edsger Dijkstra]], Dutch computer scientist (b. [[1930]])
*[[2004]] - [[Rick James]], American musician (b. [[1948]])
*[[2005]] - [[Keter Betts]], American jazz bassist (b. [[1928]])
*2005 - [[Robin Cook]], British politician (b. [[1946]])
*2005 - [[Ibrahim Ferrer]], Cuban musician ([[Buena Vista Social Club]]) (b. [[1927]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Christianity]] - Feast of the [[Transfiguration of Christ]]
*[[Bolivia]] - Independence Day
*[[Jamaica]] - Independence Day
*[[United Arab Emirates]] - H.H. Sheikh [[Zayed Bin Sultan Al Nahyan]]'s Accession Day
*[[Japan]] - [[Toro Nagashi]] (Hiroshima) - Floating lantern ceremony to honor those killed by the U.S. atomic bomb in Hiroshima.
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/6 BBC: On This
|
t:Storia di Microsoft Windows]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Windows]]
[[zh:Microsoft Windows的历史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the GUI</title>
<id>13695</id>
<revision>
<id>15911288</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History_of_the_graphical_user_interface]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Helsinki</title>
<id>13696</id>
<revision>
<id>41936255</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:12:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ilmari Karonen</username>
<id>398996</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv, cite?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Kuntainfo|
fullname=Helsingin kaupunki<br>Helsingfors stad|
coatofarms=[[Image:Helsinki.vaakuna.svg|75px|Helsinki coat of arms]]|
status=city|
map=[[Image:Helsinki dot.png|230px|Helsinki on a map of Finland]]|
province=Southern Finland|
region=Uusimaa|
district=Helsinki|
citymanager=Jussi Pajunen|
languages=[[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]]|
arearank=342nd|
area=185.32|
arealand=184.47|
poprank=1st|
popdate=January 1 2006|
pop=559046|
popchange=- 0.1|
popdensity=3,032.1|
urbanisation=99.9|
unemployment=8.9|
website=http://www.helsinki.fi/
}}
'''Helsinki''' (pronounced with the stress on the first syllable in [[Finnish language|Finnish]]: {{IPA|['helsiŋki]}}), or '''Helsingfors''' in [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]] ({{Audio|sv-Helsingfors.ogg|listen}}), also called '''"Stadi"''' in [[Helsinki slang|local slang]], is the [[capital]] of [[Finland]]. It is located in the southern part of Finland on the shore of the [[Gulf of Finland]], at {{coor dm|60|10|N|24|56|E|}}. The population of Helsinki is about 560,000. Helsinki forms a [[conurbation]] with three other cities, [[Espoo]], [[Vantaa]] and [[Kauniainen]], which are together called the capital area. This area has about 975,000 citizens. The [[Greater Helsinki]] area contains many more municipalities and has a total population of 1,232,741 (2004).
== History ==
{{main|History of Helsinki}}
Founded in 1550 as a rival to the Hanseatic city of [[Tallinn]] by the King [[Gustav I of Sweden]], Helsinki struggled in its infancy. The fledging settlement was plagued by poverty, wars and diseases. For a long time it remained as a small low-key coastal town, overshadowed by the more thriving trade centers in the Baltic region. Construction of the [[Suomenlinna]] sea fortress helped to improve its status, but it was not until Russia defeated Sweden in the [[Finnish War]] and annexed Finland as autonomous [[Grand Duchy of Finland]] in 1809 that Helsinki began to truly change.
To help reduce the Swedish influence, tsar [[Alexander I of Russia]] had the capital moved from [[Turku]] to Helsinki. [[Academy of Åbo]], the only university in the country, was also relocated to Helsinki in 1827, eventually becoming the [[University of Helsinki]]. This move consolidated the city's new role and the following decades saw unprecedented growth and development for the city, creating the prerequisites for the birth of a modern world class capital in the 20th century. This transformation is highly apparent in the downtown core, which was rebuilt in [[neoclassicism|neoclassical]] style to resemble [[St. Petersburg]]. Like elsewhere, technological advancements such as railroads and [[industrialization]] were a key factor behind the growth.
Although much of the first half of the 20th century was a violent period for Helsinki, it continued to steadily develop. Modern postwar urbanization of the 1970s, which occurred relatively late in European context, tripled the population in the metropolitan area, making the [[Helsinki metropolitan area]] one of the fastest growing urban centers in the European Union in 1990s.
==Services==
[[Image:Helsinkimerelta--GFDL--.jpg|thumb|right|Historical downtown Helsinki skyline from the sea]]
[[Image:Hesakirkot--GFDL--.jpg|thumb|right|Rooftops of the southern inner city districts]]
[[Image:Senaatintori joulukuisena aamuna 2004.jpg|thumb|right|The Senaatintori square on a winter morning]]
===Education===
Helsinki has 190 comprehensive schools, upper secondary schools and 15 vocational institutes. Half of the 41 upper secondary schools are private or state-owned. Higher level education is given in eight universities (see the section "Universities" below) and four polytechnics.
==== Institutions of higher education ====
===== Universitites =====
''Main article: [[Universities in Finland]]''
*[[University of Helsinki]]
*[[Helsinki University of Technology]] (actually located in [[Espoo]])
*[[Helsinki School of Economics]]
*[[Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration]]
*[[Academy of Fine Arts (Finland)|Academy of Fine Arts]]
*[[Sibelius Academy]]
*[[Theatre Academy (Finland)|Theatre Academy]]
*[[University of Art and Design Helsinki]]
*[[National Defence College (Finland)]] (not necessarily considered a university)
===== Polytechnics =====
*[[Helsinki Polytechnic Stadia]]
*[[Helsinki Polytechnic Arcada]]
*[[Helsinki Business Polytechnic (Helia)]]
=== Traffic ===
{{main|Public transport in Helsinki}}
[[Image:Mannerheimintie.jpg|thumb|right|Mannerheimintie]]
In Helsinki, [[public transport]] is mostly managed by [[Helsinki City Transport]]. The diverse [[Public transport in Helsinki|public transport system]] consists of [[Helsinki tram|tram]]s, ''[[VR lähiliikenne]]'' [[commuter train]]s, the [[Helsinki Metro]] and [[bus]] lines. The [[Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council]] manages traffic to the surrounding municipalities of Espoo, Vantaa and Kauniainen.
Today, Helsinki is the only city in Finland to have trams or metro trains. There used to be two other cities in Finland with tram traffic: [[Turku]] and [[Viipuri]] (Vyborg). However, Turku abandoned trams in [[1972]] and Viipuri (at that time part of the [[Soviet Union]]) abandoned them in [[1957]].
The metro line, opened in [[1982]], was the first, and so far the only, metro line in all of Finland. For the first 16 years of its existence, the line was [[topology|topologically]] only one straight line, but in [[1998]] a fork was added at [[Itäkeskus metro station]], dividing the remainder of the line into two branches with three stations each. Metro is an especially important method of transportation for commuters in the growing suburbs of Eastern Helsinki, and there are also plans to further expand the system to [[Espoo]] (see ''[[Länsimetro]]''), but lack of agreement over financing has caused delays to the project. If the plans for automation in the system are approved, the Helsinki Metro will operate without drivers in 2010.
Air traffic is handled from the international [[Helsinki-Vantaa Airport]] and [[Malmi Airport]]. Ferry connections to [[Tallinn]] and [[Stockholm]] are serviced by various companies, including [[Silja Line]], [[Viking Line]], [[SeaWind Line]], [[Linda Line]], [[Nordic Jet Line]] and [[Tallink]] (see [[Ruotsinlaiva]]). [[Finnlines]] passenger-freight ferries to [[Travemünde]], [[Germany]] are also available. [[Copterline]] provides fast helicopter flights to Tallinn.
=== Other services ===
The largest hospitals of Finland are located in Helsinki, for example [[HYKS]] and many private hospitals. Also [[police]] and [[firemen|fire departments]] serve citizens.
== Politics ==
[[Image:Helsinki climate.png|thumb|right|250px|The Climate in Helsinki]]
{{main|Politics of Helsinki}}
== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Helsinki}}
Helsinki spreads around a number of bays and peninsulas and over a number of islands. Some of the most important islands include [[Seurasaari]], [[Lauttasaari]] and [[Korkeasaari]] &ndash; which is also the country's biggest zoo &ndash; as well as the fortress island of [[Suomenlinna]] (Sveaborg) and the military island of [[Santahamina]].
== Architecture ==
[[Carl Ludvig Engel]] (1778-1840) designed several [[neoclassicism|neo-classical]] buildings in Helsinki. He was kept in Helsinki by a unique assignment, as he was elected to plan a new centrum all on his own, which later on was also referred to as ''The White City Of The North''. The city became shallow and wide at the time when most buildings had only two or three floors. The central point of Engel's city is the [[Helsinki Senate Square|Senate Square]], surrounded by the Government's Palace, the main building of the University, and the enormous [[Helsinki Cathedral|Cathedral]], which was finished in 1852, twelve years after C. L. Engel's death.
[[Image:Helsinki Cathedral in July 2004.jpg|thumb|right|320px|The [[Helsinki Cathedral]] (Fin. ''Helsingin tuomiokirkko'', Swe. ''Helsingfors domkyrka''). The cathedral is often seen as one of the most prominent symbols for the city of Helsinki.]]
Helsinki is, however, perhaps even more famous for its numerous [[Art Nouveau]] buildings, designed in the early 1900s and strongly influenced by [[Kalevala]], which is a very popular theme in the national romantic art of that era. Helsinki's Art Noveau style is also featured in large residential areas such as Katajanokka and Eira. The master of the Finnish art noveau was [[Eliel Saarinen]] (1873-1950), who's architectural masterpiece was the Helsinki central railway station.
Helsinki also features several buildings by the world-renowned Finnish architect [[Alvar Aalto]] (1898-1976), attributed as one of the pioneers in functionalism. Many of Aalto's works are both loved and hated. Aalto's buildings, such as the headquarters of the paper company Enso and the concert and congress house [[Finlandia Hall]], have been much debated by Helsinki's inhabitants.
== Culture ==
Helsinki can also be considered Finland's culture-capital. Helsinki's two main museums are the [[Ateneum]] and the [[
|
/math> is the (complex) amplitude. Or, for [[real number|real]]-valued functions, the Fourier series is often written:
:<math>f(x) = \frac{1}{2}a_0 + \sum_{n=1}^\infty\left[a_n\cos(nx)+b_n\sin(nx)\right],</math>
where ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> and ''b''<sub>''n''</sub> are the (real) Fourier series amplitudes.
===Discrete Fourier transform===
For use on computers, both for scientific computation and [[digital signal processing]], one must have functions ''x''<sub>''k''</sub> that are defined over ''discrete'' instead of continuous domains, again finite or periodic. In this case, one uses the [[discrete Fourier transform]] (DFT), which represents ''x''<sub>''k''</sub> as the sum of sinusoids:
:<math>x_k = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{j=0}^{n-1} f_j e^{2\pi ijk/n} \quad \quad k = 0,\dots,n-1</math>
where ''f''<sub>''j''</sub> are the Fourier amplitudes. Although applying this formula directly would require O(''n''<sup>2</sup>) operations (see [[Big O notation]]), it can be computed in only O(''n'' log ''n'') operations using a [[fast Fourier transform]] (FFT) algorithm, which makes FFT a practical and important operation on computers.
===Other variants===
The DFT is a special case of (and is sometimes used as an approximation for) the [[discrete-time Fourier transform]] (DTFT), in which the ''x''<sub>''k''</sub> are defined over discrete but infinite domains, and thus the spectrum is continuous and periodic. The DTFT is essentially the inverse of the Fourier series.
These Fourier variants can also be generalized to Fourier transforms on arbitrary [[locally compact]] [[abelian]] [[topological group]]s, which are studied in [[harmonic analysis]]; there, one transforms from a group to its [[dual group]]. This treatment also allows a general formulation of the [[convolution theorem]], which relates Fourier transforms and [[convolution]]s. See also the [[Pontryagin duality]] for the generalized underpinnings of the Fourier transform.
[[Time-frequency transform]]s such as the [[short-time Fourier transform]], [[wavelet transform]]s, [[chirplet transform]]s, and the [[fractional Fourier transform]] try to obtain frequency information from a signal as a function of time (or whatever the independent variable is), although the ability to simultaneously resolve frequency and time is limited by a (mathematical) [[uncertainty principle]].
=== Family of Fourier transforms ===
The following table summarizes the family of Fourier transforms. We see that discreteness in one domain implies periodicity in the conjugate domain and that continuity in one domain implies aperiodicity in the conjugate domain. Moreover: reality in one domain implies symmetry in the conjugate domain.
{| align=center cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" border="1"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! '''Transform''' || '''Time''' || '''Frequency'''
|-
|[[Continuous Fourier transform]] || Continuous, Aperiodic ||Continuous, Aperiodic
|-
|[[Fourier series]] || Continuous, Periodic || Discrete, Aperiodic
|-
|[[Discrete-time Fourier transform]] || Discrete, Aperiodic || Continuous, Periodic
|-
|[[Discrete Fourier transform]] || Discrete, Periodic || Discrete, Periodic
|}
==Interpretation in terms of time and frequency==
In terms of [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] processing, the transform takes a [[time series]] representation of a signal function and maps it into a [[frequency spectrum]], where &omega; is [[angular frequency]]. That is, it takes a function in the [[time]] domain into the [[frequency]] domain; it is a [[orthogonal system|decomposition]] of a function into [[harmonic]]s of different frequencies.
When the function ''f'' is a function of time and represents a physical [[Signal (information theory)|signal]],
the transform has a standard interpretation as the frequency spectrum of the signal. The [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] of the resulting complex-valued function ''F'' represents the [[amplitude]]s of the respective frequencies (&omega;), while the [[phase_(waves)|phase shift]]s are given by ''arctan(imaginary parts/real parts)''.
However, it is important to realize that Fourier transforms are not limited to functions of time, and temporal frequencies. They can equally be applied to analyze ''spatial'' frequencies, and indeed for nearly any function domain.
==Applications in signal processing==
In signal processing, Fourier transformation can isolate individual components of a complex signal, concentrating them for easier detection and/or removal. A large family of signal processing techniques consist of Fourier-transforming a signal (such as a clip of [[Sound|audio]] or an [[image]]), manipulating the Fourier-transformed data in a simple way, and reversing the transformation. Some examples include:
* Removal of unwanted frequencies from an audio recording (used to eliminate [[hum]] from leakage of [[AC power]] into the signal, to eliminate the [[stereo subcarrier]] from [[FM radio]] recordings, or to create [[karaoke]] tracks with the vocals removed;
* [[Noise gating]] of audio recordings to remove quiet background noise by eliminating Fourier components that do not exceed a preset amplitude;
* [[Equalization]] of audio recordings with a series of [[bandpass filter]]s;
* Digital radio reception with no [[superheterodyne]] circuit, as in a modern [[cell phone]] or [[radio scanner]];
* [[Image processing]] to remove periodic or [[anisotropic]] artifacts such as [[jaggies]] from interlaced video, stripe artifacts from [[strip aerial photography]], or wave patterns from [[radio frequency interference]] in a digital camera;
* [[cross correlation]] of similar images for [[co-alignment]].
* [[X-ray crystallography]], Fourier transforms are used to reconstruct a protein's structure from its diffraction pattern.
Fourier transformation is also useful as a compact representation of a signal. For example, [[JPEG]] compression uses Fourier transformation of small square pieces of a digital image. The Fourier components of each square are rounded to lower [[arithmetic precision]], and weak components are eliminated entirely, so that the remaining components can be stored very compactly. In image reconstruction, each Fourier-transformed image square is reassembled from the preserved approximate components, and then inverse-transformed to produce an approximation of the original image.
==References==
* Smith, Steven W. ''The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing'', 2nd edition. San Diego: California Technical Publishing, 1999. ISBN 0-9660176-3-3. ''(also available online: [http://www.dspguide.com/pdfbook.htm])''
* A. D. Polyanin and A. V. Manzhirov, ''Handbook of Integral Equations'', CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1998. ISBN 0-8493-2876-4
==See also==
* [[Number-theoretic transform]]
* [[Laplace transform]]
* [[Two-sided Laplace transform]]
* [[Mellin transform]]
* [[Orthogonal functions]]
* [[Wavelet]]
* [[Chirplet]]
* [[Characteristic function (probability theory)]]
* [[Bispectrum]]
==External links==
*[http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?session=6WA23CFB0C.3&+lang=en&+module=tool%2Fanalysis%2Ffourierlaplace.en Online Computation] of the transform or inverse transform, wims.unice.fr
*[http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/en/auxiliary/aux-inttrans.htm Tables of Integral Transforms] at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.
*[http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/fourier/fourier.html An Intuitive Explanation of Fourier Theory] by Steven Lehar.
[[Category:Fourier analysis]]
[[Category:Integral transforms]]
[[Category:Digital signal processing]]
[[ar:تحويل فوريي]]
[[be:Пераўтварэнне Фур'е]]
[[cs:Fourierova transformace]]
[[de:Fourier-Transformation]]
[[es:Transformada de Fourier]]
[[eu:Fourierren transformaketa]]
[[fr:Transformée de Fourier]]
[[gl:Transformada de Fourier]]
[[id:Transformasi Fourier]]
[[is:Fourier–vörpun]]
[[it:Trasformata di Fourier]]
[[nl:Fouriertransformatie]]
[[ja:フーリエ変換]]
[[pl:Transformacja Fouriera]]
[[pt:Transformada de Fourier]]
[[ru:Преобразование Фурье]]
[[sr:Фуријеова трансформација]]
[[fi:Fourier'n muunnos]]
[[sv:Fourier-transform]]
[[th:การแปลงฟูริเยร์]]
[[vi:Biến đổi Fourier]]
[[zh:傅里叶变换]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fat Man</title>
<id>11660</id>
<revision>
<id>41836678</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:38:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.226.32.134</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The Bombing */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fat man.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A post-war "Fat Man" model.]]
'''"Fat-Man"''' was the codename of the [[nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]] which was detonated over [[Nagasaki]], [[Japan]] by the [[United States]], on [[August 9]], [[1945]]. It was the second of the two nuclear weapons to be used in [[war|warfare]]. The name also refers more generically to the early [[nuclear weapon design]]s of U.S. weapons based on the "Fat Man" model.
==Technology==
The weapon was 7-foot 8-inch (2.34 [[metre]]) long, five-foot (1.52 metre) diameter, and had a mass of 10,200 pounds (4,630&nbsp;[[kilogram|kg]]): in accordance with the name, it was more than twice as wide as [[Little Boy]], dropped on [[Hiroshima]] three days earlier; however, the mass was only 10% more.
It was detonated at an altitude of about 1,800 feet (550&nbsp;m) over the city. It was dropped from the [[B-29 Superfortress|B-29]] bomber [[Bockscar]], piloted by Major [[Charles Sweeney]]. The bomb had a yield of about 21 [[kiloton]]s of [[trinitrotoluene|TNT]], or 8.78×10<sup>13</sup> [[joule]]s = 88&nbsp;TJ ([[tera]]joules).[http://www.warbirdforum.com/hiroshim.htm] Because of Nagasaki's hilly terrain, the damage was somewhat less extensive than that in relatively flat Hiroshima. An estimated 4
|
drápa]]'', a poem supposedly composed in honor of the famous legendary viking [[Ragnar Lodbrok|Ragnar Lodbrók]] ('Hairy-breeks') describing the images on a decorated shield which Ragnar had given to Bragi. The images included Thor's fishing for [[Jörmungandr]], [[Gefjun]]'s ploughing of [[Zealand]] from the soil of Sweden, the attack of [[Hamdir and Sorli]] against King [[Ermanaric|Jörmunrekk]], and the never-ending battle between [[Hedin and Högni]].
==Bragi son of Hálfdan the Old==
'''Bragi son of Hálfdan the Old''' is mentioned only in the ''Skjáldskaparmál''. This Bragi is the sixth of the second of two groups of nine sons fathered by King Hálfdan the Old on Alvig the Wise, daughter of King Eymund of [[Novgorod|Hólmgard]]. This second group of sons are all eponymous ancestors of legendary families of the north. Snorri says:
<blockquote>Bragi, from whom the Bragnings are sprung (that is the race of Hálfdan the Generous).</blockquote>
Of the Bragnings as a race and of Hálfdan the Generous nothing else is known. However ''Bragning'' is often, like some others of these dynastic names, used in poetry as a general word for 'king' or 'ruler'.
==Bragi Högnason==
In the eddic poem ''[[Helgakviða Hundingsbana II]]'', '''Bragi Högnason''', his brother Dag, and his sister Sigrún were children of [[Högne]], the king of [[East Götaland]]. The poem relates how [[Sigmund]]'s son [[Helgi Hundingsbane]] agreed to take Sigrún daughter of Högni as his wife against her unwilling betrothal to Hodbrodd son of [[Granmar]] the king of [[Sudermannia|Södermanland]]. In the subsequent battle of Frekastein (probably one of the 300 [[hill fort]]s of Södermanland, as ''stein'' meant "hill fort") against Högni and Grammar, all the chieftains on Granmar's side are slain, including Bragi, except for Bragi's brother Dag.
==See also==
{{NorseMythology}}
{{commonscat|Bragi}}
[[Category:Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Arts gods]]
[[Category:Norse gods]]
[[da:Brage]]
[[de:Bragi]]
[[el:Μπράγκι]]
[[es:Bragi]]
[[eo:Bragi]]
[[fr:Bragi]]
[[hr:Bragi]]
[[it:Bragi]]
[[lt:Bragis]]
[[nl:Bragi]]
[[ja:ブラギ]]
[[no:Brage]]
[[pl:Bragi]]
[[pt:Bragi]]
[[ru:Браги]]
[[sv:Brage]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blaise Pascal</title>
<id>4068</id>
<revision>
<id>41502427</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:22:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbergan</username>
<id>256509</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
subject_name = Blaise Pascal |
image_name = Blaise pascal.jpg |
image_caption = Blaise Pascal |
date_of_birth = [[June 19]], [[1623]] |
place_of_birth = [[Clermont-Ferrand]], [[France]] |
dead=dead |
date_of_death = [[August 19]], [[1662]] |
place_of_death = [[Paris]], [[France]]
}}
'''Blaise Pascal''' ([[June 19]], [[1623]]–[[August 19]],[[1662]]) was a [[France|French]] [[mathematician]], [[physicist]], and [[religion|religious]] [[philosopher]]. Pascal was a [[child prodigy]], who was educated by his father. Pascal's earliest work was in the natural and applied [[science]]s, where he made important contributions to the construction of mechanical [[calculator]]s and the study of [[fluid]]s, and clarified the concepts of [[pressure]] and [[vacuum]] by expanding the work of [[Evangelista Torricelli]]. Pascal also wrote powerfully in defense of the [[scientific method]].
He was a mathematician of the first order. In [[mathematics]], Pascal helped create two major new areas of research. He wrote a significant treatise on the subject of [[projective geometry]] at the age of sixteen and corresponded with [[Pierre de Fermat]] from 1654 on [[probability theory]], strongly influencing the development of modern [[economics]] and [[social sciences|social science]].
Following a [[mysticism|mystical]] experience in late 1654, he left mathematics and [[physics]] and devoted himself to reflection and writing about philosophy and [[theology]]. His two most famous works date from this period: the ''[[Lettres provinciales]]'' and the ''[[Pensées]]''. However, he had suffered from ill-health throughout his life and his new interests were ended by his early death two months after his 39th birthday.
==Early life and education==
Born in [[Clermont-Ferrand]], in the [[Auvergne (région)|Auvergne]] region of [[France]], Blaise Pascal lost his mother, Antoinette Begon, at the age of three. His father, [[Étienne Pascal]] (1588–1651), was a local judge and member of the ''petite noblesse'', who also had an interest in science and mathematics. Blaise Pascal was brother to Jacqueline Pascal and two other sisters, only one of whom, Gilberte, survived past childhood.
In 1631, Étienne moved with his children to [[Paris]]. Étienne decided that he would educate his son, who showed extraordinary mental and intellectual abilities. Young Pascal showed immediate aptitude for mathematics and science, perhaps inspired by his father's regular conversations with Paris' leading geometricians, including [[Gilles de Roberval|Roberval]], [[Mersenne]], [[Desargues]], [[Mydorge]], [[Gassendi]], and [[Descartes]]. At the age of eleven, he composed a short treatise on the sounds of vibrating bodies and Étienne responded by forbidding his son to further pursue mathematics until the age of fifteen, so as not to harm his study of [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]. "When asked one day by his father what he was doing, he indicated that he was trying to express the relationship between the angles of a right triangle and two right angles - that is, he was working on what is the thirty-second proposition in book 1 of Euclid's ''Elements of Geometry''. It is not true, as some have said, that he had reinvented the theorems of Euclid to that point. Still, it was an astonishing performance; and it seemed so marvelous to his father that he no longer sought to hold Blaise back in the study of mathematics."(1)
Particularly of interest to the young Pascal was the work of Desargues. Following Desargues's thinking, at age sixteen Pascal produced a treatise on [[conic sections]], ''Essai pour les coniques'' ("Essay on Conics"). Most of it has been lost, but an important original result has lasted, now known as [[Pascal's theorem]]. Pascal's work was so precocious that Descartes, when shown the manuscript, refused to believe that the composition was not by his father.
In 1638, Étienne's opposition to fiscal relations of [[Cardinal Richelieu]] caused the family to flee Paris. It was only when Jacqueline performed well in a children's play performed in front of Richelieu that Étienne was pardoned. By 1639, the family had moved to [[Rouen]] where Étienne became a tax collector.
At age eighteen Pascal constructed a mechanical calculator, called [[Pascal's calculator]] or the Pascaline, capable of addition and subtraction, to help his father with this work. The [[Zwinger]] [[museum]], in [[Dresden]], [[Germany]], exhibits one of his original mechanical calculators. Though these machines stand near the head of the development of [[computer engineering]], the calculator failed to be a great commercial success. Pascal continued to make improvements to his design through the next decade and built a total of fifty machines.
==Contributions to mathematics==
[[Image:Blaise Pascal.jpeg|175px|right|thumb|Portrait of Blaise Pascal]]
In addition to the childhood marvels recorded above, Pascal continued to influence mathematics throughout his life. In 1653 Pascal wrote his ''Traité du triangle arithmétique'' in which he described a convenient tabular presentation for [[binomial coefficient]]s, the "arithmetical triangle", now called [[Pascal's triangle]]. (It should be noted, however, that [[Yang Hui]], a [[Chinese people|Chinese]] mathematician of the Qin dynasty, had independently worked out a concept similar to Pascal's triangle four centuries earlier.)
In 1654, prompted by a friend interested in gambling problems, he corresponded with [[Fermat]] on the subject, and from that collaboration was born the mathematical theory of [[probability|probabilities]]. The friend was the [[Chevalier de Méré]], and the specific problem was that of two players who want to finish a game early and, given the current circumstances of the game, want to divide the stakes fairly, based on the chance each has of winning the game from that point. (This was the introduction of the notion of [[expected value]].) Pascal later (in the ''Pensées'') used a probabilistic argument, [[Pascal's Wager]], to justify belief in [[God]] and a virtuous life. The work done by Fermat and Pascal into the calculus of probabilities laid important groundwork for [[Leibniz]]'s formulation of the [[infinitesimal calculus]]. [http://www.math.rutgers.edu/courses/436/Honors02/leibniz.html]
After a religious experience in 1654, Pascal mostly gave up work in mathematics. However, after a sleepless night in 1658 he offered, anonymously, a prize for the quadrature of a [[cycloid]]. Solutions were offered by [[John Wallis|Wallis]], [[Christiaan Huygens|Huygens]], [[Christopher Wren|Wren]], and others; then Pascal, under a pseudonym, published his own solution. A controversy followed in which the competitors, including Pascal, behaved less than philosophically.
===Philosophy of mathematics===
Pascal's major contribution to the [[philosophy of mathematics]] came with his ''De l'Esprit géométrique'' ("On the Geometrical Spirit"), originally written as a preface to a geometry textbook for one of the famous "Little Schools of Port-Royal" (''Les Petites-Ecoles de Port-Royal''). The work was unpublished until over a century after his death. Here Pascal looked into the issue of discovering truths, arguing that the ideal such method would be to found all propositions on already established truths. At the same time, however, he c
|
ropean colonizers: "Who can describe the injustice and cruelties that in the course of centuries they [the coloured peoples] have suffered at the hands of Europeans? . . . If a record could be compiled of all that has happened between the white and the coloured races, it would make a book containing numbers of pages which the reader would have to turn over unread because their contents would be too horrible." [On the Edge of the Primeval Forest, p. 115].
Schweitzer was sometimes accused of being paternalistic or colonialist in his attitude towards Africans. For instance, he thought Gabonese independence came too early, without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances. Edgar Berman quotes Schweitzer speaking these lines in 1960: "No society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow." [In Africa With Schweitzer, p. 139]. [[Chinua Achebe]] has quoted Schweitzer as saying "The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother." <sup>[http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/wyrick/debclass/achcon.htm]</sup>, which Achebe criticized him for.
==Medicine==
Albert Schweitzer spent most of his life in Lambaréné in what is now [[Gabon]], Africa. After his medical studies in [[1913]], he went there with his wife to establish a hospital near an already existing mission post. He treated and operated on literally thousands of people. He took care of hundreds of [[lepers|Leprosy]] and treated many victims of the African [[sleeping sickness]].
In [[1914]] [[World War I]] began and because he was a German on French territory, Schweitzer and his wife were taken captive and temporarily confined to their house. In [[1917]] they were interned in Garaison, France, and in [[1918]] in [[Saint Remy de Provence]]. There he studied and wrote as much as possible in preparation for among others his famous book ''Culture and Ethics'' (published in [[1923]]). In July 1918 he was a free man again, and while working as a medical assistant and assistant-pastor in [[Strasbourg]], he was able to finish the book. In the meantime he began to speak and lecture about his ideas wherever he was invited. Not only did he want his philosophy on [[culture]] and [[ethics]] to become widely known, it also served as a means to raise money for the hospital in Lambaréné, for which he had already emptied his own pockets.
In [[1924]] he returned to Lambaréné, where he managed to rebuild the decayed hospital, after which he resumed his medical practices. Soon he was no longer the only medical doctor in the hospital, and whenever possible he went to Europe to lecture at universities. Gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged, not only in Europe, but worldwide.
==Later life==
From [[1939]]-[[1948]] he stayed in Lambaréné, unable to go back to a Europe in war. Three years after the end of [[World War II]], in 1948, he returned for the first time to Europe and kept travelling back and forth (and once to the USA) as long as he could until his death in 1965.
From 1952 until his death he worked against [[nuclear tests]] and [[nuclear weapon]]s with [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Bertrand Russell]] . In 1957 and 1958 he broadcast four speeches over Radio Oslo which were published in ''Peace or Atomic War''. In 1957, Schweitzer was one of the founders of [[SANE|The Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy]].
His life was portrayed in the 1952 movie ''Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer'', starring [[Pierre Fresnay]] as Albert Schweitzer and [[Jeanne Moreau]] as his nurse Marie. His cousin Anne-Marie Schweitzer Sartre was the mother of [[Jean-Paul Sartre]].
He was [[chevalier]] of the [[Order of St Lazarus|Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem]].
He died on September 4, 1965 in [[Lambaréné]], [[Gabon]].
==Selected bibliography==
*''The Decay and the Restoration of Civilization'' ([[1923]])
*''Civilization and Ethics'' ([[1923]])
*''Indian Thought and Its Development'' ([[1935]])
*''The Kingdom of God and Primitive Christianity'' (publ.[[1967]])
*''My Life and Thought'' ([[1931]]) (autobiography. according to the preface of the reviewed edition: Henry Holt and Company, 1991, Schweitzer personally considered to be his most important book)
*''Peace or Atomic War'' 1958
*''Out of My Life and Thought: An Autobiography by Albert Schweitzer'' ISBN 0801860970
*''The Quest Of The Historical Jesus; A Critical Study Of Its Progress From Reimarus To Wrede''
==Timeline==
* [[1893]] - Studied [[Philosophy]] and [[Theology]] at the Universities of [[Strasbourg|Strassburg]], [[Berlin]] and [[Paris]]
* [[1900]] - Curate of the Church of St. Nicolas in Strassburg
* [[1901]] - Principal of the Theological Seminary in Strassburg
* [[1905]]-[[1913]] Studied medicine and surgery
* [[1912]] - Married Helene Bresslau
* [[1913]] - Physician in Lambaréné, Africa
* [[1915]] - Developed his ethic ''Reverence for life''
* [[1917]] - Interned in France
* [[1918]] - Medical assistant and assistant-pastor in Strassburg
* [[1919]] - First major speech about ''Reverence for life'' at the [[University of Uppsala]], [[Sweden]]
* [[1919]] - Birth of daughter, Rhena
* [[1924]] - Return to Lambaréné as physician; frequent visits to Europe for speaking engagements
* [[1939]]-[[1948]] Lambaréné
* [[1949]] - Visit to the USA
* [[1948]]-[[1965]] - Lambaréné and Europe.
* [[1953]] - Nobel Peace Prize for the year 1952
* [[1957]] - [[1958]] - Four speeches against nuclear armament and tests
==See also==
*[[Christian Eschatology]]
==References and external links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Category:Albert Schweitzer}}
* ''Albert Schweitzer: a Biography'' by [[James Brabazon]] - the definitive biography
*[http://www.albertschweitzer.info/ Albert Schweitzer] - information on Albert Schweitzer's life and thought
*[http://www.albertschweitzer.org.uk/ Friends of Albert Schweitzer (UK)] - a charity promoting Reverence for Life
*[http://home.pcisys.net/~jnf/ The Albert Schweitzer Page]
*[http://www.schweitzerfellowship.org/ Albert Schweitzer Fellowship]
*[http://www1.chapman.edu/schweitzer/reverence_readings.html Readings on Reverence for Life]
*[http://medlem.spray.se/atarme/albert.html Biography information on the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize Laureate]
*[http://www.peacemakersguide.org/peace/Peacemakers/Albert-Schweitzer.htm Bruderhof Peacemakers Guide profile on Albert Schweitzer]
*[http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1952/schweitzer-bio.html Page at the Nobel e-Museum]
*[http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1952/press.html#not_10 Schweitzer Nobel Presentation Speech by Gunnar Jahn]
*[http://albert-schweitzer.com/ Schweitzerforlaget (Norwegian text only)]
{{Persondata
|NAME=Schweitzer, Albert
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=German theologian, musician, philosopher, and physician
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[January 14]] [[1875]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Kaysersberg]], [[Elsass-Lothringen]], [[Germany]] (now in [[Haut-Rhin]], [[Alsace]], [[France]])
|DATE OF DEATH=[[September 4]] [[1965]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Lambaréné]], [[Gabon]]
}}
[[Category:1875 births|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:1965 deaths|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Biblical scholars|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:German theologians|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Humanists|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Humanitarians]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Unitarian Universalists|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[cs:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[da:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[de:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[eo:Albert SCHWEITZER]]
[[es:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[fi:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[fr:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[he:אלברט שוויצר]]
[[hr:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[hu:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[it:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[ja:アルベルト・シュバイツァー]]
[[nl:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[nn:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[no:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[pl:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[pt:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[ru:Швейцер, Альберт]]
[[sk:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[sl:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[sv:Albert Schweitzer]]
[[uk:Швейцер Альберт]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Austrian School</title>
<id>1030</id>
<revision>
<id>41114897</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T03:35:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.33.47.73</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Major Austrian economists */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Libertarianism}}The '''Austrian School''' is a school of [[history of economic thought|economic thought]] that rejects opposing economists' reliance on methods used in [[natural science]] for the study of human action, and instead bases its formalism of economics on relationships through logic or introspection called "[[praxeology]]".
Its most famous adherents are [[Carl Menger]], [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], [[Friedrich von Wieser]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Murray Rothbard]], [[Israel Kirzner]] and [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]]. While often controversial, and standing to some extent outside of the mainstream of neoclassical theory &mdash; as well as being staunchly against much of [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]]' theory and its results &mdash; the Austrian School has been widely influential because of its emphasis on the creative phase of economic productivity and their questioning of the basis of the behavioral theory underlying [[neoclassical economics]].
The Austrian School is generally associated with groups that label themselves [[classical liberalism|classical liberals]] or [[libertarian]] in their ideas of social, political and economic organization.
== History ==
[[Classical economics]] focused on the exchange theory of value. In late [[19th century]], however, there was a focus on the concept of the "marginal" cost and value. (See [[Marginalism]]).
|
[[Category:Colleges and universities]]
[[da:Campus]]
[[de:Campus]]
[[fr:Campus]]
[[he:קמפוס]]
[[nl:Campus]]
[[no:Campus]]
[[pt:Campus]]
[[fi:Kampus]]
[[sv:Campus]]
[[ja:キャンパス]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crossbow</title>
<id>6948</id>
<revision>
<id>42147320</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:16:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryce</username>
<id>29788</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix minor vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the weapon. For alternate uses, see [[Crossbow (disambiguation)]]''
A '''crossbow''' is a [[weapon]] that fires projectiles called [[crossbow bolts]] or [[quarrel]]s. Invented in China, the crossbow played a significant role in European medieval warfare and is still used today.
==Description==
A crossbow consists of a prod (similar in appearance to a [[Bow (weapon)|bow]]) mounted on a stock similar to a [[rifle]] stock, which has a mechanism to wind and shoot its bolts. These bolts are typically called [[quarrel]]s, and do not depend upon lift as [[arrow]]s do. The stock and trigger of hand-held firearms may have been copied from crossbows.
Crossbow bolts must be made to have consistent weights as the mechanical process of engaging a bolt forces a more uniform process than that of using a bow and arrow. This consistent performance was part of what made the crossbow historically a significant force in warfare.
[[Image:Croosbow.jpg|200px|right|Ancient Chinese Seige Crossbow]]
A crossbow contains a string which is held in place by a nut when the bolt is loaded and the cross bow is engaged (referred to as at ''full draw''). Typically, the nut is at the end of the shelf (also called the bolt rest).
The prod ("bow") and stock of a crossbow were made of good hardwood, such as [[oak]] or hard [[maple]]. The central European bows were rather exotic as they were constructed of inlays as well as specialized woods. The prod (also called lath in England) is attached to the stock with [[hemp]] rope, [[linen]], [[whipcord]], or other strong cording. This cording is called the ''bridle'' of the crossbow. Much as a horse's [[bridle]], it tends to loosen over time, and must be carefully respliced when appropriate. The prod is very short compared to bows, thus resulting in a short draw length. This makes crossbows inefficient at storing energy, which is why they must have very heavy draw weights. The draw weight of a modern crossbow can be up to 300lbs.
The crossbow shelf is a flat section above the stock with a straight groove for the bolt to rest upon and travel along as it is shot.
The strings for a crossbow are typically made of strong fibers that would not tend to fray. According to W. F. Patternson, whipcord was very common; however linen, hemp, and [[Tendon|sinew]] were used as well. Even [[cotton]] was tried with some success. In wet, twisted [[mulberry]] root was occasionally used.
The crossbow also includes a [[trigger]], which was later incorporated into rifles, [[musket]]s and other [[firearm]]s. Triggers are known to have been used on crossbows from the early 1400s. [[Leonardo da Vinci]] designed many complicated triggers for crossbows, ultimately producing a "hair trigger" that could be shot with very little finger strength.
Crossbow bolts are lighter than arrows, but must be sealed with a [[varnish]] to ensure their consistent weight. They also typically only have two [[fletching|fletch]]es per bolt instead of three commonly seen on arrows. This prevents them from snagging on the crossbow nut as they are shot.
==History==
[[Image:ChineseCrossbow.JPG|thumb|200px|Remains of an ancient Chinese crossbow, [[2nd century BCE]].]]
According to [[Guinness World Records]](2004), the earliest reliable record of croessbow usage is in the Battle of Ma-Ling, Lingyi, China at 341 BC. By the 200s BC, the crossbow (nǔ, &#24361;) was well developed and quite widely used in [[China]]{{ref|CC}}. Crossbows have been found among the soldiers of the [[Terracotta Army]] in the tomb of emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]] (260-210 BCE) {{ref|Terracotta}}.
One of the most distinctive Chinese inventions on crossbows was the [[repeating crossbow]] (Chu-ko-nu), invented in [[2nd Century]] AD which was used as late as [[First Sino-Japanese War|China-Japan war]] of [[1894]]-[[1895]] by [[Manchurian]] troops. [[Roman Empire|Roman]] bows
were produced 600 years later appeared to be nothing more than rough hewn slabs of wood.
The prod of a crossbow was made of wood or composite materials until the middle of the [[15th century]]. The advantage of a simple wooden prod is that the bow as a whole was lighter in weight, easier to span (even by hand), and quicker to discharge. Composite prods were made of horn, [[sinew]] and wood, and produced much larger draw forces. The draw force is the tension that the string is under when the bow is engaged. Since the draw force can be much more than a soldier might be able to pull, these crossbows generally include a [[winch]] device to cock them. It is the high launch force of a crossbow that made it a formidable weapon in warfare. Since composite prods involved gluing material together which would have to withstand a great deal of stress, a slow drying time was essential. The strongest glues naturally took longer to dry. It was not uncommon for six months up to a year to be spent in ensuring a bow was dried properly.
In the later [[15th century|1400s]], [[steel]] manufacturing advanced significantly, and was more commonly used in spring production. A crossbow prod was made out of spring steel, steel prods being very common by the early [[16th century|1500s]] as their performance was more uniform, except in very cold weather. About [[1400]] the use of the crossbow changed, with the butt end of the stock being placed on the shoulder for accuracy. By [[1650]], the cross bow looked like it had a rifle stock, and was used in a similar way (what you see on a rifle has probably already been done on a crossbow). Makers of crossbows (arbalistmeisters) were making quite beautiful crossbow stocks by [[1600]]. Some Belgian designs were as polished as those of modern [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] rifles.
===Use===
<gallery>
Image:Armborst 1, Nordisk familjebok.png|Pull [[lever]]
Image:Armborst 2, Nordisk familjebok.png|Push [[lever]]
Image:Armborst 3, Nordisk familjebok.png|[[Ratchet (device)|Ratchet]]
Image:Armborst 4, Nordisk familjebok.png|[[Windlass]]
</gallery>
Crossbows were actively being used in European warfare from [[800]] to [[1500]] A.D. They supplanted bows in many European armies for a number of reasons. An expertly handled longbow had greater range, better accuracy (the "arbalest" or siege crossbow being the exception here), and a much faster rate of fire than an average crossbow, but the value of the crossbow came in its simplicity: it could be used effectively after a week of training, while a comparable single-shot skill with a longbow could take years. The use of winches allowed soldiers to use and fire weapons with a draw force far in excess of what they could have handled with a bow. In the later years of the crossbow it had enough kinetic energy to penetrate the armor of a knight with ease: some reached a draw force of nearly 350 lbf (1600 N), compared to the 60-180lbf (300-900 N) draw force for a longbow. Moreover, crossbows could be kept cocked and ready to shoot for some time with little effort, allowing crossbowmen to aim better and to "cover" a target area, while archers could not keep their powerful bows pulled for long periods of time.
Due to the long time required to reload a crossbow, users would sometimes make use of a [[pavise]].
[[Pope Urban II]] banned the use of crossbow against Christians in [[1097]], and the [[Second Lateran Council]] did the same for [[arbalest]]s in [[1139]]. The crossbow was seen as unchivalrous and as a threat to social order, since a peasant could kill a noble anonymously; crossbow mercenaries were usually killed immediately on capture, unlike others who might have been ransomed or set free. However, their effectiveness made them an "evil" no one could afford to be without, often in the form of hired foreign mercenaries.
Given the great accuracy of the crossbow, it filled many duties that [[Sniper rifle|sniper rifles]] have today.
Crossbows were eventually replaced in warfare by [[gunpowder]] weapons. Early guns had slower rates of fire and much worse accuracy than contemporary crossbows.
Modern crossbows are still used for target shooting and in some places for [[hunting]], although for the latter a person generally has to have a disability or special license to use one. They are made of the same composite materials as modern bows.
One of the newest developments in crossbow technology is the use of the shoulder-cock. The shoulder-cock is extremely easy to use and has a fast loading time. Using a shoulder-cock, a good crossbowman could reload in under 7 seconds. The average draw force for the shoulder-cock crossbow is 100 lbf (400 N), which is low compared to other crossbows. A good example of a shoulder-cock crossbow is the FX-II crossbow.
== See also ==
*[[arbalest]]
* [[repeating crossbow]]
==External sources==
#{{note|CC}} [http://www.computersmiths.com/chineseinvention/crossbow.htm Invention of the Chinese crossbow]
#{{note|terracotta}} [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Academy/7547/weapon.html Weapons of the terracotta army]
#{{note|SECrossbow}} [http://www.people.cornell.edu/pages/tm17/paper459.htm Paper with a brief portion discussing the origin of the Asian crossbow]
{{commons|Category:Crossbow|Crossbow}}
[[Category:Marksmanship]]
[[Category:Medieval warfare]]
[[ca:Ballesta]]
[[cs:Kuše]]
[[da:Armbrøst]]
[[de:Armbrust]]
[[es:Ballesta]]
[[fr:Arbalète (arme)]]
[[gl:Bésta]]
[[he:קשת אופקית]]
[[nl:Kruisboog]]
[[ja:クロスボウ]]
[[no:
|
id not have an [[income tax]] until [[1991]], making it an attractive haven for high earners fleeing the heavy taxes of [[New York State]], but putting an enormous burden on Connecticut [[property tax]] payers, particularly in the cities with their more extensive [[municipal services]]. As a result, the [[middle class]] largely fled the urban areas for the [[suburb]]s, taking stores and other tax-paying businesses with them, and leaving only the [[urban poor]] in the now impoverished Connecticut cities. As evident from the dichotomy in income figures described above, this problem has yet to be successfully solved. Exacerbating this problem, the state has a very high cost of living, due to a combination of expensive real estate, expensive heating for the winters, the need to import much food from warmer states, and the dependence on private automobiles for mobility.
While Connecticut is home to four poor cities (Bridgeport, Hartford, New Haven and Waterbury), the state in general is extremely wealthy. Surrounding these four cities are some of the wealthiest areas on the globe, and many visitors of the state note the lack of middle class. This is due to the exodus of the middle class, as homes in the suburbs start around $450,000, and the further south in the state, the more expensive. In southern Connecticut, a three bedroom home on 1/4 acre will run about $1 million. Connecticut has the highest amount of million-dollar plus homes in the country.
The agricultural output for the state is [[Nursery (horticulture)|nursery stock]], [[egg (food)|eggs]], [[dairy product]]s, [[cattle]], and [[tobacco#shade tobacco|tobacco]]. Its industrial outputs are [[transport|transportation]] equipment (especially [[helicopters]], [[aircraft]] parts, and [[nuclear submarine]]s), heavy industrial machinery and electrical equipment, [[fabricated metal product]]s, [[chemical]] and [[pharmaceutical]] products, and [[scientific instrument]]s.
==History of Connecticut industry==
Connecticut began, as most communities at the time, as a [[farm]]ing economy. It rapidly developed trade and manufacturing as the farmers, and then the merchants and manufacturers themselves, became affluent enough to start buying things. Manufacturing was aided by a plenitude of resources, including water power, wood for fires and building material, and iron ore, while transportation benefited from several excellent natural harbors, and navigable rivers leading all the way to Massachusetts. As in most of New England, the residents believed that industry, in all senses of the word, not only strengthened individual moral fiber, but also served to make the colony independent and free to pursue its own religious and philosophical beliefs. While manual labor was valued, learning and study was also prized and many schools were founded, with [[Yale University]] the most significant. The development by [[Eli Whitney]] of the system of precision manufacturing of interchangeable parts and the [[assembly line]] in the late [[1700s]], however made Connecticut into a major center of manufacturing. This development changed "made in the United States" from a phrase connoting shoddy workmanship and expensive maintenance, into a world standard for high quality, and the entire system became known as the [[American system of manufacturing]].
Between [[1800]] and [[1860]], Connecticut manufacturers applied the system to the manufacture of economically priced high quality firearms, leading to Connecticut's nickname "the [[arsenal]] of [[democracy]]." [[Middletown, Connecticut]] was the major supplier of [[pistol]]s to the United States government during the [[War of 1812]], with numerous gun manufacturers in the area. In [[1810]], [[Oliver Bidwell]] built the first [[pistol]] factory in the United States on the [[Pameacha River]] in Middletown, winning a contract with the United States [[war department]] for handmade pistols. Also in 1810, Colonel [[Simeon North]] built a pistol factory in Middletown on the West River, now the [[Coginchaug River]], also winning a contract from the [[secretary of war]], which led to enlarging his factory to 8,500 square feet (790 m²); he built about 10,000 pistols a year, up until just before the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], designing America's first [[milling machine]]. Even more successful was Colonel [[Nathan Starr Jr.]], whose factory (built of stone quarried from the river) was about the same size as North's, and located across the river half a mile northeast. Starr initially manufactured [[sword]]s, about 5,000 a year; including presentation swords for the state of [[Tennessee]] and [[War of 1812]] heroes, colonel [[Richard M. Johnson]], General [[Edmond P. Gaines]], and General [[Andrew Jackson]]. The factory later manufactured [[musket]]s and rifles until [[1845]], after which the United States government started government [[Armory (military)|armories]] in [[Massachusetts]] and [[West Virginia]] partially modeled after Starr's. In [[1812]], [[John R. Johnson]] and [[J. D. Johnson]] built a factory, also on the Pameacha River, which was to sell rifles to the government until [[1825]]. After this period, firearm manufacturing declined in Middletown, but briefly revived during the Civil War. The [[Savage Revolving Fire Arm Company]] manufactured pistols between [[1859]] and [[1866]], and the [[Sage Ammunition Works]] manufactured ammunition between [[1864]] and [[1867]].
In [[1836]], [[Samuel Colt]] invented the [[revolver]] design which continues to be used to this day. [[Colt's Manufacturing Company]] hired [[Elisha K. Root]] to modernize production, making Colt weapons the first in the world with truly interchangeable parts. [[Horace Smith (inventor)|Horace Smith]] and [[Daniel B. Wesson]] designed the first [[repeating rifle]] in [[Norwich, Connecticut|Norwich]] in the early [[1850s]], which went into production by the [[New Haven Arms Company]] (which later became the [[Winchester Repeating Arms Company]]), and, just across the border in [[Massachusetts]], the [[Springfield Armory]]. Smith also patented a metallic rifle [[Cartridge (weaponry)|cartridge]] in [[1854]]. [[Christian Sharps]] designed the Sharps [[breech-loading]] rifle which in [[1854]] began to be manufactured in Hartford by the [[Sharps Rifle Manufacturing Company]]. [[Christopher Spencer]] designed the [[Spencer repeating rifle]] which played an important role for [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] troops at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]].
Another area where precision manufacture led to industrial dominance for Connecticut was in the manufacture of [[clock]]s, [[watch]]es, and other [[timepiece]]s, by [[Eli Terry]] and his apprentice [[Seth Thomas]], the [[Forestville Manufacturing Company]] (which became the [[E. N. Welch Company]]), the [[New England Clock Company]], the [[Ansonia Clock Company]], [[Gilbert Clocks]], [[Ingraham Clocks]], the [[New Haven Clock Company]], [[Welch Clocks]], [[Sessions Clocks]], and the [[Waterbury Clock Company]], which became [[Timex Corporation]], and is the sole Connecticut survivor of this once flourishing field, now decimated by lower costs of production elsewhere, in the United States and overseas. The [[American Clock and Watch Museum]] is located in [[Bristol, Connecticut]].
Similarly, Connecticut industry became well known in allied fields. [[Hardware]] and [[tool]]s continue to be manufactured by [[Stanley Corporation]] in [[New Britain]], despite having almost moved elsewhere for financial reasons. Connecticut was a major area for development and manufacture of [[machine tool]]s. In [[1818]], [[Simeon North]] designed America's first [[milling machine]]. Machinist Elisha Root first designed machinery for the [[Collins Company]] of [[Collinsville]] which manufactured [[axe]]s which became world-famous, then was hired by Colt in [[1849]] to modernize firearm production by designing precision [[drop hammer]]s, [[boring machine]]s, [[gauge]]s, [[jig]]s, etc., and improving the milling machines designed by [[Francis A. Pratt]] for the [[George S. Lincoln]] company in Hartford; the resulting [[Lincoln Miller]] became world-famous, selling over 150,000 machines. Another Colt engineer, [[William Mason (Colt)|William Mason]], patented 125 inventions for manufacture of firearms, as well as steam pumps and power looms. [[Christopher Spencer]] invented the [[automatic lathe turret]] for machining screws, as well as the variable cam cylinder used to control the turret. [[Francis A. Pratt]] and [[Amos Whitney]] invented a thread milling machine in [[1865]]; Whitney also perfected various measurement instruments and Pratt designed the original milling machine manufactured by the [[George S. Lincoln]] company of Hartford. [[Simon Fairman]] invented the [[lathe chuck]] in [[West Stafford]] in [[1830]], and his son-in-law, [[Austin F. Cushman]], invented the self-centering [[Cushman Universal Chuck]] in [[1862]]. [[Edward P. Bullard]] designed the [[vertical boring mill]] in [[1883]]. [[Charles E. Billings]] perfected the [[drop hammer]] for [[metal forging]] in the [[1870s]] and designed the copper [[commutator]] central to the operation of electrical [[generator]]s and [[motor]]s. [[Edwin R. Fellows]] of [[Torrington]] designed the first [[flat turret lathe]], and in [[1896]] built a gear shaper which permitted the manufacture of effective and reliable gear transmissions for the soon-to-come automobile industry. The name [[Bridgeport]] on heavy [[industrial machinery]] continues to be a guarantee of high quality around the world, for people who have no idea that it is a city in Connecticut. Even the world of toys was dominated by the [[A. C. Gilbert Company]], manufacturers of [[Erector Set]]s as well as other educational toys such as [[chemistry set]]s, [[microscope]]s, [[toy train]]s, etc.
Another area of industry where Connecticut excelled was in [[bicycle]] manufacturing, and its spin-off, the earliest [[au
|
darin, the passive voice is constructed by prefixing the active noun phrase with ''bei-'' and rearranging the usual word order. For example, this sentence using active voice:
:{|cellspacing="10"
|''Gou''||''yao-le''||''zheige''||''nanren.''
|-
|dog||bite-PAST||this||man
|-
|colspan="4"|"A dog bit this man."
|}
corresponds to this sentence using passive voice:
:{|cellspacing="10"
|''Zheige''||''nanren''||''bei''||''gou''||''yao-le.''
|-
|This||man||by||dog||bite-PAST.
|-
|colspan="5"|"This man was bitten by a dog."
|}
In addition, through the addition of the auxiliary verb "to be" (''shi'') the passive voice is frequently used to emphasise the identity of the actor. In this example, the emphasis is on ''dog'', presumably as opposed to some other animal:
:{|cellspacing="10"
|''Zheige''||''nanren''||''shi''||''bei''||''gou''||''yao-le.''
|-
|This||man||is||by||dog||bite-PAST.
|-
|colspan="6"|"This man was bitten by a ''dog''."
|}
Despite being a topic-prominent language, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] employs the passive voice quite frequently, and has two types of passive voice, one that corresponds to that in English and an indirect passive not found in English. This indirect passive is used when something undesirable happens to the speaker.
:{|cellspacing="10"
|''Kare''||''wa''||''dorobō''||''ni''||''saifu''||''wo''||''nusumareta.''
|-
|He||TOPIC||thief||AGENT||wallet||OBJECT||steal-PASSIVE-PAST
|-
|colspan="7"|"His wallet was stolen by a thief."
|}
:{|cellspacing="10"
|''Boku''||''wa''||''kanojo''||''ni''||''uso''||''wo''||''tsukareta.''
|-
|I||TOPIC||her||AGENT||lie||OBJECT||tell-PASSIVE-PAST.
|-
|colspan="7"|"I was lied to by her." (''or'' "She lied to me.")
|}
==The fourth person in Baltic-Finnic languages==
Some languages do not contrast voices, but similar-looking persons. For example, [[Baltic-Finnic languages]] such as [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]] have a "passive", which is conceptually more of a never-mentioned "fourth person" than variation of subjectivity or objectivity. For example, translating the sentence "The house was blown down" as ''Talo puhallettiin maahan'' would give the idea that some unmentioned person is blowing the house down by the force of his breath. Also, [[transitive verb|transitivity]] may be used, such that the fourth-person ''Ongelma ratkaistiin'', which uses the transitive, means "Someone solved the problem", while the fourth-person ''Ongelma ratkesi'' uses the intransitive anticausative, and means "The problem was solved".
==Dynamic and static passive==
In some languages there is a distinction between static or stative passive voice, and dynamic or eventive passive voice. Examples include [[German language|German]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. Static means that an action was done to the subject at a certain point in time, whereas dynamic means that an action is done.
<!--
I, [[User:Gerbrant|Shinobu]], commented out this section because "open" is an adjective. Compare in Dutch:
*De winkel is open. - adjective - The store is open.
*De winkel is geopend. - static passive - The store is open. Someone must have done it, but now it's just open.
*De winkel wordt geopend. - dynamic passive - Someone is opening the store, unlocking the door, turning the "open" sign and thus in the process of opening it.
This distinction is available in English for some verbs, such as in the case of "The store was open" being distinguished from "The store was opened"), but not for others concerning a statement such ss "The store was closed" with either meaning.-->
===In German===
Static passive auxiliary verb: '''sein'''
Dynamic passive auxiliary verb: '''werden'''
''Ich bin am 20. August geboren'' ("I was born on August 20", static)
''Ich wurde am 20. August geboren'' ("I became born on August 20", dynamic)
===In Spanish===
Static passive auxiliary verb: '''estar'''
Dynamic passive auxiliary verb: '''ser'''
===In Dutch===
Static passive auxiliary verb: '''zijn'''
Dynamic passive auxiliary verb: '''worden'''
''De muur is geverfd.'' (There is paint on the wall, static)
''De muur wordt geverfd.'' (Someone is painting the wall, dynamic)
==List of voices==
Here are some voices found in some languages:
*[[Active voice]]
*[[Passive voice]]
*[[Mediopassive voice]]
*[[Impersonal passive voice]]
*[[Middle voice]]
*[[Antipassive voice]]
*[[Reflexive voice]] (the subject and the object of the verb are the same, as in ''I cut myself'')
*[[Reciprocal voice]] (subject and object perform the verbal action to each other, e. g. ''I cut her and she cut me'')
*[[Causative voice]]
*[[Applicative voice]]
==See also==
*[[Grammatical aspect]]
*[[Grammatical mood]]
*[[Grammatical tense]]
*[[E-Prime]]
*[[English passive voice]]
[[Category:Grammatical voices| ]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[de:Diathese (Linguistik)]]
[[fr:Diathèse]]
[[ja:態]]
[[pl:Strona (językoznawstwo)]]
[[pt:Voz verbal]]
[[zh:语态]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gram staining</title>
<id>12935</id>
<revision>
<id>40852189</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T12:30:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gram_Stain_Anthrax.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Gram-positive [[anthrax disease|anthrax]] bacteria (purple rods) in [[cerebrospinal fluid]] sample. If present, a gram-negative bacterial species would appear pink. (The other cells are [[white blood cell]]s)]]
'''Gram staining''' (or the '''Gram's method''') is an [[empiricism|empirical]] method of differentiating [[bacterium|bacterial]] species into two large groups ([[Gram-positive]] and [[Gram-negative]]) based on the chemical and physical properties of their [[cell wall]]s.
The method is named after its inventor, the [[Denmark|Danish]] scientist [[Hans Christian Gram]] (1853-1938), who developed the technique in [[1884]] to discriminate between [[pneumococcus|pneumococci]] and ''[[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]'' bacteria.
==Uses==
===Research===
Gram staining is one of the most useful staining procedures in [[Bacteriology|bacteriological]] [[laboratory]]. The technique is widely used as a tool for differentiating Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, as a first step to determine the identity of a particular bacterial sample.
===Medical===
Gram stains are performed on [[body fluid]] or [[biopsy]] when [[infection]] is suspected. It yields results much quicker than [[Microbiological culture|culture]], and is especially important when infection would make an important difference in the patient's treatment and prognosis; examples are [[cerebrospinal fluid]] for [[meningitis]] and [[synovial fluid]] for [[septic arthritis]]. It necessitates the 24 hour staffing of microbiological laboratories in hospitals.
==Procedure==
{{Wikibookspar|Transwiki|Gram staining}}
===Staining===
# First, an inoculum is taken from a culture using an [[inoculation loop]] and put on a [[Microscope slide|slide]] and then allowed to air dry. If the culture is solid, it is diluted by adding a drop of water or sterile saline on the slide and mixing with the loop. It is important here to take a very small inoculum so that the end result is a sparse single layer of bacteria. It is a common mistake for beginners to put far too much inoculum at this step.
# The specimen is heat-fixed by passing the slide, inoculum side up, through a [[bunsen burner|bunsen]] flame 1-2 times, without allowing the slide to become hot to the touch.
# A [[alkali|basic]] dye, [[methyl violet|crystal violet]] or [[gentian violet]], is used to stain the slide. This dye is taken up by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Allow to stain for 1 minute. The slide should look purple to the unaided eye, and if examined microscopically at this point both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are purple. Lugol can also be used instead of crystal violet.
# Rinse off with water for a maximum of 5 seconds.
# Add [[iodine]] (Gram's iodine) [[solution]] (1[[how to make a % solution|%]] iodine, 2% potassium iodide in water) for 1 minute. This acts as a [[mordant]] and fixes the dye.
# Rinse with water.
# Apply 95% [[ethanol]] or a mixture of [[acetone]] and [[alcohol]]. This washes away all the unbound [[alkali|basic]] dye, (usually crystal violet) and leaves [[Gram-positive]] organisms stained purple and [[Gram-negative]] organisms unstained (colourless).
# Rinse with water immediately to prevent over-decolourisation (as prolonged exposure to the decolourising agent will remove all the stain from both types of bacteria).
# Apply a suitable [[counterstain]]. Suitable stains include [[safranin]] or [[fuchsin]]. This stain is taken up by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, but does not alter the colour of Gram-positive organism much, as they are already purple. It does, however, make the Gram-negative organisms pinkish-red.
#Blot gently and allow the slide to dry. Do not smear.
[[Image:Gram-stain-slide.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Gram-stained slide containing both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria]]
===Interpretation===
When inspecting the slide under a [[microscope]]:
* ''[[Gram-positive]]'' organisms will appear ''blue-black'' or ''purple''.
* ''[[Gram-negative]]'' organisms will appear ''red'' or ''pink''.
Organisms that cannot reliably be differentiated by this staining technique are said to be '''Gram-variable'''. These are Gram-positive bacteria that lose the
|
esent in Brussels: the normal bi-lateral ambassador, the EU-ambassador, and finally the NATO-ambassador.
The "language frontier" (''taalgrens'') divides Belgium into a northern, [[Dutch language|Dutch]]-speaking region, and a southern, [[French language|French]]-speaking region. Although the real language frontier and the official one are largely identical, there are bilingual pockets on both sides with, in certain cases, no specific linguistic rights for the population speaking the other language. The Brussels-Capital Region is officially [[bilingual]], while the majority of its residents speak French (see the linguistic history of Brussels in this article: [[Brussels#Linguistic situation|linguistic situation section]]).
The highest building in Brussels is the [[South Tower (Brussels)|South Tower]] (150 m); the most famous probably the [[Atomium]], which is a remnant from the [[Expo '58]].
==Etymology==
The name Brussels comes from the old [[Dutch_language|Dutch]] ''Bruocsella'', ''Brucsella'' or ''Broekzele'', which means "marsh (''bruoc'', ''bruc'' or ''broek'') home (''sella'' or ''zele'')" or "home in the marsh". "Broekzele" was spelt "Bruxelles" in French. In [[Belgian French]] [[pronunciation]] as well as in Dutch, the "k" eventually disappeared and "z" became "s", as reflected in the current Dutch spelling. The names of all other municipalities in the [[Brussels-Capital Region]] are also of [[Dutch_language|Dutch]] origin, except for [[Evere]], which is of [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] origin.
==History==
[[Image:Palaisd'EgmontBrussels.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The ''Egmontpaleis'' or ''Palais d'Egmont'', seat of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is a site for European diplomacy]]
[[Image:RoyalPalaceBrussel Copyright200406KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The royal palace in Brussels]]
[[Image:Brusselsskyline.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Skyline of Brussels seen from the ''Kunstberg'' or ''Mont des Arts'']]
[[Image:Bruxelles Grande-Place.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right| Old houses on Brussels' Grand Place or ''Grote Markt'']]
In 977 AD, the [[Germany|German]] emperor [[Otto II]] gave the duchy of [[Lower Lotharingia]], the empire's western frontier to [[Charles, Duke of Lower Lotharingia|Charles]], the banished son of King [[Louis IV of France]]. Mention was already made of Brussels at the time. However, the founding of Brussels is usually known to happen when a small castle was built by Charles around 979 on an island (called Saint-Gery island) encompassed by the [[Zenne]] or [[Senne]] river. At the end of the [[tenth century]], the county of Brussels was taken over by [[Lambert I of Leuven]]. Under [[Lambert II of Leuven]], a new [[castrum]] and the first city walls were built. The small town became in the [[12th century]] an important stop on the commercial road from [[Bruges|Brugge]] to [[Cologne]]. The Counts of [[Leuven]] became [[Duke of Brabant|Dukes of Brabant]] at about this time also (1183/1184). From 1357 to 1379, a new city enclosure was constructed as the former one was already proving to be too small: it is now known as the inner ring or pentagon. In the [[15th century]], by means of the wedding of heiress [[Margaret III of Flanders]] with [[Philip II, Duke of Burgundy|Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy]], a new Duke of Brabant emerged from the House of [[Valois Dynasty|Valois]] (namely [[Antoine, Duke of Brabant|Antoine]], their son), with another line of descent from the Habsburgs (Maximilian of Austria, later [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]], was Philip's father).
In 1695 Brussels was attacked by general Villeroy of King [[Louis XIV of France]]. A bombardment destroyed the city's heart: more than 4000 houses were put to flame, including the medieval buildings at the [[Grand Place|Grote Markt]] or [[Grand Place]], except for the famous [[city hall]], which miraculously survived.
In 1830, the [[Belgian revolution]] took place in Brussels after a presentation of [[Daniel-Francois-Esprit Auber|Auber]]'s opera ''[[La Muette de Portici]]'' at [[La Monnaie|De Munt]] or [[La Monnaie]] theatre. On [[July 21]], [[1831]], [[Léopold I of Belgium|Léopold I]], the first King of the Belgians, ascended the throne, undertaking the destruction of the city walls and the construction of many buildings. Under [[Léopold II of Belgium|Léopold II]], the city underwent many more changes: the Zenne was culverted (as it brought diseases), the [[North-South Junction]] was built, and the [[Tervuren]] Avenue was laid out.
From [[May 10]], [[1940]], Brussels was bombed by the German army. Most of the damage was done however in 1944-1945. The [[Heysel Stadium disaster]] took place in Brussels on [[May 29]], [[1985]]. The [[Brussels Capital Region]] was founded on [[June 18]], [[1989]].
in [[1996]] Brussels gained an interesting importance for [[Somalian]] community in Belgium. The spiritual leader of [[Muslim]] [[Somalians]] in Europe, namely [[Al Siddik al Har'am]], died in a car accident in Brussels. The plot became a spiritual site for mourners. Now every year Somalians gather there on 7th of August and commemorate the accident.
==Linguistic situation==
The original languages of the Brussels area are [[Brabantic]] dialects of Dutch. A curiosity is "Marollien", a Brussels dialect heavily influenced by [[Walloon]] which was spoken in a central section of the city. Both Dutch and French have been in use for most of the city's history as official languages and were used by the upper classes.
During the 19th and the 20th century, as [[literacy]] progressed, [[dialect]]s started to lose ground to standardized languages. In Brussels, most of the population adopted French rather than Dutch as its language of culture, since at the time, it was more prestigious and consequently considered more useful. Today, the Brussels dialects are on the verge of extinction, although some try to revive them (see links).
Nowadays, the Brussels Capital Region is officially bilingual French-Dutch. There are no official statistics on the first language of its population. However, according to a 2001 study by Rudi Janssens, a sociolinguist at the [[VUB]], 8,5% of the Brussels population are native Dutch-speakers and 10 à 20% have both Dutch and French as a mother tongue. The same research shows that almost half of the population are native French-speakers. Allophones, who speak neither Dutch nor French at home, are a rapidly growing segment of the population. In reality, Brussels has become a multilingual city, rather than a bilingual one.
It should be noted that due to the growth of the city of Brussels, the periphery, which is part of Dutch-speaking [[Flanders]], attracts an important French-speaking population. In some of the municipalities immediately bordering the Brussels Capital Region, the majority of the population has become French-speaking, sometimes numbering over 70%. Some argue that these new inhabitants should adapt to their Flemish environment, others suggest the expansion of the Brussels Capital Region and its bilingual statute. According to the stance taken in the debate, the existing linguistic rights in the Brussels periphery are either interpreted as a help to facilitate the adaptation process, or as perpetual linguistic rights for francophones.
==Universities==
Brussels has several [[university|universities]], the [[Université Libre de Bruxelles]] (ULB), the [[Vrije Universiteit Brussel]] (VUB), the [[Facultés Universitaires Saint Louis]] (FUSL), the [[Katholieke Universiteit Brussel]] (KUB) and the [[Royal Military Academy (Belgium)|Royal Military Academy]] (RMA). A satellite campus of the [[Université catholique de Louvain]] (UCL) is also located in Brussels: it is called "Louvain-en-Woluwe" or "UCL-Brussels", and hosts the faculty of Medicine of the university.
==Transport==
[[Image:Metro bruxelles station debrouckere.jpg|thumb|200px|Brussels metro (actually here ''premetro''), ''de Brouckère'' station]]
[[Image:Gare du Nord Nr 2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Platforms at Brussels North station]]
'''Brussels''' is served by [[Brussels Airport|Brussels National Airport]], located in the nearby Flemish municipality of [[Zaventem]], and by [[Charleroi Brussels South|Brussels South Airport]], located near [[Charleroi]], some 80km from Brussels. Brussels' major train stations link the city to the [[United Kingdom]] by [[Eurostar]], and to major European cities by high speed rail links (such as the [[Thalys]]).
The [[Brussels metro]] dates back to [[1976]] (but underground lines known as ''premetro'' have been serviced by tramways since [[1968]]). A comprehensive bus and [[Brussels trams|tram network]] also covers the city. Brussels also has its own port on the [[Willebroek]] canal located in the city's northwest.
There are four companies managing public transport inside Brussels:
* STIB/MIVB (metro, bus, tram)
* SNCB/NMBS (train)
* [[De Lijn]] (buses based in Flanders)
* TEC (buses based in Wallonia)
An interticketing system means that a STIB/MIVB ticket holder can use the train or long-distance buses inside the city. The commuter services operated by De Lijn, TEC and SNCB/NMBS will in the next few years be augmented by an [[RER]] rail network around Brussels.
===Railway stations===
The major stations in Brussels are on the [[North-South Junction]]:
* [[North station (Brussels)|Brussels North]] (Dutch: ''Brussel-Noord'', French: ''Gare du Nord'')
* [[Central station (Brussels)|Brussels Central]] (Dutch: ''Brussel-Centraal'', French: ''Gare Centrale'')
* [[South station (Brussels)|Brussels South]] (Dutch: ''Brussel-Zuid'', French: ''Gare du Midi'' or ''Bruxelles-Midi'') (the [[Eurostar]], [[Thalys]], HST or [[TGV]] and [[InterCity Express|ICE]] international terminal)
Two more stations serve the [[EU]] district in Brussels. Trains towards [[Namur (city)|Namur]] and [[Luxembourg]] call at:
* [[Brussels Luxembou
|
ru Road]]
* [[Kidson Track]]
* [[Oodnadatta Track]]
* [[Peninsula Developmental Road]]
* [[Plenty Highway]]
* [[Rig Road]]
* [[Sandover Highway]]
* [[Strzelecki Track]]
* [[Tallawana Track]]
* [[Tanami Track]]
* [[WAA Line]]
*
==External links==
*Photography Galleries
**[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/gallery/uluru.htm Uluru (Ayers Rock)]
**[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/gallery/devilmar.htm Devils Marbles]
**[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/gallery/katherin.htm Katherine River Gorge]
**[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/gallery/kingscan.htm Kings Canyon (Watarrka)]
**[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/gallery/katatjut.htm The Olgas (Kata Tjuta)]
**[http://www.australiaphotography.com/australia/images/coober/coober.php Coober Pedy]
[[Category:Plains]]
[[Category:Regions of Australia]]
[[de:Outback]]
[[es:Outback]]
[[ja:&#12450;&#12454;&#12488;&#12496;&#12483;&#12463;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atomic weight</title>
<id>3230</id>
<revision>
<id>15901591</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-06T02:47:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eric119</username>
<id>7110</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Atomic mass]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Atomic mass]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Absolute Infinite</title>
<id>3231</id>
<revision>
<id>41629385</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:15:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trovatore</username>
<id>310173</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ limitation of size</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Absolute Infinite''' is [[Georg Cantor]]'s concept of an "[[infinity]]" that transcended the [[transfinite number]]s. Cantor equated the Absolute Infinite with [[God]]. He held that the [[The Absolute|Absolute]] [[Infinite]] had various [[mathematical]] properties, including that every property of the Absolute Infinite is also held by some smaller object.
== Cantor's view ==
Cantor is quoted as saying:
:The actual infinite arises in three contexts: first when it is realized in the most complete form, in a fully independent otherworldly being, ''in Deo'', where I call it the Absolute Infinite or simply Absolute; second when it occurs in the contingent, created world; third when the mind grasps it ''in abstracto'' as a mathematical magnitude, number or order type. [2]
Cantor also mentioned the idea in his famous letter to [[Richard Dedekind]] [[28 July]] [[1899]] [[#Endnotes|<sup>*</sup>]]:
:A [[multiplicity]] is called [[well-ordered]] if it fulfills the condition that every sub-multiplicity has a first [[element (mathematics)|element]]; such a multiplicity I call for short a sequence. Now I envisage the system of all numbers and denote it ''&Omega;''. The system ''&Omega;'' in its natural ordering according to magnitude is a "sequence". Now let us adjoin 0 as an additional element to this sequence, and certainly if we set this 0 in the first position then ''&Omega;''* is still a sequence ... of which one can readily convince oneself that every number occurring in it is the [ordinal number] of the sequence of all its preceding elements. Now ''&Omega;''* (and therefore also ''&Omega;'') cannot be a consistent multiplicity. For if ''&Omega;''* were consistent, then as a well-ordered set, a number ''&Delta;'' would belong to it which would be greater than all numbers of the system ''&Omega;''; the number ''&Delta;'', however, also belongs to the system ''&Omega;'', because it comprises all numbers. Thus ''&Delta;'' would be greater than ''&Delta;'', which is a contradiction. Thus the system ''&Omega;'' of all ordinal numbers is an inconsistent, '''absolutely infinite''' multiplicity."
== The Burali-Forti paradox ==
The idea that the collection of all ordinal numbers cannot logically exist, seems [[paradoxical]] to many. This is related to [[Burali-Forti paradox |Cesare Burali-Forti's "paradox"]] that there can be no greatest [[ordinal number]]. All of these problems can be traced back to the idea that, for every property that can be logically defined, there exists a set of all objects that have that property. However, as in Cantor's argument (above), this idea leads to difficulties.
More generally, as noted by [[A.W. Moore]], there can be no end to the process of [[set (mathematics)|set]] formation, and thus no such thing as the ''totality of all sets'', or the ''set hierarchy''. Any such totality would itself have to be a set, thus lying somewhere within the [[hierarchy]] and thus failing to contain every set.
A standard solution to this problem is found in [[Zermelo set theory|Zermelo's set theory]], which does not allow the unrestricted formation of sets from arbitrary properties. Rather, we may form the set of all objects that have a given property ''and lie in some given set'' (Zermelo's [[Axiom schema of specification|Axiom of Separation]]). This allows for the formation of sets based on properties, in a limited sense, while (hopefully) preserving the consistency of the theory.
However, while this neatly solves the logical problem, the philosophical problem remains. It seems natural that a set of individuals ought to exist, so long as the individuals exist. Indeed in a naïve sense, [[set theory]] might be said to be based on this notion. Zermelo's fix would seem to commit us to the rather mysterious notion of a ''[[proper class]]'': a class of objects that does not have any formal existence, as an object (set), within our theory. For example, the class of all sets would be such a proper class.
==Endnotes==
<sup>*</sup> Ivor Grattan-Guinness has shown that this "letter" is really an amalgam by Cantor's editor [[Ernst Zermelo]] of several letters written at different times (I. Grattan-Guinness, "The rediscovery of the Cantor-Dedekind Correspondence", ''Jahresbericht der deutschen Mathematik-Vereinigung'' 76, 104-139
== See also ==
* [[The Absolute]]
* [[Class (set theory)]]
* [[Gödel's ontological proof]]
* [[Infinity]]
* [[Limitation of size]]
* [[The Ultimate]]
== References ==
* [1] [[Rudy Rucker]], ''Infinity and the Mind'', Princeton University Press, 1995.
* [2] Ruckerbook ''[[Mind Tools]]''
* [3] Heijenoort 1967
* [4] Moore, A.W. ''The Infinite'', New York, Routledge, 1990
* [5] Moore, A.W. "Set Theory, Skolem's Paradox and the Tractatus", ''Analysis'' 1985, 45
* [6] G. Cantor, 1932. ''Gesammelte Abhandlungen mathematischen und philosophischen Inhalts.'' E. Zermelo, Ed. Berlin: Springer; reprinted Hildesheim: Olms, 1962; Berlin/Heidelberg/New York: Springer, 1980.
[[Category:Philosophy of mathematics]]
[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Infinity]]
[[nl:Absoluut oneindige]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anthropic Principle</title>
<id>3232</id>
<revision>
<id>15901593</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anthropic principle]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acceptance test</title>
<id>3233</id>
<revision>
<id>34152228</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-06T20:28:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Panzi</username>
<id>65160</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[''noun phrase''] An '''acceptance test''' in [[engineering]] is a test that a user/sponsor and manufacturer/producer jointly perform on a finished, engineered [[product]]/[[system]] through [[black-box testing]] (i.e., the user or tester need not know anything about the internal workings of the system). It is often referred to as a(n) ''functional test'', ''[[beta test]]'', ''QA test'', ''application test'', ''confidence test,'' ''final test,'' or ''end user test''. It is also sometimes split into a ''factory acceptance test'' and/or a ''site or field acceptance test'', the former being run within the manufacturer's facilities, the latter at the user's site, within the user's environment.
[''verb phrase''] To test a manufactured, engineered system and, based on the results, either grant or not grant acceptance of the system by the sponsor/user from the manufacturer/producer.
Acceptance tests generally take the form of a suite of tests designed to be run on the completed system. Each individual test exercises a particular operating condition of the user's environment, or a feature of the system, known as a case. And each test case has a [[boolean]] outcome: pass or fail. There is generally no degree of success or failure. The test environment is usually designed to be identical, or as close as possible, to the anticipated user's environment. These case tests must each be accompanied by test case input data and/or a formal description of the operational activities to be performed— intended to thoroughly exercise the specific case— and a formal description of the expected results. The acceptance test (suite) is run against the supplied input data and/or an actual environment using an acceptance test script to direct the testers, and the results obtained are compared with the expected results. If there is a correct match for every case, the test is said to pass. If not, the system may either be rejected or accepted on conditions previously agreed between the sponsor and the manufacturer.
The objective is to provide confidence that the delivered system meets the business requirements of the sponsors and users. The acceptance phase may also act as the final quality gateway, where any quality defects not previously detected may be uncovered.
A principal purpose of the acceptance test is that, once completed successfully, and provided certain additiona
|
mational exhibits, some of which are animated.
Once into the attraction, there is a meandering path with views of the two biomes and of interesting planted landscapes (including, for example, colourful patterned areas which upon inspection prove to be vegetable gardens) and [[sculpture]]s, such as a giant [[bee]] and towering [[robot]]-themed creature created from old electrical appliances.
==The steel and plastic biomes==
[[Image:Cornwall,_eden_project_tropical.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Inside the tropical Biome]]
At the bottom are the two biomes. The larger, the Humid Tropics Biome, is for [[tropical]] plants, such as fruiting [[banana]] trees, coffee, rubber and giant [[bamboo]], and is kept at a tropical temperature. The smaller of the two, the Temperate Biome, which will eventually have its content split into a third Biome yet to be built, houses [[temperate]] and [[arid]] plants and various pieces of sculpture.
The biomes are constructed from a tubular steel frame with mostly hexagonal transparent panels (there are a few pentagonal ones) made from a complex plastic known as [[ETFE]] (it was decided very early on that glass was out of the question, being too heavy and potentially dangerous). The 'panes' of the biome are created from a triple layer of thin [[UV]]-transparent ETFE [[membrane|film]], inflated to create a large space between the two sides and trapping heat like double-glazed windows. The plasic is resistant to most stains, which simply wipe off in the rain, although if required, cleaning is performed by [[Abseil|abseilers]]. Although the plastic is prone to punctures, these can be fixed with ETFE tape. The structure is completely self-supporting, with no internal supports, and is based around a [[geodesic dome|geodesic]] structure. The panels vary in size up to 9m across, with the largest at the top of the structure.
==Environmental study and concerns==
All known [[medicine|medicinal]] uses for the plants are listed alongside them. Part of the Eden Project is serious [[natural environment|environmental]] and [[education|educational]] study, aiming to safeguard our planet and prevent mankind destroying benefits provided by nature by showcasing the interdependence of plants and people. Large displays and 'hands on' attractions aim to be both fun and educational, with new developments such as the Eden Education Centre proving to be a place to have fun, yet learn important things about our planet and our survival.
The Eden Project is an extremely environmentally aware project. There are many attractions and information signs on [[Global Warming]] and why plants are so important to our way of life (shown in a rather controversial and entertaining animation displaying what our world would be like without plant life). The Eden Project recycles as much as possible, with all litter areas split into five or more compartments for plastic, food, paper and other general waste, which is all recycled. The massive amounts of water required to create the humid conditions of the Tropical Biome, as well as to serve the toilet facilities, are all sanitized rain water that would otherwise collect at the bottom of the quarry. The 'Eden Shop' also boasts a huge array of recycled waste, such as pencils made of plastic vending machine cups, and mouse mats made of old tyres or circuit boards, as well as 'grow your own' kits.
Mr. Smit states that if the project becomes, or is merely seen to be, a [[theme park]], then it has failed.
==Recent events==
The Eden Project hosted the [[Live 8 concert, Eden Project | "Africa Calling" concert]] of the [[Live 8]] concert series on [[July 2]] [[2005]]. It was also used as a filming location for the [[2002]] [[James Bond]] film, ''[[Die Another Day]]''.
==Books==
The Eden Project has also published a number of books.
(list is incomplete)
*''Fencing Paradise: Exploring the Gardens of Eden'' [[Richard Mabey]] (2005) ISBN 1903919312
*''The Architecture of Eden'' by Hugh Pearman and Andrew Whalley with a foreword by Sir Nicholas Grimshaw (2003) ISBN 1903919150
==See also==
* [[Closed ecological system]]
* [[Ecosystem]]
* [[Vivarium]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.edenproject.com/ EdenProject.com] - The project's official website
*[http://www.grimshaw-architects.com/ Grimshaw's website]
*[http://www.cornwall365.co.uk/cornwall/places,27,Eden-Project.html Eden Project photos from Cornwall 365]
*[http://www.viewsofcornwall.com/viewphotoplace/6/ Photographs of Eden Project photos from Views Of Cornwall]
*[http://www.eden-project-accommodation.com/ Eden Project Accommodation] - Resources about the project including an image gallery, 360 degree virtual tour and accommodation listings.
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Cornwall]]
[[Category:Gardens in Cornwall]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category: Environmental design]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[de:Eden Project]]
[[kw:Edenva]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Commission</title>
<id>9974</id>
<revision>
<id>40293589</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T16:17:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.161.64.67</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the European Union}}
The '''European Commission''' (formally the '''Commission of the European Communities''') is the [[executive (government)|executive]] body of the [[European Union]]. Alongside the [[European Parliament]] and the [[Council of the European Union]], it is one of the three main institutions governing the Union.
[[Image:Berlaymont.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[Berlaymont building|Berlaymont]] in [[Brussels]] houses the European Commission]]
Its primary roles are to propose and implement legislation, and to act as 'guardian of the [[EU_treaties|treaties]]' which provide the legal basis for the EU. The role of the European Commission has many parallels with the executive body of a national government, but also differences (see below for details).
The Commission consists of 25 Commissioners, one from each member state of the EU, supported by an administrative body of several thousand European civil servants divided into departments called [[Directorate-General]]. The term "the Commission" is generally used to refer both to the administrative body in its entirety, and to the team of Commissioners who lead it.
Unlike the [[Council of the European Union]], the Commission is intended to be a body independent of member states. Commissioners are therefore not permitted to take instructions from the government of the country that appointed them, but are supposed to represent the interests of the citizens of the EU as a whole.
The Commission is headed by a [[President of the European Commission|President]] (currently [[José Manuel Durão Barroso]]). Its headquarters are located in [[Brussels]] and its [[working language]]s are [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]].
== Responsibilities of the Commission ==
The Commission differs from other institutions in the EU system through its '''power of initiative'''. This means that only the Commission has the authority to ''initiate'' legislation in the areas known as the "first pillar". However, the [[Council of the European Union]] and the [[European Parliament]] are both able to formally request that the Commission legislate on a particular topic. In the areas that fall within the "second pillar" ([[Common Foreign & Security Policy (EU)|foreign policy and defence]]) and "third pillar" ([[Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters|criminal law]]), the Commission shares the power of initiating legislation with member states.
The Commission also takes the role of '''guardian of the treaties''', which includes taking responsibility for initiating infringement proceedings at the [[European Court of Justice]] against member states and others who it considers to have breached the EU treaties and other community law.
The Commission negotiates international [[trade]] agreements (in the [[World Trade Organization]]) and other international agreements on behalf of the EU. It closely co-operates in this with the [[Council of the European Union]].
The Commission is responsible for adopting technical measures to implement legislation adopted by the Council and, in most cases, the Parliament. This legislation is subject to the approval of committees made up of representatives of member states. This process is sometimes known by the jargon term of [[comitology]].
The Commission also [[regulation|regulates]] [[competition]] in the Union, vetting all mergers with Community-wide effects and initiating proceedings against companies which violate EU competition laws.
== Appointment and makeup of the Commission ==
=== President and Commissioners ===
{{main|President of the European Commission}} (includes table of holders and dates)
''Main articles: [[Holstein Commission]], [[Rey Commission]], [[Malfatti Commission]], [[Mansholt Commission]], [[Ortoli Commission]], [[Jenkins European Commission |Jenkins Commission]], [[Thorn Commission]], [[Delors Commission]], [[Santer Commission]], [[Marín Commission]], [[Prodi Commission]], [[Barroso Commission]]''
The President of the Commission is chosen by the [[European Council]], but the choice must be approved by the [[European Parliament]]. The remaining Commissioners are appointed by the member states in agreement with the President, who must decide the role of each Commissioner. Finally, the new Commission as a whole must be approved by the Parliament.
In addition to its role in approving a new Commission, the European Parliament has the power at any time to force the entire Commission to resign through a vote of no confidence. (This requires a vote that makes up at least two-thirds of those voting and a majority of the total membership of the Parliament. While it has never used this pow
|
spectrometry]]
*'''[[Molecular biology]]''':
**genetic structure: [[DNA]] -- [[DNA replication]] -- [[nucleosome]] -- [[genetic code]] -- [[codon]] -- [[transcription factor]] -- [[transcription]] -- [[translation]] -- [[RNA]] -- [[histone]] -- [[telomere]]
**[[gene expression]] -- [[heterochromatin]] -- [[promoter]] -- [[enhancer]] -- [[operon]]
**[[mutation]] -- [[point mutation]] -- [[crossover]] -- [[recombination]] --[[plasmid]] -- [[transposon]]
**[[molecular genetics]]: [[DNA fingerprinting]] -- [[genetic fingerprint]] -- [[microsatellite]] -- [[gene knockout]]-- [[imprinting]] -- [[RNA interference]]
**[[Genomics]]: [[computational biology]] -- [[bioinformatics]]
**Molecular Techniques: [[gel electrophoresis]] -- [[Transformation (genetics)|transformation]] -- [[PCR]] -- [[PCR mutagenesis]] -- [[primer (molecular biology)|primer]] -- [[chromosome walking]] -- [[RFLP]] -- [[restriction enzyme]] -- [[sequencing]] -- [[shotgun sequencing]] -- [[cloning]] -- [[culture]] -- [[DNA microarray]]
*'''[[Genetics]]''' ([[classical genetics]]) :
**[[heredity]] -- [[Mendelian inheritance]] -- [[gene]] -- [[locus]] -- [[Trait (biological)|trait]] -- [[allele]] -- [[polymorphism (biology)|polymorphism]] -- [[homozygote]] -- [[heterozygote]] -- [[hybrid]] -- [[hybridization]] -- [[dihybrid cross]] -- [[Punnett square]]
**[[genotype-phenotype distinction]] -- [[genotype]] -- [[phenotype]] -- [[dominant gene]] -- [[recessive gene]]
**[[genetic interactions]] -- [[segregation]] -- [[genetic mosaic]] -- [[maternal effect]] -- [[penetrance]] -- [[complementation (genetics)|complementation]] -- [[suppression]] -- [[epistasis]] -- [[genetic linkage]]
**chromosomal effects: [[chromosome]] -- [[haploid]] -- [[diploid]] -- [[polyploidy]] -- [[dosage effect]] -- [[inbreeding]]
**[[Model organism]]s: [[Drosophila melanogaster|Drosophila]] -- [[Arabidopsis thaliana|Arabidopsis]] -- [[Caenorhabitis elegans]] -- [[mouse]] -- [[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]] -- [[Escherichia coli]] -- [[Lambda phage]] -- [[Xenopus]]
**Techniques: [[genetic screen]] -- [[paternity test]] -- [[linkage map]] -- [[genetic map]]
== Biological disciplines ==
*'''Biology divisions''' : [[Acarology]] -- [[Anatomy]] -- [[Arachnology]] -- [[Biochemistry]] -- [[Bioinformatics]] -- [[Biomechanics]] -- [[Bionomics]] -- [[Biophysics]] -- [[Biotechnology]] -- [[Botany]] -- [[Cell biology]] -- [[Ecology]] -- [[Entomology]] -- [[Evolution]] -- [[Genetics]] -- [[Gerontology]] -- [[Herpetology]] -- [[Histology]] -- [[Ichnology]] -- [[Ichthyology]] -- [[Immunology]] -- [[Limnology]] -- [[Marine biology]] -- [[Microbiology]] -- [[Molecular biology]] -- [[Mycology]] -- [[Myrmecology]] -- [[Neurobiology]] -- [[Ornithology]] -- [[Paleontology]] -- [[Palynology]] -- [[Parasitology]] -- [[Photobiology]] -- [[Phycology]] -- [[Physiology]] -- [[Plant physiology]] -- [[Biological psychology]]-- [[Radiobiology]] -- [[Sociobiology]] -- [[Structural biology]] -- [[Taxonomy]] -- [[Virology]] -- [[Zoology]]
*'''[[Biologist]]s''': [[Charles Robert Darwin]] -- [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] -- [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] -- [[Sir Charles Lyell]] -- [[Alfred Wegener]] -- [[Alexander Fleming]] -- [[Andrew Huxley]] -- [[Robert Koch]] -- [[Konrad Lorenz]] -- [[Ernst Haeckel]] -- [[Theodor Bilharz]] -- [[Marcello Malpighi]] -- [[Antoni van Leeuwenhoek]] -- [[Konrad Lorenz]] -- [[Thomas Malthus]] -- [[Edward Jenner]] -- [[Carolus Linnaeus]] -- [[Sewall Wright]] -- [[Louis Pasteur]] -- [[Gregor Mendel]] -- [[Barbara McClintock]] -- [[James D. Watson]] -- [[Francis Crick]] -- [[Kary Mullis]] -- [[Craig Venter]] -- [[Steven Jay Gould]] -- [[Lynn Margulis]] -- [[Carl Woese]] -- [[Jane Goodall]]
[[Category:Biology| ]]
[[Category:Biology lists| ]]
[[Category:Lists of basic topics|Biology]]
[[Category:Lists|Biology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British thermal unit</title>
<id>4495</id>
<revision>
<id>39140241</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T23:40:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.163.234.68</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ interwiki nl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''British thermal unit''' (BTU or Btu) is a unit of [[energy]] used in the [[United States]]. It is also still occasionally encountered in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], in the context of older heating and cooling systems. In most other areas, it has been replaced by the [[SI]] unit of energy, the [[joule]] (J).
A Btu is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one [[pound (weight)|pound]] [[avoirdupois]] of [[water]] by one degree [[Fahrenheit]]. 143 Btu is required to melt a pound of ice. As is the case with the [[calorie]], several different definitions of the Btu exist, which are based on different water temperatures and therefore vary by about 0.5%:
{| class=wikitable
!width="100"| Name !!width="140"| Value (J) !! Notes
|-
| 39 °F || &#8776; 1059.67 || Uses the [[calorie]] value of water at its maximum density (4 °C)
|-
| Mean || &#8776; 1055.87 || Uses a calorie averaged over water temperatures 0 °C to 100 °C
|-
| IT || &#8801; 1055.05585262 || The most widespread Btu, uses the International [Steam] Table (IT) calorie, which was defined by the ''Fifth International Conference on the Properties of Steam'' ([[London]], July [[1956]]) to be exactly 4.1868 J
|-
| [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] || &#8801; 1055.056 || [[International standard]] [[ISO 31-4]] on ''Quantities and units – Part 4: Heat'', Appendix A. This value uses the IT calorie and is rounded to a realistic accuracy
<!--- |-
| (un-named) || &#8801; 1055.05585257348 || A definition in UK law [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]
See [[Talk:British thermal unit]] for an explanation of how this overly-precise but incorrectly rounded value came about
--->|-
| 59 °F || &#8801; 1054.804 || Chiefly [[United States|American]]. Uses the 15 °C calorie, itself defined as exactly 4.1855 J (''Comité international'' 1950; PV, 1950, 22, 79-80)
|-
| 60 °F || &#8776; 1054.68 || Chiefly [[Canada|Canadian]]
|-
| 63 °F || &#8776; 1054.6 || Possibly apocryphal
|-
| Thermochemical || &#8801; 1054.35026444 || Uses the "thermochemical [[calorie]]" of exactly 4.184 J
|}
In the United States, the BTU is often used to describe the heat value of fuels, and the BTU per hour (often confusingly abbreviated to BTU) measures the heating and cooling power of a system (such as a barbecue grill).
== Conversions ==
One BTU is approximately:
* 252–253 cal ([[calorie]]s, small)
* 0.252–0.253 kcal (kilocalories)
* 778–782 ft&middot;lbf ([[foot-pound|foot-pounds-force]])
* 1054–1060 [[joule]]s
* In natural gas, by convention 1 MM Btu (1 million Btu, sometimes written "mm BTU") = 1.054615 GJ. Conversely, 1 gigajoule is equivalent to 26.8 m<sup>3</sup> of natural gas at defined temperature and pressure.
== Associated units ==
The BTU per hour (BTU/h) is the unit of power most commonly associated with the BTU.
* 1 [[horsepower]] is approximately 2540 BTU/h
* 1 [[watt]] is approximately 3.4 BTU/h
* 1000 BTU/h is approximately 293 W
A unit called the ''quad'' (short for [[quadrillion]]) is defined as 10<sup>15</sup> BTU, which is about 1.055&times;10<sup>18</sup> joules, and the ''[[therm]]'' is defined in the United States and European Union as 100,000 BTU &ndash;but the U.S. uses the BTU<sub>59 °F</sub> whilst the EU uses the BTU<sub>IT</sub>.
The BTU should not be confused with the [[Board of Trade Unit]] (B.O.T.U.), which is a much larger quantity of energy.
== See also ==
* [[Conversion of units]]
* [[Metrication]]
==External links==
*[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]
[[Category:Units of energy]]
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Customary units in the United States]]
[[de:British thermal unit]]
[[es:BTU]]
[[fr:British thermal unit]]
[[it:British thermal unit]]
[[ja:英熱量]]
[[nl:British thermal unit]]
[[sv:Btu]]
[[tr:BTU]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Business and Industry basic topics</title>
<id>4496</id>
<revision>
<id>15902762</id>
<timestamp>2005-01-03T19:52:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sortior</username>
<id>99667</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">These should be the most basic topics in the field--topics about which we'd like to have articles soon. Please see [[the most basic encyclopedia article topics]] for general instructions on constructing this list, and consult [[complete list of encyclopedia topics]].
[[Category:Wikipedia missing topics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bugatti</title>
<id>4497</id>
<revision>
<id>42003501</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:57:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/155.143.23.250|155.143.23.250]] ([[User talk:155.143.23.250|talk]]) to last version by OrphanBot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:BugattiInsignia.png|right|The Bugatti logo]] -->
'''Bugatti''' is one of the most celebrated [[marque]]s of [[automobile]] and one of the most exclusive French car producers of all time. The company is legendary for producing some of the best [[sports car|sports cars]] in the world. The original Bugatti failed with the advent of [[World War II]], but the name has been resurrected twice, most recently under the [[Volkswagen Group]].
==Under Ettore Bugatti==
[[Image:BugattiT35B.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35B]].]]
Although founder [[Ettore Bugatti]] was born in It
|
ongevity combined with their earlier successes add up to a major league record 9,756 victories (for a franchise in a single city) through the [[2004]] season. In other years the Cubs have shown they ''can'' win, or at least ''contend'', when their pitching is superior. Outstanding pitching has been a major difference in every one of their winning seasons since WWII. But although there is no substitute for front-office savvy and on-the-field excellence, the venerable ballpark itself has to be considered a factor in the teams' failures to go farther than they have. When the bleachers were extended into left field in [[1937]], it shortened the true power alley from a posted distance of 372 feet to about 350 feet, which is too short for major league standards, especially for a left field. Most batters are right-handed, so their natural power alley is left-center. Thus most asymmetric ballparks have their short field in right. Not so with Wrigley. This allows more left-center field [[home run]]s than the average ballpark would. [[Ferguson Jenkins]], upon being traded to the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] after a successful though home-run prone career with the Cubs, bitterly complained that "Wrigley Field is a ''bad'' ballpark!" After posting a below-.500 record for the first time since 2002, the Cubs are looking to retool for the 2006 campaign. Since the Cubs' last pennant in 1945, every other major league franchise that was playing at that time has won the World Series (as the Red Sox and the White Sox both won the title in 2004 and 2005, respectively). It remains to be seen what, if any, effect this will have on the club's management.
During the 2005 offseason, the Cubs revamped their outfield, acquiring speedy leadoff man Juan Pierre from the Florida Marlins for pitcher Sergio Mitre and two minor leaguers, and signing right fielder Jacque Jones to a three year deal. They also added two new arms to their bullpen, signing veterans Bobby Howry and Scott Eyre, both to three year contracts. Disappointing center fielder Corey Patterson, who at one time was a highly touted prospect, was traded to the Baltimore Orioles for two minor leaguers. The Cubs also saw shortstop Nomar Garciaparra depart via free agency to the Los Angeles Dodgers. Starting pitcher Wade Miller, formerly of the Red Sox and Astros, was also signed, getting a 1 year, $1 million contract.
''See also:'' [[Curse of the Billy Goat]], [[Steve Bartman]], [[Grant DePorter]], [[Major League Baseball franchise post-season droughts]], [[wikiquote:Lee Elia|Lee Elia tirade]]
==Current events==
'''2005-2006 Offseason News'''
November 18, 2005 - Former SF Giants reliever [[Scott Eyre]] agrees to a [[U.S. dollar|$]]11 million, 3-year contract.
November 29, 2005 - Relief pitcher [[Bob Howry]] signs a $12 million, 3-year contract.
December 7, 2005 - [[Sergio Mitre]] and two pitching prospects are traded to the Marlins for center fielder [[Juan Pierre]]. Infielder [[John Mabry]] is also signed to a one-year contract.
December 18, 2005 - [[Nomar Garciaparra]] signs with the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]].
December 20, 2005 - Right fielder [[Jacque Jones]] signs with the Cubs for three years, $16 million.
January 9, 2006 - Center fielder [[Corey Patterson]] is traded to the [[Baltimore Orioles]] for 2 minor leaguers (Nate Spears and Carlos Perez).
January 23, 2006 - Pitcher [[Wade Miller]] signs with the Cubs for 1 year, $1 million.
February 14, 2006 - First baseman [[Derrek Lee]] and catcher [[Michael Barrett]] are named to the United States roster for the [[World Baseball Classic]].
==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1870]], as an independent professional club. Joined the National Association in [[1871]]. Became a charter [[National League]] member in [[1876]].
:'''Formerly known as:''' ''White Stockings'', in the [[1870s]]. ''Colts'', in the late [[1890s]]. ''Orphans'', [[1898]], after the firing of longtime manager [[Cap Anson]]. ''Remnants'', in [[1901]], after a number of players deserted the team for the [[American League]]. The nickname ''Cubs'' was coined in [[1902]] when manager [[Frank Selee]] arrived and rebuilt the club with young, inexperienced players. The ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'' tried to call the team the ''Spuds'' around this time, but that name did not appeal.
:'''Home ballpark:'''
::[[23rd Street Grounds]] ([[1874]]-[[1877]]) (first as part of the [[National Association]], later as [[National League]])
::No home [[1872]]-[[1873]] (club dormant for two years after [[Great Chicago Fire]])
::[[Union Base-Ball Grounds]] ([[1871]]) (as part of the [[National Association]])
::[[Dexter Park]] ([[1870]]) (as an independent professional club)
:'''Uniform colors:''' Blue, Red, and White (Starting in 2005, the last names were removed from home uniforms)
:'''Logo design:''' A red "C" circumscribed by a blue circle. Sometimes a smaller "ubs" will follow the large "C", or the team will make use of a cartoon bear cub.
''See also:'' [[Sox Cubs Rivalry|Cubs-White Sox Rivalry]], [[Cardinals-Cubs Series|I-55 Series (Cubs v. Cardinals)]], [[Brewers-Cubs Series]]
==Songs==
Many songs have been written about the Cubs or are otherwise associated with the team. Here are a few:
*"[[It's a Beautiful Day for a Ball Game]]" - a 1950s tune by the Harry Simeone Songsters, it was the WGN radio intro music during the Quinlan-Lloyd-Boudreau years. The song was included on one of the "Baseball's Greatest Hits" CD collections.
*"The Cubs Song (Hey Hey, Holy Mackerel)" - produced in 1969 by a Chicago studio group (the Len Dresslar Singers), and later covered by several members of the team. Its title refers to the home run calls of the team's TV and radio play-by-play men, Jack Brickhouse and Vince Lloyd respectively. It became kind of infamous among fans, as a reminder of a year that ended badly for the team. However, it was played over the public address with no sense of irony, during the ceremony retiring Ron Santo's number 10 on the last day of the 2003 regular season.
*"A Dying Cub Fan's Last Request" - a lengthy and funny (and prophetic) song recorded "live" by die-hard Cubs fan and folk musician [[Steve Goodman]] in the early 1980s.
*"The Land of Wrigley" - by a local group called [[Stormy Weather]], inspired by the old standard "Let the Good Times Roll".
*"Go Cubs Go" - a rah-rah tune by Steve Goodman that became the theme for the WGN radio coverage of the team during its division-winning season of 1984. Goodman died of leukemia just days before the Cubs clinched their first title in 39 years.
*"Here's to You, Men in Blue" - a bluegrass/country number recorded by a group of team members in 1984.
*"Here Come the Cubs" - a rah-rah tune done specially for the Cubs by [[The Beach Boys]], to the tune of "Barbara Ann", used extensively on WGN radio during the team's division-winning season of 1989.
*"Jump" by [[Van Halen]] - This 1984 song (from the group's album titled ''1984'') has been played before every Cubs home game since then. It was also used as an opening-credits theme for WGN-TV broadcasts during the 1984 season.
*"Get Down Tonight" by [[K.C. and the Sunshine Band]] is a [[Disco]]-era number that is sometimes played when the crowd is in a frenzy after a sudden-victory finish at Wrigley.
==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
{|
|valign="top"|
Elected at least in part based on performance with Cubs
*[[Grover Cleveland Alexander|Pete Alexander]]
*[[Cap Anson]]
*[[Ernie Banks]]
*[[Mordecai Brown]]
*[[Frank Chance]]
*[[John Clarkson]]
*[[Kiki Cuyler]]
*[[Johnny Evers]]
*[[Clark Griffith]]
*[[Burleigh Grimes]]
*[[Gabby Hartnett]]
*[[Billy Herman]]
*[[Rogers Hornsby]]
*[[Ferguson Jenkins]]
*[[King Kelly]]
*[[Ryne Sandberg]]
*[[Albert Spalding|Al Spalding]]
*[[Bruce Sutter]]
*[[Joe Tinker]]
*[[Billy Williams (baseball player)|Billy Williams]]
*[[Hack Wilson]]
|width="100"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
Other Hall-of-Famers associated with Cubs
*[[Richie Ashburn]]
*[[Lou Boudreau]]
*[[Roger Bresnahan]]
*[[Lou Brock]]
*[[Dizzy Dean]]
*[[Hugh Duffy]]
*[[Dennis Eckersley]]
*[[Jimmie Foxx]]
*[[Monte Irvin]]
*[[George Kelly (baseball player)|George Kelly]]
*[[Ralph Kiner]]
*[[Chuck Klein]]
*[[Tony Lazzeri]]
*[[Freddie Lindstrom]]
*[[Rabbit Maranville]]
*[[Robin Roberts (baseball player)|Robin Roberts]]
*[[Rube Waddell]]
*[[Hoyt Wilhelm]]
|}
==Retired numbers==
* 10 [[Ron Santo]]
* 14 [[Ernie Banks]]
* 23 [[Ryne Sandberg]]
* 26 [[Billy Williams (baseball player)|Billy Williams]]
* 42 [[Jackie Robinson]] (retired throughout the major leagues)
==Current roster==
{{:Chicago Cubs roster}}
==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Iowa Cubs]], [[Pacific Coast League]]
* '''AA:''' [[West Tenn Diamond Jaxx]], [[Southern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Daytona Cubs]], [[Florida State League]]
* '''A:''' [[Peoria Chiefs]], [[Midwest League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Boise Hawks]], [[Northwest League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Mesa Cubs|AZL Cubs]], [[Arizona League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[VSL Cubs]], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]
==See also==
*[[Chicago Cubs/Award winners and league leaders|Cubs award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Chicago Cubs/Team records|Cubs statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Chicago Cubs/Players of note|Cubs players of note]]
*[[Chicago Cubs/Broadcasters|Cubs broadcasters and media]]
*[[Chicago Cubs/Managers and ownership|Cubs managers and ownership]]
*[[Rookie of the Year (film)|Rookie of the Year]] - a [[1993 in film|1993]] film utilizing the franchise in its plot
==External links==
*[http://chicago.cubs.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/chc/homepage/chc_homepage.jsp Chicago Cubs official web site]
*[http://www.suntimes.com/index/cubs.html Chicago Suntimes Cubs News]
*[http://chicagosports.chicagotribune.com/sports/baseball/cubs/ Chicago Tribune Cubs News]
*
|
). [http://www.worldclimate.com/cgi-bin/data.pl?ref=N45W122+1304+356751C]. Average winter temperatures (and summer high temperatures) are similar for the two cities. This disparity may be largely caused by a "heat island effect" in Portland, where the combination of black pavement and urban energy use can actually raise the temperature. A lesser heat island may also exist in downtown Eugene.
==Demographics==
Eugene has a significant population of people in pursuit of alternative ideas, and a strong aging hippie population. Eugene's trainyard and welcoming valley climate used to be the center of this.
There is also a significant population of outdoor enthusiasts and young retirees from California and elsewhere.
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 137,893 people, 58,110 households, and 31,321 families residing in the city. As of [[July 1]] [[2003]] the US Census Bureau estimated the population of Eugene to be 142,185. The city's population is expected to further grow to 228,400 within the next 10 years. The [[population density]] is 1,313.9/km&sup2; (3,403.2/mi&sup2;). There are 61,444 housing units at an average density of 585.5/km&sup2; (1,516.4/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 88.15% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 3.57% [[Asian]], 1.25% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.93% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.21% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.18% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 3.72% from two or more races. 4.96% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 58,110 households out of which 25.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.6% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 9.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 46.1% are non-families. 31.7% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.27 and the average family size is 2.87.
In the city the population is spread out with 20.3% under the age of 18, 17.3% from 18 to 24, 28.5% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 33 years. For every 100 females there are 96.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 94.0 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $35,850, and the median income for a family is $48,527. Males have a median income of $35,549 versus $26,721 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $21,315. 17.1% of the population and 8.7% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 14.8% of those under the age of 18 and 7.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
==Government and politics==
===Government===
In 1944 Eugene adopted a council-manager form of government, replacing the day-to-day management of city affairs by the part-time mayor and volunteer city council with a full-time professional city manager. The subsequent history of Eugene city government has largely been one of the dynamics--often contentious--between the city manager, the mayor and city council.
Nine people have held the city manager position. These include Deane Seeger (1945-49), Oren King (1949-53), Robert Finlayson (1953-59), Hugh McKinley (1959-75), Charles Henry (1975-80), Mike Gleason (1981-96), Vicki Elmer (1996-98), Jim Johnson (1998-2002), and Dennis Taylor (2002-present).
Recent mayors include Gus Keller (1977-84), Brian Obie (1985-88), Jeff Miller (1989-92), [[Ruth Bascom]] (1993-96), [[Jim Torrey]] (1997-2004), and [[Kitty Piercy]] (2005-present).
Recently, the liberal wing of local politics has been gaining strength, mostly on a reform platform calling for greater transparency and accountability in local government. The recent election of [[Kitty Piercy]] was widely considered to be a turning point, as previous mayoral administrations often did not reflect Eugene's progressive culture.
Eugene City Council:
*Mayor: Kitty Piercy
*Ward 1 - Bonny Bettman
*Ward 2 - Betty Taylor
*Ward 3 - David Kelly
*Ward 4 - George Poling
*Ward 5 - Gary Papé
*Ward 6 - Jennifer Solomon
*Ward 7 - Andrea Ortiz
*Ward 8 - Chris Pryor
City Manager: Dennis M. Taylor
===Activism===
Activism plays a large role in Eugene's government and local identity. An epicenter of the hippy movement, Eugene is still noted as one of the most liberal cities in the United States.
Development is a controversial issue in Eugene, as in most growing cities. Both pro- and anti-development organizations and companies are vocal, and most public and private projects are vigorously discussed in public meetings and the letters pages of the [[Register-Guard]] and the [[Eugene Weekly]]. Developers and builders habitually complain about the decreasing supply of buildable land within the regional Urban Growth Boundary, while environmental groups object to projects which result in reduced open space and wildlife habitat.
[[Transportation]] has always been an important issue in Eugene, dating back to the [[Freeway and expressway revolts|freeway revolts]] of the 1960s and 1970s that severely curtailed the construction of several freeways in Eugene, including [[Route 69 (Oregon)|Belt Line Road]] (which never actually was completed as a proposed beltway and now acts as a [[spur route]]). Current debate rages over the proposed [[West Eugene Parkway]].
[[Anarchists]] from Eugene were blamed for the [[vandalism]] that occurred during the riots at the [[WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999]] in [[Seattle, Washington]].
===Sister cities===
Eugene's sister cities include [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]]; [[Irkutsk]], [[Russia]]; [[Kakegawa]], [[Japan]]; and [[Chinju]], [[Korea]].
==Economy==
Eugene's largest industries are wood products manufacturing and recreational vehicle manufacturing. The largest employers are the [[University of Oregon]], local government, and [[Sacred Heart Hospital]].
Eugene currently has one of the highest unemployment rates for a city in the entire nation (6.4% as of July 2004. 257 out of 331 for all U.S. [[United States metropolitan area|MSAs]]).
Eugene is the site for the corporate headquarters of employee-owned [[Bi-Mart]]. [[Monaco Coach Corporation]] has its headquarters in nearby [[Coburg, Oregon]]. Hynix Semiconductor America has a large semiconductor plant in west Eugene, producing [[DRAM]] (Dynamic Random Access Memory) for use in computers.
Like most municipalities, Eugene solicits outside business investment. But it is also partial to locally-developed small businesses, some of whom have formed a coalition called [http://www.uniqueeugene.com Unique Eugene].
Many businesses were launched in Eugene. Some of the most famous include [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]], [[Taco Time]] and [[Broderbund Software]].
==Education==
Eugene is the home of the [[University of Oregon]], one of Oregon's largest schools. Other institutions of higher learning include [[Northwest Christian College]], [[Lane Community College]], [[Eugene Bible College]] [http://www.ebc.edu], and [[Gutenberg College]], Pacific University: Eugene Campus, and Linfield College: Eugene Campus. Eugene has many private and alternative schools, including the [http://www.eugenewaldorf.org Eugene Waldorf School], a nondenominational school serving grades K-8 that is certified by the Association of Waldorf Schools of North America.
[[Magnet school|Magnet schools]] and alternative education are key elements of the Eugene Public Schools system.
==Culture==
Eugene is perhaps most noted for its "community inventiveness." This usually leads to community projects; many US trends in community development originated here. The University of Oregon's participatory planning process, known as '[[The Oregon Experiment]]', was the result of student protests in the early 1970's. The process, now in disuse, was famous in planning and architectural circles, and the book of the same name is a major document in modern enlightenment thinking. The plan and process was created, in Eugene, by [[Christopher Alexander]], whose works directly inspired the creation of the [[Wiki]]. Much of the research for the book ''[[A Pattern Language]]'', which inspired the [[Design Patterns]] movement and [[Extreme Programming]], was done by Alexander in Eugene. Not coincidentally, those engineering movements also had origins here. ''A Pattern Language'' is the best-selling book on architecture and planning of all time.
In the 1970's, Eugene was packed with co-operative and community projects. It still has small natural food stores in almost every neighborhood, and alternative schools have been part of the school district for years. The [http://www.eugenewaldorf.org Eugene Waldorf School]was founded in 1980 and serves grades K-8. And the old Grower's Market, downtown near the train depot, is the only food co-operative in the US with no employees. It is possible to see Eugene's trend-setting non-profit tendencies in much newer projects, such as the [[Tango Center]], and the [[Center for Appropriate Transport]] [http://www.catoregon.org/].
===Landmarks===
Cultural attractions in Eugene include the [[Hult Center|Hult Center for the Performing Arts]], [[The Shedd Institute]] [http://www.theshedd.org/], resident ballet, theater, opera and symphony, [[Bach Festival]] [http://bachfest.uoregon.edu], a [[historic district]], walking tours, 23 art galleries such as [[OPUS6IX]] and museums, including the The Science Factory Children's Museum & Planetarium.
The nearest ski resort, [[Willamette Pass]] [http://www.willamettepass.com/], is one hour by car. On the way, along highway 58, is Eugene's reservoir
and lake district, the Oakridge mountain bike trails, hot springs, and the spectacular Fall Creek falls. Eugene residents also frequent [http://www.hoodoo.com Ho
|
строномически съюз]]
[[ca:Unió Astronòmica Internacional]]
[[da:Internationale Astronomiske Union]]
[[de:Internationale Astronomische Union]]
[[es:Unión Astronómica Internacional]]
[[eo:Internacia Astronomia Unio]]
[[fa:اتحادیه بینالمللی اخترشناسی]]
[[fr:Union astronomique internationale]]
[[hr:Međunarodna Astronomska Unija]]
[[it:Unione Astronomica Internazionale]]
[[he:האיגוד האסטרונומי הבינלאומי]]
[[nl:Internationale Astronomische Unie]]
[[ja:国際天文学連合]]
[[nn:Den internasjonale astronomiske unionen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Unia Astronomiczna]]
[[ru:Международный астрономический союз]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná astronomická únia]]
[[sv:Internationella Astronomiska Unionen]]
[[th:สหพันธ์ดาราศาสตร์สากล]]
[[vi:Hiệp hội Thiên văn Quốc tế]]
[[zh:國際天文聯會]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interval</title>
<id>14879</id>
<revision>
<id>36644772</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T14:32:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.4.169.4</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ka</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''interval''''' is used in the following contexts:
* [[Playing time (cricket)#Intervals|Playing time (cricket)]]
* [[Interval (mathematics)]]
* [[Interval (music)]]
* [[Interval (time)]]
* A synonym for an [[intermission]] in theatre.
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Interval]]
[[da:Interval]]
[[de:Intervall]]
[[ka:ინტერვალი]]
[[nl:Interval]]
[[su:Interval]]
[[sv:Intervall]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Criminal Court</title>
<id>14880</id>
<revision>
<id>42092162</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:52:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<comment>converting HTML to wiki markup using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:International Criminal Court logo.gif|thumb|Official logo of the ICC.]]
The '''International Criminal Court''' ('''ICC''') was established in 2002 as a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals for [[genocide]], [[crimes against humanity]], and [[war crime]]s, as defined by several international agreements, most prominently the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]]. The ICC is designed to complement existing national judicial systems,
however, the Court can exercise its jurisdiction if national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute such crimes, thus being a "court of last resort," leaving the primary responsibility to exercise jurisdiction over alleged criminals to individual states.
Note that "International Criminal Court" is sometimes initialized as ICCt to distinguish it from "[[International Chamber of Commerce]]." Also, the ICC is separate from the ''[[International Court of Justice]]'', which is a body to settle disputes between nations, and the [[War Crimes Law (Belgium)]].
== Cases before the court ==
Three states parties (countries that have ratified the Court's [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|Rome Statute]]) have referred situations to the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) of the ICC:
* The [[Uganda|Republic of Uganda]] on [[January 29]], [[2004]];
* The [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] on [[April 19]], [[2004]];
* The [[Central African Republic]] on [[January 6]], [[2005]].
* In March 2005, the OTP received its first [[United Nations Security Council]] referral for [[Darfur]], [[Sudan]].
After rigorous analysis in accordance with the Rome Statute and the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, the Chief Prosecutor decided to open investigations into three situations: in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in the Republic of Uganda, and in Darfur, Sudan [http://www.monuc.org/news.aspx?newsID=5480]. On [[October 6]], [[2005]] the ICC issued its first arrest warrants for the [[Lord's Resistance Army]] leader [[Joseph Kony]], his deputy [[Vincent Otti]], and LRA commanders [[Raska Lukwiya]], [[Okot Odiambo]] and [[Dominic Ongwen]].
===Potential cases===
====Alleged war crimes in connection with Invasion of Iraq in March 2003====
In March 2003, the [[United States]] and its allies, the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]] and [[Poland]] [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invaded]] [[Iraq]]. The UK, Australia and Poland are all parties to the ICC Statute and therefore their nationals are liable to prosecution by the court for any relevant crimes. As the United States is not a party, American citizens can only be prosecuted by the court if the crime takes place in the territory of a state party (e.g. Jordan), or if the situation is referred to it by the Security Council.
The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court reported in February 2006, that it had received 240 communications in connection with the invasion of Iraq in March 2003 which alleged that various war crimes had been committed. Many of these complaints concerned the British participation in the the invasion, as well as the alleged responsibility for torture deaths whilst in detention in British-controlled areas. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,5187283-111289,00.html].
On [[2006-02-09]], Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, published a letter [http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_letter_to_senders_re_Iraq_9_February_2006.pdf] that he had sent to all those who had communicated with him concerning the above, which set out his conclusions on these matters, following a preliminary investigation of the complaints. He explained in his decision letter, that essentially two sets of complaints were involved.
#Complaints concerning the legality of the invasion itself;
#Complaints concerning the conduct of hostilities between March and May 2003, which included allegations in respect of
##the targeting of civilians or clearly excessive attacks;
##wilful killing or inhuman treatment of civilians.
The Prosecutor's conclusions were as follows:
#He did not have authority to consider the complaint about the legality of the invasion. Although the ICC Statute includes the crime of "aggression", it indicates that the Court may not exercise jurisdiction over the crime until a provision has been adopted which defines the crime and sets out the conditions under which the Court may exercise jurisdiction with respect to it.
#The available information did not provide sufficient evidence for proceeding with an investigation of the complaints in connection with targeting of civilians or clearly excessive attacks.
#The available information did provide a reasonable basis for believing that there had been an estimated 4 to 12 victims of wilful killing and a limited number of victims of inhuman treatment, totaling in all less than 20 persons. However this on its own was not sufficient for the initiation of an investigation by the ICC because the Statute requires consideration of admissibility before the Court, in light of the gravity of the crimes. Bearing in mind that a key consideration in this regard is the number of victims of particularly serious crimes, he concluded that the situation did not appear to meet the "gravity" threshold.
See further [[The International Criminal Court and the 2003 invasion of Iraq]]
== Development of the ICC ==
The development of the ICC followed the creation of several [[ad hoc]] tribunals to try war crimes in the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda ([[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] in 1993, [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] in 1994). Subsequently, it was desired to create a permanent tribunal, so that an ''ad hoc'' tribunal would not have to be created after each occurrence of these crimes.
The General Assembly called the "United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court", in Italy, where the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]] was adopted on [[July 17]], [[1998]]. Almost all states participating voted in favor of the Statute; only the [[United States]], [[Israel]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Iraq]], [[Qatar]], [[Libya]] and [[Yemen]] voted against. [[Israel]] went on to sign the Statute just before the statute was closed for signatures but later nullified its signature. The [[United States]] under [[Bill Clinton]] signed the treaty, but never submitted it for ratification. When [[George W. Bush]] took office shortly afterwards, he nullified the signature amid bipartisan consensus on the matter.
The Statute became a binding treaty after it received its 60th ratification, which was deposited at a ceremony at United Nations Headquarters on [[11 April]] [[2002]]. Ten countries ([[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Cambodia]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Ireland]], [[Jordan]], [[Mongolia]], [[Niger]], [[Romania]] and [[Slovakia]]) submitted their ratifications at this time, bringing the total to 66, so that no one nation would hold the honor of depositing the 60th ratification. As of October 2005, 100 States are Parties to the Statute. The ICC legally came into existence on [[1 July]] [[2002]], and can only prosecute crimes that occurred after this date.
The official seat of the ICC is in [[The Hague]] (Netherlands); but its Statute permits it to hold its proceedings anywhere. The court became operational when the signatory nations met in the Assembly of State Parties to appoint a [[prosecutor]] and 18 [[judge]]s. It opened on [[March 11]], [[2003]]. The Judge-President is [[Philippe Kirsch]] from [[Canada]], and the Vice-Presidents are [[Akua Kuenyenia]] from [[Ghana]] and [[Elizabeth Odio Benito]] from [[Costa Rica]]. Its Chief Prosecutor is [[Luis Moreno Ocampo]] of [[Argentina]].
== Structure and powers ==
The International Criminal Court is composed of the Court itself, divided into a number of chambers (Pre-Trial, Trial and Appellate), the Registry, the Office of t
|
Esperanto film|films]] have been produced since. [[As of 2003|As of July 2003]], the Esperanto-language Wikipedia [http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto-filmo lists] 14 films and 3 short films.
[[Image:Ijkde.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Participants at Esperanto international youth conference]]
==Cultural community==
There are cultural commonalities between Esperanto speakers, which is a distinctive feature of a cultural community. Esperanto was created to foster universal understanding, solidarity and peace. A large proportion of the Esperanto movement continue to hold such goals, and most are at least sympathetic to them. Additionally, many Esperantists use the language as a window to the larger world, to meet people from other countries on an equal footing, and for travel. The Esperanto-community has a certain set of shared background knowledge.
To some extent there are also shared [[tradition]]s, like the [[Zamenhof Day]], and shared [[behaviour]] patterns, like avoiding the usage of one's national language at Esperanto meetings unless there is good reasons for its use (Esperanto culture has a special word, ''krokodili'' ("to crocodile"), to describe this avoided behaviour). On the other hand, some aspects of shared traditions normally found in cultural communities, like clothing and cooking, aren't found in the Esperanto community.
On [[December 15]] ([[L. L. Zamenhof|L. L. Zamenhof's]] birthday), Esperanto speakers around the world celebrate [[Zamenhof Day]], sometimes relabelled Esperanto Book Day, which might easily turn into World Esperanto Day in the future.
The poem ''[[La Espero]]'' is generally considered to be the Esperanto [[anthem]]. It speaks of the achievement of world peace, "sacred harmony" and "eternal blessing" on the basis of a neutral language. Nonetheless Esperanto speakers may or may not agree whether the stated benefits could in fact be achieved in this way. At the first Esperanto congress, in [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]] in 1905, a declaration was made which defined an "Esperantist" merely as one who knows and uses the language "regardless of what kind of aims he uses it for", and which also specifically declared any ideal beyond the spread of the language itself to be a private matter for the individual speaker.
== See also ==
* [[Esperanto literature]]
* [[Esperanto music]]
* [[Esperanto flag]]
* [[Esperanto library]]
[[Category:Esperanto culture|*]]
[[de:Esperanto-Kultur]]
[[eo:Esperanto-kulturo]]
[[es:Cultura esperantista]]
[[fi:Esperantokulttuuri]]
[[fr:Culture et espéranto]]
[[nl:Esperantocultuur]]
[[pl:Kultura esperanto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euclidean Algorithm</title>
<id>10405</id>
<revision>
<id>15908219</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euclidean_algorithm]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emotion</title>
<id>10406</id>
<revision>
<id>41920174</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:58:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>156.18.36.239</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Emotion researchers */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Emotions}}
{{psychology}}
'''Emotion''', in its most general definition, is a [[neurology|neural]] impulse that moves an [[organism]] to [[action (philosophy)|action]], prompting automatic reactive behavior that has been adapted through evolution as a survival mechanism to meet a survival need. [[Linda Davidoff]] defines emotion as a feeling that is expressed through physiological functions such as [[facial expression]]s, faster [[heartbeat]], and behaviors such as [[aggression]], [[crying]], or covering the face with hands.{{ref|Davidoff}}
Emotion is differentiated from [[feeling]], in that, as noted, emotion is a psycho-physiological state that moves an organism to action. Feeling, on the other hand, is emotion that is filtered through the cognitive brain centers, specifically the frontal lobe, producing a physiological change in addition to the psycho-physiological change. [[Daniel Goleman]], in his landmark book ''[[Emotional Intelligence]]'', discusses this differentiation at length.
== Elaborations ==
Emotion is complex, and the term has no single universally accepted definition. Emotions are mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort. It is unclear whether [[animal]]s or all [[human]] beings experience emotion. Emotions are physical expressions, often involuntary, related to feelings, perceptions or beliefs about elements, objects or relations between them, in reality or in the imagination. The study of emotions is part of psychology, neuroscience, and, more recently, artificial intelligence. According to Sloman {{ref|Sloman}}, emotions are cognitive processes. Some authors emphasize the difference between human emotions and the affective behavior of animals.
Emotion is sometimes regarded as the antithesis of [[reason]]. This is reflected in common phrases like ''appeal to emotion'' or ''your emotions have taken over''. Emotions can be undesired to the individual feeling them; he or she may wish to control but often cannot. Thus one of the most distinctive, and perhaps challenging, facts about human beings is this potential for entanglement, or even opposition, between [[will (philosophy)|will]], emotion, and reason.
Emotion as the subject of [[scientific research]] has multiple dimensions: [[behavior]]al, physiological, subjective, and [[cognition|cognitive]]. Sloman and others explain that the need to face a changing and unpredictable world makes emotions necessary for any intelligent system (natural or artificial) with multiple motives and limited capacities and resources.
[[Affective neuroscience|Current research on the neural circuitry of emotion]] suggests that emotion makes up an essential part of human [[decision-making]], including long-term planning, and that the famous distinction made by [[Descartes]] between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems.
Some state that there is no empirical support for any generalization suggesting the antithesis between reason and emotion: indeed, anger or fear can often be thought of as a systematic response to observed facts. What can be noted, however, is that the human psyche possesses many possible reactions and perspectives in response to the internal and external world - often lying on a continuum&#8212; at one extreme lies pure intellectual logic (often called "cold"); at the other extreme is pure emotionally unresponsive to logical argument ("the heat of passion"). In any case, it is clear that the relation between [[logic]] and [[Logical argument|argument]] on the one hand and emotion on the other, is one which merits careful study. It has been noted by many that passion, emotion, or feeling can add backing to an argument, even one based primarily on reason - particularly regarding religion or ideology, areas of human thought which frequently demand an all-or-nothing rejection or acceptance, that is, the adoption of a comprehensive worldview partly backed by empirical argument and partly by feeling and passion. Moreover, it has been suggested by several researchers that typically there is no "pure" decision or thought, that is, no thought based "purely" on intellectual logic or "purely" on emotion - most decisions and cognitions are founded on a mixture of both.
Pyschiatrist [[William Glasser]]'s theory of the human control system states that all human behavior is composed of four simultaneous components: deeds, ideas, emotions, and physiological states. He asserts that we choose the idea and deed and that the ''associated'' emotions and physiological states also occur but cannot be chosen independently. He calls his construct a ''total behavior'' to distinguish it from the common concept of behavior. He uses the verbs to describe what is commonly ''seen'' as emotion. For example, he uses 'to depress' to describe the total behavior commonly known as depression which, to him, includes depressing ideas, actions, emotions, and physiological states. Dr. Glasser also further asserts that internal choices (conscious or unconcious) cause emotions instead of external stimuli.
== Relation to cultural and social factors ==
{{Template:Emotion}}
It is not clear whether emotion is a purely ''human'' phenomenon, since animals seem to exhibit conditions which resemble emotional responses such as anger, fear or sadness, and some animals also exhibit similar neural phenomena to humans in tandem with possible emotional response.
It has been hypothesized that emotions typical of human beings have evolved and changed in many ways since the species first emerged. Nonetheless, as noted above, it may well be the case that human and non-human animal emotional responses lie on a constant continuum, rather than being two completely distinct categories of human and animal.
Much of what is said about emotions, as well as the history of what has been said about them, is conditioned by [[culture]] and even [[politics]]. That is to say specific emotional responses, as well as a group's interpretation of their significance, may be influenced by cultural norms of propriety. For instance, certain emotions such as love, hate, and the desire for vengeance are treated very differently in differing societies. This methodological [[relativism|relativity]] is entirely different from the question of whether emotions are universal or are culturally determined. Many researchers would agree that a vast proportion of human behavior, no matter how close to the lowest biological substrates - including sexual behavior, food consumption, feelings in response to p
|
n be changed by any Tom, Dick or Harry. How could it possibly be any good? Yet it is. I use Wikipedia regularly, and it's often very good indeed. I've just compared its entry on Iraq with that in the CIA Factbook (possibly the only unambiguously useful service ever provided by that agency). The entries are comparable in their scope and coverage: the CIA publication is better on statistics; Wikipedia is better on history and culture. The other day I looked up 'TCP/IP' (the core protocols of the internet) on Wikipedia and Britannica Online. The Wikipedia entry was much more comprehensive."
*:''Wikipedian's note: The Wikipedia's country articles have used the CIA world factbook as a source. Some have now been improved beyond recognition, others are little changed.'' --[[User:Robert Merkel|Robert Merkel]] 08:42, 16 Sep 2004 (UTC)
*:''It should also be noted that The Observer makes a serious error by stating that all of Wikipedia's content is in the [[public domain]]. Most of Wikipedia's content is under the [[GFDL]]; portions are distributed under various other licenses and circumstances, including the public domain.''
*'''[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/09/15/emergent_people_fail_to_impress/ Wikipedia's Emergent People fail to impress readers]''', The Register, [[September 15]] [[2004]]. Comments on letters from readers reacting to The Register's earlier articles about Wikipedia.
*'''[http://media.guardian.co.uk/mediaguardian/story/0,7558,1308105,00.html Meet Mr Rights]''', [[The Guardian]], [[20 September]] [[2004]]. "[[Lawrence Lessig]] first became interested in the public value of the internet when he noticed that, by letting anybody plug a computer into the ends of the network and instantly serve up their own opinions and media tools to the world, the net was fostering a new and expansive intellectual commons. This commons was producing rapid innovations, grassroots tools such as [[faxyourmp.com]], ambitious collaborative endeavours such as '''wikipedia.org''', Alexandrian archive projects like [[archive.org]] and the many blogs which are starting to change our ideas about the independent press."
*'''[http://www2.townonline.com/wakefield/opinion/view.bg?articleid=88940 When the printed page beats the Internet]''', Wakefield (MA) Observer, [[23 September]] [[2004]]. Editorial written by librarian recommends that people keep printed reference works at home (almanacs, atlases, dictionaries, etc.) ''except for'' encyclopedias, for which CD-ROM or online versions are preferable. "Also online are several free encyclopedias, including Britannica, which offers free access to their concise version, and Wikipedia, an open-content encyclopedia that's been getting a lot of attention lately for its open, contributor-based approach."
*'''[http://www.thestar.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=thestar/Layout/Article_Type1&c=Article&cid=1096108061747&call_pageid=968867495754&col=969483191630 Trivia: It's 'who we are']''', Toronto Star, [[26 September]] [[2004]]. Quotes a pop-culture critic on sources for information about trivia: "But if (your information) is coming from Wikipedia (an Internet encyclopedia where people post their own articles), where everything is evolving, some of that information is good and some of that is misinformation."
*'''[http://www.adtmag.com/article.asp?id=10046 Vandals at the wiki]''', ADT Magazine, [[28 September]] [[2004]]. Article about anti-Microsoft vandalism at the newly announced FlexWiki. Starts with a brief overview of the wiki concept: "Wikipedia, a free encyclopedia, has over 350,000 pages as I write this."
*'''[http://southasia.oneworld.net/article/view/94998/1/ Journalism Third Most Dangerous Career in China]''', OneWorld.net, [[29 September]] [[2004]]. "On September 23, the authorities blocked access to the Chinese version of the Wikipedia online encyclopaedia that relies on contributions from Internet-users and carries a number of articles about human rights abuses in China. The site has been blocked on several previous occasions too."
*'''[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/09/30/iwan2go_mobile_framework/ Free info for London visitors]''', The Register, [[30 September]] [[2004]]. "So the most useful thing the Wikipedia project could do is not write another adoring 20,000 word article on our good friend Joi Ito (the spiritual leader), or 'memes', but nail down a simple lightweight framework that librarians, schools, churches and small businesses could use as an annotation and broadcast channel."
*'''[http://www.digitaldividenetwork.org/content/stories/index.cfm?key=286 Tim Berners-Lee: Weaving a Semantic Web]''', Digital Divide Network, [[30 September]] [[2004]]. Quote from Tim Berners-Lee giving the keynote address at an MIT conference: "The tricky thing is that when you try to put down things like encyclopedia articles, like Wikipedia" (which he earlier referred to as "The Font of All Knowledge").
*'''[http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/business/9797685.htm?1c Vivisimo receives another makeover]''', San Jose Mercury News, [[30 September]] [[2004]]. Article about Vivisimo's metasearch site Clusty.com. "Clusty is also one of the first search sites to index and display results from the sometimes controversial Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia being compiled from contributions by Internet users." Not sure what the basis for this statement is, as Wikipedia has been available through Google and Yahoo! searches for a long time.
====1,000,000 Articles====
Coverage resulting from Wikipedia's [[m:Wikimedia press releases/One million Wikipedia articles (int'l)|1,000,000-article press release]]:
* '''[http://www.theinquirer.net/?article=18576 Wikipedia reaches one million articles]''', The Inquirer, [[September 20]] [[2004]]. "We happen to like it because it saves us time and it mentions [[The Inquirer|us]], and our glorious leader [[Mike Magee (journalist)|Mike Mageek]] with latest [cough] picture."
* '''[http://www.webuser.co.uk/news/news.php?id=58275 Wikipedia hits one million]''', Web User, [[September 20]] [[2004]]. "Wikipedia, a free online encyclopaedia, now has more than a million articles in its database, which web users can access for free."
* '''[http://www.dvhardware.net/article3149.html Online encyclopedia Wikipedia reaches milestone: 1 million articles]''', DV Hardware, Netherlands, [[September 20]] [[2004]]. "Wikipedia's rate of growth has continued to increase in recent months, and at its current pace Wikipedia will double in size again by next spring."
* '''[http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/09/21/0027241 Wikipedia Hits Million-Entry Mark]''', Slashdot, [[September 21]] [[2004]]. "The Wikimedia Foundation announced today the creation of the one millionth article in Wikipedia."
* '''[http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2004/9/19/212133/644 The Little Website that Couldn't]''', [http://www.kuro5hin.org Kuro5hin.org], [[September 21]] [[2004]]. Notes million-article milestone and discusses how Wikipedia defies conventional wisdom. "According to the canon of academic orthodoxy, Wikipedia has no right to be as well written, professional, and accurate as it is. Not to say it is perfect, it isn't, but the vast majority of the articles are well written and many are comparable or better than their encyclopedia Britannica equivalents. This from a website where any person can write or change any article at any time, with no one paid to do quality control and no real punishments to those who vandalize the system other than being banned from the site itself."
* '''[http://p2pnet.net/story/2498 Wikipedia's millionth article]''', p2pnet.net, [[September 21]] [[2004]]. "'Imagine a world in which every single person on the planet is given free access to the sum of all human knowledge. That's what we're doing. And we need your help.' No chance, not with Corporate Greed in full bloom. But it's a noble ambition and it's expressed by the Wiki Foundation which yesterday announced the creation of the one millionth article in Wikipedia, its free, open-content, online encyclopedia project."
* '''[http://www.villagevoice.com/issues/0439/koerner.php At Your Service Pack]''', The Village Voice, [[23 September]] [[2004]]. Note at the end of the ''TechLove With Mr. Roboto'' column: "Congrats to Wikipedia (wikipedia.org), the world's largest encyclopedia, for garnering its millionth entry. It's an all-volunteer affair, you realize, and they don't accept ads, either. Won't you be a saint and kick them over a few bucks during their pledge drive? Visit wikimediafoundation.org for the details; pledge enforcement vans are standing by to shake you by the ankles."
* '''[http://biz.yahoo.com/ap/040926/sharing_knowledge_online_3.html 'Wikis' Offer Knowledge-Sharing Online]''', [[Associated Press]], [[26 September]] [[2004]]. "Wikipedia is unique for an encyclopedia because anybody can add, edit and even erase. And the Wikipedia is just one &#8212; albeit the best known &#8212; of a growing breed of Internet knowledge-sharing communities called Wikis"; "Try finding that in the Britannica"; "This month, it surpassed 1 million articles, including 350,000 in English — three times that of the online Encyclopedia Britannica. More than 25,000 people have written or edited at least 10 articles each."
**This wire story was reprinted in [http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/technology/AP-Sharing-Knowledge-Online.html The New York Times] and [http://news.google.com/news?q=%22Taran+Rampersad+didn%27t+complain+when+he+failed+to+find+anything+on+his+hometown+in+the+online+encyclopedia+Wikipedia%22&scoring=d many other news sites].
* '''[http://www.mg.co.za/Content/l3.asp?cg=Insight-Online&o=138404&sa=106 Wikipedia gets a million entries]''', Mail & Guardian, [[30 September]] [[2
|
t of [[Lwów]]<br>[[Gniewosz of Dalewice]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Flaga Kosciesza.png|40px|Strzegomia]] [[Strzegomia]]
| [[Silesia]], [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]]
| Only foreign volunteers and mercenaries
|-
! Duke of Lithuania [[Zygmunt Korybutowicz]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon.png|40px|Pogoń]] [[Vytis]]
|
|
|-
|}
=== Lithuania ===
Due to different system of [[feudal]] overlordship, as well as lack of heraldic traditions, the units of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] were all grouped under banners of two types: the [[Vytis]] and the [[Columns of Gediminas]]. The only difference between various lands using the same emblem was the [[blazon]]. The hareness and the colour of the horse on the [[Pahonia]] differed.
Note that the number of Lithuanian banners is uncertain. According to [[Ioannes Longinus]] there were 40 banners on the right flank of the Polish-Lithuanian forces, 10 flying the [[Columns of Gediminas]] and 30 flying the [[Vytis]]. However, he also mentions that there might have been 2 additional banners from [[Smolensk]] and up to six additional banners of [[Samogitia]]. German authors also mention that there were three auxiliary banners of [[Moldavia]] flying their own flags. In addition, it is probable that the units of [[Trakai]], [[Volhynia]], [[Smolensk]], [[Kiev]] and [[Nowogrodek]] used their own emblems.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;"
|- style="background: #ececec;"
! Banner of
! Battle sign
! Origin
! Remarks
|-
! colspan="14" style="background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;''Army of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Grand Duchy]]'' - Flying the Vytis Banners
|-
! [[Vytautas the Great]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Vytis]]
|
|
|-
! [[Minsk]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Polatsk|Polock]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Hrodna]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Krewo]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Krichev]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Mahileu]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Niasvizh]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Novgorod]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Nowogrod Siewierski|Nowogrod Siewierski]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Orsha]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Slonim]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Slutsk]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Vitsebsk]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! [[Volodymyr-Volynsky|Vladzimir]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
|
|
|-
! colspan="14" style="background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;''Army of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Grand Duchy]]'' - Flying the Columns Banners
|-
! Zygmunt Korybut
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
| under Zygmunt Korybut
|-
! Simon, son of Lingwen
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
| under Simon, son of Lingwen
|-
! Jerzy
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Trakai]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Vilnius]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Hrodna]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Kaunas]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Lida]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Medininkai]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! Three (?) Banners of [[Smolensk]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Vitebsk]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Kyiv]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Pinsk]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Navahradak]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Brest, Belarus|Brest]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Wolkowysk|Wolkowysk]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Drohiczyn]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Mielnik]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Krzemieniec]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Starodub]]
| align="left" | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! colspan="14" style="background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;''Auxiliary Units''
|-
! [[Lipka Tatars]]
| align="left" | none
|
| approximately 1000 skirmishers under [[Calaletdin|Jalal ad-Din]]
|-
! Three Banners of [[Moldavia]]
| align="left" |
|
| approximately 900 foot soldiers and 25 knights under [[Logofat]] Mihaiu Alexandrel
|-
|}
==Related reading==
{{commons|Battle of Grunwald}}
=== Non-fiction ===
* [[Stefan Kuczynski|Stefan Kuczyński]], [[Szymon Kobylinski|Szymon Kobyliński]], ''Chorągwie grunwaldzkich zwycięzców'' (''The Banners of the Victors of Grunwald''); WAiF, [[Warsaw]], [[1989]]. ISBN 8322104677
* [[Jan Dlugosz|Ioannes Longinus]], ''Annales seu Cronicæ Incliti Regni Poloniæ''; PWN, [[Warsaw]], [[2000]]. ISBN 8301133015
* [[Jan Dlugosz|Ioannes Longinus]], ''Bitwa grunwaldzka''; [[Ossolineum]], [[Wrocław]], [[2003]]. ISBN 8304046326
=== Fiction ===
* [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]], ''Krzyżacy'' (''[[The Teutonic Knights (book)|The Teutonic Knights]]''); Tygodnik Ilustrowany, [[Kraków]], [[1900]]. ISBN 0781804337
* [[James A. Michener]], ''Poland''; Random House, [[1984]]. ISBN 0449205878
== External links ==
*[http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/matthaywood/main/Battle_of_Tannenberg.htm Analysis of the battle]
* [http://www.kresy.co.uk/grunwald.html Battle of Grunwald 1410]
* [http://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/SOURCES/dlugosz.htm Account of the battle by Jan Dlugosz, secretary to the Bishop of Cracow, written sixty years after battle]
* [http://www.powiat-ostrodzki.pl/powiat.php?n=grunwald Grunwald Commune (with pictures of the Grunwald Battle 1999 and 2000)]
* [http://www.pilot.pl/index.php3?z_city_id=505&lang=pl Grunwald village on the map of Poland]
* [http://wiem.onet.pl/wiem/00f0ec.html Ignacy Paderewski speech at the Grunwald monument inauguration in Cracow 1910 (500 aniversary)]
* [http://www.malarstwohistoryczne.px.pl/matejko/grunwald.htm Battle of Grunwald, a painting by Jan Matejko]
* [http://www.gospelcom.net/chi/DAILYF/2002/07/daily-07-15-2002.shtml Gospelcom Summary]
[[Category:1410]]
[[Category:Battles of Poland|Grunwald 1410]]
[[Category:Battles of Lithuania|Grunwald 1410]]
[[Category:Battles of the Teutonic Knights|Grunwald 1410]]
[[Category:Czech history]]
[[Category:History of Belarus]]
[[Category:History of Prussia]]
[[be:Грунвальдзкая бітва]]
[[da:Slaget ved Tannenberg (1410)]]
[[de:Schlacht bei Tannenberg (1410)]]
[[fr:Première bataille de Tannenberg]]
[[it:Battaglia di Grunwald]]
[[ja:タンネンベルクの戦い (1410年)]]
[[lt:Žalgirio_mūšis]]
[[nl:Slag bij Tannenberg (1410)]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Grunwaldem]]
[[ru:Грюнвальдская битва]]
[[tt:Grünwald_suğışı]]
[[uk:Грюнвальдська битва]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blacks Law Dictionary</title>
<id>4709</id>
<revision>
<id>15902969</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*#REDIRECT [[Black's Law Dictionary]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black's Law Dictionary]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Tannenberg</title>
<id>4714</id>
<revision>
<id>36361162</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T14:38:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>OpenToppedBus</username>
<id>252600</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Well, I can count!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There were two battles, over 500 years apart, that bear the name '''Battle of Tannenberg''':
*[[Battle of Grunwald|Battle of Tannenberg (1410)]]
*[[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Schlacht bei Tannenberg]]
[[nl:Slag bij Tannenberg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boolean satisfiability problem</title>
<id>4715</id>
<revision>
<id>4085089
|
lammable]] [[diatomic]] [[gas]]. However, in extremely cold and dense environments, hydrogen can be metallic. Hydrogen is the lightest and most [[abundance of the chemical elements|abundant]] element in the [[universe]]. It is present in [[water]], all organic compounds (rare exceptions exist, such as [[buckminsterfullerene]]) and in all living organisms. Hydrogen is able to react chemically with most other elements. [[Star]]s in their [[main sequence]] are overwhelmingly composed of hydrogen in its [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] state. The element is used in [[ammonia]] production, as a [[lighter than air|lifting]] gas, as an alternative [[fuel]], and more recently as a power source of [[fuel cell]]s.
Despite its ubiquity in the universe, hydrogen is surprisingly difficult to produce in large quantities on the Earth. In the [[laboratory]], the element is prepared by the reaction of [[acid]]s on metals such as [[zinc]]. The [[electrolysis]] of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen, but is economically inefficient for mass production. Large-scale production is usually achieved by [[steam reforming]] [[natural gas]]. Scientists are now researching new methods for hydrogen production; if they succeed in developing a cost-efficient method of large-scale production, hydrogen may become a viable alternative to [[greenhouse gas|greenhouse-gas]]-producing [[fossil fuels]]. One of the methods under investigation involves the use of green [[algae]]; another promising method involves the conversion of biomass derivatives such as [[glucose]] or [[sorbitol]] at low temperatures using a [[catalyst]]. Yet another method is the "steaming" of carbon, whereby hydrocarbons are broken down with heat to release hydrogen.
==Basic features==
Hydrogen is the lightest chemical element; its most common [[isotope]] comprises just one negatively charged [[electron]], distributed around a positively charged [[proton]] (the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of the atom). The electron is bound to the proton by the [[Coulomb force]], the electrical force that one stationary, electrically charged nanoparticle exerts on another. The hydrogen atom has special significance in [[quantum mechanics]] as a simple physical system for which there is an exact solution to the [[Schrödinger equation]]; from that equation, the experimentally observed frequencies and intensities of hydrogen's [[spectral line]]s can be calculated. Spectral lines are dark or bright lines in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum, resulting from an excess or deficiency of photons in a narrow frequency range, compared with the nearby frequencies.
At [[standard temperature and pressure]], hydrogen forms a diatomic gas, H<sub>2</sub>, with a boiling point of only 20.27&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]] and a melting point of 14.02&nbsp;K.{{ref|commonsensescience.org}} Under extreme pressures, such as those at the center of [[gas giant]]s, the molecules lose their identity and the hydrogen becomes a [[metal]] ([[metallic hydrogen]]). Under the extremely low pressure in space—virtually a vacuum—the element tends to exist as individual atoms, simply because there is no way for them to combine. However, clouds of H<sub>2</sub> and possibly singular hydrogen atoms are said to form in [[H I region|H I]] and [[H II region]]s and are associated with [[star formation]]. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering [[stars]] through the [[proton-proton reaction|proton&ndash;proton]] and [[carbon-nitrogen cycle|carbon&ndash;nitrogen cycle]]. These are [[nuclear fusion]] processes, which release huge amounts of energy in stars and other hot celestial bodies as hydrogen atoms combine into [[helium]] atoms.
At high temperatures, hydrogen gas can exist as a mixture of atoms, protons, and negatively charged hydride ions. This mixture has a high [[emissivity]] and [[absorptivity]] in the [[visible light]] range, and plays an important part in the emission of light from the [[sun]] and other [[stars]].
H<sub>2</sub> is highly soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. It has a high capacity for [[adsorption]], in which it is attached to and held to the surface of some substances. It is an odorless, tasteless, colorless, and highly [[combustion|flammable]] gas that burns at concentrations as low as 4% H<sub>2</sub> in air. It reacts violently with [[chlorine]] and [[fluorine]], forming [[hydrohalic acid]]s that can damage the [[lung]]s and other [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s. When mixed with oxygen, hydrogen explodes upon ignition. A unique property of hydrogen is that its flame is completely invisible in air. This makes it difficult to tell if a leak is burning, and carries the added risk that it is easy to walk into a hydrogen fire inadvertently.
''See also: [[hydrogen atom]].''
==Applications==
Large quantities of hydrogen are needed in the chemical and petroleum industries, notably in the [[Haber process]] for the production of [[ammonia]], which by mass ranks as the world's fifth most produced industrial compound. Hydrogen is used in the [[hydrogenation]] of [[fat]]s and [[Vegetable oil|oil]]s (found in items such as [[margarine]]), and in the production of [[methanol]]. Hydrogen is used in [[hydrodealkylation]], [[hydrodesulfurization]], and [[cracking (chemistry)#Hydrocracking|hydrocracking]]{{ref|periodic.lanl.gov}}. The element has several other important uses.
*The element is used in the manufacture of [[hydrochloric acid]], in [[welding]] processes, and in the reduction of metallic [[ore]]s.
*It is an ingredient in [[rocket fuel]]s.
*It is used as the rotor coolant in [[electrical generator]]s at [[power station]]s, because it has the highest [[thermal conductivity]] of any gas.
*Liquid hydrogen is used in [[cryogenic]] research, including [[superconductivity]] studies.
*The [[triple point]] temperature of equilibrium hydrogen is a defining fixed point on the [[International Temperature Scale of 1990|ITS-90]] temperature scale.
*Since hydrogen is 14.5 times [[lighter than air]], it was once widely used as a lifting agent in [[balloon (aircraft)|balloon]]s and [[airship]]s. However, this use was curtailed when the [[Hindenburg disaster]] convinced the public that the gas was too dangerous for this purpose.
*[[Deuterium]], an isotope of hydrogen (hydrogen-2), is used in [[CANDU reactor|nuclear fission applications]] as a [[neutron moderator|moderator]] to slow [[neutron]]s, and in [[nuclear fusion]] reactions. Deuterium compounds have applications in [[chemistry]] and [[biology]] in studies of reaction [[isotope effect]]s.
*[[Tritium]] (hydrogen-3), produced in [[nuclear reactor]]s, is used in the production of [[hydrogen bomb]]s, as an isotopic label in the biosciences, and as a [[Beta radiation|radiation]] source in luminous paints.
There are no "hydrogen wells" or "hydrogen mines" on Earth, so hydrogen cannot be considered a primary energy source such as [[fossil fuel]]s or [[uranium]]. Hydrogen can however be burned in [[internal combustion engine]]s, an approach advocated by BMW's experimental [[hydrogen car]]. However, it is currently difficult and dangerous to store and handle in sufficient quantity for motor fuel use. Hydrogen [[fuel cell]]s are being investigated as mobile [[power (physics)|power]] sources with lower emissions than hydrogen-burning internal combustion engines. The low emissions of hydrogen in internal combustion engines and [[fuel cell]]s are currently offset by the pollution created by hydrogen production. This may change if the substantial amounts of electricity required for water [[electrolysis]] can be generated primarily from low pollution sources such as nuclear energy or wind. Research is being conducted on hydrogen as a replacement for fossil fuels. It could become the link between a range of energy sources, carriers and storage. Hydrogen can be converted to and from electricity (solving the electricity storage and transport issues), from [[biofuel]]s, and from and into [[natural gas]] and [[diesel]] fuel. All of this can theoretically be achieved with zero emissions of CO<sub>2</sub> and toxic pollutants.
==History==
Hydrogen was first produced by Theophratus Bombastus von Hohenheim ([[1493]]&ndash;[[1541]])—also known as [[Paracelsus]]—by mixing metals with acids. He was unaware that the explosive gas produced by this chemical reaction was hydrogen. In 1671, [[Robert Boyle]] described the reaction between two iron fillings and dilute acids, which results in the production of gaseous hydrogen.{{ref|webelements.com}} In [[1766]], [[Henry Cavendish]] was the first to recognize hydrogen as a discrete substance, by identifying the gas from this reaction <!--you mean Boyle's reported reaction?-->as "inflammable" and finding that the gas produces water when burned in air. Cavendish stumbled on hydrogen when experimenting with acids and [[mercury (element)|mercury]]. Although he wrongly assumed that hydrogen was a compound of mercury—and not of the [[acid]]—he was still able to accurately describe several key properties of hydrogen.
<!--In [year],-->[[Antoine Lavoisier]] gave the element its name and proved that water is composed of hydrogen and [[oxygen]]. One of the first uses of the element was for [[balloon]]s. The hydrogen was obtained by mixing [[sulfuric acid]] and [[iron]]. In 1931, [[Harold C. Urey]] discovered [[deuterium]], an [[isotope]] of hydrogen, by repeated distilling the same sample of water. For this discovery, Urey received the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1934. In the same year, the third isotope, [[tritium]], was discovered. Because of its relatively simple structure, hydrogen has often been used in models of how an [[atom]] works.
==Electron energy levels==
The [[ground state]] [[energy level]] of the electron in a hydrogen atom is 13.6 [[Electronvolt|eV]], which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roug
|
op-line operating systems, like [[OS/8|OS-8]], [[TOPS-10]], [[TOPS-20]], [[RSTS/E]], [[RSX-11]], [[RT-11]], and [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]]. PDP computers, in particular the [[PDP-11]] model, inspired a generation of programmers and software developers. Some PDP-11 systems more than 25 years old (software and hardware) are still being used ([[as of 2004]]) to control and monitor factories, transportation systems and nuclear plants. Digital was an early champion of [[time-sharing]] systems, as anybody who has used other operating systems like [[MVS]] or [[VM/CMS]] from [[IBM]] can attest.
Digital was to the command-line interface (CLI) what Apple was to the GUI: there was history before and innovation after, but it was Digital's OSes that put it together in a complete and definitive form. The command-line interfaces found in the Digital's OSes, eventually to be codified as [[DIGITAL_Command_Language|DCL]], would look familiar to any user of modern microcomputer CLI's; those used in earlier systems, such as CTSS, IBM's JCL, or Univac's time-sharing systems, would look utterly alien. Many features of the CP/M and MS-DOS CLI show a recognizable family resemblance to Digital's OSes, including command names such as DIR and HELP and the "name-dot-extension" file syntax.
VAX and [[Micro-VAX]] computers (very widespread in the 1980s) running [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]] formed one of the most important pre-Internet networks, [[DECnet]], which mixed business and research facilities. The [[DECnet]] protocols formed one of the first peer-to-peer networking standards.
Digital was one of the major champions of [[Ethernet]]. For multiple generations of computers, Ethernet controllers from Digital were ''de facto'' standard components on many computer boards; in particular, DEC's PCI Fast Ethernet controller family (the 21040 and 21143 series, widely referred to collectively as "Tulip") was highly successful.
[[Computer cluster|Clustering]], an operating system technology which treated multiple machines as one logical entity was invented by Digital. This technology was the fore-runner to systems like [[Network of Workstations]] which are used for massively cooperative tasks such as web-searches and drug research.
The [[VT100]] [[computer terminal]] became the industry standard, and even today terminal emulators such as [[HyperTerminal]], [[PuTTY]] and [[Xterm]] can emulate a VT100 (though most actually emulate its more capable successor, the [[VT220]]).
The [[X Window System]], the first remote-windowing system, was developed by [[Project Athena]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]. Digital was the primary sponsor for this project.
[[Dave Cutler]], the operating system guru who led the development of [[RSX-11]]M, [[RSX-11]]M+, [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]] and then [[VAXELN]] left Digital in [[1988]] to lead the development of [[Windows NT]]. A rumor (that more likely started as a joke) has circulated for a long time that WNT=VMS+1 (increment each letter by one).
Notes-11 and its follow-on product, VAXnotes were two of the first examples of online collaboration software, a category that has become to be known as [[Collaborative software|groupware]]. [[Len Kawell]], one of the original Notes-11 developers later joined [[Lotus Development Corporation]] and contributed to their [[Lotus Notes]] product.
Digital was one of the first commercial businesses connected to the [[Internet]], [http://www.digital.com digital.com] being one of the first of the now ubiquitous ''.com'' domains, and the first commercial website.
The popular [[AltaVista]], created by Digital, was one of the first comprehensive Internet [[search engine]]s (although [[Lycos]] was earlier, it was much more limited).
Invention of [[Digital Linear Tape]] (DLT).
==References==
{{commonscat}}
* "DEC used by Digital itself:" ''PDP11 Processor Handbook'' (1973): page 8, "DEC, PDP, UNIBUS are registered trademarks of Digital Equipment Corporation;" page 1-4, "Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) designs and manufacturers many of the peripheral devices offered with PDP-11's. As a designer and manufacturer of peripherals, DEC can offer extremely reliable equipment... The LA30 DECwriter, a totally DEC-designed and built teleprinter, can serve as an alternative to the Teletype."
* Edgar H. Schein, Peter S. DeLisi, Paul J. Kampas, and Michael M. Sonduck, ''DEC Is Dead, Long Live DEC: The Lasting Legacy of Digital Equipment Corporation'' (San Francisco: Barrett-Koehler, 2003), ISBN 1-57675-225-9.
* C. Gordon Bell, J. Craig Mudge, and John E. McNamara, ''Computer Engineering - A DEC View of Hardware Systems Design''; Digital Press, 1978, ISBN 0-932376-00-2.
[[Category:Digital Equipment Corporation| ]]
[[Category:1957 establishments]]
[[Category:Defunct computer companies of the United States]]
[[de:Digital Equipment Corporation]]
[[es:Digital Equipment Corporation]]
[[fr:Digital Equipment Corporation]]
[[it:Digital Equipment Corporation]]
[[nl:Digital Equipment Corporation]]
[[ja:ディジタル・イクイップメント・コーポレーション]]
[[pl:Digital Equipment Corporation]]
[[fi:Digital Equipment Corporation]]
[[sv:Digital Equipment Corporation]]
[[zh:迪吉多]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dead Kennedys</title>
<id>7954</id>
<revision>
<id>42155253</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:35:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rsm99833</username>
<id>640068</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed Vandalism perpetuated by 24.255.217.219</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about the band; see [[Kennedy political family|Kennedy family]] for the political dynasty, or [[The Kennedy Curse]], which inspired the name "Dead" Kennedys''
{{Infobox_band |
band_name = Dead Kennedys|
image = [[Image:Dead_kennedys.jpg|240px]]|
caption = From left to right: Klaus Flouride, Jello Biafra, D.H. Peligro and East Bay Ray|
origin = [[San Francisco]], [[California]]|
country = [[United States]]|
status = Active|
years_active = [[1978]]&ndash;[[1986]]<br />[[2001]]&ndash;present|
music_genre = [[Hardcore punk]]|
record_label = [[Cherry Red]]<br />[[IRS Records]]<br />[[Alternative Tentacles]]<br />Manifesto|
current_members = [[Jeff Penalty]]<br />[[East Bay Ray]]<br />[[Klaus Flouride]]<br />[[D.H. Peligro]] |
past_members = [[Jello Biafra]]<br />[[Brandon Cruz]]<br />[[6025]]<br />[[Ted (musician)|Ted]]|
}}
The '''Dead Kennedys''' are a [[punk rock]] band from [[San Francisco]], [[California]]. Attacking assumptions of the [[left-wing politics|political left]] and [[right-wing politics|right]] with humor, their music mixed the more experimental elements of English punk with the energy of the American punk scene. Lead singer [[Jello Biafra]] was also responsible for releasing many other punk and alternative bands on his [[Alternative Tentacles]] [[record label]].
==History==
The Dead Kennedys formed in [[June]] [[1978]], after guitarist [[East Bay Ray]] advertised for band mates. The original DK lineup consisted of [[Jello Biafra]] on vocals, East Bay Ray on lead guitar, [[6025]] on rhythm guitar, [[Klaus Flouride]] on bass, and [[Ted (musician)|Ted]] on drums. Their first concert was on July 19, 1978, at the Mabuhay Gardens in San Francisco. They played numerous shows at local venues afterwards. Because of the band's provocative name, they sometimes played under [[pseudonyms]], including "The Sharks", "The Creamsicles", and "The Pink Twinkies". 6025 quit in March of 1979 due to musical differences, and being diagnosed with schizophrenia. In June of [[1979]], the band released their first single, "[[California Uber Alles|California Über Alles]]", on [[Alternative Tentacles]]. They followed with a well received east-coast tour.
On March 25, 1980, the DKs were invited to perform at the Bay Area Music Awards in front of music industry big-wigs to give the event some "new wave credibility" in the words of the organizers. The day of the show was spent practicing the song they were asked to play, the underground hit "California Über Alles". In typically [[Subversion (political)|subversive]], perverse style, the band became the talking point of the ceremony when after about 15 seconds into the song, Biafra said, "Hold it! We've gotta prove that we're adults now. We're not a punk rock band, we're a [[New Wave music|new wave]] band." The band, who all wore white shirts with a big, black S painted on the front, pulled black ties from around the backs of their necks, to form a dollar sign, then tore into the previously unheard "Pull My Strings", a barbed, [[Satire|satirical]] attack on the ethics of the mainstream music industry. As well as containing the lyrics "Is my [[Penis|cock]] big enough, is my [[brain]] small enough, for you to make me a star", the song also sent-up [[The Knack]]'s biggest new wave hit, "My Sharona". The song was never recorded in the studio but this performance, the first and only time the song was ever performed, was released on the posthumous compilation album ''[[Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death]]''... and the band was never invited to play the awards show again.
During the spring of 1980, they recorded and released "[[Holiday in Cambodia]]". In the fall they released their debut album, ''[[Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables]]''. It reached #33 in the [[UK Albums Chart]].
In January of 1981, Ted announced that he wanted to leave to pursue a career in architecture and would help look for a replacement. He played his last concert in February. His replacement was [[D.H. Peligro]]. In May, the band released the single "[[Too Drunk To Fuck]]&
|
ameral]] parliament was elected on 9 March 1857, by which time 109 917 people lived in the province. In 1860 the Thorndon Park reservoir was opened, finally providing an alternative water source to the [[Turbidity|turbid]] River Torrens. In 1867 gas [[street light]]ing was implemented, the [[University of Adelaide]] was founded in 1874, the [[South Australian Art Gallery]] opened in 1881 and the [[Happy Valley Reservoir]] opened in 1896. In the 1890s Australia was affected by a severe [[Depression (economics)|economic depression]], ending a hectic era of land booms and tumultuous expansionism. Financial institutions in [[Melbourne]] and banks in [[Sydney]] closed. The national [[fertility rate]] fell and immigration was reduced to a trickle. The value of South Australia's exports nearly halved. [[Drought]] and poor harvests from 1884 compounded the problems with some families leaving for [[Western Australia]]. Adelaide was not as badly hit as the larger gold-rush cities of Sydney and Melbourne, and silver and [[lead]] discoveries at [[Broken Hill]] provided some relief.
Only one year of [[deficit]] was recorded but the price paid was retrenchments and lean public spending. [[Wine]] and copper were the only industries not to suffer a downturn.
Electric street lighting was introduced in 1900 and electric [[tram]]s were transporting passengers in 1909. 28 000 men were sent to fight in [[World War I]]. Adelaide enjoyed a post-war boom but with the return of droughts, entered the [[Great Depression|depression]] of the 1930s, later returning to prosperity with strong government leadership. [[Secondary sector of industry|Secondary industries]] helped reduce the state's dependence on [[primary sector of industry|primary industries]]. The 1933 census recorded the state population at 580 949 which was less of an increase than other states due to the state's economic limitations. [[World War II]] brought industrial stimulus and diversification to Adelaide under the [[Thomas Playford IV|Playford]] Government, which advocated Adelaide as a safe place for manufacturing due to its less vulrenable location. 70 000 men and women enlisted and shipbuilding was expanded at the nearby port of [[Whyalla, South Australia|Whyalla]].
[[Image:Rundle Mall.jpg|280px|thumb|left|Rundle Mall circa 1988 with the famous ''Spheres'' sculpture (colloquially ''Mall's Balls'') clearly visible.]]
The South Australian Government in this period built on former wartime manufacturing industries. International manufacturers like General Motors [[Holden]] and Chrysler make use of these factories around Adelaide completing its transformation from an agricultural service centre to a twentieth century city. A pipeline from [[Mannum, South Australia|Mannum]] brought [[River Murray]] water to Adelaide in 1954 and an [[airport]] opened at [[West Beach, South Australia|West Beach]] in 1955. An assisted migration scheme brought 215,000 immigrants of all nationalities to South Australia between 1947 and 1973. The Dunstan Government in the 1970s saw something of an Adelaide 'cultural revival' - establishing a wide array of social reforms and overseeing the city becoming a centre of the arts. Adelaide hosted the [[Australian Grand Prix]] between 1985 and 1996 on a street circuit in the city's east parklands, before losing it in a controversial move to [[Melbourne]]. The 1992 [[State Bank of South Australia|State Bank]] collapse plunged both Adelaide and South Australia into economic recession, and its effects can still be felt today. Recent years have seen the [[Clipsal 500]] [[V8 Supercar]] race make use of the former Formula One circuit and renewed economic confidence under the [[Mike Rann|Rann]] Government.
==Geography==
[[Image:Satellite_image_of_Adelaide_South_Australia.jpg|right|frame|Satellite image of Adelaide]]
Adelaide is located north of the [[Fleurieu Peninsula]], on the Adelaide plains between the [[Gulf Saint Vincent|Gulf St Vincent]] and the low lying [[Mount Lofty Ranges]]. The city stretches from the town of [[Gawler, South Australia|Gawler]] at its most northern, to [[Aldinga, South Australia|Aldinga]] in the south. According to the [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]], the Adelaide Metropolitan Region has a total land area of 870 km², which is at an average elevation of 50 metres above sea level. [[Mount Lofty]] is located east of the Adelaide metropolitan region in the [[Adelaide Hills]] at an elevation of 727 metres. It is the tallest point in its [[Mount Lofty Ranges|namesake]] range.
Much of Adelaide was originally bushland before European settlement, with some variation - swamps and marshlands were prevalent around the coast. However, much of the original vegetation has been cleared with the remainder remaining in reserves such as the [[Adelaide Parklands]], [[Cleland Conservation Park]] and [[Belair National Park]]. A number of creeks and rivers flow through the Adelaide region. The largest are the [[River Torrens|Torrens]] and [[Onkaparinga River National Park|Onkaparinga]] catchments. Adelaide relies on its many reservoirs for water supply, with [[Mount Bold Reservoir]] and [[Happy Valley Reservoir]] together supplying around 50% of Adelaide's requirements.
===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Adelaide}}
Adelaide has a [[Mediterranean climate]], where most of the rain falls in the winter months. Of the Australian capital cities, Adelaide is the driest. Rainfall is unreliable, light and infrequent throughout summer. In contrast, the winter has fairly reliable rainfall with June being the wettest month of the year, averaging around 80 mm. [[Frost]]s are rare, with the most notable occurrences having occurred in July 1908 and July 1982. There is usually no appreciable [[snow|snowfall]], except at [[Mount Lofty]] and some places in the [[Adelaide Hills]].
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 75%; margin: 0 auto 0 auto;"
|+ '''Climate Table'''
|-
!
! Jan
! Feb
! Mar
! Apr
! May
! Jun
! Jul
! Aug
! Sep
! Oct
! Nov
! Dec
!Year
|-
! Mean daily maximum temperature ([[Celsius|°C]])
|28.8
|29.4
|26.1
|22.4
|18.9
|16.1
|15.3
|16.5
|18.8
|21.5
|24.8
|26.8
|22.1
|-
! Mean daily minimum temperature ([[Celsius|°C]])
|16.8
|17.2
|15.0
|12.2
|10.1
|8.2
|7.4
|8.2
|9.6
|11.3
|13.8
|15.5
|12.1
|-
! Mean total rainfall ([[Millimetre|mm]])
|19.2
|13.7
|26.2
|38.7
|62.6
|83.1
|77.8
|68.1
|63.6
|48.5
|29.6
|26.8
|558.1
|-
! Mean number of rain days
|4.3
|3.4
|5.7
|7.9
|12.3
|15.4
|16.2
|16.4
|13.2
|10.8
|8.1
|6.7
|120.5
|-
| colspan="15" style="text-align: center;" | <small>'''Source:''' [http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_023090.shtml Bureau of Meteorology]</small>
|}
===Urban Layout===
{{Main|Light's Vision}}
[[Image:Karte_Adelaide_MKL1888.png|thumb|136px|right|1888 Map of Adelaide, showing the gradual development of its urban layout]]
Adelaide is a planned city, designed by the first surveyor-general of South Australia, Colonel [[William Light]]. His plan, now known as '''Light's Vision''', arranged Adelaide in a grid, with five squares in the inner City of Adelaide and a ring of parks known as the [[Adelaide Parklands]] surrounding it. Light's design was initially unpopular with the early settlers, as well as South Australia's first Governor, [[John Hindmarsh]]. Light persisted with his design against this initial opposition. The benefits of Light's design are numerous; Adelaide has had wide multi-lane roads from its beginning, an easily-navigable grid layout and a beautiful green ring around the city center. There are two sets of 'ring roads' in Adelaide that have resulted from the original design. The inner ring route borders the parklands and the outer route completely bypasses the inner city through (in clockwise order) [[Grand Junction Road]], Hampstead Road, Ascot Avenue, [[Portrush Road]], Cross Road and [[South Road, Adelaide|South Road]]. {{ref|ringroute}}
The inevitable urban expansion has to some extent outgrown Light's original plan. Numerous satellite cities were built in the latter half of the 20th century notably [[Salisbury, South Australia|Salisbury]] and [[Elizabeth, South Australia|Elizabeth]] on the city's northern fringes, which have now been enveloped by its [[urban sprawl]]. New developments in the [[Adelaide Hills]] region facilitated the construction of the [[South Eastern Freeway]] to cope with growth. Similarly, the booming development in Adelaide's [[City of Onkaparinga|South]] made the construction of the [[Southern Expressway]] a necessity. New roads have not only been used to cope with the urban growth, however - the [[Adelaide O-Bahn]] is an example of a unique solution to [[Tea Tree Gully, South Australia|Tea Tree Gully's]] transport woes in the 1980's.{{ref|ozroads}} The development of the nearby suburb of [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]] in the late [[1980s]] is possibly an example of well-though-out urban planning. The newer urban areas as a whole, however, are not as integrated into the urban layout as much as older areas, and therefore place more stress on Adelaide's transportation system - although not on a level comparable with [[Melbourne]] or [[Sydney]].
[[Image:Adel panorama.jpg|thumb|center|598px|<div style=text-align:"right">Panoramic view over the [[Adelaide Parklands]] of the ''Square Mile'' (central business district) from [[Montefiore Hill]] in [[North Adelaide]]. The historic [[Adelaide Oval]] is visible in the centre foreground.</div>]]
==Governance==
{{Main|Government of South Australia}}
[[Image:Adelaide_parliament_house.JPG|right|thumb|280px|[[Parliament House, Adelaide]] on [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]] houses the [[Parliament of South Australia]].]]
The [[City of Adelaide]] is responsible only for the "Square Mi
|
York]], the [[New York City]] region, [[Puerto Rico]], and the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]].
The dividends paid by the Federal Reserve Banks to member banks are considered partial compensation for the lack of interest paid on member banks' required reserves held at the Federal Reserve Banks. By law, banks in the United States must maintain [[Fractional-reserve banking|fractional reserves]], most of which are kept on account at the Fed. The Federal Reserve does not pay interest on these funds.
The Federal Reserve System was created via the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 which "established a new central bank designed to add both flexibility and strength to the nation's financial system." The legislation provided for a system that included a number of regional Reserve Banks and a seven-member governing board. All national banks were required to join the system and other banks could join. The Reserve Banks opened for business in November 1914. Congress created [[Federal Reserve Note]]s to provide the nation with an elastic supply of currency. The notes were to be issued to Reserve Banks for subsequent transmittal to banking institutions in accordance with the needs of the public.
The Federal Reserve Districts are listed below along with their identifying letter and number. These are used on [[Federal Reserve Note]]s to identify the issuing bank for each note.
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Boston|Boston]] A 1 [http://www.bos.frb.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of New York|New York]] B 2 [http://www.newyorkfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] C 3 [http://www.philadelphiafed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland|Cleveland]] D 4 [http://www.clevelandfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond|Richmond]] E 5 [http://www.richmondfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta|Atlanta]] F 6 [http://www.frbatlanta.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago|Chicago]] G 7 [http://www.chicagofed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis|St Louis]] H 8 [http://www.stlouisfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis|Minneapolis]] I 9 [http://www.minneapolisfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City|Kansas City]] J 10 [http://www.kansascityfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas|Dallas]] K 11 [http://www.dallasfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco|San Francisco]] L 12 [http://www.frbsf.org/]
==Legal Status and Position in Government==
The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System is an [[Independent agencies of the United States government|independent government agency]]. It is subject to laws like the [[Freedom of Information Act]] and the [[Privacy Act]] which cover Federal agencies and not private entities. However, its decisions do not have to be ratified by the [[President of the United States|President]] or anyone else in the [[executive (government)|executive]] or [[legislative]] branches of government, it does not receive funding from Congress, and the terms of the members of the Board of Governors span multiple presidential and congressional terms. Once a member of the Board of Governors is appointed by the president, he or she is relatively independent (although the law provides for the possibility of removal by the President "for cause" under 12 U.S.C. section 242).
In ''Lewis v. United States'', 680 F.2d 1239 (9th Cir. 1982), the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]] stated that the "Federal reserve banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of a Federal Torts Claims Act, but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations." The opinion also stated that "the Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes."
===Influence of Government===
Central bank independence from political control is a crucial concept in both economic theory and practice. The problem arises as central banks strive to maintain a credible commitment to price stability, when the markets know that there is political pressure to keep interest rates low. Low interest rates tend to keep unemployment below trend, encourage economic growth, and allow for cheap credit and loans. Unfortunately, such a policy is not sustainable without accelerating inflation in the long term. Thus, a central bank believed to be under political control cannot make a credible commitment to fight inflation, as the markets know that sitting politicians will lobby to keep rates low. This point was one of the major research topics of economist [[Edward C. Prescott]]'s career. It is in this limited sense that the Federal Reserve System is independent. The members of the FOMC are not elected and do not answer to politicians in making their interest rate decisions.
The Federal Reserve is financially independent because it runs a surplus, due in part to its ownership of [[government bond]]s. In fact, it returns billions of dollars to the government each year. However, the Fed is still subject to oversight by the Congress, which periodically reviews its activities and can alter its responsibilities by [[statute]]. To further communication with Congress, the Fed delivers a [[Monetary Policy Report to the Congress|report]] to both houses semiannually. Its independence from the [[executive branch]] was strengthened by the [[1951 Accord]]. In general, the Federal Reserve must work within the framework of the overall objectives of economic and financial policy established by the government.
==Fractional-Reserve Banking==
{{main|fractional-reserve banking}}
In its role of setting reserve requirements for the country's banking system, the Fed regulates what is known as [[fractional-reserve banking]]. This is the common practice by banks of retaining only a fraction of their deposits to satisfy demands for withdrawals, lending the remainder at interest to obtain income that can be used to pay interest to depositors and provide profits for the banks' owners. Some people also use the term to refer to [[fiat money]], which is money that is not backed by a tangible asset such as [[gold]].
Fractional reserves are very easily abused and rules for these will necessarily favour certain activities in the economy very systematically over others. The United States' rules and oversight are within limits and guidelines set by the [[Bank for International Settlements]], a peer agency to the [[IMF]] and the [[World Bank]] that was originally set up as one of the [[Bretton Woods]] set of institutions. More recently the [[WTO]] has been regarded also as such a peer.
==Criticisms of the Fed==
[[Image:Alan Greenspan.jpg|thumb| Critics charge that a [[cult of personality]] surrounds [[Alan Greenspan]] ]]
A large and varied group of criticisms are often directed against the Federal Reserve. Some of these criticisms relate to [[inflation]] and [[fractional reserve banking]] more generally, and an in-depth treatment of these issues may be found in their respective articles. There are also specific issues relating to the chairmanship of [[Alan Greenspan]], specifically, that the Fed’s credibility is based on a [[cult of personality]] around him and his successors, this line of argument is also more thoroughly addressed in his article. Nonetheless, critics still point to a number of specific criticisms about the methods and actions of the Fed; these are treated below.
=== Historical Criticisms ===
Criticisms of the Fed are not new, and some historical criticisms are reflective of current concerns. Specifically, [[Austrian School]] economists criticize the Fed’s expansionary monetary policy in the 1920’s, allowing misallocations of capital resources and supporting a massive stock price bubble. Others argue that the Fed then deepened the resulting [[Great Depression]] by contracting the money supply at the very moment that markets needed liquidity. These criticisms resemble concerns that the current Fed over-emphasizes consumer spending, and has thus not been aggressive enough in reducing U.S. dependence on oil and energy-intensive capital goods, and allowing household debt to accumulate to excessively large levels.
=== Economic Indicators ===
Some critics argue that the Fed’s concentration on GDP or other aggregate indicators risks ignoring important changes in regional economies, and is an unsuitable proxy as an indicator of well-being.
For example, critics argue that the Fed’s focus on reducing national inflation made it unable to adequately respond to the economic problems in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Specifically, the Fed continued to tighten interest rates immediately after the Hurricane, which some see as evidence that the Fed has ignored the large losses in that devastated region. They argue that the Fed’s concern with aggregate national inflation measures, and the inflationary aspects of the large reconstruction effort (especially the potential for larger government budget deficits), made it unable to deal properly with the highly unusual but particularly devastating situation.
Another criticism is that the Fed places too much emphasis on GDP as a measure of well-being. Critics point to programs in the UK and Canada, such as the [[Genuine Progress Indicator]], which are intended to be a better indicator of both the benefits and costs of economic growth. Even more conservative commentators believe [[Net Domestic Product]] is a far better indicator than GDP of [[economic growth]], as GDP hides uneconomic growth and can lead to improper decisions.
However, this idea remains controversial. The Fed is notoriously tight-lipped about the measures and metrics which are used to make its decisions (see Opacity, directly below), and there is no support in the released transcripts (available for meetings up until 1999) for the notion that the Fed is overly focused on GDP and inflation alone. Rather, the transcripts indicate that the Fed watches a very wide basket of indicators, and that the members of the F
|
are extremely low and often lower than conventional treatments. In a UK study of almost 2000 practitioners covering over 34,000 treatments, there were no serious adverse events and only 43 minor adverse events [http://www.medical-acupuncture.co.uk/journal/2001(2)/093.shtml].
Most acupuncturists in the USA use sterile one-time-use needles. Some still use reusable needles and an autoclave but this practice is declining due to its cost, time and the possibility of failure in sterilizing the needles.
==Acupuncture accreditation and controls==
In many countries anyone can call himself an acupuncturist, there are no legal requirements with regard to training and education, nor are licensing boards regulated in any way, making it very hard to assess the actual value of licenses and training of acupuncturists.
In the USA the [http://www.nccaom.org/aboutus.htm National Certification Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine] tests practitioners to ensure they are knowledgeable about Chinese medicine. Many states require this test for licensing, but each state has its own laws and requirements.
The U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) approved acupuncture needles for use by licensed practitioners in 1996. The FDA requires that sterile, nontoxic needles be used and that they be labeled for single use by qualified practitioners only.[http://nccam.nih.gov/health/acupuncture/#safe]
In the United Kingdom, British Acupuncture Council (BAcC) members observe the Code of Safe Practice which lays down stringent standards of hygiene and sterilisation for other equipment - members use single-use pre-sterilised disposable needles, which are permanently withdrawn from service after being used in treatment. Similar standards apply in most jurisdictions in the United States and Australia.
==See also==
* [[Acupressure]]
* [[Acupoint therapy]]
* [[Chin na]]
* [[Chinese martial arts]]
* [[Electroacupuncture]]
* [[Intramuscular Stimulation]]
* [[Qi]]
* [[Qigong]]
* [[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]]
* [[Taoism]]
==External links==
* [http://www.acupuncture.com.au Acupuncture news, information, education, research and discussion] - A regularly updated Acupuncture website based in Australia.
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&term=acupuncture&submit=y&cmd=search Search for “acupuncture” on PubMed] - US National Library of Medicine search engine with thousands of scientific articles on acupuncture
* [http://forums.acupuncture.net.au/index.php Lively discussions about the issues facing Acupuncturists today] - Acupuncture Network Australasia (ANA) is a dynamic non profit organisation set up to promote and support Acupuncture and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) in Australia, New Zealand and the South East Asia.
* [http://www.healthdiaries.com/news/alternative/archives/acupuncture/index.html Acupuncture News]
* [http://www.info-shanghai.com/en/Article/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=536]Topish Acupuncture and History on Traditional Chinese Medicine
* [http://odp.od.nih.gov/consensus/cons/107/107_statement.htm NIH 1997 Consensus Statement on Acupuncture]
* [http://www.who.int/medicines/library/trm/acupuncture/acupuncture_trials.pdf Acupuncture: Review And Analysis Of Reports On Controlled Clinical Trials, World Health Organization, 2002]
* [http://5element.com.au/ Five Element Acupuncture Information Site] A site devoted to the 5 Element Style of Acupuncture
* [http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/acupuncture-whatis.html Acupuncture, The Facts.] - An article.
* [http://www.rotten.com/library/medicine/acupuncture/ Rotten Library] Article on Acupuncture
* [http://www.itmonline.org/arts/acuintro.htm How acupuncture works explained]
* [http://dmoz.org/Health/Alternative/Acupuncture_and_Chinese_Medicine Open Directory: Acupuncture and Chinese Medicine.] - A collection of links, mostly to pro-acupuncture sites.
* [http://www.spine-health.com/topics/conserv/acu/acupuncture01.html Acupuncture: an ancient treatment for a current problem] - An article discussing acupuncture as a treatment for back and neck pain
* [http://www.acumedico.com Acumedico forum, articles and discussion] - An Israeli acupuncture site.
* [http://www.skepdic.com/acupunc.html The Skeptics dictionary on acupuncture]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/000324.html The Straight Dope on Acupuncture] - A critical site
* [http://www.acuwatch.org/hx/fdac1973.shtml Acupuncture past and present (1973)]
* [http://www.acuwatch.org/hx/taylor.shtml The uncharted wilderness of acupuncture (1973)]
* [http://www.vet-task-force.com/Acuref1.htm A report from a physician who visited China after Nixon]
*[http://www.acupuncture.com//education/theory/mechanismacu.htm The Mechanism of Acupuncture]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15510787 Effects of acupuncture on gastroparesis study]
* [http://www.medical-acupuncture.co.uk/ British Medical Acupuncture Society]
* [http://acupuncture-treatment-specialists.com Acupuncture Clinics & Specialists] - Informational resource and nationwide directory of acupuncturists and clinics.
* [http://www.famouschinese.com/jsp/medline/chinese_medicine_medline.html Chinese medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture Medline] Most recent research articles on Chinese medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture from Medline/Entrez PubMed
*[http://www.acupuncture.com/testimonials/restonexp.htm New York Times article by James Reston, 1971]
==Bibliography==
* Acupuncture. NIH Consensus Statement Online [[3 November]] - [[5 November]] [1997]] 15(5):1-34.
* Richardson PH, Vincent CA. The evaluation of therapeutic acupuncture: concepts and methods. ''Pain'' 24:1-13, 1986.
* Richardson PH, Vincent CA. Acupuncture for the treatment of pain. ''Pain'' 24:1540, 1986.
* Ter Riet G et al. The effectiveness of acupuncture. ''Huisarts Wet'' 32:170-175, 176-181, 308-312, 1989.
* ''Zhen Jiu Xue''/ Tai-zhong Association of Chinese Medical Doctors, the Publishing Committee on Acupuncture, 1976. (Chinese characters for all of this to follow.)
* B. Brinkhaus, E. Hahn, C.H. Hempen, J. Hummelsberger, S. Joos, R. Kohnen, R. Nogel, D. Schuppan. (2004). Acupuncture and Chinese Herbal Medicine in the Treatment of Patients with Seasonal Allergic Rhinitis: a randomized-controlled clinical trial. Allergy 2004:59 953-960.
* B. Brinkhaus, J. Hummelsberger, S. Jena, K. Linde, D. Melchart, A. Streng, S. Wagenpfeil, H.U. Walther, S.N. Willich, C. Witt. Acupuncture in Patients with Osteoarthritis of the Knee: A Randomised Trial. The Lancet, Vol 366, [[July 9]] [[2005]].
* Edwards, J. Acupuncture and Heart Health. Access, February 2002.
* trans by Wolfe, H.L. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Acupuncture and its related modalities. Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, August/September 2005. (translation of article from issue 8, 2001 Zhong Guo Zhen Jiu (Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion).
* Abusaisha, B.B., Constanzi, J.B., Boulton, A.J.M. Acupuncture for the treatment of chronic painful diabetic neuropathy: a long term study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 39:115-121, 1998.
* Bosia, I., Deluze, C., Zirbs, A. Electroacupuncture in fibromyalgia: results of a controlled trial. BMJ 1992 [[21 November]]: 305 (6864): 1249-52
* Chen, J.D.Z., Ouyang, H. Review article: therapeutic roles of acupuncture in functional gastrointestinal disorders. Aliment Pharmacol Therapy 2004; 20:831-841.
* Helms, J.M. Acupuncture for the Treatment of Primary Dysmenorrhea. Obstet Gynecology 1987; 69:51-56
* Altshul, Sara. “Incontinence: Finally, Relief That Works.” Prevention December 2005: 33. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [[30 January]] [[2006]] <http://search.epnet.com/>.
* Cademartori, Lorraine. “Facing the Point.” Forbes October 2005: 85. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [[30 January]] [[2006]] <http://search.epnet.com/>.
* “A Few Commonly Used Acupunture Points.” Net Firms. [[2 February]] [[2006]] <http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/acupunture-points.html>.
* “History of Acupuncture.” Net Firms. [[2 February]] [[2006]] <http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/history-of-acupuncture.html>.
* “History of Acupuncture in China.” Acupuncture Care. [[2 February]] [[2006]] <http://www.acupuncturecare.com/acupunct.htm>.
* Howard, Cori. “An Ancient Helper for Making a Baby.” Maclean’s [[23 January]] [[2006]]: 40. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [[30 January]] [[2006]] <http://search.epnet.com/>.
* “Is Acupuncture Safe?” Net Firms. [[2 February]] [[2006]] <http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/acupuncture-safety.html>.
* “What Is Acupuncture?” Net Firms. [[2 February]] [[2006]] <http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/acupuncture-whatis.html>.
{{commons|Acupuncture}}
[[Category:Acupuncture]]
[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[Category:Manipulative therapy]]
[[Category:Traditional Chinese medicine]]
[[da:Akupunktur]]
[[de:Akupunktur]]
[[eo:Akupunkturo]]
[[es:Acupuntura]]
[[fa:طب سوزنی]]
[[fr:Acupuncture]]
[[he:דיקור סיני]]
[[it:Agopuntura]]
[[ja:鍼]]
[[lt:Akupunktūra]]
[[nl:Acupunctuur]]
[[pl:Akupunktura]]
[[ru:Акупунктура]]
[[pt:Acupuntura]]
[[sv:Akupunktur]]
[[vi:Châm cứu]]
[[zh:针灸]]
[[zh:针灸]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adder</title>
<id>1538</id>
<revision>
<id>38255880</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T04:07:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joshbaumgartner</username>
<id>124878</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This page refers to the type of snake. For an electronic adder, see [[Adder (electronics)]]; for the Russian air-to-air missile that goes by the [[NATO reporting name]] "AA-12 Adder," see [[Vympel R-77]].''
'''Adder''' is another name for the [[viper]]. Most snakes called '''adders''' belong to the family Viperidae, more precisely to subfamily viperinae (by contrast to [[pit vipers]]). An exception is the Australian [[Death adder]], which despite its name is
|
absence of a memory allocator.
* Because it uses internal storage, open addressing avoids the extra indirection required for chaining's external storage. It also has better [[locality of reference]], particularly with linear probing. With small record sizes, these factors can yield better performance than chaining, particularly for lookups.
* They can be easier to [[serialization|serialize]], because they don't use pointers.
On the other hand, normal open addressing is a poor choice for large elements, since these elements fill entire cache lines (negating the cache advantage), and a large amount of space is wasted on large empty table slots. If the open addressing table only stores references to elements (external storage), it uses space comparable to chaining even for large records but loses its speed advantage.
Generally speaking, open addressing is better used for hash tables with small records that can be stored within the table (internal storage) and fit in a cache line. They are particularly suitable for elements of one word or less. In cases where the tables are expected to have high load factors, the records are large, or the data is variable-sized, chained hash tables often perform as well or better.
Ultimately, used sensibly any kind of hash table algorithm is usually fast ''enough''; and the percentage of a calculation spent in hash table code is low. Memory usage is rarely considered excessive. Therefore, in most cases the differences between these algorithms is marginal, and other considerations typically come into play.
===Coalesced hashing===
{{main|Coalesced hashing}}
A hybrid of chaining and open addressing, coalesced hashing links together chains of nodes within the table itself. Like open addressing, it achieves space usage and (somewhat diminished) cache advantages over chaining. Like chaining, it does not exhibit clustering effects; in fact, the table can be efficiently filled to a high density. Unlike chaining, it cannot have more elements than table slots.
===Perfect hashing===
{{main|Perfect hashing}}
If all of the keys that will be used are known ahead of time, and there are no more keys that can fit the hash table, [[perfect hashing]] can be used to create a perfect hash table, in which there will be no collisions. If [[minimal perfect hashing]] is used, every location in the hash table can be used as well.
Perfect hashing gives a hash table where the time to make a lookup is constant in the worst case. This is in contrast to chaining and open addressing methods, where the time for lookup is low on average, but may be arbitrarily large. There exist methods for maintaining a perfect hash function under insertions of keys, known as [[dynamic perfect hashing]]. A simpler alternative, that also gives worst case constant lookup time, is [[cuckoo hashing]].
===Probabilistic hashing===
Perhaps the simplest solution to a collision is to replace the value that is already in the slot with the new value, or slightly less commonly, drop the record that is to be inserted. In later searches, this may result in a search not finding a record which has been inserted. This technique is particularly useful for implementing caching.
An even more space-efficient solution which is similar to this is use a [[bit array]] (an array of one-bit fields) for our table. Initially all bits are set to zero, and when we insert a key, we set the corresponding bit to one. False negatives cannot occur, but [[false positives]] can, since if the search finds a 1 bit, it will claim that the value was found, even if it was just another value that hashed into the same array slot by coincidence. In reality, such a hash table is merely a specific type of [[Bloom filter]].
==Table resizing==
With a good hash function, a hash table can typically contain about 70%&ndash;80% as many elements as it does table slots and still perform well. Depending on the collision resolution mechanism, performance can begin to suffer either gradually or dramatically as more elements are added. To deal with this, when the load factor exceeds some threshold, we allocate a new, larger table, and add all the contents of the original table to this new table. In [[Java programming language|Java]]'s HashMap class, for example, the default load factor threshold is 0.75.
This can be a very expensive operation, and the necessity for it is one of the hash table's disadvantages. In fact, some naive methods for doing this, such as enlarging the table by one each time you add a new element, reduce performance so drastically as to make the hash table useless. However, if we enlarge the table by some fixed percent, such as 10% or 100%, it can be shown using [[amortized analysis]] that these resizings are so infrequent that the average time per lookup remains constant-time. To see why this is true, suppose a hash table using chaining begins at the minimum size of 1 and is doubled each time it fills above 100%. If in the end it contains ''n'' elements, then the total add operations performed for all the resizings is:
:1 + 2 + 4 + ... + ''n'' = 2''n'' - 1.
Because the costs of the resizings form a [[geometric series]], the total cost is O(''n''). But we also perform ''n'' operations to add the ''n'' elements in the first place, so the total time to add ''n'' elements with resizing is O(''n''), an amortized time of O(1) per element.
On the other hand, some hash table implementations, notably in [[real-time system]]s, cannot pay the price of enlarging the hash table all at once, because it may interrupt time-critical operations. One simple approach is to initially allocate the table with enough space for the expected number of elements and forbid the addition of too many elements. Another useful but more memory-intensive technique is to perform the resizing gradually:
* Allocate the new hash table, but leave the old hash table and check both tables during lookups.
* Each time an insertion is performed, add that element to the new table and also move ''k'' elements from the old table to the new table.
* When all elements are removed from the old table, deallocate it.
To ensure that the old table will be completely copied over before the new table itself needs to be enlarged, it's necessary to increase the size of the table by a factor of at least (''k'' + 1)/''k'' during the resizing.
[[Linear hashing]] is a hash table algorithm that permits incremental hash table expansion. It is implemented using a single hash table, but with two possible look-up functions.
Another way to decrease the cost of table resizing is to choose a hash function in such a way that the hashes of most values do not change when the table is resized. This approach, called [[consistent hashing]], is prevalent in disk-based and distributed hashes, where resizing is prohibitively costly.
==Problems with hash tables==
Although hash table lookups use constant time on average, the time spent can be significant. Evaluating a good hash function can be a slow operation. In particular, if simple array indexing can be used instead, this is usually faster.
Hash tables in general exhibit poor [[locality of reference]]&mdash;that is, the data to be accessed is distributed seemingly at random in memory. Because hash tables cause access patterns that jump around, this can trigger [[CPU cache|microprocessor cache]] misses that cause long delays. Compact data structures such as arrays, searched with [[linear search]], may be faster if the table is relatively small and keys are cheap to compare, such as with simple integer keys. According to [[Moore's Law]], cache sizes are growing exponentially and so what is considered "small" may be increasing. The optimum performance point varies from system to system; for example, a trial on [[Parrot virtual machine|Parrot]] shows that its hash tables outperform linear search in all but the most trivial cases (one to three entries).
More significantly, hash tables are more difficult and error-prone to write and use. Hash tables require the design of an effective hash function for each key type, which in many situations is more difficult and time-consuming to design and debug than the mere comparison function required for a [[self-balancing binary search tree]]. In open-addressed hash tables it's even easier to create a poor hash function.
Additionally, in some applications, a [[black hat]] with knowledge of the hash function may be able to supply information to a hash which creates worst-case behavior by causing excessive collisions, resulting in very poor performance (i.e., a [[denial of service attack]]). In critical applications, either [[universal hashing]] can be used or a data structure with better worst-case guarantees may be preferable. For details, see Crosby and Wallach's ''[http://www.cs.rice.edu/~scrosby/hash/CrosbyWallach_UsenixSec2003.pdf Denial of Service via Algorithmic Complexity Attacks]''.
==Implementations==
While many programming languages already provide hash table functionality (see ''[[Associative array#Language support|language support for associative arrays]]''), there are several independent implementations worth mentioning.
* [http://goog-sparsehash.sourceforge.net/ Google Sparse Hash] The Google SparseHash project contains several hash-map implementations in use at Google, with different performance characteristics, including an implementation that optimizes for space and one that optimizes for speed. The memory-optimized one is extremely memory-efficient with only 2 bits/entry of overhead.
* A number of language runtimes and/or standard libraries use hash tables to implement their support for associative arrays because of their efficiency.
==See also==
* [[Bloom filter]]
* [[Distributed hash table]]s
* [[Hash function]]
* [[Rabin-Karp string search algorithm]]
* [[Hash list]]
* [[Hash tree]]
* [[Judy array]]
* [[Trie]]
==External links==
* [[NIST]] entry on [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/hashtab.html
|
OT-DT
|-
| 13 ||[[George Trafton]]|| C-DT
|-
| 13 ||[[Joe Stydahar]]|| OT-DT
|-
| 16 ||[[Ed Healey]]|| OT-DT
|-
| 16 ||[[George Musso]]|| C-DT
|-
| 16 ||[[George Blanda]]|| QB
|-
| 21 ||[[Dan Fortmann|Danny Fortmann]]|| G-DT
|-
| 34 ||[[Walter Payton]]|| RB
|-
| 40 ||[[Gale Sayers]]|| RB
|-
| 42 ||[[Sid Luckman]]|| QB-CB
|-
| 50 ||[[Mike Singletary]]|| LB
|-
| 51 ||[[Dick Butkus]]|| LB
|-
| 56 ||[[Bill Hewitt]]|| TE-DE
|-
| 61 ||[[Bill George]]|| LB
|-
| 66 ||[[Bulldog Turner|Clyde (Bulldog) Turner]]|| C-DT
|-
| 71 ||[[George Connor (football)|George Connor]]|| OT-LB
|-
| 77 ||[[Red Grange|Harold (Red) Grange]]|| RB-CB
|-
| 78 ||[[Stan Jones (football)|Stan Jones]]|| OT
|-
| 81 ||[[Doug Atkins]]|| DE
|-
| 89 ||[[Mike Ditka]]|| TE, Head Coach
|-
| 99 ||[[Dan Hampton]]|| DE
|-
|<nowiki>--</nowiki> ||[[Jim Finks]]|| General Manager
|}
===Retired numbers===
The Bears have retired 13 numbers, which is the most in the NFL. The Bears also rank third in all of professional sports in retired numbers behind the [[New York Yankees]] and [[Boston Celtics]].
[[Image:George_Halas_Photo.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[George Halas]] was the Chicago Bears founder, owner, head coach, and player]]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|colSpan=2 align=center |'''Chicago Bears Retired Numbers'''
|-
!No.
!Player
|-
|3 ||[[Bronko Nagurski]]
|-
| 5 ||[[George McAfee]]
|-
| 7 ||[[George Halas]]
|-
|28 ||[[Willie Galimore]]
|-
|34 ||[[Walter Payton]]
|-
|40 ||[[Gale Sayers]]
|-
|41 ||[[Brian Piccolo]]*
|-
|42 ||[[Sid Luckman]]
|-
|51 ||[[Dick Butkus]]
|-
|56 ||[[Bill Hewitt]]
|-
|61 ||[[Bill George]]
|-
|66 ||[[Bulldog Turner|Clyde (Bulldog) Turner]]
|-
|77 ||[[Red Grange|Harold (Red) Grange]]
|-
|}
''<nowiki>*</nowiki> the subject of the film ''[[Brian's Song]]''
==Awards==
[[Image:Halas 050331.jpg|right|thumb|'''Fun Fact:''' The NFC Championship trophy is named the George S. Halas Memorial Trophy after Papa Bear himself, who was a pioneer in Pro Football]]
'''[[NFL Coach of the Year Award|Coach of the Year]]:''' (8)
''1963:'' George Halas<br>
''1965:'' George Halas<br>
''1976:'' Jack Pardee<br>
''1985:'' Mike Ditka<br>
''1988:'' Mike Ditka<br>
''1994:'' Dave Wannstedt<br>
''2001:'' Dick Jauron<br>
''2005:'' Lovie Smith
'''[[NFL Most Valuable Player Award|Most Valuable Player]]:''' (2)
''1943:'' Sid Luckman QB<br>
''1977:'' Walter Payton RB
'''[[NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year Award|Defensive Rookie of the Year]]:''' (3)
''1973:'' Wally Chambers DT<br>
''1990:'' Mark Carrier S<br>
''2000:'' Brian Urlacher LB
'''[[NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year Award|Offensive Rookie of the Year]]:''' (4)
''1961:'' Mike Dikta TE<br>
''1962:'' Ron Bull RB<br>
''1965:'' Gayle Sayers RB<br>
''2001:'' Anthony Thomas RB
'''[[NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award|Defensive Player of the Year]]:''' (3)
''1985:'' Mike Singletary LB<br>
''1988:'' Mike Singletary LB<br>
''2005:'' Brian Urlacher LB
'''[[Super Bowl MVP]]:''' (1)
''1985:'' Richard Dent DE ([[Super Bowl XX|XX]])
==Head coaches==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Head Coaches
!Tenure
!Record
|-
|[[Fritz Wasem]]<br>[[Red Brannon]]<br>[[James Cook (football)|James Cook]] || 1919||N/A***
|-
|[[George Halas]]* || 1920-1929||324-151-31**
|-
|[[Ralph Jones]] || 1930-1932||24-10-7
|-
|[[George Halas]]*|| 1933-1942||324-151-31**
|-
|[[Hunk Anderson]]<br>[[Luke Johnsos]] || 1942-1945||24-12-2
|-
|[[George Halas]]* || 1946-1955||324-151-31**
|-
|[[Paddy Driscoll]] || 1956-1957||14-10-1
|-
|[[George Halas]]* || 1958-1967||324-151-31**
|-
|[[Jim Dooley]] || 1968-1971||20-36-0
|-
|[[Abe Gibron]] || 1972-1974||11-30-1
|-
|[[Jack Pardee]]|| 1975-1977||20-23-0
|-
|[[Neill Armstrong]] || 1978-1981||30-35-0
|-
|[[Mike Ditka]] || 1982-1992||112-68-0
|-
|[[Dave Wannstedt]] || 1993-1998||41-57-0
|-
|[[Dick Jauron]] || 1999-2003||35-46-0
|-
|[[Lovie Smith]] || 2004-Present||16-17-0
|-
|}
''<nowiki>*</nowiki> George Halas coached the Bears at four different times''<br>
''<nowiki>**</nowiki> Halas's record combined over all four coaching times''<br>
''<nowiki>***</nowiki> No official records have been found for the 1919 season''
===Current staff===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Position
!Name
|-
|Head Coach || [[Lovie Smith]]
|-
|Offensive Coordinator || [[Ron Turner (football coach)|Ron Turner]]
|-
|Defensive Coordinator || [[Ron Rivera]]
|-
|Special Teams Coach || [[Dave Toub]]
|-
|Quarterbacks Coach || [[Wade Wilson (football player)|Wade Wilson]]
|-
|Running Backs Coach || [[Tim Spencer]]
|-
|Wide Receivers Coach || [[Darryl Drake]]
|-
|Tight Ends Coach || [[Rob Boras]]
|-
|Offensive Line Coach || [[Harry Hiestand]]
|-
|Defensive Line Coach || [[Don Johnson (football coach)|Don Johnson]]
|-
|Linebackers Coach || [[Bob Babich]]
|-
|Defensive Backs Coach || [[TBA]]
|-
|Strength and Conditioning || [[Rusty Jones]]
|-
|Defensive Assistant Quality Control || [[Gill Byrd]]
|-
|}
==Broadcasters==
The Chicago Bears can be heard around the Chicago area, Northwest Indiana, and in some cities in the Midwest.
'''Flagship stations:'''
:'''Radio Station:''' WBBM (780 AM)
:'''Radio Announcers:''' Jeff Joniak (play by play), Tom Thayer (color) Zach Zaidman (sideline)
:'''TV Station for Preseason Games:''' WMAQ (NBC 5 Chicago); WSNS (Telemundo Chicago)
:'''Local TV Coverage:''' ''official:'' WMAQ (NBC 5 Chicago), Comcast Sports Net; ''unofficial:'' WFLD (FOX Chicago)
'''Midwest:'''<br>
''As of 2005''
:'''Local TV Partners for Preseason Games:'''
:WIFR-Rockford, Channel 23<br>
:WRSP-Springfield, Channel 55<br>
:WCCU-Champaign, Channel 27<br>
:WSBT-South Bend, Channel 22<br>
:KLJB-Quad Cities, Channel 18<br>
==Footnotes==
# {{note|bear-pack}} {{cite web
| title = Bears, Packers have love-hate relationship
| work = NFL Insider
| url = http://www.nfl.com/teams/story/CHI/4639335
| accessdate = December
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|grange}} {{cite web
| title = Galloping Ghost scared opponents
| work = ESPN.com
| url = http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00014213.html
| accessdate = December
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|1940}} {{cite web
| title = General History - Chronology (1940 to 1959)
| work = ESPN.com
| url = http://www.profootballhof.com/history/general/chronology/1940-1959.jsp
| accessdate = January
| accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|bear-logo}} {{cite web
| title = History of the Chicago Bears Logo
| work = Chicago Bears
| url = http://www.chicagobears.com/history/uniform.jsp
| accessdate = August
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|uniforms}} {{cite web
| title = History of the Chicago Bears Uniform
| work = Chicago Bears
| url = http://org-www.chicagobears.com/history/uniform.jsp
| accessdate = August
| accessyear = 2005
}}<br>
# {{note|mistake}} {{cite web
| title = Mistake on the Lake
| work = The Times of Northwest Indiana
| url = http://www.thetimesonline.com/articles/2003/09/30/news/top_news/965adf222a1ac3af86256db100030920.prt
| accessdate = September
| accessyear = 2003
}}
# {{note|shuffle}} {{cite web
| title = Remembering the Super Bowl Shuffle
| work = ESPN
| url = http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page3/story?page=katcher/040825
| accessdate = August
| accessyear = 2004
}}
# {{note|value}} {{cite web
| title = NFL Franchise Values: Chicago Bears
| work = Forbes Magazine
| url = http://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/30/301335.html
| accessdate = December
| accessyear = 2005
}}<br>
# {{note|sponsership}} {{cite web
| title = NFL Franchise Sponsers: Chicago Bears
| work = Forbes Magazine
| url = http://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/30/301335.html
| accessdate = December
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|records}} {{cite web
| title = Chicago Bears Team Records
| work = Chicago Bears
| url = http://org-www.chicagobears.com/history/records.jsp
| accessdate = August
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|membership}} {{cite web
| title = Hall of Famers by Team
| work = Pro Football Hall of Fame
| url = http://www.profootballhof.com/hof/teams.jsp
| accessdate = February
| accessyear = 2006
}}
== References ==
* {{cite web
| title = Chicago Bears.com - History
| url = http://www.chicagobears.com/history/
| accessdate = January 31
| accessyear = 2006
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Chicago Bears.com - Team Stats
| url = http://org-www.chicagobears.com/history/records.jsp
| accessdate = July 31
| accessyear = 2006
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Pro Football Hall of Fame - Chicago Bears
| url = http://www.profootballhof.com/history/team.jsp?franchise_id=6
| accessdate = February 9
| accessyear = 2006
}}
==External links==
'''Official Team Site'''
*[http://www.chicagobears.com/ Chicago Bears]
'''Historical Team Links'''
*[http://bearshistory.com/ Bearshistory.com]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/chicago/bears.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]
'''Fans Sites'''
*[http://www.bearscast.com/ Bearscast - Chicago Bears Podcast]
*[http://members.tripod.com/~dandeath/bears.html Dr. Death's Chicago Bears World]
*[http://members.aol.com/DiBEARS101/index.html DiBEARS101's Chicago Bears Page]
*[http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/bears/ John's Chicago Bears Site]
*[http://members.tripod.com/~PackerHater/ PackerHater's Chicago Bears Page]
*[http://profootball.miningco.com/msubnfc6.htm Mining Co. Chicago Bears]
*[http://www.sportshares.com/profootball/links/chicago.html SportsShares - Chicago Bears]
*[http://www.midwestinfopedia.com/tailgate/ Bears Tailgate Scoiety]
{{Chicago Bears}}
{{NFL}}
[[Category:Chicago Bears| ]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:1919 establishments]]
[[de:Chicago Bears]]
[[fr:Bears de Chicago]]
[[it:Chicago Bears]]
[[pt:Chicago Bears]]
[[sv:Chicago Bears]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cincinnati Bengals</title>
<id>6612</id>
<revision>
<i
|
]
<!-- *[[Imps]] (not relevant; see [[Talk:Devil]]) -->
*[[Interdimensional hypothesis]]
*[[Satan]]
*[[S.L. MacGregor Mathers]]
*[[Spiritual warfare]]
*[[Virus]]
==External links==
*[http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/index/d.htm#Demon ''Demons in the Catechism of the Catholic Church'':] Hyperlinked references to demons in the online Catechism of the Catholic Church
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-79 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Demonology
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:Demons]]
[[Category:History of ideas]]
[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:Occult]]
[[cs:Démon]]
[[da:Dæmon]]
[[de:Dämon]]
[[eo:Demono]]
[[es:Demonio]]
[[fa:دیو]]
[[fr:Démon (esprit)]]
[[he:שד (מיתולוגיה)]]
[[lt:Demonas]]
[[lv:Dēmons]]
[[nl:Demon]]
[[pl:Demon (mitologia)]]
[[pt:Demónio]]
[[ru:Демон]]
[[sr:Демон]]
[[sv:Demon]]
[[uk:Демон]]
[[zh:惡魔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demonolatry</title>
<id>8281</id>
<revision>
<id>40486442</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T22:45:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
<id>101935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikipedia URL→wikilink (2); sp (3): Vengence→Vengeance, destuction→distruction, seperate→separate</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Demonolatry''' under this name in particular was started as a religion by [[Richard Dukante]]. Prior to this the term Demonolatry was used by the inquisitors during the witch trials. There was a famous text by [[Nicholas Rémy|Nicholas Remy]] a cruel witch hunter entitled Demonolatry, or, Demonolatriae Libri Tres". Remy's text was published in 1570.
Demonolatry--not to be confused with [[demonology]] (the study of Demons) --means, literally, the [[worship]] of [[Demons]](used interchangeably with [[daemons]] as demon and daemon are seen much the same to the Demonolator because the word demon comes from daemon and daimon). Although the word Demonolatry is old, it was originally used (like the label Satanism) as a term of derision to refer to a variety of different religions that the early Church persecuted. It was not adopted as a term of self-reference until relatively recently (late 1950's/early 1960's). Even then, Demonolatry was clandestine. It was not until 1997 when the Guild of Demonolatry (now defunct) finally funded a website--Tezrian's Vault--devoted to the religion that Demonolatry came out-of-the-closet. That site closed in 2001. Previously, many sects simply referred to themselves as followers of [insert name of Demon here].
Modern Demonolatry is a [[polytheistic]] religion in which Demonic entities are worshiped and worked with as wise divinities. Each demon is the wellspring of a single energy source. These energies can be defined as universal elements, emotions, or ideas. The most common pantheon of Gods used are demonic--from [[Christian]] mythologies about diabolical beings, which were formerly the Gods of pre-Christian [[Paganism|pagan]] religions. However, [[Roman]], [[History of Greece|Greek]], [[Goetic]] and other pantheons have been used. Perhaps the most popular of the pantheons is the Richard Dukante Hierarchy, which was developed in the early 1960's. It became the basis for many modern Demonolatry sects.
Demonolatry is considered a [[left hand path]] religion because it is a religion of the self. It is discovering personal power and living within the natural balance of the energies within the universe. It is also about self-responsibility and inner peace. [[Demons]], to some, are simply focal points of single pure energies. To others they are real entities with personalities and individual consciousness. Each of the demons is seen as the embodiment of an emotion, an element, or an idea. As mentioned, some people believe these energies are sentient (real deities), while others believe they are simply natural forces without consciousness. The Gods of Demonolatry are demons because they are considered to represent misunderstood or clandestine parts of the natural world. Many demons were merely Gods of pre-Christian pagan religions. There are demons for love and healing just as sure as there are demons for anger and destruction. There is a natural balance to the religion. For every demon there is an equal and opposite demon. There are also those demons on the subtle in-between of the two.
In Demonolatry there is no [[heaven]] or [[hell]]. Many Demonolators believe in [[reincarnation]] of our own personal energies. Within the practice of Demonolatry there are many rites. Most of them are meditative (and include prayer and mental exercises), while others incorporate [[magick]] in which requests are burnt, incenses and candles are burnt representing certain aspects of the ritual's design. Many different forms of magick are used in conjunction with the religion. This depends on the individual's preference. A personal belief system that fulfills the needs of the practitioner is encouraged
See The [[Hermetica]] and [[Hermeticism]] to learn more about the core foundation of Demonolatry beliefs.
----
== Demonolatry Holidays ==
There are two types of Demonolators with regards to practice: those whose approach is primarily [[religious]] and those who practice Demonic Magick. Much of modern Demonolatry is steeped in [[elemental]] magick. The major religious rites are as follows (the specific dates may vary, but these are the days these [[holidays]] generally fall on):
'''March 21''' - Rite to Lucifer in celebration of enlightenment and the air that sustains life on this planet. Also a celebration of knowledge, education, and ideas. It is also a celebration of spring and new beginnings. Marriages are sometimes performed on or around the Rite to Lucifer.
'''May 2''' - First Rite to Leviathan. This is typically an initiation ceremony. Leviathan symbolizes the seed cycle and emotional bonds. Many sects choose to initiate their new arrivals during this rite. However, it is also the Rite wherein some people may choose to get married or to conceive children as it symbolizes fertility and bonding.
'''June 21''' - Rite to Flereous. Flereous is the Phoenix that rises from the ashes. This rite celebrates the warmth of the sun and summer. This is the Rite at which Baphometic Fire Baptisms are performed. Baptisms are rarely performed on children. However, adults may choose to have their matron or patron deity's sigil either branded, tatooed, or cut somewhere into their body. While some cultures may regard this as self mutilation, a Demonolator finds honor in this ritual and bears the "scar" proudly. Nowadays, tatoos are very popular because sigils can be encompassed by a picture.
'''September 21''' - Second Rite to Leviathan. This is the Rite that celebrates autumn and harvest. It celebrates the element water. It also celebrates emotional ties (married couples sometimes choose this Rite to reaffirm wedding vows). Scrying, tarot readings, and other forms of divination are practiced during this time as it is believed the connection between the parts of the whole are stronger now.
'''October 31''' - Rite to Eurynomous/Baalberith/Babael. This rite, as in many other traditions, is a celebration of death, dying, and the dead. Many people choose this rite to "destroy" bad feelings by requesting curses on those who have wronged them. Cursing rites are a condoned and encouraged practice in Demonolatry. This is a time of emotional cleansing and self renewal.
'''December 21''' - Rite to Belial. This is sometimes called the second initiation rite because Belial also represents new beginnings. Belial represents material things, financial matters, and business endeavors. It is the celebration of winter, family and friends, and the birth of the sun (as it is the shortest day of the year).
These are the principal rites practiced by religious Demonolators in addition to the holiday of their [[Patron]]/[[Matron]] [[deity]]. They are too numerous to list.
Information Used With Permission
Source: [http://www.ofs-demonolatry.org]
----
== '''Heirarchies of Demons in Demonolatry''' ==
While various hierarchies for Demonolators exist, the most popular are the Dukante and the Goetic.
The [[Goetic]] Hierarchy (from The [[Goetia]]) is a popular hierarchy used by both Traditional and Modern Demonolators.
'''Richard Dukante's Hierarchy (1963)'''
Note: This is one of the few hierarchies acknowledging female demons. Denoted by (f)
Satan - King
Unsere - (f) Fertility and Sorcery
Delepitore - (f) Demoness of Sorcery Enlightement
Satanchia - Grand Genreal (War)
Agaliarept - Assistant Grand General (War)
Lucifage - High Command (Control)
Flereous - Fire Elemental
Lucifer - Air Elemental
Leviathan - Water Elemental
Belial - Earth Elemental
Beelzebuth - Lord of insects
Belphegore - Master of Armorment and Weaponry
Mesphito - Keeper of the book of death
Amducious - The destroyer
Asmodeus - Demon of Lust
Sonnielion - (f) Demoness of hate
Abbadon - Advisor
Ammon - demon of domination
Mammon - Demon of Avarice
Rosier - Demon of love
Ashtaroth - (f) Preistess of friendship
Eurynomous - Demon of Death
Verrine - Demon of Health
Verrier - (f) Demoness of plants and herbalism
Ronwe - Demon of Knowledge
Babeal - Keeper of Graves
*Family 1 - Sorcery, Militant, Encompassing, Mother
*Family 2 - Emotion
*Family 3 - Advisory
*Family 4 - Love and Friendship (also distruction of these emotions)
*Family 5 - Death
*Family 6 - Knowledge
*Family 7 - Anger/Vengeance
*Family 8 - Seduction
*Family 9 - Miscellaneous
'''Family 1'''
*Satan - King
*Unsere - (Female) Fertility and Sorcery
*Satanchia - Grand General (War)
*Agaliarept - Assistant Grand General (War)
*Lucifage -
|
| align="right" | 548.200&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>
|----
|[[Serbs]]
| align="right" | 507.328&nbsp;<sup>4</sup>
|----
|[[Greeks]]
| align="right" | 316.000&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>
|----
|[[Polish people|Poles]]
| align="right" | 292.100&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>
|----
|[[Croatians]]
| align="right" | 229.200&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>
|----
|[[Russians]]
| align="right" | 179.000&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Austrians]]
| align="right" | 174.000&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>
|----
|[[Bosnians]]
| align="right" | 156.000&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>
|----
|[[Ukrainians]]
| align="right" | 128.100&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Portuguese people|Portugueses]]
| align="right" | 116.700&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Dutch people|Dutchmen]]
| align="right" | 114.100&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Spaniards]]
| align="right" | 108.300&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[French people|Frenchmen]]
| align="right" | 100.500&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Americans]]
| align="right" | 96.600&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>
|----
|[[Britons]]
| align="right" | 95.900&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]]
| align="right" | 83.500&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Romanians]]
| align="right" | 73.400&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Maroccans]]
| align="right" | 73.000&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Chinese people|Chinese]]
| align="right" | 71.600&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Iranians]]
| align="right" | 100.000 (Quelle Isoplan)&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Macedonian]]s
| align="right" | 100.000&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>
|----
|[[Afghans]]
| align="right" | 57.900&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Hungarians]]
| align="right" | 47.800&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Libaneses]]
| align="right" | 40.900&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Bulgarians]]
| align="right" | 39.200&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Czechs]]&nbsp;<sup>3</sup>
| align="right" | 38.800&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[India]]ns
| align="right" | 38.900&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Swiss people|Swiss]]
| align="right" | 35.400&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Sri Lankians]]
| align="right" | 60.000&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Pakistanis]]
| align="right" | 30.900&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Tunesians]]
| align="right" | 22.400&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Belgians]]
| align="right" | 21.800&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Slowenes]]
| align="right" | 21.000&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>
|----
|[[Ghanians]]
| align="right" | 20.600&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Slovaks]]
| align="right" | 20.200&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Danes]]
| align="right" | 18.000&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Swedes]]
| align="right" | 16.200&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Algerians]]
| align="right" | 14.500&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Lithuanians]]
| align="right" | 14.700&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Finns]]
| align="right" | 13.100&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Albanians]]
| align="right" | 10.500&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Irishmen]]
| align="right" | 10.000&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
|[[Luxembourgers]]
| align="right" | 6.800&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>
|----
| colspan="2" style="font-size:80%" |Sources: <sup>1</sup>&nbsp;[http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/bevoe/bevoetab4.php destatis]
<sup>2</sup>&nbsp;[http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/bevoe/bevoetab10.php destatis].<br>
<sup>3</sup>&nbsp;Including 8500 Persons with old <br>''Czechoslovakian'' citizenship</br>
<sup>4</sup>&nbsp;Including people from former Yugoslavia, who registered as</br>
Yugoslavians before the country broke up.
|}
The official statistics collect only nationality data: [[Germans]] 91.5%, [[Turkish people|Turks]] 2.4%, other 6.1% (made up largely of [[Serbs]], [[Croats]], [[Bosniaks]], [[Italians]], [[Russians]], [[Greeks]], and [[Poles]]).
While most of the German citizens are ethnic Germans or naturalized immigrants, there are four other sizable groups of people that have lived in Germany for centuries. They are referred to as "national minorities" (''nationale Minderheiten''): [[Danes]], [[Frisians]], [[Roma and Sinti]], and [[Sorbs]].
There is a [[Denmark|Danish]] minority (about 50,000, according to government sources) in the most northern-most state of [[Schleswig-Holstein]].
Eastern and Northern [[Frisians]] (60,000 inhabitants define themselves as "Frisians") live at Schleswig-Holstein's western coast, and in the north-western part of [[Lower Saxony]]. They are part of a wider community ([[Frisia]]) stretching from Germany to the northern [[Netherlands]].
The [[Sorbs]], a [[Slavic people]] with about 60,000 members, are located in the [[Lusatia]] region of [[Saxony]] and [[Brandenburg]]. They are the last remnants of the Slavs that lived in central and eastern Germany since the [[7th century]].
[[Roma people]] have been in Germany since the [[Middle Ages]]. They were persecuted by the [[Nazis]], and thousands of Roma living in Germany were killed by the Nazi regime. Nowadays, they are spread all over Germany, mostly living in major cities. It is difficult to estimate their exact number, as the Germany government normally does not keep information on the ethnicity of its citizens. There are also many assimilated Sinti and Roma. A vague figure given by the German Department of the Interior is about 70,000. In the [[1990s]], many Roma moved to Germany from former [[Yugoslavia]]. In contrast to the old-established Roma population, the majority of them do not have German citizenship, they are classified as [[immigrants]] or [[refugee]]s.
Since the [[1960]]s, ethnic Germans from the [[Soviet Union]] came to Germany, especially from [[Kazakhstan]], [[Russia]], and [[Ukraine]].
During the time of [[Perestroika]], and after the dissolution of the [[Soviet Union]], the number of immigrants increased heavily.
Germany now has Europe's third-largest [[Jews|Jewish]] population. In [[2004]], twice as many Jews from former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] republics settled in Germany as in [[Israel]], bringing the total inflow to more than 200,000 since [[1991]]. Jews have a voice in German public life through the [[Zentralrat der Juden in Deutschland]].
There are also around 500,000 "[[Afro-Germans]]".
''See also:'' [[Volga German]]
== East-West Migration ==
[[Image:Mk Bevölkerung Bundesländer.png|left|200px]]
With unification on [[October 3]], [[1990]], Germany began the major task of bringing the standard of living of Germans in the former [[German Democratic Republic]] (GDR) up to that of western Germany. This will be a lengthy and difficult process due to the relative inefficiency of industrial enterprises in the former GDR, difficulties in resolving property ownership in eastern Germany, and the inadequate infrastructure and environmental damage that resulted from decades of communist rule. Since reunification, hundreds of thousands of former East Germans have migrated into western Germany to find work.
Drastic changes in the socioeconomic landscape brought about by reunification have resulted in troubling social problems. Economic uncertainty in eastern Germany is often cited as one factor contributing to extremist violence, primarily from the political right. Confusion about the causes of the current hardships and a need to place blame have found expression in harassment and violence by some Germans directed toward foreigners, particularly non-Europeans. The vast majority of Germans condemn such violence.
== Immigration ==
[[Image:Mk Zuwanderer.png|right|200px]]
''see main article'' [[Immigration to Germany]]
Due to its high standard of living Germany is attracting vast groups of people from all over the world and is a classical immigration country. Because of Germanys aging population the country depends on immigration is however restructuring it with a directed immigration law.
== Religions ==
Roman Catholic 32.1%, Lutheran 31.8%, Muslim 4.5%, Jewish 0.1%, unaffiliated or other 31.5% (2002)
Roman Catholic is mainly in the South East (Southern [[Bavaria]]) and the Very West ([[Rheinland]] & [[Cologne]]). Strongholds of Protestants are in all Northern and Eastern Federal States. Muslim and Jews minority communities are mainly in the big cities.
== Languages ==
[[German language|German]] is Germany's only official and most-widely spoken language. [[Standard German]] is understood all over the country, while [[dialect]]s &mdash; which can be quite distinct from the standard language &mdash; are still in use in everyday speech, especially in rural regions. In contrast to [[France]] speakers with regional dialects and accents are generally not frowned on or interpreted as uneducated.
[[English language|English]] is the most popular foreign language.
In secondary education (in some regions even earlier), it is taught as the first foreign language almost everywhere. Other languages taught at schools are [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spani
|
immediately to the right of the deficient node has only the minimum number of elements, examine the sibling node immediately to the left.
*If both immediate siblings have only the minimum number of elements, create a new node with all the elements from the deficient node, all the elements from one of its siblings, and the separator in the parent between the two combined sibling nodes.
*Remove the separator from the parent, and replace the two children it separated with the combined node.
*If that brings the number of elements in the parent under the minimum, repeat these steps with that deficient node, unless it is the root, since the root may be deficient.
== Notes ==
Suppose ''L'' is the least number of children a node is allowed to have, while ''U'' is the greatest number. Then each node will always have between ''L'' and ''U'' children, inclusively, with one exception: the root node may have anywhere from ''2'' to ''U'' children inclusively. In other words, the root is exempt from the lower bound restriction. This allows the tree to hold small numbers of elements. The root having one child makes no sense, since the subtree attached to that child could simply be attached to the root. Giving the root no children is also unnecessary, since a tree with no elements is typically represented as having no root node.
=== Multi-way Combining and Splitting ===
There is no reason inherent in the algorithm why when trying to find extra elements for a deficient node it would first try the right sibling, then the left, and then take the separator value from the parent. It's certainly possible to examine other siblings, and if one has more than the minimum number of values rearrange values across a larger number of siblings to make up the deficit in one.
Similarly, when a node is split there is no inherent reason why extra elements might not be moved to nearby, less populated siblings, or why the split can't involve a number of siblings, redistributing elements among them rather than splitting a node.
In practice, the most common use of B-trees involves keeping the nodes on secondary storage, where it's slow to access a node which is not already being used. Using only two-ways splits and combines helps decrease the number of nodes needed for many common situations, but may be useful in others.
=== Relationship between ''U'' and ''L'' ===
It is almost universal to split nodes by choosing a single median and creating two new nodes. This constrains the relationship between ''L'' and ''U''. Trying to insert an element into a node with ''U'' children — and thus ''U-1'' elements — involves redistributing ''U'' elements. One of these, the median, will move to the parent, and the remained will be split as equally as possible among the two new nodes.
In a 2-3 B-tree, for example, adding an element to a node with three child nodes, and thus two seperator values, involves three values — the two separators and the new value. The median will become the new separator in the parent, and each of the other two will become the sole elements in nodes with one value and two children. Generally, if ''U'' is odd, each of the two new nodes will have ''(U+1)/2'' children. If ''U'' is even, one will have ''U/2'' children and the other ''U/2+1''.
If full nodes are split into exactly two nodes, ''L'' must be small enough to allow for the sizes after a node is split. But it's possible to split full nodes into more than two new nodes. Choosing to split a node into more than two nodes would require a lower value of ''L'' for the same value of ''U''.
As ''L'' gets smaller, it allows for more unused space in the nodes. This might decrease the frequency of node splitting, but it is also likely to increase the amount of memory needed to store the same number of values, and the number of nodes that have to be examined for any particular operation.
=== Theoretical results ===
[[Robert Tarjan]] proved that the amortized number of splits/merges is 2.
== See also ==
* [[B+ tree]]
* [[B*-tree]]
* [[binary tree]]
* [[dancing tree]]
* [[skip list]]
== References ==
''Original papers:''
*[[Rudolf Bayer]], ''Binary B-Trees for Virtual Memory'', ACM-SIGFIDET Workshop [[1971]], San Diego, California, Session 5B, p. 219-235.
*[[Rudolf Bayer]] and [[Edward M. McCreight|McCreight, E. M.]] ''Organization and Maintenance of Large Ordered Indexes.'' [[Acta Informatica]] 1, 173-189, [[1972]].
''Summary:''
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 6.2.4: Multiway Trees, pp.481&ndash;491. Also, pp.476&ndash;477 of section 6.2.3 (Balanced Trees) discusses 2-3 trees.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Chapter 18: B-Trees, pp.434&ndash;454.
== External links ==
* [http://www.cse.ohio-state.edu/~bondhugu/acads/234-tree/index.shtml Animation of a 2-3-4 Tree]
* http://www.bluerwhite.org/btree
* [http://slady.net/java/bt/ B-Tree animation (Java Applet)]
* [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/btree.html NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: B-tree]
* [http://www.semaphorecorp.com/btp/algo.html B-tree algorithms]
* [http://www.semaphorecorp.com/btp/var.html B-tree variations]
* [http://textelectric.net/btree.html Source code for a balanced tree (B-tree) (Windows required for test timings)]
* [http://www.iyte.net B-tree algorithms in İYTE]
[[Category:Trees (structure)]]
[[de:B-Baum]]
[[es:Árbol-B]]
[[fr:Arbre B]]
[[ko:B-트리]]
[[lt:B-medis]]
[[ja:B木]]
[[pl:B-drzewo]]
[[pt:Árvore B]]
[[sv:B-träd]]
[[zh:B树]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Museum</title>
<id>4675</id>
<revision>
<id>41362613</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T21:34:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ham</username>
<id>80913</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reduced Reading Room pic: 600px better suited to [[British Museum Reading Room]] article in my opinion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:british_museum_facade.jpg|thumb|right|The main entrance to the British Museum.]]
[[Image:British Museum Great Court roof.jpg|thumb|right|The centre of the museum was redeveloped in [[2000]] to become the Great Court, with a [[tessellation|tessellated]] glass roof by [[Foster and Partners]] surrounding the original [[British Museum Reading Room|Reading Room]].]]
The '''British Museum''' in [[London]] is the [[United Kingdom]]'s &ndash; and one of the world's &ndash; largest and most important [[museum|museums]] of human [[history]] and [[culture]]. The oldest museum in the world, it was established in [[1753]] and was based largely on the collections of the physician and scientist [[Sir Hans Sloane]]. The museum first opened to the public on [[January 15]], [[1759]] in [[Montagu House, Bloomsbury|Montagu House]] in [[Bloomsbury, London|Bloomsbury]], on the site of the current museum building.
The British Museum is home to over seven million objects from all continents illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. Many of the artifacts are stored underneath the museum due to lack of space.
The present chairman is Sir [[John Boyd (ambassador)|John Boyd]] and its director is [[Neil MacGregor]].
The British Museum, like the other main museums and art galleries in London, charges no admission fee. Admission charges, however, are levied for some temporary special exhibitions.
The British Museum offers a range of learning experiences for everyone including schools, families and adults, one of which is a [[Postgraduate Diploma]] that focuses on the classical and decorative arts of Asia.
==History==
Though principally a museum of cultural art objects and antiquities, today, the British Museum was founded as a 'universal museum'. This is reflected in the first bequest by Sir [[Hans Sloane]], comprising some 40,000 printed books, 7,000 manuscripts, extensive natural history specimens, prints by [[Albrecht Dürer]] and antiquities from [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], the [[Middle East|Middle]] and [[Far East]] and the [[Americas]]. The Foundation Act, passed on [[June 7]] [[1753]], added two other libraries to the Sloane collection. The Cottonian Library, assembled by Sir Robert Cotton, dated back to Elizabethan times and the Harleian library was the collection of the first and second Earls of [[Oxford]]. They were joined in [[1757]] by the Royal Library assembled by various British monarchs. Together these four 'Foundation collections' included many of the most treasured books now in the [[British Library]], including the [[Lindisfarne Gospels]] and the sole surviving copy of ''[[Beowulf]]."
The body of Trustees (which until [[1963]] was headed by the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], the [[Lord Chancellor]] and the [[Speaker of the British House of Commons|Speaker of the House of Commons]]) decided on [[Montagu House, Bloomsbury|Montagu House]] as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on a site now occupied by [[Buckingham Palace]], on the grounds of cost and the unsuitability of its location.
After its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Library and [[David Garrick]]'s library of 1,000 printed plays, but had few ancient relics and would have been unrecognisable to visitors of the modern museum. The first notable addition to the collection of antiquities was by Sir [[William Hamilton (diplomat)|William Hamilton]], British Ambassador to [[Naples]], who sold his collection of [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] artifacts to the museum in 1782. In the early [[19th century
|
person may be admitted to and detained in an approved mental health service as an involuntary patient in accordance with the procedures specified in this Act only if&#8212;
::(a) the person appears to be mentally ill; and
::(b) the person's mental illness requires immediate treatment and that treatment can be obtained by admission to and detention in an approved mental health service; and
::(c) because of the person's mental illness, the person should be admitted and detained for treatment as an involuntary patient for his or her health or safety (whether to prevent a deterioration in the person's physical or mental condition or otherwise) or for the protection of members of the public; and
::(d) the person has refused or is unable to consent to the necessary treatment for the mental illness; and
::(e) the person cannot receive adequate treatment for the mental illness in a manner less restrictive of that person's freedom of decision and action.
:(1A) Subject to sub-section (2), a person is mentally ill if he or she has a mental illness, being a medical condition that is characterised by a significant disturbance of thought, mood, perception or memory."
There are additional qualifications and restrictions but the effect of these provisions is that people who are assessed by doctors as being in need of treatment may be admitted involuntarily without the need of demonstrating a risk of danger. This then overcomes the pressure described above to exaggerate issues of violence to obtain an admission.
===Treatment===
In general, once the person is under involuntary commitment, treatment may be instituted without further requirements. Some treatments such as [[electroconvulsive therapy]] (ECT) often require further procedures to comply with the law before they may be administered involuntarily.
===Community treatment orders===
These can be used in the first instance or after a period of admission to hospital as a voluntary or involuntary patient. With the trend towards deinstitutionalization this is becoming increasingly frequent and hospital admission is restricted to people with severe mental illnesses.
==United Kingdom==
In the [[United Kingdom]], the process known in the [[United States]] as involuntary commitment is unofficially known as '''[[sectioning]]''', after the various sections of the [[Mental Health Act 1983]] (covering England and Wales), the [[Mental Health (Northern Ireland) Order 1986]] and the [[Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act 2003]] that provide its legal basis.
==Reference==
<sup>1</sup> Rosenhan, D.L. (1973). ''On being sane in insane places''. Science, '''179''', 250-258.
<sup>2</sup> Spitzer, R.L. (1975). ''On pseudoscience in science, logic in remission, and psychiatric diagnosis: A critique of Rosenhan's "On being sane in insane places."'' Journal of Abnormal Psychology, '''84''', 442-452.
<sup>3</sup> Perlin, M.L. (1993/1994). ''The ADA and Persons with Mental Disabilities: Can Sanist Attitudes Be Undone?'' Journal of Law and Health,, 8 JLHEALTH 15, 33-34.
<sup>4</sup> Torrey, E. Fuller. (1997). ''Out of the Shadows: Confronting America's Mental Illness Crisis.'' New York: John Wiley and Sons.
==See also==
*[[Involuntary treatment]]
*[[Treatment Advocacy Center]]
*[[Psychiatric imprisonment]]
==External links==
* [http://www.antipsychiatry.org/due-proc.htm The views of Lawrence Stevens, J.D. who opposes involuntary commitment]
* [http://www.dms.dpc.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/PubLawToday.nsf?OpenDatabase Victorian legislation and parliamentary documents (Australia)] - search using "mental health act" for the latest version of the act
* [http://www.mhrb.vic.gov.au/ Mental health review board site (Victoria, Australia)] - the official site of the MHRB
* [http://www.psychlaws.org/GeneralResources/article218.htm Keys to Commitment (A Guide for Family Members) by Robert J. Kaplan, J.D.]
* [http://www.psychlaws.org/LegalResources/statechart.htm State-by-state chart of U.S. commitment laws]]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Mental health law]]
[[Category:Psychosis]]
[[Category:Personality disorders]]
[[de:Unterbringung]]
[[fr:Hospitalisation sans consentement]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intermolecular force</title>
<id>15417</id>
<revision>
<id>40055999</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T20:36:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.61.110.85</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Hydrogen bonding */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Intermolecular forces''' are electromagnetic forces which act between [[molecule|molecules]] or between widely separated regions of a [[macromolecule]]. Listed in order of decreasing strength, these forces are:
* [[ionic bonding|Ionic interactions]]
* [[hydrogen bonding|Hydrogen bonds]]
* Dipole-dipole interactions
* [[van der Waals force|London Dispersion Forces]]
==Description and strength==
These are fundamentally [[electrostatic]] interactions (ionic interactions, hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole interactions) or [[electrodynamic]] interactions (van der Waals/London forces). Electrostatic interactions are [[classical electromagnetism|classically]] described by [[Coulomb's law]]; the basic difference between them is the strength of their charge. Ionic interactions are the strongest with integer level charges, hydrogen bonds have partial charges that are about an order of magnitude weaker, and dipole-dipole interactions also come from partial charges another order of magnitude weaker.
{|border=0 cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width:300px"
|+A very approximate strength order would be:
!Bond type
!Relative strength
|-
|Ionic bonds ||<center>1000</center>
|-
|Hydrogen bonds ||<center>100</center>
|-
|Dipole-dipole||<center>10</center>
|-
|London Forces ||<center>1</center>
|-
|}
=== Ionic interactions ===
These are interactions that occur between charged species ([[ion]]s). Like charges repel, while opposite charges attract. These bonds form when the [[electronegativity|electronegativities]] between two atoms is large enough that one steals an electron from the other. The now oppositely charged ions are attracted. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points due to the large amount of heat required to break the forces between the charged ions. When molten they are also good conductors of heat and electricity, due to free or delocalised electrons.
=== Hydrogen bonding ===
[[Hydrogen bonding]] occurs when a [[hydrogen]] atom is [[covalent bond|covalently bound]] to a small highly [[electronegativity|electronegative]] atom such as [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]], or [[fluorine]]. The result is a [[dipole|dipolar]] molecule. The hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge and can interact with another highly electronegative atom in an adjacent molecule (again N, O, or F). This results in a stabilizing interaction that binds the two molecules together. An important example is [[water (molecule)|water]]:
H O — H
\ /
O&middot;&middot;&middot;&middot;&middot;&middot;H
/
H
Hydrogen bonds are found throughout nature. They give water its unique properties that are so important to life on earth. Hydrogen bonds between hydrogen atoms and nitrogen atoms of adjacent base pairs provide the intermolecular force that bind together the two strands in a molecule of [[DNA]].
The critical difference between hydrogen bonding and dipole-dipole interactions is that the hydrogen is partially transferred to the second molecule - the second molecule's lone pair of electrons forms a covalent bond and the pair becomes somewhat like:
:H<sub>2</sub>O<sup>+</sup>-H <sup>-</sup>O-H
The effect is twofold: The bonding is stronger and is directional. The directional nature of hydrogen bonding requires the two molecules to adopt a specific relative geometry.
=== Dipole-dipole interactions ===
{{mergefrom|Keesom force}}
Dipole-dipole interactions, also called Keesom interactions after [[Willem Hendrik Keesom]] who produced the first mathematical description in 1921, are the [[Keesom force|forces]] that occur between two molecules with permanent dipoles. These work in a similar manner to ionic interactions, but are weaker because only partial charges are involved. An example of this can be seen in [[hydrochloric acid]]:
(+)(-) &nbsp;&nbsp; (+) (-)<br>
H-Cl-----H-Cl
=== London dispersion forces ===
Also called London forces, instantaneous dipole effects or [[Van der Waals force]]s, these involve the attraction between temporarily induced dipoles in nonpolar molecules (often disappear within a second). This polarization can be induced either by a polar molecule or by the repulsion of negatively charged electron clouds in nonpolar molecules. An example of the former is chlorine dissolving in water:
(+)(-)(+) (-) (+)
[Permanent Dipole] H-O-H-----Cl-Cl [Induced Dipole]
An example of the second scenario is found in molecular chlorine:
(+) (-) (+) (-)
[Induced Dipole] Cl-Cl------Cl-Cl [Induced Dipole]
London Dispersion forces exist between all atoms.
===See also===
* [[Hydrophobic effect]]
* [[Polymer]]
[[Category:Chemical bonding]]
[[ar:تفاعل غير ارتباطي]]
[[da:Intermolekylær]]
[[es:Fuerza intermolecular]]
[[ja:分子間力]]
[[pl:Oddziaływania międzycząsteczkowe]]
[[pt:Força intermolecular]]
[[sl:Medmolekulska sila]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interatomic force</title>
<id>15418</id>
<revision>
<id>15912892</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversi
|
by [[Craig Counsell]] before the playoffs began. They swept the [[San Francisco Giants]] 3-0 in the [[National League Division Series]], and then went on to beat the [[Atlanta Braves]] 4-2 in the [[National League Championship Series]].
The underdog Florida Marlins went on to face the [[Cleveland Indians]] in the [[1997 World Series]] and won in 7 games, with an amazing extra-inning single by shortstop [[Edgar Rentería]] off of Cleveland pitcher [[Charles Nagy]], which barely cleared his glove, scoring [[Craig Counsell]] to win the game. [[Liván Hernández]] was named the MVP.
===1998-2002===
Following the World Series victory team owner [[Wayne Huizenga]] claimed massive financial losses which would later prove to be mostly false as he reported team and stadium earnings separately. He dismantled the team by trading off most of the club's most talented players. Among them, [[Moises Alou]] was traded to the [[Houston Astros]], [[Bobby Bonilla]] was traded to the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], and [[Kevin Brown]] was traded to the [[San Diego Padres]]. Fans were outraged by this "fire sale", some comparing it to Blockbuster Video selling used tapes at bargain rates. Some disgruntled fans came up with the slogan, "Wait 'til last year!" Marlins home attendance plummeted.
The Marlins' record in [[1998]] slumped to 54-108, making them the first club ever to win a World Series and then lose more than 100 games during the following season; as of 2005, they are still the only team to do this. Leyland resigned as manager in October 1998, being replaced by [[John Boles]], and Huizenga sold the club to businessman [[John Henry]] during the off-season. In [[2002]], the Marlins' fifth straight losing season since winning the World Series, the team drew a franchise-low 813,111 fans, averaging just 10,038 per game.
The club slowly worked back to becoming a respectable ballclub despite attendance issues, driven by young stars such as [[A.J. Burnett]], [[Luis Castillo]], and [[Mike Lowell]]. From 2000 through 2002, the Marlins consecutively put up three 75+ win seasons. In 2002, [[Jeff Torborg]] replaced [[Tony Perez]] as the Marlins' manager. Torborg put up a 79-83 record in his first season with the team.
In 2002 the club would also be distracted by new owner [[Jeffrey Loria]] becoming the co-defendant (along with Commissioner [[Bud Selig]]) in a [[RICO Act]] lawsuit filed by the former minority partners of the [[Montreal Expos]], the team Loria previously owned. The minority owners (many of whom were now minority parnters of the Marlins) claimed that Loria and Selig deliberately defrauded the minority owners and devalued the team for personal gain. The case was sent to arbitration in 2004 and was settled for an undisclosed sum.
===2003 season: Back on Top===
In the offseason, the Marlins acquired 10-time [[Golden Glove]] winner [[Iván Rodríguez]] from free agency and [[Juan Pierre]] from the [[Colorado Rockies]] after trading off homerun sluggers [[Cliff Floyd]] and [[Preston Wilson]].
The Marlins struggled in the opening stages of the season, going 16-22. In that span, Florida also lost its top three pitchers, [[A.J. Burnett]], [[Josh Beckett]], and [[Mark Redman]]. On May 11, Florida replaced manager Torborg with 72-year-old [[Jack McKeon]]. On May 22, Florida was at its lowest point, with a major league worst record of 19-29, having lost 6 straight games.
Around the same time (May 9), Florida called the high-kicking rookie phenom [[Dontrelle Willis]] up from the Double-A [[Carolina Mudcats]], who helped carry the injury-plagued Marlins with a 11-2 record in his first 3 months (17 starts). [[Miguel Cabrera]] (also from the Mudcats), [[Jeff Conine]] (from [[Baltimore Orioles|Baltimore]]) and [[Ugueth Urbina]] (from [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas]]) were all acquired mid-season as well to help the Marlins play-off push. Finally, Florida clinched the National League Wild Card for the second time in team history with a 4-3 win over the [[New York Mets]] on [[September 26]], finishing with an overall record of 91-71.
The Marlins clinched the Division Series against the favored [[San Francisco Giants]] going 3 games to 1. In the two Division Series games at Pro Player Stadium, Florida drew over 130,000 fans. The series ended with Marlins catcher Rodríguez tagging out a charging [[J.T. Snow]] at the plate after catching a perfect throw from Jeff Conine, which made it just in time to make the play. Snow, the son of former [[Los Angeles Rams|Rams]] wide receiver Jack Snow, tried using a football-type move by lowering his shoulder and bulldozing Rodríguez at the plate, but the Marlins catcher held on to the ball for the out. It was the first postseason series ever to end with the potential tying run being thrown out at the plate. On October 15, the Marlins defeated the [[Chicago Cubs]] four games to three in the 2003 [[National League Championship Series]], after falling three games to one before coming back with a Beckett complete-game [[shutout]] in Game 5; [[The Inning]], in Game 6, and the traditional come-from-behind win in Game 7 to take the series, staking claim to their second NL pennant and advancing to the [[2003 World Series]], where they defeated the [[New York Yankees]] in six games. [[Starting pitcher|Starter]] Josh Beckett was named the ''Most Valuable Player'' for the series after twirling a five-hit complete-game shutout in Game 6.
===2003 offseason===
*[[Dontrelle Willis]] named [[MLB Rookie of the Year award|NL Rookie of the Year]]
*[[Jack McKeon]] named [[Manager of the Year Award|Manager of the Year]]
*[[Derrek Lee]] traded to [[Chicago Cubs]] for [[Hee Seop Choi]]
*[[Iván Rodríguez]] up for free agency (signed by the [[Detroit Tigers]])
===2004 season===
Although posting a winning record of 83-79 (only their third winning season of their history), the Marlins' aspirations of successfully defending their World Series title fell short as they finished nine games behind the [[Houston Astros]] for the National League Wild Card title, thus the Marlins became the fourth consecutive major league team not to repeat as World Series champions.
A series of rain-outs in September (due to hurricanes in Florida), the delayed doubleheaders that followed, and losing three key players from the Marlins' previous championship year (Rodríguez, Lee and Urbina) factored in the team's downfall during the season's stretch run.
But the team was able to retain Jack McKeon as manager for the 2005 season.
===2005 season===
While losing All-Stars [[Carl Pavano]] and [[Armando Benitez]] in the off-season, the Marlins signed [[pitcher|P]] [[Al Leiter]] and [[first baseman|1B]] [[Carlos Delgado]]. Delgado's contract was the biggest in franchise history at $52 million over 4 years, with an option for a fifth year. Meanwhile, play-by-play TV broadcaster [[Len Kasper]] was also lost to the Chicago Cubs and replaced by [[Rich Waltz]] (who had previously been with the [[Seattle Mariners]]), and radio announcer [[Boog Sciambi]] was replaced by [[Roxy Bernstein]].
With the addition of Delgado, the Marlins were expected to finish the [[2005]] season in either first or second place in the NL East by many sportswriters. However, at the All-Star break they were 44-42, and the NL East was unusually competitive, as all five of its teams had a winning record at the break. As a result, the Marlins were criticized for underachieving in the first half of the season. While Cabrera, Willis, and several others posted very good first-half numbers, Lowell was one of the worst offensive producers among regular major-league starters, and Leiter went 3-7 with an [[earned run average|ERA]] of 6.64 before being traded to the New York Yankees on [[July 15]] for a player to be named later. Additionally, [[Guillermo Mota]], who was acquired by Florida in 2004 along with [[Paul Lo Duca]] and [[Juan Encarnacion]] and was expected to be their closer, turned out inconsistent, and the Marlins gave the closer job to veteran [[Todd Jones (baseball player)|Todd Jones]], whom they signed in the offseason. However, the Marlins did send four players to the All-Star Game (Willis, Lo Duca, Castillo, and Cabrera), tying a team record.
The club was expected to be quite active at the trading deadline ([[July 31]]), as Burnett was slated to be a free agent after the season and had already declared his desire to test the market like Pavano did rather than stay in Florida. Burnett was mentioned in possible trades with the [[Chicago White Sox]], [[Boston Red Sox]], [[New York Yankees]], [[Toronto Blue Jays]], and Texas Rangers, with many rumors also including Lowell or Encarnacion. There were also rumors that [[Jack McKeon]] would be fired, with former Marlins manager [[Jim Leyland]] and Yankees bench coach [[Joe Girardi]] being among the rumored replacements. The Marlins did not make a huge move at the deadline, instead trading minor-leaguers [[Yorman Bazardo]] and [[Mike Flannery]] to the [[Seattle Mariners]] for left-handed pitcher [[Ron Villone]].
The Marlins did have some pleasant surprises during the season. [[Dontrelle Willis]] became the 13th member of the [[Black Aces]] when he defeated the [[Washington Nationals]] to earn his 20th win. He finished the season 22-10 with a 2.63 ERA, and he was considered a favorite to win the [[Cy Young Award]] for much of the season. Also, Jones, a journeyman who had been signed as a setup man, had one of the best years of his career as a closer; he earned 40 [[save (baseball)|save]]s and had a 2.13 ERA. In addition, late-season callup [[Jeremy Hermida]], a highly-regarded prospect who has been compared to the [[Atlanta Braves]]' [[Jeff Francoeur]], hit a grand slam in his first major-league at-bat and a game-tying two-run homer in the last game of the season.
The Marlins led the NL wild-card race as late as [[September 13]], but they then lost 12 of their next 14 games. Adding to the controversy
|
=Official websites and documents===
* [http://www.cia.gov/ CIA official site]
* [http://www.foia.cia.gov/ CIA official Freedom of Information Act (foia) site]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/index.html George Washington University National Security Archive]:
** [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20000919/ Documents on CIA involvement with Pinochet]
** [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB4/index.html On CIA involvement in Guatemala]
** [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB146/ On CIA involvement with Nazi War Criminals (especially the Gehlen organization)]
* [http://www.archives.gov/iwg/index.html U.S. National Archive's Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group.]
** [http://www.archives.gov/iwg/declassified_records/rg_263_cia_records/rg_263_report.html Summary of newly acquired CIA name files (including Klaus Barbie)]
* [http://www.parascope.com/articles/0397/kubark06.htm CIA manual on coercive questioning]
===Other===
* ''ISRIA'', HTML, [http://www.isria.com/en/free/0000026.php The Relations between the CIA and the Executive Power since 2001], February 5, 2006.
* ''ISRIA'', PDF, [http://www.isria.com/en/free/File1_NOMIKOS_15jan06.pdf The Role of Open Sources in Intelligence], December 31, 2005.
* [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/CIA/CIA_Diary_Agee.html Book excerpt from a leading whistleblower (Philip Agee)]
* [http://www.rotten.com/library/conspiracy/cia/ CIA information at Rotten.com]
* [http://www.cia-on-campus.org/ CIA on Campus]
* [http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/cultural-cold-war/ The Cultural Cold War by Nathaniel Catchpole]
* [http://www.copvcia.com Cop vs. CIA ] (From the Wilderness)
* [http://www.in-q-tel.com/ In-Q-Tel official site]
* [http://members.aol.com/bblum6/American_holocaust.htm Killing Hope by William Blum]
* [http://www.csun.edu/CommunicationStudies/ben/news/cia/ On alleged CIA drug-smuggling]
* [http://montages.blogspot.com/2005/01/outsourcing-intelligence.html "Outsourcing Intelligence"]
*[http://fpiarticle.blogspot.com/2005/03/meet-first-president-of-world.html Video: "Meet the first President of the World Psychiatric Association" - Free Press international 3.18.2005]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/ National Security Archives]
==Footnotes==
# {{note|5000}} {{cite book | author= Pilger, John | url = http://www.livejournal.com/users/bailey83221/51603.html | title = The New Rulers of the World | publisher= Verso| year= 2002| id=ISBN 185984412X | pages = p. 31-32 }} (Link is excerpts of book); {{cite journal | author= Kadane, Kathy | title= Ex-agents say CIA compiled death lists for Indonesians | journal= San Francisco Examiner| year= May 20, 1990 | volume= | issue= | pages= | url= http://www.namebase.org/kadane.html}} ; The same article appeared in the [[Washington Post]] May 21, 1990, South Carolina [[Herald-Journal]] on May 19, 1990, and the [[Boston Globe]] on May 23, 1990.
# {{note|blood}} Pilger p. 32
# {{note|1965}} Pilger p. 32
# {{note|1968}} Kadane, Kathy; see above. [[Time magazine]] hailed Suharto's "New Order" as "the West's best news for years in Asia." {{cite journal | author= | title= | journal= Time| year=July 15, 1966 | volume= | issue= | pages= | url= }},
{{Cold War}}
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:1947 establishments]]
[[Category:Anti-communism]]
[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency|*]]
[[Category:CIA operations]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[Category:United States intelligence agencies]]
[[ar:وكالة المخابرات الأمريكية]]
[[bg:Централно разузнавателно управление]]
[[bs:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[ca:Agència Central d'Intel·ligència]]
[[cs:CIA]]
[[da:CIA]]
[[de:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[el:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[eo:CIA]]
[[es:Agencia Central de Inteligencia]]
[[et:CIA]]
[[fa:سازمان سیا]]
[[fi:CIA]]
[[fr:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[gl:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[he:CIA]]
[[hu:CIA]]
[[id:CIA]]
[[it:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[ja:アメリカ中央情報局]]
[[ko:미국 중앙정보국]]
[[nl:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[nn:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[no:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[pl:CIA]]
[[pt:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[ro:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[ru:Центральное разведывательное управление]]
[[sl:Centralna obveščevalna agencija]]
[[sr:ЦИА]]
[[sv:CIA]]
[[tr:CIA]]
[[yi:CIA]]
[[zh:中央情报局]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tiong-iong Chêng-pò-kio̍k]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Celtic tribes in Britain and Ireland</title>
<id>6228</id>
<revision>
<id>40788246</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T00:46:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SCVirus</username>
<id>401740</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Celtic tribes in the Britain and Ireland]] to [[Celtic tribes in Britain and Ireland]]: my bad.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Some of the known '''[[Celt]]ic tribes in [[Britain and Ireland]]''' were as follows:
*The [[Atrebates]] were an important tribe in Southern [[England]].
*The [[Brigantes]] were an important tribe in northern [[England]].
*The [[Caledonians]] inhabited present-day [[Scotland]].
*The [[Belgae]] settled various places in eastern and southern England.
*The [[Dobunni]] lived in the [[Cotswolds]] and the [[Severn]] valley.
*The [[Dumnonii]] occupied what are now [[Devon]], [[Cornwall]] and [[Somerset]].
*The [[Durotriges]] inhabited [[Dorset]] and south [[Wiltshire]].
*The [[Iceni]], who under [[Boudica]] rebelled against the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule of ancient [[East Anglia]].
*The [[Ordovices]] who waged guerrilla warfare from the north [[Wales]] hills.
*The [[Parisii]] settled east [[Yorkshire]] and [[Humberside]].
*The [[Scotti]] lived in northern [[Ireland]] and settled the western portion of Scotland which then became known as the [[Dalriada]].
*The [[Silures]] likewise resisted the Romans in present-day south Wales.
*The [[Trinovantes]] and the [[Catuvellauni]] were tribes neighbouring the Iceni, and who joined in their rebellion.
*The [[Cantiaci]] lived in the area of present-day [[Kent]] and give the county its name.
*The [[Votadini]] lived in north-east England and south-east Scotland and later formed [[Gododdin]].
*The [[Coritani]] also called [[Corieltauvi]] inhabited the east midlands and [[Leicester]].
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Ancient Britons]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colossus computer</title>
<id>6229</id>
<revision>
<id>42030867</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:10:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.153.49.19</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Purpose and origins */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Colossus.jpg|right|300px|thumb|A Colossus Mark II computer. The slanted control panel on the left was used to set the pin patterns on the Lorenz; the paper tape transport is on the right.]]
The '''Colossus''' machines were early computing devices used by British [[codebreaker]]s to read encrypted German messages during [[World War II]]. Colossus was an early electronic digital [[computer]].
Colossus was designed by engineer [[Tommy Flowers]] at the [[Post Office Research Station]], [[Dollis Hill]]. The prototype, '''Colossus Mark I''', was operational at [[Bletchley Park]] in February 1944. An improved '''Colossus Mark II''' was first installed in June 1944, and ten Colossi had been constructed by the end of the war.
The Colossus computers were used to help decipher [[teleprinter]] messages which had been [[encryption|encrypted]] using the [[Lorenz SZ40/42]] machine. Colossus compared two data streams, performing counts based on a programmable boolean function. One stream was read at high speed from a paper tape. The other was generated internally, and was an electronic simulation of the Lorenz machine at various trial settings. If the count for a setting was above a certain threshold, it would be output on an electric typewriter.
==Purpose and origins==
[[Image:SZ42-6-wheels.jpg|right|280px|thumbnail|The Lorenz machine was used by the Germans to encrypt high-level teleprinter communications. It contained 12 wheels with a total of 501 pins.]]
The Colossus computers were used in the [[cryptanalysis]] of high-level German communications, messages which had been encrypted using the [[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] cipher machine; part of the operation of Colossus was to emulate the mechanical Lorenz machine electronically. To encrypt a message with the Lorenz machine, the [[plaintext]] was combined with a stream of key [[bit]]s, grouped in fives. The key stream was generated using twelve [[pinwheel (cryptography)|pinwheel]]s: five were termed (by the British) <math>\chi</math> ("[[chi (letter)|chi]]") wheels, another five <math>\psi</math> ("[[psi (letter)|psi]]") wheels, and the remaining two the "motor wheels". The <math>\chi</math> wheels stepped regularly with each letter that was encrypted, while the <math>\psi</math> wheels stepped irregularly, controlled by the motor wheels.
[[Bill Tutte]], a cryptanalyst at [[Bletchley Park]], discovered that the keystream produced by the machine exhibited statistical biases deviating from random, and that these biases could be used to break the cipher and read messages. In order to read messages, there were two tasks that needed to be performed. The first task was ''wheel breaking'', which was discovering the pin patterns for all the wheels. These patterns were setup once on the Lorenz machine and then used for a fixed period of time and for a number of different messages. The second task was ''wheel setting'', which could be attempted once the pin patterns were known. Each message encrypted using Lorenz was enciphered at a different start position for the wheels. The process of wheel setting found the start position for a message. Initially Colossus was used to help with wheel setti
|
om using them.
The rectangular ''Exxon'' logo with the blue strip at the bottom and red lettering with the two "X's" interlinked together was designed by noted industrial stylist [[Raymond Loewy]]. The interlinked "X's" are incorporated in the modern-day ExxonMobil corporate logo, but the original Exxon sign continues for marketing efforts and station signage.
==History==
Both Exxon and Mobil were descendants of the old [[John D. Rockefeller]] monopoly, Standard Oil. In 1911, after a [[United States Supreme Court]] ruling which upheld a federal court order to dissolve it, the [[Standard Oil Trust]] was split into 34 companies. Two of these companies were [[Standard Oil of New Jersey|Jersey Standard]], which eventually became Exxon, and [[Socony]] ("Standard Oil Company of New York"), which eventually became Mobil.
In the same year, the nation's [[kerosene]] output was eclipsed for the first time by [[gasoline]]. The growing [[automobile|automotive]] market inspired the product [[trademark]] Mobiloil, registered by Socony in 1920.
Over the next decade, both companies grew significantly. Jersey Standard acquired a 50 percent interest in [http://www.humble-inc.com/humblehistory.htm Humble Oil & Refining Co.], a [[Texas]] oil producer. Socony purchased a 45 percent interest in [[Magnolia Petroleum Co.]], a major refiner, marketer and pipeline transporter. In 1931, Socony merged with Vacuum Oil Co., an industry pioneer dating back to 1866 and a growing Standard Oil spin-off in its own right.
In the [[Asia]]-[[Pacific]] region, Jersey Standard had oil production and refineries in [[Indonesia]] but no marketing network. Socony-Vacuum had Asian marketing outlets supplied remotely from California. In 1933, Jersey Standard and Socony-Vacuum merged their interests in the region into a 50-50 joint venture. Standard-Vacuum Oil Co., or "Stanvac," operated in 50 countries, from [[East Africa]] to [[New Zealand]], before it was dissolved in 1962.
Mobil Chemical Company was established in 1960. As of 1999 its principal products included basic [[olefin]]s and [[aromatic]]s, [[ethylene glycol]] and [[polyethylene]]. The company produced synthetic lubricant base stocks as well as lubricant additives, [[propylene]] packaging films and [[catalysis|catalysts]]. Exxon Chemical Company became a worldwide organization in 1965 and in 1999 was a major producer and marketer of olefins, aromatics, polyethylene and [[polypropylene]] along with specialty lines such as [[elastomer]]s, [[plasticizer]]s, [[solvent]]s, process fluids, [[oxo alcohol]]s and [[adhesive]] [[resin]]s. The company was an industry leader in [[metallocene catalyst]] technology to make unique polymers with improved performance.
In 1955 Socony-Vacuum became Socony Mobil Oil Co. and in 1966 simply Mobil Oil Corp. A decade later, the newly incorporated Mobil Corporation absorbed Mobil Oil as a wholly owned subsidiary. Jersey Standard changed its name to Exxon Corporation in 1972 and established Exxon as a trademark throughout the [[United States]]. In other parts of the world, Exxon and its affiliated companies continued to use its Esso trademark.
On [[March 24]] [[1989]], shortly after midnight, the oil tanker [[Exxon Valdez]] struck [[Bligh Reef]] in [[Prince William Sound]], [[Alaska]], [[Exxon Valdez oil spill|spilling more than 11 million gallons (42,000 m&sup3;) of crude oil]]. The spill was the largest in U.S. history, and in the aftermath of the Exxon Valdez incident [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Oil Pollution Act of 1990]]. At the time of the spill, Exxon paid $300 million immediately and voluntarily to more than 11,000 Alaskans and businesses affected by the Valdez spill. In addition, the company paid $2.2 billion on the cleanup of Prince William Sound, staying with the cleanup from 1989 to 1992, when the State of Alaska and the U.S. Coast Guard declared the cleanup complete. Exxon also has paid $1 billion in settlements with the state and federal governments. Virtually all Valdez compensatory damages were paid in full within one year of the accident, and the trial court commended Exxon for coming forward "with its people and its pocketbook and doing what had to be done under difficult circumstances." However, Exxon has yet to pay up for the largest punitive ruling against it, which is currently set at $4.5 billion, as the assessment is under appeal. The punitive damages were set by a Federal court judge in Anchorage,and have twice been vacated by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals as excessive.
In 1998, Exxon and Mobil signed a US$73.7 billion definitive agreement to merge and form a new company called Exxon Mobil Corporation, the largest company on the planet. After [[shareholder]] and regulatory approvals, the merger was completed [[November 30]], [[1999]] (the deal was announced the next day).
In 2000, ExxonMobil sold the Benicia, California refinery and 340 Exxon-branded stations to [[Valero Energy Corporation]], as part of an FTC-mandated divestiture of California assets. ExxonMobil continues to supply petroleum product to over 700 Mobil-branded retail outlets in the state.
In 2005, its stock price surged in parallel with rising oil prices, surpassing [[General Electric]] as the largest corporation in the world in terms of market capitalization. At the end of 2005 ExxonMobil reported record profits, reporting U.S$36 billion in annual income, up 42% from last year. The company and the [[American Petroleum Institute]], the Oil and Chemical industry's lobbying apparatus, however tried to downplay its success in order to avoid criticism from consumers by putting up page long ads in major newspapers across the U.S such as [[The New York Times]], [[The Washington Post]], etc... comparing Oil Industry profits to that of other large industries such as Pharmaceuticals and Banks. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/31/business/31exxon.html?_r=2&oref=slogin&oref=slogin] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4662474.stm]
Exxon's long-time mascot is a [[Tiger]]; Mobil's mascot is a [[Pegasus]] which dates back to the late 19th century and is one of the oldest marketing symbols still in use.
ExxonMobil now has the most assets in the world, and generated 246.7 billion dollars in total revenue for 2003.
==Allegations against ExxonMobil==
ExxonMobil's activities in the [[Indonesia]]n territory of [[Aceh]], where the company extracts and exports [[natural gas]], have attracted scrutiny. In June 2001, ExxonMobil became the target of a lawsuit in the Federal District Court of the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], under the [[Alien Tort Claims Act]]. The suit alleged that the company knowingly assisted human rights violations, including [[torture]], [[murder]] and [[rape]], by employing and providing material support to Indonesian military forces, who committed the alleged offenses in [[Aceh]]. Human rights complaints involving ExxonMobil's relationship with the Indonesian military first arose in 1992; numerous inquiries have found evidence of human rights violations on ExxonMobil property and/or committed by Indonesian troops guarding ExxonMobil facilities. The company denies these accusations and filed a motion to dismiss the suit, which is still pending [[as of 2005]]. The [[U.S. State Department]] filed an opinion in the case in July 2002, requesting that the suit, brought by the [[International Labor Rights Fund]], be dismissed on national security grounds. [http://www.amnestyusa.org/justearth/indonesia.html]
ExxonMobil controls concessions covering 11 million acres (44,500 km&sup2;) off the coast of [[Angola]] that hold an estimated 7.5 billion barrels (1.2 km&sup3;) of crude. [http://www2.exxonmobil.com/Corporate/Newsroom/Newsreleases/Corp_xom_nr_071201.asp] Questions have been raised about ExxonMobil's actions in securing these concessions&mdash;[[Forbes Magazine]] alleging that "ExxonMobil handed hundreds of millions of dollars to the corrupt regime of President [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] in the late 1990s". [http://www.forbes.com/forbes/free_forbes/2003/0428/084.html]
In 2003, the [[Office of Foreign Assets Control]] reported that ExxonMobil engaged in illegal trade with [[Sudan]] and along with dozens of other companies had to settle with the United States government for US$50,000 [http://www.cnn.com/2003/LAW/04/14/enemy.trading/index.html].
[[Image:Parody-of-esso-logo.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Parody of Esso logo produced for the Stop E$$O campaign]]
ExxonMobil is regarded by many [[environmentalism|environmental activists]] as an example of utter corporate irresponsibility and disregard for environmental concerns by US-based corporations. The company has been a target for a number of political campaigns, including the [[Stop Esso campaign]], held by [[Greenpeace]], [[Friends of the Earth]] and [[People and Planet]], and aimed at [[boycott]]ing Esso. These organisations commonly parody the company's brandname as "E$$O", an example of [[alternative political spellings|alternative political spelling]], to indicate their belief that the company is only interested in short-term profit, and is willing to use its financial power to buy influence. A new environmental movement in the form of [[Exxpose Exxon]] has emerged to highlight ExxonMobil's stances on global warming, alternative energies, as well as lack of reparations yet awarded to the native americans affected by the [[Exxon Valdez]] oil spill in Alaska. Unlike other major oil companies such as Royal Dutch Shell and BP, Exxon is one of the few that has actively fought the [[Kyoto Protocol]] and disputed scientific opinion on global [[climate change]]. [[Exxon-Mobil]] is highly criticized for funding climate change research, decried by environmentalists as "junk science," such as the work of the Oregon Institute for Science and Medicine, a grand sounding in
|
* Phosphor in [[fluorescent lamp]]s; and as a
* [[catalyst]]
* High purity germanium single crystal detectors can precisely identify radiation sources (e.g. for airport security)
Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to [[mammal]]s, but have toxic effects against certain [[bacterium|bacteria]]. This property makes these compounds useful as chemotherapeutic agents.
== Occurrence ==
This metal is found in [[argyrodite]] ([[sulfide]] of germanium and [[silver]]); [[coal]]; [[germanite]]; [[zinc]] ores; and other [[mineral]]s.
See also ''[[:Category:Germanium minerals]]''
Germanium is obtained commercially from zinc ore processing smelter dust and from the [[combustion]] by-products of certain coals. A large reserve of this element is therefore in coal sources.
This metalloid can be extracted from other metals by fractional [[distillation]] of its volatile tetrachloride. This technique permits the production of ultra-high purity germanium.
In [[1997]] the cost of germanium was about [[United States dollar|US$]]3 per [[gram]]. The yearend price for germanium in [[2000]] was $1,150 per [[kilogram]] (or $1.15 per gram).
==Compounds==
[[Germanium tetrahydride]] (GeH<sub>4</sub>),
[[Germanium tetrachloride]] (GeCl<sub>4</sub>)
[[Germanium dioxide]] (germania) (GeO<sub>2</sub>)
See also ''[[:Category:Germanium compounds]]''
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/32.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Germanium]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Germanium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ge/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Germanium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Metalloids]]
[[Category:Semiconductor materials]]
[[bs:Germanijum]]
[[ca:Germani]]
[[cs:Germanium]]
[[de:Germanium]]
[[et:Germaanium]]
[[el:Γερμάνιο]]
[[es:Germanio]]
[[eo:Germanio (elemento)]]
[[fr:Germanium]]
[[ko:저마늄]]
[[io:Germanio]]
[[is:German]]
[[it:Germanio]]
[[he:גרמניום]]
[[ku:Germanyûm]]
[[lv:Germānijs]]
[[lt:Germanis]]
[[hu:Germánium]]
[[nl:Germanium]]
[[ja:ゲルマニウム]]
[[no:Germanium]]
[[nn:Germanium]]
[[oc:Germani]]
[[pl:German]]
[[pt:Germânio]]
[[ru:Германий]]
[[sl:Germanij]]
[[sr:Германијум]]
[[fi:Germanium]]
[[sv:Germanium]]
[[th:เจอร์เมเนียม]]
[[uk:Германій]]
[[zh:锗]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gadolinium</title>
<id>12243</id>
<revision>
<id>40010412</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T13:48:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=64 | symbol=Gd | name=gadolinium | left=[[europium]] | right=[[terbium]] | above=- | below=[[curium|Cm]] | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[lanthanide]]s }}
{{Elementbox_periodblock | period=6 | block=f }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Gd,64| silvery white }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|157.25]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(3)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&#93; 4f<sup>7</sup> 5d<sup>1</sup> 6s<sup>2</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 25, 9, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 7.90 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 7.4 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1585 | c=1312 | f=2394 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=3546 | c=3273 | f=5923 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 10.05 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 301.3 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 37.03 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1836 | 2028 | 2267 | 2573 | 2976 | 3535 | comment=(calculated) }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 3<br />(mildly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.20 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 593.4 | 1170 | 1990 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|180]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|233]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmm | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (α, poly)<br />1.310 µ}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 10.6 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmk | (100 °C) (α, poly)<br />9.4 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 2680 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | (α form) 54.8 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | (α form) 21.8 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | (α form) 37.9 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | (α form) 0.259 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 570 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-54-2 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=gadolinium | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=152 | sym=Gd
| na=0.20% | hl=1.08&times;10<sup>14</sup> [[year|y]]
| dm=[[alpha decay|α]] | de=2.205 | pn=148 | ps=[[samarium|Sm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=154 | sym=Gd | na=2.18% | n=90 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=155 | sym=Gd | na=14.80% | n=91 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=156 | sym=Gd | na=20.47% | n=92 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=157 | sym=Gd | na=15.65% | n=93 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=158 | sym=Gd | na=24.84% | n=94 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=160 | sym=Gd
| na=21.86% | hl=>1.3&times;10<sup>21</sup>[[year|y]]
| dm=[[Double beta minus decay|β<sup>-</sup>β<sup>-</sup>]] | de=1.7 | pn=160 | ps=[[dysprosium|Dy]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
'''Gadolinium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Gd''' and [[atomic number]] 64.
__TOC__
[[Image:Gadolinium.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Gadolinium >99.9% purity]]
<br style="clear:left;" />
== Notable characteristics ==
Gadolinium is a silvery white, malleable and ductile [[rare earth]] metal with a metallic luster. It crystallizes in [[hexagon]]al, close-packed alpha form at room temperature; when heated to 1508 [[Kelvin|K]], it transforms into its beta form, which has a [[body-centered cubic]] structure.
Unlike other rare earth elements, gadolinium is relatively stable in dry air; however, it tarnishes quickly in moist air and forms a loosely adhering [[oxide]] that spalls off and exposes more surface to oxidation. Gadolinium reacts slowly with water and is soluble in dilute acid.
Gadolinium has the highest [[thermal neutron]] capture cross-section of any (known) element, 49,000 [[barn (unit)|barns]], but it also has a fast burn-out rate, limiting its usefulness as a [[nuclear control rod]] material.
Gadolinium becomes [[superconductivity|superconductive]] below a critical temperature of 1.083 K. It is strongly [[Magnetism|magnetic]] at room temperature, and is in fact the only metal to exhibit [[ferromagnetic]] properties except for [[period 4 element|fourth period]] [[transition metal]]s.
== Applications ==
Gadolinium is used for making [[gadolinium yttrium garnet]]s, which have [[microwave]] applications, and gadolinium compounds are used for making phosphors for colour TV tubes. Gadolinium is also used for manufacturing [[compact disc]]s and [[computer memory]].
Gadolinium is used in [[nuclear marine propulsion]] systems as a [[burnable poison]]. The gadolinium slows the initial reaction rate, but as it decays other neutron poisons accumulate, allowing for long-running cores. Gadolinium is also used as a secondary, emergency shut-down measure in some nuclear reactors, particularly of the [[CANDU reactor|CANDU]] type.
Gadolinium also possesses unusual [[metallurgy|metallurgic]] properties, with as little as 1% of gadolinium improving the workability and resistance of [[iron]], [[chromium]] and related [[alloy]]s to high temperatures and [[oxidation]].
Solutions of [[organic chemistry|organic]] gadolinium [[complex (chemistry)|complex]]es are used as [[intravenous]] [[radiocontrast]] agents to enhance images in medical [[magnetic resonance imaging]].
Because of their [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] properties, gadolinium compounds are used in [[magnetic resonance imaging]].
[[Gallium Gadolinium Garnet]] (Gd<sub>3</sub>Ga<sub>5</sub>O<sub>12</sub>) a material with good optical properties, and is used in fabrication of various optical components and as substrate material for magneto–optical films.
In the future, [[gadolinium ethyl sulfate]], which has extremely low noise characteristics, may be used in [[maser]]s. Furthermore, gadolinium's high magnetic movement and low [[Curie temperature]] (which lies just at room temperature) suggest applications as a magnetic component for sensing hot and cold.
Due the extremely high neutron cross-section of Gadolinium, this element is very effective for use with neutron radiography.
== History ==
In [[1880]], [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[chemist]] [[Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac]] observed spectroscopic lines due to gadolinium in samples of [[didymium]] and [[gadolinite]]; [[France|French]] chemist [[Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]] separated [[gadolinium(III) oxide|gadolinia]], the [[oxide]] of Gadolinium, from Mosander's [[yttria]] in [[1886]]. The element itself was isolated only recently.
Gadolinium, like the mineral [[gadolinite]], is named after [[Finland|Finnish]] chemist and [[geologist]] [[Johan Gadolin]].
== Biological role ==
Gadolinium has no known biological role.
== Occurrence ==
Gadolinium is never found in nature as the free element, but is contained in many rare minerals such as [[monazite]] and [[bastnasite]]. It occurs only in trace amounts in the mineral [[gadolinite]] which was also named for [[Johan Gadolin]]. Today, it is prepared by [[ion exchange]] and [[sol
|
[[Derbyshire]]. By the influence of [[William Russell, 1st Duke of Bedford|William Russell, earl of Bedford]], he was appointed one of the king's itinerant preachers in [[Lancashire]], and after living for a time in Garstang, he was selected by the Lady Margaret Hoghton as vicar of [[Preston]]. He associated himself with [[Presbyterianism]], and was on the celebrated committee for the ejection of "scandalous and ignorant ministers and schoolmasters" during the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]].
So long as Ambrose continued at Preston he was favoured with the warm friendship of the Hoghton family, their ancestral woods and the tower near [[Blackburn]] affording him sequestered places for those devout meditations and "experiences" that give such a charm to his [[diary]], portions of which are quoted in his ''Prima Media'' and ''Ultima'' (1650, 1659). The immense auditory of his sermon (''Redeeming the Time'') at the funeral of Lady Hoghton was long a living tradition all over the county. On account of the feeling engendered by the civil war Ambrose left his great church of Preston in 1654, and became minister of Garstang, whence, however, in 1662 he was ejected with the two thousand ministers who refused to conform. His after years were passed among old friends and in quiet meditation at Preston. He died of [[apoplexy]] about the 20th of January 1663/4.
As a religious writer Ambrose has a vividness and freshness of imagination possessed by scarcely any of the [[Puritan]] Nonconformists. Many who have no love for Puritan doctrine, nor sympathy with Puritan experience, have appreciated the [[pathos]] and beauty of his writings, and his ''Looking to Jesus'' long held its own in popular appreciation with the writings of [[John Bunyan]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1604 births|Ambrose, Isaac]]
[[Category:1664 deaths|Ambrose, Isaac]]
[[Category:English diarists|Ambrose, Isaac]]
[[Category:Deaths by apoplexy|Ambrose, Isaac]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet/History</title>
<id>14929</id>
<revision>
<id>15912452</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-12T12:17:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed text from redirect page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History_of_the_Internet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IteratedPrisonersDilemma</title>
<id>14931</id>
<revision>
<id>15912453</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:37:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prisoner's dilemma]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iterated Prisoners Dilemma</title>
<id>14932</id>
<revision>
<id>15912454</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:38:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prisoner's dilemma]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling</title>
<id>14933</id>
<revision>
<id>35333714</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-16T00:23:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.13.213.161</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling''' is an international agreement (see [[environmental agreement]]) signed in 1946 designed to make [[whaling]] sustainable.
It was signed by 42 nations in [[Washington, D.C.]] on [[December 2]] [[1946]] and took effect on [[November 10]] [[1948]]. Its protocol (which represented the first substantial revision of the convention and extended the definition of a "[[whale catcher|whale-catcher]]" to include helicopters as well as ships) was signed in Washington on [[November 19]] [[1956]]. The convention is a successor to the '''International Agreement for the Regulation of Whaling''', signed in [[London]] on [[June 8]] [[1937]], and the protocols for that agreement signed in London on [[June 24]] [[1938]], and [[November 26]], [[1945]].
Objectives are protection of all whale species from overhunting, establishment of a system of international regulation for the whale fisheries to ensure proper conservation and development of whale stocks, and safeguarding for future generations the great natural resources represented by whale stocks. The primary instrument through which these aims were followed was the establishment of the [[International Whaling Commission]]. The commission has made many revisions to the schedule that makes up the bulk of the convention, reflecting changing economical, ecological and commercial standards.
==Signatories==
Nations signed up to the convention are [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Republic of China]] (expelled and replaced with [[People's Republic of China]]), [[Costa Rica]], [[Denmark]], [[Dominica]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Grenada]], [[Guinea]], [[India]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Kenya]], [[South Korea]], [[Mexico]], [[Monaco]], [[Morocco]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[Oman]], [[Panama]], [[Peru]], [[Russia]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Senegal]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]].
==References==
*[http://www.iwcoffice.org/commission/convention.htm Text of the Convention at the IWC website]
*''CIA World Factbook 2003''. Available online at [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/]
[[de:International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]]
[[pt:Convenção Internacional para a Regulação da Actividade Baleeira]]
[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:Whaling]]
[[Category:1948 in law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Organization for Standardization</title>
<id>14934</id>
<revision>
<id>40933443</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T23:39:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.136.108.111</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'''''ISO''' redirects here. For other uses, see [[Iso]].''
[[Image:Iso_logo.gif|frame|right|Logo of the International Organization for Standardization]]
The '''International Organization for Standardization''' ('''ISO''') is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from national standards bodies. Founded on [[February 23]] [[1947]], the organization produces world-wide industrial and commercial [[standardization|standard]]s.
While the ISO defines itself as a [[non-governmental organization]], its ability to set standards which often become law through treaties or national standards makes it more powerful than most [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s, and in practice it acts as a consortium with strong links to governments. Participants include several major [[corporation]]s and at least one standards body from each member country.
ISO cooperates closely with the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), which is responsible for standardization of electrical equipment.
The organization is usually referred to simply as ISO ''(pronounced eye-so)''.
It is a common misconception that ISO stands for "International Standards Organization", or something similar. ISO is not an [[acronym]]; it comes from the Greek word ''isos'', meaning "equal". In [[English language|English]], the organization’s long-form name is "International Organization for Standardization", while in [[French language|French]] it is called "Organisation internationale de normalisation"; to use an acronym would result in different acronyms in ISO’s official languages, English (IOS) and French (OIN), thus the founders of the organization chose "ISO" as the universal short form of its name.
ISO standards are numbered, and have a format that contains ''"ISO[/IEC] [IS] nnnnn[:yyyy]: Title"'' where ''"nnnnn"'' is the standard number, ''"yyyy"'' is the year published, and ''"Title"'' describes the subject. IEC will only be included if the standard results from work of JTC1. The date and IS will always be left off an incomplete or unpublished standard, and may (under certain circumstances) be left off the title of the published work.
Aside from standards, ISO also creates Technical Reports for documents that cannot or should not become International Standards such as references, explanations, etc. The naming conventions for these are the same as for standards with the exception of having TR prepended in the place of IS in the standard's name. Examples:
*ISO/IEC TR 17799:2000 Code of Practice for Information Security Management
*ISO TR 15443-1/3 Information Technology - Security Techniques - A Framework for IT Security Assurance parts 1-3
Finally, ISO will on rare occasions issue a Technical Corrigendum. These are amendments to existing standards because of minor technical flaws, improvements to usability or to extend applicability in a limited way. Generally, these are issued with the expectation that the affected standard will be updated or withdrawn at its next scheduled review.
ISO documents are copyrighted and ISO charges for copies of most. ISO does not, however, charge for most draft copies of documents in electronic format. Although useful, care must be taken using these drafts as there is the possibility of substantial change before i
|
r plural diminutive. Between these [[suffix]]es and the radical can come extra letters depending on the ending of the word:
:''boom'' (tree) - ''boom'''pje'''''
:''ring'' (ring) - ''ring'''etje'''''
:''koning'' (king) - ''konin'''kje'''''
:''tien'' (ten) - ''tien'''tje'''''
Like most Germanic languages, Dutch forms left-branching noun [[compound (linguistics)|compound]]s, where the first noun modifies the category given by the second, for example: ''hondenhok'' (doghouse). Unlike English, where newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written in open form with separating spaces, Dutch (like the other Germanic languages) always uses the closed form without spaces, for example: boomhuis (eng. tree house). Like German, Dutch allows arbitrarily long compounds, but these are rare. The longest serious entry in the Van Dale dictionary is ''wapenstilstandsonderhandeling'' (ceasefire negotiation). Sometimes ''hottentottensoldatententententoonstellingsterreinen'' (hottentot soldiers tents exhibition terrains) is jocularly quoted as the longest Dutch word (note the four times consecutive ''ten''), but outside this usage it actually never occurs. Notwithstanding these rules, many Dutch people tend to write words which should be compound words, separately, which is sometimes dubbed “the English disease”.
==Vocabulary==
:''See the [[Wiktionary:Category:Dutch language|list of Dutch words]] and [[Wiktionary:Category:Dutch derivations|list of words of Dutch origin]] at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project''
Dutch has more French [[loanword]]s than German, but much fewer than English. The number of English loanwords in Dutch is substantial and steadily increasing, especially on the streets and some professions. New loanwords are almost never pronounced as the original English word, or are spelled differently. Like English, Dutch also has words of Greek and Latin origin. There are also some German loanwords, like ''überhaupt'' and ''sowieso''. Even though few true loanwords are present, German has had a considerable effect upon the lexicon of the language, mainly by the change of German words into words that seem Dutch (so called ''germanisme''), a process probably to be ascribed to the likeness of the two languages. Most of these forms have become so integral to Dutch that few Dutch notice them; they include words like ''opname'' (from German ''Aufnahme''), ''aanstalten'' (''Anstalten'') and many more.
==Writing system==
Dutch is written using the [[Latin alphabet]], see [[Dutch alphabet]]. One of the clues to recognise that a piece of text is written in Dutch, is the occurrence of many doubled letters. This happens both to vowels and consonants. One cause is the many compound words where the same letter ends one part and begins the next part. Another cause is formed by spelling devices used to distinguish the many more vowel sounds in the Dutch language, than there are vowel letters in the Latin alphabet (see [[Dutch orthography]]). A prime example is the word ''voorraaddoos'' (supply box).
The [[diaeresis]] is used to mark vowels that are pronounced separately, and called [[diaeresis|trema]]. In the most recent spelling reform, a hyphen has replaced the trema in a few words where it had been previously used: ''zeeëend'' (seaduck) is now spelled ''zee-eend''.
The [[acute accent]] (accent aigu) occurs mainly on loanwords like ''café'', but can also be used for emphasis or to differentiate between two forms. Its most common use is to differentiate between the indefinite [[article (grammar)|article]] 'een' (a, an) and the numeral 'één' (one).
The [[grave accent]] (accent grave) is used to clarify pronunciation ('hè' (what?, what the ...?), 'bèta') and in loanwords ('caissière' (cashier), 'après-ski'). In the recent spelling reform, the accent grave was dropped as stress sign on short vowels in favour of the accent aigu (e.g. 'wèl' was changed to 'wél').
Other [[Diacritic|diacritical marks]] such as the [[circumflex]] only occur on a few words, most of them loanwords from [[French language|French]].
The most important dictionary of the modern Dutch language is the ''Van Dale groot woordenboek der Nederlandse taal''[http://www.vandale.nl], more commonly referred to as the ''Dikke van Dale'' ("dik" is Dutch for "fat" or "thick"), or as linguists nicknamed it: De Vandaal (the [[vandal]]). However, it is dwarfed by the "Woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal", a scholarly endeavour that took 147 years from initial idea to first edition, resulting in over 45,000 pages.
The semi-official spelling is given by the ''Woordenlijst Nederlandse taal'', more commonly known as "het groene boekje" (i.e. "the green booklet", because of its colour.)
==Dutch as a foreign language==
The number of non native speakers of Dutch who voluntarily learn the language is small. This is partly because Dutch is not geographically widespread and because in its home countries [[The Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] most of the population is proficient in other [[European]] [[languages]]. In [[The Netherlands]] German is spoken with a high level of proficiency (especially in the regions bordering [[Germany]]) and the language is part of the core curriculum in schools for 2-5 years. In Belgium, German is less widely spoken, and not always required, but it still spoken by a considerable number of people.
[[French language|French]] is also taught for 3-6 years in the Netherlands, but it is not as widely spoken. In Flanders ([[Belgium]]) French is required from age 10 to 18 and is very widely spoken, not so strange when one considers that the southern half of Belgium, [[Wallonia]], is Francophone.
In both [[The Netherlands]] and [[Flanders]] [[English language|English]] is taught in schools from a young age - occasionally from age 11 or 12, but typically until the completion of secondary education. Most universities in the two countries, recognising the importance of the English language in the modern world, continue to teach the language to those students who need to improve their skills. As a result English is spoken throughout [[The Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] with members of the younger generation sometimes being fluent or near fluent speakers. The majority of the [[population]] of both countries speak some English, some in an advanced form of [[Globish]].
Some non native residents of [[The Netherlands]] or [[Belgium]] have never learnt to speak Dutch - perhaps put off by its guttural sound or by a perception of its difficulties. Moreover, and especially in Belgium, the difference between the standard language and the language people speak (their local dialect or, more often, a version of the standard language heavily influenced by it) can be very important and cause difficulties. There is also the problem that because the native Dutch speakers themselves are often so linguistically proficient they will try and help a struggling Dutch learner by addressing them in their own language!
The Dutch often make fun of their own language — for example Tom Meyer, a radio commentator, used to say on air that "Dutch isn't a language; it's a disease of the throat." Pronunciation can be a challenge as many of the Dutch vowel sounds are difficult for non native speakers. [[Diphthong]]s such as the "ui" sound in such words as "huis" (house) and "muis" (mouse), the "eu" in sleutel (key), and the "ij" sound in words like "fijn" (fine) or "wijn" (wine) present difficulties and even though some of these words are superficially like their English equivalents the correct sound is very different. Its cohesiveness sometimes also produces words that might baffle speakers of other languages due to the high amount of consecutive consonants, such as the word "angstschreeuw" (scream in fear), which has grand total of eight in a row (ngstschr). Native speakers of German usually have the biggest advantage of all people when learning Dutch from a grammar and vocabulary point of view but almost always struggle with the pronunciation. However those residents or visitors who do learn some Dutch will be rewarded, not only by the extra fillip this gives to their understanding of Dutch history and culture, but also because it will enable them to converse with people in areas away from the big cities where other languages are less commonly spoken and experience that other Dutch [[culture]].
==See also==
* [[Bargoens]]
* [[List of common phrases in various languages]]
* [[Dutch grammar]]
* [[Dutch orthography]]
* [[Dutch literature]]
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=nl}}
{{Wikibookspar||Dutch}}
{{commons|Dutch pronunciation|Dutch pronunciation}}
*[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/52.pdf Linguasphere on dialects of the Dutch language and other languages]
*[http://www.learnonline.nl Online Nederlands leren]
*[http://www.leren.nl/rubriek/talen/nederlands/learn_dutch/ Learn the Dutch Language]
*[http://www.ned.univie.ac.at/publicaties/taalgeschiedenis/en/ History of the Dutch Language]
*[http://www.taalunieversum.org/ Nederlandse Taalunie & Taalunieversum] (Dutch Language Union -- in Dutch)
*[http://www.forbeginners.info/dutch/ Dutch for Beginners] (Introduction to Dutch grammar and vocabulary)
*[http://oase.uci.kun.nl/~ans/ Algemene Nederlandse Spraakkunst] (General Dutch Grammar -- in Dutch)
*[http://www.dutchgrammar.com/ Online Dutch Grammar Course] (Dutch Grammar -- in English)
*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/nl.htm Free online resources for learners]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=nld Ethnologue report for Dutch]
*[http://www.uoc.es/euromosaic/web/document/neerlandes/an/i1/i1.html Euromosaic - Flemish in France] - The status of Dutch in France
*[http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/dutch.htm Sampa for Dutch]
* [http://language-directory.50webs.com
|
Region'''{{fn|1}} (''Réigiúin Átha Cliath''), is the area that contains the city of [[Dublin]], the [[capital]] and largest city of the [[Republic of Ireland]]; and the modern counties of [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]], [[Fingal]] and [[South Dublin]]. The [[Dublin Regional Authority]] is the [[Regions of the Republic of Ireland|regional authority]] for the region.
{{Seealso|List of subdivisions of County Dublin}}
==Introduction==
Dublin is located on the east coast of Ireland in the [[Provinces of Ireland|province]] of [[Leinster]]. The area held [[county]] status until its dissolution as such in [[1994]], where Section 9 Part 1(a) of the ''Local Government (Dublin) Act, 1993'' stated that as of 1st January 1994 "the county shall cease to exist"{{fn|2}}. At that time, and in response to a European Council report highlighting Ireland as the most centralised country in the [[European Union]], it was decided that a single County Dublin was unmanageable and undemocratic from a [[Local Government]] perspective. The county was formally abolished and replaced with [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]], [[Fingal]], and [[South Dublin]]. The Government was fully aware of the magnitude of the legislation that was being passed, most poignantly noted by [[Teachta Dála|TD]] [[Avril Doyle]] in the [[Dáil Éireann]] assembly of the 3rd of November 1993, where she declared "The Bill before us today effectively abolishes County Dublin. I am not sure whether Dubliners realise that that is what we are about today, but in effect that is the case"{{fn|3}}.
==Currently==
At present, many organisations, state agencies and sporting teams continue to operate on a "County Dublin" basis. Subsequently, much confusion exists around the legitimacy of the new counties - though they do have [[administrative county]] status, the only protected recognition of a county within the [[Republic of Ireland]]. County Dublin is now defined in legislation solely as the "Dublin Region" under the ''Local Government Act, 1991 (Regional Authorities) (Establishment) Order, 1993''{{fn|1}}, and this is the terminology officially used by the four Dublin administrative councils in press releases concerning the former county area. Separate use of the term ''[[Greater Dublin Area]]'', which consists of all of the Dublin Region and the counties of [[County Kildare|Kildare]], [[County Meath|Meath]] and [[County Wicklow|Wicklow]] has created additional confusion. The [[census]] of 2002{{fn|4}} recorded the total population of the Dublin Region at 1,122,821, accounting for 28% of the national figure.
The latest [[Ordnance Survey Ireland]] "Discovery Series" (Third Edition 2005) 1:50,000 map of the Dublin Region, Sheet 50, shows the boundaries of the city and three surrounding counties of the region. Extremities of the Dublin Region, in the north and south of the region, appear in other sheets of the series, 43 and 56 respectively.
==Local Government==
[[Image:Map of the Dublin Region2.PNG|thumb|180px|right|Map of the Dublin Region]]
[[Dublin City Council]] has existed for centuries, previously as ''Dublin Corporation'', as a [[county borough]], whilst [[Dublin County Council]] in 1994 was abolished and replaced by three new county councils. Thus in summary the [[local authority]] divisions within the Dublin Region are:
{| BORDER=1 CELLSPACING=0 CELLPADDING="3" align=center
| '''Name'''
| '''Map'''
| '''[[Area]]: km&sup2;'''
| '''[[Population|Pop]]: 2002{{fn|4}}'''
|-
| [[Dublin|City of Dublin]]
| align=center| 1
| align=right| 114.99 (12.6%)
| align=right| 495,781 (44.2%)
|-
| [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown|County of Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]]
| align=center| 2
| align=right| 127.31 (13.9%)
| align=right| 191,792 (17.1%)
|-
| [[Fingal|County of Fingal]]
| align=center| 3
| align=right| 448.07 (49.1%)
| align=right| 196,413 (17.5%)
|-
| [[South Dublin|County of South Dublin]]
| align=center| 4
| align=right| 222.74 (24.4%)
| align=right| 238,835 (21.3%)
|}
==Towns and suburbs==
*[[Artane, Dublin|Artane]], [[Ashington]], [[Ashtown]]
*[[Balbriggan]], [[Baldoyle]], [[Balgriffin]], [[Ballinteer]], [[Ballsbridge]], [[Ballycullen]], [[Ballyfermot]], [[Ballymun]], [[Balrothery]], [[Bayside]], [[Beaumont]], [[Blackrock]], [[Blanchardstown]], [[Bluebell]], [[Booterstown]], [[Bray]], [[Brittas]]
*[[Cabinteely]], [[Cabra]], [[Carpenterstown]], [[Carrickmines]], [[Castleknock]], [[Celbridge]], [[Chapelizod]], [[Churchtown, Dublin|Churchtown]], [[Clare Hall]], [[Clondalkin]], [[Clonee]], [[Clonshaugh]], [[Clonsilla]], [[Clonskeagh]], [[Clontarf, Dublin|Clontarf]], [[Collinswood]], [[Coolmine]], [[Crumlin, Dublin|Crumlin]]
*[[Dalkey]], [[Dartry]], [[Deans Grange]], [[Dollymount]], [[Dolphin's Barn]], [[Donabate]], [[Donaghmede]], [[Donnybrook]], [[Donnycarney]], [[Drimnagh]], [[Drumcondra]], [[Dún Laoghaire]], [[Dunboyne]], [[Dundrum, Dublin|Dundrum]]
*[[East Wall]], [[Edmondstown]]
*[[Fairview]], [[Finglas]], [[Firhouse]], [[Foxrock]]
*[[Galloping Green]], [[Glasnevin]], [[Glasthule]], [[Glenageary]], [[Goatstown]], [[Greystones]]
*[[Harold's Cross]], [[Hartstown]], [[Howth]], [[Huntstown]]
*[[Inchicore]], [[Islandbridge]], [[Jobstown]], [[Kilcock]], [[Kill O' The Grange]], [[Killester]], [[Killiney]], [[Kilmacud]], [[Kilmainham]], [[Kilmore]], [[Kilnamanagh]], [[Kilsallaghan]], [[Kimmage]], [[Kinsealy]], [[Knocklyon]]
*[[Leopardstown]], [[Loughlinstown]], [[Lucan, Dublin|Lucan]], [[Lusk]]
*[[Malahide]], [[Marino]], [[Maynooth]], [[Merrion]], [[Milltown]], [[Monkstown, Dublin|Monkstown]], [[Mount Merrion]], [[Mulhuddart]]
*[[Newcastle, Dublin|Newcastle]]
*[[Oldbawn]], [[Ongar]]
*[[Palmerstown]], [[Perrystown]], [[Phibsborough]], [[Portmarnock]], [[Portobello, Dublin|Portobello]]
*[[Raheny]], [[Ranelagh]], [[Rathcoole]], [[Rathfarnham]], [[Rathgar]], [[Rathmichael]], [[Rathmines]], [[Rialto]], [[Ringsend]], [[Rush, Dublin|Rush]]
*[[Saggart]], [[Sandycove]], [[Sandyford]], [[Sandymount]], [[Santry]], [[Shankill, Dublin|Shankill]], [[Skerries]], [[Smithfield]], [[Stepaside]], [[Stillorgan]], [[Stoneybatter]], [[Strawberry Beds]], [[Sutton, Dublin|Sutton]], [[Swords, Dublin|Swords]]
*[[Tallaght]], [[Templeogue]], [[Terenure]], [[The Coombe]], [[Tyrellstown]]
*[[Walkinstown]], [[Whitehall]]
==Footnotes==
{{fnb|1}} [[Statutory Instrument]]: [http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZSI394Y1993.html Local Government Act, 1991 (Regional Authorities) (Establishment) Order, 1993]
{{fnb|2}} [[Act of the Oireachtas]]: [http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA31Y1993S9.html Local Government (Dublin) Act, 1993 (Section 9 Part 1(a))]
{{fnb|3}} [[Dáil Éireann]]: [http://www.oireachtas-debates.gov.ie/D/0435/D.0435.199311030007.html Parliamentary Debates (03 November, 1993)]
{{fnb|4}} [[Central Statistics Office (Ireland)|Central Statistics Office]]: [http://www.cso.ie/census/Vol1.htm Census 2002 (Volume 1- Population Classified by Area)]
==External links==
* [http://www.dra.ie/ Dublin Regional Authority]
* [http://www.shamrockcottages.co.uk/maps/wicklow.jpg Map of County Dublin] -map of Wicklow also included
* [http://www.irish-architecture.com/buildings_ireland/dublin/ Irish Architecture Online - Architecture of County Dublin]
* [http://scripts.ireland.com/ancestor/fuses/civilparish/index.cfm?fuseaction=GetMap&CityCounty=Dublin Ireland.com Irish Ancestors/Civil Parishes of Co Dublin]
* [http://scripts.ireland.com/ancestor/fuses/civilparish/index.cfm?fuseaction=GetMap&CityCounty=Dublin%20city Irish Ancestors/Civil Parishes of Dublin City]
{{Ireland_counties}}
[[Category:Counties of Ireland|Dublin]]
[[Category:County Dublin| ]]
[[ca:Comtat de Dublín]]
[[de:Dublin (County)]]
[[es:Condado de Dublín]]
[[fr:Comté de Dublin]]
[[ga:Contae Bhaile Átha Cliath]]
[[is:County Dublin]]
[[it:Dublino (contea)]]
[[nl:County Dublin]]
[[no:Dublin (grevskap)]]
[[pl:Dublin (hrabstwo)]]
[[pt:Condado de Dublin]]
[[ro:Comitatul Dublin]]
[[fi:Dublinin kreivikunta]]
[[sv:Dublin (grevskap)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Celebrity atheists</title>
<id>6515</id>
<revision>
<id>15904650</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-19T09:22:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lorenzarius</username>
<id>4308</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of atheists]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cosmological argument</title>
<id>6516</id>
<revision>
<id>41824594</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:01:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Infinity0</username>
<id>411742</id>
</contributor>
<comment>causal is right... as in "cause"-al</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''cosmological argument''' is an [[arguments for the existence of God|argument for the existence of God]]. It is also known as the '''first cause argument''' for the existence of [[God]], or the '''prime mover''' argument. There are three versions of this argument: the argument from causation ''[[in esse]]'', the argument from causation ''[[in fieri]]'', and the argument from contingency.
==Origins of the argument==
[[Thomas Aquinas]], probably the best known [[theologian]] of the [[Middle Ages]], adapted an argument he found in his reading of [[Aristotle]] to form one of the earliest and the most influential versions of the cosmological argument. His conception of ''first cause'' is the idea that the universe must have been caused by something which was itself uncaused, which he asserted was God.
The phrase "first cause" is sometimes used as an alternative noun for God among individuals uncomfortable with the historical and religious meanings associated with the term. Using "first cause" in replacement of "God" may also indicate that the writer has a different conception of God than what the popular definition entails.
The cosmological argume
|
, and a grinding process to reveal the final damask pattern. A somewhat different technique was proposed by Wadsworth and Sherby (1980; also 2001).
For some time, it was believed that Damascus steel was made in a similar fashion to what is known as [[pattern welding]], a sword making technique that was widely used in Europe and Japan. Pattern welding is a mechanical process that lays up strips of material which are then pounded together, or folded, as in Japanese practice. If the blade is then etched in [[acid]] the layering below the surface is revealed, the patterns being similar to that of Damascus steel. For some time this similarity was used to dismiss Damascus as yet another pattern-welded steel, but modern metallurgy demonstrated this to be wrong.
It has also long been argued that the raw material for Damascus steel swords was imported from India, because India was the only known center of crucible-fired steels like [[wootz steel|wootz]]. However this conclusion became suspect when the furnaces in Turkmenistan were discovered, demonstrating at least that the technique was moving out from India. The wootz may have been manufactured locally in the Damascus area, but so far no remains of the distinctive wootz furnaces have appeared. Verhoeven et al.'s work supports the hypothesis that the wootz used was from India, as several key impurities that appear to give Damascus steel its properties point to particular ores available only in India.
==Attempts at reproduction==
From the very start, the superior capabilities of Damascus swords attracted significant attention, and many attempts were made to reproduce either the performance or the appearance of the Damascus blades. Since [[pattern welding]] was a widespread technique, and produced surface patterns similar to those found on Damascus blades, many people believed that Damascus blades were made using a pattern welding technique. This belief was challenged in the 1990s when J. D. Verhoeven and A. H. Pendray published an article on their experiments on reproducing the elemental, structural, and visual characteristics of Damascus steel.
Verhoveven and Pendray started with a cake of steel that matched the properties of the original wootz steel from India, which also matched a number of original Damascus swords they had access to. The wootz was in a soft, [[anneal]]ed state, with a large grain structure, and many beads of pure [[iron carbide]] which were the result of the [[Eutectoid | hypereutectoid]] state of the wootz. They had already determined that the grains on the surface of the steel were grains of iron carbide, so their question was how to reproduce the fine iron carbide patterns they saw in the Damascus blades from the large grains in the wootz.
By heating the cake of wootz to just below the critical temperature which would cause the iron carbide to return to solution, it was possible to forge the wootz with hand tools. Repeated forging, working the wootz into a long, thin shape suitable for a knife or sword blade, caused the large iron carbide crystals to fracture and spread out in the pearlite matrix. The resulting steel contains bands of iron carbide in a [[pearlite]] matrix, alternating with bands of [[ferrite]] and [[cementite]]. In this process the steel [[Work hardening| work hardens]], which is what allows the normally soft wootz to be used for knives and swords.
==Pattern welded "Damascened" steel==
[[Image:DamascusSteelPocketKnife.jpg|thumb|400px|Pattern welded
"Damascus steel" pocket knife]]
{{main|Pattern welding}}
Pattern welded steel is commonly known today as "Damascus steel", though it appears that the original Damascus steel was not created with that technique. Pattern weld Damascus is made out of several types of steel and iron slices, which are then welded together to form a billet. The patterns vary depending on what the smith does to the billet. The billet is drawn out and folded until the desired number of layers are formed. The end result, if done well, bears a strong resemblance to the surface appearance of a true Damascus blade, though the internal structure is completely dissimilar.
Pattern welding was very common in the ancient world; [[Viking]] swords, Japanese [[katana]] and [[Indonesia]]n [[kris]] or keris swords were all made using pattern welding techniques.
Another material similar to Pattern weld is [[mokume-gane]]. Mokume is made of the softer metals, like gold, silver, and copper. It is made in much the same way as pattern weld Damascus, and is used for rings, tsubas (the guard on a katana), and knife bolsters. The name mokume-gane means "wood eye", referring to the pattern of the metals, which looks like wood grain. It was first made by the Japanese.
Some old [[shotgun]] barrels (usually on [[Double-barreled_shotgun|double barreled]] guns) were formed from wires that were wrapped around a [[mandrel]] and forged and welded into shape. This leaves a visible wire pattern in the barrel and such are referred to as "Damascus Barrels".
==See also==
*[[Experimental archaeology]]
==References==
* Eric M. Taleff, Bruce L. Bramfitt, Chol K. Syn, Donald R. Lesuer, Jeffrey Wadsworth, and Oleg D. Sherby, "Processing, structure, and properties of a rolled ultrahigh-carbon steel plate exhibiting a damask pattern," ''Materials Characterization'' '''46''' (1), 11-18 (2001).
* J. D. Verhoeven, "A review of microsegregation induced banding phenomena in steels", ''J. Materials Engineering and Performance'' '''9''' (3), 286-296 (2000).
* J. D. Verhoeven, A. H. Pendray, and W. E. Dauksch, "[http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9809/Verhoeven-9809.html The Key Role of Impurities in Ancient Damascus Steel Blades]", ''JOM'' '''50''' (9), 58-64 (1998).
* J. Wadsworth and O. D. Sherby, "On the Bulat &mdash; Damascus steel revisited," ''Prog. Materials Science'' '''68''', 25-35 (1980).
[[Category:Steels]]
[[Category:Steelmaking]]
[[de:Damaszener Stahl]]
[[fr:Lames de Damas]]
[[it:Acciaio damasco]]
[[ja:ダマスカス鋼]]
[[pl:Stal damasceńska]]
[[ru:Дамаск (металл)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dolchstosslegende</title>
<id>8594</id>
<revision>
<id>41725825</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:46:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GCarty</username>
<id>10379</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Motivation */ - sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dolchstoss.jpg|thumb|Magazine title from 1924, example of a propaganda illustration in support of the legend]]
The '''Dolchstoßlegende''' or '''Dolchstosslegende''', ([[German language|German]] "dagger-thrust legend", often translated in [[English language|English]] as "stab-in-the-back legend") refers to a social [[mythos]] and [[persecution]]-[[propaganda]] and belief among bitter post-[[World War I]] [[German nationalism|German nationalists]], that laid blame for the loss of the war upon non-Germans and non-nationalists.
==Motivation==
Most Germans supported, fought in, or suffered in an enormously costly [[World War I]]. From the German and some more neutral points of view, it was widely believed that Czarist [[Russia|Imperial Russia]] had exploited the issue in the [[Balkans]]. Many Germans saw the war as part of the eternal struggle against the "invading hordes from the east". While [[pan-Slavism]] and Russian expansionism had to be considered, French [[revanchism]] lingering from 1870 was also seen as a primary reason for the war. From the German point of view, the [[British]] were seen to be equally opportunistic, determined to dismantle the powerful German Empire that had disrupted Britain's dominance over trade and threatened her vast commercial empire.
However, with their leaflet and tabloid war, the British and American press were particularly sucessful in establishing the view that the German Empire was as an exporter of Prussian "militarism", guilty of crimes against humanity. After [[Imperial Russia]] dropped out of the war, the supposed contrast between the "free" and "democratic" world that wanted peace and the opposing autocratic, barbaric German-led autocracies that wanted war was heavily exploited. This was an extremely important development that helped the American leadership justify their country's involvement in a war [[President]] [[Woodrow Wilson]] said would "make the world safe for democracy."
In his memoirs, [[General Ludendorff|Erich Ludendorff]] consistantly points out that the [[Hohenzollern]] leadership failed to acknowledge the power of [[Entente]] propaganda during [[World War I]]. It should be no surprise that from 1933-1945, the Germans made it a point to master the craft which the Entente had introduced so effectively during [[World War I]]. Although frequently depicted as primordial aggressors responsible for the war, Germany's peace proposals were all but rejected. After the first year of the war, both sides realized a peace without annexations and indemnities, not to mention the loss of territory, would constitute as political suicide; too many lives had been lost for the war to be purposeless. Thus, German proposals included the ability to retain the territory it occupied in the West, namely part of [[Belgium]].
Ludendorff was convinced that the Entente wanted little other than a [[draconian]] peace. This was not the message most Germans heard coming from the other side and Wilson's [[Fourteen Points]] plan was particularly popular amongst the German people. Socialists and liberals, especially the [[Social Democrats]] that formed the majority of the parliamentary body, were already agitators for change prior to 1914. When peace and full restoration were promised by the [[Entente]], they needed little further encouragement to shed their patriotic enthusiasm. Likewi
|
ent as a child]
[[Category:Cold War speeches]]
[[Category:History of Berlin]]
[[da:Ich bin ein Berliner]]
[[de:Ich bin ein Berliner]]
[[eo:Ich bin ein Berliner]]
[[ko:Ich bin ein Berliner]]
[[nb:Ich bin ein Berliner]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iqaluit, Nunavut</title>
<id>14582</id>
<revision>
<id>42142609</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:33:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Klanda</username>
<id>28502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Transportation */ Little actual travel by dog sled these days.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" width=300
|+<big><big>'''Iqaluit'''</big></big>
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" |
{| border="0"
|-
| align="center" width="160px" | [[Image:Nunavut flag.png|140px|right|Britsh Columbia]] || align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Nu-coat-thb.jpg|140px|]]
|-
| align="center" width="160px" | <small>([[Flag of Nunavut]])</small> || align="center" width="140px" | <small>([[Coat of Arms of Nunavut|Coat of Arms]])</small>
|}
|-
|'''[[Governing Body]]'''
| [[Iqaluit Municipal Council]]
|-
| '''[[Location (geography)|Location]]'''
| {{coor dm |63|45|N|68|33|W}}
|-
| '''Land area'''
| 52.34 km²
|-
| '''[[Population]] (2001)'''
| 5,236
|-
| '''[[Population Density]]'''
| 100 / km²
|-
|'''[[Immigration|Immigrant Population]]'''
| 104 (2%)
|-
| '''[[Languages]]'''
| [[English language|English]] (Official) 68% <br>[[French language|French]] (Official) 5% <br>Non Official 27%
|-
| '''[[Religion]]'''
| [[Protestant]] 80% <br>[[Catholic]] 16% <br>[[Atheism|No religion]] 4%
|-
| '''[[Postal Code]]'''
| X0A 0H0, X0A 1H0
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[North American Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]
|-
|-
|}
'''Iqaluit''' ('''ᐃᖃᓗᐃᑦ''' in [[Inuktitut syllabics]]), formerly '''[[Frobisher Bay]]''', is the territorial [[capital]] and the largest community of [[Canada]]'s youngest territory, [[Nunavut]]. Its population is about 60% [[Inuit]], a lower figure than in other parts of Nunavut. The town was selected to serve as the new territory's capital in a [[1995 Nunavut Capital Plebiscite|territory-wide referendum]], in which it was chosen over [[Rankin Inlet, Nunavut|Rankin Inlet]] and [[Cambridge Bay, Nunavut|Cambridge Bay]].
The city is located in the hills rising from Koojesse Inlet, an inlet of [[Frobisher Bay]], on the south-east part of [[Baffin Island]]. It is well to the east of [[Nunavut]]'s mainland, and northeast of [[Hudson Bay]]. Inhabitants of Iqaluit are called ''Iqalummiut'' (singular: ''Iqalummiuq'').
Iqaluit has the distinction of being the smallest Canadian capital city in terms of population and the only capital that cannot be accessed from the rest of Canada via a [[highway]].
About 5 km south-east from Iqaluit's center is the community of Apex. It is located on a small peninsula separating Koojesse Inlet from Tarr Inlet. Historically Apex was the place were most Inuit lived when Iqaluit was a military site and off-limits to anyone not working at the base. Located here are the women's shelter, a church, a primary school, and a bed-and-breakfast.
According to the [[2001]] [[Canada 2001 Census|census]], Iqaluit has a population of 5,236.
==History==
[[Image:MountiesIqaluitCanadaDay19990701 CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Mounties]] on parade in Iqaluit, Canada Day 1999.]]
Begun in [[1942]] as an American airbase, Iqaluit's first permanent inhabitant was [[Nakasuk]], an [[Inuk]] guide who helped American planners to choose the site. One of the city's elementary schools is named after him. Long regarded as a campsite and fishing spot by the Inuit, the place chosen had traditionally been named ''Iqaluit'' - "many fish" in [[Inuktitut]] - but Canadian and American authorities baptised it ''Frobisher Bay'', after the official name of the body of water it abuts.
The [[Hudson Bay Company]] moved its south Baffin operations to the neighbouring valley of ''Niaqunngut'', officially called ''Apex'', in [[1949]] to take advantage of the airfield. The population of ''Frobisher Bay'' increased rapidly during the construction of the [[Distant Early Warning Line]] (DEW line, a system of radar stations, see [[North American Aerospace Defense Command|NORAD]]) in the mid-[[1950s]]. Hundreds of construction workers, military personnel and administrative staff moved into the community, and several hundred Inuit followed to take advantage of the access to medical care and jobs the base provided. Of the town's 1,200 residents, 489 were reported to be Inuit in [[1957]]. After [[1959]], the Canadian government established permanent services at Frobisher Bay, including full-time doctors, a school and social services. The Inuit population grew rapidly in response, as the government encouraged Inuit to settle permanently in communities with government services.
[[Image:Iqaluit-aerial.jpg|frame|right|Iqaluit from the air, taken in September 2005]]
The American military left Iqaluit in [[1963]], as [[ICBM]]s diminished the strategic value of the DEW line and arctic airbases, but Frobisher Bay remained the government's administrative and logistical centre for much of the eastern arctic. [[1964]] saw the election of the first elected community council, and [[1979]] the first mayor. The founding of the ''Gordon Robertson Educational Centre'' (now ''Inukshuk high school'') in the early-1970s at Iqaluit confirmed the government's commitment to the community as an administrative centre. At the time of its founding, it was the sole high school operating in more than a seventh of Canadian territory.
On [[January 1]], [[1987]], the name of this municipality was officially changed from "Frobisher Bay" to "Iqaluit" - aligning official usage with the name that the Inuit population had always used. In December [[1995]], it was selected in a referendum to be the future capital of [[Nunavut]] and on [[April 19]], [[2001]] it was officially recognised as a city.
[[Image:0201bay.jpg|frame|left|Frobisher Bay, Dec. 2005]]
'''History Timeline'''
1576 - Englishman Martin Frobisher sails into Frobisher Bay believing he
has found the route to China
1861 - Charles Francis Hall, an American, camps at the Sylvia Grinnell River
and explores the waters of Koojesse Inlet, which he names after his
Inuit guide
1942 - U.S. Air Force selects Iqaluit’s current location as the site of a major
air base
1943 - The HBC moves its trading post from Ward Inlet to Apex
1955 - Frobisher Bay becomes the center for U.S. Canada Dew Line
construction operations
1963 - US military move out of Iqaluit
1964 - First community council formed; population of Frobisher Bay is 900
1970 - Frobisher Bay officially recognized as a Settlement
1974 - Settlement of Frobisher Bay gains Village status
1976 - Inuit present the Nunavut proposal to the Federal government
1979 - First mayor elected
1980 - Frobisher Bay designated as a Town
1982 - Government of Canada agrees in principle to the creation of Nunavut
1987 - Frobisher Bay officially becomes Iqaluit, reverting to its original
Inuktitut name meaning “place of many fish”
1993 - The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement is signed in Iqaluit
1995 - Nunavut residents select Iqaluit as capital of the new territory
April 1, 1999 - The Territory of Nunavut officially comes into being
April 19, 2001 - Iqaluit receives its Order of Official status as a City
==Transportation==
[[Image:Iqaluit-airport.jpg|frame|left|Iqaluit Airport, taken in September 2005]]
Located on an island remote from the Canadian highway system, Iqaluit is generally only accessible by aircraft and, subject to ice conditions, by boat. [[Iqaluit Airport]] is a fully modern facility whose originally WWII-era runway is more than long enough for most classes of modern jet. Although there is a persistent rumour that Iqaluit is an emergency landing site for the [[Space Shuttle]], this is false. Iqaluit Airport is a centre for cold-weather testing of new aircraft, such as the [[Airbus A380]] in [[February 2006]].
In the middle of summer, a few ships - generally no larger than a [[Liberty ship|Liberty class]] vessel - transport bulk and heavy goods to the city. Iqaluit does not have a deep water harbour, so goods must be barged ashore, or the ship may be beached at high tide and the goods unloaded when the tide goes out.
It is in principle possible to reach Iqaluit on foot or by dog sled or snowmobile, both from other parts of Baffin Island and from the Quebec mainland when [[Hudson strait]] freezes. This was how the Inuit traditionally travelled, and how they still do sometimes, but it is ill-advised for anyone who is not experienced in arctic travel.
Iqaluit has a local road system only stretching from the nearby community of [[Apex, Nunavut|Apex]] to the [[Sylvia Grinnell Territorial Park Reserve]], a kilometre west of town. Iqaluit has no public transporation, however there is city-wide taxi service. Although a growing number of people have personal automobiles, the cost of shipping them and the wear-and-tear of the harsh arctic climate and notoriously rough roadways mean that [[snowmobile]]s are the preferred form of personal transportation. Nevertheless, the ever-increasing number of personal automobiles is beginning to create traffic problems at peak times. [[All-terrain vehicle]]s are also an increasingly common form of transportation in most of the Canadian Arctic. Snowmobiles are extensively used to travel both within the city and in the surrounding area. In winter, dog sleds are still used, however this is primar
|
blicans as the real birth of France: France is no more a country made up of provinces conquered by kings, but a country of provinces and men who freely agree to form a common Nation. This concept of a Nation agreed upon is opposed to the German concept of a Nation based on ethnicity and race, and it was responsible for much of the conflicts between France and Germany in the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. Germany considered that Alsace was a German land that had been annexed by the conquest of the French kings, while France considered that although Alsace had indeed been a conquered province in the first place, it had legitimately and freely become a part of France by the oath of [[July 14]], [[1790]]. It is thus no surprise that the 14th of July was proclaimed the National Holiday of France in 1880, 9 years after Germany had detached [[Alsace-Lorraine]] from France.
:Despite being associated with the ''Fête de la Fédération'', [[14 July]] irked many French monarchists, to whom it recalled the bloody memory of the storming of the Bastille. French monarchists used to wear a black armband each [[14 July]], in defiance of the National Holiday.
*The [[Mont-Saint-Michel]] is the most visited tourist site in France. Other very popular and well-known tourist sites include: [[Louvre Museum]], [[Eiffel Tower]], [[Palace of Versailles]], [[Disneyland Resort Paris]], [[Centre Pompidou]], the [[Chateau|châteaux]] of the [[Loire Valley]], the ski resorts of the French [[Alps]], [[Tahiti]] and the [[lagoon]]s of [[French Polynesia]], etc.
==International rankings==
*Total [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], 2004: 5th (out of 184) ([[World Bank]] data)
*Total value of [[foreign trade]] ([[imports]] and [[exports]]), 2002: 4th (out of 185)
*[[Reporters Without Borders]] world-wide press freedom index 2005: Rank 30 out of 167 countries
*[http://www.transparency.org/cpi/2005/2005.10.18.cpi.en.html Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2005] - 18th of 159 countries
==Notes and references==
{{sisterlinks|France}}
# {{note|overseasholdings}} For more information, see [[:Category:French overseas departments, territories and collectivities]]
# {{note|economicrank}} [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|Rank by nominal GDP]]: 5 (2004); [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|Rank by GDP per capita]]: 16 (2005); [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|Rank by GDP at purchasing power parity per capita]]: 21 (2005).
# {{note|EEZ}} According to a different calculation cited by the [http://pewresearch.org/ Pew Research Center], the EEZ of France would be [[1 E13 m²|10,084,201]] km² (3,893,532 mi²), still behind the [[United States]] (12,174,629 km² / 4,700,651 mi²), and still ahead of [[Australia]] (8,980,568 km² / 3,467,416 mi²) and [[Russia]] (7,566,673 km² / 2,921,508 mi²).
# {{note|FrenchSenate2007}} {{fr icon}} {{cite web
| title = Sénat - Statut des Sénateurs
| url = http://www.senat.fr/role/senate.html
| accessdate = August 31
| accessyear = 2005
}} ''Page is in French without apparent English version available''
# {{note|motto}} {{fr icon}} {{cite web
| title = Symboles de la République et 14 juillet
| url = http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/france_829/decouvrir-france_4177/france-a-z_2259/symboles-republique-14-juillet_2615/liberte-egalite-fraternite_5155.html
| accessdate = January 29
| accessyear = 2006
}} ''Page is in French without apparent English version available''
==External links==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
===Directories===
*[http://www.countryreports.org/country.aspx?countryid=83&countryName=France CountryReports.org- France]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fr.html CIA- The World Factbook]
*[http://www.mediatico.com/en/newspapers/europe/france French Newspapers]
*[http://www.service-public.fr/etranger/english.html Official site of the French public service] - Contains many links to various administrations and institutions
*[http://www.pagesjaunes.fr/pb.cgi?lang=en White Pages] - Residential phone numbers from [[France Télécom]] (does not include other operators)
*[http://www.pagesjaunes.fr/pj.cgi?lang=en Yellow Pages] - Business phone numbers from France Télécom
*[http://www.dover-to-calais.com Ferry to France]
*[http://www.parks.it/world/FR/Eindex.html Parks in France] - National parks, nature parks, reserves and other protected areas in France
*[http://www.windowtofrance.com/ Portal to France]
*[http://www.chambresdhotesfrance.com/ Chambres D'Hotes guide]
{{col-2}}
===Getting Around France===
*[http://www.sncf.co.uk Book rail travel in France from the UK]
*[http://www.enjoyfrance.com Travel to France] - Travel around France
*[http://www.justfrance.org Travel France] - France travel guide
*[http://www.provence-hideaway.com/index.html Provence-Hideaways] France - Provence
*[http://www.destination360.com/europe/france/france.php France Travel Guide ] - Guide and Photos.
===Maps and travel guides===
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.map-of-france.co.uk Map of France] - Maps of France and its ''régions''
*[http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/france/map.html Physical Map of France]
{{col-end}}
{{France ties}}
[[Category:France| ]]
[[af:Frankryk]]
[[als:Frankreich]]
[[ang:Francland]]
[[ar:فرنسا]]
[[an:Franzia]]
[[ast:Francia]]
[[bg:Франция]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hoat-kok]]
[[be:Францыя]]
[[bs:Francuska]]
[[br:Frañs]]
[[ca:França]]
[[co:Francia]]
[[cs:Francie]]
[[cy:Ffrainc]]
[[da:Frankrig]]
[[de:Frankreich]]
[[et:Prantsusmaa]]
[[el:Γαλλία]]
[[es:Francia]]
[[eo:Francio]]
[[eu:Frantzia]]
[[fa:فرانسه]]
[[fr:France]]
[[fy:Frankryk]]
[[ga:An Fhrainc]]
[[gd:An Fhraing]]
[[gl:Francia - France]]
[[gu:ફ્રાઁસ]]
[[ko:프랑스]]
[[ht:Frans]]
[[hy:Ֆրանսիա]]
[[hi:फ़्राँस]]
[[hr:Francuska]]
[[io:Francia]]
[[id:Prancis]]
[[ia:Francia]]
[[is:Frakkland]]
[[it:Francia]]
[[he:צרפת]]
[[ka:საფრანგეთი]]
[[ks:फ्रांस]]
[[kw:Pow Frynk]]
[[ku:Fransa]]
[[la:Francia]]
[[lv:Francija]]
[[lt:Prancūzija]]
[[lb:Frankräich]]
[[li:Frankriek]]
[[hu:Franciaország]]
[[mk:Франција]]
[[mg:Frantsa]]
[[mr:फ्रांस]]
[[ms:Perancis]]
[[mn:Франц улс]]
[[na:France]]
[[nl:Frankrijk]]
[[nds:Frankriek]]
[[ja:フランス]]
[[no:Frankrike]]
[[nn:Frankrike]]
[[oc:França]]
[[os:Франц]]
[[pl:Francja]]
[[pt:França]]
[[ro:Franţa]]
[[rm:Frantscha]]
[[ru:Франция]]
[[sa:फ्रांस]]
[[sc:Frantza]]
[[sco:Fraunce]]
[[st:France]]
[[sq:Franca]]
[[scn:Francia]]
[[simple:France]]
[[sk:Francúzsko]]
[[sl:Francija]]
[[sr:Француска]]
[[fi:Ranska]]
[[sv:Frankrike]]
[[tl:Pransya]]
[[ta:பிரான்ஸ்]]
[[th:ประเทศฝรั่งเศส]]
[[vi:Pháp]]
[[tpi:Pranis]]
[[tr:Fransa]]
[[uk:Франція]]
[[ur:فرانس]]
[[zh:法国]]
[[fiu-vro:Prantsusmaa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FrodoBaggins</title>
<id>10583</id>
<revision>
<id>15908385</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-23T15:02:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ed Poor</username>
<id>188</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frodo Baggins]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frodo Baggins</title>
<id>10584</id>
<revision>
<id>41932798</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:44:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ASchmoo</username>
<id>400981</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* In ''The Lord of the Rings'' */ dab fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Frodo [[Baggins]]''' is the main [[fictional character|character]] of [[J. R. R. Tolkien|J. R. R. Tolkien's]] monumental and mythological novel, ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''. He is a [[Hobbit]] (or halfling), born on [[September 22]] of the year 2968 of the [[Third Age]] (T.A.) to Drogo Baggins and [[Primula Brandybuck]]. He spent most of his life in [[The Shire]].
{{spoiler}}
{|align=right
|-
|{{Infobox LOTR |
image_character = Frodo.jpg |
image_caption = [[Elijah Wood]] portrays '''Frodo Baggins''' in
[[Peter Jackson]]'s ''[[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|The Lord of the Rings]]'' trilogy. |
character_name = Frodo Baggins |
character_alias = Ring-bearer, Mr. Underhill |
character_title = Mayor of [[The Shire]]|
character_race = [[Hobbit]] |
character_culture = [[Hobbit]], Shire-hobbit |
character_gender = male |
character_realm = Eriador |
character_sub_realm = ([[The Shire]]),([[Hobbiton]])|
character_lifespan = [[September]] 22, 2968 [[Third Age|T.A.]] - ? |
character_weapon = [[Sting (Middle-earth)|Sting]]|
character_actor = Elijah Wood |
}}
|}
== Background ==
In 2980 of the [[Third Age]] (T.A.), Frodo lost both his parents in a boating accident. Being a young minor of twelve he was taken in by his mother's family, the Brandybucks. In 2989, Frodo came under the guardianship of [[Bilbo Baggins]], whom he thinks of as his ''uncle'' (though Frodo was actually his first ''and'' second [[Cousin chart|cousin once removed]], since his mother is Bilbo's first cousin, and his father is Bilbo's [[second cousin]]). Frodo was twenty-one years old at the time, still far short of his coming of adult age at thirty-three. The childless Bilbo chose Frodo as his adoptive heir, and brought him to live at [[Bag End]].
==In ''The Lord of the Rings''==
Bilbo and Frodo share a common birthday on [[22 September]], but Bilbo is seventy-eight years Frodo's senior. At the opening of ''The Fellowship of the Ring'', Frodo and Bilbo are celebrating their Thirty-Third and Eleventy-First (111th) birthdays, respectively, on [[22 September]], T.A. 3001.
Frodo was entrusted with the keeping of the [[One Ring]] when Bilbo left for [[Rivendell]] after the celebration. [[Gandalf]] warned Frodo that the Ring must never be used and should be kept secret. (At the time, he was not yet certain that it was a [[Ring of Power]].) Frodo kept the Ring hidden for 17 years, until T.A. 3018, when Gandalf returned to confirm that it was indeed the [[One Ring]]. Gandalf sent him away with [[Sam Gamgee]], Frodo's gardener and eventually his dearest friend. Together with his cousins [[Peregrin Took|Pe
|
[Joseph Smith, Jr.]]. With the important assistance of [[Oliver Cowdery]] and [[Sidney Rigdon]], Smith dictated and published works of scripture, claimed to be visited by angels, and formed a new church. In part because of the rapid growth of the movement, and in part because of its distinct doctrines and practices, the early [[Latter Day Saint]]s encountered opposition wherever they gathered in numbers. In the first decades of their history, they gathered to and were driven from [[Kirtland, Ohio]], [[Independence, Missouri]], [[Far West, Missouri]], and [[Nauvoo, Illinois]]. Finally, on [[July 26]], [[1844]], their founding prophet was assassinated in a prison at [[Carthage, Illinois]].
After the death of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], there was some confusion over who should be his successor, leading to the formation of several factions. The largest group of [[Mormons]] followed [[Brigham Young]], the [[President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]]. A significant fraction, including the majority of Joseph Smith's family, followed other leaders, such as [[James J. Strang]], [[Sidney Rigdon]], [[Alpheus Cutler]], [[Lyman Wight]], [[William Smith (Mormonism)|William Smith]], and [[Granville Hedrick]]. Eventually, many of the scattered Latter Day Saints coalesced behind Joseph Smith's son [[Joseph Smith III]] to form the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, now the [[Community of Christ]], the second-largest Mormon denomination today.
''See'' '''[[History of the Latter Day Saint movement]].'''
==Migration to Utah and Colonization of the West (c. 1846 to c. 1856)==
Under the leadership of [[Brigham Young]], Church leaders planned to leave [[Nauvoo, Illinois]] in April of 1846, but amid threats from the state militia, they were forced to cross the Mississippi River in the cold of February. They eventually left the boundaries of the United States to what is now [[Utah]] where they founded [[Salt Lake City]].
The groups that left Illinois for Utah became known as the [[Mormon Pioneer]]s and forged a path to Salt Lake City known as the [[Mormon Trail]]. The arrival of the original Mormon Pioneers in the Salt Lake Valley on [[July 24]], [[1847]] is commemorated by the Utah State holiday Pioneer Day.
Groups of converts from the United States, Canada, Europe, and elsewhere were encouraged to gather to Utah in the decades following. Both the original Mormon migration and subsequent convert migrations resulted in much sacrifice and quite a number of deaths. Brigham Young organized a great colonization of the American West, with Mormon settlements extending from Canada to Mexico. Notable cities that sprang from early Mormon settlements include [[San Diego, California]] and [[Las Vegas, Nevada]].
===Brigham Young's early theocratic leadership===
Following the death of Joseph Smith, Brigham Young stated that the Church should be led by the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (see [[Succession crisis %28Mormonism%29#Conference of August 8, 1844|Succession Crisis]]). Later, after the migration to Utah had begun, Brigham Young was sustained as a member of the [[First Presidency]] on December 25, 1847, (Wilford Woodruff Diary, Church Archives), and then as [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|President of the Church]] on October 8, 1848. (Roberts, Comprehensive History of the Church, 3:318).
One of the reasons the Saints had chosen the Great Basin as a settling place was that the area was at the time outside the territorial borders of the [[United States]], which Young had blamed for failing to protect Mormons from political opposition from the states of [[Missouri]] and [[Illinois]]. However, in the [[1848]] [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]], [[Mexico]] [[Mexican Cession|ceded]] the area to the United States. As a result, Brigham Young sent emissaries to [[Washington, D.C.]] with a proposal to create a vast [[State of Deseret]], of which Young would naturally be the first governor. Instead, however, Congress created the much smaller [[Utah Territory]] in [[1850]], and Young was appointed governor in [[1851]]. Because of his religious position, however, Young exercised much more practical control over the affairs of Mormon and non-Mormon settlers than a typical territorial governor of the time.
==The Church's attempt to restructure society on the fringes of the United States (c. 1856 to c. 1890)==
===The Mormon Reformation===
In 1856-1858, the Church underwent what is commonly called the Mormon Reformation. ''See'' Peterson, Paul H. "The Mormon Reformation of 1856-1857: The Rhetoric and the Reality." 15 ''Journal of Mormon History'' 59-87 (1989).
===Early political conflicts between Mormons and outsiders===
*Early political leadership by Brigham Young
In 1857-1858, the Church was involved in a bloodless conflict with the U.S. government, entitled the [[Utah War]].
*Instatement of a non-Mormon territorial governor
In September 1857, paranoia over the Utah War led local officials in southern Utah to join with Indians to massacre a company of settlers traveling from Arkansas. See [[Mountain Meadows Massacre]].
===Brigham Young's later years===
====The church's final attempt to establish the United Order====
''Main article: [[United Order]]''
The church had attempted unsuccessfully to institute the [[United Order]] numerous times, most recently during the [[Mormon Reformation]]. In [[1874]], Young once again attempted to establish a permanent Order, which he now called the '''United Order of Enoch''' in at least 200 Mormon communities, beginning in [[St. George, Utah]] on [[February 9]], [[1874]].
There were a number of differences between the United Order of Enoch and the United Order established years earlier by Joseph Smith. In most cases, the United Order of Enoch was not a true [[religious communism]] as envisioned by Joseph Smith (with the notable exception of the organization established in [[Orderville, Utah]]), but was instead a producer [[cooperative]]. In Young's Order, producers would generally deed their property to the Order, and all members of the order would share the cooperative's net income, often divided into shares according to how much property was originally contributed. Sometimes, the members of the Order would receive wages for their work on the communal property.
Like the United Order established by Joseph Smith, Young's Order was short-lived. By the time of Brigham Young's death in [[1877]], most of these United Orders had failed. By the end of the [[19th Century]], the Orders were essentially extinct.
====The death of Brigham Young====
Brigham Young died in August 1877.
After the death of Brigham Young, the First Presidency was not reorganized until [[1880]], when Young was succeeded by President [[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]], who in the interim had served as [[President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]].
===Polygamy and the United States "Mormon question"===
''Main article: [[Plural marriage]]''
For several decades, polygamy was preached as [[God]]'s law. [[Brigham Young]], the Prophet of the church at that time, had quite a few wives, as did many other church leaders. The general membership required special authorization from their priesthood leader to engage in polygamy and such permission was granted sparsely (estimates say between 1% and 5% of the male membership).
This early practice of [[polygamy]] caused conflict between church members and the wider American society. In [[1854]] the Republican party referred in its platform to polygamy and [[slavery]] as the "twin relics of barbarism." In [[1862]], the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] enacted the [[Morrill Act]], signed by [[Abraham Lincoln]], which made bigamy a felony in the territories punishable by $500 or five years in prison. The law also permitted the confiscation of church property without just compensation. This law was not enforced however, by the Lincoln administration or by Mormon-controlled territorial probate courts. Moreover, as Mormon polygamist marriages were performed in secret, it was difficult to prove when a polygamist marriage had taken place. In the meantime, Congress was preoccupied with the [[American Civil War]].
In [[1874]], after the war, Congress passed the [[Poland Act]], which transferred jurisdiction over Morrill Act cases to federal prosecutors and courts, which were not controlled by Mormons. In addition, the Morrill Act was upheld in [[1878]] by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] in the case of ''[[Reynolds v. United States]]''. After ''Reynolds'', Congress became even more aggressive against polygamy, and passed the [[Edmunds-Tucker Act|Edmunds Act]] in [[1882]]. The Edmunds Act prohibited not just bigamy, which remained a felony, but also bigamous cohabitation, which was prosecuted as a misdemeanor, and did not require proof an actual marriage ceremony had taken place. The Act also vacated the [[Territory of Utah|Utah territorial]] government, created an independent committee to oversee elections to prevent Mormon influence, and disenfranchised any former or present polygamist. Further, the law allowed the government to deny civil rights to polygamists without a trial.
The Edmunds Act only made the Mormon leadership more determined to continue the practice of polygamy. On [[October 13]], [[1882]], church [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|president]] [[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]] pronounced a revelation (included in five foreign editions of the ''[[Doctrine and Covenants]]'', but not in any English-language edition), which required ''all'' [[Priesthood (Latter-day Saint)|priesthood]] officers to begin practicing polygamy if they had not already done so.
In [[1887]], Congress passed the [[Edmunds-Tucker Act]], which allowed prosecutors to force plural wives to testify against their husbands, abolished the right of women to vote, disincorporated the church, and c
|
| {{bold dark red|m}}an
|-
| {{IPA|n}} || [[Alveolar nasal]] || n || {{bold dark red|n}}ot
|-
| {{IPA|ɲ}} || [[Palatal nasal]] || nj || {{bold dark red|n}}ew
|-
| {{IPA|l}} || [[Alveolar lateral approximant]] || l || {{bold dark red|l}}aw
|-
| {{IPA|j}} || [[Palatal approximant]] || j || {{bold dark red|y}}es
|-
| {{IPA|ɫ}} || [[Velarized alveolar lateral approximant]] || ll || mi{{bold dark red|l}}k
|-
| {{IPA|r}} || [[Alveolar trill]] || rr || [[Spanish language|Spanish]] hie{{bold dark red|rr}}o
|-
| {{IPA|ɾ}} || [[Alveolar tap]] || r || [[Spanish language|Spanish]] a{{bold dark red|r}}o
|}
'''Notes:'''
*The affricates are pronounced as one sound (a stop and a fricative at the same point).
*The palatal stops ''q'' and ''gj'' are completely unknown to English, so the pronunciation guide is approximate. Palatal stops can be found in other European languages, for example, in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] (where these sounds are spelt ''ty'' and ''gy'' respectively).
*The palatal nasal ''nj'' corresponds to the sound of the Spanish ''ñ'' or the French or Italian digraph ''gn'' (as in ''gnocchi''). It is pronounced as one sound, not a nasal plus a glide.
*The ''ll'' sound is a velarised lateral, close to English "[[dark L]]".
*The contrast between flapped ''r'' and trilled ''rr'' is the same as in Spanish. English does not have any of the two sounds phonemically (but ''tt'' in ''butter'' is pronounced as a flap ''r'' in most American dialects).
*(1) The letter ''ç'' can be spelt ''ch'' on American English keyboards, both due to its English sound, but more importantly, due to analogy with Albanian ''xh, sh, zh.'' (Usually, however, it's spelt simply ''c'', which may cause confusion; however, meanings are usually understood).
===Vowels===
{|border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" class="wikitable"
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !! Description !! Written as !! Pronounced as in
|-
| {{IPA|i}} || [[Close front unrounded vowel]] || i || b{{bold dark red|ea}}d
|-
| {{IPA|ɛ}} || [[Open-mid front unrounded vowel]] || e || b{{bold dark red|e}}d
|-
| {{IPA|a}} || [[Open front unrounded vowel]] || a || c{{bold dark red|a}}r
|-
| {{IPA|ə}} || [[Schwa]] || ë || {{bold dark red|a}}lone
|-
| {{IPA|ɔ}} || [[Open-mid back rounded vowel]] || o || f{{bold dark red|ou}}r
|-
| {{IPA|y}} || [[Close front rounded vowel]] || y || h{{bold dark red|u}}rt
|-
| {{IPA|u}} || [[Close back rounded vowel]] || u || d{{bold dark red|oo}}m
|}
==Grammar==
Albanian [[noun]]s are [[inflection|inflected]] by [[Grammatical gender|gender]] ([[masculine]], [[feminine]] and [[neuter]]) and [[Grammatical number|number]] ([[singular]] and [[plural]]). There are 4 [[declension]]s with 5 cases ([[nominative]], [[dative]], [[accusative]], [[ablative]] and [[vocative]]), although the vocative only occurs with a limited number of words. The cases apply to both definite and indefinite nouns and there are numerous cases of [[syncretism]]. The equivalent of a [[genitive]] is formed by using the prepositions ''i/e/të/së'' with the dative.
The following shows the declension of the masculine noun ''mal'' (mountain):
{|border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" class="wikitable"
! !! '''Indefinite Singular''' !! '''Indefinite Plural''' !! '''Definite Singular''' !! '''Definite Plural'''
|-
| '''[[Nominative]]''' || mal (mountain) || male (mountains) || mali (the mountain) || malet (the mountains)
|-
| '''[[Accusative]]''' || mal || male || malin || malet
|-
| '''[[Genitive]]''' || i/e/të/së mali || i/e/të/së maleve || i/e/të/së malit || i/e/të/së maleve
|-
| '''[[Dative]]''' || mali || maleve || malit || maleve
|-
| '''[[Ablative]]''' || mali || maleve/malesh || malit || maleve
|}
The following table shows the declension of the feminine noun ''vajzë'' (girl)
{|border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" class="wikitable"
! !! '''Indefinite Singular''' !! '''Indefinite Plural''' !! '''Definite Singular''' !! '''Definite Plural'''
|-
| '''[[Nominative]]''' || vajzë (girl) || vajza (girls) || vajza (the girl) || vajzat (the girls)
|-
| '''[[Accusative]]''' || vajzë || vajza || vajzën || vajzat
|-
| '''[[Genitive]]''' || i/e/të/së vajze || i/e/të/së vajzave || i/e/të/së vajzës || i/e/të/së vajzave
|-
| '''[[Dative]]''' || vajze || vajzave || vajzës || vajzave
|-
| '''[[Ablative]]''' || vajze || vajzave/vajzash || vajzës || vajzave
|}
The article can be posited either before or after the noun as in many other [[Balkan languages]], for example [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]].
* The definite article can be in the form of noun suffixes, which vary with gender and case.
** For example in singular nominative, masculine nouns add ''-i'' or ''-u'':
*** ''mal'' (mountain) / ''mali'' (the mountain);
*** ''libër'' (book) / ''libri'' (the book);
*** ''zog'' (bird) / ''zogu'' (the bird).
** Feminine nouns take the suffix ''-(j)a'':
*** ''veturë'' (car) / ''vetura'' (the car);
*** ''shtëpi'' (house) / ''shtëpia'' (the house);
*** ''lule'' (flower) / ''lulja'' (the flower).
* Neuter nouns take ''-t''.
Albanian develops an analytical structure of the [[verb]]. Its complex system of [[mood]]s (6 types) and [[tense]]s (3 simple and 5 complex constructions) is distinguishing among other [[Balkan languages]]. There are two general types of [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]. In Albanian the Constituent Order is [[Subject Verb Object]] and negation is expressed by the particles ''nuk'' or ''s''' in front of the verb, for example:
* ''Toni nuk flet anglisht'' "Tony doesn't speak English";
* ''s'di'' "don't know".
In imperative sentences, the particle ''mos'' is used:
* ''mos harro'' "do not forget!".
==Vocabulary==
There are Albanian words which have cognates (of non-Latin origin) in [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and there is a theory that the language spoken by the [[Dacia]]ns before the Romanization was a language related to proto-Albanian.
Although there's no documentation on the Albanian language prior to the 15th century AD, it is widely assumed that [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Balkan Latin]] (which was the ancestor of Romanian and other Balkan Romance languages), would exert a great influence on Albanian. Examples of words borrowed from Latin: ''qytet < civitas'' (city), ''qiell < caelum'' (sky), ''mik < amicus'' (friend).
After the [[Slavs]] arrived in the [[Balkans]], another source of Albanian vocabulary were the [[Slavic languages]], especially [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]. The rise of the [[Ottoman Empire]] meant an influx of [[Turkish language|Turkish]] words; this also entailed the borrowing of Persian and Arabic words through Turkish. Some loanwords from Modern Greek also exist especially in the south of Albania. Also due to the large population of [[Roma people|Roma Gypsies]] in Albania words such as "jaan" or "xhan" in Albanian and [[Hindi]] mean the same thing which literally translates as "my life" or "my soul" but is also used to refer to a beloved one as "darling"
==Writing system==
:''Full article: [[Albanian alphabet]]''
Albanian has been written with many different alphabets since the 15th century. Originally, the Tosk dialect was written with the [[Greek alphabet]] and the Gheg dialect was written with the [[Latin alphabet]]. They have both also been written with the [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] version of the [[Arabic alphabet]], the [[Cyrillic alphabet]], and some local alphabets.
The modern [[Albanian alphabet]] was standardised in [[1909]], and is based on the [[Latin alphabet]], with the addition of the letters ''ë'', ''ç'', and nine [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s.
==History==
The place where the ancestors of today's Albanians lived in ancient Balkans is still uncertain, but they are usually identified with the ancient [[Illyrians]] or [[Thracians]]. The common vocabulary with Romanian suggests that the ancestors of the Albanians and Romanians lived close to each other in ancient times. Some scholars support a "theory of continuity", which says that the Albanians lived in the territory of current Albania. However, the low number of [[Doric Greek]] words and the high number of Latin borrowings suggests that the Albanians have lived well north of the [[Jirecek Line]], which divided the spheres of influence of Latin and Greek languages.
The oldest surviving document written in Albanian is "Formula e Pagëzimit" (Baptismal formula), written in [[1462]] in the Gheg dialect, and some [[New Testament]] verses from that period.
The oldest known Albanian printed book, ''[[Meshari]]'' [http://www.albanianliterature.com/html/authors/prose/buzuku.html] or missal, was written by [[Gjon Buzuku]], a [[Catholic]] cleric, in [[1555]]. The first Albanian school is believed to have been opened by [[Franciscan]]s in [[1638]] in [[Pdhanë]]. In [[1635]], [[Frang Bardhi]] wrote the first Latin-Albanian dictionary.
==Examples==
{|
|Albanian||''shqip''||{{IPA|/ʃcip/}}||(shkEEp)||[[media:Albanian shqip.ogg|listen]]
|-
|hello||''tungjatjeta''||{{IPA|/ˌtun&#x025F;aˈtj&#603;ta/}}||(tUhn-ngIAt-IEta)||[[media:Albanian tungjatjeta.ogg|listen]]
|-
|good-bye||''mirupafshim''||{{IPA|/ˈmiruˌpaf&#643;im/}}||(mEEr-Uh-pA-fshEEm)||[[media:Albanian mirupafshim.ogg|listen]]
|-
|please||''ju lutem''||{{IPA|/ju ˌluˈt&#603;m/}}||(iU LU-tehm)||[[media:Albanian ju lutem.ogg|listen]]
|-
|thank you||''faleminderit''||{{IPA|/faˈl&#603;minˌd&#603;rit/}}||(fAh-leh-mEE-nde-rEEt)||[[media:Albanian faleminderit.ogg|listen]]
|-
|that one||''atë''||{{IPA|/ˌaˈtə/}}||(ATEH)||[[media:Albanian atë.ogg|listen]]
|-
|how much?||''sa është?''||{{IPA|/sa ˌə&#643;ˈtə/}}||(sAh ush-te)||[[media:Albanian sa është.ogg|listen]]
|-
|English||''anglisht''||{{I
|
laves" of the constitution and have pressed for reform.
In December [[1989]], Christian Democrat [[Patricio Aylwin]], running as the candidate of the Concertacion (Coalition of parties including the Partido Demócrata Cristiano (DC), Partido Socialista de Chile (PS), Partido por la Democracia (PPD), Partido Radical Social-Demócrata(PRSD)), was elected president. In February 1991, the [[National Commission for Truth and Reconciliation]], established a year earlier by Aylwin, released its report of Human Rights Violations during the period of military dictatorship, known as the [[Rettig Report]] (after former Senator [[Raul Rettig]], president of the commission).
In the [[1993]] election, [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle]] of the Christian Democratic Party was elected president for a 6-year term leading the Concertacion coalition, and took office in March [[1994]].
A presidential election was held on December 12, 1999, but none of the six candidates obtained a majority, which led to an unprecedented runoff election on January 16, 2000. [[Ricardo Lagos Escobar]] of the Socialist Party and the Party for Democracy (PPD) led the Concertacion coalition to a narrow victory, with 51.32% of the votes. He was sworn in March 11, 2000, for a 6-year term.
In [[2002]] Chile signed an association agreement with the [[European Union]] (comprising FTA, political and cultural agreements), in 2003, an extensive free trade agreement with the [[United States]], and in [[2004]] with [[South Korea]], expecting a boom in import and export of local produce and becoming a regional trade-hub.
==Timeline==
[[1520]]: [[Ferdinand Magellan]] passes through the [[Straits of Magellan]], and becomes the first European to describe [[Patagonia]].
[[1536]]: [[Diego de Almagro]] arrives from [[Peru]], passing over the [[Andes]] to the valley of [[Copiapó]], and explores the central region of Chile as far as what will later become [[Santiago de Chile]]. Foundation of [[Valparaíso]].
[[1541]]: [[Pedro de Valdivia]] founds Santiago de Chile. In the following years, he (and others sent by him) founded [[La Serena, Chile|La Serena]] and [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]].
[[1546]]: Uprising of [[Michimalonco]], [[Mapuche]] chief: Santiago destroyed. Mapuche military leader [[Lautaro]] is captured by the Spanish.
[[1552]]: Lautaro, after six years of imprisonment by the Spanish, escape and teaches his people military strategy, including riding horses.
[[1553]]: Mapuche uprising under Lautaro. <!--is this the [[War of Arauco]]? -- [[User:Jmabel|Jmabel]] 06:22, Oct 8, 2004 (UTC) --> Pedro de Valdivia is killed, in the [[Disaster of Tucapel]].
[[1557]]: Death of Lautaro.
[[1598]]: "[[Disaster of Curalaba]]". Governor [[Ignacio García Oñez de Loyola]] killed in a Mapuche ambush.
[[1602]]: General uprising of the Mapuches under [[Pelantaro]]. All cities south of the [[River Biobío]] are destroyed.
[[1681]]: By royal decree, the [[Atacama]] desert is declared to be the border between the Captain-Generalship of Chile and the Viceroyalty of Peru.
[[1767]]: The Kingdom Spain exiles all [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]].
[[1776]]: The territories of [[Tucumán]], previously governed as part of Chile, become the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]]. (''See [[History of Argentina]].'')
[[1789]]: Start of the [[French Revolution]], which affected Europe and the Americas with its ideals.
[[1808]]: [[García Carrasco]], unpopular Governor of Chile. Spanish king [[Ferdinand VII]] is imprisoned by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] during his invasion of Spain.
[[1810]]: Imitating the ''juntista'' movement of the rest of [[Latin America]], the [[criollo]]s (people of Spanish ancestry, but not born in Spain) of Santiago de Chile proclaim a governing Junta.
[[1811]]: Tired of being circumvented by political intrigues, [[José Miguel Carrera]] takes power by military means and initiates a [[dictatorship]].
[[1812]]: Hostilities begin between the ''moderados'', led by [[Bernardo O'Higgins]], and the ''exaltados'', led by Carrera. Carrera institutes the first Chilean national symbols (flag, coat of arms, and national anthem), and Fray [[Camilo Henríquez]] begins to publish the ''[[Aurora de Chile]]'', the first Chilean newspaper. The [[Chilean Constitution of 1812]] comes into effect. Founding of the [[Logia Lautaro]].
[[1813]]: The Spanish send military expeditions (under [[Antonio Pareja]] and [[Gabino Gaínza]]) from the Viceroyalty of Peru. In the ensuing battles O'Higgins rises to be seen as a figure of great stature, overshadowing the continually less popular Carrera, who ultimately resigns. [[Francisco de la Lastra]] becomes Supreme Director.
[[1814]]: The "[[Disaster of Rancagua]]". [[Mariano Osorio]], in command of a third Spanish expedition, defeats O'Higgins ([[October 1]] &ndash; [[October 2|2]]. Osorio reconquers Santiago for Spain. Exodus of Chilean patriots to [[Mendoza]], [[Argentina]], where they receive the support of [[José de San Martín]]. Those patriots who remain in Chile are captured by the Spaniards are deported to the [[Archipiélago Juan Fernández]]. Osorio is confirmed Governor of Chile by the Viceroy [[Fernando de Abascal]] of Peru. The ''[[talavera]]s'', under the command of San Bruno, install a regime of terror extending to those merely suspected of sympathy for the Chilean cause.
[[1815]]: [[guerrilla warfare|Guerrilla]] resistance against the Spanish begins, led by [[Manuel Rodríguez Erdoiza]], and other spies such as [[Justo Estay]]. Increasing enmity between Osorio and Abascal leads Abascal to replace Osorio with [[Casimiro Marcó del Pont]].
[[1817]]: [[Battle of Chacabuco]]. O'Higgins defeats [[Rafael Maroto]], reconquering Santiago. Captain San Bruno, hated chief of the ''talaveras'', is captured and &mdash; less than 24 hours later &mdash; executed by [[firing squad]]. O'Higgins becomes dictator.
[[1818]]: O'Higgins signs the [[Chilean Declaration of Indepencence]] ([[February 12]]). Shortly afterwards, in the [[Battle of Maipú]], a new military expedition led by Mariano Osorio is defeated, and Chile definitively obtains independence ([[April 5]]). The rivalry between O'Higgins and Manuel Rodríguez ends with the ambush and assassination of the latter in [[Tiltil]]. The brothers [[Juan José Carrera|Juan José]] and [[José Luis Carrera]] are shot in Argentina, probably on the orders of O'Higgins or the Logia Lautaro.
[[1821]]: [[José Miguel Carrera]] arrested as a ''montonero'' (mounted rebel/bandit) in Argentina, and exectuted in Mendoza.
[[1822]]: Military expedition to Peru. San Martín undertakes a prudent military campaign, enters Lima, but sees the impossibility of crushing the last Spanish redoubts, a job that is left for [[Simón Bolívar]] and [[Antonio José de Sucre]].
The [[Chilean Constitution of 1822]] comes into effect.
[[1823]]: [[Ramón Freire]] leads a military expedition from Concepción to Santiago and forces O'Higgins to resign. He goes into exile in Peru, where he dies in [[1842]]. Freire assumes power.
[[1825]]: Taking advantage of the unsurveyed border, and ignoring the royal decree of 1681 and the principal ''[[uti possidetis]]'', Simón Bolívar grants the port of [[Cobija]] to Bolivia. This gives Bolivia an outlet to the sea between Chile and Peru, which it will retain until the [[War of the Pacific]].
[[1826]]: Freire resigns, initiating an interregnum know as [[The Anarchy (Chile)|The Anarchy]]. First attempt in Chile of federal (as against centralized) government, led by the first president of Chile [[Manuel Blanco Encalada]], and the federalist [[José Miguel Infante]].
[[1828]]: [[Francisco Antonio Pinto]] assumes power after the resignation of Encalada and his predecesors. [[Chilean Constitution of 1828]].
[[1829]]: [[Chilean Revolution of 1829]]. After several battles, [[Joaquín Prieto]] defeats [[Ramón Freire]] in the [[Battle of Lircay]].
[[1830]]: [[Diego Portales]] begins to clandestinely remodel Chilean institutionality, converting it into an authoritarian republic.
[[1831]]: [[José Joaquín Prieto]] becomes president of Chile. He will serve two consecutive five-year terms. With him, the so-called ''decenios'' (decade-long reigns) begin, which continue until [[1871]]. This 30-year [[Conservative Party (Chile)|Conservative Party]] hegemony is sometimes referred to as the [[Authoritarian Republic]].
[[1832]]: Discovery of mineral deposits in [[Chañarcillo]], and the beginning of the rise of silver in what was then el Norte Chico and now constitutes the [[Atacama Region of Chile|Atacama]] and [[Coquimbo Region of Chile|Coquimbo]] [[regions of Chile]]). The mining fortunes constitute an important source of power in the following decades.
[[1833]]: [[Chilean Constitution of 1833]]. "Portalian" &mdash; that is, inspired by Diego Portales &mdash; definitively fixed Chilean institutions.
[[1836]]: [[Juan Egaña]] declares the war on the[[Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation]].
[[1837]]: Diego Portales is assassinated by mutinous soldiers in [[Quillota]]. A Chilean military expedition debarks in Perú, beginning a war with the [[Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation]].
[[1839]]: [[Battle of Yungay]] and defeat of the Confederation.
[[1840]]: [[The Vatican]] acknowleges the [[Independence of Chile]]
[[1841]]: [[Manuel Bulnes]], victorious marshall of the Battle of Yungay, elected president of Chile.
[[1842]]: [[Intellectual movement of 1842 (Chile)|Important intellectual movement]] registered this year. A great number of teachers, thinkers, profesors, and wise men arrive to the country <!-- "arrive to the country" makes no sense, nor is it a literal translation of meaningful Spanish, what does this mean to say? --> and establish societies.
[[1843]]: [[University of Chile]] founded. It will become on of the country's two most prestigious university. along with the [[Catholic University of Chile]], which was founded years lat
|
] for a list of collating rules for Latin-based alphabets.
Languages that used a [[syllabary]] or [[abugida]] instead of an alphabet (for example, [[Cherokee language|Cherokee]]) can use approximately the same system if there is a set ordering for the symbols.
===Radical-and-stroke sorting===
[[Image:Character_Palette.png|right|246px|thumbnail|The [[Character Palette]] from [[Mac OS X]] is an example of use of radical-and-stroke sorting on a computer to provide an interface to input Chinese, Japanese, and Korean characters]]
Another form of collation is '''radical-and-stroke sorting''', used for non-alphabetic writing systems such as [[Chinese language|Chinese]] logographs and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] [[kanji]], whose thousands of symbols defy ordering by convention. In this system, common components of characters are identified; these are called [[radical (Chinese character)|radicals]] in Chinese and logographic systems derived from Chinese.
Characters are then grouped by their primary radical, then ordered by number of pen strokes within radicals. When there is no obvious radical or more than one radical, convention governs which is used for collation. For example, the Chinese character for "mother" (&#23229;) is sorted as a thirteen-stroke character under the three-stroke primary radical (&#22899;).
The radical-and-stroke system is cumbersome compared to an alphabetical system in which there are a few characters, all unambiguous. The choice of which components of a logograph comprise separate radicals and wich radical is primary is not clear-cut. As a result, logographic languages often supplement radical-and-stroke ordering with alphabetic sorting of a phonetic conversion of the logographs.
For example, the kanji word ''''Tōkyō'' (&#26481;&#20140;), the Japanese name of [[Tokyo]] can be sorted as if it were spelled out in the Japanese alphabet as "to-u-ki-<sub>yo</sub>-u" (&#12392;&#12358;&#12365;&#12423;&#12358;).
Nevertheless, the radical-and-stroke system is the only practical method for constructing dictionaries that someone may use to look up a logograph whose pronunciation is unknown.
===Multilingual ordering===
When lists of names or words need to be ordered, but the context does not define a particular single language or alphabet, the [[Unicode Collation Algorithm]] provides a way to put them in sequence.
==Complications==
===Compound words and special characters===
A complication in alphabetical sorting can arise due to disagreements over how groups of words (separated [[Compound (linguistics)|compound word]]s, [[name]]s, [[title]]s, etc.) should be ordered. One rule is to remove spaces for purposes of ordering, another is to consider a [[space (punctuation)|space]] as a character that is ordered before numbers and letters (this method is consistent with ASCII-ordering), and a third is to order a space after numbers and letters. Given the following strings to alphabetize &mdash; "catch", "cattle", "cat food" &mdash; the first rule produces "catch" "cat food" "cattle", the second "cat food" "catch" "cattle", and the third "catch" "cattle" "cat food". The first rule is used in most (but not all) [[Dictionary|dictionaries]], the second in [[Telephone directory|telephone directories]] (so that Wilson, Jim K appears with other people named Wilson, Jim and not after Wilson, Jimbo). The third rule is rarely used.
A similar complication arises when special characters such as [[hyphen]]s or [[apostrophe]]s appear in words or names. Any of the same rules as above can be used in this case as well; however, the strict ASCII sorting no longer corresponds exactly to any of the rules.
===Name/Surname ordering===
The telephone directory example sheds light on another complication. In cultures where [[family name]]s are written after [[given name]]s, it is usually still desired to sort by family name first. In this case, names need to be reordered to be sorted properly. For example, Juan Hernandes and Brian O'Leary should be sorted as Hernandes, Juan and O'Leary, Brian even if they are not written this way. Capturing this rule in a computer collation algorithm is difficult, and simple attempts will necessarily fail. For example, unless the algorithm has at its disposal an extensive list of family names, there is no way to decide if "Gillian Lucille van der Waal" is "van der Waal, Gillian Lucille", "Waal, Gillian Lucille van der", or even "Lucille van der Waal, Gillian".
In telephone directories in English speaking countries, surnames beginning with Mc are sometimes sorted as if starting with Mac and placed between "Mabxxx" and "Madxxx". Under these rules, the telephone directory order of the following names would be: Maam, McAllan, Macbeth, MacCarthy, McDonald, Macy, Mboko.
===Abbreviations and common words===
When abbreviations are used, it is sometimes desired to expand the abbreviations for sorting. In this case, "St. Paul" comes before "Shanghei". Obviously, to capture this behavior in a collation algorithm, we need a list of abbreviations. It may be more practical in some cases to store two sets of strings, one for sorting and one display. A similar problem arises when letters are replaced by numbers or special symbols in an irregular manner, for example 1337 for [[leet]] or the movie ''[[Seven (movie)|Se7en]]''. In this case, proper sorting necessitates keeping two sets of strings.
In certain contexts, very common words (such as [[article (grammar)|article]]s) at the beginning of a sequence of words are not considered for ordering, or are moved to the end. So "[[The Shining]]" is considered "Shining" or "Shining, The" when alphabetizing and therefore is ordered before "[[Summer of Sam]]". This rule is fairly easy to capture in an algorithm, but many programs rely instead on simple lexicographic ordering. One fairly quaint exception to this rule, is the flying of the flag of [[Republic of Macedonia |The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]]; at the [[United Nations]], between those of [[Thailand]], and [[East Timor |Timor Leste]].
===Numerical sorting of strings===
Sometimes, it is desired to order text with embedded numbers using proper numerical order. For example, "Figure 7b" goes before "Figure 11a". This can be extended to [[Roman numeral]]s. This behavior is not particularly difficult to produce as long as only integers are to be sorted, although it can slow down sorting significantly.
For example, [[Windows XP]] does this when sorting [[file name]]s (much to the annoyance of some people who are used to a simple lexicographic ordering). Sorting decimals properly is a bit more difficult, due to the fact that different locales use different symbols for a [[decimal separator|decimal point]], and sometimes the same character used as a decimal point is also used as a separator, for example "Section 3.2.5". There is no universal answer for how to sort such strings; any rules are application dependent.
----
==See also==
*[[Unicode collation algorithm]]
*[[Lexicographic order]]
*See El Amarna, EA letters, referenced at [[Amarna Letters]].
==External links and references==
*[http://www.unicode.org/unicode/reports/tr10/ Unicode Collation Algorithm]: Unicode Technical Standard #10
*Collation in Spanish (http://spanish.about.com/library/weekly/aa092099.htm#letters)
*[http://www.un.org/Overview/unmember.html] Collation of the names of the member states of the United Nations
==Tools==
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/manual/html_chapter/coreutils_7.html#SEC28 sort] The GNU implementation of the standard Unix sort utility.
*[http://billposer.org/Software/msort.html msort] A sort program that provides an unusual level of flexibility in defining collations and extracting keys.
[[Category:Information science]]
[[cs:Abecední řazení]]
[[de:Sortierung]]
[[fr:Classement alphabétique]]
[[gl:Clasificación alfabética]]
[[is:Stafrófsröð]]
[[fi:Aakkosjärjestys]]
[[pt:Ordem alfabética]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Civil Rights Act</title>
<id>7490</id>
<revision>
<id>32806085</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-26T22:28:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up and re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Several [[United States]] laws have been called the '''Civil Rights Act''':
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1866]] aimed to buttress Civil Rights Laws to protect freedmen and to grant full citizenship to those born on U.S. soil except [[Native Americans in the United States|Indian]]s. While President [[Andrew Johnson]] vetoed the bill, the veto was overridden by [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]].
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1871]] was also known at the time as the "[[Ku Klux Klan]] Act" because one of main reasons for its passage was to protect southern blacks from the KKK by providing a civil remedy for abuses then being committed in the south.
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1875]] guaranteed [[African American|blacks]] the same treatment as [[whites]] in certain public places.
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]] established a [[Civil Rights Commission]] (CRC) to protect individuals rights to [[equal protection]] and permitted courts to grant injunctions in support of the CRC.
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1960]] established federal inspection of local voter registration rolls
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] was a landmark law protecting black people from job and other forms of discrimination.
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1968]] prohibited
|
ef), of Buddhists (no meat of animal), and of Discordians (no Hot Dog Buns).
#A Discordian shall Partake of No Hot Dog Buns, for Such was the Solace of Our Goddess when She was Confronted with The Original Snub.
#A Discordian is Prohibited from Believing What he reads.
The Pentabarf is the most fundamental of all Discordian catma. ("Catma" is a general term for Discordian teachings, sayings, quotations, explanations, jokes and illustrations, as distinguished from Discordian "[[dogma]]", which consists of certain specific passages from ''The Honest Book of Truth'', cited in ''Principia''.)
<!-- Moved the quotes section to [[Principia Discordia]]. -->
==Flax ==
In the Principia Discordia, "Five [[ton]]s of [[flax]]" is given as the answer to the question, "Is there an essential meaning behind POEE?" (This is a reference to a [[Zen]] story about "Three pounds of flax.") Discordians have since taken "Five tons of flax" as an absurd slogan or as a universal answer to philosophical questions.
==The pineal gland==
"Consult your [[pineal gland]]" is a common saying in Discordianism. Some Discordians seem to regard the pineal gland as the source of answers to life's most difficult questions. Although it has never been proven, the pineal gland is believed to produce trace amounts of DMT ([[dimethyltryptamine]]), a [[psychedelic]] chemical which is believed to play a role in [[dreaming]] and other mystical states. It should also be noted that the pineal gland was also used in [[Descartes]]'s explanation of [[Cartesian Dualism]] as the "seat of the soul" and the connection between the material and immaterial world. And in some cases it is refered to as "the atrophied third eye"
<!-- fnord -->
==Discordianism as a religion==
While it is unclear whether Discordianism was originally intended to be taken seriously, a number of its members are still active in the Discordian Movement and consider themselves to be practicing Discordians. While Discordianism is separate from modern [[neopaganism]], a number of neopagans have incorporated elements of Discordianism into their beliefs. In addition, Neopagan author [[Margot Adler]] discussed Discordianism in her book, ''[[Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today|Drawing Down the Moon]]'', while religious authority [[J. Gordon Melton]] lists Discordianism among various Neopagan groups in his ''[[Encyclopedia Of American Religions]]''. (Melton claims to have excommunicated all other Discordians, based on the fact that he is a Discordian Pope.)
== See also ==
* Discordian Texts and Scripture
** ''[[Principia Discordia]]''
** ''[[Apocrypha Discordia]]''
** ''[[Summa Discordia]]''
** ''[[The Book of Eris]]''
** ''[[Book 5 (The Zenarchist's Cookbook)]]''
** ''[[Metaclysmia Discordia]]''
** ''[[The Honest Book of Truth]]''
** ''[[The Book of the Apocalypso]]''
** ''[[The Book of Inconveniences]]''
* Texts inspired by Discordianism
** ''[[Illuminatus trilogy]]''
** ''[[Schrödinger's Cat trilogy]]''
** ''[[A Discordian Coloring Book]]''
** ''[[Zen Without Zen Masters]]''
** ''[[The Dead Father]]''
** ''[[Agent of Chaos]]''
* Discordian concepts and personages
** [[Eris]]
** [[Malaclypse the Younger|Malaclypse The Younger]]
** [[Discordian calendar]]
** [[Discordian Pope]]
** [[Fnord]]
* Things significant in Discordianism
** [[Emperor Norton]]
** [[Pineal gland]]
** [[Hot dog]]
** [[Flax]]
** [[Bowling|Bowling alleys]]
* Similar religions
** [[Church of the SubGenius]]
** [[MOOism|The Church of MOO]]
* Related Concepts
** [[Surrealism]]
** [[Zenarchy]]
** [[Operation Mindfuck]] - Discordian [[culture jamming]]
== External links ==
* [http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/disc.html Description of Discordianism] from the Religious Movements Page at [[University of Virginia|UVA]]
* [http://www.poee.org POEE.org]
* [http://www.poee.co.uk POEE.co.uk]
* [http://www.principiadiscordia.com PrincipiaDiscordia.com] - contains the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'' in [[HTML]]. Also has Discordian [[message boards]] and some amusing [[Portable Document Format|PDF]]s.
* [http://www.principiadiscordia.org PrincipiaDiscordia.org] - contains the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'', 4th and 5th Editions, in Page Scans, along with a [[Wiki]] and a [[message boards|message board]].
* [http://www.principia-discordia.de Principia-Discordia.de] - contains the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'' translated to German in [[HTML]]. Also has an Discordian Shop.
* [http://jubal.westnet.com/hyperdiscordia/ HyperDiscordia] - "Confusion for a New Generation"
* [http://www.verthaine.sphosting.com/1.html Discordianism/Erisianism] The history and philosophy of Discordianism and Erisianism.
* [http://www.kbuxton.com/discordia/ Very detailed hub; lots of links]
* [http://singlenesia.com/links/ Discordian Directory]
* [http://evilloop.com/principia.discordia.html Traduction française] du ''Principia Discordia'' et [http://evilloop.com/principia.discordia.exe projecteur flash] avec images et mise en page de l'original
* [http://is-root.de/wiki/index.php/Discordian_Cabals Discordian Cabals Database]
* [http://groups.google.com/group/talk.politics.libertarian/msg/86370c52c890d7d7?dmode=source Historia Discordia]
[[Category:Discordianism]]
[[Category:Joke religions]]
[[Category:New religious movements]]
[[cs:Diskordianismus]]
[[de:Diskordianismus]]
[[es:Discordianismo]]
[[it:Discordianesimo]]
[[nl:Discordianisme]]
[[pl:Discordia]]
[[pt:Discordianismo]]
[[ru:Дискордианизм]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Disjunction introduction</title>
<id>8528</id>
<revision>
<id>30199675</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-05T07:03:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiy</username>
<id>81090</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>recat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Disjunction introduction''' or '''Addition''' is a [[validity|valid]], simple [[argument form]] in [[logic]]:
:A.
:Therefore, A or B.
or in [[logical operator]] ([[sequent]]) notation:
:<math> A \vdash A \or B </math>
The argument form has one premise, A, and an unrelated proposition, B. From the premise it can be logically concluded that either A or B is true, or both are true.
Here is an example of such an argument:
:[[Democracy]] is the best system of [[government]].
:Therefore democracy is the best system of government or everyone should vote.
[[Category:Rules of inference]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Disjunction elimination</title>
<id>8529</id>
<revision>
<id>30825048</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-10T15:11:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GregorB</username>
<id>179697</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Category:Mathematical logic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[propositional calculus]] '''disjunction elimination''' is the inference that, if "A or B" is true, and A entails C, and B entails C, then we may justifiably infer C. The reasoning is simple: since at least one of the statements A and B is true, and since either of them would be sufficient to entail C, C is certainly true.
For example, it is true that either I'm inside or I'm outside. It is also true that if I'm inside, I have my wallet on me. It's also true that if I'm outside, I have my wallet on me. Given these three premises, it follows that I have my wallet on me.
Formally:
( A &or; B )
( A &rarr; C )
<u>( B &rarr; C )</u>
&there4; C
[[Category:Mathematical logic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dead Sea</title>
<id>8530</id>
<revision>
<id>42012286</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:20:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Chemistry and health effects */ fixes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aerial jordan.jpg|frame|right|The Jordan River flowing into the Dead Sea]]
The '''Dead Sea''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] البحر الميت, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ים המלח) is the [[Extremes on Earth|lowest]] exposed point on the [[Earth]]'s surface. It is on the border between the [[West Bank]], [[Israel]], and [[Jordan]] on the [[Jordan Rift Valley]]. This [[endorheic]] body of water is the deepest hypersaline lake in the world.
The Dead Sea is 67 km long, up to 18 km wide and 799 m below [[sea level]] in depth at its deepest point. The surface of the Dead Sea is at an [[elevation]] of 394.6 m (1269 ft) below sea level (2005 figure).
The Dead Sea has attracted interest and visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years. It was a place of refuge for [[King David]], it was one of the world's first health resorts for [[Herod the Great]], and it has been the supplier of products as diverse as balms for Egyptian [[mummy|mummification]] to [[potash]] for fertilizers.
In Hebrew the Dead Sea is called the ''{{Audio|He-Dead_Sea.ogg|Yam ha-Melah}}'' - meaning "sea of [[salt]]", or ''Yam ha-Mavet'' - meaning "sea of death". In past times it was the "Eastern Sea" or the "Sea of Arava". In [[Arabic language|Arabic]] the Dead Sea is called {{Audio|ArDeadSea.ogg|''Al Bahr al Mayyit''}} meaning "the Dead Sea", or less commonly ''Bahr Lūţ'' meaning "the Sea of [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]]". Historically, another Arabic name was the "Sea of Zoar", after a nearby town. To the Greeks, the Dead Sea was "Lake ''Asphaltites''" (see below).
== Natural history ==
The Dead Sea is located in the [[Dead Sea Rift]], that is part of a long [[Rift (geology)|fissure]] in the Earth's surface called the [[Great Rift Valley]]. The 6000 km (3700 mile) long Great Rift Valley extends from the
|
;, in E. Caianiello (ed.), ''The Physics of Cognitive Processes''. Teaneck, NJ: World Scientific, 1987.
*"''Speechstuff and thoughtstuff: Musings on the resonances created by words and phrases via the subliminal perception of their buried parts''", in Sture Allen (ed.), ''Of Thoughts and Words: The Relation between Language and Mind. Proceedings of the Nobel Symposium 92'', London/New Jersey: World Scientific Publ., 1995, 217-267.
*"''On seeing A's and seeing As.''", ''Stanford Humanities Review'' 4,2 (1995) pp. 109-121.
*"''Analogy as the Core of Cognition''", in [[Dedre Gentner]], Keith J. Holyoak, and [[Boicho Kokinov]] (eds.) ''The Analogical Mind: Perspectives from Cognitive Science'', Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press/Bradford Book, 2001, pp. 499-538.
*Hofstadter also wrote over 50 papers that were published through the [[Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition]], See [http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/phard.html].
===Involvement in other books===
Hofstadter wrote forewords for or edited the following books:
*''[[The Mind's I]]'' (co-edited with [[Daniel Dennett]]) (ISBN 0465030912)
*''[[Alan Turing: The Enigma]]'' by [[Andrew Hodges]]. (Preface)
*''Gödel's Proof'' ([[2002]] revised edition) by [[Ernest Nagel]] and [[James R. Newman]], edited by Hofstadter (ISBN 0814758169). Hofstadter claimed the book (originally published in [[1958]]) was highly influential to his thinking during his early years.
*''[[Who invented the computer? The legal battle that changed computing history.]]'' ([[2003]]) by Alice Rowe Burks.
*''[[Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker]]'' by [[Christof Teuscher]] (Editor)
===Miscellaneous===
*The film ''[[Victim of the Brain]]'' was based on Hofstadter's work, and was co-directed by philosopher [[Daniel Dennett]], who co-authored ''[[The Mind's I]]'' with him.
*He published an audio [[compact disc|CD]] with [[piano]] music composed by himself and performed by Jane Jackson, Brian Jones, Dafna Barenboim, Gitanjali Mathur and himself.
== Students ==
Some of Hofstadter's former students have also become famous:
*[[David Chalmers]] - philosopher of mind
*[[Melanie Mitchell]] - creator of [[Copycat (software)|Copycat]]
*[[Robert French]] - researches analogies
== Hofstadter's Law ==
In ''Gödel, Escher, Bach'', Hofstadter states the oft-cited Hofstadter's Law, a self-referencing [[adage]], which reads as follows:
:''It [a task] always takes longer than you expect, even when you take into account Hofstadter's Law''
== See also ==
*[[Kurt Gödel]]
*[[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]]
*[[M.C. Escher]]
*[[Johann Sebastian Bach]]
*[[Daniel Dennett]]
*[[Copycat (software)|Copycat software]]
*[[Egbert B. Gebstadter]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/people/homepages/hofstadter.html Douglas Hofstadter's home page]
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~alldrp/members/hofstadter.html Indiana University's Douglas Hofstadter webpage]
*[http://www.reenigne.org/review.html Online implementation of his ''Reviews of this Book'' idea]
[[Category:1945 births|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Living people|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Artificial intelligence researchers|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Science writers|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Cognitive scientists|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Puzzle designers|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:21st century philosophers|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Philosophers of mind]]
<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
{{Persondata
|NAME=Hofstadter, Douglas Richard
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American academic and author
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[February 15]], [[1945]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
[[de:Douglas R. Hofstadter]]
[[es:Douglas Hofstadter]]
[[fr:Douglas Hofstadter]]
[[he:דגלאס הופשטטר]]
[[it:Douglas Hofstadter]]
[[nl:Douglas Hofstadter]]
[[pl:Douglas Hofstadter]]
[[sv:Douglas Hofstadter]]
[[tr:Douglas Hofstadter]]
[[zh:道格拉斯·理查·郝夫斯臺特]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daemon</title>
<id>8759</id>
<revision>
<id>37959007</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T05:10:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Epastore</username>
<id>572603</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixed link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Daemon''' has several meanings:
*[[Daemon (mythology)]] - see also [[Demon]]
*[[Daemon (computer software)]], a background process
*[[Dæmon (His Dark Materials)]] in the [[Philip Pullman]] trilogy of novels ''[[His Dark Materials]]''
*[[Daemon (Warhammer)]]
*[[Daemon (Warcraft)]]
*Daemon Sadi (SaDiablo) is a character in the [[Black Jewels Trilogy]] by [[Anne Bishop]].
*''[[The Dæmons]]'' is a serial in the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[science fiction on television|science fiction television]] series ''[[Doctor Who]]''
*[[Daemon (Digimon)]]
*Daemon is a character in the TV series [[ReBoot#Characters|ReBoot]].
*The [[BSD Daemon]] is the BSD operating system's mascot.
*[[Daemon (band)|Daemon]] is a Swedish [[death metal]] band.
*Daimon is a computerized sub-personality in the novel ''[[Aristoi (novel)|Aristoi]]''
==See also==
*[[Daimon]] (alternate spelling)
*[[ZDaemon]] - A modern version of the game [[DOOM]]
''For more possible meanings see'' [[Demon (disambiguation)]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Depression and Mood Disorders</title>
<id>8760</id>
<revision>
<id>15906714</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-14T17:59:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Anome</username>
<id>76</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[mood disorder]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dahomey</title>
<id>8765</id>
<revision>
<id>37483748</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T06:57:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Crazysunshine</username>
<id>183402</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dahomey''' was a kingdom in [[Africa]], situated in what is now the nation of [[Benin]]. The kingdom was founded in the [[seventeenth century]] and survived until the late [[nineteenth century]], when it was conquered by [[French colonies|French]] troops from [[Senegal]] and incorporated into France's [[West Africa]]n [[colonialism|colonies]].
The origins of Dahomey can be traced back to a group of [[Aja people|Aja]] from the coastal kingdom of [[Allada]] who moved northwards and settled among the [[Fon people]] of the interior. By about [[1650]], the Aja managed to dominate the Fon and [[Wegbaja]] declared himself king of their joint territory. Based in his capital of [[Agbome]], Wegbaja and his successors succeeded in establishing a highly centralized state with a deep-rooted kingship [[cult]] of sacrificial offerings, including human sacrifices, to the ancestors of the monarch. All land was owned directly by the king, who collected taxes from all crops that were produced.
Economically, however, Wegbaja and his successors profited mainly from the [[slave trade]] and relations with slavers along the coast. As Dahomey's kings embarked on wars to expand their territory, they began using [[rifle]]s and other firearms traded with French and Spanish slave-traders for young men captured in battle, who fetched a very high price from the European slave-merchants. Under King [[Agadja]] (ruled [[1708]]-[[1732]]) the kingdom conquered Allada, where the ruling family originated, thereby gaining direct contact with European slave traders on the coast. Nevertheless, Agadja was unable to defeat the neighbouring kingdom of [[Oyo]], Dahomey's chief rival in the slave trade, and in [[1730]], he became a tributary of [[Oyo]], though he still managed to maintain Dahomey's independence.
Even as a tributary state, Dahomey continued to expand and flourish because of the slave trade and later through the export of palm oil from large plantations that emerged. Because of the economic structure of the kingdom, the land belonged to the king, who had a virtual monopoly on all trade.
As one of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey became extremely unpopular with neighbouring peoples. Historian [[Walter Rodney]] estimates that by c.1770, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling captive African soldiers and even his own people to the European slave-traders. Most of this money was spent on British-made firearms (of very poor quality) and industrial-grade alcohol. Dahomey was finally conquered by France in [[1892]]-[[1894]]. Most of the troops that fought against Dahomey were native African, and it has been surmised by several historians that neighbouring tribes, particularly the [[Yoruba]], were only too happy to bring about the Kingdom's collapse in favour of liberal [[France|French]] rule.
In [[1958]], Dahomey became an autonomous republic, and from there, it would gain full independence in [[1960]]. The Republic of Dahomey changed its name to Benin in [[1975]].
In [[1971]], American novelist [[Frank Yerby]] published ''[[The Man From Dahomey]]'', a historical novel set partially in Dahomey, which does a good job of unfolding Dahomean culture to the reader.
==Kings of Dahomey==
*[[Gangnihessou]] ???? - [[1620]]
*[[Dakodonou]], [[1620]]-[[1645]]
*[[Houegbadja]], [[1645]]-[[1685]]
*[[Akaba]], [[1685]]-[[1708]]
*[[Agadja]], [[1708]]-[[1732]]
*[[Tegbessou]], [[1732]]-[[1774]]
*[[Kpengla]], [[1774]]-[[1789]]
*[[Agonglo]], [[1789]]-[[1797]]
*[[Adandozan]], [[1797]]-[[1818]]
*[[Ghezo]], [[1818]]-[[1856]]
*[[Glele]], [[1856]]-[[1889]]
*[[Behanzin]], [[1889]]-[[1894]]
''See also:''
* [[Rulers of the Fon state of Danhome]]
* [[Dahomey Amazons]]
{{Former French colonies}}
[[Category:Dahomey| ]]
[[de:
|
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article represents only a narrow and limited range of actual human sexual behavior. Appropriate tag needed.''
:''This article is about sex acts and practices (i.e., physical sex). Broader aspects of sexual behavior such as [[social]] and [[psychological]] sexual issues are covered in related articles such as [[human sexuality]], [[heterosexuality]], and [[homosexuality]].''
[[Sexual activity]] in [[human]]s is an [[Instinct|instinctive]] form of [[physical intimacy]]. It may be performed for the purposes of [[reproduction]], spiritual [[transcendence]], expressing [[affection]], and/or having fun and enjoying oneself (known in this context as "sexual gratification"). [[libido|The desire to have sex]] is one of the [[motivation|basic drives]] of human behavior. Every animal species, and every human culture, has a range of conduct used in [[courtship]], [[intimacy]], and [[sexual activity]].
'''Human sexual behavior''' is therefore, the behaviors that [[human being]]s use, when seeking sexual or relational partners, gaining approval of possible partners, forming [[relationship]]s, showing [[affection]], and [[mating]].
It covers at least two major areas: [[anthropology]] (common or acepted practices across different cultures), and [[information]]al (background which is useful to individuals who may be engaged in, or considering, sexual activity)
==Aspects of human sexual behavior==
===Sexuality and sensuality===
There is no clear borderline between the sexual and nonsexual enjoyment of [[touching]] someone else's body. For example, [[holding hands]] may or may not have a sexual connotation, depending on [[culture]], situation and other factors. Although the most common form of [[heterosexuality | heterosexual]] [[sexual intercourse]] is universally regarded as sexual contact, there is a wide range of other sexual behaviors that may or may not be socially, legally, or ethically considered as ''sexual relations''. The distinction between the sexual and the nonsexual becomes relevant in judging appropriate behavior, in either a social setting or in the eyes of the law.
Some criteria that may be applied are:
*the body parts involved (see also [[intimate parts]])
*physical signs of [[sexual arousal]]
*subjective [[feeling]]
Enjoying touching someone else's body implies enjoying one's own body also; the latter may also happen without another person; enjoying one's own body also may or may not be of a sexual nature. If it is, it is called [[autoeroticism]].
The whole of one's sexual activities (including [[wet dream|erotic dreams]] and waking sexual [[fantasy|fantasies]] and [[daydream]]s) is called one's '''sex life'''.
=== Desire and fantasy ===
'''Sexual desire''' or '''[[libido]]''' is the desire for sexual behavior. Most people focus their sexual desire on someone that they have a sexual relationship with, or would desire to have a sexual relationship with. See also [[sexual arousal]], [[sexual orientation]].
Many people enjoy fantasizing about, or reading or viewing, or seeing depictions of, [[sexual fantasies]] that they may not wish to engage in themselves, or that they would be unable to engage in themselves; see [[pornography]] and [[erotica]].
=== Sexual relationships ===
Opinions and [[norm]]s vary about whether an emotional bond of a certain intensity and durability should be a prerequisite for sex (see also below).
Like other [[primate]]s, ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' use sexuality for reproduction and for maintenance of social bonds. It is widely believed that children are capable of feeling sexual pleasure, even if they are not yet able to engage in [[sexual intercourse]] with each other, and/or are not yet biologically able to reproduce. Yet, [[child sexuality]] has historically been severely limited in western societies; in the late 19th century, the [[hysteria]] surrounding so-called "self-abuse" ([[masturbation]]) among children reached its peak and fueled the adoption of [[circumcision]] (including [[female circumcision]]) in some cultures.
Many sexual activities can be engaged in by same sex or opposite sex partners. However some, most notably vaginal [[sexual intercourse]], can only be engaged in by partners of opposite sexes. And others, such as [[tribadism]] and [[frot|frication]] can only be engaged in by partners of the same sex.
=== Cultural aspects ===
As with other behaviors, human high intelligence and complex societies have produced the most complicated sexual behaviors of any animal. Most people experiment with a range of sexual activities during their lives, though they tend to engage in only a few of these regularly. Most people enjoy some sexual activities. However, most societies have defined some sexual activities as inappropriate (wrong person, wrong activity, wrong place, wrong time, etc.) Some people enjoy many different sexual activities, while others avoid sexual activities altogether for religious or other reasons (see [[chastity]], [[sexual abstinence]], [[asexuality]]). Historically, some societies and [[religions]] have viewed sex as appropriate only within [[marriage]]. There is still a widespread belief that sex acts are devalued when engaged in outside of a long-term, [[monogamous]] [[romantic relationship]], but extra-marital sexual activity and [[casual sex]] became increasingly accepted in modern society during the [[sexual revolution]].
=== Social norms and rules ===
Human sexual behavior, like many other kinds of activity engaged in by human beings, is generally governed by social rules that are culturally specific and vary widely (see [[sexual morality]], [[sexual norm]]s).
Some activities are actually illegal in some jurisdictions even between (or among) consenting and competent adults (see [[sex crime]], [[sodomy law]], [[incest]]).
Some people engage in various sexual activities as a business transaction; this is called [[prostitution]].
Nearly all societies consider it a serious crime to force someone to engage in sexual behavior or to engage in sexual behavior with someone who does not consent. This is called sexual assault, and in the case of sexual intercourse it is called [[rape]], the most serious kind of sexual assault. The details of this distinction may vary among different legal jurisdictions. Also, precisely what constitutes effective consent to have sex varies from culture to culture and is frequently debated. In particular laws regulating what constitutes consent, including the minimum age at which a person can consent to have sex, are frequently the subject of political and moral debate (see [[age of consent]]).
===Types of partner===
Sexual partners can cover many types, including:
* [[Friends with benefits]]
* "[[Fuck buddy|Fuck buddies]]"
* [[Boyfriend]] or [[girlfriend]]
* [[Casual partner]]s
* [[Marriage]] or other committed long term relationship
* [[Holiday romance]]s
* Illicit [[affair]]s
* [[Polyamory|Secondary or side relationships]]
Any of these may be explicit, or hidden, deceptive or honest, and may include [[fidelity]] or not.
It is also possible to engage in sexual activity without a partner, or (in some cases) without a knowing partner:
* [[Masturbation]]
* [[Sexual fantasy|Sexual fantasizing]]
* Several [[paraphilia]]s ([[transvestitism]], [[voyeurism]], [[frottage]], and so on)
== Partner selection process ==
A key sexual behavior throughout the entire animal kingdom is the seeking of a sex partner. Humans are no exception to this rule. A sexual encounter can be the result of the sending signals indicating readiness for sex, and being receptive to reciprocal signals. Or, it might be the result of years of planning, through the use of cultural rituals such as courtship and marriage.
Common methods:
* Arranged partnership - other adults (often parents) choose partners. In some cultures these are suggestions, in others, they carry the force of commands.
* Personal choice - a person chooses for themselves their own partner, according to their own wishes
* Status based roles - a high status person in some cultures may choose partners backed by the force of social custom, and low status persoons have little or no choice or expectation of avoiding the same. (For example, some employer-employee liaisons, and [[droit de signeur]])
* Mutual trade - [[prostitution]], or "both gain" type of arrangements.
Additionally, the pool of available and acceptable candidates may be limited, to own town, own religion, similar status, tactically advantageous (eg to cement social bonds or make peace), and so on.
=== The search for a partner ===
==== Locating and identifying potential partners ====
Before having sex with another person, first it is necessary to find a partner.
Where does one look? One will never know when or where one will meet someone one is attracted to, so the simple answer to this question is: everywhere! In the supermarket, in restaurants, at the movies, on the monorail; in short, if you can think it, then it is possible.
Entire industries devoted to enabling sex or sexual communication exist, such as: [[nightclub]]s, [[singles bar]]s, [[Personal advertisement|personal want ads]] (in newspapers and on the web), [[Dating system|dating services]], and [[Prostitution|brothels]], to name just a few. Many organizations and clubs sponsor events that bring people with similar interests together. Religious and family connections provide another way for people to meet.
==== The encounter between potential partners ====
Once a person has located another person with whom they desire to have sex, the first thing to be done is to introduce themselves or position themselves in such a way that he or she will introduce himself or herself. This may not be as simple as it sounds.
==== Communication and signals ====
The [[communication]] between people that can lead to a sexual liaison are necessarily subtle and complex. An ov
|
anguage of those opposed to the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] leadership of the church in the east. Missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac through [[Iran|Persia]] and into [[India]] and [[China]].
{{listen|filename=aboun.ogg|title=Abun dbashmayo|description=The [[Lord's Prayer]], ''Abun dbashmayo'', sung in [[Syriac language|Syriac]]}}
====Jewish Middle Babylonian Aramaic====
Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the 4th century and the 11th century CE. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian [[Talmud]] (which was completed in the [[7th century|seventh century]]) and of post-Talmudic (Geonic) literarure, which are the most important cultural products Babylonian Jewry. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of Aramaic magic bowls written in the Jewish script.
====Mandaic====
: ''See [[Mandaic language]] for more information''.
Mandaic is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. Classical Mandaic is the language in which the Mandaean's religious literature was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography.
===Western Middle Aramaic===
The dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with Jewish Middle Palestinian (in [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew 'square script']]), Samaritan Aramaic (in the [[Phoenician alphabet|old Hebrew script]]) and Christian Palestinian (in cursive [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac script]]). Of these three, only Jewish Middle Palestinian continued as a written language.
====Jewish Middle Palestinian Aramaic====
In 135, after [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]], many [[Jew]]ish leaders, expelled from [[Jerusalem]], moved to [[Galilee]]. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the [[Jerusalem Talmud|Palestinian Talmud]] (completed in the [[5th century|fifth century]]) and [[midrash]]im (biblical commentaries and teaching). The modern standard of vowel pointing for the [[Hebrew Bible]], the Tiberian system ([[10th century|tenth century]]), was most probably based on the pronunciation of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. The inscription in the synagogue at [[Dura-Europos]] are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean.
Middle Judaean, the descendent of Old Judaean, is no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian continues as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian.
====Samaritan Aramaic====
The Aramaic dialect of the [[Samaritan]] community is earliest attested by a documentary tradition that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.
====Christian Palestinian Aramaic====
The language of Western-Aramaic-speaking Christians is evidenced from the sixth century, but probably existed two centuries earlier. The language itself comes from Christian Old Palestinian, but its writing conventions were based on early Middle Syriac, and it was heavily influenced by Greek. The name Jesus, although ''Yešû`'' in Aramaic, is written ''Yesûs'' in Christian Palestinian.
==Modern Aramaic==
{{main|Neo-Aramaic languages}}
Over four hundred thousand people speak Aramaic to this day. They are Jews, Christians, Muslims and Mandaeans, living in remote areas and preserving their traditions with printing presses, and now electronic media. The Modern Aramaic (or ''Neo-Aramaic'') languages are now farther apart in their comprehension of one another than perhaps they have ever been. The last two-hundred years have not been good to Aramaic speakers. Instability throughout the Middle East has lead to a worldwide diaspora of Aramaic speakers. The year 1915 is especially prominent for Aramaic-speaking Christians: called ''[[Syriac genocide|Sayfo/Saypā]]'' (''sword'' in Syriac), all Christian groups ([[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Armenians]] and others) living in eastern [[Turkey]] were the subject of the persecutions that marked the end of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. For Aramaic-speaking Jews 1950 is a watershed year: the newly founded state of [[Israel]] led most Aramaic-speaking Jews to emigrate there. However, removal to Israel has led to Jewish Neo-Aramaic being swamped in a sea of Modern Hebrew, and the practical extinction of many Jewish dialects is imminent.
===Modern Eastern Aramaic===
Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages. There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by Jews, Christians and Mandaeans.
The Christian languages are often called Modern [[Syriac language|Syriac]] (or Neo-Syriac, particularly when referring to their literature), being deeply influenced by the literary and liturgical language of Middle Syriac. However, they also have roots in numerous, previously unwritten, local Aramaic dialects, and are not purely the direct descendants of the language of [[Ephrem the Syrian]].
Modern Western Syriac (also called Central Neo-Aramaic, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Eastern Neo-Syriac) is generally represented by [[Turoyo language|Turoyo]], the language of the [[Tur Abdin]]. A related language, [[Mlahso language|Mlahsö]], has recently become extinct.
The eastern Christian languages (Modern Eastern Syriac or Eastern Neo-Aramaic) are often called ''Sureth'' or ''Suret'', from a native name. They are also sometimes called ''[[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic|Assyrian]]'' or ''[[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic|Chaldean]]'', but these names are not accepted by all speakers. The dialects are not all mutually intelligible. East Syriac communities are usually either [[Chaldean Catholic Church|Chaldean Catholics]] or [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrians]].
The [[Judeo-Aramaic language|Jewish Modern Aramaic languages]] are now mostly spoken in [[Israel]], and most are facing extinction (older speakers are not passing the language to younger generations). The Jewish dialects that have come from communities that once lived between [[Lake Urmia]] and [[Mosul]] are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example [[Urmia]], Christians and Jews speak unintelligible dialects of Modern Eastern Aramaic in the same place. In others, the plain of Mosul for example, the dialects of the two faith communities are similar enough to allow conversation.
A few Mandaeans living in the province of [[Khuzestan]] in [[Iran]] speak Modern [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]]. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic dialect.
===Modern Western Aramaic===
{{main|Western Neo-Aramaic}}
Very little remains of Western Aramaic. It is still spoken in the Christian village of [[Ma'loula|Ma`loula]] in Syria and the Muslim villages of [[Bakh`a]] and [[Jubb`adin]] in [[Syria]]'s [[Anti-Lebanon]], as well as by some people who migrated from these villages to [[Damascus]] and other larger towns of Syria. All these speakers of Modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic, which has now become the main language in these villages.
==Sounds==
Each dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be possible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. In general, older dialects tended to have a richer phonology than more modern ones. In particular, some modern Jewish Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of 'emphatic' consonants. Other dialects have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Azeri language|Azeri]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]].
===Vowels===
As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels:
* Open ''a''-vowels
* Close front ''i''-vowels
* Close back ''u''-vowels
These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting.
The cardinal open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ('short' ''a'', like the first vowel in the English 'batter', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/a/}}). It usually has a back counterpart ('long' ''a'', like the ''a'' in 'father', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ɑ/}}, or even tending to the vowel in 'caught', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ɔ/}}), and a front counterpart ('short' ''e'', like the vowel in 'head', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ɛ/}}). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short ''a'' and short ''e''. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long ''a'' became the ''o'' sound. The open ''e'' and back ''a'' are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters 'alaph' (a [[glottal stop]]) or 'he' (like the English ''h'').
The cardinal close front vowel is the 'long' ''i'' (like the vowel in 'need', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/i/}}). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the 'long' ''e'', as in the final vowel of 'café' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/e/}}). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close ''e'' corresponds with the open ''e'' in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant ''y'' as a [[matres lectionis|mater lectionis]].
The cardinal close back vowel is the 'long' ''u'' (like the vowel in 'school', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/u/}}). It has a more open counterpart, the 'long' ''o'', like the vowel in 'low' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/o/}}). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of the
|
ant meant with the ad-lib (the line was not in the script), Grant's Hollywood background should leave little doubt as to what he meant--he knew the connotation of the term, even if the audience did not.
The word continued to be used with the dominant meaning of "carefree", as evidenced by the title of [[The Gay Divorcee]] (1934), a musical film about a heterosexual couple. It was originally to be called [[Gay Divorce|The Gay Divorce]] after the play on which it was based, but the [[Hays Office]] determined that while a divorcee may be gay, it would be unseemly to allow a divorce to appear so.
By the mid-century "gay" was well-established as an antonym for "straight" (respectable sexual behaviour), and to refer to the lifestyles of unmarried and or unattached people. Other connotations of frivolousness and showiness in dress ("gay attire") led to association with [[camp (style)|camp]] and effeminacy. This range of connotation probably affected the gradual movement of the term towards its current dominant meaning, which was at first confined to subcultures. The subcultural usage started to become mainstream in the [[1960s]], when ''gay'' became the term predominantly preferred by homosexual men to describe themselves. ''Gay'' was the preferred term since other terms, such as "[[queer]]" were felt to be derogatory. "Homosexual" was perceived as excessively clinical: especially since homosexuality was at that time designated as a mental illness, and "homosexual" was used by the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM) to denote men affected by this "mental illness". Homosexuality was no longer classified as an illness in the DSM by [[1973]], but the clinical connotation of the word was already embedded in society.
One of the many characters invented by 1950s TV comic [[Ernie Kovacs]] was a "gay-acting" poet named [[Percy Dovetonsils]]. In one of his poems (which were always read to an imaginary off-screen character named "Bruce") he mentions the expression "gay caballero".
By [[1963]], the word "gay" was known well enough by the straight community to be used by [[Albert Ellis]] in his book ''The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Man-Hunting''. By 1968 mainstream audiences were expected to recognise the ''double entendre'' in the ultra-camp musical entitled ''[[Springtime for Hitler|Springtime for Hitler: a gay romp with Adolf and Eva at Berchtesgaden]]'' &mdash; which formed part of the plot of the film ''[[The Producers (1968 film)|The Producers]]''. The camp implications of the concept were explicit in the ludicrous pastiche of Coward's style epitomised by the title song:
:''Springtime for Hitler and Germany
:''Deutschland is happy and gay!
:''We're marching to a faster pace
:''Look out, here comes the master race!
===Syntax===
''Gay'' was originally used purely as an adjective ("he is a gay man" or "he is gay"). ''Gay'' can be also used as a plural collective-like noun: "Gays are opposed to that policy"; although this usage may be deprecated by some, it is common [http://www.google.com/search?q=gays] particularly in the names of various organizations such as [[Parents and Friends of Lesbians and Gays|PFLAG]]: (Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays) and [[COLAGE]] (Children of Lesbians and Gays Everywhere). It is sometimes used as a singular noun, as in "he is a gay", such as in its use by the [[Little Britain]] comedy character Daffyd Thomas (a gay man who believes himself "the only gay in the village" despite abundant evidence to the contrary).
===Folk etymologies===
It has been claimed that "gay" was derived as an acronym for "Good As You", but this is a [[backronym]] (based on a [[fake etymology]]).
Another [[folk etymology]] accrues to Gay Street, a small street in the West Village of [[New York City]] — a nexus of homosexual culture. The term also seems, from documentary evidence, to have existed in New York as a code word in the [[1940s]], where the question, "Are you gay?" would denote more than it might have seemed to outsiders.
==Commonly accepted usage==
''Overview article: [[Terminology of homosexuality]]''
* ''Gay'' is used as an adjective to describe sexual orientation (attraction, preference, or inclination) and is usually chosen instead of homosexual as an identity-label.
* ''Gay sex'' involves acts between or among people of the same sex or gender.
* ''Gay'' is usually used to describe the "gay community" by both insiders and the mainstream media.
* ''Gay'' can be used as a nonspecific derogatory comment towards a person or object. As a term of abuse it is widely used by adolescents.
* ''Gay'' is sometimes used to describe an object of particular flamboyance.
* Other connotations can vary widely based upon speaker and situation.
===Sexual orientation===
[[Sexual orientation]], behaviour, and self-identification are not necessarily aligned in a clear-cut fashion for a given individual. See [[sex]] for a discussion of sex and gender. Some people consider ''gay'' and ''[[homosexuality|homosexual]]'' to be synonyms. Others consider ''gay'' to be a matter of self-identification and ''homosexual'' to refer to sexual activity or to sexual attraction that is predominantly to members of the same sex. By using these definitions, a person could be gay and not homosexual, or homosexual and not gay.
If a person has had same-sex sexual encounters but does not self-identify as gay, terms such as '[[closeted]]', 'on the [[down low]]', 'discreet', or '[[bi-curious]]' may be applied. Conversely, a person may identify as gay without engaging in homosexual sex. Possible choices include identifying as gay socially while choosing to be [[celibate]] or while anticipating a first homosexual experience. Further, a [[bisexuality|bisexual]] person may identify as gay while maintaining a [[Monogamy|monogamous]] relationship with a member of the opposite sex. Still others might consider ''gay'' and ''bisexual'' to be mutually exclusive.
Some same-sex oriented persons prefer 'homosexual' as an identity over 'gay', seeing the former as describing a sexual orientation and the latter as describing a cultural or socio-political group with which they do not identify.
====Self-identification====
Self-identification of one's [[sexual orientation]] is becoming far more commonplace in areas of increased social acceptance, but many are either reluctant to self-identify publicly or even privately to themselves. The process is fairly complex, and many groups related to gay people cite inadvertent [[heterosexism]] as a leading problem for those that would otherwise self-identify.
====Selecting the appropriate term====
Some people reject the term ''homosexual'' as an identity-label because they find it too clinical-sounding. They believe it is too focused on physical acts rather than romance or attraction, or too reminiscent of the era when homosexuality was considered a mental illness. Conversely, some people find the term ''gay'' to be offensive or reject it as an identity-label because they perceive the cultural connotations to be undesirable or because of the negative connotations of the slang usage of the word.
According to the '''Safe Schools Coalition''' of Washington's ''Glossary for School Employees'':
:"Homosexual: Avoid this term; it is clinical, distancing and archaic. Sometimes appropriate in referring to behaviour (although same-sex is the preferred adj.). When referring to people, as opposed to behaviour, homosexual is considered derogatory and the terms gay and lesbian are preferred, at least in the Northwest [of the United States]."
Sometimes the term ''gay'' is used to describe both same-sex male and same-sex female relations. More rarely, it is used as a shorthand for terms ''[[queer]]'' or ''gay'', ''lesbian'', ''bisexual'', etc. The term also sometimes includes [[transgender|transgender]], [[transsexual]], and [[intersexuality|intersexual]]. Some trans and intersexed individuals find their inclusion in this larger grouping to be offensive. It is commonly used to refer specifically to gay ''men''; the precise meaning may need to be made clear from context. The term ''[[lesbian]]'', however, is exclusively female.
===Gay community===
''Main article: [[Gay community]]''
The notion of the '''gay community''' is complex and slightly controversial.
Just as the word "[[gay]]" is sometimes used as shorthand for "gay, lesbian, and bisexual" and possibly also "transexual" and others, so "gay community" is sometimes a synonym for "[[LGBT]] community" or "[[Queer]] community". In other cases, the speaker may be referring only to gay men. Some people (including many mainstream American journalists) interpret the phrase "gay community" to mean "the population of gay people".
Some LGBT people are entirely geographically or socially isolated from other LGBT people, or don't feel their social connections to their LGBT friends are different from those they have with straight friends. As a result, some analysts question the notion of sharing a "community" with people one has never actually met (whether in person or remotely). But other advocates insist that all LGBT people (and perhaps their allies), ''are'' part of a global community, in one way or another.
===Descriptor===
The term ''gay'' can also be used as an adjective to describe things related to gay people or things which are part of [[Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures|gay culture]]. For example, while a [[gay bar]] is not itself homosexual, using ''gay'' as an adjective to describe the bar indicates that the bar is either gay-oriented, caters primarily to a gay clientele, or is otherwis
|
k - 1962-1964)
* ''[[Search For A Star]]'' (Network Ten - 1970-1971, 1981)
* ''[[Second Chance]]'' (Network Ten - 1977)
* ''[[Shafted]]'' (Nine Network - 2002)
* ''[[Showcase]]'' (Network Ten - 1965-1970, 1973-1974, 1978)
* ''[[Spending Spree]]'' (Nine Network - 1971-1976)
* ''[[Spicks and Specks]]'' (ABC TV - 2005-)
* ''[[Split Personality]]'' (Network Ten - 1967)
* ''[[Split Second]]'' (Nine Network - 1972-1973)
* ''[[Star Search]]'' (Network Ten - 1985-1986, 1991)
* ''[[Stop The Music]]'' (Seven Network - 1950s)
* ''[[Strike It Lucky]]'' (Nine Network - 1994)
* ''[[Supermarket Sweep]]'' (Nine Network - 1992-1994)
* ''[[Superquiz]]'' (Network Ten - 1989)
* ''[[Surprise Package]]'' (Nine Network - 1961)
* ''[[Take A Chance]]'' (Seven Network - 1959)
* ''[[Take A Letter]]'' (Network Ten - 1967)
* ''[[Take The Hint]]'' (Nine Network - 1963-1966)
* ''[[Talking Telephone Numbers]]'' (Seven Network - 1996)
* ''[[Tell The Truth]]'' (Nine Network - 1959-1965, Network Ten - 1971-1972)
* ''[[Temptation]]'' (Nine Network - 2005-)
* ''[[Theatre Sports]]'' (ABC TV - 1987)
* ''[[Three On A Match]]''
* ''[[Tic-Tac-Dough]]'' (Nine Network - 1960-1964)
* ''[[Three On A Match]]''
* ''[[Time Masters]]'' (Seven Network - 1996-1997)
* ''[[The Tommy Hanlon Show]]'' (Nine Network - 1967-1968)
* ''[[Total Recall]]'' (Seven Network - 1994-1995)
* ''[[Treasure Hunt]]'' (Network Ten - 1977-1978)
* ''[[The Trivial Video Show]]'' (Seven Network - 1986)
* ''[[TV Talent Scout]]'' (Seven Network - 1957-1958)
* ''[[University Challenge]]'' (ABC TV - 1987-1989)
* ''[[Video Village]]'' (Nine Network - 1960s)
* ''[[Vidiot]]'' (ABC TV - 1992-1994)
* ''[[Visquiz]]'' (SBS TV - 1985)
* ''[[The Weakest Link]]'' (Seven Network - 2001-2002)
* ''[[What's It Worth?]]'' (ABC TV - 1950s)
* ''[[Wheel of Fortune]]'' (Seven Network - 1981-)
* ''[[Win Roy and HG's Money]]'' (Seven Network - 2000) ''(see [[Win Ben Stein's Money]])''
* ''[[Wipe Out]]'' (Seven Network - 1999-2001)
* ''[[Who Dares Wins (game show)|Who Dares Wins]]'' (Seven Network - 1996-2001)
* ''[[Who, What And Where?]]''
* ''[[Would You Believe?]]'' (ABC TV - 1970-1974)
* ''[[You're A Star]]'' (Network Ten - 1982)
* ''[[Who Wants To Be A Millionaire]]'' (Nine Network - 1999-)
===[[Bulgaria]]===
*[[10/64]] - prime-time Q&A, on [[Kanal 1]]
*[[Bum (show)]] (Boom) - Q&A, on [[Evrokom]]
*[[Kosherut]] (The Hive) - game show, on [[Msat TV]]
*[[Minuta e mnogo]] (A Minute Is Too Much) - Q&A show with higher difficulty of the questions, on [[Kanal 1]]
*[[Sdelka ili ne]] (Deal or Not) - a version of successful European game show, on [[Nova televiziya]]
*[[Stani bogat]] (Who Wants to Be a Millionaire) - a version of the popular Q&A, on [[Nova televiziya]]
*[[Treska za zlato]] (GOld Fever) - lotto, on [[bTV (TV)]]
*[[Vot na doverie]] (Vote of Confidence) - show that often features celebrities, on [[bTV (TV)]]
===[[Canada]]===
*''[[Acting Crazy]]''
*''[[Bumper Stumpers]]''
*''[[Definition (game show)|Definition]]''
*''[[Front Page Challenge]]''
*''[[Guess What]]''
*''[[Headline Hunters]]''
*''[[It's Your Move (game show)|It's Your Move]]''
*''[[The Mad Dash]]''
*''[[Party Game (television series)|Party Game]]''
*''[[Pitfall (game show)|Pitfall]]''
*''[[Reach for the Top]]''
*''[[Smart Ask]]''
*''[[Talkabout (game show)]]''
*''[[Test Pattern (game show)|Test Pattern]]''
*''[[This is the Law (television)|This is the Law]]''
*''[[TimeChase]]''
*''[[Uh Oh!]]''
*''[[Video & Arcade Top 10]]''
*''[[Who Wants To Be A Millionaire|Who Wants To Be A Millionaire: Canadian Edition]]''
====Canadian reality shows====
*''[[Thrill of a Lifetime]]
===[[Chile]]===
*''[[Sabados Gigantes]]''
===[[Finland]]===
*''[[Maailman ympäri]]''
*''[[SF-Studio]]''
*''[[Retsi ja Jykke]]'' (followed by spin-off shows by the same team, until the death of [[Jyrki Otila]] (Jykke))
*''[[Haluatko miljonääriksi?]]'' (Finnish version of ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?'')
*''[[Heikoin Lenkki]]'' (Finnish version of ''The Weakest Link'')
*''[[Giljotiini]]''
*''Greed''
*''[[Mitä Maksaa]]'' (Finnish version of ''The Price is Right'')
*''[[Onnenpyörä]]'' (Finnish version of ''Wheel of Fortune'')
*''[[Suuri kupla]]'' (children's quiz show)
*''[[Napakymppi]]'' (Finnish version of ''The Dating Game'')
*''[[Uutisvuoto]]'' (Finnish version of ''Have I Got News for You'')
===[[France]]===
*''[[Cresus]]''
*''[[Des chiffres et des lettres]]''
*''[[Fort Boyard]]''
*''[[Les Jeux de Vingt Heures]]''
*''[[Le Maillon Faible]]'' (French version of ''The Weakest Link'')
*''[[Qui veut gagner des millions?]]'' (French version of ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?'')
===[[Ireland]]===
*''[[Winning Streak]]''
*''[[The Lyrics Board]]''
*''[[Quicksilver]]''
*''[[Don't Feed the Gondolas]]''
*''[[Fame & Fortune]]''
*''[[You're A Star]]''
*''Who Wants to be a Millionaire?''
*''The Weakest Link''
*''[[Delegation (TV)]]''
*''[[Gridlock]]''
*''[[Blackboard Jungle]]''
*''[[Dodge the Question]]''
*''[[It's Not The Answer]]''
*''[[Talkabout]]''
*''[[Challenging Times]]''
*''[[Telly Bingo]]''
*''[[Treasure Island]]''
*''[[Cabin Fever]]''
*''[[The Farm]]''
===[[Mexico]]===
*''[[Cien Mexicanos Dijeron]]''
*''[[The Weakest Link|El Rival Más Débil]]''
*''[[the chair|La Silla]]''
*''[[Jeopardy!]]''
*''[[The Price is Right|Atínale al Precio]]''
*''En Familia con [[Chabelo]]''
*''Sexos en Guerra''
===[[Puerto Rico]]===
*''[[A Millon]]''
*''[[Control Remoto]]''
*''[[Sabado en Grande]]''
*''[[Super Sabado]]''
===[[Russia]]===
====Russian quiz, game & dating shows====
*''[[Alfavit]]''
*''[[Allo, TV!]]''
*''[[Faktor Strakha]]''
*''[[Koleso Istorii]]''
*''[[Kto Khochet Stat' Millionerom?]]'' (Russian version of ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?'')
*''[[Lyubov' s Pervogo Vzglyada]]'' (Russian version of ''The Dating Game'')
*''[[Lzhec]]''
*''[[Narod Protiv]]''
*''[[O, Schaslivchik!]]'' (First russian version of ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?'')
*''[[Papa, Mama, Ya]]''
*''[[Pole Chudes]]'' (Russian version of ''Wheel of Fortune'')
*''[[Piramida]]'' (Russian version of ''Pyramid'')
*''[[Russkaya Ruletka]]'' (Russian version of ''Russian Roulette'')
*''[[Samyj Umnyj]]''
*''[[Shestoye Chuvstvo]]''
*''[[Slaboye Zveno]]'' (Russian version of ''The Weakest Link'')
*''[[Stavka (game show)|Stavka]]''
*''[[Sto k Odnomu]]''
*''[[Svoya Igra]]'' (Russian version of ''Jeopardy!'')
*''[[Ugaday Melodiyu]]'' (Russian version of ''Name That Tune'')
*''[[V Temnote]]''
*''[[Vremya - Den'gi!]]''
*''[[Za Sem'yu Pechatyami]]''
====Russian [[reality show|reality shows]]====
*''[[12 Negrityat]]''
*''[[Bol'shoj Brat]]'' (Russian version of ''Big Brother'')
*''[[Dom (reality show)|Dom]]''
*''[[Fabrika Zvyozd]]'' (or "Star Factory")
*''[[Golod]]''
*''[[Kandidat]]''
*''[[Narodnyj Artist]]''
*''[[Posledniy Geroy]]'' (Russian version of ''Survivor'')
*''[[Sem' Pod Solncem]]''
*''[[Serdce Afriki]]'' (Another version of ''Survivor'')
*''[[Vozmozhnosti Plasticheskoj Khirurgii]]''
===[[South Africa]]===
*''[[Walk the Plank]]''
===[[Thailand]]===
* ''[[Fan Pan Tae]]'' (Chanel5 - 2000-Present)
* ''[[Tod Sa Gun Game]]'' (Chanel9 - 2003-Present)
by Workpoint Entertainment Company Limted
===[[United Kingdom]]===
====UK activity-oriented shows====
*''[[The Crystal Maze]]''
*''[[Friends Like These]]''
*''[[Fort Boyard (TV series)|Fort Boyard]]''
*''[[Gladiators]]''
*''[[History Hunt]]''
*''[[Interceptor (TV series)|Interceptor]]''
*''[[Knightmare]]''
*''[[The Krypton Factor]]''
*''[[Pets Win Prizes]]''
*''[[Scrapheap Challenge]]''
*''[[Treasure Hunt]]''
====UK [[dating game show]]s====
*''[[Blind Date (UK television)|Blind Date]]''
*''Elimidate''
*''[[Streetmate]]''
====UK panel games====
In these, celebrities compete, usually in two teams.
*''[[Bognor or Bust]]''
*''[[The Brain Drain]]''
*''[[Call My Bluff]]''
*''[[Cluedo (television)|Cluedo]]''
*''[[Gagtag]]''
*''[[Have I Got News for You]]''
*''[[If I Ruled the World]]''
*''[[I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue]]''
*''[[It's Only TV... But I Like It]]''
*''[[Just a Minute]]'' (a regular [[BBC Radio 4]] panel game, it appeared on TV briefly)
*''[[Mock the Week]]''
*''[[Never Mind the Buzzcocks]]''
*''[[The News Quiz]]'' (Radio 4's predecessor to Have I Got News For You)
*''[[Pop Quiz]]''
*''[[QI]]''
*''[[A Question of Sport]]''
*''[[Quote... Unquote]]''
*''[[Shooting Stars]]''
*''[[They Think It's All Over]]''
*''[[Through the Keyhole]]''
*''[[Twenty Questions]]''
*''What's My Line?''
*''[[Whodunnit?]]''
*''[[Whose Line Is It Anyway?]]''
*''Win, Lose or Draw''
====UK puzzle-oriented shows====
*''[[BrainTeaser]]''
*''[[Catchphrase (game show)|Catchphrase]]''
*''[[Catchword (game show)|Catchword]]''
*''[[Chain Letters]]''
*''[[Countdown (game show)|Countdown]]''
*''[[Wheel of Fortune]]''
====UK quiz shows====
*''[[Ask the Family]]''
*''[[Blockbusters (game show)|Blockbusters]]''
*''[[Brain of Britain]]''
*''[[Cash Cab]]''
*''[[Fifteen To One]]''
*''[[Going for Gold]]''
*''[[Mastermind (television)|Mastermind]]''
*''[[Round Britain Quiz]]''
*''[[Screen Test]]''
*''[[The People Versus]]''
*''[[The Vault]]''
*''[[Top of the Form]]''
*''[[University Challenge]]''
*''[[Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?]]''
*''[[The Weakest Link]]''
====UK reality game shows====
*''[[Back To Reality]]''
*''[[Big Brother (UK)|Big Brother]]''
*''[[Celebrity Love Island]]''
*''Fear Factor''
*''[[Hell's Kitchen (television)|Hell's Kitchen]]''
*''[[I'm a Celebrity, Get Me Out of Here!]]''
*''[[I'm Famous and Frightened!]]''
*''Survivor''
*''[[The Games]]''
*''[[Shipwrecked (television series)|Shipwrecked]]''
*''[[Strictly Come Dancing]]
====UK other shows====
*''[[3-2-1]]''
*''[[The $64,000 Question]]''
*''[[Beat the Teacher]]''
*''[[Big Break]]''
*''[[Bullseye (British game show)|Bullseye]]''
*''Celebrity Squares (see [[Hollywood Squares]])''
*''[[Cheggers Plays Pop]]''
*''[[Crosswits]]''
*''[[Deal Or No Deal]]''
*''[[Dog Eat Dog (television series)|Dog Eat Dog]]''
*''[[Distraction (game show)|Distraction]]''
*''[[Defectors]]''
*''[[Every Second Counts]]''
*''Fami
|
pendence; however, the [[secondary school]] system was limited, and [[post-secondary education|higher education]] was almost nonexistent in most regions of the country. The principal objective of this system was to train low-level administrators and [[clerk]]s. Since independence, efforts have been made to increase access to education, and secondary and higher education have been made available to many more Congolese. Despite the deterioration of the state-run educational system in recent years, about 80% of the males and 65% of females, ages 6-11, were enrolled in a mixture of state- and church-run primary schools in 1996. At higher levels of education, males greatly outnumber females. The elite continues to send their children abroad to be educated, primarily in [[Western Europe]].
==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==
===Population===
:60,085,804
:''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)
===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 48.1% (male 14,513,779/female 14,396,952)
:15-64 years: 49.4% (male 14,579,101/female 15,121,297)
:65 years and over: 2.5% (male 597,776/female 876,099) (2005 est.)
===Median age===
:Total: 15.8 years
:Male: 15.4 years
:Female: 16.2 years (2005 est.)
===Population growth rate===
:2.98% (2005 est.)
===Birth rate===
:44.38 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Death rate===
:14.43 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
(Mortality due to AIDS)
===Net migration rate===
:-0.17 migrant(s)/1,000 population
:''Note'': fighting between the Congolese Government and Uganda- and Rwanda-backed Congolese rebels spawned a regional war in DROC in August 1998, which left 1.8 million Congolese internally displaced and caused 300,000 Congolese refugees to flee to surrounding countries (2005 est.)
===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.01 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.68 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 92.87 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 101.25 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 84.23 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 49.35 years
:Male: 47.29 years
:Female: 51.47 years (2005 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:6.54 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 4.2% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 1.1 million (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 100,000 (2003 est.)
===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne diseases: malaria, plague, and African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) are high :risks in some locations
:Water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2004)
===Nationality===
:Noun: Congolese (singular and plural)
:Adjective: Congolese or Congo
===Ethnic groups===
:Over 200 African ethnic groups of which the majority are Bantu; the four largest tribes - Mongo, Luba, Kongo (all Bantu), and the Mangbetu-Azande (Hamitic) make up about 45% of the population
===Religions===
:Roman Catholic 50%, Protestant 20%, Kimbanguist 10%, Muslim 10%, other syncretic sects and indigenous beliefs 10%
===Languages===
:French (official), Lingala (a lingua franca trade language), Kingwana (a dialect of Kiswahili or Swahili), Kikongo, Tshiluba
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write French, Lingala, Kingwana, or Tshiluba
:Total population: 65.5%
:Male: 76.2%
:Female: 55.1% (2003 est.)
==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Demographics by country|Congo, Demo]]
[[Category:Society of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
<id>8025</id>
<revision>
<id>38982913</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:58:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Briaboru</username>
<id>284038</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Democratic Republic of the Congo table}}
Sparsely populated in relation to its area, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] is home to a vast potential of natural resources and [[mineral]] wealth, yet the [[Economics|economy]] of the DROC has declined drastically since the mid-[[1980s]]. [[Agriculture]] is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 57.9% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in [[1997]]. Main cash crops include [[coffee]], [[palm oil]], [[rubber]], [[cotton]], [[sugar]], [[tea]], and [[cocoa]]. Food crops include [[cassava]], [[plantains]], [[maize]], [[groundnuts]], and [[rice]]. In [[1996]], agriculture employed 66% of the work force.
Industry, especially [[mining]], remains a great potential source of wealth for DROC. In 1997, industry accounted for 16.9% of GDP. The Congo was the world's fourth-largest producer of industrial [[diamond]]s during the 1980s, and diamonds continue to dominate exports, accounting for $717 million or 52% of exports in 1997. The Congo's main [[copper]] and [[cobalt]] interests are dominated by [[Gecamines]], the state-owned mining giant. Gecamines production has faltered in recent years, due in part to a competitive world copper market.
Despite the country's vast potential, under the [[Mobutu]] regime widespread corruption, economic controls, and the diversion of public resources for personal gain thwarted economic growth. The unrecorded and illicit transactions of Zaire's unofficial economy were estimated in the early [[1990s]] to be three times the size of official GDP.
The Congo's record with multilateral and bilateral donors has been uneven. Despite a succession of economic plans financed by the [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) since independence, budgetary imbalance, [[inflation]], and debt consistently plagued the Mobutu government. In early [[1990]], both the World Bank and the IMF suspended most disbursements, and most bilateral aid was cut off. Unable to make debt payments, Zaire's borrowing rights with the IMF were cut off in February [[1992]]; its World Bank credits were frozen in July [[1993]]. Despite the introduction of a new currency, the [[New Zaire]] (NZ), currency issuance remained disorderly, and largescale inflation rose to over 9,000% by early 1994.
In [[May 1997]] the [[AFDL]], led by [[Laurent Kabila]], overthrew the regime of Mobutu Sese Seko. Under President Kabila the government and state enterprises began a program of reconstruction. The government began to reform the corrupt [[tax]] system, civilian [[police]] force, and repair the damaged road system.
In [[August 1998]], a war broke out in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. At that time, some progress had been made in the economic reconstruction of the country, but major problems continued to exist in transportation infrastructure, customs administration, and the tax system. Government finances had not been put in order and relations with the IMF and World Bank were in disarray. Much of the government's revenue was kept "off book," and not included in published statistics on revenue and expenditure. Relations with the World Bank were on hold as a result of the government's failure to finalize an agreement for administration of the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD) Trust Fund for the Congo.
The outbreak of war in the early days of August 1998 caused a major decline in economic activity that continues to the present. The country has been divided into rebel- and government-held territories, and commerce between them has stopped. The economic and commercial links among the various sections of the country are not strong, but they are important.
After a surge in inflation during August 1998, the government began enforcing [[price control]] laws. It also began regulating foreign exchange markets. Taken together, these measures have severely damaged the ability of businesses depending on imports to continue operations. Furthermore, the small gains against inflation and [[currency depreciation]] were quickly reversed when the foreign-backed rebellion in the eastern part of the country began in August 1998. The war has dramatically reduced government revenue, and increased external debt. Foreign businesses have curtailed operations due to uncertainty about the outcome of the conflict and because of increased government harassment and restrictions. The wide spread between the official rate for buying the new currency, [[Congo francs]] (FCs), and the black market rate for buying [[dollar]]s has forced merchants to price their imported goods according to the official rate for buying local currency.
Poor [[infrastructure]], an uncertain legal framework, corruption, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth. A number of [[IMF]] and [[World Bank]] missions have met with the new government to help it develop a coherent economic plan but associated reforms are on hold. Faced with continued currency depreciation, the government resorted to more drastic measures and in [[January 1999]] banned the widespread use of U.S. dollars for all domestic commercial transactions, a position it later adjusted. The government has been unable to provide foreign exchange for economic transactions, while it has resorted to printing money to finance its expenditure. Growth was negative in [[2000]] because of the difficulty of meeting the conditions of international donors, continued low prices of key exports, and post-coup instability.
Conditions improved in late [[2002]] with the withdrawal of a large
|
egory:Concept albums|Downward Spiral]]
[[Category:DualDisc albums|Downward Spiral]]
[[Category:SACDs|Downward Spiral]]
[[de:The Downward Spiral]]
[[fr:The Downward Spiral]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Violence and Redemption</title>
<id>9442</id>
<revision>
<id>15907334</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-20T17:01:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<comment>folding page back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Why It Went Wrong</title>
<id>9443</id>
<revision>
<id>15907335</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-20T17:24:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Folding page back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ernest Hemingway/Bibliography</title>
<id>9444</id>
<revision>
<id>15907336</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-20T17:30:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<comment>folding page back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Explorers</title>
<id>9445</id>
<revision>
<id>23701132</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-21T21:09:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdr</username>
<id>55814</id>
</contributor>
<comment>links all want [[exploration]], so primary topic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Exploration]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elizabeth II</title>
<id>9446</id>
<revision>
<id>15907338</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-15T12:42:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.149.37.247</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*#REDIRECT [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Egyptian Lover</title>
<id>9447</id>
<revision>
<id>40725556</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T16:20:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.166.17.21</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Egyptian Lover''' (born '''Greg Broussard''') is an [[United States|American]] [[electro hop]] [[rapping|rapper]], one of the best known performers of the underground [[West Coast rap|West Coast]] [[dance music|dance]] scene. He began recording around [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] in [[1983]] as a member of the Radio Crew and later that year released "Dial-A-Freak" as part of Uncle Jamm's Army (see [[1983 in music]]). The Egyptian Lover released his debut solo single and club hit "Egypt, Egypt" in 1984. It was followed by more dance hits, including "And My Beat Goes Boom", "What Is a DJ If He Can't Scratch", and "Girls".
His LPs were much less popular than his singles, though 1984's ''On the Nile'' was moderately successful. After a break in the early [[1990s]], Egyptian Lover returned in [[1994]] (see [[1994 in music]]) with ''Back from the Tomb''.
The Egyptian Lover also established his own record company, Egyptian Empire Records, which included artists such as [[Rodney O & Joe Cooley]].
{{hiphop-stub}}
[[Category:Rappers]]
Egypt has indeed risen from the Tomb...
Egyptian Lover has indeed returned, earlier this year (2005) he released his first single since 1994 entitled Party and backed with Dancefloor. The release sees, thankfully, a return to form to his faithful 'West-Coast' Electro sound updated with slightly new new sounding instrumetation. New for the 21st Century also is a website www.egyptianempirerecords.com which also talks of a new full length album 'VERY VERY SOON'. He has also made appearances recently with another 'old-school' artist ' Arabian Prince ' who some of you may remember from NWA ? Obviously those of you who are from the old school are aware of his solo efforts too prior to his involvement with the 'notorious' Rap supergroup? All I have to say now is I can't wait to hear what he comes up with to "Get the Freaks on dancefloor...!"
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Egyptian_Lover"</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Exhaust pipe</title>
<id>9448</id>
<revision>
<id>42123029</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:46:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Krash</username>
<id>219529</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab "Pipe"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''exhaust pipe''' is usually [[Tubing (material)|tubing]] used to guide waste [[exhaust gas]]es away from a controlled [[combustion]] inside an [[engine]] or [[stove]].
An exhaust pipe must be carefully designed to carry toxic and/or noxious gases away from the users of the machine. Indoor generators and [[Furnace|furnaces]] can quickly fill an enclosed space with [[carbon monoxide]] or other poisonous [[exhaust]] if they are not properly vented to the outdoors. Also, the exhaust gases from most types of machine are very hot; the pipe must be heat-resistant, and it must not pass through or near any combustible materials.
An [[automobile]]'s exhaust system usually connects to the exhaust [[Manifold (automotive engineering)|manifold]] and usually includes a [[muffler]] ([[British English]]: [[silencer]]) to reduce engine noise, and often in recent years a [[catalytic converter]] to reduce the emissions that contribute to [[air pollution]].
In a [[two-stroke engine]], such as that used on [[dirt bike]]s, a bulge in the exhaust pipe known as an [[expansion chamber]] uses the pressure of the exhaust to create a [[pump]] that squeezes more air and fuel into the cylinder during the intake stroke. This provides greater power and fuel efficiency.
A [[chimney]] serves a similar function in a stationary structure.
==See also==
*[[Automobile emissions control]]
[[Category:Auto parts]]
[[de:Auspuff]]
[[sv:Avgasrör]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electro funk</title>
<id>9449</id>
<revision>
<id>15907341</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-29T21:31:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix link (Electro)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electro (music)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electrical telegraph</title>
<id>9450</id>
<revision>
<id>41683280</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:10:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.1.157.178</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>changed a spelling error</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''electrical telegraph''' is a [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] that uses electric signals.
__NOTOC__
==Needle telegraphs==
The very first ''electromagnetic'' ''needle'' telegraph was invented by [[ Baron Schilling]] in [[1832]].
The early systems were also ''needle'' telegraphs invented by [[Charles Wheatstone]] and [[William Fothergill Cooke]], and patented in May [[1837]] as an alarm system.
In early [[1845]], [[John Tawell]] was apprehended following the use of a needle telegraph message from [[Slough]] to [[Paddington]] on [[January 1]] [[1845]]. This is thought to be the first use of the telegraph to catch a murderer. The message was:
:''A murder has just been committed at Salt Hill and the suspected murderer was seen to take a first class ticket to London by the train that left Slough at 7.42pm. He is in the garb of a Kwaker with a brown great coat on which reaches his feet. He is in the last compartment of the second first-class carriage''
The reason for the misspelling of 'Quaker' was that the British system did not support the letter Q.
==Morse telegraphs==
Across the Atlantic, [[Samuel Morse]] and [[Alfred Vail]] were developing an alternative design. It was capable of transmitting over long distances using poor quality wire. The [[Morse code]] alphabet commonly used on the device was also named after Morse.
On [[January 6]], [[1838]] Morse first successfully tested the device and on [[February 8]] he publicly demonstrated it to a scientific committee at the [[Franklin Institute]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]. The first electric telegram using this device was sent by Morse on [[May 24]], [[1844]] from [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]] to [[Washington, D.C.]], and said:
:''What hath God wrought!''
(from the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[book of Numbers]] 23:23: ''Surely there is no enchantment against [[Jacob]], neither is there any divination against [[Israel]]: according to this time it shall be said of Jacob and of Israel, What hath God wrought!'').
This was the first practical electrical telegraph system, and subsequently ''electrical telegraph'' came to refer to a signaling telegram - a system where an operator makes and breaks an electrical contact with a [[telegraph key]] which results in an audible signal at the other end produced by a [[telegraph sounder]] which is interpreted and transcribed by a human. Morse and Vail's first telegraphs used a pen and paper system to record the marks of the Morse Code, and interpreted the marks visually however, operators soon realized that they could "read" the clicking of the receiver directly by ear. Systems which automatically read the signals and print formed characters are generally called [[teletype]] rather than telegraph systems. Some electrical telegraphs used indicators which were read visually rath
|
orty Parisian dandies of the 1830s: a girdle was required to achieve this silhouette.]]
A '''dandy''' is a man who places particular importance upon [[physical appearance]], refined language, and the cultivation of leisurely hobbies. Some dandies, especially in Britain in the late [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century]], often strove to affect [[aristocratic]] values even though many came from common backgrounds.
The practice of dandyism first appeared in the revolutionary [[1790s]], both in [[London]] and [[Paris]]. The dandy cultivated a skeptical reserve, to such extremes that the novelist [[George Meredith]], no dandy himself, once defined cynicism as "intellectual dandyism." Some took a more benign view. For example, [[Thomas Carlyle]] in his ''Sartor Resartus'', wrote that a dandy was no more than "a clothes-wearing man". Others such as [[Charles Baudelaire]] held that the dandy's mere existence was a reproach to the responsible citizen of the middle class.
One of the great dandies of literature is the [[Scarlet Pimpernel]].
==Etymology==
The word ''dandy'' made its first appearance in a [[Scotland|Scottish]] border ballad about [[1780]], but probably not with its more recent meaning. It was perhaps a shortened form of ''jack-a-dandy,'' ([http://56.1911encyclopedia.org/D/DA/DANDY.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911]) and it became a vogue word during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. In the [[slang]] of the time, a dandy was differentiated from a [[fop]] in that the dandy's dress was more refined and sober.
In the [[21st century]] the word "dandy" has become a jocular adjective meaning "fine" or "great," and is often used sarcasticaly. However, sometimes a well-dressed and self-absorbed man is still referred to as a ''dandy'' - often with a connotation of [[homosexuality]].
==Beau Brummell and early British dandyism==
The very model of the dandy in [[United Kingdom|British]] society was [[Beau Brummell|George Bryan "Beau" Brummell]] ([[1778]]-[[1840]]), an associate of the [[George IV of the United Kingdom|Prince Regent]]: Unpowdered, unperfumed, immaculately bathed and shaved, in a plain dark blue coat, perfectly brushed, of perfect fit, showing a lot of perfectly starched linens, freshly laundered, with an elaborately-tied [[cravat]], from the mid-1790s Brummell became an early version of the [[celebrity]], famous chiefly for being a laconic wit and a clothes-horse.
By the time [[William_Pitt_the_Younger|Pitt]] taxed powder in [[1795]], Brummell had already abandoned a wig and cut his hair in a Roman fashion, "à la Brutus". Brummell led the move from [[breeches]] to snugly-tailored dark "pantaloons," which led directly to the trousers that have been mainstay of men's wear in the Western world for two centuries. Brummell inherited a fortune of thirty thousand pounds, which he spent mostly on costume, gaming and high living, until he suffered the stereotypical fate of the dandy, and fled from his creditors to France, and ultimately died in a [[Caen]] lunatic asylum
People of more notable accomplishments than Brummell adopted the pose as well; [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron]] occasionally dressed the part, helping to reintroduce the frilly, lace-cuffed and collared "poet shirt." He also had his portrait painted in Albanian costume.
[[Image:Maxbeerbohm2.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Max Beerbohm]] in a lithographic portrait of 1893]]
Another prominent dandy of the period was [[Alfred Guillaume Gabriel d'Orsay]], the Count d'Orsay, who had been a friend of Byron and moved in the highest London circles.
==Dandyism in France==
During his heyday, Brummell's ''dicta'' on fashion and etiquette reigned supreme. His habits of dress and fashion were much imitated, especially in [[France]], where in a curious development they became especially the rage in [[bohemianism|bohemian]] quarters. Here dandies were sometimes celebrated in revolutionary terms as self-created men who consciously designed their own personalities and broke radically with the traditions of the past. By their elaborate dress and idle, [[decadence|decadent]] lifestyles, French bohemian dandies sought to convey their contempt for and superiority to bourgeois society. This fancy-dress bohemianism became a major influence on the [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist movement]] in French literature during the latter part of the nineteenth century.
Baudelaire was deeply interested in the dandyism trend, and wrote memorably that an aspiring dandy must have "no profession other than elegance. . . no other status but that of cultivating the idea of beauty in their own persons. . . . The dandy must aspire to be sublime without interruption; he must live and sleep before a mirror." Other French intellectuals also became interested in the dandies they saw strolling the streets of Paris. [[Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly]] wrote an essay on ''The Anatomy of Dandyism'', which was devoted in large measure to examining the career of Beau Brummell.
==Later Dandyism==
The gilded [[1890s]] provided many suitably sheltered settings for dandyism. The poets [[Algernon Swinburne]] and [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Walter Pater]], the American artist [[James McNeill Whistler]], [[Joris-Karl Huysmans]] and [[Max Beerbohm]] were dandies of the period, as was [[Robert de Montesquiou]], who inspired [[Marcel Proust]]'s Baron de Charlus. In Italy [[Gabriele d'Annunzio]] and [[Carlo Bugatti]] exemplified the artistic bohemian dandyism of the [[fin de siecle]].
The 20th century had less patience with dandyism: the [[Prince of Wales]], briefly [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]] was something of a dandy, and it did not help his public appeal. Nevertheless [[George Walden]], in his essay ''Who's a Dandy?'', points to [[Noel Coward]], [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Quentin Crisp]] as examples of dandies of the modern era.
==Female Dandies==
The female equivalents of dandies could be found in the ''[[demimonde]]'', in figures such as the extravagant courtesan [[Cora Pearl]]. The [[Luisa Casati|marchesa Luisa Casati]] followed a dandy's career in Venice after World War I. The [[diva]] might also be considered a female dandy.
==Quotations==
"A Dandy is a clothes-wearing Man, a Man whose trade, office and existence consists in the wearing of Clothes. Every faculty of his soul, spirit, purse, and person is heroically consecrated to this one object, the wearing of Clothes wisely and well: so that the others dress to live, he lives to dress...And now, for all this perennial Martyrdom, and Poesy, and even Prophecy, what is it that the Dandy asks in return? Solely, we may say, that you would recognise his existence; would admit him to be a living object; or even failing this, a visual object, or thing that will reflect rays of light..."
- The Dandiacal Body from Sartor Resartus by Thomas Carlyle
==See also==
* [[Fop]]
* [[Macaroni (fashion)|Macaroni]]
==Further reading==
Barbey d'Aurevilly, Jules. ''Of Dandyism and of George Brummell''. Translated by Douglas Ainslie. New York: PAJ Publications, 1988.
Carlyle, Thomas. ''Sartor Resartus''. In ''A Carlyle Reader: Selections from the Writings of Thomas Carlyle''. Edited by G.B. Tennyson. London: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
Jesse, Captain William. ''The Life of Beau Brummell''. London: The Navarre Society Limited, 1927.
Lytton, Edward Bulwer, Lord Lytton. ''Pelham or the Adventures of a Gentleman''. Edited by Jerome J. McGann. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972.
Moers, Ellen. ''The Dandy: Brummell to Beerbohm''. London: Secker and Warburg, 1960.
Murray, Venetia. ''An Elegant Madness: High Society in Regency England''. New York: Viking, 1998.
Nicolay, Claire. ''Origins and Reception of Regency Dandyism: Brummell to Baudelaire''. Ph.D. diss., Loyola U of Chicago, 1998.
Wharton, Grace and Philip. ''Wits and Beaux of Society''. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1861.
==External links==
*[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hist255-s01/boheme/dandyism.html "Bohemianism and Counter-Culture": The Dandy]
*[http://www.dandyism.net Dandyism.net]
*[http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~awoodley/regency/dandy.html "The Dandy"]
*[http://www.albany.edu/faculty/rlp96/beerbohm.html ''Dandies and Dandies''] by [[Max Beerbohm]]
*[http://www.livejournal.com/community/refinement/ Refinement (forum)]
*[http://www.lordwhimsy.com LordWhimsy.com]
*[http://www.mmbeyer.com/Papers/Art_History/Mike's/Duchamp.htm "Duchamp is Dandy"] by Michael Beyer
[[Category:Human appearance]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[de:Dandy]]
[[eo:Dando]]
[[nl:Dandy]]
[[sv:Dandy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dubbing (filmmaking)</title>
<id>8860</id>
<revision>
<id>41722236</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T07:56:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TMC1982</username>
<id>96890</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other uses */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For dubbing in music recording, see [[Dubbing (music)]]''
In [[film production|filmmaking]], '''dubbing''' is the process of recording or replacing voices for a [[motion picture]]. The term is most commonly used in reference to voices recorded which do not belong to the original actors and speak in a different language than the actor is speaking. "Dubbing" can also be used to describe the process of re-recording lines by the actor who originally spoke them. This process is technically known as '''automated dialogue replacement''', or '''ADR'''.
Although dubbing is most common with film, [[television series]] are sometimes dubbed as well (mostly popular [[Hollywood]] series and serialized [[Japan]]ese [[anime]] that have received foreign distribution). Foreign-language films and videos are often dubbed into the local [[langua
|
d by the mass of Polish knights and the advancing Lithuanian infantry, which all of a sudden had come pouring on the battlefield from the surrounding forests. [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] personally led the assault with 16 banners of heavy cavalry, which until then held in reserve. Jagiełło, however, threw in all his remaining reserves, as well as several already tired units. Putting up heavy resistance, the 16 banners of the Great Master were surrounded and began to suffer high losses, including the Grand Master himself, who was probably killed by Polish peasantry. Seeing the fall of their Grand Master, the rest of the Teutonic forces started to withdraw towards their camp. Part of the routed units retreated to the forests where they were pursued by the Lithuanian and Polish cavalry, while the rest retreated to the camp near the village of [[Grunwald]], where they tried to organise the defence by using the [[tabor (military unit) | tabor]] tactics: the camp was surrounded by waggons tied up with chains, serving as a mobile fortification. However, the defences were soon broken and the camp was looted. According to the anonymous author of the ''Chronicle of the Conflict of Ladislaus King of Poland with the Teutons Anno Domini 1410'', there were more bodies in and around the camp than on the rest of the battlefield. The pursuit after the fleeing Teutonic cavalry lasted until the dusk.
Despite the technological superiority of the Teutonic Knights, to the point of this being believed to be the first battle in this part of Europe in which field-artillery was deployed, the numbers and tactical superiority of the Polish Lithuanian alliance were to prove overwhelming.
[[Jan Zizka|Jan Žižka of Trocnov]] lost his first eye in the battle fighting for the Lithuanians.
== After the Battle ==
[[Image:Battle of Grunwald (After the Battle).jpg|thumb|250 px|A painting by [[Alphonse Mucha]] detailing the carnage after the Battle of Grunwald]]
The defeat of the [[Teutonic Order]] was resounding. According to [[Andrzej Nadolski]] about 8,000 Teuton soldiers were killed in the battle, and an additional 14,000 taken captive. Most of the approximately 250 members of the Order were also killed, including much of the Teutonic leadership. Apart from [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] himself, the Polish and Lithuanian forces killed also the Grand Marshal [[Friedrich von Wallenrode]], Grand Komtur [[Kuno von Lichtenstein]] and [[Albrecht von Schwartzburg]], the Grand Treasurer [[Thomas von Merheim]]. Komtur of [[Brandenburg]], [[Markward von Salzbach]] and the mayor of [[Sambia]] Schaumburg were executed by order of [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]] after the battle. The only higher officials to escape from the battle were Grand Hospital Master and Komtur of [[Elblag|Elbing]] [[Werner von Tettinger]]. Such a slaughter of noble knights and personalities was quite unusual in Mediæval Europe. This was possible mostly due to the participation of the peasantry who joined latter stages of the battle, and took part in destruction of the surrounded Teutonic troops. Unlike the noblemen, the peasants did not receive any ransom for taking captives; they thus had less of an incentive to keep them alive. Among those taken captive were [[Kazimierz V|Kasimir V]], duke of Stettin ([[Szczecin]]) , and [[Konrad the White]], duke of Oels ([[Oleśnica]]).
After the battle Polish and Lithuanian forces stayed on the battlefield for three days. All notable officials were interred in separate graves, while the body of [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] was covered with royal coat and transported to [[Malbork|Marienburg]]. The rest of the dead were gathered in several mass graves. There are different speculations as to why [[Jagiello]] decided to wait that long. After three days, the Polish-Lithuanian forces moved on to Marienburg and laid siege upon the castle, but the three days time was enough for the Teutons to organise the defence. After several weeks of siege, the Lithuanian Grand Duke withdrew from the war and it became clear that the siege would not be effective. The nobility from Lesser Poland also wanted to end the war before the harvest and the siege was lifted.
In the battle, both Polish and Lithuanian forces took several thousand captives. Most of the mercenaries were released shortly after the battle on the condition that they will return to Kraków on [[September 29]], [[1410]]. After that move, the king held most of the Teutonic officials, while the rest returned to Prussia to beg the Teutonic Order officials for their liberation and ransom payment. This proved to be a major drain of the Teutonic budget as an average rate for a knight was quite high. For instance, one of the mercenaries named [[Holbracht von Loym]] had to pay ''sixty times the number of 150 Prague [[grosz]]es'', that is almost 300 [[kilogram]]s of pure silver, a value uncommon even in modern times. With his army defeated and the remnants of it composed mostly of ill-paid mercenaries, [[Heinrich von Plauen]] had little incentive to continue the fight, especially that most of the cities owned by the Teutons sworn their loyalty to the Polish king. Thus, after retaking [[Danzig]] from rebelious burghers, the peace negotiations were started.
The Peace of Thorn ([[Peace of Toruń 1411|Peace of Toruń]]) was concluded as a result of the Battle of Grunwald, in which Poland annexed the ''Dobriner Land'' ( [[Dobrzyn Land|Dobrzyń Land]]) and Lithuania recovered [[Samogitia]]. This is thought to be a diplomatic defeat for Poland and Lithuania as they pushed for attempts to dismantle the [[Teutonic Knights]] state altogether. However, while the Poles and Lithuanians were unable to translate their military victory to greater political gains, the indirect results of the battle were much worse for the Teutons. The massacre of Teutonic troops left them with few forces to defend their remaining territories. The Grand Masters from then on had to rely on mercenary troops, which proved too expensive for the Teutons' budget to sustain. Although [[Heinrich von Plauen]], the successor to [[Ulrich von Jungingen]], managed to save his state from complete breakdown, the opposition to his rule among the burghers, the knights and within the Order itself forced his ouster.
Eventually, the Teutons' internal conflicts and constant tax increases led to the uprising of the [[Prussian Confederation]]. The power of the Teutonic Knights waned as a result of this revolt, and the order never recovered. This decline led to a series of conflicts that culminated in the [[Thirteen Years' War]], leading to the death of the ''victorious order''.
==Influences of the Battle of Grunwald on modern culture==
===Poland===
[[Image:Grunwald_2003.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Jagiełło]] in the reconstruction of the battle in [[2003]].]]
The battle of Grunwald is regarded as one of the most important battles in the Polish history. It is often depicted by an [[ideogram]] of two swords, which were supposedly given to king Jagiello before the battle by the Teutonic envoys to "raise Polish desire for battle".
[[Image:Order Krzyża Grunwaldu kl. I-awers.jpg|left|thumb|200px|[[Grunwald Cross Medal]], symbol of two swords is visible]]
In [[1914]], on the eve of [[World War I]], during the celebrations marking the 500-year anniversary of the battle a monument was erected in [[Kraków]]. The ceremony spawned demonstrations of outrage within Polish society against the aggressive politics of the [[German Empire]], including the forcible [[Germanization]] of [[Poles]] after the [[partitions of Poland]]. Polish poet [[Maria Konopnicka]] wrote the fiercely Polish-patriotic and anti-German poem [[Rota (The oath)|Rota]]. About the same time, [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]] wrote his book ''[[The Teutonic Knights (book)|The Teutonic Knights]]'' (Polish: ''Krzyżacy'') , one of his series of books designed to increase the patriotic spirit among the Poles. The book was eventually depicted in the film ''[[The Teutonic Knights (film)|The Teutonic Knights]]'' by [[Aleksander Ford]].
These days, a festival is held every year to commemorate this medieval battle. Thousands of [[medieval reenactment|medieval reenactors]], many of them in knight's armor, from all across Europe gather every year in July at the Grunwald fields to reconstruct the battle again. Great care is put to the historical details of the armour, weapons and the conduct of the battle.
[[Order Krzyża Grunwaldu]] (''The Grunwald Cross Medal'') was a Polish military award created in [[1943]] by commander of [[Gwardia Ludowa]] (in [[1944]] confirmed by [[Krajowa Rada Narodowa]]) and was given for heroism in [[World War II]].
In Poland there are [[sport team]]s named "Grunwald"' like [[Grunwald Poznań]]. Moreover, one of administrative districts of [[Poznań]] ([[Poznań-Grunwald]]) was named after this village.
===Belarus===
The victory in the Battle of Grunwald is widely respected and commemorated in Belarus. In 15th century the lands of modern-day [[Belarus]] made up [[media: Gdlbelarus1400.JPG|the core of the territory]] of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. Many of cities from what is today Belarus sent their troops to the battle to fight on the Grand Duchy's side.
===Lithuania===
The victory at the Battle of Grunwald or ''Žalgirio mūšis'' in 1410 is synonymous to the peak of the political and military power of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The demise of the Teutonic order ended the period of German expansion and created preconditions for the political stability, economic growth and relative cultural prosperity that lasted until the rise of [[Muscovy]] in the late XVI century. In the Lithuanian historical discourse regarding the battle there is a lasting debate and controversy over the role played by the Lithuanian-born king of Poland [[Jogaila]], and his cousin, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]], the latter usually being favoured as a national hero.
Leading Lithuanian
|
o serves to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged|Theory of sex]]. She believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness. She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire, which she believes testifies to her moral superiority. However, according to the theory of sex Lillian's lack of sexual capacity results from her inability to experience value in herself; she is therefore unable to respond sexually when she experiences value in others.
Lillian tolerates sex with her husband only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his brute instincts. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161 she indicates that she abhors ''Francisco d'Anconia'', because she believes he is a sexual adventurer. Lillian Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161.
==The Looters==
A group of evil characters sometimes referred to as "James Taggart and his friends". They are similar to the Moochers. The Looters consist of men and women who use force to obtain value from those who produce it. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Looters include: Mr. Thompson, Balph Eubank, Floyd Ferris, James Taggart, Orren Boyle, Paul Larkin, Robert Stadler, Simon Pritchett, Wesley Mouch, and Cuffy Miegs.
==Midas Mulligan==
A wealthy banker who mysteriously disappears in protest after he is given a court order to loan money to an incompetent loan applicant. Midas Mulligan is responsible for the creation and distribution of the money that is exclusively used in Galt's Gulch, and is the original owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. He is also responsible for the production of the money used there.
==The Moochers==
A group of characters, similar to the ''Looters'', who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Moochers include ''Lillian Rearden'', ''Philip Rearden'', and Hank Rearden's ''mother''.
==Mort Liddy==
A [[hack writer|hack]] composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies that no one listens to. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of ''Lillian Rearden's'' friends and a member of the cultural elite. Mort Liddy appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==Mr. Mowen==
The president of the [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc.]] of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. He is unable to grapple with abstract issues, and is frightened of anything controversial. Dagny Taggart hires Mr. Mowen to produce switches made of [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Metal]]. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be ridden and cajoled before he is willing to accept the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. Mr. Mowen appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171.
==Mystery Worker==
A menial worker for [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]] who often dines with ''Eddie Willers'' in the employee's cafeteria. Eddie finds him very easy to talk to, and Mystery Worker not-so-subtly leads him on so that Eddie reveals important information about ''Dagny Taggart'' and Taggart Transcontinental. Eddie tells him which suppliers and contractors Dagny is most dependent on, and with remarkable consistency, those are the next men to disappear mysteriously. Mystery Worker is actually John Galt. Mystery Worker appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 133.
==The unnamed newsstand owner==
He works in the Taggart Terminal. Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since. He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made. He occasionally chats with ''Dagny Taggart'' when she comes by. On one occasion, in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 132, after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing. He examines a cigarette given to Dagny by ''Hugh Akston'', but it is a new brand that he has never seen before. It carries the sign of the dollar. In his first appearance, the Newsstand Owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind. This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized. In [[Atlas Shrugged]], it is the mind of man that raises mankind. Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind. The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and the Newsstand Owner's discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery of a new kind of men of the mind.
==Orren Boyle==
The head of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Associated Steel]] and a friend of ''James Taggart''. He is one of the ''Looters''. He is an investor in the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]]. Orren Boyle appears or is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131, 132, 144, and 152.
==Owen Kellogg==
Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]]. He catches ''Dagny Taggart's'' eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]], Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. He admits that he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him. He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do. Later, he is noticed working as transient labor by the unsuccessful/unmotivated businessman ''Mr. Mowen''. Owen Kellog eventually reaches, and settles in Atlantis. Owen Kellogg appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112 and 114.
==Paul Larkin==
An unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the ''Looters''. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121 Larkin visits [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]] to warn ''Hank Rearden'' of possible trouble from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Washington]]. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131 he meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. Paul Larkin appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121, 132, and 2A1.
==Philip Rearden==
The younger brother of ''Hank Rearden'', and a ''Moocher''. He lives in his brother's home in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]] and is completely dependent on him. He believes that the source of his sustenance is evil and would love to see him destroyed. He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
He becomes resentful of his brother's charity. He then requests that he be granted a job from his brother because he should not have to be burdened by the feeling of inadequacy of not earning his own livelihood. When confronted by his brother on how this job should be a mutually beneficial arrangement, Philip shrugs the argument off as irrelevant and that the job should be entitled to him solely based on his need for money and the fact of familial ties. Philip Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161.
==Quentin Daniels==
An enterprising engineer hired by ''Dagny Taggart'' to reconstruct ''John Galt's'' motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny sets out to meet Quentin in hopes of convincing him to resume his work. John Galt narrowly gets to him first. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to "[[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Galt's Gulch|Galt's Gulch]]"
==Ragnar Danneskjöld==
One of the original ''Strikers''. He is now world famous as a pirate. Ragnar was from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Norway]], the son of a bishop and the scion of one of Norway's most ancient, noble families. He attended [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]] and became friends with ''John Galt'' and ''Francisco d'Anconia'', while studying under ''Hugh Akston'' and ''Robert Stadler''.
Ragnar seizes relief ships that are being sent from the [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|United States]] to [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Europe]]. No one knows what he does with the goods he seizes. As the novel progresses, Ragnar begins, for the first time, to become active in American waters, and is even spotted in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Delaware Bay]]. Reportedly, his ship is better than any available in the fleets of the world's navies.
When he became a pirate, he was disowned and excommunicated. There is a price on his head in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Norway]], [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Portugal]], [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Turkey]].
According to Ayn Rand (verbal report), his name is a tribute to Victor Hugo. In Hugo's first novel, ''Hans of Iceland'', the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. His name may be a pun on 'Dane's Gold', although "skjöld" means shield, not gold. Ragnar Danneskjöld appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==Rearden's mother==
Named Gertrude, she is a ''Moocher'' who lives with her son ''Hank Rearden'' at his home in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]]. She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child. She dotes on her weak son ''Philip Rearden''. Rear
|
easons 11 & 12 Fridays at 9pm. From January 2006, C4 lost the rights to seasons 2 and 3 to Sky, but showed Season 6 in November 2005. More new episodes are scheduled to start airing in the post-watershed slot (Season 13) soon.
In January [[2005]], Channel 4 gained the rights to show the hugely popular US comedy ''[[Desperate Housewives]]''. It became a ratings landslide, having received 6 million viewers and getting 3rd place in the ratings.
In [[August]] [[2005]], Channel 4 started showing the [[United States|US]] TV show ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'' after a lengthy advertising campaign that included a 60-second commercial, shot by [[David LaChapelle]], that featured the cast and cost over £1 million, becoming the most expensive advertisement produced in the UK. This gamble seems to have paid off, however; [[Lost (TV series)#The Pilot|the pilot episode]] was watched by over 6 million viewers, placing it second in the overall ratings for the channel this year, Big Brother securing the top spot. Thursdays saw Ricochet's canine Supernanny Victoria Stilwell tame Britain's worst dogs as ''It's Me or the Dog'' launched onto screens. It lasted six episodes in Series 1, earning record ratings and a second series launched in January 2006.
In [[October]] [[2005]] Channel 4 began broadcasting the [[UK]] version of [[Endemol|Endemol's]] worldwide smash game show [[Deal Or No Deal (UK)|Deal or No Deal]]. Despite being broadcast at a relatively slow time slot - 4.15pm weekdays and 4.25pm Saturdays - the show, presented by [[Noel Edmonds]], has on some occasions been the most-watched show on the channel.
Channel 4 and its associated channels do not cut programmes or movies for commercial timing purposes.
==Audience records==
The highest audience ever attained by Channel 4 was 13.8 million for the film ''[[A Woman of Substance]]'', broadcast on [[4 January]] [[1985]].
Excluding films, the channel's highest rating was 10 million viewers for the final of the third series of ''[[Big Brother (UK TV series)|Big Brother]]'' on [[27 July]] [[2002]]. The channel's daily share of viewing on that date was 22.8%, then the highest recorded by the station. This record was beaten on Monday [[12 September]], [[2005]], the final day of the [[2005 Ashes]], when the channel's daily share of viewing in UK homes was recorded as 23.2%. This was also the first time that Channel 4 had been the highest-rating UK television station across a 24-hour period.
==Building==
[[Image:Channel 4 Building - Horseferry Road - London - 310504.jpg|right|thumb|The Channel 4 building]]
Channel 4 occupies a distinctive, purpose-designed building on Horseferry Road, [[City of Westminster|Westminster]], designed by [[Richard Rogers|Richard Rogers Partnership]] with [[structural engineer|structural engineering]] by [[Ove Arup & Partners]]. It follows on from, but is more restrained than, the [[Lloyd's building]] in the [[City of London]], and was constructed from [[1991]]&ndash;[[ 1994|94]]. It was built on the former site of a [[Methodism|Methodist]] teacher-training college, which occupied a neo-Gothic campus intermittently from its foundation in [[1851]] until [[World War Two]], when the buildings were badly damaged by an incendiary bomb. The College eventually moved to a purpose-built site in [[Oxford]] in [[1959]] and became [[Westminster College, Oxford]].
==Advertising regions==
[[Image:Channel_4_regions.png|thumb|200px|right|The six advertising regions]]
Unlike the many regions of [[BBC One]] and [[ITV1]], and the national versions of [[BBC Two]], Channel 4's only regional variation is its advertising. In fact, Channel 4 operates six demographically-crafted versions, with identical programming apart from the advertisements: London & the South East , the South West, Birmingham, the North and N. Ireland, and the East and East Midlands. These are also carried as six [http://www.lyngsat.com/packages/skyuk.html satellite channels].
Channel 4 is also extensively viewed in the Republic of Ireland through signal overspill from Northern Ireland and it is also carried on the major urban cable networks owned by NTL and Chorus. More people can potentially see Channel 4 in the Republic of Ireland than in Northern Ireland. As a result many advertisers utilise Channel 4 in Northern Ireland to target viewers on both sides of the border on an 'All Ireland' basis. Close to 70% of homes in the Republic can receive Channel 4.
==See also==
* [[List of British television channels]]
* [[The List of Channel 4 programames]]
==External links==
* http://www.channel4.com/
* http://www.filmfour.com/
* [http://media.guardian.co.uk/channel4/0,12225,752247,00.html ''Media Guardian'' special report on Channel 4]
*[http://tgabber.mine.nu/stuff/promo.htm Channel 4 Swearing ad] '''WARNING''': this clip includes strong language.
[[Category:Channel Four|*]]
[[Category:Television channels in the United Kingdom]]
[[fr:Channel 4]]
[[sv:Channel 4]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carolina Parakeet</title>
<id>6322</id>
<revision>
<id>41183702</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T16:47:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sengkang</username>
<id>179360</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Carolina Parakeet
| status = {{StatusExtinct|when=[[1918]]}}
| image = Brd CarPar Audubon.jpg
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Psittaciformes]]
| familia = [[parrot|Psittacidae]]
| genus = '''''Conuropsis'''''
| genus_authority = [[Tommaso Salvadori|Salvadori]], 1891
| species = '''''C. carolinensis'''''
| binomial = ''Conuropsis carolinensis''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linneaus]], [[1758]])
}}
[[Image:Karolinasittich_01.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Mounted specimen of Conuropsis carolinensis, Museum Wiesbaden, Germany]]
The '''Carolina Parakeet''' (''Conuropsis carolinensis'') was the only [[parrot]] species native to the eastern [[United States]]. It was found from the [[Ohio River |Ohio Valley]] to the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and lived in old forests along rivers. It was the only extinct species at the time classified in [[genus]] '''''Conuropsis'''''.
The Carolina Parakeet died out because of a number of different threats. To make space for more agricultural land, large areas of forest were cut down, taking away its living space. The colorful feathers (green body, yellow head, and red around the bill) were in demand as decorations in ladies' hats, and the birds were kept as pets. Even though the birds bred easily in captivity, little was done by owners to increase the population of tamed birds. Finally, they were killed in large numbers because farmers considered them a pest, although many farmers valued them for controlling invasive [[cocklebur]]s.
A factor that contributed to their extinction was the unfortunate flocking behavior that led them to return immediately to a location where some of the birds had just been killed. This led to even more being shot by hunters as they gathered about the wounded and dead members of the flock.
The last wild specimen was killed in Okeechobee County in [[Florida]] in [[1913]], and the last captive bird died at the [[Cincinnati]] Zoo in [[1918]]. This was the male specimen "Incas," who died within a year of his mate "Lady Jane."
In 1937, a Carolina Parakeet was sighted in the Okefenokee swamp of Georgia. The bird was recorded on film. However, the Audobon Society's analyzation of the film said that it probably wasn't a Carolina Parakeet. Another location that reports were made of this bird after 1918 was Okeechobee County in Florida.
The Louisiana subspecies of the Carolina Parakeet was slightly different in color to the parent species and went extinct in much the same way.
About 700 skins are housed in museums around the world.
''See also'': [[Extinct birds]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ncmoa.org/collections/highlights/american/before1850/carolina_lrg.shtml The Carolina Parrot from John James Audubon's Birds of America]
[[Category:Extinct birds]]
[[de:Karolinasittich]]
[[fr:Conure à tête jaune]]
[[pt:Periquito da Carolina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Collective trauma</title>
<id>6324</id>
<revision>
<id>36820104</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T18:23:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.214.111.235</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''collective trauma''' is a psychological effect on an entire society. Traumatic events that emotionally touch nearly every member of said society will often induce a collective trauma. As a result of such trauma, often [[medium|media]], [[politics|politician]]s and, in some extreme instances, the general public, will start looking for [[scapegoat]]s. Collective traumas often give rise to [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]].
In hindsight, collective traumas will often be [[watershed]]s of history and signify or initiate times of change in the society affected.
Well known collective traumas include: The [[John F. Kennedy]] [[assassination]] in the [[United States]], the [[Estonia disaster]] in Sweden and various others.
The destruction of the [[World Trade Center]] in the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]] was expected to induce a severe collective trauma in US society. While much of the country, especially around [[New York]] were shocked, studies have found that incidents of [[suicide]] and [[clinical depression|depression]] did not noticeably increase.
Collective traumas have been shown to play a key role in group [[identity (social science)|identity]] formation (see: [[Gestalt_psychology|Law of Common Fate]]). During [[World War II]], a US submarine came under several hours of [[depth charge]] attack by a Japanese surface vessel until the ship became convinced the submarine had
|
principle of "If you fight, we will call in your mortgages." The current Patrician has opened the city to [[dwarfs (Discworld)|dwarfs]], [[trolls (Discworld)|trolls]], [[gnomes (Discworld)|gnome]]s, humans from across the Disc and even the [[undead (Discworld)|undead]], making a truly [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] society, with both the advantages and problems that suggests. (The current Patrician's own, typically pragmatic, view on multiculturalism is "[[Alloys]] are stronger.")
In recent years, the city has seen numerous changes. Most notable are: the rise of the [[semaphore (communication)|semaphore]] network (the "[[clacks (Discworld)|clacks]]"), the invention of the newspaper (with the help of the [[iconograph]]), and the revitalisation of the [[Ankh-Morpork City Watch|City Watch]] and the [[Ankh-Morpork Post Office]].
Civic symbols include Morporkia, a woman in a cabbage-spangled cloak and an old-fashioned helmet, carrying a shield with the civic [[heraldry|coat of arms]] and a toasting-fork symbolising "something or other" (compare [[Britannia]], [[Historical Columbia|Columbia]]).
==Politics==
The succession of the Patrician is normally either by assassination or revolution. It has been known for Patricians to resign, but it is very much the exception.
Power is to some degree shared with the many [[Guilds of Ankh-Morpork]] (including legalised [[Theft|Thieves]], [[Assassin|Assassins]] and "[[prostitute|Seamstresses]]") and the surviving nobility. They form a sort of city council, but the Patrician has the only vote at meetings.
The current office-holder is Lord [[Havelock Vetinari]], a former [[Assassin]].
The nearest surviving relative of the former [[royal family]] seems to be Captain [[Carrot Ironfoundersson]], technically a dwarf. However, he has gone to some effort to keep this as quiet as possible. The origin of Corporal [[Nobby Nobbs]] remains shrouded in mystery. At one point he was identified as being a descendant of the Earl of Ankh (and therefore the next in line), but this was (probably) a deliberate deception.
A Patrician has almost absolute power over the affairs of the city and works together with the leaders of the city's [[Guilds of Ankh-Morpork|Guilds]], who are the ones who unofficially elect him in the first place. Eligible for election are members of rich and influential families. Unfortunately, almost all of the people who have held the post through the years proved once in office to be little different from a king, except that power did not pass automatically to their descendants. They were despotic, oppressive and fairly often mad. Past Patricians have included:
*Mad Lord Snapcase (preceded Vetinari)
*Homicidal Lord Winder (preceded Snapcase)
*Deranged Lord Harmoni
*Laughing Lord Scapula
*Frenzied Earl Hargath
*Nersh the Lunatic
*Giggling Lord Smince
*[[Olaf Quimby II]]
==Public holidays==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Date || Name
|-
| 1 Ick|| Hogswatch Day ([[New Year]], [[Christmas]])
|-
| [[28 April]] || The [[Terry Pratchett|Creator's]] birthday
|-
| [[1 May]] || [[May Day]] (also called May Blossom Day)
|-
| [[25 May]] || The Twenty-Fifth Of May (commemorates the last Ankh-Morpork revolution, but only if you participated)
|-
| 6 Grune || Patrician's Day (in reality [[Stephen Briggs]]' birthday)
|-
| The first [[Tuesday]], [[Wednesday]] and [[Thursday]] after the last half moon in Sektober || Soul Cake Days
|-
| [[31 December]] || Hogswatch Eve
|-
| [[32 December]] || [[Minor Discworld concepts#Hogswatchnight|Hogswatchnight]]
|}
==External links==
* [http://www.lspace.org/ The L-Space Web], possibly the definitive Discworld web site
* [http://www.avidgamers.com/Otherside/ When Dragons Belch and Hippos Flee], an Ankh-Morpork roleplaying site, where you can be your favorite character.
==Real-World Connections==
Ankh-Morpork is twinned with the town of [[Wincanton]] in [[Somerset]], in the south-west [[United Kingdom]] on the spherical [[planet]] [[Earth]] (also known as [[Minor Discworld concepts#Roundworld|Roundworld]]). The town is home to a Discworld shop called [http://www.artificer.co.uk/ The Cunning Artificer] which is named after a street in Ankh-Morpork. The fact that [[Witches (Discworld)|witches]], [[Rincewind|wizards]] and even [[The Luggage]] have been seen in the vicinity of the shop suggests that it may be one of the [[Minor Discworld concepts#Wandering_Shops|wandering shops]] encountered in ''[[The Light Fantastic]]'' and ''[[Soul Music]]''.
==References==
*Pratchett, Terry (1983). ''[[The Colour of Magic]]''. Colin Smythe.
*Pratchett, Terry (1989). ''[[Guards! Guards!]]''. Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry (1993). ''[[Men At Arms]]''. Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry (1996). ''[[Feet of Clay]]''. Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry (1997). ''[[Jingo (novel)|Jingo]]''. Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry (2000). ''[[The Truth (novel)|The Truth]]''. Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry (2002). ''[[Night Watch (novel)|Night Watch]]''. Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry & Briggs, Stephen (1993). ''The Streets Of Ankh Morpork''. Corgi.
*Pratchett, Terry & Briggs, Stephen (2003). ''The Discworld Companion'' (3rd ed.). Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry & Pearson, Bernard (2004). ''The Discworld Almanak''. Doubleday.
*Pratchett, Terry & Kidby, Paul (2004). ''The Art of Discworld'' ISBN 0575075112. Gollancz.
{{Discworld}}
[[Category:Discworld locations]]
[[Category:Fictional towns and cities]]
[[bg:Анкх-Морпорк]]
[[cs:Ankh-Morpork]]
[[de:Ankh-Morpork]]
[[fr:Ankh-Morpork]]
[[nl:Ankh-Meurbork]]
[[sv:Ankh-Morpork]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Automorphism</title>
<id>1160</id>
<revision>
<id>38358177</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T20:48:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tosha</username>
<id>37304</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Reference */ ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''automorphism''' is an [[isomorphism]] from a mathematical object to itself. It is, in some sense, a [[symmetry]] of the object, and a way of [[map (mathematics)|mapping]] the object to itself while preserving all of its structure. The set of all automorphisms of an object forms a [[group (mathematics)|group]], called the '''automorphism group'''. It is, loosely speaking, the [[symmetry group]] of the object.
== Definition ==
The exact definition of an automorphism depends on the type of "mathematical object" in question and what, precisely, constitutes an "isomorphism" of that object. The most general setting in which these words have meaning is an abstract branch of mathematics called [[category theory]]. Category theory deals with abstract objects and [[morphism]]s between those objects.
In category theory, an '''automorphism''' is an [[endomorphism]] (i.e. a [[morphism]] from an object to itself) which is also an [[Category theory#Types of morphisms|isomorphism]] (in the categorical sense of the word).
This is a very abstract definition since, in category theory, morphisms aren't necessarily functions and objects aren't necessarily sets. In most concrete settings, however, the objects will be sets with some additional structure and the morphisms will be functions preserving that structure.
In the context of [[abstract algebra]], for example, a mathematical object is an [[algebraic structure]] such as a [[group (mathematics)|group]], [[ring (mathematics)|ring]], or [[vector space]]. An isomorphism is simply a [[bijective]] [[homomorphism]]. (Of course, the definition of a homomorphism depends on the type of algebraic structure; see, for example: [[group homomorphism]], [[ring homomorphism]], and [[linear operator]]).
== Automorphism group ==
The set of automorphisms of an object ''X'' form a [[group (mathematics)|group]] under composition of [[morphism]]s. This group is called the '''automorphism group''' of ''X''. That this is indeed a group is simple to see:
* [[Closure (binary operation)|Closure]]: composition of two endomorphisms is another endomorphism.
* [[Associativity]]: morphism composition is associative by definition.
* [[Identity element|Identity]]: the identity is the identity morphism from an object to itself which exists by definition.
* [[Inverse element|Inverses]]: by definition every isomorphism has an inverse which is also an isomorphism, and since the inverse is also an endomorphism of the same object it is an automorphism.
The automorphism group of an object ''X'' in a category ''C'' is denoted Aut<sub>''C''</sub>(''X''), or simply Aut(''X'') if the category is clear from context.
== Examples ==
*In [[set theory]], an automorphism of a set ''X'' is an arbitrary [[permutation]] of the elements of ''X''. The automorphism group of ''X'' is also called the [[symmetric group]] on ''X''.
*A group automorphism is a [[group isomorphism]] from a group to itself. Informally, it is a permutation of the group elements such that the structure remains unchanged. For every group ''G'' there is a natural group homomorphism ''G'' &rarr; Aut(''G'') whose [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] is the [[center of a group|center]] of ''G''. Thus, if ''G'' is centerless it can be embedded into its own automorphism group. (See the discussion on inner automorphisms below).
*In [[linear algebra]], an endomorphism of a [[vector space]] ''V'' is a [[linear transformation|linear operator]] ''V'' &rarr; ''V''. An automorphism is an invertible linear operator on ''V''. The automorphism group of ''V'' is just the [[general linear group]], GL(''V'').
*A field automorphism is a [[bijection|bijective]] [[ring homomorphism]] from a [[field (mathematics)|field]] to itself. In the case of the [[rational number]]s, '''Q''', or the [[real number]]s, '''R''', there are no nontrivial field automorphisms (this follows from the fact that such automorphisms are [[Monotoni
|
a language|Hamba]], [[Holoholo language|Holoholo]], [[Kanu language|Kanu]], [[Kwami language|Kwami]], [[Shabunda-Lega language|Shabunda-Lega]], [[Mwenga-Lega language|Mwenga-Lega]], [[Lika language|Lika]], [[Songoora language|Songoora]] (Dialects: Gengele, North Binja, South Binja), [[Zimba language|Zimba]])
**'''Zone E''' ([[Gweno language|Gweno]], [[Kahe language|Kahe]], [[Chaga language|Chaga]] (Chaga languages: [[Machame language|Machame]] [[Mochi language|Mochi]], [[Rombo language|Rombo]], [[Vunjo language|Vunjo]]), [[Rusa language|Rusa]], [[Malakote language|Malakote]], [[Chonyi language|Chonyi]], [[Digo language|Digo]], [[Duruma language|Duruma]], [[Giryama language|Giryama]] (Nyika), [[Segeju language|Segeju]], [[Pokomo language|Pokomo]] (Upper and Lower), [[Taita language|Taita]], [[Sagalia language|Sagalia]], [[Logoli language|Logoli]], [[Kabwa language|Kabwa]], [[Gusii language|Gusii]], [[Ikizu language|Ikizu]], [[Kuria language|Kuria]], [[Ngurimi language|Ngurimi]], [[Ikoma language|Ikoma]] (Nata), [[Sonjo language|Sonjo]] (Temi), [[Suba language|Suba]], [[Sizaki language|Sizaki]], [[Ware language|Ware]], [[Zanaki language|Zanaki]], [[Dhaiso language|Dhaiso]], [[Embu language|Embu]], [[Gikuyu language|Gikuyu]], [[Chuka language|Chuka]], [[Meru language|Meru]], [[Tharaka language|Tharaka]], [[Mwimbi language|Mwimbi]], [[Muthambi language|Muthambi]])
**'''Zone F''' ([[Bende language|Bende]], [[Fipa language|Fipa]], [[Mambwe language|Mambwe]], [[Lungu language|Lungu]], [[Pimbwe language|Pimbwe]], [[Rungwa language|Rungwa]], [[Tongwe language|Tongwe]], [[Konongo language|Konongo]], [[Kimbu language|Kimbu]], [[Nyamwezi language|Nyamwezi]], [[Sukuma language|Sukuma]], [[Sumbwa language|Sumbwa]], [[Bungu language|Bungu]], [[Langi language|Langi]], [[Mbugwe language|Mbugwe]], [[Nilamba language|Nilamba]], [[Nyaturu language|Nyaturu]] (Rimi), [[Mbugu language|Mbugu]])
**'''Zone G'''
**'''Zone H'''
**'''Zone J'''
**'''Zone K'''
**'''Zone L''' ([[Bwile language|Bwile]], [[Kaonde language|Kaonde]], [[Nkoya language|Nkoya]], [[Mbwera language|Mbwera]], [[Bangubangu language|Bangubangu]], [[Binji language|Binji]], [[Kete language|Kete]], [[Luna language|Luna]], [[Songe language|Songe]], [[Mbagani language|Mbagani]], [[Budya language|Budya]], [[Hemba language|Hemba]], [[Kanyok language|Kanyok]], [[Luba-Kasai language|Luba-Kasai]], [[Luba-Katanga language|Luba-Katanga]], [[Lwalu language|Lwalu]], [[Sanga language|Sanga]])
**'''Zone M'''
**'''Zone N''' ([[Manda language|Manda]], [[Mantengo language|Mantengo]], [[Ngoni language|Ngoni]], [[Tonga language (Bantu Zone N)|Tonga]], [[Mpoto language|Mpoto]], [[Nyanja language|Nyanja]], [[Tumbuka language|Tumbuka]], [[Nsenga language|Nsenga]], [[Barwe language|Barwe]], [[Kunda language|Kunda]], [[Nyungwe language|Nyungwe]], [[Phimbi language|Phimbi]], [[Sena language|Sena]], [[Malawi Sena language|Malawi Sena]], [[Podzo language|Podzo]], [[Rue language|Rue]])
**'''Zone P''' ([[Yao Bantu language|Yao]], [[Mwera language|Mwera]], [[Makonde language|Makonde]], [[Machinga language|Machinga]], [[Nyasa language|Nyasa]], [[Mabiha language|Mabiha]], [[Ndonde Hamba language|Ndonde Hamba]], [[Ndendeule language|Ndendeule]], [[Matumbi language|Matumbi]], [[Mbunga language|Mbunga]], [[Ndengereko language|Ndengereko]], [[Ngindo language|Ngindo]], [[Nindi language|Nindi]], [[Rufiji language|Rufiji]], [[Chuwabu language|Chuwabu]], [[Maindo language|Maindo]], [[Koti language|Koti]], [[Kokola language|Kokola]], [[Lolo Bantu language|Lolo]], [[Manyawa language|Manyawa]], [[Lomwe language|Lomwe]], [[Ngulu Bantu language (Zone P)|Ngulu]], [[Marenje language|Marenje]], [[Takwane language|Takwane]], [[Makua language|Makua]], [[Makhuwa-Meetto language|Makhuwa-Meetto]], [[Makhuwa-Moniga language|Makhuwa-Moniga]], [[Makhuwa-Shirima language|Makhuwa-Shirima]], [[Makhuwa-Marrevone language|Makhuwa-Marrevone]], [[Makhuwa-Saka language|Makhuwa-Saka]])
**'''Zone R''' ([[Herero language|Herero]], [[Zemba language|Zemba]], [[Yeyi language|Yeyi]], [[Umbundu language|Umbundu]] (South Mbundu), [[Ndombe language|Ndombe]], [[Nyaneka language|Nyaneka]], [[Nkhumbi language|Nkhumbi]], [[Kwanyama language|Kwanyama]], [[Ndonga language|Ndonga]], [[Kwambi language|Kwambi]], [[Ngandyera language|Ngandyera]], [[Mbalanhu language|Mbalanhu]])
**'''Zone S''' ([[Dema language|Dema]], [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]], [[Manyika language|Manyika]], [[Ndau language|Ndau]], [[Nambya language|Nambya]], [[Shona language|Shona]], [[Zezuru language|Zezuru]], [[Toko language|ChiToko]] [[Tawara language|Tawara]], [[Tewe language|Tewe]], [[Chopi language|Chopi]], [[Tonga-Inhambane language|Tonga-Inhambane]], [[Ronga language|Ronga]] [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]], [[Tonga language (Bantu Group S)|Tonga]], [[Tswa language|Tswa]], [[Venda language|Venda]], [[Swati language|Swati]] (Swazi), [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], [[Zulu language|Zulu]], [[Ndebele language|Zimbabwe Ndebele]], [[Ndebele language|North Transvaal Ndebele]], [[Ndebele language|South Transvaal Ndebele]], [[Northern Sotho language|Northern Sotho]], [[Southern Sotho language|Southern Sotho]], [[Birwa language|Birwa]], [[Kgalagadi language|Kgalagadi]], [[Lozi language|Lozi]], [[Tswana language|Tswana]], [[Tswapong language|Tswapong]])
**'''Unclassified''' ([[Boguru language|Boguru]], [[Gbati-ri language|Gbati-ri]], [[Isanzu language|Isanzu]], [[Ngbee language|Ngbee]], [[Kari language|Kari]], [[Mayeka language|Mayeka]], [[Ngbinda language|Ngbinda]], [[Nyanga-li language|Nyanga-li]], [[Songo language|Songo]])
==Some Bantu words in popular Western culture==
* [[Samba]]
* [[Banjo]]
* [[Rumba]]
* [[Conga]]
* [[Mambo]]
* [[Zombie]]
* [[Bongos]]
* [[Gumbo]]
* [[Jumbo]]
* [[Marimba]]
* [[Simba]]
==See also==
* [[Meeussen's rule]]
* [[Noun class]]
* [[Bantu]]
==Bibliography==
* Guthrie, Malcolm (1948) ''The classification of the Bantu languages.'' London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.
* Guthrie, Malcolm (1971) ''Comparative Bantu'' vol 2. London: Gregg Press.
* Heine, Bernd (1973) 'Zur genetische Gliederung der Bantu-Sprachen'. ''Afrika und Übersee'', 56, 164&ndash;185.
* Maho, Jouni F. (2001) 'The Bantu area: (towards clearing up) a mess'. ''Africa & Asia'', 1, 40&ndash;49.
* Piron, Pascale (1995) 'Identification lexicostatistique des groupes Bantoïdes stables.' ''Journal of West African Languages'', 25, 2, 3&ndash;39.
==External links==
* [http://www.cbold.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/ Comparative Bantu Online Dictionary] - includes a comprehensive bibliography.
* [http://www.bantu-languages.com/en/ Bantu online resources by Jacky Maniacky], including
** [http://www.bantu-languages.com/fr/classes.html List of Bantu noun classes with reconstructed Proto-Bantu prefixes (in French)]
* [http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/CBOLD/Lgs/LgsbyGN.html List of Bantu language names with synonyms ordered by Guthrie number]).
* [http://www.musicofpuertorico.com/en/genre_mambo.html Music of Puerto Rico]
* [http://www.etymonline.com Etymology Dictionary]
* [http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/021/0487/jmmd0210487.pdf Adaptation of English loanwords in Chichewa]
* [http://www.linguistics.emory.edu/POLYGLOT/phonology.html#bemba Bemba Phonology]
* [http://www.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/ Journal of West African Languages] - for back issues and reprints of articles.
[[Category:Bantu languages|*]]
[[Category:Southern Bantoid languages]]
[[Category:Synthetic languages]]
[[ast:Llingües del grupu bantú]]
[[da:Kategori:Bantusprog]]
[[de:Bantusprache]]
[[es:Lenguas bantúes]]
[[et:Bantu keeled]]
[[fa:زبانهای بانتو]]
[[fi:Bantukielet]]
[[fr:Langues bantoues]]
[[lt:Bantu kalbos]]
[[nl:Bantoetalen]]
[[nn:Bantuspråk]]
[[no:Bantuspråk]]
[[pl:Jezyki bantu]]
[[pt:Línguas Bantu]]
[[sr:Банту (језик)]]
[[sv:Bantuspråk]]
[[sw:Kibantu, lugha]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ballroom dancing</title>
<id>4126</id>
<revision>
<id>15902423</id>
<timestamp>2002-11-23T08:15:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ballroom dance]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bearing</title>
<id>4127</id>
<revision>
<id>39856996</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T09:20:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bearing''' is the following:
{{wiktionarypar|bearing}}
* Often, [[bearing]] is the state of having something as a quality, characteristic, or permanent attribute.
* To carry or hold.
* [[Bearing (navigation)]] is a term for direction.
* A [[bearing (mechanical)]] is a component that separates moving parts.
* In mechanics a bearing component is one that takes a load.
==See also==
*[[Giving]]
*[[Bering]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BOMARC</title>
<id>4129</id>
<revision>
<id>15902425</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-19T14:56:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Bomarc Missile Program]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bomarc Missile Program]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bomarc Missile Program</title>
<id>4130</id>
<revision>
<id>40604110</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T19:44:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jbhood</username>
<id>630935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>small copyedit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BOMARC.jpg|thumb|220px|Bomarc missile launch]]
The '''Bomarc Missile Program''' was a joint [[United States|United States of America]]-[[Canada]] effort between [[1957]] and [[1971]] to protect against the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] bomber threat. It
|
has fallen from roughly 50% in the 1970s to 13.9% in 2003. However, the figures varied from 29.5% on Prince Edward Island to zero in Labrador and Newfoundland. [http://www.courtchallenge.com/refs/yr99p-e.html]
In [[South Korea]], circumcision was largely unknown before the establishment of the United States trusteeship in [[1945]] and the spread of American influence. More than 90% of South Korean high school boys are now circumcised, but the average age of circumcision is 12 years [http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/pang1/].
In [[South Africa]] circumcision has roots in several belief systems, and is performed most of the time to teen aged males :
:''"...The young men in the eastern Cape belong to the Xhosa ethnic group for whom circumcision is considered part of the passage into manhood... A law was recently introduced requiring initiation schools to be licensed and only allowing circumcisions to be performed on youths aged 18 and older. But Eastern Cape provincial Health Department spokesman Sizwe Kupelo told Reuters news agency that boys as young as 11 had died. Each year thousands of young men go into the bush alone, without water, to attend initiation schools. Many do not survive the ordeal..."'' [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3069491.stm].
The major medical societies in Britain, Canada, Australia and New Zealand do not support routine non-therapeutic infant circumcision. Major medical organizations in the United States state that parents should decide what is in their child's best interests, explicitly not recommending the procedure for medical reasons. Neonatal circumcision remains the most common pediatric operation carried out in the U.S. today.
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; border-collapse: collapse; border:1px solid #999"
|+'''Table 1: International circumcision rates'''
|- bgcolor="#f2f2f2"
! Country
! Year
! Neonatal circumcisions (%)
|-
| United States
| 2002
| 60.1% [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_13/sr13_158.pdf]
|-
| Canada
| 2003
| 11.5% [http://www.cirp.org/library/statistics/Canada/]
|-
| Australia
| 2004
| 12.7% [http://www.cirp.org/library/statistics/Australia/]
|-
| New Zealand
| 1995
| 0.35%* [http://www.cirp.org/library/statistics/NZ/]
|-
| United Kingdom
| 1972
| 0.41% [http://www.cirp.org/library/statistics/bollinger2003/]
|- style="border-top:1px solid #999; border-bottom: hidden; border-left: hidden; border-right: hidden;"
| colspan="3" | <small>*Samoans, Tongans and Niueans in New Zealand continue to practice circumcision, but not in public hospitals, to which these data refer.</small>
|}
==Prevalence of circumcision worldwide==
Estimates of the proportion of males that are circumcised worldwide vary from one sixth[http://www.cirp.org/library/complications/williams-kapila/] to one third[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12503896].
Except for [[Muslim]]s and [[Jew]]s, most males are not circumcised in:
: [[Europe]], [[Latin America]], [[China]], [[India]], [[Australia]] and [[South-East Asia]].
The majority of males are circumcised in the following countries, in most of which the predominant religion is [[Islam]], which endorses circumcision:
:[[Afghanistan]], [[Albania]], [[Algeria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Bahrain]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Benin]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Cameroon]], [[Chad]], [[Comoros]], [[Djibouti]], [[Egypt]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Gabon]], [[The Gambia|Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kenya]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Libya]], [[Madagascar]], [[Malaysia]], [[Maldives]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Oman]], [[Pakistan]], "[[Palestine]]", [[Qatar]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Somalia]], "[[Somaliland]]", [[Sudan]], [[Syria]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], "[[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]]", [[Turkmenistan]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Uzbekistan]], "[[Western Sahara]]", and [[Yemen]].
In other countries where circumcision predominates it is endorsed by religion and/or by local [[Norm_(sociology)|custom]]s and [[tradition]]s:
:[[Israel]], [[Philippines]], [[Samoa]], [[South Africa]], [[South Korea]], [[Togo]], [[Tonga]], the [[United States]], and [[Vanuatu]]
===United States===
Statistics from different sources give a somewhat different picture of the prevalence of circumcision in the United States.
The National Center for Health Statistics stated that the overall rate of neonatal circumcision was 64.3% in 1979 and 65.3% in 1999. However, the rate for white infants was 0.3% lower in 1999 than 1979 and the circumcision rate for black infants increased by 6.5% over this time [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/circumcisions/circumcisions_race.htm]. Also, strong regional differences developed. In the West, circumcision declined from 63.9% to 36.7%, but this was counterbalanced by rises in the Midwest and South. [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/circumcisions/circumcisions_region.htm] The decline in the West has been partly attributed to increasing births among [[Latin American]]s, who usually do not circumcise [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/circumcisions/circumcisions.htm].
A recent study, which used data from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (a sample of 5-7 million of the nation's total inpatient stays, and representing a 20% sample taken from 8 states in 1988 and 28 in 2000), stated that circumcisions rose from 48.3% in 1988 to 61.1% in 1997.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15711354]
Figures from the Nationwide Hospital Discharge Survey (a sample of 270,000 inpatient stays), <!-- can find no evidence for this: which takes its sample from all 50 States, --> state that circumcision rates declined from 64.7% in 1980 to 59.0% in 1990, then rose to 64.1% in 1995, and fell again to 60.1% in 2002. Overall, the West saw the most significant change, declining from 61.8% in 1980 to 32.6% in 2002 (see Table 44, page 51 of the National Hospital Discharge Survey, 2002) [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_13/sr13_158.pdf].
Sixteen states no longer pay for the procedure under Medicaid [http://www.circumstitions.com/Images/map-usa-notfund.gif]. One study in the Midwest of the US found that this had no effect on the newborn circumcision rate but it did affect the demand for circumcision at a later time.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14501653]
==See also==
*[[Bioethics of neonatal circumcision]]
*[[Brit milah]]
*[[Brit shalom]]
*[[Circumcision advocacy]]
*[[Circumcision and law]]
*[[Circumcision in the Bible]]
*[[Circumcision scar]]
*[[Female genital cutting]]
*[[Foreskin restoration]]
*[[Foreskin]]
*[[Forcible retraction of the foreskin]]
*[[Frenectomy]]
*[[Genital integrity]]
*[[Genital modification and mutilation]]
*[[History of male circumcision]]
*[[Holy Prepuce]]
*[[Medical analysis of circumcision]]
*[[Sexual effects of circumcision]]
*[[Zeved habat]]
==External links ==
===General information===
* [http://www.aafp.org/x1462.xml American Academy of Family Physicians position paper]
* [http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics%3b103/3/686 American Academy of Pediatrics circumcision statement]
* [http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13585.html American Medical Association Circumcision Report]
* [http://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aaps/ Australasian Association of Pediatric Surgeons circumcision statement]
* [http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/malecircumcision2003 British Medical Association guideline]
* [http://www.cps.ca/english/statements/FN/fn96-01.htm Canadian Pediatric Society circumcision assessment]
* [http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/QLRC/ Queensland Law Reform Commission research paper]
* [http://www.racp.edu.au/hpu/paed/circumcision/summary.htm Royal Australasian College of Physicians summary statement]
===Circumcision techniques===
* [http://www.aafp.org/afp/990315ap/1514.html Description of an adult circumcision] from the [[AAFP]].
* [http://www.aafp.org/afp/980915ap/peleg.html Description of an infant Gomco circumcision] from the [[AAFP]].
* [http://www.mcg.edu/pediatrics/CCNotebook/chapter2/circumsion.htm Description of a Plastibell circumcision] from the Medical College of Georgia.
* [http://www.euroband.com/mogen.htm Description of an infant Mogen circumcision] from [http://www.euroband.com Euroband].
* [http://www.globalcitizen.co.uk/travel/africa/circumcision.html Video footage of mass adult circumcision in Uganda]
* [http://www.consumptionjunction.com/content/detail.asp?ID=44865&type=1&page=1&fav=0 Video footage of a single circumcision lead by a doctor while teaching the procedure]
===Circumcision opposition===
* [http://www.infocirc.org/welcome2.htm Info-Circumcision: Canadian circumcision opposition]
* [http://www.nocirc.org/ National Organization of Circumcision Information and Resource Center]
* [http://www.noharmm.org/ National Organization to Halt the Abuse and Routine Mutilation of Men]
* [http://www.cirp.org/ CIRP.org, Circumcision Information and Resource Pages]
* [http://www.circumcision.org Circumcision resource center]
* [http://www.historyofcircumcision.net/ History of Circumcision pages]
* [http://jewsagainstcircumcision.org/ Jews Against Circumcision pages]
===Circumcision promotion===
* [http://www.circinfo.net/ Benefits of circumcision: medical, health and sexual] a literature review by Professor Brian Morris
* [http://medicirc.org/ Circumcision: a lifetime of medical benefits] by Dr Edgar Schoen
* [http://circuncisi
|
andschrift herausgegeben'', Leipzig, 1894), have confirmed what had been previously only a hypothesis that the Acts of Thecla had formed a part of the larger Acts of Paul. The Acts therefore embrace now the following elements:-
* Two quotations given by Origen in his ''Princip.'' i. 2. 3 and his comment on John xx. 12. From the latter it follows that in the Acts of Paul the death of Peter was recounted,
* ''Apocryphal 3rd Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians'' and ''Epistle from the Corinthians to Paul''. These two letters are connected by a short account which is intended to give the historical situation. Paul is in prison on account of Stratonice, the wife of Apollophanes. The Greek and Latin versions of these letters have for the most part disappeared, but they have been preserved in Syriac, and through Syriac they obtained for the time being a place in the Armenian Bible immediately after 2 Corinthians. Aphraates cites two passages from 3 Corinthians as words of the apostle, and Ephraem expounded them in his commentary on the Pauline Epistles. They must therefore have been regarded as canonical in the first half of the 4th century. From the Syriac Bible they made their way into the Armenian and maintained their place without opposition to the 7th century. On the Latin text see Carrière and Berger, ''Correspondance apocr. de S. P. et des Corinthiens'', 1891. For a translation of Ephraem's commentary see Zahn ii. 592-611 and Vetter, ''Der Apocr. 3. Korinthien'', 70 sqq., 1894. The Coptic version (C. Schmidt, ''Acta Pauli'', pp. 74-82), which is here imperfect, is clearly from a Greek original, while the Latin and Armenian are from the Syriac.
* ''The Acts of Paul and Thecla''. These were written, according to Tertullian (''De Baptismo'', 17) by a presbyter of Asia, who was deposed from his office on account of his forgery. This, the earliest of Christian romances (probably before A.D. 150), recounts the adventures and sufferings of a virgin, Thecla of Iconium. Lipsius discovers Gnostic traits in the story, but these are denied by Zahn (''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 902). See Lipsius, ''op. cit.'' ii. 424-467; Zahn (''op. cit.'' ii. 892-910). The best text is that of Lipsius, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'', 1891, i. 235-272. There are Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic and Slavonic versions. As we have seen above, these Acts are now recognized as belonging originally to the Acts of Paul. They were, however, published separately long before the Gelasian Decree (496). Jerome also was acquainted with them as an independent work. Thecla was most probably a real personage, around whom a legend had already gathered in the 2nd century. Of this legend the author of the Acts of Paul made use, and introduced into it certain historical and geographical facts,
* The healing of Hermocrates of dropsy in Myra. Through a comparison of the Coptic version with the Pseudo-Cyprian writing "Caena," Rolffs (Hennecke, ''NT. Apok.'' 361) concludes that this incident formed originally a constituent of our book,
* The strife with beasts at Ephesus. This event is mentioned by Nicephorus Callistus (''H.E.'' ii. 25) as recounted in the περιοδοι of Paul. The identity of this work with the Acts of Paul is confirmed by a remark of Hippolytus in his commentary on Daniel iii. 29. 4, ed. Bonwetsch 176 (so Rolffs).
* Martyrdom of Paul. The death of Paul by the sentence of Nero at Rome forms the close of the Acts of Paul. The text is in the utmost confusion. It is best given by Lipsius, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 104-117.
Notwithstanding all the care that has been taken in collecting the fragments of these Acts, only about 900 stichoi out of the 3600 assigned to them in the Stichometry of Nicephorus have as yet been recovered.
The author was, according to Tertullian (''De Baptism.'' 17), a presbyter in Asia, who out of honour to Paul wrote the Acts, forging at the same time 3 Corinthians. Thus the work was composed before 190, and, since it most probably uses the martyrdom of Polycarp, after 155. The object of the writer is to embody in St Paul the model ideal of the popular Christianity of the 2nd century. His main emphasis is laid on chastity and the resurrection of the flesh. The tone of the work is Catholic and anti-Gnostic. For the bibliography of the subject see Hennecke, ''NT. Apok.'' 358-360.
==== Acts of Peter ====
These acts are first mentioned by Eusebius (''H.E.'' iii. 3) by name, and first referred to by the African poet Commodian about A.D. 250. Harnack, who was the first to show that these Acts were Catholic in character and not Gnostic as had previously been alleged, assigns their composition to this period mainly on the ground that Hippolytus was not acquainted with them; but even were this assumption true, it would not prove the non-existence of the Acts in question. According to Photius, moreover, the Acts of Peter also were composed by this same Leucius Charinus, who, according to Zahn (''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 864), wrote about 160 (''op. cit.'' p. 848). Schmidt and Ficker, however, maintain that the Acts were written about 200 and in Asia Minor. These Acts, which Ficker holds were written as a continuation and completion of the canonical Acts of the Apostles, deal with Peter's victorious conflict with Simon Magus, and his subsequent martyrdom at Rome under Nero. It is difficult to determine the relation of the so-called Latin ''Actus Vercellenses'' (which there are good grounds for assuming were originally called the Πραξεις Πετρου) with the Acts of John and Paul. Schmidt thinks that the author of the former made use of the latter, James that the Acts of Peter and of John were by one and the same author, but Ficker is of opinion that their affinities can be explained by their derivation from the same ecclesiastical atmosphere and school of theological thought. No less close affinities exist between our Acts and the Acts of Thomas, Andrew and Philip. In the case of the Acts of Thomas the problem is complicated, sometimes the Acts of Peter seem dependent on the Acts of Thomas, and sometimes the converse.
For the relation of the ''Actus Vercellenses'' to the "Martyrdom of the holy apostles Peter and Paul" (''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 118-177) and to the "Acts of the holy apostles Peter and Paul" (''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 178-234) see Lipsius ii. 1. 84 sqq. The "Acts of Xanthippe and Polyxena," first edited by James (''Texts and Studies'', ii. 3. 1893), and assigned by him to the middle of the 3rd century, as well as the "Acts of the Disputation of Archelaus, bishop of Mesopotamia, and the Heresiarch Manes" ("Acta Disputationis Archelai Episcopi Mesopotamiae et Manetis Haeresiarchae," in Routh's ''Reliquiae Sacrae'', v. 36-206), have borrowed largely from our work.
The text of the ''Actus Vercellenses'' is edited by Lipsius, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 45-79. An independent Latin translation of the "Martyrdom of Peter" is published by Lipsius (''op. cit.'' i. 1-22), ''Martyrium beati Petri Apostoli a Lino episcopo conscriptum''. On the Coptic fragment, which Schmidt maintains is an original constituent of these Acts, see that writer's work: ''Die alten Petrusakten im Zusammenhang der apokryphen Apostelliteratur nebst einem neuentdeckten Fragment'', and ''Texte und Untersuch''. N.F. ix. 1 (1903). For the literature see Hennecke, ''Neutestamentliche Apokryphen Handbuch'', 395 sqq.
==== Preaching of Peter ====
This book (Πετρου κηρυγμα) gave the substance of a series of discourses spoken by one person in the name of the apostles. Clement of Alexandria quotes it several times as a genuine record of Peter's teaching. Heracleon had previously used it (see Origen, ''In Evang. Johann.'' t. xiii. 17). It is spoken unfavourably of by Origen (''De Prin.'' Praef. 8). It was probably in the hands of Justin and Aristides. Hence Zahn gives its date as 90-100 at latest; Dobschütz, as 100-110; and Harnack, as 110-130. The extant fragments contain sayings of Jesus, and warnings against Judaism and Polytheism.
They have been edited by Hilgenfeld: ''Nov. Test. extra Can.'', 1884, iv. 51-65, and by von Dobschütz, ''Das Kerygma Petri'', 1893. Salmon (''Dict. Christ. Biog.'' iv. 329-330) thinks that this work is part of a larger work, ''A Preaching of Peter and a Preaching of Paul'', implied in a statement of Lactantius (''Inst. Div.'' iv. 21); but this view is contested by Zahn, see ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 820-834, particularly pp. 827-828; Chase, in Hastings' ''Bible Dict.'' iv. 776.
==== Acts of Thomas ====
This is one of the earliest and most famous of the Gnostic Acts. It has been but slightly tampered with by orthodox hands. These Acts were used by the Encratites (Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' xlvii. 1), the Manichaeans (Augustine, ''Contra Faust''. xxii. 79), the Apostolici (Epiphanius lxi. 1) and Priscillianists. The work is divided into thirteen Acts, to which the Martyrdom of Thomas attaches as the fourteenth. It was originally written in Syriac, as Burkitt (''Journ. of Theol. Studies'', i. 278 sqq.) has finally proved, though Macke and Nöldeke had previously advanced grounds for this view. The Greek and Latin texts were edited by Bonnet in 1883 and again in 1903, ii. 2; the Greek also by James, ''Apoc. Anec.'' ii. 28-45, and the Syriac by Wright (''Apocr. Acts of the Gospels'', 1871, i. 172-333). Photius ascribes their composition to Leucius Charinus--therefore to the 2nd century, but Lipsius assigns it to the early decades of the 3rd. (See Lipsius, ''Apokryphen Apostelgeschichten'', i. 225-347; Hennecke, ''N.T. Apokryphen'', 473-480.)
==== Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (Didache) ====
This important work was discovered by Philotheos Bryennios in Constantinople and published in 1883. Since that date it has been frequently edited. The bibliography can be found in Schaff's and in Harnack's editions. The book divides itself into three parts. The first (i.-vi.) contains a body of eth
|
k=University of Wisconsin Madison| URL=http://www.ansci.wisc.edu/facstaff/Faculty/pages/claus/hyd/hydhome.htm | date=October 24 | year=2005}}
*{{fnb|(2)}} {{Web reference | title=Dynamite fishing ravages Philippines' precious coral reefs | work=San Francisco Chronicle| URL=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/05/30/MN232485.DTL | date=October 24 | year=2005}}
*{{fnb|(3)}} {{Web reference | title=What's Wrong With the Wound Ballistics Literature and Why | work=Letterman Army Institute of Research, Division of Military Trauma Research | URL=http://www.rkba.org/research/fackler/wrong.html | date=October 25 | year=2005}}
*{{fnb|(4)}} {{Web reference | title=Handgun Wounding Factors and Effectiveness | work=FirearmsTactical.com| URL=http://www.firearmstactical.com/hwfe.htm| date=January 17| year=2006}}
*{{fnb|(5)}} {{Web reference | title=Wounding Mechanism of Projectiles Striking at More than 1.5km/sec, Martin L. Fackler, Donald F Bellamy & John A Malinowski | work=B & T Ammo Labs | URL=http://www.btammolabs.com/fackler/wounding_mechanism.pdf | date=October 24 | year=2005}}
==See also==
*[[Stopping power]]
*[http://www.btammolabs.com/articles.htm More articles on wound ballistics from B & T Ammo Labs]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Ballistics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hadith</title>
<id>13749</id>
<revision>
<id>41995739</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:47:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rayana fazli</username>
<id>824188</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}
'''Hadith''' ({{lang-ar|الحديث}}, Arabic pl. ''ahadith'' "أحاديث"; in English academic usage, ''hadith'' is often both singular and plural, and sometimes spelled '''haddith''') are traditions relating to the sayings and doings of the [[Islam]]ic prophet [[Muhammad]]. Hadith collections are regarded as important tools for determining the [[Sunnah]], or [[Muslim]] way of life, by all traditional [[madhab|schools of jurisprudence]].
== Types of hadith ==
Muslim scholars classify hadith relating to Muhammad as follows:
* What Muhammad said (''qawl'',''قول'' )
* What Muhammad did (''fi'l'',''فعل'' )
* What Muhammad approved (''taqrir'',''تقرير'' ) in others' actions.
There are also hadith relating to the sayings and doings of the companions, but they may not have the same weight as those about Muhammad.
Western scholars note that there is a great overlap between the records of early Islamic traditions. Accounts of early Islam are also to be found in:
* [[sira]] (stories, especially biographies of Muhammad)
* [[tafsir]] (commentary on the Qur'an)
* [[fiqh]] (juristic reasoning)
Some of these accounts are also found as hadith; some aren't. For a Western historian, these are all simply historical sources; for the Muslim scholar, hadith have a special status citing [[sura]] [[Al-A'raf]] 157:
:''Those who follow the messenger, the unlettered Prophet, whom they find mentioned in their own (scriptures),- in the Law and the Gospel;- for he commands them what is just and forbids them what is evil; he allows them as lawful what is good (and pure) and prohibits them from what is bad (and impure); He releases them from their heavy burdens and from the yokes that are upon them. So it is those who believe in him, honour him, help him, and follow the light which is sent down with him,- it is they who will prosper.'' (Yusuf Ali translation)
They take this and other Qur'anic verses to require Muslims to follow authentic ''hadith''. However, a small number of "[[Quran-only]]" Muslims disagree with this view and interpret these verses differently; they argue that the hadith are of human creation and have no authority.
==How are hadith collections viewed?==
The overwhelming majority of Muslims consider hadiths to be essential supplements to and clarifications of the [[Qur'an]], Islam's holy book.
* In the matter of what is called ''[[fiqh]]'', or Islamic jurisprudence, the Qur'an contains many rules for the behavior expected of Muslims. However, there are many matters of concern, both religious and practical, on which there are no specific Quranic rules. Muslims believe that they can look at the way of life, or ''[[sunnah]]'', of Muhammad and his companions to discover what to imitate and what to avoid.
* In the matter of what is called ''[[tafsir]]'', or exposition of the meaning of the Qur'an, Muslim scholars believe that it is useful to know how Muhammad or his companions explained the revelations, or upon what occasion Muhammad received them. Sometimes this will clarify a passage that otherwise seems obscure.
* Hadith are a source for Islamic history and biography.
* For the vast majority of devout Muslims, authentic hadith are also a source of religious inspiration.
A very small proportion of the global Muslim poplulation, such as [[Rashad Khalifa]]'s followers [[United Submitters International]], advocate following the "Qur'an alone" and claim that hadiths are unnecessary to supplement a complete book, often arguing that hadiths lead believers away from submission to God by adding another source of law. Muslims who advocate following the "Qur'an alone" viewpoint are regarded as [[apostate|apostates]] or [[sin|sinners]] by mainstream Muslim scholars, and by the vast majority of Muslims. They argue that many Qur'anic instructions are impossible to fulfill without guidance from the ahadith. (The Qur'an does not, for example, specify how many prayer cycles constitute fulfillment of each of the daily prayers. See [[salat]].)
== Value of hadith compared to the value of the Qur'an==
Muslims who accept hadith believe that trusted hadith are in most cases the words of Muhammad and not the word of God, like the Qur'an. [[Hadith Qudsi]] form a partial exception; this small minority of hadith purports to express words spoken by God to Muhammad but not included in the [[Qur'an]], or the sense of them.
While both hadith and Qur'an have been translated, most Muslims believe that translations of the Qur'an are inherently deficient, amounting to little more than a commentary upon the text. There is no such belief regarding hadith. Practicing Muslims cleanse themselves ([[wudu]]) and pray before reading or reciting the Qur'an; there is no such requirement for reading or reciting hadith. Even for Muslims who accept the hadith, they are clearly of inferior rank.
== Hadith accepted by Sunni Islam ==
The Sunni canon of hadith took its final form close to three centuries after the death of Muhammad. Later scholars may have debated the authenticity of particular hadith but the authority of the canon as a whole was not questioned. This canon includes:
# [[al-Bukhari]] (d. [[870]]) included 7275 hadiths
# [[Muslim b. al-Hajjaj]] (d. [[875]]) included 9200.
# [[Abu Da'ud]] (d. [[888]])
# [[al-Tirmidhi]] (d. [[892]])
# [[al-Nasa'i]] (d. [[915]])
# [[Ibn Maja]] (d. [[886]]).
al-Bukhari and Muslim are usually considered the most reliable of these collections. There is some debate over whether the sixth member of this canon should be Ibn Maja or the ''Muwatta'' of [[Imam Malik]], which is the earliest hadith canon but predates much of the methodology developed by the classic hadith scholars.
While there are still many traditional Muslims who rely on the [[ulema]] and its long tradition of hadith collection and criticism, other contemporary Sunni Muslims are willing to reconsider tradition. Liberal Muslims are most apt to trust the individual conscience, but there are also [[Salafi]]s who demand the same freedom. The Salafis claim that the ordinary believer can trust his or her own judgment (even if he or she is not trained in Islamic scholarship) if he or she relies on Bukhari and Muslim, the commentators deemed to be most correct (''sahih''), and ignores the weak hadith.
== Hadith accepted by Shi'a Islam ==
[[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] Muslims feel that hadith transmitted through scholars or collectors who rejected the descendants of [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] are less reliable than hadith transmitted by those who remained true to Ali. They accept many of the Sunni hadith, but reject others. There is no one canonical hadith collection recognized by all Shi'a sects or teachers.
== Hadith accepted by Ibadi Islam ==
[[Ibadi]] Islam (centered primarily in the Arabian kingdom of [[Oman]]) accepts many Sunni hadith, while rejecting others, and accepts some hadith not accepted by Sunnis. Ibadi jurisprudence is based only on the hadith accepted by Ibadis, which are far less numerous than those accepted by Sunnis. Several of Ibadism's founding figures - in particular [[Jabir ibn Zayd]] - were noted for their hadith research, and Jabir ibn Zayd is accepted as a reliable narrator by Sunni scholars as well as Ibadi ones. The principal hadith collection accepted by Ibadis is ''[http://www.islamfact.com/books-htm/ibadi/39.htm al-Jami'i al-Sahih]'', also called ''Musnad al-Rabi ibn Habib'', as rearranged by Abu Ya'qub Yusuf b. Ibrahim al-Warijlani. A large proportion of its narrations are via Jabir ibn Zaid or Abu Yaqub; most are reported by Sunnis, while several are not. The total number of hadith it contains is 1005, and an Ibadi tradition recounted by al-Rabi has it that there are only 4000 authentic Prophetic hadith. The rules used for determining the reliability of a hadith are given by Abu Ya'qub al-Warijlani, and are largely similar to those used by Sunnis; they criticise some of the companions ([[sahaba]]), believing that some were corrupted after the reign of the first two caliphs. The Ibadi jurists accept hadith narrating the words of Muhammad's companions as a third basis for legal rulings, alongside the Qur'an and hadith relating Muhammad's words.
== How hadith were collected and evaluated ==
Traditions regarding the life of Muhamma
|
-mail is part of a drive to increase traffic, and so we expect traffic will increase greatly, particularly as we are growing by over 1,000 articles per month.
(These articles, both Wikipedia's and Nupedia's, are, by the way, free for you to use as you wish, with no fee--see our open content license.)
Best regards,
Larry Sanger
:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Another sample solicitation</title>
<id>4138</id>
<revision>
<id>15902433</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">I am only now starting to publicize Wikipedia, a wiki-based free (open
content) encyclopedia project. We started last January and already have
about 10,000 articles. Perhaps you have seen us by now--we're located at
http://www.wikipedia.com . I'm the person responsible for organizing and
leading Wikipedia, as well as Nupedia (which has been moving *much* more
slowly).
First things first: it would be fantastic if you would like to link to any
or all of our articles. They're free, of course. I'd like to make this
as easy as possible for you, if you're interested.
If you have any free articles we can use, I would like to know about it!
More interestingly, perhaps, for you, is the idea that you can actually
use our content as part of your website. It's free. The cream of the
crop can be found at http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?Brilliant_prose ,
but there's a *lot* more than that. Also, the quality of Nupedia articles
is guaranteed; see http://www.nupedia.com/newest.phtml . (There just
isn't much there yet.)
One thing we're working on is a program that will make it extremely easy
to mirror Wikipedia's content. We're not done with that yet--but is that
something you might be interested in?
I certainly would like to hear back from you about how we might be able to
support each other. I do not regard your website as a competitor in any
sense at all.
:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Ideas for articles about Wikipedia and other press events</title>
<id>4139</id>
<revision>
<id>15902434</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-02T02:57:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WpZurp</username>
<id>68229</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix spelling mistake</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Article ideas (feel free to contribute--yes, you!):
# Press release (this is on hold for the time being)
# Response to [http://slashdot.org/articles/01/10/10/1454231.shtml], an article critical of MIT's project and name from the perspective of GNU-style "freedom", free speech versus free beer and all that good stuff.
# Article discussing the meaning and possibility of unbiased writing, using Wikipedia as an example. A number of websites might be interested in this, including Kuro5hin.
# "How is Wikipedia possible?"
# "Why should anybody trust what is in Wikipedia?" An interesting study in applied social epistemology: for many Wikipedia articles, we have ''zero'' information about the credentials of the people who wrote the article. Should we give the article zero credence? No. Why not? Might be good for an e-zine about computers and philosophy...I think there is one.
# The history of free online encyclopedia projects
# Why an encyclopedia? Why not just use Google?
# Done: Kuro5hin article reporting: RMS endorsement; 10,000 articles; NYT coverage; Tech Review coverage. ([[LMS]] plans to write this as soon as gnu.org puts up a link to Wikipedia.)
# submit wikipedia articles on controversial issues to discussion sites to show off our neutral point of view (maybe a stupid idea)
:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Encyclopedia list links solicited</title>
<id>4140</id>
<revision>
<id>15902435</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Solicited and pending:
* [http://www.accessplace.com/library.htm Access Place Library]
* [http://rtiess.tripod.com/proteus/encyclopedia.htm Encyclopedia Proteus]
* [http://freeportal.virtualave.net/FreeStuff/FreeBooks/encyclopedia.shtml Free Online Encyclopedias]
* [http://www.student-manual.com/study/tools/encyclopedias.htm Student-manual.com]
* [http://www.abp1.com/1getsmrt/index.html The Virtual Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.informationsphere.com/ informationsphere]
:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Big traffic links solicited</title>
<id>4141</id>
<revision>
<id>29164139</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-24T22:13:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.158.173.251</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">OK, folks, what are some websites that get lots and lots of traffic, and which might link to us? Ideas???
* Wired (no links; might take an article though)
* ZDNet (no links; might take an article though)
* [[Building_Wikipedia_membership/About.com|About.com]]
* Slashdot articles could link to Wikipedia articles under a "Related links" section.
Links to lists of popular websites:
* [http://www.mediametrix.com/data/top500.jsp?language=us The Media Metrix list]
* [http://www.econsultant.com/ econsultant.com]
:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/About.com</title>
<id>4142</id>
<revision>
<id>15902437</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Hey, we can probably get a ''lot'' of traffic from About.com. The way About.com works is this: they have a bunch of people working independently building guides to the Internet. They don't have to make their guides consistent with each other. They don't know if other guides are or are not accepting links from Wikipedia. In short, in principle, we could get ''huge'' numbers of links from different pages on their website. They'll love us because we're content-rich, and they like that.
So, if you feel so inspired, please go to [http://search.about.com/fullsearch.htm?terms=encyclopedia&PM=59_0100_S] or for that matter, any page about any subject, and ask for links either to http://www.wikipedia.com/ or to the relevant part of Wikipedia. They've got a ''huge'' (no kidding--''huge'') number of pages on about.com that link to encyclopedias. Wikipedia should be linked from every one of them, but for that we've got to start asking! :-)
But if you do this, could you please indicate, below, what guide/area you've solicited? Thanks.
* [http://familyinternet.about.com/cs/referencelibrary/ Marcy Zitz, Family Internet]
* [http://homeworktips.about.com/cs/encyclopedias/index.htm?rnk=r1&terms=encyclopedia Cathy Spalding, Homework Tips]
* [http://kidspenpals.about.com/cs/dictionaries/ Shauna Lee De Feyter, Penpals for Kids]
* [http://puzzles.about.com/cs/encyclopediaatlas/index.htm?rnk=r2&terms=encyclopedia Dave Fisher, Puzzles]
* [http://nanotech.about.com/library/def/bldefindex.htm?rnk=r13&terms=encyclopedia Steve Lenhert, Nanotechnology]
* [http://websearch.about.com/cs/encyclopedias/index.htm?rnk=r14&terms=encyclopedia Kevin Elliott, Web Search]
* [http://netforbeginners.about.com/cs/encyclopedias/index.htm?rnk=r15&terms=encyclopedia Gwen Schertel, Net for Beginners]
* [http://philosophy.about.com/cs/reference/ Rich Gray, Philosophy]
* ''Write to others! See http://www.about.com !''
[[Building_Wikipedia_membership/Sample solicitation 3|Sample solicitation 3]]
:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Sample solicitation 3</title>
<id>4143</id>
<revision>
<id>15902438</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">I'm the main organizer of Wikipedia, a free, open content encyclopedia.
Please have a look, at http://www.wikipedia.com/ . I would be delighted if
you would link to it from
http://kidspenpals.about.com/cs/dictionaries/
We've got 10,000 articles, growing by 2,000 per month. It's pretty
amazing, really. Here is an article about it in the MIT Technology Review:
http://www.techreview.com/web/heim/heim090401.asp
We're also soon going to be the subject of an article in the New York
Times.
Thanks!
Larry Sanger, Ph.D.
Wikipedia chief organizer
:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Newsgroups</title>
<id>4144</id>
<revision>
<id>15902439</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-05T13:57:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Modemac</username>
<id>3552</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[http://groups.google.com/ Google groups] is really easy to use, I've discovered--if you don't have a newsreader set up, it's a more than adequate substitute.
Groups we have posted to:
:soc.history.moderated
:soc.religion.christian.bible-study
:humanities.classics
:hum
|
er reviewed in [[Time Magazine]] and subsequently in [[Newsweek]], and the first book review in [[Time Magazine]] with large color illustrations.
In 1977 and 1982 Barks attended the legendary San Diego Comic Con. As with his appearance in Boston, the response to his presence was overwhelming, with long lines of fans waiting to meet Barks and get his autograph.
In this period Disney also licensed a series of art prints of Barks' duck paintings released by Another Rainbow, which also produced a 30 volume hardbound Carl Barks Library including all the stories (in black and white) with accompanying scholarly commentary. Barks relocated one last time to [[Grants Pass, Oregon]] near where he grew up, partly at the urging of friend and ''[[Broom Hilda]]'' artist [[Russell Myers]] who lives in the area. The move also was motivated, Barks stated in another famous quip, by Temelcula being too close to Disneyland and thus facilitating a growing torrent of drop-in visits by vacationing fans. In this period Barks made only one public appearance, at a comic book shop near Grants Pass.
From 1993-1998 the Carl Barks Studio guided Barks' career. This involved numerous projects and activities, including a tour of 11 European countries in 1994, appearances at several Disneyana conventions and the release of prints of paintings along with high-end art objects (such as tiles and statutes) based on designs by Barks. Tensions between Barks and the Studio eventually resulted in a lawsuit that was settled with an agreement that included the disbanding of the Studio. By this time Barks had ceased drawing and declared his chief activity thereafter would be watching football on TV.
==Final Days==
Still living in a new home in Grants Pass, Oregon which he and Gare had built next door to their original home, Barks died in 2000 at the age of 99 just a few months short of his 100th birthday.
Although he was undergoing [[chemotherapy]] for [[leukemia]] he was, according to caregiver Serene Hunickle, "funny up to the end."
==Awards==
He has received a good deal of recognition for his work, including the Shazam Award for Best Writer (Humor Division) in 1970, the Academy of Comic Book Arts Hall of Fame Award in 1973, an Inkpot in 1977 from the [[San Diego Comic Con]] and the [[Comics Buyer's Guide]] Fan Award for Favorite Writer in 1996. The Walt Disney Company bestowed a duckster statute in 1971 and their [[Disney Legends]] award in 1991. The series ''Carl Barks Library'' received the Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Award for Favorite Reprint Graphic Novel/Album for 1996. He was inducted into the [[Eisner Awards]] Hall of Fame in 1987.
==Trivia==
For the opening scene of [[Raiders of the Lost Ark]] [[Steven Spielberg]] and [[George Lucas]] have acknowledged the rolling boulder booby trap was inspired by the 1954 Carl Barks Uncle Scrooge adventure the Seven Cities of Cibola ([[Uncle Scrooge]] #7).
==Notable stories==
*"[[Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold]]", ''[[Four Color]]'' #9, October [[1942]]
*"[[Christmas on Bear Mountain]]", ''Four Color'' #178, December [[1947]], first appearance of [[Scrooge McDuck]].
*"[[The Old Castle's Secret]]", ''Four Color'' #189 June [[1948]]
*"[[Sheriff of Bullet Valley]]", ''Four Color'' #199, October 1948
*"[[Lost in the Andes]]", ''Four Color'' #223, April [[1949]]
*"[[In Old California]]", ''Four Color'' #328, May [[1951]]
*"[[A Christmas for Shacktown]]", ''Four Color'' #367, January [[1952]]
*"[[Only A Poor Old Man]]", ''Four Color'' #386 (''[[Uncle Scrooge]]'' #1), March 1952
*"[[The Golden Helmet]]", ''Four Color'' #408, July 1952
*"[[Back to the Klondike]]", ''Four Color'' #456 (''Uncle Scrooge'' #2), March [[1953]]
*"[[Tralla La]]", ''Uncle Scrooge'' #6, June [[1954]]
*"[[The Fabolous Philosopher's Stone]]", ''Uncle Scrooge'' #10, June [[1955]]
*"[[The Golden Fleecing]]", ''Uncle Scrooge'' #12, December 1955
*"[[The Money Well]]", ''Uncle Scrooge'' #21, March [[1958]]
*"[[Island in the Sky (cartoon)|Island in the Sky]]", ''Uncle Scrooge'' #29, March [[1960]]
*"[[North of the Yukon]]", ''Uncle Scrooge'' #59, September [[1965]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cbarks.dk cbarks.dk]
*[http://moneybin.at.infoseek.co.jp/ Carl Barks - his life and his work]
*[http://www.barksbase.de/ The HTML Barks base]
*[http://www.donald.org Homepage of D.O.N.A.L.D]
*http://stp.ling.uu.se/~starback/dcml/creators/carl-barks.html
*http://www.geocities.com/~jimlowe/barks/barksdex.html
*http://moneybin.at.infoseek.co.jp
*[http://coa.inducks.org/creator.php/x/CB Barks' profile on the COA webpage]
*[http://boards.ancestry.com/mbexec/message/an/surnames.Barks/112.1 Short listing of parentage]
*[http://www.toonopedia.com/hooligan.htm A profile of Happy Hooligan, an influential comic strip for him]
*[http://www.cbarks.dk/THETIMELINE.htm A timeline of his life]
*[http://www.michaelbarrier.com/Essays/Barks/essay_barks.htm biographer Michael Barrier on the 100th anniversary of Barks' birth]
[[Category:1901 births|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:2000 deaths|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:American cartoonists|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:American comics artists|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:American illustrators|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:Disney Legends|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:Disney people|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:Donald Duck|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:Eisner Award winners|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:People from Oregon|Barks, Carl]]
[[da:Carl Barks]]
[[de:Carl Barks]]
[[es:Carl Barks]]
[[fr:Carl Barks]]
[[it:Carl Barks]]
[[lb:Carl Barks]]
[[hu:Carl Barks]]
[[nl:Carl Barks]]
[[no:Carl Barks]]
[[nn:Carl Barks]]
[[pl:Carl Barks]]
[[pt:Carl Barks]]
[[fi:Carl Barks]]
[[sv:Carl Barks]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Centimetre gram second system of units</title>
<id>7346</id>
<revision>
<id>40107681</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T04:38:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LN2</username>
<id>739697</id>
</contributor>
<comment>the given information is incomplete compared to standard textbooks on electrodynamics</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Expert}}
The '''centimetre-gram-second system''' ('''CGS''') is a system of [[units of measurement|physical units]]. It is always the same for mechanical units, but there are several variants of electric additions.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Mechanical CGS units
! Dimension
! Unit !! Definition !! SI
|-
! [[length]]
| [[centimetre]] || 1 cm || = 10<sup>−2</sup> m
|-
! [[mass]]
| [[gram]] || 1 g || = 10<sup>−3</sup> kg
|-
! [[time]]
| [[second]]||colspan="2"| 1 s
|-
! [[force (physics)|force]]
| [[dyne]] || 1 dyn = 1 g·cm/s² || = 10<sup>−5</sup> [[newton|N]]
|-
! [[energy]]
| [[erg]] || 1 erg = 1 g·cm²/s² || = 10<sup>−7</sup> [[joule|J]]
|-
! [[power (physics)|power]]
| erg per second || 1 erg/s = 1 g·cm²/s³ || = 10<sup>−7</sup> [[watt|W]]
|-
! [[pressure]]
| [[barye]] || 1 Ba = 1 dyn/cm² = 1 g/(cm·s²) || = 10<sup>−1</sup> [[pascal|Pa]]
|-
! [[viscosity]]
| [[poise]] || 1 P = 1 g/(cm·s) || = 10<sup>−1</sup> [[pascal second|Pa·s]]
|}
The system goes back to a proposal made in [[1832]] by the German mathematician [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] and was in [[1874]] extended by the British physicists [[James Clerk Maxwell]] and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]] with a set of electromagnetic units. The sizes (order of magnitude) of many CGS units turned out to be inconvenient for practical purposes, therefore the CGS system never gained wide general use outside the field of electrodynamics and was gradually superseded internationally starting in the [[1880s]] but not to a significant extent until the mid-20th century by the more practical MKS ('''m'''etre-'''k'''ilogram-'''s'''econd) system, which led eventually to the modern [[SI]] standard units.
CGS units are still occasionally encountered in older technical literature, especially in the United States in the fields of [[electrodynamics]] and [[astronomy]]. SI units were chosen such that electromagnetic equations concerning spheres contain 4π, those concerning coils contain 2π and those dealing with straight wires lack π entirely, which was the most convenient choice for electrical-engineering applications. In those fields where formulas concerning spheres dominate (for example, [[astronomy]]), it has been argued that the CGS system can be notationally slightly more convenient.
Starting from the international adoption of the MKS standard in the 1940s and the [[SI]] standard in the 1960s, the technical use of CGS units has gradually disappeared worldwide, in the [[United States]] more slowly than in the rest of the world. CGS units are today no longer accepted by the house styles of most scientific journals, textbook publishers and standards bodies.
The units gram and centimetre remain useful within the [[SI]], especially for instructional physics and chemistry experiments, where they match well the small scales of table-top setups. In these uses, they are occasionally referred to as the system of “LAB” units. However, where derived units are needed, the SI ones are generally used and taught today instead of the CGS ones.
== Electromagnetic units ==
While for most units the difference between cgs and [[SI]] is a mere power of 10, the differences in [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] units are considerable; so much so that formulas for physical laws need to be changed depending on what system of units one uses. In SI, [[Current (electricity)|electric current]] is defined via the [[magnetism|magnetic]] force it exerts and [[charge]] is then defined as current multiplied with time. In one variant of the cgs system, '''[[Statcoulomb|electrostatic units]]''' ('''esu'''), charge is defined via the force it exerts
|
Cook]]
*[[Dirk Gently]] &mdash; [[Douglas Adams]]
*Gil "the ARM" Hamilton (of the Amalgated Regional Militia [UN police] in the early [[known space]] history &mdash; [[Larry Niven]]
*Jonas, der letzte Detektiv &mdash; well done funny & hardboiled radio play in Germany
*Kline Maxwell &mdash; [[S. Andrew Swann]] (a journalist in [[Dragons of the Cuyahoga]])
*[[Tex Murphy]] &mdash; [[Aaron Conners]]
*[[Nohar Rajasthan]] &mdash; [[S. Andrew Swann]]
*[[Sam Space]] &mdash; [[William Nolan]]
*[[Wendell Urth]] &mdash; [[Isaac Asimov]]
*His Grace Commander Sir [[Samuel Vimes]] &mdash; [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Discworld]]'' series
===Other notable authors===
* [[Leigh Brackett]]
* [[Alan Gordon]]
* [[Jack Vance]]
==Detective debuts and swansongs==
Many detectives appear in more than one novel or story. Here is a list of a few [[wikt:debut|debut]] and [[wikt:swansong|swansong]] stories:
{|
! Detective
! Author
! Debut
! Swansong
|-
| [[Brother Cadfael]]
| [[Ellis Peters]]
| ''A Morbid Taste for Bones'' || ''Brother Cadfael's Penance''
|-
| [[Dave Robicheaux]]
| [[James Lee Burke]]
| ''Neon Rain''
|-
| [[Dr. Gideon Fell]]
| [[John Dickson Carr]]
| ''Hag's Nook'' || ''Dark of the Moon''
|-
| [[Father Brown]]
| [[G. K. Chesterton]]
| ''The Blue Cross''
|-
| [[Guido Brunetti]]
| [[Donna Leon]]
| ''Death at La Fenice''
|-
| [[Gordianus the Finder]]
| [[Steven Saylor]]
| ''Roman Blood''
|-
| [[Hercule Poirot]]
| [[Agatha Christie]]
| ''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]'' || ''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]''
|-
| [[Inspector Morse]]
| [[Colin Dexter]]
| ''Last Bus to Woodstock'' || ''[[Remorseful Day]]''
|-
| [[Lord Peter Wimsey]]
| [[Dorothy Sayers]]
| ''Whose Body'' || ''Busman's Honeymoon''
|-
| [[Miss Marple]]
| [[Agatha Christie]]
| ''[[Murder in the Vicarage]]'' || ''Sleeping Murder''
|-
| [[Nero Wolfe]]
| [[Rex Stout]]
| ''Fer-De-Lance'' || ''A Family Affair''
|-
| [[Owen Archer]]
| [[Candace M. Robb]]
| ''The Apothecary Rose''
|-
| [[Roderick Alleyn]]
| [[Ngaio Marsh]]
| ''A Man Lay Dead''
|-
| [[Sherlock Holmes]]
| [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]
| ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]'' (in ''Beeton's Christmas Annual'') || ''His Last Bow'' (see also "The Final Problem")
|-
| [[Jimmy Kudo|Shin'ichi Kudo]] / Conan Edogawa
| [[Gosho Aoyama]]
| ''[[Case Closed|Detective Conan]]''|| &nbsp;
|-
| [[Sir Henry Merrivale]]
| [[Carter Dickson]]
| ''The Plague Court Murders'' || ''The Cavalier's Cup''
|-
| [[Sir John Fielding]] and [[Jeremy Proctor]]
| [[Bruce Alexander]]
| ''Blind Justice''
|-
| [[Spenser]]
| [[Robert B. Parker]]
| ''The Godwulf Manuscript''
|-
| [[Stephanie Plum]]
| [[Janet Evanovich]]
| ''One for the Money''
|-
| [[Travis McGee]]
| [[John D. MacDonald]]
| ''[[The Deep Blue Good-by]]'' || ''[[The Lonely Silver Rain]]''
|-
| [[V.I. Warshawski]]
| [[Sara Paretsky]]
| ''Indemnity Only''
|-
| [[Kinsey Millhone]]
| [[Sue Grafton]]
| '''A' is for Alibi''
|-
| [[Sharon McCone]]
| [[Marcia Muller]]
| ''Leave a Message for Willie''
|-
|}
== Books ==
*''Bloody Murder: From the Detective Story to the Crime Novel - A History'' by Julian Symons ISBN 0571094651
* Stacy Gillis and Philippa Gates (Editors), ''The Devil Himself: Villainy in Detective Fiction and Film,'' Greenwood, 2001. ISBN 0313316554
==See also==
* [[List of detective fiction authors]]
* [[Crime fiction]]
* [[Mystery fiction]]
* [[List of crime writers]]
* [[Whodunit]]
==External resources==
* [http://www.classiccrimefiction.com/ Classic Crime Fiction Website]
* [http://members.aol.com/rrandisi/myhomepage/writing.html Private Eye Writers of America website]
*[http://www.awardannals.com/genre/mystery/ Most Honored Mystery Books]
*[http://gadetection.pbwiki.com/ The Golden Age of Detective Fiction Wiki]
[[Category:Fiction]]
[[Category:Detective fiction|*]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]
[[ca:Novel·la detectivesca]]
[[de:Krimi]]
[[eo:Krimliteraturo]]
[[fr:Roman policier]]
[[he:&#1505;&#1508;&#1512;&#1493;&#1514; &#1489;&#1500;&#1513;&#1497;&#1514;]]
[[nl:Detectiveverhaal]]
[[it:Letteratura gialla]]
[[ja:%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86%E5%B0%8F%E8%AA%AC]]
[[pl:Powie&#347;&#263; detektywistyczna]]
[[ro:Roman poliţist]]
[[zh:&#25512;&#29702;&#23567;&#35498;]]
[[sv:Deckare]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daniel Defoe</title>
<id>8193</id>
<revision>
<id>41512341</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:34:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.16.197.123</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Defoe-daniel.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Daniel Defoe]]
'''Daniel Defoe''' ([[1660]] [?]&nbsp;&ndash; April [[1731]]) was an [[England|English]] [[writer]], [[journalist]] and [[spy]], who gained enduring fame for his novel ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]''. Defoe is notable for being one of the earliest practitioners of the [[novel]] and helped popularize the genre in [[England]]. He is also a pioneer of [[economic journalism]].
==Biography==
[[Image:Finsbury bunhill defoe 1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Memorial to Daniel Defoe, [[Bunhill Fields]], [[City Road]], [[London]]. (January 2006)]]
He was born '''Daniel Foe''', probably in the parish of St. Giles [[Cripplegate]], [[London]]. Both the date and the place of his birth are uncertain. His father, James Foe, though a member of the [[Worshipful Company of Butchers|Butchers' Company]] was a tallow chandler. Daniel later added the aristocratic sounding "De" to his name and on occasion claimed descent from the family of De Beau Faux. His parents were [[Presbyterian]] [[dissenter]]s, and he was educated in a Dissenting Academy at [[Stoke Newington]] run by Charles Morton (later vice-president of [[Harvard University]]).
After leaving school and deciding not to become a dissenting minister, Defoe entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods, and wine. Though his ambitions were great and he bought both a country estate and a ship (as well as [[Civet|civet cats]] to make perfume), he was rarely free from debt. In [[1692]], Defoe was arrested for payments of £700 (and his cats were seized), though his total debts may have amounted to £17,000. His laments were loud, and he always defended unfortunate debtors, but there is evidence that his financial dealings were not always honest.
Following his release, he probably travelled in [[Europe]] and [[Scotland]], and it may have been at this time that he traded in wine to [[Cadiz]], [[Porto]], and [[Lisbon]]. By [[1695]] he was back in England, using the name "Defoe", and serving as a "commissioner of the glass duty", responsible for collecting the tax on bottles. In [[1696]], he was operating a tile and brick factory in [[Tilbury]], Essex.
Defoe's [[pamphleteer]]ing and political activities resulted in his arrest and placement in a [[pillory]] on [[July 31]], [[1703]], principally on account of a pamphlet entitled "The Shortest Way with Dissenters", in which he ruthlessly satirised the [[High church]] [[Tory | Tories]], purporting to argue for the extermination of [[dissenter]]s. The publication of his poem ''Hymn to the Pillory'', however, caused his audience at the [[pillory]] to throw flowers instead of the customary harmful and noxious objects, and to drink to his health.
After his three days in the pillory Defoe went into [[Newgate Prison]]. [[Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer]], brokered his release in exchange for Defoe's co-operation as an intelligence agent. He set up his periodical ''A Review of the Affairs of France'' in 1704, supporting the Harley ministry. The ''Review'' ran without interruption until 1713. When Harley lost power in 1708 Defoe continued writing it to support Godolphin, then again to support Harley and the Tories in the Tory ministry of [[1710]] to [[1714]]. After the Tories fell from power with the death of [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]], Defoe continued doing intelligence work for the [[Whig]] government.
Defoe's famous [[novel]] ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' (1719), tells of a man's shipwreck on a desert island and his subsequent adventures. The author may have based his narrative on the true story of the shipwreck of the Scottish sailor [[Alexander Selkirk]].
Defoe's next [[novel]] was ''[[Captain Singleton]]'' (1720), amazing for its portrayal of the redemptive power of one man's love for another. Hans Turley has recently shown how Quaker William's love turns Captain Singleton away from the murderous life of a pirate, and the two make a solemn vow to live as a male couple happily ever after in London, disguised as Greeks and never speaking English in public, with Singleton married to William's sister as a ruse.
Defoe wrote an account of the [[Great Plague]] of [[1665]]: ''[[A Journal of the Plague Year]]''.
He also wrote ''[[Moll Flanders]]'' (1722), a [[picaresque novel|picaresque]] first-person narration of the fall and eventual redemption of a lone woman in 17th century England. She appears as a whore, bigamist and thief, lives in [[The Mint]], commits adultery and incest, yet manages to keep the reader's sympathy. Both this work and ''[[Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress]]'' (1724) offer remarkable examples of the way in which Defoe seems to inhabit his fictional (yet "drawn from life") characters, not least in that they are women.
Daniel Defoe died on April 24 or 25, 1731 and was interred in [[Bunhill Fields]], [[London]].
==Defoe and the Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707==
No fewer than 545 titles, ranging from [[satirical]] poems, political and [[religious]] pamphlets and volumes have been ascribed to Defoe. His ambitious business ventures saw him bankrupt by [[1692]], with a wife and seven children to support. In [[1703]] he published an [[irony|ironic]] attack on the [[High Tories]], and
|
<timestamp>2006-03-01T04:17:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TShilo12</username>
<id>153537</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Dr92|Dr92]] ([[User talk:Dr92|talk]]) to last version by 68.71.244.96</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[India]] is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, with one of the most deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion plays a central and definitive role in the life of the country and most of its people.
[[Image:Akshardhamindelhi.jpg|thumb|350px|The [[Akshardham]] [[Hindu]] temple, [[Delhi]]]]
The faith of more than 80% of the people is [[Hinduism]], considered the world's oldest religious and philosophical system. [[Islam]] is practiced by around 13% of all Indians.
[[Sikhism]], [[Ayyavazhi]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] are Indian-born religious systems that are strong and influential not only in India but across the world. [[Christianity]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Judaism]] and the [[Bahá'í Faith]] are also influential but their numbers are smaller.
Despite the strong role of religion in Indian life, [[atheism]] and [[agnostic]]s are also visible influences.
{{TOCleft}}
==Hinduism==
The adherents of [[Hinduism]] form the largest religious community in India, numbering over 900 million.
''See The Following Articles for More Information'': [[Hinduism]], [[Hindu]], [[Vedic religion]]
==Buddhism==
[[Buddhism]], known in ancient India as Buddha Dharma, originated in northern India in what is today the state of [[Bihar]]. It rapidly gained adherents during [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha's]] lifetime. Up to the [[9th century]], Indian followers numbered in the hundreds of millions. While the exact cause of the [[decline of Buddhism in India]] is disputed, it is known that the mingling of Hindu and Buddhist societies in India and the rise of Hindu [[Vedanta]] movements began to compete against Buddhism. Many believe that Hinduism's adaptation to Buddhism resulted in Buddhism's rapid decline. Also, [[Islamic invasions of India|Muslim invaders]] are recorded to have caused massive devastation on monasteries, libraries, and statuary, as they did on [[Hindu]] religious life. Many Indian Buddhist populations remained intact in or migrated to places like [[Sri Lanka]], [[Tibet]], and other [[Asia|Asian]] countries.
Recently, a [[Neo-Buddhism|revival of Buddhism]] in India has made significant progress. In [[1956]], [[B. R. Ambedkar]], a freedom fighter during the Indian struggle for [[independence]] from the [[Great Britain|British]], and hundreds of thousands of his followers converted to Buddhism in protest against the [[caste system]]. Subsequent mass conversions on a lesser scale have occurred since then. Three-quarters of these "neo-Buddhists" live in [[Maharashtra]]. Alongside these converts are the [[Vajrayana]] Buddhists of [[Ladakh]], [[Sikkim]], and [[Arunachal Pradesh]], a small number of tribal peoples in the region of [[Bengal]], and Tibetan refugees.
==Jainism==
[[Jainism]], along with Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism, is one of the four major [[Dharmic]] religions originating in India. In general, Jains are extremely well-represented inspite of the fact that they form only 0.4% (around 4.2 million) of India's total population. Many of them rich and an overwhelming majority of them are well to do. As such, it can be said that they hold power and wealth disproportionate to their small population. According to the India Census 2001, Jains have the highest literacy rate (religion-wise) of 94.1% compared to the national average of 64.8%.
==Christianity==
:''Main article: [[Christianity in India]]''
'''[[Christianity]]''', according to tradition (and now supported by recent research), arrived in India in the first century through the [[apostle Thomas]]. St. Thomas converted many South Indians who continued to practice Christianity until present. It was further consolidated by the arrival of Syriac Jewish-Christians now known as [[Knanaya]] people in the second century C.E. This ancient ethnic Christian community of [[Kerala]] is known as [[Nasrani]] or [[Syrian Christian]]. The [[Nasrani]] people and especially the [[Knanaya]] people within the Nasranis have strong Jewish historical ties. Their form of Christianity is one of the most ancient: [[Syriac Christianity]] which is also known as the Eastern Orthodox Church and referred to in India as [[Saint Thomas Christians]]. It should be noted that the term "Saint Thomas Christians" is a loose term that many non-Nasranis Christians in Kerala are often labeled. The vast majority of Christians in Kerala are not the original Nasrani/Knanaya but indigenous local converts.
[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] reached India during the period of [[Europe]]an colonization, which began in [[1498]] when the Portuguese explorer [[Vasco da Gama]] arrived on the [[Malabarian Coast|Malabar coast]].Christian missionary activity increased in the early [[19th century|1800s]]. Today Christianity is the third largest religion of India making up 2 - 2.9% of the population. Christians are most prevalent in the southern sates like [[Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu]] and in northeastern states such as [[Nagaland]],[[Mizoram]]. It is also polpular in all the major metro areas, and in western states such as [[Goa]].
==Islam==
:''Main article: [[Islam in India]]''
'''[[Islam]]''' arrived in India as early as the [[8th century]] CE. During the following decades,contributed greatly to the cultural enhancement of an already rich Indian culture, shaping not only the shape of Northern Indian classical music ([[Hindustani]], a melding of Indian and Middle Eastern elements) but encouraging a grand tradition of [[Urdu]] (a melding of [[Hindi]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] languages) literature both religious and secular. Among other monuments, the [[Taj Mahal]] is a gift of the Mughals. As of [[2001]], there are about 130 million Muslims in India, most of whom were converted during the Mughal period and they mostly live in the north and west of the country.
==Ayyavazhi==
'''[[Ayyavazhi]]''' ('''அய்யாவழி''' [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: "path of the father") is a religion originated in south india in the 19th century. Officially it was considered as an offshoot section of [[Hinduism]]. But either in Philosophy or in religious practices [[Ayyavazhi and Hinduism]] varies a lot. Though it has not received official recognition, it has transformed itself into a distinctive religious phenomenon, making its presence felt in India's southern parts, mostly in southern districts of [[Tamil Nadu]] and in some parts of [[Kerala]]. But it is one of the fastest growing religions of Southern India, its rapid growth has been noted in the [[Ayyavazhi in reports by Christian missionaries |Christian missionary reports]] of the mid-19th century. It has more than 7000 worship centers throughout south India, mostly in [[Tamil Nadu]] and some in the city of [[Mumbai]].
==Zoroastrianism==
A form of the ancient [[Iran|Persia]]n religion [[Zoroastrianism]] continues to be practiced in India, where its followers are called [[Parsi]]s. Suffering persecution from [[Muslim]] rulers in what is now modern-day [[Iran]], Zoroastrian immigrants were granted protection by a [[Hindu]] king at a place called [[Sanjan (Gujarat)|Sanjan]] in the western Indian state of [[Gujarat]] many centuries ago.
==Sikhism==
'''[[Sikhism]]''', was founded in India's northwestern [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] region about 400 years ago. As of [[2001]] there were 19.3 million Sikhs in India. Many of today's Sikhs are situated in Punjab, the largest [[Sikh]] province in the world and the ancestral home of Sikhs. The most famous Sikh temple is the [[Golden Temple]], located in [[Amritsar]], Punjab. Many Sikhs serve in the [[Indian Army]]. The current prime minister of India, [[Manmohan Singh]], is a Sikh. Punjab is the spiritual home of Sikhs and is the only state in India where Sikhs form a majority.
==Judaism==
:''Main article: [[Jews in India]]''
Trade contacts between the [[Mediterranean]] region and the west coast of India probably led to the presence of small [[Jew]]ish settlements in India as long ago as the early first millennium B.C. In [[Kerala]] a community of Jews tracing its origin to the fall of [[Jerusalem]] in A.D. 70 has remained associated with the cities of [[Cranganore]] and [[Kochi, India|Kochi]] (formerly known as Cochin) for at least 1,000 years. The Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi, rebuilt in 1568, is in the architectural style of Kerala but preserves the ritual style of the [[Sephardic]] rite, with [[Babylonian]] and [[Yemenite]] influence as well. The [[Cochin Jews|Jews of Kochi]], concentrated mostly in the old "Jew Town," were completely integrated into local culture, speaking [[Malayalam]] and taking local names while preserving their knowledge of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and contacts with [[Southwest Asia]]. A separate community of Jews, called the [[Bene Israel]], had lived along the [[Konkan]] Coast in and around [[Bombay]], [[Pune]], and [[Ahmadabad]] for almost 2,000 years. Unlike the Kochi Jews, they became a village-based society and maintained little contact with other Jewish communities. They always remained within the Orthodox Jewish fold, practicing the Sephardic rite without [[rabbis]], with the [[synagogue]] as the center of religious and cultural life. Following trade routes established by the expansion of the [[British Empire]], a third group of Jews, the [[Baghdadi Jews]] immigrated to India, settling primarily in Bombay and [[Calcutta]]. Many of the Baghdadi traders became wealthy and participated prominently in the economic leadership of these growing cities. As a result of religious pressure elsewhere, including the [[Religious conversion|forced conversion]
|
pain south of the [[Tagus]], with the east coast as far as the mouth of the [[Ebro]], and included the [[Balearic Islands]].
== Decline ==
Three years afterwards, under Yusef's son and successor, [[Ali ibn Yusuf]], [[Madrid]], [[Lisbon]] and [[Oporto]] were added, and Spain was again invaded in [[1119]] and [[1121]], but the tide had turned; the French having assisted the Aragonese to recover [[Zaragoza]]. In 1138, Ali ibn Yusuf was defeated by [[Alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII of Castile and León]], and in the [[Battle of Ourique]] ([[1139]]), by [[Afonso I of Portugal]], who thereby won his crown; and [[Lisbon]] was recovered by the Portuguese in [[1147]].
Ali ibn Yusuf was a pious non-entity, who fasted and prayed while his empire fell to pieces under the combined action of his Christian foes in [[Spain]] and the agitation of [[Almohades]] (the Muwahhids) in Morocco. After Ali ibn Yusuf's death in [[1142]], his son Tashfin ibn Ali lost ground rapidly before the Almohades, and in 1146 he was killed by a fall from a precipice, while endeavouring to escape after a defeat near [[Oran]].
His two successors [[Ibrahim ibn Tashfin]] and [[Is'haq ibn Ali]] are mere names. The conquest of the city of Marrakesh by the [[Almohades]] in [[1147]] marked the fall of the dynasty, though fragments of the [[Almoravides]] (the [[Banu Ghanya]]), continued to struggle in the [[Balearic Islands]], and finally in [[Tunisia]].
The amirs of the Almoravides dynasty were as follows:---
*[[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]] (1061-1106)
*[[Ali ibn Yusuf]] (1106-1142)
*[[Tashfin ibn Ali]] (1142-1146)
*[[Ibrahim ibn Tashfin]] (1146)
*[[Ishaq ibn Ali]] (1146-1147)
==See also==
:[[History of Morocco]]
:[[History of Islam]]
:[[History of Spain]]
==External links==
*[http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/dynasties/almoravids.html Almoravids Dynasty] Berber dynasty
==References==
*{{1911}}
{{Template:Zaragoza rulers}}
[[Category:Berber| ]]
[[Category:History of the Maghreb]]
[[Category:History of Mauritania]]
[[Category:History of Morocco]]
[[Category:Moorish Spain]]
[[Category:Jewish Spanish history]]
[[ar:مرابطون]]
[[ca:Almoràvit]]
[[de:Almoraviden]]
[[es:Almorávide]]
[[fr:Almoravides]]
[[nl:Almoraviden]]
[[pt:Almorávidas]]
[[ru:Альморавиды]]
[[sv:Almoravider]]
[[uk:Альморавіди]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aloe</title>
<id>1650</id>
<revision>
<id>41887302</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:48:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nikai</username>
<id>9759</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Chemical properties of Aloin */ sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Aloe''
| image = Aloevera2web.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Aloe vera''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[monocotyledon|Lilliopsida]]
| subclassis = [[Liliidae]]
| ordo = [[Asparagales]]
| familia = [[Asphodelaceae]]
| genus = '''''Aloe'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
See [[Aloe#Species|Species]]
}}
'''Aloe''' is a [[genus]] of [[succulent plant|succulent]], [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Asphodelaceae]], which contains about 400 different [[species]]. They are native to the drier parts of [[Africa]], especially [[South Africa]]'s [[Cape Province]] and the mountains of tropical Africa.
Members of the closely allied genera ''[[Gasteria]]'' and ''[[Haworthia]]'', which have a similar mode of growth, are also sometimes popularly known as aloes. Note that the plant sometimes called "American aloe", ''Agave americana'', belongs to a different family, namely [[Agavaceae]].
Aloe plants are stiff and rugged, consisting mainly of a rosette of large, thick, fleshy [[Leaf|leaves]]. Many common varieties of Aloe are seemingly stemless, with the rosette growing directly at ground level; Other varieties may have a branched or un-branched [[plant stem|stem]] from which the fleshy leaves spring. The leaves are generally lance-shaped with a sharp apex and a spiny margin. They vary in color from grey to bright green and are sometimes striped or mottled.
Aloe [[flower]]s are small, tubular, and yellow or red and are borne on densely clustered, simple or branched leafless stems. The plants are cultivated as ornamental plants, especially in public buildings and gardens.
==Uses==
Human use of Aloes are primarily as a [[Herbalism|herbal remedy]] in alternative medicines and "home first aid". Both the translucent inner pulp as well as the resinous yellow exudate from wounding the Aloe plant are used ''externally'' to relieve skin discomforts and ''internally'' as purgatives. To date, research has shown in certain cases that Aloes produce positive medicinal benefits for healing damaged skin, however there is still much debate regarding the effectiveness and safety for using Aloes medicinally in other manners{{citeneeded}}.
Some Aloes have been used for human consumption. For example drinks made from or containing chunks of aloe pulp are popular in Asia as commercial beverages, and as a tea additive. This is notably true in [[Korea]]. As well, the yellow exudate from the leaves were once used on children's fingers to stop nail-biting.
===External uses===
[[Image:Aloe vera leaf.jpg|thumb|Leaf close up]]
The most common uses of aloe vera have been from topical use on human skin to treat various conditions. Aloe vera is also often used to treat skin from burns. Not only does it soothe the skin, ease pain and reduce inflammation, studies have been done to show that using aloe as a topical treatment to burns will help speed up the healing recovery process. A study performed in the 1990s showed that the healing of a moderate severe burn was sped up by six days when covering the wound on a regular basis with aloe vera gel, compared to the healing of the wound covered in a gauze bandage (Farrar, 2005). Aloe vera not only helps burns of various degrees, it also has become a common relief aid in treating sunburns. Aloe vera be found in drugstores in a gel form. When rubbed over over-exposed skin, the redness will disappear within a couple of days and helps to preserve moisture so that the skin will not become dry and peel.
Aloe vera can also be used to treat minor cuts and scrapes. Using an aloe vera leaf and rubbing it over a cut will help prevent infection and will speed up the healing response from the body. The aloe vera acts as a sealant and pulls the skin back together like a bandage or a suture (http://www.newstarget.com/001560-02.html). Although aloe should not be used as a substitute for medical treatment, its many uses are beneficial and should be considered for anything such as an everyday moisturizer to a first-aid antiseptic. In addition to the above-mentioned benefits, continuous research is being done to learn how else the aloe vera plant can play an important part in human lives.
Many cosmetic companies are now adding this plant to every product possible including makeup, soaps, sunscreens, shampoos and lotions, as well as any product that is created to soothe, protect and moisturize the skin. This is due partially to the fact that Aloe extract is full of vitamins, nutrients and minerals, as well as, the perception of the general public of Aloe as a healing ingredient. The International Aloe Science Council advises choosing products that contain between twenty-five and forty percent aloe in them to receive the ultimate aloe vera benefits to the skin (http://www.iasc.org/aloe.html).
Aloe gel is also useful for any dry skin condition, especially [[eczema]] around the eyes and sensitive facial skin, and for treating fungal infections such as ringworm. In [[Ayurvedic]] medicine, the gel is usually applied fresh and can even be converted into an ointment for long-term use.
=== Internal uses ===
[[Image:Aloevera1web.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Aloe vera (flowers)]]
Aloe contains a number of medicinal substances used as a [[purgative]]. The medicinal substance is produced from various species of aloe, such as ''A. vera'', ''A. vulgaris'', ''A. socotrina'', ''A. chinensis'', and ''A. perryi''. Several kinds of aloes are commercially available: Barbadoes, Socotrine, Hepatic, Indian, and Cape aloes. Barbadoes and Socotrine are the varieties most commonly used for curative purposes.
Aloes is the expressed juice of the leaves of the plant. When the leaves are cut, the juice that flows out is collected and evaporated. After the juice has been removed, the leaves are sometimes boiled, to yield an inferior kind of aloes. The juice of the leaves of certain species, e.g. ''Aloe venenosa'', is [[poison]]ous.
Aloe vera has been widely marketed as having a number of benefits when taken internally. For example, Aloe has been marketed as a remedy for coughs, wounds, [[ulcer]]s, [[gastritis]], [[diabetes]], [[cancer]], [[headache]]s, [[arthritis]], [[immune-system deficiencies]], and many other conditions. However, these uses are unproven. The only substantiated internal use is as a [[laxative]]. Furthermore, there is evidence of significant adverse side effects (see for example [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15633238 this paper]). Consult your doctor when contemplating taking Aloe internally. Avoid use during pregnancy because the [[anthraquinone]] [[glycoside]]s are strongly [[purgative]]. High doses of the leaves can cause vomiting.
Aloe's benefits include ingesting aloe juice to lower blood sugar levels in diabetes patients.{{citeneeded}}
== Compounds in Aloes ==
Aloe vera contains over seventy-five nutrients and twenty minerals, nineteen amino acids including all eight essential amino acids and eleven secondary amino acids as well and twelve vitamins. These vitamins include: A, B1, B6, B12
|
witz concentration camp is part of the [[UNESCO]] list of [[World Heritage Sites]].
In 1979, the newly elected Polish [[Pope John Paul II]] celebrated Mass on the grounds of Auschwitz II to some 500,000 people. After the pope had announced that [[Edith Stein]] would be [[beatification|beatified]], some Catholics erected a cross near bunker 2 of Auschwitz II where she had been gassed. A short while later, a Star of David appeared at the site, leading to a proliferation of religious symbols there; eventually they were removed.
[[Carmelites|Carmelite nun]]s opened a convent near Auschwitz I in 1984. After some Jewish groups called for the removal of the convent, representatives of the Catholic Church agreed in 1987. One year later the Carmelites erected the 8 metre (26 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) tall cross from the 1979 mass near their site, just outside block 11 and barely visible from within the camp. This led to protests by Jewish groups, who said that mostly Jews were killed at Auschwitz and demanded that religious symbols be kept away from the site. Some Catholics have pointed out that the people killed in Auschwitz I were mainly Polish Catholics. The Catholic Church told the Carmelites to move by 1989, but they stayed on until 1993, leaving the large cross behind. In 1998, after further calls to remove the cross, some 300 smaller crosses were erected by local activists near the large one, leading to further protests and heated exchanges. Following an agreement between the Polish Catholic Church and the Polish government, the smaller crosses were removed in 1999 but the large papal one remains. See [[Auschwitz cross]] for more details.
In 1996, Germany made [[27 January]], the day of the liberation of Auschwitz, the official day for the commemoration of the victims of 'National Socialism'.
The [[European Parliament]] marked the anniversary of the camp's liberation in 2005 with a minute of silence and the passage of this resolution:
<blockquote>"[[27 January]] [[2005]], the sixtieth anniversary of the liberation of [[Nazi Germany]]'s death camp at Auschwitz-Birkenau, where a combined total of up to 1.5 million [[Jew]]s, [[Roma (people)|Roma]], [[Poles]], [[Russians]] and prisoners of various other nationalities, and [[homosexuality|homosexuals]], were murdered, is not only a major occasion for European citizens to remember and condemn the enormous horror and tragedy of the Holocaust, but also for addressing the disturbing rise in [[anti-semitism]], and especially anti&#8209;semitic incidents, in Europe, and for learning anew the wider lessons about the dangers of victimising people on the basis of [[race]], [[ethnic origin]], [[religion]], social classification, [[politics]] or sexual orientation."</blockquote>
=== Other Controversies ===
For many years, a memorial plaque placed at the camp by the Soviet authorities and the Polish communist government stated that 4 million people had been murdered at Auschwitz. This number was never taken seriously by Western historians, and was never used in any of the calculations of the death toll at Auschwitz (which have generally remained consistently around 1-1.5 million for the last sixty years) or for the total deaths in the Holocaust as a whole. After the collapse of the Communist government, the plaque was removed and the official death toll given as 1.1 million. [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust deniers]] have attempted to use this change as [[propaganda]], in the words of Nizkor: "Deniers often use the 'Four Million Variant' as a stepping stone to leap from an apparent contradiction to the idea that the Holocaust was a hoax, again perpetrated by a conspiracy. They hope to discredit historians by making them seem inconsistent. If they can't keep their numbers straight, their reasoning goes, how can we say that their evidence for the Holocaust is credible? One must wonder which historians they speak of, as most have been remarkably consistent in their estimates of a million or so dead. In short, all of the denier's blustering about the 'Four Million Variant' is a specious attempt to envelope the reader into their web of deceit, and it can be discarded after the most rudimentary examination of published histories."[http://www.nizkor.org/features/techniques-of-denial/four-million-02.html]
Recently the Polish media and the foreign ministry of Poland have voiced objections to the use of the expression "Polish death camp" in relation to Auschwitz, as they feel that phrase might misleadingly suggest that Poles (rather than Germans) perpetrated the Holocaust. Most media outlets now show awareness of the offence this may cause, and try to avoid using such expressions (or issue an apology after using them, see for example the recent [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1401179,00.html note] in ''[[The Guardian]]'').
The Polish film directors [[Andrzej Munk]] and [[Andrzej Wajda]] were both given permission to film in Auschwitz for the films ''[[Passenger (film)|Pasażerka]]'' and ''Krajobraz Po Bitwie'' respectively. However, permission was denied to Steven Spielberg for ''[[Schindler's List]]''. His Auschwitz scene was therefore filmed outside the near-symmetrical entrance, with scenery added to make it look like the real thing.
In February 2006, [[Poland]] refused to grant visas to Iranian researchers who were planing to visit [[Auschwitz]].[http://www.payvand.com/news/06/feb/1145.html]. Polish Foreign Minister Stefan Mellar said his country should stop Iran from investigating the scale of the Holocaust, which Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has dismissed as a myth.
==Notes==
#{{note|anat1}}Yisrael Gutman, Michael Berenbaum, Raul Hilberg, Franciszek Piper, Yehuda Baur. ''Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp''. Indiana University Press, 1998, pp 60-70.
== See also ==
* [[Final Solution]]
* [[Holocaust]]
* [[Auschwitz Album]] - a collection of pictures taken at Auschwitz during its operation.
* [[Extermination camp]]
* [[List of German concentration camps]]
* [[History of Gays during the Holocaust]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.remembranceandhope.freeservers.com March of Remembrance and Hope] Holocaust Education Site. A student's account of the inaugural March of Remembrance and Hope. Pictures and commentary of visit to Auschwitz and other Holocaust sites.
*[http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/auschwitz/auschwitz.php Liberation of Auschwitz - 60th Anniversary] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
*[http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/index.php?ModuleId=10005189 Holocaust Encyclopedia - Auschwitz] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
*[http://www.auschwitz-muzeum.oswiecim.pl/html/eng/start/index.php Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum] Official Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum and Memorial
*[http://www.remember.org/ Cybrary of the Holocaust] Holocaust education site
*[http://www.annaheilman.net/index.html Anna Heilman] Anna Heilman is the last living survivor of the plot to blow up Crematorium IV at Auschwitz-Birkenau
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/secondworldwar/story/0,14058,1386675,00.html ''The Nazi's testimony''], ''The Guardian'', [[10 January]] [[2005]]
*[http://www.remember.org/camps/ Photos From Auschwitz and Birkenau] Detailed Photos From Auschwitz and Birkenau by Alan Jacobs
*[http://www.remember.org/auschwitz/ Virtual Reality panoramas of Auschwitz and Birkenau] Interactive Virtual Reality panoramas of Auschwitz and Birkenau
*[http://remember.org/then-and-now/ Auschwitz, Then and Now Photo/Art Exhibit]Paintings by survivor Jan Komski -- click and see an actual photo taken in the same place depicted in the painting.
*[http://www.cracow-life.com/guide/Auschwitz/auschwitz.php Auschwitz: A Visitor's Introduction]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/genocide/ Auschwitz: The Nazis and the 'Final Solution'] A comprehensive [[BBC]] documentary about the creation, evolution and aftermath of the Auschwitz camp.
*[http://www.wiesenthal.com/ The Simon Wiesenthal Center] An international Jewish human rights organization dedicated to preserving the memory of the Holocaust.
*[http://65.18.208.71/bearingwitness/ Photos of Auschwitz 2003] Photos taken by [http://www.bearingwitnessjournal.com/story.htm?story=1R1P30 Laura Carboni] while participating in the annual multi-faith [http://www.houseofonepeople.org/events.htm?z=88 Bearing Witness] retreat.
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=50%C2%B0+1%27+26%22,+19%C2%B0+12%27+18%22&ll=50.023889,19.205&spn=0.026138,0.086517&t=k Auschwitz] and [http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=50%C2%B0+2%27+20%22,+19%C2%B0+10%27+30%22&ll=50.038895,19.175005&spn=0.02613,0.086517&t=k Virkenau] at Google Maps.
[[Category:Nazi concentration camps]]
[[Category:Nazi extermination camps]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Poland]]
[[Category:World War II resistance movements]]
{{Link FA|pl}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[da:Auschwitz]]
[[de:KZ Auschwitz-Birkenau]]
[[eo:Oświęcim]]
[[es:Auschwitz]]
[[fi:Auschwitz]]
[[fr:Auschwitz]]
[[he:אושוויץ]]
[[hu:Auschwitz]]
[[id:Kamp konsentrasi Auschwitz]]
[[it:Campo di concentramento di Auschwitz]]
[[ja:アウシュヴィッツ＝ビルケナウ強制収容所]]
[[ko:아우슈비츠 수용소]]
[[nl:Auschwitz]]
[[no:Auschwitz]]
[[nn:Auschwitz]]
[[pl:Auschwitz-Birkenau]]
[[pt:Auschwitz-Birkenau]]
[[ru:Освенцим (концентрационный лагерь)]]
[[sl:Auschwitz]]
[[sv:Auschwitz]]
[[uk:Освенцім]]
[[zh:奥斯威辛集中营]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Archery</title>
<id>2007</id>
<revision>
<id>41971219</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:32:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeffrey O. Gustafson</username>
<id>158658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.173.8.12|203.173.8.12]] ([[User talk:203.173.8.12|talk]]) to last version by Mukadderat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Archery_target.j
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.