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quot;Ante-Nicene Church Fathers") when he stated, "Endeavor also to send abroad copies of our epistle among all the churches, so that those who easily deceive their own souls may not be able to lay the blame on us. We would have you know, too, that in Alexandria also they observe the festival on the same day as ourselves. For the Paschal letters are sent from us to them, and from them to us—so that we observe the holy day in unison and together."
Polycarp, a disciple of John, likewise adhered to a Nisan 14 observance. Irenaeus, who observed the "first Sunday" rule notes of Polycarp (one of the Bishops of Asia Minor), "For Anicetus could not persuade Polycarp to forgo the observance [of his Nisan 14 practice] inasmuch as these things had been always observed by John the disciple of the Lord, and by other apostles with whom he had been conversant." (c. 180 A.D.; 1.569 "Ante-Nicene Church Fathers"). Irenaeus notes that this was not only Polycarp's practice, but that this was the practice of John the disple and the other apostles that Polycarp knew.
Polycrates (c. 190 A.D.) emphatically notes this is the tradition passed down to him, that Passover and Unleavened Bread were kept on Nisan 14 in accord with the Biblical Passover and not the later Easter tradition: "As for us, then, we scrupulously observe the exact day, neither adding nor taking away. For in Asia great luminaries have gone to their rest who will rise again on the day of the coming of the Lord.... These all kept Easter on the fourteenth day, in accordance with the Gospel.... Seven of my relatives were bishops, and I am the eighth, and my relatives always observed the day when the people put away the leaven" (8.773, 8.744 "Ante-Nicene Church Fathers").
Early within the Church it was admitted by both sides of the debate that the Lord's Supper was the practice of the disciples and the tradition passed down. The Last Supper is believed by some to be a Passover Seder (''see: [[The Last Supper]]''). The Nisan 14 practice, which was strong among the churches of Asia Minor, becomes less common as the desire for Church unity on the question came to favor the majority practice. By the 3rd century the Church, which had become Gentile dominated and wishing to further distinguish itself from Jewish practices, began a tone of harsh rhetoric against Nisan 14/Passover (e.g. Anatolius, c. 270 A.D.; 6.148,6.149 "Ante-Nicene Church Fathers").
A tradition said to have come out of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] states that the Christian Passover (i.e., Easter) was to be celebrated "not with the Jews," that the Jews' calculations (which often varied among themselves, as they were using multiple methods) were not to be followed in determining the date of Easter. This statement was not so much anti-Jewish as simply a recognition that the Passover had now been Christianized, that the Church did not owe its continued existence and practices to the Judaism which Christ had fulfilled and superseded.
The Christianization of the Passover, based on the tradition passed down by the Apostles, has resulted in a number of anti-Easter movements though history. [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], for example, who do not celebrate Easter, adhere to a celebration of the Lord's Supper on Nisan 14 with the passing of wine and unleavened bread.
==Date of Easter==
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" style="float:right; margin-left:15px;"
|-
|+style="padding-right: 1.5em;"align=center|'''Dates for Easter Sunday, 2000-2020'''
|-
! '''Year''' !! '''[[Western Christianity|Western]]''' !! '''[[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]]'''
|-
! '''2000''' || [[April 23]] || [[April 30]]
|-
! '''2001''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 15]]
|-
! '''2002''' || [[March 31]] || [[May 5]]
|-
! '''2003''' || [[April 20]] || [[April 27]]
|-
! '''2004''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 11]]
|-
! '''2005''' || [[March 27]] || [[May 1]]
|-
! '''2006''' || [[April 16]] || [[April 23]]
|-
! '''2007''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 8]]
|-
! '''2008''' || [[March 23]] || [[April 27]]
|-
! '''2009''' || [[April 12]] || [[April 19]]
|-
! '''2010''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 4]]
|-
! '''2011''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 24]]
|-
! '''2012''' || [[April 8]] || [[April 15]]
|-
! '''2013''' || [[March 31]] || [[May 5]]
|-
! '''2014''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 20]]
|-
! '''2015''' || [[April 5]] || [[April 12]]
|-
! '''2016''' || [[March 27]] || [[May 1]]
|-
! '''2017''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 16]]
|-
! '''2018''' || [[April 1]] || [[April 8]]
|-
! '''2019''' || [[April 21]] || [[April 28]]
|-
! '''2020''' || [[April 12]] || [[April 19]]
|}
In Western Christianity, Easter always falls on a Sunday from [[March 22]] to [[April 25]] inclusive. The following day, [[Easter Monday]], is a [[legal holiday]] in many countries with predominantly Christian traditions.
Easter and the holidays that are related to it are ''[[moveable feast]]s'', in that they do not fall on a fixed date in the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] or [[Julian Calendar|Julian]] calendars (which follow the motion of the sun and the seasons). Instead, they are based on a [[lunar calendar]] similar—but not identical—to the [[Hebrew Calendar]]. The precise date of Easter has often been a matter for contention.
At the [[First Council of Nicaea#Passover .28Easter.29 Controversy|First Council of Nicaea]] in 325 it was decided that Easter would be celebrated on the same Sunday throughout the Church, but it is probable that no method was specified by the Council. (No contemporary account of the Council's decisions has survived). Instead, the matter seems to have been referred to the church of [[Alexandria]], which city had the best reputation for scholarship at the time. The Catholic Epiphanius wrote in the mid-4th Century, "...the emperor...convened a council of 318 bishops...in the city of Nicea...They passed certain ecclesiastical canons at the council besides, and at the same time decreed in regard to the Passover that there must be one unanimous concord on the celebration of God's holy and supremely excellent day. For it was variously observed by people..."(Epiphanius. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Books II and III (Sects 47-80), De Fide). Section VI, Verses 1,1 and 1,3. Translated by Frank Williams. EJ Brill, New York, 1994, pp.471-472).
The practice of those following Rome was to celebrate Easter on the first Sunday after the earliest fourteenth day of a lunar month that occurred on or after [[March 21]]. During the Middle Ages this practice was more succinctly phrased as ''Easter is observed on the Sunday after the first [[full moon]] on or after the day of the [[vernal equinox]]''. This full moon is called the Paschal full moon. The Church of Rome used its own methods to determine Easter until the 6th century, when it may have adopted the Alexandrian method as converted into the [[Julian calendar]] by [[Dionysius Exiguus]] (certain proof of this does not exist until the [[ninth century]]). Most churches in the [[British Isles]] used a late [[third century]] Roman method to determine Easter until they adopted the Alexandrian method at the [[Synod of Whitby]] in 664. Churches in western continental Europe used a late Roman method until the late 8th century during the reign of [[Charlemagne]], when they finally adopted the Alexandrian method. Since western churches now use the [[Gregorian calendar]] to calculate the date and Eastern Orthodox churches use the original [[Julian calendar]], their dates are not usually aligned in the present day.
At a summit in [[Aleppo]], [[Syria]], in 1997, the [[World Council of Churches]] proposed a reform in the calculation of Easter which would have replaced an equation-based method of calculating Easter with direct astronomical observation; this would have side-stepped the calendar issue and eliminated the difference in date between the Eastern and Western churches. The reform was proposed for implementation starting in 2001, but it was not ultimately adopted by any member body. {{further|[[Reform of the date of Easter]]}}
A few clergymen of various denominations have advanced the notion of disregarding the moon altogether in determining the date of Easter; proposals include always observing the feast on the second Sunday in April, or always having seven Sundays between the [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]] and [[Ash Wednesday]], producing the same result except that in leap years Easter could fall on [[April 7]]. These suggestions have yet to attract significant support, and their adoption in the future is considered unlikely.
===Computations===
The calculations for the date of Easter are somewhat complicated. See [[computus]] for a discussion covering both the traditional tabular methods and more exclusively mathematical [[algorithms]] such as the one developed by mathematician [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]].
In the Western Church, Easter has not fallen on the earliest of the 35 possible dates, [[March 22]], since 1818, and will not do so again until 2285. It will, however, fall just one day after its earliest possible date in 2008. Easter last fell on the latest possible date, [[April 25]] in 1943, and will next fall on that date in 2038. However, it will fall just one day before this latest possible date in 2011.
Historically, other forms of determining the holiday's date were also used. For example, [[Quartodecimanism]] was the practice of setting the holiday on the 14th day of the [[Hebrew Calendar|Jewish]] month of [[Nisan]], which is the day of preparation for [[Passover]].
==Position in the church year==
===Western Christianity===
In Western Christianity, Easter marks the end of the forty days of [[Lent]], a period of fasting and penitence in preparation for Easter which begins on [[Ash Wednes |
''Sarı Çizmeli Mehmet Ağa''.
==1980s==
In 1981, Manço released ''Sözüm Meclisten Dışarı'' with Kurtalan Ekspres, containing many hit songs including "Alla Beni Pulla Beni", "Arkadaşım Eşşek", "Gülpembe", "Halhal" and "Dönence" among others. The album remains as one of their most popular works and launched a boost of popularity for Barış Manço during [[1980s]].
"Arkadaşım Eşşek" ("My Friend Donkey") marked the beginning of the series of songs with a very young audience. Although the song itself, being about rural nostalgia, was not intended for the children, it initiated the artist's association with them. Through out his career, he went on to write similar songs to achieve an iconic acceptance among Turkish children of 1980s and 1990s.
On the other hand "Gülpembe", composed by Kurtalan Ekspres bassist [[Ahmet Güvenç]], a mourning for Manço's grandmother, caught older audiences and probably is the artist's most popular song, competing perhaps only with "Dağlar Dağlar".
In 1983, ''Estağfurullah, Ne Haddimize'' was released. It contained hit songs "Halil İbrahim Sofrası" and "Kol Düğmeleri", a new version of the artist's very first song. "Halil İbrahim Sofrası" examplified Manço's signature moral themed lyrics, a rare feature in Turkish popular music.
In 1985, ''24 Ayar Manço'' which included "Gibi Gibi" and a long conceptual song "Lahburger" was released. It also marked the beginning of the shift in Manço's sound characterized with the heavy use of [[synthesizer|synthesizers]] and [[drum machine]] in contrast with his older works consisting of a group oriented rock based sound. In subsequent years, Manço released ''Değmesin Yağlı Boya'' (1986), ''Sahibinden İhtiyaçtan'' (1988) and ''Darısı Başınıza'' (1989), all containing a couple of hit songs and demonstrating his new sound.
==7'den 77'ye and 1990s==
In 1988, ''7'den 77'ye'', a TV show directed and presented by Manço began to run on [[TRT 1]], the national TV channel of Turkey. It was a combined music, talk show and documentary program which was a major hit during the 8 years it stayed on air. Manço travelled almost 150 countries for the show. "Adam Olacak Çocuk", a part of the show, strengthened Manço's acceptance among children.
Although his popularity continued mostly due to the TV show, his musical works in 1990s were not well received. The albums ''Mega Manço'' (1992) and ''Müsadenizle Çocuklar'' (1995) were considered as the weakest efforts of his career, despite the limited success of 1992 children hit "Ayı" (The Bear). On the other hand, in 1995 he toured in [[Japan]] with Kurtalan Ekspres, leading to ''Live In Japan'' (1996), his first and only live album. He released two albums in that country with some recognition as "the man who writes songs about vegetables", referring to "Domates, Biber, Patlıcan" ("Tomato, Pepper, Aubergine") and "Nane, Limon Kabuğu" (Mint, Lemon Rint), two of his hit songs from 1980s.
On [[January 31]], [[1999]], Barış Manço died of a sudden heart attack before the release of his just finished last work ''Mançoloji'' (1999), a double album containing the new recordings of his hit songs along with an unfinished instrumental song "40. yıl" ("The 40th Anniversary"), celebrating his 40th year in music. His sudden death caused an almost unanimous shock in Turkey with millions of people mourning and tens of thousands of people attending his funeral.
==Legacy==
Barış Manço was one of the most influential Turkish musicians of all times. In his early career he and his bands contributed to the [[Anatolian rock]] movement by combining traditional Turkish music with [[rock music|rock]] influences, which is still one of the main trends of Turkish popular music.
His visual image characterised by his long hair, mustache and big rings softened the reaction of otherwise conservative Turkish public opinion regarding the marginal visual appearances.
His experimentation with electronic instruments in the late [[1980s]] contributed to the [[1990s]] sound of Turkish popular music.
His lyrics with diverse themes, mostly following a somewhat modernized version of the "aşık" (wandering folk poets) tradition were heavily marginal in the popular music scene of 1980s which was mostly dominated by the love themed lyrics.
In 2002, a tribute album was released under the name ''Yüreğimdeki Barış Şarkıları'' ("Barış's Songs In My Heart", also "Peace Songs In My Heart") featuring 15 extremely popular Turkish artists of such diverse genres as [[arabesque music|arabesque]], pop and rock (both Anatolian and western style) demonstrating his wide range of influence.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BdU</title>
<id>4837</id>
<revision>
<id>15903089</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-27T20:10:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Karl Dönitz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Befehlshaber der Unterseeboote</title>
<id>4838</id>
<revision>
<id>15903090</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-27T20:12:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Karl Dönitz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blitz BASIC</title>
<id>4840</id>
<revision>
<id>42138150</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:52:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Doodle77</username>
<id>710017</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Blitz Basic 2D */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blitz BASIC''' is a [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] [[compiler]]. Originally developed on the [[Amiga]], Blitz BASIC compilers are now available on several [[Platform (computing)|platforms]].
The term '''Blitz BASIC''' is often used to refer to the general syntax used in the entire range of Blitz languages, as well as the original product that started them.
== Amiga Languages ==
=== Blitz BASIC ===
The first compiler, originally designed by ''Acid Software'' from New Zealand, was '''Blitz BASIC''' for the Amiga. It competed with [[Europress Software]]'s [[AMOS BASIC programming language|AMOS]]. Both AMOS and Blitz were distinguished from other BASIC implementations by their built-in support for writing [[Computer and video games|computer games]].
=== Blitz BASIC 2 ===
Shortly after thas the original version of ''[[Worms computer games|Worms]]''. And, closely after, the well known pacman.
== PC Languages ==
=== Blitz Basic 2D ===
The first PC version of the Blitz suite of languages was written a while later, using the power of [[DirectX]] for 2D graphics. Blitz Basic goes for around $50.00, which is pretty cheap for a programming IDE/Compiler. Blitz BASIC PC, often known as '''Blitz Basic''', was published under [[Idigicon]] (formerly Guildhall Leisure) and quickly grew in popularity. It is now discontinued from its developers, but still available from Idigicon. It is known for its simple commands, such as "DrawImage" and "PlayMusic". There is a small population of Blitz Basic programmers located at [http://www.codersworkshop.com CodersWorkshop.com] and [http://www.blitzbasic.com BlitzBasic.com]. Some good programmers in '''Blitz Basic''' include "Cyberseth" and "Krylar". This language is small, but very powerful.
Recognition of Blitz Basic 2D was boosted dramatically when a limited range of "free" versions were distributed on popular UK computer magazines such as [[PC Format]].
=== Blitz3D ===
Not long after the release of Blitz BASIC PC came the eagerly-anticipated '''Blitz3D''', which allowed the creation of true 3D games, for the first time in the range of languages. It kept all of Blitz 2D's older commands, and incorporated an entirely new set for the movement and rendering of three-dimensional objects. Using DirectX7 for 3D game creation, it became a known competitor for the other popular PC game-development language [[Dark Basic]].
It was shortly after this time that ''Acid Software'' became known as ''Blitz Research Limited'' and concentrated on the sole development and promoting of Blitz languages and tools.
=== BlitzPlus ===
As a replacement for Blitz Basic 2D, Blitz Research Limited produced a new title for the range of Blitz products. '''BlitzPlus''' brought new features to the 2D side of the language by allowing some control over [[Microsoft Windows]] forms and gadgets, as well as pulling compatibility of the 2D engine as far back as DirectX 1 with no loss of speed or quality.
== Cross-Platform Languages ==
=== BlitzMAX ===
The latest installment of the Blitz suite of languages is [[BlitzMAX]], a language which supports PC, Linux and Mac installations. BlitzMAX brought the largest change of language structure to the modern range of Blitz products by adding [[object-oriented programming|object-orientation]] concepts and switching the graphics layer to favour OpenGL.
BlitzMAX is also the first truly [[modular programming|modular]] version of the language, allowing complete plugins to be written for the language. This has opened up new possibilities for programmers to configure the language, as well as to purchase improved components from Blitz Research Limited. Blitz Research is said to be currently working on a [[Game engine|3D engine]] module to implement features common to modern 3D engines and [[Game engine#Middleware|middleware]].
== Blitz Programming Books ==
As well as the reference books that were bundled wi |
me a snowman". In both examples, the generic objective pronoun "me" functions as a dative pronoun does in languages which still retain distinct accusative and dative cases.
==The dative case in German==
The dative is generally used to mark the [[indirect object]] of a [[German language|German]] sentence. Certain German prepositions require the dative: ''aus'', ''außer'', ''bei'', ''mit'', ''nach'', ''seit'', ''von'', ''zu'' and ''gegenüber'' (a sequence that may be remembered by singing them to the main tune of [[The Blue Danube]] as a [[mnemonic]] device). Other prepositions (e.g. ''auf'', ''an'', ''unter''") may be used with dative (indicating current location), or accusative (indicating direction towards something). ''Das Buch steht auf dem (''dative'') Tisch'' but ''Ich stelle das Buch auf den (''accusative'') Tisch''.
Note that the concept of an indirect object may be rendered by a prepositional phrase. In this case, the noun or pronoun's case is determined by the preposition, NOT by its function in the sentence. Consider this sentence:
*''Ich gebe das Buch zum Kassierer'' 'I give the book to the cashier.'
Here, the [[subject (grammar)|subject]], ''Ich'', is in the [[nominative case]]; the direct object, ''das Buch'', is in the [[accusative case]], and ''zum Kassierer'' is in the dative case, since ''zu'' always requires the dative. (''Zum'' is a contraction of ''zu'' + ''dem''.) However:
*''Ich habe das Buch an meinen Freund (''accusative'') geschenkt.'' 'I gave the book to my friend.' (''schenken''="to give as a gift")
In this sentence, ''Freund'' would seem to be the indirect object, but because it follows ''an'' (direction), the accusative is required, not the dative.
Some German verbs require the dative for their [[direct object]]s. Common examples include ''folgen'', ''helfen'' and ''antworten''. In each case, the direct object of the verb is rendered in dative.
==The dative case in Latin==
Except the main case (''Dativus''), there are 3 other kinds:
* ''Dativus finalis'' with the meaning of purpose, e.g. ''auxilio vocare'' - "to call for help", ''venio auxilio'' - "I'm coming for help", ''accipio dono'' - "I receive this as a gift" or ''puellae ornamento est'' - "this serves for the girl's decoration";
* ''Dativus commodi (incommodi)'', which means action for somebody, e.g. ''Graecis agros colere'' - "to till fields for Greeks"; Combination of Dativus commodi and finalis (double Dative): ''tibi laetitiae'' "for your joy"
* ''Dativus possesivus'' which means possession, e.g. ''angelis alae sunt'' - "the angels have wings".
* ''Dativus ethicus''
* ''Dativus auctoris''
==Greek==
<!--examples needed-->
* ''Dativus finalis''
* ''Dativus commodi (incommodi)''
* ''Dativus possesivus''
* ''Dativus ethicus''
* ''Dativus auctoris''
*''Dativus instrumenti''
*''Dativus modi''
*''Dativus mensurae''
==See also==
* [[Declension in English]]
* [[Dative construction]]
==External links==
* [http://www.russianlessons.net/grammar/nouns_dative.php Dative Case in Russian]
[[Category:Grammatical cases]]
[[cs:Dativ]]
[[de:Dativ]]
[[es:Caso dativo]]
[[eo:Dativo]]
[[fr:Datif]]
[[gl:Dativo]]
[[hr:Dativ]]
[[is:Þágufall]]
[[it:Dativo]]
[[nl:Datief]]
[[ja:与格]]
[[pl:Celownik (przypadek)]]
[[ro:Cazul dativ]]
[[sr:Датив]]
[[fi:Datiivi]]
[[sv:Dativ]]
[[zh:与格]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dodecahedron</title>
<id>8407</id>
<revision>
<id>42163302</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:04:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tomruen</username>
<id>63601</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reg polyhedra db</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Reg polyhedra db|Platonic polyhedron stat table|D}}
A '''dodecahedron''' is literally a [[polyhedron]] with 12 faces, but usually a '''regular dodecahedron''' is meant: a [[Platonic solid]] composed of twelve [[pentagon]]al faces, with three meeting at each vertex. It has twenty vertices and thirty edges. Its [[dual polyhedron]] is the [[icosahedron]].
__TOC__
[[image:dodecahedron flat.png]]
== Area and volume ==
The area ''A'' and the [[volume]] ''V'' of a regular dodecahedron of edge length ''a'' are:
:<math>A=3\sqrt{25+10\sqrt5}a^2</math>
:<math>V=\begin{matrix}{1\over4}\end{matrix}(15+7\sqrt5)a^3</math>
== Cartesian coordinates ==
The following [[Cartesian coordinates]] define the vertices of a dodecahedron centered at the origin:
: (±1, ±1, ±1)
: (0, ±1/&phi;, ±&phi;)
: (±1/&phi;, ±&phi;, 0)
: (±&phi;, 0, ±1/&phi;)
where &phi; = (1+&radic;5)/2 is the [[golden ratio]] (also written &tau;).
The [[dihedral angle]] of a dodecahedron is approximately 116.565 degrees.
== Geometric relations ==
The ''regular dodecahedron'' is the third in an infinite set of [[truncated trapezohedron|truncated trapezohedra]] which can be constructed by truncating the two axial vertices of a [[pentagonal trapezohedron]].
Five [[cube]]s can be made from these, with their edges as diagonals of the dodecahedron's faces, and together these make up the regular [[polyhedral compound]] of five cubes. Since two tetrahedra can fit on alternate cube vertices, five and ten tetrahedra can also fit in a dodecahedron.
[[Image:Compound of five cubes.png|100px|five cubes]]
[[Image:Compound of five tetrahedra.png|100px|five tetrahedra]]
[[Image:Compound of ten tetrahedra.png|100px|ten tetrahedra]]
The [[stellation]]s of the dodecahedron make up three of the four [[Kepler-Poinsot solid]]s.
===Icosahedron vs dodecahedron===
Despite appearances, when a dodecahedron is inscribed in a [[sphere]], it occupies more of the sphere's volume (66.49%) than an [[icosahedron]] inscribed in the same sphere (60.54%).
A regular dodecahedron with edges length 1 has more than three and a half times the volume of an [[icosahedron]] with the same length edges (7.663... compared with 2.181...).
== Other dodecahedra ==
The term dodecahedron is also used for other [[polyhedron|polyhedra]] with twelve faces, most notably the [[rhombic dodecahedron]] which is dual to the [[cuboctahedron]] and occurs in nature as a crystal form. The normal dodecahedron is sometimes called the pentagonal dodecahedron to distinguish it.
Other dodecahedra include:
* Congruent faces: (Face-uniform)
*# [[hexagon]]al [[bipyramid]] - 12 isosceles [[triangle]]s, dual to [[hexagonal prism]]
*# [[hexagonal trapezohedron]] - 12 [[kite]]s, dual to [[hexagonal antiprism]]
*# [[triakis tetrahedron]] - 12 isosceles [[triangle]]s, dual to [[truncated tetrahedron]]
*# [[rhombic dodecahedron]] - 12 [[rhombus|rhombi]], dual to [[cuboctahedron]]
* Mixed faces:
*# [[hendecagon]]al [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] - 11 isosceles triangles and 1 [[polygon|hendecagon]]
*# [[pentagonal antiprism]] - 10 equilateral triangles, 2 pentagons
*# [[decagon]]al [[prism (geometry)|prism]] - 10 squares, 2 decagons
*# [[pentagonal cupola]] - 5 triangles, 5 squares, 1 pentagon, 1 decagon
*# [[trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron]] - 6 rhombi, 6 [[trapezoid]]s - dual of [[Triangular orthobicupola]]
*# [[rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedron]] or ''Elongated Dodecahedron'' - 8 rhombi and 4 equilateral [[hexagon]]s.
== Uses ==
* If each edge of a dodecahedron are replaced by one [[ohm]] [[resistor]]s, the resistance between opposite vertices is 7/6 ohms, and 19/30 ohm between adjacent vertices.
* Especially in [[roleplaying]], this solid is known as a [[dice#Non-cubical dice|d12]], one of the more common polyhedral [[Dice|die]].
== Cultural connections to regular dodecahedra ==
* Also an [[Aphex Twin]] song.
* The Dodecahedron was a character in [[Norton Juster|Norton Juster's]] book ''[[The Phantom Tollbooth]].''
* The shape of the Machine in [[Carl Sagan|Carl Sagan's]] novel ''[[Contact (novel)|Contact]]'' is that of a dodecahedron.
* Appeared in [[The Simpsons]] as a word that [[Lisa Simpson]] was teaching to [[Maggie Simpson]].
* The Dodecahedron was the mysterious power source for an underground city in the [[Doctor Who]] episode ''Meglos.''
* The 20 vertices and 30 edges of a dodecahedron form the basic [[graph theory|map]] for a computer game called [[Hunt The Wumpus]].
* It has been postulated that certain phenomena can best be explained if the [[universe]] is finite and shaped like a dodecahedron. This view is not widely accepted.
* Mentioned in the [[Clutch (band)|Clutch]] song Mice & Gods.
==See also==
*[[:Image:Dodecahedron.gif|Spinning dodecahedron]]
*[[Truncated dodecahedron]]
*[[Hamiltonian path]]
*[[Hunt the Wumpus]]
*[[Dodecaeder]]
==External links==
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/dodecahedron.html Spinning Dodecahedron] Math Is Fun
*[http://www.artabus.com/calendar.php Dodecahedron calendar]
*[http://www.korthalsaltes.com/ Paper Models of Polyhedra] Many links
*[http://www.ii.uib.no/~arntzen/kalender/ 12 sided calendar] Create, print and fold a 12 sided calendar as either a dodecahedron or a [[rhombic dodecahedron]]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
** [[VRML]] models
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/dodecahedron.wrl Regular dodecahedron] regular
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/rhombic_dodecahedron.wrl Rhombic dodecahedron] quasiregular
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/decagonal_prism.wrl Decagonal prism] vertex-uniform
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/pentagonal_antiprism.wrl Pentagonal antiprism] vertex-uniform
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/hexagonal_dipyramid.wrl Hexagonal dipyramid] face uniform
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/triakistetrahedron.wrl Triakis tetrahedron] face-uniform
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/hexagonal_trapez |
t-Coast predecessor to the [[Haight-Ashbury]] hippie scene of the next decade. The Village (and surrounding New York City) would later play central roles in the writings of [[Jack Kerouac]], [[Allen Ginsberg]], and [[William S. Burroughs]], among others.
Greenwich Village played a major role in the development of the [[folk music]] scene of the 1960s. Three of the four members of [[The Mamas & the Papas|The Mamas and the Papas]] met there. Village resident [[Bob Dylan]] was one of the foremost popular songwriters in the country, and often developments in New York City would influence the simultaneously occurring folk-rock movement in [[San Francisco]], and vice versa. Dozens of other cultural and popular icons got their start in the Village's nightclub, theater, and coffeehouse scene during the 1950's, 1960s, and early 1970s.
In recent days, the Village has maintained its role as a center for movements which have challenged the wider American culture: for example, its role in the [[gay liberation]] movement. It contains [[Christopher Street]] and the [[Stonewall Inn]], important landmarks, as well as the world's oldest gay and lesbian bookstore, Oscar Wilde Bookshop, founded in 1967.
''See also [[:Category:Greenwich Village Scene]]''
== Present day ==
[[Image:Greenwich Village.jpg|thumb|Greenwich Village]]
Currently, artists and local historians bemoan the fact that the [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] days of Greenwich Village are long gone, because of the extraordinarily high housing costs in the neighborhood. The artists have fled to [[Brooklyn]], [[Long Island City]], and [[New Jersey]]. Nevertheless, residents of Greenwich Village still possess a strong community identity and are proud of their neighborhood's unique history and fame, and its well-known liberal live-and-let-live attitudes. Indeed, its cultural uniqueness and apartness are felt so strongly, and so many of its residents' lives are so locally focused, that it is sometimes said thereabouts that "upstate" New York is anywhere north of 14th Street.
Greenwich Village includes the primary campus for [[New York University]] (NYU), [[The New School]], and [[Yeshiva University]]'s [[Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law]]. [[Cooper Union]] is located in neighboring East Village.
The historic [[Washington Square Park]] is the center and heart of the neighborhood, but the Village has several other, smaller parks: Father Fagan, Minetta Triangle, Petrosino Square, Little Red Square, and Time Landscape. There are also city playgrounds, including Desalvio, Minetta, Thompson Street, Bleecker Street, Downing Street, Mercer Street, and William Passannante Ballfield. Perhaps the most famous, though, is "The Cage", officially known as the [[West 4th street courts|West 4th Street Courts]]. Sitting on top of the [[West Fourth Street-Washington Square (IND Sixth Avenue Line station)|West 4th Street]] subway station at 6th Avenue that serves the A-B-C-D-E-F-V trains, the courts are easily accessible to [[basketball]] and [[American handball]] players from all over New York. The Cage has become one of the most important tournament sites for the city-wide "[[Streetball]]" amateur basketball tournament.
The Village also has a bustling performing arts scene. It is home to many [[Off-Broadway]] theaters; for instance, [[Blue Man Group]] has taken up residence in the Astor Place Theater. The [[Village Vanguard]] hosts some of the biggest names in [[jazz]] on a regular basis. Comedy clubs dot the Village as well, including [[The Boston]] and [[Comedy Cellar]], where many American [[stand-up comedy|stand-up]] comedians got their start.
Each year on October 31, it is home to [[New York's Village Halloween Parade]], a mile-long ad hoc pageant of masqueraders, mummers, drag queens, exhibitionists, drunkards, druggies, puppets and pets that draws an audience of two million from throughout the region, the largest Halloween event in the country. The delighted and high-spirited throngs include everyone from the smallest children dressed in the simplest homemade or store-bought costumes on up to adults bedecked in the most elaborate and ingenious guises and disguises that professional and amateur costume designers and makeup artists can conceive and create with a year's notice.
Several publications have offices in the Village, most notably the newsweekly ''[[The Village Voice]]''.
The [[1994]]-[[2004]] [[NBC]] [[sitcom]] ''[[Friends]]'' takes place in the Village, though it was filmed and produced in [[Hollywood, California]]. The exterior shot of the Friends' apartment building is actually located at Grove Street and Bedford Street in the West Village.
== See also ==
* [[Christopher Street, Manhattan]]
* [[Gay Street, Manhattan]]
* [[The Village Voice]]
* [[East Village]]
* [[New York's Village Halloween Parade]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.joeambrose.net/ Essays on Chelsea Hotel, Iggy Pop, Beat Generaton]
* [http://www.nyc-architecture.com/GV/GV.htm New York Architecture Images- Greenwich Village]
* [http://www.gvshp.org/history.htm Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation]
* [http://www.villagevoice.com/ Village Voice]
* [http://www.nycvisit.com/content/index.cfm?pagePkey=429 Official Tourist map (controversially showing Greenwich Village to include the East Village]
* [http://perrin.olivier.free.fr/new_york_2005/Greenwich%20Village/index.html Gallery of photographs]
* [http://newyorkbirds.free.fr/manhattan/greenwich%20village/index.php Air visit of Greenwich Village in Photographs]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16907 Greenwich Village], by [[Anna Alice Chapin]], 1919, from [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/ref/travel/NABE-EASTVILL.html East Village highlights]
{{New York City}}
[[Category:Gay villages]]
[[Category:Manhattan neighborhoods]]
[[Category:Greenwich Village Scene]]
[[de:Greenwich Village]]
[[es:Greenwich Village]]
[[fr:Greenwich Village]]
[[it:Greenwich Village]]
[[hu:Greenwich Village]]
[[ja:グリニッジ・ヴィレッジ]]
[[pl:Greenwich Village]]
[[pt:Greenwich Village]]
[[fi:Greenwich Village]]
[[sv:Greenwich Village]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gettysburg</title>
<id>13012</id>
<revision>
<id>41029128</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T16:21:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NoIdeaNick</username>
<id>667753</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/206.15.228.207|206.15.228.207]] to last version by David Kernow</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gettysburg''' may refer to:
__NOTOC__
===Places===
* [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]]
** [[Gettysburg Battlefield]], the National Military Park administered by the National Park Service.
** [[Gettysburg College]], a liberal arts college based in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
===Events===
* [[Battle of Gettysburg]], a battle during the American Civil War that took place at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
* [[Gettysburg Address]], a famous speech made by President Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, a few months after the Battle of Gettysburg.
===Entertainment===
* ''[[Gettysburg (film)|Gettysburg]]'', a 1993 movie portraying the Battle of Gettysburg.
*''[[Sid Meier's Gettysburg!]]'', a computer game based on the Battle of Gettysburg.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George S. Kaufman</title>
<id>13015</id>
<revision>
<id>41980886</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:49:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.165.81.80</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''George Simon Kaufman''' ([[November 16]], [[1889]] - [[June 2]], [[1961]]) was a [[playwright]], director, producer, humorist, and drama critic noted for his many collaborations with other writers and his contributions to 20th century American comedy.
Born in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] to a [[Jewish]] family, Kaufman wrote very few plays alone. His most successful solo script was ''The Butter and Egg Man'', [[1925]]. As a collaborator, Kaufman was prolific: with [[Marc Connelly]] he wrote ''Merton of the Movies'', [[Dulcy]], and ''[[Beggar on Horseback]]''; with [[Ring Lardner]] he wrote ''[[June Moon]]''; with [[Edna Ferber]] he wrote ''[[The Royal Family]]'', ''[[Dinner at Eight]]'', and ''[[Stage Door]]''; with [[John P. Marquand]] he wrote a stage adaptation of Marquand's novel ''[[The Late George Apley]]''; and with Howard Teichmann he wrote ''[[The Solid Gold Cadillac]]''.
His most successful collaborations were with [[Moss Hart]], with whom he wrote several plays, including ''[[Once in a Lifetime]]'', ''[[You Can't Take It With You]]'', which won the [[Pulitzer Prize]] in [[1936]], and ''[[The Man Who Came to Dinner]]'', whose lead character was based on critic and wit [[Alexander Woollcott]]. These three plays so solidified Kaufman's reputation as the writer of wise-cracking, carefully structured, commercial comedy, that the diversity and scope of his long career is often overlooked.
Despite his claims that he knew nothing of music, and, in fact, hated it in the theatre, Kaufman collaborated on many musicals. His most successful include ''[[The Cocoanuts]]'', written with [[Irving Berlin]] for the [[Marx Brothers]], ''[[Animal Crackers]]'', also written for the Marx Brothers, with [[Morrie Ryskind]], [[Bert Kalmar]], and [[Harry Ruby]], ''[[Of Thee I Sing]]'' ([[Pulitzer Prize]] [[1931]]), and ''[[Let 'Em Eat Cake]]'' which had incarnations with Ryskind, [[Ira Gershwin]], and [[George Gershwin]]. Although Kaufman skewered the film industry in his plays and prose pieces, he did occasional work for Hollywood, most significantly as a writer of ''[[A Night at the Opera]]'' for the Marx Brothers.
Kaufman was also a noted director, staging the original productions of ''[[The Front Page]]'' by [[Charles MacArthur]] and [[Ben Hecht]], ''[[Of Mice a |
led "125 High Speed Mode" {{ref|125HSM}} or [[Linksys]] "SpeedBooster", in response to criticism of Super G's interference potential.
=== 802.11n ===
In January 2004 IEEE announced that it had formed a new 802.11 Task Group (TGn) to develop a new amendment to the 802.11 standard for local-area wireless networks. The real data throughput is estimated to reach a theoretical 540 Mbit/s (which may require an even higher raw data rate at the [[physical layer]]), and should be up to 40 times faster than 802.11b, and near 10 times faster than 802.11a or 802.11g. It is projected that 802.11n will also offer a better operating distance than current networks.
There were two competing proposals of the 802.11n standard: [[WWiSE]] ('''W'''orld-'''Wi'''de '''S'''pectrum '''E'''fficiency), backed by companies including [[Broadcom]], and TGn Sync backed by [[Intel]] and [[Philips]].
Previous competitors [[TGnSync]], [[WWiSE]], and a third group, [[MITMOT]], said in late July 2005 that they would merge their respective proposals as a draft which would be sent to the IEEE in September; a final version will be submitted in November. The standardization process is expected to be completed by the second half of 2006.
802.11n builds upon previous 802.11 standards by adding MIMO ([[multiple-input multiple-output]]). MIMO uses multiple [[transmitter]] and [[receiver (radio)|receiver]] [[Antenna (radio)|antennas]] to allow for increased data throughput through spatial multiplexing and increased range by exploiting the spatial diversity, perhaps through coding schemes like [[Space-time block code|Alamouti coding]].
The Enhanced Wireless Consortium (EWC){{ref|EWC}} was formed to help accelerate the IEEE 802.11n development process and promote a technology specification for interoperability of next-generation wireless local area networking (WLAN) products.
On January 19, 2006, the IEEE 802.11n Working Group approved the EWC's specification as the draft approval of 802.11n.
== Certification ==
Because the IEEE only sets specifications but does not test equipment for compliance with them, a trade group called the [[Wi-Fi Alliance]] runs a certification program that members pay to participate in. Virtually all companies selling 802.11 equipment are members. The Wi-Fi trademark, owned by the group and usable only on compliant equipment, is intended to guarantee interoperability. Currently, "Wi-Fi" can mean any of 802.11a, b, or g. As of fall 2003, Wi-Fi also includes the security standard Wi-Fi Protected Access or WPA. Eventually "Wi-Fi" will also mean equipment which implements the [[IEEE 802.11i]] security standard (aka WPA2). Products that say they are Wi-Fi are supposed to also indicate the frequency band in which they operate (2.4 or 5 GHz).
== Standards ==
The following [[IEEE Standards Association|IEEE Standards]] and task groups exist within the IEEE 802.11 working group: <!--Please do not add a standard to this list unless it's an IEEE standard and you have a reference back to IEEE's website -->
*[[IEEE 802.11]] - The original 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz RF and IR standard (1999)
*[[#802.11a|IEEE 802.11a]] - 54 Mbit/s, 5 GHz standard (1999, shipping products in 2001)
*[[#802.11b|IEEE 802.11b]] - Enhancements to 802.11 to support 5.5 and 11 Mbit/s (1999)
*[[IEEE 802.11c]] - Bridge operation procedures; included in the [[IEEE 802.1D]] standard (2001)
*[[IEEE 802.11d]] - International (country-to-country) roaming extensions (2001)
*[[IEEE 802.11e]] - Enhancements: [[Quality of service|QoS]], including packet bursting (2005)
*[[IEEE 802.11F]] - [[Inter-Access Point Protocol]] (2003) '''Withdrawn [[2005]]'''
*[[#802.11g|IEEE 802.11g]] - 54 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz standard (backwards compatible with b) (2003)
*[[IEEE 802.11h]] - Spectrum Managed 802.11a (5 GHz) for European compatibility (2004)
*[[IEEE 802.11i]] - Enhanced security (2004)
*[[IEEE 802.11j]] - Extensions for Japan (2004)
*[[IEEE 802.11k]] - Radio resource measurement enhancements
*IEEE 802.11l - (reserved, typologically unsound)
*[[IEEE 802.11m]] - Maintenance of the standard; odds and ends.
*[[#802.11n|IEEE 802.11n]] - Higher throughput improvements
*IEEE 802.11o - (reserved, typologically unsound)
*[[IEEE 802.11p]] - WAVE - Wireless Access for the Vehicular Environment (such as ambulances and passenger cars)
*IEEE 802.11q - (reserved, typologically unsound, can be confused with [[IEEE 802.1Q|802.1Q]] VLAN trunking)
*[[IEEE 802.11r]] - Fast [[roaming]]
*[[IEEE 802.11s]] - ESS Mesh Networking
*[[IEEE 802.11T]] - Wireless Performance Prediction (WPP) - test methods and metrics
*[[IEEE 802.11u]] - Interworking with non-802 networks (e.g., cellular)
*[[IEEE 802.11v]] - Wireless [[network management]]
*[[IEEE 802.11w]] - Protected Management Frames
Note - there is no standard or task group named "802.11x". Rather, this term is used informally to denote any current or future 802.11 standard, in cases where further precision is not necessary. (The [[IEEE 802.1X]] standard for port-based network access control, is often mistakenly called "802.11x" when used in the context of wireless networks.)
Note - 802.11F and 802.11T are recommendations, not standards and are capitalized as such.
=== Standard or Amendment? ===
Both the terms "standard" and "amendment" are used when referring to the different variants of '''IEEE 802.11'''. Which is correct?
As far as the [[IEEE]] is concerned there is only one standard - '''IEEE 802.11'''. This standard is continuously updated by means of amendments such as [[IEEE 802.11a]], [[IEEE 802.11b]] etc. Periodically a new version of the '''IEEE 802.11''' standard is produced combining the previous version of the standard and all amendments published up to that date. For example, there is a 2003 edition of the standard available for purchase{{ref|802.11-2003}} that incorporates the [[IEEE 802.11a]], [[IEEE 802.11b]], and [[IEEE 802.11d]] amendments. It is possible that at some point, only this version will be made available for free download replacing the six year old version of the base standard and the first three admendments.
So the correct term for the base standard called "802.11 legacy" on this page would in fact be 802.11-1999. But outside the working group that produces '''IEEE 802.11''' such accuracy is probably unnecessary.
== Community networks ==
With the proliferation of [[cable modem]]s and [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]], there is an ever-increasing market of people who wish to establish small networks in their homes to share their high speed [[Internet]] connection.
Wireless office networks are often unsecured or secured with [[Wired Equivalent Privacy|WEP]], which is said to be easily broken, although a substantial amount of data has to be collected before it can be [[Software cracking|cracked]] successfully. Note, however, that using readily-available and downloadable tools, WEP networks can be cracked within minutes. These networks frequently allow "people on the street" to connect to the Internet. There are also efforts by volunteer groups to establish [[wireless community network]]s to provide free wireless connectivity to the public.
== Security ==
In 2001, a group from the [[University of California, Berkeley]] presented a paper describing weaknesses in the [[802.11]] [[WEP]] (wired equivalent privacy) security mechanism defined in the original standard; they were followed by Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir's paper entitled "Weaknesses in the Key Scheduling Algorithm of RC4". Not long after, Adam Stubblefield and AT&T publicly announced the first verification of the attack. In the attack they were able to intercept transmissions and gain unauthorized access to wireless networks.
The IEEE set up a dedicated task group to create a replacement security solution, 802.11i (previously this work was handled as part of a broader 802.11e effort to enhance the [[Media Access Control|MAC]] layer). The Wi-Fi Alliance announced an interim specification called Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) based on a subset of the then current IEEE 802.11i draft. These started to appear in products in mid-2003. 802.11i (aka [[WPA2]]) itself was ratified in June [[2004]], and uses the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]], instead of [[RC4]], which was used in [[WEP]] and [[Wi-Fi Protected Access|WPA]].
In [[January 2005]], [[IEEE]] set up yet another task group TGw to protect management and broadcast frames, which previously were sent unsecured. See [[IEEE 802.11w]]
== See also ==
*[[Bluetooth]], another wireless protocol primarily designed for shorter range applications.
*[[WiMAX]] (aka 802.16), another wireless protocol designed for [[Metropolitan area network|MAN]]s.
== External links ==
* [http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/802.11.html Download the 802.11 standards from IEEE]
* [http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/11/Reports/tgn_update.htm Status of the 802.11n standard]
* [http://www.ieee802.org/11/ IEEE 802.11 working group]
* [http://ftp.die.net/mirror/papers/802.11/wep_attack.pdf "Using the Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir Attack to Break WEP" (2001)], paper by Stubblefield (PDF)
* [http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/wireless/2005/05/20/80211map.html 802.11 Protocol Map] O'Reilly Network article by Matthew Gast that includes a map outlining the relationship between the various 802.11 protocols, standards and regulatory bodies.
* [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/802dot112/chapter/ch15.pdf Chapter 15: A Peek Ahead at 802.11n: MIMO-OFDM] 802.11 Wireless Networks: The Definitive Guide, Second Edition (PDF)
== References ==
#{{note|superG}} http://www.super-g.com/
#{{note|125HSM}} [http://www.54g.org/about_54g_speed.php Broadcom's 125 High Speed Mode consortium]
#{{note|EWC}}[http://www.enhancedwirelessconsortium.org/ Enhanced Wireless Consortium]
#{{note|802.11-2003}}[http://shop.ieee.org/ieeestore/Product.aspx?pr |
rately obstructed negotiations because the existing arrangement benefited Australia financially. On [[July 7]], [[2005]], an agreement was finally reached under which both countries would set aside the dispute over the maritime boundary, and East Timor would receive [[Australian Dollar|A$]]13 billion ([[US Dollar|US]]$9.65 billion) in revenue.
East Timor also has a large [[coffee]] industry, which if managed correctly can be fairly lucrative.
Currently three foreign banks have a branch in Dili: [[ANZ Bank]], [[Banco Nacional Ultramarino]], and [[Bank Mandiri]].
East Timor has the lowest ''[[Per capita income|per capita income]]'' in the world (USD 400 per annum) according to the [[CIA World Factbook]], 2005.
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of East Timor]]''
The population of East Timor is about one million. It has grown considerably recently, because of a high birth rate, but also because of the return of refugees. The population is especially concentrated in the area around [[Dili]].
The Timorese are called ''Maubere'' collectively by some of their political organizations, an originally derogatory name turned into a name of pride by [[Fretilin]]. They consist of a number of distinct ethnic groups, most of whom are of mixed [[Malayo-Polynesian]] and [[Melanesian]]/[[Papua]]n descent. The largest Malayo-Polynesian ethnic groups are the [[Tetun]] (or Tetum) (100,000), primarily in the north coast and around Dili; the [[Mambae]] (80,000), in the central mountains; the [[Tukudede]] (63,170), in the area around [[Maubara]] and [[Liquiçá]]; the [[Galoli]] (50,000), between the tribes of Mambae and Makasae; the [[Kemak]] (50,000) in north-central Timor island; and the [[Baikeno]] (20,000), in the area around [[Pante Macassar]]. The main tribes of predominantly Papuan origin include the [[Bunak]] (50,000), in the central interior of Timor island; the [[Fataluku]] (30,000), at the eastern tip of the island near [[Lospalos]]; and the [[Makasae]], toward the eastern end of the island. In addition, like other former [[Portuguese colonies]] where [[interracial marriage]] was common, there is a smaller population of people of mixed Timorese and Portuguese origin, known in Portuguese as ''[[Mestiço]]''. The best-known East Timorese ''Mestiço'' internationally is [[José Ramos Horta]], the spokesman for the resistance movement in exile, and now [[Foreign Minister]]. [[Mário Viegas Carrascalão]], Indonesia's appointed governor between [[1987]] and [[1992]], is also ''Mestiço''.
=== Religion ===
The population is predominantly [[Roman Catholic]] (90%), with sizable [[Islam|Muslim]] (5%) and [[Protestant]] (3%) minorities. Smaller [[Hinduism|Hindu]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[animism|animist]] minorities make up the remainder.
== Languages ==
''Main article: [[Languages of East Timor]]''
East Timor's two official languages are [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Tetum]], a local [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language]]. [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[English language|English]] are defined as working languages under the Constitution in the Final and Transitional Provisions without setting a final date. Although the country has only about 1 million inhabitants, another fourteen indigenous languages are spoken: [[Bekais]], [[Bunak]], [[Dawan]], [[Fataluku]], [[Galoli]], [[Habun]], [[Idalaka]], [[Kawaimina]], [[Kairui]], [[Kemak]], [[Lovaia]], [[Makalero]], [[Makasai]], [[Mambai]], [[Tetun-Terik]], [[Tokodede]] and [[Wetarese]].
Under Indonesian rule, the use of Portuguese was banned, but it was used by the clandestine resistance, especially in communicating with the outside world. The language, along with Tetum, gained importance as a symbol of resistance and freedom and was adopted as one of the two official languages for this reason, and as a link to nations in other parts of the world. It is now being taught and promoted widely with the help of [[Brazil]] and [[Portugal]]. Some claim it is now spoken by 25% of the population(source??), although its prominence in official and public spheres has been met with some hostility from younger Indonesian-educated people. East Timor is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries ([[CPLP]]), also known as the [[Lusophone]] Commonwealth, and a member of the [[Latin Union]].
There remains great controversy over the Timorese government's language policy which, in practice, promotes Portuguese over the national language Tetum. It is also not widely accepted that any more than 5% of the population currently speaks Portuguese with any fluency.[http://www.jsmp.minihub.org/Reports/jsmpreports/Language%20Report/LanguageReport(english).pdf](2- Timorese Census) Local languages and Tetum still remain the most common means of communication between ordinary Timorese, while a large segment of Timor's demographically young population also speak [[Bahasa Indonesia]].
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of East Timor}}
The culture of East Timor reflects numerous cultural influences, including [[Portugal|Portuguese]], [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Malay people|Malay]], on the indigenous [[Austronesian]] cultures of Timor. Legend has it that a giant crocodile was transformed into the island of Timor, or ''Crocodile Island'', as it is often called. Like [[Indonesia]], the culture of East Timor has been heavily influenced by Austronesian legends, although the Catholic influence is also strong. This catholicism strengthened in response to the Indonesian domination, which forced the population to adopt a religion as a counter-communism policy.
Illiteracy is still widespread, but there is a strong tradition of poetry. President [[Xanana Gusmão]] is, for example, a distinguished poet. As for architecture, some Portuguese-style buildings can be found, although the traditional totem houses of the eastern region, known as ''uma lulik'', also survive. Craftmanship is also widespread, as is the weaving of traditional scarves or ''tais''.
{{Seealso|Music of East Timor}}
==Public Holidays==
East Timor now has [[public holiday]]s that commemorate historic events in the liberation struggle, as well as those associated with the [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] faith.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Date !! Name !! Observations
|-
| [[1 January]] || [[New Year's Day]]||
|-
| March/April || [[Good Friday]]||
|-
| March/April || [[Easter Sunday]] ||
|-
| [[May 20]] || [[Independence Day]] || 2002
|-
| [[August 15]] || [[Assumption]]||
|-
| [[August 30]] || Consultation Day || Anniversary of the Popular Consultation in 1999
|-
| [[September 20]] || Liberation Day || by [[INTERFET]] in 1999
|-
| [[November 1]] || [[All Saints' Day]]||
|-
| [[November 12]] || Santa Cruz Day || Anniversary of the [[Dili Massacre|Santa Cruz massacre]] in 1991
|-
| [[December 8]] || [[Immaculate Conception]] ||
|-
| [[December 25]] || [[Christmas]] || .
|}
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in East Timor]]
* [[Foreign relations of East Timor]]
* [[List of Cities in East Timor]]
* [[List of East Timor-related topics]]
* [[List of East Timorese people]]
* [[Military of East Timor]]
* [[Sports in East Timor]]
* [[Transportation in East Timor]]
* [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mai_ita_aprende_portug%C3%A9s_ho_Em%C3%ADlia Pictures about language issues]
==See also==
*[[Great Timor]]
*[[West Timor]]
== Trivia ==
Recently, the [[Colombian]] [[pop star]] [[Shakira]] recorded a [[protest song]] entitled "[[Timor (song)|Timor]]". The song, written and composed by the singer, tells about how the Western media gave importance to the East Timor Independence case a few years ago, and how the same media does nothing for the country on recent days.
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|East Timor}}
* [http://www.laohamutuk.org/ East Timor Institute for Reconstruction Monitoring and Analysis (La'o Hamutuk)]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2004/s1112211.htm ABC Online article on negotiations with Australia about border]
* [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EE21Ae06.html Asia Times article on the Timor Gap dispute]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tt.html CIA World Factbook on East Timor]
* [http://www.etan.org/resource/websites.htm ETAN Links] - Extensive links on East Timor
* [http://www.timor-leste.gov.tl/ Governo Timor Leste] - Official governmental site
* [http://bairopiteclinic.tripod.com Bairo Pite Clinic website] - Information on Health in East Timor
* [http://depts.washington.edu/haiuw/html/programs/timor-leste/index.htm Health Alliance International website] - More information on health projects in East Timor by [[Health Alliance International| HAI]]
* [http://www.semanario.tp/ Jornal Nacional - Semanário] (Portuguese)
* [http://www.gov.tp Links to Timor Leste government sites]
* [http://www.mfac.gov.tp Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation]
* [http://www.suaratimorlorosae.com/ Suara Timor Lorosae] - (Tetum and Indonesian)
* [http://www.turismotimorleste.com Tourism Timor-Leste] - Official tourism website (English and Portuguese)
* [http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/21/easttimor.indonesia.reut/index.html Report] from [[CNN]] - [[January 21]], [[2006]]
* [http://home.vicnet.net.au/~fobaucau/ Friends of Baucau]
* [http://www.portphillip.vic.gov.au/suai.html Friends of Suai]
* [http://friendsofsame.org/ Friends of Same]
* [http://untl.labor.net.au/ Friends of the UNTL Library]
'''East Timor Blogs'''
* [http://timorsunshine.blogspot.com/ Tumbleweed in Timor Lorosae]
* [http://commons.princeton.edu/blogs/pia/personal/storbert/ Malae Bulak (Crazy Foreigner)]
* [http://pantsonfire.blogs.friendster.com/tc_the_liars_pants_on_fir/ Peace Corp Volunteer]
* [http://samanddaniel.blogspot.com/ Dili-Dallying]
* [http://forum-haksesuk.blogspot.com/ Forum Haksesuk (Discussion Forum)] (Tetum)
* [http://www.buzzindili.blogspot.com/ Timor Tales]
* [http://lorosae.blogspot.com/ Blog de Timor] (Portuguese)
* [ht |
nter]
* [http://www.pollinatorparadise.com/ Pollinator Paradise] (solitary bees)
* [http://www.kutikshoney.com/grafting/queens.htm Kutik's Honey Farm] Raising honeybee queens
* [http://www.abc.net.au/science/scribblygum/may2003/default.htm Rescuing Australian stingless bees]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/3294/pheromo.htm Honey Bee Pheromones]
* [http://www.sankey.ws/firstbee.html The first bee of spring]
* [http://www.honighaeuschen.de/ Apiary Honighäuschen at the Drachenfels]
* [http://www.livescience.com/animalworld/060110_bee_fight.html Flight of Honey Bee finally understood]
[[Category:Aculeate Hymenoptera]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Buendnis 90 - Die Gruenen</title>
<id>4655</id>
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<timestamp>2004-11-25T07:10:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wilfried Derksen</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Shogunate</title>
<id>4656</id>
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<timestamp>2003-10-19T02:22:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TakuyaMurata</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[shogun]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Binding arbitration</title>
<id>4657</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arbitration]]
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<page>
<title>Bill of Rights</title>
<id>4658</id>
<revision>
<id>40288415</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T15:21:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.176.79.94</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>revert this page back to redirect to bill of rights (just because someone capitalises the R does not necessarily mean they are looking for US Bill of Rights)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bill of rights]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bat</title>
<id>4659</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:26:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdr</username>
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<comment>typo, tighten some wording, use better pictures</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the mammal}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Bats
| image = Haeckel Chipoptera.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = "Chiroptera" from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''Artforms of Nature'', 1904
| regnum = [[Animal|Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = '''Chiroptera'''
| ordo_authority = [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach]], 1779
| subdivision_ranks = Suborders
| subdivision =
[[Megachiroptera]]<br/>
[[Microchiroptera]]<br/>
See text for families.
}}
'''Bats''' are [[mammal]]s in the [[scientific classification|order]] '''Chiroptera'''. Their most distingushing feature is that their forelimbs are developed as [[wing]]s, making them the only mammal capable of flight. (Other mammals, such as [[flying squirrel]]s or gliding [[phalanger]]s, can [[gliding|glide]] for limited distances but are not capable of true [[flight]]). The word ''Chiroptera'' can be translated from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words for "hand wing," as the structure of the open wing is very similar to an outspread human hand, with a [[membrane]] ([[patagium]]) between the fingers that also stretches between hand and body.
There are estimated to be about 1,100 species of bats worldwide: about 20% of all mammal species.
About 70 percent of bats are [[insectivorous]]. Most of the remainder feed on [[fruit]]s and their juices; three bat species eat [[blood]] and some prey on [[vertebrate]]s. These bats include the [[leaf-nosed bat]]s ([[Leaf-nosed bat|Phyllostomidae]]) of [[central America]] and [[South America]], and the related [[bulldog bat]]s ([[Noctilionidae]]) that feed on [[fish]]. The [[ghost bat]] (''Macroderma gigas'') of [[Australia]] is one example of a carnivorous bat that predates on other bats.
Some of the smaller bat species are important [[pollinator]]s of some tropical [[flower]]s. Indeed, many tropical plants are now found to be totally dependent on them, not just as pollinators, but eating the resulting fruits and so spreading their [[seed]]s. This role explains environmental concerns when a bat is [[introduced species|introduced]] in a new setting. [[Tenerife]] provides a recent example with the introduced [[Egyptian bat]].
==Classification==
[[Image:Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Townsends's Big-eared Bat]], ''Corynorhinus townsendii'']]
Though sometimes called "flying rodents", "flying mice," or even [[bugs]], bats are neither [[mouse|mice]] nor [[rodent]]s.
There are two suborders of bats:
#[[Megabat|Megachiroptera]] (megabats)
#[[Microbat|Microchiroptera]] (microbats/echolocating bats)
Despite the name, not all megabats are larger than microbats. The major distinction between the two suborders is based on other factors:
*Microbats use [[echolocation]], whereas megabats do not (except for ''[[Rousettus]]'' and relatives, which do).
*Microbats lack the [[claw]] at the second [[toe]] of the [[forelimb]].
*The [[ear]]s of microbats don't form a closed ring, but the edges are separated from each other at the base of the ear.
*Microbats lack [[underfur]]; they have only guard hairs or are naked.
Megabats eat fruit, nectar or pollen while microbats eat [[insects]], [[blood]] (small quantities of blood of animals), small mammals, and [[fish]], relying on [[animal echolocation|echolocation]] for navigation and finding prey.
Genetic evidence, however, indicates that some microbats ("Yinochiroptera") are more closely related to megabats than to the other microbats ("Yangochiroptera"). There is some morphological evidence that Megachiroptera evolved flight separately from Microchiroptera; if so, the Microchiroptera would have uncertain affinities. When adaptations to flight are discounted in a [[cladistic]] analysis, the Megachiroptera are allied to the primates by anatomical features that are not shared with Microchiroptera.
Little is known about the evolution of bats, since their small, delicate skeletons do not fossilize well. However a late Cretaceous tooth from South America resembles that of an early Microchiropteran bat. The oldest known definite bat fossils, such as ''Icaronycteris'', ''Archaeonycteris'', ''Palaeochiropteryx'' and ''Hassianycteris'', are from the early [[Eocene]] (about 50 million years ago), but they were already very similar to modern microbats. ''Archaeopteropus'', formerly classified as the earliest known megachiropteran, is now classified as a microchiropteran.
Bats are traditionally grouped with the tree shrews ([[Scandentia]]), colugos ([[Dermoptera]]), and the [[primate]]s in superorder [[Archonta]] because of the similarities between Megachiroptera and these mammals. However, molecular studies have placed them as sister group to [[Fereuungulata]], a large grouping including [[Carnivora|carnivorans]], [[Pholidota|pangolins]], [[Perissodactyla|odd-toed ungulates]], [[Artiodactyla|even-toed ungulates]], and [[Cetacea|whales]].
*'''ORDER CHIROPTERA''' (Ky-rop`ter-a)(Gr. ''cheir'', hand, + ''pteron'', wing)
**'''Suborder [[Megachiroptera]] ([[megabat]]s)''' [[Image:Golden crowned fruit bat.jpg|thumb|[[Giant golden-crowned flying fox]], ''Acerodon jubatus'']]
*** [[Pteropodidae]]
**'''Suborder [[Microchiroptera]] ([[microbat]]s)'''
*** Superfamily ''[[Emballonuroidea]]''
**** [[Emballonuridae]] ([[Sac-winged bat|Sac-winged]] or [[Sheath-tailed bat]]s)
*** Superfamily ''[[Rhinopomatoidea]]''
**** [[Rhinopomatidae]] ([[Mouse-tailed bat]]s)
**** [[Craseonycteridae]] ([[Bumblebee Bat]] or [[Kitti's Hog-nosed Bat]])
*** Superfamily ''Rhinolophoidea''
**** [[Rhinolophidae]] ([[Horseshoe bat]]s)
**** [[Nycteridae]] ([[Hollow-faced bat|Hollow-faced]] or [[Slit-faced bat]]s)
**** [[Megadermatidae]] ([[False vampire]]s)
*** Superfamily ''[[Vespertilionoidea]]''
**** [[Vespertilionidae]] ([[Vesper bat]]s or [[Evening bat]]s) [[Image:Vespertilio murinus.jpg|thumb|[[Parti-coloured bat]], ''Vespertilio murinus'']] [[Image:Pipistrellus pipistrellus01.jpg|thumb|[[Common Pipistrelle]], ''Pipistrellus pipistrellus'']]
*** Superfamily ''[[Molossoidea]]''
**** [[Molossidae]] ([[Free-tailed bat]]s)
**** [[Antrozoidae]] ([[Pallid bat]]s)
*** Superfamily ''[[Nataloidea]]''
**** [[Natalidae]] ([[Funnel-eared bat]]s)
**** [[Myzopodidae]] ([[Sucker-footed bat]]s)
**** [[Thyropteridae]] ([[Disk-winged bat]]s)
**** [[Furipteridae]] ([[Smoky bat]]s)
*** Superfamily ''[[Noctilionoidea]]''
**** [[Noctilionidae]] ([[Bulldog bat]]s or [[Fisherman bat]]s)
**** [[Mystacinidae]] ([[New Zealand short-tailed bat]]s)
**** [[Mormoopidae]] ([[Ghost-faced bat|Ghost-faced]] or [[Moustached bat]]s)
**** [[Phyllostomidae]] ([[Leaf-nosed bat]]s) ''This family contains (among others) the [[Vampire bat|Vampire bats]]''
Most microbats are active at night or at twilight. But although the eyes of most species of microbats are small and poorly developed, the sense of vision is still functi |
th different results. Following several naval battles, Rome was aiming for a quick end to the war and decided to invade the Carthaginian colonies of Africa, to force the enemy to accept terms. A major fleet was built, both of transports for the army and its equipment and warships for protection. Carthage tried to intervene but was defeated in the [[battle of Cape Ecnomus]]. As a result, the Roman army, commanded by [[Marcus Atilius Regulus]], landed in Africa and began ravaging the Carthaginian countryside. At first Regulus was victorious, winning the [[battle of Adys]] and forcing Carthage to sue for peace. The terms were so heavy that negotiations failed and, in response, the Carthaginians hired [[Xanthippus]], a [[Spartan]] [[mercenary]], to reorganize the army. Xanthippus managed to cut off the Roman army from its base by re-establishing Carthiginian naval supremacy, then defeated and captured Regulus at the [[battle of Tunis]].
Towards the end of the conflict ([[249 BC]]), Carthage sent general [[Hamilcar Barca]] ([[Hannibal]]'s father) to Sicily. Hamilcar managed to gain control of most of inland Sicily; in desperation, the Romans appointed a [[Roman dictator|dictator]] to resolve the situation. Nevertheless, Carthaginian success in Sicily was secondary to the progress of the war at sea; Hamilcar remaining undefeated in Sicily became irrelevant following the Roman naval victory at the [[battle of the Aegates Islands]] in [[241 BC]].
==Naval warfare==
Due to the difficulty of operating in Sicily, most of the First Punic War was fought at sea, including the most decisive battles. Moreover, naval warfare permitted an efficient blockade of enemy ports, and consequently of reinforcement and supply for the inland troops. Both sides of the conflict had publicly funded fleets. This fact compromised Carthage and Rome's finances and eventually decided the course of the war.
At the beginning of the First Punic War, Rome had virtually no experience in [[naval warfare]], whereas Carthage had a great deal of experience on the seas thanks to its centuries of sea-based trade. Nevertheless, the growing Roman Republic soon understood the importance of Mediterranean control in the outcome of the conflict.
The first major Roman fleet was constructed after the victory of Agrigentum in [[261 BC]]. Some historians have speculated that since Rome lacked advanced naval technology the design of the warships was probably copied verbatim from captured Carthaginian [[trireme]]s and [[quinquereme]]s or from ships that have beached on Roman shores due to storms. Other historians have pointed out that Rome did have experience with naval technology, as she patrolled her coasts against [[piracy]]. Regardless of the state of their naval technology at the start of the war, Rome quickly adapted.
Perhaps in order to compensate for the lack of experience, and to make use of standard land military tactics on sea, the Romans equipped their new ships with a special boarding device, the ''[[corvus (weapon)|corvus]]''. Instead of manuevering to ram, which was the stardard naval tactic at the time, corvus equipped ships would maneuver alongside the enemy vessel, deploy the bridge which would attach to the enemy ship through spikes on the end of the bridge, and send [[legionnaires]] across as boarding parties.
The new weapon's efficiency was first proved in the [[battle of Mylae]], the first Roman naval victory, and continued to prove its value in the following years, especially in the huge [[Battle of Ecnomus]]. The addition of the ''corvus'' forced Carthage to review its military tactics, and since the city had difficulty in doing so, Rome had the naval advantage. Later, as Roman experience in naval warfare grew, the ''corvus'' device was abandoned due to its impact on the navigability of the war vessels.
Despite the Roman victories in sea, the Roman Republic lost most ships and crews during the war, largely due to storms. On at least two occasions ([[255 BC|255]] and [[253 BC]]) whole fleets were destroyed in bad weather. The weight of the ''corvus'' on the prows of the ships made the ships unstable and caused them to sink in bad weather. Towards the end of the war Carthage ruled the seas, as Rome was unwilling to finance the construction of yet another expensive fleet. Nevertheless the Carthaginian faction that opposed the conflict, led by the land-owning [[aristocrat]] [[Hanno the Great]], gained power and in [[244 BC|244]] started the demobilization of the fleet, giving the Romans a chance to attain again naval superiority. Rome did build another fleet paid for with donations from wealthy citizens and the First Punic War was decided in the naval battle of the [[Aegadian Islands|Aegates Islands]] ([[March 10]] [[241 BC]]), where the new Roman fleet under consul [[Gaius Lutatius Catulus]] scored a victory. Carthage lost most of its fleet and was economically incapable of funding another, or to find manpower for the crews. With no fleet, Hamilcar Barca was cut from Carthage and forced to surrender.
==Aftermath==
Rome won the First Punic War after 23 years of conflict and in the end replaced Carthage as the dominant naval power of the Mediterranean. In the aftermath of the war, both states were financially and demographically exhausted. To determine the final borders of their territories, they drew what they considered a straight line across the Mediterranean. [[Hispania]], Corsica, Sardinia and Africa remained Carthaginian. All that was north of that line was signed over to Rome. Rome's victory was greatly influenced by its persistent refusal to admit defeat and by accepting only total victory. Moreover, the Roman Republic's ability to attract private investments in the war effort, by playing on their citizens' patriotism to fund ships and crews, was one of the deciding factors of the war, particularly when contrasted with the Carthaginian nobility's apparent unwillingness to risk their fortunes for the common good. The end of the First Punic War also resulted in the official birth of the Roman navy, which greatly assisted the expansion of the Roman state.
===Casualties===
The exact number of casualties on each side is always difficult to determine, due to bias in the historical sources, normally directed to enhance Rome's value. (History is often written by the victors.)
According to sources (excluding land warfare casualties):
*Rome lost 700 ships (mainly to bad weather and incompetent leaders) and at least part of their crews.
*Carthage lost 500 ships and at least part of their crews.
*Each ship's crew was of about 100 men.
Although uncertain, the casualties were heavy for both sides. [[Polybius]] commented that the war was, at the time, the most destructive in terms of casualties in the history of warfare, including the battles of [[Alexander the Great]]. Analyzing the data from the Roman ''[[census]]'' of the 3rd century BC, [[Adrian Goldsworthy]] noted that during the conflict Rome lost about 50,000 citizens. This excludes auxiliary troops and every other man in the army without citizen status, who would be outside the head count.
===Peace terms===
The peace terms designed by the Romans were particularly heavy for Carthage, which was in no position to negotiate. The Romans demanded that:
*Carthage evacuate Sicily
*Carthage return their prisoners of war without ransom, while paying heavy ransom on their own
*Carthage refrain from attacking Syracuse and her allies
*Carthage transfer a group of small islands north of Sicily to Rome
*Carthage evacuate all of the small islands between Sicily and Africa
*Carthage pay a 2200 [[Talent (weight)|talent]] indemnity in ten annual instalments, plus an additional indemnity of 1000 talents immediately
Further clauses determined that the allies of each side would not be attacked by the other, no attacks were to be made by either side upon the other's allies and both sides were prohibited from raising troops within the territory of the other. This prevented the Carthaginians access to any Roman mercenary manpower.
===Political results===
In the aftermath of the war, Carthage had virtually no funds. When Hanno the Great refused to pay the disbanded military armies, an internal conflict, the [[Mercenary War]], broke out. After a hard struggle the combined efforts of Hamilcar Barca and Hanno the Great were finally able to defeat the mercenaries. However, during this conflict, Rome took the opportunity to strip Carthage of [[Corsica]] and [[Sardinia]] as well.
Perhaps the most immediate political result of the First Punic War was the downfall of Carthage as a major naval power. Conditions signed in the peace treaty compromised Carthage's economic situation and prevented the city's recovery. The indemnity demanded by the Romans caused additional strain on the city's finances and forced Carthage to look to other areas of influence for the money to pay Rome. An interesting comparison can be drawn with the politics of [[Germany]] following the defeat in [[World War I]] and the [[Treaty of Versailles]], which then led into [[World War II]].
As for Rome, the end of the First Punic War marked the start of the expansion beyond the Italian Peninsula. Sicily became the first [[Roman province]] ([[Sicilia (Roman province)|Sicilia]]) governed by a former [[praetor]], instead of an ally. Sicily would become very important to Rome as [[Grain supply to the city of Rome|a source of grain]].
==Notable leaders==
*[[Ad Herbal]], Carthaginian admiral
*[[Appius Claudius Caudex]], Roman consul
*[[Aulus Atilius Caiatinus]], Roman dictator
*[[Gaius Duilius]], Roman consul
*[[Gaius Lutatius Catulus]], Roman consul
*[[Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina]], Roman consul
*[[Hamilcar Barca]], Carthaginian general
*[[Hannibal Gisco]], Carthaginian general
*[[Hanno the Great]], Carthaginian politician.
*[[Hasdrubal]], Carthaginian general
*[[Hiero II of Syracuse|Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse]]
*[[Caecilius Metellus|Luciu |
with the CSM prior to returning to Earth. The plan had the advantage that since the LM was to be eventually discarded, it could be made very light, so the moon mission could be launched with a single Saturn V rocket. However, at the time that LOR was decided, some mission planners were uneasy at the large numbers of dockings and undockings called for by the plan.
To learn lunar landing techniques, astronauts practiced in the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle ([[LLRV]]), a flying vehicle that simulated (by means of a special, additional jet engine) the reduced gravity that the Lunar Module would actually fly in.
==Flights==
The Apollo program included eleven manned flights, designated ''[[Apollo 7]]'' through ''[[Apollo 17]]'', all launched from the [[Kennedy Space Center]], [[Florida]]. ''[[Apollo 4]]'' through ''[[Apollo 6]]'' were unmanned test flights (officially there was no ''Apollo 2'' or ''Apollo 3''). The ''[[Apollo 1]]'' designation was retroactively applied to the originally planned first manned flight which ended in a disastrous fire during a launch pad test that killed three astronauts, [[Virgil Grissom|Virgil "Gus" Grissom]], [[Edward Higgins White|Edward White]], and [[Roger Bruce Chaffee|Roger B. Chaffee]], in January 1967. The first of the manned flights employed the [[Saturn IB]] launch vehicle; the remaining flights all used the more powerful [[Saturn V]]. Two of the flights (''[[Apollo 7]]'' and ''[[Apollo 9]]'') were Earth orbital missions, two of the flights (''[[Apollo 8]]'' and ''[[Apollo 10]]'') were lunar orbital missions, and the remaining 7 flights were lunar landing missions (although one, ''[[Apollo 13]]'', failed to land).
''[[Apollo 7]]'' tested the Apollo command and service modules (CSM) in Earth orbit. ''[[Apollo 8]]'' tested the CSM in lunar orbit. ''[[Apollo 9]]'' tested the [[lunar module]] (LM) in earth orbit. ''[[Apollo 10]]'' tested the LM in lunar orbit. ''[[Apollo 11]]'' achieved the first human lunar landing. ''[[Apollo 12]]'' achieved the first lunar landing at a precise location. ''[[Apollo 13]]'' failed to achieve a lunar landing, but succeeded in returning the crew safely to earth following a potentially disastrous in-flight explosion. ''[[Apollo 14]]'' resumed the lunar exploration program. ''[[Apollo 15]]'' introduced a new level of lunar exploration capability, with a long-stay-time LM and a lunar roving vehicle. ''[[Apollo 16]]'' was the first manned landing in the lunar highlands. ''[[Apollo 17]]'', the final mission, was the first to include a scientist-astronaut, and the program's first manned night launch.
==Apollo Applications Program==
In the speech which initiated Apollo, Kennedy declared that no other program would have as great a long-range effect on America's ambitions in [[outer space]]. Following the success of Project Apollo, both NASA and its major contractors investigated several post-lunar applications for the Apollo hardware. The "Apollo Extension Series", later called the "[[Apollo Applications Program]]", proposed at least ten flights. Many of these would use the space that the [[lunar module]] took up in the Saturn rocket to carry scientific equipment.
One plan involved using the [[Saturn IB]] to take the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] (CSM) to a variety of low-earth orbits for missions lasting up to 45 days. Some missions would involve the docking of two CSMs, and transfer of supplies. The [[Saturn V]] would be necessary to take it to [[polar orbit]], or [[sun-synchronous orbit]] (neither of which has yet been achieved by any manned spacecraft), and even to the [[geosynchronous]] orbit of [[Syncom 3]], a communications satellite not quite in [[geostationary]] orbit. This was the first functioning [[communications satellite]] at that now-common great distance from the Earth, and it was small enough to be carried through the hatch and taken back to Earth for study as to the effects of radiation on its electronic components in that environment over a period of years. A return to the moon was also planned, this time to orbit for a longer time to map the surface with high-precision equipment. This mission would not include a landing.
Of all the plans only two were implemented; the [[Skylab]] space station (May 1973 – February 1974), and the [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] (July 1975). [[Skylab]]'s fuselage was constructed from the second stage of a [[Saturn IB]], and the station was equipped with the [[Apollo Telescope Mount]], itself based on a [[lunar module]]. The station's three crews were ferried into orbit atop [[Saturn IB]]s, riding in CSMs; the station itself had been launched with a modified [[Saturn V]]. Skylab's last crew departed the station on [[February 8]], [[1974]], whilst the station itself returned prematurely to Earth in 1979, by which time it had become the oldest operational Apollo component.
The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project involved a docking in Earth orbit between an un-named CSM and a Soviet [[Soyuz spacecraft]]. The mission lasted from [[July 15]] to [[July 24]], [[1975]]. Although the Soviet Union continued to operate the Soyuz and [[Salyut]] space vehicles, NASA's next manned mission would not be until [[STS-1]] on [[April 12]], [[1981]].
==End of the program==
[[Image:ApolloCmd.JPG|thumbnail|left|Unflown command module CM-007 in a museum]]
Originally three additional lunar landing missions had been planned, as ''Apollo 18'' through ''Apollo 20''. In light of the drastically shrinking [[NASA]] budget and the decision not to produce a second batch of Saturn Vs, these missions were cancelled to make funds available for the development of the [[Space Shuttle]], and to make their Apollo spacecraft and Saturn V launch vehicles available to the [[Skylab]] program. Only one of the Saturn Vs was actually used; the others became museum exhibits.
Another excerpt from Kennedy's Special Message to Congress:
:"I believe we should go to the moon. But I think every citizen of this country as well as the Members of the Congress should consider the matter carefully in making their judgment, to which we have given attention over many weeks and months, because it is a heavy burden, and there is no sense in agreeing or desiring that the United States take an affirmative position in outer space, unless we are prepared to do the work and bear the burdens to make it successful. If we are not, we should decide today and this year.
[[Image:LunarLander.JPG|thumbnail|left|Lunar lander LM2 at the [[National_Air_And_Space_Museum|National Air and Space Museum]] ]]
:"This decision demands a major national commitment of scientific and technical manpower, material and facilities, and the possibility of their diversion from other important activities where they are already thinly spread. It means a degree of dedication, organization and discipline which have not always characterized our research and development efforts. It means we cannot afford undue work stoppages, inflated costs of material or talent, wasteful interagency rivalries, or a high turnover of key personnel.
:"New objectives and new money cannot solve these problems. They could in fact, aggravate them further--unless every scientist, every engineer, every serviceman, every technician, contractor, and civil servant gives his personal pledge that this nation will move forward, with the full speed of freedom, in the exciting adventure of space." (Excerpt from "Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs")
==Reasons for Apollo==
The Apollo program was at least partly motivated by psycho-political considerations, in response to persistent perceptions of American inferiority in space technology vis-a-vis the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]], in the context of the [[Cold War]] and the [[Space Race]]. In this respect it succeeded brilliantly. In fact, American superiority in manned spaceflight was achieved in the precursory [[Gemini program]], even before the first Apollo flight.
The Apollo program stimulated many areas of technology. The [[Apollo Guidance Computer|flight computer]] design used in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the [[LGM-30 Minuteman|Minuteman Missile System]], the driving force behind early research into [[integrated circuit]]s. The [[fuel cell]] developed for this program was the first practical fuel cell. Computer controlled machining ([[CNC]]) was pioneered in fabricating Apollo structural components.
Many [[astronaut]]s and [[astronaut|cosmonaut]]s have commented on the profound effects that seeing earth from space has had on them. One of the most important legacies of the Apollo program was the now-common, but not universal view of Earth as a fragile, small planet, captured in the photographs taken by the astronauts during the lunar missions. The most famous of these photographs, taken by the [[Apollo 17]] astronauts, is "[[The Blue Marble]]." These photographs have also motivated many people toward [[environmentalism]] and [[space colonization]].
== Miscellaneous information ==
*The cost of the entire Apollo program: [[United States dollar|USD]] $25.4 billion -1969 Dollars ($135-billion in 2005 Dollars). See [[NASA Budget]]. (Includes Mercury, Gemini, Ranger, Surveyor, Lunar Orbitar, Apollo programs.) Apollo spacecraft and Saturn rocket cost alone, was about $ 83-billion 2005 Dollars (Apollo spacecraft cost $ 28-billion (CS/M $ 17-billion; LM $ 11-billion), Saturn I, IB, V costs about $ 46-billion 2005 dollars).
*Amount of [[Moon rocks|moon material]] brought back by the Apollo program: 381.7 [[kilogram|kg]] (841.5 lb). Most of the material is stored at the [[Lunar Receiving Laboratory]] in Houston.
==Missions==
[[Image:Moon map showing Apollo missions.PNG|thumb|Location of Apollo missions on the moon]]
The Apollo program used four types of launch vehicles:
*[[Little Joe II]] - unmanned suborbital [[launch escape system]] de |
on than data ([[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow book]] et al.), a properly authored DVD will always contain data in files readable by both the [[Universal Disk Format|UDF]] filesystem and the ISO 9660 filesystem (often called UDF Bridge format).
[[Image:DVD_uitleeskop.JPG|thumb|right|500|DVD pick-up head and drive.]]
The reference data rate of DVD is 11.08 Mbps (million bits per second). The data transfer rate of a DVD drive is often given in multiples of 1352 KB/s, which means that a drive with 16x speed designation allows a data transfer rate of 16 &times; 1352 = 21640 KB/s (21.13 MB/s). As CD drive speeds are given in multiples of 150 KB/s, one DVD "speed" equals nine CD "speeds," so an 8x DVD drive should have a data transfer rate similar to that of a 72x CD drive. In physical rotation terms (spins per second), one DVD "speed" equals three CD "speeds," so an 8x DVD drive has the same rotational speed as 24x CD drive.
Early CD and DVD drives read data at a constant rate. The data on the disc is passed under the read head at a constant rate (Constant Linear Velocity, or CLV). As linear (meters per second) track speed grows at outer parts of the disc proportionally to the radius, the rotational speed of the disc was adjusted according to which portion of the disc was being read. Most current CD and DVD drives have a constant rotation speed (Constant Angular Velocity, or CAV). The maximum data rate specified for the drive/disc is achieved only at the end of the disc's track. (The track starts at the inner circle of the disc and spirals outward.) The average speed of the drive therefore equals only about 50&ndash;70% of the maximum nominal speed. While this seems a disadvantage, such drives have a lower [[seek time]] as they do not have to change the disc's speed of rotation.
== DVD-Video ==
[[IMage:DVD-Video logo-example.png|thumb|right|250px|Example of how producer could show the consumer full compatibility with DVD-Video specification.]]
[[Image:DVD Video (File structure).jpg|250px|thumb|right|Typical DVD-Video file structure.]]
'''DVD-Video''' discs require a DVD-drive with an [[MPEG-2]] decoder (e.g. a DVD-player or a DVD computer drive with a software DVD player). Commercial DVD movies are encoded using a combination of MPEG-2 compressed video and audio of varying formats (often multi-channel formats as described below). Typical data rates for DVD movies range from 3&ndash;10 [[Mbit/s]], and the [[bit rate]] is usually adaptive. The video resolution on NTSC discs is 720 &times; 480 and on PAL discs is 720 &times; 576. A high number of audio tracks and/or lots of extra material on the disc will often result in a lower bit rate (and image quality) for the main feature.
The audio data on a DVD movie can be of the format [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]], [[Digital Theatre System|DTS]], [[MP2 (format)|MP2]], or [[Dolby Digital]] (AC-3). In countries using the [[NTSC]] standard any movie should contain a sound track in (at least) either PCM or Dolby AC-3 formats, and any NTSC player must support these two; all the others are optional. This ensures any standard compatible disc can be played on any standard compatible player. The vast majority of commercial NTSC releases today employ [[AC-3]] audio.
Initially, in countries using the [[PAL]] standard (e.g. most of Europe) the sound of DVD was supposed to be standardized on PCM and MP2, but apparently against the wishes of [[Philips]], under public pressure on [[December 5]], [[1997]], the [[DVD Forum]] accepted the addition of Dolby AC-3 to the optional formats on discs and mandatory formats in players. The vast majority of commercial PAL releases employ AC-3 audio by now.
DVDs can contain more than one channel of audio to go together with the video content. In many cases, sound tracks in more than one language track are present (for example, a dubbed track in the language of the country where the disc is sold in addition to one in the film's original language).
With several channels of audio from the DVD, the cabling needed to carry the signal to an amplifier or TV can occasionally be somewhat frustrating. Most systems include an optional digital connector for this task, which is then paired with a similar input on the amplifier. The selected audio signal is sent over the connection, typically over [[RCA connector]]s or [[TOSLINK]], in its original format to be decoded by the audio equipment. When playing compact discs, the signal is sent in [[S/PDIF]] format instead.
Video is another issue which continues to present problems. Current players typically output [[analog signal|analog]] video only, both [[composite video]] on an RCA jack, as well as [[S-Video]] in the standard connector. However neither of these connectors were intended to be used for [[progressive video]], so yet another set of connectors has started to appear, to carry a form of [[component video]], which keeps the three components of the video, one luminance signal and two color difference signal, as stored on the DVD itself, on fully separate wires (whereas S-Video uses two wires, uniting and degrading the two color signals, and composite only one, uniting and degrading all three signals). The connectors are further confused by using a number of different physical connectors on different player models, RCA or [[BNC connector|BNC]], as well as using [[VGA connector|VGA]] cables in a non-standard way (VGA is normally analog [[RGB color model|RGB]]&mdash;a different, incompatible form of component video). Even worse, there are often two sets of component outputs, one carrying [[interlaced video]], and the other progressive. In Europe (but not most other PAL areas), [[SCART]] connectors are typically used, which can carry composite, Y/C ([[S-Video]]), and/or analog RGB interlaced video signals, as well as analog two-channel sound on a single convenient multiwire cable. The analog RGB component signal offers video quality which is superior to [[S-Video]] and identical to progressive YPbPr component video (ignoring any conversion or noise issues). However, analog RGB and S-Video signals can not be carried simultaneously, due to each using the same pins for different uses, and displays often must be manually configured as to the input signal, since no switching mode exists for S-Video. (A switching mode does exist to indicate whether composite or RGB is being used.) Some DVD players and set-top boxes offer [[YPbPr]] component video signals over the wires in the [[SCART]] connector intended for RGB, though this violates the official specification and manual configuration is again necessary. (Hypothetically, unlike RGB component, YPbPr component signals and S-Video Y/C signals could both be sent over the wire simultaneously, since they share the luminance (Y) component.) [[HDMI]] is a new digital connection similar to [[DVI]]; it carries High Definition, Enhanced Definition and Standard Definition video. Along with video HDMI also supports up to eight-channel digital audio. Some HDMI-equipped DVD players can [[HD Upconverter|upconvert]] the video to higher definition formats such as [[720p]] and, more rarely, [[1080p]].
DVD Video may also include one or more [[subtitle]] tracks in various languages, including those made especially for the [[deaf]] and [[hearing impaired]]. They are stored as [[bitmap]] images with transparent background which are overlaid over the video during playback. The subtitle track is contained within the [[VOB]] file of the DVD. Subtitles are restricted to four colors (including transparency) and thus tend to look cruder than permanent subtitles on film.
DVD Video may contain Chapters for easy navigation (and continuation of a partially watched film). If space permits, it is also possible to include several versions (called "angles") of certain scenes, though today this feature is mostly used&mdash;if at all&mdash;not to show different angles of the action, but as part of internationalization to e.g. show different language versions of images containing written text, if subtitles will not do (for instance, credits). Multiple angles have found a niche in pornography though.
A major selling point of DVD Video is that its storage capacity allows for a wide variety of extra features in addition to the feature film itself. This can include [[audio commentary (DVD)|audio commentary]] that is timed to the film sequence, [[Documentary film|documentary]] features, unused footage, trivia text commentary, simple games and film shorts.
=== Restrictions ===
DVD-Video has four complementary systems designed to restrict the DVD user in various ways: [[Macrovision]], [[Content Scrambling System]] (CSS), [[regional lockout|region codes]], and disabled user operations (UOPs).
==== Content-scrambling system ====
Many DVD-Video titles use [[content-scrambling system]] (CSS) encryption, which is intended to discourage people from bypassing the region control mechanism (see below). Usually, users need to install software provided on the DVD or downloaded from the Internet such as [[WinDVD]], [[PowerDVD]], [[MPlayer]], or [[VLC media player|VLC]] to be able to view the disc in a computer system.
The CSS has caused major problems for the inclusion of DVD players in any [[open source]] operating systems, since open source player implementations are not officially given access to the decryption keys or license the [[patent]]s involved in the CSS. [[Proprietary software]] players were also difficult to find on some platforms. However, a successful effort has been made to write a decoder by [[reverse engineering]], resulting in [[DeCSS]]. This has led to long-running legal battles and the arrest of some of those involved in creating or distributing the DeCSS code, through the use of the controversial U.S. [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]], on the grounds that such software could also be used to |
]) and the ''Three Lions'' [[coat of arms of England|coat of arms]] (see above), both derived from the great Norman powers that formed the monarchy &ndash; the Cross of [[Aquitaine]] and the Lions of [[Anjou]]. The three lions were first definitely used by [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] (''Richard the Lionheart'') in the late 12th century (although it is also possible that [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] may have bestowed it on his son Henry before then). Historian [[Simon Schama]] has argued that the Three Lions are the true symbol of England because the English throne descended down the [[Angevin]] line.
A red cross acted as a symbol for many [[crusade|Crusaders]] in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with [[St George]] and England, along with other countries and cities (such as [[Georgia (country)| Georgia]], [[Milan]] and the [[Republic of Genoa]]), which claimed him as their [[patron saint]] and used his cross as a banner. It remained in national use until 1707, when the [[Union Jack]] (more properly known as the Union Flag, except when used at sea) which English and Scottish ships had used at sea since 1606, was adopted for all purposes to unite the whole of Great Britain under a common flag. The flag of England no longer has much of an official role, but it is widely flown by [[Church of England]] properties and at sporting events. (Paradoxically, the latter is a fairly recent development; until the late 20th century, it was commonplace for fans of English teams to wave the Union Flag, rather than the St George's Cross).
The [[rose]] is widely recognised as the [[national flower]] of England and is used in a variety of contexts. Predominantly, this is a red rose (which also symbolises [[Lancashire]]), such as the badge of the [[England national rugby union team|English Rugby Union team]]. However, a white rose (which also symbolises [[Yorkshire]]) or a "[[Tudor rose]]" (symbolising the end of the [[Wars of the Roses|War of the Roses]]) may also be used on different occasions.
The Three Lions badge performs a similar role for the [[English national football team]] and [[English national cricket team]].
==National anthems==
Although England does not have an official anthem of its own, the following are widely regarded as English national hymns:
*"[[And did those feet in ancient time|Jerusalem]]:" Words by [[William Blake]], Music by [[Hubert Parry]]
*"[[I Vow to Thee, My Country]]": Words by [[Cecil Spring-Rice]], Music by [[Gustav Holst]]
*"[[Land of Hope and Glory]]": Words by [[A C Benson]], Music by [[Edward Elgar]] (although this refers to all of [[Great Britain]], not only England)
*"[[Enigma Variations|Nimrod]]": Music by [[Edward Elgar]]
"[[God Save The Queen]]" (the national anthem for the UK as a whole) is usually played for English sporting events (e.g. football matches), although "Land of Hope and Glory" has also been used as the English anthem for the [[Commonwealth Games]]. "[[Rule Britannia]]" despite being a song about Britain as a whole was often used for the [[English national football team]] when they play against another of the [[home nations]] but more recently
"[[God Save The Queen]]" has been used by both the rugby and football teams. Many believe that English teams should use their own anthems, most popular of which is the use of "Jerusalem".
==References==
*[http://www.statistics.gov.uk Office of National Statistics]
==See also==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|England}}
* {{wikitravel}}
* [[English language]]
* [[English law]]
* [[English people]]
* [[List of monarchs of England]] &ndash; [[Kings of England family tree]]
* [[List of English people]]
* [[Angeln]] (region in northern [[Germany]], presumably the origin of the [[Angles]] for whom England is named)
* [[UK topics]]
* [[List of not fully sovereign nations]]
* [[Education in England]]
==External links==
<!-- hmm, seems to be blue {{wikicommons|England}} -->
* [http://www.enjoyengland.com/ The official website of the English Tourist Board &mdash; Enjoy England]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/ BBC Nations]: articles on England and her neighbours
* [http://www.thecep.org.uk Campaign for an English Parliament]: campaigning for a fair devolution settlement.
{{United Kingdom}}
[[Category:England| ]]
[[Category:Monarchies]]
[[Category:European countries]]
[[als:England]]
[[af:Engeland]]
[[ang:Englaland]]
[[roa-rup:Anglia]]
[[ar:إنجلترا]]
[[be:Англія]]
[[bg:Англия]]
[[zh-min-nan:England]]
[[bs:Engleska]]
[[ca:Anglaterra]]
[[cs:Anglie]]
[[cy:Lloegr]]
[[da:England]]
[[de:England]]
[[et:Inglismaa]]
[[el:Αγγλία]]
[[es:Inglaterra]]
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[[fr:Angleterre]]
[[fy:Ingelân]]
[[ga:Sasana]]
[[gd:Sasainn]]
[[gl:Inglaterra - England]]
[[ko:잉글랜드]]
[[id:Inggris]]
[[is:England]]
[[it:Inghilterra]]
[[he:אנגליה]]
[[ka:ინგლისი]]
[[ku:Îngiltere]]
[[kw:Pow Sows]]
[[la:Anglia]]
[[lt:Anglija]]
[[li:Ingeland]]
[[hu:Anglia]]
[[ms:England]]
[[nl:Engeland]]
[[nds:England]]
[[ja:イングランド]]
[[no:England]]
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[[pl:Anglia]]
[[pt:Inglaterra]]
[[ro:Anglia]]
[[rm:Engalterra]]
[[ru:Англия]]
[[sco:Ingland]]
[[st:Engêlanê]]
[[simple:England]]
[[sk:Anglicko]]
[[sl:Anglija]]
[[sr:Енглеска]]
[[fi:Englanti]]
[[sv:England]]
[[to:'Ingilani]]
[[th:แคว้นอังกฤษ]]
[[vi:Anh]]
[[uk:Англія]]
[[zh:英格兰]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>European Union</title>
<id>9317</id>
<revision>
<id>42007280</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:34:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Regulus marzo4103</username>
<id>911753</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Use en-UK spelling
-->{{Otheruses6|EU}}<!--
The following table used to be a template - past edit history saved at "European Union/table" -->
{| align=right
|-
|
{| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="float: right; width: 300px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|-
|+ style="font-size: larger; margin-left: inherit;" | <big><big>'''European Union'''</big></big><small><sup>{{Fn|1}}</sup></small>
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" |
[[Image:European flag.svg|300px|Flag of the European Union]]
<br />
[[European flag]]
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | <small>[[European symbols#Motto|Motto]]: ''In varietate concordia''<br>([[Latin|Latin]]: ''Unity in diversity)''</small>
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | <small>[[Anthem]]: [[Ode to Joy]] (orchestral)
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" style="background: #ffffff;" | [[Image:LocationEuropeanUnion25.png|300px]]
|-
|'''[[European Parliament|Parliament]]'''
| [[Strasbourg]] (official seat), <br/>[[Brussels]] (executive), <br/>[[Luxembourg City]] (administrative)
|-
|'''Member states'''
| [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Malta]], [[Netherlands]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[United Kingdom]]
|-
|'''Largest City'''
| [[London]]
|-
|'''[[Europe Day]]'''
| [[9 May]], [[1950]]
|-
| '''[[Official language|Official&nbsp;languages]]<small><sup>{{Fn|2}}</sup></small>'''
| [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[English language|English]], [[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Modern Greek|Greek]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Maltese language|Maltese]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Slovene language|Slovene]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]]
|-
|'''[[Working language|Working&nbsp;languages]]<small><sup>{{Fn|2}}</sup></small>'''
| [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]]
|-
| '''Presidencies''' <br> - [[European Council]] <br> - [[Council of the European Union|Council of the EU]] <br> - [[European Commission|Commission]] <br> - [[European Parliament|EU Parliament]]
| <br> [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] <br> [[Austria]] <br> [[José Manuel Durão Barroso]] <br> [[Josep Borrell Fontelles]]
|-
| '''Formation'''<br>As [[EEC]]<br>&nbsp;- Signed<br>&nbsp;- Enforced
As EU<br>&nbsp;- [[Signed]]<br>&nbsp;- [[Enforced]]
|<br>[[Treaty of Rome]]<br>&nbsp;- [[25 March]], [[1957]]<br>&nbsp;- [[1 January]], [[1958]]
[[Maastricht Treaty]]<br>&nbsp;- [[7 February]], [[1992]]<br>&nbsp;- [[1 November]], [[1993]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 7th]]<small><sup>{{Fn|3}}</sup></small><br>[[1 E12 m²|3,976,372 km²]]
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total&nbsp;(2005)<br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 3rd]]<small><sup>{{Fn|3}}</sup></small><br>459,500,000<br>115.6 people/km²
|-
| '''[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]''' (2005)<br>&nbsp;- Total ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]])<br>&nbsp;- Per capita ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]])
| [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|Ranked 1st]]<small><sup>{{Fn|3}}</sup></small><br>$12,329,110 million<br>$26,900
|-
| '''[[Currency|Curren |
by [[Milton Erickson]] in 1957: "Promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with broad applications."
* Australian Society of Hypnosis "The society of medical and associated professionals" http://www.ozhypnosis.com.au
* [http://www.bathh.co.uk British Association of Therapeutical Hypnotists]
* [http://www.hypnosishalloffame.com/copho.htm Council of Professional Hypnosis Organizations] (International)
* [http://www.general-hypnotherapy-register.com General Hypnotherapy Register] Largest (UK) umbrella body
* [http://www.ghsc.co.uk General Hypnotherapy Standards Council] (UK) Overseeing the GHR.
* [http://www.natboard.com National Board for Certified Clinical Hypnotherapists] (USA)
* [http://www.ngh.net National Guild of Hypnotists] (USA)
* [http://www.hypnosiscanada.com Professional Board of Hypnotherapy] (Canada)
* [http://www.sceh.us Society of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis] (USA)
* Institute of Clinical Hypnosis and Counseling. (India)http://www.hypnotradition.com
===Governmental authorities===
* [http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/statute.html California statute] (Enter Chapter "820", Year "2002")
* [http://www.leg.state.fl.us/Statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&URL=Ch0485/titl0485.htm Florida statute]
* [http://www.in.gov/pla/bandc/ihc/index.html Indiana Hypnotist Committee]
===Historical sites===
*[http://www.angelfire.com/pr/hypno The Hypnosis Museum of Historical Equipment & Methodology]
==Popular culture==
The notion of hypnotism has elicited many presentations in popular culture. Intrinsically, the notion that people are susceptible to commands outside their conscious control can be an effective way of representing the notion of the fallible narrator.
===Fictional treatments===
The typical uses of hypnotism in fiction concentrate on one of the major abilities of hypnotism. As mentioned in the introduction, hypnotism can be used to:
* Recollect knowledge
* Take command of a subject
* Implant suggestions that the subject will obey while free of the hypnotic trance.
The recollection of knowledge has inspired use in detective fiction, as a tool for witnesses to examine details (such as license plate numbers) that could not be recalled while fully conscious. This appears in many television series, such as [[Law &amp; Order]] or [[Homicide: Life on the Street]]. In addition, it has been expanded to the notion of remembering "past lives", that is, previous [[reincarnation|reincarnations]] of the subject, in such movies as "DEAD AGAIN."
In real-life cases, recollection of knowledge via hypnosis has been used in many cases, but its effectiveness is disputed. Proponents claim that recovered memories have aided in the solving of many crimes, often corroborating with physical evidence which would have been impossible to obtain otherwise. Skeptics suggest that such successes are a function of simple chance, pointing to cases where its use on victims of rape or attempted murder to help them jog their memory in identifying an accused has caused sentences to be doled out to the wrong person. This is because the hypnotist might make suggestions that are more likely to be remembered as "truth". Most experts recommend that the practice be used at most like a [[lie detector]], to glean more information, and never as the smoking gun.
The notion of implanting suggestions is probably the most thoroughly explored; ranging from comedies such as ''[[The Naked Gun]]'' trilogy to dramas such as [[The Manchurian Candidate]]. These films usually center around the concept of [[brainwashing]] or [[mind control]]. Several cases have been recorded where the defense argued the accused had committed the murder under hypnosis, though there is little real evidence that such control is possible.
==See also==
* [[Chicken hypnotism]]
* [[Highway hypnosis]]
* [[Hypnotherapy]]
* [[Hypnagogia]]
* [[Hypnofetishism]]
* [[Hypnosis (novel)]]
* [[Lucid dreaming]]
* [[Neuro-linguistic programming]]
* [[Sedative]] (also known as sedative-hypnotic drug)
* [[Post hypnotic suggestion]]
* [[Trout tickling]]
==References==
===Footnotes===
# {{note|APA}}&mdash; Executive Committee of the American Psychological Association Division of Psychological Hypnosis [1993, Fall]. ''Psychological Hypnosis: A Bulletin of Division 30'', 2, p. 7; citation culled from [http://www.hypnosis-research.org/hypnosis/serious.html hypnosis-research.org].
# {{note|elman}}&mdash; Dave Elman, ''Hypnotherapy'', Westwood Publishing Company, 1984 ISBN 0930298047 (page 26).
# {{note|Charcot}}&mdash; Charcot, J. M.: ''Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System''. London, New Sydenham Society, 1889.
# {{note|Pavlov}}&mdash; Pavlov, I. P.: ''Experimental Psychology''. New York, Philosophical Library, 1957.
# {{note|Ditborn}}&mdash; Dittborn, J.M., and O'Connell, D.N.: ''Behavioral sleep, physiological sleep and hypnotizability''. The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 15: 181, 1967)
# {{note|Weitzenhoffer}} Weitzenhoffer, A.M.: ''Hypnotism - An Objective Study in Suggestability''. New York, Wiley, 1953.
# {{note|Hilgard}} Hilgard, E.R., and Hilgard, J.R.: ''Hypnosis in the Relief of Pain''. Los Altos, CA, William Kaufman, 1975.
# {{note|barber}} Barber, T.X.: ''The concept of hypnosis''. The American Journal of Psychology, 45: 115, 1958.
===Books===
*Hypnosis for the Seriously Curious, by Kenneth Bowers. NY: W. W. Norton (1993).
*Hypnosis and Suggestion in the Treatment of Pain: A Clinical Guide, by Joseph Barber. NY: Norton (1996).
* Mind control, Research by G. Wagstaff, Dept. of Psychology, University of Liverpool
* Hypnosis, Compliance and Belief by G. Wagstaff, (1981).
* The Highly Hypnotizable Person, Michael Heap, Richard J. Brown &amp; David A. Oakley, (2004), Routledge
* Better and Better Every Day, [[Emile Coue]], (1960).
* Uncommon Therapy, [[Jay Haley]] (about the psychotherapeutic intervention techniques of [[Milton Erickson]])
* Molly Moon's Incredible Book of Hypnotism, [[Georgia Byng]]
* Open to suggestion. The uses and abuses of hypnosis. [[Robert Temple]], 1989, ISBN 1-85030-710-4
* Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis [[William S. Kroger, M.D.]], 1977, ISBN 0-397-50377-6
* Hypnosis With Friends and Lovers [[Freda Morris]], 1979, ISBN 0062506005
* EBooks: [http://www.pradeepaggarwal.com/cvisual.HTM The Power of Creative Visualization], [http://www.pradeepaggarwal.com/7weeks.html Personal Transformation in 7 Weeks] by [http://www.pradeepaggarwal.com Pradeep Aggarwal].
===External links===
* [http://www.sceh.us/ Society of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis]
* [http://ijceh.educ.wsu.edu/ International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis]
* [http://www.ovid.com/site/catalog/Journal/1669.jsp?top=2&mid=3&bottom=7&subsection=12 Contemporary Hypnosis]
* [http://www.asch.net/ American Society of Clinical Hypnosis]
* [http://www.asch.net/ajch.htm American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis]
* [http://www.hypnosis.edu/articles/hypnosis-works.asp Hypnosis Works, an article from Discover magazine]
* [http://www.futurepundit.com/archives/002344.html Hypnosis Studied With fMRI and PET brain scans] (digest of several scientific articles)
* [http://skepdic.com/hypnosis.html Hypnosis, from the Skeptic's dictionary], [[Scientific skepticism|skeptical]] review of the veracity of hypnosis.
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/hypnosis.htm Hypnosis, from Howstuffworks.com]
* [http://www.mindmedia.com/links/tranforming_your_consciousness.html Transforming Your Consciousness from the Mind Media Guide]
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</page>
<page>
<title>How to test three-phase electrical supply</title>
<id>14419</id>
<revision>
<id>15911977</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-18T22:39:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Plugwash</username>
<id>90028</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Three-phase testing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry Chadwick</title>
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<timestamp>2005-12-21T19:31:43Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Henry_Chadwick_Baseball.jpg|right]]
'''Henry Chadwick''' ([[October 5]], [[1824]], [[Exeter, England]] &ndash; [[April 20]], [[1908]], [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]], [[New York]]) was a [[sportswriter]], [[baseball statistics|baseball statistician]] and [[history|historian]].
Born in [[England]], and raised on [[cricket (sport)|cricket]], Chadwick was one of the prime movers in the rise of [[baseball]] to its unprecedented popularity at the turn of the 20th century. A keen amateur [[statistics|statistician]] and professional writer, he helped sculpt the public perception of the game, as well as providing the basis for the records of team's and player's achievements in the form of baseball statistics.
{{MLB HoF}}
Chadwick edited ''The Beadle Baseball Player'', the first baseball guide on public sale, as well as the Spalding and Reach annual guides for a number of years and in this capacity promoted the game and influenced the then-infant discipline of [[sports journalism]]. He also served on baseball rules committees and influenced the game itself.
In [[1867]] he accompanied the [[National Base Ball Club]] of [[Washington D.C.]] on their inaugural national tour, as their official scorer, and in [ |
conduct were religious in origin or reference.
[[Sir Henry Maine|Maine]] (1861) studied the ancient codes and failed to find any criminal law in the modern sense of the word. While modern systems distinguish between offences against the "State" or "Community", and offences against the "Individual", what was termed the penal law of ancient communities was not the law of "Crimes" (''crimina''); it was the law of "Wrongs" (''delicta''). Thus, the Hellenic laws (see Gagarin: 1986; and Garner: 1987) treated all forms of [[theft]], [[assault]], [[rape]], and [[murder]] as private wrongs, and action for enforcement was up to the victim or their survivors (which was a challenge in that although there was law, there were no formalised courts in the earliest system). It was the Romans who systematised law and exported it to their Empire. Again, the initial rules of [[Roman law|Roman Law]] were that assaults were a matter of private compensation. The significant Roman Law concept was of ''dominion'' (see Daube: 1969). The ''[[pater familias]]'' was in possession of all the family and its property (including slaves). Hence, interference with any property was enforced by the ''pater''. The Commentaries of Gaius on the [[Twelve tables|Twelve Tables]] treated ''furtum'' (modern theft) as if it was a [[tort]]. Similarly, assault and violent [[robbery]] were allied with [[trespass]] as to the ''pater's'' property (so, for example, the rape of a female slave, would be the subject of compensation to the ''pater'' as having trespassed on his "property") and breach of such laws created a ''vinculum juris'' (an obligation of law) that could only be discharged by the payment of monetary compensation (modern [[damages]]). Similarly, in the consolidated Teutonic Laws of the Germanic tribes (see Guterman: 1990), there was a complex system of money compensations for what would now be considered the complete range of criminal offences against the person from murder down.
Even though Rome abandoned [[England]] sometime around 400 AD, the Germanic mercenaries who had largely been enforcing the the Roman occupation, stayed on and continued to use a mixture of Roman and Teutonic Law, with much written down by the early Anglo-Saxon Kings (see Attenborough: 1963). But, it was not until a more unified Kingdom emerged following the Norman invasion and the King was attempting to assert power over the land and its peoples, that the modern concept emerged, namely that a crime is not only an offence against the "individual", it is also a wrong against the "state" (see Kern: 1948; Blythe: 1992; and Pennington: 1993.). This is a [[common law]] idea and the earliest conception of a criminal act involved events of such major significance that the "state" had to usurp the usual functions of the civil tribunals and direct a special law or ''privilegium'' against the perpetrator. All the earliest criminal trials were wholly extraordinary and arbitrary without any settled law to apply, whereas the civil delictual law was highly developed and consistent in its operation (except where the King wanted to raise money by selling a new form of [[Writ]]). The development of the idea that it is the "state" dispensing [[justice]] in a court only emerges in parallel with or after the emergence of the concept of sovereignty. In continental Europe, Vinogradoff (1909) reports the persistence of Roman Law, but with a stronger influence from the Church (see Tierney: 1964, 1979). Coupled with the more diffuse political structure based on smaller state units, rather different legal traditions emerged, remaining more strongly rooted in Roman [[jurisprudence]] modified to meet the prevailing political climate.
From the Hellenic system onwards, the policy rationale for requiring the payment of monetary compensation for wrongs committed has been to avoid feuding between [[clan]]s and [[family|families]] (note the concept of ''pater familias'' as a unifying factor in extended kin groups, and the later practice of [[wergild]] in this context). If families' feelings could be mollified by compensation, this would help to keep the peace. It did not always work but, in the earliest times, the "states" were not prepared to provide an independent police force. Thus, criminal law grew out of what is now tort and, in real terms, many acts and omissions that are classified as crimes overlap civil law concepts.
== Natural law theory ==
The consistent theoretical problem has been to justify the state's use of force to coerce compliance with its laws. One of the earliest justifications was the theory of [[natural law]]. This posits that the standards of morality are derived from or constructed by the nature of the world or of human beings. [[Thomas Aquinas]] said: "the rule and measure of human acts is the reason, which is the first principle of human acts" (Aquinas, ST I-II, Q.90, A.I), i.e. since people are by nature rational beings, it is morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. [[William Blackstone]] (1979: 41) describes the thesis:
:"This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original."
But [[John Austin (legal philosophy)|John Austin]], an early [[Legal positivism|positivist]], applied [[utilitarianism]] in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality, but denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality, i.e. a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual is free to choose what he or she will do. Similarly, [[H.L.A. Hart|Hart]] (1961) saw the law as an aspect of sovereignty with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end. Thus, the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law were simply that the law was internally logical and consistent, and that state power was being used with responsibility. Dworkin (2005) rejects Hart's theory and argues that fundamental among political rights is the right of each individual to the equal respect and concern of those who govern him. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of [[deference]] (the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make.
Indeed, the majority of natural law theorists accept that a primary function of the law is to enforce the prevailing morality. The problem with this view is that is that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible in that, if conformity with natural law is a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, be morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice. The solution to this problem is to admit some degree of [[moral relativism]] and to accept that norms may evolve over time and, therefore, the continued enforcement of old laws may be criticised in the light of the current norms. The law may be acceptable but the use of state power to coerce citizens to comply with that law is not morally justified. In more modern conceptions of the theory, crime is characterised as the violation of [[individual rights]]. Since rights are considered as natural, rather than man-made, what constitutes a crime is also natural, in contrast to laws, which are man-made. [[Adam Smith]] illustrates this view, saying that a [[smuggling|smuggler]] would be an excellent citizen, "''...had not the laws of his country made that a crime which nature never meant to be so.''"
Natural law theory therefore distinguishes between "criminality" which is derived from human nature, and "illegality" which is derived from the interests of those in power. The two concepts are sometimes expressed with the phrases ''[[malum in se]]'' and ''[[malum prohibitum]]''. A crime ''malum in se'' is argued to be inherently criminal; whereas a crime ''malum prohibitum'' is argued to be criminal only because the law has decreed it so. This view leads to a seeming [[paradox]], that an act can be illegal that is no crime, while a criminal act could be perfectly legal. Many [[the Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinkers such as [[Adam Smith]] and the American [[Founding Fathers]] subscribed to this view to some extent, and it remains influential among so-called [[liberalism#classical liberalism|classical liberals]] and [[libertarian]]s.
==Trial==
===The form of the trial===
There are two primary systems for conducting a trial:
*[[Adversarial system|Adversarial]]: In the [[common law]] systems, an adversarial or accusatory approach is used to adjudicate [[guilt]] or [[innocence]]. The assumption is that the truth is more likely to emerge from the open contest between the [[prosecution]] and the defence in presenting the [[evidence (law)|evidence]] and opposing legal arguments with a [[judge]] acting as a neutral referee and as the arbiter of the law. In more serious cases, there is a the [[jury]] to determine the facts. T |
viated '''GATT''') functioned as the precursor to the [[World Trade Organization]] trading system. GATT was created by the Bretton Woods meetings that took place in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in 1944, setting out a plan for economic recovery after World War II, by encouraging reduction in tariffs and other international trade barriers. Twenty-three nations signed the agreement. This first version of GATT is referred to as "GATT 1947". In 1994, GATT was updated with new obligations upon its signatories. One of the most significant changes made in GATT (or "GATT 1994") was the creation of the [[World Trade Organization]] ([[WTO]]). 75 of the GATT members and the [[European Communities]] are the founding members of WTO on 1.1.1995. Other 52 of the GATT members rejoined WTO in the next 2 years (the last is [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]] in 1997). After the WTO founding 21 new (non-GATT) members have joined and 28 are currently negotiating their membership. Of the former GATT members only [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|SFR Yugoslavia]] has not rejoined (and it's already impossible). Since [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|FR Yugoslavia]] (renamed to [[Serbia and Montenegro]] and with membership negotiations later split in two) is not recognised as direct SFRY sucessor state its application is considered a new one, non-GATT.
The GATT, as an international agreement, is very similar to a [[treaty]]. Under [[United States law]] it is classed as a [[congressional-executive agreement]]. It is based on the "''unconditional most favored nation principle''." This means that the conditions applied to the most favored trading nation (i.e. the one with the least restrictions) apply to all trading nations.
=="Rounds" of GATT trade negotiations==
The countries who signed GATT occasionally negotiated new trade agreements that all would enter into. Each such set of agreements was called a "round". In general, each of these agreements bound the members to reduce certain [[tariff]]s, with many special-case treatments of individual products, and in many cases with exceptions and modifications for each country.
# [[Geneva]] Round ([[1948]]): 23 countries. GATT enters into force.
# [[Annecy]] Round ([[1949]]): 13 countries.
# [[Torquay]] Round ([[1951]]): 38 countries.
# Fourth Round - Geneva([[1956]]): 26 countries. Tariff reductions. Strategy set for future GATT policy toward developing countries, improving their positions as treaty participants.
# [[C. Douglas Dillon|Dillon]] Round ([[1962]]): 26 countries. Tariff reductions. Named after [[C. Douglas Dillon]], then U.S. Undersecretary of State.
# [[Kennedy]] Round ([[1967]]): 62 countries. Tariff reductions. This was an across-the-board reduction rather than a product-by-product specification, for the first time. Anti-[[dumping]] agreement (which, in the United States, was rejected by [[Congress of the United States|Congress]]).
# [[Tokyo]] Round ([[1979]]): 102 countries. Reduced non-tariff trade barriers. Also reduced tariffs on manufactured goods. Improvement and extension of GATT system.
# [[Uruguay Round]] ([[1993]]): 125 countries. Created the [[World Trade Organization]] to replace the GATT treaty. Reduced tariffs and [[export subsidy|export subsidies]], reduced other [[import limit]]s and [[quota]]s over the next 20 years, agreement to enforce [[patent]]s, [[trademark]]s, and [[copyright]]s ([[TRIPS]]), extending international trade law to the service sector ([[GATS]]) and open up foreign investment.
==External links==
*[http://www.gatt.org/ Official Website of the GATT / WTO]
*[http://pacific.commerce.ubc.ca/trade/GATT.html Text of GATT with 1966 amendments]
*[http://www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/gattpanels/ All GATT Panel Reports]
*[http://gatt.stanford.edu/page/home GATT Digital Library 1947-1994 at Stanford University]
==See also==
* [[List of international trade topics]]
[[Category:Treaties]]
[[Category:World Trade Organization]]
[[Category:International trade]]
[[bg:Общо споразумение за Тарифите и Търговията (ГАТТ)]]
[[de:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]]
[[fr:Accord général sur les tarifs douaniers et le commerce]]
[[ko:관세 및 무역에 관한 일반협정]]
[[it:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]]
[[mk:Генерален Договор за Трговија и Царини]]
[[nl:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]]
[[ja:関税および貿易に関する一般協定]]
[[pl:GATT]]
[[pt:Acordo Geral de Tarifas e Comércio]]
[[sv:GATT]]
[[vi:Hiệp ước chung về thuế quan và mậu dịch]]
[[tr:GATT]]</text>
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<page>
<title>G-protein-coupled receptor</title>
<id>12832</id>
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<id>41958622</id>
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<comment>rm redundant cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''G-protein-coupled receptors''' (GPCRs), also known as ''seven transmembrane receptors'', ''heptahelical receptors'', or ''7TM receptors''), are a protein family of [[transmembrane receptor]]s that [[Signal transduction|transduce]] an extracellular signal ([[Ligand_%28biochemistry%29|ligand]] binding) into an intracellular signal ([[G protein]] activation). The GPCRs are the largest protein family known, members of which are involved in all types of stimulus-response pathways, from intercellular communication to physiological senses. The diversity of functions is matched by the wide range of ligands recognized by members of the family, from photons (rhodopsin, the archetypal GPCR) to small molecules (in the case of the histamine receptors) to proteins (for example, chemokine receptors). This pervasive involvement in normal biological processes has the consequence of involving GPCRs in many pathological conditions, which has led to GPCRs being the target of 40 to 50% of modern medicinal drugs.{{ref|lotsofdrugs Filmore 2004}}
== Physiological roles ==
GPCRs are present in a wide variety of physiological processes. Some examples include:
# the visual sense: the [[opsin]]s use a photoisomerization reaction to translate electromagnetic radiation into cellular signals. [[Rhodopsin]], for example, uses the conversion of ''11-cis''-retinal to ''all-trans''-retinal for this purpose.
# the sense of smell: receptors of the [[olfactory epithelium]] bind odorants (olfactory receptors) and pheromones (vomeronasal receptors)
# behavioral and mood regulation: receptors in the [[mammal]]ian [[brain]] bind several different [[neurotransmitter]]s, including [[serotonin]] and [[dopamine]]
# regulation of [[immune system]] activity and [[inflammation]]: [[chemokine]] receptors bind ligands that mediate intercellular communication between cells of the immune system; receptors such as [[histamine]] receptors bind [[inflammatory mediators]] and engage target cell types in the [[Inflammation|inflammatory response]]
# autonomic nervous system transmission: both the [[sympathetic]] and [[parasympathetic]] nervous systems are regulated by GPCR pathways. These systems are responsible for control of many automatic functions of the body such as blood pressure, heart rate and digestive processes.
There are two types GPCRs viz chemosensory and endo GPCRs.
== Receptor structure ==
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:OXTR_structure.png|thumb|right|300px|Schematic structure of the human OXTR with amino acid residues shown in one-letter code.<br />[http://physrev.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/81/2/629 ''Physiol Rev. 2001 Apr;81(2): 629-83 Figure. 4'']] -->
GPCRs are [[integral membrane protein]]s that possess seven membrane-spanning domains or [[transmembrane helix|transmembrane helices]]. The extracellular parts of the receptor can be [[Glycosylation|glycosylated]]. These extracellular loops also contain two highly conserved [[cysteine]] residues which build [[disulfide bond]]s to stabilize the receptor structure.
Early structural models for GPCRs were based on their weak analogy to [[bacteriorhodopsin]] for which a structure had been determined by both electron and [[X-ray crystallography|X ray-based crystallography]]. In 2000, the first crystal structure of a mammalian GPCR, that of bovine [[rhodopsin]], was solved. While the main feature, the seven transmembrane helices, is conserved, the structure differs significantly from that of bacteriorhodopsin. Some seven transmembrane helix proteins (such as [[channelrhodopsin]]) that resemble GPCRs may contain different functional groups, such as entire ion channels, within their protein.
== Ligand binding and signal transduction ==
While in other types of receptors that have been studied ligands bind externally to the membrane, the [[ligand]]s of GPCRs typically bind within the transmembrane domain.
The [[signal transduction|transduction of the signal]] through the membrane by the receptor is not completely understood. It is known that the inactive [[G protein]] is bound to the receptor in its inactive state. Once the ligand is recognized, the receptor shifts [[Chemical conformation|conformation]] and thus mechanically activates the G protein, which detaches from the receptor. The receptor can now either activate another G protein, or switch back to its inactive state. This is an overly simplistic explanation, but suffices to convey the overall set of events.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:GPCR_signaling.png|frame|center|650px|The activation of G-protein (blue-orange-green) by GPCR (pink).<br />[http://www.pdb.org/pdb/static.do?p=education_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/pdb58_2.html ''PDB's Molecule of the Month, October 2004'']] -->
It is believed that a receptor molecule exists in a conformational equilibrium between active and inactive states.{{ref|confequil Rubenstein 1998}} The binding of ligands to the receptor may shift the equilibrium (for example see [http://w |
(other than protection from coercion and theft), and no [[government-granted monopoly|government-granted monopolies]] (usually classified as [[coercive monopoly]] by free market advocates) like the [[United States Post Office]], [[Amtrak]], arguably [[patent]]s, etc.
This equilibrating behaviour of free markets makes certain assumptions about their agents, for instance that they act independently. Some models in [[econophysics]] have shown that when agents are allowed to interact locally in a free market (ie. their decisions depend not only on utility and purchasing power, but also on their peers' decisions), prices can become unstable and diverge from the equilibrium, often in an abrupt manner.
The behaviour of the free market is thus said to be non-linear (a pair of agents bargaining for a purchase will agree on a different price than 100 identical pairs of agents doing the identical purchase). Speculation bubbles and the type of [[herd]] behaviour often observed in stock markets are quoted as real life examples of non-equilibrium price trends. Free-market advocates, especially [[Austrian school]] followers, often dismiss this endogenous theory, and blame external influences, such as weather, commodity prices, technological developments, and government meddling on non-equilibrium prices.
The distribution of purchasing power in an economy depends to a large extent on [[social class]], [[labor market|labor]] and [[financial markets]], but also on other, lesser factors such as family relationships, [[inheritance]], [[gift]]s and so on. Many theories describing the operation of a free market focus primarily on the markets for consumer products, and their description of the labor market or financial markets tends to be more complicated and controversial.
The free market can be seen as facilitating a form of decision-making through what is known as [[dollar voting]], where a purchase of a product is tantamount to casting a vote for a producer to continue producing that product.
The effect of economic freedom on society's and individuals' [[wealth]] remains a subject of controversy. [[Kenneth Arrow]] and [[Gerard Debreu]] have shown that under certain idealized conditions, a system of free trade leads to [[Pareto efficiency]].
Many advocates of free makets, most notably [[Milton Friedman]], have also argued that there is a direct relationship between economic growth and economic freedom, though this assertion is much harder to prove both theoretically and empirically.
Joshua Epstein and Robert Axtell have attempted to predict the properties of free markets in an agent-based computer simulation called sugarscape. They came to the conclusion that, again under idealized conditions, free markets lead to a [[Pareto distribution]] of wealth.
==Practice==
While the free-market is an idealized abstraction, it is useful in understanding real markets whether artificially created and regulated by governments or non-governmental agencies, or phenomena such as the [[black market]] and the [[underground economy]], which can be remarkably robust in persisting despite attempts to suppress these markets.
==Practical critique of the free market==
Not all advocates of [[capitalism]] consider free markets to be practical. For example, Martin J. Whitman has written, in a discussion of [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]], [[Milton Friedman|Friedman]] and [[Friedrich Hayek|Hayek]], that these "&hellip;great economists&hellip;missed a lot of details that are part and parcel of every [[value investor]]'s daily life." While calling Hayek "100% right" in his critique of the pure command economy, he writes "However, in no way does it follow, as many Hayek disciples seem to believe, that government is ''per se'' bad and unproductive while the private sector is, ''per se'' good and productive. In well-run industrial economies, there is a marriage between government and the private sector, each benefiting from the other." As illustrations of this, he points at "[[Japan]] after [[World War II]], [[Singapore]] and the other [[Asian Tigers]], [[Sweden]] and [[China]] today&hellip; Government has a necessary role in determining how control persons [management, boards of directors, etc.] are incentivized&hellip; <ref>Martin J. Whitman, Third Avenue Value Fund letter to shareholders October 31, 2005. p.3.</ref>
He argues, in particular, for the value of government-provided credit and of carefully crafted tax laws.<ref>''Ibid.'', p.4.</ref>
Further, Whitman argues (explicitly against Hayek) that "a free market situation is probably also doomed to failure if there exist control persons who are not subject to external disciplines imposed by various forces over and above competition." The lack of these disciplines, says Whitman, lead to "1. Very exorbitant levels of [[executive compensation]]&hellip; 2. Poorly financed businesses with strong prospects for money defaults on credit instruments&hellip; 3. Speculative [[bubble (economics)|bubbles]]&hellip; 4. Tendency for industry competition to evolve into [[monopoly|monopolies]] and [[oligopoly|oligopolies]]&hellip; 5. Corruption." For all of these he provides recent examples from the U.S. economy, which he considers to be in some respects under-regulated.<ref>''Ibid.'', p.4.</ref>
He believes that an apparently "free" relationship&mdash;that between a corporation and its investors and creditors&mdash;is actually a blend of "voluntary exchanges" and "coercion". For example, there are "voluntary activities, where each individual makes his or her own decision whether to buy, sell, or hold" but there are also "[c]oercive activities, where each individual security holder is forced to go along&hellip;provided that a requisite majority of other security holders so vote&hellip;" Examples of the latter include [[proxy voting]], most merger and acquisition transactions, certain cash tender offers, and reorganization or liquidation in [[bankruptcy]].<ref>''Ibid.'', p.5.</ref>
"I am one with Professor Friedman that, other things being equal, it is far preferable to conduct economic activities through voluntary exchange relying on free markets rather than through coercion. But Corporate America would not work at all unless many activities continued to be coercive.<ref>''Ibid.'', p.5-6.</ref>
==The degree of market freedom==
The [[Heritage Foundation]], a [[conservative]] [[think tank]], tried to identify the key factors which allow to measure the degree of freedom of economy of a particular country. In 1986 they introduced [[Index of Economic Freedom]], which is based on some fifty variables. This and other similar indices do not ''define'' a free market, but measure the ''degree'' to which a modern economy is free, meaning in most cases free of state intervention. The variables are divided into the following major groups:
*Trade policy,
*Fiscal burden of government,
*Government intervention in the economy,
*Monetary policy,
*Capital flows and foreign investment,
*Banking and finance,
*Wages and prices,
*Property rights,
*Regulation, and
*Informal market activity.
Each group is assigned a numerical value between 1 and 5; IEF is the arithmetical mean of the values, rounded to the hundredth.
Initially, countries which were traditionally considered capitalistic received high ratings, but the method improved over time. Today one can see a vivid correlation between EOF value and country's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. <!-- [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/downloads/economicFreedomandPerCapita.gif] not found 20 Feb 2006. Does someone have an alternate citation? -->
==Ideology and ethics==
Support for the free market as an ordering principle of society is above all associated with [[liberalism]], especially during the [[19th century]]. In Europe, the term 'liberalism' retains its [[connotation]] as the ideology of the free market, but in American usage it came to be associated with government intervention, and acquired a [[pejorative]] meaning for supporters of the free market. Later ideological developments, such as [[minarchism]] and [[libertarianism]] also support the free market, and insist on its pure form. Although the [[Western world]] shares a generally similar form of economy, usage in the United States is to refer to this as [[capitalism]], while in Europe 'free market' is the preferred neutral term.
[[Marxism]], [[communism]], and [[socialism]] are usually seen as the main ideological opponents of the free market. [[New liberalism|Modern liberalism]] (American usage), and in Europe [[social democracy]], seek only to mitigate what they see as the problems of an unrestrained free market, and accept its existence as such. To most right-wing [[libertarian]]s, there is simply no free market yet, given the degree of state intervention in even the most 'capitalist' of countries. From their perspective, those who say they favor a "free market" are speaking in a relative, rather than an absolute, sense -- meaning (in libertarian terms) they wish that [[coercion]] be kept to the minimum that is necessary to maximize economic freedom (such necessary coercion would be taxation, for example) and to maximize market efficiency by lowering trade barriers, making the tax system neutral in its influence on important decisions such as how to raise capital, e.g., eliminating the [[dividend tax|double tax]] on dividends so that equity financing is not at a disadvantage vis'a'vis debt financing. However, there are some such as [[anarcho-capitalists]] who would not even allow for taxation and governments, instead preferring protectors of economic freedom in the form of private contractors.
The ethical [[justification]] of free markets takes two forms. One appeals to |
erna boys"]
* [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/enrico_fermi.html About Enrico Fermi]
* [http://keynes.scuole.bo.it/ipertesti/fermi/ Life and works of Enrico Fermi] (in Italian)
* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Fermi,+Enrico Annotated bibliography on Enrico Fermi from the Alsos Digital Library]
* [http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/firstpile/index.shtml The Story of the First Pile]
* [http://dspace.library.cornell.edu/handle/1813/62 E-Book Enrico Fermi: The Master Scientist ]
==Patents==
* {{US patent|2206634}} &mdash; ''Process for the Production of Radioactive Substances''
* {{US patent|2524379}} &mdash; ''Neutron Velocity Selector''
* {{US patent|2708656}} &mdash; ''Neutronic reactor''
* {{US patent|2768134}} &mdash; ''Testing Material in a Neutronic Reactor
* {{US patent|2780595}} &mdash; ''Test Exponential Pile
* {{US patent|2798847}} &mdash; ''Method of Operating a Neutronic Reactor''
* {{US patent|2807581}} &mdash; ''Neutronic Reactor''
* {{US patent|2807727}} &mdash; ''Neutronic Reactor Shield''
* {{US patent|2813070}} &mdash; ''Method of Sustaining a Neutronic Chain Reacting System''
* {{US patent|2836554}} &mdash; ''Air Cooled Neutronic Reactor''
* {{US patent|2837477}} &mdash; ''Chain Reacting System''
* {{US patent|2852461}} &mdash; ''Neutronic Reactor''
* {{US patent|2931762}} &mdash; ''Neutronic Reactor''
* {{US patent|2969307}} &mdash; ''Method of Testing Thermal Neutron Fissionable Material for Purity''
[[Category:1901 births|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:1954 deaths|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:American physicists|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:Italian physicists|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:Manhattan Project|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:Natives of Rome|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physics winners|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[ast:Enrico Fermi]]
[[bn:এনরিকো ফের্মি]]
[[bs:Enrico Fermi]]
[[ca:Enrico Fermi]]
[[cs:Enrico Fermi]]
[[da:Enrico Fermi]]
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[[es:Enrico Fermi]]
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[[gl:Enrico Fermi]]
[[he:אנריקו פרמי]]
[[ia:Enrico Fermi]]
[[id:Enrico Fermi]]
[[is:Enrico Fermi]]
[[it:Enrico Fermi]]
[[ja:エンリコ・フェルミ]]
[[ko:엔리코 페르미]]
[[la:Henricus Fermi]]
[[lt:Enrikas Fermis]]
[[ms:Enrico Fermi]]
[[nl:Enrico Fermi]]
[[no:Enrico Fermi]]
[[pl:Enrico Fermi]]
[[pt:Enrico Fermi]]
[[ro:Enrico Fermi]]
[[ru:Ферми, Энрико]]
[[sco:Enrico Fermi]]
[[sk:Enrico Fermi]]
[[sl:Enrico Fermi]]
[[sr:Енрико Ферми]]
[[sv:Enrico Fermi]]
[[tr:Enrico Fermi]]
[[zh:恩里科·费米]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Entente</title>
<id>10267</id>
<revision>
<id>40058484</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T20:57:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TFMcQ</username>
<id>467891</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Entente''', meaning a diplomatic "understanding", may refer to a number of agreements:
* The '''''[[Entente Cordiale]]''''', [[1904]] between [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]].
* The '''[[Anglo-Russian Entente]]''', [[1907]] between the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Russia]].
* The '''[[Triple Entente]]''', [[1907]] between [[France]], [[Russia]] and the [[United Kingdom]].
* The '''[[Little Entente]]''', [[1920]] to [[1938]] between [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Romania]] and [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].
* The '''[[Council of the Entente]]''', [[1959]] between [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Benin]], [[Niger]] and (in 1966) [[Togo]].
* The terms '''The Entente''', '''The Entente Powers''', and '''The Entente Forces''' also refer (informally) to the The '''[[Allies of World War I]]''', that is, powers opposed to the [[Central Powers]] in World War I.
==See also==
*[[Détente]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Entente]] [[fr:Entente Cordiale]] [[pl:Ententa]] [[sv:Ententen]]
[[nl:Entente]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Editor war</title>
<id>10268</id>
<revision>
<id>40489896</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T23:13:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marudubshinki</username>
<id>190816</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Redirect bypass from [[Makefiles]] to [[make]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[geek culture]], '''the editor war''' is an ongoing debate in the [[computer programming]] community about which [[text editor]] is best for their general purposes. The two largest camps are those favoring [[vi]] and those favoring [[Emacs]].
The [[Hacker culture|hacker community]] has a tradition of treating their favored piece of software with a reverence bordering on religious fanaticism, and few pieces of software are more universal than text editors. Many [[flaming|flame war]]s have been fought between groups insisting that their editor of choice is the [[paragon]] of editing perfection, and insulting the others. Most participants in these arguments recognize that it is (mostly) tongue-in-cheek. There are related wars over [[operating system advocacy|operating systems]] and [[programming language]]s, all the way down to such 'trivial' things as source code [[indent style]].
Editor wars are usually fought between the devotees of [[Emacs]] and [[vi]], the two most popular editors on [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] operating systems. Most [[Unix-like|*nix]] users and programmers use one or the other of these editors. Many are familiar with both, at least enough to get around, and so feel they are well-placed to make judgment calls as to which is "better".
Frequently at some point in the discussion, someone will point out that [[ed]] is the ''standard text editor''.
The '''Church of Emacs''' formed by [[Richard Stallman]] is a joke, and while it refers to ''vi vi vi'' (which is 666 in Roman numerals) as the "editor of the beast", it does not oppose the use of vi; rather, it calls [[proprietary software]] an anathema. ("Using a [[free software]] version of vi is not a sin, it is a penance.") It has its own [[newsgroup]], alt.religion.emacs. Stallman has jokingly declared himself to be '''St IGNUcius''', a Saint in the Church of Emacs.[http://www.stallman.org/saint.html]
vi lovers have created an opposing '''Cult of vi''', which some Emacs users call, "Clearly a miserable attempt to ape their betters."
==Perceived benefits of Emacs==
*Emacs has a much larger set of available commands than any of the vi-like editors.
*Emacs is scriptable in a variant of [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] called [[Emacs Lisp]], and has many [[plugin|plug-in]]s such as the [[gnus]] newsreader and various software development tools.
*Emacs ''includes'' vi, in the form of viper-mode. (Note that vi is not [[Vim (text editor)|vim]]. Emacs does not include vim proper.)
*Emacs doesn't require switching between "command" and "input" mode.
*GNU Emacs can perform computations with some calendars, such as [[Maya calendar|Mayan]] or [[Discordian calendar|Discordian]], which are not supported by the vi-like editors.
*Special editing modes for 25 programming languages including [[Java programming language|Java]], [[Perl]], [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]], [[Objective-C|Objective C]], [[Fortran]], [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]], and [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]].
*Special scripting language modes for [[Bash]], other common shells, and creating [[make|Makefiles]] for [[Linux|GNU/Linux]], Unix, [[Microsoft Windows]]/[[DOS]] and [[OpenVMS]] systems.
*Support for typing and displaying in 21 non-English languages, including Chinese, Czech, Hindi, Hebrew, Russian, Vietnamese and all Western European languages.
*Creates [[PostScript]] output from plain text files and has special editing modes for document presentation formats like [[LaTeX]], [[TeX]], and [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia-mode.el|Wikipedia]].
*Debug from inside Emacs
*Maintain program ChangeLogs
*Extensive file merge and [[diff]] functions
*Directory navigation: can use [[dired]] to flag, move and delete files and sub-directories recursively.
*Use Emacs as a shell itself ([http://www.newartisans.com/johnw/eshell.html Eshell])
*Version control management for release and beta versions, with [[Concurrent Versions System|CVS]] and [[Revision Control System|RCS]] integration.
*Emacs is a better example of the [[Unix philosophy]] in that users can simply add a mode (or really, a program) to the existing implementation of emacs by taking advantage of the Emacs Lisp interpreter, whereas vi users have to create an entirely new version of vi, leading to a messy monolithic [[cruft|crufty]] program; in this view (held by [[Eric S. Raymond]] among others), Emacs is not so much a program but a portable framework in which modules are added together as needed.
==Perceived benefits of vi-like editors==
*vi commands are entered largely without the use of modifier keys such as Ctrl or Alt. Some users find this reduces wrist strain (see [[repetitive strain injury]]).
*vi is smaller than Emacs. See [[Creeping_featurism|feature creep]].
*vi's presence in [[Unix]] based operating systems is guaranteed as part of the [[POSIX]] standard.
*vi conforms with Unix design and philosophy (for instance, "small is beautiful" as opposed to "big is beautiful"). Unix does not advocate building "Swiss Army knives", rather, the right tool for the right job. Emacs is very much a Swiss Army knife of an editor, and belongs to the "big is beautiful" camp. There is a reason for this: Emacs has roots in the [[Text Editor and Corrector|TECO]] editor on the [[Incompatible Timesharing System|ITS]] & [[TOPS-10]] operating systems, which predate Unix.
*Unlike Ema |
Sounders make it to the playoffs for the first time in their brief history, with 8 goals and 4 assists in 23 regular season games, and 1 goal in the playoffs. More important than Hurst’s numbers was his sense of timing: not only did he score the first (in the home opener against Portland) and the last (in the playoffs against Vancouver) goals of the season, 5 of his 8 goals were game-winners.
After Seattle, Hurst played a bit more (in [[Kuwait]] and with [[Cork Celtic]]) and then dabbled in managing. He was briefly Player/Manager for [[Telford United]], served as assistant coach for England from 1977-1982, and managed Chelsea for two years after that.
In 1975 Geoff was decorated with the [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. He also played first-class county [[cricket]] for [[Essex County Cricket Club|Essex]], one of the last sportsmen to play both football and cricket at the top level, something that was decades earlier not particularly rare (if uncommon). As mentioned earlier, he tried his hand unsuccessfully as a manager, most notably with [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] and also as an assistant to his ex-West Ham boss Ron Greenwood after he took over the England job in 1977.
In later years, Hurst became a successful businessman, working in the [[insurance]] industry. He also became much in demand as a pundit and a motivational speaker. In 1998 he was [[Knight Bachelor|knight]]ed. He is currently Director of Football for [[McDonald's]] fast food chain.
==In perspective==
Since 1966, only three players have come close to emulating Hurst's hat-trick exploits. [[Mario Kempes]] of Argentina in 1978, [[Zinedine Zidane]] for France in 1998 and [[Ronaldo]] for [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] in 2002 have all scored two goals in World Cup finals but not managed the third. In global football, the name and achievement of Geoff Hurst remains unique.
Hurst's contribution to the English game was recognised in 2004 when he was inducted in the [[English Football Hall of Fame]]. Hurst is also one of the few football knights and this highlights his contribution to the game.
{{start box}}
{{succession box| before=[[Danny Blanchflower]]| title=[[Chelsea F.C.]] Manager| years=1979-1981| after=John Neal}}
{{end box}}
==External links==
*[http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/Hall%20of%20Fame/geoffhurst.htm English Football Hall of Fame Profile]
[[Category:1941 births|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:Living people|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:English footballers|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:England footballers|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:Football knights|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:West Ham United F.C. players|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:West Ham United F.C. forwards|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:Stoke City F.C. players|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:West Bromwich Albion F.C. players|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:NASL players|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:English football managers|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:Chelsea F.C. managers|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:English cricketers|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:Knights bachelor|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:Members of the British Empire|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[de:Geoff Hurst]]
[[fr:Geoffrey Hurst]]
[[ko:%EC%A0%9C%ED%94%84_%ED%97%88%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8]]
[[nl:Geoff Hurst]]
[[sv:Geoff Hurst]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gullivers Travels</title>
<id>12502</id>
<revision>
<id>15910187</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-22T11:56:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.227.168.8</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*gullivers travels</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gulliver's Travels]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galilean Moons</title>
<id>12503</id>
<revision>
<id>15910188</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-12T19:17:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ral315</username>
<id>111703</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Galilean moons]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Giovanni d'Andrea</title>
<id>12504</id>
<revision>
<id>41927800</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:01:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Giovanni d'Andrea''' or '''Johannes Andreæ''', (ca [[1270]]-[[1275]] &ndash; [[1348]]), a Tuscan expert in [[canon law]], was the most renowned and successful canonist of the later Middle Ages. His contemporaries referred to him as ''iuris canonici fons et tuba'' ("the fount and trumpet of canon law"). Most important among his works were extensive commentaries on all of the official collections of papal [[decretal]]s, papal judgments in the form of letters to delegated judges that were at the core of canon law.
Giovanni d'Andrea was born at [[Mugello]], near [[Florence]] and studied Roman law and [[canon law]] at the [[University of Bologna]], the great law school of the age, where he distinguished himself in this subject so much that he was made professor at [[Padua]], and then at [[Pisa]] before returning to Bologna, where he remained from the season of 1301-02 until his death, save for brief seasons at [[Padua]] 1307-09 and 1319. He wrote the statutes by which the University was governed, in 1317 [http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/1298h-j.htm].
The 1911 ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' related curious stories of him, that by way of self-mortification he lay every night for twenty years on the bare ground with only a bear's skin for a covering&mdash; yet it is known that he remained a layman, was married and had children&mdash; that in an audience he had with
[[Pope Boniface VIII]] his extraordinary shortness of stature led the pope to believe he was kneeling, and to ask him three times to rise, to the immense merriment of the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s; and that he had a daughter, Novella, so accomplished in law as to be able to read her father's lectures in his absence, and so beautiful, that she had to read behind a curtain lest her face should distract the attention of the students.
He is reported to have died at Bologna of the [[Black Death]] in 1348, and an epitaph in the church of the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s in which he was
buried, calling him ''Rabbi Doctorum, Lux, Censor, Normaque Morum'' testifies to the public estimation of his character. Johannes Calderinus was his student and later his adoptive son. Paulus de Liazariis and Johannes de Sancto Georgio were among his students, and he counted the [[humanist]]s [[Cino da Pistoia]] and [[Petrarch]] among his friends.
Giovanni d'Andrea's output was voluminous:
* a [[gloss]] called (''Novella sive commentarius in decretales epistolas Gregorii IX'') on the ''Liber Extra'' (1234) , compiled under the direction of [[Pope Gregory IX]] (see [[Decretal]]s);
* an encomium of Saint [[Jerome]], the ''Hierominianum'';
* glosses on the [[Clementines]] of 1317 which became the standard gloss for this text
* a commentary alled the ''Mercuriales'' on the ''Regula iuris'' in the ''Liber Sextus'' (1298) of [[Pope Boniface VIII|Boniface VIII]].
Among lesser works, his additions to the ''Speculum'' of [[Durandus]] are simply an adaptation from the ''Consilia'' of [[Oldradus de Ponte]], as is also his ''De Sponsalibus et Matrimonio'', from [[Johannes Anguisciola]].
==External links==
*[http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd00524.htm ''New Catholic Dictionary'']: Giovanni d'Andrea
*[http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/1298h-j.htm Ken Pennington, "Medieval Canonists ; A Bio-Bibliographical Listing] compiled for the ''History of Medieval Canon Law''
==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01469d.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
[[Category:1270s births|d'Andrea, Giovanni]]
[[Category:1348 deaths|d'Andrea, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Italian writers|d'Andrea, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Italian lawyers|d'Andrea, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Canon lawyers|d'Andrea, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Legal history|d'Andrea, Giovanni]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galilean moons</title>
<id>12505</id>
<revision>
<id>39723004</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T11:24:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SashatoBot</username>
<id>743015</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hr Modifying: it</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Jupitermoon.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s 4 Galilean moons, in a composite image comparing their sizes and the size of Jupiter ([[Great Red Spot]] visible). From the top, they are [[Io (moon)|Io]], [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]], [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]]]]
The '''Galilean moons''' are the four moons of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] discovered by [[Galileo Galilei]]. By far the largest of the many moons of Jupiter, they are visible even in a small [[telescope]] or binoculars. In fact, if the observing conditions are sufficient, it is possible to see [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]], the outermost, with the unaided eye.
They were first observed by Galileo on [[January 7]], [[1610]]. It is now claimed that [[Gan De]], a Chinese astronomer, may have discovered the moons in 362 BC, nearly 2 millennia earlier. Galileo observed the moons' motion over several days and realized that they were in orbit around Jupiter. This discovery supported the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric theory]] of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] and showed that not everything revolves around [[Earth]].
Galileo first called his discovery the ''Cosmica Sidera'', in honour of [[Cosimo II de' Medici]] ([[1590]]&ndash;[[1621]]), grand-duke of [[Tuscany]] from [[1609]], whose patronage Galileo wanted to secure. At the grand-duke's suggestion, Galileo changed the name to ''Medicea Sidera'' ("Medici stars"), because the Medici were four brothers (Cosimo, Francesco, Carlo, and Lorenzo). The dis |
=See also==
*[[SysRq]]
*[[Scroll Lock]]
*[[Num lock]]
[[Category:Computer keys]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bob Carr</title>
<id>4637</id>
<revision>
<id>40361325</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other people of the same name, see [[Bob Carr (disambiguation)]].}}
[[Image:ac.bobcarr.jpg|thumb|200px|The Hon. Bob Carr]]
'''Robert John Carr''' (born [[September 28]] [[1947]]), [[Australia]]n politician, was [[Premier of New South Wales|Premier]] of [[New South Wales]] from [[25 March]] [[1995]] to [[3 August]] [[2005]]. He holds the record for the longest continuous service as Premier of New South Wales. Only [[Henry Parkes|Sir Henry Parkes]] has served longer, but he held the office on five separate occasions.
==Early career==
The son of a train driver, Carr was born in the [[Sydney]] suburb of [[Maroubra, New South Wales|Maroubra]], and was educated at the [[University of New South Wales]], from which he graduated as a Bachelor of Arts (Hons) in history. Unusually for an Australian politician, he is an intellectual and writer; in a recent example of his recognition as a writer, he appeared on stage at the [[2004]] [[Sydney Festival]] in conversation with [[Tom Stoppard]].
Before entering politics, Carr was a [[journalist]] for the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] Radio's ''AM ''current affairs program, wrote for ''[[The Bulletin]]'' and spent a period working for the [[Labor Council of NSW]].
A member of the [[Australian Labor Party]], Carr entered the [[New South Wales Legislative Assembly]] at a [[by-election]] as the member for [[Maroubra]] in October 1983.
In December 1984 he was appointed Minister for Planning and the Environment in the [[Neville Wran|Wran]] government. He held this position until March 1988, when the ALP lost government. In February 1986 he also took on the consumer affairs portfolio, which he held until he became Minister for Heritage In July 1986.
==Leader of the Opposition==
Carr's long-term ambition was to enter federal politics and be Minister for Foreign Affairs in a federal Labor government. But following the defeat of the New South Wales Labor government, Carr was pressured by the party organisation and his own Right faction to stand for the leadership. Carr reluctantly agreed, and became Leader of the Opposition. His diary entries from the time reveal "I spent today like a doomed man, taking phone calls and drafting a statement, still saying to the press I wasn't shifting. I feel a jolt in my stomach about what I'm getting myself in for. I will destroy my career in four years. Everything's altered. It's my fate … So, for better or for worse, I become leader of the party next week."
Despite this reluctance, Carr performed well <!--Verging on POV: How about 'Carr's performance as opp. l. gained wide approval in the party ...-->as opposition leader and only narrowly lost a tight election to [[Nick Greiner]]'s coalition government in 1991, an election in which no one expected Labor to come close to victory.
==Premier of New South Wales==
In 1995 he became Premier at another close election and won comfortably again in 1999 and 2003.
His centrist, cautious government has been characterised by conservative financial management and the encouragement of market forces, and latterly pursued a "[[tough on crime]]" policy. Carr occasionally ventured into national policy issues, particularly issues concerning the environment and population growth. A keen bushwalker, he created numerous national parks in NSW over his decade-long term as Premier. During his term, he worked towards improving literacy standards in NSW schools.
In [[August]] [[2004]], Carr faced criticism due to his alleged involvement in the [[Orange Grove affair]], and also from the Commissioner of the NSW [[Independent Commission Against Corruption of New South Wales|Independent Commission Against Corruption]], due to his remarks that a minister under investigation by the ICAC would be "vindicated" before the release of that body's findings on the matter; this resulted in an allegation of contempt, which was subsequently dropped.
After 10 years as Premier, Carr announced his resignation both as Premier and as the member for Maroubra on [[27 July]], [[2005]] to be effective from [[3 August]]. This immediately prompted speculation that the resignation was a prelude to a move into federal politics, but Carr denied this. He cited the desire to spend more time with his wife, [[Helena Carr]], as the main motivation for his resignation. His successor as Premier is former health minister [[Morris Iemma]]. Carr's resignation triggered further resignations, namely those of Deputy Premier [[Andrew Refshauge]] and Planning Minister [[Craig Knowles]].
Unusually for a Labor leader, Carr has opposed [[Australian republicanism]] if it entailed public election of the President (he supported a President appointed by Parliament). He also opposed a [[Bill of Rights]], claiming it would merely lead to increased litigation.
==Literature==
Bob Carr is the author of several books, the best-known being ''Thoughtlines'' (Viking, 2002). He is an acknowledged expert on certain aspects of the political history of the United States, especially [[Abraham Lincoln]], whose [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural]] he quoted in his resignation speech. He is a charter member of the [[Chester A. Arthur Society]], a US political trivia group named for one of the most obscure US presidents.
In May 2003, a biography by [[Marilyn Dodkin]], ''Bob Carr: the reluctant leader'', was published to acclaim, partly because it was based on Carr's private diaries and included his often uncomplimentary thoughts on various political personalities. A second biography, ''Bob Carr—a self-made man'', by [[Andrew West]] and [[Rachel Morris]], was published in September 2003 by Harper Collins.
==Family==
In 1972, Carr met the [[Malaysia]]n [[economics]] student Anne Helena John (now the Australian businesswoman [[Helena Carr]]) on a vacation in [[Tahiti]], and the couple was married on [[24 February]] [[1973]]. They have no children.
==After Politics==
Bob Carr became a part-time consultant for [[Macquarie Bank]], an Australian investment bank, in October 2005. Macquarie's media announcement declared he would advise on policy and strategic issues with a focus on his specialist knowledge of the United States, China and Europe.
==External links==
*[http://bulletin.ninemsn.com.au/bulletin/EdDesk.nsf/printing/F5C01CAC00C27C18CA256CD3002E4D68 Biography]
* {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Higgins | given=Ean | title=Row over Carr's plumb job at bank | date=[[11 October]] [[2005]] | org=The Australian | url=http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5744,16879705%255E2702,00.html}}
* {{Citenewsauthor | surname=anonymous | given= | title=MacBank pays Carr $500,000 | date=[[13 October]] [[2005]] | org=Daily Telegraph | url=http://finance.news.com.au/story/0,10166,16904516-462,00.html}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
title=[[Premier of New South Wales]]|
before=[[John Fahey (politician)|John Fahey]]|
after=[[Morris Iemma]]|
years=[[1995]]-[[2005]]|
}}
{{end box}}
{{NewSouthWalesPremiers}}
[[Category:1947 births|Carr, Bob]]
[[Category:Living people|Carr, Bob]]
[[Category:Australian Labor Party politicians|Carr, Bob]]
[[Category:Premiers of New South Wales|Carr, Bob]]
[[zh:鲍勃·卡尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bogie</title>
<id>4640</id>
<revision>
<id>41114412</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T03:30:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Peter Horn</username>
<id>897817</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Railway cars */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
A '''bogie''' is a wheeled wagon or trolley. In mechanics, a bogie is a chassis or framework carrying wheels, attached to a vehicle. It can be fixed in place, as on a cargo truck, mounted on a swivel, as on a train carriage or locomotive, or sprung as in the suspension of a caterpillar tracked vehicle.
==Railway cars==
[[Image:Bettendorf truck at Illinois Railway Museum.JPG|thumb|A Bettendorf-style truck displayed at the [[Illinois Railway Museum]].]]
[[Image:Railroad truck,FM55-20.Fig8-8.png|thumb|US-style railroad truck.]]
[[Image:Bogie-metro-Meteor-p1010692.jpg|thumb|Model of the pneumatic bogie system of the [[Paris Metro Line 14|''Meteor'' metro]].]]
A bogie in the UK, or a '''wheel truck''', or simply '''truck''' in the U.S., is a structure underneath a [[train]] to which [[wheel]] [[axle]]s (and, hence, wheels) are attached through [[bearing]]s. If they are used there are usually two for each [[carriage]], wagon and [[locomotive]], or alternatively, they are at the connections between the carriages or wagons. The connections of the bogies with the cars allow a small rotational movement around a vertical axis. Most bogies have two axles, but some cars designed for extremely heavy loads have been built with up to five-axle bogies. Heavy-duty cars may have more than two bogies using [[span bolster]]s to equalize the load and connect the bogies to the cars.
Usually the train floor is at a level above the bogies. However, for a double decker [[Double decker#train|train]] this applies only at the bogies: between them the bottom deck can be lower.
There are [[low floor]] trams without (pivoting) bogies and many [[tramway enthusiast]]s see them as "retrogarde" steps.
See also: [[Diesel multiple unit]]
==Tracked vehicles==
Some [[tank]]s and other [[Caterpillar track|tracked]] vehicles have bogies as external suspension components. This type of bogie usually has two or |
but agreed on when Ferrari called the merger off in [[1963]], after an agreement with [[Fiat]] that gave some financial backing to Ferrari, while preserving Ferrari's independance.
Ford had been manipuled to rise the bids with Ferrari and a frustrated Henry Ford II, decided to produce its own car instead. To this end Ford began negotiation with [[Lotus Cars|Lotus]], [[Lola]], and [[Cooper Car Company|Cooper]]. Cooper had no experience in GT or prototype and its performances in [[Formula One]] were declining.
Lotus was already Ford partner for their Indy 500 project. While Ford executives had already doubt on the ability of Lotus to handle this new project. [[Colin Chapman]] had probaly similar views as he asked a high price for his contribution and insisted that the car should be named Lotus and not Ford, an attitude that can be viewed as polite refusal.
The Lola proposal was chosen, since Lola had used a Ford V8 engine in their mid-engined Lola Mk 6 (also known as Lola GT) one of the most advanced racing car of the time that made a noted performance in Le Mans 1962, even if the car didn't finish. However Broadley agreed on a short-term personal contribution to the project without involving Lola cars.
The agreement with Lola cars manager Eric Broadley included a one year collaboration between Ford and Broadley and the sale of the two Lola Mk 6 chassis built to Ford. To form the developpement team Ford also hired the already ex-Aston Martin team manager John Wyer and Ford Motor Co. engineer Roy Lunn was sent to England. Lunn had designed the mid-engined Mustang 1 concept car povered by 1,7 L V4. Despite the small engine of the Mustang 1, Lunn was the only Dearborn's engineer to have some experience with a mid-engined car.
Broadley, Lunn and Wyer began working on the new car at Lola Factory in Bromley. At the end of 1963 the team moved at [[Slough]], [[England]] near Heathrow airport. Ford established a new subsidiary under the direction of Wyer, '''Ford Advanced Vehicles Ltd''' to manage the project.
The first chassis built by Abbey Panels of Coventry was delivered on [[March 16]] [[1963]]. The first "Ford GT" the GT/101 was unveiled in England on April first and soon after exhibited in New York.
The car was powered by the 4.2 L Fairline engine with a Colotti transaxle, the same power plant was used by the Lola GT and the single-seater Lotus 38 that would go on to become the first mid-engined car to ever win at the Indy 500 in 1965.
The Ford GT was first raced in May 1964 at the [[Nürburgring]] ''1000 km race'' and later at the [[24 Hours of Le Mans]], and was not very successful with all three cars retiring. The experience gained then and in 1965 allowed the Mk II to dominate the race in 1966 with a 1-2-3 finish. The Mk IV, a newer design with a Mk II engine but a different chassis and a different body, won the following year (when four Mark IVs, three Mark IIs and three Mark Is raced).
After a rules change for 1968 which limited the capacity of prototypes to 3.0 L (same as in [[Formula One]]), but allowed a maximum of 5.0 L capacity for the Sports category (where at least 50 cars had been built), a revised 4.7 L Mk I won the [[24 hours of Le Mans]] race in 1968 against the fragile smaller prototypes. In 1969, facing more experienced prototypes and the new yet still unreliable 4.5 L [[flat-12]] powered [[Porsche 917]]s, the winners Ickx/Oliver managed to beat the remaining 3.0 L [[Porsche 908]] by just a few seconds with the already outdated GT40. Apart from brake wear in the Porsche and the decision not to change pads so close to the race end, the winning combination was relaxed driving by both GT40 drivers and heroic efforts at the right time by (at that time Le Mans' rookie) [[Jacky Ickx]], who would win Le Mans 5 times more in later years. In 1970, the revised [[Porsche 917]] dominated and the GT40 became obsolete.
==Various versions==
The Mk I is the original Ford GT40. Early prototypes were by powered by 4.2 L (255 in³) engines; production models were powered by 4.7 L (289 in³) engines, also used in the [[Ford Mustang]]. Some prototypes models had A roadster bodywork.
The Ford X1 was a roadster built to contest the Fall 1965 North American Pro Series, a forerunner of the [[CanAm]], it was entered by Bruce McLaren team and driven by Chis Amon. The car had an aluminium chassis build at Abbey Panels and was originally powered by a 4.5 L (289ci) engine. The real purpose of this car was t test several improvements originating from either Kar Kraft, Shelby or McLaren. Several gearboxes were used, a Hewland LG500 and at least one but more probably several automatic gearboxes. It was later upgraded specification to the Mk II with a 7.0 L (427ci) engine and a standard four ratio Kar Kraft gearbox, however car kept specific features like its open roof and lightweight chassis. The car went on winning the 12H of Sebring 1966.
The Mk II used the 7.0 L (427 in³) engine from the [[Ford Galaxy]].
For Daytona 1967, two Mk II models (chassis 1016 and 1047) were branded [[Mercury (automobile)|Mercury]] 7.0 L. Mercury is a Ford Motor Company division, and this was only a cosmetic change. It made no difference anyway as Ferrari won 1-2-3.
The Mk III was a road-car only, of which 7 were built. The car had four headlights, the rear part of the body was expanded to make room for luggage, the 4.7 L engine was detuned to 335 bhp, the shocks were softened, the shift lever was moved to the center and the car was available with the steering wheel on the left side of the car. The most famous Mk III is GT40 M3 1105, a blue left hand drive model delivered in 1968 in [[Austria]] to [[Herbert von Karajan]]. As the Mk III wasn't very appealing aesthetically (it looked significantly different to the racing models), many customers interested in buying a GT40 for road use chose to buy a Mk I that was available from Wyer ltd in a street version.
The Ford J was tested in 1966 four cars were build around a specific chassis including honeycomb [[aluminium]] panels. Ken Miles was killed while testing the J-2 and the car was never raced.
The Mk IV was build around a reinforced J chassis powered by the same 7.0 L engine as the Mk II. Excluding the engine, the Mk IV was totally different from other GT40s, using a specific chassis and specific bodywork.
The Ford G7A was a Canam car using the J chassis.
==Chassis numbers==
Early chassis (commonly named prototype chassis) are branded GT and have a three-digit number (GT 101 to GT 112).
Among these chassis, at least two were made of aluminium, one was number 110 used on the X1.
Production chassis are branded GT 40 P (P for Production) and have a four-digit number (GT 40 P 1000 to GT 40 P 1086 and GT 40 P 1108 to 1114).
Prototype chassis and production chassis were built by Abbey Panels. Two Mark I lightweight chassis were build by Alan Mann Racing. They are numbered AM GT 1 and AM GT 2, and these chassis incorporate panels in elektron light alloy.
Mk IIs were built on a Mk I chassis with additional strengthening using random prototype or production chassis numbers, with the notable exception of the ex-X1 GT/110 build on an Abbey Panels lightweight chassis. However, as other Ford partners were overworked at that time, three chassis numbered XGT 1 to XGT 3 were built by Alan Mann Racing for Le Mans 1966. Unlike Alan Mann's Mark Is chassis, these chassis did not show any significant difference from those built by Abbey Panels for Kar Kraft.
GT40 Mk IIIs used chassis numbers GT 40 M3 1101 to GT 40 M3 1107.
Ford J, GT 40 Mark IV and G7A used J chassis twelwe chassis numbered J1 to J12 were built. J1 to J4 were build to J specification. J3 and J4 were later converted to the MkIV specications. J5 to J8 were build directly for the MkIV. J9 and J10 were build for the G7A. Some J11 and J12 were replacement chassis. A MkIV replica has been build around the J11 chassis.
Ford GT chassis numbers continue from the point that GT40 stopped.
==Replicas==
[[Image:1965 Ford GT40.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A "Roaring Forties" replica of a 1965 Ford GT40 in Shelby livery on display at the [[2005 United States Grand Prix]]]]
==Ford GT==
At the 1995 Detroit Motor Show, the [[Ford GT90]] concept was shown and at the 2002 [[Detroit Auto Show]], a new GT40 Concept was unveiled by Ford, similar to the original cars, but bigger, wider, and especially taller than the original 40 inches (1.02 m), so it might instead have been named GT43. This car was put on sale in 2003 as part of Ford's centenary. Curiously, Ford had never claimed "GT40" and therefore were not in a postion to protect this mark. A british company "Safir Engineering" did step up (1985) to protect this famous mark and through its designate Safir GT40 Spares this mark is still protected. Safir GT40 Spares offered to License GT40 for Ford's new GT automobile but Ford would only discuss total purchase of the Mark. Months of discusions followed where Safir GT40 Spares asked for a offer from Ford. No offer was ever made and the new Ford GT does not wear the badge GT40. The 40 million dollar demand story is catchy but has never been verified.
In november 2005 a Ford GT X1, a roadster version of the Ford GT was unveiled in Las Vegas.
{| class="wikitable"
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="7" align="center" style="border-bottom:3px solid"|Le Mans results
|-
|||||||colspan="2"|Distance||colspan="2"|Speed
|-
|Year|| Car||Drivers||miles||km||mph||km/h
|-
|1966||Mk&nbsp;II||[[Chris Amon]], [[Bruce McLaren]]||3009.4||4,843.2||125.39||201.80
|-
|1967||Mk&nbsp;IV||[[Dan Gurney]], [[A. J. Foyt]]||2630.2||4,232.9 ||135.48||218.03
|-
|1968||Mk&nbsp;I||[[Pedro Rodriguez]], [[Lucien Bianchi]]||2766.9||4,452.9 ||115.29||185.54
|-
|1969||Mk&nbsp;I||[[Jacky Ickx]], [[Jackie Oliver]]||3105.6||4,998.0 ||129.40||208.25
|-
|}
==Sources==
* Auto Pass |
father, he was brought up under the care of [[Arrius Antoninus]], his maternal grandfather, a man of integrity and culture, and a friend of [[Pliny the Younger]].
Having filled with more than usual success the offices of [[quaestor]] and [[praetor]], he obtained the consulship in [[120]]; he was next appointed by the Emperor [[Hadrian]] as one of the four [[proconsul]]s to administer [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia]], then greatly increased his reputation by his conduct as [[proconsul]] of [[Asia Province|Asia]]. He acquired much favour with the Emperor Hadrian, who adopted him as his son and successor on [[February 25]], 138, after the death of his first adopted son [[Aelius Verus]], on the condition that he himself would adopt Marcus Annius Verus, the son of his wife's brother, and Lucius, son of Aelius Verus, who afterwards became the emperors [[Marcus Aurelius]] and [[Lucius Verus|Lucius Aelius Verus]] (colleague of Marcus Aurelius).
Antoninus in many ways was the ideal of the landed gentleman praised not only by ancient Romans, but also by later scholars of classical history, such as [[Edward Gibbon]] or the author of the article on Antoninus Pius in the ninth edition of the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopedia Britannica]]:
: A few months afterwards, on Hadrian's death, he was enthusiastically welcomed to the throne by the Roman people, who, for once, were not disappointed in their anticipation of a happy reign. For Antoninus came to his new office with simple tastes, kindly disposition, extensive experience, a well-trained intelligence and the sincerest desire for the welfare of his subjects. Instead of plundering to support his prodigality, he emptied his private treasury to assist distressed provinces and cities, and everywhere exercised rigid economy (hence the nickname &kappa;&upsilon;&mu;&iota;&nu;&omicron;&pi;&rho;&iota;&sigma;&tau;&eta;&sigmaf; "cummin-splitter"). Instead of exaggerating into treason whatever was susceptible of unfavorable interpretation, he spurned the very conspiracies that were formed against him into opportunities for demonstrating his clemency. Instead of stirring up persecution against the Christians, he extended to them the strong hand of his protection throughout the empire. Rather than give occasion to that oppression which he regarded as inseparable from an emperor's progress through his dominions, he was content to spend all the years of his reign in Rome, or its neighbourhood.
Of the public transactions of this period we have scant information, but, to judge by what we possess, those twenty-two years were not remarkably eventful in comparison to those before and after his; the surviving evidence is not complete enough to determine whether we should interpret, with older scholars, that he wisely curtailed the activities of the Roman Empire to a careful minimum, or perhaps that he was uninterested in events away from Rome and [[Italy]] and his inaction contributed to the pressing troubles that faced not only Marcus Aurelius but also the emperors of the [[third century]].
[[Image:RomaForoRomanoTempioAntoninoFaustina.JPG|thumb|Temple of Antoninus and [[Faustina the Elder|Faustina]] in the [[Roman forum]] (now the church of [[San Lorenzo in Miranda]]). The emperor and his ''[[Augusta (honorific)|Augusta]]'' were deified after their death by [[Marcus Aurelius]].]]
One of his first acts as Emperor was to persuade the [[Roman Senate |Senate]] to grant divine honours to Hadrian, which they had at first refused; his efforts to persuade the Senate to grant these honours is one of the reasons given for his title of ''Pius'' (dutiful in affection; compare ''[[pietas]]''). Two other reasons for this title are that he would support his aged father-in-law with his hand at Senate meetings, and that he had saved those men that Hadrian, during his period of ill-health, had condemned to death. He built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and salaries upon the teachers of [[rhetoric]] and [[philosophy]].
His reign was comparatively peaceful; there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time, in [[Mauretania]], [[Iudaea (Roman province)|Iudaea]], and amongst the [[Brigantes]] in [[Roman Britain|Britannia]], but none of them are considered serious. The unrest in Britannia is believed to have led to the construction of the [[Antonine Wall]] from the [[Firth of Forth]] to the [[Firth of Clyde]], although it was soon abandoned.
In his domestic relations Antoninus was not so fortunate. His wife, [[Faustina the Elder]], has almost become a byword for her lack of womanly virtue; but she seems to have kept her hold on his affections to the last. On her death in the third year of his reign, he honoured her memory by the foundation of a [[charity]] for orphan girls, who bore the name of ''Alimentariae Faustinianae'', following the practice of prior emperors in endowing an ''[[alimentaria]]'' to promote the welfare of children and an increased population. He had by her two sons and two daughters; but they all died before his elevation to the throne, except [[Annia Faustina]], who became the wife of Marcus Aurelius.
Antoninus died of fever at [[Lorium]] in [[Etruria]], about twelve miles from Rome, on [[March 7]] 161, giving the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the [[tribune]] of the night-watch came to ask the password &mdash; "aequanimitas".
The only account of his life handed down to us is that of Julius Capitolinus, one of the ''[[Scriptores Historiae Augustae]]''.
===Contacts with China===
The [[Hou Hanshu]] (History of the Later Han [[China|Chinese]] dynasty) recounted the first of several [[Roman embassies to China]] sent out by Emperor Antoninus Pius. The mission came from the South, and therefore probably by sea, entering China by the frontier of [[Jinan]] or [[Tonkin]], bringing presents of [[rhinoceros]] horns, ivory, and [[tortoise shell]] which had probably been acquired in [[Southern Asia]].
The emperor was most likely [[Marcus Aurelius]], who was the reigning emperor. Antoninus Pius died in 161, while the convoy arrived in [[166]]. The confusion arises because Marcus Aurelius took as additional names, those of his predecessor as a mark of respect. He is referred to in Chinese history as "An Tun" (= Antoninus), hence the confusion.
The mission reached the Chinese capital of [[Luoyang]] in 166 and was met by [[Emperor Huan of Han China|Emperor Huan]] of the [[Han Dynasty]]. About the same time, and possibly through this embassy, the Chinese acquired a treatise of [[astronomy]] from [[Daqin]] (Rome).
== References ==
* Bossart-Mueller, ''Zur Geschichte des Kaisers A.'' (1868)
* Lacour-Gayet, ''A. le Pieux et son Temps'' (1888)
* Bryant, ''The Reign of Antonine'' (Cambridge Historical Essays, 1895)
* P. B. Watson, ''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus'' (London, 1884), chap. ii.
* {{1911}}
{{Commons|Antoninus Pius}}
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{{succession box|title=[[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|before=[[Hadrian]]|after=[[Marcus Aurelius]] and [[Lucius Verus]]|years=138&ndash;161}}
{{succession box|title=[[Five Good Emperors]]|before=[[Hadrian]]|after=[[Marcus Aurelius]]|years=96&ndash;180}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:86 births]]
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[[he:אנטונינוס פיוס]]
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[[zh:安敦宁·毕尤]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antonine Wall</title>
<id>1257</id>
<revision>
<id>40436655</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T15:12:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neddyseagoon</username>
<id>883252</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DSCF0062.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The Antonine Wall, looking east, from Barr Hill between Twechar and [[Croy, North Lanarkshire|Croy]]]]
[[Image:DSCF0051.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The Antonine Wall, remains of Roman fortlet, Barr Hill, near Twechar]]
[[Image:Hadrians Wall map.png|thumb|300px|right]]
{{commons|Antonine Wall}}
The '''Antonine Wall''' is a [[rock (geology)|stone]] and [[sod|turf]] [[fortification]], built by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s across what is now the [[central belt]] of [[Scotland]].
Construction of the Antonine Wall began in [[142]] CE during the reign of [[Antoninus Pius]], and was completed in [[144]]. The wall stretches 60 [[kilometre]]s (37 [[mile]]s) from [[Old Kirkpatrick, Scotland|Old Kirkpatrick]] in [[West Dunbartonshire]] on the [[Firth of Clyde]] to [[Bo'ness]], [[Falkirk (council area)|Falkirk]], on the [[Firth of Forth]]. The wall was intended to replace [[Hadrian's Wall]] 160 km (100 miles) to the south, as the frontier of ''[[Roman Britain|Britannia]]'', but while the Romans did establish temporary forts and camps north of the wall, they did not conquer the [[Caledonians]], and the Antonine Wall suffered many attacks. The Romans called the land north of the wall ''[[Caledonia]]''.
The Antonine Wall was inferior to Hadrian's Wall in terms of scale and construction, but it was still an impressive achievement, considering that it was completed in only two years, at the northern edge of the Roman [[empire]] in what they perceived as a cold and hostile land. The wall was typicall |
l the ground. They decided to use the Data Storage Equipment (DSE), which could be used by the crew to [[tape recorder|tape voice recordings]] and telemetry, which were then dumped to the ground at high speed. After recording a description of Borman's illness they requested that mission control check the recording, as the crew ''"would like an evaluation of the voice comments"''.
A conference between the crew and medical personnel was held using the unoccupied second floor control room (there were two identical control rooms in Houston on the second and third floor, of which only one is used during the course of a mission). During a private communication with the crew, it was decided that there was little to worry about and that it was either a [[Gastroenteritis|24-hour flu]] as Borman thought, or just a reaction to the sleeping pill. In fact it is now thought that he was suffering from [[Space Adaptation Syndrome]], which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their [[Labyrinth (inner ear)|vestibular system]] adapts to [[weightlessness]]. It had never arisen on previous spacecraft ([[Project Mercury|Mercury]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]]) as they had been too small to move freely in.
[[Image:Ap8-S68-56531.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In-flight footage of the crew taken while they were in orbit around the Moon. In the center is Frank Borman]]
The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, with little happening except for the crew checking that the spacecraft was in working order and they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast for 31 hours after launch. The camera used was 2 kg and broadcast in [[black-and-white]] only, using a [[Video camera tube|Vidicon]] tube. It had two [[lens (optics)|lens]]es: a very [[wide-angle]] (160°) lens and a [[telephoto]] (9°) lens.
During this first broadcast the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared. However this proved impossible, as the narrow-angle lens was difficult to aim without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at. Also without proper [[filter (optics)|filter]]s, the image became saturated by any bright source. In the end all the crew could do was show the people watching back on Earth a bright blob. After broadcasting for 17 minutes the rotation of the spacecraft took the [[High Gain Antenna]] out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother happy birthday.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 Borman describing the Earth.ogg|title=Borman described the Earth|description=Frank Borman describes view of Earth from midway to Moon|format=[[Ogg]]}}
By this time the planned sleep periods had completely been abandoned. 32½ hours into the flight, Lovell went to bed, 3½ hours before he had planned to. A short while later Anders also went to bed after taking a sleeping pill.
Somewhat strangely the crew were unable to see the [[Moon]] for much of the outward cruise. Three of the five windows had fogged up, due to outgassed oils from the [[silicone]] [[sealant]], and due to the attitude required for the PTC, the Moon was almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft. In fact it was not until the crew had gone behind the Moon that they would be able to see it for the first time.
A second television broadcast came at 55 hours. This time the crew had managed to rig up [[filter (optics)|filter]]s meant for the still cameras, so that they could acquire images of the Earth through the [[telephoto]] lens. Although difficult to aim, as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft, the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth the first [[television]] pictures of the Earth. The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth and what was visible and the colors that could be seen. The transmission lasted 23 minutes.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 Lovell describing the Earth.ogg|title=Lovell describes the Earth|description=Jim Lovell describes view of Earth from 200,000 miles out|format=[[Ogg]]}}
===Lunar sphere of influence===
At about 55 hours and 40 minutes into the flight, the crew of ''Apollo 8'' became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body. Or to put it another way, the Moon's [[gravitational force]] became stronger than that of the Earth. At the time it happened, they were 38,759 mi (62,377 km) from the Moon and had a speed of 3,990 ft/s (1,216 m/s) with respect to the Moon. This historic moment was of little interest to the crew as they still calculated their [[trajectory]] with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center and would do so until they performed their last midcourse correction, when they would switch to a [[reference frame]] based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit. It was only thirteen hours until they would be in lunar orbit.
The last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion was a second midcourse correction. It was in [[Prograde and retrograde motion|retrograde]] (against direction of travel) and slowed the spacecraft down by 2.0 ft/s (0.6 m/s), in effect lowering the closest distance that the spacecraft would pass the moon. At exactly 61 hours after launch, about 24,200 mi (39,000 km) from the Moon, the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds. They would now pass 71.7 mi (115.4 km) from the lunar surface.
At 64 hours into the flight, the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion-1 (LOI-1). This maneuver had to be performed perfectly, and due to [[Astrodynamics|orbital mechanics]] had to be on the far side of the Moon, out of contact with the Earth. After Mission Control was polled for a Go/No Go decision, the crew was told at 68 hours, they were Go and ''"riding the best bird we can find"''. At 68 hours and 58 minutes, the spacecraft went behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 prior to LOI.ogg|title=''Apollo 8'' goes behind the Moon|description=The last transmissions from the spacecraft before it goes behind the Moon|format=[[Ogg]]}}
With ten minutes before the LOI-1, the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in the correct place. Then they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon. They had been flying over the unlit side, and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight [[oblique]]ly illuminating the lunar surface. But the burn was only two minutes away so the crew had little time to appreciate the view.
===Lunar orbit===
Igniting at 69 hours, 8 minutes and 16 seconds after launch, the SPS burned for 4 minutes and 13 seconds, placing the crew of ''Apollo 8'' in orbit around the Moon. The crew described this as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the right amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly [[ellipse|elliptical]] lunar [[orbit]] or even flung off into space. If it lasted too long they could have ended up impacting the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working, they finally had a chance to look at the Moon, which they would orbit for the next 20 hours.
[[Image:AS8-13-2329.jpg|thumb|250px|The first Earthrise photographed by humans]]
On Earth, Mission Control continued to wait. If the crew had not burned the engine or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time the crew would appear early from behind the Moon. However this time came and went without ''Apollo 8'' reappearing. And then exactly at the predicted moment, the signal was received from the spacecraft indicating it was in a 193.3 mi by 69.5 mi (311.1 km by 111.9 km) orbit about the Moon.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 first lunar orbit transmissions.ogg|title=''Apollo 8'' appears from behind the Moon|description=First transmissions from ''Apollo 8'' after it has entered into lunar orbit|format=[[Ogg]]}}
After reporting on the status of the spacecraft, Lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like:
:The Moon is essentially grey, no color; looks like [[plaster of Paris]] or sort of a grayish beach sand. We can see quite a bit of detail. The [[Mare Fecunditatis|Sea of Fertility]] doesn't stand out as well here as it does back on Earth. There's not as much contrast between that and the surrounding craters. The craters are all rounded off. There's quite a few of them, some of them are newer. Many of them look like—especially the round ones—look like hit by [[meteorite]]s or projectiles of some sort. [[Langrenus (crater)|Langrenus]] is quite a huge crater; it's got a central cone to it. The walls of the crater are terraced, about six or seven different [[wiktionary:terrace|terrace]]s on the way down.
Lovell continued to describe the terrain that they were passing over. One of the crew's major tasks was [[reconnaissance]] of the planned landing sites on the Moon, especially one in [[Mare Tranquillitatis]] that would be the ''[[Apollo 11]]'' landing site. The launch time of ''Apollo 8'' had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for the site. A [[film camera]] had been set up in one of the windows to record a frame every second of the Moon below. And Bill Anders would spend much of the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as he could of targets of interest. By the end of the mission the crew would take 700 photographs of the Moon and 150 of the Earth.
[[Image:As8-13-2225.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A portion of the lunar near side. The large crater in the bottom half of the photo is [[Goclenius (crater)|Goclenius]].]]
Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with the Earth, Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked. He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary. He also asked that they receive a Go/No Go decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit.
As they reappeared for their sec |
n [[New Hampshire]], see [[Chichester, New Hampshire]].''
{{infobox England place with map|
|Place= Chichester
|Map = Chichester - West Sussex dot.png
|Population = 25,000
|District= [[Chichester (district)|Chichester]]
|County= [[West Sussex]]
|Region= [[South East England]]
|Ceremonial= [[West Sussex]]
|Police= Sussex Police Constabulary
|Traditional= [[Sussex]]
|Constituency= Chichester
|PostalTown= CHICHESTER
|PostCode= PO19
|DiallingCode= 01243
|GridReference= SU865045
|Euro= [[South East England (European Parliament constituency)|South East England]]
}}
'''Chichester''' is a small [[city status in the United Kingdom|city]] in the south of [[England]], in the county of [[West Sussex]], with a population of about 25,000.
It is the administrative centre of the [[Chichester (district)|Chichester]] district, a largely rural area with a population of over 100,000. It is also the [[county town]] of [[West Sussex]], home of West Sussex County Council.
The patron saint of The City of Chichester is [[Saint Giles]].
The City of Chichester is [[town twinning|twinned]] with:
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Chartres]], [[France]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Ravenna]], [[Italy]]
==History==
It has been argued that the area was a bridgehead for the [[Roman invasion of Britain]]. The city centre stands on the foundations of the Romano-British city of ''Noviomagus Reginorum'', capital of the ''Civitas Reginorum'', and near to the Roman Palace of [[Fishbourne]]. According to the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] it was captured towards the close of the fifth century, by [[Aelle of Sussex|Ælle]], and renamed after his son, [[Cissa of Sussex|Cissa]]. It was the chief city of the [[Kingdom of Sussex]]. The city streets have a cross-shaped layout, inherited from the Romans: radiating outwards from the medieval [[Chichester Cross|market cross]] lead the [[Cardinal directions|North]], [[Cardinal directions|South]], [[Cardinal directions|East]] and [[Cardinal directions|West]] shopping streets. Quite a lot of the [[Defensive wall|city walls]] are in place, and may be walked along for some of their length.
[[Chichester Cathedral|Chichester cathedral]] is dedicated to the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]], and contains a shrine to Saint [[Richard of Chichester]]. Its spire, built of the weak local stone, collapsed suddenly and was rebuilt during the [[19th century]]. Within the nave of the [[cathedral]] can be seen the remains of a [[Roman architecture|Roman]] [[mosaic]] [[pavement (architecture)|pavement]]. The Cathedral is unusual in the UK in having a separate bell tower a few metres away from the main building, rather than integrated into it.
{| style="float: left"
|-
|[[Image:Project Gutenberg eText 13495 470-1.png|thumb|180px|Chichester Cross, 1831 illustration]]
|[[Image:Chichester market cross 2002-07-15.jpg|thumb|180px|Chichester Cross, 2002]]
|}
==City==
The city is famous for the annual Chichester Festivities, a three-week arts and music festival held in July. The city is also home to the world-renowned [[Chichester Festival Theatre]] whose annual summer season attracts the highest calibre of actors, writers and directors and is widely considered one of the most important annual events in British theatre.
In more recent years the town has given birth to a growing music scene centred around several Pubs in the region. Local band [[Hope of the States]] released their debut album The Lost Riots in January 2005 to wide acclaim. Anthony Hegarty from [[Antony and the Johnsons]] fame was born in Chichester and attended the local school St Richards Roman Catholic Primary School before moving to New York.
==Schools==
Chichester is home to:
*[[Prebendal School]] established in [[1497]].
==Transport==
===Road===
*A259
*A27
===Rail===
On the main Southcoast line, used to be joined with [[Guildford]].
==Area==
Close to Chichester is the important Roman site of [[Fishbourne]], and [[Chichester Harbour]] to which the city was connected by the [[Chichester Canal]], currently under restoration.
3 miles north of Chichester is the [[RAF Tangmere]] airfield, which played an important role in [[World War 2]] during the [[Battle of Britain]]
== References ==
* Alec Down. ''Roman Chichester''. Chichester: Phillimore, 1988. ISBN 0850334357
==External links==
*[http://www.chichester.gov.uk Chichester District Council Website]
*[http://www.chichester-harbour.co.uk Chichester Harbour Website]
*[http://www.chichestersharks.co.uk The website of Chichester Sharks Flag American Football team]
*[http://www.cft.org.uk/ The Website Of Chichester Festival Theatre]
{{English Cities}}
[[Category:Chichester| ]]
[[Category:Cities in England]]
[[Category:English county towns]]
[[de:Chichester]]
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[[sv:Chichester]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Alston</title>
<id>6932</id>
<revision>
<id>40956096</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T02:42:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Crystallina</username>
<id>429935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:alston africa.jpg|thumb|260px|"Again The Springboard Of Civilization", 1943 cartoon by Charles Alston featuring WWII African American soldier.]]
'''Charles Alston''' ([[November 28]], [[1907]] - [[April 27]], [[1977]]) was a [[teacher]] and [[artist]]. He directed the [[Harlem Art Workshop]] in the [[Great Depression]] and was mentor to [[Jacob Lawrence]] and others. His [[1934]] "Girl in a Red Dress" uses such a vibrant red it reminds one of the [[Fauvists]] redux.
{{artist-stub}}
{{US-painter-stub}}
[[Category:1907 births|Alston, Charles]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Alston, Charles]]
[[Category:American painters|Alston, Charles]]
[[Category:Modern painters|Alston, Charles]]
[[Category:African American artists]]
==External links==
*[http://posters-art.us/biography/Charles_Alston.html Charles Alston Biography]
*[http://www.fine-art-prints.ws/artists/srch/Charles+Alston Charles Alston Art Prints]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chromatin</title>
<id>6933</id>
<revision>
<id>40914960</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T21:32:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.7.17.185</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Junction between B- and Z-DNA */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chromatin''' is found inside the nucleus of a cell. Chromatin is the structural building block of a [[chromosome]] and consists of a complex of [[DNA]] and [[protein]] in [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[cell (biology)|cells]]. It can be made visible by staining, hence its name, which literally means ''coloured material''. The [[nucleic acid]]s are generally in the form of double-stranded DNA - i.e. the famous [[The Double Helix| DNA-double helix]]. The major [[protein]]s involved in chromatin are [[histone]] [[protein]]s but other non-histone chromosomal proteins are prominent too. DNA is packaged into chromatin thereby constraining the size of the molecule and allowing the cell to control [[gene expression|expression]] of the chromatin packaged genes. Changes in chromatin structure are affected mainly by [[methylation]] (DNA and proteins) and [[acetylation]] (proteins). Chromatin structure is also of importance to [[DNA replication]] and [[DNA repair]].
== Introduction ==
[[image:chromatin_chromosome.png|thumb|280px|'''Fig. 1:''' Levels of DNA condensation. (1) DNA double-strand helix. (2) Chromatin strand (<font color="#0000FF">'''DNA'''</font> with <font color="#008000">'''histones'''</font>). (3) Condensed chromatin during [[interphase]] with <font color="#FF0000">'''centromere'''</font>. (4) Condensed chromatin during [[prophase]]. (Two copies of the DNA molecule are now present) (5) Chromosome during [[metaphase]].]]
Simplistically, there are three major levels of chromatin organization (Fig. 1):
#[[nucleosome]] - "beads on a string"
#30 nm condensed chromatin fiber consisting of nucleosome arrays in their most compact form
# The hierarchy continues with increasing DNA-packaging density until the metaphase [[chromosome]] is attained.
[[Spermatozoon|Sperm cell]] chromatin is an exception to the above. During [[spermiogenesis]], the [[spermatid]]'s chromatin is remodelled into a more tightly packaged, compact, almost crystal-like structure. This process is associated with the cessation of [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] and involves [[cell nucleus|nuclear]] protein exchange. The histones are mostly displaced, and replaced by [[protamine]]s, small, [[arginine]]-rich proteins.
Two distinct types of chromatin can be distinguished:
*[[Euchromatin]]
*[[Heterochromatin]]
== Levels of Chromatin Organization in Detail ==
[[Image:B&Z&A DNA formula.jpg|thumb|right|240px|'''Fig. 2:''' Alternative structural forms of DNA influencing chromatin structure]]
=== Chromatin & Watson/Crick base pairing ===
Crick and Watson's famous structure of [[DNA]] (called B-DNA) is only one of three possible structural forms (Fig. 2).
For the C-N bond between a base and its sugar there are two different conformations. The anti-conformation occurs in all A- and B-DNAs as well as in Z-DNA where a Cytosine is present.
In case of a Guanine Z-DNA takes the syn-conformation. The periodic change between a purine and pyrimidine along the strand of a Z-DNA accomplishes the alternating syn-anti-conformation characteristic of the zigzag structure of the Z-DNA helix. The yellow circles designated A, B, Z indicate the axes of the three possible types of DNA (Fig. 2).
[[Image:B&Z junction DNA.jpg |
ed proper for boys and blue for girls, and times when no set color convention appears to have been in place. [[http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=238733]]
* Blue is the color of the [[snooker]] [[ball]] which has a 5-point value.
* '''Blue''' is a variety of [[credit card]] issued by [[American Express]].
* The [[German language|German]] word for blue is used for "drunk". "blau machen" (make blue) means to skip work.
* In [[Russian language|Russian]], the word for light blue is slang for "[[gay]]".
* '''Blue movie''' is a [[slang]] term for a pornographic [[film]]. There are also "blue [[magazine]]s". This term is most common in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] but also used in the United States and [[Israel]].
* In [[auto racing]], a blue flag advises a car to yield to faster traffic behind.
* [[Blue balls]] is a slang term for a temporary fluid congestion in the [[scrotum]] and [[prostate]] region. It is most commonly associated with [[adolescents]] but can occur in any [[sexually mature]] [[male]]. It is often accompanied by a deep, agonizing, cramping ache.
* Royalty are sometimes described as having blue blood.
* *A "'''[[blue chip]]'''" is the nickname for a [[stock]] that is thought to be safe and in excellent financial shape. In the United States, [[U.S. one dollar bill|$1 bill]]s are delivered by the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] in blue straps.
==Books and written works==
A "'''blue book'''" is an [[almanac]] or similar reference work. For example, the ''[[Oregon Blue Book]]'' is the official directory and fact repository of the state of [[Oregon]], while the ''Harvard Bluebook'' dictates a style of legal citation. '''''[[The Blue Book]]''''' is a term for a policy document issued by the [[Federal Communications Commission]] in the [[United States]] in [[1946]], urging [[television network]]s to uphold their commitment to [[public service]]. The '''''[[Kelley Blue Book]]''''' is a popular guide used for [[automobile]] prices.
'''Blue pages''' are a [[telephone directory]] of government offices&mdash;either an official blue book or a section of a commercial directory. Compare with the [[yellow pages]] or [[white pages]].
In ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' there are many references to the [[Races from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Hooloovoo|Hooloovoo]], "a super-intelligent shade of the color blue."
''On Being Blue: A Philosophical Inquiry'' is a book-length essay by [[William H. Gass]].
==Prizes==
"'''[[Blue ribbon]]'''" is a term used to describe something of high quality, such as a '''''blue-ribbon panel''''' or a '''''blue-ribbon commission'''''. This comes from the practice of awarding blue ribbons for first place in competitions. The '''[[Blue Riband]]''' was a notional prize conferred since the [[1860]]s to the ship that made the fastest trans-Atlantic crossing. The first ship actually to fly a blue pennant from her masthead upon winning this was the French liner Normandie in 1936.
==Math, science, and technology==
[[Image:Windows 9X BSOD.png|200px|thumb|right|The "[[blue Screen of Death|blue screen of death]]."]]
*"'''Big Blue'''" is a nickname for [[International Business Machines|IBM]].
*IBM's [[chess computer]] (which defeated chess champion [[Garry Kasparov]]) was called '''[[Deep Blue]]'''.
*Users of [[Microsoft Windows]] often use the term "blue" to describe a computer that has encountered a "'''[[blue Screen of Death|blue screen of death]]'''."
*A '''[[blue box]]''' is an electronic device with a tone pulsator that simulates a [[telephone operator]]'s dialing console by replicating the tones used to switch long-distance calls and using them to route the user's own call, bypassing the normal switching mechanism. They were used to avoid charges for telephone calls.
*In medical diagrams, blue is used to represent [[vein]]s carrying deoxygenated [[blood]] back to the [[heart]]. Deoxygenated blood is actually reddish violet. When a medical patient is not getting enough oxygen or has stopped breathing, however, their skin often takes a blue tint, a condition called [[cyanosis]].
*In [[astronomy]], a '''[[blue moon]]''' is the second [[full moon]] in a calendar month, the third full moon in a season that has four, or a moon that appears blue because of particles in the atmosphere. All are uncommon enough that the expression "'''once in a blue moon'''" means "once in a great while" or "infrequently."
*Additionally, the color blue is a trademark of the [[Dow Chemical Company]]. [http://www.dow.com/styrofoam/what.htm]
* In the [[CIE 1931 color space]], the complement of blue is yellow.
* Blue 80A [[filter (photography)|filter]]s are used to correct the excessive redness of tungsten lighting in color [[photography]].
==National, athletic, and university associations==
[[Image:Flag of Israel.svg|thumb|200px|right|This Israeli flag depicts a blue [[Star of David]] on a white background between two blue stripes. The color blue is mandated only as "sky blue," and the shade varies from flag to flag; sometimes it is a dark, almost navy blue, other times it is a very light blue.]]
'''''Azzurro''''', a light blue, is the national color of [[Italy]]. Blue (along with [[white]]) is the national color of [[Israel]] and the color is seen on the [[Flag of Israel|Israeli flag]].
Dark blue is associated with the [[University of Oxford]] and light blue with the [[University of Cambridge]]. The sporting colors of these universities are called "the blues."
A specific shade of dark blue is associated with [[Yale University]]. [[Blue Devils]] are the mascot of many American universities; [[Blue Devils (Duke University)|Duke University's blue devils]] are the most famous. Ironically their rivals the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] also uses a shade of blue as their school color. This has led many to associate their school colors to differentiate shades of blue in daily occurrences, with the darker blue known as "Duke blue" and the lighter powder blue as "Carolina blue." Other universities with the mascot include [[Brigham Young University]], [[Central Connecticut State University]], [[Dillard University]], [[Lawrence Technological University]], [[State University of New York at Fredonia]], and the [[University of Wisconsin-Stout]].
The [[Columbus Blue Jackets]] are a [[National Hockey League]] team based in [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], [[Ohio]]. The [[Blue Jays]] are the mascots of the [[Toronto Blue Jays]], a [[Major League Baseball]] team, and its two [[minor league baseball|minor league]] affiliates: the [[Dunedin Blue Jays]] in [[Dunedin, Florida|Dunedin]], [[Florida]], and the [[Pulaski Blue Jays]] in [[Pulaski, Virginia|Pulaski]], [[Virginia]].
==Social class, occupation, and military associations==
Blue may denote the [[working class]], derived from the traditional color of factory [[uniform]]s. [[Blue-collar|Blue-collar workers]] are industrial workers and are often contrasted with [[white-collar]] office workers. However, in contrast to "blue collar," the phrase "blue blood" is used to mean "from an [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] background," because pale, untanned skin&ndash;historically, a sign of nobility&ndash;allows blue-tinged veins to show through.
Several vocations are associated with blue. [[Law enforcement]], and uniformed [[police]], often wear blue uniforms and have become associated with the color, as seen in phrases such as "boys in blue," "blue line," and "blue wall." Most [[police car]]s have blue colors, and [[United Nations]] [[peacekeeping|peacekeepers]] are uniformed in blue and white. "Bluecoat" (akin to "[[redcoat]]") refers to a uniformed police officer. Police in the [[People's Republic of China]] changed the color of their uniforms from [[green]] to blue in the late [[1990s]], partly to emphasize their civilian role. Since laws prohibit police from declaring a strike, the "[[blue flu]]" is a "[[sickout]]": a type of [[strike action]] in which police call in sick.
Blue is associated with many [[air force]]s and [[navy|navies]] because of the color of their dress uniforms, while green is associated with [[army|armies]]. [[Navy blue]] is a particular shade of blue worn by sailors in the [[Royal Navy]] since [[1748]] and subsequently adopted by other navies around the world. The [[Blue Angels]] are an acrobatic flight squadron of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]].
==Political associations==
[[Image:Bdoglogo.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Logo of the congressional [[Blue Dog Democrats]].]]
:''Main article: [[Political colour]]''
Blue, like [[white]], may represent authority, as opposed to [[revolutionary]] [[red]] or [[anarchism|anarchist]] [[black]].
During the [[American Civil War]], blue was used to represent the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], while [[gray]] represented the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. This representation was based on the uniforms worn by the respective armies, although uniforms remained non-standard thoughout the war and sometimes the colors were switched.
The coalition with the [[Kuomintang]], [[People's First Party]], and the [[New Party]] in Taiwan, which favors unification with mainland China is called the [[Pan-blue coalition]] due to the color of the party banner of the [[Kuomintang]] which is considered the dominant party of the coalition.
Internationally, blue is the symbol for [[conservatism]] and [[political party|conservative political parties]]. There are several notable exceptions and different meanings:
{| {{prettytable}}
|-
!Seal/logo||Nation||Political party||Ideology||Color(s)
|-
![[Image:Liberalpartyofaus.jpg|40px]]
|[[List of political parties in Australia|Austr |
in the [[Azerbaijan presidential election, 2003|15 October election]]. Another view shared by many international organisations is that in reality a second tour of voting should have taken place between the two opposition candidates Isa Gambar and Lala Shevket.
*[[Human Rights Watch]] commented on [[Azerbaijan presidential election, 2003|these elections]]: "Human Rights Watch research found that the government has heavily intervened in the campaigning process in favor of Prime Minister Ilham Aliev, son of current President Heidar Aliev. The government has stacked the Central Election Commission and local election commission with its supporters, and banned local non-governmental organizations from monitoring the vote. As the elections draw nearer, government officials have openly sided with the campaign of Ilham Aliev, constantly obstructing opposition rallies and attempting to limit public participation in opposition events. In some cases, local officials have closed all the roads into town during opposition rallies, or have extended working and school hours—on one occasion, even declaring Sunday a workday—to prevent participation in opposition rallies." (source: [http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/azerbaijan/index.htm HTML format])
*OSCE’s final report (source: [http://www.osce.org/documents/html/pdftohtml/1151_en.pdf.html HTML format] or [http://www.osce.org/documents/odihr/2003/11/1151_en.pdf PDF format])
Azerbaijan held [[Azerbaijan parliamentary election, 2005|parliamentary elections]] on Sunday, [[6 November]] [[2005]].
== Subdivisions ==
''Main article: [[Subdivisions of Azerbaijan]]''
Azerbaijan is divided into:
*59 [[raion]]s (rayonlar; rayon &ndash; singular),
*11 [[cities]] (şəhərlər; şəhər &ndash; singular),
*1 [[autonomous republic]] (muxtar respublika), which itself is divided into:
**7 raions
**1 city
== Geography ==
[[Image:Map of Azerbaijan with cities.png|thumb|right|200px|Map of Azerbaijan]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Azerbaijan]]''
Azerbaijan has an [[arid]] [[climate]], except in the southeast. Temperatures vary by season. In the southeast [[lowland]], temperatures average 6°[[Celsius|C]] (43°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) in the winter and 26°C (80°F) in the summer &mdash; though daily maxima typically reach 32°C (89°F). In the northern and western [[mountain range]]s, temperatures average 12°C (55°F) in the summer and &ndash;9°C (20°F) in the winter.
Annual rainfall over most of the country varies from 200 to 400 millimetres (8 to 16&nbsp;in) and is generally lowest in the northeast. In the far southeast, however, the climate is much moister and annual rainfall can be as high as 1300 [[millimetre]]s (51 [[inch|in]]). For most of the country, the wettest periods are in spring and autumn, with summers being the driest.
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Azerbaijan]]''
The economy is largely based on [[industry]]. Industries include machine manufacture, [[petroleum]] and other [[mining]], petroleum [[refining]], [[textiles|textile]] production, and chemical processing. [[Agriculture]] accounts for one-third of Azerbaijan’s economy. Most of the nation’s farms are [[irrigation|irrigated]]. In the lowlands, farmers grow such crops as [[cotton]], [[fruit]], [[cereal|grain]], [[tea]], [[tobacco]], and many types of [[vegetable]]s. [[Silkworm]]s are raised for the production of natural [[silk]] for the clothing industry. Azerbaijan’s herders raise [[cattle]], [[domestic sheep]] and [[goat]]s near the mountain ranges. [[Seafood]] and [[fish]] are caught in the nearby [[Caspian Sea]]. Azerbaijan has a highly dynamic economy, mainly because of oil, and has a GDP growth rate of up to 11% a year.
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Azerbaijan]]''
Azerbaijan has population of roughly 7,911,974 (July 2005 est.), 90.6% of whom are ethnic [[Azerbaijanis|Azerbaijani]] (also called Azeris; 1999 census figures). Azeris also form about 24% of the population of [[Iran]], predominating in the northern regions of the country. Most of Armenia’s Azeri minority have left since independence and the [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] war. The second largest ethnic group are [[Russians]], who now form roughly 1.8% of the population, most having emigrated since independence.
The [[Talysh]], an Iranian people, predominate in the southernmost regions of the country around the Talysh mountains and across the border into Iran. Some people argue that the number of [[Talysh]] is greater than officially recorded, as many of them are counted as Azerbaijanis.
Numerous 'Dagestani' peoples live around the border with [[Dagestan]]. The main peoples are the [[Lezgis]], [[Caucasian Avars|Avar]] and the [[Tsakhur]]. Smaller groups include the [[Budukh]], [[Udi]], [[Kryts]] and [[Khinalug]]/Ketsh around the village of [[Xinaliq]]. Around the town of [[Quba]] in the north live the [[Tats]], also known as the [[Mountain Jews]], who are also to be found in Dagestan. Many Tats have emigrated to [[Israel]] in recent years, though this trend has slowed and even reversed more recently.
The country’s large Armenian population mostly fled to [[Armenia]] and to other countries with the beginning of the Armenian-Azeri conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh. During the same period, Azerbaijan also received a large influx of Azerbaijanis fleeing Armenia and later [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] and adjacent provinces occupied by the Armenians. Almost all of Azerbaijan’s Armenians now live in Nagorno-Karabakh.
Azerbaijan also contains numerous smaller groups, such as [[Kurds]], [[Georgians]], [[Tatars]] and [[Ukrainians]].
Most Azerbaijanis (about 60–70%) are [[Twelver Shia]] [[Islam|Muslim]]. Other [[religion]]s or beliefs that are followed by many in the country are the orthodox [[Sunni]] Islam, the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] (in Karabakh), the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and various other Christian and Muslim sects. The Tat in [[Quba]], as well as several thousand [[Ashkenazim Jews]] in Baku, follow [[Judaism]]. Adherence to religious dogmas is nominal for the majority of the population and attitudes are secular. Traditionally, villages around Baku and the [[Lenkoran]] region are considered stronghold of Shi‘ism, and in some northern regions populated by Sunni Dagestani people, the Salafi sect has gained a following. Folk Islam is widely practiced, but an organized [[Sufi]] movement is absent.
== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Azerbaijan]]''
The official language of Azerbaijan is [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], a member of the [[Oguz]] subdivision of the [[Turkic languages|Turkic language family]], and is spoken by around 95% of the republic’s population, as well as about a third of the population of Iran. Its closest relatives in language are [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]. As a result of the language policy of the [[Soviet Union]], [[Russian language|Russian]] is also commonly spoken as a second language among the urbane. There are also speakers of [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] in the state. Azerbaijan’s culture has long cultural roots with [[Iran]] and [[Iranian peoples]].{{fact}}
* [[Music of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Islam in Azerbaijan]]
* [[Azerbaijani literature]]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Azerbaijan]]
* [[Transportation in Azerbaijan]]
* [[Military of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Foreign relations of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Public holidays in Azerbaijan]]
* [[List of Azerbaijanis]]
* [[Scout Association of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]
==References==
*Forrest, Brett (Nov. 28, 2005). "Over a Barrel in Baku". ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'', pp. 54&ndash;60.
== External links==
{{sisterlinks|Azerbaijan}}
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aj.html CIA World Factbook: ''Azerbaijan'']
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1235976.stm BBC Country Profile: ''Azerbaijan'']
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Azerbaijan Open Directory Project: ''Azerbaijan''] directory category
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/amed/azerbaijan/azerbaijan.html Library of Congress Portals to the World: Azerbaijan] directory category
* [http://www.azerb.com/ Azerbaijan from A to Z]
* [http://www.azer.com Azerbaijan International] world's largest website about Azerbaijan
* [http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Azerbaijan.html Encyclopedia of Nations — Azerbaijan]
* [http://www.azadlig.org/ Democratic Youth Movement New Idea]
* [http://www.zerbaijan.com/ Virtual Azerbaijan Republic]
*[http://www.caucaz.com/home_uk Caucaz.com]: Weekly online magazine publishing articles and reports about Azerbaijan and South Caucasus. Available in English and French.
*[http://www.bakutoday.net Baku Today]
*[http://www.azadliq.az/ Independent newspaper Azadliq]
*[http://www.azstat.org/indexen.php State Statistical Committee of the Azerbaijan Republic]
*[http://www.un-az.org United Nations Office in Azerbaijan] with a [http://www.un-az.org/couinf.htm country report]
*[http://ifex.org/en/content/view/full/179/ IFEX: Press Freedom in Azerbaijan]
{{Azerbaijantie}}
{{Europe}}
[[Category:Azerbaijan| ]]
[[ar:أذربيجان]]
[[an:Azerbayán]]
[[ast:Azerbaiyán]]
[[az:Azərbaycan]]
[[bg:Азербайджан]]
[[zh-min-nan:Azerbaijan]]
[[be:Азэрбайджан]]
[[bn:আজারবাইজান]]
[[bs:Azerbejdžan]]
[[ca:Azerbaidjan]]
[[cs:Ázerbájdžán]]
[[cy:Azerbaijan]]
[[da:Aserbajdsjan]]
[[de:Aserbaidschan]]
[[et:Aserbaidžaan]]
[[el:Αζερμπαϊτζάν]]
[[es:Azerbaiyán]]
[[eo:Azerbajĝano]]
[[eu:Azerbaijan]]
[[fa:جمهوری آذربایجان]]
[[fr:Azerbaïdjan]]
[[fy:Azerbeidzjan]]
[[gl:Acerbaixán - Azərbaycan]]
[[ko:아제르바이잔]]
[[hi:अज़रबैजान]]
[[hr:Azerbejdžan]]
[[io:Azerbaijan]]
[[id:Azerbaijan]]
[[is:Aserbaídsjan]]
[[it:Azerbaijan]]
[[he:אזרבייג'ן]]
[[ka:აზერბაიჯანი]]
[[kk:Әзірбайжан]]
[[ku:Azerbeycan]]
[[lv:Azerbaidžāna]]
[[lt:Azerbaidžanas]]
[[lb:Aserbaidschan]]
[[li:Azerbaidzjan]]
[[hu:Azerbajdzsán]]
[[ms:Azerbaijan]]
[[na:Azerbaijan]]
[[nl:Azerbeidzjan]]
[[nd |
2.152|66.170.202.152]] ([[User talk:66.170.202.152|talk]]) to last version by 70.230.12.123</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:El_salvador_sm04.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of El Salvador]]
[[image:Elsalvador_relief_map_1980.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Shaded relief map of El Salvador]]
[[Image:Satellite image of El Salvador in April 2002.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of El Salvador in April 2002]]
[[Image:El salvador econ 1980.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Economic activity of El Salvador, 1980]]
[[Image:El salvador land 1980.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Vegetation and land use, 1980]]
The '''geography of El Salvador''' is unique among the nations of [[Central America]]. The country is in borders the [[Pacific Ocean|North Pacific Ocean]] to the south and southwest, with [[Guatemala]] in the north-northwest and [[Honduras]] to the north-northeast. In the southeast, the [[Golfo de Fonseca]] separtes it from [[Nicaragua]]. El Salvador is the smallest Central American country in area and is the only one without a [[coast]]line on the [[Caribbean Sea]].
'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:'''
{{coor dm|13|50|N|88|55|W|type:country}}
==Geology==
El Salvador, along with the rest of Middle America (a region comprising mainly Mexico and Central America), is one of the most seismologically active regions on earth, situated atop three of the large tectonic plates that constitute the earth's surface. The motion of these plates causes the area's earthquake and volcanic activity.
Most of Central America and the Caribbean Basin rests on the relatively motionless Caribbean Plate. The Pacific Ocean floor, however, is being carried northeast by the underlying motion of the Cocos Plate. Ocean floor material is relatively dense; when it strikes the lighter granite rocks of Central America, the ocean floor is forced down under the land mass, creating the deep Middle American Trench that lies off the coast of El Salvador. The subduction of the Cocos Plate accounts for the frequency of earthquakes near the coast. As the rocks constituting the ocean floor are forced down, they melt, and the molten material pours up through weaknesses in the surface rock, producing volcanoes and geysers.
North of El Salvador, Mexico and most of Guatemala are riding on the westward-moving North American Plate that butts against the northern edge of the stationary Caribbean Plate in southern Guatemala. The grinding action of these two plates creates a fault, similar to the San Andreas in California, that runs the length of the valley of the Rio Motagua in Guatemala. Motion along this fault is the source of earthquakes in northernmost El Salvador.
El Salvador has a long history of destructive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. San Salvador was destroyed in 1756 and 1854, and it suffered heavy damage in the 1919, 1982, and 1986 tremors. The country has over twenty volcanoes, although only two, San Miguel and Izalco, have been active in recent years. Violent eruptions are rare. From the early nineteenth century to the mid1950s , Izalco erupted with a regularity that earned it the name "Lighthouse of the Pacific." Its brilliant flares were clearly visible for great distances at sea, and at night its glowing lava turned it into a brilliant luminous cone.
==Physical features==
Two parallel mountain ranges cross El Salvador east to west with a central plateau between them and a narrow coastal plain hugging the Pacific. These physical features divide the country into two physiographic regions. The mountain ranges and central plateau covering 85 percent of the land comprise the interior highlands. The remaining coastal plains are referred to as the Pacific lowlands.
The northern range of mountains, the Sierra Madre, forms a continuous chain along the border with Honduras. Elevations in this region range from 1,600 to 2,200 meters. The area was once heavily forested, but overexploitation led to extensive erosion, and it has become semibarren. As a result, it is the country's most sparsely populated zone, with little farming or other development.
The southern range of mountains is actually a discontinuous chain of more than twenty volcanoes, clustered into five groups. The westernmost group, near the Guatemalan border, contains Izalco and Santa Ana, which at 2,365 meters is the highest point in El Salvador. Between the cones lie alluvial basins and rolling hills eroded from ash deposits. The volcanic soil is rich, and much of El Salvador's coffee is planted on these slopes.
The central plateau constitutes only 25 percent of the land area but contains the heaviest concentration of population and the country's largest cities. This plain is about 50 kilometers wide and has an average elevation of 600 meters. Terrain here is rolling, with occasional escarpments, lava fields, and geysers.
A narrow plain extends from the coastal volcanic range to the Pacific Ocean. This region has a width ranging from one to thirty-two kilometers with the widest section in the east, adjacent to the Golfo de Fonseca. Near La Libertad, however, the mountains pinch the lowlands out; the slopes of adjacent volcanoes come down directly to the sea. Surfaces in the Pacific lowlands are generally flat or gently rolling and result from alluvial deposits from nearby slopes.
El Salvador has over 300 rivers, the most important of which is the Rio Lempa. Originating in Guatemala, the Rio Lempa cuts across the northern range of mountains, flows along much of the central plateau, and finally cuts through the southern volcanic range to empty into the Pacific. It is El Salvador's only navigable river, and it and its tributaries drain about half the country. Other rivers are generally short and drain the Pacific lowlands or flow from the central plateau through gaps in the southern mountain range to the Pacific.
Numerous lakes of volcanic origin are found in the interior highlands; many of these lakes are surrounded by mountains and have high, steep banks. The largest lake, the Lago de Ilopango, lies just to the east of the capital. Other large lakes include the Lago de Coatepeque in the west and the Lago de Güija on the Guatemalan border. The Cerron Grande Dam on the Rio Lempa has created a large reservoir, the Embalse Cerron Grande, in northern El Salvador.
Izalco has erupted at least 51 times since 1770. It earned the nickname "Lighthouse of the Pacific" because it was the most active volcano in Central America.
==Climate==
El Salvador has a tropical climate with pronounced wet and dry seasons. Temperatures vary primarily with elevation and show little seasonal change. The Pacific lowlands are uniformly hot; the central plateau and mountain areas are more moderate.
The rainy season, known locally as ''invierno'', or winter, extends from May to October. Almost all the annual rainfall occurs during this time, and yearly totals, particularly on southern-facing mountain slopes, can be as high as 200 centimeters. Protected areas and the central plateau receive lesser, although still significant, amounts. Rainfall during this season generally comes from low pressure over the Pacific and usually falls in heavy afternoon thunderstorms. Although hurricanes occasionally form in the Pacific, they seldom affect El Salvador.
From November through April, the northeast trade winds control weather patterns. During these months, air flowing from the Caribbean has had most of the precipitation wrung out of it passing over the mountains in Honduras. By the time this air reaches El Salvador, it is dry, hot, and hazy. This season is known locally as ''verano'', or summer.
Temperatures vary little with season; elevation is the primary determinant. The Pacific lowlands are the hottest region, with annual averages ranging from 25°C to 29°C. San Salvador is representative of the central plateau, with an annual average temperature of 23°C and absolute high and low readings of 38°C and 7°C, respectively. Mountain areas are the coolest, with annual averages from 12°C to 23°C and minimum temperatures sometimes approaching freezing.
==Other facts==
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
21,040 km&sup2;
<br>''land:''
20,720 km&sup2;
<br>''water:''
320 km&sup2;
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than Massachusetts
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br>''total:''
545 km
<br>''border countries:''
Guatemala 203 km, Honduras 342 km
'''Coastline:'''
307 km
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''territorial sea:''
200 nm
'''Climate:'''
tropical; rainy season (May to October); dry season (November to April); tropical on coast; temperate in uplands
'''Terrain:'''
mostly mountains with narrow coastal belt and central plateau
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
Pacific Ocean 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
[[Cerro El Pital]] 2,730 m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[hydropower]], [[geothermal power]], [[petroleum]], [[arable land]]
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
27%
<br>''permanent crops:''
8%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
29%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
5%
<br>''other:''
31% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
1,200 km&sup2; (1993 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
known as the Land of Volcanoes; frequent and sometimes very destructive earthquakes and volcanic activity, also destructive hurricanes are very common.
'''Environment - current issues:'''
deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; contamination of soils from disposal of toxic wastes; Hurricane Mitch damage
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
[[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Wetlands]]
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
Law of the Sea
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Co |
nese]] government has developed some of the most sophisticated forms of internet censorship in order to control or eliminate access to information on sensitive topics such as the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], [[Falun Gong]], [[Tibet]], [[Taiwan]], [[pornography]] or [[democracy]]. They have also enlisted the help of some American companies like [[MSN]], who have subsequently been criticized by proponents of freedom of speech.
{{main_article|[[Internet censorship in mainland China]]}}
==Issues raised by involuntary commitment==
A small minority has questioned whether [[involuntary commitment]] laws, when the diagnosis of [[mental illness]] leading, in whole or in part, to the commitment, was made to some degree on the basis of the speech or writings of the committed individual, violate the right of freedom of speech of that individual, in jurisdictions where that is relevant.
==Quotations==
*"I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it". [[Evelyn Beatrice Hall]] writing as S.G. Tallentyre in [[1906]] (Commonly attributed to [[Voltaire]] of whom Hall wrote a biography).
*"If liberty means anything at all it means the right to tell people what they do not want to hear." - [[George Orwell]]
*"...When compared with the suppression of [[anarchism|anarchy]] every other question sinks into insignificance. The anarchist is the enemy of humanity, the enemy of all mankind, and his is a deeper degree of criminality than any other. No immigrant is allowed to come to our shores if he is an anarchist; and no paper published here or abroad should be permitted circulation in this country if it propagates anarchist opinions." [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[1908]]
*"The principle of free thought is not free thought for those who agree with us but freedom for the thought we hate." [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] in ''[[United States v. Schwimmer]]'' ([[1929]]).
*"[[Goebbels]] was in favor of free speech for views he liked. So was [[Stalin]]. If you're in favor of free speech, then you're in favor of freedom of speech precisely for views you despise. Otherwise, you're not in favor of free speech." [[Noam Chomsky]], ''[[Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media]]'' (1992).
*"...if any opinion is compelled to silence, that opinion may, for aught we can certainly know, be true. To deny this is to assume our own infallibility." [[John Stuart Mill]], ''[[On Liberty]]'' (1859).
*"In a free state, tongues too should be free." [[Erasmus]], ''[[The Education of a Christian Prince]]'' (1516).
*"Aren't people absurd! They never use the freedoms they do have, but demand those they don't have; they have freedom of thought, they demand freedom of speech." [[Søren Kierkegaard]], ''Diapsalmata, [[Either/Or]]'' (1843).
*"The price of freedom of religion, or of speech, or of the press, is that we must put up with a good deal of rubbish." [[Robert H. Jackson]]
== See also ==
* [[Copyleft]]
* [[Copyright]]
* "[[Fighting words]]"
* [[Free content]]
* [[Freedom of information]]
* [[Media transparency]]
* [[Parrhesia]]
* [[Support Denmark Movement]]
== Research Resources ==
* [[First Amendment Library]]
* [[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.ifex.org The International Freedom of Expression Exchange]
*[http://www.article19.org ARTICLE 19, Global Campaign for Free Expression]
*[http://www.oas.org/OASpage/humanrights.htm Organization of American States - Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression]
*[http://www.osce.org/fom/ Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe - Representative on Freedom of the Media]
*[http://www.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/index.htm United Nations - Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression]
*[http://www.unesco.org/webworld/fed UNESCO - Freedom of Expression]
*[http://www.iww.org/en/culture/articles/zinn13.shtml IWW free speech struggles]
[[Category:Freedom of expression|*]]
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[[fr:Liberté d'expression]]
[[ko:표현의 자유]]
[[it:Libertà di parola]]
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<page>
<title>Free speech</title>
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<title>Frederick I Barbarossa</title>
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<username>Adam Bishop</username>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Francis Schonken|Francis Schonken]] ([[User talk:Francis Schonken|talk]]) to last version by David Parker</comment>
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<title>Franz Schmidt</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Franz Schmidt''' ([[December 22]], [[1874]] &ndash; [[February 11]], [[1939]]) was an [[Austria|Austrian]] [[composer]], cellist and pianist.
Schmidt was born in [[Bratislava]] (at that time called Pressburg: now in [[Slovakia]]). He briefly studied [[piano]] with [[Theodor Leschetizky]], with whom he clashed. He moved to [[Vienna]] with his family in 1888, and studied at the Conservatory there (composition with [[Robert Fuchs]], [[cello]] with [[Ferdinand Hellmesberger]] and theory with [[Anton Bruckner]]), graduating "with excellence" in 1896. He beat 13 other applicants in obtaining a post as cellist with the Vienna Court Opera Orchestra, with whom he played, often under [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]], until 1914. Mahler would habitually have all the cello solos played by Schmidt, even though [[Friedrich Buxbaum]] was actually the principal cellist. Schmidt was also in demand as a chamber musician, playing in the string quartet led by [[Arnold Schoenberg]]’s close friend [[Oskar Adler]], who also became Schmidt’s doctor: Schmidt and Schoenberg maintained cordial relations despite their vast differences in style. In 1914 he took up a professorship (in piano) at the State Academy of Music. In 1925 he became Director of the Academy, and in 1927 Rector. Schmidt's worsening health forced his retirement from the Academy in early 1937. He died on [[11 February]] [[1939]].
As a composer, Schmidt was slow to develop, but his reputation, at least in Austria, saw a steady growth from the late 1890s until his death in 1939. Schmidt worked mainly in large forms, including four [[symphony|symphonies]] (1899, 1913, 1928 and 1933) and two [[opera]]s: ''Notre Dame'' (1904-6) and ''Fredigundis'' (1916-21). He also composed two [[string quartet]]s (1925, 1929), a [[piano quintet]] (1926) and two quintets for [[clarinet]], [[string trio]] and piano (left hand) (1932, 1938); ''Concertante Variations on a Theme of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'' for piano (left hand) and orchestra (1923); a [[piano concerto]] (1934); ''Variations on a Hussar's Song'' for orchestra (1930); a quantity of important [[organ (music)|organ]] music, including the [[Prelude (music)|Prelude]] and [[Fugue]] in E flat (1924), the [[Toccata]] (1924), the [[Chaconne]] (1925, orchestrated 1931) and the Prelude and Fugue in C (1927). His crowning achievement was the [[oratorio]] ''Das Buch mit sieben Siegeln'' (The Book with Seven Seals)(1935-37), a setting of the [[Book of Revelation]] although the Intermezzo from ''Notre Dame'' and the Fourth Symphony are probably his best known works.
In his music, Schmidt continued to develop the Viennese classic-romantic traditions he inherited from Schubert, Brahms and his own master, Bruckner. He also takes forward the exotic ‘gypsy’ style of Liszt and Brahms. His works are monumental in form and firmly tonal in language, though quite often innovative in their designs and clearly open to some of the new developments in musical syntax initiated by Mahler and Schoenberg.
The later stages of Schmidt’s life were shadowed by tragedy. He was plagued by numerous serious illnesses, by the death of his beloved daughter, and by the collapse of his first marriage (his wife was confined to a mental hospital and later eliminated under the Nazi euthanasia laws). Schmidt himself experienced a spiritual and physical breakdown after these events, but achieved an artistic revival and solution to this crisis in his Fourth Symphony of 1933 and, especially, his oratorio. It seems, however, that like many of his contemporaries Schmidt was an enthusiast for the cause of a ‘Greater Germany’ and failed to understand the dangers inherent in the rise of Hitler. He was cynically lauded by the Nazis and at the triumphant premiere of his oratorio, shortly after the Anschluss, he was seen to give the Nazi salute. His last, unfinished work was a cantata honouring the new order. These facts long placed his posthumous reputation under a cloud; yet his lifelong friend and colleague Oskar Adler, who fled the Nazis in 1938, wrote afterwards that Schm |
it is a myth that people with strong will power cannot be hypnotized, as they claim these generally make the best participants. This is based on the idea that those who are most intelligent are also the most creative and as such they will make strong associations with the structure of language used by the hypnotist and by the visual or auditory representations inside of their mind. On the other hand, there is a common claim that no one can really be hypnotized against his or her will ([[Ambroise-Auguste Liébault|Liébault]], Le sommeil provoqué (Paris, 1889)). The counter-claim given by many hypnotists is that while you cannot make someone do anything against their will, you can change what it is that they wish to do.
Many religious and cultural rituals contain many similarities with techniques used for hypnotic induction and induce similar states in their participants.
===General effects===
====Focused attention====
This school of thought holds that hypnosis as a state is very similar to other states of extreme concentration, where a person becomes oblivious to his or her surroundings while lost in thought. Often suggested as an example is when a driver suddenly finds himself much further down the road without any memory of driving the intervening distance ([[highway hypnosis]]), or when a person is watching television and focuses so intently on the program that he or she ceases to be aware of the sides of the screen.
The act of hypnotizing, is, in effect, the act of manually inducing a similar state (''See, for example, general information on the [http://www.asch.net/genpubinfo.htm ASCH website]).
====Suggestibility====
{{main|Suggestibility}}
[[Psychologists]] have produced controversial studies that seem to show a strong correlation between the ease of putting someone in a state of hypnosis and their level of [[suggestibility]]. Some of these studies have produced the [[Harvard scale]], [[Stanford scale]], and [[eye-roll test]]; all of which are supposed to predict how easily a person can be put in a hypnotized state.
Hypnosis has further been described as "The suspension of the critical factor" which expands on the idea of "increased suggestibility". A person who claims to be hypnotized may accept statements as true that he or she would normally reject.
For example, when told "you have forgotten your name," the subject in a normal state would react with disbelief, but under hypnosis people have claimed that they have, indeed, forgotten their own names.
It often appears as if the hypnotized participant accepts the authority of the hypnotist over his or her own experience. When asked after the conclusion of such a session, some participants appear to be genuinely unable to recall the incident, while others say that they had known the hypnotist was wrong but at the time it had seemed easier just to go along with his instructions. ([[Richard Feynman]] describes this in his memoir ''[[Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!]]'' as his own experience under hypnosis.) The mechanism of this effect is however disputed: Some hypnotists would claim that this showed the difference between a deep and a shallow hypnotic [[trance]], while skeptics would question the validity of this conclusion, citing that such effects can be duplicated in other circumstances where an agent holds authority, such as the [[Milgram experiment]], and suggest that unreliability in results discredits a scientific theory of hypnosis.
====Judgment====
Some believe that hypnosis can affect the subject's judgment and therefore could potentially cause them harm. In the hand of a "professional" seeking to promote the subject's welfare, those of this opinion believe, hypnosis can produce profound effects and be a complement to treatment. Some of those who believe in hypnosis believe that in most cases one can resist hypnosis if one is aware of it. However, some of those who hold this belief also believe in [[brainwashing]] and/or [[mind control]] and believe that when hypnotism takes place in the context of these, resisting hypnosis is far more difficult. These beliefs are not generally based on scientific evidence, as there is no scientific consensus on whether mind control even exists, let alone whether it is more difficult to resist hypnotism in the context of this unverified theoretical construct.
====Abreaction====
Some psychologists and other mental health professionals are concerned that practitioners of hypnosis might evoke intense emotions in their clients that they are untrained to handle. These [[abreact|abreaction]]s might occur when spontaneously or purposefully recalling traumatic events or, some believe, spontaneous mental breakdowns.
==Hypnosis Applications==
===Hypnotherapy===
{{main|Hypnotherapy}}
[[Hypnotherapy]] is a term to describe the use of hypnosis in a therapeutic context. Many hypnotherapists refer to their practice as "clinical work." Hypnotherapy can either be used as an addition to the work of licensed physicians or psychologists, or it can be used in a stand-alone environment where the hypnotherapist in question usually owns his or her own business. The majority of certified hypnotherapists (C.Hts in the US, Diploma. Hyp in the UK) today earn a large portion of their money through the cessation of smoking (often in a single session) and the aid of weight loss (body sculpting). Some of the so called 'incurable' diseases have shown to be treatable with the mind-body (such as cancer, diabetes, and arthritis). Some of the treatments practiced by hypnotherapists, in particular so-called [[regression]], have been viewed with skepticism. In many cases [[false memories]] can be invented due to a combination of [[suggestibility]] (hypnosis is effective in part because it lowers the critical facility), [[social expectation]], and intentional or unintentional collaboration from the way the hypnotist leads the exploration. Thus many feel that these [[memories]] cannot be held to be reliable recollections, with some denouncing the procedure as harmful to the patient, and without any basis in fact.
The [[American Medical Association]] and the [[American Psychological Association]] have both cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy in dealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that "it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a true memory from a false one"[http://www.apa.org/pubinfo/mem.html], and so the procedure is "fraught with problems of potential misapplication"[http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~gallaghr/ama.html]. This is why Forensic Hypnosis is not widely used in many countries' legal systems.
===Clinical Hypnosis===
The [[American Society of Clinical Hypnosis]] is an organization that "promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with broad applications". Hypnosis is applied to a great range of both physical and psychological ailments, rather than being restricted to purely psychological phenomena. The society was founded by [[Milton Erickson]], a doctor who attempted to put hypnosis on a firm therapeutic backing in the [[1950]]s.
The late Milton H. Erickson's short-sightedness in wishing only board licensed healthcare professionals to have the right of therapeutic hypnotism practice has repeatedly caused difficulty for certified laymen in the field of hypnotism; eventually causing a redefinition of the type of hypnotism practiced by certified lay hypnotists. Such certified laymen, at least in practice of hypnotism in the United States, are now said to do "non-therapeutic issue-resolution hypnotism", rather than hypnotherapy. [http://www.ngh.net/CodeEthicsStandards.pdf] (This paragraph entered by Jocelyn L. H. Jensen-Worthington, C.HT, 02/24/06)
Recently, efforts to reduce obesity with hypnosis (when used in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy, exercise, and a low-fat diet) have been effective in most cases[http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsConditions/Obesitycc.html].
===Self-hypnosis===
{{main|Autosuggestion}}
Self-hypnosis&mdash; (or [[autosuggestion]]) hypnosis in which a person hypnotizes himself without the assistance of another person to serve as the hypnotist&mdash;is a staple of hypnotherapy-related [[self-help]] programs. It is most often used to help the self-hypnotist stay on a [[Dieting|diet]], overcome [[cigarette|smoking]] or some other [[addiction]], or to generally boost the hypnotized person's [[self-esteem]]. It is rarely used for the more complex or [[controversy|controversial]] uses of hypnotism, which require the hypnotist to monitor the hypnotized person's reactions and responses and respond accordingly. Most people who practice self-hypnosis require a focus for their [[attention]] in order to become fully hypnotized; there are many [[computer program]]s on the market that can ostensibly help in this area, though few, if any, have been scientifically proven to aid self-hypnosis.
Some people use devices known as mind machines to help them go into self-hypnosis more readily. A mind machine consists of glasses with different colored flashing LEDs on the inside, and headphones. The LEDs stimulate the visual channel while the headphones stimulate the audio channel with similar or slightly different frequencies designed to produce a certain mental state. A common occurrence is the use of binaural beats in the audio which is said to produce hypnosis more readily.
===Dental Application===
The use of hypnosis in dentistry has a long history. Dealing with hypnodontia -- the use of hypnosis in dentistry -- has attested to the increasing sophistication of hypnotic procedures to deal with the special problems of the dental patient. Besides smoothing out dental procedures by way of its generalized anti-anxiety effects, it can increase overall patient comfort, make the dental experience acceptable and bearable, decrease resistance to |
hs.
== References ==
[[William Flinders Petrie|W. M. Flinders Petrie]], ''History'', vol. iii.; [[James Henry Breasted]], ''History and Historical Documents'', vol. iv. p. 509; [[Gaston Maspero]], ''Les Empires''.
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<title>Alfons V of Aragon</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfons V of Aragon''' (also '''Alfons I of Naples''') ([[1396]] &ndash; [[June 27]], [[1458]]), surnamed ''the Magnanimous'', was the [[Kings of Aragon|King]] of [[Aragon]] and [[Naples]] and count of [[Barcelona]] from [[1416]] to [[1458]]. He was a son of [[Ferdinand I of Aragon]] (also called Ferdinand of Antequera), and is one of the most conspicuous figures of the early [[Renaissance]].
He represented the old line of the counts of Barcelona only through women, and was on his father's side descended from the House of Trastamara, a noble family of [[Castile]]. By hereditary right he was king of [[Sicily]]. He disputed the island of [[Sardinia]] with [[Genoa]] and conquered the [[kingdom of Naples]]. He fought and triumphed amid the exuberant development of individuality which accompanied the revival of learning and the birth of the modern world.
When he was a prisoner in the hands of [[Visconti|Filippo Maria Visconti]], Duke of [[Milan]], in [[1435]], Alfonso persuaded his ferocious and crafty captor to let him go by making it plain that it was the interest of Milan not to prevent the victory of the Aragonese party in Naples.
Like a true prince of the Renaissance he favoured men of letters whom he trusted to preserve his reputation to posterity. His devotion to the [[classics]] was exceptional even in that time. For example, Alfonso halted his army in pious respect before the birthplace of a Latin writer, carried Livy or Caesar on his campaigns with him, and his panegyrist [[Panormita]] did not think it an incredible lie to say that the king was cured of an illness when a few pages of [[Quintus Curtius Rufus]]' history of [[Alexander the Great]] were read to him. However, the classics had not refined his taste, for he was amused by setting iternant scholars, who swarmed to his court, to abuse one another in the indescribably filthy Latin scolding matches which were then the fashion.
Alfons founded nothing, and, after his conquest of [[Naples]] in [[1441]], ruled by his mercenary soldiers and no less mercenary men of letters. His Spanish possessions were ruled for him by his brother [[Juan II of Aragon|John]]. He left his conquest of Naples to his bastard son [[Ferdinand I of Naples|Ferdinand]]; his inherited lands, Sicily and [[Sardinia]], going to his brother John, who survived him.
Alfons was the object of diplomatic contacts from the empire of [[Ethiopia]]. In [[1428]], he received a letter from [[Yeshaq I of Ethiopia]], borne by two dignitaries, which proposed an alliance against the [[Muslim]]s and would be sealed by a dual marriage, that would require the Infante Don Pedro to bring a group of artisans to Ethiopia, where he would marry Yashq's daughter. It is not clear how or if Alfonso responded to this letter, although in a letter sent to Yeshaq's successor [[Zara Yaqob]] in [[1450]], Alfons wrote that he would be happy to send artisans to Ethiopia, if their safe arrival could be guaranteed for on a previous occasion a party of 13 of his subjects travelling to Ethiopia had all perished. <sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
He was betrothed to [[María de Castilla]] ([[1401]]&ndash;[[1458]]; sister of [[Juan II of Castile]]) in [[Valladolid]] in 1408; the marriage was celebrated in [[Valencia]] during [[1415]]. They failed to produce children.
See list of [[Monarchs of Naples and Sicily]].
== Notes ==
# [[O. G. S. Crawford]] (editor), ''Ethiopian Itineraries, circa 1400 - 1524'' (Cambridge: the Hakluyt Society, 1958), pp. 12f.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Ferdinand I of Aragon|Ferdinand I]]|
after=[[John II of Aragon|John II]]|
title=King of [[King of Aragon|Aragon]],<br/>[[King of Sicily|Sicily]], [[List of Valencian monarchs|Valencia]], and [[List of Kings of Majorca|Majorca]], <br/>[[List of Counts of Barcelona|Count of Barcelona]]|
years=1416&ndash;1458|}}
{{succession box|
title=[[King of Naples]]|
before=[[René I of Naples|René I]]|
after=[[Ferdinand I of Naples|Ferdinand I]]|
years=1442&ndash;1458}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:Aragonese monarchs]]
[[Category:Kings of Sicily]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:1396 births|Alfonso V of Aragon]]
[[Category:1458 deaths|Alfonso V of Aragon]]
[[ca:Alfons el Magnànim]]
[[cy:Alfonso V o Aragon]]
[[de:Alfons V. (Aragón)]]
[[es:Alfonso V de Aragón]]
[[fr:Alphonse V d'Aragon]]
[[it:Alfonso V d'Aragona]]
[[nl:Alfons V van Aragon]]
[[pl:Alfons V (król Aragonii)]]
[[pt:Afonso V de Aragão]]
[[zh:阿方索五世 (阿拉贡)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amathus</title>
<id>1687</id>
<revision>
<id>37520590</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T14:55:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.42.22.4</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amathus''' was an ancient city of [[Cyprus]], on the southern coast, about 24 miles west of [[Larnaka]] and 6 miles east of [[Limassol]]. It lies among sandy hills and sand-dunes, which perhaps explain its name in Greek (''amathos'', sand). Being one of the most ancient royal cities, according to the legend, was settled by one of the sons of [[Heracles]], who was worshipped there. According to other legends, [[Ariadne]], the beautiful daughter of Minos, who fled from [[Labyrinth]] in [[Crete]] with [[Theseus]], was later abandoned in Amathus. She died there while giving birth to her child and was buried in a sacred tomb.
Amathus was built on the coastal cliffs with an amazing view to the sea. It flourished and became a rich kingdom since the early years of its settlement. During the Post Phoenician Era (800 B.C.) a port was also constructed there, which served the trade with the [[Greeks]] and the Levantines. High on the cliff a temple was built, which became a special worship site to Aphrodite, the goddess of Beauty and Love. The excavators discovered the Temple of Aphrodite, which dates approximately to the first century B.C.. According to the legend, it was where Adonia took place, in which athletes competed in hunting wild boars during sport competitions. They also competed in dancing and singing to the honour of Adonis.
The earliest remains hitherto found on the site are tombs of the early [[Iron Age]] period of Graeco-Phoenician influences ([[1000 BC|1000]]-[[600 BC|600 B.C.]]). Amathus is identified by some (E. Oberhummer, ''Die Insel Cypern'', i., 1902, pp. 13-14; but see [[Citium]]) with Kartihadasti (Phoenician "New-Town") in the Cypriote tribute-list of [[Esarhaddon]] of [[Assyria]] (668 B.C.). It certainly maintained strong [[Phoenicia]]n sympathies, for it was its refusal to join the phil-Hellene league of [[Onesilos of Salamis]] which provoked the revolt of Cyprus from [[Iran|Persia]] in [[500 BC|500]]-[[494BC|494 B.C]]. (Herod. v. 105), when Amathus was besieged unsuccessfully and avenged itself by the capture and execution of Onesilos.
The phil-Hellene [[Evagoras]] of Salamis was similarly opposed by Amathus about 385-380 B.C. in conjunction with [[Citium]] and [[Soli, Cyprus|Soli]] (Diod. Sic. xiv. 98); and even after [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] the city resisted annexation, and was bound over to give hostages to [[Seleucus]] (Diod. Sic. xix. 62).
Its political importance now ended, but its temple of [[Adonis]] and [[Aphrodite]] (Venus Amathusia) remained famous in [[Roman Empire|Roman time]].
The wealth of Amathus was derived partly from its corn ([[Strabo]] 340, quoting [[Hipponax]], fi. 540 B.C.), partly from its [[copper]] mines (Ovid, ''Met.'' x. 220, 531), of which traces can be seen inland (G. Mariti, i. 187; L. Ross, ''Inselreise,'' iv. 195; W. H. Engel, ''Kypros,'' i. 111 ff.).
[[Ovid]] also mentions its sheep (Met. x. 227); the epithet ''Amathusia'' in Roman poetry often means little more than "Cypriote," attesting however the fame of the city.
Amathus was a rich and densely populated kingdom with a flourishing agriculture and mines situated very close northeast Kalavasos. In the Roman Era it became the capital of one out of the four (4) administrative regions. Later, in the 4th century A.D. it became the Episcopal See and continued to flourish until the [[Byzantine]] Period. At approximately the Late 6th century A.D., Ayios Ioannis Eleimonas (Saint John Charitable), protector of the knights was born in Amathus.
Until 1191 when Richard the Lionheart arrived in Cyprus, Amathus had declined. The tombs were plundered and the stones from the beautiful edifices were brought to Limassol to be used for new constructions. Much later, in [[1869]], a great number of blocks of stone from Amathus were used for the construction of the [[Suez Canal]].
Amathus still flourished and produced a distinguished patriarch of [[Alexandria]] ([[St. John the Merciful]]), as late as 606-616, and a ruined [[Byzantian Empire|Byzantine]] church marks the site; but it was already almost deserted when [[Richard I of England|Richard Plantagenet]] won Cyprus by a victory there over [[Isaac Comnenus of Cyprus|Isaac Comnenus]] in 1191.
A new settlement close to Amathus but further inland was created, and nam |
fication of 1855]] are among the most sought after and expensive wines in the world:
*[[Château Lafite-Rothschild]]
*[[Château Margaux]]
*[[Château Latour]]
*[[Château Haut-Brion]]
*[[Château Mouton-Rothschild]] (added in 1973)
[[Sauternes]] is a subregion of Graves famous for its intensely sweet, white, [[dessert wine]]s such as [[Chateau d'Yquem]].
The economic crisis caused by the wine glut in all but the most prestigious Bordeaux wines has led to [[Plan Bordeaux]].
==University City==
{{Main|University of Bordeaux}}
Bordeaux is a university town, with four universities devoted to natural science (Bordeaux I), medicine (Bordeaux II), the liberal arts (Bordeaux III) and political sciences and law (Bordeaux IV). Bordeaux II is located in the city centre, while the other three were relocated in the 1960s to Domaine Universitaire, a vast campus located in the communes of [[Talence]], [[Pessac]] and [[Gradignan]].
==An Architectural Jewel==
[[Image:Edouard Manet 026.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Edouard Manet]]: ''Harbour at Bordeaux'', 1871]]
Bordeaux is home to one of Europe's biggest 18th century architecture urban area, making it a sought-after destination for tourists and cinema production crews. It stands out as one of the first French cities, after [[Nancy]], to have entered an era of urbanism and metropolitan big scale projects, with the team Gabriel father and son, architects for King [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]], under the supervision of 2 intendants (Governors), first Mr. [[Dupre de Saint Maur]] then the [[Marquis de Tourny|Marquis (Marquess) de Tourny]].
It is also the first city in France to have put in place, in the 1980s, an architecture exhibition and research center, [[Arc en rêve]], still the most prestigious in France besides Paris [[Institut Francais d'Architecture|IFA]].
==Transportation==
There have been several plans for a subway network to be set up but they were given up for both geological and financial reasons. A [[tramway]] system was started in the fall of 2000 and put into service in december 2003, connecting Bordeaux with the surrounding communities. It uses the [[APS]] technology, a brand new and exclusive cableless technology developed by French company [[Alstom]] and designed to preserve the aesthetic environment the tramway is surrounded by (although very controversial for its considerable cost of installation and maintenance, but also for the numerous technical problems that paralyzed the network for an unusually long time). At the same time many downtown streets and squares along the tramway lines became pedestrian areas, with limited access by cars. The mass transit authority is the CGFTE, under municipal government, but the exploitation of the network is confered to [[Connex]].
The mainland [[railway station]] is the Gare Saint Jean, located downtown. It is the neuralgic point of the transportation system, with the [[TGV]] allowing a trip to [[Paris]] in 3 hours, and therefore an efficient connectivity with major european centers. The Gare Saint Jean is also the major hub for regional trains ([[TER]]), operated by the [[SNCF]] like the TGV. However, there is no suburban railway network and the suburbs are only reachable by bus (although some parts of the metropolitan area are now served by the new tramway). When compared to other cities of similar importance in the country, Bordeaux has dramatically archaic public transport; this is slowly changing with the recent development of the tram.
Bordeaux is served by an international airport, [[Aéroport de Bordeaux Mérignac]][http://www.bordeaux.aeroport.fr/], situated a couple of kilometers from downtown in the suburban city of [[Mérignac]] and counting among the ten busiest airports in the country. As a consequence of the temporary closure of the [[Cazaux]] military base, the civil authorities have been forced to share the runaway with the army as of November 2005. The airport operates on a two halls basis, within a single terminal, and is only linked to downtown by a coach company. This lack of a public mass transport connection has led to a certain anger in the local area. In addition to frequent flights to Paris and a number of French cities, the airport offers daily links with a number of countries such as the Bordeaux-[[London]] flight operated by [[British Airways]] and numerous flights to UK airports, reflecting the massive British presence in local tourism (see the list below, sorted by airlines):
*[[Air Algérie]] ([[Algiers]])<br>
*[[Air Atlas Blue]] ([[Marrakech]])<br>
*[[Air France]] ([[Amsterdam]], [[Barcelona]], [[Brussels]], [[Clermont-Ferrand]], [[Dublin]], [[Geneva]], [[Lille]], [[Lisbon]], [[Lyons]], [[Madrid]], [[Marseilles]], [[Mulhouse]], [[Nantes]], [[Nice]], Paris [[Orly Airport]], Paris [[Charles de Gaulle International Airport]], [[Porto]], [[Rennes]], [[Strasbourg]])<br>
*[[Aer Lingus]] ([[Dublin]])<br>
*[[Bmibaby]] ([[Birmingham]], [[Manchester]], [[Nottingham East Midlands Airport]])<br>
*[[British Airways]] ([[London Gatwick Airport]])<br>
*[[CCM Airlines]] ([[Ajaccio]], [[Bastia]])<br>
*[[Corsair]] ([[Pointe-à-Pitre]])<br>
*[[Flybe]] ([[Bristol]], [[Southampton]])<br>
*[[Iberia Airlines|Iberia]] ([[Madrid]])<br>
*[[Lufthansa]] ([[Munich]])<br>
*[[Royal Air Maroc]] ([[Casablanca]])<br>
*[[Portugalia Airlines]] ([[Lisbon]], [[Porto]])<br>
*[[Sterling Airlines]] ([[Copenhagen]], [[Stockholm]])<br>
*[[Tunisair]] ([[Tunis]])<br>
*[[Air Turquoise]] ([[Rheims]])
[[Image:Bordeaux Pont de Pierre.jpg|thumb|200px|Pont-de-Pierre]]
Bordeaux has 4 road bridges that cross the [[Garonne]], the Pont-de-Pierre build in the 1820s and 3 modern bridges built after 1960: the Pont Saint Jean, just south of the Pont de Pierre (both located downtown), the Pont d'Aquitaine, a suspended bridge downstream from downtown, and the Pont François Mitterrand, located upstream of downtown. These 2 bridges are part of a divided highway forming a ring road around Bordeaux. There is also a steel railway bridge, built in the 1850s by [[Gustave Eiffel]], and used daily by 100s, including the fast trains TGVs from/to Paris.
==Miscellaneous==
===Births===
Bordeaux was the birthplace of:
*[[Decimus Magnus Ausonius]] (c. [[310]]-[[395]]), Roman [[poet]] and [[rhetoric]]ian
*[[Bertrand Andrieu]] ([[1761]]-[[1822]]), engraver
*[[Jean Anouilh]] ([[1910]]-[[1987]]), dramatist
*[[Yvonne Arnaud]] ([[1892]]-[[1958]]), actress
*[[François Bigot]] ([[1703]]-[[1788]]), last ''[[Intendant of New France|Intendant]]'' of [[New France]]
*[[René Clément]] ([[1913]]-[[1996]]), actor, director, writer
*[[Marie-Louise Damien|Damia]] ([[1899]]-[[1978]]), singer
*[[Lili Damita]] ([[1901]]-[[1994]]), actress
*[[Danielle Darrieux]] (born [[1917]]), actress
*[[Eugène Goossens]] ([[1867]]-[[1958]]) conductor, violinist
*[[François Mauriac]] ([[1885]]-[[1970]]), writer, [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureate]]
*[[Édouard Molinaro]] (born [[1928]]), film director, producer
*[[Michel de Montaigne]] ([[1533]]-[[1592]]), philosopher
*[[Paulinus of Nola| St. Paulinus of Nola]] ([[354]]-[[431]]), educator, religious figure
*[[Pierre Rode]] ([[1774]]-[[1830]]), violinist
*[[Jean-Jacques Sempé]] (born [[1932]]), [[cartoonist]]
*[[Richard II of England]] [[1367]]- [[1400]]
*[[Jacques Ellul]] ([[1912]]–[[1994]]), sociologist, theologian, Christian anarchist
===Sports===
''[[FC Girondins de Bordeaux|Girondins de Bordeaux]]'' is the local [[football (soccer)|football]] team.
==See also==
* [[List of mayors of Bordeaux]]
* [[Canelé]], a local [[pastry]]
* [[Dogue de Bordeaux]], a [[breed of dog|breed]] of [[dog]] originally bred for [[dog fighting]]
* [[Bordeaux-Paris]], a former professional [[road bicycle racing|cycle race]]
* [[Battle of Bordeaux (football)|Battle of Bordeaux]], an informal name for the [[Football World Cup 1938|World Cup]] [[football (soccer)|football]] match between [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] and [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]] on [[June 12]], [[1938]] in Bordeaux
* [[Operation Frankton]], a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Combined Operations]] raid on shipping in Bordeaux harbour, in December [[1942]], during [[World War II]]
==External links==
{{commons|Bordeaux}}
* [http://www.bordeaux.fr Bordeaux city council website]
* [http://www.bordeaux-tourisme.com/ Tourist office website]
* [http://www.girondins.com/ Official Girondins de Bordeaux website]
* [http://www.sciencespo.fr/ Sciences Po Bordeaux]
[[Category:Bordeaux|*]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in France]]
[[Category:Twin town with Quebec City]]
[[ar:بوردو]]
[[an:Bordeus]]
[[bg:Бордо]]
[[ca:Bordeus]]
[[cs:Bordeaux]]
[[de:Bordeaux]]
[[et:Bordeaux]]
[[es:Burdeos]]
[[eo:Bordeaux]]
[[fr:Bordeaux]]
[[gl:Bordeos - Bordeaux]]
[[id:Bordeaux]]
[[it:Bordeaux]]
[[he:בורדו]]
[[la:Burdigala]]
[[nl:Bordeaux]]
[[ja:ボルドー]]
[[no:Bordeaux]]
[[oc:Bordèu]]
[[pl:Bordeaux]]
[[pt:Bordéus]]
[[ro:Bordeaux]]
[[ru:Бордо (город)]]
[[sr:Бордо]]
[[fi:Bordeaux]]
[[sv:Bordeaux]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Puzzle Bobble</title>
<id>4098</id>
<revision>
<id>38478158</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T16:36:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.61.69.84</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Arcade Game |title = Puzzle Bobble
|image = [[Image:{{PAGENAME}}.png|255 px|Puzzle Bobble screenshot]]
|developer = [[Taito Corporation|Taito]]
|publisher = [[Taito Corporation|Taito]]
|designer = Seiichi Nakakuki
|release = [[1994]]
|genre = [[Puzzle game]]
|modes = Up to 2 players simultaneously
|cabinet = Standard
|arcade system = [[Neo-Geo]] (and latter systems)
|monitor = [[Raster graphics|Raster]], standard resolution
|input = [[Joystick]] (2-way); 1 button
|ports = [[Neo Geo Pocket]], [[Game Gear]], [[Super Nintendo]], [[IBM PC|PC]], [[Wonderswan]], [[3DO]]
|notes = Features the popular characte |
219 (232-234)
*Vol. 74 Majin Buu - Attonment - Episodes 220-222 (235-237)
*Vol. 75 Majin Buu - Revival - Episodes 223-225 (238-240)
*Vol. 76 Majin Buu - Tacticts - Episodes 226-228 (241-243)
*Vol. 77 Majin Buu - Defiance - Episodes 229-231 (244-246)
*Vol. 78 Majin Buu - A Hero's Farewell - Episodes 232-234 (247-249)
*Vol. 79 Majin Buu - Emergence - Episodes 235-238 (250-253)
*Vol. 80 Fusion - Evil Buu - Episodes 239-241 (254-256)
*Vol. 81 Fusion - Play for Time - Episodes 242-244 (257-259)
*Vol. 82 Fusion - Losing Battle - Episodes 245-247 (260-262)
*Vol. 83 Fusion - Ambush - Episodes 248-250 (263-265)
*Vol. 84 Fusion - Hope Returns - Episodes 251-253 (266-268)
*Vol. 85 Fusion - The Last Saiyaman - Episodes 254-256 (269-271)
*Vol. 86 Fusion - Internal Struggle - Episodes 257-260 (272-275)
*Vol. 87 Kid Buu - Regression - Episodes 261-263 (276-278)
*Vol. 88 Kid Buu - Saiyan Pride - Episodes 264-266 (279-281)
*Vol. 89 Kid Buu - Vegeta's Plea - Episodes 267-269 (282-284)
*Vol. 90 Kid Buu - The Price of Victory - Episodes 270-272 (285-287)
*Vol. 91 Kid Buu - A New Beginning - Episodes 273-276 (288-291)
===Movies===
*Movie #1: Dead Zone
*Movie #2: World's Strongest
*Movie #3: The Tree of Might
*Movie #4: Lord Slug
*Movie #5: Cooler's Revenge
*Movie #6: The Return of Cooler
*Movie #7: Super Android 13!
*Movie #8: Broly: The Legendary Super Saiyan
*Movie #9: Bojack Unbound
*Movie #10: Broly: Second Coming
*Movie #11: Bio-Broly
*Movie #12: Fusion Reborn (Not yet released, coming 3/28/2006)
===TV Specials===
*TV Special #1: Bardock: The Father of Goku
*TV Special #2: The History of Trunks
==Theme Songs==
===Japanese Opening (OP) Themes===
"CHA-LA HEAD-CHA-LA"
:Lyrics: Yukinojō Mori
:Music: Chiho Kiyooka
:Arrangement: Kenji Yamamoto
:Vocals: Hironobu Kageyama
*Version 1: episodes 1~21 (Not on FUNimation's DVDs, but is on movies 1-3, Pioneer dub)
*Version 2: episodes 22~117
*Version 3: episodes 118~199
"WE GOTTA POWER"
:Lyrics: Yukinojō Mori
:Music: Keiju Ishikawa
:Arrangement: Keiju Ishikawa
:Vocals: Hironobu Kageyama
*Episodes 200~291
===English Opening Themes===
"Main Title" (AKA "Rock the Dragon")
"DragonBall Z" (AKA "DBZ Theme")
"DBZ Uncut Theme"
"Eternal Sacrifice" (Broly: The Legendary Super Saiyan theme song)
:Vocals: Tendril
===Japanese Ending (ED) Themes===
"でてこいとびきりZENKAIパワー!" / "Detekoi Tobikiri ZENKAI Pawā!" / "Come Out, Incredible ZENKAI Power!"
:Lyrics: Toshihisa Arakawa
:Music: Takeshi Ike
:Arrangement: Kenji Yamamoto
:Vocals: MANNA
*Episodes 1~199
"僕達は天使だった" / "Boku-tachi ha Tenshi Datta" / "We Were Angels"
:Lyrics: Yukinojō Mori
:Music: Takeshi Ike
:Arrangement: Osamu Tozuka
:Vocals: Hironobu Kageyama
*Episodes 200~291
==Cast List==
{|
|-
! Character Name !! Voice Actor (Japanese) !! Voice Actor (English)
|-
| [[Son Goku (Dragon Ball)|Son Gokū]] || [[Masako Nozawa]]|| [[Ian James Corlett]]<br/>[[Peter Kelamis]]<br/>[[Sean Schemmel]]
|-
| [[Son Gohan]] || Masako Nozawa || [[Saffron Henderson]]<br/>[[Stephanie Nadolny]]<br/>[[Kyle Hebert]]
|-
| [[Son Goten]] || Masako Nozawa || [[Kara Edwards]]
|-
| [[Piccolo (Dragon Ball)|Piccolo]] || [[Toshio Furukawa]] || [[Scott McNeil]]<br/>[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Vegeta]] || [[Ryo Horikawa]] || [[Brian Drummond]]<br/>[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Bulma]] || [[Hiromi Tsuru]] || [[Lalainia Lindbjerg]]<br/>[[Tiffany Vollmer]]
|-
| [[Kuririn]] (Toriyama: Kulilin) (Bandai: Klylin) (Dub: Krillin)|| [[Mayumi Tanaka]] || [[Terry Klassen]]<br/>[[Sonny Strait]]
|-
| [[Yajirobe]] || Mayumi Tanaka || Brian Drummond<br/>[[Mike McFarland]]
|-
| [[Yamcha]] || [[Tōru Furuya]] || [[Ted Cole]]<br/>[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Tenshinhan]] (Dub: Tien Shinhan) || [[Hirotaka Suzuoki]] || [[Matthew Smith]]<br/>[[John Burgmeier]]
|-
| [[Chaozu|Chiaotzu]] (Chaoz) (Chaozu) || [[Hiroko Emori]] || [[Cathy Weseluck]]<br/>[[Monika Antonelli]]
|-
| [[Chi-Chi (Dragon Ball)|Chi-Chi]] || [[Mayumi Sho]] (1-66)<br/>[[Naoko Watanabe]] (88-291)|| [[Laara Sadiq]]<br/>[[Cynthia Cranz]]
|-
| [[Muten Rôshi|Muten Rōshi]]/Kame-Sen'nin (Dub: Master Roshi) || [[Kohei Myauchi]] (2-260)<br/>[[Hiroshi Masuoka]] (288-291)|| Ian James Corlett<br/>[[Dave Ward]]<br/>Mike McFarland
|-
| [[Oolong (Dragon Ball)|Oolong]] || [[Naoki Tatsuta]]|| [[Doug Parker]]<br/>[[Mark Britten]]<br/>[[Bradford Jackson]]
|-
| [[Puar|Pu-erh]] (Pu'er) (Dub: Puar) || Naoko Watanabe || Cathy Weseluck<br/>Monika Antonelli
|-
| [[Mr. Satan]] (Edited dub: Hercule) || [[Daisuke Gōri]] || [[Chris Rager]]
|-
| [[Videl]] || [[Yuko Minaguchi]] || Kara Edwards
|-
| [[Android 18|Jinzōningen #18]] (Cyborg #18) (Dub: Android #18) || [[Miki Itou]] || [[Meredith McCoy]]
|-
| [[Mirai Trunks]] || [[Takeshi Kusao]] || [[Eric Vale]]
|-
| [[Chibi Trunks]] || Takeshi Kusao || [[Laura Bailey (voice actress)|Laura Bailey]]
|-
| [[Uranai Baba]] || [[Junpei Takiguchi]] (9-34)<br/>Mayumi Tanaka (207-271) || [[Helen Kennedy]]<br/>[[Linda Young]]
|-
| [[Dende]] || [[Tomiko Suzuki]] (49-288)<br/>[[Hiro Yuuki]] (290-291)|| [[Paulina Gillis]]<br/>[[Ceyil Dellgadillo]]<br/>Laura Bailey<br/>[[Justin Cook]]
|-
| [[Gyuumao|Gyūmaō]] (Dub: Ox-King) || Daisuke Gōri || Dave Ward<br/>Mark Britten<br/>Kyle Hebert
|-
| [[King Yemma|Emma-Daiō]] (Dub: King Yemma) || Daisuke Gōri || [[Chris Rager]]
|-
| Umigame || Daisuke Gōri || [[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Mr. Popo]] || [[Toku Nishio]] || [[French Tickner]]<br/>[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Korin|Karin]] (Dub: Korin) || [[Ichiro Nagai]] (26-192)<br/>Naoki Tatsuta (238-285) || Doug Parker<br/>Mark Britten<br/>[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Kami (Dragon Ball)|Kami-sama]] || [[Takeshi Aono]] || Ian James Corlett<br/>[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Marron (Dragon Ball)|Marron]] || Tomiko Suzuki || [[Laura Bailey]]
|-
| [[North Kaiô|North Kaiō]] (Dub: King Kai) || [[Joji Yanami]] || Dave Ward<br/>Sean Schemmel
|-
| Dr. Brief || Joji Yanami || [[Alvin Sanders]]<br/>[[Chris Forbis]]
|-
| Bulma's Mom || [[Mariko Mukai]] (44-107)<br/>[[Youko Kawanami]] (124-256)<br/>Hiroko Emori (140) || [[Jane Perry]]<br/>[[Cynthia Cranz]]
|-
| [[Launch (Dragon Ball)|Lunch]] (Dub: Launch) || [[Mami Koyama]] || Meredith McCoy
|-
| [[Raditz]] || [[Shigeru Shiba]] || [[Jason-Gray Standford]]<br/>[[Christopher Sabat]]<br/>Justin Cook
|-
| Nappa || [[Shouzou Iizuka]] || Scott McNeil<br/>[[Christopher Sabat]]<br/>[[Phil Parsons]]
|-
| [[Freeza]] (Dub: Frieza) || [[Ryuusei Nakao]] || [[Pauline Newstone]]<br/>[[Linda Young]]
|-
| [[Zarbon]] || [[Sho Hayami]] || [[Paul Dobson]]<br/>[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Dodoria]] || Yukitoshi Hori || [[Ward Perry]]<br/>[[Chris Forbis]]
|-
| [[Captain Ginyu|Captain Gi'nyu]] (Bandai: Ginew) || [[Hideyuki Hori]] || [[Richard Newman]]<br/>[[Dale Kelly]]<br/>[[Brice Armstrong]]
|-
| Jheese (Dub: Jeice) || [[Kazumi Tanaka]] || Scott McNeil<br/>[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| Batta (Dub: Burter) || [[Yukimassa Kishino]] || [[Alec Willows]]<br/>Mark Britten<br/>Christopher Sabat
|-
| Recoom (Dub: Recoome) || [[Kenji Utsumi]] || [[David Kaye]]<br/>[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| Gurd (Dub: Guldo) || Kouzou Shioya || [[Terry Klassen]]<br/>[[Dylan Thompson]]<br/>[[Bill Townsley]]
|-
| Saichourou || Junpei Takiguchi (53-75)<br/>Masaharu Satou (100-105) || [[Lee Tockar]]<br/>Christopher Sabat
|-
| [[Porunga]] || Junpei Takiguchi || Christopher Sabat
|-
| [[Garlic Junior|Garlic Jr.]] || [[Akira Kamiya]] (Movie)<br/>Shigeru Shiba (TV Series) || [[Don Brown]]<br/>Chuck Huber
|-
| Maron || [[Yuuko Kobayashi]] || Tiffany Vollmer
|-
| King Cold || Daisuke Gōri (118-121)<br/>[[Masaharu Satou]] (195) || Bart Mayer
|-
| [[Dr. Gero]] || [[Kouji Yata]] || [[Kent Williams]]
|-
| [[Android 16|Jinzōningen #16]] (Android #16) || [[Hikaru Midorikawa]] || [[Jeremy Inman]]
|-
| [[Android 17|Jinzōningen #17]] (Cyborg #17) (Dub: Android #17) || [[Shigeru Nakahara]] || [[Chuck Huber]]
|-
| [[Cell (Dragon Ball)|Cell]] || [[Norio Wakamoto]] || [[Dameon Clarke]]
|-
| [[Buu (Dragon Ball)|Majin-Buu]] (Majin-Boo) || [[Kouzou Shioya]] || [[Josh Martin]]<br/>Justin Cook
|-
| [[Babidi]] || Joji Yanami || [[Duncan Brannan]]
|-
| [[Dabura|Dābura]] || [[Ryuuzaburou Ootomo]] || [[Rick Robertson]]
|-
| Kaiōshin || [[Yuuji Mitsuya]] || Kent Williams
|-
| Old Kaiōshin || [[Reizu Nomoto]] || Kent Williams
|-
| Kibito || [[Shin Aomori]] || Chuck Huber
|-
| [[Shenlong]] (Dub: Dragon God/Eternal Dragon/Shenron) || [[Kenji Utsumi]] (20-100) <br/>Masaharu Satou (193-283) || Christopher Sabat
|-
| Tenka-ichi Budōkai Announcer || Hirotaka Suzoki|| Eric Vale
|-
| [[Narrator]] || Joji Yanami || [[Doc Harris]]<br/>Dale Kelly<br/>Kyle Hebert
!
|}
==Video Games==
===Games released in Japan, America, Oceania and Europe===
====Sony: [[PlayStation]] (PS1)====
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Legends]]''
* ''[[Ultimate Battle 22|Dragon Ball Z: Ultimate Battle 22]]''
* ''[[Dragon Ball GT: Final Bout]]''
====Nintendo: [[Game Boy Color]] (GBC)====
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Legendary Super Warriors'' (''Dragon Ball Z: Densetsu no Chou Senshi-tachi'')
====Sony: [[PlayStation 2]] (PS2)====
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai|Dragon Ball Z: Budōkai]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z'')
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 2|Dragon Ball Z: Budōkai 2]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z 2'')
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 3|Dragon Ball Z: Budōkai 3]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z 3'')
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi|Dragon Ball Z: Sparking!]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z: Budōkai Tenka-ichi)
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Sagas]]''
====Nintendo: [[Game Boy Advance]] (GBA)====
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: The Legacy of Goku]]''
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: The Legacy of Goku II]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z: |
o be consulted by [[Dante]] scholars today. Williams, however, regarded his most important work to be his extremely dense and complex [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] poetry in two books, ''[[Taliesin|Taliessin]] through Logres'' (1938) and ''The Region of the Summer Stars'' (1944). Some of Williams's best essays were collected and published in [[Anne Ridler]]'s ''Image of the City and Other Essays'' in 1958.
Williams gathered many followers and disciples during his lifetime. He was for a period a member of the Salvator Mundi Temple of the [[Fellowship of the Rosy Cross]], an offshoot of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]. He met fellow Anglican [[Evelyn Underhill]] (who was also affiliated with the Golden Dawn) in 1937 and was later to write [http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~dcandmkw/spirit/eucw%20-%20int.htm the introduction] to her published ''Letters'' in 1943. Williams also formed what some regard to be strange master-disciple relationships with young women throughout his lifetime. The best known (though probably not the most significant) of these occurred in the early 1940s with Lois Lang Sims. Lang Sims, whom Williams referred to as Lalage, published a series of letters that Williams wrote to her during this period in a volume entitled ''Letters to Lalage'' (1989). Though Williams married his first sweetheart, Florence Conway, in [[1917]], he continually struggled to reconcile a lifelong (though probably unconsummated) love affair with Phyllis Jones (who joined the Oxford Universty Press in 1924 as librarian) with his Christian faith.
Although Williams attracted the attention and admiration of some of the most notable writers of his day, his greatest admirer was probably [[C.S. Lewis]]. Williams came to know Lewis after reading Lewis's recently published study ''The Allegory of Love''; he was so impressed he jotted down a letter of congratulations and dropped it in the mail. Coincidentally, Lewis has just finished reading Williams's novel [[The Place of the Lion]] and had written a similar note of congratulations. The letters crossed in the mail and led to an enduring and fruitful friendship. When [[World War II]] broke out in [[1939]] [[Oxford University Press]] moved its offices from [[London]] to [[Oxford]]. Although Williams was reluctant to leave his beloved city, this move did allow him to regularly participate in Lewis's literary society known as [[The Inklings]]. In this setting Williams was able to read (and improve) his final published novel, ''All Hallows' Eve'' as well as hear [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] read some of his early drafts of [[The Lord of the Rings]] aloud to the group. In addition to meeting in Lewis's rooms at Oxford, they also regularly met at ''The Eagle and Child'' pub in Oxford (better known by its nickname "The Bird and Baby"). During this time Williams's also offered lectures at [[Oxford]] on [[John Milton]] and received an honorary M.A. degree. Williams is buried in [[Holywell Cemetery]], [[Oxford]].
==Williams's Novels==
* '''''War in Heaven''''' ([[1930]]) - The [[Holy Grail]] surfaces in an obscure country parish and becomes variously a sacramental object to protect or a vessel of power to exploit. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0802812198 Link]
* '''''Many Dimensions''''' ([[1931]]) - An evil antiquarian illegally purchases the fabled Stone of Suleiman or [[King Solomon]] from its Islamic guardian in [[Baghdad]] and returns to England to discover not only that the Stone can multiply itself infinitely without diminishing the original, but that it also allows its possessor to transcend the barriers of space and time. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/080281221X/103-0877473-4944655?v=glance&n=283155 Link]
* '''''The Place of the Lion''''' ([[1931]]) - [[Platonic]] [[archetypes]] begin to appear throughout England wreaking havoc and drawing to the surface the spiritual strengths and flaws of individual characters. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1573831085 Link]
* '''''The Greater Trumps''''' ([[1932]]) - The original [[Tarot]] is used to unlock enormous metaphysical powers by allowing the possessors to see across space and time, create matter, and raise powerful natural storms. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1573831115 Link]
* '''''Shadows of Ecstasy''''' ([[1933]]) - A humanistic adept has discovered that by focusing his energies inward he can extend his life almost indefinitely. He undertakes an experiment using African lore to die and resurrect his own body thereby assuring his immortality. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1573831093 Link]
* '''''Descent into Hell''''' ([[1937]]) - Centering around the performance of a play, ''Descent'' deals with various forms of selfishness, and how the cycle of sin brings about the necessity for redemptive acts. In it, an academic becomes so far removed from the world that he fetishizes a woman to the extent that his perversion takes the form of a [[succubus]]. Characters include a [[doppelganger]] and the ghost of a suicidal [[Victorian]] builder. It is illustrative of William's belief in the replacement of sin and subtitutional love. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0802812201 Link]
* '''''All Hallows' Eve''''' ([[1945]]) - Opens with a discussion between the ghosts of two dead women wandering London. Ultimately explores the meaning of human suffering and empathy by dissolving the barrier between the living and the dead through both black magic and divine love. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1573831107 Link]
==Complete Works==
* ''The Silver Stair'' (1912) poems
* ''Poems of Conformity'' (1917)
* ''Divorce'' (1920) poems
* ''Windows of Night'' (1924)
* ''The Masque of the Manuscript'' (1927) play
* ''A Myth of Shakespeare'' (1928) play
* ''A Masque of Perusal'' (1929) play
* ''A Book of Victorian Narrative Verse'' (1929) edited collection
* ''War in Heaven'' (1930) novel
* ''Poetry At Present'' (1930) criticism
* ''The Place of the Lion'' (1931) novel
* ''Three Plays'' (1931) plays
* ''Many Dimensions'' (1931) novel
* ''The English Poetic Mind'' (1932) criticism
* ''The Greater Trumps'' (1932) novel
* ''A Short Life of Shakespeare: with the Sources'' (1933) abridgment of Chamber's 'William Shakespeare: A study of Facts & Problems.'
* ''Shadows Of Ecstasy'' (1933) novel (first written in 1925)
* ''James I'' (1934) biography
* ''Rochester'' (1935) biography
* ''The New Book of English Verse'' (1935) editor, with [[Lord David Cecil]], [[Ernest de Selincourt]], [[E. M. W. Tillyard]] edited collection
* ''Thomas Cranmer of Canterbury'' (1936) Canterbury Festival Play
* ''Queen Elizabeth'' (1936) biography
* ''Descent Into Hell'' (1937) novel
* ''He Came Down From Heaven'' (1938) theology
* ''Taliessin through Logres'' (1938) poems
* ''The Descent of the Dove: a short history of the Holy Spirit in the Church'' (1939) theology
* ''Judgement at Chelmsford'' (1939) play
* ''Witchcraft'' (1941) history/theology
* ''The Forgiveness of Sins'' (1942) theology
* ''Outlines of Romantic Theology: Religion and Love in Dante'' (c. 1930, pub. 1989) theology
* ''The Region of the Summer Stars'' (1944) poems
* ''The Figure of Beatrice: A Study in Dante'' (1944) criticism
* ''All Hallows Eve'' (1945) novel
* ''The House of the Octopus'' (1945) play
* ''Flecker of Dean Close'' (1946) biography of William Herman Flecker, 1859–1941
* ''Arthurian Torso Containing the Posthumous Fragment of The Figure of Arthur'' (1948) with [[C. S. Lewis]] poetry
* ''Seed of Adam and other plays'' (1948) plays
* ''The Image of the City and Other Essays'' (1958) edited by [[Anne Ridler]]
* ''Collected Plays'' (1963)
* ''Charles Williams'' (Arthurian Poets)'' (1991) edited by David Llewellyn Dodds
* ''Charles Williams: Essential Writings in Spirituality and Theology'' (1993) edited by Charles Hefling
* ''Outlines of romantic theology; with which is reprinted Religion & love in Dante: the theology of romantic love'' (1990) edited by Alice Mary Hadfield
==Books About Williams==
* Cavaliero, Glen. ''Charles Williams: Poet of Theology.'' Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983.
* Hadfield, Alice Mary. ''Charles Williams: An Exploration of His Life and Work.'' Oxford: Oxford UP, 1983.
* Sibley, Agnes. ''Charles Williams.'' Boston: Twayne, 1982.
* Carpenter, Humphrey. ''The Inklings.'' London: Alien and Unwin, 1978.
* Howard, Thomas. ''The Novels of Charles Williams''. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1991.
* Huttar, Charles A., and Peter J. Schakel, eds. ''The Rhetoric of Vision: Essays on Charles Williams''. Lewisburg: Bucknell University press/LOndon: Associated University Presses, 1996.
* Walsh, Chad. "Charles Williams' Novels and the Contemporary Mutation of Consciousness," in ''Myth, Allegory and Gospel: An Interpretation of J.R.R.Tolkien, C.S.Lewis, G.K.Chesterton, Charles Williams''. John Warwick Montgomery, ed. Minneapolis: Bethany Fellowship, 1974, pp. 53-77.
== External links ==
*[http://www.geocities.com/charles_wms_soc/ The Charles Williams Society]
*[http://homepages.pavilion.co.uk/users/tartarus/williams.html The Novels of Charles Williams]
*[http://www.multimaxx.com/chesterton/bios/cwbio.html Charles Williams Biography]
*[http://www.yorku.ca/scottm/cw.html A Charles Williams Bibliography]
*[http://gutenberg.net.au/plusfifty.html#letterW Project Gutenberg of Australia ("W")] (Scroll down to download public domain copies of ''Descent into Hell,'' ''Many Dimensions,'' and ''All Hallows' Eve'')
*[http://pages.prodigy.net/aesir/madi.htm (About) Many Dimensions]
[[Category:1886 births|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:English poets|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:English novelists|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:English fantasy writers|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:Christian writers|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:English theologians|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:Christian mysticism|Williams, Charles]]
[[bg:Чарлз Уолтър Стансби Уилямс]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
|
he world]]; [[Last Judgement]]) and the [[Judgement Day|final judgement of humanity]]. [[Eschatology]] is one of the three main principles of [[Islam]], alongside ''[[tawhid]]'' (the [[monotheism|unity of Allah]]) and ''nubuuwa'' ([[prophecy]]). Islam teaches the bodily [[resurrection]] of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for creation, and the immortality of the human soul; the righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of ''[[Jannah]]'' ([[Heaven]]), while the unrighteous are punished in ''[[Jahannam]]'' ([[Hell#Islam|Hell]]). A significant fraction of the Quran deals with these beliefs, with many ''[[hadith]]'' elaborating on the themes and details. Islamic apocalptic literature describing the Armageddon is often known as ''[[fitna|fitan]]'' and ''malahim'' (or ''ghayba'' in the [[Shi'a|shi'ite]] tradition).
==Jesus and the ad-Dajjal==
According to the Islamic view [[Jesus]] ([[Isa]], in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]) is not the [[Son of God]], but was a [[prophet]] and will return to Earth. It is believed that Jesus never died and he was not crucified; instead he was raised into heaven still physically alive, where he lives now. At the time appointed by [[Allah]], Jesus will physically return to this world, and together with the [[Mahdi]] will end all wars, and usher in an era of peace. The messianic era comes after Jesus kills [[Dajjal|ad-Dajjal]], the [[antichrist]] figure in Islam, and defeats his followers.
Minority views held by the [[Ahmadiyya]] movement, which mainstream Islam regards as heretics, state that while Jesus was crucified, he did not die on the cross. Instead, he was removed from the cross while still alive after which he died a natural death in [[Kashmir]]. Their belief is that the references to the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus in Islamic eschatological literature are allegorical. This prophecy according to them was fulfilled by the coming of [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]].
== Rewards for believers ==
Islamic descriptions of ''Jannah'' ([[Heaven]]) are couched in the language of physical pleasure, sometimes interpreted literally, sometimes allegorically. Heaven is most often described as a cool, well-shaded, and well-watered garden. The rewards of the righteous are also described in explicitly physical terms; they include unlimited food and drink. Some interpretations also promise enormous palaces staffed with multitudes of servants, and perfect, perpetually-virgin spouses (see [[houri]]).
Muslims stress the belief that it is only the [[Five Pillars of Islam|five pillars of faith]] that bring one to Heaven. Muslims believe that [[Allah]] knows best who will enter Heaven and that some people of the other [[Abrahamic]] faiths (regarded as "People of the book") will also get into heaven.
== Punishment for nonbelievers ==
The Muslims who will not inherit heaven will be punished with a temporary stay in ''Jahannam'' ([[Hell#Islam|Hell]]), and will go to heaven later as long as there is "one atom of faith in their hearts," as stated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Some, but not all, Muslims also believe that people who do not accept Muhammad after hearing his message, will receive eternal damnation in Jahannam; just as those who did not believe in Jesus and Moses at their respective periods after hearing of their messages will also receive eternal damnation in hell.
The descriptions in the Qur'an of punishment for unbelief (Jahannam) are, like the descriptions of Jannah, very descriptive. Skin is burned off the person's body and then they are given new skin so it can be burned off again.
:''As for those who reject Our Signs, We will roast them in a Fire. Every time their skins are burned off, We will replace them with new skins so that they can taste the punishment. Allah is Almighty, All-Wise. (4:56)
One interesting point is that the Quran actually states that the skin will be replaced, due to the fact that, in the skin, are the receptors for feeling. Once the skin is burnt down the receptors are destroyed thus no pain will be felt on the burnt place. This is the reason why the burnt skin will be replaced with a new skin so the pain can be felt again.
[[Boil]]ing water is poured down people's throats and it rips their bowels apart. Temperature extremes are applied to the body as punishment.
However, when considering punishments such as those described above, one must also consider that in Islam the afterlife is considered to involve only the spirit, or "roh". Thus, when terms describing physical distress or physical pleasure are used to indicate what heaven or hell are like in the Qur'an, they are actually terms which refer to spiritual state. A description of heaven being an oasis of comfort or hell being one of violent misery is an analogy comparing the pains of the physical world to the pains of the spirit in the afterlife. From a literary perspective, this interpretation makes sense because the audience--humanity--only really understands the physical environment that surrounds it.
==See also==
*[[Nakir and Munkar]]
*[[Mahdi]]
*[[Jannah]]
*[[Hell#Islam|Hell in Islam]]
*[[Iblis]]
==External links==
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/signsofthelasthour.html Signs of the Last Hour]
*[http://www.al-qiyamah.org/ Islamic views on the Day of Judgement]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/saturday_review/story/0,3605,631332,00.html The 72 virgins as a reward for Islamic martyrs.]
*[http://www.islamfortoday.com/firestone01.htm Islam Hijacked] - commentary on martyrdom and the rewards thereof
*[http://www.islam.tc/prophecies/jesus.html Islamic prophecies about Jesus]
*[http://www.guidedones.com/metapage/frq/islamicpar.htm Paradise in Islam]
*[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Tafsir/Tafsir%286-73%29.html Blowing of the Trumpet that signals judgement]
*[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Tafsir/Tafsir%2810-30%29.html The two resurrections]
[[Category:Islamic eschatology|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iblis</title>
<id>15514</id>
<revision>
<id>40474852</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T20:54:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.126.151.77|71.126.151.77]] ([[User talk:71.126.151.77|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|Iblis the devil}}
{{Islam}}
'''Ibl&#299;s''' (Arabic إبليس), is the primary [[devil]] in [[Islam]].
He appears more often in the [[Qur'an]] (Islamic holy Book) as the ''[[Shaitan]]'', a term used to refer to all of the evil spirits assisting Iblis, but which is often used to refer to just Iblis. Iblis is mentioned 11 times, and Shaitan "al-Shaitaan" &#8207;(&#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1610;&#1591;&#1575;&#1606;) 87 times. He is chief of the spirits of [[evil]] (Shaitan), and his personality is similar to that of the devil in [[Christianity]].
Iblis was a [[Jinn]], a creature made of smokeless fire by God (like humans are made of 'clay'). In an outburst rooted in envy, Iblis disobeyed [[Allah]] (Arabic word for God) and was expelled from the grace of Allah. He was later sent to earth along with [[Adam and Eve]] after having lured them into eating fruit from the forbidden tree, although in this role he is always referred to as [[Shaitan|al-Shaitan]]. He was condemned consequently by God to Hell. He replied with saying that he wanted to bring the inhabitants of Earth down with him, and God, to test Mankind and Jinn, allowed him to roam Earth to attempt to misguide others.
He tempts humans through his whisper (''waswas'', "he whispered") of sinful ideas in their head and false suggestion (''haiif''). In the end, it is believed, he will be cast into ''[[Jahannam]]'' ([[Hell#Islam|Hell in Islam]]) along with those who give in to his temptation of sinful ideas and disobeyed God's true message to mankind (Islam), while those who successfully try to follow a righteous path will be rewarded with the pleasures of ''[[Jannah]]'' (Paradise or [[Heaven]] in Islam).
The Qur'an does not depict ''Shaitan'' as the enemy of Allah, for Allah is supreme over all his creations and Iblis is just one of his creations. Unlike the Zoroastrian beliefs, all good and bad deeds are from Allah himself and only he can save humanity from the evils of his universe and his creations. Shaitan's single enemy is humanity. He intends to discourage humans from obeying God. Thus, humankind is warned to struggle against the mischiefs of the Shaitan and temptations he puts them in. A commonly shared belief in both Islam and Christianity is that the universal existence of evil in personal lives is usually experienced because of the devil.
==Etymology==
Non-Muslim scholars generally hold Iblis to be a contraction of the Greek word ''diabolos'', meaning "[[devil]]". They claim that the Christian and Jewish communities of Arabia during Muhammad's time are likely to have known the word from Greek translations of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Gospels]]. Muslim scholars, on the other hand, are more inclined to derive the word from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] verbal root ''balasa'' بلس, meaning "he despaired".
==Origin==
The Qur'an mentions that he was a [[Jinn|Jinn]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/018.qmt.html#018.050 (18-50)] and that he was created from fire [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/007.qmt.html#007.012 (7-12)][http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/038.qmt.html#038.076 (38-76)] - and not as a ''fallen angel'' as mentioned in the Bible.
According to the Qur'an, after God had completed the creation of everything else [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.029 (2-29)], [[Allah]] announced that He will create a ''[[Khalifa]]'' (viceregent) on Earth, causing the angels to exclaim how He intends to place on earth on |
iety of colors and styles. Note the older hand-inked green d12 (showing an 11), manufactured before pre-inked dice were common. Many players collect or acquire a large number of mixed and unmatching dice.]]
A '''die''' ([[Old French]] ''de''<!--[[Modern French]] ''dé''-->, from [[Latin]] ''datum'' "something given or played"<!--same origin as "data"--> [http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/die_2?view=uk]) is a small [[polyhedron|polyhedral]] object, usually cubical, used for generating [[random number]]s. This makes dice suitable as [[gambling]] devices, especially for [[craps]] or [[sic bo]], or used in recreational non-gambling [[game]]s.
[[Image:Dice.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Two standard six-sided pipped dice with rounded corners.]]
Traditionally, a die is seldom seen alone, and is rather one of a pair of identical '''dice''' that are sized to be comfortably [[rolling|rolled]] or thrown, together, from a user's hand. The singular word "die" is therefore rare, and treating "dice" as interchangeably singular or plural is not uncommon; the re-pluralized form "dices" is found sometimes. A traditional die is a [[cube (geometry)|cube]] (often with corners slightly rounded), marked on each of its six faces with a different number of circular patches or pits called '''pips'''. All of these pips have the same appearance within a pair, or larger set of dice, and are sized for ease of recognizing the pattern the pips on one face form. The design as a whole is aimed at each die providing one randomly determined [[integer]], in the range from one to six, with each of those values being equally likely.
More generally, a variety of analogous devices are often described as dice, but necessarily in a context, or with a word or two preceding "die" or "dice", that avoids the assumption that traditional dice are intended. Such specialized dice may have cubical or other polyhedral shapes, with faces marked with various collections of symbols, and be used to produce other random results than one through six. There are also "loaded" or "crooked" dice (especially otherwise traditional ones), meant to produce skewed or even predictable results, for purposes of deception or amusement.
== Ordinary dice ==
[[image:dice01.jpg|frame|right|European-style, Chinese, and casino dice.]]
[[Image:Sixsided Dice inJapan.jpg|right|thumb|[[Japan]]ese die, with its distinctive oversized pip.]]
The common dice are small [[cube (geometry)|cube]]s 1 to 2 cm along an edge, whose faces are numbered from one to six (usually by patterns of dots called ''pips''). It is traditional to assign pairs of numbers that total seven to opposite faces (it has been since at least [[classical antiquity]]); this implies that at one vertex the faces 1, 2 and 3 intersect. It leaves one other abstract design choice: the faces representing 1, 2 and 3 respectively can be placed in either [[clockwise and counterclockwise|clockwise or anti-clockwise]] order about this vertex.
Dice are thrown to provide (supposedly [[Uniform distribution (discrete)|uniformly distributed]]) [[random]] numbers for [[gambling]] and other [[game]]s and thus are a type of [[hardware random number generator]]. However, because the numbers on toy dice are marked with small indentations, slightly more material is removed from the higher numbered faces. This results in a small bias, and they do not provide fair (uniform) random numbers. Casino dice have markings that are flush with the surface and come very close to providing true uniformly distributed random numbers.
Dice are [[throw]]n, singly or in groups, from the hand or from a cup or box designed for the purpose, onto a flat surface.
The face of each die that is uppermost when it comes to rest provides the value of the throw. A typical [[dice games|dice game]] today is [[craps]], wherein two dice are thrown at a time, and wagers are made on the total value of up-facing spots on the two dice. They are also frequently used to randomize allowable moves in [[board game]]s such as [[Backgammon]].
== Terms ==
While the terms ''ace'', ''deuce'', ''trey'', ''cater'', ''cinque'' and ''sice'' are hardly common today having been replaced with the ordinary names of the numbers one to six, they are still used by some professional gamblers to describe the different sides of the dice. ''[[Ace]]'' is from the Latin ''as'', meaning "a unit" [http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/ace]; the others are the numbers 2&ndash;6 in old French.
===Probability===
For a single roll, the probability of rolling each value, 1 through 6, is exactly 1 in 6. For a double roll, however, the total of both rolls is not evenly distributed, but is distributed in a triangular curve, as follows:
{| align=center class=toccolors cellpadding="4"
!style="background:#ccf;"|Total of Dice|| <center>2</center> || <center>3</center> || <center>4</center> || <center>5</center> || <center>6</center> || <center>7</center> || <center>8</center> || <center>9</center> || <center>10</center> || <center>11</center> || <center>12</center>
|-
!style="background:#ccf;"| Probability || <center><sup>1</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center> || <center><sup>2</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center> || <center><sup>3</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center> || <center><sup>4</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center> || <center><sup>5</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center> || <center><sup>6</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center> || <center><sup>5</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center> || <center><sup>4</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center> || <center><sup>3</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center> || <center><sup>2</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center> || <center><sup>1</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center>
|}
For the total of rolls of three or more dice, the curve becomes more bell-shaped with each additional die (according to the [[central limit theorem]]).
The probability of rolling the same random number repeatedly goes down by <sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub> with each additional die:
{| align=center class=toccolors cellpadding="4"
!style="background:#ccf;"|No. of Dice || <center>1</center> || <center>2</center> || <center>3</center> || <center>4</center>
|-
!style="background:#ccf;"| Probability || <center><sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub></center> || <center><sup>1</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center> || <center><sup>1</sup>/<sub>216</sub></center> || <center><sup>1</sup>/<sub>1296</sub></center>
|}
The above list only applies if the number to throw multiple times in a row is randomly chosen. To throw a certain chosen number more than once in a row, the probability is lower:
{| align=center class=toccolors cellpadding="4"
!style="background:#ccf;"|No. of Dice || <center>2*'X'</center> || <center>3*'X'</center> || <center>4*'X'</center> || <center>5*'X'</center>
|-
!style="background:#ccf;"| Probability || <center><sup>1</sup>/<sub>36</sub></center> || <center><sup>1</sup>/<sub>216</sub></center> || <center><sup>1</sup>/<sub>1296</sub></center> || <center><sup>1</sup>/<sub>7776</sub></center>
|}
=== History ===
[[image:Knuck_dice_Steatite_37x27x21_mm.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Knucklebone dice, made of Steatite]]
Dice were probably originally made from the ankle bones of hoofed animals (such as [[oxen]]), colloquially known as "knucklebones", which are approximately [[tetrahedron|tetrahedral]]. Even today, dice are sometimes colloquially referred to as "bones", as in "shake them bones". [[Ivory]], [[bone]], [[wood]], [[metal]], and [[Rock (geology)|stone]] materials have been commonly used, though the use of [[plastic]]s is now nearly universal. It is almost impossible to trace clearly the development of dice as distinguished from knucklebones, because ancient writers confused the two games. It is certain, however, that both were played in prehistoric times.
[[Image:historical dice.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A collection of historical dice from Asia]]
The fact that dice have been used throughout the Orient from time immemorial, as has been proved by excavations from ancient tombs, seems to point clearly to an [[Asia]]tic origin. Dicing is mentioned as an [[India]]n game in the [[Rig-veda]]. In its primitive form knucklebones was essentially a [[game of skill]] played by women and children. In a derivative form of knucklebones, the four sides of the bones received different values and were counted as with modern dice. Gambling with three or sometimes two dice was a very popular form of amusement in [[Greece]], especially with the upper classes, and was an almost invariable accompaniment to banquets (''symposia'').
The [[Culture of Ancient Rome|Romans]] were passionate gamblers, especially in the luxurious days of the [[Roman Empire]], and dicing was a favourite form, though it was forbidden except during the [[Saturnalia]]. [[Horace]] derided what he presented as a typical [[youth]] of the period, who wasted his time amid the dangers of dicing instead of taming his [[horse |
ollege is a campus of [[Charles Sturt University]]. Tertiary level vocational education is also available through the multi-campus [[Canberra Institute of Technology]].
The [[Australian Defence Force Academy]] (ADFA) and the [[Royal Military College, Duntroon]] (RMC) are in the suburb of [[Campbell, Australian Capital Territory|Campbell]] in Canberra's inner northeast. ADFA teaches [[military]] [[undergraduate]]s and [[Quaternary education|postgraduate]]s and is officially a [[campus]] of the [[University of New South Wales]] while Duntroon provides [[Australian Army]] [[Officer (armed forces)|Officer]] [[training]].
==References==
{{sisterlinks|Australian Capital Territory}}
#{{note|GovAct1908}}[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=110 National Archives of Australia - Seat of Government Act 1908 (Cth)]
#{{note|SeatofGov1909}}[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=93 National Archives of Australia - Seat of Government Acceptance Act 1909 (Cth)]
#{{note|SeatGovAct1910}}[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=111 National Archives of Australia - Seat of Government (Administration) Act 1910 (Cth)]
#{{note|PatWACT}}[http://www.parliament.curriculum.edu.au/act.php3 Parliament@Work - At a Glance Australian Capital Territory]
#{{note|SelfGovAct1988}}[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=118 National Archives of Australia - Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 (Cth)]
#{{note|Woolshedheritage}}[http://www.environment.act.gov.au/Files/heritageregister20010.pdf ACT Heritage Register - Woolshed Creek Fossil Site]
#{{note|StateCircleCutting}}[http://www.deh.gov.au/cgi-bin/ahdb/search.pl?mode=place_detail;place_id=105733 Australian Heritage Database - State Circle Cutting]
#{{note|DeakinAnticlineNT}}[http://www.act.nationaltrust.org.au/places/deak-anti.html National Trust of Australia - Deakin Anticline]
#{{note|ABSACTSchools}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2005. [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/849f25e83fc56ff2ca257079007b87c6!OpenDocument Schools in the ACT]
#{{note|ACTenrolments}}ACT Department of Education and Training. 2005. [http://www.decs.act.gov.au/publicat/pdf/ACT_Gov_NonGov_Enrol_1995_2005.pdf Enrolments in ACT Schools 1995 to 2005]
#{{note|2004Education}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2005. [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/71bcf1841bfa37f9ca256f84007c28f5!OpenDocument Education in the ACT]
{{Australia}}
[[Category:Australian Capital Territory|*]]
[[ca:Territori de la Capital Australiana]]
[[da:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[de:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[et:Austraalia pealinna ala]]
[[es:Territorio de la Capital Australiana]]
[[fr:Territoire de la capitale australienne]]
[[id:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[is:Höfuðborgarsvæði Ástralíu]]
[[it:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[he:טריטוריית הבירה האוסטרלית]]
[[ka:ფედერალური ტერიტორია (ავსტრალია)]]
[[lt:Australijos sostinės teritorija]]
[[lb:Australeschen Haaptstadterritoire]]
[[nl:Australisch Hoofdstedelijk Territorium]]
[[no:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[ja:オーストラリア首都特別地域]]
[[pl:Australijskie Terytorium Stołeczne]]
[[ru:Территория федеральной столицы]]
[[scn:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[sv:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[uk:Австралійська столична територія]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Animaniacs</title>
<id>1945</id>
<revision>
<id>41949657</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:56:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.9.127.177</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the television series. For the ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' episode of the same name, see [[Animaniacs! (Tiny Toons episode)]].''
{{Infobox_television |
show_name = Animaniacs |
image = [[Image:Animaniacs.jpg|center|250px]] |
caption = Animaniacs logo featuring [[Yakko, Wakko, and Dot]] plus [[Pinky and the Brain]]. |
rating = {{TV-G}} |
format = [[Animated series]] |
runtime = 30 minutes |
creator = <!-- none credited --> |
starring = [[Rob Paulsen]] <br> [[Jess Harnell]] <br> [[Tress MacNeille]] <br> [[Maurice LaMarche]] <br> [[Sherri Stoner]] <br> [[Nathan Ruegger]] <br> [[John Mariano]] <br> [[Chuck Vennera]] <br> [[Bernadette Peters]] <br> [[Frank Welker]] <br> [[Nancy Cartwright (actress)|Nancy Cartwright]] <br> [[Julie Brown]] <br> [[Laura Mooney]] |
country = [[United States|USA]] |
network = [[Fox Broadcasting|FOX]] (1993-1995) <br> [[The WB Television Network|The WB]] (1995-1998) |
first_aired = [[1993]] |
last_aired = [[1998]] |
num_episodes = 99 |
|}}
'''''Steven Spielberg Presents Animaniacs''''' was a popular [[United States|American]] [[animated television series]], distributed by [[Warner Bros.]], and produced by [[Amblin Entertainment]]. The cartoon, usually referred to by the shorter title '''''Animaniacs''''', first aired on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]] from [[1993]] until [[1995]]; the show appeared on [[The WB Television Network|The WB]] as part of its "Kids' WB" afternoon programming block from [[1995]] to [[1998]]. Like many other animated series, it has continued to appear on television through [[Television syndication|syndication]] long after its original airdate.
''Animaniacs'' was the second animated series produced by the collaboration of [[Steven Spielberg]] and [[Warner Bros. Animation]] during the [[Modern animation of the United States|animation renaissance]] of the [[1990s]]. The studio's first series, ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]],'' had proved to be a big hit among younger viewing audiences, and it had attracted a sizable number of adult viewers as well. ''Tiny Toon Adventures'' had drawn heavily from the classic [[Termite Terrace]] cartoons of old for inspiration, as well as plots and characterization. The modern Warner Bros. writers and animators used the experience gained from the previous series to create brand new animated characters that were cast in the mold of [[Tex Avery]]'s and [[Bob Clampett]]'s creations, but were not slavish imitations.
The show itself was a [[variety show]], with many short skits featuring a large cast of unique characters. Each episode was traditionally composed of three short mini-episodes, each starring a different set of characters.
== The Animaniacs: the Warner Brothers (and the Warner Sister) ==
This show focused on the adventures, or more accurately, misadventures of the [[Yakko, Wakko, and Dot|Warner Bros. (Yakko and Wakko Warner) and the Warner Sister (Dot)]], who claim to be the stars of some of the early Warner Bros. [[animated cartoon]]s, which were so [[insane]] that the studio execs locked them away in the [[water tower]] at Warner Bros. Studios in [[Burbank, California]]. This description of the Warners is a tongue-in-cheek homage to [[Bosko]], Warner Bros.' first cartoon character, whose cartoons were not highly regarded by many people.
The red-nosed Warner siblings bear a striking resemblance to the portrayals of Bosko and his girlfriend Honey (who look remarkably like Dot and Yakko) in a 1990 episode of ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' entitled ''Fields of Honey'', also created by Steven Spielberg. Afraid that the portrayals of Bosko and Honey might be deemed controversial, they were changed to anthropomorphic doglike characters, and that episode served as the "bridge" between ''Tiny Toon Adventures'' and ''Animaniacs''.
Originally, the Warners were intended to be [[ducks]], but producer [[Tom Ruegger]] realized they'd been done enough by [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] (see ''[[DuckTales]]''), so he made them indeterminate children. He also modeled their personalities a bit after his three sons (who all did voices on the series at one time or another).
== ''Animaniacs'' characters ==
''Animaniacs'' introduced a number of recurring characters, including:
* [[Yakko, Wakko, and Dot]] - the "Warner Brothers" (and the Warner Sister), voiced by [[Rob Paulsen]], [[Jess Harnell]], and [[Tress MacNeille]]. Yakko (the oldest) is a fast-talking smart aleck, reminiscent at times of [[Groucho Marx]]. Wakko (the middle child) has a huge appetite and a gaggy bag filled with tricks (and an accent oddly reminiscent of [[Ringo Starr]]), and Dot (the youngest) is cute and sassy, and uses her apparent innocence to manipulate and torment those who stand in her way. The Warners are some of the few characters that actually appear in all the short skits, usually being chased by Ralph. Most other characters are confined to their own segments.
* [[Dr. Otto Scratchansniff]] - the [[Austria]]n-accented studio [[psychiatrist]], voiced by Rob Paulsen, who attempts to force the Warners to be less "zany"
* [[Thaddeus Plotz]] - the height-impaired [[CEO]] of the Warner Bros. Studios cartoon enterprise, voiced by [[Frank Welker]]
* [[Hello Nurse]] - the buxom studio nurse, voiced by Tress MacNeille, over whom Yakko and Wakko continually fawn
* [[Ralph (Animaniacs)|Ralph]] - a dim-witted Warners Studio [[security guard]] charged with recapturing the Warners and confining them to the [[water tower]]. His voice and vocal mannerisms are reminiscent of early Warner Brothers cartoon secondary characters intended to parody the character of Lennie from the film adaptations of ''[[Of Mice and Men (1939 movie)|Of Mice and Men]]''.
* [[Pinky and the Brain]] - an imbecilic white mouse and his genius companion, voiced by [[Rob Paulsen]] and [[Maurice LaMarche]]. The Brain and his environment evoke [[Orson Welles]] and ''[[Citizen Kane]]''.
* [[Slappy Squirrel]] - an aging cartoon star voiced by [[Sherri Stoner]]
* [[Skippy Squirrel]] - Slappy's young nephew, voiced by [[Nathan Ruegger]], whose chipper personality is the polar opposite of his aunt's.
* [[Goodfeathers]] - a trio of cartoon pigeons— Bobby, Squit and |
nteraction of the neurons in the brain of a Chinese speaker. Then surely the program must be said to understand Chinese? Searle replies that such a simulation will not have reproduced the important features of the brain&mdash;its causal and intentional states.
But what if a brain simulation were connected to the world in such a way that it possessed the causal power of a real brain&mdash;perhaps linked to a robot of the type described above? Then surely it would be able to think. Searle agrees that it is in principle possible to create an artificial intelligence, but points out that such a machine would have to have the same causal powers as a brain. It would be more than just a computer program.
===Other replies===
Natural language is not just an impulse-response chain of events, but rather an interaction. A person walking out of the Chinese Room must be able to actually understand Chinese if any of the questions posed relate to him. For instance, the answer to the Chinese-scripted question "What is your favourite colour?" can only be given by reference to the person asked. So if the person can answer, then he understands Chinese, if he can't, then even to an outside observer, that person does not speak Chinese.
It can be argued that semantics in any natural language requires a relation of words to objects in the real world. In a Chinese Room, no relation between words or symbols and the real world can be made because there is nothing to relate to within the Chinese Room other than the rules written down.
==Related works==
* John Searle (1980) "[http://members.aol.com/NeoNoetics/MindsBrainsPrograms.html Minds, Brains and Programs]" -- [http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.searle2.html original draft] from [http://www.bbsonline.org/ ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences'']
* John Searle (1984) "Minds, Brains & Science: The 1984 Reith Lectures" British Broadcasting Corporation
* [[Stevan Harnad]] (2001) [http://cogprints.org/4023/ What's Wrong and Right About Searle's Chinese Room Argument] in Bishop, M. and Preston, J., Eds. Essays on Searle's Chinese Room Argument. Oxford University Press.
* [http://members.aol.com/wutsamada/disserta.html Dissertation by Larry Stephen Hauser],
* Searle's Chinese Box: Debunking the Chinese Room Argument. Larry Hauser. available at http://members.aol.com/lshauser2/chinabox.html
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-room/ The Chinese Room Argument]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/chinese.html Philosophical and analytic considerations in the Chinese Room thought experiment]
* [http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people/Searle/searle-con0.html Interview in which Searle discusses the Chinese Room]
[[Category:Philosophy of mind]]
[[Category:Thought experiments]]
[[cs:Argument čínského pokoje]]
[[da:Det kinesiske rum]]
[[de:Chinesisches Zimmer]]
[[es:Sala china]]
[[fr:Chambre chinoise]]
[[he:החדר הסיני]]
[[ja:中国語の部屋]]
[[ko:중국어 방]]
[[ru:Китайская комната]]
[[sv:Det kinesiska rummet]]
[[zh:中文房间]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charon</title>
<id>6217</id>
<revision>
<id>38608523</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T13:02:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Avitek</username>
<id>105475</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+intewiki cs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Charon''' may refer to:
*[[Charon (mythology)]] - the figure from [[Greek mythology|Greek]], and later [[Christian mythology]], who ferried the dead across the river [[Acheron]] in the underworld [[Hades]] and [[Hell]], respectively.
*[[Charon (moon)]] - thought for many years to be the only [[moon]] of the planet [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] (for other candidates, see [[Pluto]]), sometimes considered a companion planet rather than a moon due to its large relative size.
*[[Charon (animal)]] - a genus of [[amblypygid]]
*[[Charon (cars)]] - a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] automobile manufacturer
*[[Charon (band)]] - a [[Finland|Finnish]] [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band
*[[Charon (composer)]] - a [[Slovakia|Slovak]] [[Electronica|electronic]] [[Electronic_music|music]] and [[Ambient_music|ambient]] [[Composer|composer]]
*[[Charon of Lampsacus|Charon]] of [[Lampsacus]], ancient Greek [[logographer (history)|logographer]]
*[[Charon language]] [http://www.cis.upenn.edu/mobies/charon/index.html]
*[[Charon (Dungeons & Dragons)]] - a lord of the [[Fiend (Dungeons & Dragons)|yugoloths]] whose primary function is to provide passage across the [[River Styx]] for a steep price.
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Charon]]
[[da:Charon]]
[[de:Charon]]
[[eo:Karono]]
[[es:Caronte]]
[[fr:Charon]]
[[he:כארון]]
[[it:Caronte]]
[[ja:カロン (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[hu:Charon]]
[[nl:Charon]]
[[pl:Charon]]
[[pt:Caronte]]
[[ru:Харон]]
[[sk:Cháron]]
[[sl:Haron (razločitev)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Claudio Zuan Antonio Monteverdi</title>
<id>6219</id>
<revision>
<id>15904376</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Claudio Monteverdi]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Circle</title>
<id>6220</id>
<revision>
<id>42100341</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:59:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>152.157.95.229</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Tangent properties */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the shape and mathematical concept of circle; for other meanings, see [[circle (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:CIRCLE 1.svg|250px|right|Circle illustration]]
A '''circle''', in [[Euclidean geometry]], is the [[set]] of all [[point (geometry)|points]] at a fixed [[distance]], called the ''radius'', from a fixed point, the ''centre''. The points can only be those that are part of a [[conic section]]; within the set of a [[plane (mathematics)|plane]] bisecting a [[Conical surface|cone]]. Circles are [[simple closed curve]]s, dividing the plane into an interior and exterior. Sometimes the word ''circle'' is used to mean the interior, with the circle itself called the circumference(C). Usually however, the ''circumference'' means the length of the circle, and the interior of the circle is called a ''[[Disk (mathematics)|disk]]''. An ''arc'' is any continuous portion of a circle.
== Mathematical definitions ==
In an ''x''-''y'' [[coordinate system]], the circle with centre (''a'', ''b'') and radius ''r'' is the set of all points (''x'', ''y'') such that
:<math>\left( x - a \right)^2 + \left( y - b \right)^2=r^2.</math>
If the circle is centred at the origin (0, 0), then this [[formula]] can be simplified to
:<math>x^2 + y^2 = r^2.</math>
The circle centred at the origin with radius 1 is called the [[unit circle]].
Expressed in [[parametric equations]], (''x'',&nbsp;''y'') can be written as
:''x'' = ''a'' + ''r''&nbsp;cos(t)
:''y'' = ''b'' + ''r''&nbsp;sin(t).
The [[slope]] a circle at a point (''x'',&nbsp;''y'') can be expressed with the following formula, assuming the centre is at the origin and (''x'',&nbsp;''y'') is on the circle:
:<math>y' = - \frac{x}{y}.</math>
In the [[complex plane]], a circle with a centre at ''c'' and radius ''r'' has the equation <math>|z-c|^2 = r^2</math>. Since <math>|z-c|^2 = z\overline{z}-\overline{c}z-c\overline{z}+c\overline{c}</math>, the slightly generalized equation <math>pz\overline{z} + gz + \overline{gz} = q</math> for real ''p'', ''q'' and complex ''g'' is sometimes called a '''generalized circle'''. It is important to note that not all generalized circles are actually circles.
[[Image:wp_pi.png|thumb|Area of the circle = '''''π''''' × area of the shaded square]]
All circles are [[similarity (mathematics)|similar]]; as a consequence, a circle's circumference and radius are [[proportional]], as are its [[area (geometry)|area]] and the square of its radius. The [[mathematical constant|constant]]s of proportionality are 2[[pi|&pi;]] and &pi;, respectively.
In other words:
* Length of a circle's circumference = <math>2\pi \times r.</math>
* Area of a circle = <math>\pi \times r^2.</math>
The formula for the area of a circle can be derived from the formula for the circumference and the formula for the area of a [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]], as follows. Imagine a regular [[hexagon]] (six-sided figure) divided into equal triangles, with their apices at the centre of the hexagon. The area of the hexagon may be found by the formula for triangle area by adding up the lengths of all the triangle bases (on the exterior of the hexagon), multiplying by the height of the triangles (distance from the middle of the base to the center) and dividing by two. This is an [[approximation]] of the area of a circle. Then imagine the same exercise with an [[octagon]] (eight-sided figure), and the approximation is a little closer to the area of a circle. As a regular polygon with more and more sides is divided into triangles and the area calculated from this, the area becomes closer and closer to the area of a circle. In the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]], the sum of the bases approaches the circumference 2&pi;''r'', and the triangles' height approaches the radius ''r''. Multiplying the circumference and radius and dividing by 2, we get the area, &pi; ''r''&sup2;.
==Properties==
[[Image:CIRCLE LINES.svg|right|280px|Chord, secant, and tangent]]
[[Image:Circle slices.svg|right|260px|Arc, sector, and segment]]
===Chord properties===
*Chords equidistant from the centre of a circle are equal.
*Equal chords are equidistant from the centre.
*A line from the centre, perpendicular to a chord, bisects the chord.
*The line segment drawn from the centre to t |
ers of Black Sabbath reunited, toured and released ''[[Reunion (album)|Reunion]]''.
In [[1999]], [[2001]], [[2004]] and [[2005]] the original Black Sabbath reunited again and toured on Osbourne's Ozzfest. There has been a rumoured new album of material "coming soon" since 2001, but to date, nothing has surfaced, and no formal plans to record have been made. In late December [[2005]], [http://www.ultimate-guitar.com/news/upcoming_releases/ozzy_says_he_doesnt_want_another_black_sabbath_album.html Ultimate-Guitar.com] has reported that Osbourne has ruled out on a reunion album and refused to record along with the line-up. He was also terrified that the album would not match the same standard as the old albums. However, Osbourne has also issued statements that were exactly the opposite of this stance over the years too, so these remarks can be taken with a grain of salt.
==Influence on later musicians==
For most of their career, Black Sabbath rarely received any critical praise ("blundering bozos" was one description). But the late 1980s and early 1990s saw a fairly radical reappraisal of the group: not only of their instrumetnal skills (which were better than they were generally given credit for) but also because they had become widely acknowledged as some of the most influential pioneers in the heavy metal field. Osbourne himself received an ''[[NME]]'' award for "godlike genius" in 2004.
[[Doom metal]], a [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] sub-genre, takes its name directly from a Black Sabbath song, Hand of Doom.
Black Sabbath is held in the highest regard by bands such as Pantera. Phil Anselmo has distinctly made remarks saying that as great as Pantera is, it is just a band, while the members of Black Sabbath and Judas Priest are gods. Songs like Goddam Electric pay tribute to Black Sabbath and his other band Down is also greatly influence by it.
Several [[nu metal]] bands, such as [[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]], cite Black Sabbath as an influence.
Some of the incidents and characters in the spoof rock documentary ''[[Spinal Tap (band)|This Is Spinal Tap]]'' are based on Black Sabbath. For example the Stonehenge stage set idea in the film was taken from a real stage used by Black Sabbath for their Born Again Tour. In contrast to the set in the film, in which Stonehenge was made too small to be very imposing on stage, the Black Sabbath version of Stonehenge was in fact ''too large'' to fit in many of the arenas the band played in. The eventual fate of the set is not clear, although Iommi has said it was probably abandoned on a loading dock somewhere.
Finally, Black Sabbath has inspired bands outside of the heavy metal genre. [[The Cardigans]], for instance, cite them as an influence and occasionally cover their songs on their own albums and (more often) B-sides.
==Influences==
Black Sabbath had a unique sound that emerged from diverse influences. Tony Iommi was greatly influenced both by [[Hank Marvin]]'s playing on [[Cliff Richard and the Shadows]]' heavy-guitar based recordings and by [[jazz]] guitar, particularly that of [[Django Reinhardt]]. Bill Ward has also expressed a fondness for [[jazz]] music in general, and for [[drummer]] [[Buddy Rich]] especially; this jazz influence may be heard on some of Ward's playing with Black Sabbath. Early incarnations of Black Sabbath merged elements of blues, jazz, and rock and paid their dues playing cover versions of songs by heavy rock acts including [[Jimi Hendrix]], [[Blue Cheer]], and [[Cream (band)|Cream]]. Ozzy Osbourne says he was deeply influenced by [[the Beatles]] and his favorite album of all time is ''[[Revolver (album)|Revolver]]''.
==Trivia==
After repeatedly being passed over by the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] since becoming eligible in [[1997]], [[Ozzy Osbourne]] famously demanded that Black Sabbath be removed from consideration for the institution. In [[1999]], Osbourne said after Black Sabbath was passed over their second year of eligibility, "Just take our name off the list. Save the ink." His basis for this position was that because the fans did not select the members, it was "totally irrelevant". The [[Rock & Roll Hall of Fame]] ignored this request and Black Sabbath will be finally inducted in March 13, [[2006]].
[[Elton John]] is a huge fan of Black Sabbath, and once said it is the only hard rock group he likes.
==Members==
{| class="toccolours" border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style="float: right; width: 375px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #E2E2E2;"
|+ <big>'''[[Black Sabbath (band)|Black Sabbath]] personnel'''</big>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1969-1979)
|
* [[Ozzy Osbourne]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Bill Ward]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1979-1980)
|
* [[Ronnie James Dio]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Bill Ward]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1980-1982)
|
* [[Ronnie James Dio]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Vinny Appice]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1982-1983)
|
* [[Ian Gillan]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Bill Ward]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1983-1984)
|
* [[Ian Gillan]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Bev Bevan]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1984-1985)
|
* [[David Donato]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Bill Ward]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1985-1986)
|
* [[Glenn Hughes]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]<BR>
* [[Dave Spitz]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Eric Singer]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1986-1987)
|
* [[Ray Gillen]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]<BR>
* [[Dave Spitz]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Eric Singer]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1987)
|
* [[Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]<BR>
* [[Dave Spitz]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Bob Daisley]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Eric Singer]] - [[drums]]<BR>
* [[Bev Bevan]] - [[percussion]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1987-1988)
|
* [[Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]<BR>
* [[Jo Burt]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Terry Chimes]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1988-1989)
|
* [[Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]<BR>
* [[Laurence Cottle]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Cozy Powell]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1989-1991)
|
* [[Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]<BR>
* [[Neil Murray]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Cozy Powell]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1991-1992)
|
* [[Ronnie James Dio]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Vinny Appice]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1992-1994)
|
* [[Tony Martin (rock singer)|Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]<BR>
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Bobby Rondinelli]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1994-1995)
|
* [[Tony Martin (rock singer)|Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]<BR>
* [[Neil Murray]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Cozy Powell]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1995-1997)
|
* [[Tony Martin (rock singer)|Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]<BR>
* [[Neil Murray]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Bobby Rondinelli]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1997)
|
* [[Ozzy Osbourne]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Bill Ward]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1998)
|
* [[Ozzy Osbourne]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Vinny Appice]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1999-present)
|
* [[Ozzy Osbourne]] - [[vocals]]<BR>
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]<BR>
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]<BR>
* [[Bill Ward]] - [[drums]]<BR>
|-
|}
== Jeff Fenholt ==
Christian evangelist [[Jeff Fenholt]] has claimed over the years to have been a member of Black Sabbath in 1985. This is misleading, however, as Black Sabbath did not technically exist as a band in 1985-1986. Fenholt auditioned for the vocal spot eventually filled by [[Glenn Hughes]] on the "Seventh Star" album, which was ori |
| Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1995-96|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1996 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1996-97|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Jacksonville Jaguars|Jaguars]])
|-
|1997 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1998 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1998-99|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]])
|-
|1999 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1999-2000|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Titans]])
|-
|2000 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|2001 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|2002 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|2003 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|2004 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|2005|| 5 || 11 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
{{End}}
^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Bills All-Time Record is 341-372-8 (including AFL & NFL playoffs).
==Players and coaches of note==
===Current Roster===
{{Buffalo Bills roster}}
===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]===
'''Inductees'''
*1985 - [[O. J. Simpson]]
*1999 - [[Billy Shaw]]
*2001 - [[Marv Levy]]
*2002 - [[Jim Kelly]]
*2003 - [[Joe Delamielleure]]
*2003 - [[James Lofton]]
'''Award Recipients'''
*1984 - [[Larry Felser]] - [[Dick McCann Memorial Award]]
*2004 - [[Van Miller]] - [[Pete Rozelle Radio-Television Award]]
===Buffalo Bills Wall of Fame===
'''Inductees'''
*1980 - [[O. J. Simpson]]
*1984 - [[Jack Kemp]]
*1985 - [[Patrick J. McGroder]]
*1987 - [[Tom Sestak]]
*1988 - [[Billy Shaw]]
*1989 - [[Ralph C. Wilson Jr.]]
*1992 - [[12th Man (American football)|The 12th Man]]
*1993 - [[Elbert Dubenion]]
*1994 - [[Mike Stratton]]
*1995 - [[Joe Ferguson]]
*1996 - [[Marv Levy]]
*1997 - [[Joe Delamielleure]]
*1998 - [[Robert James (football)|Robert James]]
*1999 - [[Edward Abramoski]]
*2000 - [[Bob Kalsu]]
*2000 - [[George Saimes]]
*2001 - [[Jim Kelly]]
*2001 - [[Fred Smerlas]]
*2002 - [[Kent Hull]]
*2003 - [[Darryl Talley]]
*2004 - [[Jim Ritcher]]
*2005 - [[Thurman Thomas]]
===Retired numbers===
*[[Jim Kelly]] / [[Joe Ferguson]] (12)
The numbers of [[O.J. Simpson]] (32), [[Thurman Thomas]] (34) and [[Bruce Smith]] (78) have not been officially retired, but none of these numbers have been reissued since those players left the team.
Since the earliest days of the team, the number 31 was not supposed to be issued to any player. The Bills had stationery and various other team merchandise showing a running player wearing that number, and it was not supposed to represent any specific person, but the 'spirit of the team.' This policy has been abandoned in recent years.
===Other notable alumni===
{|
|valign="top"|
*[[Sam Adams (football player)|Sam Adams]], DT
*[[Don Beebe]], WR
*[[Cornelius Bennett]], LB
*[[Drew Bledsoe]], QB
*[[Ruben Brown]], OG
*[[Bob Chandler]]
*[[Steve Christie]], K
*[[Shane Conlan]]
*[[Al Cowlings]]
*[[Joe Cribbs]]
*[[Kenneth Davis]]
|valign="top"|
*[[Doug Flutie]], QB
*[[Cookie Gilchrist]], RB
*[[Phil Hansen]]
*[[Jim Haslett]], LB
*[[Travis Henry]], RB
*[[Kent Hull]]
*[[Bob James]]
*[[Henry Jones (football player)|Henry Jones]]
*[[Paul Maguire]], P
*[[Scott Norwood]], K
|valign="top"|
*[[Nate Odomes]]
*[[Bryce Paup]]
*[[Lou Piccone]]
*[[Peerless Price]], WR
*[[Andre Reed]], WR
*[[Frank Reich]], QB
*[[Bruce Smith]], DE
*[[Steve Tasker]], SPT
*[[Ted Washington]], DT
*[[Marcellus Wiley]], DE
|valign="top"|
*[[Pat Williams]], DT
|}
===Head coaches===
*1960-1961 - [[Buster Ramsey]]
*1962-1965 - [[Lou Saban]]
*1966-1968 - [[Joe Collier]]
*1968 - [[Harvey Johnson]]
*1969-1970 - [[John Rauch]]
*1971 - [[Harvey Johnson]]
*1972-1976 - [[Lou Saban]]
*1976-1977 - [[Jim Ringo]]
*1978-1982 - [[Chuck Knox]]
*1983-1985 - [[Kay Stephenson]]
*1985-1986 - [[Hank Bullough]]
*1986-1997 - [[Marv Levy]]
*1998-2000 - [[Wade Phillips]]
*2001-2003 - [[Gregg Williams]]
*2004-2005 - [[Mike Mularkey]]
*2006-Present - [[Dick Jauron]]
===Current Staff===
*General Manager - [[Marv Levy]]
*Assistant General Manager - [[Tom Modrak]]
*Head Coach - [[Dick Jauron]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Steve Fairchild]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Perry Fewell]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Turk Schonert]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Bill Kollar]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Bobby April]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Jim McNally]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Matt Sheldon]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Charlie Coiner]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[Chuck Lester]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[John Allaire]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Eric Studesville]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[George Catavolos]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Tyke Tolbert]]
*Assistant Offensive Line Coach - [[Larry Zierlein]]
*Offensive Assistant - [[Alex Van Pelt]]
==External links==
*[http://www.buffalobills.com/ Buffalo Bills - Official Site]
*[http://www.billsinsider.com/ Buffalo Bills Insider - Bills News and Largest Fan Community (unofficial)]
*[http://www.twobillsdrive.com/ Two Bills Drive - Bills Message Board and News (unofficial)]
*[http://www.billszone.com/ BillsZone.com - Bills Site (unofficial)]
*[http://www.billsfancentral.com/ Bills Fan Central - Bills News and Forums (unofficial)]
*[http://www.classicbuffalo.com/Bills.htm Bills Fan Tribute (unofficial)]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/buffalo/bills.html Sports E-Cyclopedia - Buffalo Bills (unofficial)]
{{NFL}}
[[Category:Buffalo Bills| ]]
[[Category:1960 establishments]]
[[Category:American Football League]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[de:Buffalo Bills]]
[[es:Buffalo Bills]]
[[fr:Bills de Buffalo]]
[[it:Buffalo Bills]]
[[ja:バッファロー・ビルズ]]
[[pt:Buffalo Bills]]
[[sv:Buffalo Bills]]
[[zh:水牛城比尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boleslaw I Chrobry</title>
<id>4316</id>
<revision>
<id>31899268</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-18T23:12:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Appleseed</username>
<id>404133</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bolesław I the Brave]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Big Dig</title>
<id>4318</id>
<revision>
<id>41431044</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T07:03:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kether83</username>
<id>428701</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added length of 93 tunnel into opening paragraph</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:bigdig.png|right|CA/T logo]]
The '''Big Dig''' is the unofficial name of the '''Central Artery/Tunnel Project''' ('''CA/T'''), a massive undertaking to route the [[Central Artery]] ([[Interstate 93]]), the chief [[freeway|controlled-access]] [[highway]] through the heart of [[Boston, Massachusetts]], into a 3.5 mile (5.6km) tunnel under the city, replacing a previous elevated roadway. The project also included the construction of the [[Ted Williams Tunnel]] (extending [[Interstate 90]] to [[Logan International Airport]]) and the [[Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge]] over the [[Charles River]].
At the time, the Big Dig was the most expensive single highway project in American history. When the last major highway section opened in [[December 2003]], over $14.6 billion had been spent in federal and state tax dollars.
==Historical background==
Boston's historically tangled streets were laid out long before the advent of automobiles. By mid-[[20th century]], car traffic in the inner city was extremely congested, with north-south trips especially so. Commissioner of Public Works [[William Callahan]] pushed through plans for an elevated expressway which eventually was constructed between the downtown area and the waterfront. This so-called [[Central Artery]] (also known as the: "[[John F. Fitzgerald]] Expressway") displaced thousands of residents and businesses, produced an eyesore for those who remained, and physically divided the historical connection between the downtown and market areas and the waterfront. Governor [[John Volpe]] interceded in the [[1950]]s to send the last section of the Central Artery underground, through the [[Dewey Square]] (or "[[South Station (Boston)|South Station]]") [[Dewey Square Tunnel|Tunnel]], but while traffic moved somewhat better the other problems remained.
Built before strict federal [[Interstate Highway standards]] were developed during the [[Eisenhower]] administration, the expressway was plagued by tight turns, entrance ramps without merge lanes, and continually escalating vehicular loads. Local businesses and residents again wanted relief and historians sought a reuniting of the waterfront with the city. [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|M.I.T.]] engineers Bill Reynolds and (eventual state Secretary of Transportation) [[Frederick P. Salvucci]] envisioned moving the whole expressway underground.
[[Image:Boston CAT Project-construction view from air.jpeg|left|frame|[[Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge]] over the Charles River under construction, looking north. The old elevated Central Artery crossing is to the right.]]
===Cancellation of the Inner Belt===
Another important motivation for the Big Dig in its final form was the abandonment of the Massachusetts Highway Department's intended expressway system through and around Boston. The Central Artery, as part of MassHighway's Master Plan of 1948, was originally planned to be (and signed as) the downtown Boston stretch of [[Interstate 95]], with a bypass road called the Inner Belt (officially [[Interstate 695 (Massachusetts)|Interstate 695]]) to pass around the downtown core to the west, through the neighborhood of [[Roxbury, Massachusetts|Roxbury]] and the cities of [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]] and [[Somerville, Massachusetts|Somerville]]. However, earlier controversies over impact of the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]] Boston extension, particularly on the heavily populated neighborhood of [[Brighton, Boston, Massachusetts|Brighton]], and the large number of additiona |
ary elections, there are [[Elections in the European Union|European Parliament elections]] every five years, and local municipal elections (held simultaneously in every [[municipalities of Finland|municipality]]) every four years.
{{Finnish presidential election, 2000}}
See also: [[Finnish presidential election, 2006]].
{{Finnish parliamentary election, 2003}}
{{main|Finnish parliamentary election, 2003}}
==Judicial system==
''Main article: [[Judicial system of Finland]]''
The judicial system is divided between [[court (judicial)|courts]] with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and special courts with responsibility for litigation between the public and the administrative organs of the state. Finnish law is codified. Although there is no writ of [[habeas corpus]] or [[bail]], the maximum period of pre-trial detention has been reduced to four days. The Finnish court system consists of local courts, regional appellate courts, and a Supreme Court.
==Administrative divisions==
''Main article: [[Provinces of Finland]], [[Subdivisions of Finland]]''
Finland has six provinces. Below the provincial level, they are divided into municipalities administered by councils elected by proportional representation once every four years. At the provincial level, the 5 [[Mainland Finland|mainland provinces]] are administered by provincial boards composed of civil servants, each headed by a presidentially appointed governor. The boards are responsible to the Ministry of the Interior and play a supervisory and coordinating role within the provinces.
The island province of [[Åland]] is located near the 60th parallel between [[Sweden]] and Finland. It enjoys local [[self-governance|autonomy]] by virtue of an international convention of [[1921]], implemented most recently by the [[Act on Åland Self-Government]] of [[1951]]. The islands are further distinguished by the fact that they are entirely Swedish-speaking. Government is vested in the provincial council, which consists of 30 delegates elected directly by Åland's citizens.
==See also==
*[[Political parties in Finland]]
*[[Foreign relations of Finland]]
*[[Politics of Åland]]
*[[Flag of Finland]]
*[[Comprehensive Income Policy Agreement]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fi.html Finland] in the [[CIA World Factbook]]
[[Category:Politics of Finland]]
[[da:Finlands politik]]
[[pt:Política da Finlândia]]
[[sv:Finlands politik]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Finland</title>
<id>10712</id>
<revision>
<id>41530581</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:47:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.194.94.198</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Finland]] has a highly industrialized, largely free-market economy, based on abundant forest resources, capital investments, and technology. Traditionally, Finland has been a net importer of capital to finance industrial growth. In the 1980s, Finland's economic growth rate was one of the highest of industrialized countries, with per capita output roughly that of the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Sweden]] and [[Italy]].
Finland's key economic sector is manufacturing - principally the wood, metals, engineering, telecommunications and electronics industries. The telecommunications and electronics industries are now the biggest export sector. Trade is important, with exports equaling more than one-third of
[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. Except for timber and several minerals, Finland depends on imports of raw materials, energy, and some components for manufactured goods. Because of the climate, agricultural development is limited to maintaining self-sufficiency in basic products. Forestry, an important export earner, provides a secondary occupation for the rural population, although the importance has declined in the recent years.
In [[1991]], Finland fell into a deep recession caused by economic overheating, depressed foreign markets and the dismantling of the barter system between Finland and the former [[Soviet Union]]. More than 20% of Finnish trade was with the Soviet Union before 1991, and in the following two years the trade practically ceased. 1991 and again in [[1992]], Finland devalued the markka to promote export competitiveness. This helped stabilize the economy; the recession bottomed out in [[1993]], with continued growth through [[1995]]. Since then the growth rate has been one of the highest of [[OECD]] countries.
The recession caused serious unemployment problem as unemployment soared from 3,2 % in 1990 to 16,6 % in [[1994]]. Unemployment continues to be a problem for Finland even if rapid growth of the production after the recession and active employment policies have reduced unemployment to 8,8 % of [[labor force]] in [[2004]]. According to [[Bank of Finland]]'s statistics, the estimated total rate of unemployment including [[Unemployment#Capitalism_and_Unemployment|hidden unemployment]] accounted to 18% in the fall of [[2003]].
Exports of goods contribute more than 20% of Finland's GDP; combined exports of goods and services amount to at least 25% of GDP. Exports and imports of goods equal about 40% of GDP. Timber and metalworking are Finland's main industries, but other industries produce manufactured goods ranging from electronics to motor vehicles. Finnish-designed consumer products such as textiles, porcelain, and glassware are world-famous.
Except for [[timber]] and several minerals, Finland depends on imported raw materials, energy, and some components for its manufactured products. Farms tend to be small, but sizeble timber stands are harvested for supplementary income in winter. The country's main agricultural products are dairy, meat, and grains. Finland's EU accession has accelerated the process of restructuring and downsizing of this sector, with the farming population decreasing.
An extensive social welfare system, constituting about one-fifth of the national income, includes a variety of pension and assistance programs and a comprehensive health insurance program. Although free education through the university level also is available, only about one child in four receives a higher education in the highly competitive system. In the mid-1970s, the educational system was reformed with the goal of equalizing educational opportunities. Beginning at age seven, all Finnish children are required to attend a comprehensive school (peruskoulu) of nine grade levels (six primary and three secondary). After this, they may elect to continue along an academic (lukio) or vocational (ammattikoulu) line, although it is not mandatory to continue studying after that point. About 60% select the academic line. The number of openings in higher educational institutions is less than the demand. The education is based in Finnish or Swedish language. It is also now possible to study in English from primary up to University.
Finland generally welcomes foreign investment. Areas of particular interest for investors are specialized high-tech companies and investments. The good infrastructure in Finland has enhanced Finland's position as a gateway to [[Russia]].
According to [[Transparency International]], Finland has the lowest level of [[political corruption|corruption]] in all the countries [[index_of_perception_of_corruption|studied in their survey]].
Finland is experiencing rapidly increasing integration with Western Europe: Finland was one of the 11 countries joining ([[Greece]] joined later) the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union]] (EMU) on [[1 January]] [[1999]]. The national currency markka (FIM) in circulation was withdrawn and replaced by euro (EUR) in the beginning of 2002.
'''GDP:'''
EUR 135.976 billion (2001).
Purchasing power parity - $152.955 billion (2004 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
Selected Growth Rates and PPP GDP for 2002 - 2006 est.:
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|-----
! style="background:#efefef;" | Year
! style="background:#efefef;" | GDP <br /> <small>in billions of USD PPP <br /> </small>
! style="background:#efefef;" | % GDP Growth
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2002
| 139.882 || 2.2
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2003
| 145.327 || 2.4
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2004
| 152.955 || 3.6
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2005
| 161.099 || 1.8
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2006
| 168.348 || 3.2
|- align="right"
|}
GDP - real growth rate: 3.6% (2004 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
EUR 28,643 per capita in 2004.
Purchasing power parity - $29,000 (2004 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
3.3%
<br>''industry:''
30.2%
<br>''services:''
66.5% (2004 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
N/A
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
4.2%
<br>''highest 10%:''
21.6% (1991)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
0.7% (2004 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
2.66 million (2004 est.)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
public services 32%, industry 22%, commerce 14%, finance, insurance, and business services 10%, agriculture and forestry 8%, transport and communications 8%, construction 6%
'''Unemployment rate:'''
8.9% (2004 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$96.43 billion
<br>''expenditures:''
$91.95 billion (2004 est.)
'''Industries:'''
[[telecommunication]] equipment, metal products, [[Finnish Maritime Cluster|shipbuilding]], pulp and paper, copper refining, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, clothing
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
4.8% (1999)
'''Electricity:'''
*''production:''71.59 [[TWh]] (2002)
*''consumption:'' 78.58 TWh (2002)
*''exp |
ited States until the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movement]] of the 1960s. And finally, in 1971, younger citizens were given the right to vote when the United States lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. In Canada [[First Nations]] were long denied the vote. The first country in the world to allow women to vote was New Zealand, and the second was Finland.
There are still many restrictions in place. Many countries do not allow those judged mentally incapable to vote, and some deny the vote to serving [[prison]]ers as well. In some cases, such as some U.S. states, convicted [[felon]]s are also barred from voting upon release. Children are not permitted to vote in any country; however, the minimum voting age varies.
In some countries, [[Compulsory voting|voting is compulsory]]. If an eligible voter does not attend a polling place, they may be subject to punitive measures such as a small fine.
===Who is voted for===
In some states far more positions are filled through election than others.
In all democracies it is often the case that some important positions are not filled through elections. Those institutions that were designed to not be too closely swayed by public opinion are often not elected. For instance judges are usually appointed for life, or until a specific age, to insulate them against popular pressure and help ensure their impartiality. This is often seen as an integral part of the [[separation of powers]].
However, there are some counterexamples. In the United States some judges are elected, and in ancient Athens military generals were elected.
Also frequent is the erecting of an intermediate tier of [[elector]]s between the people and the elected figure. For example, the [[President of the United States]] is not elected directly by the people but by the [[U.S. Electoral College]]. But since it is known who these people will vote for, the effect is the same as a direct election. Also, [[United States Senate|U.S. Senators]] were originally chosen by the state legislatures. And in the [[Westminster System]] the [[Prime Minister]], who holds the most power, is formally chosen by the [[head of state]] and in reality by the legislature or by their party.
===Types of election===
In most democratic political systems, there are a range of different types of election, corresponding to different layers of public governance or geographical jurisdiction. Some common types of election are:
*[[Presidential election]]
*[[General election]]
*[[Primary election]]
*[[By-election]]
*[[Local election]]
*[[Co-option]]
A [[referendum]] (''pl'' referenda or referendums) is a democratic tool related to elections in which the electorate votes for or against a specific proposal, law or policy, rather than for a general policy or a particular candidate or party. Referendums may be added to an election ballot or held separately and may be either binding or consultative, usually depending on the [[constitution]]. Referendums are usually called by governments via the legislature, however many democracies allow citizens to petition for referendums directly, called ''[[initiative]]s''.
Referendums are particularly prevalent and important in [[direct democracy|direct democracies]], such as [[Switzerland]]. The basic Swiss system, however, still works with representatives. In the most direct form of democracy, anyone can vote about anything. This is closely related to referendums and may take the form of [[consensus decision-making]]. Reminiscent of the ancient Greek system, anyone may discuss a particular subject until a consensus is reached. The consensus requirement means that discussions can go on for a very long time. The result will be that only those who are genuinely interested will participate in the discussion and therefore the vote. In this system there need not be an age limit because children will usually become bored. This system is however only feasible when implemented on a very small scale.
===Electoral systems===
Electoral systems refer to the detailed constitutional arrangements and [[voting system]]s which convert the vote into a determination of which individuals and political parties are elected to positions of power.
The first step is to tally the votes, for which various different [[vote counting systems]] and [[ballot]] types are used. Voting systems then determine the result on the basis of the tally. Most systems can be categorized as either [[Proportional representation|proportional]] or [[majoritarianism|majoritarian]]. Among the former are [[party-list proportional representation]] and [[additional member system]]. Among the latter are [[First Past the Post electoral system|First Past the Post (FPP)]] (relative majority) and [[absolute majority]]. Many countries have growing electoral reform movements, which advocate systems such as [[approval voting]], [[single transferable vote]], [[instant runoff voting]] or a [[Condorcet method]].
While openness and [[accountability]] are usually considered cornerstones of a democratic system, the act of casting a vote and the content of a voter's ballot are usually an important exception. The [[secret ballot]] is a relatively modern development, but it is now considered crucial in most free and fair elections, as it limits the effectiveness of intimidation.
===Scheduling===
The nature of democracy is that elected officials are accountable to the people, and they must return to the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their [[mandate (politics)|mandate]] to continue in office. For that reason most democratic constitutions provide that elections are held at fixed regular intervals. In most states elections are held between every three and six years. There are exceptions to this; the U.S. [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representives]] stands for election every two years, while the [[President of Ireland]] holds a largely ceremonial position for seven years.
Some nations have pre-determined and fixed election dates (e.g., the U.S.). This has the advantage of fairness and predictability. However, it tends to greatly lengthen campaigns, and makes [[dissolution of parliament|dissolving the legislature]] (parliamentary system) more problematic if the date should happen to fall at time when dissolution is inconvenient (e.g. when war breaks out). Other states (e.g., the [[United Kingdom]]) only set maximum time in office, and the executive decides exactly when within that limit it will actually go to the polls. In practice this means the government will remain in power full term unless something special happens, such as a [[motion of no-confidence]].
==Election campaigns==
When elections are called, politicians and their supporters attempt to influence policy by competing directly for the votes of constituents in what are called [[political campaigns|campaigns]]. Supporters for a campaign can be either formally organized or loosely affiliated, and frequently utilize [[campaign advertising]].
{{sect-stub}}
==Difficulties with elections==
===Show elections===
While all modern democracies hold regular elections, the converse is not true&mdash;not all elections are held by true democracies. Some governments employ other 'behind-the-scenes' means of candidate selection but organise a sham process that appears to be a genuine electoral contest, in order to present the facade of popular consent and support.
[[Dictatorship]]s, such as the former [[Soviet Union]], have been known to hold such ''[[show election]]s''. In the 'single candidate' type of show-election, there may only be one candidate for any one given position, with no alternative choices for voters beyond voting yes or no to this candidate. In the 'fixed vote' type of show-election such elections may offer several candidates for each office. In both cases, the government uses intimidation or [[vote-rigging]] to ensure a high yes vote or that only the government-approved candidates are chosen.
Another model is the 'false diversity' type of show-election in which there may be several choices, all of which support the status quo. In theory, 'false diversity' elections would be recognised by a truly informed electorate but as noted above this may be impossible, for example where a government conducting elections also controls the media by which most voters are informed. Examples of this are given below.
===Bias and limited options===
:''See also: '''[[Criticisms of electoralism]]'''.''
Similar to the false diversity elections are those in which candidates are limited by undemocratic forces and biases. The Iranian form of government is an example of this. In the [[2004 Iranian parliamentary elections]] almost all of the reformist candidates were ruled unfit by the [[Guardian Council]] of religious leaders. According to the [[politics of Iran|Iranian constitution]] this was fully within the Council's constitutional rights, and designed to prevent enemies of the [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution]] from coming to power. Even in the [[USA]], [[socialist]] [[Victor L. Berger]] was twice denied a seat in the [[House of Representatives]] in 1919 because of his [[anti-war]] views.
Simply permitting the opposition access to the ballot is not enough. In order for democratic elections to be fair and competitive, opposition parties and candidates must enjoy the rights to [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of assembly|assembly]], and movement as necessary to voice their criticisms of the government openly and to bring alternative policies and candidates to the voters. In states where these freedoms are not granted or where opposition party politicians are harassed and their events disrupted, elections may not reflect the legitimate views of the populace. A current example of such a state is [[Zimbabwe]]. In states with fragile democracies where there has been a history of political violence or blatantly unfair elections, internation |
*[[1956 in literature|1956]] ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]''
*[[1957 in literature|1957]] ''[[From Russia with Love]]''
*[[1958 in literature|1958]] ''[[Dr. No]]''
*[[1959 in literature|1959]] ''[[Goldfinger]]''
|
*[[1960 in literature|1960]] ''[[For Your Eyes Only]]''
*[[1961 in literature|1961]] ''[[Thunderball]]''
*[[1962 in literature|1962]] ''[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]''
*[[1963 in literature|1963]] ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]''
*[[1964 in literature|1964]] ''[[You Only Live Twice]]''
*[[1965 in literature|1965]] ''[[The Man with the Golden Gun]]''
*[[1966 in literature|1966]] ''[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights]]''
|}
Between 1953 and 1966, twelve James Bond novels and two short story collections by Fleming were published, with one novel and one short story collection issued posthumously. To this day, it is still debated [[The Man with the Golden Gun#The controversy over the novel|whether Fleming himself actually finished]] 1965's ''The Man with the Golden Gun'', as he died very soon after completing the book. His first anthology of short stories, ''For Your Eyes Only'', mostly consisted of converted screenplays for a [[CBS]] television series based on the character. When the project fell through, Fleming turned them into short stories: (i) "[[For Your Eyes Only#"From A View to a Kill"|From a View to a Kill]]", (ii) "[[For Your Eyes Only#"For Your Eyes Only"|For Your Eyes Only]]", (iii) "[[For Your Eyes Only#"Risico"|Risico]]", plus two additional stories, "[[For Your Eyes Only#"The Hildebrand Rarity"|The Hildebrand Rarity]]" and "[[For Your Eyes Only#"Quantum of Solace"|Quantum of Solace]]", which were previously published. The second anthology, ''Octopussy and The Living Daylights'' (in many editions titled only ''Octopussy''), originally only contained two short stories, "[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"Octopussy"|Octopussy]]" and "[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"The Living Daylights"|The Living Daylights"]]; a third story, "[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"The Property of a Lady"|The Property of a Lady]]" was added in the 1967 paperback edition, and a fourth, "[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#"007 in New York"|007 in New York]]", was added in 2002.
===Post-Fleming James Bond novels===
[[Image:ColonelSunOld.jpg|right|thumb|200px|After Fleming's death, Glidrose Productions attempted to continue the Bond series with ''Colonel Sun''.]]
Following Fleming's death in 1964, [[Ian Fleming Publications|Glidrose Productions]], publishers of the James Bond novels, planned a new book series, credited to the pseudonym "[[Robert Markham]]" and written by a rotating series of authors. Ultimately, only one Markham novel saw print, 1968's ''[[Colonel Sun]]'' by [[Kingsley Amis]]. Amis had previously written two books on the world of James Bond, the 1964 essay ''The James Bond Dossier'' and the tongue-in-cheek [[1965]] release ''The Book of Bond, or Every Man His Own 007'' (written under the pseudonym "Lt.-Col. William ("Bill") Tanner", a recurring character in the Bond novels. Amis had also been claimed for many years as the [[ghost writer]] of ''[[The Man with the Golden Gun]]'', although this has been debunked by numerous sources. See [[The Man with the Golden Gun#The controversy over the novel|The controversy over ''The Man with the Golden Gun'']].)
In [[1973 in literature|1973]], Fleming biographer [[John Pearson (author)|John Pearson]] was commissioned by Glidrose to biograph the fictional character James Bond. Pearson wrote ''[[James Bond: The Authorised Biography of 007]]'' in the first person as if meeting the secret agent himself. The book was well-received by aficionados&mdash;readers and viewers, alike. Since the book has many discrepancies with Fleming's Bond (for example his birth year), the canonical status of ''James Bond: The Authorised Biography of 007'' is debated among fans&mdash;some consider it [[apocryphal]], though at least one publisher, Pan Books, issued it as an official novel along with the rest of Fleming's series for its first paperback edition. Glidrose reportedly considered a new series of novels written by Pearson, but this did not come to pass. Prior to writing this, Pearson had written an early biography of Ian Fleming, ''[[The Life of Ian Fleming]]''.
In [[1977 in literature|1977]], the film ''[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]'' was released and was subsequently novelised and published by Glidrose due to the radical difference between the script and Fleming's novel of the same name. This would happen again with [[1979 in literature|1979]]'s ''[[Moonraker]]''. Both novelisations were written by [[screenwriter]] [[Christopher Wood (writer)|Christopher Wood]] and were the first official novelisations, although technically, Fleming's ''Thunderball'' was a novelisation having been based on scripts by himself, [[Kevin McClory]], and [[Jack Whittingham]] (although it predated the movie), and the ''For Your Eyes Only'' collection was also, for the most part, based upon unproduced scripts.
In the 1980s, the series was finally revived with new novels by John Gardner; between [[1981]] and [[1996]], he wrote fourteen James Bond novels and two screenplay novelisations, surpassing Fleming's original output. The biggest change in Gardner's series was updating 007's world to the 1980s; however, it would keep the characters the same age as they were in Fleming's novels. Generally Gardner's series is considered a success although their canonical status is disputed.
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
*[[1981 in literature|1981]] ''[[Licence Renewed]]''
*[[1982 in literature|1982]] ''[[For Special Services]]''
*[[1983 in literature|1983]] ''[[Icebreaker (novel)|Icebreaker]]''
*[[1984 in literature|1984]] ''[[Role of Honour]]''
*[[1986 in literature|1986]] ''[[Nobody Lives For Ever]]''
*[[1987 in literature|1987]] ''[[No Deals, Mr. Bond]]''
*[[1988 in literature|1988]] ''[[Scorpius (novel)|Scorpius]]''
*[[1989 in literature|1989]] ''[[Win, Lose or Die]]''
|
*[[1989 in literature|1989]] ''[[Licence to Kill]]'' ([[novelisation]])
*[[1990 in literature|1990]] ''[[Brokenclaw]]''
*[[1991 in literature|1991]] ''[[The Man from Barbarossa]]''
*[[1992 in literature|1992]] ''[[Death is Forever]]''
*[[1993 in literature|1993]] ''[[Never Send Flowers]]''
*[[1994 in literature|1994]] ''[[SeaFire]]''
*[[1995 in literature|1995]] ''[[GoldenEye]]'' (novelisation)
*[[1996 in literature|1996]] ''[[COLD (novel)|COLD]]''
|}
In 1996, Gardner retired from writing James Bond books due to ill health, and American Raymond Benson quickly replaced him. As a James Bond novelist, Benson was initially controversial for being American, and for ignoring much of the continuity established by Gardner. Benson had previously written ''[[The James Bond Bedside Companion]]'', a book dedicated to Ian Fleming, the official novels, and the films. The book was initially released in [[1984 in literature|1984]] and later updated in [[1988 in literature|1988]]. Benson also contributed to the creation of several modules in the popular ''James Bond 007'' [[role-playing game]] in the 1980s. Benson wrote six James Bond novels, three novelisations, and three short stories.
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
*[[1997 in literature|1997]] ''"[[James Bond uncollected short stories#"Blast from the Past"|Blast From the Past]]"'' (short story)
*[[1997 in literature|1997]] ''[[Zero Minus Ten]]''
*[[1997 in literature|1997]] ''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]'' (novelisation)
*[[1998 in literature|1998]] ''[[The Facts of Death]]''
*[[1999 in literature|1999]] ''"[[James Bond uncollected short stories#"Midsummer Night's Doom"|Midsummer Night's Doom]]"'' (short story)
*[[1999 in literature|1999]] ''"[[James Bond uncollected short stories#"Live at Five"|Live at Five]]"'' (short story)
|
*[[1999 in literature|1999]] ''[[The World Is Not Enough]]'' (novelisation)
*[[1999 in literature|1999]] ''[[High Time to Kill]]''
*[[2000 in literature|2000]] ''[[Doubleshot]]''
*[[2001 in literature|2001]] ''[[Never Dream of Dying]]''
*[[2002 in literature|2002]] ''[[The Man with the Red Tattoo]]''
*[[2002 in literature|2002]] ''[[Die Another Day]]'' (novelisation)
|}
Benson's three short stories [[James Bond uncollected short stories|remain uncollected]], unlike previous short stories from Ian Fleming. Benson also wrote a fourth short story entitled "[[James Bond uncollected short stories#Unpublished story|The Heart of Erzulie]]" that was rejected for publication.
Benson abruptly resigned as Bond novelist at the end of 2002, despite having previously announced plans to write a short story collection. Low sales figures for the books, and plans by Ian Fleming Publications to focus on reissuing Fleming's original novels for the 50th anniversary of the character, were among reasons speculated by fans as to why Benson departed. The year 2003 marked the first year since 1980 that a new James Bond novel had not been published.
On [[August 28]], [[2005]], Ian Fleming Publications confirmed it is planning to publish a one-off adult Bond novel in [[2008]] to mark what would have been Ian Fleming's 100th birthday. This would feature the adult version of the character as opposed to the "Young Bond" character of the recent Charlie Higson books (see below). Although it has been suggested a "big name" author might take on the task, the publishers have yet to approach anyone about this project [http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/index.cfm?page=news].
===Young Bond===
{{main|Young Bond}}
In April 2004, Ian Fleming Publications (Glidrose) announced a new series of James Bond books. Instead |
slation 2005 by Sibylle Fischer and Helen Lane) ''Cecilia Valdes'' or ''El Angel Hill''. Oxford University Press, USA ISBN 0195143957 Deals with sexual mores and the traditions of mistresses during the Spanish colonial period, with many historic details, including the execution of [[Narciso Lopez]]. The author was first condemned to death for conspiring for independence against Spain [http://uncpress.unc.edu/chapters/lazo_writing.html]; after his sentence was commuted to ten years he escaped [http://www.pinarte.cult.cu/gerardo_ortega/html/figuras_pinarenas/villaverde.htm].
===Compendia of Cuban Literature ===
*García, Calixto 1973 El Negro en la Narrativa Cubana. PhD. Thesis. The City University of New York. UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, Michigan [http://www.umi.com/products_umi/dissertations/] This Calixto García Iñiguez, was grandson of [[Calixto Garcia]] and was very familiar with the political and ethnic scene of Cuba in the 1940s and 1950s especially in Oriente Province.
*Lazo, Rodrigo 2005 Writing to Cuba Filibustering and Cuban Exiles in the United States. University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0807855944
===Cuban music===
{{main article|[[Music of Cuba]]}}
Cuban music is very rich and is the most commonly known expression of culture. The "central form" of this music is [[Son (music)|Son]], which has been the basis of many other musical styles like [[Salsa music|salsa]] and [[mambo]] and a slower derivation of mambo, the [[cha-cha-cha]]. The [[Tres]] was also invented in Cuba, but other traditional Cuban instruments are of African and/or [[Neo-Taíno nations]], multination indigenous origins such as the [[Maraca|maracas]], [[güiro]], [[Marimba|marímba]] and various wooden [[drum]]s such as the [[mayohuacan]] (''Zayas y Alfonso, 1914'') [[Alfredo Zayas]]. Popular Cuban music of all styles has been enjoyed and praised widely across the world. Cuban classical music, which includes music with strong African and European influences, and features symphonic works as well as music for soloists, has also won international thanks to composers like [[Ernesto Lecuona]].
===Religion===
{{main articles|[[Santería]], [[Palo Monte]], and [[Catholicism]]}}
The religious landscape of Cuba is strongly marked by [[syncretism]]s of various kinds, the majority of which include elements of [[Roman Catholicism]]. The various religious beliefs in Cuba are by no means exclusive, and one can easily be a follower of several religious currents at the same time, as well as being a member of the communist party. [[Pentecostal]]ism is also growing rapidly, and the [[Assemblies of God]] alone claims a membership of over 100,000 people. Jeremy Jackson is Cuban.
Cuba has small but vibrant [[Jew]]ish, [[Muslim]] and [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] populations. Havana still has three active [[synagogue]]s and one [[mosque]]. In the 1960s about 8,000 Jews left for Miami [http://www.jafi.org.il/papers/2005/sept/sept28hz.htm]. Around 1999 over several years almost 400 Cuban Jews, from a population once numbering about ten thousand [http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=10710],[http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/22407/format/html/displaystory.html], left for Israel [http://www.jafi.org.il/papers/1999/oct/phioct12.htm].
On [[6 January]] the [[Epiphany]] (known as the ''Día de Reyes Magos'' which in English translates "Day of the Kings") is celebrated to commemorate the day that the [[Magi|Three Wise Men]] came to visit Jesus according to the [[Gospel]]s. As in most Spanish American countries as well as Spain, this day is celebrated in conjunction with, or sometimes instead of Christmas Day.
Important religious festivals include various days dedicated to the saints such as the "Virgen de la [[Caridad del Cobre]]" (the Virgin of Cobre, Cuba's patron saint, syncretised with Santería's [[Ochún]]) on [[September 8]], and ''San Lázaro'' ([[Lazarus]]) (syncretised with [[Babalu Ayé]]), on [[December 17]].
== Society ==
=== Education ===
{{main|Education in Cuba}}
The [[University of Havana]], Cuba's oldest university, was founded in 1721; prior to 1959 there were other official universities including : Universidad de Oriente (founded in 1947) and Universidad Central de Las Villas (founded in 1857); private universities included: Universidad Católica de Santo Tomás de Villanueva (founded in 1946); Universidad Masónica, and the Universidad de la Salle in Nuevo Vedado. In 1961 private schools and universities were nationalized (without payment), [http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/cb/cuba/asce/cuba5/FILE25.PDF], [http://sunsite.tus.ac.jp/pub/academic/chemistry/iupac/Download/publications/ci/1999/march/cuba.html]. Historically, Cuba has had some of the highest rates of education and literacy in Latin America [http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/cb/cuba/asce/cuba8/30smith.pdf]. Yet, before the revolution, the illiteracy was at 23,6 percent (50 percent in rural areas). Due to a massive campaign coordinated by the government but executed by the population, illiteracy was eradicated a few years after the Cuban revolution.
In a 1998 study by [[UNESCO]] [http://fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/~daniel_schugurensky/assignment1/1998cuba.html], and as explained by Fidel Castro, Havana, on September 16, 2002 [http://homepages.poptel.org.uk/markburton/fideledn.html] Cuban education progress is excellent. Cuban third and fourth graders were reported better educated in basic language and mathematics skills than children in other Latin American countries that took part in the study, with the "test achievement of the lower half of students in Cuba is significantly better than the test achievement of the upper half of students in the countries that (fell) immediately behind Cuba" in the study group [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2005/06/cohen.htm]. [http://fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/~daniel_schugurensky/assignment1/1998cuba.html]. UNESCO data is reported as “estimates compiled from national population censuses and household surveys and updated to 2005” [http://www.uis.unesco.org/template/pdf/EducGeneral/InterpretingCountryProfiles.pd]. Cuba’s literacy rates by this criteria at 15 to 24 years of age (both male and female) is 100% [http://www.uis.unesco.org/profiles/EN/GEN/countryProfile_en.aspx?code=1920].
Not all are so sanguine about Cuban education, and lacunae in curriculum at all levels of education are common (Orro Fernandez, 2004). However, discipline is excellent and all students regardless of age and gender wear school uniforms with the color denoting grade level.
=== Public health ===
{{main|Public health in Cuba}}
{|style="float:left;padding-right:2em"
|+ '''[[World Health Organization|WHO]] health statistics for Cuba'''<br><small>Source: [http://www.who.int/countries/cub/en/ WHO country page on Cuba]</small>
|-
|align=right|''Life expectancy at birth m/f:''
||75.0/79.0 (years)
|-
|align=right|''Healthy life expectancy at birth m/f:''
|67.1/69.5 (years)
|-
|align=right|''Child mortality m/f:''
|8/6 (per 1000)
|-
|align=right|''Adult mortality m/f:''
|137/87 (per 1000)
|-
|align=right|''Total health expenditure per capita:''
|$236
|-
|align=right|''Total health expenditure as % of GDP:''
|7.5
|}
[[Fidel Castro]] has long made the promise of free, universal health care an important part of the case for his government. Cuba's healthcare system is widely regarded as one of the best in the world; however WHO data cited here comes directly from national health authorities of each country [http://www.paho.org/english/dd/ais/coredata.htm]. Thus, there are some who do not trust this data [http://www.catholicsfordemocracy.org/node/6999] [http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2002/12/6/145131.shtml#3a]. Cuba has had good doctors for centuries such as [[Carlos Finlay]], who determined how [[yellow fever]] was spread; thus during the 1898-1902 US presence in Cuba with much heroic sacrifice such as that of Clara Louise Maas [http://www.npl.org/Pages/ProgramsExhibits/Exhibits/333faces.html] yellow fever was essentially eliminated. The massive Havana hospital, "Calixto Garcia" as well as 72 others were operating well before 1959. [http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/cb/cuba/asce/cuba8/30smith.pdf], [http://136.142.158.105/Lasa2003/McGuireJames.pdf] However, like the rest of the Cuban economy, Cuban medical care has suffered from severe material shortages following the end of Soviet subsidies. Support from the Venezuelan government of [[Hugo Chávez]] has alleviated some of those problems.
Today, according to Cuban government statistics, Cuba has over 71,000 doctors [http://www.granma.cu/ingles/2005/noviembre/juev17/47turquino.html], with 20,000 health workers in Venezuela, and 5,000 more spread around the world in over 60 additional countries, as it views such missions an important part of its foreign policy. They offer medical services to 85,154,748 people; 34,700,000 in Latin America and the Caribbean and 50,400,000 in Africa and Asia.
Cuba has sent doctors to underdeveloped nations and educated foreign doctors since the early 1960s. It dispatched physicians to help [[Nicaragua]] and [[Peru]], then hostile to Cuba, recover from earthquakes. [http://www.cubanet.org/CNews/y98/nov98/30e5.htm]
Cuban doctors played a vital role in the health-care system of [[Sri Lanka]] in the 1980s, particularly in the war-torn North-east province, when a crisis in that country's education system limited the number of doctors coming out of universities.
Cuba has also given treatment on the island to more than 14,000 children and 4,000 adults damaged by radiation in Chernobyl, which is actually more than the rest of the world combined has done for the victims during that catastrophe.
During the UN's general assembly in 2000, [[Fidel Castro]] offered the [[United Nations]] 6,000 doctors for service in the third world.
"But one of Castro's most respecte |
rabalho'' in Portuguese) with its own courts.
===Superior Courts===
There are two national superior courts that grant [[writs]] of [[certiorari]] in civil and criminal cases: the Superior Justice Tribunal (''Superior Tribunal de Justiça'' in Portuguese), also know as STJ, and the Brazilian superior court called [[Supreme Federal Tribunal]] (''Supremo Tribunal Federal'' in Portuguese), also know as STF.
STJ grants a Special Appeal (''Recurso Especial'' in Portuguese) when a judgment of a court of second instance offends a [[federal statute]] disposition or when the second instance courts in two or more have decided in different ways about a same federal statute. There are courts similar to the STJ for [[labor law]], [[electoral law]] and [[military law]].
STF grants an Extraordinary Appeal (''Recurso Extraordinário'' in Portuguese) when a judgment of a court of second instance offends a constitutional disposition. STF is the last instance for the writ of [[habeas corpus]], including review of a judgment from the STJ.
The superior courts do not analyze any factual questions in their judgments, but only the application of law and constitution. Facts and evidences must be judged in last instance by the courts of second instance, except in very special cases like the writ of habeas corpus.
==Political pressure groups and leaders==
Left wing of the Catholic Church, Landless Worker's Movement, and labor unions pressure the government for more intense reforms on taxation and land property, while rightist PFL and PSDB are critical of government's social and economic policies.
==International organization participation==
[[African Development Bank]], [[Customs Cooperation Council]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization]], [[Group of 11]], [[Group of 15]], [[Group of 19]], [[Group of 24]], [[Group of 77]], [[Inter-American Development Bank]], [[International Atomic Energy Agency]], International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ([[World Bank]]), [[International Civil Aviation Organization]], [[International Chamber of Commerce]], [[International Criminal Court]], [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]], [[International Development Association]], [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]], [[International Finance Corporation]], [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]], [[International Hydrographic Organization]], [[International Labour Organization]], [[International Monetary Fund]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Inmarsat]], [[International Telecommunications Satellite Organization]], [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee]], [[International Organization for Migration]] (observer), [[International Organization for Standardization]], [[International Telecommunication Union]], [[Latin American Economic System]], [[Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración]], [[Mercosur]], [[Nonaligned Movement]] (observer), [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]], [[Organization of American States]], [[Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean]], [[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]], [[Rio Group]], [[United Nations]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization]], [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization]], [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka]], [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]], [[United Nations University]], [[Universal Postal Union]], [[World Confederation of Labour]], [[World Federation of Trade Unions]], [[World Health Organization]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization]], [[World Meteorological Organization]], [[World Tourism Organization]] [[World Trade Organization]]
==Flag description==
:''Main article:'' [[Flag of Brazil]]
Green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed [[star]]s (one for each state and the Federal District) arranged in the same pattern as the [[night sky]] over Brazil on the 15th November 1889 (date of the proclamation of the Republic); the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress).
==See also==
*[[Brazil]]
*[[Brazilian General Elections, 2006]]
*[http://www.brazilink.org/politics.asp Brazilink Politics]
*[[café com leite]]
*[[coronelismo]]
*[[History of Brazil]]
*[[Integralism]]
{{South America in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Brazil| ]]
[[fr:Politique du Brésil]]
[[nb:Brasils politikk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Brazil</title>
<id>3634</id>
<revision>
<id>40447010</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T16:48:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Economy of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Brazil table}}
According to the [[CIA World Factbook]] [[Brazil]] had the eleventh largest economy in the world at [[purchasing power parity]] in 2004. Brazil has a diversified middle income economy with wide variations in levels of development. Most large industry is concentrated in the south and south east. The north east is traditionally the poorest part of [[Brazil]], but it is beginning to attract new investment. [[Brazil]] embarked on a successful economic stabilization program, the [[Plano Real|Real Plan]] (named for the new currency, the [[real (currency)|real]]; plural: reais) in July 1994. [[Inflation]], which had reached an annual level of nearly 5,000% at the end of 1993, fell sharply, reaching a low of 2.5% in 1998; it was 6% in 2000. [[Brazil]] successfully shifted from an essentially fixed exchange rate regime to a floating regime in January 1999.
The [[Fernando Henrique Cardoso|Cardoso]] administration introduced to Congress a series of constitutional reform proposals to replace a state-dominated economy with a market-oriented one and to restructure all levels of government on a sound fiscal basis. Congress has approved several amendments to open the economy to greater private sector participation, including the involvement of foreign investors. By the end of 2003, [[Brazil]]'s privatization program, which included the sale of steel and telecommunications firms, had generated proceeds of more than $90 billion. Passage of the Fiscal Responsibility Law in mid-2000 improved fiscal discipline at all three levels - federal, state, and municipal - and all three branches of government. Some measures have been adopted to address large deficits in [[Brazil]]'s pension programs, but more remains to be done. Tax reform - simplification - has been under debate for over 2 years, but there has not yet been sufficient closure for final legislative action. Despite fiscal austerity, the administration has acknowledged the need to invest more in education and health to redress social inequity.
Market opening and economic stabilization have significantly enhanced [[Brazil]]'s growth prospects. [[Brazil]]'s trade has almost doubled since 1990. U.S. direct foreign investment has increased from less than $19 billion in 1994 to an estimated $35 billion through 2000. The [[United States]] is the largest foreign investor in [[Brazil]]. Upcoming privatizations in the power and banking sectors will likely elicit strong interest from U.S. firms.
==Agriculture and forestry==
[[Brazil]] is endowed with vast agricultural resources. There are two distinct agricultural areas. The first, comprised of the southern one-half to two-thirds of the country, has a semi-temperate climate and higher rainfall, the better soils, higher technology and input use, adequate infrastructure, and more experienced farmers. It produces most of [[Brazil]]'s grains and oilseeds and export crops. The other, located in the drought-ridden northeast region and in the Amazon basin, lacks well-distributed rainfall, good soil, adequate infrastructure, and sufficient development capital. Although mostly occupied by subsistence farmers, the latter regions are increasingly important as exporters of forest products, cocoa, and tropical fruits. Central Brazil contains substantial areas of [[grassland]] with only scattered trees. The Brazilian [[grassland|grasslands]] are less fertile than those of [[North America]] and are generally more suited for grazing.
During the dicatorship period, agriculture was neglected and exploited as a means of resources for the industry sector and cheap food for the urban population. Until late 1980s export and prices were controlled, with quotas on exports. This has changed since the early 1990s.
Brazilian agriculture is well diversified, and the country is largely self-sufficient in food. Agriculture accounts for 8% of the country's GDP, and employs about one-quarter of the labor force in more than 6 million agricultural enterprises. [[Brazil]] is the world's largest producer of sugarcane and coffee, and a net exporter of cocoa, soybeans, orange juice, tobacco, forest products, and other tropical fruits and nuts. Livestock production is important in many parts of the country, with rapid growth in the poultry, pork, and milk industries reflecting changes in consumer tastes. On a value basis, production is 60% field crop and 40% livestock. [[Brazil]] is a net exporter of agricultural and food products, which account for about 35% of the country's exports.
Half of [[Brazil]] is covered by forests, with the largest [[rain forest]] in the world located in the Amazon Basin. Recent migrations into the Amazon and largescale burning of forest areas have placed the international spotlight on the country and damaged Brazil's image. The government has re |
as a [[Riemann surface]].
All this refers to complex analysis in one variable. There is also a very rich theory of [[several complex variables|complex analysis in more than one complex dimension]] where the analytic properties such as power series expansion still remain true whereas most of the geometric properties of holomorphic functions in one complex dimension (such as [[conformality]]) are no longer true. The [[Riemann mapping theorem]] about the conformal relationship of certain domains in the complex plane, maybe the most important result in the one-dimensional theory, fails dramatically in higher dimensions.
It is also applied in many subjects throughout engineering, particularly in power engineering.
== History ==
Complex analysis is one of the classical branches in mathematics with its roots in the 19th century and some even before. Important names are [[Euler]], [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]], [[Riemann]], [[Cauchy]], [[Weierstrass]], and many more in the 20th century. Traditionally, complex analysis, in particular the theory of [[conformal mapping]]s, has many applications in engineering, but it is also used throughout analytical [[number theory]]. In modern times, it became very popular through a new boost of [[complex dynamics]] and the pictures of [[fractal]]s produced by iterating holomorphic functions, the most popular being the [[Mandelbrot set]]. Another important application of complex analysis today is in [[string theory]] which is a conformally invariant [[quantum field theory]].
== See also ==
* [[Several complex variables]]
* [[Runge's theorem]]
* [[List of complex analysis topics]]
== References ==
* Needham T., ''Visual Complex Analysis'' (Oxford, 1997).
* Henrici P., ''Applied and Computational Complex Analysis'' (Wiley). [Three volumes: 1974, 1977, 1986.]
== External links ==
*[http://www.math.gatech.edu/~cain/winter99/complex.html Complex Analysis -- textbook by George Cain]
*[http://www.ima.umn.edu/~arnold/502.s97/ Complex analysis course web site by Douglas N. Arnold]
*[http://www.exampleproblems.com/wiki/index.php/Complex_Variables Example problems in complex analysis]
*[http://www.usfca.edu/vca/websites.html A collection of links to programs for visualizing complex functions (and related)]
[[Category:Calculus]]
[[Category:Mathematical analysis]]
[[Category:Complex analysis|*]]
[[cy:Dadansoddi Cymhlyg]]
[[de:Funktionentheorie]]
[[es:Análisis complejo]]
[[fr:Analyse complexe]]
[[he:אנליזה מרוכבת]]
[[it:Analisi complessa]]
[[ru:Комплексный анализ]]
[[sv:Komplex analys]]
[[uk:Теорія функції комплексної змінної]]
[[zh:複分析]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of China</title>
<id>5760</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42141429</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:22:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nlu</username>
<id>350890</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv; both versions arguably POV, but later version more so, and in any case, Song/Liao/Jin weren't a "tripartite" anything (Liao/Jin didn't coexist for long)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History_of_China}}
'''The [[history]] of [[China]]''' is detailed by historical records dating back to [[15th century BCE|1500 BC]]. China is one of the world's oldest continuous major [[civilization]]s. [[Turtle]] shells with markings reminiscent of ancient [[Chinese writing]] from the [[Shang Dynasty]] (商朝) have been [[carbon dated]] to around 1500 BC. These records suggest that the origins of Chinese civilization started with city-states in the [[Yellow River]] valley. [[221 BC]] is commonly used as the date when China became unified under a large kingdom or empire. Successive [[dynasties in Chinese history|dynasties]] developed systems of bureaucratic control that would allow the emperor to control the large territory that would become [[China Proper]].
The forced imposition of a common system of writing by the Qin (秦) emperor in the [[2nd century BC]] and the development of a state [[ideology]] based on [[Confucianism]] in the [[1st century BC|100 BC]], marked the foundation of what is now termed the Chinese civilization. Politically, China alternated between periods of political unity and disunity, and was occasionally conquered by external groups of people, some eventually being assimilated into the Chinese population. Cultural and political influences from many parts of [[Asia]], carried by successive waves of immigration, merged to create the image of [[Culture of China|Chinese Culture]] today.
[[Image:Map-Chinese World.png|250px|left|thumb|China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and countries linked to Chinese political and cultural history.]]
== Neolithic Era ==
[[China]] was inhabited, possibly more than a million years ago, by ''[[Homo erectus]]''. The excavations at [[Yuanmou]] (元謀) and later Lantian (藍田) show early habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen of ''Homo erectus'' found in China is the so-called [[Peking Man]] (北京人) found in 1923. The ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' or modern human might have reached China about 65,000 years ago from [[Africa]]. Early evidence for proto-Chinese [[rice paddy]] agriculture is [[Radiocarbon dating|carbon-dated]] to about 6000 BC, and associated with the [[Peiligang culture]] (裴李崗文化) of [[Xinzheng]] county (新鄭縣), [[Henan]] (河南省). With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and to support specialist craftsmen and administrators. In late [[Neolithic]] times, the [[Huang He]] (黃河) valley began to establish itself as a cultural center, where the first villages were founded; the most archaeologically significant of those was found at [[Banpo]] (半坡), [[Xi'an]] (西安).
== Prehistory ==
The early history of China is complicated by the lack of a written language during this period coupled with the existence of documents from later time periods attempting to describe events that occurred several centuries before. The problem in some sense stems from centuries of introspection on the part of the Chinese people which has blurred the distinction between fact and fiction in regards to this early history. [[Archaeological site]]s such as [[Sanxingdui]] (三星堆) and [[Erlitou culture|Erlitou]] (二里頭) show evidence of a [[Bronze Age]] [[civilization]] in China. However the earliest comprehensive [[history]] of China, the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian|Historical Records]]'' (史記) by [[Sima Qian]] (司馬遷), a renowned Chinese historiographer of the [[2nd century BC]], begins perhaps 1300 years earlier, with an account of the [[The Three August Ones and the Five Emperors#The Five Emperors|Five Emperors]] (三皇五帝). These rulers were semi-mythical sage-kings and moral exemplars, and one of them, the [[Yellow Emperor]] (黃帝), is said to be the ancestor of all Chinese people.
Sima Qian relates that the system of inherited rulership was established during the following early period called the [[Xia Dynasty]] (夏朝), and that this model was perpetuated in the recorded [[Shang Dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]] (周朝) dynasties. It is during this period of the ''Three Dynasties'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 三代; [[pinyin]]: ''sāndài'') that the historical China begins to appear.
=== Xia Dynasty ===
{{main|Xia Dynasty}}
[[Sima Qian]]'s account dates the founding of the [[Xia Dynasty]] to some 4,000 years ago, but this date has not been corroborated. Some archaeologists connect the Xia to excavations at [[Erlitou culture|Erlitou]] in central [[Henan]] province, where a bronze smelter from around [[2000 BC]] was unearthed. Early markings from this period, found on pottery and shells, have been alleged to be ancestors of modern [[Chinese character]]s, but such claims have not been accepted by many scholars. Proof of Xia's existence still requires further archaeological discovery. With no clear written records to match the Shang [[oracle bones]] or the [[Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC)|Zhou]] bronze vessel writings, the Xia era remains poorly understood.
==Ancient History==
=== Shang Dynasty ===
{{main|Shang Dynasty}}
The earliest written record of China's past dates from the [[Shang Dynasty]] in perhaps the [[13th century BC]], and takes the form of inscriptions of divination records on the bones or shells of animals&mdash;the so-called ''[[oracle bones]]'' (甲骨文). Archaeological findings providing evidence for the existence of the [[Shang Dynasty]] (商朝), c [[1,600s BC|1,600]]&ndash;[[1,040s BC|1,046 BC]] is divided into two sets. The first, from the earlier Shang period (c 1600&ndash;[[1,300s BC|1,300]]) comes from sources at [[Erligang]] (二里崗), [[Zhengzhou]] (鄭州) and [[Shangcheng]]. The second set, from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period, consists of a large body of oracle bone writings. [[Anyang]] (安陽) in modern day Henan has been confirmed as the last of the nine capitals of the Shang (c 1300&ndash;1,046 BC).
Chinese historians living in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the actual political situation in early China is known to have been much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can possibly refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou ([[successor state]] of the Shang), is known to have existed at the same time as the Shang.
=== Zhou Dynasty ===
{{main|Zhou Dynasty}}
By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the [[Zhou Dynasty]] (周朝) began to emerge in the [[Yellow River]] valley, overrunning the Shang. The Zhou appeared to have begun their rule under a semi-feudal system. The ruler of the Zhou, [[King Wu of Zhou| King Wu]], with the assistance of his uncle, the [[Duke of Zhou]], as regent managed to defeat the Shang at the [[Battle of Muye]]. The king of Zhou at this time invoked the concept of the [[Mandate of Heaven]] to legitimize his rule, a concept that would be influent |
ament of `Abdu'l-Bahá]]'' are foundation documents of the [[Bahá'í administration|Bahá'í administrative order]]. Bahá'u'lláh established the elected [[Universal House of Justice]]; and `Abdu'l-Bahá established the appointed hereditary Guardianship and clarified the relationship between the two institutions. In his Will Abdu'l-Bahá appointed his eldest grandson, [[Shoghi Effendi]], as the first Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith.
Shoghi Effendi throughout his lifetime translated the sacred writings of the Faith; developed global plans for the expansion of the Bahá'í community; developed the [[Bahá'í World Centre]]; carried on a voluminous correspondence with communities and individuals around the world; and built the administrative structure of the Faith, preparing the community for the election of the Universal House of Justice.
With the unexpected passing of Shoghi Effendi in 1957, the Faith was left without a clear candidate for Guardian, due to the absence of male descendants of Bahá'u'lláh. After the election of the [[Universal House of Justice]] in 1963, it then ruled that given the unique situation and the provisions of the [[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá]], it was not possible to appoint another Guardian. A small group of believers followed Mason Remey, who proclaimed he was the second Guardian of the Faith, and do not follow the Universal House of Justice. This group has since subsequently split into several other [[Bahá'í divisions]], whose combined population is in the low thousands, with each adhereing to their own administrations. The Universal House of Justice today remains the supreme governing body of the Bahá'í Faith, and its 9 members are elected every five years by the members of all [[Spiritual Assembly|National Spiritual Assemblies]]. Any male Bahá'í, 21 years or older, is eligible to be elected to the Universal House of Justice; all other elected positions are open to male and female Bahá'ís.
== Current plans and focus ==
The Bahá'í writings allude to a future time when the majority of the world will be Bahá'ís. [[Entry by troops]] refers to a period of time when the Bahá'í Faith will emerge from relative obscurity and attract large numbers of followers. The name is not meant to imply militancy, and could equally be called "entry by large groups," or "sudden large scale growth".
To these ends, the [[Universal House of Justice]] periodically announces subsidiary goals in the form of multi-year plans. The first large influx of Bahá'ís was felt in Africa during the time of [[Shoghi Effendi]], and subsequent decades had sporadic inundations of Bahá'ís in different parts of the globe. It wasn't until the launching of the four-year plan (1996-2000) that "a significant advance in the process of entry by troops" was made the one major aim of the Bahá'í world. (Rid&#803;ván 153)
The current five-year plan (2001-2006) focuses on developing institutions and creating the means to "sustain large-scale expansion and consolidation" (Rid&#803;ván 158). Since 2001, the Bahá'ís around the world have been specifically encouraged to focus on children's classes, devotional gatherings, and a systematic study of the Faith, known as [[Bahá'í study circle|study circles]]. The most popular study program is the Ruhi Institute, a study course originally designed for use in [[Colombia]], but which has received wide recognition. A new focus was added in December 2005 with the addition of "junior youth" classes to the core activities of Bahá'ís, focusing on education for those between 11 and 14.
The years from 2006 until 2021 will represent three successive five-year plans, culminating in the centennial anniversary of the passing of [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]], and the completion of the first century of the Formative Age of the Bahá'í Faith.
==Laws==
{{main|Bahá'í laws}}
The laws of the Bahá'í Faith primarily come from the ''[[Kitáb-i-Aqdas]]'' ("''The Most Holy Book''"). Most are applied by individual Bahá'ís, as a matter of free choice. Some may be enforced to some degree by the administrative order, while others are dependent upon the existence of a predominantly Bahá'í society, which is expected to gradually come into being. Bahá’í laws are expected to be gradually applied on the levels of an individual and society. (''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'', p. 5)
Bahá'u'lláh did not see these laws as rigid legalistic framework, concerned with enforcement and punishment. He stated that laws are an indispensable part of human spiritual progress and part of the mystic path.
:"Think not that We have revealed unto you a mere code of laws. Nay, rather, We have unsealed the choice Wine with the fingers of might and power."
:: (Bahá'u'lláh, ''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'', v. 5, p. 21) [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KA/ka-4.html#gr5]
Here are a few examples of laws and basic religious observances of the ''[[Kitáb-i-Aqdas|Kitáb-i-Aqdas]]'' which have been codifed by [[Shoghi Effendi]], the appointed interpreter of the Bahá'í writings:
* Recite an [[Obligatory Bahá'í Prayers|obligatory prayer]] each day. There are three such prayers among which one can be chosen each day.
* Pray and meditate daily.
* Backbiting and gossip is prohibited and denounced.
* There is a specified statement which must be recited as part of the [[marriage]] vow. Furthermore, the consent of all living parents must be obtained.
* Adult Bahá'ís in good health observe a nineteen-day sunrise-to-sunset [[fasting|fast]] each year from March 2 through March 20.
* Bahá'ís are forbidden to drink [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] or to [[Recreational drug use|take drugs]], unless prescribed by doctors.
* Sexual relationships are permitted only between a husband and wife, and thus [[homosexual]] acts are not permitted. See [[Homosexuality and Bahá'í Faith]].
* [[Gambling]] is strictly forbidden, as well as the consumption of [[narcotics]] such as [[opium]].
==Places of worship==
{{main|Bahá'í House of Worship}}
Most Bahá'í meetings occur in individuals' homes, local Bahá'í centers, or rented facilities. Worldwide, there are currently seven Bahá'í Houses of Worship, basically one per continent, with an eighth under design. Bahá'í writings refer to an institution called a [[Bahá'í House of Worship|Ma<u>sh</u>riqu'l-A<u>dh</u>kár]] (Dawning-place of the Mention of God), which is to form the center of a complex of institutions including a hospital, university, and so on. Only the first ever Ma<u>sh</u>riqu'l-A<u>dh</u>kár in [[Ashgabat|'Ishqábád]], [[Turkmenistan]], was built to such a degree.
==Calendar==
{{main|Bahá'í calendar}}
The [[Bahá'í calendar]] was established by the Báb. The year consists of 19 months of 19 days, and 4 or 5 intercalary days, to make a full solar year. The New Year (called [[Naw Rúz]]) occurs on the vernal equinox, [[March 21]], at the end of the month of fasting. Bahá'í communities gather at the beginning of each month at a meeting called a [[Nineteen Day Feast|Feast]] for worship, consultation and socializing.
Bahá'ís observe 11 [[Bahá'í calendar|Holy Days]] throughout the year, with work suspended on 9 of these. These days commemorate important anniversaries in the history of the Faith.
==Symbols==
[[Image:Bahaistar.jpg|thumb|170px|A stylized nine pointed star, with the calligraphy of the [[Greatest Name]] in the center.]]
{{main|Bahá'í symbols}}
The official symbol of the Bahá'í Faith is the five-pointed star, but a nine-pointed star is more frequently used. The ringstone symbol and calligraphy of the Greatest Name are also often encountered. The former consists of two stars interspersed with a stylized Bahá’ (Arabic: بهاء lit. "splendor" but usually translated as "glory") whose shape is meant to recall the three onenesses. The Greatest Name is Yá Bahá'ul 'Abhá (Arabic: يا بهاء الأبهى usually translated as "O Glory of the Most Glorious!")<br clear=all>
==Involvement in society==
Bahá'ís actively promote issues of social justice and spirituality wherever they are found, holding the concept of the unity of humankind as the standard for their actions. Bahá'ís have also become increasingly involved in projects of social and economic development around the world [http://www.bahai.org/article-1-8-1-1.html].
===Work ethic===
Far from being an ascetic tradition, Bahá'u'lláh deprecated a [[Mendicancy|mendicant]] and [[Asceticism|ascetic]] lifestyle, encouraging Bahá'ís to "Be anxiously concerned with the needs of the age ye live in, and centre your deliberations on its exigencies and requirements" [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/PB/pb-61.html#gr1]. Moreover work, Bahá'ís are instructed, when done in the spirit of service to humanity is given a rank equal to that of prayer [http://www.bahai.org/faq/beliefs/prayer].
===United Nations===
Bahá'u'lláh wrote of the need for world government in this age of humanity's collective life. Because of this emphasis many Bahá'ís have chosen to support the [[United Nations]] since its inception. The "Bahá'í International Community", an agency under the direction of the [[Universal House of Justice]] in [[Haifa]] has consultative status with the following organizations:
*[[United Nations Economic and Social Council]] (ECOSOC)
*[[United Nations Children's Fund]] (UNICEF)
*[[World Health Organization]] (WHO)
*[[UNIFEM|United Nations Development Fund for Women]] (UNIFEM)
*[[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP)
The Bahá'í Faith has also undertaken joint development programs with various other United Nations agencies.
In the 2000 [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Forum]] of the [[United Nations]] a Bahá'í was invited as the only non-governmental speaker during the summit [http://www.bahai.org/article-1-1-0-3.html]. See [http://www.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-6.html this article] for further information on the relationship between t |
], [[Finland|Finnish]] philosopher [[Pekka Himanen]] opposed the Hacker ethic with [[Protestant work ethic]]. In Himanen's opinion the hacker ethic is closer related to the [[Virtue ethics]] found in the writings of [[Plato]] and of [[Aristotle]].
==See also==
* [[Ethical code]]
* [[Grey hat]]
* [[Hacker culture]]
* [[Hacker definition controversy]]
* [[Open source ethics]]
==Books and media==
* ''[[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]]''
* [[Pekka Himanen]], ''The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age'', ISBN 0375505660
==External links==
* [[Enid Gabriella Coleman]], an anthropologist at the University of Chicago, has written extensively on the hacker ethic and culture [http://healthhacker.org/biella/freesoftware.html]
*[http://www.hackerslegion.com/ Legion of Ethical Hacking]
* [[Tom Chance]], [http://tom.acrewoods.net/research/hackerethic/dissertation The Hacker Ethic and Meaningful Work]
[[Category:Computer hacking]]
[[de:Hackerethik]]
[[es:Ética hacker]]
[[pt:Ética hacker]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hotel</title>
<id>14276</id>
<revision>
<id>42042662</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:55:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mormegil</username>
<id>75813</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ +cs:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[image:castle.combe.hotel.arp.jpg|thumb|right|280px|The 4-star Manor House Hotel at Castle Combe, [[Wiltshire, England]]. Built in the fourteenth century, the hotel has 48 rooms and 365 acres (1.5 km&sup2;) of gardens.]]
|-
|[[Image:Hotel1.JPG|thumb|280px|A small hotel in [[Mureck, Austria|Mureck, Styria, Austria]] which has preserved its 1960s exterior and interior]]
|-
|[[image:Hotel-room-renaissance-columbus-ohio.jpg|thumb|280px|An upscale hotel room in the [[Renaissance Hotels]] chain in the U.S.]]
|}
A '''hotel''' is an establishment that provides paid [[lodging]], usually on a short-term basis and especially for [[tourist]]s. Hotels often provide a number of additional guest services such as a [[restaurant]], a [[swimming pool]] or [[childcare]]. Some hotels have [[conference]] services and encourage groups to hold [[convention]]s and [[meeting]]s at their location.
Hotels differ from [[motel]]s in that most motels have drive-up, exterior entrances to the rooms, while hotels tend to have interior entrances to the rooms, which has been asserted by some hotels as enhancing guests' safety and presenting a more upscale image.
==Origins of the term==
The word ''hotel'' derives from the [[French language|French]] ''hôtel'', which originally referred to a French version of a [[townhouse]], not a place offering accommodation (in contemporary usage, ''hôtel'' has the meaning of "hotel", and ''hôtel particulier'' is used for the old meaning). The French spelling (with the [[circumflex]]) was once also used in English, but is now rare. The circumflex replaces the 's' once preceding the 't' in the earlier ''[[hostel]]'' spelling, which over time received a new, but closely related meaning.
==Services and facilities==
Basic accommodation of a room with a [[bed (furniture)|bed]], a cupboard, a small table and a washstand only has largely been replaced by rooms with [[en-suite]] [[bathroom]]s and climate control. Other features found may be a [[telephone]], an [[alarm clock]], a [[television|TV]], and [[broadband]] [[Internet]] connectivity. Food and drink may be supplied by a [[mini-bar]] (which often includes a small [[refrigerator]]) containing [[snack]]s and [[drink]]s (to be paid for on departure), and [[tea]] and [[coffee]] making facilities (cups, [[spoon]]s, an electric [[kettle]] and sachets containing [[instant coffee]], [[tea bag]]s, [[sugar]], and [[cream (food)|creamer]] or [[milk]]).
In the United Kingdom a hotel is required by law to serve food and drinks to all-comers within certain stated hours; to avoid this requirement it is not uncommon to come across "[[private hotel]]s" which are not subject to this requirement.
However, in [[Japan]] the [[capsule hotel]] supplies minimal facilities and room space.
==Classification==
The cost and quality of hotels are usually indicative of the range and type of services available. Due to the enormous increase in [[tourism]] worldwide during the last decades of the [[20th century]], standards, especially those of smaller establishments, have improved considerably. For the sake of greater comparability, rating systems have been introduced, with the [[star (classification)|one to five stars]] classification being most common.
==Boutique hotels==
"Boutique Hotel" is a term originating in [[North America]] to describe intimate, usually luxurious or quirky hotel environments. Boutique hotels differentiate themselves from larger chain or branded hotels by providing an exceptional and personalized level accommodation, services and facilities.
Typically boutique hotels are furnished in a themed, stylish and/or aspirational manner. Although usually considerably smaller than a mainstream hotel (ranging from 3 to 100 guest rooms) boutique hotels are generally fitted with telephony and [[wi-fi]] [[Internet]] connections, [[honesty bars]] and often cable/pay TV. Guest services are attended to by 24 hour hotel staff. Many boutique hotels have on site dining facilities, and the majority offer bars and lounges which may also be open to the general public.
Of the total travel market a small percentage are discerning travelers, who place a high importance on privacy, luxury and service delivery. As this market is typically corporate travelers, the market segment is referral-rich, non-seasonal, high-yielding and repeat, and therefore one which boutique hotel operators target as their primary source of income.
==Famous Hotels==
Most world famous hotels have gained their renown through tradition, by hosting significant events or persons, such as Schloss '''[[Cecilienhof]]''' in [[Potsdam]], [[Germany]], which derives its fame from the so-called [[Potsdam Conference]] of the [[World War II]] allies [[Winston Churchill]], [[Harry Truman]] and [[Joseph Stalin]] in [[1945]]. Other establisments have given name to a particular meal or beverage, as is the case with the '''[[Waldorf Astoria]]''' in [[New York City]], [[USA]], known for its ''[[Waldorf Salad]]'' or the '''[[Raffles Hotel]]''' in [[Singapore]], where the drink ''[[Singapore Sling]]'' was invented. Another example is the '''[[Hotel Sacher]]''' in [[Vienna]] Austria, home of the ''[[Sachertorte]]''.
A number of hotels have entered the public concsiousness through popular culture, such as the '''[[Ritz Hotel]]''' in [[London]], [[UK]] ('Putting on The Ritz') and '''[[Hotel Chelsea]]''' in New York City, subject of a number of songs and also the scene of the alleged stabbing of [[Nancy Spungen]] by her boyfriend [[Sid Vicious]]. Hotels that enter popular folklore like these two are also often frequented by celebrities, as is the case both with the Ritz and the Chelsea. Other such establishments include the '''[[Beverly Hills Hotel]]''' and the '''[[Chateau Marmont]]''', both in [[California]], [[USA]].
The '''[[Burj Al Arab]]''' in [[Dubai]], held to be the most luxurious in the world, also merits a mention.
==Unusual hotels==
[[Image:Ariau_towers.jpg.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The first of the Ariau towers]]
===Treehouse hotels===
Some hotels, such as the [[Costa Rica Tree House]] in the [[Gandoca-Manzanillo Wildlife Refuge]], [[Costa Rica]], or [[Treetops Hotel]] in [[Aberdares National Park]], [[Kenya]], are built with living trees as structural elements, making them [[treehouses]].
The [[Ariau Towers]] near Manaus, Brazil is a well-known hotel, in the middle of the Amazon, on the Rio Negro. Bill Gates even invested and had a suite built there with satellite internet/phone.
===Cave hotels===
[[Desert Cave Hotel]] in [[Coober Pedy, South Australia]] and the [[Cuevas Pedro Antonio de Alarcón]] (named after the [[Pedro Antonio de Alarcón|author]]) in [[Guadix]], Spain, as well as several hotels in [[Cappadocia]], Turkey, are notable for being built into natural [[cave]] formations, some with rooms underground.
===Ice hotels===
''Main article: [[Ice hotel]]''
Ice hotels, such as the canonical Ice Hotel in [[Jukkasjärvi]], Sweden, melt every spring and are rebuilt out of ice and snow every winter.
===Underwater hotels===
[[As of 2005]], the only hotel with an underwater room that can be reached without [[Scuba diving]] is [[Utter Inn]] in [[Lake Mälaren]], Sweden. <!-- feel free to correct me on this one! --> It only has one room, however, and [[Jules' Undersea Lodge]] in [[Key Largo]], Florida, which requires scuba diving, is not much bigger.
[[Hydropolis]] is an ambitious project to build a luxury hotel in [[Dubai]], [[UAE]], with 220 suites, all on the bottom of the [[Persian Gulf]], 20 meters (66 feet) below the surface. Its architecture will feature two domes that break the surface and an underwater train tunnel, all made of transparent materials such as glass and [[Polymethyl methacrylate|acrylic]].
===Other unusual hotels===
The [[Library Hotel]] in [[New York City]] is unique in that its ten floors are arranged according to the [[Dewey Decimal System]].
[[image:Cincinnati-westin-hotel.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical high-rise urban [[hotel chain|chain]] hotel: [[Westin Hotels|Westin]] in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]].]]
==World-record setting hotels==
=== Tallest ===
The tallest hotel in the world is the [[Burj al-Arab]] in [[Dubai]], at 321 meters (1,053 feet). However, this title may be taken by the less illustrious [[Ryugyong Hotel]] in [[Pyongyang]] at 330 meters (1,083 feet), pending its (perhaps unlikely) completion; it has been under construction since [[1987]] and was abandoned in [[1992]].
=== Largest ===
The largest hotel in the world is the [[Ambassador City Jomtien]] resort, in [[Jom |
neral the lower the concentration of agarose, the larger is the ideal size of a molecule to be resolved up to 750,000 bp. The disadvantage of lower concentrations is the long run times (sometimes days) and the problem of handling the fragile gel.
The rate of migration is affected by a number of factors. The concentration of agarose is one that has been mentioned. The conformation of DNA is also a factor and is demonstrated by the forms of a [[plasmid]]: supercoiled, nicked, linear and single-stranded. Each conformation runs at a different rate, with supercoiled running the fastest and linear running the slowest. The presence of [[ethidium bromide]] (EtBr) in the gel causes DNA to run slower, as EtBr intercalates and uncoils DNA. EtBr has the unique property of fluorescing under UV light. By running DNA through an EtBr-treated gel and exposing it to UV light, distinct bands of DNA become visible. The voltage is also a factor in migration and can only be so high before a decrease in resolution (about 5 to 8 V/cm). Loading buffers are added with the DNA in order to visualize it and sediment it in the gel well. Negatively charged indicators keep track of the position of the DNA. Bromphenol Blue and Xylene cyanol FF are used and run at about 300 bp and 4 kbp respectively.
There are a number of buffers used for agarose electrophoresis, but only two will be mentioned here: tris acetate [[EDTA]] (TAE), and [[sodium boride]] (SB). TAE has the lowest buffering capacity but provides the best resolution. This means a lower voltage and more time, but a better product. SB is relatively new and is ineffective in resolving fragments larger than 5kb but it has the highest buffering capacity allowing voltages up to 350 V<ref>Sambrook J, Russel DW (2001). Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual 3rd Ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Cold Spring Harbor, NY.</ref><ref>Brody JR, Calhoun ES, Gallmeier E, Creavalle TD, Kern SE (2004). Ultra-fast high-resolution agarose electrophoresis of DNA and RNA using low-molarity conductive media. Biotechniques. 37:598-602. [http://www.biotechniques.com/default.asp?page=article_archive&subsection=article_display&id=101200415&prevpage=article_archive]</ref>.
==Material==
For an agarose gel electrophoresis, several items are needed:
* The DNA that is to be separated.
* A [[DNA ladder]], a mixture of DNA fragments (usually 10-20) of known size. The size of the DNA strands that are separated is determined by comparison of their relative position to that of the DNA strands of the DNA ladder. There are several DNA ladder mixes commercially available.
* [[Buffer solution]], usually [[TBE]] or TAE 0.5x, pH 8.0
* [[Agarose]]
* [[Ethidium bromide]] (5.25 mg/ml in H<sub>2</sub>O)
* [[Nitrile]] gloves
* A color marker containing a low [[molecular weight]] [[dye]] such as "[[bromophenol blue]]" (to enable tracking the progress of the electrophoresis) and glycerol (to make the DNA solution more dense so it will sink into the wells of the gel).
* A gel rack
* A "comb" (usually cut from a sheet of [[teflon]])
==Preparation==
There are several methods for preparing agarose gels. A common example is shown here. Other methods might differ in the buffering system used, the sample size to be loaded, the total volume of the gel (typically thickness is kept to a minimum while length and breadth are varied as needed), and whether the gel is prepared horizontally or vertically (the vast majority of agarose gels used in modern molecular biology are prepared and run horizontally).
# Make a 1% agarose solution in 0.5x [[TBE]]. If you analyze small DNA strands, go up to 2%. Use 15-70 ml, depending on the size of the gel.
# Boil solution, preferably in a [[microwave oven]].
# Let the solution cool down to about 60 °C at room temperature. Stir the solution while cooling.
# Add 1 ul ethidium bromide per 10 ml gel solution. '''Wear gloves from here on, [[ethidium bromide]] is a potent [[mutagen]] ''(nitrile gloves recommended)'' !''' Some researchers prefer not to add ethidium bromide to the gel itself, instead soaking the gel in an ethidium bromide solution after running.
# Stir the solution to disperse the ethidium bromide, then fill it into the gel rack.
# Insert the comb at one side of the gel, about 5-10 mm from the border of the gel.
# When the gel has cooled down and become solid, remove the comb. The holes that remain in the gel are the slots.
# Put the gel, together with the rack, into a chamber with 0.5x TBE. Make sure the gel is completely covered with TBE, and that the slots are at the electrode that will have the negative current.
# Add the color marker to the DNA ladder is usually already stained.
'''''for more information on ethidium bromide safety see references <ref>States, Kelly M. (2003). Ethidium Bromide in [http://web.princeton.edu/sites/ehs/chemwaste/WastePaper/0302.htm ''The Waste-Paper:The Hazardous Waste Disposal Monthly Update'']. Retrieved 2005-01-31.</ref>,<ref name=Wisconsin>Office of Biological Safety, Univ. of Wisconsin (Madison) (2003). Ethidium Bromide: Alternatives and Safe Handling in [http://www2.fpm.wisc.edu/biosafety/bioside_lines/bioside_lines_04_2003.htm ''BioSide Lines:The Newsletter of the UW Office of Biological Safety'']. Retrieved 2005-01-31.</ref>,<ref>Environmental Health and Safety at The Scripps Research Intititute (1999). WILL YOUR GLOVES PROTECT YOU? in [http://www.scripps.edu/researchservices/ehs/News/safetygram/sg1999/sg1999b.html ''Environmental Health & Safety:Second Quarter 1999''] Retrieved 2005-01-31.</ref>'''''
'''''for information on alternatives to ethidium bromide see references <ref name=Wisconsin/>,<ref>Madden, Dean (2004 [last modified]). [http://www.bioscience-explained.org/EN1.2/schollar.html Safer stains for DNA]. Retrieved 2005-01-31.</ref>'''''
==Procedure==
After the gel has been prepared, use a micropipette to inject about 25 µl of stained DNA (a DNA ladder is also highly recommended). Close the lid of the electrophoresis chamber and apply current (typically 100 V for 30 minutes with 15 ml of gel). The colored dye in the DNA ladder and DNA samples acts as a "front wave" that runs faster than the DNA itself. When the "front wave" approaches the end of the gel, the current is stopped. It is now possible to visualize the DNA (stained with ethidium bromide) with [[ultraviolet]] light.
[[image:Agarose Gel Electrophoresis.png|frame|none|Figure 1: Schematic drawing of the electrophoresis process, see text for description of steps]]
Steps:
#The agarose gel with three slots (S).
#Injection of DNA ladder ([[molecular weight]] markers) into the first slot.
#DNA ladder injected. Injection of samples into the second and third slot.
#A current is applied. The DNA moves toward the positive [[anode]] due to the negative charges on its [[phosphate]] backbone.
#Small DNA strands move fast, large DNA strands move slowly through the gel. The DNA is not normally visible during this process, so the marker dye is added to the DNA to avoid the DNA being run entirely off the gel. The marker dye has a low molecular weight, and migrates faster than the DNA, so as long as the marker has not run past the end of the gel, the DNA will still be in the gel.
#The DNA is spread over the whole gel. The electrophoresis process is finished.
Illuminate the gel with an [[ultraviolet]] lamp (usually by placing it on a light box) to view the DNA bands - ethidium bromide [[fluorescence|fluoresces]] pink in the presence of DNA. Wear protective glasses! The DNA band can also be cut out of the gel, and can then be dissolved to retrieve the purified DNA.
==Analysis==
Modern day gel electrophoresis research often leverages software-based image analysis tools, such as those used in [[two-dimensional gel electrophoresis]], or 2-DE. In [[proteomics|proteomics research]], these tools primarily analyze bio-markers by quantifying individual, and showing the separation between one or more protein "spots" on a scanned image of a 2-DE product. Additionally, these tools match spots between gels of similar samples to show, for example, proteomic differences between early and advanced stages of an illness. Two leading tools in this study are [http://www.bio-rad.com PDQuest] and [http://support.nonlinear.com/products/2d/progenesis.asp Progenesis Workstation]. While this technology is widely utilized, the intelligence has not been perfected yet. For example, while both of the aforementioned tools tend to agree on the quantification and analysis of well-defined well-separated protein spots, they deliver different results and tendencies with less-defined less-separated spots.<ref>Arora, Pankaj S., et al. (2005). Comparative evaluation of two two-dimensional gel electrophoresis image analysis software applications using synovial fluids from patients with joint disease. Journal of Orthopaedic Science 10(2):160-166. [http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&id=doi:10.1007/s00776-004-0878-0]</ref>
== References ==
<references/>
== See also ==
*[[SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis]]
*[[Southern blot]]
*[[Northern blot]]
*[[PCR]]
*[[Restriction endonuclease]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[Category:Laboratory techniques]]
[[Category:Electrophoresis]]
[[de:Agarose-Gelelektrophorese]]
[[ja:アガロースゲル電気泳動]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Allele</title>
<id>1911</id>
<revision>
<id>41683399</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:11:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ESkog</username>
<id>88149</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.83.116.136|67.83.116.136]] ([[User talk:67.83.116.136|talk]]) to last version by Vsmith</comment>
<text xml:space="preserv |
between humans and [[oak]] trees.
Bacteria have the ability to ''perceive'' the concentration gradient of stimuli to a resolution of one part per 10k (equivalent to a human being able to discern between two coin-filled jars, one filled with 9,999, the other with 10,000).
==See also==
*[[Bacterial growth]]
*[[Bacteriocin]]
*[[Magnetotactic bacteria]]
*[[Microorganism]]
*[[Nanobacterium]]
*[[Transgenic bacteria]]
== Sources ==
* Some text in this entry was merged with the ''[[Nupedia]]'' article entitled ''Bacteria'', written by Nagina Parmar; reviewed and approved by the Biology group (editor: Gaytha Langlois, lead reviewer: Gaytha Langlois, lead copyeditors: Ruth Ifcher and Jan Hogle)
* {{NCBI-scienceprimer}}
== Further reading ==
* Alcamo, I. Edward. ''Fundamentals of Microbiology''. 5th ed. Menlo Park, California: Benjamin Cumming, 1997.
* Atlas, Ronald M. ''Principles of Microbiology''. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby, 1995.
* Holt, John.G. Bergey's ''Manual of Determinative Bacteriology''. 9th ed. Baltimore, Maryland: Williams and Wilkins, 1994.
* Hugenholtz P, Goebel BM, Pace NR. ''Impact of Culture-Independent Studies on the Emerging Phylogenetic View of Bacterial Diversity''. J Bacteriol 1998;180:4765-4774. [http://jb.asm.org/cgi/content/full/180/18/4765?view=full&pmid=9733676 Fulltext] / PMID 9733676.
* {{cite journal | author=Koshland, Daniel E., Jr. | title=A Response Regulator Model in a Simple Sensory System | journal=Science | year=1977 | volume=196 | pages=1055-1063}}
* Stanier, R.Y., J. L. Ingraham, M. L. Wheelis, and P. R. Painter. ''General Microbiology''. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1986.
==External links==
*[http://www.dsmz.de/bactnom/bactname.htm Bacterial Nomenclature Up-To-Date from DSMZ]
*[http://www.zytologie-online.net/bakterien.php Bacterial Growth and Cell Wall (Ger)]
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~pietsch/microminds.html Microminds]
*[http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/4_17_99/fob5.htm The largest bacteria]
*[http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Eubacteria&contgroup=Life_on_Earth Tree of Life]
*[http://www.rowland.harvard.edu/labs/bacteria/index_movies.html Videos] of bacteria swimming and tumbling, use of optical tweezers and other fine videos.
*[http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_bacteria.html Planet of the Bacteria by Stephen Jay Gould]
[[Category:Bacteria|*]]
[[Category:Bacteriology]]
[[af:Bakterie]]
[[bn:ব্যাকটেরিয়া]]
[[ca:Bacteri]]
[[cs:Bakterie]]
[[cy:Bacteria]]
[[da:Eubacteria]]
[[de:Bakterien]]
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[[es:Bacteria]]
[[eo:Bakterio]]
[[eu:Bakteria]]
[[fa:باکتری]]
[[fr:Bacteria]]
[[gl:Bacteria]]
[[ko:세균]]
[[hr:Bakterije]]
[[io:Bakterio]]
[[id:Bakteri]]
[[it:Bacteria]]
[[he:חיידקים]]
[[lv:Baktērija]]
[[lt:Bakterija]]
[[lb:Bakterien]]
[[hu:Baktérium]]
[[mk:Бактерија]]
[[nl:Bacterie]]
[[nds:Bakterien]]
[[ja:真正細菌]]
[[no:Bakterier]]
[[nn:Bakterie]]
[[pl:Bakterie]]
[[pt:Bactéria]]
[[ru:Бактерия]]
[[simple:Bacteria]]
[[sk:Baktéria]]
[[sl:Bakterija]]
[[sr:Бактерија]]
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[[sv:Bakterier]]
[[ta:கோலுரு நுண்ணுயிர்]]
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[[vi:Vi khuẩn]]
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[[zh:细菌]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bank</title>
<id>3753</id>
<revision>
<id>42051891</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:43:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monkeyman</username>
<id>79245</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ Removed link. Required survey then never started download. : /</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
A '''bank''' is an institution that provides [[financial service]], particularly taking [[deposits]] and extending [[credit (finance)|credit]].
Currently the term ''bank'' is generally understood as an institution that holds a [[banking license]]. Banking licenses are granted by [[bank regulation|bank regulatory]] authorities and provide rights to conduct the most fundamental banking services such as accepting [[deposit]]s and making [[loan]]s. There are also financial institutions that provide certain banking services without meeting the legal definition of a bank, a so called [[non-banking financial company]].
Banks have a long [[History of banking|history]], and have influenced economies and politics for centuries.
The word ''bank'' is derived from the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''banca,'' which is derived from [[German language]] and means [[bench]]. The terms [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]] and "broke" are similarly derived from ''banca rotta'', which refers to an out-of-business bank, having its bench physically broken. Money lenders in Northern Italy originally did business in open areas, or big open rooms, with each lender working from his own bench or table.
Traditionally, a bank generates profits from transaction fees on financial services and on the interest it charges for lending. In recent history, with historically low interest rates a limited ability to earn money by lending deposited funds, much of a bank's income is provided by [[overdraft]] fees and riskier investments.
==Services typically offered by banks==
Although the type of services offered by a bank depends upon the type of bank and the country, services provided usually include:
* Taking deposits from the general public and issuing [[checking account|checking]] and [[savings account]]s
* Making [[loans]] to individuals and businesses
* Cashing [[check (finance)|cheque]]s
* Facilitating money transactions such as [[wire transfer]]s and [[cashiers check]]s
* Issuing [[credit card]]s, [[Automatic Teller Machine|ATM]], and [[debit card]]s
* Storing valuables, particularly in a [[safe deposit box]]
==Types of Bank ==
Banks' activities can be characterised as [[retail banking]], dealing direct with individuals and small businesses, and [[investment banking]], relating to activities on the [[financial markets]]. Most banks are profit-making, private enterprises. However, some are owned by government, or are non-profit making.
In some jurisdictions retail and investment activities are, or have been, separated by law.
[[Central bank]]s are non-commercial bodies or government agencies tasked with responsibility for controlling [[interest rate]]s and [[money supply]] across the whole economy. They act as [[Lender of last resort]] in event of a crisis.
===Types of retail banks===
*[[Commercial bank]], is the term used for a normal bank to distinguish it from an investment bank. Since the two no longer have to be under separate ownership, some use the term "commercial bank" to refer to a bank or a division of a bank that mostly deals with corporations or large businesses.
*[[Community development bank]] are regulated banks that provide financial services and credit to underserved markets or populations.
*[[Postal savings bank]]s are savings banks associated with national postal systems. Japan and Germany are examples of countries with prominent postal savings banks.
*[[Private bank]]s manage the assets of high net worth individuals.
*[[Offshore bank]]s are banks located in jurisdictions with low taxation and regulation, such as Switzerland or the [[Channel Islands]]. Many offshore banks are essentially private banks.
*[[Savings bank]]s traditionally accepted savings deposits and issued mortgages. Today, some countries have broadened the permitted activities of savings banks.
*[[Building societies]] and [[Landesbank]]s both conduct retail banking
===Types of investment banks===
*[[Investment bank]]s "[[underwrite]]" (guarantee the sale of) stock and bond issues and advise on mergers. Examples of investment banks are [[Goldman Sachs]] of the [[USA]] or [[Nomura Group]] of [[Japan]].
*[[Merchant bank]]s were traditionally banks which engaged in trade financing. The modern definition, however, refers to banks which provides capital to firms in the form of shares rather than loans. Unlike [[Venture capital firm]]s, they tend not to invest in new companies.
===Both combined===
*[[Universal bank]]s, more commonly known as a [[financial services]] company, engage in several of these activities. For example, [[Citigroup]], a very large American bank, is involved in commercial and retail lending; it owns a merchant bank (Citicorp Merchant Bank Limited) and an investment bank ([[Salomon Smith Barney]]); it operates a private bank (Citigroup Private Bank); finally, its subsidiaries in tax-havens offer offshore banking services to customers in other countries. Almost all large financial institutions are diversified and engage in multiple activities. In Europe and Asia, big banks are very diversified groups that, among other services, distribute also insurance, hence the [[bancassurance]] term.
===Other types of banks===
*[[Islamic bank]]s adhere to the concepts of [[Islamic law]]. Islamic banking revolves around several well established concepts which are based on Islamic canons. Since the concept of Interest is forbidden in Islam, all banking activities must avoid interest. Instead of interest, the Bank earns profit (mark-up) and fees on financing facilities that it extends to the customers. Also, deposit makers earn a share of the Bank’s profit as opposed to a predetermined interest.
==Banks in the economy==
===Role in the money supply===
A bank raises funds by attracting deposits, borrowing money in the inter-bank market, or issuing [[financial instruments]] in the [[money market]] or a [[capital market]]. The bank then lends out most of these funds to borrowers.
However, it would not be prudent for a bank to lend out all of its balance sheet. It must keep a certain proportion of its funds in reserve so that it can repay depositors who withdraw their deposits. Bank reserves are typically kept in the form of a deposit with a [[central bank]]. This behaviour is called [[fractional-reserve banking]] and it is a central issue of [[monetary policy]]. Some governments (or their central banks) restrict the proportion of a |
riters and game designers in the late 20th century for other fantasy animal-human hybrids. For more information, see the article [[Taur]].
==See also==
Other hybrid creatures appear in Greek mythology, always with some liminal connection that links Hellenic culture with archaic or non-Hellenic cultures:
*[[Harpy]]
*[[Minotaur]]
*[[Mermaid]]s
*[[Satyr]]s
*[[Sphinx]]
*[[Typhon]]
==External links==
*[http://members.aol.com/JWFvases/page2/index.htm John W. Philpus, "A Catalogue of Centaurs on Greek and Related Painted Pottery", 2000]
*[http://english.pravda.ru/science/19/94/377/16284_centaur.html Did centaurs actually exist?] - Article from Pravda.ru in English
{{commons|Centaur}}
[[Category:Legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Centaurs|*]]
[[Category:Fictional species]]
[[bg:Кентавър]]
[[ca:Centaure (mitologia)]]
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[[el:Κένταυρος]]
[[es:Centauro]]
[[eo:Centaŭro]]
[[fr:Centaure (mythologie)]]
[[gl:Centauro]]
[[it:Centauro]]
[[he:קנטאור]]
[[la:Centaurus]]
[[lt:Kentauras (mitologija)]]
[[hu:Kentaur]]
[[nl:Centaur (mythologie)]]
[[ja:ケンタウロス]]
[[pl:Centaur (mitologia)]]
[[ru:Кентавр (мифология)]]
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[[th:เซนทอร์]]
[[zh:半人马]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Clerical fiction</title>
<id>7402</id>
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<id>15905472</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-24T19:27:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MakeRocketGoNow</username>
<id>71825</id>
</contributor>
<comment>recat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Clerical fiction''' is a semi-humorous term for describing a few books and novels which appeared in [[Poland]] during the [[1990s]]. This subgenre of [[science fiction]] treated the [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]] or at least religious and church-related topics (like [[Abortion|abortion]]). Very few of the stories are highly polished works. Mostly was the instrument of revival of post-communists, that used anti-Catholicism as the leverage to achieve political success in [[Poland]], even though many people were Catholic.
==See also==
* [[Social Fiction]]
* [[Soft science fiction]]
{{lit-stub}}
[[Category:Science fiction genres]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Chemotaxis</title>
<id>7403</id>
<revision>
<id>41210495</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T20:32:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Funhistory</username>
<id>184437</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added Adler/Tso reference & statement comparing chem-responses to brains</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chemotaxis''' is the phenomenon in which bodily cells, [[bacterium|bacteria]], and other single-cell or [[multicellular]] organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. This is important for bacteria to find food (for example, [[glucose]]) by swimming towards the highest concentration of food molecules, or to flee from [[poison]]s (for example, [[phenol]]). In multicellular organisms, chemotaxis is critical in development as well as normal function. In addition, it has been recognized that mechanisms that allow chemotaxis in animals can be subverted during [[cancer]] [[metastasis]].
== Bacterial chemotaxis ==
Many bacteria, such as ''[[E. coli]]'', have several [[flagellum|flagella]] (4-10 typically). These can rotate in two ways :
# Counter-clockwise rotation aligns the flagella into a single rotating bundle, causing the bacterium to swim in a straight line.
# Clockwise rotation breaks the flagella bundle apart such that each flagellum points in a different direction, causing the bacterium to tumble in place.
The directions of rotation are given for an observer outside the cell looking down the flagellum toward the cell.
=== Behaviour ===
The overall movement of a bacterium is the result of alternating tumble and swim phases. If one watches a bacterium swimming in a uniform environment, its movement will look like a [[random walk]] with relatively straight swims interrupted by random tumbles that reorient the bacterium. Bacteria such as ''[[E. coli]]'' are unable to choose the direction in which they swim, and are unable to swim in a straight line for more than a few seconds due to rotational [[diffusion]]. In other words, bacteria "forget" the direction in which they are going. Given these limitations, it is remarkable that bacteria can direct their motion to find favorable locations with high concentrations of attractants (usually food) and avoid repellents (usually poisons).
In the presence of a chemical [[gradient]] bacteria will chemotax, or direct their overall motion based on the gradient. If the bacterium senses that it is moving in the correct direction (toward attractant/away from repellent), it will keep swimming in a straight line for longer before tumbling. If it is moving in the incorrect direction, it will tumble sooner and try a new direction at random. In other words, bacteria like ''[[E. coli]]'' use temporal sensing to decide whether life is getting better or worse. This way, it finds the location with the highest concentration of attractant (usually the source) quite well. Even under very high concentrations, it can still distinguish very small differences in concentration. Fleeing from a repellent works with the same efficiency.
It remains remarkable that this purposeful [[biased random walk (biochemistry)|random walk]] is a result of simply choosing between two methods of random movement, namely tumbling and straight swimming. In fact, chemotactic responses such as ''forgetting'' direction and ''choosing'' movements resemble decision-making abilities of higher lifeforms with brains that process sensory data.
The helical nature of the individual flagellar filament is critical for this movement to occur. As such, the protein that makes up the flagellar filament, flagellin, is quite similar among all flagellated bacteria. Vertebrates seem to have taken advantage of this fact by possessing an immune receptor ([[TLR5]]) designed to recognize this conserved protein.
As in many instances in biology, there are bacteria that do not follow this rule. Many bacteria, such as ''Vibrio'', are monoflagellated and have a single flagellum at one pole of the cell. Their method of chemotaxis is different. Others possess a single flagellum that is kept inside the cell wall. These bacteria move by spinning the whole cell, which is shaped like a corkscrew.
=== Signal transduction ===
A bacterium has three types of [[transmembrane receptor]]s, for attractants, repellents and [[periplasmatic protein]]s. The signals from these receptors are transmitted across the [[plasma membrane]] into the [[cytosol]], where ''che proteins'' are activated. The che proteins alter the tumbling frequency, and alter the receptors.
==== Flagellum regulation ====
The proteins CheW and CheA bind to the receptor. The activation of the receptor by an external stimulus causes [[autophosphorylation]] in CheA, which in turn phosphorylates CheB and CheY. CheY induces tumbling by interacting with the flagellum protein FliM.
==== Receptor regulation ====
CheB, which was activated by CheA, is a methyl[[esterase]], removes methyl residues from [[glutamate]] residues on the [[cytosol|cytosolic]] side of the receptor. It works against CheR, a methyl[[transferase]], which adds methyl residues to the glutamate residues. The more methyl residues are attached to the receptor, the more sensitive the receptor. As the signal from the receptor induces demethylation of the receptor in a [[feedback loop]], the system is continuously adjusted to environmental chemical levels, remaining sensitive for small changes even under extreme chemical concentrations. This regulation allows the bacterium to 'remember' chemical concentrations from the recent past and compare them to those it is currently experiencing, thus 'know' whether it is traveling up or down a gradient.
== Eukaryotic chemotaxis ==
Some eukaryotic cells, such as [[immune system|immune cells]] also move to where they need to be. The mechanism by which eukaryotic cells chemotax is quite different than in bacteria.
=== Receptors ===
For the most part, eukaryotic cells sense the presence of chemotactic stimuli though the use of 7-transmembrane (or serpentine) heterotrimeric [[G protein|G-protein]] coupled receptors. This class of receptors is huge, representing a significant portion of the genome. Some members of this gene superfamily are used in eyesight (rhodopsins) as well as in olfaction (smelling).
=== Motility ===
Unlike motility in bacterial chemotaxis, the mechanism by which eukaryotic cells physically move is unclear. There appears to be mechanisms by which an external chemotactic gradient is sensed and turned into an intracellular PIP2 gradient, which results in a gradient in the activation of signaling pathway culminating in the polymerisation of actin filaments, although the details of the signaling pathway is still not totally clear.
==References==
{{cite journal | author=Julius Adler and Wung-Wai Tso | title=Decision-Making in Bacteria: Chemotactic Response of Escherichia Coli to Conflicting Stimuli | journal=Science | year=1974 | volume=184 | pages=1292-4}}
Howard C. Berg (2003), E. coli ''in motion'', Springer-Verlag, NY. ISBN 0387008888
[[Category:Behavior]]
[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[Category:Perception]]
[[Category:Signal transduction]]
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<title>Crimean war</title>
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<timestamp>2002-07-31T02:47:45Z</timestamp>
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<comment>redir Crimean W |
oln Birthplace National Historic Site|Knob Creek farm]]. Frustrated with litigation and lack of security provided by Kentucky courts, Thomas decided to move to [[Indiana]], which had been surveyed by the federal government, making land titles more secure. It is possible that these episodes motivated Abraham to later learn surveying and become an attorney.
In 1816, when Lincoln was seven years old, he and his parents moved to [[Spencer County, Indiana]], he would state "partly on account of slavery" and partly because of economic difficulties in Kentucky. In 1818, Lincoln's mother died of "[[milk sickness]]" at age thirty four, when Abe was nine. Soon afterwards, Lincoln's father remarried to Sarah Bush Johnston. Sarah Lincoln raised young Lincoln like one of her own children. Years later she compared Lincoln to her own son, saying "Both were good boys, but I must say — both now being dead that Abe was the best boy I ever saw or ever expect to see." (''Lincoln'', by David Herbert Donald, 1995)
In 1830, after more economic and land-title difficulties in Indiana, the family settled on government land on a site selected by Lincoln's father in [[Macon County, Illinois]]. The following winter was especially brutal, and the family nearly moved back to Indiana. When his father relocated the family to a nearby site the following year, the 22-year-old Lincoln struck out on his own, [[canoe]]ing down the Sangamon to [[Sangamon County, Illinois]] (now in [[Menard County, Illinois|Menard County]]), in the village of [[New Salem (Menard County), Illinois|New Salem]]. Later that year, hired by New Salem businessman [[Denton Offutt]] and accompanied by friends, he took goods from New Salem to [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] via [[flatboat]] on the Sangamon, [[Illinois River|Illinois]] and [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] [[river]]s. While in New Orleans, he may have witnessed a slave auction that left an indelible impression on him for the rest of his life. Whether he actually witnessed a slave auction at that time or not, living in a country with a considerable slave presence, he probably saw similar atrocities from time to time.
His formal education consisted of perhaps 18 months of schooling from itinerant teachers. In effect he was self-educated, studying every book he could borrow. He mastered the Bible, Shakespeare, English history and American history, and developed a plain style that puzzled audiences more used to orotund oratory. He avoided hunting and fishing because he did not like killing animals even for food and, though unusually tall and strong, spent so much time reading that some neighbors thought he must be doing it to avoid strenuous manual labor. He was skilled with an axe—they called him the "rail splitter"—and a good wrestler.
[[Image:Abe_Lincoln_young.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Young Abraham Lincoln]]
==Early career==
Lincoln began his political career in 1832 at the age of 23 with a campaign for the [[Illinois General Assembly]] as a member of the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]]. The centerpiece of his platform was the undertaking of navigational improvements on the [[Sangamon River]] in the hopes of attracting [[steamboat]] traffic to the river, which would allow sparsely populated, poor areas along and near the river to grow and prosper. He served as a captain in a company of the [[Illinois]] [[militia]] drawn from New Salem during the [[Black Hawk War]], although he never saw combat. He wrote after being elected by his peers that he had not had "any such success in life which gave him so much satisfaction."
He later tried and failed at several small-time business ventures. He held an Illinois state [[liquor]] license and sold whiskey. Finally, after coming across the second volume of [[Sir William Blackstone]]'s four-volume ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]'', he taught himself the [[law]], and was admitted to the [[Illinois State Bar Association|Illinois Bar]] in 1837. That same year, he moved to [[Springfield, Illinois]] and began to practice law with [[Stephen T. Logan]]. He became one of the most respected and successful lawyers in the prairie state, and grew steadily more prosperous. Lincoln served four successive terms in the [[Illinois House of Representatives]], as a representative from [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon County]], beginning in 1834. He became a leader of the Whig party in the legislature. In 1837 he made his first protest against slavery in the Illinois House, stating that the institution was "founded on both injustice and bad policy." [http://www.hti.umich.edu/l/lincoln/]
Lincoln shared a bed with [[Joshua Fry Speed]] from 1837 to 1841 in Springfield. While many historians claim it was not uncommon in the mid-19th century for men to share a bed (just as two men today may share a house or an apartment), gay activist [[C. A. Tripp]] generated controversy with his 2005 book ''[[The Intimate World of Abraham Lincoln]]'', which suggested their relationship may also have been sexual.
In 1841, Lincoln entered law practice with [[William Herndon (lawyer)|William Herndon]], a fellow Whig. In 1856, both men joined the fledgling [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]. Following Lincoln's assassination, Herndon began collecting stories about Lincoln from those who knew him in central Illinois, eventually publishing a book, ''Herndon's Lincoln''. Lincoln never joined an antislavery society and denied he supported the abolitionists. He married into a prominent slave-owning family from Kentucky, and allowed his children to spend time there surrounded by slaves. Several of his in-laws became Confederate officers. He greatly admired the science that flourished in New England, and was perhaps the only father in Illinois at the time to send his son, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], to elite eastern schools, [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] and [[Harvard College]].
==Marriage==
On [[November 4]], [[1842]], at the age of 33, Lincoln married [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]]. The couple had four sons.
*[[Robert Todd Lincoln]]: b. [[August 1]], [[1843]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[July 26]], [[1926]], in [[Manchester, Vermont]].
*[[Edward Baker Lincoln]]: b. [[March 10]], [[1846]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[February 1]], [[1850]], in Springfield, Illinois.
*[[William Wallace Lincoln]]: b. [[December 21]], [[1850]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[February 20]], [[1862]], in Washington, D.C.
*[[Thomas (Tad) Lincoln]]: b. [[April 4]], [[1853]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[July 16]], [[1871]], in [[Chicago, Illinois]].
Only Robert survived into adulthood. Of Robert's three children, only [[Jessie Harlan Lincoln|Jessie Lincoln]] had any children (two: Mary Lincoln Beckwith and Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith). Neither Robert Beckwith nor Mary Beckwith had any children, so Abraham Lincoln's bloodline ended when Robert Beckwith (Lincoln's great-grandson) died on [[December 24]], [[1985]].
[http://members.aol.com/beaufait/biography/geneology.htm]
==Illinois politics==
[[Image:Abelincoln1846.jpeg|thumb|Lincoln in 1846 or 1847]]
In 1846, Lincoln was elected to one term in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. A staunch Whig, Lincoln often referred to party leader [[Henry Clay]] as his political idol. As a freshman House member, Lincoln was not a particularly powerful or influential figure in Congress. He used his office as an opportunity to speak out against the [[Mexican-American War|war]] with [[Mexico]], which he attributed to [[James Knox Polk|President Polk]]'s desire for "military glory — that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood."
Lincoln was a key early supporter of [[Zachary Taylor]]'s candidacy for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1848|1848 '''Whig Presidential nomination]]. When Lincoln's term ended, the incoming Taylor administration offered him the governorship of remote [[Oregon Territory]]. Acceptance would end his career in the fast-growing state of Illinois, so he declined. Returning instead to [[Springfield, Illinois]] he turned''' most of his energies to making a living at the [[bar (law)|bar]], which involved extensive travel on horseback from county to county.
==Prairie lawyer==
By the mid-1850s, Lincoln faced competing transportation interests — both the river [[barge]]s and the [[railroad]]s. In 1849, he received a patent related to buoying vessels. Lincoln represented the [[Alton & Sangamon Railroad]] in an 1851 dispute with one of its shareholders, [[James A. Barret]]. Barret had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to that corporation on the grounds that it had changed its originally planned route. Lincoln argued that as a matter of law a corporation is not bound by its original charter when that charter can be amended in the public interest, that the newer proposed Alton & Sangamon route was superior and less expensive, and that accordingly the corporation had a right to sue Mr. Barret for his delinquent payment. He won this case, and the decision by the [[Illinois Supreme Court]] was eventually cited by several other courts throughout the United States.
Another important example of Lincoln's skills as a railroad lawyer was a lawsuit over a tax exemption that the state granted to the [[Illinois Central Railroad]]. [[McLean County, Illinois|McLean County]] argued that the state had no authority to grant such an exemption, and it sought to impose taxes on the railroad notwithstanding. In January 1856, the Illinois Supreme Court delivered its opinion upholding the tax exemption, accepting Lincoln's arguments.
Lincoln's most notable criminal trial came in 1858 when he defended [[William "Duff" Armstrong]], who was on trial for the murder of [[James Preston Metzker]]. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of [[judicial notice]], a rare tactic at that time, to show an eyewitne |
It was not used offensively, as [[World War I]] ended before it was deployed. Cruise missiles were first employed by [[Nazi Germany]] during [[World War II]]. Introduced in [[1944]], the [[V-1 flying bomb|V-1]] was the first weapon to use the classic cruise missile layout of a bomb-like fuselage with short wings and a dorsally mounted engine, along with a simple inertial [[guidance system]]. The V-1 was propelled by a crude [[pulse jet engine|pulse-jet]] engine, the sound of which gave the V-1 its nickname of "buzz bomb". However, the V-1 did not have the level of accuracy of a modern tactical cruise missile. The V-1 and similar early weapons are often referred to as [[flying bomb]]s. Japan, in an effort to gain a tactical advantage against the allied forces resorted to [[kamikaze]] aircraft, such as the purpose-built [[Ohka]], another early predecessor to the super-accurate cruise missiles of today.
[[Image:ALCMCruiseMissile.JPG|thumbnail|left|ALCM in museum]]
During the [[Cold War]], both the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] experimented further with the concept, deploying early cruise missiles from submarines and aircraft. This was due to the technical difficulties involved in the development of accurate submarine launched ballistic missiles. The main outcome of the project in the US was the Regulus missile, based upon the V-1. The Soviet Union was especially fond of large cruise missiles. The United States had a program to develop a nuclear-powered cruise missile, [[Project Pluto]]. Although the concept was proven sound, none were ever test-launched. While [[ballistic missile]]s were the weapons of choice for land targets, heavy nuclear and conventional tipped cruise missiles were seen by the USSR as a primary weapon to destroy US [[carrier battle group]]s. Large submarines (e.g. [[Echo class submarine|Echo]] and [[Oscar class submarine|Oscar]] classes) were developed to carry these weapons and shadow US battle groups at sea, and large bombers (e.g. [[Tupolev Tu-22M|Backfire]], [[Tupolev Tu-95|Bear]], and [[Tupolev Tu-160|Blackjack]] models) were equipped with the weapons in their air launched cruise missile (ALCM) configuration.
==Design==
===Missions===
The most common mission is to attack relatively high value targets such as ships, command bunkers, bridges and dams. Modern guidance system permit precise attacks. Cruise missiles are well-suited to assassination, but most organizations with the means to fund development avoid assassination as a policy.
===Warhead===
Most cruise missiles carry about 500 kg of explosives, because most were designed to sink ships and destroy bunkers.
See [[Nuclear Weapon]], [[Explosives]].
===Aerodynamics===
See [[Aircraft]], [[Aerodynamics]], [[Wing]]
===Engine===
See [[Jet Engine]], [[Ramjet]]
===Guidance===
The lowest cost system in wide use uses a [[radar altimeter]], barometric altimeter and [[clock]] to navigate a [[digital]] strip [[map]]. Some systems may now use [[satellite navigation]] or [[inertial guidance]], but these are substantially more expensive, and [[GPS]] systems are only slightly more accurate than a map-based system.
==Main cruise missile versions==
===Conventionally armed===
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Brahmos.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[BrahMos]] [[supersonic]] cruise missiles travel at the speed of Mach 2.8 and have a range of 290 km.]] -->(As of [[2001]]) the BGM-109 [[Tomahawk missile]] model has become a significant part of the US naval arsenal. It gives ships and submarines an extremely accurate, long-range, conventional land attack weapon. Each costs about $1,900,000 USD. The [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] deploys an air launched cruise missile, the [[AGM-86]]. It can be launched from bombers like the [[B-52 Stratofortress]]. Both the Tomahawk and the AGM-86 were used extensively during [[Operation Desert Storm]]. The [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Navy]] (RN) also operates cruise missiles, specifically the Tomahawk, used by the RN's nuclear submarine fleet. Conventional warhead versions were first fired in combat by the RN in [[1999]], during the [[Kosovo War]].
Both Tomahawk (as AGM-109) and ALCM (AGM-86) were originally developed as competing designs for the USAF ALCM nuclear tipped cruise missile competition.
The USAF adopted the AGM-86 for its bomber fleet while AGM-109 was adapted to launch from trucks and ships and adopted by the USAF and Navy.
The truck launched versions were later destroyed under the bilateral INF (Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces) treaty with the USSR which also saw the end of the Pershing II and SS-20 Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles.
The UK and France operate the [[Storm Shadow]].
{{section-stub}}
===Nuclear warhead versions===
The US has 460 [[AGM-129 Advanced Cruise Missile]]s (ACMs) with a W80 nuclear warhead for [[B-52 Stratofortress]] (B-52H) external carriage. Also there are ca. 350 sea launched cruise missiles with the same nuclear warhead. They all remain in storage.
''See also'':
*[[The United States and weapons of mass destruction]]
*[[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]]
*[[Woensdrecht]]
{{section-stub}}
==Trivia: A "DIY" cruise missile==
There was also a project by a [[New Zealand]]er named Bruce Simpson to design and test fly a home-built cruise missile. It was funded by private investors, and it was planned to be built for under $5,000, which is remarkably cheaper than the approximate 1.9 million USD used to build the Tomahawk.
Simpson intended to use readily available components to build a basic missile system. His extensive experience in the building of [[radio control]]led [[model aircraft]] would be employed in airframe and control surface design. A commercially available [[GPS]] unit linked to a standard [[programmable logic controller|PLC]] unit running custom developed software would be used for guidance and control. Propulsion would come from a pulse jet engine of his own design.
Payload was intended to be in the region of 10&ndash;15 [[kilogram]]s. Not enough to do significant damage if loaded with conventional explosives but sufficient to be used as a dispersal system for biological/chemical agents.
In late [[2003]], however, Simpson ran into tax difficulties, and ended the project. He later claimed that his tax problems were the result of a government attempt to shut him down.
==See also==
{{commons|Cruise missile}}
* [[Precision guided munition]]
* [[Buzz bomb]]
* [[Armored Box Launcher]]
* [[Vertical Launch System]]
* [[Sunburn missile]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/cm/index.html An introduction to cruise missiles] &ndash; From the website of the Federation of American Scientists (FAS)
*[http://www.aardvark.co.nz/pjet/cruise.shtml The DIY cruise missile]
*[http://www.activistmagazine.com ACT for Disarmament]
*[http://www.brahmos.com BRAHMOS, a supersonic Indo-Russian cruise missile]
{{Missile types}}
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Cruise missiles|*]]
[[Category:Missile types]]
[[Category:Unmanned vehicles]]
[[de:Marschflugkörper]]
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[[fa:موشک کروز]]
[[it:Missile da crociera]]
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[[ms:Peluru berpandu krus]]
[[nl:Kruisraket]]
[[ja:巡航ミサイル]]
[[ru:Крылатая ракета]]
[[fi:Risteilyohjus]]
[[sv:Kryssningsrobot]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Crete</title>
<id>6591</id>
<revision>
<id>42051238</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:36:33Z</timestamp>
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<username>Stevepeterson</username>
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<comment>/* Personalities */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Peri GR
|name = Crete
|name_local = Περιφέρεια Κρήτης
|image_map = GreeceCrete.png
|prefec = [[Chania Prefecture|Chania]]<br>[[Heraklion Prefecture|Heraklion]]<br>[[Lasithi]]<br>[[Rethymno Prefecture|Rethymno]]
|capital = [[Heraklion]]
|population = 623,666
|population_as_of = 2005
|pop_dens = 75
|area = 8,336
|website = [http://www.crete-region.gr/ www.crete-region.gr]
}}
'''Crete''' ([[List of traditional Greek place names|Greek]] Κρήτη / Kriti, [[Turkish Language|Turkish]]: ''Girit'') is the largest of the [[Greece|Greek]] islands and the fifth largest in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. It is located at approximately {{coor d|35|N|24|E|}}.
Tourist attractions in Crete include archeological sites at [[Knossos]], [[Phaistos]], [[Gortys]] and many other places, the Venetian castle in [[Rethymno]], the [[Samaria Gorge]] and many other minor gorges (Agia Irini, Aradena, etc).
[[Image:Crete location map.png|right|thumb|250px|Greece and Crete]]
Crete was the location of the [[Minoan civilization]] (ca. [[26th century BCE|2600]]&ndash;[[1400s BCE|1400 BCE]]), one of the first [[civilization]]s in [[Europe]].
==History==
:''For main article, see'' [[History of Crete]]
==Geography==
[[Image:Crete Nasa.jpg|thumb|250px|Satellite image of Crete ([[NASA]])]]
Crete is one of the 13 regions of Greece. It is the biggest island in Greece and the second biggest (after [[Cyprus]]) of the East Mediterranean. Crete has an elongated shape - 260 km. from west to east and at its widest 60 km, the island is narrower at certain points, such as in the region close to Ierapetra where it has a width of only 12 km. It covers an area of 8,336 km&sup2; and a coastline 1046 km. long. To the north Crete borders with the [[Sea of Crete]] (Greek: Κρητικό Πέλαγος), to the south it is bordered by the [[Libyan Sea]] (Greek: Λιβυκό Πέλαγος), to the west the [[Myrtoon Sea]], to the east the [[Karpathion Sea]]. Its population is 650,000 people (as of [[2005]]). The island is 260 km long and varies in width from 60 km (measured from the Dion cape to the Lithinon cape), to only 12 km at the Isthmus of Ierapetra in eastern Crete. The coast is deeply indented, giving Crete over 1,000 km of shoreline. Crete lies approximately 160 km south of t |
r and in adults, it has a normal level of 2.5%
* [[Haemoglobin F]] (&alpha;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub>) - In adults Haemoglobin F is restricted to a limited population of red cells called F cells.
==Binding of ligands==
[[Image:Hemoglobin_t-r_state_ani.gif|framed|Steric conformations of hemoglobin in oxy and deoxy forms.]]
In the tetrameric form of normal adult hemoglobin, the binding of oxygen is a [[cooperative binding|cooperative]] process. The binding affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is increased by the oxygen saturation of the molecule. As a consequence, the oxygen binding curve of hemoglobin is sigmoidal, or 'S'-shape, as opposed to the normal hyperbolic (noncooperative) curve. This positive cooperative binding is achieved through [[steric_effects|steric]] conformational changes of the hemoglobin protein complex: When one subunit protein in hemoglobin becomes oxygenated, it induces a confirmation or structural arrangement change in the whole complex causing the other 3 subunits to gain an increased affinity for oxygen.
Hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen is decreased in the presence of [[carbon monoxide]] because both gases compete for the same binding sites on hemoglobin, carbon monoxide binding preferentially to oxygen. Carbon '''''di'''''oxide occupies a different binding site on the hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to give [[bicarbonate]], [[carbonic acid]] freed protons via the reaction, which is catalyzed by [[carbonic anhydrase]]:
:CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O <-> HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> + H<sup>+</sup>
[[Image:Hb saturation curve.png|left|thumb|320px|Hemoglobin sigmoidal oxygen dissociation curve]]
So blood with high carbon dioxide levels is also lower in [[pH]] (more [[acidic]]). Hemoglobin can bind [[proton]]s and carbon dioxide which causes a conformational change in the protein and facilitates the release of oxygen. Protons bind at various places along the protein and carbon dioxide binds at the [[alpha-amino group]] forming [[carbamate]]. Conversely, when the carbon dioxide levels in the blood decrease (i.e., around the lungs), carbon dioxide is released, increasing the oxygen affinity of the protein. This control of hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen by the binding and release of carbon dioxide is known as the [[Bohr effect]].
The binding of oxygen is affected by molecules such as [[carbon monoxide]] (CO) (for example from [[tobacco smoking]], cars and furnaces). CO competes with oxygen at the heme binding site. Hemoglobin binding affinity for CO is 200 times greater than its affinity for oxygen, meaning that small amounts of CO dramatically reduces hemoglobin’s ability to transport oxygen. When hemoglobin combines with CO, it forms a very bright-red compound called [[carboxyhemoglobin]]. When inspired air contains CO levels as low as 0.02% headache and nausea occur; if the CO concentration is increased to 0.1%, unconsciousness will follow. In heavy smokers, up to 20% of the oxygen-active sites can be blocked by CO.
Hemoglobin also has competitive binding affinity for [[sulfur monoxide]] (SO), [[nitrogen dioxide]] (NO<sub>2</sub>) and [[hydrogen sulfide]] (H<sub>2</sub>S). The iron atom in the heme group must be in the Fe<sup>+2</sup> oxidation state to support oxygen transport. Oxidation to Fe<sup>+3</sup> state converts hemoglobin into hem'''i'''globin or [[methemoglobin]] which cannot bind oxygen. Nitrogen dioxide and [[nitrous oxide]] are capable of converting hemoglobin to methemoglobin.
In people acclimated to high altitudes, the concentration of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) in the blood is increased, which allows these individuals to deliver a larger amount of oxygen to tissues under conditions of lower oxygen tension. This phenomenon, where molecule Y affects the binding of molecule X to a transport molecule Z, is called a ''heterotropic'' [[allosteric]] effect.
A variant hemoglobin, called [[fetal hemoglobin]] (Hb F, &alpha;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub>), is found in the developing [[fetus]], and binds oxygen with greater affinity than adult hemoglobin. This means that the oxygen binding curve for fetal hemoglobin is left-shifted (i.e., a higher percentage of hemoglobin has oxygen bound to it at lower oxygen tension), in comparison to that of adult hemoglobin. As a result, fetal blood in the [[placenta]] is able to take oxygen from maternal blood.
== Degradation of hemoglobin ==
When [[red cell]]s reach the end of their life due to aging or defects, they are broken down, and the
hemoglobin molecule broken up and the iron recycled. When the porphyrin ring
is broken up, the fragments are normally secreted in the [[bile]] by the [[liver]]. The major final product of heme degradation is [[bilirubin]]. Increased levels of this chemical are detected in the blood if red cells are being destroyed more rapidly than usual. Improperly degraded hemoglobin protein or hemoglobin that has been released from the blood cells can clog small blood vessels, especially the delicate blood filtering vessels of the [[kidney]]s, causing kidney damage.
== Role in disease ==
Decreased levels of hemoglobin, with or without an absolute decrease of [[red blood cell]]s, leads to symptoms of [[anemia]]. Anemia has many different causes, although [[iron deficiency (medicine)|iron deficiency]] and its resultant [[iron deficiency anemia]] are the most common causes in the Western world. As absence of iron decreases [[heme]] synthesis, red blood cells in iron deficiency anemia are ''hypochromic'' (lacking the red hemoglobin pigment) and ''microcytic'' (smaller than normal). Other anemias are rarer. In [[hemolysis]] (accelerated breakdown of red blood cells), associated [[jaundice]] is caused by the hemoglobin metabolite [[bilirubin]], and the circulating hemoglobin can cause [[renal failure]].
Mutations in the globin chain are associated with the [[hemoglobinopathy|hemoglobinopathies]], such as [[sickle-cell disease]] and [[thalassemia]].
There is a group of genetic disorders, known as the ''[[porphyria]]s'' that
are characterized by errors in metabolic pathways of heme synthesis.
King [[George III of the United Kingdom]] was probably the most famous porphyria sufferer.
To a small extent, hemoglobin A slowly combines with [[glucose]] at a certain location in the molecule. The resulting molecule is often referred to as [[HbA1c|'''Hb A<sub>1c</sub>''']]. As the [[concentration]] of glucose in the blood increases, the percentage of Hb A that turns into Hb A<sub>1c</sub> increases. In [[diabetes mellitus|diabetics]] whose glucose usually runs high, the percent Hb A<sub>1c</sub> also runs high. Because of the slow rate of Hb A combination with glucose, the Hb A<sub>1c</sub> percentage is representative of glucose level in the blood averaged over a longer time (the half-life of red blood cells, which is typically 50-55 days).
==Diagnostic use==
Hemoglobin levels are amongst the most commonly performed [[blood test]]s, usually as part of a [[full blood count]] or [[complete blood count]]. Results are reported in [[gram|g]]/[[liter|L]], [[gram|g]]/[[Decilitre|dL]] or [[mole (unit)|mol]]/L. For conversion, 1 g/dl is 0.62 mmol/L.
[[blood sugar|Glucose]] levels in blood can vary widely each hour, so one or only a few samples from a patient analyzed for glucose may not be representative of glucose control in the long run. For this reason a blood sample may be analyzed for Hb A<sub>1c</sub> level, which is more representative of glucose control averaged over a longer time period (determined by the half-life of the individual's red blood cells, which is typically 50-55 days). People whose Hb A<sub>1c</sub> runs 6.0% or less show good longer-term glucose control. Hb A<sub>1c</sub> values which are more than 7.0% are elevated. This test is especially useful for [[diabetes mellitus|diabetics]].
This Hb A<sub>1c</sub> level is only useful in individuals who have red blood cells (RBCs) with normal survivals (i.e., normal half-life). In individuals with abnormal RBCs, whether due to abnormal hemoglobin molecules (such as Hemoglobin S in Sickle Cell Anemia) or RBC membrane defects - or other problems, the RBC half-life is frequently shortened. In these individuals an alternative test called "fructosamine level" can be used. It measures the degree of glycation (glucose binding) to albumin, the most common blood protein, and reflects average blood glucose levels over the previous 18-21 days, which is the half-life of albumin molecules in the circulation.
==Other biological oxygen-binding proteins==
Hemoglobin is by no means unique; there are a variety of oxygen transport and binding proteins throughout the animal (and plant) kingdom. Other organisms including [[bacteria]], [[protozoa]]ns and [[fungi]] all have hemoglobin-like proteins whose known and predicted roles include the reversible binding of gaseous [[ligand]]s.
'''[[Myoglobin]]''': Found in the muscle tissue of many vertebrates including humans (gives muscle tissue a distinct red or dark gray color). Is very similar to hemoglobin in structure and sequence, but is not arranged in tetramers, it is a monomer and lacks [[cooperative binding]] and is used to store oxygen rather than transport it.
'''[[Hemocyanin]]''': Second most common oxygen transporting protein found in nature. Found in the blood of many [[arthropod]]s and [[mollusc]]s. Uses copper prosthetic group instead of iron heme groups and is blue in color when oxygenated.
'''[[Hemerythrin]]''': Some marine invertebrates and a few species of [[annelid]] use this iron containing non-heme protein to carry oxygen in their blood. Appears pink/violet when oxygenated, clear when n |
hology)|Janus]], [[Roman mythology|Roman god]] of doors
==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
'''Patents'''
* US[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect2=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2Fsearch-bool.html&r=1&f=G&l=50&d=PALL&S1=2724258.WKU.&OS=PN/2724258&RS=PN/2724258 2,724,258 ] -- ''[[Fire exit]] lock''
{{1911}}
[[Category:Architectural elements]]
[[Category:Doors]]
[[ca:Porta]]
[[cs:Dveře]]
[[de:Tür]]
[[eo:Pordo]]
[[nl:Deur]]
[[ja:扉]]
[[no:Dør]]
[[pl:Drzwi]]
[[pt:Porta]]
[[ru:Дверь]]
[[sk:Dvere]]
[[fi:Ovi]]
[[sv:Dörr]]
[[zh:门 (建筑)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demo scene</title>
<id>8638</id>
<revision>
<id>15906610</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-26T02:50:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>General Wesc</username>
<id>16</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Fixing redirect.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demoscene]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Database normalization</title>
<id>8640</id>
<revision>
<id>41924677</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:35:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tarvin</username>
<id>66892</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv. vandalism by 62.135.119.254</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
'''Database normalization''' is a process of eliminating duplicated data in a [[relational database]]. The key idea is to relate pieces of data together instead of storing the same data over and over again. Well-normalized databases have a [[Database design|design]] that reflects the true [[functional dependency|dependencies]] between tracked quantities, allowing quick updates to data with little risk of introducing inconsistencies. This not only increases the performance of the Relational DataBase Management System (RDBMS) that is used to warehouse the data, but the ease of accessing relevant data and making connections between data that forms the basis of today's [[Business Intelligence]] applications.
There are formal methods for quantifying "how normalized" a relational database is, and these classifications are called '''normal forms''' (or '''NF'''). Though [[algorithms]] exist for converting a given database between forms, these may require splitting existing tables into ones that are re-joined each time a query is issued. This can lead to poor performance, so intentional [[denormalization]] is sometimes preferred.
==History==
[[Edgar F. Codd]] first proposed the process of normalization and what came to be known as the '''1st normal form''' in his paper ''A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks'' [[Communications of the ACM]], Vol. 13, No. 6, [[June]] [[1970]], pp. 377-387[http://www.acm.org/classics/nov95/toc.html].
Codd stated:
:There is, in fact, a very simple elimination* procedure which we shall call normalization. Through decomposition nonsimple domains are replaced by "''domains whose elements are atomic (nondecomposable) values.''"
:<small>* His term ''eliminate'' is misleading, as nothing is "lost" in normalization. He probably described it in a mathematical sense to mean elimination of complexity </small>
In his paper, Codd used the term "nonsimple" domains to describe a heterogeneous data structure, but later researchers would refer to such a structure as an [[abstract data type]].
==Normal Forms==
One can only describe a database as having a normal form if the relationships between quantities have been rigorously defined. It is possible to use [[set theory]] to express this knowledge once a problem domain has been fully understood, but most database designers model the relationships in terms of an "idealized schema". (The mathematical supports come back into play in proofs regarding the process of transforming from one form to another.)
[[Edgar F. Codd|Edgar Frank Codd]] originally established three normal forms: 1NF, 2NF and 3NF. There are now others that are generally accepted, but 3NF is widely considered to be sufficient for many practical applications. Most [[table (database)|tables]] when reaching 3NF are also in [[#Boyce-Codd normal form|BCNF]]. 4NF and 5NF are further extensions, and 6NF only applies to [[temporal database]]s. Normalizing beyond 3NF can be tricky with current SQL technology [[as of 2005]], but a non-fully normalized database may be vulnerable to data corruption (referred to as update anomalies). Full normalization, even when not fully implemented in the target technology, is considered a good exercise to help discover all potential internal database consistency problems.
===Non First Normal Form (NF²)===
The non first normal form extends the first normal form as it "allows sets and sets
of sets to be attribute domains" (Schek 1982). It is therefore non first normal as
the first normal form states that attribute domains must be atomic. This extension introduces
hierarchies in relations.
Consider the following table:
{| border="1" align="center"
|+ Non First Normal Form
!Person!!Favorite Colors
{| border="1" align="center" width="100%"
!Color
|}
|-
|Bob||blue<br>red
|-
|Jane||green<br>yellow<br>red
|}
Assume a Person has several favorite colors. Obviously favorite colors consist of a set of colors which
is modelled by the given table.
To transform this NF² table into a 1NF an "unnest" operator is required which extends the
relational algebra of the higher normal forms. The reverse operator is called "nest" which is
not always the mathematical inverse of "unnest", although "unnest" is the mathematical inverse to "nest".
Another constraint is required for the operators to be [[bijection | bijective]] which is covered by
the Partitioned Normal Form (PNF)
===First normal form===
To understand '''first normal form''' (1NF), consider these two examples of things you might know:
:''"What is your favorite color?"''
:''"What food will you not eat?"''
A difference between these two questions is that, while you can have only one favorite color, there may be many foods you do not eat.
In "1NF"; Every attribute in a relation must be atomic. That is to say that there can be no composite attributes in the relation.
Data that has a single value such as "person's favorite color" is inherently in first normal form. Such data can be stored in a single table with a simple key/value combination. Data that has multiple values, however, must be stored differently.
Codd argued that there was one best way to keep multi-valued data such as "food a person will not eat." He suggested that the database should contain a separate table for the multi-value data and then store each food as a separate row in that table. Known as first normal form, this approach has been a standard for decades. An example of data in proper first normal form follows:
{| border="1" align="center"
|+ Table 1
!Person!!Favorite Color
|-
|Bob||blue
|-
|Jane||green
|}
{| border="1" align="center"
|+ Table 2
!Person!!Foods Not Eaten
|-
|Bob||okra
|-
|Bob||Brussels sprouts
|-
|Jane||peas
|}
Database systems when Codd was writing were relatively primitive. Newer databases now support [[abstract data type]]s and other data-storage methods that usually offer better performance for the management of such data. However, such methods could be considered denormalization, as they often require the [[hierarchical model]], which was abandoned mostly due to its inflexibility, to be reintroduced into the architecture of the system.
It is almost never a good idea to store data like this:
{| border="1" align="center"
|+ Table 3
!Person
!Favorite Color
!Foods Not Eaten 1
!Foods Not Eaten 2
!Foods Not Eaten 3
|}
This schema is not in the 1NF, and does not accurately represent the relationship as it exists in the real world. Even if the database designer believes that users will not need to store more than three foods not eaten, this system makes it difficult to add a fourth. For instance:
{| border="1" align="center"
|+ Table 4
!Person!!Website!!AIM!!Yahoo! Screenname!!ICQ
|}
This schema is not in the 1NF since people can have more than one AIM screenname. Most websites choose to ignore this, however, and only allow a user to register one screenname with their account.
===Second normal form===
:''See main article [[Second normal form]]''
'''Second normal form''' ('''2NF''') prescribes full functional dependency on the [[primary key]]. It most commonly applies to tables that have [[composite primary key]]s, where two or more attributes comprise the [[primary key]]. It requires that there are no non-trivial [[functional dependency|functional dependencies]] of a non-key attribute on a part ([[subset]]) of a [[candidate key]]. A table is said to be in the 2NF if and only if it is in the 1NF and every non-key attribute is irreducibly dependent on the primary key (i.e. not partially dependent on candidate key).
Consider a table named <code>part</code> describing machine parts with the following attributes:
PART_NUMBER (PRIMARY KEY)
SUPPLIER_NAME (PRIMARY KEY)
PRICE
SUPPLIER_ADDRESS
The <code>PART_NUMBER</code> and <code>SUPPLIER_NAME</code> form the composite primary key, because the same part can be supplied by multiple suppliers. In this example, <code>PRICE</code> is correctly placed on the <code>part</code> table, because it is fully dependent on the primary key i.e. different suppliers will charge a different price for the same part.
<code>SUPPLIER_ADDRESS</code>, however, is only dependent on the <code> |
d for many Ghanaians.
==Acheampong government==
To restructure the economy, the NRC, under General Acheampong (1972-78), undertook an austerity program that emphasized self-reliance, particularly in food production. These plans were not realized, however, primarily because of post-1973 oil price increases and a drought in 1975-77 that particularly affected northern Ghana. The NRC, which had inherited foreign debts of almost $1 billion, abrogated existing rescheduling arrangements for some debts and rejected other repayments. After creditors objected to this unilateral action, a 1974 agreement rescheduled the medium-term debt on liberal terms. The NRC also imposed the Investment Policy Decree of 1975--effective on January 1977--that required 51% Ghanaian equity participation in most foreign firms, but the government took 40% in specified industries. Many shares were sold directly to the public.
==Akuffo government==
Continued mismanagement of the economy, record inflation (more than 100% in 1977), and increasing corruption, notably at the highest political levels, led to growing dissatisfaction. The post-July 1978 military regime led by General Akuffo attempted to deal with Ghana's economic problems by making small changes in the overvalued cedi and by restraining government spending and monetary growth. Under a one-year standby agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in January 1979, the government promised to undertake economic reforms, including a reduction of the budget deficit, in return for a $68 million IMF support program and $27 million in IMF Trust Fund loans. The agreement became inoperative, however, after the [[4 June]] coup that brought Flight Lieutenant Rawlings and the AFRC to power for 4 months.
==Limann government==
In September 1979, the civilian government of Hilla Limann inherited declining per capita income; stagnant industrial and agricultural production due to inadequate imported supplies; shortages of imported and locally produced goods; a sizable budget deficit (almost 40% of expenditures in 1979); high inflation, "moderating" to 54% in 1979; an increasingly overvalued cedi; flourishing smuggling and other black-market activities; unemployment and underemployment, particularly among urban youth; deterioration in the transport network; and continued foreign exchange constraints.
Limann's PNP government announced yet another (2-year) reconstruction program, emphasizing increased food production and productivity, exports, and transport improvements. Import austerity was imposed and external payments arrears cut. However, declining cocoa production combined with falling cocoa prices, while oil prices soared. No effective measures were taken to reduce rampant corruption and black marketing.
==Rawlings government==
When Rawlings again seized power at the end of 1981, cocoa output had fallen to half the 1970-71 level and its world price to one-third the 1975 level. By 1982, oil would constitute half of Ghana's imports, while overall trade contracted greatly. Internal transport had slowed to a crawl, and inflation remained high. During Rawlings' first year, the economy was stagnant. Industry ran at about 10% of capacity due to the chronic shortage of foreign exchange to cover the importation of required raw materials and replacement parts. Economic conditions deteriorated further in early 1983 when Nigeria expelled an estimated 1 million Ghanaians who had to be absorbed by Ghana.
In April 1983, in coordination with the IMF, the PNDC launched an economic recovery program, perhaps the most stringent and consistent of its day in Africa, aimed at reopening infrastructural bottlenecks and reviving moribund productive sectors--agriculture, mining, and timber. The largely distorted exchange rate and prices were realigned to encourage production and exports. Increased fiscal and monetary discipline was imposed to curb inflation and to focus on priorities. Through November 1987, the cedi was devalued by more than 6,300%, and widespread direct price controls were substantially reduced.
==Returning refugees==
The economy's response to these reforms was initially hampered by the absorption of one million returnees from Nigeria, the onset of the worst drought since independence, which brought on widespread bushfires and forced closure of the aluminium smelter and severe power cuts for industry and decline in foreign aid. In 1985, the country absorbed an additional 100,000 expellees from Nigeria. In 1987, cocoa prices began declining again; however, initial infrastructural repairs, improved weather, and producer incentives and support revived output in the early 1990s. During 1984-88 the economy experienced solid growth for the first time since 1978. Renewed exports, aid inflows, and a foreign exchange auction have eased hard currency constraints.
==IMF support==
Since an initial August 1983 IMF standby agreement, the economic recovery program has been supported by three IMF standbys and two other credits totaling $611 million, $1.1 billion from the World Bank, and hundreds of millions of dollars more from other donors. In November 1987, the IMF approved a $318-million, 3-year extended fund facility. The second phase (1987-90) of the recovery program concentrated on economic restructuring and revitalizing social services. The third phase, focused on financial transparency and macroeconomic stability is scheduled for March 1998.
Ghana intends to achieve its goals of accelerated economic growth, improved quality of life for all Ghanaians, and reduced poverty through macroeconomic stability, higher private investment, broad-based social and rural development, as well as direct poverty-alleviation efforts. These plans are fully supported by the international donor community and have been forcefully reiterated in the 1995 government report, Ghana: Vision 2020. Privatization of state-owned enterprises continues, with about two-thirds of 300 parastatal enterprises sold to private owners. Other reforms adopted under the government's structural adjustment program include the elimination of exchange rate controls and the lifting of virtually all restrictions on imports. The establishment of an interbank foreign exchange market has greatly expanded access to foreign exchange.
The medium-term macroeconomic forecast assumes political stability, successful economic stabilization, and the implementation of a policy agenda for private sector growth, and adequate public spending on social services and rural infrastructure. The ninth Consultative Group Meeting for Ghana ended [[5 November]] [[1997]] after deliberations in Paris. Twenty-four countries and donor entities were represented at this meeting called by the World Bank on behalf of the Ghanaian Government. The World Bank announced that, of the targeted disbursement level of $1.6 billion sought from the donor community for 1998-99, they foresaw only a $150 million shortfall in commitments, and that this shortfall would be easily realized should Ghana rapidly enact its macroeconomic program.
The government repealed a 17.% value-added tax (VAT) shortly after its introduction in 1995, which resulted in wide-spread public protests. The government reverted to several previously imposed taxes, including a sales tax. The government has set in motion a program to reintroduce a VAT bill, with implementation in 1998 after an extensive public education campaign.
==Statistics==
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $48.27 billion (2004 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
5.4% (2004 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $2,300 (2004 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
34.3%
<br>''industry:''
24.2%
<br>''services:''
41.4% (2004 est.)
'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
19.7% of GDP (2004)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
31.4% (1992 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
2.2%
<br>''highest 10%:''
30.1% (1992)
'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
40.7 (1999)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
13% (2004 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
10.24 million (2004 est.)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 60%, industry 15%, services 25% (1999 est.)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
20% (1997 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$1.943 billion
<br>''expenditures:''
$2.192 billion, including capital expenditures of NA (2003 est.)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
cocoa, rice, coffee, cassava (tapioca), peanuts, corn, shea nuts, bananas; timber
'''Industries:'''
mining, lumbering, light manufacturing, aluminium smelting, food processing
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
3.8% (2000 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
8.801 [[TWh]] (2001)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
0.1%
<br>''hydro:''
99.9%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
8.835 TWh (2001)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0.300 TWh (2001)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0.950 TWh (2001)
'''Oil - production:'''
7,000 barrel/day (2001 est.)
'''Oil - consumption:'''
38,000 barrel/day (2001 est.)
'''Oil - exports:'''
NA (2001)
'''Oil - imports:'''
NA (2001)
'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
8.255 million barrel ([[1 January]] [[2002]])
'''Natural gas - proved reserves:'''
11.89 billion m&sup3; ([[1 January]] [[2002]])
'''Current account balance:'''
$110 million (2003)
'''Exports:'''
$2.642 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[gold]], [[cocoa]], [[timber]], [[tuna]], [[bauxite]], [[aluminium]], [[manganese ore]], [[diamond]]s
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Netherlands]] 11.2%, [[United Kingdom]] 10.7%, [[France]] 7.7%, [[Germany]] 6.2%, [[Japan]] 5.2%, [[Italy]] 4.6%, [[Turkey]] 4.4%, [[United States]] 4.3% (2003)
'''Imports:'''
$3.24 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
capital equipment, petroleum, food |
Shrugged|San Sebastian Line]] and who is hired to lay the new [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Metal]] track for the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]]. Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears. Dick McNamara is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 133 and 141.
==Eddie Willers==
Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. He grew up with ''Dagny Taggart''. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]]. He is also secretly in love with Dagny. Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man: someone who does not possess the promethian creative ability of The Strikers, but nevertheless matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. Eddie Willers appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 117, 132, 133, 141, 151, and 152.
==Ellis Wyatt==
The head of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Wyatt Oil]]. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Colorado]] by discovering oil there. Of all the disappearances of industrialists in the novel, Wyatt's, involving the fiery destruction of his oil wells, is surely the most dramatic. Ellis Wyatt is mentioned or appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 132, 146, 147, 148, and 152.
==Francisco d'Anconia==
One of the central characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]]. By all accounts, he is a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]], and a childhood friend and first love of ''Dagny Taggart''.
Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business. While still a student at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]], he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market. By the time he was twenty he had made enough to purchase the foundry. He began working for [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|d'Anconia Copper]] as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but was quickly promoted to head of the New York office. He took over d'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father.
When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the ''Strikers'' and began to slowly destroy the d'Anconia empire so the ''Looters'' could not get it. He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover.
His full name is Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia.
''According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] ([http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html Who is Francisco D'Anconia?]), d'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself).'' Francisco D'Anconia appears or is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 132, 141, 144, 151, and 152 - this last section includes a detailed history of his life.
==Hank Rearden==
One of the central characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]]. He is the founder of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Steel]] and the inventor of [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Metal]]. He lives in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]] with his wife ''Lillian'', his brother ''Philip'', and an elderly woman known only as ''Rearden's Mother'', all of whom he supports. [[Gwen Ives]] is his secretary.
The character of Hank Rearden has two important roles to play in the novel. First, he is in the same position as the reader in that he is aware that there is something wrong with the world but is not sure what it is. Rearden is guided toward an understanding of the solution through his friendship with ''Francisco d'Anconia'', who does know the secret, and by this mechanism the reader is also prepared to understand the secret when it is revealed explicitly in [[Atlas Shrugged/Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]].
Second, Rearden is used to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged|theory of sex]]. ''Lillian Rearden'' cannot appreciate Hank Rearden's virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex. ''Dagny Taggart'' clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire. Rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, while responding sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values. Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates Rand's sexual theory. Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121, 132, 147, and 161, and is mentioned in sections 114 and 131.
==Hugh Akston==
Identified as "One of the last great advocates of reason." He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]], where he taught ''Francisco d'Anconia'', ''John Galt'', and ''Ragnar Danneskjöld''. He was, along with ''Robert Stadler'', a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. Hugh Akston is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==James Taggart==
The President of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]] and a leader of the ''Looters''. Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own. He relies on his sister ''Dagny Taggart'' to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny.
As the novel progresses, the moral philosophy of the Looters is revealed: it is a code of [[nihilism]]. The goal of this code is to not exist, to become a zero. Taggart struggles to remain unaware that this is his goal. He maintains his pretence that he wants to live, and becomes horrified whenever his mind starts to grasp the truth about himself. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to destroy those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. James Taggart appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131, 132, 143, 144, 152 and 161, and is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 146 and 148.
==John Galt==
*The question "[[Who is John Galt?]]" is asked repeatedly throughout [[Atlas Shrugged]]. Late into the book we learn that '''John Galt''' is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the ''Strikers''. He is also the same character as the '''Mystery Worker'''.
The son of an [[Ohio]] garage mechanic, Galt left home at age 12 and began college at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16. There he befriended [[#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[#Ragnar Danneskjöld|Ragnar Danneskjöld]], all three of whom double-majored in [[physics]] and [[philosophy]]. They were the cherished students of the brilliant scientist [[#Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] and the brilliant philosopher [[#Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]].
After graduating, Galt became an [[engineer]] at the [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Twentieth Century Motor Works]] where he designed a revolutionary new motor powered by ambient static electricity with the potential to change the world. Like [[#Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]], he has created what many had for years said was impossible. When the company owners decided to run the factory by the collectivist maxim, 'By each according to his ability, to each according to his need', Galt organized a successful [[labor strike]], proclaiming his promise to stop the motor of the world. He began traversing the globe, meeting the world's most successful businessmen, systematically convincing them to follow in his footsteps; one by one, they began abandoning their business empires (which, Galt convinced them, were doomed to failure anyhow, given the increased nationalization of industry by the government).
Secretly, these captains of industry, led by Galt and [[banker]] [[#Midas Mulligan|Midas Mulligan]], had created their own society &mdash; a secret enclave of rational individualists living in "[[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Galt's Gulch|Galt's Gulch]]", a town secluded high in a wilderness of mountains. [[#Dagny Taggert|Dagny]] accidentally finds the town &mdash; and a shocked John Galt &mdash; by crash-landing a light [[aircraft]] while pursuing [[#Quentin Daniels|Quentin Daniels]].
Since everyone across the country is repeating the phrase, "Who is John Galt?", it is natural that many people have attempted to answer that question. The phrase becomes an expression of helplessness and despair at the current state of the world. ''Dagny Taggart'' hears a number of [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#John Galt Legends|John Galt Legends]] before finding the real John Galt and eventually joining his cause, and learning that all of the stories have an element of truth to them.
:''There is a clothing store in [[Vail, Colorado]] called John Galt Ltd. One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, "Who is John Galt?"''
==Lillian Rearden==
The wildly unsupportive wife of ''Hank Rearden''. They have been married eight years as the novel begins.
Lillian is a frigid ''Moocher'' who seeks to destroy her husband. She compares being Rearden's wife with owning the world's most powerful horse. Since she cannot comfortably ride a horse that goes too fast, she must bridle it down to her level, even if that means it will never reach its full potential and its power will be greviously wasted.
Lillian als |
bian Warlord
*[[1954]] - [[Riccardo Patrese]], Italian race car driver
*1954 - [[Roderick Toombs|"Rowdy" Roddy Piper (Roderick Toombs)]], professional wrestler, actor
*[[1957]] - [[Nick Hornby]], English author
*[[1959]] - [[Sean Bean]], English actor
*[[1961]] - [[Boomer Esiason]], American football player
*[[1963]] - [[Joel Murray]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Maynard James Keenan]], American singer ([[Tool (band)|Tool]] and [[A Perfect Circle]])
*[[1967]] - [[Marquis Grissom]], baseball player
*1967 - [[Liz Phair]], American musician/songwriter
*[[1969]] - [[Henry Ian Cusick]], Peruvian-born actor
*[[1972]] - [[Muttiah Muralitharan]], Sri Lankan [[Cricket]] Player
*1972 - [[Tony Boselli]], American football player
*1972 - [[Jennifer Garner]], American actress
*[[1974]] - [[Victoria Adams]], English singer
*1974 - [[Mikael Åkerfeldt]], Swedish singer and guitarist ([[Opeth]])
*[[1977]] - [[Sizzla]] Jamaican dancehall artist
*[[1977]] - [[Chad Hedrick]], American speed skater
*[[1978]] - [[Jordan Hill]], American singer
*[[1983]] - [[Miguel Cabrera]], Venezuelan [[Major League Baseball]] player
==Deaths==
*[[487]] - [[Proclus]], Greek philosopher (b. [[412]])
*[[1080]] - King [[Harald III of Denmark]] (b. [[1041]])
*[[1427]] - [[John IV, Duke of Brabant]] (b. [[1403]])
*[[1539]] - [[George, Duke of Saxony]] (b. [[1471]])
*[[1574]] - [[Joachim Camerarius]], German classical scholar (b. [[1500]])
*[[1695]] - [[Sor Juana]], Mexican writer (d. [[1695]])
*[[1696]] - [[Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, marquise de Sévigné]], French writer (b. [[1626]])
*[[1711]] - [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1678]])
*[[1742]] - [[Arvid Horn]], Swedish statesman (b. [[1664]])
*[[1761]] - [[Thomas Bayes]], English mathematician
*[[1764]] - [[Johann Mattheson]], German composer (b. [[1681]])
*[[1790]] - [[Benjamin Franklin]], American politician, inventor, diplomat, and printer (b. [[1706]])
*[[1799]] - [[Richard Jupp]], English architect (b. [[1728]])
*[[1843]] - [[Samuel Morey]], American inventor (b. [[1762]])
*[[1891]] - [[Alexander Mackenzie]], second [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1822]])
*[[1936]] - [[Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck]], Dutch prime minister (b. [[1873]])
*[[1941]] - [[Al Bowlly]], dance band vocalist (b. [[1899]])
*[[1942]] - [[Jean Perrin]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1870]])
*[[1944]] - [[Jack Hearne (John Thomas Hearne)|J.T. Hearne]] English cricketer (b. [[1867]])
*[[1960]] - [[Eddie Cochran]], American musician (b. [[1938]])
*[[1967]] - [[Red Allen]], American jazz trumpeter (b. [[1908]])
*[[1975]] - [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], Indian philosopher (b. [[1888]])
*[[1977]] - [[William Cardinal Conway]], Northern Irish clergyman (b. [[1913]])
*[[1988]] - [[Louise Nevelson]] - American sculptor (b. [[1900]])
*[[1990]] - Reverend [[Ralph Abernathy]], American civil rights activist (b. [[1936]])
*[[1994]] - [[Roger Wolcott Sperry]], American neurobiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1913]])
*[[1998]] - [[Linda McCartney]], American photographer, activist, and musician (b. [[1941]])
*[[2003]] - Dr. [[Robert Atkins]], American diet doctor (b. [[1930]])
*2003 - [[Paul Getty]], American-born philanthropist (b. [[1932]])
*2003 - [[Earl King]], American musician and songwriter (b. [[1934]])
*[[2004]] - [[Edmond Pidoux]], Swiss writer (b. [[1908]])
*2004 - [[Soundarya]], Indian actress (b. [[1971]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s:
**[[Pope Anicetus|Anicetus]] (d. [[166]])
**[[Stephen Harding]] (d. [[1134]])
***[[Day of the Rock]]
==Fiction==
*[[Rei Hino]]/[[Sailor Mars]]'s birthday (from [[Sailor Moon]]).
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/17 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[April 16]] - [[April 18]] - [[March 17]] - [[May 17]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:17 April]]
[[ar:17 إبريل]]
[[an:17 d'abril]]
[[ast:17 d'abril]]
[[bg:17 април]]
[[be:17 красавіка]]
[[bs:17. april]]
[[ca:17 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 17]]
[[cv:Ака, 17]]
[[co:17 d'aprile]]
[[cs:17. duben]]
[[cy:17 Ebrill]]
[[da:17. april]]
[[de:17. April]]
[[et:17. aprill]]
[[el:17 Απριλίου]]
[[es:17 de abril]]
[[eo:17-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 17]]
[[fo:17. apríl]]
[[fr:17 avril]]
[[fy:17 april]]
[[ga:17 Aibreán]]
[[gl:17 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 17일]]
[[hr:17. travnja]]
[[io:17 di aprilo]]
[[id:17 April]]
[[ia:17 de april]]
[[ie:17 april]]
[[is:17. apríl]]
[[it:17 aprile]]
[[he:17 באפריל]]
[[jv:17 April]]
[[ka:17 აპრილი]]
[[csb:17 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:17'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 17]]
[[lb:17. Abrëll]]
[[li:17 april]]
[[hu:Április 17]]
[[mk:17 април]]
[[ms:17 April]]
[[nap:17 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:17 april]]
[[ja:4月17日]]
[[no:17. april]]
[[nn:17. april]]
[[oc:17 d'abril]]
[[pl:17 kwietnia]]
[[pt:17 de Abril]]
[[ro:17 aprilie]]
[[ru:17 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 17.]]
[[sco:17 Aprile]]
[[sq:17 Prill]]
[[scn:17 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 17]]
[[sk:17. apríl]]
[[sl:17. april]]
[[sr:17. април]]
[[fi:17. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:17 april]]
[[tl:Abril 17]]
[[tt:17. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 17]]
[[th:17 เมษายน]]
[[vi:17 tháng 4]]
[[tr:17 Nisan]]
[[uk:17 квітня]]
[[ur:17 اپریل]]
[[wa:17 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 17]]
[[zh:4月17日]]
[[pam:Abril 17]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alan Ayckbourn</title>
<id>1975</id>
<revision>
<id>41624681</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:33:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DJ Clayworth</username>
<id>16175</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Sir Alan Ayckbourn''' [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[April 12]], [[1939]]) is a popular and prolific [[England|English]] [[playwright]]. He is frequently cited as being the second most-performed English language playwright, after [[William Shakespeare]].
==Life==
Ayckbourn was born in [[London]] and wrote his first play at prep school when he was about 10. At [[Haileybury and Imperial Service College|Haileybury]], he toured [[Europe]] and [[United States|America]] with the school Shakespeare company. He left school at 17 to go straight into the theatre with an introduction to Sir [[Donald Wolfit]] by his French master. Ayckbourn joined Wolfit on tour as an [[Stage management|assistant stage manager]] and [[actor]].
By 1957, Ayckbourn was acting with director [[Stephen Joseph]] at [[Scarborough]]. In 1959 he played Stanley in the second production of writer-director [[Harold Pinter]]'s ''The Birthday Party''.
Ayckbourn has written and produced some sixty plays in Scarborough and London and is the artistic director of the [[Stephen Joseph Theatre]] in Scarborough. Almost all of his plays receive their first performance at this theatre. More than 25 have subsequently been produced in the [[West End theatre|West End]], at the [[Royal National Theatre]] or by the [[Royal Shakespeare Company]] since his first hit ''[[Relatively Speaking]]'' opened at the Duke of York's Theatre in 1967.
Major successes include ''[[Absurd Person Singular]]'', The [[Norman Conquests trilogy]], ''[[Bedroom Farce (comedy)|Bedroom Farce]]'', ''[[Just Between Ourselves]]'', ''[[A Chorus Of Disapproval]]'', ''[[Woman In Mind]]'', ''[[A Small Family Business]]'', ''[[Man Of The Moment]]'' and House & Garden. His plays have won numerous awards, including seven London Evening Standard Awards. They have been translated into over 30 languages and are performed on stage and television throughout the world.
Ayckbourn plays have also been filmed in French and English. Four of his plays have been seen on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] attracting two [[Tony Awards|Tony]] nominations. In 1991, he received a Dramalogue Critics Award for his play ''[[Henceforward...]]''.
Although his plays have received major West End productions almost from the beginning of his writing career, and hence have been reviewed in [[United Kingdom newspapers|British newspapers]], Ayckbourn's work was for years routinely dismissed as being too slight for serious study. Recently scholars have begun to view Ayckbourn as an important commentator on the lifestyles of the British [[suburb]]an [[middle class]] and as a stylistic innovator, experimenting with theatrical styles within the boundaries set by popular tastes.
==Career==
{|
|1956&ndash;57||Stage manager and actor, Donald Wolfit's company, in Edinburgh, Worthing, Leatherhead, Scarborough, and Oxford
|-
|1957&ndash;62||Actor and stage manager, Stephen Joseph Theatre-in-the-Round, Scarborough, Yorkshire
|-
|1962&ndash;64||Associate director, Victoria Theatre, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire
|-
|1964&ndash;70||Drama producer, BBC Radio, Leeds
|-
|1970&mdash;||Artistic director, Stephen Joseph Theatre-in-the-Round
|-
|1986&ndash;88||Associate director, National Theatre, London
|-
|1991&ndash;92||Professor of contemporary theatre, Oxford University
|}
==Honours==
Evening Standard award, 1973, 1974, 1977, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1990<br />
Olivier award, 1985<br />
Plays and Players award, 1987<br />
D.Litt.: [[University of Hull]], Yorkshire, 1981<br />
D.Litt.: [[Keele University|University of Keele]], Staffordshire, 1987<br />
D.Litt.: [[University of Leeds]], 1987<br />
C.B.E. (Commander, Order of the British Empire), 1987 <br />
==Works==
'''*''' indicates retitled
{|
|1959||''The Square Cat''
|-
|1959||''Love After All''
|-
|1960||''Dad's Tale''
|-
|1961||''Standing Room Only''
|-
|1962||''Christmas V Mastermind''
|-
|1963||''Mr Whatnot''
|-
|1965||''Meet My Father'' * ''Relatively Speaking''
|-
|1967||''The Sparrow''
|-
|1969||''How The Other Half Loves''
|-
|1970||''The Story So Far...'' *''Me Times Me Times Me'' *''Family Circles''
|-
|1971||''Time And Time Again''
|-
|1972||''[[Absurd Person Singular]]''
|-
|1973||''Fancy Meeting You'' *''Table Manners'' (Norman Conquests)
|-
|1973||''Make Yourself At Home' |
he [[United Kingdom]] and [[Singapore]]. In [[New Zealand]] the term [[Compulsory Military Training (in New Zealand)| Compulsory Military Training]] was used. In Japan during [[World War II]], Japanese women and children were conscripted to work in factories.
The term "conscription" refers only to the mandatory service; thus, those undergoing conscription are known as "conscripts" or "selectee" in the United States (from the [[Selective Service System]] or the [[Selective Service Initiative]] announced in [[2004]]).
In the [[USA]] the term "enlisted" is often used to refer only to those who have volunteered for service in roles other than as [[commissioned officers]].
==History==
===The invention of modern conscription during the French Revolution===
Modern conscription was invented during the [[French Revolution]], allowing the [[French Republic|Republic]] to defend itself from European monarchies' attacks. Deputy [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan]] gave its name to the [[September 5]], [[1798]] Act, whose first article stated: "Any French is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the [[patriotism|nation]]". It enabled the creation of the ''[[Grande Armée]]'', what [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] called "the nation in arms", which successfully battled European professional armies.
According to philosopher [[Michel Foucault]], conscription is one of the forms taken by "disciplinary institutions", along with hospitals, schools and prisons. [[Louis Althusser]] has also underlined how [[Machiavelli]] was one of the first modern theorists to think the relationship between conscription and the creation of a nation, or successfully bolstering [[patriotism]]. Machiavelli despised the use of [[mercenaries]] and professional armies, which at this time were ravaging the divided Italian states.
===Disputes over conscription (WW I, Vietnam War, etc.)===
Conscription, particularly when the conscripts are being sent to foreign wars that do not directly affect the security of the nation, has historically been highly politically contentious in democracies. For instance, during [[World War I]], bitter political disputes broke out in [[Canada]] (see [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]]), [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] (See [[Compulsory Military Training (in New Zealand)| Compulsory Military Training]]) over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during [[World War II]] (see [[Conscription Crisis of 1944]]). Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the [[Vietnam War]] occurred in several countries in the late [[1960s]]. (See also: [[Conscription Crisis]])
In developed nations, the increasing emphasis on technological firepower and better-trained fighting forces, the sheer unlikelihood of a conventional military assault on most developed nations, as well as memories of the contentiousness of the Vietnam War experience, make mass conscription unlikely in the foreseeable future.
[[Russia]] and [[China]], as well as many smaller nations, retain mainly conscript armies.
==The gender-issue==
Some countries which draft women include the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Taiwan]] (ROC), [[North Korea]], [[Peru]], [[Malaysia]], [[Libya]], [[Israel]], and [[Eritrea]]. In [[2002]], [[Sweden]]'s government asked the army to consider mandatory military service for women. Some have considered the practice of excluding women from the draft unfair, because they feel it goes against principles of [[social equality|equality]]. Some simply argue that women can be militarily useful, and that excluding them places an unnecessary limit on resources. During World War II, women were drafted into the armed forces of the United Kingdom and the [[Soviet Union]]. The [[United States]] came close to drafting women into the [[Nurse Corps]] in preparation for a planned invasion of [[Japan]]; the Japanese surrender made this unnecessary.
The non-[[egalitarian]] policy practiced by some countries of drafting men and not women has often been a flash point and source of conflict. This policy is often cited by some [[masculism|masculists]] as an example of an unfair policy which benefits women over men. Most avowed anti-feminists are strongly opposed to women in combat.{{fact}} Apprehension about the possible conscription of women was a key factor that led to the defeat of the [[Equal Rights Amendment]] in the United States.
Conscription certainly imposes on the freedom of the individual and although some conscripts feel that they benefited from the experience others feel that their time could have been spent more productively pursuing their chosen studies or career paths [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1682777.stm See BBC news article on the end of French conscription] Individual resentment may also be compounded by the typically low wages paid to conscripts, especially in countries such as [[Greece]]. [[Feminists]] and others calling for more equal treatment of women in society have rarely extended their demands to include a call for equality for women with regards the draft.
The topic of male-only conscription in the UK was the focus of a large number of books, plays and other literature, most of which portrayed the writers experience of conscription in a very negative way, emphasizing the brutality and tedium of military training. Examples include [[Arnold Wesker]]'s ''Chips with Everything'' and ''Ginger You're barmy'' by [[David Lodge]]. In his book, Lodge suggests that the practice of male-only conscription helped to generate sexist attitudes by making it difficult for men to regard those who were excused the rigors of military training as their equals.
==Conscientious objection==
{{main articles|[[Conscientious objection]], [[Antimilitarism]], and [[Conscientious objection throughout the world]]}}
''"It is debasing human dignity to force men to give up their life, or to inflict death against their will, or without conviction as to the justice of their action."'' -- Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi, et al, in the "Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System"
A [[conscientious objector]] is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with [[military service]], or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status which augments their conscription duties. For example, [[Sweden]] allows conscientious objectors to choose a service in the "weapons-free" branch, such as an airport [[fireman]], [[nurse]] or [[telecommunications]] technician. Some may also refuse such service as they feel that they still are a part of the military complex. The reasons for refusing to serve are varied. Many conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons&mdash;notably, the members of the [[Peace churches|historic peace churches]] are [[pacifism|pacifist]] by doctrine, and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], while not strictly speaking pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe [[Christianity|Christian]]s should be neutral in worldly conflicts.
==Draft evaders==
Not everyone who was conscripted was willing to go to war. Many young people used their family's political connections to ensure that they were placed well away from any potential harm. They would avoid military service altogether through college deferments. Others with political influence often joined the military and served in what was termed a [[Champagne unit]]. Others used educational exemptions, became conscientious objectors or pretended to be conscientious objectors. For others, the most common method of avoiding the draft was to cross the border into another country. People who have been "called up" for military service and who attempted to avoid it in some way, were known as "[[draft-dodger]]s". U.S. draft-dodgers made their way to [[Canada]] or [[Mexico]]. [[Australia]]n draft-dodgers had greater difficulty leaving their country due to the surrounding ocean.
Many people looked upon draft-dodgers with scorn as being "cowards", but some supported them in their efforts.
==Draft resisters==
{{main|Antimilitarism}}
The [[Vietnam War]] saw new levels of opposition to conscription and [[National Service]]. Many people opposed to and facing conscription, chose to either plead conscientious objection or to evade the draft by fleeing to a neutral country. A small proportion, like [[Muhammad Ali]], chose to publicly and politically fight conscription. In Australia this was known as the Draft Resistance Movement.
==Countries with mandatory military service (partial list)==
[[Image:Conscription_Map.png|thumb|300px|<li><font color="#00d000">'''Green'''</font>: No armed services</li>
<li><font color="#0000c8">'''Blue'''</font>: No conscription</li>
<li><font color="#ff9000">'''Orange'''</font>: Plan for conscription to be abolished within three years</li>
<li><font color="#ff0000">'''Red'''</font>: Conscription</li>
<li><font color="#9999999">'''Gray'''</font>: No information</li>]]
A number of countries have '''mandatory military service''':
===Austria===
[[Austria]] has mandatory military service for fit male citizens from eighteen to thirty five years of age. Service lasts for eight months but will be shortened to six months in 2006. Conscientious objectors join the civilian service (''Zivildienst'') for twelve months (reduction to nine months in 2006).Very likely Austria will get an all-volunteer army in 2009.
===Belarus===
[[Belarus]] has mandatory military service for all fit men from eighteen to twenty seven years of age. Military service lasts for eighteen months for thos |
lass 47]] locomotives. This company works closely with [[Anglia Railways]].[http://www.cotswoldrail.com/homeset.htm website]
*'''[[FM Rail]]''' (formerly Fragonset Railways), a spot-hire company with a stock of [[British Rail Class 08|Class 08]] shunting locomotives, and [[British Rail Class 31|Class 31]], [[British Rail Class 33|Class 33]], [[British Rail Class 45|Class 45]], [[British Rail Class 47|Class 47]], [[British Rail Class 56|Class 56]], [[British Rail Class 73|Class 73]] and [[British Rail Class 86|Class 86]] main line locomotives. [http://www.fmrail.com/ website]
*'''[[GL Railease]]''' owned by GATX Capital, and Lombard, a subsidiary of the Royal Bank of Scotland.
*'''[[Harry Needle Railroad Company]] Ltd''', an industrial and main line locomotive hire and overhaul company. Operates [[British Rail Class 08|Class 08]] shunting locomotives, and [[British Rail Class 37|Class 37]] locomotives. [http://www.hnrc.co.uk/ website]
*'''[[Riviera Trains]]''', a spot-hire company with a fleet of [[British Rail Class 47|Class 47]] locomotives.
*'''[[RT Rail]]''', a small hire company with a stock of [[British Rail Class 08|Class 08]] shunting locomotives.
*'''[[West Coast Railway Company]]''', a spot-hire and railtour-operator with a stock of [[British Rail Class 37|Class 37]] and [[British Rail Class 47|Class 47]] locomotives, as well as the prototype passenger [[British Rail Class 57|Class 57]] locomotive.
{{Template:British_Rail_Spot_Hire_Companies}}
==Statutory framework==
UK railways are run at arm's length from the government, through two government organisations, both of which have statutory powers under various Acts of Parliament (such as the Railways Act 1993, the Competition Act 1998 and the Transport Act 2000), and both of which receive Directions and Guidance from the Secretaries of State for Transport.
The two organisations share the same purpose, but have different jurisdictions; the two entered into a concordat in February 2002 to clarify demarcation and communications issues.
The [[Strategic Rail Authority]] is the statutory strategic planning and coordinating body for the rail industry, and the guardian of passenger and freight interests. It determines strategy for passenger and freight train services, let and manages franchises to operators, and enforces consumer protection franchise licence conditions. Following the 2004 Rail Review, the SRA is to be wound up and its responsibilities transferred to the Government and [[Network Rail]].
The [[Office of Rail Regulation]] has as its principal functions to regulate Network Rail's stewardship of the national rail network infrastructure, and to hold train operating companies accountable to the terms of their operating licence. It replaced the [[Office of Rail Regulation]] in 2004.
In addition, safety in the railway industry is regulated and enforced by the [[Health and Safety Executive]], and the [[National Audit Office]] provides audit reports on Network Rail to the [[House of Commons]].
See also: [[Structure of the rail industry in the United Kingdom]].
==Local metro systems==
A number of towns and cities have [[metro]] systems:
{{Britishmetros}}
==UK railway stations==
Most UK [[railway station]]s date from the [[Victorian era]] and are located on the edge of [[town centre]]s. Major stations are generally in large cities, with a particular concentration in [[London]], but some important railway junction stations lie in smaller cities, for example [[Crewe station]] and [[Carlisle station]]. Other places expanded into towns and cities because of the railway network, [[Swindon]] for example was little more than a village prior to the [[Great Western Railway]] siting their locomotive works there.
{{UK Major Railway Stations}}
{{UKrailwaystations}}
==Railway Industry ==
===Statutory authorities===
*[[Health and Safety Executive]] &mdash; [http://www.hse.gov.uk/railways/index.htm Website]
*[[Office of Rail Regulation]] &mdash; [http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/ Website]
*[[Strategic Rail Authority]] &mdash; [http://www.sra.gov.uk/ Website]
*[[UK Notified Bodies]] &mdash; [http://www.riagb.org.uk/nobos.htm/ Website]
===Network rail & signalling operations===
*[[Railtrack]] ([[1996]]&ndash;[[2002]])
*[[Network Rail]] ([[2002]]&mdash;) &mdash; [http://www.networkrail.co.uk/ Website] &mdash; (A "not for profit" company limited by guarantee)
===Other national entities===
*[[Association of Train Operating Companies]] &mdash; ATOC &mdash; [http://www.atoc.org/ Website]
*[[Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen]] &mdash; ASLEF &mdash; [http://www.aslef.org.uk/ Website]
* Institution of Railway Operators &mdash; [http://www.railwayoperators.org/ Website]
*[[National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers]] &mdash; RMT &mdash; [http://www.rmt.org.uk/ Website]
* Rail Freight Group &mdash; [http://www.rfg.org.uk/ Website]
* Rail Passengers Council and Committees &mdash; [http://www.railpassengers.org.uk/ Website]
* Rail Safety and Standards Board &mdash; RSSB &mdash; [http://www.rssb.co.uk/ Website]
* The Railway Forum &mdash; [http://www.railwayforum.com/ Website]
* Railway Mission &mdash; [http://www.railwaymission.org/ Website]
* Railway Study Association &mdash; [http://www.railwaystudyassociation.org/ Website]
*[[Transport Salaried Staffs' Association]] &mdash; TSSA &mdash; [http://www.tssa.org.uk/ Website]
===Regional entities===
''See [[Passenger Transport Executive]]''
* Centro ([[West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive]]) &mdash; [http://www.centro.org.uk/wwwroot/HomePage.asp Website]
* GMPTE ([[Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive]]) &mdash; [http://www.gmpte.com/ Website]
* Merseytravel ([[Merseyside Passenger Transport Executive]]) &mdash; [http://www.merseytravel.gov.uk/ Website]
* Metro ([[West Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive]]) &mdash; [http://www.wymetro.com/ Website]
* Nexus ([[Tyne and Wear Passenger Transport Executive]]) &mdash; [http://www.nexus.org.uk/ Website]
*SYPTE ([[South Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive]]) &mdash; [http://www.sypte.co.uk/index.htm Website]
* [[Strathclyde Passenger Transport]] &mdash; [http://www.spt.co.uk/ Website]
*[[Transport for London]] &mdash; TfL &mdash; [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tfl/ Website]
See [[List of companies operating trains in the United Kingdom]].
===Freight railway companies===
*[[English Welsh and Scottish Railway]] &mdash; EWS &mdash; [http://www.ews-railway.co.uk/ Website]
*[[Freightliner]] &mdash; [http://www.freightliner.co.uk/ Website]
*[[Direct Rail Services]]
*[[GB Railfreight]]
===Open access operators and other non-franchised passenger operators===
*[[Eurostar]] &mdash; [http://www.eurostar.com/ Website]
*[[Heathrow Express]] &mdash; [http://www.heathrowexpress.co.uk/ Website]
*[[Hull Trains]] &mdash; [http://www.hulltrains.co.uk/ Website]
*[[Northern Ireland Railways]] &mdash; [http://www.nirailways.co.uk/ Website]
*[[Venice Simplon Orient Express]] (VSOE)
==Early railway companies (1820s&ndash;1840s)==
** This is only the earliest of the main line openings: for a more comprehensive list of the hundreds of early railways see [[List of early British railway companies]]
*[[South Eastern Railway|Canterbury and Whitstable Railway]]
*[[Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway]] (BDJR)
*[[Grand Junction Railway]] (GJR)
*[[Liverpool and Manchester Railway]] (LMR)
*[[London and Birmingham Railway]] (L&BR)
*[[South Eastern Railway|London and Greenwich Railway]]
*[[North Midland Railway]] (NMR)
*[[Midland Counties Railway]] (MCR)
*[[Stockton and Darlington Railway]] (S&D)
*[[Taff Vale Railway]] (TVR)
==Grouping (1923&ndash;1947)==
Under the [[Railways Act 1921]] the majority of the railway companies in Great Britain (and few in Northern Ireland) were grouped into four main companies, often termed the ''Big Four'': the grouping took effect from [[1 January]] [[1923]]. The Big Four were:
*[[Great Western Railway]] (GWR)
*[[London and North Eastern Railway]] (LNER)
*[[London, Midland and Scottish Railway]] (LMS)
*[[Southern Railway (UK)|Southern Railway]] (SR)
For a comprehensive list see [[List of railway companies involved in the 1923 grouping]]
==Heritage and private railways==
There are a number of private and [[heritage railway]]s in Britain.
A [[list of British heritage and private railways]] is available.
==See also==
*[[Rail transport by country]]
*[[History of rail transport in Great Britain]]
*[[List of funiculars in the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of British Narrow Gauge Railways]]
*[[UK topics]]
==References==
*[http://www.sra.gov.uk/publications/national_rail_trends_pubs/nrt_q3_0304/nrt_file_q3 National Rail Trends] 2003&ndash;2004 quarter three, from the Strategic Rail Authority. (Warning: '''[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]''' format)
*[http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_transstrat/documents/page/dft_transstrat_503944.hcsp DfT Transport Ten Year Plan 2000] from the UK Government Department for Transport.
*[http://www.nao.org.uk/publications/nao_reports/03-04/0304532.pdf Network Rail &mdash; Making a Fresh Start] &mdash; [[National Audit Office]] report, 14<sup>th</sup> May 2004. (Warning: '''[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]''' format)
*[http://www.imeche.org.uk/railway/events/list_of_past_events.asp Railway industry topic guides from the Institution of Mechanical Engineers]
==External links==
{{commonscat|Railways of Great Britain}}
*[http://www.nationalrail.co.uk/tocs_maps/maps/ UK Railway Maps]
*{{wikicities|UKRailways|UK Railways}}
*[http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showthreaded.php/Cat/0/Number/116073 Co |
contextualizable information. The same could be said of any of our productions or expressions – one of the main differences between our products being how and for what purpose they are being conceived, designed, produced and shared.
==References==
* [[Bateson, Gregory]]. Mind and Nature. Cresskill: Hampton Press Inc., [[1978]], [[2002]].
* [[Henri Bergson]]. Creative Evolution. Arthur Mitchell, trans. NY: Dover, [[1911]], [[1998]].
* [[Kuchka, H.E]]. Method for Theory: A Prelude to Human Ecosystems. In Journal of Ecological Anthropology Vol.5, [[2001]]. <http://guallart.dac.uga.edu>
* [[Gumperz, John J.]], and Stephen C. Levinson. Rethinking Linguistic Relativity. In Current Anthropology, Vol.32, No.5 (Dec., [[1991]]), 613-623.
[[de:Externalisierung]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euro</title>
<id>9472</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42115274</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:45:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bevo</username>
<id>19619</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>consistent internal and/or external formatting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:<span class="dablink">''For other uses, see [[{{PAGENAME}} (disambiguation)]] or [[EUR (disambiguation)]].''</span>
{{Life in the European Union}}
The '''euro''' (symbol: '''&euro;'''; [[ISO 4217|banking code]]: '''EUR''') is the single [[currency]] of the following twelve [[European Union]] member states: [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]]; collectively also known as the [[eurozone]].
The euro is the official currency of the [[European Union]]. It was introduced to world financial markets in [[1999]] and launched as a currency in [[2002]]. The euro is strongly advancing both economic and political integration among the participating EU member states. All EU member states are eligible to join if they comply to certain monetary requirements.
The euro is managed and administered by the [[European Central Bank]] (ECB) (headquartered in [[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]]) and the [[European System of Central Banks]] (ESCB) (composed of the [[central bank|central banks]] of its member states). As an independent [[central bank]], the ECB has sole authority to set [[monetary policy]]. The ESCB participates in the printing, minting and distribution of [[Euro banknotes|notes]] and [[Euro coins|coins]] in all member states, and the operation of the eurozone payment systems.
==Characteristics of the euro==
===Coins and banknotes===
[[Image:Euro banknotes.jpg|220px|right|Euro banknotes]]
[[Image:Euro coins.jpg|100px|right|Euro coins]]
:''Main articles: [[euro coins]], [[euro banknotes]]''.
The euro is divided into 100 '''[[Cent (currency)|cents]]'''. In each language, the form "cent" is officially required to be used in legislation in both the singular and in the plural, though in English (and French) the natural plural ''cents'' is recommended for use in material aimed at the general public. (For more information on language and the euro, see [[Linguistic issues concerning the euro]].)
All euro coins (including the [[€2 commemorative coins]]) have a '''common side''' showing the denomination (value) and a '''national side''' showing an image specifically chosen by the country that issued the coin ; the [[Monarchy|monarchies]] often have a picture of their reigning monarch, other countries usually have their national symbols. All coins can be used in all member states: for example, a euro coin bearing the image of the [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Spanish King]] is legal tender not only in Spain, but also in all other member states where the euro is in use. There are €2, €1, 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c and 1c coins, though the latter two are not generally used in [[Finland]] or the [[Netherlands]] (but are still legal tender).
All euro banknotes have a '''common design''' for each denomination on both sides. Notes are issued in the following values: €500, €200, €100, €50, €20, €10, €5. Some of the higher denominations are not issued in a few countries, though again, are legal tender.
Both euro coins and banknotes are designed from the start in consultation with organizations representing people suffering from [[blindness]] or other [[visual impairment|vision impairments]]. Both have been designed to facilitate their use by people who may not be able to see the currency very well (or at all). Cues to aid in identification include gross differences in appearance (colour, size) for banknotes and coins, and tactile cues such as thickness and edge decoration for coins in particular. Although there have been other currencies predating the euro that were specifically designed in similar ways (different sizes, colours, and ridges) to aid the visually impaired, the introduction of the euro constitutes the first time that the authorities have consulted associations representing the blind before and not after the event. For details, see the [[euro coins]] and [[euro banknotes]] articles.
<!-- the design of the banknotes is documented in the banknotes article -->
The ECB has set up a [[clearing system]] for large euro transactions ([http://www.ecb.int/paym/target/html/index.en.html TARGET]).
All intra-[[eurozone]] transfers shall cost the same as a domestic one. This is true for retail payments, although several ECB payment methods can be used. Credit card charging and ATM withdrawals within the eurozone are also charged as if they were domestic. The ECB hasen't standarized paper based payment orders, such as cheques; these are still domestic based.
===The symbol===
{{main|Euro symbol}}
[[Image:EuroConstLarge.png|thumb|220px|right|This is the official construction of the euro logo, which was specified to be printed in [[Pantone Matching System|PMS]] Yellow on a PMS Reflex Blue background]]
A special [[euro symbol|euro currency sign]] (&euro;) was designed, after a public survey had narrowed the original ten proposals down to just two, it was then up to the European Commission to choose the final design. The eventual winner was a design allegedly created by a team of four experts who have not, however, been officially named. The official story of the design history of the euro symbol is [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4325292-102275,00.html disputed] by [[Arthur Eisenmenger]], a former chief graphic designer for the [[EEC]], who claims to have created it as a generic symbol of Europe.
The symbol is (according to the [[European Commission]]) "a combination of the Greek [[epsilon]], as a sign of the weight of European civilisation; an E for Europe; and the parallel lines crossing through standing for the stability of the euro".
The European Commission also specified a euro logo with exact proportions and foreground/background colour tones [http://europa.eu.int/comm/economy_finance/euro/notes_and_coins/symbol_en.htm]. Although some font designers simply copied the exact shape of this logo as the euro sign in their fonts, most designed their own variants, often based upon the capital letter C in the respective font. The illustration at the top of this section shows the official euro logo.
No "official" recommendation is made with regard to the use of a [[cent sign]], and sums are often expressed as decimals of the euro (for example &euro;0.05 rather than 5¢ or 5c). As a result the abbreviations differ between eurozone members. The most used abbreviation is "c", but other abbreviations also exist, like "¢" (Ireland, but "c" is used more frequently), "ct" (among others: Germany), snt (Finland), the capital letter ''lambda'' (&#923;) (Greece).
Placement of the symbol is also an example of diversity. While the official recommendation is to place it before the number, people in many countries have kept the placement of their former currencies.
==Economic and Monetary Union==
===History (1990-1999)===
:''Main article: [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union]]. For earlier monetary history in Europe, see: [[European Monetary System]].
The euro was established by the provisions in the 1992 [[Maastricht]] [[Treaty on European Union]] that was used to establish an [[economic and monetary union]]. In order to participate in the new currency, member states had to meet [[convergence criteria|strict criteria]] such as a [[budget deficit]] of less than three per cent of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], a debt ratio of less than sixty per cent of GDP, combined with low [[inflation]] and [[interest]] rates close to the EU average.
Economist [[Robert Mundell]] is sometimes referred to as the father of the euro.
Other economists that helped include [[Wim Duisenberg]], [[Robert Tollison]] and [[Neil Dowling]]. (For macro-economic theory, see [[#Eurozone as an Optimal Currency Area?| below]]).
Due to differences in national conventions for rounding and significant digits, all conversion between the national currencies had to be carried out using the process of triangulation via the euro. The ''definitive'' values in euro of these subdivisions (which represent the [[exchange rate]]s at which the currency entered the euro) are as follows:
*13.7603 Austrian [[Austrian schilling|schilling]]s (ATS)
*40.3399 Belgian [[Belgian franc|francs]] (BEF)
*2.20371 Dutch [[Dutch Gulden|gulden]] (NLG)
*5.94573 Finnish [[markka]]a (FIM)
*6.55957 French [[French franc|franc]]s (FRF)
*1.95583 German [[Deutsche mark|mark]] (DEM)
*0.787564 Irish [[Irish pound|pound]]s (IEP)
*1936.27 Italian [[Italian lira|liras]] (ITL)
*40.3399 Luxembourg [[Luxembourgish franc|franc]]s (LUF)
*200.482 Portuguese [[Portuguese escudo|escudo]]s (PTE)
*166.386 Spanish [[Spanish peseta|peseta]]s (ESP)
The above r |
Exposure to this gas should therefore not exceed 0.5 ppm (8-hour time-weighted average - 40 hour week.).
Acute exposure to high (but non-lethal) concentrations of Chlorine can result in [[pulmonary edema]], or fluid in the lungs, an extremely unpleasant condition. Chronic low-level exposure weakens the lungs, increasing susceptibility to other lung disorders.
Toxic fumes may be produced when [[Bleach (chemical)|bleach]] is mixed with [[urine]], [[ammonia]], [[hydrochloric acid]], or another cleaning product. These fumes consist of a mixture of chlorine gas, [[chloramine]] and [[nitrogen trichloride]]; therefore these combinations should be avoided.
See also: [[Chlorofluorocarbon]]
== The chemical processes for extraction of chlorine gas ==
Chlorine can be manufactured via the [[electrolysis]] of a sodium chloride solution, ie. [[brine]]. There are three methods for the extraction of chlorine by electrolysis used industrially.
===Mercury cell electrolysis===
[[mercury (element)|Mercury]] cell [[electrolysis]] was the first method used to produce chlorine on an industrial scale. [[Titanium]] [[anode]]s are located above a liquid mercury cathode, a solution of [[sodium chloride]] is positioned between the electrodes. When an electrical current is applied, chloride is released at the titanium anodes, whilst the sodium dissolves into the mercury cathode forming an amalgam.
The [[amalgam]] can be [[regeneration|regenerated]] into mercury by reacting it with water, producing [[hydrogen]] and [[sodium hydroxide]]. These are useful byproducts.
This method consumes vast amounts of energy and there are also concerns about mercury [[emission]]s.
===Diaphragm cell electrolysis===
An [[asbestos]] diaphragm is deposited on an iron grid cathode preventing the chlorine forming at the anode and the sodium hydroxide forming at the cathode from re-mixing.
This method uses less energy than the mercury cell, but the sodium hydroxide is not as easily concentrated and precipitated into a useful substance.
===Membrane cell electrolysis===
The electrolysis cell is divided into two by a membrane acting as an [[ion exchange]]r. Saturated sodium chloride solution is placed in the anode compartment whilst [[distillation|distilled]] water is placed in the cathodes compartment.
This method is nearly as efficient as the diaphragm cell and produces very pure sodium hydroxide.
===Other methods===
In a laboratory, small amounts of chlorine gas can be created by adding concentrated [[hydrochloric acid]] (typically about 5M) to [[sodium chlorate]] solution.
== Compounds ==
For General references to the Chloride ion (Cl<sup>&minus;</sup></small>, including references to specific Chlorides, see [[Chloride]]. For other Chlorine compounds see [[Chlorate]] (ClO<sub>3</sub><sup>&minus;</sup></small>), [[Chlorite]] (ClO<sub>2</sub><sup>&minus;</sup></small>), [[Hypochlorite]](CLO<sup>&minus;</sup></small>), and [[Perchlorate]] (ClO<sub>4</sub><sup>&minus;</sup></small>). See also
[[Chloramine]] (NH<sub>2</sub>Cl),
[[Chlorine dioxide]] (ClO<sub>2</sub>),
[[Chloric acid]] (HClO<sub>3</sub>),
[[Chlorine monofluoride]] (ClF),
[[Chlorine trifluoride]] (ClF<sub>3</sub>),
[[Chlorine pentafluoride]] (ClF<sub>5</sub>)
[[Dichlorine monoxide]] (Cl<sub>2</sub>O),
[[Dichlorine heptoxide]] (Cl2O<sub>7</sub>),
[[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl),
[[Perchloric acid]] (HClO<sub>4</sub>),
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/17.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Chlorine]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Chlorine}}
*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Cl2 Computational Chemistry Wiki]
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/20.html National Pollutant Inventory - Chlorine]
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cl/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Chlorine]
{{Chemical warfare}}
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Halogens]]
{{Link FA|sk}}
[[af:Chloor]]
[[ar:كلور]]
[[bg:Хлор]]
[[ca:Clor]]
[[cs:Chlór]]
[[da:Klor]]
[[de:Chlor]]
[[et:Kloor]]
[[es:Cloro]]
[[eo:Kloro]]
[[fa:کلر]]
[[fr:Chlore]]
[[gl:Cloro (elemento)]]
[[ko:염소 (원소)]]
[[io:Kloro]]
[[is:Klór]]
[[it:Cloro]]
[[he:כלור]]
[[lv:Hlors]]
[[lt:Chloras]]
[[hu:Klór]]
[[mi:Hau māota]]
[[nl:Chloor]]
[[ja:塩素]]
[[no:Klor]]
[[nn:Klor]]
[[oc:Clòr]]
[[pl:Chlor]]
[[pt:Cloro]]
[[ro:Clor]]
[[ru:Хлор]]
[[sk:Chlór]]
[[sl:Klor]]
[[sr:Хлор]]
[[fi:Kloori]]
[[sv:Klor]]
[[th:คลอรีน]]
[[vi:Clo]]
[[tr:Klor]]
[[uk:Хлор]]
[[zh:氯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Calcium</title>
<id>5668</id>
<revision>
<id>41958483</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:59:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.168.155.101</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Calcium, New York]], [[United States]].''
{{Elementbox_header | number=20 | symbol=Ca | name=calcium | left=[[potassium]] | right=[[scandium]] | above=[[magnesium|Mg]] | below=[[strontium|Sr]] | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[alkaline earth metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=2 | period=4 | block=s }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Ca,20| silvery white }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|40.078]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(4)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[argon|Ar]]&#93; 4s<sup>2</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 8, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 1.55 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 1.378 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1115 | c=842 | f=1548 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=1757 | c=1484 | f=2703 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 8.54 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 154.7 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 25.929 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 864 | 956 | 1071 | 1227 | 1443 | 1755 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic face centered }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 2<br />(strongly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.00 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 589.8 | 1145.4 | 4912.4 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|180]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|194]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|174]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 33.6 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 201 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 22.3 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 3810 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 20 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 7.4 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 17 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.31 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 1.75 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 167 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-70-2 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=calcium | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=40 | sym=Ca | na=96.941% | n=20 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=41 | sym=Ca | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E12 s|1.03&times;10<sup>5</sup> y]] | dm=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de=- | pn=41 | ps=[[potassium|K]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=42 | sym=Ca | na=0.647% | n=22 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=43 | sym=Ca | na=0.135% | n=23 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=44 | sym=Ca | na=2.086% | n=24 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=45 | sym=Ca | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E7 s|162.7 d]] | dm=[[beta decay|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de=0.258 | pn=45 | ps=[[Scandium|Sc]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=46 | sym=Ca | na=0.004% | hl=[[1 E19 s and more|>2.8&times;10<sup>15</sup> y]] | dm=[[double beta decay|&beta;<sup>-</sup>&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de=? | pn=46 | ps=[[titanium|Ti]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=47 | sym=Ca | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E5 s|4.536 d]] | dm1=[[beta decay|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de1=0.694, 1.99 | pn1=47 | ps1=[[Scandium|Sc]] |
dm2=[[gamma ray|&gamma;]] | de2=1.297 | pn2= | ps2=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=48 | sym=Ca | na=0.187% | hl=[[1 E19 s and more|>4&times;10<sup>19</sup> y]] | dm=[[double beta decay|&beta;<sup>-</sup>&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de=? | pn=48 | ps=[[titanium|Ti]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
'''Calcium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ca''' and [[atomic number]] 20. Calcium is a soft grey [[alkaline earth metal]] that is used as a [[redox|reducing]] agent in the extraction of [[thorium]], [[zirconium]] and [[uranium]]. Calcium is also the fifth most abundant element in the earth's crust. It is essential for living [[organism]]s, particularly in cell physiology, and is the most common [[metal]] in many animals.
==Notable characteristics==
Calcium is a rather soft, grey metallic element that is purified by [[electrolysis]] from [[calcium fluoride]]. It burns with a yellow-red flame and forms a white [[nitride]] coating when exposed to air. It reacts with water displacing hydrogen and forming [[calcium hydroxide]].
Calcium is essential in muscle contraction, building strong bones and teeth, blood clotting, nerve impulse transmission, regulating heartbeat, and fluid balance within cells.
* 50%-75% of calcium comes from the dairy intake in daily diets.
* Most Americans do not consume the 1,200 mg of calcium per day that is needed.
The Calcium-40 isotope has a nucleus of 20 |
20] with 1 Corinthians [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20corinthians%2011:23-29;&version=31; 11:23-29].
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%2024:34;&version=31; 24:34] with 1 Corinthians [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20corinthians%2015:5;&version=31; 15:5].
==Attention to women==
Compared to the other canonical gospels, Luke devotes significantly more attention to women. The Gospel of Luke features more female characters, features a female prophet ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%202:36;&version=31; 2:36]), and details the experience of pregnancy ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%201:41-42;&version=31; 1:41-42]). Prominent discussion is given to the lives of [[Elizabeth (Biblical person)|Elizabeth]], [[John the Baptist]]'s mother (ch. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=49&chapter=1&version=31 1]), and [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]] (ch. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=49&chapter=2&version=31; 2]). Although most scholars understand the evangelist's self-referential use of a masculine participle in Luke 1:3 to mean that the evangelist was male, this prominence of women through the Luke gospel has led some scholars, including [[Randel McCraw Helms]], to suggest that the author of Luke may have been female.
==See also==
*[[Order of St. Luke]]
*[[Martin Luther]]'s commentary on [http://www.godrules.net/library/luther/NEW1luther_c5.htm the '''Magnificat'''] (Luke1:46-55)[http://www.christianbook.com/Christian/Books/product/?item_no=64210&p=1010575]
==External links==
Online translations of the [[Gospel of Luke]]:
* {{biblegateway||Luke}}
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/luke.html Early Christian Writings;] ''Gospel of Luke: introductions and e-texts''
* [http://www.ifrance.com/bezae/index.html French; English translation]
Related articles:
*[http://www.katapi.org.uk/4Gospels/Ch8.htm#II B.H. Streeter, The Four Gospels : A study of origins 1924.]
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/TC-Luke.pdf A textual commentary on the Gospel of Luke] Detailed textcritical discussion of the 300 most important variants of the Greek text (PDF, 467 pages)
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09420a.htm Gospel of Saint Luke @ Catholic Encyclopedia]
----
''This article was originally based on text from [http://www.site-berea.com/dicionarios.html Easton Bible Dictionary of 1897] and from M.G. Easton M.A., D.D., ''Illustrated Bible Dictionary'', Third Edition, published by Thomas Nelson, 1897.''
<center>
<br>
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse"
|- bgcolor="darkgray"
|colspan=3|<Center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]
|'''[[Gospels]]'''
|Followed by:<br><Center>[[Gospel of John|John]]
|}
</center>
[[Category:New Testament books|Luke]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative|Luke]]
[[zh-min-nan:Lō·-ka Hok-im]]
[[bs:Jevanđelje po Luki]]
[[cs:Evangelium podle Lukáše]]
[[da:Lukasevangeliet]]
[[de:Evangelium nach Lukas]]
[[es:Evangelio de Lucas]]
[[fr:Évangile selon Luc]]
[[ko:루카 복음서]]
[[id:Injil Lukas]]
[[ia:Evangelio secundo Luca]]
[[jv:Injil Lukas]]
[[la:Evangelium secundum Lucam]]
[[nl:Evangelie naar Lucas]]
[[ja:ルカによる福音書]]
[[pl:Ewangelia Łukasza]]
[[pt:Evangelho segundo Lucas]]
[[ru:Евангелие от Луки]]
[[scn:Vancelu di Luca]]
[[sr:Свето Јеванђеље по Луци]]
[[fi:Evankeliumi Luukkaan mukaan]]
[[sv:Lukasevangeliet]]
[[zh:路加福音]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gospel of Matthew</title>
<id>12492</id>
<revision>
<id>41688070</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:49:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andrew c</username>
<id>704413</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ updated link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Chapters in the Gospel of Matthew}}
The '''Gospel of [[Matthew]]''' (literally: according to Matthew, [[Greek language|Greek]]: Κατα Μαθθαιον ) is one of the four [[Gospel]] accounts of the [[New Testament]]. The Gospel accounts are traditionally printed with Matthew first, followed in order by '''[[Gospel according to Mark|Mark]]''', '''[[Gospel according to Luke|Luke]]''' and '''[[Gospel according to John|John]]'''.
==Overview==
For convenience, the book can be divided into its four structurally distinct sections: Two introductory sections; the main section, which can be further broken into five sections, each with a narrative component followed by a long discourse of Jesus, and finally the Passion and Resurrection section.
# Containing the genealogy, the birth, and the infancy of Jesus ([[Matthew 1|1]]; 2).
# The discourses and actions of [[John the Baptist]] preparatory to Christ's public ministry (3; 4:11).
# The discourses and actions of Christ in [[Galilee]] (4:12&ndash;20:16).
## The [[Sermon on the Mount]]- Concerning morality (Ch. 5-7)
## The Missionary Discourse- Concerning the mission Jesus gave his disciples. (Ch. 10)
## The Parable Discourse- Stories that teach about the Kingdom of Heaven (Ch. 13)
## The "Church Order" Discourse- Concerning relationships among Christians. (Ch. 18)
## The Escatological Discourse, also called the Olivet Discourse- Concerning his Second Coming and the end of the age. (Ch. 24-25)
# The sufferings, death and [[Resurrection of Jesus]], the [[Great Commission]] (20:17&ndash;28).
The one aim pervading the book is to show that [[Jesus of Nazareth]] was the promised [[Messiah]] &mdash; he "of whom Moses in the law and the prophets did write" &mdash; and that in him the ancient prophecies had their fulfilment. This book is full of allusions to passages of the [[Old Testament]] which the book interprets as predicting and foreshadowing Jesus' life and mission. This Gospel contains no fewer than sixty-five references to the Old Testament, forty-three of these being direct verbal citations, thus greatly outnumbering those found in the other Gospels. The main feature of this Gospel may be expressed in the motto "I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil" ([[Matthew 5:17]]).
This Gospel sets forth a view of Jesus as Christ and portrays him as an heir to King [[David/Biblical character|David's]] throne.
The cast of thought and the forms of expression employed by the writer show that this Gospel was written by [[Jewish Christians]] of [[Judea]].
==Date of Gospel==
There is little in the gospel itself to indicate the date of its composition. Some conservative scholars argue that it was written before the destruction of Jerusalem (Matt 24), probably between the years AD [[60]] and [[65]], but others would date it in the 70s, even as late as AD [[85]].
In regard to most recent scholarship, [[John Wenham]] is considered to be one of the more notable defenders of an early date for the gospel of Matthew. In addition, [[Carsten Peter Thiede]] in ''Eyewitness to Jesus'' argues for the redating the [[Magdalen papyrus]] and the Gospel of Matthew to before AD 70. His writings have been hotly contested.
== Authorship ==
Although the document is anonymous, the authorship of this Gospel is traditionally ascribed to St. [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]], a tax collector who became an [[Twelve Apostles|apostle]] of Jesus. Of the twelve Apostles, Matthew would have made the most unpopular candidate for authorship aside from Judas Iscariot because he held the hated office of tax collector. However, early Church tradition unanimously agreed to Matthew's authorship.
The relation of the gospels to one another is the subject of some debate. Most modern scholars believe that Matthew borrowed from [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] and the hypothetical [[Q document]], but some scholars believe that Matthew was written first and that Mark borrowed from Matthew (see: [[Augustinian hypothesis]]). Out of a total of 1071 verses, Matthew has 387 in common with Mark and the [[Gospel of Luke]], 130 with Mark, 184 with Luke; only 370 being unique to itself.
[[Biblical criticism|Critical biblical]] scholars, like [[Herman N. Ridderbos]] in his book ''Matthew'', do not consider the apostle Matthew to be the author of this Gospel. He cites a number of reasons such as the text being in [[Greek language|Greek]], not [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], the Gospel's heavy reliance on Mark, and the lack of characteristics usually attributed to an eyewitness account [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/matthew.html]. [[Francis Write Beare]] agrees, and goes on to say in his book ''The Gospel according to Matthew'' "there are clear indications that it is a product of the second or third Christian generation. The traditional name of Matthew is retained in modern discussion only for convenience."[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/matthew.html]
Like the authors of the other gospels, the author of Matthew wrote this book according to his own plans and aims and from his own point of view, while at the same time borrowing from other sources. According to the [[two-source hypothesis]] (the most commonly accepted solution to the [[synoptic problem]]), Matthew borrowed from both [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] and a hypothetical sayings collection, known by scholars as [[Q document|Q]] (for the German ''Quelle'', meaning "source").
In ''The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins'' ([[1924]]), [[Burnett Hillman Streeter]] argued that a third source, referred to as ''M'' and also hypothetical, lies behind the material in Matthew that has no parallel in Mark or Luke. Through the remainder of the 20th century, there were various challenges and refinements of Streeter's hypothesis. For example, in his [[1953]] book ''The Gospel Before Mark'', [[Pierson Parker]] posited an early version of Matthew (proto-Matthew) as the primary |
of feedback in organizations:
* [[Financial audit]]
* [[performance appraisal]]
* [[shareholder]] meetings
* customer surveys
* [[360-degree feedback]]
===In gaming===
In [[computer game]]s, feedback is an important and heavily exploited mechanism for controlling resources. Both positive and negative feedback loops can be used to alter the pacing, challenge, and sense of accomplishment in a game. For example, ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'''s practice mode offers an ''auto-adjust'' setting that causes the bots to attempt to match the player's skill level, keeping a more consistent level of challenge for different players; this is [[negative feedback]]. On the other hand, in ''[[Starcraft]]'', a player who has a small advantage in resources will be able to build more units, enabling them to seize more resource-rich territory and so gain a much larger advantage in resources; this is [[positive feedback]].
==Sources==
* Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman. ''Rules of Play''. [[MIT Press]]. 2004. ISBN 0262240459. Chapter 18: Games as Cybernetic Systems.
==See also==
*[[Cybernetics]]
*[[Control theory]]
*[[Interaction]]
*[[Feedforward]]
*[[Low-key feedback]]
*[[Stability criterion]]
*[[Electrical engineering]]
*[[Perverse incentive]]
*[[Unintended consequence]]
[[Category:Control theory]]
[[Category:Cybernetics]]
[[Category:Electrical engineering]]
<!--[[en:Feedback]]-->
[[cs:Zpětná vazba]]
[[da:Feedback]]
[[de:Rückkopplung]]
[[es:Retroalimentación]]
[[fr:Rétroaction]]
[[it:Retroazione]]
[[he:משוב]]
[[lt:Grįžtamasis ryšys]]
[[nl:Terugkoppeling]]
[[ja:フィードバック]]
[[no:Tilbakekobling]]
[[pl:Sprzężenie zwrotne]]
[[pt:Feedback (ciências)]]
[[ru:Обратная связь]]
[[sk:Spätná väzba]]
[[sl:Povratna zanka]]
[[fi:Takaisinkytkentä]]
[[sv:Återkoppling]]
[[zh:反馈]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Furigana</title>
<id>11547</id>
<revision>
<id>40808801</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T03:46:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.24.88.211</ip>
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<comment>/* Appearance */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Japanese writing}}
'''Furigana''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ふりがな), are a [[Japanese language|Japanese]] reading aid. They consist of smaller [[kana]] printed next to a [[kanji]] or other character to indicate its [[pronunciation]]. In horizontal text, ''[[Yokogaki and tategaki|yokogaki]]'', they are placed above the line of text, while in vertical text, ''[[Yokogaki and tategaki|tategaki]]'', they are placed to the right of the line of text, as illustrated below. They are one type of [[ruby character|ruby]] text. ''Furigana'' are also known as '''yomigana''' or '''rubi''' in Japanese.
<table cellpadding=10><tr><td>
<table><tr>
<td><font size=+2>漢</font></td>
<td><font size=-1>か<br>ん</font></td>
</tr><tr>
<td><font size=+2>字</font></td>
<td><font size=-1>じ</font></td>
</tr></table>
</td><td>or</td><td>
<table><tr>
<td><font size=-1>かん</font></td>
<td><font size=-1><center>じ</center></font></td>
</tr><tr>
<td><font size=+2>漢</font></td>
<td><font size=+2>字</font></td>
</tr></table>
</td></tr></table>
==Appearance==
Furigana may be added by character, in which case the part of a word which corresponds to a kanji is centered over that kanji; or by word or phrase, in which case the entire ''furigana'' word is centered over several characters, even if the kanji do not represent equal shares of the kana needed to write them. The latter method is more common, especially since some words in Japanese have [[ateji|unique pronunciations]] that are not related to any of the characters the word is written with.
When it is necessary to distinguish between native Japanese ''[[kanji|kun'yomi]]'' and [[Chinese language|Chinese]]-derived ''[[Kanji|on'yomi]]'' pronunciations, for example in [[Kanji dictionary|kanji dictionaries]], the Japanese pronunciations are written in [[hiragana]], and the Chinese ones are written in [[katakana]]. However, this distinction is really only important in dictionaries and other reference works. In ordinary prose, the script chosen will usually be [[hiragana]]. (The one general exception to this is Chinese place names, personal names, and (occasionally) food names -- these will often be written with kanji, and katakana used for the furigana.)
The distinction between regular kana and the smaller character forms, which are used in regular orthography to mark such things as [[gemination]] and [[palatalization]], is often not made in ''furigana'': for example, the usual [[hiragana]] spelling of the word 却下 (''kyakka'') is きゃっか, but in ''furigana'' it might be written きやつか. This was especially common in old-fashioned [[printing press|movable type]] printing when smaller fonts were not available. Nowadays, with computer-based printing systems, this occurs less frequently.
==Usage==
[[Image:JR_Namba_entrance.jpg|thumb|300px|On this sign, furigana indicate the pronunciation of the Latin letters "JR" and the [[kanji]] for "Namba Station."]]
''Furigana'' are most commonly used in works for children, who may not have sufficiently advanced reading skills to recognise the kanji, but can understand the word when written phonetically in ''[[hiragana]]''. Because children learn ''hiragana'' before ''[[katakana]]'', in books for very young children, there are ''hiragana'' ''furigana'' next to the ''katakana'' characters. It is common to use ''furigana'' on all kanji characters in works for young children. This is called ''sōrubi'' (総ルビ) in Japanese.
In works aimed at adult Japanese speakers, furigana may be used on a word written in uncommon kanji; in the mass media, they are generally used on words containing non-[[Jōyō kanji|Jōyō]] kanji.
Furigana commonly appear alongside kanji names and their romanizations on signs for railway stations, even if the pronunciation of the kanji is commonly known. Furigana also appear often on maps to show the pronunciation of unusual place names.
===For names===
Japanese names are usually written in [[kanji]]. Because there are many possible readings for kanji names, including special name-only readings called [[nanori]], furigana are often used to give the readings of names. On Japanese official forms, where the name is to be written, there is always an adjacent column for the name to be written in ''furigana''. Usually ''katakana'' is preferred.
Furigana may also be used for foreign names written in kanji. Chinese and Korean names are the most common examples: Chinese names are usually pronounced with Japanese readings and the pronunciation written in hiragana, while Korean names are usually pronounced with Korean readings and the pronunciation written in katakana. Furigana may also be necessary in the rare case where names are transliterated into kanji from other languages (e.g., soccer star [[Ruy Ramos]] and activist [[Arudou Debito]]).
===In language learning===
Kanji and kanji compounds are often presented with ''furigana'' in Japanese language textbooks for non-native speakers.
''Furigana'' are also often used in foreign language textbooks for Japanese learners to indicate pronunciation. The words are written in the original foreign script, such as [[Hangul]] for [[Korean language|Korean]], and furigana is used to indicate the pronunciation.
===Punning and double meaning===
Some writers use furigana to represent slang pronunciations, particularly those which would become hard to understand without the kanji to provide their meaning.
Another use is to write the kanji for something which had been previously referenced, but write furigana for "''sore''" or "''are''", meaning "that", indicating that the characters simply refer to it with a pronoun, but clarifying for the reader what thing was meant.
In ''[[karaoke]]'' it is extremely common for ''furigana'' to be placed on the song lyrics. The song lyrics are often written in kanji pronounced quite differently from the ''furigana''. The ''furigana'' version is used for pronunciation.
Also, because the kanji represent meaning while the ''furigana'' represent sound, one can combine the two to create [[pun]]s or indicate meanings of foreign words. One might write the kanji for "blue", but use katakana to write the pronunciation of the English word "blue"; this may be done, for example, in Japanese subtitles on foreign films, where it can help associate the written Japanese with the sounds actually being spoken by the actors, or it may be used in a translation of a work of fiction to enable the translator to preserve the original sound of a proper name (such as "Firebolt" in the Harry Potter series) in furigana, while simultaneously indicating its meaning with kanji. A similar practice is used in native fiction to produce double meanings: for example, the word "Earth" (chikyuu) might be written with "homeland" (furusato) as the reading in a work of science fiction.
==Other Japanese reading aids==
===Kunten===
In the written style known as ''[[kanbun]]'', which is the Japanese approximation of [[Classical Chinese]], small marks called ''[[kunten]]'' are sometimes added as reading aids. Unlike furigana, which indicate pronunciation, ''kunten'' indicate Japanese grammatical structures absent from the ''kanbun'', as well as showing how words should be reordered to fit Japanese sentence structure.
===Furikanji===
Furigana are sometimes also used to indicate meaning, rather than pronunciation. Over the foreign text smaller sized Japanese words, in kana or kanji, corresponding to the ''meaning'' of t |
fetimes and between 6-10% of women suffer domestic violence in a given year. Every minute in the UK, the Police receive a call from the public for assistance for domestic violence. However, they estimate that only around 35% of domestic violence is actually reported. A [[2002]] Women's Aid study found that 74% of separated women suffered from post-separation violence. Until recently, very few studies even asked about female-on-male (or female-on-female) domestic violence; so while these figures are apallingly high, the prevalence of violence against men is typically not included in these figures.
Studies based on <i>reported</i> assaults or on police records typically find much greater male-on-female violence, than the reverse. The British Crime Survey for the year 2001-2 [http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs04/hors276.pdf] reported, "There were an estimated 12.9 million incidents of domestic violence acts (nonsexual threats or force) against women [84%] and 2.5 million against men [16%] in England and Wales in the year prior to interview." The same report states, "Four per cent of women and two per cent of men were subject to domestic violence (non-sexual domestic threats or force) during the last year." However, men are known to be far less likely to file complaints.
Many publications claim a grave disparity in general: Women's Aid (the UKs leading domestic violence charity) say "Crime statistics and research both show that domestic violence is gender specific - usually the perpetrator of a pattern of repeated assaults is a man. Women experience the most serious physical and repeated assaults." 42% of all female homicide victims compared with 4% of male homicide victims, were killed by current or former partners in England and Wales in the year [[2000]]-[[2001]]. This equates to 102 women, an average of 2 women each week (Home Office, [[2001]]). Ahimsa [http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/news/032001/03/abuse.shtml], a UK based DV project, says: "Research findings consistently report that over 90% of domestic violence is perpetrated by men within heterosexual relationships". This, however, is simply untrue. Although it is true that many studies report only male-on-female violence because that is all they ask about, those studies that do examine prevalence in both directions overwhelmingly find little difference by gender. This is particularly true when questions are specific: for example, men typically do not report being slapped if they are simply asked about "violence"; women do.
Martin S. Fiebert of the Department of Psychology at California State University, Long Beach, provides an annotated bibliography of 174 scholarly studies that have found significant prevalence of female-on-male domestic violence[http://www.csulb.edu/~mfiebert/assault.htm].
When it comes to domestic violence towards children involving physical abuse, research in the UK by the [[NSPCC]] indicated that "most violence occurred at home (78 per cent) with mothers being primarily responsible in 49 per cent of cases and fathers in 40 per cent of cases."[http://www.aifs.gov.au/nch/pubs/nl2001/winter2.html]
Studies have been carried out to explore these issues, and results have seemed somewhat contradictory. A problem in conducting such studies is the amount of silence, fear and shame that results from abuse within families and relationships. Another is that abusive patterns can tend to seem normal to those who have lived in them for a length of time. Similarly, subtle forms of abuse can be quite transparent even as they set the stage for further abuse seeming normal. Finally, inconsistent definition of what domestic violence is makes strong conclusions hard to reach when compiling the available studies.
Both men and women have been arrested and convicted of assaulting their partners in both heterosexual and homosexual relationships. The bulk of these arrests has been men being arrested for assaulting women, but that has been shifting somewhat over time and clearly arrest records are not the whole story. Actual studies of behaviour show that whilst half of male/female intimate violence is best described as mutual brawling, a quarter is the male attacking the female and the remaining quarter being females attacking their male partner. Determining how many instances of domestic violence actually involve male victims is difficult. Male domestic violence victims may be reluctant to get help for a number of reasons (see [http://www.batteredmen.com/bathelpwhymen.htm this article]) (Article checked [[August 8]], [[2004]].) A man who calls for help may even risk being arrested as the "perpetrator" even though he was the victim.
The general consensus seems to be that male on female domestic violence is more likely to result in serious injury or death, whereas female on male (which, under the definition used by the UK Government if no others, includes preventing the father seeing the children), is more likely to result in male [[suicide]]. Men on average have more upper body strength and socialization that predisposes them to resort to violence more than women do, and that can give them a higher average lethality than women. However, women can and do use weapons to equalize whatever deficit in physical power which may be present, and can also use social constraints against men hitting women even in self-defense, to provide them with sufficient lethality to be dangerous in conflict situations. The US National Family Violence Survey has consistently indicated, in repeated surveys over more than 30 years, that women are more than twice as likely as men to initiate domestic assault, and more than twice as likely to use weapons. The oft-repeated claim that all violence by women is self-defence has similarly been proven to be based on [[Begging the question|circular reasoning]]. Women also are at least as well equipped to use psychological violence that forms a pattern of coercive and controlling behaviour (to use the Women's Aid definition given above). Women are also equally capable of using a [[Proxy representative|proxy]], which would further skew the results (since a [[proxy murder]] is not recorded as a case of domestic violence.)
In the United States, the bulk of the decrease in rates of intimate partner homicides is accounted for the dramatic decrease in women's murders of their male intimate partners. Murders of female intimate partners by men have dropped, but not nearly as dramatically. (see, for example, the report Violence by Intimates from the US Bureau of Justice Statistics at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/vbi.pdf) Men kill their female intimate partners at about four times the rate that women kill their male intimate partners. Research by Jacquelyn Campbell, PhD RN FAAN has found that at least two thirds of women killed by their intimate partners were battered by those men prior to the murder. She also found that when males are killed by female intimates, the women in those relationships had been abused by their male partner about 75% of the time.
Some researchers have found a relationship between the availability of domestic violence services, improved laws and enforcement regarding domestic violence and increased access to divorce, and higher earnings for women with declines in intimate partner homicide. (Laura Dugan, Daniel S. Nagin, and Richard Rosenfeld. Explaining the Decline in Intimate Partner Homicide: The Effects of Changing Domesticity, Women's Status, and Domestic Violence Resources in Homicide Studies, Vol. 3, No. 3, 187-214, 1999)
This suggests that, ironically, male abusers have benefitted from domestic violence reforms, and are less likely to be killed by their partners since women are no longer faced with murder as their "only option" to escape the violence. At the same time, men continue to kill their female partners at almost the same rate. This suggests that reforms in the civil and criminal system and social services to battered women have not impacted the fundamental causes of domestic violence. Although some presume that this indicates a gendered nature of the problem, the lack of success may itself be a result of overly simplistic gender-assumptions on the nature of violence (see notes on the Duluth model in the 'Response to domestic violence' section).
Gender roles and expectations can and do play a role in abusive situations, and exploring these roles and expectations can be helpful in addressing abusive situations, as do factors like race, class, religion, sexuality and philosophy. None of these factors cause one to abuse or another to be abused.
==Gender Bias in the language of Domestic Violence==
When people, community agencies and the media discuss domestic violence, they often refer to the perpetrator as "he" and the victim as "she". This is usually done because the reported prevalence of men perpetrating violence in the U.S. is higher than women. The [http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/nij/183781.pdf Full Report of the Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against Women], Conducted by the US Department of Justice states that "Women experience more intimate partner violence than do men: 22.1 percent of surveyed women, compared with 7.4 percent of surveyed men, reported they were physically assaulted by a current or former spouse, cohabiting partner, boyfriend or girlfriend, or date in their lifetime; 1.3 percent of surveyed women and 0.9 percent of surveyed men reported experiencing such violence in the previous 12 months. Approximately 1.3 million women and 835,000 men are physically assaulted by an intimate partner annually in the United States."
It is important to note, however, that people of all genders, races, ethnicities, and religions can be perpetrators of domestic violence. Domestic violence occurs in 18% of lesbian couples in the US |
his preferred position was [[First baseman|first base]]. In 1929, he was recruited by the [[New York Yankees]], who already had a capable first baseman: [[Lou Gehrig]]. Greenberg turned them down and attended [[New York University]] for a year, after which he signed with the [[Detroit Tigers]].
==Early career==
He played [[minor league baseball]] for three years, and was named [[Most Valuable Player]] in the [[Texas League]].
In 1933, he joined the Tigers and [[batting average|hit]] .301 while [[RBI|driving]] in 87 runs.
Starring as a first baseman and [[outfielder]] with the [[Detroit Tigers]] (1930, 1933-1946), and briefly with the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] (1947), he played only nine full seasons. He missed three full seasons and most of two others to military service during [[World War II]], and missed most of another season with a broken wrist. In seven of the nine years in which he was active, he was one of the dominant players in the game, beginning in [[1934]], his second major-league season, in which he won his first MVP award and helped the Tigers reach their first World Series in 25 years.
As a fielder, the 6'4" Greenberg was awkward and unsure of himself early in his career, but he mastered his first-base position through countless hours of practice. When he was asked to move to the outfield in 1940 to make room for Rudy York, he worked tirelessly to master that position as well.
==Records and Baseball style==
A prodigious home-run hitter, he narrowly missed breaking [[Babe Ruth]]'s single-season home-run record in [[1938]] when he hit 58 home runs. The story goes that several pitchers intentionally walked Greenberg towards the end of the season rather than give a Jewish man a chance to break Babe Ruth's record. (There is some reason to dispute this as a motive. It is true that the Cleveland Indians did not give Greenberg good pitches to hit during the last week of the season; it is also true that Detroit and Cleveland were battling for third place, which in those days carried with it a share of World Series profits, so Cleveland players had a financial interest in keeping Greenberg from hitting home runs.)
For his own part, Greenberg felt that runs batted in were more important than home runs. He would tell his teammates, "just get on base", or "just get the runner to third", and he would do the rest. He batted in 170 runs in 1935 and in 1937 topped that with 183 (third all-time behind [[Hack Wilson]] in 1930 and [[Lou Gehrig]] in 1931).
After moving to the outfield in [[1940]], Greenberg led the Tigers to a pennant and won his second MVP award, becoming at the time, only the second player ever to win the MVP award at two different positions.
==WWII Service==
The Detroit [[draft board]] initially classified Greenberg as [[4F]] for "flat feet." Rumors that he had bribed the board and concern that he would be likened to [[Jack Dempsey]], who received negative publicity for failure to serve in World War I, led Greenberg to be reexamined, and he was found fit to serve.
Although drafted in 1940, he was honorably discharged after Congress released men aged 28 years or older from service, being released on December 5, 1941, two days before the Japanese bombed [[Pearl Harbor]]. Greenberg re-enlisted and volunteered for service in the [[United States Army Air Corps]]. He graduated from [[Officer Candidate School]] and was commissioned as a [[first lieutenant]]. He eventually served overseas in the China-Burma-India theater, scouting locations for B-29 bases.
==Return to Baseball==
Greenberg remained in uniform until the summer of 1945. Without the benefit of spring training, he returned to the Tigers and helped lead them to a come-from-behind American League pennant, clinching it with a grand-slam home run on the final game of the season. In [[1946]] he returned to peak form.
It is often estimated that Greenberg, had he played in another era uninterrupted by war, would have amassed between 500 and 600 home runs and 1,800 to 2,000 RBI. As it is, his totals of 331 home runs and 1,276 RBI are amazing for a 1,394-game career. He also hit for average, batting .313.
In [[1947]], Greenberg and the Tigers had a lengthy salary dispute. When Greenberg decided to retire rather than play for less, Detroit traded him to the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]. To persuade him not to retire, Pittsburgh made Greenberg the first baseball player to earn over $100,000 in a season (though the exact amount is a matter of some dispute). Team co-owner [[Bing Crosby]] recorded a song, "Goodbye, Mr. Ball, Goodbye" with [[Groucho Marx]] and Greenberg, to celebrate Greenberg's arrival. The Pirates also moved in the seats in Forbes Field's cavernous left field, renaming the section "Greenberg's Gardens", to accommodate Greenberg's pull-hitting style. Greenberg played first base for the Pirates for 1947, and was one of the few opposing players to publicly welcome [[Jackie Robinson]] to the majors.
==Coaching and ownership==
The following year, Greenberg retired from the field to become the [[Cleveland Indians]]' farm system director and two years later, their general manager. His contributions in finding and developing talent contributed to that team's successes through the 1950s. He followed [[Bill Veeck]] to the [[Chicago White Sox]], as part-owner, and then retired from baseball in 1963 to go into investment banking.
==Family==
He married Coral [[Gimbel's|Gimbel]] (of the New York department store family) on [[February 18]], [[1946]], three days after signing a $60,000 contract with the Tigers. Their son, Steven, played five years in the Washington Senators and [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] organizations. In [[1995]], Steve Greenberg founded Classic Sports Network, which was purchased by [[ESPN]] and became [[ESPN Classic]].
==Honors==
* [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|American League Most Valuable Player]], [[1934]] and [[1940]].
* American League All-Star team, [[1937]]-[[1940]].
* First Jewish player elected to the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum|National Baseball Hall of Fame]], in [[1956 in sports|1956]].
* In [[1999]], despite injuries and wartime service that essentially limited him to half a career, he ranked Number 37 on ''[[The Sporting News]]''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was nominated as a finalist for the [[Major League Baseball]] All-Century Team.
Greenberg died in [[Beverly Hills, California]] and his remains were entombed at [[Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Culver City, California]].
Documentary: ''The Life and Times of Hank Greenberg'', [[2000]].
Autobiography: ''The Story of My Life'', ISBN 1892049236
In 2006, Greenberg will be featured on a [[United States]] [[postage stamp]] [http://www.usps.com/communications/news/stamps/2005/sr05_054.htm]. The stamp is one of a block of four honoring Baseball Sluggers.
==Legacy==
Greenberg was considered a sports icon in the [[Jewish American]] community.
Greenberg was not the first [[Jew]]ish man to play major-league baseball, but by the end of his career he had become by far the best Jewish player ever, and the first major Jewish star. In the 50 years since Greenberg's retirement, only [[Sandy Koufax]] achieved similar success among Jewish players. Greenberg was subject to the most vicious ethnic taunting seen in the sport prior to the arrival of [[Jackie Robinson]] in [[1947 in sports|1947]], yet Greenberg nevertheless became a first-rank ballplayer and an icon among Jews in the United States.
==External links==
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/greenberg_hank.htm Baseball Hall of Fame]
*Greenberg's statistics at [http://www.baseball-reference.com/g/greenha01.shtml Baseball-Reference.com]
*Biography at Jewish Virtual Library [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/greenberg.html]
*WWII and Baseball article [http://history.acusd.edu/gen/WW2Timeline/dimaggio3.html]
[[Category:1911 births|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:1986 deaths|Greenberg, Hank]]
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[[Category:Detroit Tigers players|Greenberg, Hank]]
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[[ja:ハンク・グリーンバーグ]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Heinrich Schliemann</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heinrich_schliemann_portrait.jpg|thumb|200px|Portrait of Heinrich Schliemann.]]
'''Heinrich Schliemann''' ([[January 6]], [[1822]] &ndash; [[December 26]], [[1890]]) was a [[Germany|German]] classical [[archaeologist]], an advocate of the historical reality of places mentioned in the works of [[Homer]], and an important excavator of [[Mycenaean]] sites, such as [[Troy]], [[Mycenae]] and [[Tiryns]].
==Childhood==
Heinrich was born at [[Neubukow]], in [[Mecklenburg-Schwerin]], to Ernst Schliemann, a poor Protestant minister, and Luise Therese Sophie. He was one of a large family. In 1831, when he was 9, his mother died. There is no question that this was a traumatic event |
ve">'''''Futurism''''' may refer to:
* '''[[Future studies]]''', the [[philosophical]] or [[academic]] study of the medium to long-term [[future]] also known as futurology.
* '''[[Futurism (art)|Futurism]]''', a [[20th century]] [[art movement]].
* '''[[Futurism (Christian eschatology)|Futurism]]''', an interpretation in [[Christian eschatology]] placing the fulfillment of the prophecies of the [[Book of Revelation]] in the future as literal, physical, [[apocalyptic]] and [[global]] rather in the past as literal, physical and localised (ie in [[Judea]] or [[Europe]]) or in the present as non-literal and spiritual.
*'''[[Afrofuturism]]'''
*'''[[Retro-futurism]]'''
{{disambig}}
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<page>
<title>Filippo Tommaso Marinetti</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Artists.jpg|thumb|346px|Right|The [[Futurist]]s in [[Paris]], February 1912. (L to R. [[Luigi Russolo]], [[Carlo Carra]], [[Filippo Tommaso Marinetti|F. T. Marinetti]], [[Umberto Boccioni]], [[Gino Severini]].)]]
'''Filippo Tommaso Emilio Marinetti''' ([[December 22]], [[1876]], [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]] – [[December 2]], [[1944]], [[Bellagio]], [[Italy]]) was an Italian [[Fascism|fascist]] ideologue, [[poet]], editor, and main founder of the [[Futurism (art)|futurist]] movement of the early 20th century.
In early 1918 he founded the ''Partito Politico Futurista'' or Futurist Political Party, which only a year later was absorbed into [[Benito Mussolini]]'s ''[[Fasci Italiani di Combattimento|Fasci di combattimento]]'', making Marinetti one of the first supporters and members of the [[Partito Nazionale Fascista|Italian Fascist Party]]. He opposed Fascism's later canonical exultion of existing institutions, calling them "reactionary." He however stayed a notable force in developing the party thought throughout the regime. For example, at the end of the ''Congress of Fascist Culture'' that was held in [[Bologna]] on [[March 30]] [[1925]], [[Giovanni Gentile]] addressed [[Sergio Panunzio]] on the need to define Fascism more purposely by way of Marinetti's opinion, stating:
:''"Great spiritual movements make recourse to precision when their primitive inspirations - what F. T. Marinetti identified this morning as artistic, that is to say, the creative and truly innovative ideas, from which the movement derived its first and most potent impulse - have lost their force. We today find ourselves at the very beginning of a new life and we experience with joy this obscure need that fills our hearts - this need that is our inspiration, the genius that governs us and carries us with it."''
Thus Futurism continued to influence Fascist thinkers outside of the Futurist school of thought on the furthering of Fascism.
Marinetti is most noted for his contribution of the [[Futurist Manifesto]] first published in the Paris newspaper ''[[Le Figaro]]'', and the sound poem ''[[Zang Tumb Tumb]]''. Marinetti believed violence should be something sought out as a goal for society, making an esthetical value inherent for it regardless of context.
In 1938, when [[Adolf Hitler]] included creations of Futurism in an exhibition, deriding what [[Nazi]] [[pogrom]]s typified as ''[[degenerate art]]'', Marinetti persuaded Mussolini not to allow the exhibition entrance into Italy.
He published works in both French and Italian, among them are ''Le Roi Bombance'' (1905) and
''Mafarka il futurista'' (1910).
Fellow notable Italian futurists include [[Carlo Carrà]], [[Giacomo Balla]], [[Umberto Boccioni]], and [[Luigi Russolo]]. One notable later Italian Futurist is [[Ambrogio Casati]].
==See also==
* [[Revolutionary minded Italians of the inter-war period]]
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<page>
<title>Franz Mesmer</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Franz Anton Mesmer. The name "Mesmer" also refers to a [[character class]] of the [[Personal computer|PC]] [[CORPG]] [[Guild Wars]].''
[[Image:Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg|thumb|Franz Anton Mesmer]]
[[Image:Franz_Anton_Mesmers_Grabstein_01_Gesamt.jpg|thumb|His Grave]]
'''Franz Anton Mesmer''' ([[May 23]], [[1734]] &ndash; [[March 5]], [[1815]]) discovered what he called [[animal magnetism]] and others often called mesmerism. The evolution of Mesmer's ideas and practices led [[James Braid]] ([[1795]]-[[1860]]) to develop [[hypnosis]] in [[1842]].
== Early life ==
Mesmer was born in the village of Iznang, [[Swabia]]. After studying at the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] universities of [[Dillingen]] and [[Ingolstadt]], he took up the study of medicine at the [[University of Vienna]] in [[1759]]. In [[1766]] he published a [[doctoral dissertation]] with the [[Latin]] title ''De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum'', which discussed the influence of the [[Moon]] and the [[planets]] on the human body and on disease ([[medical astrology]]). Evidence assembled by [[Frank A. Pattie]] suggests that Mesmer plagiarized his dissertation from a work by [[Richard Mead]] ([[1673]]-[[1754]]).
Soon after receiving his degree, Mesmer married a wealthy widow and established himself as a physician in [[Vienna]]. He lived on a splendid estate and patronised the arts. When court intrigue prevented the performance of ''[[Bastien und Bastienne]]'', the first opera composed by the twelve-year-old musical prodigy [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], Mesmer offered his own gardens for the production. Mozart later immortalized his former patron by including a joking reference to Mesmer in his opera ''[[Cosi fan tutte]]''.
== The advent of animal magnetism ==
In 1774 to produce an "artificial tide" in a patient. Mesmer had her swallow a preparation containing iron, and then attached magnets to various parts of her body. She reported feeling streams of a mysterious fluid running through her body and was relieved of her symptoms for several hours. Mesmer did not believe that the magnets had achieved the cure on their own. He felt that he had contributed [[animal magnetism]], which had accumulated in his own body, to her. He soon stopped using magnets as a part of his treatment.
In [[1775]] Mesmer was invited to give his opinion before the [[Munich Academy of Sciences]] on the exorcisms carried out by [[Johann Joseph Gassner]] ([[1727]]-[[1779]]), a priest and healer. Mesmer said that while Gassner was sincere in his beliefs, his cures were due to the fact that he possessed a high degree of animal magnetism. This confrontation between Mesmer's secular ideas and Gassner's religious beliefs marked the end of Gassner's career as well as, according to [[Henri Ellenberger]], the emergence of [[dynamic psychiatry]].
The scandal which followed Mesmer's unsuccessful attempt to treat the blindness of an 18-year-old musician, [[Maria Theresa Paradis]], led him to leave [[Vienna]] in [[1777]]. The following year Mesmer moved to [[Paris]], rented an apartment in a part of the city preferred by the wealthy and powerful and established a medical practice. Paris soon divided into those who thought he was a charlatan, who had been forced to flee from Vienna, and those who thought he had made a great discovery.
In his first years in Paris, Mesmer tried and failed to get either the Royal Academy of Sciences or the Royal Society of Medicine to provide official approval for his doctrines. He found only one physician of high professional and social standing, [[Charles d'Eslon]], to become a disciple. In [[1779]], with d'Eslon's encouragement, Mesmer wrote an 88-page book ''Mémoire sur la découverte du magnétisme animal'', to which he appended his famous 27 Propositions. These propositions outlined his theory at that time.
According to d'Eslon, Mesmer understood health as the free flow of the process of life through thousands of channels in our bodies. Illness was caused by obstacles to this flow. Overcoming these obstacles and restoring flow produced crises, which restored health. When [[Nature]] failed to do this spontaneously, contact with a conductor of animal magnetism was a necessary and sufficient remedy. Mesmer aimed to aid or provoke the efforts of Nature. To cure an insane person, for example, involved causing a fit of madness. The advantage of magnetism involved accelerating such crises without danger.
Mesmer treated patients both individually and in groups. With individuals he would sit in front of his patient with his knees touching the patient's knees, pressing the patient's thumbs in his hands, looking fixedly into the patient's eyes. Mesmer made "passes", moving his hands from patients' shoulders down along their arms. He then pressed his fingers on the patient's [[hypochondria]]c region (the area below the [[diaphragm (anatomy)|diaphragm]]), sometimes holding his hands there for hours. Many patients felt peculiar sensations or had convulsions that were regarded as crises and supposed to bring about t |
pact and the German invasion of the Soviet Union, contributed to widespread uneasiness when evaluating the Brigadists' role in the politics of the Nazi era. Since the fall of the Soviet bloc, the International Brigades have been quite unanimously regarded as anti-Fascist heroes, and the legitimacy of their fight has, for the most part, washed away the stain of summary executions and Stalinist manipulation, despite being non-governmental combatants.
=== Swiss Brigadists ===
766 [[Switzerland|Swiss]] went to fight for the Republic, while only 40 went on the other side. It is interesting to note that the pro-republicans were later prosecuted for breaking the Swiss neutrality laws, which prohibit Swiss nationals from fighting for foreign countries, while the pro-fascists were never prosecuted. This might be explained on one hand by the anti-communism of the Swiss government at the time, but also because the Swiss living in Spain at the time (nearly 4000) were very much afraid of what was perceived as a communist movement. The Republican fighters were re-habilitated in the 1990s.
Interestingly, it has been noted that the punishments of those prosecuted were very variable (ranging from 15 days to 4 months in prison) but that the French-speaking tribunals had been as a rule much more lenient than the German-speaking ones. This is very much corellated to the openly pro-fascist sentiment of the elite in those parts at the time.
=== Recognition of former Brigadists ===
On [[26 January]] [[1996]] the Spanish government gave Spanish citizenship to the Brigadists. At the time, roughly 600 remained. By the end of 1938, Prime Minister [[Juan Negrin]] had promised Spanish citizenship to the Brigadists, a promise which had not been kept since the Republic had lost the war.
==Misc==
=== Symbolism and Heraldic ===
[[Image:Flag of the International Brigades.svg|150px|left|Flag of the International Brigades]]
The International Brigades were inheritors of a Communist aesthetic, which explains the numerous very stylised posters about the subject.
The flags featured the colours of the Spanish Republic : Red, Yellow and Purple, often along with Communist symbols (Red flags, [[hammer and sickle]], fist,...). The emblem of the brigades themselves was the three-pointed red star, which is often featured.
[[Image:International Brigades flags1.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Flags of the Brigades]]
[[Image:International Brigades flags2.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Flags of the Brigades]]
<br style="clear: left"/>
=== Personalities involved in the International Brigades ===
* George Aitken, (father of [[Ian Aitken]], who was later to be political editor of [[the Guardian]])
* [[Norman Bethune]] - A Canadian doctor who served with the Canadian, [[Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion]] or Mac-Paps and developed many brilliant medical tactics.
* [[Willy Brandt]] - West German Chancellor from 1969-1974.
* John Cornford
* "Gal" Galicz
* [[Pierre Georges]] dit Colonel Fabien
* [[David Guest]]
* [[Ernest Hemingway]] (although he was in Spain officially only as a reporter, Hemingway did not balk at lending a hand in the small arms training of the recruits)
* [[Oliver Law]]
* [[Laurie Lee]]
* [[Luigi Longo]]
* [[André Marty]]
* [[George Orwell]] -- joined the POUM rather than the communist-run International Brigades
* [[Abe Osheroff]] (American activist and director of 1974 documentary: ''Dreams and Nightmares'')
* [[Ezekias Papaioannou]] later general secretary of [[AKEL]]
* [[Henri Rol-Tanguy]]
* [[Frank Ryan (Irish republican)|Frank Ryan]]
* [[Mehmet Shehu]]
* [[Stephen Spender]]
* [["Kléber" Stern]]
* [[Simone Weil]]
* [[Wilhelm Zaisser|"Gomez" Zaisser]]
* [[Mate Zalka|"Lukacs" Zalka]]
* Žikica Jovanović - Španac ([[Serb]], who later started uprising in [[Serbia]] in [[1941]])
==References==
===Books===
[[Image:Sierra de Terruel poster.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Poster for the film ''Sierra de Teruel'', by [[André Malraux]] ]]
* ''Spanish Civil War'', Hugh Thomas
*[[Nancy Mitford]]'s novel ''[[The Pursuit of Love]]'' ([[1945 in literature|1945]])
*''British Volunteers For Liberty'', Bill Alexander
*''Book of the 15th Brigade'', edited by Frank Ryan
*''Britons in Spain'', Bill Rust
*''Connolly Column'', [[Michael O'Riordan]], Dublin, New Books, 1979 (an account of the contribution of the Irish members of the Brigades)
*''Homage To Catalonia'', George Orwell, (an account of his time fighting with the POUM)
*''A Moment of War''. Laurie Lee
*''For Whom the Bell Tolls'', Ernest Hemingway
=== Internet pages ===
*[http://www.international-brigades.org.uk/ IBMT the international brigade memorial trust]
*[http://www.international-brigades.org.uk/british_volunteers/farewell.htm Farewell to the International Brigades ]
*[http://www.alba-valb.org/ Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives]
*[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/SPinternational.htm Spartacus Educational]
*[http://www.geocities.com/roav1945/inter.html The International Brigades (Veterans' Stories)]
=== Photographs ===
* [http://asso.acer.free.fr/photos/galeriephotos.htm asso.acer.free.fr]
* [http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/scw/photessay.htm english.uiuc.edu]
=== Films ===
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114671/ Land and Freedom], by [[Ken Loach]] although the subject of the film is not the International Brigades, it portrays international volunteers, and the actual International Brigades are indeed featured. Loach is, however, not sympathetic to the Brigades and this is apparent in their portrayal in the film.
* [http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0037680/ Sierra de Teruel ] by [[André Malraux]] (features the International bomber squadron in margin of the Brigades)
=== Audio streams ===
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/realmedia/gellhornm/gellhornm3.ram [[Martha Gellhorn]] talks about the [[Spanish Civil War]] ] ([[BBC Radio 4]] audio stream).
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20030403.shtml The Spanish Civil War - causes and legacy] part of the [[BBC Radio 4]] [[In Our Time]] series.
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[[pl:Brygady Międzynarodowe]]</text>
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<title>International Business Machines Corporation</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[IBM]]</text>
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<title>Interpreted Language</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Interpreted language]]
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<title>Invisible Balance</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Invisible balance]]
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<title>Iron Duke</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">*Two [[duke]]s, both [[military officer]]s, were nicknamed the "'''Iron Duke'''" during their lifetimes:
**[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]]
**[[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alva]]
*[[HMS Iron Duke|HMS ''Iron Duke'']] is also the name of three ships in the [[British Navy|Royal Navy]], one of which is still in active service (a [[frigate]]).
*[[Iron Duke (engine)|Iron Duke]] is also the nickname given to a 2.5 litre [[internal combustion engine]] used in many 1980s-era [[General Motors]] [[front-wheel drive]] automobiles.
*[[GWR Iron Duke Class|Iron Duke]] was also the name of a famous class of [[locomotive]] built by the [[Great Western Railway]] in [[England]].
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<title>Food irradiation</title>
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'''Food irradiation''' is the process of exposing food to [[ionizing radiation]] in order to disinfest, [[sterilization (microbiology)|sterilize]], or [[food preservation|preserve]] [[food]]. It is, like most technology involving ionizing radiation, the subject of some controversy regarding its safety. [[Irradiation]] is used on other things as well, such as medical hardware. Largely to avoid consumer fear of the term "radiation", it is often called '''cold pasteurization''' or '''electronic pasteurization''' to emphasize its similarity to the process of [[pasteurization]].
== Food irradiation ==
[[Image:Radura-Symbol.svg|thumb|220px|The radura logo, used to show a food has been treated with radiation]]
By irradiating food, depending on the dose, some or all of the [[microbe]]s and [[insect]]s present are [[kill]]ed. This prolongs the life of |
he lofty ethical-religious ideal of the attainment of man's perfection in union with God, which Greek philosophy from Plato down had worked out, and to which it had
subordinated all scientific worldly knowledge, is taken over by Clement, deepened in meaning, and connected not only with Christ, but with ecclesiastical tradition.
The way, however, to this union with God is for Clement only the Church's way. The communication of the gnosis is bound up with holy orders, which give the divine light and life. The simple faith of the baptized Christian contains all the essentials of the highest knowledge; by the Eucharist the believer is united with the Logos and the Spirit, and made partaker of incorruptibility. Though he lays down at starting a purely spiritual conception of the Church, later the exigencies of his controversy with the Gnostics make him lay more stress on the visible church. As to his use of Scripture, the extraordinary breadth of his reading and manifold variety of his quotations from the most diverse authors make it very difficult to determine exactly what was received as canonical by the Alexandrian Church of that period. Though he uses the Apocryphal Gospels, our four alone have supreme authority for him. For the other [[New Testament]] writings he seems not to have had as definite a line of demarcation; but whatever he recognized as of apostolic origin had for him an authority distinct from, and higher than, that of all other ecclesiastical tradition.
An excerpt from a letter attributed to Clement of Alexandria is the only evidence we have for the existence of a possible ''[[Secret Gospel of Mark]]''.
----
This article includes text from the Schaff-Herzog ''Encyclopedia of Religion''
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<title>Cogito ergo sum</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Descartesweb.jpg|right|thumb|René Descartes ([[1596]]&ndash;[[1650]])]]
"'''Cogito, ergo sum'''" ([[Latin language|Latin]]: "I am thinking, therefore I exist", or ''traditionally'' "I think, therefore I am") is a [[philosophy|philosophical]] statement by [[René Descartes]], which became a foundational element of [[Western culture|Western]] [[Continental rationalism|rationalism]].
"''Cogito ergo sum''" is a translation of Descartes' original [[French language|French]] statement: "''Je pense, donc je suis''", which occurs in his ''[[Discourse on Method]]'' (1637).
Although the idea expressed in "''cogito ergo sum''" is widely attributed to Descartes, many predecessors offer similar arguments &mdash;particularly [[Augustine of Hippo]] in ''[[The City of God|De Civitate Dei]]'' (books XI, 26), who also anticipates modern refutations of the concept. (See ''[[Principles of Philosophy]]'', §7: "''Ac proinde haec cognitio, ego cogito, ergo sum, est omnium prima et certissima etc.''").
==Introduction==
The phrase "''cogito ergo sum''" is not used in Descartes' most important work, the ''[[Meditations on First Philosophy]]'', but the term "the ''cogito''" is (often confusingly) used to refer to it. Descartes felt that this phrase, which he had used in his earlier ''[[Discourse]]'', had been misleading in its implication that he was appealing to an inference, so he changed it to "I am, I exist" (also often called "the first certainty") in order to avoid the term "''cogito''".
At the beginning of the second meditation, having reached what he considers to be the ultimate level of doubt &ndash; his argument from the existence of a deceiving god &ndash; Descartes examines his beliefs to see if any has survived the doubt. In his belief in his own existence he finds it: it is impossible to doubt that he exists. Even if there were a deceiving god (or an evil demon, the tool he uses to stop himself sliding back into ungrounded beliefs), his belief in his own existence would be secure, for how could he be deceived unless he existed in order to be deceived?
:"But I have convinced myself that there is absolutely nothing in the world, no sky, no earth, no minds, no bodies. Does it now follow that I too do not exist? No: if I convinced myself of something [or thought anything at all] then I certainly existed. But there is a deceiver of supreme power and cunning who is deliberately and constantly deceiving me. In that case I too undoubtedly exist, if he is deceiving me; and let him deceive me as much as he can, he will never bring it about that I am nothing so long as I think that I am something. So, after considering everything very thoroughly, I must finally conclude that the proposition, ''I am, I exist,'' is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind." (AT VII 25; CSM II 16&ndash;17)
There are two important notes to keep in mind here. First, he only claims the certainty of ''his own'' existence from the first-person point of view &mdash; he has not proved the existence of other minds at this point. This is something that has to be thought through by each of us for ourselves, as we follow the course of the meditations. Secondly, he is not saying that his existence is necessary; he is saying that ''if he's thinking'', then he necessarily exists (see the [[instantiation principle]]).
Descartes does not use this first certainty, the ''cogito'', as a foundation upon which to build further knowledge; rather, it is the firm ground upon which he can stand as he works to restore his beliefs. As he puts it:
:"Archimedes used to demand just one firm and immovable point in order to shift the entire earth; so I too can hope for great things if I manage to find just one thing, however slight, that is certain and unshakeable." (AT VII 24; CSM II 16)
Perhaps what Descartes meant, simply put is "I am vividly aware of my existence".
== Common errors ==
Some non-philosophers who first come across the ''cogito'' attempt to refute it in the following way. "I think, therefore I exist," they argue, can be reversed as "I do not think, therefore I do not exist." They argue that a rock does not think, but it still exists, which disproves Descartes' argument. However, this is the [[logical fallacy]] of [[denying the antecedent]]. The correct corollary by [[modus tollens]] is "I do not exist, therefore I do not think."
This fallacy and its prevalence is illustrated by the popular joke:
: Descartes is sitting in a bar, having a drink. The bartender asks him if he would like another. "I think not," he says, and vanishes in a puff of logic.
==Criticisms of the ''cogito''==
There have been a number of criticisms of the ''cogito''. The first of the two under scrutiny here concerns the nature of the step from "I am thinking" to "I exist". The contention is that this is a [[syllogism|syllogistic]] inference, for it appears to require the extra [[premise]]: "Whatever has the property of thinking, exists", and that extra premise must surely have been rejected at an earlier stage of the doubt.
It could be argued that "Whatever has the property of thinking, exists" is self-evident, and thus not subject to the method of doubt. This is because it is true that any premise of the form: "Whatever has the property ''F'', exists", but within the method of doubt, only the property of thinking is indubitably a property of the meditator. Descartes does not make use of this defence, however; as we have already seen, he responds to the criticism by conceding that there would indeed be an extra premise needed, but denying that the ''cogito'' is a syllogism.
Perhaps a more relevant contention is whether the 'I' to which Descartes refers is justified. In ''Descartes, The Project of Pure Enquiry'' [[Bernard Williams]] provides a history and full evaluation of this issue. The main objection, as presented by [[Georg Christoph Lichtenberg|Georg Lichtenberg]], is that rather than supposing an entity that is thinking, Descartes should have just said: "there is some thinking going on". That is, whatever the force of the ''cogito'', Descartes draws too much from it; the existence of a thinking thing, the reference of the "I", is more than the ''cogito'' can justify.
Williams provides a meticulous and exhaustive examination of this objection. He argues, first, that it is impossible to make sense of "there is thinking" without relativising it to ''something''. It seems at first as though this ''something'' needn't be a thinker, the "I", but Williams goes through each of the possibilities, demonstrating that none of them can do the job. He concludes that Descartes is justified in his formulation (though possibly without realising why that was so).
=== Williams's argument ===
Whilst the preceding two arguments against the ''cogito'' fail, other arguments have been advanced by Williams. He claims, for example, that what we are dealing with when we talk of thought, or when we say "I am thinking", is something conceivable from a [[Grammatical person|third-person]] perspective; namely objective "thought-events&qu |
<br>1,995,392 km&sup2;<br>5.7%
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''<br>&nbsp;- <small>[http://www.civil-war.net/pages/1860_census.html 1860 Census]</small><br><br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]||<small> (excl. MO & KY)</small><br>9,103,332 <small>(including 3,521,110 slaves)</small><br>
|-
|<br>&nbsp;'''[[Independence]]''' <br>&nbsp; - Declared <br>&nbsp; - Recognized <br>&nbsp; - Recognition <br>&nbsp; - Dissolution
||<br/>see [[American Civil War|Civil War]] <br>[[February 4]], [[1861]] <br/> by [[Duchy]] of [[Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]]<br> on [[July 30]], [[1861]]<br>[[June 23]], [[1865]]
|-
| '''[[Currency]]''' || [[Confederate States Dollar|CSA dollar]] <small>(only notes issued)</small>
|}
:''For other meanings of confederacy, see [[confederacy (disambiguation)]]. For the fictional documentary about alternative history, see [[C.S.A.: The Confederate States of America]]''
The '''Confederate States of America''' &mdash; also referred to as the '''Confederate States''', '''CSA''', '''the Confederacy''' and '''[[Dixie]]''' &mdash; existed between 1861 and 1865 in [[North America]], comprising states that [[secession|seceded]] [[#International Diplomacy and Legal Status|<small>[1]</small>]] from the [[United States of America]]. The territory of the C.S.A. consisted of most of the southeastern portion of today's united States. Due to contention from the U.S., there was never a definitive delineation of the Confederate States' northern boundary; its southern land boundary was with [[Mexico]]. It was otherwise bounded by the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]].
The formation of the Confederacy precipitated the [[American Civil War]] in 1861, with the vast majority of [[combat]] taking place in Confederate territory. The [[Army of Northern Virginia]], under General [[Robert E. Lee]], also made limited incursions onto [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] soil. The Confederate States were defeated in 1865, after which they were reunited with the U.S.
==History==
{{main|American Civil War}}
The Confederate States of America was formed on [[February 4]], [[1861]], by seven [[Southern United States|Southern states]] ([[South Carolina]], [[Mississippi]], [[Florida]], [[Alabama]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Texas]], and [[Louisiana]]) after confirmation of the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]] as [[President of the United States]]. [[Jefferson Davis]] was selected as its first [[President of the Confederate States|President]] the next day.
[[Texas]] joined the Confederate States of America on [[March 2]] and then replaced its governor, [[Sam Houston]], when he refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederate States of America. These seven states [[secession|seceded]][[#International diplomacy and legal status|<small><sup>1</sup></small>]] from the [[United States]] and took control of military/naval installations, ports, and custom houses within their boundaries, triggering the [[American Civil War]].
A month after the Confederate States of America was formed, on [[March 4]], [[1861]], Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as [[President of the United States]]. In his [[Inauguration|inaugural]] address, he argued that the Constitution was a ''more perfect union'' than the earlier [[Articles of Confederation|Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union]], that it was a binding contract, and called the secession "legally void". The legal issue of whether or not the Constitution was a binding contract has rarely been addressed by Academics, and to this day is a hottly debated concept. He stated he had no intent to invade Southern states, but would use force to maintain possession of Federal property and collection of various Federal taxes, duties and imposts. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union.
On [[April 12]], South Carolina troops fired upon the Federal troops stationed at [[Fort Sumter]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina]] until the troops surrendered. Following the [[Battle of Fort Sumter]], Lincoln called for all remaining states in the Union to send troops to recapture Sumter and other forts, defend the Capital (Washington, D.C.), and preserve the Union. Most Northerners believed that a quick victory for the Union would crush the rebellion, and so Lincoln only called for volunteers for 90 days of duty. Lincoln's call for troops resulted in four more states voting to secede. [[Virginia]], [[Arkansas]], [[Tennessee]], and [[North Carolina]] joined the Confederacy for a total of 11. Once Virginia seceded, the Confederate capital was moved from [[Montgomery, Alabama]] to [[Richmond, Virginia]].
[[Kentucky]] was a border state during the American Civil War and, for a time, had two state governments, one supporting the Confederacy and one supporting the Union. Fittingly, the Presidents of both the United States ([[Abraham Lincoln]]) and the Confederate States of America ([[Jefferson Davis]]) during the Civil War were born in Kentucky. The original government of [[Kentucky]] remained in the Union after a short-lived attempt at neutrality, but a rival faction from that state was accepted as a member of the Confederate States of America. A more complex situation surrounds the [[Missouri Secession]], but, in any event, Missouri was also considered a member of the Confederate States of America. With Kentucky and Missouri, the number of Confederate states is thus sometimes considered to be 13.
The five tribal governments of the [[Indian Territory]]&mdash;which became [[Oklahoma]] in 1907&mdash;also mainly supported the Confederacy.
[[Image:Confederate penny.jpg|thumb|right|Confederate coin.]]
The southern part of New Mexico Territory (including parts of the [[Gadsden Purchase]]) joined with the Confederacy as [[Arizona Territory (CSA)|Arizona Territory]]. Settlers there petitioned the Confederate government for annexation of their lands, prompting an expedition in which territory south of the 34th parallel was governed by the Confederacy.
Preceding his [[New Mexico Campaign]], General [[Henry Hopkins Sibley|Sibley]] issued a proclamation to the people of [[New Mexico]] his intentions of taking possession of the territory in the name of the Confederate States of America. Confederate States troops briefly occupied the territorial capital of [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] between [[March 13]] and [[April 8]], [[1862]].
Arizona troops were also officially recognized within the armies of the Confederacy
Not all jurisdictions where slavery was still legal joined the Confederate States of America. In 1861, [[martial law]] was declared in [[Maryland]] (the state which borders the U.S. capital, Washington, D.C., on three sides) to block attempts at secession. [[Delaware]], also a slave state, never considered secession, nor did the capital of the U.S., [[Washington, D.C.]]. In 1861, during the war, a unionist [[rump legislature]] in [[Wheeling, West Virginia|Wheeling, Virginia]] seceded from Virginia, claiming 48 counties, and joined the [[United States]] in 1863 as the state of [[West Virginia]], with a constitution that would have gradually abolished slavery.[http://www.ls.net/~newriver/va/vasecesh.htm]. Similar attempts to secede from the Confederate States of America in parts of other states (notably in eastern Tennessee) were held in check by Confederate declarations of martial law[http://www.aotc.net/Marxen.htm][http://web.utk.edu/~jharvey2/kville%20before%20siege.htm].
One of the greatest misunderstandings about the Confederacy was that the issue was never over slavery. President Lincoln was quoted on many occasions stating that if he could keep the southern states, and slavery, and avoid a war, he would.
The surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia by General [[Robert E. Lee|Lee]] at [[Appomattox Court House]] on [[April 9]], [[1865]] is generally taken as the end of the Confederate States. President Davis was captured at [[Irwinville]], Georgia on [[May 10]] and the remaining Confederate armies surrendered by June 1865. The last Confederate flag was hauled down, on [[CSS Shenandoah|CSS ''Shenandoah'']] on [[November 6]], [[1865]].
==Government and politics==
===Constitution===
[[Image:Davis4-2.png|thumb|150px|right|'''[[Jefferson Davis]]'''<br>President (1861-1865)]]
The [[Confederate States Constitution]] provides much insight into the motivations for secession from the Union. Based to a certain extent on both the [[Articles of Confederation]] and on the [[United States Constitution]], it reflected a stronger philosophy of [[States' rights|states' rights]], curtailing the power of the central authority, and also contained explicit protection of the institution of [[slavery]], though international slave trading was prohibited. It differed from the US Constitution chiefly by addressing the grievances of the secessionist states against the federal government of the United States. For example, the Confederate government was prohibited from instituting [[protective tariff]]s, making southern ports more attractive to international traders. Most southerners regarded protective tariffs as a measure that enriched the northern states at the expense of the south. The Confederate government was also prohibited from using revenues collected in one state for funding [[internal improvement]]s in another state. One of the most notable differences in the Confederate Constitution is its reference to God. While the original United States Constitution acknowledged the people of the United States as the government's source of power, the Confederacy invoked the name of "Almighty God" as their source of legitimacy. At the same time, however, much of the Confederate constitution was a word-for-word duplicate |
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</page>
<page>
<title>ICANN</title>
<id>15236</id>
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<id>41147886</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T09:45:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alvestrand</username>
<id>50958</id>
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<comment>Refactoring text</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Icann.jpg|right]]
'''ICANN''' (pronounced ''"I can"'') is the '''Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers'''.
Headquartered in [[Marina Del Rey, California]], ICANN is a [[California]] [[non-profit]] [[corporation]] that was created on [[September 18]], [[1998]] in order to oversee a number of [[Internet]]-related tasks previously performed directly on behalf of the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. Government]] by other organizations, notably [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]].
The tasks of ICANN include managing the assignment of [[domain name]]s and [[IP address]]es. To date, much of its work has concerned the introduction of new generic [[top-level domain]]s. The technical work of ICANN is referred to as the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]] function; the rest of ICANN is mostly about defining policy.
[[Paul Twomey]] is the President/CEO of ICANN, since [[March 27]] [[2003]]. [[Vint Cerf]] is currently Chairman of the ICANN Board of Trustees.
==ICANN procedures==
ICANN holds its periodic public meetings for the expressed purpose of staying in touch with its membership. Critics note that the locations of these meetings are often in countries with disproportionally small Internet access and far away from locations that the majority of the Internet-using public can afford to reach, thus making public input or participation less likely. Supporters reply that ICANN has a worldwide remit and a key part of its mission is to build Internet use where it is weak.
At present, ICANN is formally organized as a public benefit, non-profit corporation in California. ICANN was set up in California due to the presence of [[Jon Postel]], who was a founder of ICANN and was set to be its first CTO prior to his untimely death. ICANN remains in the same building where [[Jon Postel]] worked in the Marina del Rey, California location of the [[Information Sciences Institute]] at the [[University of Southern California]].
Resolutions of the ICANN Board, preliminary reports and minutes of the meetings are published for the public to view on the ICANN website.
==Notable events in ICANN history==
The original mandate for ICANN came from the United States Government, spanning two presidential administrations [[Bill Clinton]] and [[George W. Bush]]. On January 30, 1998, the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), an agency of the [[US Department of Commerce]], issued for comment, A Proposal to Improve the Technical Management of Internet Names and Addresses. The proposed rulemaking, or "Green Paper," was published in the Federal Register on February 20, 1998, providing opportunity for public comment. NTIA received more than 650 comments, as of March 23, 1998, when the comment period closed.
The Green Paper proposed certain actions designed to privatize the management of Internet names and addresses in a manner that allows for the development of robust competition and facilitates global participation in Internet management. The Green Paper proposed for discussion a variety of issues relating to DNS management including private sector creation of a new not-for-profit corporation (the "new corporation") managed by a globally and functionally representative Board of Directors. ICANN was formed in response to this policy. The IANA function currently exists under a remit from the [[U.S. Department of Commerce]].
On [[March 14]], [[2002]], in a public meeting in [[Accra]], in [[Ghana]], ICANN decided to reduce direct public ("at large") participation.
One of a few publicly elected board members, [[Karl Auerbach]], sued ICANN in Superior Court in [[California]] in order to see accounting records. The records were ultimately released to the public in [[August]] [[2002]].
In September and October 2003 ICANN played a crucial role in the conflict over [[VeriSign]] and its "wildcard" DNS service [[Site Finder]]. After an open letter from ICANN issuing an ultimatum to VeriSign, the company voluntarily shut down the service on [[October 4]] 2003. Following this step VeriSign filed a lawsuit against ICANN on [[February 27]] [[2004]], claiming that ICANN had overstepped its authority, seeking through the suit to reduce ambiguity over ICANN's authority. The anti-trust component of Verisign's claim was dismissed in August 2004. VeriSign's broader challenge that ICANN overstepped its contractual rights is currently outstanding, although a proposed settlement would drop VeriSign's challenge to ICANN in exchange for the right to increase pricing on .COM domains.
At the meeting of ICANN in [[Rome]] taking place from [[March 2]] to [[March 6]] [[2004]], ICANN agreed to ask approval of the [[United_States_Department_of_Commerce | US Department of Commerce ]] for the [[Waiting List Service]] of VeriSign.
On [[17 May]] [[2004]], ICANN published a proposed budget for the year 2004-05. It included proposals to increase the openness and professionalism of its operations, and greatly increased its proposed spending, from US $8.27m to $15.83m. The increase was to be funded by the introduction of new [[top-level domain]]s, charges to all [[Domain name registry|Domain Registries]], and a fee for all domain name registrations, renewals and transfers (initially 20¢ US for all domains within a country-code top-level domain, and 25¢ for all others). The [[Council of European National Top Level Domain Registries]] (CENTR), which represents the [[Internet registry|Internet registries]] of 39 countries, has rejected the increase, accusing ICANN of a lack of financial prudence and criticising what it describes as ICANN's "unrealistic political and operational targets". Despite the criticism, the registry agreement for the top-level domains .JOBS and .TRAVEL includes a US $2 fee on every domain the licensed companies sell or renew.
Along with the successful negotiations of the .TRAVEL and .JOBS namespace, .XXX, .MOBI, and .CAT are some of the new applicants in front of ICANN. The recent introduction of the .EU [[Top Level Domain]] to the root, and the currently proposed .ASIA multiregional suffix are developments to watch.
In May of 2005, ICANN participated in the [http://domainroundtable.com Domain Roundtable Conference] in Seattle. They are, however, under fire from the [[United Nations]]' [[Working Group on Internet Governance]].
The [[World Summit on the Information Society]] in [[Tunisia]] in [[November 2005]] agreed not to get involved in the day-to-day and technical operations of ICANN. However it also agreed to set up an international [[Internet Governance Forum]], with a consultative role on the future governance of the internet. ICANN's Government Adivsory Committee or GAC, is currently set up to provide advice to ICANN regarding public policy issues and has participation by many of the world's governments.
==Arguments about ICANN==
Some of ICANN's critics would like to see it internationalize itself, meaning that it would be reconstituted as some kind of public sector entity under international law and would cancel its contractual links to the U.S. Government and the [[U.S. Department of Commerce]], which are historical in origin. Of the 15 voting members of the ICANN Board of Directors, it currently has board members from six continents, and has only two US Directors, 1) ICANN Chairman, [Vint Cerf], a noted "Father of the Internet" who was appointed by ICANN's Nominating Committee and 2) Michael Palage, a Florida intellectual property attorney who was appointed by ICANN's Generic Name Supporting Organization or GNSO.
Proponents want the United States to maintain the authority it holds via the contract between ICANN and Commerce. This authority stems from the historical role of the United States in creating the Internet. Support from [[ccTLD|National Top Level Domain]] [[Internet registry|Internet registries]] is a missing critical milestone within the commitments that ICANN has made to the [[US Department of Commerce]].
==See also==
* [[Alternatives to ICANN]]
* [[Domain name]]
* [[Domain name registrar]]
* [[Internet democracy]]
* [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]]
* Franda, Marcus, ''The Emergence of an International Regime'', ISBN 1555879993
* Wass, Erica, ''Addressing the World'', ISBN 0-7425-2809-X
* Paré, Daniel J. ''Internet Governance in Transition'', ISBN 0-7425-1846-9
* Meuller, Milton L. ''Ruling the Root'', ISBN 0-262-13412-8
* Froomkin, A. Michael [http://www.law.miami.edu/~froomkin/articles/icann.pdf Wrong Turn in Cyberspace: Using ICANN to Route Around the APA and the Constitution], 50 Duke Law Journal17 (2000)
* Tim Schumacher, Thomas Ernstschneider & Andrea Wiehager ''Domain-Namen im Internet'' (text in German), ISBN 3-540-42910-7
==External links==
* [http://www.icann.org ICANN web-site]
** [http://www.icann.org/general/litigation.htm ICANN Litigation]
* [http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/domainname/icann.htm Memorandum of Understanding Between the Department of Commerce and the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]
* [http://www.icannwiki.org ICANN Wiki]
* [http://www.icannwatch.org ICANNWatch]
* [http://www.lextext.com/icann/ Independent ICANN news blog / Lextext]
* [http://www.icannatlarge.com/ Site advocating the return of public representation in ICANN]
* [http://www.domainroundtable.com/ Domain Roundtable Conference] - Annual Domain Industry Conference
* [http:/ |
ituitary gland]] to release ACTH; another hypothalamic hormone, [[arginine vasopressin]] augments ACTH secretion, with the two together stimulating larger release than ACTH in isolation. ACTH acts on the adrenal cortex to stimulate the release of glucocorticoids. This three-organ endocrine system is commonly called the [[HPA axis|hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis]].
The primary glucocorticoid released by the adrenal gland is [[cortisol]]. Upon binding to its target, cortisol enhances [[metabolism]] in several ways:
* stimulating the release of [[amino acid]]s from the body
* stimulating [[lipolysis]], the breakdown of [[fat]]
* stimulating [[gluconeogenesis]], the production of [[glucose]] from newly-released amino acids and [[lipid]]s
* conserving glucose by inhibiting uptake into muscle and [[adipose tissue|fat cells]]
In addition to glucocorticoid production, the fasciculata is a secondary source of androgens such as [[testosterone]], [[dihydrotestosterone]] (DHT), [[androstenedione]], and [[dehydroepiandrosterone]] (DHEA). These enhance [[muscle]] mass, stimulate [[cell growth]], and aid in the development of the [[secondary sex characteristic]]s.
===Zona reticularis===
The innermost layer of the adrenal cortex, the zona reticularis sits beneath the zona fasciculata and atop the adrenal medulla. Its cells are arranged in a network of cords (a reticulum) and have the same functions as cells of the zona fasciculata. It is thought that the zona reticularis is the principal source of glucocorticoids and adrenal androgens, with the zona fasciculata activating only after prolonged stimulation.
== Pathology ==
Adrenal cortex:
* [[Hypoadrenalism]] (e.g. due to [[Addison's disease]])
* [[Cushing's syndrome]]
* [[Congenital adrenal hyperplasia]]
* [[Conn's syndrome]]
Adrenal medulla:
* [[Pheochromocytoma]] is a [[catecholamine]]-secreting tumor of the adrenal medulla.
== Blood supply ==
Although variations of the blood supply to the adrenal glands (and indeed the kidneys themselves) are common, there are usually three arteries that supply each adrenal gland: the superior, middle and inferior suprarenal (or adrenal) arteries.
Each (left and right) superior suprarenal artery is a branch of the [[phrenic artery]] on that side of the body. The left and right phrenic arteries supply the [[diaphragm (anatomy)|diaphragm]], and come off the [[aorta]].
The middle suprarenal artery is a branch directly off the aorta, while the inferior suprarenal artery branches from the aorta or the [[renal artery]].
== See also ==
*[[Fight-or-flight response]]
*[[Stress (medicine)|Stress]]
== References ==
* [http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/adrenal/index.html Adrenal Gland], from Colorado State University
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002219.htm MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Adrenal Glands]
{{Adrenal gland}}
{{Endocrine system}}
[[Category:Glands]]
[[Category:Abdomen]]
[[Category:Endocrine system]]
[[da:Binyre]]
[[de:Nebenniere]]
[[es:Glándula suprarrenal]]
[[fr:Glande surrénale]]
[[he:בלוטת יותרת הכליה]]
[[it:Surrene]]
[[lt:Antinkstis]]
[[nl:Bijnier]]
[[ja:副腎]]
[[no:Binyre]]
[[pl:Nadnercze]]
[[pt:Glândula supra-renal]]
[[sv:Binjure]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Antidorcas marsupialis</title>
<id>2297</id>
<revision>
<id>25128692</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-09T11:32:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tekana</username>
<id>348880</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Dab</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Springbok Antelope]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Anthropoides paradisia</title>
<id>2298</id>
<revision>
<id>15900728</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-29T15:24:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tannin</username>
<id>6169</id>
</contributor>
<comment>repoint redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Blue Crane]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Media</title>
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<timestamp>2005-11-02T19:09:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stefanomione</username>
<id>186638</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''American Media, Inc.''', is publisher of all the major [[United States]]-based [[supermarket tabloid]]s&mdash;''[[The National Enquirer]]'', ''[[Star Magazine|Star]]'', ''[[Globe Magazine|Globe]]'', ''[[National Examiner]]'', ''[[Sun (supermarket tabloid)| Sun]]'', and ''[[Weekly World News]]''&mdash;as well as ''[[Country Weekly]]'', ''[[Mira newspaper|¡Mira!]]'', ''[[Auto World Weekly]]'', ''[[Shape (magazine)|Shape]]'', ''[[Men's Fitness]]'', ''[[Muscle & Fitness]]'', ''[[Flex (magazine)|Flex]]'', ''[[Fit Pregnancy]]'', and ''[[Natural Health (magazine)|Natural Health]]''. American Media also owns [[Distribution Services, Inc.]], an in-store magazine merchandising company.
American Media's corporate headquarters in [[Boca Raton, Florida|Boca Raton]], [[Florida]] figured prominently in news headlines in late [[2001]], after an [[2001 anthrax attacks|anthrax attack]] was perpetrated on the company.
[[Category:Newspaper companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Supermarket tabloids]]
[[Category:2001 anthrax attacks]]
{{publish-stub}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Anthropomorphism</title>
<id>2300</id>
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<id>42143445</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:41:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brian0918</username>
<id>90640</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.244.19.150|69.244.19.150]] ([[User talk:69.244.19.150|talk]]) to last version by Angr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Watcher in the woods.Dark Natasha.jpg|right|thumb|An example of anthropomorphic artwork (by [http://www.darknatasha.com Dark Natasha])]]
'''Anthropomorphism''', a form of [[personification]] (applying human or animal qualities to inanimate objects) and similar to [[prosopopoeia]] (adopting the persona of another person), is the attribution of [[human]] characteristics and qualities to non-human beings, objects, or natural phenomena. [[Animal]]s, forces of [[nature]], and unseen or unknown authors of chance are frequent subjects of anthropomorphosis.
The term comes from two [[Greek language|Greek]] words, άνθρωπος (''anthrōpos''), meaning "human", and μορφή (''morphē''), meaning "shape" or "form". The suffix '-ism' originates from the [[morpheme]] '-isma' in the [[Greek language]].
<!--This seems to be a response to something no longer in the article.
It is suggested that the ''New English Dictionary'' is misled by the 1866 reprint of Paul Bayne on Ephesians when it quotes "anthropomorphist" as 17th century English. Seventeenth century editions print "anthropomorphits," ''i.e''. anthropomorphites, in sense (1). The older abstract term is "anthropopathy," literally "attributing human feelings," in sense (2).-->
==In religions and mythologies==
In [[religion]] and [[mythology]], "anthropomorphism" refers to the attribution of a human body or of human qualities generally, to a divine being or beings. Many mythologies are almost entirely concerned with anthropomorphic [[deity|deities]] who express human characteristics such as [[jealousy]], [[hatred]], or [[love]]. The [[family tree of the Greek gods|Greek gods]] such as [[Zeus]] and [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] were often depicted in human form exhibiting both commendable and despicable human traits.
===Biblical literalism===
Numerous different sects throughout history have been called ''anthropomorphites'', including a [[sect]] in [[Egypt]] in the [[4th century]], and a group in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in the [[10th century]]. Such sects were considered [[heretic]]al for their [[biblical literalism]], taking everything written and spoken of God in the [[Bible]] in a literal sense. This included attributing to God a human form, human parts, and human passions. The passage they chiefly referred to was [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 1:27, listed below in the original [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and in the [[New American Standard Bible]] translation into [[English language|English]]. {{ref label|1728|2|1}}
:<span lang="he" title="Hebrew text" dir="rtl" style="font-family: Times New Roman, David, none;" class="spanHe">וַיִּבְרָא אֱלֹהִים אֶת-הָאָדָם בְּצַלְמוֹ, בְּצֶלֶם אֱלֹהִים בָּרָא אֹתוֹ: זָכָר וּנְקֵבָה, בָּרָא אֹתָם.</span>
:"God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them."
===Hinduism===
The ten [[avatar]]s of the [[Hindu]] supreme God [[Vishnu]] possess both human and divine forms and qualities, although their divinity varies in degree. In [[Vaishnavism]], a monotheistic faith, Vishnu is [[omniscience|omniscient]] and [[benevolence|benevolent]], unlike gods of the [[Ancient Greek Religion|Greek]] and [[Roman religion|Roman]] religions. See [[God#Conceptions of God in Hinduism|Conceptions of God in Hinduism]].
===Condemnation===
Numerous religions and philosophies have condemned anthropomorphism for various reasons. Some [[Greek philosophy|Ancient Greek philosophers]] did not condone, and were explicitly hostile to, their people's mythology. These philosophers often developed monotheistic views. [[Plato]]'s (427&ndash;347 [[Common Era|BCE]]) [[Demiurge]] (craftsman) in the ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' and [[Aristotle|Aristotle's]] (384&ndash;322 BCE) [[Cosmological argument|prime mover]] in his ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' are examples. The Greek philosopher [[Xenophanes]] (570&ndash;480 BCE) s |
rst developed as a novel [[curiosity]], the ranks of aquarists have swelled as more sophisticated systems including lighting and filtration systems were developed to keep aquarium fish healthy. Public aquaria reproduce the home aquarist's hobby on a grand scale — the [[Osaka Aquarium Kaiyukan|Osaka Aquarium]], for example, boasts a tank of 5,400 m&sup3; (1.4 million U.S. gallons) and a collection of about 580 species of aquatic life.
A wide variety of aquaria are now kept by hobbyists, ranging from a simple bowl housing a single fish to complex simulated ecosystems with carefully engineered support systems. Aquaria are usually classified as containing fresh or salt water, at tropical or cold water [[temperature]]s. These characteristics, and others, determine the type of fish and other inhabitants that can survive and thrive in the aquarium. Inhabitants for aquaria are often collected from the wild, although there is a growing list of [[organism]]s that are bred in captivity for supply to the aquarium trade.
The careful aquarist dedicates considerable effort to maintaining a tank [[ecology]] that mimics its inhabitants' natural habitat. Controlling [[water quality]] includes managing the inflow and outflow of nutrients, most notably the management of [[waste]] produced by tank inhabitants. The [[nitrogen cycle]] describes the flow of nitrogen from input via food, through toxic nitrogenous waste produced by tank inhabitants, to metabolism to less toxic compounds by beneficial [[bacterium|bacteria]] populations. Other components in maintaining a suitable aquarium environment include appropriate species selection, management of biological loading, and good physical design.
[[image:bristol.zoo.aquarium.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|South East Asian fish in the aquarium at Bristol Zoo, Bristol, England. The tank is about 2 metres (6 feet) high.]]
==History and development==
===Etymology===
The word aquarium itself is taken directly from the latin ''aqua'', meaning water, with the suffix ''-rium'', meaning "place" or "building".
===Ancient practices===
[[Image:Goldfish2.cropped.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Koi have been kept in decorative ponds for centuries in [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[Japan]].]]
The keeping of fish in confined or artificial environments is a practice with deep roots in history. Ancient [[Sumer]]ians were known to keep wild-caught fish in [[pond]]s, before preparing them for meals. In [[China]], [[selective breeding]] of [[carp]] into today's popular [[koi]] and [[goldfish]] is believed to have begun over 2,000 years ago. Depictions of the sacred fish of [[Oxyrhynchus]] kept in captivity in rectangular temple pools have been found in [[ancient Egypt]]ian art. Many other cultures also have a history of keeping fish for both functional and decorative purposes. The Chinese brought goldfish indoors during the [[Song dynasty]] to enjoy them in large ceramic vessels.
===Glass enclosures===
The concept of an aquarium, designed for the observation of fish in an enclosed, transparent tank to be kept indoors, emerged more recently. However, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact date of this development. In 1665 the diarist [[Samuel Pepys]] recorded seeing in [[London]] "a fine rarity, of fishes kept in a glass of water, that will live so forever, and finely marked they are, being foreign." The fish observed by Pepys were likely to have been the [[paradise fish]], ''Macropodus opercularis'', a familiar garden fish in [[Canton, China]], where the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] was then trading. In the 18th century, the [[biology|biologist]] [[Abraham Trembley]] kept [[hydra (genus)|hydra]] found in the garden canals of the Bentinck residence 'Sorgvliet' in the [[Netherlands]], in large cylindrical glass vessels for study. The concept of keeping aquatic life in glass containers, then, dates to at latest this period.
===Popularization===
The keeping of fish in an aquarium first became a popular [[hobby]] in Britain only after ornate aquaria in cast-iron frames were featured at the [[Great Exhibition]] of 1851. The framed-glass aquarium was a specialized version of the glazed [[Wardian case]] developed for British horticulturists in the 1830s to protect exotic plants on long sea voyages. (One feature of some [[19th-century]] aquaria that would prove curious to hobbyists today was the use of a metal base panel so that the aquarium water could be heated by flame.) [[Germany|German]]s rivaled the [[United Kingdom|British]] in their interest, and by the turn of the century [[Hamburg]] became the [[Europe]]an port of entry for many newly seen species. Aquaria became more widely popular as houses became almost universally electrified after [[World War I]]. With [[electricity]] great improvements were made in aquarium technology, allowing artificial lighting as well as the aeration, filtration, and heating of the water. Popularization was also assisted by the availability of air freight, which allowed a much wider variety of fish to be successfully imported from distant regions of origin that consequently attracted new hobbyists.
There are currently estimated to be about 60 million aquarium hobbyists worldwide, and many more aquaria kept by them. The hobby has the strongest following in Europe, [[Asia]], and [[North America]]. In the [[United States]], a large minority (40%) of aquarists maintain two or more tanks at any one time.
==Function and design==
From the outdoor ponds and glass jars of antiquity, modern aquaria have evolved into a wide range of specialized systems. Aquaria can vary in size from a small bowl large enough for a single small fish, to the huge public aquaria that can simulate entire marine [[ecosystem]]s. The most successful aquaria, as judged by the long-term survivability of its inhabitants, carefully emulate the natural environments that their residents would occupy in the wild.
Freshwater aquaria remain the most popular due to their lower cost and easier maintenance, but [[saltwater aquarium|marine (saltwater) aquaria]] have gained cachet as dedicated enthusiasts prove it is possible to preserve these challenging environments.
===Design===
[[Image:Aquarium.png|thumb|256px|Filtration system in a typical aquarium: (1) Intake. (2) Mechanical filtration. (3) Chemical filtration. (4) Biological filtration medium. (5) Outflow to tank.]]
The common freshwater aquarium maintained by a home aquarist typically includes a filtration system, an artificial lighting system, air pumps, and a heater. In addition, some freshwater tanks (and most saltwater tanks) use powerheads to increase water circulation.
Combined biological and mechanical filtration systems are now common; these are designed to remove potentially dangerous build up of nitrogenous wastes and [[phosphate]]s dissolved in the water, as well as particulate matter. Filtration systems are the most complexly engineered component of most home aquaria, and various designs are used. Most systems use pumps to remove a small portion of the tank's water to an external pathway where filtration occurs; the filtered water is then returned to the aquarium. [[Protein skimmer]]s, filtration devices that remove [[protein]]s and other waste from the water, are usually found only in salt water aquaria.
Air pumps are employed to adequately oxygenate (or in the case of a heavily planted aquarium, provide carbon dioxide to) the water. These devices, once universal, are now somewhat less commonly used as some newer filtration systems create enough surface agitation to supply adequate gas exchange at the surface. Aquarium heaters are designed to act as [[thermostat]]s to regulate water temperature at a level designated by the aquarist when the prevailing temperature of air surrounding the aquarium is below the desired water temperature. Coolers are also available for use in cold water aquaria or in parts of the world where the ambient room temperature is above the desired tank temperature.
An aquarium's physical characteristics form another aspect of aquarium design. Size, lighting conditions, density of floating and rooted plants, placement of bogwood, creation of caves or overhangs, type of [[substrate]], and other factors (including an aquarium's positioning within a room) can all affect the behavior and survivability of tank inhabitants.
The combined function of these elements is to maintain appropriate water quality and characteristics suitable for the aquarium's residents.
===Classifications===
Aquaria can be classified by several variables that determine the type of aquatic life that can be suitably housed. The conditions and characteristics of the water contained in an aquarium are the most important classification criteria, as most aquatic life will not survive even limited exposure to unsuitable water conditions. The size of an aquarium also limits the aquarist in what types of ecosystems he can reproduce, species selection, and biological loading.
====Water conditions====
[[Image:Aquarium-Monaco1.jpeg|thumb|A saltwater aquarium]]
The dissolved content of water is perhaps the most important aspect of water conditions, as dissolved [[salts]] and other constituents can dramatically impact basic water chemistry, and therefore how organisms are able to interact with their environment. Salt content, or [[salinity]], is the most basic classification of water conditions. An aquarium may have [[fresh water]] (a salt level of < 0.5%), simulating a lake or river environment; [[sea water|salt water]] (a salt level of 5%–18%), simulating an ocean or sea environment; or [[brackish water]] (a salt level of 0.5%–5%), simulating environments lying between fresh and salt, such as [[estuary|estuaries]].
Several other water characteristics result from dissolved contents of the water, and are important to the proper simulation of natural environments. The [[pH]] of the water is a measure of [[alka |
s of events in ''The Botanic Garden, A Poem in Two Parts: Part 1, The Economy of Vegetation, 1791:''
[[Image:Erasdarwin1.jpg|thumb|right|171px|Erasmus Darwin]]
<blockquote>''Roll on, ye Stars! exult in youthful prime,''<br />
''Mark with bright curves the printless steps of Time;''<br />
''Near and more near your beamy cars approach,''<br />
''And lessening orbs on lessening orbs encroach; —''<br />
''Flowers of the sky! ye too to age must yield,''<br />
''Frail as your silken sisters of the field!''<br />
''Star after star from Heaven's high arch shall rush,''<br />
''Suns sink on suns, and systems systems crush,''<br />
''Headlong, extinct, to one dark center fall,''<br />
''And Death and Night and Chaos mingle all!''<br />
''— Till o'er the wreck, emerging from the storm,''<br />
''Immortal Nature lifts her changeful form,''<br />
''Mounts from her funeral pyre on wings of flame,''<br />
''And soars and shines, another and the same.''</blockquote>
===Inventions===
Darwin was the inventor of several devices, though he did not patent any. He believed this would damage his reputation as a doctor, and encouraged his friends to patent their own modifications of his designs.
* A horizontal [[windmill]], which he designed for [[Josiah Wedgwood]] (who would be Charles Darwin's other grandfather, see family tree below).
* A [[carriage]] that would not tip over ([[1766]]).
* A speaking machine (at [[Clifton]] in [[1799]]).
* A [[canal lock|canal lift]] for barges.
* A minute artificial bird.
* A [[copying]] machine ([[1778]]).
* A variety of [[weather]] monitoring machines.
* An [[artesian well]] ([[1783]].
==Quotations==
<blockquote>Organic life beneath the shoreless waves<br />
Was born and nurs'd in ocean's pearly caves;<br />
First forms minute, unseen by spheric glass,<br />
Move on the mud, or pierce the watery mass;<br />
These, as successive generations bloom,<br />
New powers acquire and larger limbs assume;<br />
Whence countless groups of vegetation spring,<br />
And breathing realms of fin and feet and wing.<br />
— ''[[The Temple of Nature]]'' [[1802]]</blockquote>
<blockquote>For if we may compare infinities, it would seem to require a greater infinity of power to cause the causes of effects, than to cause the effects themselves. This idea is analogous to the improving excellence observable in every part of the creation; such as in the progressive increase of the solid or habitable parts of the earth from water; and in the progressive increase of the wisdom and happiness of its inhabitants; and is consonant to the idea of our present situation being a state of probation, which by our exertion we may improve, and are consequently responsible for our actions. <br />— ''[[Zoönomia]], vol. 1'' [[1794]]</blockquote>
==Family Tree==
[[Image:Darwin-Wedgwood-Galton family tree.png|590px]]
==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Erasmus+Darwin | name=Erasmus Darwin}}
* [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/erasmus.html "Preface and 'a preliminary notice'" by Charles Darwin] in Ernst Krause, ''Erasmus Darwin'' (1879)
* [http://ahistory.eotalk.com "Zoonomia, Vol. I Or, the Laws of Organic Life"]
* [http://www.erasmusdarwin.org Erasmus Darwin House, Lichfield]
[[Category:1731 births|Darwin, Erasmus]]
[[Category:1802 deaths|Darwin, Erasmus]]
[[Category:Botanists|Darwin, Erasmus]]<!--can't find an author abbrev, so leave in this category too-->
[[Category:Darwin — Wedgwood family|Darwin, Erasmus]]
[[Category:English botanists|Darwin, Erasmus]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Darwin, Erasmus]]
[[Category:Lichfield]]
[[Category:Lunar Society|Darwin, Erasmus]]
[[Category:Natives of Birmingham|Darwin, Eramus]]
[[Category:Proto-evolutionary biologists|Darwin, Erasmus]]
[[Category:People of the Industrial Revolution|Darwin, Erasmus]]
[[de:Erasmus Darwin]]
[[fi:Erasmus Darwin]]
[[fr:Erasmus Darwin]]
[[ja:エラズマス・ダーウィン]]
[[no:Erasmus Darwin]]
[[pl:Erasmus Darwin]]
[[pt:Erasmus Darwin]]
[[ru:Дарвин, Эразм]]
[[sv:Erasmus Darwin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ediacaran</title>
<id>9300</id>
<revision>
<id>42036601</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:29:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{:Ediacaran/Infobox}}
The '''Ediacaran''' Period is the last [[geological period]] of the [[Neoproterozoic]] Era, just before the [[Cambrian]]. It ranges from approximately 635 to 542 million years before the present. Historically this name has been variously used by researchers, but its status as an official geological period was ratified in March [[2004]] by the [[International Union of Geological Sciences]] (IUGS) and announced on [[May 13]] [[2004]], the first new such period declared in 120 years.
==Ediacaran dating==
The period is unusual because its beginning is not defined by a change in the [[fossil record]]. Unusual soft bodied [[fossil]]s do occur in the Ediacaran Period, but these are limited to the latter parts of the Period, after about 580 million years ago. Rather, the beginning is defined by the appearance of a new texturally and chemically distinctive carbonate layer that indicates a climatic change (the end of a global ice age). There is an unusual depletion of <sup>13</sup>C that marks the end of the global [[ice age]]s of the preceding [[Cryogenian]] period. The date of the boundary is fairly well constrained at 635 million years ago based on U-Pb ([[uranium]]-[[lead]]) dates from [[Namibia]] and [[China]].
==Ediacaran biota==
{{mergeto|Vendian biota}}
The name comes from the [[Ediacara Hills]] (derived from an Indigenous Australian term for a place near water) of [[South Australia]], thus being the only geologic period to have a name originating in the southern hemisphere. It was in the Ediacara Hills, on the western margin of the [[Flinders Ranges]], that peculiar Precambrian fossils were found by the geologist [[Reg Sprigg]] in [[1946]], and studied by [[Martin Glaessner]] starting in the [[1950s]]. Glaessner initially thought the creatures to be primitive versions of animals such as [[coral]]s, [[sea-pen]]s and [[worm]]s that were better known from later times. In subsequent decades, many more Precambrian fossils have been found in the Flinders Ranges of South Australia. Additional fossils have been found in dozens of outcrops on all continents, and collectively these have come to be known as the '''[[Vendian biota|Ediacara biota]]'''. Especially important deposits have been found in the [[White Sea]] area of [[Russia]], in southwestern [[Africa]], in northwestern [[Canada]], and in south eastern [[Newfoundland]].
[[Image:Charnia wardi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|570-575 million-year old specimen of ''Charni wardi'' from Calvert, Newfoundland]]
As time has passed, assemblages of the Ediacara biota have, if anything, become more rather than less enigmatic. The earliest Ediacara fossils, 575 million years ago, were fronds attached to the seafloor by discs. Frond-like fossils such as ''[[Charniodiscus]]'' resemble living seapens. Some, called Rangeomorphs, show fractal branching (meaning that the branches are self-similar). Various disc-like fossils appear to have been creatures like sea-anemones (''[[Mawsonities]]'', ''[[Hiemalora]]'' and ''[[Inaria]]'') and sponges (''[[Palaeophragmodictya]]''). One of the largest and most distinctive Ediacara animals was a flattened, oval-shaped and segmented worm-like form called ''[[Dickinsonia]]'' that could grow to a metre or more in length. ''[[Arkarua]]'', a tiny five-sided disc, resembles a sea-star. About 560 million years ago, trace fossils like worm burrows appear in the fossil record together with small, body fossils that have bilateral symmetry. A few of these fossils ''[[Kimberella]]'', ''[[Parvancorina]]'' and ''[[Spriggina]]'' seem to be possible precursors to Cambrian forms. On the other hand, many of the best known Ediacaran creatures appear to be immobile bags, annulate disks, fronds, and air mattress-like shapes that have no obvious relationship to later forms. There is considerable controversy about the nature of many Ediacaran forms, with some having been classified in as many as six different kingdoms.
The Ediacaran biota is occasionally referred to as the ''Vendian biota'' but this has been used more rarely in recent times. This usage echoes the former name ''Vendian'', by which the Ediacaran period was known in Russia and some other parts of the world prior to the official naming of the period in 2004. Modern usage tends toward using ''Ediacaran'' to describe the full faunal range including [[algae]], [[sponge]]s, and all other life forms of the late Precambrian. A term ''Vendobionta'', which is also used, is not a description of the fauna, but rather the name of a separate Kingdom into which many of the fossils were placed by [[Germany|German]] palaeontologist [[Dolf Seilacher]]. This has been extremely controversial, and has not gained widespread acceptance.
There are even older fossils known. Well dated fossils of bacteria are found in cherts as old as 3460 million years and probable bacterial mats known back to 3600 million years. 3800 million year old graphite in metasediments from Western Greenland is thought to be of organic origin. Many very old proposed fossils such as Eozoon have subsequently been rejected as naturally occurring [[pseudo-fossils]]. The oldest current candidates for early multicelled life are 2000 million year old tracks from West Texas, 1000 million year old tracks from [[India]] and Australia, and 700 million |
or | major]] field of study, forces much less specialization and focus than is common in the rest of the world. Hence "college" is less dryly academic than "university" might sound abroad. Furthermore, a great many students in American universities and colleges live either in institution-run dormitories or in neighborhoods made up largely of student apartments. Hence one's college years involve a quite distinct kind of living arrangement between the family home and the first adult apartment.
For all these reasons, "college" as a phase-in-life between childhood and adulthood has become very important culturally in America, perhaps more so than in the rest of the world.
==The rest of the English-speaking world==
Influenced by their origins in the [[British Empire]], and by modern American [[pop culture]], the rest of the English-speaking world seems to have adopted a mix of their practices.
=== Australia ===
In [[Australia]], the term "college" can refer to an institution of [[tertiary education]] that is smaller than a university, run independently or as part of a university. Following a reform in the [[1980s]] many of the formerly independent colleges now belong to a larger university. Many private [[high school]]s that provide [[secondary education]] are called "colleges" in Australia. The term can also be used to refer to residence halls, as in the United Kingdom, but compared to the UK their tutorial programs are relatively small-scale and they do no actual teaching towards academic degrees (with the exception of one or two that host [[theology|theological]] colleges).
Additionally, in [[Tasmania]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory]], "college" refers to the final two years of high school (years eleven and twelve), and the institutions which provide this. In this context, "college" is a system independent of the other years of high school. (Here, the expression is a shorter version of ''matriculation'' college.) All college courses in the ACT are sanctioned by the [[Board of Senior Secondary Studies]], or BSSS.
=== Canada ===
In [[Canada]], the term "college" usually refers to a [[community college]] or a technical, applied arts, or applied science school. These are [[post-secondary education|post-secondary]] diploma-granting institutions, but they are not universities, and typically do not grant degrees, except in [[British Columbia]] where some have university status. In [[Quebec]], it can refer in particular to [[CEGEP]] (''Collège d'enseignement général et professionnel'', "college of general and professional education"), a form of post-secondary education specific to the [[Quebec education system]] that is required in order to continue onto university, or to learn a trade.
The [[Royal Military College of Canada]] is a full-fledged degree-granting university, but does not follow the naming convention used by the rest of the country.
The term "college" also applies to separate entities within a university (usually referred to as "[[federated school|federated colleges]]" or "affiliated colleges"), akin to the residential colleges in the United Kingdom. These colleges act independently, but in affiliation or federation with the university that actually grants the degrees. For example, [[University of Trinity College|Trinity College]] was once an independent institution, but later became federated with the [[University of Toronto]], and is now one of its residential colleges.
It should be noted that, unlike in the United States, there is a strong distinction between "college" and "university" in Canada. In conversation one specifically would say either "I'm going to university" (i.e., studying for a three- or four-year degree at a university) or "I'm going to college" (suggesting a technical or career college). Similarly, the term "college [[professor]]" does not hold nearly the same prestige in Canada as it does in the United States (whereas "university professor" does). Also because of this distinction, the cultural phenomenon known as [[college radio]] in the United States is more properly designated as "campus radio" in Canada.
In [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], many government-run secondary schools are called “collegiate institutes” (C.I.), a complicated form of the word “college” which avoids the usual “post-secondary” connotation. Some private secondary schools in Toronto choose to use the word “college” in their names nevertheless. Some high schools elsewhere in the country, particularly ones within the [[separate school]] system, may also use the word "college" or "collegiate" in their names.
===Ireland ===
{{seealso|List of universities in the Republic of Ireland}}
In the [[Republic of Ireland]], the term "college" is usually limited to an institution of [[tertiary education]], but the term is quite [[generic]] within this field. University students often say they attend "college" rather than "university", with the term college being more popular in wider society. This is possibly due to the fact that, until 1989, no university provided teaching or research directly. Instead, these were offered by an constituent college of the university, in the case of the [[National University of Ireland]] and [[University of Dublin]] &mdash; or at least in strict legal terms. A limited number of [[secondary education]] institutions use the word college to describe or name themselves, but this tends to be the exception.
The state's only [[ancient university]], the [[University of Dublin]], is really English in its origins and, until recently, its outlook. Created during the reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], it is modeled on the universities of [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] and [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. However, only one ''constituent college'' was ever founded, hence the curious position of [[Trinity College, Dublin]] today. For a time, degrees in [[Dublin Institute of Technology]] were also conferred by the university. However, that institution now has its own degree awarding powers and is considering applying for full university status.
Among more modern foundations, the [[National University of Ireland]], founded in 1908, consisted of constituent colleges and recognised colleges until 1997. The former are now referred to as ''constituent universities'' &mdash; institutions that are essentially universities in their own right. The National University can trace its existence back to 1850 and the creation of the ''[[Queen's University of Ireland]]'' and the creation of the ''[[Catholic University of Ireland]]'' in 1854. From 1880, the degree awarding roles of these two universities was taken over by the ''[[Royal University of Ireland]]'', which remained until the creation of the National University in 1908 and the [[Queen's University of Belfast]].
The state's two new universities [[Dublin City University]] and [[University of Limerick]] were initially [[National Institute for Higher Education]] institutions. These institutions offered university level [[academic degree]]s and [[research]] from the start of their existence and were awarded university status in [[1989]] in recognition of this. These two universities now follow the general trend of universities having associated colleges offering their degrees.
Third level technical education in the state has been carried out in the [[Regional Technical College]] network since [[1970]]. These institutions are now referred to as ''Institutes of Technology'', and some have ''delegated authority'' that entitles them to give degrees and diplomas in their own name. Initially these institutions offered only [[National Certificate]] and [[National Diploma]] courses. Now they also offer [[academic degree]]s at [[undergraduate]] and [[postgraduate]] level.
Other types of college include ''Colleges of Education''. These are specialist institutions, often linked to a university, which provide both [[undergraduate]] and [[postgraduate]] [[academic degrees]] for people who want to train as teachers.
=== Hong Kong ===
{{seealso|Education in Hong Kong}}
In [[Hong Kong]], the term "college" mostly refers to [[secondary school]]s. It is also used for some tertiary institutions (e.g., Shue Yan College, or United College of the [[Chinese University of Hong Kong]]), or a residence hall of a university (as in [[United Kingdom|British]] usage, e.g., St. John's College of the [[University of Hong Kong]]).
=== India ===
{{seealso|Universities and colleges in India|Indian Institute of Management|Indian Statistical Institute}}
The term university is more common than college in [[India]]. Generally, colleges are located in different parts of a state and all of them are affiliated to a regional university. The colleges offer programmes under that university. Examinations are conducted by the university at the same time for all colleges under its affiliation. There are several hundred universities and each university has affiliated colleges.
The first liberal arts and sciences college in India was the [[Presidency College, Kolkata]] (estd. [[1817]]) (initially known as Hindu College). The first Missionary institution to impart Western style education in India was the [[Scottish Church College, Calcutta]] (estd. [[1830]]). The first modern university in India was the [[University of Calcutta]] (estd. January [[1857]]). The first research institution for the study of the social sciences and ushering the spirit of [[Oriental]] research was the [[Asiatic Society]], (estd. [[1784]]). The first college for the study of Christian theology and ecumenical enquiry has been the [[Serampore College]] (estd. [[1818]]).
The [[Indian Institutes of Technology]] (IITs) are specialized institutions th |
e who shall make mischief and shed blood (mankind) while they hymn His praise and sanctify Him. It caused them to receive the answer that He knows what they do not [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.030 (2-30)].
So Allah created Adam and gave him from His knowledge what no other creature of his possess, by teaching him the names of everything, and by presenting them to the angels, Allah demanded that they tell the names [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.030 (2-30)], knowing that they will fail.
After the angels have admitted that they have no knowledge except that which Allah (God) had given them [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.030 (2-30)], Allah commanded Adam to display his knowledge in front of the angels [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.033 (2-33)], and when Adam did, He commanded the angels to prostrate before Adam, so they do except for [[Iblis]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.034 (2-34)], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/007.qmt.html#007.011 (7-11)], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/020.qmt.html#020.116 (20-116)].
In another version of the story Allah informs the angels that He will create Man (Bashar) from clay [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.028 (15-28)] and that as soon as He has completed his creation they should all prostrate before his creation [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.029 (15-29)], and so they all do [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.030 (15-30)], except for [[Iblis]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.031 (15-31)], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/038.qmt.html#038.074 (38-74)] When Allah demanded an explanation from [[Iblis]] of why he refused to prostrate to Adam [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.032 (15-32)], and [[Iblis]] explains that he would not prostrate before [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] whom Allah has created from clay [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.033 (15-33)] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/017.qmt.html#017.061 (17-61)], while he himslef [[Iblis]] was created from fire [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/038.qmt.html#038.076 (38-76)], and as such he was better than [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/007.qmt.html#007.012 (7-12)].
==See also==
*[[Shaitan]]
*[[Jannah]]
*[[Hell]]
*[[Islamic eschatology]]
==External links==
* [http://www.pantheon.org/articles/i/iblis.html Short summary on Iblis]
* [http://www.themystica.org/mystica/articles/i/iblis.html Another short summary]
* [http://web.uvic.ca/~rpn/files/iblis.html Iblis]
==References==
* Gustav Weil, ''The Bible, the Koran and the Talmud'' (London, 1846).
[[Category:Islamic demons]]
[[ar:إبليس]]
[[de:Iblis]]
[[fa:ابلیس]]
[[fr:Iblis]]
[[ms:Iblis]]
[[sr:Иблис]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intelsat</title>
<id>15516</id>
<revision>
<id>40228414</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T02:32:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gcapp1959</username>
<id>298824</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Logo level 2 nav.gif|right]]
'''Intelsat, Ltd.''' is the world’s largest commercial [[satellite]] communications services provider. On [[July 18]] [[2001]], Intelsat became a private company, 37 years after being formed as '''International Telecommunications Satellite Organization''' ('''ITSO'''), an intergovernmental consortium owning and managing a constellation of [[communications satellite]]s ('''Intelsats''') to provide international broadcast services. Ownership and investment in ITSO (measured in shares) was distributed among ITSO members according to their respective use of services. Investment shares determined each member’s percentage of the total contribution needed to finance capital expenditures. The organization’s primary source of revenue came from satellite usage fees which, after deduction of operating costs, was redistributed to ITSO members in proportion to their shares as repayment of capital and compensation for use of capital. Satellite services were available to any organization (both ITSO members and non-members), and all users paid the same rates.
==History==
The consortium began on [[August 20]], [[1964]] with 11 participating countries. On [[April 6]] [[1965]], Intelsat’s first satellite, the ''Early Bird'', was placed in [[geostationary orbit]] above the [[Atlantic Ocean]] by a [[Delta rocket|Delta D rocket]].
In [[1973]], the name was changed and there were 80 signatories. Intelsat provides service to over 600 Earth stations in more than 149 countries, territories and dependencies. By 2001, ITSO had over 100 members.
Since its inception, Intelsat has used several versions (blocks) of its dedicated Intelsat satellites. ITSO competes each block of spacecraft independently, leading to a variety of contractors over the years. Intelsat’s largest spacecraft supplier is [[Space Systems/Loral]], having built 31 spacecraft (as of 2003), or nearly half of the fleet.
The network in its early years was not as robust as it is now. A failure of the Atlantic satellite in the spring of [[1969]] threatened to stop the ''[[Apollo 11]]'' mission; a replacement satellite fired into orbit went into a bad orbit and could not be recovered in time to use; [[NASA]] had to resort to using undersea cable telephone circuits to bring Apollo's communications to NASA during the moon walk.
Today, the number of Intelsat satellites, as well as ocean-spanning fibre-optic lines, allows rapid rerouting of traffic when one satellite fails. Also, modern satellites are themselves more robust, lasting several more years, with much larger capacity.
==Current operation==
Intelsat was sold for U.S. $3.1bn in [[August]] [[2004]] to four private equity firms: [[Madison Dearborn Partners]], [[Apax Partners]], [[Permira]] and [[Apollo Management]]. The company is merging with [[PanAmSat]]. Intelsat maintains it corporate headquarters in [[Bermuda]], with a majority of staff and satellite functions — administrative headquarters — located at the [[Intelsat Global Services Corporation]] offices in [[Washington, DC]]. This arrangement allows the company to lobby politicians in Washington while filing tax from Bermuda.
Spacecraft operations are controlled through ground stations in [[Fucino, Italy]], [[Clarksburg, Maryland]] (USA), [[Beijing, China]], [[Raisting, Germany]], [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth, Australia]], and [[Paumalu, Hawaii]] (USA).
Intelsat was operating [[Intelsat Americas-7]] until it was lost on [[29 November]] [[2004]] [http://portal.wikinerds.org/node/152].
==See also==
* [[Inmarsat]]
* [[Intersputnik]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.intelsat.com/ Company home page]
===Data===
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/53/53101.html Yahoo! - Intelsat, Ltd. Company Profile]
*[http://www.dailywireless.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=3542 Pacific Satellite Fails]
[[Category:Communications satellites]]
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[[es:Intelsat]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ITSO</title>
<id>15517</id>
<revision>
<id>20887709</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-12T23:09:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fleminra</username>
<id>44454</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect [[Intelsat]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intelsat]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interpol</title>
<id>15519</id>
<revision>
<id>41764107</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:00:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>J M Rice</username>
<id>182338</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */ deleted POV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the International Criminal Police Organization. For the indie rock band, see [[Interpol (band)]].''
[[Image:Interpol logo.jpg|right|thumb|199px|Interpol logo]]
'''INTERPOL''', more correctly the '''International Criminal Police Organization''', was created in [[1923]] to assist international criminal police co-operation. INTERPOL, once merely the organization's telegraphic address, was officially incorporated into the organization's new name adopted in [[1956]], prior to which it was known as the International Criminal Police Commission.
INTERPOL is the world's second largest [[international organization]], after the [[United Nations]]; it currently has 184 member countries. It is financed by annual contributions from its member countries, which total about [[euro|EUR]] 30 million; however, [[Europol]] receives €50 million annually. The Organization is headquartered in [[Lyon]], [[France]] (formerly headquartered in [[Saint Cloud]], a town located in the vicinity of [[Paris]]). The currently serving President of Interpol is Mr. [[Jackie Selebi]], Commissioner of the South African Police. The current Secretary General, [[Ronald K. Noble]], formerly of the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury Department]], is the first non-European to hold the position.
Because of the politically neutral role Interpol must play, its Constitution forbids any involvement in crimes that do not overlap several member countries, or any political, military, religious, or racial crimes. Its work centers primarily on public safety and [[terrorism]], [[organized crime]], [[illicit drug production]] and [[drug trafficking]], [[weapons smuggling]], [[people smuggling|trafficking in human beings]], [[money laundering]], [[child pornography]], financial and high-tech crime, and [[political corruption|corruption]].
In October [[2001]], the Interpol General Secretariat employed a staff of 384, representing 54 different countries. That same month, INTERPOL began to change from a 9-to-5 agency to a 24-hour agency, making its work easier and more efficient.
|
d achievements is the establishment of a comprehensive health system producing one doctor for every 170 people, compared to 188 in the US and 250 in the UK. Teams of Cuban doctors assess applicants for eye surgery before sending patients to [[Havana]] on special flights from ten Caribbean countries and more than 15 Latin American nations. On August 20, Cuba achieved what is almost certainly a world record - performing 1,648 eye operations at 20 hospitals in a single day."
"Since July 25, more than 3,000 people from ten Caribbean countries have had eye operations in Cuba funded by oil-rich [[Venezuela]]. Other patients from Central and South America bring the total to 100,000 free eye operations this year." [http://news.scotsman.com/health.cfm?id=2305142005]
Like a number of countries, Cuba has developed a hospital system for [[health tourism|health tourists]], taking advantage of a combination of low labor costs, an educated work force, and the ability of such tourists to pay in much desired hard currency for their care.
The country is now able to operate and provide services in all branches of [[ophthalmology]] to hundreds of thousands of patients. Castro promises that one hundred thousand Venezuelans will receive these services this year, and until July 2005, 25,024 patients from said country, and a similar number of Cubans will have been operated on [http://www.nnc.cubaweb.cu/agosto-05/nac9208-05.htm]. 15,000 citizens of the Caribbean community will receive this form of medical care between the second half of June 2005 and June 2006. [[Venezuela]] and Cuba have offered to provide another 100,000 Latin Americans with this service within the same period. Cuba has been able to reduce reported infant mortality to zero in certain remote rural areas.[http://www.lademajagua.co.cu/archivo2003.htm].
=== Demographics ===
{{main|Demographics of Cuba}}
[[Image:Cuba-demography.png|300px|thumbnail|right|Cuba's population in thousands(1961-2003)]]
According to the CIA's World Factbook, Cuba is 51% [[mulatto]] (mixed white and black), 37% [[whites|white]], 11% [[blacks|black]], and 1% [[overseas Chinese|Chinese]].
The Chinese population in Cuba derives mostly from laborers who arrived in the 19th century to build [[railroad]]s and work in [[mine]]s, as was also occurring in the United States at this time. Most stayed in Cuba, as they could not afford a return passage to China. Historical papers show that, while considered inferior to Cubans of European descent, they were considered superior to blacks due to their paler skin.
In Cuba there is relatively little [[racism|racial tension]]. Nevertheless, the sizeable [[Jamaica]]n population in [[Santiago de Cuba]] is frequently [[racial stereotype|stereotyped]] as lazy. Also, lighter skinned people often have more prestigious jobs (although in socialist Cuba this does not translate to a high difference in income). The melting pot is expressed not only in a racial sense, but also in religion (see below) and the [[music of Cuba]]. There is internal illegal immigration to Havana seeking greater opportunities, these internal illegals are known as "palestinos." Cuba also shelters a population of non-Cubans of unknown size. This population includes defectors from the US e.g. [[Phillip Agee]] [http://www.cvni.net/radio/e2k/e2k001/e2k01news.html] and foreign activists of various radical causes [http://coranet.radicalparty.org/pressreleases/press_release.php?func=detail&par=7663].
Cuba has a low birth rate. The fertility rate of 1.66 children per woman[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cu.html#People] is the lowest of any country in the [[western hemisphere]] (tied with Canada and Barbados). A contributing cause is Cuba's policy of [[abortion]] on demand. Cuba has a high abortion rate of 77.7 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44 in 1996, 3rd highest in the world among 55 countries whose abortion rate was available to be compiled in a 1999 UN study. [http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/abt/fabt.htm] Selective termination of high-risk pregnancies is one factor contributing to the low official infant mortality rate in Cuba of 5.8 per thousand births. (''[http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/SOWC_2005_(English).pdf State of the World's Children 2005]'') However, this high abortion rate and very low birth rate, reminiscent of former Communist Eastern Europe and Russia, threatens to cause the population to shrink significantly in the coming decades, although this has not happened yet due to relatively small numbers of elderly.
Immigration and emigration have had noticeable changes in the demographic profile of Cuba during the 20th century. Between 1900 and 1930 close to a million Spaniards arrived from Spain. Cuba has historically been more heavily European than other Caribbean islands, and in 1950 was said to have a 75% white majority. Since 1959, over a million Cubans have left the island, primarily to [[Miami, Florida]] where a vocal, well educated and economically very successful anti-Castro community exists ([[Cuban-American lobby]]). [http://www.sela.org/public_html/AA2K2/eng/docs/coop/migra/spsmirdi12-02/spsmirdi12-2.htm] The emigration that occurred immediately after the Cuban Revolution was primarily of the upper and middle classes that were predominantly white, thus contributing to a demographic shift along with changes in birth rates among the various ethnic groups. After the chaos that accompanied the Mariel boatlift, Cuba and the United States (commonly called the 1994 Clinton-Castro accords [http://history.acusd.edu/gen/20th/1990s/clinton.html]) have agreed to limit emigration to the United States. Under this, the United States grants a specific number of visas to those wishing to emigrate (20,000 since 1994) while those Cubans picked up at sea trying to emigrate without a visa are returned to Cuba. However, U.S. law [http://uscis.gov/graphics/services/residency/CAA.htm] grants U.S. residency to any Cuban who arrives on U.S. soil without a visa, thus there is still an unofficial exodus [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/americas/13141840.htm]; these escapes are often daring and most ingenious e.g. [http://www.local6.com/news/5330948/detail.html] [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/cuba/13816518.htm]. The numbers of Cubans who leave by sea is still about 2,000 a year but the trend is upward at present [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/cuba/13816518.htm] [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/americas/13331841.htm].
In 2005 an additional 7,610 Cuban emigrants from Cuba entered through the "southern border in the fiscal year that ended Sept. 30" [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/cuba/13512948.htm?source=rss&channel=miamiherald_cuba]
==Government and politics ==
[[Image:Revolution square.jpg|thumb|350px|Revolution Square: José Martí Monument designed Enrique Luis Varela, sculpture by Juan José Sicre and finished in 1958. [http://136.142.158.105/Lasa2001/QuintanaNicolas.pdf]]]
{{main articles|[[Politics of Cuba]] and [[Elections in Cuba]]}}
The Cuban constitution states that, "the [[Communist Party of Cuba]]...is the superior guiding force of society and the state." Members are selected by the party in a thorough process that includes interviews with co-workers and neighbors. Those selected are considered model citizens and strong supporters of the revolution. It makes recommendations concerning the future development of the revolution, and it criticizes tendencies it considers counterrevolutionary. It has a relatively large influence in Cuba, but its authority is "moral", not on any legal authority. The Communist Party of Cuba is the sole legal political party, and no other party is legally allowed to exist.
Elections are held by secret ballot and everyone age 16 or older can vote. Neighborhood committees nominate candidates for the municipal assemblies who are then placed before the voters whom chose among several candidates. Candidates for the National Assembly are nominated by municipal assemblies with one candidate for each seat and put to an approval vote where voters may approve all, some or none of the candidates (source: "Democracy in Cuba and the 1997-1998 Elections" by Arnold August).
Legislative power is nominally in the hands of the [[National Assembly of People’s Power of Cuba|National Assembly of People’s Power]]. However, save for two sessions a year, power is exercised by the 31 member [[Council of State of Cuba|Council of State]] which is elected by the National Assembly from itself.
Executive authority is formally vested in the [[Council of Ministers of Cuba|Council of Ministers]], a large cabinet comprised of 8 members of the Council of State, the heads of the national ministries, and other persons. A smaller Executive Committee consisting of the more important members of the Council of Ministers oversees normal business.
[[Fidel Castro]] has been the [[head of government]] since 1959, first as [[prime minister]] and, after the abolition of that office with the adoption of the 1976 Constitution, as President of the Council of State, which also serves as [[head of state]]. He is also First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, and since 1976 a member of the National Assembly from the municipality of [[Santiago de Cuba]]. (The 1976 Constitution and its 1992 revision require that the President of the Council of State be a member of the National Assembly).
=== Human rights ===
{{main|Human rights in Cuba}}
The Cuban government has in the past been accused of numerous [[human rights abuse]]s, including [[torture]], arbitrary imprisonment, unfair trials, and extra-judicial executions [http://www.cidh.org/countryrep/Cuba67sp/indice.htm]. Many argue that thousands of unjustified deaths have occurred since the revolution. Dissidents currently complain of harassm |
nasty, Abassid claims to the caliphate did not go unchallenged. The Shiˤa [[Said ibn Husayn]] of the [[Fatimid]] dynasty, which claimed descendancy of Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in [[909]], creating a separate line of caliphs in [[North Africa]]. Initially covering Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking [[Egypt]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], before the Abbassid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting the Fatimids to rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in [[1171]]. The Ummayad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of the [[Spain]], reclaimed the title of Caliph in [[929]], lasting until it was overthrown in [[1031]].
[[1258]] saw the conquest of [[Baghdad]] and the execution of Abassid caliph by [[Mongol]] forces under [[Hulagu Khan]]. The [[Mamluk]] regime of Egypt claimed to host a branch of the Abbasid caliphate, but later Muslim historians referred to it as a "shadow" caliphate and its authority was not widely acknowledged. For all practical purposes the institution lapsed in 1258. Muslim kings or sultans sometimes referred to themselves as commanders of the faithful, implying caliphal authority, but such claims were largely rhetorical.
The sultans or kings of the [[Ottoman Empire]] were originally thought of as civil rather than religious leaders. The rulers of the Ottoman state only rarely used the title of khalifa or caliph, and then for political purposes. Mehmed II and his grandson Selim used it to justify their conquest of Islamic countries, but it was little more than a rhetorical flourish. Around 1880 Sultan Abdulhamid II decided to proclaim himself caliph, as a way of countering creeping European colonialism in Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Muslims of British India. By the eve of the [[World War I|First World War]], the Ottoman empire or sultanate, despite its weakness vis-a-vis Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. But the sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Sunni Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.
==How the Caliphate came to an end==
''See the article [[Demise of the Ottoman Caliphate]]''.
On [[March 3]], [[1924]], the first [[List of Presidents of Turkey|President of the Turkish Republic]], [[Kemal Atatürk]], constitutionally abolished the institution of the Caliphate. Its powers were transfered to the [[Turkish Grand National Assembly]] (parliament) of the newly formed Turkish nation-state and the title has since been inactive. Scattered attempts to revive the Caliphate elsewhere in the Muslim World were made in the years immediately following its abandonment by [[Turkey]], but none was successful. [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Hussein bin Ali]], a former [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] governor of the [[Hejaz]] who had conspired with the [[United Kingdom|British]] during [[World War I]] and revolted against [[Istanbul]], declared himself Caliph at [[Medina]] two days after Turkey relinquished the title. But no one took his claim seriously, and he was soon ousted and driven out of Arabia by the [[Saudis]], a rival clan that had no interest in the Caliphate. The last Ottoman [[Sultan]] [[Mehmed VI]] made a similar attempt to re-establish himself as Caliph in the Hejaz after leaving Turkey, but he was also unsuccessful.
In the 1920s the [[Khilafat Movement]], a movement to restore the Turkish Caliphate, spread throughout the British colonial territories in Asia. It was particularly strong in India, where it was a rallying point for Muslim communities. A summit was convened in [[Cairo]] in 1926 to discuss the revival of the Caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate and no action was taken to implement the summit’s resolutions. Though the title ''Ameer al-Mumineen'' was adopted by the King of [[Morocco]] and Mullah [[Mohammed Omar]], former head of the now-defunct [[Taliban]] regime of [[Afghanistan]], neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries. The closest thing to a Caliphate in existence today is the [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC), an international organization founded in 1969 consisting of the governments of most Muslim-majority countries. But the OIC has limited influence; many Muslims are not aware that the organization exists, and its resolutions are often ignored even by member nations.
==Revival of the caliphate==
Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the caliphate has lain dormant and largely unclaimed for much of the past 81 years.
Though Islam is still a dominant influence in most Muslim societies and many Muslims might favor a caliphate in the abstract, tight restrictions on political activity in many Muslim countries coupled with the tremendous practical obstacles to uniting over fifty disparate nation-states under a single institution have prevented efforts to revive the caliphate from garnering much active support, even amongst devout Muslims. Popular apolitical Islamic movements such as the [[Tablighi Jamaat]] identify a lack of spirituality and decline in religious observance as the root cause of the Muslim World's problems, and claim that the caliphate cannot be successfully revived until these deficiencies are addressed. No attempts at rebuilding a power structure based on Islam were successful anywhere in the Muslim World until the [[Iranian Revolution]] in 1979, which was based on [[Shia]] principles and did not deal with the issue of a global caliphate.
Various Sunni [[Islamist]] movements have gained momentum in recent years, calling for a restoration of the caliphate. However many such movements have as yet been unable to agree on a roadmap or a coherent model of Islamic governance, and dialog on this issue amongst Muslim activists and intellectuals has yielded no clear consensus on what a modern Islamic state should look like. Islamic religious scholars and institutions have struggled to define the applicability of centuries-old doctrines within the context of a modern society, and Islamic scholarship is generally thought to have failed to keep pace with scientific, technological, and social progress. Many questions on the form a modern Islamic caliphate would take, such as whether the concept of the caliphate is compatible with the modern nation-state construct, have received minimal attention in traditional Islamic scholarly circles. Mainstream Islamic institutions in Muslim countries today have generally not made the restoration of the caliphate a top priority and have instead focused on other issues. Most regimes have actually been hostile to such a call.
One [[transnational]] group, the [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]], has tried to recruit the world's Muslims to a renewed caliphate. They have published a draft constitution at [http://www.hizb-ut-tahrir.org].
==Famous caliphs==
{{main|List of caliphs}}
* [[Abu Bakr]] - First [[Four Righteously Guided Caliphs|rightly guided caliph]] of the [[Sunnis]]. Subdued rebel tribes in the [[Ridda Wars]].
* [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] - Second rightly guided caliph. During his reign, the Islamic empire expanded to include [[Egypt]], [[Jerusalem]], and [[Persian Empire|Persia]].
* [[Uthman ibn Affan]] - Third rightly guided caliph. The [[Qur'an]] was compiled under his direction. Killed by rebels.
* [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] - Fourth and last rightly guided caliph, and considered the first [[imam]] by [[Shi'a]] Muslims. His reign was fraught with internal conflict.
* [[Muawiya I]] - First [[Umayyad]] caliph. Muawiya instituted dynastic rule by appointing his son [[Yazid]] as his successor, a trend that would continue through all subsequent caliphates.
* [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]] - Umayyad caliph considered by some (mainly [[Sunnis]]) to be a fifth rightly guided caliph.
* [[Haroun al-Raschid|Haroon al-Rasheed]] - Abbasid caliph during whose reign [[Baghdad]] became the world's preeminent center of trade, learning, and culture. Haroon is the subject of many stories in the famous work [[1001 Arabian Nights]].
* [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] - Early Ottoman Sultan during whose reign the [[Ottoman Empire]] reached its zenith.
==Dynasties==
The more important dynasties include:
* The [[Umayyad]] dynasty in [[Damascus]] ([[661]]-[[750]]), followed by:
* The [[Abbasid]] dynasty in [[Baghdad]] ([[750]]-[[1258]]), and later in [[Cairo]] (under [[Mameluk]] control) ([[1260]]-[[1517]])
* The Shi'ite [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] dynasty in [[North Africa]] and [[Egypt]] ([[909]]-[[1171]]). Not universally accepted and not currently included in the following list.
* The Rahmanids, a surviving branch of the Damascus Umayyads, established 'in exile' as [[Emir]]s of [[Cordoba, Spain|Córdoba]], [[Spain]], declared themselves Caliphs (known as the [[Caliph of Cordoba|Caliphs of Cordoba]]; not universally accepted; [[929]]-[[1031]])
* The [[Almohad]] dynasty in [[North Africa]] and [[Spain]] (not universally accepted; [[1145]]-[[1269]]). Traced their descent not from Muhammad, but from a puritanic reformer in Morocco who claimed to be the [[Mahdi]] (a puritanic reformer in Morocco, bringing down the 'decadent' [[Almoravid]] emirate) whose son established a sultanate and claimed to be a caliph.
* The [[Ottomans]] ([[1453]]-[[1924]]; main title [[Padishah]], also known as [[Great Sultan]] etc.), assumed the title after defeating the [[Mamluk Sultanate]] and used it sporadically between the 16th and early 20th century
'''Note on the overlap of Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates''': After the massacre of the Umayyad clan by the Abbassids, one lone prince escaped and fled to North Africa, which remained loyal to the Umayyads. This was [[Abd-ar-rahman I]]. From there, he proceeded to Spain, where he overthrew and united the |
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|-
|}
The range of thermodynamic stability of liquid ammonia solutions is very narrow, as the potential for oxidation to [[Nitrogen|dinitrogen]], ''E''°&nbsp;(N<sub>2</sub> + 6NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> + 6e<sup>&minus;</sup> {{unicode|&#8652;}} 8NH<sub>3</sub>), is only +0.04&nbsp;V. In practice, both oxidation to dinitrogen and reduction to [[Hydrogen|dihydrogen]] are slow. This is particularly true of reducing solutions: the solutions of the alkali metals mentioned above are stable for several days, slowly decomposing to the [[Amide|metal amide]] and dihydrogen. Most studies involving liquid ammonia solutions are done in reducing conditions: although oxidation of liquid ammonia is usually slow, there is still a risk of explosion, particularly if transition metal ions are present as possible catalysts.
== Detection and determination ==
Ammonia and ammonium salts can be readily detected, in very minute traces, by the addition of [[Nessler's solution]], which gives a distinct yellow coloration in the presence of the least trace of ammonia or ammonium salts. [[Sulfur sticks]] are burnt to detect small leaks in industrial ammonia refrigeration systems. Larger quantities can be detected by warming the salts with a caustic alkali or with [[calcium oxide|quicklime]], when the characteristic smell of ammonia will be at once apparent. The amount of ammonia in ammonium salts can be estimated quantitatively by distillation of the salts with [[sodium hydroxide|sodium]] or [[potassium hydroxide]], the ammonia evolved being absorbed in a known volume of standard [[sulfuric acid]] and the excess of acid then determined [[volumetric analysis|volumetrically]]; or the ammonia may be absorbed in [[hydrochloric acid]] and the [[ammonium chloride]] so formed precipitated as [[ammonium hexachloroplatinate]], (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>PtCl<sub>6</sub>.
== Safety precautions ==
=== Toxicity ===
The toxicity of ammonia solutions does not usually cause problems for humans and other mammals, as a specific mechanism exists to prevent its build-up in the bloodstream. Ammonia is converted to [[carbamoyl phosphate]] by the enzyme [[carbamoyl phosphate synthase]], and then enters the [[urea cycle]] to be either incorporated into [[amino acid]]s or excreted in the urine. However [[fish]] and [[amphibian]]s lack this mechanism, as they can usually eliminate ammonia from their bodies by direct excretion. Ammonia even at dilute concentrations is highly toxic to aquatic animals, and for this reason it is [[Directive 67/548/EEC|classified]] as ''dangerous for the environment''.
=== Household use ===
Solutions of ammonia (5&ndash;10% by weight) are used as household cleaners, particularly for glass. These solutions are irritating to the eyes and [[mucous membrane]]s (respiratory and digestive tracts), and to a lesser extent the skin. They should '''never''' be mixed with [[chlorine]]-containing products, for example household [[bleach]], as a variety of toxic and [[carcinogen]]ic compounds are formed (''e.g.'', [[chloramine]], [[hydrazine]]).
=== Laboratory use of ammonia solutions ===
The hazards of ammonia solutions depend on the concentration: "dilute" ammonia solutions are usually 5&ndash;10% by weight (<5.62&nbsp;mol/L); "concentrated" solutions are usually prepared at >25% by weight. A 25% (by weight) solution has a density of 0.907&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>, and a solution which has a lower density will be more concentrated. The [[Directive 67/548/EEC|European Union classification]] of ammonia solutions is given in the table.
<!-- EU Index no. 007-001-01-2 -->
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Concentration]]<br/>by weight
! Molarity
! Classification
! [[List of R-phrases|R-Phrases]]
|-
| 5&ndash;10%
| 2.87&ndash;5.62 mol/L
| Irritant ('''Xi''')
| {{R36/37/38}}
|-
| 10&ndash;25%
| 5.62&ndash;13.29 mol/L
| Corrosive ('''C''')
| {{R34}}
|-
| >25%
| >13.29 mol/L
| Corrosive ('''C''')<br/>Dangerous for<br/>the environment ('''N''')
| {{R34}}, {{R50}}
|-
|}
:''[[List of S-phrases|S-Phrases]]: {{S1/2}}, {{S16}}, {{S36/37/39}}, {{S45}}, {{S61}}.''
The ammonia vapour from concentrated ammonia solutions is severely irritating to the eyes and the respiratory tract, and these solutions should only be handled in a fume hood. Saturated ("0.880") solutions can develop a significant pressure inside a closed bottle in warm weather, and the bottle should be opened with care: this is not usually a problem for 25% ("0.900") solutions.
Ammonia solutions should not be mixed with [[halogen]]s, as toxic and/or explosive products are formed. Prolonged contact of ammonia solutions with [[silver (element)|silver]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]] or [[iodide]] salts can also lead to explosive products: such mixtures are often formed in [[qualitative analysis]], and should be acidified and diluted before disposal once the test is completed.
=== Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia (gas or liquid) ===
<!-- EU index no. 007-001-00-5 -->
<!-- R10, 23, 34, 50; S1/2, 9, 16, 26, 36/37/39, 45, 61 -->
Anhydrous ammonia is classified as '''toxic''' ('''T''') and '''dangerous for the environment''' ('''N'''). The gas is flammable ([[autoignition temperature]]: 651 °C) and can form explosive mixtures with air (16&ndash;25%). The [[permissible exposure limit]] (PEL) in the United States is 50&nbsp;ppm (35&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>), while the [[IDLH]] concentration is estimated at 300&nbsp;ppm. Repeated exposure to ammonia lowers the sensitivity to the smell of the gas: normally the odour is detectable at concentrations of less than 0.5&nbsp;ppm, but desensitized individuals may not detect it even at concentrations of 100&nbsp;ppm.
Ammonia reacts violently with the halogens, and causes the explosive polymerization of [[ethylene oxide]]. It also forms explosive compounds with compounds of [[gold (element)|gold]], silver, mercury, [[germanium]] or [[tellurium]], and with [[stibine]]. Violent reactions have also been reported with [[acetaldehyde]], [[hypochlorite]] solutions, [[potassium ferricyanide]] and [[peroxide]]s.
Anhydrous ammonia corrodes [[copper (element)|copper]]- and [[zinc (element)|zinc]]-containing [[alloy]]s, and so [[brass]] fittings should not be used for handling the gas. Liquid ammonia can also attack rubber and certain plastics.
== See also ==
*[[Ammonia (data page)]]
*[[Chlorination]]
*[[Water purification]]
*[[Nitrogen metabolism]]
== Reference ==
#{{note|NH4Cl}} Baker, H. B. (1894). ''J. Chem. Soc.'' '''65''': 612.
== Bibliography ==
{{1911}}
* {{cite book
| author=Greenwood, N. N.; & Earnshaw, A.
| title=Chemistry of the Elements
| edition = 2nd Edn.
| location =Oxford
| publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann
| year=1997
| id=ISBN 0-7506-3365-4
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Housecroft, C. E.; & Sharpe, A.
| title=Inorganic Chemistry
| location =Harlow (UK)
| publisher=Prentice Education
| year=2001
| id=ISBN 0-582-31080-6
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Bretherick, L. (Ed.)
| title=Hazards in the Chemical Laboratory
| edition = 4th Edn.
| location =London
| publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry
| year=1986
| id=ISBN 0-85186-489-9
}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.cheresources.com/ammonia.shtml Ammonia: The Next Step]
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc04/icsc0414.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0414] (anhydrous ammonia)
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc02/icsc0215.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0215] (aqueous solutions)
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/8.html National Pollutant Inventory - Ammonia]
*[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0028.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
*{{ecb}}
*{{PubChemLink|222}}
*[http://www.inrs.fr Institut national de recherche et de securite] (''in French'')
* [http://www.ammoniaspills.org Emergency Response to Ammonia Fertilizer Releases (Spills)] for the Minnesota Department of Agriculture
*{{nist}}
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Ammonia Computational Chemistry Wiki]
[[Category:Nitrogen compounds]]
[[Category:Hydrides]]
[[Category:Bases]]
[[Category:Nitrogen metabolism]]
[[Category:Household chemicals]]
[[Category:Refrigerants]]
[[bg:Амоняк]]
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[[fa:آمونیاک]]
[[fr:Ammoniac]]
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[[it:Ammoniaca]]
[[he:אמוניה]]
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[[ms:Ammonia]]
[[nl:Ammoniak]]
[[ja:アンモニア]]
[[no:Ammoniakk]]
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[[ru:Аммиак]]
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[[th:แอมโมเนีย]]
[[uk:Аміак]]
[[zh:氨]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
|
eidae had slain an Acarnanian soothsayer. The oracle, being again consulted by [[Temenus]], bade him offer an expiatory sacrifice and banish the murderer for ten years, and look out for a man with three eyes to act as guide. On his way back to [[Naupactus]], [[Temenus]] fell in with [[Oxylus]], an Aetolian, who had lost one eye, riding on a horse (thus making up the three eyes) and immediately pressed him into his service. According to another account, a mule on which Oxylus rode had lost an eye. The Heracidae repaired their ships, sailed from [[Naupactus]] to [[Antirrhium]], and thence to [[Rhium]] in [[Peloponnesus]]. A decisive, battle was fought with [[Tisamenus]], son of [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]], the chief ruler in the peninsula, who was defeated and slain. The Heracleidae, who thus became practically masters of Peloponnesus, proceeded to distribute its territory among themselves by lot. [[Argos]] fell to [[Temenus]], [[Lacedaemon]] to [[Procles]] and [[Eurysthenes]], the twin sons of [[Aristodemus]]; and [[Messene]] to [[Cresphontes]]. The fertile district of [[Elis]] had been reserved by agreement for [[Oxylus]]. The Heracleidae ruled in [[Lacedaemon]] till [[221 BC]], but disappeared much earlier in the other countries. This conquest of [[Peloponnesus]] by the Dorians, commonly called the "Return of the Heraclidae," is represented as the recovery by the descendants of Heracles of the rightful inheritance of their hero ancestor and his sons. The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek tribes in claiming as ancestor for their ruling families one of the legendary heroes, but the traditions must not on that account be regarded as entirely mythical. They represent a joint invasion of Peloponnesus by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven southward from their original northern home under pressure from the Thessalians. It is noticeable that there is no mention of these Heraclidae or their invasion in [[Homer]] or [[Hesiod]]. [[Herodotus]] (vi. 52) speaks of poets who had celebrated their deeds, but these were limited to events immediately succeeding the death of [[Heracles]]. The story was first amplified by the Greek tragedians, who probably drew their inspiration from local legends, which glorified the services rendered by Athens to the rulers of Peloponnesus.
The Heracleidae also included [[Macaria]], [[Lamos]], [[Manto (Greek mythology)|Manto]], [[Bianor]], [[Tlepolemus]], and [[Telephus]].
[[Euripides]] wrote a play called ''[[Heracleidae (play)|Heracleidae]]''. In it, Macaria and her brothers and sisters hid from [[Eursytheus]] in [[Athens, Greece|Athens]], ruled by King [[Demophon]]. As Eurystheus prepared to attack, an [[oracle]] told Demophon that he would win if and only if a noble woman was sacrificed to [[Persephone]]. Macaria volunteered for the sacrifice and a spring was named the [[Macarian spring]] in her honor.
== Sources ==
* [[Apollodorus]] ii. 8
* [[Diodorus Siculus]] iv. 57, 58
* [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] i. 32, 41, ii. 13, 18, iii. I, iv. 3, v. 3
* [[Euripides]], ''[[Heracleidae (play)|Heracleidae]]''
* [[Pindar]], ''[[Pythia]],'' ix. 137
* [[Herodotus]] ix. 27
* [[Otfried Müller|Müller]]'s ''Dorians,'' I. ch. 3
* [[Thirlwail]], ''History of Greece,'' ch. vii
* [[Grote]], ''History of Greece,'' pt. i. ch. xviii
* [[Busolt]], ''Griechische Geschichte,'' i. ch. ii. sec. 7, where a list of modern authorities is given
{{1911}}
[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[de:Herakleiden]]
[[fr:Héraclides]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HIV</title>
<id>14170</id>
<revision>
<id>41996332</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:52:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Emre D.</username>
<id>665265</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert to revision 41947155 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox_begin | color = violet | name = ''Human immunodeficiency virus''}}
{{Taxobox_image | image = [[Image:Aids virus.jpg]] | caption = Stylized rendering of a cross section<br/> of the human immunodeficiency virus}}
{{Taxobox_begin_placement_virus}}
{{Taxobox_group_vi_entry}}
{{Taxobox_familia_entry | taxon = ''[[Retroviridae]]''}}
{{Taxobox_genus_entry | taxon = ''[[Lentivirus]]''}}
{{Taxobox_species_entry | taxon = '''''Human immunodeficiency virus 1'''''}}
{{Taxobox_species_entry | taxon = '''''Human immunodeficiency virus 2'''''}}
{{Taxobox_end_placement}}
{{Taxobox_end}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems Codes |
ICD10 = B20-B24 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|042}}-{{ICD9|044}} |
}}
'''Human immunodeficiency virus''', commonly known by the [[acronym and initialism|initialism]] '''HIV''', formerly known as '''HTLV-III''' and '''lymphadenopathy-associated virus''', is a [[retrovirus]] that primarily infects vital components of the [[human]] [[immune system]] such as [[Helper T cell|CD4+ T cells]], [[macrophages]] and [[dendritic cells]]. It also directly and indirectly destroys CD4+ T cells. As CD4+ T cells are required for the proper functioning of the immune system, when enough CD4+ T cells have been destroyed by HIV, the immune system functions poorly, leading to the syndrome known as [[AIDS]]. HIV also directly attacks [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]], such as the [[kidney]]s, the [[heart]] and the [[brain]] leading to [[acute renal failure]], [[cardiomyopathy]], [[dementia]] and [[encephalopathy]]. Many of the problems faced by people infected with HIV result from failure of the immune system to protect from [[opportunistic infection]]s and [[cancer]]s.
HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a [[mucous membrane]] with a [[bodily fluid]] containing HIV, such as [[blood]], [[semen]], [[vaginal fluid]], [[preseminal fluid]] or [[breast milk]]. This transmission can come in the form of: penetrative ([[anal sex|anal]] or [[vaginal sex|vaginal]]) [[sex]]; [[oral sex]]; [[blood transfusion]]; contaminated needles; exchange between mother and infant during [[pregnancy]], [[childbirth]], or [[breastfeeding]]; or other exposure to one of the above bodily fluids.
AIDS is thought to have originated in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] during the [[twentieth century]] <ref name=Gao>
{{cite journal
| author=Gao, F., Bailes, E., Robertson, D. L., Chen, Y., Rodenburg, C. M., Michael, S. F., Cummins, L. B., Arthur, L. O., Peeters, M., Shaw, G. M., Sharp, P. M. and Hahn, B. H. | title=Origin of HIV-1 in the Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes | journal=Nature | year=1999 | pages=436-441 | volume=397 | issue=6718 | id={{PMID |9989410}}
}}</ref> and is now a [[pandemic]]. At the end of [[2004]], [[UNAIDS]] estimated that nearly 40 million people were currently living with HIV <ref name=UNAIDS>
{{cite web |
author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | publishyear= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-02-28
}}</ref>. The [[World Health Organization]] estimated that the AIDS epidemic had claimed more than 3 million people and that 5 million people had acquired HIV in the same year. Currently it is estimated that 28 million people have died and that it is set to infect 90 million people in [[Africa]], resulting in a minimum estimate of 18 million [[orphan]]s in Africa alone <ref name=UNAIDS>
{{cite web
| author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | publishyear= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-02-28
}}</ref>.
==Introduction==
In [[1983]], scientists led by [[Luc Montagnier]] at the [[Pasteur Institute]] in France first discovered the virus that causes AIDS <ref name=Barre>
{{cite journal
| author=Barré-Sinoussi, F., Chermann, J. C., Rey, F., Nugeyre, M. T., Chamaret, S., Gruest, J., Dauguet, C., Axler-Blin, C., Vezinet-Brun, F., Rouzioux, C., Rozenbaum, W. and Montagnier, L. | title=Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) | journal=Science | year=1983 | pages=868-871 | volume=220 | issue=4599 | id={{PMID|6189183}}
}}</ref>. They called it lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV). A year later a team led by [[Robert Gallo]] of the United States confirmed the discovery of the virus, but they renamed it human T lymphotropic virus type III (HTLV-III) <ref name=Popovic>
{{cite journal
| author=Popovic, M., Sarngadharan, M. G., Read, E. and Gallo, R. C. | title=Detection, isolation, and continuous production of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and pre-AIDS | journal=Science | year=1984 | pages=497-500 | volume=224 | issue=4648 | id={{PMID|6200935}}
}}</ref>. The dual discovery led to considerable scientific fall-out, and it was not until President [[François Mitterrand|Mitterand]] of France and President [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] of the USA met that the major issues were ironed out. In 1986, both the French and the US names were dropped in favour of the new term human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) <ref name=Coffin>
{{cite journal
| author=Coffin, J., Haase, A., Levy, J. A., Montagnier, L., Oroszlan, S., Teich, N., Temin, H., Toyoshima, K., Varmus, H., Vogt, P. and Weiss, R. A. | title=What to call the AIDS virus? | journal=Nature | year=1986 | pages=10 | volume=321 | issue=6165 | id={{PMID|3010128}}
}}</ref>.
HIV is a member of the genus [[lentivirus]] <ref name=ICTV61.0.6>
{{cite web
| author=[[International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]] | publisher= | publishyear=2002 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/61060000.htm | title=61.0.6. Lentivirus | accessdate=2006-02-28
}}</ref>, part of the family of [[retroviridae]]<ref name=ICTV61.>
{{cite web
| |
either Bristol, England or Jamaica.
Blackbeard often fought with, or simply showed himself wearing, multiple [[sword]]s, [[knive]]s, and [[pistol]]s, and was notorious for weaving [[hemp]] and lighted matches into his enormous black beard during battle. This image, which he cultivated, has made him the premier image of the seafaring pirate.
Little is known about his early life, though it is believed he was born in [[Bristol]], [[England]] in [[1680]]. His career began as a [[seaman]] on [[privateers]] sailing out of [[Jamaica]] during the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] ([[1701]]-[[1713]]), and later served aboard a Jamaican ship commanded by the pirate [[Benjamin Hornigold]], whom he met at [[New Providence]] in [[1716]]. He was eventually made a captain while serving under Hornigold when, near the island of [[Martinique]], they captured the French [[slave ship]] ''La Concorde'' out of [[Nantes]], on [[November 28]], [[1717]]. According to the [[France|French]] governor of the island, "Edoard Titche" commanded two boats of British pirates, one of 12 and the other of 8 guns, with 250 men. ''La Concorde'' was a prize: a 300-ton frigate armed with 40 [[cannon]], which had ranged the west coast of [[Africa]], taking British, [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] ships. Teach renamed it ''[[Queen Anne's Revenge]].''
Hornigold then retired, taking advantage of an amnesty extended to privateers.
In the following two years Teach acquired a fearsome reputation for cruelty after repeatedly preying on shipping and coastal settlements of the [[West Indies]] and the Atlantic coast of [[North America]]. A running duel with the British 30-gunned man-of-war [[HMS Scarborough|HMS ''Scarborough'']] added to his notoriety.
He would raid merchant ships, coming up on them in major channels and forcing them to allow him and his crew to board their ship. Teach and his men would take all of the valuables, food, liquor, and weapons from the ship and if there was no resistance, let the merchant ship go. On ships that resisted, all aboard were killed.
Teach kept headquarters in both the [[Bahamas]] and the [[Carolinas]]. He lived on the island of [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]] where he was named the Magistrate of the "Privateers Republic". The governor of [[North Carolina]], [[Charles Eden]], received booty from Teach in return for unofficial protection and gave him an official pardon. He was forced to leave Nassau by Royal Governor [[Woodes Rogers]] when the island was raided and all pirate occupants were either killed or driven out.
Despite this setback, Teach went back to piracy after a few weeks. As his violent raids increased, the citizens of North Carolina lost patience and sent an appeal to the governor of Virginia, [[Alexander Spotswood]]. Spotswood replied by sending troops to hunt him down. It is questionable as to whether Spotswood had the jurisdiction to do so.
Because Blackbeard operated in [[littoral]] waters with shallow-bottomed ships, it was difficult for [[ships of the line]] to engage him in battle. Two smaller, hired [[sloop]]s were therefore put under the command of Lieutenant [[Robert Maynard]], Captain of the [[HMS Pearl|HMS ''Pearl'']], with instructions to hunt down and destroy Blackbeard. Maynard sailed from [[James River (Virginia)|James River]] on November 17, [[1718]], and found the pirates in a [[North Carolina]] inlet on November 21st. Blackbeard and his crew of twenty-five were surprised by the pursuit. At first, Blackbeard's superior knowledge of the inlet allowed him to maneuver freely while the British ships frequently grounded. Eventually, however, Blackbeard's frigate ran aground. Rather than engaging in battle at a distance, he used his first [[broadside]] as the British boarded, killing 29 men and disabling one sloop.
[[Image:Blackbeard head bow.gif|thumb|200px|Blackbeard's severed head hanging from Maynard's bow]]
Maynard, aboard the other sloop, lightened his ship and brought it close enough that he and his men could board Blackbeard's sloop. Maynard was overwhelmed at first by Blackbeard's size (Teach stood 6 feet 4 inches tall), but led his men forward. Despite the best efforts of the pirates (including a desperate plan to blow up their own ship), Blackbeard was killed and the battle ended. Teach was shot 5 times and stabbed more than 20 times before he died and was decapitated by Robert Maynard. His head was then placed as a trophy on the [[bowsprit]] of their ship.
Legend has romanticized Blackbeard. Many popular contemporary [[engraving]]s show him with the smoking lit ends of his pigtails and the [[pistol]]s stuck in his [[bandolier]]s, and he has been the subject of books, movies, and documentaries. He acquired immense wealth in his predatory voyages, and was accustomed to burying his treasures in the banks of creeks and rivers. In times as desperate and difficult as the [[American Revolution]], it was common for the ignorant, credulous, and desperate to dig along these banks in search of hidden treasures; impostors found an ample basis in these current rumors for schemes of delusion. His ship is believed to have been discovered near [[Beaufort, North Carolina|Beaufort]], North Carolina in [[1996]], and is now part of a major tourist attraction.
==Blackbeard in fiction==
* [[Robert Louis Stevenson|Robert Louis Stevenson's]] ''[[Treasure Island]]'' contains two references to Blackbeard. ([[1883]])
** "Heard of him [a pirate named [[Captain Flint]]]!" cried the squire. "Heard of him, you say! He was the bloodthirstiest buccaneer that sailed. Blackbeard was a child to Flint. The Spaniards were so prodigiously afraid of him that, I tell you, sir, I was sometimes proud he was an Englishman."
** In the book, one of [[Long John Silver|Long John Silver's]] pirates is named Israel Hands, after one of Blackbeard's pirates who was assigned to captain the captured ship ''Adventure''.
* [[Peter Ustinov]] played the title role in the [[1968]] [[film]] comedy ''Blackbeard's Ghost''. [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0062737/] (1968)
* Blackbeard is a significant character in the novel ''[[On Stranger Tides]]'' by [[Tim Powers]]. ([[1987]])
* In the [[computer game]] ''[[Sid Meier's Pirates|Sid Meier's Pirates!]]'', Blackbeard plays a major role as a rival pirate and the 2nd most notorious pirate in the Caribbean. (1987)
* In the computer game ''[[Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge]]'', a card catalog entry in the Phatt Island library mentions Blackbeard: "BIOGRAPHY: 'ME AND BLACKBEARD'" (1991)
* [[Urban Legends Reference Pages|Snopes]], a website that normally investigates and verifies the truth of [[urban legend]]s, created a false rumor [http://www.snopes.com/lost/sixpence.htm] that the rhyme ''[[Sing a Song of Sixpence]]'' was used as a recruitment tool by Blackbeard. [[TLC Network|TLC]] (The Learning Channel) was taken in by this farce, and broadcast it as fact during one of their shows [http://www.snopes.com/humor/mediagoofs/sixpence.asp]. The [[board game]] ''urban myth'' also fell for the spoof [http://www.snopes.com/humor/mediagoofs/sixpence2.asp]. Snopes claims they created the spoof to test readers' ability to use their common sense to judge for themselves the likelihood of urban legends [http://www.snopes.com/lost/false.htm]. ([[1999]])
* Blackbeard is featured in ''[[Time Squad]]'' as a pirate who wants to save the mammals (or animals). There was an error in his second appearance (''Repeat Offender'') that he is said to be a pirate operating along the Caribbean. ([[July 6]], [[2001]])
* In the [[computer role-playing game]], ''[[Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura]]'', Edward Teach is the name of a famous pirate who transports the character to certain locations in the game world. ([[August 21]], 2001)
* Blackbeard can be seen sitting next to a customer in the Krusty Krab in the ''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'' episode, [[Sailor Mouth]]. ([[September 21]], 2001)
* Edward Teach appears in [[Neal Stephenson]]'s novel ''[[Quicksilver]]'', commanding a fleet of pirate vessels. ([[2004]])
* In the [[MMORPG]], ''[[City of Villains]]'', Blackbeard massacred the soldiers of a fort at the fictional location of Port Oakes, causing their ghosts to haunt the area. ([[2005]])
* Blackbeard is a runaway pirate from the crew of Whitebeard in the [[anime]] and [[manga]] series ''[[One Piece]]''. His full name is Marshall D. Teach.
* In ''[[Adventures in Odyssey]]'' episode 297: "Blackbeard's Treasure," two main characters discover Blackbeard's treasure while vacationing in Bath.
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Blackbeard.ogg|2005-04-13}}
*[http://www.ah.dcr.state.nc.us/sections/maritime/Blackbeard/default.htm North Carolina Office of Archives and History: Special Section on BlackBeard]
*[http://www.ah.dcr.state.nc.us/qar/default.htm Queen Anne's Revenge Archaeological Site]
*[http://tinpan.fortunecity.com/lennon/897/teach.html Edward Teach (Blackbeard):] contemporary engravings
[[Category:1680 births|Blackbeard]]
[[Category:1718 deaths|Blackbeard]]
[[Category:British pirates|Blackbeard]]
[[Category:Firearm deaths|Blackbeard]]
[[Category:Natives of Bristol|Blackbeard]]
[[Category:People who were pardoned by the President of the United States|Blackbeard]]
[[Category:Pirates|Blackbeard]]
[[de:Blackbeard]]
[[fr:Barbe Noire]]
[[nl:Zwartbaard]]
[[ja:黒髭]]
[[pl:Blackbeard]]
[[pt:Barba Negra]]
[[fi:Mustaparta]]
[[sv:Svartskägg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bugzilla</title>
<id>4573</id>
<revision>
<id>40484155</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T22:28:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NongBot</username>
<id>817745</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: th</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Software|
name = Bugzilla
|logo=[[Image:BugzillaLogo.png|48px]]
|caption=
|developer = [[Dave Miller (Mozilla |
districts (cercles, singular - cercle); 'Ali Sabih, Dikhil, Djibouti, Obock, Tadjoura.
==International organization participation==
[[ACCT]], [[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[AFESD]], [[Arab League|AL]], [[AMF]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-77]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IGAD]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Intelsat]] (nonsignatory user), [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[NAM]], [[OAU]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[OPCW]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Djibouti]]
[[fr:Politique de Djibouti]]
[[pt:Política do Djibouti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Djibouti</title>
<id>8045</id>
<revision>
<id>40509067</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T02:14:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nuno Tavares</username>
<id>157549</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>pt:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Djibouti]]'s fledgling economy depends on a large foreign expatriate community, the maritime and commercial activities of the Port of Djibouti, its airport, and the operation of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad. During the civil war (1991-94), there was a significant diversion of government budgetary resources from developmental and social services to military needs. [[France]] is insisting that future aid be conditional on an overhaul of Djibouti's dilapidated state finances in conjunction with the [[International Monetary Fund]]. [[Agriculture]] and [[industry]] are little developed, in part due to the harsh climate, high production costs, [[unskilled labor]], and limited [[natural resources]]. Only a few [[mineral]] deposits exist in the country, and the arid soil is unproductive--89% is desert wasteland, 10% is pasture, and 1% is forested. Services and commerce provide most of the gross domestic product.
Djibouti's most important economic asset is its strategic location on the shipping routes between the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the [[Indian Ocean]]--the Republic lies on the west side of the [[Bab-el-Mandeb]], which connects the Red Sea and the [[Gulf of Aden]]. Its port is an important transshipment point for containers. It also functions as a bunkering port and a small French naval facility. Business increased at Djibouti port when hostilities between [[Eritrea]] and [[Ethiopia]] denied Ethiopia access to the Eritrean port of Assab. Djibouti became the only significant port for landlocked Ethiopia, handling all its imports and exports, including huge shipments of U.S. food aid in 2000 during the drought and famine. In 2000, Jebel Ali Port Mangers, who manage the port of Dubai, took over management of Djibouti&rsquo;s port. This was part of a regional management scheme that also included the port of Beirut. As a result, the Port of Djibouti has increased its efficiency and is positioned to be a major port and transshipment port for the Red Sea.
The [[Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad]] is the only line serving central and southeastern Ethiopia. The single-track railway--a prime source of employment--occupies a prominent place in Ethiopia's internal distribution system for domestic commodities such as cement, cotton textiles, sugar, cereals and charcoal.
Principal exports from the region transiting Djibouti are [[coffee]], [[salt]], hides, dried [[bean]]s, [[cereal]]s, other agricultural products, and [[wax]]. Djibouti itself has few exports, and the majority of its imports come from France. Most imports are consumed in Djibouti, and the remainder goes to Ethiopia and northwestern [[Somalia]]. Djibouti's unfavorable [[balance of trade]] is offset partially by invisible earnings such as transit taxes and harbor dues. In 1999, U.S. exports to Djibouti totaled $26.7 million while U.S. imports from Djibouti were less than $100,000.
The city of Djibouti has the only paved airport in the republic. Djibouti has one of the most liberal economic regimes in Africa, with almost unrestricted banking and commerce sectors.
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $619 million (2002est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
2% (1999 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $1,200 (1999 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
3%
<br>''industry:''
20%
<br>''services:''
77% (1996 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
0% (1999 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
282,000
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 75%, industry 11%, services 14% (1991 est.)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
40%-50% (1996 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$156 million
<br>''expenditures:''
$175 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)
'''Industries:'''
limited to a few small-scale enterprises, such as dairy products and mineral-water bottling
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
3% (1996 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
177 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
100%
<br>''hydro:''
0%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
165 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
fruits, vegetables; goats, sheep, camels
'''Exports:'''
$260 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
reexports, hides and skins, coffee (in transit)
'''Exports - partners:'''
Somalia 53%, Yemen 23%, Ethiopia 5%, (1998)
'''Imports:'''
$440 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
foods, beverages, transport equipment, chemicals, petroleum products
'''Imports - partners:'''
France 13%, Ethiopia 12%, Italy 9%, Saudi Arabia 6%, UK 6% (1998)
'''Debt - external:'''
$350 million (1999 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$106.3 million (1995)
'''Currency:'''
1 Djiboutian franc (DF) = 100 centimes
'''Exchange rates:'''
Djiboutian francs (DF) per US$1 - 177.721 (fixed rate since 1973)
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
:''See also :'' [[Djibouti]]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Djibouti]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Djibouti]]
[[Category:Djibouti]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Djibouti]]
[[lt:Džibu&#269;io ekonomika]]
[[pt:Economia do Djibouti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Djibouti</title>
<id>8046</id>
<revision>
<id>29763595</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-01T03:09:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kusma</username>
<id>145855</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages maintenance|You can help!]]) -- [[AM]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephones]] - main lines in use''':
9,500 (2003)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular''':
23,000 (2003)
'''Telephone system''':
general assessment: telephone facilities in the city of [[Djibouti City|Djibouti]] are adequate as are the [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay connections to outlying areas of the country
<br>''domestic'': microwave radio relay network
<br>''international'': country code - 253; submarine cable to [[Jiddah]], [[Suez]], [[Sicily]], [[Marseilles]], [[Colombo]], and [[Singapore]]; [[satellite]] earth stations - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Indian Ocean]]) and 1 [[Arabsat]]; [[Medarabtel]] regional microwave radio relay telephone network
'''Radio [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations''':
[[AM broadcasting|AM]] 1, [[FM]] 2, shortwave 0 (2001)
'''Television broadcast stations''':
1 (2002)
'''[[Internet]] hosts''':
702 (2004)
'''Internet users''':
6,500 (2003)
'''Internet [[country code]]''':
.dj
==References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/dj.html CIA Factbook on Djibouti]
[[Category:Communications by country|Djibouti]]
[[Category:Djibouti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Djibouti</title>
<id>8047</id>
<revision>
<id>37832518</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T11:53:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Transportation in Djibouti]] to [[Transport in Djibouti]]: part of a series</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Railway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
100 km (Djibouti segment of the [[Addis Ababa]]-[[Djibouti]] railroad)
<br>''[[narrow gauge]]:''
100 km 1.000-m gauge
<br>''note:''
Djibouti and Ethiopia plan to revitalize the century-old railroad that links their capitals by 2003
'''Highways:'''
<br>''total:''
2,890 km
<br>''paved:''
364 km
<br>''unpaved:''
2,526 km (1996 est.)
'''Ports and harbors:'''
Djibouti
'''Merchant marine:'''
<br>''total:''
1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,369 GRT/3,030 DWT
<br>''ships by type:''
cargo 1 (1999 est.)
'''Airports:'''
12 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
2
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
10
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
5
<br>''under 914 m:''
3 (1999 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Djibouti]]
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category |
ches from the nut to the 7th fret, the 7th fret to the 19th, and the 19th to the saddle; one-quarter reaches from nut to fifth to twelfth to twenty-fourth to saddle). This feature is important in playing [[harmonics]]. Frets are available in several different gauges, depending on the type of guitar and the player's style.
Guitars have [[fret]]s on the [[fingerboard]] to fix the positions of notes and [[scale (music)|scales]], which gives them [[equal temperament]]. Consequently, the [[ratio]] of the widths of two consecutive frets is the [[twelfth root of two]] <math>\sqrt[12]{2}</math>, whose numeric value is about 1.059463. The twelfth fret divides the string in two exact halves and the 24th fret (if present) divides the string in half yet again. Every twelve frets represents one octave.
===Truss rod===
The '''truss rod''' is an adjustable metal rod that runs along the inside of the neck, adjusted by a hex nut or an allen-key bolt usually located either at the headstock (under a cover) or just inside the body of the guitar, underneath the fretboard (accessible through the sound hole). The truss rod counteracts the immense amount of tension the strings place on the neck, bringing the neck back to a straighter position. The truss rod can be adjusted to compensate for changes in the neck wood due to changes in humidity or to compensate for changes in the tension of strings. Tightening the rod will curve the neck back and loosening it will return it forward. Adjusting the truss rod affects the intonation of a guitar as well as affecting the action (the height of the strings from the fingerboard). Some truss rod systems, called "double action" truss systems, will tighten both ways, allowing the neck to be pushed both forward and backward (most truss rods can only be loosened so much, beyond which the bolt will just come loose and the neck will no longer be pulled backward). Most classical guitars do not have truss rods, as the nylon strings do not put enough tension on the neck for one to be needed.
===Inlays===
{{main|Inlay (guitar)}}
Inlays are visual elements set into the exterior wood on a guitar. The typical locations for inlay are on the fretboard, headstock, and around the soundhole (called a rosette on acoustic guitars). Inlays range from simple plastic dots on the fretboard to fantastic works of art covering the entire exterior surface of a guitar (front and back). Some guitar players put [[LED]]'s in the fretboard as inlays to produce a neat lighting effect onstage. The person who is most well-known for this effect is bassist Sam Rivers of Limp Bizkit.
Fretboard inlays are most commonly shaped like dots, diamond shapes, parallelograms, or large blocks in between the frets. Dots are usually inlaid into the upper edge of the fretboard in the same positions, small enough to be visible only to the player. Some manufacturers go beyond these simple shapes and use more creative designs such as lightning bolts or letters and numbers. The simpler inlays are often done in plastic on guitars of recent vintage, but many older, and newer, high-end instruments have inlays made of [[mother of pearl]], [[abalone]], [[ivory]], [[colored wood]] or any number of exotic materials. On some low-end guitars, they are just painted. Many classical guitars have no inlays at all; the player himself sometimes will make them with a [[marker pen]], [[correction fluid]], or a small piece of tape.
The most popular fretboard inlay scheme involves single inlays on the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 15th, 17th, 19th, and 21st frets, and double inlays on the 12th, sometimes 7th, and (if present) 24th fret. Pros of such scheme include its symmetry about the 12th fret and symmetry of every half (0-12 and 12-24) about the 7th and 19th frets. However, playing these frets, for example, on E string would yield notes E, G, A, B, C# that barely makes a complete [[musical mode]] by themselves.
A less popular fretboard inlay scheme involves inlays on 3rd, 5th, 7th, 10th, 12th, 15th, 17th, 19th, 22nd and 24th frets. Playing these frets, for example, on E string yields notes E, G, A, B, D that fit perfectly into E minor [[pentatonic]]. Such a scheme is very close to [[piano]] keys coloring (which involves black coloring for [[sharp]]s that pentatonic consists of) and of some use on classic guitars.
Beyond the fretboard inlay, the headstock and soundhole are also commonly inlaid. The manufacturer's logo is commonly inlaid into the headstock. Sometimes a small design such as a bird or other character or an abstract shape also accompanies the logo. The soundhole designs found on acoustic guitars vary from simple concentric circles to delicate fretwork. Many high-end guitars have more elaborate decorative inlay schemes. Often the edges of the guitar around the neck and body and down the middle of the back are inlaid. The fretboard commonly has a large inlay running across several frets or the entire length of the fretboard, such as a long vine creeping across the fretboard. Most acoustic guitars have an inlay that borders the sides of the fretboard, and some electrics (namely Fender Stratocasters) have a black inlay running on the back of the neck, from about the body to the middle of the neck, commonly referred to as a skunk stripe.
Some very limited edition high-end or custom-made guitars have artistic inlay designs that span the entire front (or even the back) of the guitar. These designs use a variety of different materials and are created using techniques borrowed from furniture making. While these designs are often just very elaborate decorations, they are sometimes works of art that even depict a particular theme or a scene. Although these guitars are often constructed from the most exclusive materials, they are generally considered to be collector's items and not intended to be played. Large guitar manufacturers often issue these guitars to celebrate a significant historical milestone.
===Neck===
A guitar's frets, fretboard, tuners, headstock, and truss rod, all attached to a long wooden extension, collectively comprise its neck. The wood used to make the fretboard will usually differ from the wood in the rest of the neck. The bending stress on the neck is considerable, particularly when heavier gauge strings are used (see [[Guitar#Strings and tuning|Strings and tuning]]), and the ability of the neck to resist bending (see [[#Truss Rod|Truss rod]]) is important to the guitar's ability to hold a constant pitch during tuning or when strings are fretted. The rigidity of the neck with respect to the body of the guitar is one determinant of a good instrument versus a poor one. Conversely, the ability to change the pitch of the note slightly by deliberately bending the neck forcibly with the fretting arm is a technique occasionally used, particularly in the [[blues]] genre and those derived from it, such as [[rock and roll]]. The shape of the neck can also vary, from a gentle "C" curve to a more pronounced "V" curve.
===Neck joint===
This is the point at which the neck is either bolted or glued to the body of the guitar. Almost all acoustic guitars, with the primary exception of Taylors, have glued (otherwise known as set) necks, while electric guitars are constructed using both types. Set necks usually feature dovetail joints, which offer stability and sustain. Other commonly used neck joints include mortise-and-tenon joints (such as those used by CF Martin & Co. guitars), and Spanish Heel style neck joints (commonly found in classical guitars). Bolt-on necks, though they are historically associated with cheaper instruments, do offer greater flexibility in the guitar's set-up, and allow easier access for neck joint maintenance and repairs. Another type of neck, only available for solid body electric guitars, is the Neck-Through-Body construction. These are designed so that everything from the machine heads down to the bridge are located on the same piece of wood. The sides (also known as wings) of the guitar are then glued to this central piece. Some luthiers prefer this method of construction as it is said to allow better sustain of each note. Some very high-end instruments may not have a neck joint at all, having the neck and sides built as one piece and the body built around it.
===Body (acoustic guitar)===
The body of the instrument is a major determinant of the overall sound for acoustic guitars. The guitar top, or soundboard, is a finely crafted and engineered element often made of [[spruce]], [[red cedar]] or [[mahogany]]. This thin (often 2 or 3 mm thick) piece of wood, strengthened by different types of internal bracing, is considered to be the most prominent factor in determining the sound quality of a guitar. The majority of the sound is caused by vibration of the guitar top as the energy of the vibrating strings is transferred to it. Different patterns of wood bracing have been used through the years by luthiers; to not only strengthen the top against collapsing under the tremendous stress exerted by the tensioned strings (Torres, Hauser, Ramirez, Fleta being among the most influential designers of their time), but also to affect the resonation of the top. The back and sides are made out of a variety of woods such as mahogany, Indian [[rosewood]] and highly regarded Brazilian rosewood (''Dalbergia nigra''). Each one is chosen for their aesthetic effect and structural strength, and can also play a significant role in determining the instrument's [[timbre]]. These are also strengthened with internal bracing, decorated with inlays and purfling, and subjected to a lot of abuse.
The body of an acoustic guitar is a resonating chamber which projects the vibrations of the body through a ''sound hole'', allowing the acoustic guitar to be heard without amplification. The sound hole is normally a round hole in the top of the guitar, though some may have different shapes or multiple hol |
at which no further heat could be removed from a body. Absolute zero has never been reached, and it appears it never will be. It may be [[asymptote|asymptotically]] approached like the [[speed of light]], but never attained.
==Kinetic theory and motion==
According to [[kinetic theory]], there should be no movement of individual [[molecule]]s at absolute zero, so any material at this temperature would be solid. In a [[monatomic]] gas, most of the energy is in the form of translational motion, and the temperature can be measured in terms of the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution|distribution of this motion]], with slower speeds corresponding to lower temperatures, perhaps even down to absolute zero. But this is contrary to [[experiment]]al evidence, and it is predicted that [[helium]] will never [[solid|solidify]], no matter how much it is cooled or compressed.
Because of quantum-mechanical effects, the speed at absolute zero is larger than zero and depends, along with the energy, on the volume within which a particle is confined. At absolute zero, the [[molecule]]s and [[atom]]s in a system are all in their [[ground state]], the state of lowest possible energy, and a system has the least amount of kinetic energy allowed by the [[laws of physics]]. But the lowest possible [[zero-point energy]] for a ''confined'' [[particle in a box]] is not zero. Rather than being fixed and non-moving, the equation for the energy levels shows that no matter how low the temperature gets, even when the [[quantum number]] takes its minimum value of one, a particle still has some translational [[kinetic energy]] and motion. This is a reflection of [[Werner Heisenberg|Heisenberg's]] [[uncertainty principle]], which states that the [[dimension|position]] and the [[momentum]] of a particle cannot both be known precisely at any given time.
Similarly, using the [[harmonic oscillator|harmonic]] approximation for the vibrations of a diatomic molecule, the [[quantum harmonic oscillator]] yields a positive zero-point energy even when the vibrational [[quantum number]] takes its minimum value of zero. For polyatomic molecules, and for bodies such as [[crystal]]s, whose [[normal mode]] motions can not be assigned to individual atoms or [[chemical bond]]s, the lowest-energy state is that of the system as a whole.
[[Classical mechanics|Classically]], the absolute temperature ''T'' of a system of molecules at [[thermodynamic equilibrium]] assigns an average of 1/2&nbsp;''kT'' to each [[quadratic function|quadratic]] [[kinetic energy|kinetic]] and/or [[potential energy]] term in each mechanical [[degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degree of freedom]], where ''k'' is [[Boltzmann constant|Boltzmann's constant]]. (See [[Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)#Equipartition theorem|equipartition of energy]] and the role of the [[Boltzmann distribution]] in relating temperature to energy.) But quantum mechanics shows that this is obeyed only for temperatures such that ''kT''&nbsp;>&nbsp;''hν'', where ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]] and ν is a characteristic [[frequency]]. As ''T'' decreases, the assumption that energy is continuously variable fails whenever ''hν'' exceeds ''kT''. For [[normal mode|vibrational modes]] in crystals, this happens at [[room temperature]], which explains the deviation of the calculated [[specific heat capacity|specific heats]] of atomic crystals from the [[experiment]]al [[Dulong-Petit law]] value of 3''R''&nbsp;/mole, a fact which puzzled late [[19th century]] [[physics|physicists]] and [[physical chemistry|physical chemists]]. (Rushbrooke, p. 33)
==Cryogenics==
It can be shown from the laws of [[thermodynamics]] that absolute zero can never be achieved, though it is possible to reach temperatures arbitrarily close to it through the use of [[cryocoolers]]. This is the same principle that ensures no [[machine]] can be 100% efficient.
At very low temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero, matter exhibits many unusual properties including [[superconductor|superconductivity]], [[superfluid|superfluidity]], and [[Bose-Einstein condensate|Bose-Einstein condensation]]. In order to study such [[phenomenon|phenomena]], [[scientist]]s have worked to obtain ever lower temperatures.
*As of September 2003, the lowest temperature Bose-Einstein condensate achieved was 450&#160;[[1 E-12 K|pK]], or 4.5&#160;&#215;&#160;10<sup>-10</sup>&#160;K. This was performed by [[Wolfgang Ketterle]] and colleagues at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].{{rf|1|Leanhardt}}
*As of February 2003, the [[Boomerang Nebula]], with a temperature of 1.15&#160;K, is the coldest place known outside a laboratory. The [[nebula]] is [[1 E19 m|5000 light-years]] from [[Earth]] and is in the constellation [[Centaurus]].{{rf|2|Cauchi}}
*As of November 2002, the coldest temperature produced was 100 pK during an experiment on [[nuclear magnetic ordering]] in the [[Helsinki University of Technology]]'s Low Temperature Lab.{{rf|3|Knuuttila}}
==Thermodynamics near absolute zero==
At 0&nbsp;K, (nearly) all molecular motion ceases and Δ''S''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 for any [[adiabatic process]]. Pure substances can (ideally) form perfect [[crystal]]s as ''T''&nbsp;→&nbsp;0. [[Max Planck|Planck's]] strong form of the [[third law of thermodynamics]] states that the [[entropy]] of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero. However, if the lowest energy state is [[degenerate energy level|degenerate]] (more than one [[microstate (statistical mechanics)|microstate]]), this cannot be true. The original [[Walther Nernst|Nernst]] ''heat theorem'' makes the weaker and less controversial claim that the entropy ''change'' for any isothermal process approaches zero as ''T''&nbsp;→&nbsp;0
:<math> \lim_{T \to 0} \Delta S = 0 </math>
which implies that the entropy of a perfect crystal simply approaches a constant value.
<font color=maroon>''The Nernst postulate identifies the isotherm T&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 as coincident with the adiabat S&nbsp;=&nbsp;0, although other isotherms and adiabats are distinct. As no two adiabats intersect, no other adiabat can intersect the T&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 isotherm. Consequently no adiabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature.''</font> (≈&nbsp;Callen, pp. 189-190)
An even stronger assertion is that <font color=maroon>''It is impossible by any procedure to reduce the temperature of a system to zero in a finite number of operations.''</font> (≈&nbsp;Guggenheim, p. 157)
A perfect crystal is one in which the internal [[lattice (group)|lattice]] structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational [[symmetry]] along three (not usually [[orthogonality|orthogonal]]) [[Cartesian coordinate system|axes]]. Every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For [[chemical substance|substances]] which have two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as [[diamond]] and [[graphite]] for [[carbon]], there is a kind of "chemical degeneracy". The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at ''T''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 even though each is perfectly ordered.
Perfect crystals never occur in practice; imperfections, and even entire amorphous materials, simply get "frozen in" at low temperatures, so transitions to more stable states do not occur.
Using the [[Peter Debye|Debye]] model, the [[specific heat capacity|specific heat]] and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to ''T''<sup>&nbsp;3</sup>, while the [[enthalpy]] and [[chemical potential]] are proportional to ''T''<sup>&nbsp;4</sup>. (Guggenheim, p. 111) These quantities drop toward their ''T''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 limiting values and approach with ''zero'' slopes. For the specific heats at least, the limiting value itself is definitely zero, as borne out by experiments to below 10&nbsp;K. Even the less detailed [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] model shows this curious drop in specific heats. In fact, all specific heats vanish as absolute zero, not just those of crystals. Likewise for the coefficient of [[thermal expansion]]. [[Maxwell relations|Maxwell's relations]] show that various other quantities also vanish. These [[phenomenon|phenomena]] were unanticipated.
Since the relation between changes in the [[Gibbs free energy]], the enthalpy and the entropy is
:<math> \Delta G = \Delta H - T \Delta S \,</math>
it follows that as ''T'' decreases, Δ''G'' and Δ''H'' approach each other (so long as Δ''S'' is bounded). [[Experiment]]ally, it is found that most [[chemical reaction]]s are [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]] and release heat ''in the direction'' they are found to be going, toward [[thermodynamic equilibrium|equilbirum]]. That is, even at [[room temperature]] ''T'' is low enough so that the fact that (Δ''G'')<sub>''T,P''</sub>&nbsp;<&nbsp;0 (usually) implies that Δ''H''&nbsp;<&nbsp;0. (In the opposite direction, each such reaction would of course absorb heat.)
More than that, the ''slopes'' of the temperature derivatives of Δ''G'' and Δ''H'' converge and ''are equal to zero'' at ''T''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0, which ensures that Δ''G'' and Δ''H'' are nearly the same over a considerable range of temperatures, justifying the approximate [[empiricism|empirical]] [[Principle of Thomsen and Berthelot]], which says that <font color=maroon>''the equilibrium state to which a system proceeds is the one which evolves the greatest amount of heat''</font>, i.e., an actual process is the ''most exothermic one''. (Callen, pp. 186-187)
==Absolute temperature scales==
As mentioned, absolute or [[thermodynamic temperature]] is conventionally measured in [[Kelvin]]s (Celsius-size degrees), |
version)
* [[Don Carlo]] - ?, [[Modena]], [[1886]] (third revision, 4 Act version)
*''[[Otello]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1887]]
*''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1893]]
===See also===
[[List of compositions by Giuseppe Verdi]]
==References==
* {{cite book | last = Budden | first = J. | year = 1973 | title = The Operas of Verdi, Volume I | edition = 3rd ed | publisher = Oxford University Press | id = ISBN 0198162618 }}
* {{cite book | last = Budden | first = J. | year = 1973 | title = The Operas of Verdi, Volume II | edition = 3rd ed | publisher = Oxford University Press | id = ISBN 0198162626 }}
* {{cite book | last = Budden | first = J. | year = 1973 | title = The Operas of Verdi, Volume III | edition = 3rd ed | publisher = Oxford University Press | id = ISBN 0198162634 }}
* {{cite book | last = Kamien | first = R. | year = 1997 | title = Music: an appreciation - student brief | edition = 3rd ed | publisher = McGraw Hill | id = ISBN 0070365210 }}
* {{cite book | last = Gal | first = H. | year = 1975 | title = Brahms, Wagner, Verdi: drei meister, drei welten | publisher = Fischer | id = ISBN 3100243021 }}
* {{cite book | last = Phillips-Matz | first = Mary Jane | year = 1993 | title = Verdi: A Biography | edition = 1st ed | publisher = Oxford University Press | id = ISBN 0-19-313204-4 }}
* {{cite book | last = Michels | first = Ulrich | year = 1992 | title = dtv-Atlas zur Musik: Band Zwei | edition = 7th ed | publisher = Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag in association with Bärenreiter Verlag | id = ISBN 3-423-03023-2 }}
==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=La Donna E Mobile Rigoletto.ogg|title=La donna è mobile|description=[[Enrico Caruso]] sings [[La donna è mobile]] from Verdi's [[Rigoletto (opera)|Rigoletto]], circa [[1908]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==External links==
* [http://www.giuseppeverdi.it Giuseppe Verdi Official Site]
* [http://cylinders.library.ucsb.edu/search.php?query=Verdi%2C+Giuseppe&queryType=%40attr+1%3D1 Verdi cylinder recordings], from the [[Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project]] at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] Library.
* [http://opera.stanford.edu/Verdi/main.html Stanford University list of Verdi operas, premiere locations and dates, etc.]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Giuseppe+Verdi | name=Giuseppe Verdi}}
==Eponyms==
* The [[Verdi Inlet]] on the [[Beethoven Peninsula]] of [[Alexander Island]] just off of [[Antarctica]]
* [[Verdi Square]] at Broadway and West 72nd Street in [[Manhattan]]
* [[3975 Verdi|Asteroid 3975 Verdi]]
==Trivia==
*Musical humorist [[Victor Borge]] used to refer to Verdi as "Joe Green", saying that Giuseppe Verdi was just his "stage name".
{{Commons|Category:Giuseppe Verdi}}
[[Category:1813 births|Verdi, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:1901 deaths|Verdi, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Verdi, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Verdi, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Verdi, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:Natives of Emilia-Romagna|Verdi, Giuseppe]]
{{Link FA|fi}}
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[[ar:جيوسيبي فيردي]]
[[bg:Джузепе Верди]]
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[[de:Giuseppe Verdi]]
[[eo:Giuseppe VERDI]]
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[[ga:Giuseppe Verdi]]
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[[he:ג'וזפה ורדי]]
[[hr:Giuseppe Verdi]]
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[[ja:ジュゼッペ・ヴェルディ]]
[[mk:Џузепе Верди]]
[[nl:Giuseppe Verdi]]
[[no:Giuseppe Verdi]]
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[[ru:Верди, Джузеппе]]
[[scn:Giuseppi Verdi]]
[[sk:Giuseppe Verdi]]
[[sl:Giuseppe Verdi]]
[[sr:Ђузепе Верди]]
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[[th:จูเซปเป เวอร์ดิ]]
[[tr:Giuseppe Verdi]]
[[zh:朱塞佩·威尔第]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Godwins Law</title>
<id>12959</id>
<revision>
<id>30858035</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-10T21:25:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CXI</username>
<id>93988</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Godwin's law -> Godwin's Law</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Godwin's Law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>German Navy</title>
<id>12960</id>
<revision>
<id>41155819</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T11:35:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KuK</username>
<id>204838</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Organization */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Naval Ensign of Germany.svg|right|200px]]
The '''German Navy''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Deutsche Marine'' {{Audio|De-Marine-pronunciation.ogg|<small>listen</small>}}) is the [[navy]] of [[Germany]] and part of the [[Bundeswehr]].
The German Navy traces its roots back to the Imperial Fleet (Reichsflotte) of the [[Revolutions of 1848|revolutionary era of 1848-1852]] and more directly to the [[Prussian Navy]], which later evolved into the Northern German Federal Navy ([[Norddeutsche Bundesmarine]], [[1866]]-[[1871]]) and became the Imperial Navy ([[Kaiserliche Marine]], [[1872]]-[[1918]]). From [[1919]] to [[1921]] it was known as the Temporary Imperial Navy (Vorläufige Reichsmarine) and then became the [[Reichsmarine]]. It was known as the War Navy ([[Kriegsmarine]]) from [[1935]] to [[1945]].
In [[1956]], with [[West Germany]]'s accession to [[NATO]], a new navy was established and was referred to as the Federal Navy (Bundesmarine). With the reunification of Germany in [[1990]], it was decided to simply use the name ''Deutsche Marine'' ("German Navy").
[[Image:Fregatte Karlsruhe.jpg|thumb|left|250px|German frigate "Karlsruhe" rescuing shipwrecked people off the coast of [[Somalia]] while participating in the international anti-terror operation ENDURING FREEDOM, April 2005]]
== Missions ==
The German Navy is part of the German armed forces (''[[Bundeswehr]]''), and is deeply integrated into the [[NATO]] alliance. Its mission includes the participation in peace-keeping and peace enforcement operations as well as the protection of German and Allied territories. German war ships permanently participate in all ''NATO Maritime Groups''. The German Navy is also engaged in operations against international [[terrorism]] such as [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] and NATO-Operation [[Active Endeavour]].
== Organization ==
The German Navy is commanded by the '''Chief of the Naval Staff''' in the Federal Ministry of Defense in [[Bonn]]. The major commands are the '''Fleet Command''' at Glücksburg near [[Flensburg]] and the '''Naval Office''' at [[Rostock]]. The Fleet is being commanded by the Commander-in-Chief German Fleet (CINCGERFLEET) and comprises all combat vessels, [[aircraft]], [[helicopter]]s and other combat forces, while schools, naval bases and test installations are under the purview of the Naval Office. The strength of the Navy is about 19,000 men and women with another 6,000 navy personnel serving in different elements of the central military organization of the Bundeswehr.
The navy as a part of the Bundeswehr is responsible for developing and providing the maritime capabilities of the German armed forces. Therefore it owns a number of development and testing installations that are part of an interservice and international network.
*'''Fleet Command''' ''German: Flottenkommando'' (Glücksbürg)
**Naval Air Wing 3 (Nordholz)
**Naval Air Wing 5 (Kiel)
**Naval Medical Institute (Kiel), responsible especially for diving medicine.
**''1st Flotilla'' (Kiel)
***1st Corvette Squadron (Warnemünde)
***1st Submarine Squadron (Eckernförde)
***Submarine Training Centre (Eckernförde)
***1st Mine Counter-Measure Squadron (Kiel)
***7th Fast Patrol Boat Squadron (Warnemünde)
***5th Mine Counter-Measure Squadron (Kiel)
***Force Protection Group (Eckernförde)
****one HQ and support company
****four Force Protection companies
***Special Warface Group (Eckernförde)
****one Frogmen company
****one clearance diver company (mine counter measures and explosive ordnance disposal)
****two companies for special operations (e.g. boarding)
****one support company
****special training center
**''2nd Flotilla'' (Wilhelmshaven)
***2nd Frigate Squadron (Wilhelmshaven)
***4th Frigate Squadron (Wilhelmshaven)
***Auxiliary Squadron (Wilhelmshaven/Kiel)
*'''Naval Office''' ''German: [[Marineamt]]'' (Rostock)
**''Navy Schools''
***Naval Academy (Flensburg-Mürwik)
***Petty Officer School (Plön, near Kiel)
***Engeneering School (Parow, near Stralsund)
****Damage Control Training Centre (Neustadt in Holstein)
*** Operations School (Bremerhaven)
**''Naval Bases''
***Naval Base Command [[Wilhelmshaven]]
***Naval Base Command [[Eckernförde]]
***Naval Base Command [[Kiel]]
***Naval Base Command [[Warnemünde]]
**Department of Naval Development (Bremerhaven)
**Naval Test Command (Eckernförde)
**Naval Command & Control Systems Command (Wilhelmshaven)
== Ships and Weapon Systems ==
[[Image:8955 SeaKing41 MFG5.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sea King Mk41 from MFG.5 in special 30th anniversary colour scheme at Weston-super-Mare, UK, July 2005]]
The '''main weapons systems''' of the German Navy are:
*[[Frigates|frigate]]
**8 [[Bremen class frigate|Bremen class]] (guided missile frigate)
**4 [[Brandenburg class frigate|Brandenburg class]] (anti-submarine frigate)
**3 [[Sachsen class frigate|Sachsen class]] (anti-air frigate)
**5 F125 class (planed, replace Bremen class)
*[[Corvette]]s
**5 Braunschweig class (under construction, replace Gepard class)
*[[Fast Patrol Boat]]s
**10 [[Gepard class fast patrol boat|Gepard class]]
*[[Minesweeper (ship)|Mine Counter-Measure Vessels]]
**5 Hameln class (minesweeper, drone guidance)
**5 Laboe class (mine hunter)
**12 Frankenthal class (minesweeper)
**18 Seehund class (MCM drone)
**M1052 Mühlhausen (diver support)
*[[Landing craft]]
**2 Lachs class
*[[Submarine]]s
**10 U206A class
**4 U212A class (2 more planned, replace |
e by the threat of military force. The two exceptions were [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] which retained its full independence, and [[Albania]] which escaped Soviet influence in the [[1960s]] and aligned itself with [[People's Republic of China|China]]; both Albania and Yugoslavia were [[Communist state]]s.
To the east of the Iron Curtain, the states developed their own international economic and military alliances, [[Comecon]] and the [[Warsaw Pact]]. Many people tried to escape the soviets rule.
===West of the Iron Curtain===
To the west of the Iron Curtain, the countries of [[Western Europe]] and [[Southern Europe]], along with [[Austria]], [[West Germany]], [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Switzerland]], operated [[market economy|market economies]]. With the exception of a period of [[fascism]] in [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] and military [[dictatorship]] in [[Greece]], these countries were ruled by [[democracy|democratic]] governments.
Most states to the west of the Iron Curtain - with the exception of [[Neutral country|neutral]] [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Austria]], [[Sweden]], [[Finland]] and [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] - were allied with the [[United States]] within [[NATO]]. Economically, the [[European Community]] and the [[European Free Trade Association]] were the Western counterparts to COMECON.
===The Iron Curtain as a physical entity===
[[image:Mock&Horn.jpg|frame|In the summer of [[1989]], the [[foreign minister]]s of [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]], [[Alois Mock]] and [[Gyula Horn]], ceremonially cut through the border defences separating their countries.]]
The Iron Curtain took physical form in the shape of border defences between the countries of the western and eastern blocs. These were some of the most heavily militarised areas in the world, particularly the so-called "inner German border" &ndash; commonly known simply as ''die Grenze'' in German &ndash; between East and West Germany. The inner German border was marked in rural areas by double fences made of steel mesh with sharp edges, while near urban areas a high concrete barrier similar to the [[Berlin Wall]] was built. The barrier was always a short distance inside East German territory to avoid any intrusion into Western territory. The actual borderline was marked by posts and signs and was overlooked by numerous watchtowers set behind the barrier. In some places a "death strip" was constructed on the East German side of the barrier, in which unauthorized access would be met with bullets. The strip of land on the West German side of the barrier &ndash; between the actual borderline and the barrier &ndash; was readily accessible but only at considerable personal risk, as it was patrolled by both East and West German border guards. Shooting incidents were not uncommon, and a total of 28 East German border guards were killed between [[1948]]-[[1989]] (some may have been victims of "[[friendly fire]]" by their own side).
''For more on this topic, see the [[GDR border system]] article.''
Elsewhere, the border defences between west and east were much lighter. The border between Hungary and neutral Austria, for instance, was marked by a simple chain link fence which was easily removed when it became the first part of the Iron Curtain to be dismantled in 1989.
The abandon of this strip of land created a [[wildlife corridor]] across Europe, that helped the spread of several species to new territories.
The term "Iron Curtain" was only used for the fortified borders in central Europe; it was never used for similar borders in Asia between communist and capitalist states. The border between [[North Korea]] and [[South Korea]] is very comparable to the former inner German border, particularly in its degree of militarisation, but it has never conventionally been considered part of the Iron Curtain.
==Origins of the Iron Curtain==
{{wikisourcepar|Iron Curtain Speech}}
[[Image:Yousef Karsh - Winston Churchill - 30 December 1941.jpg|thumb|right|Winston Churchill popularized the term "Iron Curtain".]]
The first recorded use of the term ''iron curtain'' was in [[1819]], in the general sense of "an impenetrable barrier". By [[1920]] it had become associated with the boundary of the [[Soviet Union]]'s [[sphere of influence]].
[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=iron+curtain]
It was used during [[World War II]] by German [[Propagandaministerium|Propaganda Minister]] [[Joseph Goebbels]] and later Count [[Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk]] in the last days of the war; however, its use was popularized by the former [[United Kingdom|British]] leader [[Winston Churchill]], who used it in his "Sinews of Peace" address [[March 5]], [[1946]]:
:''From [[Szczecin|Stettin]] in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] to [[Trieste]] in the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] an "iron curtain" has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. [[Warsaw]], [[Berlin]], [[Prague]], [[Vienna]], [[Budapest]], [[Belgrade]], [[Bucharest]] and [[Sofia]]; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from [[Moscow]].''
Churchill made his speech at [[Westminster College]] in [[Fulton, Missouri]]. After its fall, a section of the Berlin Wall was transported to and erected at Westminster College. Although the phrase was not well received at the time, as the [[Cold War]] strengthened it gained popularity as a short-hand reference to the division of Europe. The Iron Curtain served to keep people in and information out, and the metaphor eventually enjoyed wide acceptance in the West.
In the Soviet Union, the speech was seen by [[Stalin]] as reinforcing his view that a future conflict with the West was inevitable. Over the following months, through a mixture of persuasion and purges of those holding contrary views, the Soviet Union did indeed come to see the West as a threat, rather than the ally they had been during World War II. The [[Cold War]] had begun in earnest.
===Antagonism between East and West===
The antagonism between the [[Soviet Union]] and the West that led to Churchill's speech had various origins.
[[Britain]], [[France]], [[Japan]], [[Canada]], the [[United States]] and many other countries had backed the [[White Russian]]s against the [[Bolshevik]]s during the [[1918]]&ndash;[[1920]] [[Russian Civil War]], and the fact hadn't been forgotten by the Soviets. In the build up to World War II and in the face of the Western [[appeasement]] of [[Hitler]] the Soviets signed the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] with [[Nazi Germany]], one of the intentions being to divide the border states between them to form a buffer zone. Following the war Stalin was determined to acquire a similar buffer against Germany with pro-Soviet states on its border, leading to strained relations at the [[Yalta Conference]] (February [[1945]]) and the subsequent [[Potsdam Conference]] (August 1945).
In the West, there was not only opposition to Soviet domination over the buffer states, but the fear grew that the Soviets were building an empire that might be a threat to them and their interests. And, in particular, Churchill was concerned that the United States might return to its pre-war [[United States isolationism|isolationism]], leaving the exhausted European states unable to resist Soviet demands. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] had announced at Yalta that after the defeat of Germany, US forces would be withdrawn from Europe within two years ''([[Antony Beevor]] Berlin: The Downfall 1945, p80)''.
''See also [[Cold War (1947-1953) and its origins]]''
==Earlier usages of the term==
There are various earlier usages of the term "Iron Curtain" pre-dating Churchill. Some suggest the term may have first been coined by [[Queen Elisabeth of the Belgians]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup> after World War I to describe the political situation between [[Belgium]] and [[Germany]], in [[1914]]. An iron curtain, or ''eisener Vorhang'', was an obligatory precaution in all German theaters to prevent the possibility of fire from spreading from the stage to the rest of the theater. Such fires were rather common as the decor often was very flammable. In case of fire a metal wall would separate the stage from the theater, secluding the flames to be extinguished by firefighters. [[Douglas Reed]] used this metaphor in his book ''Disgrace Abounding'' ([[Jonathan Cape]], 1939, page 129): "The bitter strife [in Yugoslavia between Serb unionists and Croat federalists] had only been hidden by the iron safety-curtain of the King's dictatorship."
On February 25, 1945 [[Joseph Goebbels]] wrote of an "iron curtain" in his weekly newspaper Das Reich:
:''If the German people lay down their weapons, the Soviets, according to the agreement between Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin, would occupy all of East and Southeast Europe along with the greater part of the Reich. An iron curtain [ein eiserner Vorhang] would fall over this enormous territory controlled by the Soviet Union, behind which nations would be slaughtered. The Jewish press in London and New York would probably still be applauding.''
"[http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/goeb49.htm The Year 2000]"
The first oral mention of an Iron Curtain was in a broadcast by [[Count Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk]] to the German people on May 2, 1945:
:''In the East the iron curtain behind which, unseen by the eyes of the world, the work of destruction goes on, is moving steadily forward.''
The first recorded occasion on which Churchill used the term "iron curtain" was in a May 12, 1945 telegram he sent to US President [[Harry S. Truman]]:
|
g an animal means in the case of the man and the portrait, you give in either case a definition appropriate to that case alone. <p>
Things are univocally named, when not only they bear the same name but the name means the same in each case -- has the same definition corresponding. Thus a man and an ox are called 'animals'. The name is the same in both cases; so also the statement of essence. For if you are asked what is meant by their both of them being called 'animals', you give that particular name in both cases the same definition. (Aristotle, ''Categories'', 1.1<sup>a</sup>1-12).
</blockquote>
In the logic of Aristotle categories are adjuncts to reasoning that are designed to resolve equivocations and thus to prepare ambiguous signs, that are otherwise recalcitrant to being ruled by logic, for the application of logical laws. An equivocation is a variation in meaning, or a manifold of sign senses, and so Peirce's claim that three categories are sufficient amounts to an assertion that all manifolds of meaning can be unified in just three steps.
The following passage is critical to the understanding of Peirce's Categories:
<blockquote>
I will now say a few words about what you have called Categories, but for which I prefer the designation Predicaments, and which you have explained as predicates of predicates. That wonderful operation of [[hypostatic abstraction]] by which we seem to create ''entia rationis'' that are, nevertheless, sometimes real, furnishes us the means of turning predicates from being signs that we think or think ''through'', into being subjects thought of. We thus think of the thought-sign itself, making it the object of another thought-sign. Thereupon, we can repeat the operation of hypostatic abstraction, and from these second intentions derive third intentions. Does this series proceed endlessly? I think not. What then are the characters of its different members? My thoughts on this subject are not yet harvested. I will only say that the subject concerns Logic, but that the divisions so obtained must not be confounded with the different Modes of Being: Actuality, Possibility, Destiny (or Freedom from Destiny). On the contrary, the succession of Predicates of Predicates is different in the different Modes of Being. Meantime, it will be proper that in our system of diagrammatization we should provide for the division, whenever needed, of each of our three Universes of modes of reality into ''Realms'' for the different Predicaments. (Peirce, CP 4.549, "Prolegomena to an Apology for Pragmaticism", ''Monist'', 16, 492-546 (1906), CP 4.530-572).
</blockquote>
The first thing that we need to extract from this text is the fact that Categories are predicates of predicates, in effect, types of relations.
===Logical graphs===
{{main|Logical graph}}
===Mathematics===
<blockquote>
It may be added that algebra was formerly called ''Cossic'', in English, or the ''Rule of Cos''; and the first algebra published in England was called "[[The Whetstone of Wit]]", because the author supposed that the word ''cos'' was the Latin word so spelled, which means a whetstone. But in fact, ''cos'' was derived from the Italian, ''cosa'', thing, the thing you want to find, the unknown quantity whose value is sought. It is the Latin ''caussa'', a thing aimed at, a cause. ("Elements of Mathematics", MS 165 (c. 1895), NEM 2, 50).
</blockquote>
Peirce made a number of striking discoveries in foundational mathematics, nearly all of which came to be appreciated only long after his death. He:
:* Showed how what is now called [[Boolean algebra]] could be expressed by means of a single binary operation, either [[Sheffer stroke|NAND]] or its dual, [[Sheffer stroke|NOR]]. See also [[De Morgan's Laws]]. This discovery anticipated [[Sheffer]] by 33 years.
:* In Peirce (1885), set out what can be read as the first (primitive) [[axiomatic set theory]], anticipating [[Zermelo]] by about two decades.
:* Discovered the now-classic [[Peano axioms|axiomatization of natural number arithmetic]], a few years before [[Dedekind]] and [[Peano]] did so.
:* Discovered, independently of Dedekind, an important formal definition of an [[infinite set]], namely, as a [[set]] that can be put into a [[one-to-one correspondence]] with one of its proper [[subsets]].
Beginning with his first paper on the [[Logic of Relatives (1870)|"Logic of Relatives" (1870)]], Peirce extended the [[theory of relations]] that [[Augustus De Morgan]] had just recently woken from its Cinderella slumbers. Much of the actual mathematics of relations that is taken for granted today was "borrowed" from Peirce, not always with all due credit (Anellis 1995). Beginning in 1940, [[Alfred Tarski]] and his students rediscovered aspects of Peirce's larger vision of relational logic, developing the perspective of [[relational algebra]]. These theoretical resources gradually worked their way into applications, in large part instigated by the work of [[Edgar F. Codd]], who happened to be a doctoral student of the Peirce editor and scholar [[Arthur W. Burks]], on the [[relational model]] or the relational paradigm for implementing and using [[database]]s.
In the four volume work, ''The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce'' (1976), mathematician and Peirce scholar Carolyn Eisele published a large number of Peirce's previously unpublished manuscripts on mathematical subjects, including the drafts for an introductory textbook, allusively titled ''The New Elements of Mathematics'', that presented mathematics from a decidedly novel, if not revolutionary standpoint.
==Dynamics of representation==
<blockquote>
Every mind which passes from doubt to belief must have ideas which follow after one another in time. Every mind which reasons must have ideas which not only follow after others but are caused by them. Every mind which is capable of logical criticism of its inferences, must be aware of this determination of its ideas by previous ideas. (Peirce, "On Time and Thought", CE 3, 68-69).
</blockquote>
All through the 1860's, the young but rapidly maturing Charles Peirce — our focus now being his coming of age in the sphere of intellect — was busy establishing a conceptual basecamp and a technical supply line for the intellectual adventures of a lifetime. Taking the longview of this activity and trying to choose the best titles for the story, it all seems to have something to do with the [[dynamics]] of [[representation]], divided into the portion that we are given by [[nature]] and the portion that we are given to [[nurture]]. In this quest we may discern a question of [[articulation]] and a question of [[explanation]]:
:* How best to articulate the workings of that wary form of [[representation]] that we know as 'conscious experience'?
:* How best to account for the workings of that discipline of [[inquiry]] that we mark out for recognition as 'science'?
The pursuit of answers to these questions finds them to be so entangled with each other that it's ultimately impossible to comprehend them apart from each other, but for the sake of exposition it's convenient to organize our study of Peirce's assault on the ''summa'' by following first the trails of thought that led him to develop a ''[[theory of signs]]'', one that has come to be known as '[[semiotic]]', and tracking next the ways of thinking that led him to develop a ''[[theory of inquiry]]'', one that would be up to the task of saying 'how science works'.
Opportune points of departure for exploring the [[dynamics]] of [[representation]], such as led to Peirce's theories of [[inference]] and [[information]], [[inquiry]] and [[sign]]s, are those that he took for his own springboards. Perhaps the most significant influences radiate from points on parallel lines of inquiry in [[Aristotle]]'s work, points where the intellectual forerunner focused on many of the same issues and even came to strikingly similar conclusions, at least about the best ways to begin. Staying within the bounds of what will give us a more solid basis for understanding Peirce, it serves to consider the following ''loci'' in [[Aristotle]]:
:* The basic terminology of [[psychology]], in ''[[On the Soul]]''.
:* The founding description of [[sign relation]]s, in ''[[On Interpretation]]'';
:* The differentiation of the genus of reasoning into three species of [[inference]] that are commonly translated into English as ''[[Abductive reasoning|abduction]]'', ''[[Deductive reasoning|deduction]]'', and ''[[Induction (philosophy)|induction]]'', in the ''[[Prior Analytics]]''.
In addition to the three elements of [[inference]], that Peirce would assay to be [[irreducible]], [[Aristotle]] analyzed several types of [[compound inference]], most importantly the type known as 'reasoning by [[analogy]]' or 'reasoning from [[example]]', employing for the latter description the Greek word 'paradeigma', from which we get our word '[[paradigm]]'.
Inquiry is a form of reasoning process, in effect, a particular way of conducting thought, and thus it can be said to institute a specialized manner, style, or turn of thinking. Philosophers of the school that is commonly called 'pragmatic' hold that all
thought takes place in signs, where 'sign' is the word they use for the broadest conceivable variety of characters, expressions, formulas, messages, signals, texts, and so on up the line, that might be imagined. Even intellectual concepts and mental ideas are held to be a special class of signs, corresponding to internal states of the thinking agent that both issue in and result from the interpretation of external signs.
The subsumption of inquiry within reasoning in general and the inclusion of thinking within the class of sign processes allows us to approach the subject of inquiry from two different perspect |
n]]. Some officials believe that jammers could be used to attract the precision-guided munitions towards [[noncombatant]] infrastructure, other officials believe that the jammers are completely ineffective. In either case, the jammers are attractive targets for [[anti-radiation missile]]s.
The U.S. Air Force conducted GPS jamming exercises in 2003. A detailed description of how to build a GPS jammer was posted on a hackers' site by an anonymous author. And there has been at least one well-documented case of unintentional jamming; if similar, but stronger, signals were generated on purpose, they could interfere with aviation GPS receivers at a range of 50 km. According to the reference below, "IFR pilots should have a fallback plan in case of a GPS malfunction".
There were also incidents of unintentional jamming, traced back to malfunctioning TV antenna preamplifiers.
* [http://www.avweb.com/news/avionics/182754-1.html GPS jamming]
* [http://www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=43404&&pageID=1 The hunt for an unintentional GPS jammer]
* [http://www.defense-update.com/products/g/gps-aj.htm GPS Anti-Jamming Protection]
== Other systems ==
Russia operates an independent system called [[GLONASS]] ('''glo'''bal '''na'''vigation '''s'''ystem), although with only twelve active satellites [[as of 2004]], the system is of limited usefulness. There are plans to restore GLONASS to full operation by 2008. The [[European Union]] is developing [[Galileo positioning system|Galileo]] as an alternative to GPS, planned to be in operation by 2010. China and France are also developing [[satellite navigation system|other satellite navigation systems]].
{{GPS}}
==See also==
{{commonscat|Global Positioning System}}
*[[Geographic coordinate system]]
*[[EGNOS]] - European equivalent of WAAS
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Geographical coordinates|Wikipedia Geographical coordinates project]] - adding [[Geographic coordinate system|geographic coordinates]] to WikiPedia articles
*[[Air traffic control]]
*[[Allan variance]]
*[[Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast]] (also called ADS-B)
*[[AGPS]]
*[http://confluence.org Degree confluence project] Use GPS to visit integral degrees of latitude and longitude. Pictures and narrative for each one.
*[[Geodashing]]
*[[GSM localization]]
*[[GPX]] - GPS eXchange Format
*[[Location based media]]
*[[Mobile phone]] integration
*[[Trilateration]] - the mathematical technique used for GPS location
*[[Commercialization of space]]
*[[Open Geospatial Consortium]] (OpenGIS)
*[[RAIM]]
*[[Waypoint]]
*[http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WikiGPS WikiGPS], [[Wikimedia Foundation|Wikimedia]] proposed project.
*[[World Geodetic System]] - '''WGS 84''' defines a global reference frame for GPS
==External links==
===References===
* [http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps_f.html Peter H. Dana: Global Positioning System Overview] - Large amount of technical information and discussion.
* [http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/default.htm GPS SPS Signal Specification, 2nd Edition] - The official (civilian) signal specification.
* [http://www.astronautix.com/project/navstar.htm History of GPS], including information about each satellite's configuration and launch.
* [http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/ftp/gps/ARCHIVES/gpsdoc/IOCLTR.TXT Announcement of Initial Operational Capability, December 1993]
* U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual: [http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/eng-manuals/em1110-1-1003/toc.htm NAVSTAR HTML] and [http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/eng-manuals/em1110-1-1003/entire.pdf PDF (22.6 MB, 328 pages)]
* [http://gpsinformation.net/airgps/gpsrfi.htm Is it Safe to use a handheld GPS Receiver on a Commercial Aircraft?] - Discusses the safety of personal use of a GPS on commercial aircraft.
*[http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gps1.htm How Stuff Works] - Explanation about How GPS works
* [http://www.palowireless.com/gps/ Palowireless GPS Resource Center] Articles, news and resources.
* [http://netlab18.cis.nctu.edu.tw/html/paper/2001_11_06/Challenges%20in%20bringing%20GPS%20to%20Mainstream%20Consumers.pdf The Global Positioning System: Challenges in Bringing GPS to Mainstream Consumers] Technical Article by Kanwar Chadha, BSEE (1998)
* [http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/default.htm USCG Navigation Center]: Status of the GPS constellation, government policy, and links to other references. Also includes satellite [[almanac]] data.
* [https://www.schriever.af.mil/gps/archive/2005/ Schriever Airforce Base Webserver]: Even more up-to-date almanac data and NANUs
* [http://www.igeb.gov/ Interagency GPS Executive Board] - Established in 1996 to manage GPS across the various stakeholder agencies.
* [http://gps.losangeles.af.mil/ The GPS Joint Program Office (GPS JPO)] - Still exists and distinct from IGEB.
* The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] has more information on GPS, WAAS, LAAS, and DGPS at http://gps.faa.gov/FAQ/index.htm
* [http://www.defense-update.com/products/g/gps-guidance.htm GPS Weapon Guidance Techniques]
* [http://gps.faa.gov/Library/waas-f-text.htm FAA WAAS fact-sheet]
===Software===
* [http://www.gpsinformation.org/dale/Palm/pilotgps.htm Dale Priest's guide to navigation with GPS and Palm PDAs]
* [http://www.mgix.com/gps3d GPS3d, a 3D gps visualization tool]
* [http://gpsd.berlios.de/ GPSd, a GPS daemon program]
* [[GpsDrive]], [http://www.kraftvoll.at/software/ external link] - '''GNU''' Map-based navigation system. It displays your position on a zoomable map provided from a [[NMEA]]-capable GPS receiver.
* [http://www.gpstk.org GPSTk: A free Open Source GPS Toolkit]
* [http://www.gpsvisualizer.com/ GPS Visualizer] - A free online utility that creates maps and profiles in [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]], JPEG/PNG, or Google Maps/Google Earth format from GPS waypoints and tracks.
* [http://www.magnalox.net Magnificient Logs] - Create interactive GPS logs online, find photo location by linking GPS and [[Exif]] timestamp.
* [http://www.opanda.com/en/iexif/index.html Opanda IExif] - a handy tool for viewing detailed GPS data in digital image in Windows Local folder & Internet Explorer & Mozilla Firefox & ACDSee.
* [http://www.opanda.com/en/pe/index.html Opanda PowerExif Editor] - a powerful editer for adding GPS data into Exif tags of digital images or modifying the GPS data in digital images freely and easily.
* [http://www.bernese.unibe.ch/index.html Bernese GPS Software] - scientific GPS/GLONASS post processing package
* [http://www.microsoft.com/streets/default.mspx Microsoft Streets & Trips with GPS Locator]
* [http://www.globaltrackingtech.com Global Tracking Technologies' Global GPS tracking system platform]
===Makers of popular GPS hardware and vehicle navigation systems===
* [http://www.alpine1.com/ Alpine]
* [http://www.clarion.com/ Clarion]
* [http://www.cobra.com/ Cobra]
* [http://www.eclipse-web.com/ Fujitsu Ten]
* [http://www.garmin.com/ Garmin]
* [http://www.lowrance.com/ Lowrance Electronics]
* [http://www.magellangps.com/ Magellan]
* [http://www.mobilecrossing.com/ Mobile Crossing]
* [http://www.pioneerelectronics.com/ Pioneer Electronics]
* [http://www.tomtom.com/ TomTom]
* [http://www.vdodayton.com/ VDO Dayton]
* [http://www.pharosgps.com/ pharos]
===GPS software for car navigation===
* [http://www.alk.com/copilot/ CoPilot]
* [http://www.scytex.com/ Navi BT GPS Scytex]
* [http://www.pocketgps.ru/ PocketGPS Pro Moscow]
* [http://www.tomtom.com/ TomTom]
* [http://www.shop.viamichelin.co.uk/csasp_editorial.asp?ID=96 ViaMichelin Navigation]
===Hardware===
* [http://www.jakeludington.com/ask_jake/20050620_gps_buying_guide.html GPS Buying Guide] - A guide to selecting the right consumer GPS receiver based on intended use.
*[http://www.galleon.eu.com/products/ts.htm GPS Time Server solutions] Time Server solutions for all your computer time Synchronisation needs
* [http://www.septentrio.com/ Septentrio] - Makers of high-end receivers for precise applications
* [http://www.u-blox.com/products/index.html u-blox GPS products (chipsets, modules, receiver boards, antennas and accessories)]
* [http://www.timetools.co.uk GPS NTP Server] GPS time servers and NTP servers for computer network timing.
* [http://www.goandtrack.com Tracking Device Information] GPS tracking devices reviewed for a number of vertical market applications such as personal, vehicle and container tracking
===Usenet newsgroups===
* sci.geo.satellite-nav [news:sci.geo.satellite-nav Direct] or via the [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/sci.geo.satellite-nav Google Groups] web site.
* uk.rec.gps [news:uk.rec.gps Direct] or via the [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/uk.rec.gps Google Groups] web site.
===Other information===
* [http://www.u-blox.com/technology/GPS-X-02007.pdf u-blox GPS Tutorial] &mdash; Tutorial designed to introduce you to the principles behind GPS
* [http://www.geoplace.com Geoplace] &mdash; GPS & GIS Industry information
* [http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast162/Unit5/gps.html GPS and Relativity]
* [http://www.livingreviews.org/lrr-2003-1/ Neil Ashby: "Relativity in the Global Positioning System"]
* [http://www.trimble.com/gps/ Trimble's Online GPS Tutorial] &mdash; excellent introduction for newbies
* [http://www.dbartlett.com The Practical Guide to GPS UTM]
* [http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/geninfo/y2k/gpsweek.htm Information on the GPS week rollover]
* [http://www.all-gps.info GPS Articles]
* [http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR614/MR614.appb.pdf PDF document on the history of the GPS system]
* [http://en.giswiki.de/index.php/Global_Positioning_System GISWiki] Tutorials and News (in German)
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/macmap/ MacMap Discussion Group] GPS on Macintosh platform; e-mail
* [http://www.openstreetmap.org/ Open Street Map] - a wiki street map project, a work in progress (creative commons license)
* [http://www.gpsprimer.net The GPS Primer - a simp |
g/ Animal Law Project].
* [http://www.animal-rights.de/ animal-rights.de].
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/animal.html Ethical foundations of animal rights]
* [http://www.animal-rights-library.com The Animal Rights Library]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-animal/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on The Moral Status of Animals]
* [http://www.cala-online.org/ The Center on Animal Liberation Affairs (CALA)]
* [http://www.aldf.org/ Animal Legal Defense Fund (ALDF)].
=== Animal rights resources ===
* [http://www.ananimalfriendlylife.com/ An Animal-Friendly Life] Animal Rights News, Commentary, Podcasting, Links & Other Resources
* [http://www.animalpeoplenews.org Animal People] Animal protection news and investigative reporting
* [http://www.indybay.org/animalliberation/ Animal Rights News & Resources] (Northern California and beyond)
* [http://www.iinet.net.au/~rabbit/oarsfr.htm Animal Rights Resources]
* [http://anesthesiaswonderland.bravehost.com/index.html Anesthesia's Wonderland]
* [http://animalvoices.ca Animal Voices Radio Show] A Canadian based radio program with full archieves of past shows on their website for free download. Show features interviews with prominent organizations, authors, and activists from across the globe. Show also covers topics relating to social justice (for example, feminism, anti-racism, and critiques of capitalism) as well as critical environmental theory and praxis as they relate to animal issues.
* [http://satyamag.com Satya Magazine] A Magazine of Vegetarianism, Animal Rights and Social Justice
* [http://vegnews.com VegNews Magazine]
* [http://veganic.net/ Vegan Voice Magazine]
===Animal rights organizations===
* [http://www.afa-online.org/ Action for Animals]
* [http://www.animalaid.org.uk/ Animal Aid]
* [http://www.alv.org.au/ Animal Liberation Victoria (ALV)]
* [http://www.animal-liberation.tk/ Animal Liberation (Maqi)]
* [http://ark-ii.com/ Animal Rights Kollective (ARKII) - Canada]
* [http://www.ari-online.org/ Animal Rights International (ARI)]
* [http://barryhorne.org/]
* [http://www.cala-online.org/ Center on Animal Liberation Affairs (CALA)]
* [http://www.christianveg.com/ Christian Vegetarian Association (CVA)]
* [http://www.cok.net/ Compassion Over Killing (COK)]
* [http://www.ca4a.org/ Compassionate Action for Animals]
* [http://www.fund.org/ The Fund for Animals]
* [http://www.huntsabs.org.uk/ Hunt Saboteurs Association]
* [http://www.husbandryinstitute.org Husbandry Institute]
* [http://www.hsus.org Humane Society of the United States (HSUS)]
* [http://www.idausa.org/ In Defense of Animals (IDA)]
* [http://www.mercyforanimals.org/ Mercy for Animals]
* [http://www.peta.org/ People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA)]
* [http://www.protectinganimals.org/ Protecting Animals USA]
* [http://www.rightsforanimals.org/ Rights for Animals]
* [http://www.rspca.org.uk/ Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA)]
* [http://www.serv-online.org/ Society of Ethical & Religious Vegetarians (SERV)]
* [http://www.speakcampaigns.net/ SPEAK ]
* [http://www.animal-rights.ca/ Toronto Animal Rights Society - Canada]
* [http://www.upc-online.org/ United Poultry Concerns (UPC)]
* [http://www.veganoutreach.org/ Vegan Outreach]
===Animal rights online community===
* [http://www.veggieboards.com VeggieBoards] (message board and recipes)
* [http://www.greenzones.org A.P.E. Animal Earth Protectors (The Green Zones)]
* [http://www.peta2.com Peta2 (Question Reality Question Authority)]
* [http://www.animalsuffering.com/forum/ International Animal Rights Community (ARCo)]
* [http://www.farmsanctuary.com Farm Sancturary]
===Animal rights directories===
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us65566/us235667 LookSmart - Animal Rights]
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Animal_Welfare/Animal_Rights/ Open Directory Project - Animal Rights]
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Science/Biology/Zoology/Animals__Insects__and_Pets/Animal_Rights/ Yahoo! - Animal Rights]
* [http://p2.forumforfree.com/anesthesiaswond.html Anesthesia's Wonderland Forums]
=== Animal rights critics ===
{Note: Not all Animal Rights Activists can or should be lumped togther}
* [http://petakillsanimals.com PETA Kills Animals : PETA's Dirty Secret ]
* [http://www.naiaonline.org/body/articles/archives/arterror.htm Animal Rights Activists use Terror to achieve their end] From the National Animal Interest Alliance
*[http://consumerfreedom.com/article_detail.cfm/article/154 Center for Consumer Freedom: Take a Bite out of PETA] A petition to have PETA's Tax-exempt status revoked
*[http://www.capitalresearch.org/ap/ap-0797.html]
*[http://www.ucalgary.ca/~powlesla/personal/hunting/rights/antihuman.txt Critique of Singer and Reagan]
*[http://www.ucalgary.ca/~powlesla/personal/hunting/rights/ Animal Rights Hunting Page]
*[http://www.petalgae.com/ People for the Ethical Treatment of Algae ] Funny parody site
===Humane-education organizations===
* [http://www.bridgesofrespect.org/ Bridges of Respect] Building Bridges Between Humans, Animals and Environment
* [http://www.cfhs.ca/humaneeducator/ Canadian Federation of Humane Societies Humane Education Program]
* [http://www.circleofcompassion.net/ Circle of Compassion] Exploring Peaceable Choices for the Planet and All those that Share
* [http://www.empathyproject.org/ The Empathy Project] Inspiring Empathy for Humans, Animals, and the Planet
* [http://www.healingeartheducation.org/ Healing Earth Education]
* [http://www.husbandryinstitute.org Husbandry Institute]
* [http://www.aallinstitute.ca/ The Institute for Animal Associated Lifelong Learning] Interrelating people, nonhuman animals, and the earth through education
* [http://www.iihed.org International Institute for Humane Education] Formerly known as the Center for Compassionate Living
* [http://www.kindplanet.org/ Kind Planet]
* [http://www.nahee.org/ National Association of Environmental and Humane Education]
* [http://www.newworldvision.org/ New World Vision: Creating a Compassionate, Peaceful, Sustainable World Through Humane Education]
* [http://www.seedsforchangehumaneeducation.org/ Seeds for Change Humane Education]
* [http://www.teachkind.org/ TeachKind]
===Ethical concerns===
*[http://www.husbandryinstitute.org Husbandry Institute - raising awareness and creating concern among consumers about the food we consume]
*[http://www-phil.tamu.edu/~gary/awvar/lecture/pain.html Which animals feel pain?]
*[http://dels.nas.edu/ilar/jour_online/33_1_2/V33_1_2Question.asp Pain in Animals and Humans]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/linux/vjtorley/ Animals and other living things: their interests, mental capacities and moral entitlements]
*[http://www.hedweb.com/animals/ ''Taking Animals Seriously: Mental Life and Moral Status'' by David DeGrazia - A Review Essay]
*[http://www.mindprod.com/animalrights/animalslaves.html Animal slavery]
[[Category:Animal liberation movement]]
[[Category:Animal welfare]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]
[[Category:ISBN needed]]
[[Category:Rights]]
[[de:Tierrechte]]
[[es:Derechos animales]]
[[he:זכויות בעלי חיים]]
[[nl:Dierenrechten]]
[[pl:Prawa zwierząt]]
[[pt:Direitos dos animais]]
[[ru:Права животных]]
[[sv:Djurrätt]]
[[zh:动物权利]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alex Lifeson</title>
<id>2893</id>
<revision>
<id>40029111</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T16:44:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Latinus</username>
<id>800894</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Recat per CFD of [[Wikipedia:Categories_for_deletion/Log/2006_February_10#Canadians_by_ethnic_and.2For_national_origins|10 February 2006]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:R30alex.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Alex Lifeson <br />(Rush 30th Anniversary tour photo 2004)]]
'''Alexander Zivojinovich''' [[Order of Canada|OC]] (b. [[August 27]], [[1953]], [[Fernie, British Columbia]]), better known by his stage name '''Alex Lifeson''', is a Canadian musician, best known as the guitarist of [[Rush (band)|Rush]]. ("Lifeson" is a literal translation of "Zivojinovich".)
The son of [[Serb|Serbian]] immigrants, Nenad & Melka Zivojinovich, Lifeson was raised in [[Toronto, Ontario]]. Lifeson plays [[guitar]] and composes for the [[Rock (music)|rock]] group [[Rush (band)|Rush]]. He is commonly regarded as one of the most underrated rock guitarists of all time. Lifeson's solo album, ''[[Victor (album)|Victor]]'', was released in 1996.
Outside of music, he owns and operates a small consumer-products design, engineering, and manufacturing firm [[The Omega Concern]], as a [[gourmet]] [[chef]] is part owner of the Toronto restaurant [[The Orbit Room]], and is a licensed aircraft [[Aviator|pilot]] and [[motorcycle]] operator.
Along with his colleagues [[Geddy Lee]] and [[Neil Peart]], Lifeson was made an Officer of the [[Order of Canada]] on [[May 9]], [[1996]]. The trio were the first rock musicians so honoured.
During 2003, he played himself in an episode of the [[Canada|Canadian]] smash hit [[mockumentary]] [[Trailer Park Boys]] in which he is kidnapped by [[Robb Wells|Ricky]] as punishment for not being able to get tickets, then requested to perform a private concert back at the trailer park.
== Tone and equipment ==
[[Image:Alex-Lifeson.jpg|right|thumb|270px|Alex Lifeson in concert with Rush.<br /> Milan, Italy (September 21, 2004)]]
In Rush's early career, Lifeson used a fairly standard rock rig: a [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]] ES-335 guitar, various [[phaser]] and [[flanger]] pedals, and a [[Marshall Amplification|Marshall]] "Plexi" amplifier. Beginning in the late 1970s, he increasingly incorporated [[twelve-string guitar]] (acoustic and electric) and chorusing in his sound. While [[Eddie Van Halen]] is usually credited as the inventor of the "[[superstrat]]," Lifeson actually adopted a key super-Strat component — the [[Floyd Rose]] locking [[vibrato]] |
on has two types of membership: Regular membership provides access to the conferences and the association's principal journal, ''C Vu'', which contains articles, letters, and book reviews by members; Advanced membership additionally provides a subscription to ''Overload'', which is designed for more advanced programmers. Full-time students qualify for membership [[discount]]s.
==External links==
* [http://www.accu.org/ ACCU Official Site]
* [http://www.accu-usa.org/ ACCU Silicon Valley Chapter]
[[Category:C programming language family]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andrew</title>
<id>1353</id>
<revision>
<id>42116594</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:55:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sesel</username>
<id>51623</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.134.6.147|86.134.6.147]] ([[User talk:86.134.6.147|talk]]) to last version by Tailpig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|Andrew}}
'''Andrew''' is an [[English language|English]] [[male]]'s [[personal name]]. For its meanings, etymology, pronunciation, and translations, see Wiktionary.
People commonly known solely by the given name '''Andrew''' include:
*[[Saint Andrew]]
*[[Andrew I of Hungary]]
*[[Andrew II of Hungary]]
*[[Prince Andrew, Duke of York]]
Things commonly known as '''Andrew''' include:
*[[Andrew Project]] - [[Carnegie Mellon University]] computer project called "Andrew"
*[[Hurricane Andrew]] - A strong [[Tropical cyclone|hurricane]] in [[1992]].
== See also ==
* [[Andrea]]
*[[Saint Andrew's Cross]]
*[[St Andrew's Cross spider]]
*[[Androgen]]
* [[Drew]]
{{disambig}}
[[da:Andreas]]
[[de:Andreas]]
[[el:Ανδρέας (Όνομα)]]
[[eo:Andreo]]
[[fr:André]]
[[hu:András]]
[[nl:Andreas]]
[[pl:Andrzej]]
[[ru:Андрей]]
[[sk:Andrej]]
[[sl:Andrej]]
[[sv:Andreas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andes</title>
<id>1354</id>
<revision>
<id>42078925</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:00:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.39.1.140|24.39.1.140]] ([[User talk:24.39.1.140|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|the mountain system in South America}}
[[Image:Andes Chile Argentina.jpg|thumb|300px|The Andes between [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]]]]
[[Image:Nasa_anden.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Computer generated image of the Andes, made from a [[digital elevation model]] with a resolution of 30 [[arcsecond]]s]]
The '''Andes''' is a vast [[mountain range]] forming a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of [[South America]]. It is roughly [[1_E6_m|7,000 km]] (4,400&nbsp;miles) long, [[1_E5_m|500 km]] (300&nbsp;miles) wide in some parts (widest between 18° to 20°S latitude), and of an average height of about [[1_E3_m|4,000 m]] (13,000 feet).
The Andean range is composed principally of two great chains separated by a deep intermediate [[depression (geology)|depression]], in which arise other chains of minor importance, the chief of which is [[Chile]]'s [[Cordillera de la Costa]]. Other small chains arise on the sides of the great chains. The ''Cordillera de la Costa'' starts from the southern extremity of the continent and runs in a northerly direction, parallel with the coast, being broken up at its beginning into a number of islands and afterwards forming the western boundary of the great central valley of Chile. To the north this coastal chain continues in small ridges or isolated hills along the [[Pacific Ocean]] as far as [[Venezuela]], always leaving the same valley more or less visible to the west of the western great chain. The mountains extend over seven countries: [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]] and [[Venezuela]].
The Andes range is the highest mountain range outside Asia, with the highest peak, [[Aconcagua]], rising to 6,959 m (23,000 feet) [[above sea level]]. The summit of [[Mount Chimborazo]] in the Ecuadorean Andes is the point on the Earth's surface most distant from its center, because of the [[equatorial bulge]]. The Andes cannot match the [[Himalaya]] in height but do so in width and are more than twice as long.
==Physical features==
===Geology===
The formation of the Andes extends into the [[Paleozoic]] Era, when [[terrane]] accretion was the dominant process. It was during the [[Cretaceous]] Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, [[Fault (geology)|faulting]] and [[Fold (geology)|folding]] of [[sedimentary rocks|sedimentary]] and [[metamorphic rocks]] of the ancient [[craton]]s to the east. Tectonic forces along the [[subduction zone]] along the entire west coast of South America where the [[Nazca Plate]] and a part of the [[Antarctic Plate]] are sliding beneath the [[South American Plate]] continue to produce an ongoing [[Orogeny|orogenic event]] resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. In the extreme south a major [[transform fault]] separates [[Tierra del Fuego]] from the small [[Scotia Plate]]. Across the 1,000&nbsp;km wide [[Drake Passage]] lie the mountains of the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain.
The Andes range has many active volcanoes, the most famous being [[Cotopaxi]], one of the highest active volcanos in the world.
The Andes can be divided into three sections: the Southern Andes in Argentina and Chile; the Central Andes, including the Chilean and Peruvian cordilleras; and the northern section in Venezuela, Colombia, and northern Ecuador consisting of two parallel ranges, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Oriental. The term ''cordillera'' comes from the Spanish word meaning 'rope'. The Andes range is approximately 200&ndash;300&nbsp;km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is 640&nbsp;km wide [http://www.andes.org.uk/andes-information-files/famous-andes-peaks.htm] [http://www.bartleby.com/65/co/Cotopaxi.html].
===Climate===
The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on location, altitude, proximity to the sea. The southern section is rainy and cool, the central Andes are dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18&nbsp;°C in Colombia. The climate is known to change drastically. [[Tropical rainforest]]s exist just miles away from the snow covered peak, Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The [[snow line]] depends on the location. It is at between 4,500&ndash;4,800&nbsp;m in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to 4,800&ndash;5,200&nbsp;m in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S, then descending to 4,500&nbsp;m on Aconcagua at 32°S, 2,000&nbsp;m at 40°S, 500&nbsp;m at 50°S, and only 300&nbsp;m in [[Tierra del Fuego]] at 55°S; from 50°S, several of the larger glaciers descend to sea level ([[Google Earth]] images).
[[Image:andes - punta arenas.jpg|thumb|left|View of the mountains in the countryside just outside of [[Punta Arenas, Chile]].]]
===Plant and animal life===
[[Tropical rainforests]] encircle the northern Andes. The [[cinchona]], a source of [[quinine]] which is used to treat malaria, is found in the Bolivian Andes. The high-altitude ''[[Polylepis]]'' forests are present in the Andean areas of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. The trees, Queñua, Yagual, Quinua and other names that local people use to call them, can be found at altitudes of 4,500&nbsp;m above sea level. Once abundant, the forests began disappearing during the Incan period when much of it was used for building material and cooking fuel. The trees are now considered to be highly endangered with only 10 percent of the original forests remaining [http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm].
The [[llama]] can be found living at high altitudes, predominantly in the Peru and Bolivia. The alpaca, a type of llama, is raised for its wool. The nocturnal [[chinchilla]], an endangered member of the [[rodent]] order, inhabits the Andes' alpine regions. The South American [[condor]] is the largest bird of its kind in the Western hemisphere. Other animals include the [[guemul]], [[puma]], [[camelids]] and, for birds, the [[partridge]], [[parina]], [[huallata]], and [[coot]]. Llamas and pumas play important roles in many Andean cultures.
==The people==
{{sect-stub}}
===Transportation===
The people of the Andes are not well connected with the city. Due to the arduous terrain, vehicles are discouraged. People generally walk to their destinations, using the llama as their primary pack animal.
===Agriculture===
The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Maize and barley were important crops for these people. Currently, tobacco, cotton and coffee are the main export crops. The potato holds a very important role as an internally consumed crop.
By far the most important plant in terms of history and culture is coca, the leaves of which have been central to the Andean people for centuries. Coca has been a staple dietary supplement and cornerstone to Andean culture throughout much of its history.
===Mining===
Mining is quite prosperous in the Andes, with iron, gold, silver and copper being the main production minerals. The Andes are reputed to be one of the most important sources of these minerals in the world.
==Peaks==
This is a partial listing of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range&mdash;typically 5 km or more in height.
{{wrapper}}
|[[Image:Lic |
s award.
*Berry won an [[Emmy]] and a [[Golden Globe]] in [[1999 in film|1999]] for ''Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie'' for her portrayal of [[Dorothy Dandridge]] in the [[Home Box Office|HBO]] movie ''[[Introducing Dorothy Dandridge]]''. Interestingly, [[Dorothy Dandridge]] was the first African American woman to be nominated for a best actress Academy Award. Another similarity the two women shared was being born in the same hospital.
*Berry "won" a [[Razzie]] for her starring role in [[2004]]'s ''[[Catwoman (movie)|Catwoman]]''. She made headlines by accepting her award in person, an unusual gesture that was last performed by [[Tom Green]] in 2001. Berry accepted her award with dignity, saying, "When I was a kid, my mother told me that if you could not be a good loser, then there's no way you could be a good winner" but adding "I hope to God I never see these people again!" shortly afterward. At the podium, she appeared with her [[Razzie]] in one hand, and her 2002 [[Academy Award|Oscar]] in the other (see e.g. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/4301783.stm BBC News]).
*Halle Berry won The [[Hasty Pudding Theatricals]] Woman of the year Award for year 2006.
==Controversy==
*In February [[2000]], she was involved in a [[car accident]] when she struck another vehicle after running a red light and left the scene before the police arrived. Berry, who had sustained a head injury, later stated she had no recollection of the accident and pleaded [[nolo contendere|no contest]] to a misdemeanor charge. She paid a fine, made restitution to the other driver, performed community services, and was placed on three years&#8217; probation.
*Having long refused to do any nude scenes, much was made of her first topless scene in the film ''[[Swordfish (film)|Swordfish]]'', a thirty-second scene. She followed this with a more extended nude love scene in ''[[Monster's Ball]]''. Her appearance in this film won her the [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] in 2002. As [[Bond Girl]] Jinx in 2002's ''[[Die Another Day]]'' she famously re-created the scene from ''[[Dr. No]]'', bursting from the surf - scantily clad - to be greeted by [[James Bond]], as [[Ursula Andress]] did 40 years earlier.
==Trivia==
*In 2003, Berry was named No. 1 in [[FHM]]'s [[FHM 100 Sexiest Women in the World 2003|100 Sexiest Women in the World]] poll.
*In 2005, She was No.1 on [[VH1]]'s top 50 Sexiest Bodies countdown.
*Also in 2003, Berry was on ''[[Punk'd]]'', [[MTV]]'s celebrity prank show.
*She has [[diabetes]] and acquired [[unilateral hearing loss]] (80% hearing loss in one ear) after being severely beaten by a former boyfriend. Accounts differ as to whether the abusive boyfriend was [[Wesley Snipes]] or [[Christopher Williams (singer)|Christopher Williams]].
*Dated actor Rey-Phillip Santos.
*Dated actor [[Michael Ealy]], her costar in ''[[Their Eyes Were Watching God]]''.
*She was rumoured to have six toes due to this image. [http://www.murphyinthemorning.com/jpg/halle-berry/halle_berry_toes1.jpg]
*Her measurements are 36C-22-37.
*In a rare move, Berry accepted her [[Razzie]] for ''[[Catwoman (film)|Catwoman]]'' in person, and in her acceptance speech she said, "First of all, I want to thank [[Warner Brothers]]. Thank you for putting me in this piece of shit, God-awful movie..." Her statement was received with great applause and laughter. [http://66.102.142.54/raznet/HB_03.wmv]
==Filmography==
*''[[Jungle Fever]]'' ([[1991]])
*''[[Strictly Business]]'' ([[1991]])
*''[[The Last Boy Scout]]'' ([[1991]])
*''[[Boomerang (film)|Boomerang]]'' ([[1992]])
*''[[CB4]]'' ([[1993]]) (Cameo)
*''Father Hood'' ([[1993]])
*''[[The Program]]'' ([[1993]])
*''[[The Flintstones (film)|The Flintstones]]'' ([[1994]])
*''[[Losing Isaiah]]'' ([[1995]])
*''[[Executive Decision]]'' ([[1996]])
*''Race the Sun'' ([[1996]])
*''[[Girl 6]]'' ([[1996]]) (Cameo)
*''The Rich Man's Wife'' ([[1996]])
*''[[B*A*P*S]]'' ([[1997]])
*''[[Bulworth]]'' ([[1998]])
*''[[Why Do Fools Fall in Love (film)|Why Do Fools Fall In Love]]'' ([[1998]])
*''[[Introducing Dorothy Dandridge]]''([[1999]])
*''[[X-Men]]'' ([[2000]])
*''Welcome to Hollywood'' ([[2000]]) (documentary)
*''[[Swordfish (film)]]'' ([[2001]])
*''[[Monster's Ball]]'' ([[2001]])
*''[[Die Another Day]]'' ([[2002]])
*''[[X2 (film)|X2]]'' ([[2003]])
*''[[Gothika]]'' ([[2003]])
*''[[Catwoman (film)|Catwoman]]'' ([[2004]])
*''[[Robots (film)|Robots]]'' ([[2005]]) (voice)
Upcoming:
*''[[X-Men 3]]'' ([[2006]])
*''Perfect Stranger'' ([[2006]])
==TV work==
*''[[Living Dolls]]'' ([[1989]]) (cancelled after 13 episodes)
*''[[Knots Landing]]'' (cast member in [[1991]])
*''[[Queen: The Story of an American Family]]'' ([[1993]]) (miniseries)
*''Solomon & Sheba'' ([[1995]])
*''[[The Wedding]]'' ([[1998]])
*''[[Introducing Dorothy Dandridge]]'' ([[1999]]) (also executive producer)
*''[[Their Eyes Were Watching God (2005 television)|Their Eyes Were Watching God]]'' ([[2005]])
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Michelle Pfeiffer]] | title = [[Actress to portray the Catwoman]] | years = 2004- | after = incumbent}}
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb name|id=0000932|name=Halle Berry}}
* {{tvtome person|id=36887|name=Halle Berry}}
* [http://www.hallewood.com Halle Berry's Official website]
* [http://www.pbs.org/kcet/tavissmiley/archive/200512/20051206.html Interview with Halle Berry] on the [[Tavis Smiley]] show
[[Category:1966 births|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Living people|Berry, Halle]]
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[[Category:American actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:American film actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:American television actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Beauty pageant contestants|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Best Actress Oscar|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Bond girls|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Clevelanders|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Diabetics|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Emmy Award winners|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:English Americans|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Film actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Multiracial Americans|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:American television actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Worst Actress Razzie|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:X-Men actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:American women|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Knots Landing actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[da:Halle Berry]]
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[[zh:哈莉·貝瑞]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hairy Arm</title>
<id>13718</id>
<revision>
<id>15911311</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hairy arm]]
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<page>
<title>Hairy arm</title>
<id>13719</id>
<revision>
<id>30558572</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-08T04:40:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Catamorphism</username>
<id>313650</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hairy arm''' is an underhanded technique for finishing [[film]]s or videos quickly. Most editing sessions are expensive and require a long approval process before the film is considered complete. Often the people who have final say over the aesthetic content of a film or video are not present during the actual editing process; to get approval quickly, an editor may throw in an intentionally awful or incorrect shot, simply to distract the attention of the "approver" away from harder to define deficiencies in the final film or video.
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[[Category:Film techniques]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Higher Criticism.</title>
<id>13720</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Higher criticism]]
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<page>
<title>Higher criticism</title>
<id>13721</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:56:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Merge|The Historical-Critical Method}}
'''Higher criticism''' is a branch of [[literature|literary]] analysis known as [[Historical Criticism|historical criticism]] that attempts to investigate the origins of a text, especially the text of the [[Bible]]. Higher criticism in particular focuses on the sources of a document and tries to determine the authorship, date, and place of composition of the text. This term is used in contrast with [[lower criticism]] or [[textual criticism]], which is the endeavour to establish the original version of a text.
==Higher criticism and radical criticism==
Higher criticism originally referred to the work of [[Germany|German]] Biblical scholars. After the path-breaking work on the [[New Testament]] by [[Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher|Friedrich Schleiermacher]] (1768&ndash;1834), in the next generation, [[David Friedrich Strauss]] (1808&ndash;1874) and [[Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach|Ludwig Feuerbach]] (1804&ndash;1872), in the mid-[[1800s|nineteenth century]], analyzed the historical records of the Middle East from Christian and Old Testament times, in search of independent confirmation o |
of the Privy Council|Dewar, Donald]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Norwegian Antarctic Territory</title>
<id>8834</id>
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<timestamp>2006-01-22T23:44:16Z</timestamp>
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<username>BL Lacertae</username>
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<minor />
<comment>stubsort</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Norwegian Antarctic Territory''' is an area in the [[Antarctic]] which is claimed by [[Norway]]. It consists of [[Dronning Maud Land]], [[Bouvet Island]] and [[Peter I Island]]. Its total area exceeds 2.500.000 km². Dronning Maud Land is a sector on the Antarctic continent. Peter I Island is the only Antarctic claim area under the [[Antarctic Treaty]] that is not a sector like all the other areas claimed under the Antarctic Treaty. Bouvet Island is not subject to the Antarctic treaty as it lies outside the area the treaty covers.
==History==
On [[14 December]] [[1911]] five Norwegians, under the leadership of [[Roald Amundsen]], are the first to reach the [[South Pole]].
Bouvet Island was claimed in [[1927]] (formally in [[1930]]; in [[1935]] the island is made a natural reserve for seals).
Peter I Island was claimed in [[1929]] (formally in [[1931]]).
Dronning Maud Land (45°E to 20°E) was formally claimed as a Norwegian possession on [[14 January]] [[1938]].
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{{Antarctica claims}}
{{Norway OT}}
[[Category:Norwegian dependencies]]
[[Category:Geography of Antarctica]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Digimon</title>
<id>8835</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:31:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Circeus</username>
<id>98785</id>
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<comment>Revert to revision 41925771 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LOGODIGIMON.jpg|right]]
{{nihongo|'''Digimon'''|デジモン|''dejimon''}} (short for ''Digital Monster'') is a [[Japan]]ese series of children's merchandise, including toys, [[manga]] and [[anime]], featuring monsters of various forms living in a "Digital World". Digimon contains many of the typical themes associated with [[mon (monster)]].
==Overview==
Digimon started out as a dueling digital pet or [[Tamagotchi]] called "Digital Monster" that was released by [[Bandai]] on [[June 26]], [[1997]]. The Digital Monster toy was enormously successful, and four different colors of the toy were released in November of the same year. In December of the same year, the second generation of "Digital Monster" was released. Many have criticized it as a spin-off of [[Pokémon]], as the Tamagotchi was came out in 1997 as opposed to 1996, though it became popular in the United States before the latter. It should be noted that the Tamagotchi bares little resemblance to the Digimon TV show or card game. Digimon and [[Pokémon]] may have a few factors in common (being marketed toward children in North America and being part of the same [[Mon (monster)|genre]]), but differ in original target audience, concept, spirit and design.
Digimon first appeared in illustrated form with the advent of the [[One_shot_(comic)|one-shot]] [[manga]] ''C'mon Digimon,'' which was released in summer [[1997]]. ''C'mon Digimon'' spawned the popular ''Digimon Adventure V-Tamer 01'' manga series, which began on [[November 21]], [[1998]]. Digimon first appeared in game form on [[January 28]], [[1999]] with the release of the popular [[Digimon World]] game for [[PlayStation]] and made its first foray into animation a few months later.
==TV series==
{{main|Digimon: Digital Monsters (anime)}}
Following the release of the first Digimon movie in [[Japan]] in 1999, the first ''Digimon'' television series, ''[[Digimon Adventure]]'' began airing on [[Fuji Television|Fuji TV]] in March of the same year; three other series followed in consecutive years: ''[[Digimon Adventure 02]]'', ''[[Digimon Tamers]]'' and ''[[Digimon Frontier]]''. ''Adventure 02'' is a continuation of ''Adventure''. ''Tamers''' only connection to the Adventure series is the character Ryou, whose story was explained through the Digimon games for Bandai's [[WonderSwan]]. ''Frontier'' has no connections to the other three series. Additionally, there have been eight individual ''Digimon'' films released in Japan with all but the eighth spinning out of the assorted TV series. All the movies, except the eighth, have been dubbed and distributed internationally. The Digimon run ended with Frontier's 50th Episode (205th overall), [[End of the Line (Digimon)| End of the Line]]. There is also now news that ''Frontier'' is not the final anime series; at Jump Festa 2006, it was confirmed that the fifth series will air on April 2 2006 on Fuji TV, tentatively titled ''[[Digimon Savers]]''.
== Comics ==
===C'mon Digimon===
In summer [[1997]], a one-shot manga involving battles between more-or-less holographic Digimon was planned, but apparently never got off the ground. However, this manga was published as a special in volume two of V-Tamer, and there it was revealed the hero of this manga, Kentarou, was the source and inspiration for the design and character of Taichi, the hero of V-Tamer and the leader of the Chosen Children in ''Digimon Adventure''.
===Digimon Adventure V-Tamer 01===
''V-Tamer'' was the first and longest-running Digimon [[manga]], printed in the pages of [[V-Jump]] magazine. Starting on [[November 21]] [[1998]], it ran to fifty-eight chapters and ended on [[August 21]] [[2003]]. This manga introduces the character of Taichi - although it must be noted that he is not the same Taichi that features in the ''Digimon Adventure'' TV series even though both are quite similar in appearance and personality. ''V-Tamer'' takes place in an alternate universe.
In this universe, Taichi is involved in a V-Pet tournament, where he is told he cannot play because the Digimon in his V-Pet isn't recognized as being a real Digimon. However, after the tournament is over, Taichi plays the winner of the tournament, a boy named Neo Saiba, and their battle ends in a tie - something that is supposed to be impossible. Later, Taichi is summoned to the Digital World by a [[HolyAngemon]] called Lord HolyAngemon, and there he meets the mysterious Digimon in his V-Pet, Zeromaru the [[Veedramon|V-dramon]]. Taichi and Zeromaru travel to Lord HolyAngemon's castle with the aid of Gabo the Gabumon, and there Lord HolyAngemon begs Taichi to find the five Tamer Tags and defeat the evil [[Daemon (Digimon)|Demon]], who has disrupted the peace of the Digital World.
Along the way, more humans are brought to the Digital World by Demon, including [[Neo Saiba]], [[Rei Saiba]], [[Sigma (Digimon)|Sigma]], [[Mari]], and [[Hideto]]. Neo is chosen to raise the Digimon that will hatch from the Super Ultimate egg Demon is raising. Rei Saiba, Neo's sister, has a Digimental that will allow the Demon's experimental Digimon to evolve to a level beyond Ultimate. The others, called the [[Alias III]], are to help Neo and Demon with their Digimon. Hideto's Partner is Omegamon, formed by the [[Jogress]] of Org and Meluuga, a WarGreymon and MetalGarurumon respectively. Mari's Partner is a [[Rosemon]] and Sigma's is a [[Piedmon|Piemon]]. They are all villains that eventually reform except Rei, who has no Digimon Partner or evil intentions.
===Digimon Next===
Digimon Next is the second and most recent Digimon manga to be printed in the pages of V-Jump magazine, starting on [[December 17]] [[2005]]. The main character is called Tsurugi Tatsuno and is partnered with a [[Greymon]]. Tsurugi makes contact with the Digital World through his Digimon Mini virtual pet device and a "Battle Terminal", a virtual reality interface. Digimon can use the technology to materialise in the human world as well.
===Dark Horse===
[[Dark Horse Comics]] published [[United States|American]]-style Digimon [[comic book]]s, adapting the first dubbed 13 episodes of the first animated season. The conclusion to the story arc, however, was never released.
===Panini===
The European publishing company, [[Panini]], approached Digimon in different ways in different countries. While Germany created their own adaptations of episodes, the [[United Kingdom]] reprinted the Dark Horse titles, then translated some of the German adaptations of second-season episodes, and finally began to print their own original stories, which appeared in both the UK's Official Digimon Magazine, and the official Fox Kids companion magazine, [[Wickid]]. These original tales danced in and around the continuity of the second animated season, before shifting to the third season, where the stories were more carefully thought out to fit between the tight storytelling of the animated series and would sometimes focusing on subject matter not covered by the show (such as [[Mitsuo Yamaki|Yamaki]]'s past) or in the west (such as Ryo's story or the undubbed movies). Eventually, in a money saving venture, the original stories were removed from Digimon Magazine, which returned to printing translated German adaptations, this time of Tamers episodes. Eventually, both magazines were cancelled.
===Yuen Wong Yu (TOKYOPOP/Chuang Yi) manga===
The Digimon manga released by [[TOKYOPOP]] in [[North America]] and [[Chuang Yi]] in [[Singapore]] is a Chinese [[manhua]] written and drawn by [[Yuen Wong Yu]], based on the television series and brought to North America, translated by [[Lianne Sentar]]. Covering ''Digimon Adventure'' in five volumes, ''Digimon Adventure 02'' in two and ''Digimon Tamers'' in four, it is heavily abridged, though in rare occasions plays through events differently to the anime. This is the main attraction of the series. Three additional volumes exist, covering ''Digimon Frontier'', but these have not been released in En |
ic#History|History of industrial music]], [[Electropop]]''
In the late 1970s and early 1980s there was a great deal of innovation around the development of electronic music instruments. Analogue synthesisers largely gave way to digital synthesisers and samplers. Early samplers, like early synthesisers, were large and expensive pieces of gear -- companies like [[Fairlight]] and [[New England Digital]] sold instruments that cost upwards of $100,000. In the mid 1980s, this changed with the development of low cost samplers. From the late 1970s onward, much popular music was developed on these machines. Groups like [[Gary Numan]], [[Heaven 17]], [[Eurythmics]], [[Severed Heads]], [[The Human League]], [[John Foxx]], [[Thomas Dolby]], [[Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark]], [[Norman Iceberg]], [[Yazoo (band)|Yazoo]], [[The Art of Noise]], [[Depeche Mode]] and [[New Order]] developed entirely new ways of making popular music by electronic means. [[Fad Gadget]] is cited by some as a father to the use of electronics in [[New Wave music|New Wave]].
The natural ability for music machines to make stochastic, non-harmonic, staticky noises led to a genre of music known as [[industrial music]] led by pioneering groups such as [[Throbbing Gristle]] (which commenced operation in [[1975]]), [[Wavestar]] and [[Cabaret Voltaire (band)|Cabaret Voltaire]]. Some artists, like [[Nine Inch Nails]], [[KMFDM]], and Severed Heads, took some of the adventurous innovations of ''musique concrète'' and applied them to mechanical dance beats and, later on, metal guitars. Others, such as [[Test Department]], [[Einstürzende Neubauten]], took this new sound at face value and created hellish electronic compositions. Meanwhile, other groups (Robert Rich, :zoviet*france:, rapoon) took these harsh sounds and melded them into evocative soundscapes. Still others ([[Front 242]], [[Skinny Puppy]]) combined this harshness with the earlier, more pop, or rather dance-oriented sounds, forming [[electronic body music]] (EBM).
Allied with the growing interest in electronic and industrial music were artists working in the realm of [[dub music]]. Notable in this area was producer [[Adrian Sherwood]] whose [[On-U Sound]] record label in the 1980s was responsible for integrating the industrial and noise aesthetic with tape and dub production with artists such as the industrial-funk outfit [[Tackhead]], vocalist [[Mark Stewart]] and others. This paved the way for much of the 1990s interest in dub, first through bands such as [[Meat Beat Manifesto]] and later [[downtempo]] and [[trip hop]] producers such as [[Kruder & Dorfmeister]].
===Recent developments: 1980s to early 2000s===
:''Main articles: [[Techno music#History|History of techno]], [[House music#History|History of house]], [[Trance music#History|History of trance]]''
{{mergefrom|Electronic Dance}}
The development of the [[techno music|techno]] sound in [[Detroit, Michigan]] and [[house music]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]] in the early to late [[1980s]], and the later [[United Kingdom|UK]]-based [[acid house]] movement of the late 1980s and early [[1990s]] all fueled the development and acceptance of electronic music into the [[mainstream]] and to introduce '''electronic dance music''' to nightclubs. Electronic composition can create rhythms faster and more precise than is possible using traditional [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]]. The sound of electronic dance music often features electronically altered sounds ('''[[sampling (music)|samples]]''') of traditional instruments and vocals. See [[dance music]].
It was in [[UK]] legislation to counter the [[rave]] culture that the current definition of Electronic Music was given, with the [[Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994]] stating that music at raves, "includes sounds wholly or predominantly characterised by the emission of a succession of repetitive beats."[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1994/Ukpga_19940033_en_6.htm#mdiv63]
The falling price of suitable equipment has meant that [[popular music]] has increasingly been made electronically. Artists such as [[Björk]] and [[Moby]] have further popularized variants of this form of music within the mainstream.
== Overview ==
===Genres===
{{main|List of electronic music genres}}
Electronic music, especially in the late [[1990s]] fractured into many genres, styles and sub-styles, too many to list here, and most of which are included in the main [[list of electronic music genres|list]]. Although there are no hard and fast boundaries, broadly speaking we can identify the [[experimental music|experimental]] and [[European classical music|classical]] styles: [[electronic art music]], ''[[musique concrète]]''; the [[industrial music]] and [[synth pop]] styles of the [[1980s]]; styles that are primarily intended for dance such as italo disco, [[techno music|techno]], [[house music|house]], [[trance music|trance]], [[electro music|electro]], [[breakbeat|breakbeat]], [[drum and bass]] and styles that are intended more as experimental styles or for home listening such as [[intelligent dance music|IDM]], [[glitch (music)|glitch]] and [[trip-hop]].
The proliferation of [[personal computer]]s beginning in the [[1980s]] brought about a new genre of electronic music, known loosely as [[chip music]] or [[bitpop]]. These styles, produced initially using specialized sound chips in PCs such as the [[Commodore 64]], grew primarily out of the [[demoscene]].
The latter categories such as IDM, glitch and chip music share much in common with the art and ''musique concrète'' styles which predate it by several decades.
===Notable artists and DJs===
{{main|List of electronic music artists and DJs}}
With the explosive growth of computers music technology and consequent reduction in the cost of equipment in the late [[1990s]], the number of artists and [[disc jockey|DJs]] working within electronic music is overwhelming. With the advent of [[hard disk]] recording systems, it is possible for any home computer user to become a musician, and hence the rise in the number of "bedroom bands", often consisting of a single person. Nevertheless notable artists can still be identified. Within the experimental and classical or "art" traditions still working today are [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]], [[Pierre Boulez]] and [[Steve Reich]]. Influential musicians in industrial and later synth pop styles include [[Throbbing Gristle]], [[Cabaret Voltaire (band)|Cabaret Voltaire]] (both now defunct), [[Tangerine Dream]], [[Klaus Schulze]], the [[Human League]] and [[Kraftwerk]] who released their first album in over a decade in [[2003]]. In house, techno and drum and bass pioneers such as [[Juan Atkins]], [[Derrick May]], [[Goldie]], [[A Guy Called Gerald]] and [[LTJ Bukem]] are still active as of [[2003]]. Commercially successful artists working under the "electronica" rubric such as [[Fatboy Slim]], [[Faithless]], [[Fluke]], [[The Chemical Brothers]], [[Daft Punk]], [[The Crystal Method]], [[Massive Attack]], [[The Prodigy]], [[Orbital]], [[Propellerheads]], [[Underworld (band)|Underworld]], [[Überzone]], [[Björk]] and [[Moby]] continue to release albums and perform regularly (sometimes in stadium-sized arenas, such has the popularity of electronic dance music grown). Some DJs such as [[Paul Oakenfold]] and [[John Digweed]] have reached true superstar status and can command five-figure salaries for a single performance. The critically acclaimed [[Autechre]] and [[Aphex Twin]] continue to put out challenging records of (mostly) home-listening music. On a more popular scale, [[Michael Jackson]] used to be heavily engaged in creating unique timbres, many of which were created electronically.
===Notable record labels===
{{main|List of electronic music record labels}}
Until the [[1980s]], there were virtually no [[record label]]s that deal with exclusively electronic music. Because of this dearth of outlets, many of the early techno pioneers started their own. For example, Juan Atkins started [[Metroplex Records]] a [[Detroit]]-based label, and [[Richie Hawtin]] started his hugely influential [[Plus8]] imprint. In the [[United Kingdom]] [[Warp Records]] emerged in the [[1990s]] as one of the pre-eminent sources of home-listening and experimental music. Later arrivals include [[Astralwerks]], [[Ninja Tune]], and Oakenfold's [[Perfecto]] Record label.
== Electronic music press ==
[[United States]] magazine sources include the [[Los Angeles]]-based ''[[Urb]]'' and [[San Francisco]]-based ''[[XLR8R]]'' and other magazines such as ''[[e/i]]'' and ''Grooves''.
[[United Kingdom|British]] electronic music sources include the [[London]]-based magazine ''[[The Wire (magazine)|The Wire]]'' (a monthly publication), ''[[DJ (magazine)|DJ]]'', ''[[JockeySlut]]'', ''[[Mixmag]]'', ''[[Knowledge (magazine)|Knowledge]]'', ''[[Computer Music]]'', ''[[Music Tech Magazine]]'' and ''[[Future Music]]''.
[[Germany|German]] magazine sources include [[Spex]] as well as [[Berlin]]-based ''[[De bug|De:bug]]''.
== Electronic music in movies ==
Here is a short list of movies where electronic music plays a leading role
* ''[[A Clockwork Orange (film)|A Clockwork Orange]]'' ([[1971]])
* Primorsky Boulevard ([[1988]])
* ''[[Trainspotting (film)|Trainspotting]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Pi_(film)|Pi]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[Better Living Through Circuitry]]'' ([[1999]]) - [[Rave]] documentary.
* ''[[Go (1999 film)|Go]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Human Traffic]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Groove]]'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Kevin & Perry Go Large]]'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Stark Raving Mad]]'' ([[2002]])
* ''[[24 Hour Party People]]'' ([[2002]])
* ''[[It's All Gone Pete Tong]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[Moog (film)|Moog]]'' ([[2004]]) - Documentary about [[Robert Moog]].
* ''[[Party Monster]]'' ([[2003]])
==See also==
* [[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]]
* [[Computer music]]
* [[Dance music]]
* [[Electronic art music]]
* [[Ishkur's Guide to Electronic Music]]
* [[ |
th Israel]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/ustoc.html US-Israeli Relations] from the Jewish Virtual Library.
*[http://www.cactus48.com/truth.html Jews for Justice in the Middle East] Publication detailing Arab-Israli conflict
*[http://historyteacher.net/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.htm Primary Source Documents for Israeli-Palestinian Conflict History]
{{col-2}}
<h3>Society<h3>
*[http://www.iwn.org.il/iwn.asp Israel Women's Network]
*[http://www.gaymiddleeast.com/country/israel Gay Middle East - Israel section]
*[http://www.fmep.org/analysis/ori_nir_israels_arab_minority.html Israeli Arabs and Israeli Society], discussion with Ori Nir, correspondent for Haaretz and the Forward.
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/freedom.html Freedom of Religion in Israeli Society and Politics] by Prof. Shimon Shetreet, former minister of Religious Affairs.
*[http://www.nswas.org/ Neve Shalom/Wahat al-Salam] the [[Oasis of Peace]], an experimental Arab-Jewish cooperative village.
*[http://www.reform.org.il/ Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism], Reform Judaism in Israel
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,,1703245,00.html ''The Guardian - Worlds apart'']
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
<h3>Photos<h3>
* [http://www.trekker.co.il/english/israel-tour.htm Pictures of various holy sites and tourist destinations].
* Israel capital - [http://www.jerusalemshots.com/en Jerusalem]. Portal of Jerusalem Photos
{{col-2}}
<h3>Historical recordings<h3>
* [http://www.isracast.com/territories.asp Authentic historical Recordings] - UN Partition Vote of 1947, Arab Rejection, "First" Hatikva, Ben-Gurion - On Independence, Arab Countdown to Six Day War, Moshe Dayan - Six Day War, Gen. Ariel Sharon - "Move forward!", Nasser's Infamous Phonecall, Gen. Yitzhak Rabin - Six Day War, Abba Eban's "Stalingrad" Speech
* [http://www.isracast.com/yk/stage.swf A cry from the bunkers] - Dramatic and authentic recordings by IDF soldier Avi Yaffe from inside the IDF position, under attack at the outbreak of the Yom Kippur war.
{{col-end}}
{{Southwest Asia}}
{{Middle East}}
{{Mediterranean}}
{{Asia}}
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<title>Israel/History</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Israel]]
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<title>Geography of Israel</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Geography of Israel}}
[[Image:LocationIsrael.png|right|frame|Map of Israel]]
[[Image:Cia-is-map.gif|right|258px|Map of Israel]]
[[Image:Satellite image of Israel in January 2003.jpg|left|thumb|250px|]]
'''[[Israel]]''' is located at the eastern end of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. It is bounded on the north by [[Lebanon]], on the northeast by [[Syria]], on the east and southeast by [[Jordan]], on the southwest by [[Egypt]], and on the west by the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Before June 1967, the area composing [[Israel]] (resulting from the armistice lines of 1949 and 1950) was about 20,700 [[square kilometers]] (8,000 [[square mile|mi²]]), which included 445 square kilometers (172 mi²) of inland water. Thus Israel was roughly the size of the state of New Jersey, stretching 424 kilometers (263 [[mile|mi]]) from north to south. Its width ranged from 114 kilometers (71 mi) to, at its narrowest point, 10 kilometers (6.2 mi). After the June 1967 War, Israel [[Israeli-occupied territories|occupied]] territories totaling an additional 7,099 square kilometers (2,743 mi²). These territories include the [[West Bank]], 5,879 square kilometers (2,270 mi²); [[East Jerusalem]] (annexed, according Israeli law), 70 km² (27 mi²); and the [[Golan Heights]] ([[de facto]] annexation), 1,150 km² (444 mi²).
'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:'''
{{coor dm|31|30|N|34|45|E|type:country}}
==Physical geography==
===Topography===
The country is divided into four regions: the [[coastal plain]], the central hills, the Jordan Rift Valley, and the [[Negev|Negev Desert]]. The [[Israeli Coastal Plain|Mediterranean coastal plain]] stretches from the Lebanese border in the north to [[Gaza]] in the south, interrupted only by Cape Carmel at [[Gulf of Haifa|Haifa Bay]]. It is about forty kilometers wide at Gaza and narrows toward the north to about five kilometers at the Lebanese border. The region is [[fertile soil|fertile]] and [[humidity|humid]] (historically [[malaria|malarial]]) and is known for its [[citrus]] and [[wine|viniculture]]. The plain is traversed by several short streams, of which only two, the [[Yarqon River|Yarqon]] and [[Kishon River|Qishon]], have permanent water flows.
East of the coastal plain lies the central [[Highland (geography)|highland]] region. In the north of this region lie the mountains and hills of [[Galilee|Upper Galilee and Lower Galilee]]; farther to the south are the [[Samaria|Samarian Hills]] with numerous small, fertile valleys; and south of Jerusalem are the mainly barren hills of [[Judea]]. The central highlands average 610 meters (2,000 ft) in height and reach their highest elevation at Mount Meron, at 1,208 meters (3,963 ft), in Galilee near [[Safed|Zefat (Safad)]]. Several valleys cut across the highlands roughly from east to west; the largest is the [[Jezreel Valley|Yizreel]] or Jezreel Valley (also known as the Plain of Esdraelon), which stretches forty-eight kilometers (30 mi) from [[Haifa]] southeast to the valley of the Jordan River, and is nineteen kilometers across at its widest point.
East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, which is a small part of the 6,500-kilometer-long (4,040 mi) [[Great Rift Valley|Syrian-East African Rift]]. In Israel the Rift Valley is dominated by the Jordan River, [[Sea of Galilee|Lake Tiberias]] (known also as the Sea of Galilee and to Israelis as Lake Kinneret), and the [[Dead Sea]]. The [[Jordan River|Jordan]], Israel's largest river (322 km / 200 mi), originates in the Dan, Baniyas, and Hasbani rivers near [[Hermon|Mount Hermon]] in the [[Anti-Lebanon|Anti-Lebanon Mountains]] and flows south through the drained [[Hulah Valley|Hula Basin]] into the [[Freshwater|freshwater]] Lake Tiberias. Lake Tiberias is 165 square kilometers (63.7 mi²) in size and, depending on the [[season]] and [[rainfall]], is at about 213 meters (700 ft) below sea level. With a water capacity estimated at 3 cubic kilometers (106 billion cubic feet), it serves as the principal reservoir of the [[National Water Carrier]] (also known as the Kinneret-Negev Conduit). The Jordan River continues its course from the southern end of Lake Tiberias (forming the boundary between the [[West Bank]] and Jordan) to its terminus in the highly saline Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is 1,020 square kilometers (393 mi²) in size and, at 399 meters (1,309 ft) below sea level, is the lowest point in the world. South of the Dead Sea, the Rift Valley continues in the [[Arabah|Nahal HaArava]] (Wadi al Arabah in Arabic), which has no permanent water flow, for 170 kilometers (106 mi) to the Gulf of Aqaba.
The Negev Desert comprises approximately 12,000 square kilometers (4,600 mi²), more than half of Israel's total land area. Geographically it is an extension of the [[Sinai|Sinai Desert]], forming a rough triangle with its base in the north near [[Beersheba]] (aka Beersheva), the Dead Sea, and the southern [[Judean Mountains|Judean Hills]], and it has its apex in the southern tip of the country at [[Eilat]]. Topographically, it parallels the other regions of the country, with lowlands in the west, hills in the central portion, and the Nahal HaArava as its eastern border.
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Dead Sea]] -408 [[metre|m]] (-1,339 ft)
:* Highest point: [[Hermon|Har Hermon]] at 2,248 m (7,375 ft) in the unilaterally annexed [[Golan Heights]] or [[Meron (Israel)|Har Meron]] at 1,208 m (3,963 ft) within the 1967 boundaries.
===Climate===
Israel has a [[Mediterranean climate]] characterized by long, hot, dry summers and short, cool, rainy winters, as modified locally by altitude and latitude. Summers are very humid along the Mediterranean coast but dry in the [[Negev]]. The climate i |
onsibility for the massacre, describing Sharon's efforts to stop the massacre as "pitiful" and "inadequate".
An AP report on [[15 September]] [[1982]] stated :
:''Defence Minister Ariel Sharon, in a statement, tied the killing [of the Phalangist leader Gemayel] to the PLO, saying: "It symbolises the terrorist murderousness of the PLO terrorist organisations and their supporters." Habib Chartouni, a Lebanese Christian from the Syrian Socialist National Party confessed to the murder of Gemayel, and no Palestinians were involved. Sharon had used this to instigate the entrance of the Lebanese militias into the camps.''[http://news.independent.co.uk/world/fisk/article336785.ece]
Sharon was dismissed by Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]] but he remained in successive governments as a Minister.
In 1987, [[Time Magazine|''TIME'' magazine]] published a story implying Sharon was directly responsible for the massacres. Sharon [[Lawsuit|sued]] ''Time'' for [[Slander and libel|libel]] in American and Israeli [[court]]s. ''Time'' won the suit in the U.S. court because although the [[jury]] found the article false and defamatory, Sharon could not establish that ''Time'' had "acted out of malice," as required under the U.S. law. [http://www.camera.org/index.asp?x_context=10&x_subject=3]
On [[June 18]], [[2001]], relatives of the victims of the Sabra massacre began proceedings in [[Belgium]] to have Ariel Sharon indicted on war crimes charges [http://www.caabu.org/campaigns/complaint-against-sharon.html]. In June 2002, a [[Brussels]] Appeals Court rejected the lawsuit because the law was subsequently changed under heavy U.S. pressure to disallow such lawsuits unless a Belgian citizen is involved. [http://www.droit.fundp.ac.be/cours/pen/JC032C1.pdf]
==Political career==
When Sharon joined Begin's government he had relatively little political experience. He avoided Begin's [[Herut]] party in the 1940s and 1950s and seemed to be personally devoted to the ideals of [[Mapai]], and then Labor. However, after retiring from military service, Sharon was instrumental in establishing the [[Likud]] in July 1973. The [[Likud]] was comprised of [[Herut]], the [[Israel Liberal Party|Liberal Party]] and independent elements. Sharon became chairman of the campaign staff for the elections which were scheduled for November 1973. But two and a half weeks after the start of the election campaign, the [[Yom Kippur War]] erupted and Sharon was called back to reserve service (''see above''). In December 1973 Sharon was elected to the [[Knesset]], but a year later he tired of political life and resigned.
From June 1975 to March 1976, Sharon was a special aide to Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Rabin]]. With the 1977 elections near, Sharon tried to return to the Likud and replace [[Menachem Begin]] at the head of the party. He suggested to [[Simcha Ehrlich]], who headed the Liberal Party bloc in the Likud, that he was more fitting than Begin to win an election victory; but he was rejected. Following this he tried to join the [[Israel Labor Party|Labour Party]] and the centrist [[Shinui|DASH]], but was rejected in those parties too. Only then did he form his own list, [[Shlomtzion Party|Shlomtzion]], which won only two Knesset seats in the subsequent elections. Immediately after the elections he merged Shlomtzion with the Likud and became Minister of Agriculture.
During this period, Sharon supported the [[Gush Emunim]] settlements movement and was viewed as the patron of the messianic settlers' movement. He used his position to encourage the establishment of a network of Israeli settlements in the occupied territories to prevent the possibility of the return of these territories to Palestinian Arabs. Sharon doubled the number of Jewish settlements on the West Bank and Gaza Strip during his tenure.
On his settlement policy, Sharon said while addressing a meeting of the Tsomet Party: "Everybody has to move, run and grab as many (Palestinian) hilltops as they can to enlarge the (Jewish) settlements because everything we take now will stay ours... Everything we don't grab will go to them." (Agence France Presse, [[15 November]] [[1998]].)
After the 1981 elections, Begin rewarded Sharon for his important contribution to Likud's narrow win, by appointing him Minister of Defense. (''See above for further information about Sharon's tenure as Minister of Defense.'')
After being dismissed from the Defense Minister post because the Kahan Commission found him "personally responsible" for his "disregard of the danger of a massacre," Sharon remained in successive governments as a Minister without portfolio (1983&ndash;1984), Minister for Trade and Industry (1984&ndash;1990), and Minister for Housing Construction (1990&ndash;1992). During this period he was a rival to then prime minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]], but failed in various bids to replace him as chairman of the ruling [[Likud]] party. Their rivalry reached a head on the "Night of Microphones" in February 1990, when Sharon snapped the microphone from Shamir, who was addressing the Likud central committee, and famously exclaimed: "Who's for wiping out terrorism?". The implication was that only Sharon knew how to destroy the scourge and whoever deemed this as important should support him. The incident was widely viewed as an apparent [[putsch]] attempt against Shamir's leadership of the party.
==Prime Minister==
In [[Benjamin Netanyahu]]'s 1996&ndash;1999 government, he was Minister of National Infrastructure (1996&ndash;1998), and Foreign Minister (1998&ndash;1999). Upon the election of the [[Ehud Barak|Barak]] Labor government, Sharon became leader of the Likud party. After the collapse of Barak's government, he was elected Prime Minister in February 2001.
[[The Greek island affair]] involves attempts by [[David Appel]] to purchase an island near the coast of [[Athens]] for the purpose of building a multimillion-dollar resort complex.
While Ariel Sharon was [[Foreign Minister]] under Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in 1999, Appel contracted to pay his Sharon's son, [[Gilad Sharon|Gilad]], then 30 years old and a business novice, $20,000 monthly as a business consultant. According to reports, Gilad might have received up to $3 million had the project been successful.
Police believe Appel signed the contract with Gilad Sharon in order to secure his father's help in facilitating the resort project. Sharon later hosted the deputy foreign minister of [[Greece]] during his visit to Israel. Appel is widely suspected of bribing [[Ehud Olmert]], the former mayor of [[Jerusalem]] into helping him by funding an official banquet held for the Athenian mayor.
In return for the aid received from both Likud leaders, Appel allegedly contributed to the campaigns of both men when they ran for chairman of the Likud after Netanyahu's resignation in 1999. On [[June 14]] [[2004]], Israel's Attorney General, [[Meni Mazouz]], decided to close the case due to lack of evidence and prosecutorial misconduct.
[[Image:Red Sea Summit in Aqaba.jpg|thumb|right|[[Palestinian]] Prime Minister [[Mahmoud Abbas]], [[United States]] President [[George W. Bush]], and Ariel Sharon after reading statement to the press during the closing moments of the Red Sea Summit in [[Aqaba]], [[Jordan]], [[June 4]] [[2003]].]]
According to the Palestinians, Ariel Sharon has followed an aggressive policy of non-negotiation. Palestinians allege that the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] (September 2000&ndash;February 2005) was sparked by a visit by Sharon and an escort of several hundred policemen to the [[Haram al-Sharif]]/[[Temple Mount]] complex, site of the [[Dome of the Rock]] and [[al-Aqsa Mosque]]. Sharon's visit, prior to his election as Prime Minister, came after archeologists claimed that extensive building operations at the site were destroying priceless antiquities and a few months before the election. While visiting the site, Sharon declared that the complex would remain under perpetual Israeli control. Palestinian commentators accused Sharon of purposely inflaming emotions with the event to provoke a violent response and obstruct success of delicate ongoing peace talks.
Sharon's supporters claim that [[Yasser Arafat]] and the [[Palestinian Authority]] planned the intifada. [http://www.mafhoum.com/press3/111P55.htm] [http://www.townhall.com/columnists/charleskrauthammer/ck20010520.shtml] [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf19.html#a1] [http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~jkatz/alaksa.html]. They state that Palestinian security chief Jabril Rajoub provided assurances that if Sharon did not enter the mosques, no problems would arise. They also often quote statements by Palestinian Authority officials, particularly Imad Falouji, the P.A. Communications Minister, who admitted months after Sharon's visit that the violence had been planned in July, far in advance of Sharon's visit, stating the intifada "was carefully planned since the return of (Palestinian President) Yasser Arafat from [[Camp David]] negotiations rejecting the U.S. conditions."[http://gulf-news.com/Articles/print.asp?ArticleID=11166][http://jewishweek.org/news/newscontent.php3?artid=3846] According to the Mitchell Report, the government of Israel asserted that
[[Image:sharon_bush_abbas.jpg|thumb|left|President [[George W. Bush]], center, discusses the [[Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict|Middle East peace process]] with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon of Israel, left, and Palestinian Prime Minister [[Mahmoud Abbas]] in [[Aqaba]], [[Jordan]], [[June 4]], [[2003]].]]
:''the immediate catalyst for the violence was the breakdown of the Camp David negotiations on [[25 July]] [[2000]] and the &#8220;widespread appreciation in the international community of Palestinian responsibility for the impasse.&#8221; In this view, Palestinian violence |
em to teach. In this sense the word ''baccalarius'' or ''baccalaureus'' first appears at the [[University of Paris]] in the 13th century, in the system of degrees established under the auspices of [[Pope Gregory IX]], as applied to scholars still in statu pupillari. Thus there were two classes of baccalarii: the ''baccalarii cursores,'' i.e. theological candidates passed for admission to the divinity course, and the ''baccalarii dispositi'', who, having completed this course, were entitled to proceed to the higher degrees. The term ''baccalaureus'' is a [[pun]] combining the prosaic ''baccalarius'' with ''bacca lauri'' "[[laurel]] berry".
*In modern universities the significance of the [[Bachelor's degree|degree of bachelor]], in relation to the others, varies; e.g. at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] the bachelor can proceed to his mastership by simply retaining his name on the books and paying certain fees; but generally, further studies are necessary. But in no case is the bachelor a full member of the university, meaning that he does not have the right to teach. With the admission of women to universities from the late 19th century, the term in its academic sense could also apply to females.
*The sense of "unmarried man" dates to 1385. The feminine ''bachelorette'' is from 1935, replacing earlier ''bachelor-girl''. In 19th century American slang ''to bach'' was used as a verb meaning "to live as an unmarried man".
==Penal laws and customs==
Bachelors, in the sense of unmarried men, have in many countries been subjected to penal laws. At [[Sparta]], citizens who remained unmarried after a certain age suffered various penalties. They were not allowed to witness the gymnastic exercises of the maidens; and during winter they were compelled to march [[nudity|naked]] round the market-place, singing a song composed against themselves and expressing the justice of their punishment. The usual respect of the young to the old was not paid to bachelors.
At [[Athens]] there was no definite legislation on this matter; but certain minor laws are evidently dictated by a spirit akin to the Spartan doctrine. At Rome, though there appear traces of some earlier legislation in the matter, the first clearly known law is that called the [[Lex Julia]], passed about 18 BC. It does not appear to have ever come into full operation; and in AD 9 it was incorporated with the [[Lex Papia Poppaea|Lex Papia et Poppaea]], the two laws being frequently cited as one, Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea. This law, while restricting marriages between the several classes of the people, laid heavy penalties on unmarried persons, gave certain privileges to those citizens who had several children, and finally imposed lighter penalties on married persons who were childless.
Isolated instances of such penalties occur during the middle ages, e.g. by a charter of liberties granted by [[Matilda I]], countess of [[Nevers]], to [[Auxerre]] in [[1223]], an annual tax of five solidi is imposed on any man ''qui non habet uxorem et est bache-larius''. In [[Great Britain]] there has been no direct legislation bearing on bachelors; but, occasionally, taxes have been made to bear more heavily on them than on others. Instances of this are an Act passed in [[1695]]; the tax on [[servant_(domestic)|servant]]s, [[1785]]; and the [[income tax]], [[1798]].
In some cultures, the "punishment" of bachelors is no more than a teasing game. In small towns in [[Germany]], for example, men who are still unmarried on their 30th birthday are made to sweep the stairs of the [[town hall]] until kissed by a [[virgin]].
==See also==
* [[Bachelor's degree]]
* [[Marriage strike]]
* [[Bachelor group]]
* [[Sex-selective abortion and infanticide]]
* [[Erotophobia]]
* [[Love-shyness]]
* [[Bachelor party]]
== Further reading ==
* [http://marriage.rutgers.edu/Publications/SOOU/TEXTSOOU2002.htm Why Men Won't Commit: Exploring Young Men's Attitudes About Sex, Dating and Marriage by Drs. Barbara Dafoe Whitehead and David Popenoe] - An essay on young, not-yet married men’s attitudes on the timing of marriage finds that men experience few social pressures to marry, gain many of the benefits of marriage by cohabiting with a romantic partner, and are ever more reluctant to commit to marriage in their early adult years.
* [http://www.intellectualconservative.com/article3609.html The Marriage No-Shows by Carey Roberts] - When almost one-quarter of single men are in their prime courting years (that’s two million potential husbands).
[[Category:Marriage]]
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<title>Background radiation</title>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.143.220.40|86.143.220.40]] ([[User talk:86.143.220.40|talk]]) to last version by 67.166.42.66</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Background radiation''' is the [[ionizing radiation]] from several natural radiation sources: sources in the [[Earth]] and from those sources that are incorporated in our food and water, which are incorporated in our body, and in building materials and other products that incorporate those radioactive sources; radiation sources from [[outer space|space]] (in the form of [[cosmic ray]]s); and sources in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] which primarily come from both the radon gas that is released from the earth's surface and subsequently decays to radioactive atoms that become attached to airborne dust and particulates, and the production of radioactive atoms from the bombardment of atoms in the upper atmosphere by high-energy cosmic rays. Since [[1945]] it also comes from low levels of global [[radioactive contamination]] due to [[nuclear testing]].
== Natural background radiation ==
Natural background radiation comes from three primary sources: [[cosmic radiation]], terrestrial sources, and [[radon]]. The worldwide average background dose for a human being is about 2.4 mSv per year [http://www.unscear.org/pdffiles/annexb.pdf] (pdf). This exposure is mostly from cosmic radiation and natural isotopes in the Earth.
===Cosmic radiation===
The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system of positively charged ions from [[proton]]s to [[iron]] [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]]. This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, including [[X-rays]], [[muon]]s, protons, [[alpha particle]]s, [[pion]]s, [[electrons]], and [[neutron]]s. The [[dose]] from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons.
The dose rate from cosmic radiation varies in different parts of the world based largely on the geomagnetic field and altitude.
===Terrestrial sources===
Radioactive material is found throughout nature. It occurs naturally in the [[soil]], rocks, water, air, and vegetation. The major [[radionuclide]]s of concern for '''terrestrial radiation''' are [[potassium]], [[uranium]] and [[thorium]]. Each of these sources has been decreasing in activity since the birth of the Earth so that our present dose from [[potassium]]-40 is about &frac12; what it would have been at the dawn of life on Earth. Some of the elements that make up the human body have radioactive isotopes, such as potassium-40, so there is also a very small amount of internal radiation.
===Radon===
[[Radon]] gas seeps out of uranium-containing soils found across most of the world and may concentrate in well-sealed homes. It is often the single largest contributor to an individual's background radiation dose and is certainly the most variable in the United States. Many areas of the world, including [[Cornwall]] and [[Aberdeenshire]] in the [[United Kingdom]] have high enough natural radiation levels that [[nuclear licensed site]]s cannot be built there—the sites would already exceed legal radiation limits before they opened, and the natural topsoil and rock would all have to be disposed of as [[low-level nuclear waste]].
== Man-made "background" radiation ==
Every above-ground nuclear detonation scatters a certain amount of [[radioactive contamination]]. Some of this contamination is local, rendering the immediate surroundings highly radioactive, while some of it is carried longer distances as [[nuclear fallout]]; some of this material is dispersed worldwide. Nuclear reactors may also release a certain amount of radioactive contamination. Under normal circumstances, a modern nuclear reactor releases minuscule amounts of radioactive contamination. However, reprocessing plants released waste, including [[plutonium]], directly into the ocean. Major accidents, which have fortunately been relatively rare, have also released some radioactive contamination into the environment; this is the case, for example, with the [[Windscale fire]] ([[Sellafield]] accident) and the [[Chernobyl accident]].
The amount of radioactive contamination released by human activity is rather small, in global terms, but the radiation background is also rather low. Some sources claim that the Earth's background radiation level has tripled since the beginning of the twentieth century. In fact, the total amount of radioactivity released by man is inconsequential to the large quantities of radioactivity in the natural environment [http://www.unscear.org/pdffiles/annexb.pdf] (pdf).
== Man-made radiation sources ==
The radiation from natural and man-made radiation sources are identical in their nature and their effects. These materials are distributed in the environment, and in our bodies, according to the chemical properties of the elements. The [[Nuclear Regulatory Commission]], the [[Envi |
[Downtown East Village]] (also part of the [[Beltline#Rivers District|Rivers District]]). The commercial core is itself divided into a number of districts including the Stephen Avenue Retail Core, the Penny Lane Entertainment District, the Arts District and the Government District. Distinct from downtown and south of 9th Avenue is Calgary's densest neighbourhood, the [[Beltline]]. The area includes a number of communities such as [[Beltline|Midtown]], Victoria Crossing and a portion of the Rivers District. The Beltline is the focus of major planning and rejuvenation initiatives on the part of the municipal government to increase the density and liveliness of Calgary's centre.
Adjacent to, or directly radiating from the [[Downtown Calgary|downtown]] are the first of the inner-city communities. These include Crescent Heights, Sunnyside, Hounsfield Heights/Briar Hill, Hillhurst (including [[Kensington, Calgary|Kensington]] [[List of Neighbourhoods in Calgary#Business Revitalization Zones|BRZ]]), Bridgeland, Renfrew, [[Mount Royal, Calgary|Mount Royal]], [[Mission, Calgary|Mission]] and [[Inglewood, Calgary|Inglewood]]. The inner city is, in turn, surrounded by relatively dense and established neighbourhoods such as Rosedale and Mount Pleasant to the north; [[Bowness, Alberta|Bowness]], [[Parkdale, Calgary|Parkdale]] and Westgate to the west; Park Hill, South Calgary (including [[Marda Loop]]), Altadore and Killarney to the south; and [[International Avenue, Calgary|Forest Lawn/International Avenue]] to the east. Lying beyond these, and usually separated from one another by highways, are the suburban communities, often characterized as "commuter communities". The city's deep south is probably expanding the fastest and includes communities such as Cranston and [[McKenzie Lake]]. In all, there are over 180 distinct neighbourhoods within the city limits.
==Climate==
Although Calgary's winters can be downright cold, Environment Canada still ranks the city as having the 3rd most temperate climate in the country (of major cities) after [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] and [[Vancouver, British Columbia|Vancouver]]. This is due in large part to the dry [[Chinook wind|Chinook winds]] that routinely blow into the city from the Pacific Ocean during the winter months. These winds have been known to raise the winter temperature by up to 20°C and may last several days. The chinooks are such a common feature of Calgary's winters that only one month (January 1950) has failed to witness a thaw over more than 100 years of weather observations.
Nevertheless, Calgary is a city of extremes, and temperatures have ranged anywhere from a record low of &minus;45°C in 1893 to a record high of +36°C in 1919. Although summer temperatures in the +30s are not all that uncommon, it rarely gets colder than &minus;30°C, even in the dead of winter. On average the temperature ranges from a minimum &minus;15°C in January to a maximum of 23°C in July and August.
With an average relative humidity of 65% in the winter, Calgary is a dry city and receives very little rain or snow relative to other Canadian cities. Despite this, thunder and hail storms in the summer and blizzards in the other three seasons are not uncommon. Calgary receives an average of 400mm (15.7in) of precipitation annually, with 301mm (11.8in) of that as rain, and the remainder as snow. Most of the precipitation occurs from May to August.
'''Seasons'''
*Winter: November to mid-March.
*Spring: mid-March to May
*Summer: June to August
*Autumn: September to November
'''Other climatic periods'''
*Heavy snowfall season: March to early May(February however, tends to be the driest month of the year)
*Heavy rainfall month: June
*Thunderstorm/hail season: late May to early September
*Chinook season: late October to early April (its effect is most pronounced in the cooler months, though Chinooks can occur at any time.)
==City life==
Calgary's urban scene has changed considerably since the city has grown. It is also starting to become recognized as one of Canada's most diverse cities. Today, Calgary is a modern cosmopolitan city that still retains much of its traditional culture of hotel [[bar (establishment)|saloons]], [[ice hockey|hockey]] and [[Western Music (North America)|western music]]. As a relatively ethnically diverse city, Calgary also has a number of major multi-cultural areas. It has one of the largest [[Chinatown, Calgary|Chinatowns]] in Canada as well as a burgeoning “Little Italy” in the Bridgeland neighbourhood. Forest Lawn is among the most diverse areas in the city and as such, the area around 17th Avenue SE. within the neighbourhood is also known as [[International Avenue, Calgary|International Avenue]]. The district is home to a wide variety of ethnic restaurants and stores.
As the population has grown, and particularly, as the urban density in central Calgary has increased, so too has the vitality of this area. While the city continues to embrace suburbanism, people are beginning to find a wide variety alternatives in the inner city. This has lead to significant increases in the popularity of central districts such as [[Beltline|17th Avenue]], [[Kensington, Calgary|Kensington]], [[Inglewood, Calgary|Inglewood]], [[Marda Loop]] and the [[Mission, Calgary|Mission District]]. The nightlife and the availability of cultural venues in these areas has gradually begun to evolve as a result.
Although Calgary and Alberta have traditionally been affordable places to live, substantial growth (much of it due to the prosperous energy sector) has lead to increasing demand on real-estate. As a result, house prices in Calgary have increased significantly in recent years and are now quite high relative to other Canadian cities.
===Arts and culture===
[[Image:Olympic_Plaza.jpg |thumb|left|Olympic Plaza in the Arts District]]
Calgary is the site of the Southern Alberta Jubilee Auditorium, a 4 million cubic foot (113,000 m<sup>3</sup>) performing arts, culture and community facility. The auditorium is one of two "twin" facilities in the province, the other located in Edmonton. The 2,700-seat auditorium was opened in 1957 and has been host to hundreds of Broadway musical, theatrical, stage and local productions. Annually, over 850,000 visitors frequent the performance space. The "Jubes" as they are known, are the resident home of the [[Alberta Ballet]], the [[Calgary opera]], the [[Kiwanis Music Festival]], and the annual Canadian Legion [[Remembrance Day]] Ceremonies. The two auditoria are run by community-based non-profit societies and operate 365 days a year. The two auditoria have recently completed a $91 million renovation. They reopened on the Province's Centennial, September 1, 2005.
Calgary is also home to the internationally-renowned contemporary theatre company, [[One Yellow Rabbit]]. The company shares the massive [[EPCOR Centre for the Performing Arts]] with the [[Calgary Philharmonic Orchestra]] and two more established theatre companies, [[Theatre Calgary]] and [[Alberta Theatre Projects]]. Calgary was also the birthplace of the improvisational theatre games known as [[Theatresports]]. The [[Calgary International Film Festival]] is also held in the city annually.
The city is also home to several museums. The most well known of these, the [[Glenbow Museum]] is the largest in western Canada and includes an art gallery. Other major museums include the largest Chinese Cultural Centre in North America, the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame (at [[Canada Olympic Park]]), the Museum of the Regiments, the Cantos Music Museum and the Aero Space Museum. There are also a number of art galleries in the city and many of them are concentrated along the Stephen Avenue and [[Beltline#Uptown 17th Avenue|17th Avenue]] corridors. The largest of these is the Art Gallery of Calgary (AGC).
Calgary is affectionately called the [[Nashville]] of the North, and took a large part in the country revival of the 1990s. Currently, some of the city's most popular bars trade on the image of cool country, playing contemporary country music to young twenty-somethings.
Calgary is also home to a thriving all-ages music scene.
===Annual festivals===
[[Image:Eau_Claire.jpg |thumb|300px|right|Festival plaza in [[Eau Claire, Calgary|Eau Claire]].]]
*Winter Festival (February)
*Rodeo Royal (March)
*[[Calgary Independent Film Festival]] (March)
*Visaki Mela (Punjabi Spring Harvest Festival) (May)
*International Children's Festival (May)
*4th Street Lilac Festival (May)
*Carifest (June)
*[[Banff World Television Festival]] (June)
*International Jazz Festival (June)
*Calgary International Spoken word Festival (June)
*Greek Festival (June)
*[[Calgary Stampede]] (July)
*Chariot Festival of India (July)
*Folk Music Festival (July)
*Heritage Day (August)
*[[Summerstock Theatre Festival]] (August)
*Dragonboat Festival (August)
*Afrikadey! (August)
*International Reggae Festival (August)
*[[International Avenue|GlobalFest]] - One World Festival and International Fireworks Competition (August)
*Expo Latino (August)
*Barbecue on the Bow (September)
*Artcity - Festival of Art, Design and Architecture (September)
*[[Calgary International Film Festival]] (September / October)
*Banff Festival of Mountain Films (October)
*Twelve Days of Christmas (December)
*[[Calgary Zoo#Zoolights|Zoolights]] (December/January)
====The Stampede====
The city is famous for the [[Calgary Stampede]], a very large agricultural fair and rodeo every July. The Stampede officially bills itself as "The Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth". It features an internationally recognized rodeo competition, a midway, stage shows, agricultural competitions, chuckwagon races, [[First Nations]] exhibitions, and pancake breakfasts around the city, among other attractions. It is among the largest and most well known festivals in Canada. The event has a 93 year history.
The [[Calgary Stam |
tp://www.volksbuehne-berlin.de]
*[[Maxim Gorki Theater]] [http://www.gorki.de]
===Cinema===
In the GDR, the movie industry was very active. The head-group for film-productions was the [[DEFA]] [http://www.defa-stiftung.de], ''Deutsche Film AG'', which was subdivided in different local groups, for example ''Gruppe [[Berlin]]'', ''Gruppe [[Babelsberg]]'' or ''Gruppe [[Johannisthal]]'', where the local teams shot and produced films. Besides folksy movies, the movie-industry became known worldwide for its productions, especially children movies ("[[Das kalte Herz]]", picturizations of fairy-tales according to [[Grimm]]-brothers and also modern productions like "[[Das Schulgespenst]]").
Movies about persecution of Jews in Third Reich like "[[Jacob the Liar|Jakob der Lügner]]" and the resistance against fascism "[[Fünf Patronenhülsen]]" (both directed by [[Frank Beyer]]) became internationally famous.
Also movies about the problems in daily life like "[[Die Legende von Paul und Paula]]" (directed by [[Heiner Carow]]) or "[[Solo Sunny]]" (directed by [[Konrad Wolf]] and [[Wolfgang Kohlhaase]]) were very popular.
The film industry was remarkable for its production of westerns, in which the [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] often took the role of displaced people, who fight for their rights, in opposite to the American western, in which they are often not mentioned or play the villains. [[Gojko Mitic|Gojko Mitić]] is the most famous actor in this part, often playing the righteous, kindhearted and charming chief ("[[Die Söhne der großen Bärin]]" directed by [[Josef Mach]]). He became honorary chief of the tribe of [[Sioux]], when he visited the [[United States of America]] in the 90s, and the television-team accompanying him showed the tribe one his movies.
It was part of a temporal phenomenon of Europe producing alternative films about the colonization of America, look up also [[Spaghetti Western|Italowestern]] and the West German [[Winnetou]] films (adaptations of novels of [[Karl May]]).
Because of censorship a certain number of very remarkable movies were forbidden at this time and reissued after the [[Wende]] in [[1990]]. Examples are "[[Spur der Steine]]" (directed by [[Frank Beyer]]) and "[[Der geteilte Himmel]]" (directed by [[Konrad Wolf]]).
In cinemas of the GDR, not only own productions were shown. Besides the Czech, Polish a.s.o. productions also certain foreign movies were shown, but the numbers were limited because it did cost foreign exchange to buy the licences. Certainly movies representing or glorifying capitalistic ideology were not bought. So, for example "[[Grease (film)|Grease]]" was not shown, but "[[One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest]]" was. Comedies enjoyed great popularity, such as the Danish "[[Olsen Gang]]" or movies with the French comedian [[Louis de Funès]].
===Holidays===
{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class="toccolours" style="align: left; margin: 0.5em 0 0 0; border-style: solid; border: 1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! style="background: #efefef; border-bottom: 2px solid gray;" | Date
! style="background: #efefef; border-bottom: 2px solid gray;" | English Name
! style="background: #efefef; border-bottom: 2px solid gray;" | Local Name
! style="background: #efefef; border-bottom: 2px solid gray;" | Remarks
|-
| [[January 1]]
| [[New Year's Day]]
| Neujahr
| &nbsp;
|-
| [[March 8]]
| [[International Women's Day]]
| Tag der Frau
| &nbsp;
|-
| ''[[Moveable feast]]''
| [[Good Friday]]
| Karfreitag
| &nbsp;
|-
| ''[[Moveable feast]]''
| [[Easter Sunday]]
| Ostersonntag
| &nbsp;
|-
| ''[[Moveable feast]]''
| [[Easter Monday]]
| Ostermontag
| &nbsp;
|-
| [[May 1]]
| [[May Day]]
| Tag der Arbeit
| Labour Day
|-
| ''[[Moveable feast]]''
| [[Father's Day]] / [[Ascension Day]]
| Vatertag / Christi Himmelfahrt
| thursday after the 5. sunday after [[Easter]]
|-
| ''[[Moveable feast]]''
| [[Pentecost|Whitmonday]]
| Pfingstmontag
| 50 days after Easter Sunday
|-
| [[October 7]]
| Republic Day
| Tag der Republik
| National holiday
|-
| [[December 25]]
| [[Christmas Day]]
| 1. Weihnachtsfeiertag
| &nbsp;
|-
| [[December 26]]
| [[Boxing Day]]
| 2. Weihnachtsfeiertag
| &nbsp;
|}
==Miscellaneous topics==
{{main|List of German Democratic Republic-related topics}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-4}}
*[[Germany]]
*[[West Germany]]
*[[History of Germany since 1945]]
*[[History of East Germany]]
*[[Berlin]]
*[[East Berlin]]
*[[West Berlin]]
*[[Bonn]]
{{col-4}}
'''Forces'''
*[[National People's Army]]
*[[Stasi]]
*[[Volkspolizei]]
*[[Conscientious objection in East Germany]]
{{col-4}}
'''Media'''
*[[Aktuelle Kamera]], GDR's main TV news show
*[[Radio Berlin International]]
*[[Der Tunnel]], a film about a mass evacuation to West Berlin through a tunnel
*[[Broadcasting in East Germany]]
{{col-4}}
'''Other'''
*[[Interflug]] - The airline of the GDR
*[[Tourism in East Germany]]
*[[Education in East Germany]]
*[[GDR jokes]]
*[[Ostalgie]]
*Highest point: [[Fichtelberg]] (1,214 m)*
{{col-end}}
==External links==
{{commonscat|GDR}}
*[http://montages.blogspot.com/2005/01/politics-of-mourning.html "The Politics of Mourning"]
*[http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=5528 AHF - Nationale Volksarmee (NVA)]
*[http://www.auferstanden-aus-ruinen.de/ Auferstanden aus Ruinen]
*[http://home.att.net/~rw.rynerson/daruber.htm On the Other Side of the Wall - An American living in East Berlin.]
*[http://www.calvin.edu/cas/gpa/gdrmain.htm Translations of propaganda materials from the GDR.]
<hr align="center" noshade size="4" width="100%">
<center>[[Countries of the world]] &nbsp;|&nbsp; [[Europe]]</center>
[[Category:1949 establishments]]
[[Category:1989 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:East Germany| ]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe|Germany, East]]
[[af:Duitse Demokratiese Republiek]]
[[als:Deutsche Demokratische Republik]]
[[ast:República Democrática Alemana]]
[[ca:República Democràtica Alemanya]]
[[cs:Německá demokratická republika]]
[[da:DDR]]
[[de:Deutsche Demokratische Republik]]
[[et:Saksa DV]]
[[es:República Democrática Alemana]]
[[eo:Germana Demokratia Respubliko]]
[[fr:République démocratique allemande]]
[[gl:Alemaña do Leste]]
[[ko:독일민주공화국]]
[[io:DDR]]
[[id:Jerman Timur]]
[[it:Germania Est]]
[[he:גרמניה המזרחית]]
[[ms:Jerman Timur]]
[[nl:Duitse Democratische Republiek]]
[[nds:Düütsche Demokraatsche Republiek]]
[[ja:ドイツ民主共和国]]
[[no:Den tyske demokratiske republikk]]
[[nn:Den tyske demokratiske republikken]]
[[pl:Niemiecka Republika Demokratyczna]]
[[pt:Alemanha Oriental]]
[[ro:DDR]]
[[ru:Германская Демократическая Республика]]
[[simple:East Germany]]
[[sl:Nemška demokratična republika]]
[[sr:Источна Немачка]]
[[fi:Saksan demokraattinen tasavalta]]
[[sv:Östtyskland]]
[[th:ประเทศเยอรมนีตะวันออก]]
[[zh:德意志民主共和国]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Empirical Research</title>
<id>9234</id>
<revision>
<id>15907137</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Empirical research]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ethical egoism</title>
<id>9235</id>
<revision>
<id>40962452</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T03:36:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.69.166.68</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Egoism]] (disambiguation).''
'''Ethical egoism''' is belief that one ''ought'' to do what is in one's own self-interest. What is in one's self-interest may ''incidentally'' be detrimental to others, beneficial to others, or neutral in its effect. Ethical egoism is not to be confused with [[rational egoism]], which holds that it is rational to act in one's self-interest, but not that it is ethically imperative.
Ethical egoism does not necessitate that individuals disregard the well-being of others, nor does it require that an individual refrain from taking the well-being of others into consideration. It allows for the possibility of either as long as what is chosen is efficacious in satisfying self-interest. For some, it is the philosophical basis of their espousal of [[anarchism]] which advocates that individuals do not coercively prevent others from exercising freedom of action.
Ethical [[egoism]] is in contrast with the ethical doctrine of [[altruism]] which holds that individuals have an ethical obligation to help or serve others. A philosophy holding that one should be honest, just, benevolent etc., ''because'' those virtues serve one's self-interest is egoistic; one holding that one should practice those virtues for reasons other than self-interest is not egoistic.
Many contend that the view is implausible on its face, and that those who advocate it seriously usually do so at the expense of redefining "self-interest" to include the interests of others. Or, it may be argued that harming or enslaving others is what is one's best self-interest. An ethical egoist might counter this by asserting that furthering the ends of others is sometimes the best means of furthering one's own ends, or that simply by allowing liberty to others one's self-interest is resultingly furthered.
On the other hand, ethical egoism has also been identified as the basis for [[immorality]]. For instance, [[Thomas Jefferson]] wrote in a letter to Thomas Law, in 1814:
:Self-interest, or rather self-love, or '''egoism,''' has been more plausibly substituted as the basis of morality. But I consider our relations with others as constitu |
t_uids=1982368&query_hl=41],
the potential long-term neurodegenerative effects of
small-to-moderate spikes on plasma excitotoxin levels [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7854587&query_hl=41],
and the potential dangers of combining formaldehyde
exposure from aspartame with excitotoxins given that chronic methanol exposure increases excitoxin levels in susceptible
areas of the brain
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12490131&query_hl=37],
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12112376&query_hl=46]
and that excitotoxins may potentiate formaldehyde damage. [http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1173]
=== Aspartylphenylalanine diketopiperazine ===
This type of [[diketopiperazine]] (DKP) is created in
products as aspartame breaks down over time. For example, researchers found that<!--dependent clause: comma needed-->, 6 months after
aspartame was put into carbonated beverages, 25% of the aspartame had been converted to DKP.
[http://pubs3.acs.org/acs/journals/archive_lookup?in_manuscript_number=jf00064a043]
Concern amongst some scientists has been expressed that this form of DKP would undergo a
[[nitrosation]] process in the stomach producing a type of chemical that could cause brain tumors.
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8939194&query_hl=2],
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8505016&query_hl=5]
Other scientists feel that the nitrosation of aspartame or the DKP in the stomach would not
produce a chemical that would cause brain tumors. In addition, only a minuscule amount of the
nitrosated chemical would be produced.
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8990134&query_hl=7]
There are very few human studies on the effects
of this form of DKP. However, a (one-day) exposure study showed that the DKP was tolerated without
adverse effects. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8409113&query_hl=12]
=== Responses ===
The [[American Cancer Society]] argues that ''since aspartame is broken down into these components before it is absorbed into the blood stream, aspartame in its initial form does not have the opportunity to travel to target organs, including the brain, to cause cancer.'' [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ped/content/ped_1_3x_aspartame.asp] The
[http://www.feingold.org/ Feingold Association] has stated that aspartame ''is reported to cause a variety of neurological effects from headache to seizures and brain tumors.''
[http://www.feingold.org/06-2003.html#are] The [[American Heart Association]] concludes
that ''extensive investigation so far hasn't shown any serious side effects from aspartame.'' [http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4447] A consumer alert issued by the [http://www.acash.org/ Association for Consumers Action on Safety and Health] was published related to the dangers of ingesting aspartame. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Aspartame-acash1.jpg] The [[National Cancer Institute]] argues ''there is no evidence that the regulated artificial sweeteners on the market in the United States are related to cancer risk in humans.'' [http://cis.nci.nih.gov/fact/3_19.htm] The [http://www.thenhf.com National Health Federation] calls aspartame a ''neurotoxic artificial sweetener.'' [http://www.thenhf.com/articles_46.htm] The [[FDA]] says the more than ''100 toxicological and clinical studies it has reviewed confirm that aspartame is safe for the general population.'' [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1999/699_sugar.html] The consumer organization [http://campaignfortruth.com/Eclub/230605/ UK Campaign for Truth in Medicine] says that ''Aspartame is, by far, the most dangerous substance on the market that is added to foods.'' [http://www.campaignfortruth.com/sugarbody.htm] There have been more than 600 studies on aspartame and thousands of studies on aspartame breakdown products and metabolites. It is not known whether persons writing the opinion for the above-mentioned organizations have read the bulk of the published research on aspartame or whether they are relying on summaries provided to them.
=== Recently-published research===
A large three-year study into the long-term effects of eating aspartame in rats by the European Ramazzini Foundation for cancer research in Bologna, Italy was published in September 2005. It found evidence that aspartame caused cancer of the kidney, and of the peripheral nerves, mainly in the head. It also reported an increased risk of leukaemias and lymphomas in female rats. Manufacturers of aspartame have challenged the validity of the study.
[http://www.guardian.co.uk/food/Story/0,2763,1581639,00.html?gusrc=rss]
== Products with Aspartame ==
These products may contain '''aspartame''', but may also be available in [[sugar|sugared]] form, or with neither [[sugar]] nor [[artificial sweetener|artificial sweeteners]], that is, [[natural]]. This list can be summarized as ''if it tastes too sweet to be true, it probably is.'' In their artificially-sweetened form, all of these products have a ''[[sweet]]'' taste, but no [[calories]] from [[sugar]].
*Breath Mints
*Carbonated Soft Drinks
*Cereals
*Chewing Gum
*Flavored Syrups for Coffee
*Flavored Water Products
*Frozen Ice
*Frozen Ice Cream Novelties
*Fruit Spreads
*Gelatin, <!--"free" is a suffix meaning without, as "less" is in boneless"; NONSENSICAL as a separate word-->Sugar-free
*Hard Candies
*Ice Cream Toppings
*Ice Creams, No-Sugar-Added or Sugar-free
*Iced Tea, Powder
*Iced Tea, Ready-to-Drink
*Instant Cocoa Mix
*Jams & Jellies
*Juice Blends
*Juice Drinks
*Maple Syrups
*Meal Replacements
*Mousse
*No-Sugar-Added Pies
*Non-Carbonated Diet Soft Drinks
*Nutritional Bars
*Powdered Soft Drinks
*Protein Nutritional Drinks
*Pudding
*Soft Candy Chews
*Sugar-free Chocolate Syrup
*Sugar-free Cookies
*Sugar-free Ketchup
*Table-Top Sweeteners
*Toothpaste
*Vegetable Drinks
*Vitamins
*Yogurt, Drinkable
*Yogurt, Fat-free
*Yogurt, Sugar-free
[http://www.aspartame.org/aspartame_products.html]
== See also ==
* [[Sugar substitute]]
== References ==
*{{note|fda728}}Department of Health & Human Services (DHHS). (1993, April 1) ''Adverse Reactions Associated with Aspartame Consumption'' (HFS-728). Chief, Epidemiology Branch. Retrieved Oct 24, 2005 from http://www.presidiotex.com/aspartame/Facts/92_Symptoms/92_symptoms.gif (This is an image of part of the document)
== External links ==
=== Pro-aspartame ===
* [http://www.aspartame.org/ Aspartame Information Center]
* [http://www.aspartame.net/ Aspartame Information Service]
* [http://www.aspartamearchives.org/ Aspartame Archives]
* [http://www.acsh.org/healthissues/newsID.265/healthissue_detail.asp Aspartame -- American Council on Science and Health]
* [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1999/699_sugar.html Sugar Substitutes (U.S. FDA web page)]
* [http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out155_en.pdf Update on Aspartame Safety; EC Scientific Committee on Food] (263 KB [[PDF]])
* [http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/facts-faits/aspartame/aspartame01_e.html Health Canada]
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/aspartame/index.htm GreenFacts.org: Review of the EC Scientific Committee's 2002 Update]
=== Anti-aspartame ===
* [http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/Aspartame_Support Aspartame Support Group]
* [http://www.holisticmed.com/aspartame/ Aspartame Toxicity Information Center]
* [http://www.dorway.com/ Aspartame -- Dorway to Discovery]
* [http://www.wnho.net/aspartamenews.htm Aspartame -- Mission Possible News/Articles]
* [http://www.aspartamesafety.com/ Aspartame Consumer Safety Network]
* [http://www.wnho.net/aspartameletter.htm Aspartame -- Former U.S. FDA Investigator]
* [http://www.sweetpoison.com/ Sweet Poison]
* [http://www.holisticmed.com/aspartame/scf2002.html Update on Aspartame Safety; Response to EC Scientific Committee on Food]
* [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/329/7469/755#76712 Responses to Aspartame and Its Effects on Health]
* [http://eagle.westnet.gr/~aesclep/npoi1.htm Nutrapoison, Part One] by Alex Constantine
* [http://www.dldewey.com/aspar.htm Aspartame - Sweetness or Death?] by Syndicated Columnist, David Lawrence Dewey
=== News & General Articles ===
* [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/homeaffairs/story/0,11026,1667772,00.html Safety of Artificial Sweetener Called Into Question by MP, The Guardian, UK, December 15, 2005]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a961129.html The Straight Dope on aspartame]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/12/business/yourmoney/12sweet.html?ex=1297400400&en=f5f573adcc335534&ei=5089&partner=rssyahoo&emc=rss The Lowdown on Sweet? - article in New York Times]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/21/opinion/21tues4.html The Safety of Aspartame, The New York Times, USA, February 21, 2006]
[[Category:Carboxylate esters]]
[[Category:Sweeteners]]
[[be:????????]]
[[cs:Aspartam]]
[[da:Aspartam]]
[[de:Aspartam]]
[[es:Aspartamo]]
[[fr:Aspartame]]
[[ko:????]]
[[it:Aspartame]]
[[nl:Aspartaam]]
[[ja:???????]]
[[pl:Aspartam]]
[[pt:Aspartame]]
[[sk:Aspartam]]
[[fi:Aspartaami]]
[[sv:Aspartam]]
[[th:??????????]]
[[tr:Aspartam]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AutoCAD</title>
<id>2753</id>
<revision>
<id>41632928</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:46:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.124.172.129</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Description */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AutoCAD 2006 drawing.png|thumb|275px| |
s as the Word of God Incarnate, as many believe, but also to confound "the [[Jew]]s" by superseding the ''[[incipit]]'' of their earliest historical book!
==Structure==
After the prologue (1:1-5), the narrative of this gospel begins with verse 6, and consists of two parts. The first part, called "the Book of Signs" (1:6-ch. 12) contains the story of [[Jesus]]' public ministry from the time of his baptismal initiation by [[John the Baptist]] to its close. In this first part, John chooses seven of Jesus's miracles, always calling them "signs." The second part, called "the Book of Glory" (ch. 13-21) presents Jesus in the retirement of private life and in his dialog with his immediate followers (13-17), and gives an account of his sufferings and [[crucifixion]] and of his appearances to the disciples after his resurrection (18-20). Chapter [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2021;&version=31; 21] the "appendix" recounting the death of the "beloved disciple," follows.
The ''Gospel of John'' is easily distinguished from the three [[Synoptic Gospels]], which share a more considerable amount of text and describe much more of Jesus' life. By contrast, the specific peculiarities of John are notable, especially in their effect on modern Christianity.
John gives far more focus in his work to the mystical relation of the Son to the Father. As a Gospel writer, many believe he essentially developed the concept of the [[Trinity]] while the Synoptic Gospels had focused less directly on Jesus as the Son of God. John includes far more direct claims of Jesus being the only Son of God in favour of Jesus as the Son of Man. The gospel also focuses on the relation of the Redeemer to believers, the announcement of the Holy Spirit as the Comforter (Greek ''[[Paraclete]]''), and the prominence of love as an element in the Christian character.
==Popular Passages in the Gospel==
[[John 3:16|John]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%203:16;&version=31; 3:16] is one of the most widely known passages in the New Testament: ''For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.'' According to the professional men's and Bible distribution society [[Gideons International]], John 3:16 has been translated into more than 1,100 languages.
Another popular passage from John is [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%204:13-14;&version=31; John 4:13-14]. ''"Jesus answered, "Everyone who drinks this water will be thirsty again, but whoever drinks the water I give him will never thirst. Indeed, the water I give him will become in him a spring of water welling up to eternal life."'' Jesus had said this to a Samaritan woman whom he met at a well, and he told her about the living water that he offered. This saying was based partially on [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah%2055:1-2;&version=31; Isaiah 55:1-2].
==Differences from the Synoptic Gospels==
John is significantly different from the three preceding [[Synoptic Gospels]] of Matthew, Mark, and Luke in man different ways. Some of the differences are:
*The [[Kingdom of God]] is only mentioned twice in John. In contrast, the other gospels repeatedly use the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Heaven as important concepts.
*The Gospel of John does not contain any [[parable]]s, although metaphoric stories, like [[John 15]], are still found in the gospel.
*The saying "He who has ears, let him hear" is totally absent from John.
*The healings of demon-possessed people are never mentioned as in the Synoptics.
*The Synoptics contain a wealth of stories about Jesus's miracles and healings, but John does not have as much of those stories. John tends to elaborate more heavily on the stories than the Synoptics.
*Various speeches of Jesus are absent, including all of the [[Sermon on the Mount]] and the instructions that Jesus gave to his disciples when he sent them out throughout the country to heal and preach (as in [[Matthew 10]]).
*Overall, the sayings of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels have many close parallels to sayings in the [[Gospel of Thomas]]. However, Jesus's sayings in the Gospel of John almost never closely parallel the sayings found in the Gospel of Thomas.
==Characteristics of the ''Gospel of John''==
The Greek of this gospel is elegant, and its theology subtle and sophisticated, with many parallels in Hellenistic thought.
Some of the passages in this book are alleged to be [[Christian anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]], mainly due to the emphasis placed on the responsibility of the Jews (especially the Jewish leaders in Judea) for the Crucifixion. The Gospel uses the term "the Jews" to categorize some of Jesus' detractors. Most likely the author was Jewish himself, speaking to a largely Jewish community, and therefore we must be careful applying a 21st century language lens on a 1st century expression. Nonetheless, these passages were appropriated and used in negative ways by some Christian groups in certain periods of history to persecute Jewish people, being quoted to justify ''[[odium theologicum]]''. Other critics read this shift of emphasis to the Jewish public enemies of the Roman ''imperium'' and away from the Roman authorities, who actually carried out the execution, as a technique of rendering a developing Christianity more palatable in official circles. It is because of this that some politically-correct English translations (like the controversial [[Today's New International Version]]) remove the term "Jews" and replace them with non-offensive terms so as to remove alleged anti-Semitism. Critics of these translations state that when John uses "Jews," he is not referring to all Jews (as John, Jesus and his disciples were all Jews) but to the Jewish leaders (the Sanhedrin) in Judea who openly oppose Jesus. These same critics argued that those people who believe that the Gospel of John is "anti-Semitic" failed to understand how the term "Jews" is actually used.
Unlike the synoptic Gospels, elements of [[Gnosticism]] have been recognized by some readers in the ''Gospel of John'' though it is not generally regarded as a "Gnostic gospel". In order to find passages that refute [[Gnosticism]]&mdash;by stating that Christ is approachable even as Spirit&mdash;readers must turn instead to the ''[[First Epistle of John]]'', in passages such as 1 Jn [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:1-2;&version=31; 2:1-2]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%203:8;&version=31; 3:8], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%203:16;&version=31; 3:16] and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%204:2-3;&version=31; 4:2-3]. The earliest copies of the ''Gospel of John'' are also from Gnostic sources that include overtly Gnostic writings<!--this needs to be more specific-->, implying that ''John'' was read by Gnostic groups. One school of interpretation distinguishes between "Johannine Christianity" and "Pauline Christianity". The ''[[gnosis]]'' in Gnosticism is secret information that is available only to initiates. In the Gnostic view, salvation comes through "knowledge" that Jesus is the Christ -- those who understand his true nature are saved, those who don't "stand condemned already."
Though ''John'' is not a "secret" gospel&mdash;as other surviving apocryphal ("secret") gospels and fragments claim to be&mdash;the narrative is interrupted at an important turn of events just before the Crucifixion, for nearly five chapters (John [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2013;&version=31; 13], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2018;&version=31; 18]) of private discourse and teachings that Jesus shares only with the disciples, the "farewell discourses", which are without parallel in the synoptic gospels, in their present version (but compare the ''[[Secret Gospel of Mark]]'').
===Other characteristics unique to ''John''===
<!--the trivial ones should be omitted-->
*The Apostle [[Thomas]] is given a personality beyond a mere name, as "Doubting Thomas" ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2020:27;&version=31; 20:27] etc).
*Jesus refers to himself with metaphoric "I am" saying seven times ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%206:35;&version=31; 6:35]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%208:12;&version=31; 8:12]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2010:9;&version=31; 10:9]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2010:11;&version=31; 10:11]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2011:25;&version=31; 11:25]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2014:6;&version=31; 14:6]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2015:1;&version=31; 15:1])
*Two "signs" are numbered ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%202:11;&version=31; 2:11]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%204:54;&version=31; 4:54])
*There are no stories about Satan, demons or exorcisms, no predictions of end times, no [[Sermon on the Mount]], and no ethical or apocalyptic teachings.
*The hourly time is given: Greek text: about the tenth hour, translated as "four o'clock in the afternoon" [first hour is 6 AM, sundial time] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%201:39;&version=31; 1:39])
*When the water at the pool of [[Bethsaida]] is moved by an angel it heals ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%205:3-4;&version=31; 5:3-4])
*Jesus says he is not going to the festival. However, after his bro |
s build a team that competes against other fantasy owners based on the [[statistics]] generated by individual players or teams of a professional [[sport]]. Probably the most common variant converts statistical performance into points generated by a fantasy team, and are typically simple enough to be manually calculated by a "league commissioner." More complex variants use computer modeling of actual games based on statistical input generated by professional sports. Fantasy sports are also known as Fairy-Tale sports and Owner Simulation.
Some popular fantasy sports:
* [[Fantasy baseball]]
* [[Fantasy cricket]]
* [[Fantasy football (American)]]
* [[Fantasy football (soccer)]]
* [[Fantasy basketball]]
* [[Fantasy golf]]
* [[Fantasy hockey]]
* [[Fantasy Auto Racing]]
*[[Fantasy Waterski]]
Some sports writers criticize fantasy sports, especially those involving team sports, of focusing too much on statistics; a player on a real team might be a team player and help his/her team win championships, but with the advent of fantasy sports, team play does not matter as much as having good individual statistics.
[[Category:Fantasy sports|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Forward pass</title>
<id>10654</id>
<revision>
<id>40774293</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T22:56:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DJ Clayworth</username>
<id>16175</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In several forms of [[football]] a '''forward pass''' is when the ball is thrown from one player to another on the same team, ending closer to the team's goal line.
==American and Canadian Football==
In [[American football|American]] and [[Canadian football]], a '''forward pass''' &mdash; usually called simply a '''pass''' &mdash; is a throwing of the football from a member of the team in possession of the ball to another member of the same team who is closer to that team's [[goal line]]. This is permitted only once during an offensive [[football play|play]] and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]]. If an [[eligible receiver]] on the passing team legally catches the ball it is a complete pass and the receiver may attempt to advance the ball. If an opposing player legally catches the ball (all defensive players are eligible receivers) it is an [[interception]]. That player's team immediately gains possession of the ball and he may attempt to advance the ball toward his goal. If no player is able to legally catch the ball it is an [[Glossary of American football#I|incomplete pass]] and the ball becomes [[Dead ball (American football)|dead]] the moment it touches the ground. It will then be returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next [[Down (football)|down]]. If any player interferes with an eligible receiver's ability to catch the ball it is [[pass interference]] and will incur a penalty.
The person passing the ball must be a member of the [[offensive team]], the recipient of the forward pass must be an [[eligible receiver]], and must touch the passed ball before any ineligible player.
The moment that a forward pass begins is important to the game. The pass begins the moment the passer's arm begins to move forward. If the passer drops the ball before this moment it is a [[fumble]] and therefore a [[Glossary of American football#L|loose ball]]. In this case anybody can gain possession of the ball before or after it touches the ground. If the passer drops the ball after his arm begins moving forward it is an incomplete pass (unless someone catches the ball before it hits the ground in which case it is a completed pass or an interception).
If a forward pass is caught at the sideline it is only complete (or intercepted) if the receiver catches the ball ''in bounds''. In the [[NFL]] the receiver must touch the ground with both feet within bounds after catching the ball to be in bounds. In the [[NCAA]] the receiver only needs to touch the ground with one foot within bounds after catching the ball. The [[Canadian Football League|CFL]] rule is similar to the NCAA's - the pass will be ruled complete if caught by a receiver in mid-air, as long as he touches the ground in bounds with his ''first step.''
What is common to all [[gridiron]] codes is the receiver must have ''possession'' of the ball while he is still in bounds as defined by his code. If the receiver catches the ball but the official determines that he was still "bobbling" it as he stepped into touch, the pass will be ruled incomplete.
=== History ===
According to NFL history (see external link below) the forward pass was legalized from anywhere behind the line of scrimmage February 25, 1933.
==Rubgy==
In the two codes of Rugby [[Rugby union]] and [[Rugby league]] a '''forward pass''' is when the ball is passed forward to a player in the same team. This is considered a minor foul, resulting in a [[Scrum (rugby)|scrum]].
To minimise the chances of this happening and to support the ball carrier, team-mates try to stay onside (behind the player with the ball).
==See also==
*[[Lateral pass]]
*[[Pass interference]]
*[[American football/Glossary]]
*[[Rugby union]]
*[[Rugby league]]
==External links==
*[http://www.nfl.com/fans/rules NFL Digest of Rules]
*[http://football-plays-and-drills.com/encyclopedia Football Plays, Drills and Fundamentals] - Resource for coaches & players.
[[Category:American football plays]]
*[http://www.nfl.com/history/chronology/1931-1940 NFL History of the 30's]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fiji/History</title>
<id>10655</id>
<revision>
<id>15908454</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-01T20:35:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to history of fiji</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Fiji]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fiji/Geography</title>
<id>10656</id>
<revision>
<id>15908455</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-01T20:36:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Fiji]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fiji/People</title>
<id>10657</id>
<revision>
<id>15908456</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T14:46:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Fiji]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fiji/Government</title>
<id>10658</id>
<revision>
<id>15908457</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T17:07:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_Fiji]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_Fiji]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fiji/Economy</title>
<id>10659</id>
<revision>
<id>15908458</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-01T20:41:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Fiji]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Fiji</title>
<id>10660</id>
<revision>
<id>37394782</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T19:37:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ZachPruckowski</username>
<id>626251</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">This article lists '''[[communication|communications]] in [[Fiji]]'''.
; Telephones - main lines in use:
: 65,000 (1995)
; Telephones - mobile cellular:
: 100,000 (2004)
; Telephone system:
: Modern local, interisland, and international (wire/radio integrated) public and special-purpose telephone, telegraph, and teleprinter facilities; regional radio communications center
:* Domestic: NA
:* International: Access to important cable links between US and Canada as well as between NZ and Australia; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)
; Radio broadcast stations:
: AM 13, FM 40, shortwave 0 (1998)
; Radios:
: 500,000 (1997)
; Television broadcast stations:
: NA
; Televisions:
: 21,000 (1997)
; Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
: 2 (1999)
; [[Country codes|Country code (TLD)]]:
: FJ
See also: [[Fiji]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Fiji]]
[[Category:Fiji]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Fiji</title>
<id>10661</id>
<revision>
<id>39076439</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T15:30:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Railway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
597 [[kilometre|km]]; note - belongs to the government-owned [[Fiji Sugar Corporation]]
<br>''narrow gauge:''
597 km 0.610-[[Metre|m]] gauge (1995)
'''[[Highway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
3,440 km
<br>''paved:''
1,692 km
<br>''unpaved:''
1,748 km (1996 est.)
'''Waterways:'''
203 km; 122 km navigable by motorized craft and 200-[[Ton|metric-ton]] [[Barge|barges]]
'''[[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Labasa]], [[Lautoka]], [[Levuka]], [[Savusavu]], [[Suva]]
'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
<br>''total:''
6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 11,870 GRT/14,787 DWT
<br>''ships by type:''
chemical [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]] 2, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
'''[[Air |
by two hilly coastal ranges, the [[Western Ghats]] and [[Eastern Ghats]].
India is home to several major rivers, including the [[Ganges|Ganga]], [[Brahmaputra]], [[Yamuna]], [[Godavari]], [[Kaveri]], and [[Krishna River|Krishna]]. India has three archipelagos &ndash; [[Lakshadweep]] off the southwest coast, the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] volcanic island chain to the southeast, and the [[Sunderbans]] in the Gangetic Delta in [[West Bengal]] State.
The Indian [[climate]] varies from [[tropical climate|tropical]] in the south to more [[temperate climate|temperate]] in the north. Parts of India which lie in the Himalayas have a [[tundra]] climate. India gets most of its rains through the [[monsoon]]s.
{{see also|Climate of India|Ecoregions of India|National parks of India|Geology of India}}
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of India}}
[[Image:Bombay-Stock-Exchange.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Bombay Stock Exchange]] sensitive index is used as a determinant of the strength of the Indian economy.]]
[[Image:Rupees1000.jpg|270px|thumb|A thousand-rupee note]]
India's economy ranks tenth in the world in terms of currency conversion (GNP), and fourth in terms of [[Purchasing power parity]] (PPP). It recorded one of the fastest growth rates (8.1%) for the fourth quarter of 2005. Per-capita income (by PPP) is [[USD |US$]] 3100, [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|ranked 125th]] according to the [[World Bank]]. India's [[foreign exchange]] reserves amount to over US$ 145 billion.{{inote|see ecotimes|i-2}} [[Mumbai]] is the financial capital and home to the headquarters of the [[Reserve Bank of India]] and the pre-eminent [[Bombay Stock Exchange]]. While a quarter of Indians still live below the [[poverty line]], a large [[middle class]] has now emerged along with the rapid growth of the [[information technology]] (IT) and [[service industry|service industries]].
The Indian economy has shed much of its historical dependence on [[agriculture]], which now contributes about 21% to GDP.{{inote|see Indian economy|i-3}} Other important industries are [[mining]], [[petroleum]], [[diamond]] polishing, [[film industry|films]], [[textile]]s, IT and [[business process outsourcing]] (BPO) services, [[pharmaceuticals]] and [[chemicals]], and [[handicrafts]]. Most of India's industrial regions are centred around major cities. In recent years, India has emerged as one of the largest players in the [[software industry|software]] and BPO industries, with revenues of US$ 17.2 billion in 2004 to 2005.{{inote|software}} Many small-scale industries provide steady employment to workers in small towns and villages.
While India receives only around three million foreign visitors a year, tourism is still an important but under-developed source of national income. Tourism contributes 5.3% of GDP, about US$4 billion in foreign exchange.{{inote|tourism}}. Directly and indirectly, it generates an estimated 42 million jobs, about 10% of India's work force. India's major trading partners are the [[United States]], the [[European Union]], [[Japan]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]].{{inote|trade}}
India's main exports include agricultural products, [[textile]] goods, gems and [[jewelry]], software services, engineering goods, chemicals and [[leather]] products, while its main imports are [[crude oil]], machinery, gems, [[fertiliser]], and chemicals. For the year 2004, India's total exports stood at US$ 69.18 billion, imports at US $89.33 billion.{{inote|figure}}
{{see also|List of Indian companies}}
==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of India}}
India is the second-most populous country in the world, after [[China]]. Language, religion, and [[caste]] are major determinants of social and political organisation within the highly diverse population. Its biggest [[metropolitan area|metropolitan]] agglomerations are [[Mumbai]] (formerly ''Bombay''), [[Delhi]], [[Kolkata]] (formerly ''Calcutta'') and [[Chennai]] (formerly ''Madras'').
India's [[literacy|literacy rate]] is 64.8%, 53.7% for females and 75.3% of males. The sex ratio is 933 females per 1000 males.{{inote|literacy}} [[Work Participation Rate]] (WPR; the percentage of workers to total population) is 39.1%, with male WPR at 51.7% and female WPR at 25.6% {{inote|eu}} India's median age is 24.66, and the population growth rate is 22.32 births per 1,000.{{inote|demostats}}
[[Image:Akshardhamindelhi.jpg|thumb|270px|The [[Akshardham]] [[Hindu]] temple, [[Delhi]] ]]
Although 80.5% of the people are [[Hinduism|Hindus]], India is also home to the [[Islam by country|third-largest]] population of [[Muslim]]s in the world (13.4%; see [[Islam in India]]), after [[Indonesia]] and [[Pakistan]]. Other religious groups include [[Christianity|Christians]] (2.3%), [[Sikhism|Sikhs]] (1.84%), [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] (0.76%), [[Jainism|Jains]] (0.40%), [[Jew]]s, [[Zoroastrians]], [[Ahmadi|Ahmadi-muslims]], and [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]]s.{{inote|religion}}
India is home to two major [[Languages of India|linguistic families]]: [[Indo-Aryan]] (spoken by about 74% of the population) and [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the [[Austro-Asiatic]] and [[Tibeto-Burman]] linguistic families. The Indian constitution recognises 23 official languages{{ref|languages}}. [[Hindi]] and [[English language|English]] are used by the [[Government of India|Central Government]] for official purposes. Two [[classical languages]] native to the land are [[Sanskrit]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. The number of [[Indian languages|mother tongues]] in India is as high as 1,652.{{inote|tongues}}
==Culture==
{{main articles|[[Arts and Entertainment in India]] and [[Culture of India]]}}
[[Image:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|thumb|270px|right|The [[Taj Mahal]] in [[Agra]] is India's most popular tourist destination.]]
India has a rich and unique cultural heritage, and has managed to preserve its established traditions throughout history. It has always absorbed customs, traditions and ideas from both invaders and immigrants. Many cultural practices, languages, customs and even monuments are examples of this co-mingling over centuries. Famous monuments, such as the [[Taj Mahal]] and other examples of Islamic-inspired architecture have been inherited from the Mughal dynasty. These are the result of a syncretic tradition that combined elements from all parts of the country.
Indian society is largely pluralist, multilingual and multicultural. Religious practices of various faiths are an integral part of everyday life in society. Education is highly regarded by members of every socio-economic stratum. Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, and considered sacred, although urban families have grown to prefer a [[nuclear family]] system, owing to the socio-economic constraints imposed by the traditional [[complex family|joint family]] system.
Religion in India is a very public affair, with many practices imbued with pomp and vitality accompanying their underlying spiritual qualities.
[[Image:gumpa.jpg|thumb|270px|The Gumpa dance is a mystic dance celebrated by the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhist]] community in [[Sikkim]] during the Buddhist New Year &mdash; [[Losar]]]]
A melting pot of many religions, India has a rich diversity of [[Indian festivals|festivals]], many of which are celebrated by all, irrespective of caste and creed. The most widely known and popular celebrations include the Hindu festivals of [[Diwali]], [[Holi]], and [[Dussehra]], and the Muslim celebration of [[Eid]].
[[Music of India|Indian music]] is represented in a wide variety of forms. The two main forms of [[Indian classical music|classical music]] are ''[[Carnatic music|Carnatic]]'' from [[South India]], and ''[[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]]'' from [[North India]]. Popular forms of music also prevail, the most notable being [[Filmi music]]. In addition to this are the diverse traditions of [[Indian folk music|folk music]] from different parts of the country. Many [[Indian classical dance|classical dance forms]] exist, including the [[Bharatanatyam]], [[Kathakali]], [[Kathak]] and [[Manipuri]]. They often have a narrative form (based on the [[itihasa]] (Indian epics), and are usually infused with devotional and spiritual elements.
The earliest [[Indian literature|literary traditions]] in India were mostly oral, and were later transcribed. Most of these spring from Indian (later called [[Hindu]]) traditions, and are represented by sacred works like the [[Vedas]] and the epics of the [[Mahabharatha]] and [[Ramayana]]. [[Sangam]] literature from Tamil Nadu represents some of India's oldest traditions. There have been many notable modern Indian writers, both in Indian languages and [[Indian Writing in English|in English]]. India's only [[Nobel Prize for Literature|Nobel laureate in literature]] was the [[Bengali language|Bengali]] writer [[Rabindranath Tagore]].
[[Image:Lunch from Karnataka on a plantain leaf.jpg|thumb|270px|Food in south India is traditionally eaten on a plantain leaf.]]
India produces the world's largest number of [[Cinema of India|movies]] every year. The most recognisable face is that of cinema production based in [[Mumbai]], which produces mainly commercial [[Hindi]] films, often referred to as "[[Bollywood]]". Cinema in other vernacular languages is also particularly strong, with movies regularly produced in well-established [[Kannada language|Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] industries. India's contribution to world cinema was the internationally renowned [[Bengali language|Bengali]] director [[Satyajit Ray]], who in 1992 won an [[Academy Honorary Award|Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement]].
[[Rice]] and [[wheat]] are the staple foods in the country. The [[cuisine of India]] is extremely diverse, as ingredients, spices and cooking methods vary from regio |
Johann Michael Bach]], German composer (d. [[1694]])
*[[1653]] - [[John Oldham (poet)|John Oldham]], English poet (d. [[1683]])
*[[1674]] - [[František Maxmilián Kaňka]], Czech architect (d. [[1766]])
*[[1722]] - [[Augustus William, Prince of Prussia]] (d. [[1758]])
*[[1726]] - [[Francesco Cetti]], Italian Jesuit scientist (d. [[1778]])
*[[1757]] - [[Thomas Telford]], Scottish civil engineer (d. [[1834]])
*[[1776]] - [[Amedeo Avogadro]], Italian chemist (d. [[1856]])
*[[1797]] - [[Charles Robert Malden]], British naval officer (d. [[1855]])
*[[1805]] - [[Joseph Locke]], English railway and civil engineer (d. [[1860]])
*[[1845]] - [[Brother Andre]], Canadian religious figure (d. [[1937]])
*[[1871]] - [[Leonid Andreyev]], Russian writer (d. [[1919]])
*[[1872]] - [[Joseph August, Archduke of Austria]], Austrian field marshal (d. [[1962]])
*[[1874]] - [[Reynaldo Hahn]], Venezuelan composer and conductor (d. [[1947]])
*[[1896]] - [[Jean Piaget]], Swiss psychologist (d. [[1980]])
*1896 - [[Lev Vygotsky]], Russian psychologist (d. [[1934]])
*1896 - [[Erich Hückel]], German physicist (d. [[1980]])
*[[1899]] - [[P. L. Travers]], Australian author (d. [[1996]])
*[[1902]] - [[Zino Francescatti]], French violinist (d. [[1991]])
*[[1909]] - [[Adam von Trott zu Solz]], German diplomat opposing the Nazi regime (executed) (d. [[1944]])
*[[1911]] - [[William Alfred Fowler]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1996]])
*[[1914]] - [[Tove Jansson]], Finnish author (d. [[2001]])
*[[1919]] - [[Joop den Uyl]], [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1987]])
*1919 - [[Ralph Houk]], baseball player and manager
*[[1921]] - [[J. James Exon]], Nebraska Senator and Governor
*[[1922]] - [[Philip Larkin]], English poet (d. [[1985]])
*[[1927]] - [[Daniel Keyes]], American author
*1927 - [[Robert Shaw (actor)|Robert Shaw]], English actor (d. [[1978]])
*[[1928]] - [[Bob Cousy]], American basketball player
*[[1931]] - [[Mário Zagallo]], Brazilian football coach and player
*[[1933]] - [[Tetsuko Kuroyanagi]], Japanese television personality and children's author
*[[1938]] - [[Leonid Kuchma]], Ukrainian politician
*1938 - [[Rod Laver]], Australian tennis player
*[[1939]] - [[Romano Prodi]], Italian politician, [[President of the European Commission]]
*1939 - [[Hércules Brito Ruas|Brito]], Brazilian football player
*[[1944]] - [[Sam Elliott]], American actor
*[[1945]] - [[Ken Norton]], American boxer
*1945 - [[Posy Simmonds]], English cartoonist
*[[1948]] - [[Bill Campbell (baseball player)|Bill Campbell]], American baseball player
*[[1949]] - [[Jonathan Kellerman]], American writer
*[[1952]] - [[Prateep Ungsongtham Hata]], Thai politician
*[[1953]] - [[Robert Cray]], Blues musician
*[[1957]] - [[Melanie Griffith]], American actress
*[[1959]] - [[Stuart Hughes]], Canadian actor
*[[1962]] - [[Kevin Mack]], American football player
*[[1963]] - [[Whitney Houston]], American singer and actress
*[[1964]] - [[Brett Hull]], Canadian-born hockey player
*[[1967]] - [[Deion Sanders]], American football player
*[[1968]] - [[Gillian Anderson]], American actress
*1968 - [[Eric Bana]], Australian actor
*[[1969]] - [[Troy Percival]], baseball player
*[[1972]] - [[Juanes]], Colombian singer
*[[1973]] - [[Kevin McKidd]], Scottish actor
*[[1973]] - [[Filippo Inzaghi]], Italian footballer
*[[1974]] - [[Matt Morris]], baseball player
*[[1976]] - [[Jessica Capshaw]], American actress
*1976 - [[Rhona Mitra]], English actress
*[[1977]] - [[Chamique Holdsclaw]], American basketball player
*1977 - [[Mikael Silvestre]], French footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Audrey Tautou]], French actress
==Deaths==
*[[117]] - [[Trajan]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[53]])
*[[378]] - [[Valens]], [[Roman Emperor]] (killed in battle) (b. [[328]])
*[[803]] - [[Byzantine Empress Irene]]
*[[1107]] - [[Emperor Horikawa]] of Japan (b. [[1079]])
*[[1250]] - King [[Eric IV of Denmark]] (b. [[1216]])
*[[1534]] - [[Cardinal Cajetan]], Italian theologian (b. [[1470]])
*[[1634]] - [[William Noy]], English jurist (b. [[1577]])
*[[1720]] - [[Simon Ockley]], English orientalist (b. [[1678]])
*[[1744]] - [[James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos]], English patron of the arts (b. [[1673]])
*[[1886]] - [[Samuel Ferguson]], Northern Irish poet and artist (b. [[1810]])
*[[1919]] - [[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]], Italian composer (b. [[1857]])
*[[1942]] - [[Edith Stein]], (St. Teresa Benedicta of the Cross) (executed) (b. [[1891]])
*[[1945]] - [[Harry Hillman]], American athlete (b. [[1881]])
*[[1962]] - [[Hermann Hesse]], German-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1877]])
*[[1967]] - [[Joe Orton]], English writer (b. [[1933]])
*[[1969]] - [[Abigail Folger]], American heiress (b. [[1943]])
*1969 - [[Wojciech Frykowski]], Polish writer (b. [[1936]])
*1969 - [[Cecil Frank Powell]], British physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1903]])
*1969 - [[Jay Sebring]], American hair stylist (b. [[1933]])
*1969 - [[Sharon Tate]], American actress (murdered) (b. [[1943]])
*[[1975]] - [[Dmitri Shostakovich]], Russian composer (b. [[1906]])
*[[1995]] - [[Jerry Garcia]], American guitarist ([[Grateful Dead]]) (b. [[1942]])
*[[2000]] - [[John Harsanyi]], Hungarian-born economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1920]])
*[[2002]] - [[Peter Neville]], anarchist, sociologist, and peace activist
*[[2003]] - [[Ray Harford]], English footballer and manager (b. [[1945]])
*2003 - [[Gregory Hines]], American actor and dancer (b. [[1946]])
*[[2005]] - [[Matthew McGrory]], American actor (b. [[1973]])
*2005 - [[Judith Rossner]], American novelist (b. [[1935]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Feast day]] of [[Jean Vianney]], [[Edith Stein]] and [[Saint Romanus Ostiarius]] in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]
*Feast day of the great [[martyr]] [[Saint Panteleimon]] in Russian [[Orthodox Church]]
*[[South Africa]]: [[National Women's Day - South Africa|National Women's Day]]
*[[Singapore]]: [[National Day]]
*[[India]]:[[Quit India Day]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/9 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050809.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
----
[[August 8]] - [[August 10]] - [[July 9]] - [[September 9]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:9 Augustus]]
[[ar:9 أغسطس]]
[[an:9 d'agosto]]
[[ast:9 d'agostu]]
[[bg:9 август]]
[[be:9 жніўня]]
[[bs:9. avgust]]
[[ca:9 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 9]]
[[cv:Çурла, 9]]
[[co:9 d'aostu]]
[[cs:9. srpen]]
[[cy:9 Awst]]
[[da:9. august]]
[[de:9. August]]
[[et:9. august]]
[[el:9 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:9 de agosto]]
[[eo:9-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 9]]
[[fo:9. august]]
[[fr:9 août]]
[[fy:9 augustus]]
[[ga:9 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:9 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 9일]]
[[hr:9. kolovoza]]
[[io:9 di agosto]]
[[ilo:Agosto 9]]
[[id:9 Agustus]]
[[ia:9 de augusto]]
[[ie:9 august]]
[[is:9. ágúst]]
[[it:9 agosto]]
[[he:9 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:9 Agustus]]
[[ka:9 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:9 zélnika]]
[[ku:9'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 9]]
[[lb:9. August]]
[[li:9 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 9]]
[[mk:9 август]]
[[ms:9 Ogos]]
[[nap:9 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:9 augustus]]
[[ja:8月9日]]
[[no:9. august]]
[[nn:9. august]]
[[oc:9 d'agost]]
[[pl:9 sierpnia]]
[[pt:9 de Agosto]]
[[ro:9 august]]
[[ru:9 августа]]
[[se:Borgemánu 9.]]
[[sq:9 Gusht]]
[[scn:9 di austu]]
[[simple:August 9]]
[[sk:9. august]]
[[sl:9. avgust]]
[[sr:9. август]]
[[fi:9. elokuuta]]
[[sv:9 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 9]]
[[tt:9. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 9]]
[[th:9 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:9 tháng 8]]
[[tr:9 Ağustos]]
[[uk:9 серпня]]
[[wa:9 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 9]]
[[zh:8月9日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aristophanes</title>
<id>1028</id>
<revision>
<id>41173560</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T15:07:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vriullop</username>
<id>750481</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>iw +ca</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aristophanes.jpg|thumb|Bust of Aristophanes]]
'''Aristophanes''' (c. [[448 BC]]-[[380 BC]]; [[Greek language|Greek]] ΄Αριστοφανης) was a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] comic dramatist.
The place and even exact date of his birth are unknown, but he was probably educated in [[Athens]]. He was from the Athenian deme of Kudathenaium. He is famous for writing comedies such as ''[[The Birds (play)|The Birds]]'' for the two Athenian festivals: the [[Dionysia]] and the [[Lenea]]. He wrote forty plays, eleven of which still survive, and his plays are the only surviving examples of [[Old Attic Comedy]]. Many of his plays were [[political]], and often [[satire|satirized]] the well-known citizens of Athens and their conduct in the [[Peloponnesian War]]. He is known to have been prosecuted for Athenian law's equivalent of [[libel]] more than once. A famous comedy, ''[[The Frogs]]'', was given the unprecedented honor of a second performance. According to a later biographer, he was also awarded a civic crown for "[[The Frogs]]".
He appears in [[Plato]]'s ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'', giving a humorous mythical account of the origin of [[Love]]. ''[[The Clouds]],'' a disastrous production resulting in a humiliating and long-remembered (cf. the revised parabasis of "[[The Clouds]]" and the parabasis of next year's "[[The Wasps]]") last place finish at the City Dionysia, satirizes the new, sophistic learning en vogue among the aristocracy at the time; [[Socrates]] was the principal target and in the play he emerges as a typical [[Sophist]], no matter how inaccurate the portrayal may be. ''[[Lysistrata]]'' was written during the [[Peloponnesian War]] between [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]] and presents a [[pacifism|pacifist]] theme in a comical manner: the women of the two states show off their bodies and deprive their husbands of [[sex]] until they stop fighting. This play was later illustrated at length by |
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