text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
crates]] was [[Trial of Socrates|sentenced to death]] partly on the grounds that he was an atheist, although he did express belief in several forms of divinity, as recorded in [[Plato]]'s ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]''. This criminal connotation attached to atheistic ideas ([[heresy]]) would remain, at varying levels of severity, until [[the Renaissance]], when criticism of the Church became more prevalent and tolerated.
Atheism disappeared from the philosophy of the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] traditions as [[Christianity]] gained influence. During the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the concept of atheism re-emerged as an accusation against those who questioned the religious [[status quo]], but by the late 18th century it had become the philosophical position of a growing minority. By the 20th century, along with the spread of [[rationalism]] and [[secular humanism]], atheism had become common, particularly among [[scientist|scientists]] (see [[#International survey of contemporary atheism|international survey of contemporary atheism]]). In the 20th Century, atheism also became a staple of the various [[Communism|Communist]] regimes, helping return some of the negative connotations of atheism, especially in the [[United States]], where the term became synonymous with being unpatriotic during the [[Cold War]].
==Distribution of atheists==
Though atheists are a minority group in most countries, they are relatively common in [[Western Europe]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]], in former and present [[communist state]]s, and, to a lesser extent, in the [[United States]].
Atheism is particularly prevalent among [[scientist]]s, a tendency already quite marked at the beginning of the 20th century, developing into a dominant one during the course of the century. In 1914, [[James H. Leuba]] found that 58% of 1,000 randomly selected U.S. [[natural science|natural scientists]] expressed "disbelief or doubt in the existence of God". The same study, repeated in 1996, gave a similar percentage of 60.7%; this number is 93% among the members of the [[National Academy of Sciences]]. Expressions of positive disbelief rose from 52% to 72%. [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/news/file002.html] (See also [[The relationship between religion and science]]).
===Atheism in the United Kingdom===
A poll in 2004 by the [[BBC]] put the number of people who do not believe in God to be 40% [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/wtwtgod/3518375.stm], while a [[YouGov]] poll in the same year put the percentage of non-believers at 35% with 21% uncertain
[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/graphics/2004/12/27/nfaith27big.gif]. In the YouGov poll men were less likely to
believe in god than women and younger people were less likely to believe in god than older people.
In early 2004, it was announced that atheism would be taught during religious education classes in the [[United Kingdom]]. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/politics/story/0,6903,1148578,00.html] A spokesman for the [[Qualifications and Curriculum Authority]] stated: "There are many children in England who have no religious affiliation and their beliefs and ideas, whatever they are, should be taken very seriously." There is also considerable debate in the U.K. on the status of [[faith-based schools]], which use religious as well as academic selection criteria. The decision was based on a Parliament decision ruling that, while questionable in moral standing, Atheism is a legitimate religion (although atheism is not a religion in any sense, this indicates that atheism should be treated the same as theism). Atheism is championed by many scientists and [[philosophers]] in the [[United Kingdom]] including [[Richard Dawkins]].
===Atheism in the United States===
A [[Gallup poll]] in 2005 showed 5% of the US population feel that God does not exist [http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001659292]. A poll in 2004 by the [[BBC]] showed the number of people who don't believe in God to be larger, at 10% [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/wtwtgod/3518375.stm]. However, unbelief in God does not imply self-identification as an atheist.
Atheists are ostensibly legally protected from discrimination in the United States. They have been among the strongest advocates of the legal [[separation of church and state]]. American courts have regularly, if controversially, interpreted the constitutional requirement for separation of church and state as protecting the freedoms of non-believers, as well as prohibiting the establishment of any state religion. Atheists often sum up the legal situation with the phrase: "Freedom of religion also means freedom ''from'' religion." [http://www.au.org/]
In [[Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet]][http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=000&invol=U10355], Justice Souter wrote in the opinion for the Court that: "government should not prefer one religion to another, or religion to [[irreligion]]." [http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93-517.ZS.html] [[Everson v. Board of Education]] established that "''neither a state nor the Federal Government can''...'' pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, or prefer one religion over another''". This applies the Establishment Clause to the states as well as the federal government. [http://atheism.about.com/library/decisions/religion/bl_l_BoEEverson.htm] However, several state constitutions make the protection of persons from religious discrimination conditional on their acknowledgement of the existence of a deity, apparently making freedom of religion in those states inapplicable to atheists. These state constitutional clauses have not been tested. Additionally, some state constitutions (namely, [[Arkansas Constitution|Arkansas]] and [[South Carolina Constitution|South Carolina]]) disallow atheists to hold public office, although most agree that, if challenged, these requirements would be ruled unconstitutional under [[Article Six of the United States Constitution]] which bans such qualifications. Civil rights cases are typically brought in federal courts; so such state provisions are mainly of symbolic importance.
In the [[Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow|Newdow case]], after a father challenged the phrase "under God" in the United States [[Pledge of Allegiance]], the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found the phrase unconstitutional. Although the decision was stayed pending the outcome of an appeal, there was the prospect that the pledge would cease to be legally usable without modification in schools in the western United States, over which the Ninth Circuit has jurisdiction. This resulted in political furor, and both houses of Congress passed resolutions condemning the decision, nearly unanimously. A very large group consisting of almost the entire Senate and House was televised standing on the steps of Congress, hands over hearts, swearing the pledge and shouting out "under God". The Supreme Court subsequently reversed the decision, ruling that [[Michael Newdow]] did not have standing to bring his case, thus disposing of the case without ruling on the constitutionality of the pledge.
==Atheism studies and statistics==
As some governments have strongly promoted atheism, whilst others have strongly condemned it, atheism may be either over-reported or under-reported for different countries. There is a great deal of room for debate as to the accuracy of any method of estimation, as the opportunity for misreporting (intentionally or not) a belief system without an organized structure is high. Also, many surveys on religious identification ask people to identify themselves as "agnostics" or "atheists", which is potentially confusing, since these terms are interpreted differently by many different people, with some identifying themselves as being both atheist and agnostic. Additionally, many of these surveys only gauge the number of [[irreligion|irreligious]] people, not the number of actual atheists, or group the two together.
The following surveys are in chronological order, but as they are different studies with different methodologies it would be inaccurate to infer trends on the prevalence of atheism from them:
*A 1995 survey [http://www.zpub.com/un/pope/relig.html] attributed to the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] indicates that the non-religious are about 14.7% of the world's population, and atheists around 3.8%.
*The 2001 [http://www.gc.cuny.edu/faculty/research_briefs/aris/key_findings.htm ARIS report] found that while 29.5 million U.S. Americans (14.1%) describe themselves as "without religion", only 902,000 (0.4%) positively claim to be atheist, with another 991,000 (0.5%) professing agnosticism.
*In the 2001 Australian Census [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9658217eba753c2cca256cae00053fa3?OpenDocument] 15.5% of respondents ticked "no religion", and a further 11.7% either did not state their religion or were deemed to have described it inadequately (there was a popular and successful campaign at the time to have people describe themselves as [[Jedi census phenomenon|Jedi]]).
*The 2001 [[New Zealand]] census [http://www.stats.govt.nz/products-and-services/Articles/census-snpsht-cult-diversity-Mar02.htm] showed that 40% of the respondents claimed "no religion".
*In 2001, the [http://www.czso.cz/csu/edicniplan.nsf/o/4110-03--skladba_obyvatelstva_podle_nabozenskeho_vyznani,_pohlavi_a_podle_veku Czech Statistical Office] provided census information on the ten million people in the [[Czech Republic]]. 59% had no religion, 32.2% were religious, and 8.8% did not answer. This suggests that the Czech Republic is probably the most atheistic country in the world.
*In 2002 survey in [[Demographics of Russia|Russia]], 32% self-desc |
afford (cricket)|Old Trafford]] when he bowled 68 of 191 overs to take nineteen out of twenty possible Australian wickets. Never has the phrase "He won the match single-handedly" been more appropriate. England's dominance was not to last, however. Australia thumped them 4–0 when they next toured in 1958-59, having found a good bowler of their own in [[Richie Benaud]] who took 31 wickets in the 5-Test series. England failed to win any series during the 1960s, a period dominated by draws as teams found it more prudent to save face with a draw than risk losing. Of a total of 25 Ashes Tests playing during this decade, Australia won seven and England three.
In the first series of the 1970s, however, England managed to win 2–0, much thanks to the efforts of [[Geoffrey Boycott]] who scored four fifties and three centuries in the series, but in the mid-1970s Australia regained ascendancy with fast bowler [[Dennis Lillee]] taking English wickets all too consistently. However, both teams had their victories, England enjoying an emphatic 5–1 win in 1978-79 while Australia took a non-Ashes series (with the [[World Series Cricket|WSC]] players returning) 3–0 a year later. Most would say that the two sides were evenly matched, but no one knew just how evenly they would be matched in the next one.
===Botham's Ashes===
Australia took a 1–0 lead in the first two Tests of the 1981 series, and looked to make it 2–0 in the third Test at Headingley when they forced England to follow-on 227 runs behind. Famously, an English bookmaker offered odds of 500–1 for an English victory, and Australian players [[Dennis Lillee]] and [[Rod Marsh]] laid a small bet. This came back to haunt them as England, reduced to 135 for 7 wickets, produced a second innings of 356, [[Ian Botham]] scoring an unbeaten 149, and adding 221 for the last three wickets in partnerships with [[Graham Dilley]], [[Chris Old]] and their fast bowler [[Bob Willis]]. Chasing 130, Australia were dismissed for 111, with a devastating spell of 8–43 by Willis giving England a miraculous victory by 18 runs. Lillee and Marsh were reprimanded for betting on the outcome of a game, but not suspended.
The fourth Test at Edgbaston was a similarly inspired comeback victory for England. [[Ian Botham]] this time starred with the ball, taking five for 11, including a spell of five wickets for a solitary run, in Australia's second innings of 121 to give England victory by 29 runs. England also went on to win the fifth Test at Old Trafford to retain the Ashes — the sixth Test at the Oval was drawn.
===Australian dominance===
England were the better team of the early 1980s, although it was close: Australia won the 1982-83 series, but England then took two victories in 1985 and 1986-87. After those wins, however, a period of extended Australian dominance began, and England did not win an Ashes series again until 2005. Australia won the 1989 series 4–0, and an England side weakened by Test bans following the [[Mike Gatting|Gatting]] tour to apartheid [[South African cricket team|South Africa]] lost 3–0 in 1990-91. The Australians underlined their superiority in the contest by winning the 1993, 1994-95, 1997, 1998-99 and 2001 series — all by convincing margins.
Australia's record since 1989 has impacted upon the overall statistics between the two sides. Before the 1989 series began, Australia had won 36.9% of all Tests played against England, England 33.5% with 29.7% of matches ending in draws. Previous to the 2005 series, Australia had won 40.8% of all Tests, England 31% with 28.1% drawn.{{Ref|stats1}}
In the period between 1989 and the beginning of the 2005 series, the two sides had played 43 times. Australia winning 28 times, England 7 times, with 8 draws.{{Ref|stats2}}
===Steve Waugh's last Ashes===
{{main|England in Australia in 2002-3}}
After playing in nine successive Ashes series, the 2002-03 rubber was to be Australian captain [[Steve Waugh|Steve Waugh's]] last against England, and was to prove one of the most emphatic victories he enjoyed against the English. The series began with what many regard in hindsight as one of the worst captaincy decisions of all time, as [[Nasser Hussain]] won the toss for England in the first Test and sent Australia in to bat. By the end of the first day, Australia had amassed a staggering 364/2, and placed a stamp of authority on the series that would not be undone as they raced to victory by 384 runs. This was followed by two innings victories to Australia, and a fairly comfortable five-wicket win. England only managed to save some face with a 225-run victory in the final Test.
The series' most memorable moment came on the second day of the Fifth Test at the [[Sydney Cricket Ground]]. Leading into the match Waugh had been heavily scrutinised by selectors and the media over his advancing age and lack of recent form, having not posted a Test century since 2001. As this was the last match of the series and last Test of the Australian summer, Waugh was likely to be dropped from the team if he failed again in this match. Asked before the match about the defining moment of a career likely to soon be over, Waugh predicted gamely "It might be yet to come." In a stunning display of determination and defiance, he then fulfilled this prophesy by scoring a chanceless century on the second afternoon. He had entered the final over of the day on 95 not out, and hit a boundary off the last ball (bowled by English off spinner [[Richard Dawson (cricketer)|Richard Dawson]]) to bring up his ton. Waugh left the ground to an emotional standing ovation, his Test career saved. It came to be known as his 'Perfect Day'.
===The 2005 series===
{{main|The 2005 Ashes}}
England were undefeated in Test matches in the 2004 calendar year, which took the team to second in the [[LG ICC Test Championship]] and raised hopes that the [[The 2005 Ashes|2005 Ashes series]] would be closely fought. In fact, the series proved to be even more competitive than most commentators had predicted.
The first Test was played at [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]] from [[21 July]] to [[24 July]], and was won convincingly by Australia by 239 runs. However, England fought back in the remaining four matches, which were all tense and closely fought. The second Test, played at [[Edgbaston Stadium|Edgbaston]] from [[4 August]] to [[7 August]] was won by England by 2 runs, the smallest runs victory margin in Ashes history, and the second closest runs victory margin in all Tests. The rain-affected third Test, played at [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]] from [[11 August]] to [[15 August]], ended with the final two Australian batsmen holding out to claim a draw. The fourth Test, played at [[Trent Bridge]] from [[25 August]] to [[28 August]], was won by England by three wickets after Australia was forced to [[follow on]] for the first time in 191 Tests. England earned a draw at the fifth and final Test match, played at [[The Oval]] from [[8 September]] to [[12 September]], to win an Ashes series for the first time in 18 years.
From the start the 2005 Ashes series was played at a very high intensity and the tension did occasionally lead to mistakes on both sides with many dropped catches, run outs and other errors. Australia were unlucky with the injury to a key bowler [[Glenn McGrath]] (who missed the two matches when Australia was beaten) and the loss of form of others such as [[Jason Gillespie]], [[Adam Gilchrist]] and [[Matthew Hayden]], whereas England were able to pick the same eleven until [[Simon Jones (cricketer)|Simon Jones]] sustained an ankle injury midway through the Fourth Test, forcing him out of the series decider. However many consider the series to have been the most exciting in living memory, providing enthralling viewing to those lucky enough to get the very scarce tickets for the matches, or those watching on television. Respected commentator [[Richie Benaud]] is reported by BBC correspondent Bob Chaundry {{Ref|Benaud}} as having said: "In the past two years, I've seen the best cricket I've ever watched. This current Ashes series shades even the great one of 1981."
At the end of the series, [[Andrew Flintoff]] was awarded the inaugural [[Compton-Miller medal]] as the player of the series for his [[all-rounder|batting and bowling]] efforts. Flintoff was also chosen as "Man of the Series" by the Australian coach and his English counterpart chose [[Shane Warne]], who took 40 wickets in the five matches and batted skilfully down the order.
England will travel to Australia in the winter of 2006-2007 in the hope to retain the Ashes.
==Summary of results and statistics==
:''See also: [[List of Ashes series]] for a full listing of all the Ashes series since 1882.''
{{Ashes timeline}}
[[image:Ashesmatcheschart.png|thumb|200px|Chart of the matches won between the two sides.]]
A team must win a series to gain the right to hold the Ashes. A drawn series results in the previous holders retaining the Ashes. To date, a total of 62 Ashes series have been played with Australia winning 30, England winning 27. The remaining five series were drawn, with Australia retaining the Ashes four times and England retaining it once.
Ashes series have generally been played over five Test matches, although there have been four match series (1938; 1975) and six match series (1970-71; 1974-75; 1978-79; 1981; 1985; 1989; 1993 and 1997). 293 matches have been played, with Australia winning 115 times, England 92 times, and 86 draws. Australians have made 264 [[century|centuries]] in Ashes Tests, twenty-three of them over 200, while Englishmen have scored 212 centuries, of which ten have been scores over 200. On 41 occasions, individual Australians have taken ten [[wicket]]s in a match. Englishmen have performed that feat 38 times.
|
(1997-present)]]
Paul Brown, legendary NFL personality and innovator, passed away in 1991. He had already transferred control to his son, [[Mike Brown]], but was reported to still influence the daily operations of the team. Shortly after his passing, the Bengals' fortunes changed for the worse for a long time.
====1990s Coaches====
* Sam Wyche's last year as head coach came was in 1991. After winning 3 and losing 13, Bengals' president and [[CEO]] Mike Brown insisted that Wyche resigned, but Sam insists that Brown fired him.
* David Shula (son of legendary [[Miami Dolphins]] coach [[Don Shula]]) was promoted from WR position coach to head coach in 1992 as the youngest NFL head coach. His last full season was 1995. Shula lost his job after starting the 1996 season 1-6. Shula accumulated win/loss record was 19-52.
* Former Bengals' [[tight end]] and long-time offensive coordinator, [[Bruce Coslet]] took over the coaching duties midway through the 1996 season and coached the Bengals through 1999. Coslet resigned after the first three games of the 2000 season, losing his last game to the [[Baltimore Ravens]] 37-0. Coslet won 21 and lost 39 as Bengals' head coach.
* [[Dick Lebeau]], former DB for Detriot, filled the coaching vacancy left by Coslet. He was the defensive coordinator for the Bengals under Coslet after being coordinator for the division rival [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]. Lebeau led the Bengals to a season record of 4-12 in 2000.
====Memorable players from the 1990s====
*[[Lee Johnson]] (1988-1998) - Was the Bengals punter for 11 seasons. Set a Super Bowl record for longest punt with a 63 yard punt in [[Super Bowl XXIII]]. Overall, Johnson played 18 seasons in the NFL and recorded a career total of 51,979 punting yards, the third most in NFL history when he was cut from the team. During the dismal decade Johnson made a bitter comment about team management (referring higher than the coaches) and was suspended, fineda and then cut from the team before the Pickens' incident. Johnson was one of the more recognizable and veteran players.
*[[Carl Pickens]] (1992-1999), [[Darnay Scott]] (1994-2001), both wide receivers with quarterback [[Jeff Blake]] (1994-1999). The trio rekindled the Bengals' identity as a high-powered offense. Pickens was a fast and very elusive receiver, well disciplined in routes and excellent hands. Darnay complimented him with his own amazing speed. Pickens was a more favored target of Blake, and when Pickens left Darnay was unable to fill the vacancy. Pickens, with other teams, was nowhere near as successful without Blake as his quarterback. The three worked excellently together and when one wasn't there it fell apart for them as a team or individual.
:*Pickens made the Pro Bowl twice with the Bengals and holds the team record for most receptions in the regular season at 100. He left the team due to personality conflicts (which led to some fines as well as a new player contract clause for later players nicknamed the "Pickens Clause" which penalizes players for disparagring remarks about the club or management).
:*Scott recorded over 800 receiving yards in all of his 7 seasons with the Bengals, with the sole exception of 1997, when he recorded 797 yards.
:*Blake was the only other quarterback than Esiason in '97 to lead the team to a non-losing record (8-8) during the string of bad seasons. He was famous for his short stature and his "moon ball" (nicknamed such for its high arc) which was a very successful play to [[Carl Pickens]] and [[Darnay Scott]]. He was drafted by the Jets under their head coach of the time, Coslet, and came over as a backup to Klingler when Coslet arrived. Got the start due to injuries and was never challenged for the quarterback position by Klingler again. He was benched after the drafting of [[Akili Smith]]. Blake remained in the league as a starter and backup beyond 2005 whereas neither of his favorite receivers remained in the league for another 2 years after they left the Bengals.
*[[Corey Dillon]] (1997-2003) - Controversial but highly talented running back. He broke many league rookie records (which were subsequently broken in the next year) and Bengal franchise records (which were broken by his replacement [[Rudi Johnson]]). He left the Bengals prior to the 2004 campaign and won [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] with the [[New England Patriots]]. Left the Bengals with insulting statements which many Bengals' fans reacted to with anger. He holds Bengals records for most career rushing yards(8,061) and rushing yards in one game(274)
*[[Takeo Spikes]] (1998-2002) - Fast, strong (takled hulking and lumbering RB [[Jerome Bettis]] with one hand by the neck collar from behind), emotional and talented inside linebacker. Coupled with [[Brian Simmons]] he was a powerful force and emotional leader for the maligned defense. He left Cincinnati for the Buffalo Bills after the 2-14 season under Lebeau believing Cincinnati would not turn itself around under the rookie head coach Lewis.
*[[Ki-Jana Carter]], [[Dan Wilkinson]], [[Akili Smith]], and [[David Klingler]], were four players drafted during this period touted as "franchise saving" individuals. Whether it was a lack of talent, poor coaching, bad luck with injuries, each one of these drafts proved to be an astoundingly horrible selection. Dan Wilkinson is the only one who remained in the league with other teams but never had the "breakout season" to justify his 1st-round draft status and high paying initial contract.
====1990s Games of Note====
*[[September 1]], [[1991]] - The [[Denver Broncos]] stomped the Bengals 45-14 to open the season. This game would prove to be the beginning of what would come to be known as "the lost decade". Including 1991, the Bengals would go on to post a losing record in eleven of the next twelve seasons. There would be few games of note during this period.
*[[December 27]], [[1992]] - Left [[Tackle (American football)|tackle]] [[Anthony Muñoz]], the man who almost all agree was the greatest [[NFL]] player to ever wear a Bengal uniform, played his last professional regular season game. Muñoz was voted to eleven consecutive [[Pro Bowls]], played in two [[Super Bowls]] and, after his retirement, was named to the [[NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team]]. The Bengals lost the game, 20-17 to the [[Indianapolis Colts]].
*[[December 21]], [[1997]] - Bengals' [[quarterback]] [[Boomer Esiason]] played his last [[NFL]] game. His last play was a 79 yard touchdown play-action pass to [[wide receiver]] [[Darnay Scott]]. Cincinnati won the game 16-7. Boomer finished the season with a 107 [[quarterback rating]].
*[[September 24]], [[2000]] - The [[Baltimore Ravens]] mauled the Bengals 37-0 in the most lop sided loss in franchise history.
*[[October 22]], [[2000]] - In a 31-21 victory against the [[Denver Broncos]], Bengals [[Pro Bowl]] [[running back]] [[Corey Dillon]] captured the single game rushing record. [[Corey Dillon|Dillon]] ran for 278 yards breaking the previous mark set by the [[Chicago Bears]]' [[Walter Payton]]. [[Jamal Lewis]] of the [[Baltimore Ravens]] broke [[Corey Dillon|Dillon]]'s record in 2003.
===The Early 2000s===
The Bengals began to emerge from more than a decade of being the worst-performing team of that era (edging out the Cardinals) into a new era of increased consistency under Marvin Lewis. Carson Palmer, the future star quarterback, was drafted in 2003 but did not play a snap that whole season, as Jon Kitna had a comeback year (voted NFL Comeback Player of the Year). Despite Kitna's success, Carson was promoted to starting quarterback the following season and Kitna apparently happily took the position of backup quarterback and embraced the role of mentor for the young quarterback.
'''Intensification of Rivalry with Pittsburgh Steelers'''<br>
The Bengals have played the Steelers more than any other team in the NFL (the Browns missed keeping pace by being out of the league for a few years, the Oilers/Titans team was moved from the division, and the Baltimore Ravens are considered a "new" franchise as Cleveland retained its rights to the name and history). While the Bengals were in the midst of a terrible decade the intensity of the rivalries tapered off.
:*[[Ben Roethlisberger]] was brought onto the Steelers' team in 2004 and his impressive early achievements, along with those of Carson Palmer, have been heralded as the beginning of a dynamic rivalry for some time to come.
:*Dick Lebeau was fired from the head coach position from Cincinnati and returned to Pittsburgh as defensive coordinator. He either coached for Pittsburgh or Cincinnati for most of his NFL coaching career often going from one directly to the other.
:*Kimo Von Olhoffen was drafted by the Bengals and when Lebeau returned to Pittsburgh (the first time after being defensive coordinator for the Bengals) he took Kimo with him. Kimo, the former Bengal, was responsible for the hit that took Carson Palmer out of the '05-'06 AFC Wild Card game with a knee injury.
:*[[Troy Polamalu]], the high profile safety for the Steelers, and Palmer were [[University of Southern California|USC]] roommates. In one particular play Polamalu intercepted Palmer and, on the runback, Palmer was the last remaining Bengal in position to tackle him and Polamalu ran over him in a brutal surge and scored.
:*[[Rudi Johnson]] grew up in the same neighborhood as a Steelers linebacker and they actually played against each other growing up.
:*Head coaches, Lewis and [[Bill Cowher]], grew up in the same area of Pittsburgh and actually played against each other in little-league football. Later, Cowher would hire Lewis as an assistant coach for defense, giving him his first NFL job.
:* The Steelers began taunting the Bengals by using Cincinnati cheers and chants in a mocking fashion. Hines Ward celebrated a touchdown in their regular season victory at Paul Brown Stadiu |
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flores</title>
<id>11426</id>
<revision>
<id>39200461</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T12:45:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Qrfqr</username>
<id>343011</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otherplaces}}
[[Image:Flores map.png|frame|Map of Flores Island]]
<!--[[Image:Lesser_Sunda_Islands.png|thumb|300px|right|Map of Lesser Sunda Islands]]-->
'''Flores''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] for "[[flower]]s") is one of the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]], an [[island arc]] with an estimated area of 14,300 km² extending east from the [[Java (island)|Java]] island of [[Indonesia]]. Flores is located east of [[Sumbawa]] and [[Komodo]] and west of [[Lembata]] and the [[Alor]] archipelago. To the southeast is [[Timor]]. To the south, across the Sumba strait, is [[Sumba]] and to the north, beyond the [[Flores Sea]], is [[Sulawesi]].
==Administration==
Flores is part of the [[East Nusa Tenggara]] province. The island is split into five [[Regency (Indonesia)|regencies]] (local government districts); from west to east these are: [[Manggarai]], [[Ngada]], [[Ende Regency|Ende]], [[Sikka]] and [[Flores Timur]].
==Geography==
Flores has several active and dormant [[volcanoes]], including [[Egon]], [[Ilimuda]], [[Lereboleng]], and [[Lewotobi]] (see the [[List_of_volcanoes#Indonesia|full list]]).
==Flora and fauna==
The west coast of Flores is one of the few places, aside from the island of [[Komodo]] itself, where the [[Komodo dragon]] can be found in the wild. The [[Flores giant rat]] is also endemic to the Island.
In September 2003, at [[Liang Bua Cave]] in western Flores, [[paleoanthropologist]]s discovered skeletons of a previously unknown [[hominid]] [[species]]. ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'', affectionately termed ''[[hobbit]]s'', appear to be miniaturized versions of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' standing about one [[metre]] tall. They may have existed until as recently as [[Upper Paleolithic|11,000 BC]]. Local reports of [[elf]]-like people, the [[Ebu Gogo]], or the [[Orang Pendek]] of Sumatra, have caused speculation that Flores man may have survived into the historical period, or even to the present. The discovery has been published in the [[October 28]], [[2004]] issue of ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' magazine.
[http://www.nature.com/news/specials/flores/index.html]
==Culture==
[[Image:Jesus_Statue_Maumere.jpg|thumb|A statue of Jesus in Maumere, Flores]]
There are many languages spoken on the island of Flores, all of them belonging to the [[Austronesian]] family. In the centre of the island in the districts of [[Ngada]] and [[Ende Regency|Ende]] there is what is variously called the Central Flores Dialect Chain or the Central Flores Linkage. Within this area there are slight [[linguistic]] differences in almost every village. At least six separate languages are identifiable. These are from west to east: [[Ngadha]], [[Nage]], [[Keo language|Keo]], [[Ende language|Ende]], [[Lio]] and [[Palu'e]], which is spoken on the island with the same name of the north coast of Flores. Locals would probably also add [[So'a]] and [[Bajawa]] to this list, which anthropologists have labeled dialects of Ngadha.
[[Portugal|Portuguese]] traders and missionaries came to Flores in the 16th century, mainly to [[Larantuka]] and [[Sikka]]. Their influence is still dicernible in Sikka's language and culture.
Flores is almost all Catholic and represents one of the "religious borders" created by the Catholic expansion in the Pacific and the spread of Islam from the west across Indonesia. In other places in Indonesia, such as in the Malukus and Sulawesi the divide is less stark and has created bloody conflict.
==Tourism==
The most famous tourist attraction in Flores is [[Kelimutu]]; three coloured lakes in the district of Ende. These coloured lakes change colours on a regular basis. The latest colours (late 2004) were said to be turquoise, brown and black.
There is good [[snorkelling]] and [[diving]] on several locations along the north coast of Flores, most notably [[Maumere]] and [[Riung]]. However, due to the destructive practice of local fishermen using bombs to fish, and locals selling shells to tourists, the reefs are slowly being destroyed.
==References==
* [http://www.nature.com/news/specials/flores/index.html Flores Man special at Nature.com]
[[Category:Islands of Indonesia]]
[[ca:Flores (Indonèsia)]]
[[de:Flores (Indonesien)]]
[[es:Flores (isla)]]
[[fr:Florès (Indonésie)]]
[[ko:플로레스 섬]]
[[id:Flores]]
[[nl:Flores (Indonesië)]]
[[ja:フローレス島 (インドネシア)]]
[[pl:Flores (wyspa)]]
[[fi:Flores]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Punic War</title>
<id>11427</id>
<revision>
<id>42126712</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:15:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sylvain Mielot</username>
<id>157845</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert edit by 69.84.115.111</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Campaignbox Punic_Wars}}
{{Campaignbox First Punic_War}}
The '''First Punic War''' ([[264 BC|264]] to [[241 BC]]) was the first of [[Punic Wars|three major wars]] fought between [[Carthage]] and the [[Roman Republic]]. For 23 years, the two powers struggled for supremacy in the western [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Eventually, Rome emerged the victor, imposing strict treaty conditions, and heavy financial penalties against Carthage. The First Punic War marked the beginning of a sixty year period of Roman expansion which would leave them in control of most of the Mediterranean basin.
The series of wars between Rome and Carthage were known to the Romans as the "Punic Wars" because of the [[Latin (language)|Latin]] name for the Carthaginians: ''Punici'', derived from ''Phoenici'', referring to the Carthaginians' [[Phoenicia]]n ancestry.
==Background==
In the middle of the [[3rd century BC]], the power of Rome was growing. Following centuries of internal rebellions and disturbances, the whole of the [[Italian peninsula]] was tightly secured under Roman hands. All enemies — such as the [[Latin league]] and the [[Samnite]]s — had been overcome, and the invasion of [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] had been repelled. Romans had enormous confidence in their political system and military.
Across the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] and the [[Strait of Sicily]], Carthage was already the dominant naval and commercial power, controlling most of the Mediterranean maritime [[trade route]]s. Originally a Phoenician colony, the city had become the center of a wide empire reaching along the [[North Africa]]n coast as well as covering parts of the [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]] in Europe. The series of wars with Rome, which included a Carthaginian invasion led by [[Hannibal]], nearly prevented the rise of the [[Roman Empire]]. Eventual victory by Rome was a turning point which meant that the civilization of the ancient [[Mediterranean]] would pass to the modern world via Europe instead of Africa.
== Beginning ==
In [[288 BC]], the [[Mamertines]], a group of Italian mercenaries, occupied the city of [[Messina, Italy|Messina]] in the northeastern tip of [[Sicily]], killing all the men and taking the women as their wives. From here, they ravaged the countryside and became a problem for the independent city of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]. When [[Hiero II of Syracuse|Hiero II]], tyrant of Syracuse, came to power in [[265 BC]], he decided to take definitive action against the Mamertines and besieged Messina. The Mamertines then appealed for help simultaneously to Rome and Carthage. At first, the Romans did not wish to come to the aid of soldiers who had unjustly stolen a city from its rightful possessors. Moreover, Rome had recently dealt with an insurrection of mercenaries following the defeat of Pyrrhus of Epirus ([[Battle of Rhegium|Rhegium]], 271) and was probably reluctant to help this faction now, so Carthage was the first city to respond to the plea and send troops to the area. Most likely unwilling to see Carthaginian power spread further over Sicily and get too close to Italy, Rome responded by entering into an alliance with the Mamertines. In [[264 BC]], Roman troops were deployed to Sicily (the first time a Roman army acted outside the Italian peninsula) and forced a reluctant Syracuse to join their alliance. Soon enough the only parties in the dispute were Rome and Carthage and the conflict evolved into a struggle for the possession of Sicily.
==Land warfare==
Sicily is a hilly island, with geographical obstacles and a terrain where lines of communication are difficult to maintain. For this reason land warfare played a secondary role in the First Punic War. Land operations were mostly confined to small scale raids and skirmishes between the armies, with hardly any pitched battle. [[Siege]]s and land blockades were the most common operations for the regular army. The main targets of blockading were the important naval ports, since neither of the belligerent parties were based in Sicily and both needed a continuous supply of reinforcements and communication with the mainland.
Despite these general considerations, at least two large scale land campaigns were fought during the First Punic War. In [[262 BC]], Rome besieged the city of [[Agrigentum]], an operation that involved both consular armies - a total of four [[Roman legion]]s - and took several months to resolve. The garrison of Agrigentum managed to call for reinforcements and a Carthaginian relief force commanded by [[Hanno]] came to the rescue. With the supplies from Syracuse cut, the Romans found themselves also besieged and constructed a line of [[circumvallation]]. After a few skirmishes, the [[battle of Agrigentum]] was fought and won by Rome, and the city fell.
Inspired by this victory, Rome attempted ([[256 BC|256]]/[[255 BC]]) another large scale land operation, this time wi |
verthrow President [[Hugo Chávez]] in [[Venezuela]]
*2002: Military coup in [[Central African Republic]].
*[[2003]]: Attempted coup in [[History of Mauritania|Mauritania]].
*2003: Military coup in [[São Tomé and Príncipe]].
*2003: Military coup in [[Guinea-Bissau]].
*[[2004]]: [[2004 Haiti rebellion|Quasi-military coup]] in [[Haiti]].
*2004: Attempted coup in the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]].
*2004: Second attempted coup in the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] ([[June]]).
*2004: Attempted coup in [[Equatorial Guinea]] ([[August]]).
*[[2005]]: Coup in [[Togo]] legalized by parliamentary vote but unrecognized by international community.
*2005: A coup in [[Ecuador]] overthrows the president [[Lúcio Gutierrez]] and installs the vice-president [[Alfredo Palacios]].
*2005: Coup by [[Nepal|Nepalese]] monarch, overthrows constitutional [[monarchy]]. Restoration of [[absolute monarchy]].
*2005: Military coup in [[Mauritania]] overthrows president [[Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya]], who came to power after a coup, in [[1984]].
*[[2006]]: Alleged attempted military [[2006 Philippines coup|coup]] in the [[Philippines]] targeting President [[Gloria Arroyo]].
==Currently-serving leaders who came to power via coups==
*[[Omar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir|Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir]], President of [[Sudan]] (1989&ndash;)
*[[Muammar al-Qaddafi]], leader of [[Libya]] (1969&ndash;)
*[[Azali Assoumani]], President of the [[Comoros]] (1999&ndash;)
*[[Zine El Abidine Ben Ali]], President of [[Tunisia]] (1987&ndash;)
*[[François Bozizé]], President of the [[Central African Republic]] (2003&ndash;)
*[[Blaise Compaoré]], President of [[Burkina Faso]] (1987&ndash;)
*[[Lansana Conté]], President of [[Guinea]] (1984&ndash;)
*[[Idriss Déby]], President of [[Chad]] (1990&ndash;)
*[[Yahya Jammeh]], President of [[The Gambia]] (1994&ndash;)
*[[Gérard Latortue]], Interim prime minister of [[Haiti]]&mdash;not recognized by [[CARICOM]]
*[[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]], President of [[Equatorial Guinea]] (1979&ndash;)
*[[Pervez Musharraf]], Chief of Army Staff and President of [[Pakistan]] (1999&ndash;)
*[[Ely Ould Mohamed Vall]], Chairman of the [[Military Council for Justice and Democracy]] in [[Mauritania]] (2005&ndash;)
==See also==
*Contrast with [[civilian control of the military]]
*[[List of protective service agencies]]
*[[List of fictional revolutions and coups]]
*[[The Origins of the American Military Coup of 2012]]
*[http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/1992/dunlap.htm The American coup of 2012]
==References==
* [[Edward Luttwak]], ''Coup d'etat: A practical handbook'', Harvard University Press, 1969, 1980. ISBN 06-741-75476.
* Curzio Malaparte, ''Technique du Coup d'Etat'' (Published in French), Paris, 1931.
* D. J. Goodspeed, ''Six Coups d'Etat'', Viking Press inc., New-York, 1962.
[[Category:Civil-military relations]]
[[Category:Coups|*]]
[[Category:French phrases]]
[[ca:Cop d'estat]]
[[cs:Puč]]
[[da:Statskup]]
[[de:Putsch]]
[[eo:Puĉo]]
[[es:Golpe de Estado]]
[[fr:Coup d'État]]
[[he:הפיכה]]
[[id:Kudeta]]
[[io:Stato-stroko]]
[[it:Colpo di stato]]
[[ja:クーデター]]
[[ko:쿠데타]]
[[nl:Staatsgreep]]
[[nn:Kupp]]
[[no:Statskupp]]
[[pl:Zamach stanu]]
[[pt:Golpe de Estado]]
[[ru:Путч]]
[[sl:Državni udar]]
[[sv:Statskupp]]
[[vi:Đảo chính]]
[[zh:政變]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cluny</title>
<id>7755</id>
<revision>
<id>40362409</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{French commune|nomcommune=Cluny|
région=[[Bourgogne]]|département=[[Saône-et-Loire]]|
arrondissement=Mâcon|canton=[[Canton of Cluny|Cluny]] (''chief town'')|
insee=71137|cp=71250|maire=Robert Rolland|mandat=[[2001]]-[[2007]]|
intercomm=|
longitude=04° 39' 36" E|latitude=46° 26' 07" N|alt moy=248 m|
alt mini=226 m|alt maxi=574 m|
hectares=2,371|km²=23.71|sans=4,376|date-sans=1999|dens=184.56}}
[[Image:Cluny_today.jpg|thumb|300px|Cluny nowadays]]
{{commons|Cluny|Cluny}}
The town and [[commune in France|commune]] of '''Cluny''' or '''Clugny''' lies in the modern-day ''[[département in France|département]]'' of [[Saône-et-Loire]] in the ''[[région in France|région]]'' of [[Bourgogne]], in east-central [[France]], near [[Mâcon]]. Population (1999): 4,376.
The town grew up around the '''[[Abbey of Cluny]]'''.
==See also==
* [[Clunian Reforms]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cybercommunes.com/cluny/ Official website] (in French)
{{bourgogne-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Communes of Saône-et-Loire]]
[[af:Cluny]]
[[ar:كلوني]]
[[de:Cluny]]
[[fr:Cluny (Saône-et-Loire)]]
[[it:Cluny (Saône-et-Loire)]]
[[nl:Cluny]]
[[pl:Cluny]]
[[sr:Cluny]]
[[fi:Cluny]]
[[sv:Cluny]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chet Atkins</title>
<id>7756</id>
<revision>
<id>41067718</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T21:18:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>198.86.235.60</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Biography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chet atkins.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Chet Atkins]]
'''Chester Burton "Chet" Atkins''' ([[June 20]], [[1924]] &ndash; [[June 30]], [[2001]]) was an influential [[guitarist]] and [[record producer]]. His virtuoso picking style inspired by [[Merle Travis]], [[Django Reinhardt]], [[George Barnes]] and [[Les Paul]], brought him admirers both within and outside the country scene. Atkins produced records for [[Eddy Arnold]], [[Don Gibson]], [[Jim Reeves]], [[Connie Smith]], and [[Waylon Jennings]] to name a few. Atkins created, along with [[Owen Bradley]], the smoother country music style known as the [[Nashville sound]], which expanded country music's appeal to include adult pop music fans as well.
==Biography==
Atkins was born in [[Luttrell, Tennessee]], and grew up with his mother and siblings after the divorce of his parents. He started out on the fiddle, but traded his stepfather a rifle for a guitar when he was nine. Forced to relocate to [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to live with his father due to a near-fatal [[asthma]] attack, Atkins was a sensitive youth who made music his obsession. He became an accomplished guitarist while he was in high school. Atkins was self-taught, and later on in life gave himself (along with [[Tommy Emmanuel]], Jerry Reed and John Knowles) the honorary degree "CGP", standing for "Certified Guitar Picker".
He didn't have a strong style of his own until he heard Merle Travis picking over [[WLW]] radio in 1939, when Atkins was still living in Georgia. After graduating high school in 1942, his half-brother Jim, a successful guitarist (who worked with the [[Les Paul]] Trio in New York) helped get him a job at [[WNOX]] radio in [[Knoxville, Tennessee|Knoxville]]. There he played fiddle and guitar with singer Bill Carlisle and comic [[Archie Campbell]] as well as becoming a member of the station's "Dixieland Swingsters," a small swing instrumental combo.
After three years, he moved to [[WLW]] in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], where Merle Travis had formerly worked. After six months he moved to Raleigh and worked with Johnnie and Jack before heading for [[Richmond, Virginia]], where he performed with Sunshine Sue Workman, who soon fired him. Atkins's shy personality worked against him, as did the fact that his sophisticated style led many to doubt he was truly "country."
Relocating to Chicago, he auditioned for [[Red Foley]], who was leaving his star position at the [[WLS National Barn Dance]] to join the [[Grand Ole Opry]]. Atkins made his first appearance at the [[Grand Ole Opry]] in [[1946]] as a member of Foley's band. He also recorded a single for Nashville-based Bullet Records that year. That single, "Guitar Blues," was fairly progressive, including as it did, a clarinet solo by Nashville dance band musician Dutch McMillan with [[Owen Bradley]] on piano. Atkins moved on to [[KWTO]] in [[Springfield, Missouri]], but despite the support of executive Si Siman, soon was fired for not sounding country enough.
While working with a Western Band in [[Denver, Colorado]], Atkins came to the attention of [[RCA Victor]]. Si Siman had been encouraging [[Stephen H. Sholes|Steve Sholes]], to sign Atkins, as his style, with the success of Merle Travis as a hit recording artist, was suddenly in vogue. Sholes, A&R director of country music at RCA, tracked Atkins down to Denver. He made his first RCA recordings in Chicago in 1947. They did not sell. He did extensive studio work for RCA that year but had relocated to Knoxville again where he worked with [[Homer and Jethro]] on WNOX's new Saturday night radio show the Tennessee Barn Dance. In 1949 he left WNOX to join
[[June Carter#With Mother Maybelle & the Carter Sisters|Mother Maybelle and the Carter Sisters]] back at KWTO. This incarnation of the old [[Carter Family]] featured Maybelle Carter and daughters June, Helen and Anita. Their work soon attracted attention from the Opry. The group relocated to [[Nashville]] in mid-1950. Atkins began working on recording sessions, performing on [[WSM]] and the Opry.
While he hadn't had a hit record on RCA his stature was growing. He began assisting Sholes when the New York-based producer needed help organizing Nashville sessions for RCA artists. Atkins's first hit single was "[[Mr. Sandman]]," followed by "Silver Bell," which he did as a duet with [[Hank Snow]]. His albums also became more popular. In addition to recording, Atkins became a design consultant for [[Gretsch]], who manufactured a Chet Atkins line of electric guitars from 1955-1980.
Atkins also became manager of RCA's Nashville stuido.
When Steve Sholes took over pop production in [[1957]], a result of Sholes's suc |
igationEuropeanChampionsFigureSkatingIcedance}}
{{NavigationFourContinentChampionsFigureSkatingIcedance}}
[[Category:Figure skating| ]]
[[Category:Winter Olympic events]]
{{link FA|eo}}
[[cs:Krasobruslení]]
[[de:Eiskunstlauf]]
[[et:Iluuisutamine]]
[[es:Patinaje artístico sobre hielo]]
[[eo:Arta sketado]]
[[fr:Patinage artistique]]
[[it:Pattinaggio di figura]]
[[nl:Kunstschaatsen]]
[[ja:フィギュアスケート]]
[[pl:Łyżwiarstwo figurowe]]
[[ro:Patinaj artistic]]
[[ru:Фигурное катание]]
[[simple:Figure skating]]
[[sk:Krasokorčuľovanie]]
[[fi:Taitoluistelu]]
[[sv:Konståkning]]
[[th:สเก็ตลีลา]]
[[zh:花樣滑冰]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Friedrich von Hayek</title>
<id>11153</id>
<revision>
<id>21811630</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-25T16:02:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PWhittle</username>
<id>281241</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv move to "Friedrich von Hayek"; see talk page about use of "von"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Friedrich Hayek]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Arab-Israeli War</title>
<id>11154</id>
<revision>
<id>15908918</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Uriyan</username>
<id>64</id>
</contributor>
<comment>REDIRECT 1948 Arab-Israeli War</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Farming</title>
<id>11156</id>
<revision>
<id>39547380</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T05:25:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jason catlin</username>
<id>899974</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Agriculture]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FUDGE</title>
<id>11157</id>
<revision>
<id>41960349</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:14:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cyberia23</username>
<id>35289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other possible meanings, see [[Fudge (disambiguation)]]''
{{Infobox RPG
|title=FUDGE
|image=
|caption=
|designer=Steffan O'Sullivan
|publisher=Grey Ghost Press
|date=1992
|genre=Universal
|system=Custom
|footnotes=
}}
'''FUDGE''', the '''Freeform Universal Do-it-yourself Gaming Engine''', is a [[Generic role-playing game system|generic]] [[role-playing game]]. Aptly described as a gaming engine, FUDGE comes with neither a preset world nor a preset list of attributes for characters. [[Game master]]s, players, and world builders are free to invent appropriate attributes tailored to the campaign.
FUDGE was concieved by Steffan O'Sullivan on [[17 November]] [[1992]], and written with extensive help from the rec.games.design community. The [http://fudgerpg.com/files/pdf/fudge_1995.pdf PDF of the 1995 version] of the game is available for free. Grey Ghost Press published a printed version of the game, "FUDGE Expanded Edition," which includes a basic fantasy setting, along with other support material for the game. The new 10th Anniversary Edition is a 320-page hardcover edition.
==FUDGE mechanics==
"Traits" in Fudge, which consist of [[attribute (role-playing games)|Attributes]], [[skill (role-playing)|Skills]], Gifts, and Faults, are rated on an ascending verbal scale: Terrible, Poor, Mediocre, Fair, Good, Great, Superb, and Legendary. FUDGE uses customized six-sided "FUDGE [[dice]]" with two plus signs, two minus signs, and two blank sides (or "solid" sides). A number of these dice are rolled together, usually 4 or "4dF" in FUDGE notation, to produce a result from -4 through +4. This result is applied to the appropriate Trait with the goal of matching or surpassing the Difficulty Level of the test. There are also several alternative dice systems available that use regular six-sided dice or ten-sided dice.
==FUDGE resources==
Many FUDGE resources, from alternative rules to campaign information to world books, are available online. The Grey Ghost Games site links to many of them.
The rules of FUDGE are highly simplified, and the main FUDGE documents encourage players to "Just Fudge It"; that is, to focus on the story being created rather than on the game rules. It encourages players to first write prose descriptions of their characters then translate those into FUDGE Traits.
One of the keys to the success of Fudge is that the author released it under a license that made it essentially "open" for non-commercial use. In [[March 2004]], Grey Ghost acquired the copyright of FUDGE, and in [[April 6]], [[2005]], they released a version of FUDGE under [[Open Gaming License]]. The OGL license has allowed the [[FATE (role-playing game)|FATE role-playing game]] to use FUDGE as its underlying mechanic.
==External links==
*[http://www.fudgerpg.com/ FudgeRPG.com]
*[http://www.panix.com/~sos/rpg/fud-des.html Fudge Designer's notes]
*[http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.design/msg/4dc266facabc766f Usenet post detailing net.rpg.freeform (1 of 2)] [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.design/msg/03ec8dc478bdc253 (2 of 2)]
[[Category:Universal role-playing games]]
[[Category:Role-playing game systems]]
[[de:FUDGE]]
[[es:Fudge]]
[[fr:Fudge]]
[[it:Fudge]]
[[pl:FUDGE]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 12</title>
<id>11158</id>
<revision>
<id>42114564</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:40:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ added nationality</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=12}}
|}
'''February 12''' is the 43rd day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 322 days remaining, 323 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[1354]] - [[Treaty of Stralsund]] settles border disputes between the [[duchies]] of [[Mecklenburg]] and [[Pomerania]].
* [[1541]] - [[Santiago, Chile]] is founded by [[Pedro de Valdivia]].
* [[1554]] - A year after claiming the throne of [[England]] for nine days, [[Jane of England|Lady Jane Grey]] is beheaded for treason.
* [[1689]] - The [[Convention Parliament]] convenes and declares that the flight to [[France]] in [[1688]] by [[James II of England|James II]], the last [[Catholic]] [[British monarchy|British monarch]], constitutes an [[abdication]].
* [[1719]] - The [[Onderlinge van 1719 u.a.]], the oldest existing life insurance company in [[the Netherlands]] is founded.
* [[1733]] - [[Englishman]] [[James Oglethorpe]] founds the 13<sup>th</sup> and final [[United States|American]] colony of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and its first city at [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]].
* [[1737]] - The [[San Carlo]], the oldest working [[opera house]] in [[Europe]], is inaugurated.
* [[1771]] - [[Gustav III of Sweden|Gustav III]] becomes the [[Monarch of Sweden|King of Sweden]] when his father [[Adolf Frederick of Sweden|Adolf Frederick]] "<nowiki>[eats]</nowiki> himself to death".
* [[1817]] - Argentine/[[Chile]]an patriotic army, after crossing the Andes, defeat [[Spanish]] troops on the [[battle of Chacabuco]].
* [[1818]] - [[Bernardo O'Higgins]] signs the [[Independence]] of [[Chile]] near [[Concepcion, Chile|Concepción]].
* [[1825]] - The [[Creek (people)|Creek]] cede the last of their lands in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to the [[United States]] government, and migrate west.
* [[1832]] - [[Ecuador]] annexes the [[Galápagos Islands]].
* [[1870]] - Women gain the [[right to vote]] in [[Utah|Utah Territory]].
* [[1879]] - At [[New York City]]'s [[Madison Square Garden]] the first artificial [[ice rink]] in [[North America]] opens.
* [[1892]] - Former [[President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s birthday is declared a national [[holiday]] in the [[United States]].
* [[1894]] - [[Anarchist]] [[Emile Henry]] hurls a [[bomb]] into [[Paris]]'s [[Cafe Terminus]], killing one and wounding 20.
* [[1909]] - The [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP) is founded.
* [[1912]] - [[Xuantong Emperor]] of the [[Manchu]] [[Qing dynasty]], the last [[Emperor of China]], [[abdication|abdicates]].
* 1912 - [[China]] adopts the [[Gregorian calendar]].
* [[1915]] - In [[Washington, DC]], the first stone of the [[Lincoln Memorial]] is put into place.
* [[1924]] - [[Premiere]] of [[George Gershwin]]'s [[Rhapsody in Blue]] with [[Paul Whiteman]]'s [[Palais Royal Orchestra]] in [[Aeolian Hall]] in [[New York City]]
* 1924 - [[Calvin Coolidge]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to deliver a political speech on [[radio]].
* [[1934]] - The [[Austrian Civil War]] begins.
* 1934 - The [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]] is incorporated.
* 1934 - In [[Spain]] the national council of ''[[Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista]]'' is inaugurated. The council decides to merge the movement with the ''[[Falange Española]]''.
* [[1946]] - [[Operation Deadlight]] ends after scuttling 121 of 154 captured [[U-boat]]s.
* [[1951]] - [[Soraya Esfandiary Bakhtiari]] marries the [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah of Iran Reza Pahlavi]] at [[Golestan Palace]] in [[Teheran]] at age of 17.
* [[1966]] - [[Mujibur Rahman|Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], announced famous ''[[Six Points]]'' in [[Karachi]] as election manifesto of [[Awami League]] that later led to formation of [[Bangladesh]].
* [[1973]] - [[Ohio]] becomes the first [[U.S. state]] to post distance in [[SI|SI units]] on signs.
* 1973 - [[Vietnam War]]: The first [[United States|American]] [[prisoners of war]] are released by the [[Viet Cong]].
* [[1994]] - [[1994 Winter Olympics]] open in [[Lillehammer]], [[Nor |
]], usually played with a standard deck of 52 cards, in which the object is to avoid taking certain cards in tricks. Hearts is usually played with four players, but can be modified for other numbers of players&mdash;this is discussed under [[#Variants|Variants]].
== How to play ==
=== Getting started ===
Hearts requires only:
* four players,
* a deck of standard [[playing cards]], and
* a pen and paper for scorekeeping.
Variants for other numbers of players exist, and are described in the "Variants" section.
=== The deck ===
Hearts is played with one standard deck of playing cards. As in [[contract bridge|Bridge]], the rank-order is (from high to low) [[ace]], [[king (playing card)|king]], [[queen (playing card)|queen]], [[jack (playing card)|jack]], 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2. There is no [[trump_(cards)|trump suit]].
=== The object ===
The object of Hearts is to avoid scoring points; when one person scores a pre-specified amount (usually 100) the game is over, and the winner is the person with the lowest score.
=== Play overview===
Hearts is played in ''rounds'', each of which includes a deal, a player-to-player pass, the play of tricks, and a scoring phase. Players continue at rounds indefinitely, until the game's end.
==== The deal ====
Which player deals has no effect on play, but dealership is normally rotated left with each new hand. The deck is dealt to exhaustion.
==== Passing cards ====
In most rounds, each player passes any three cards from his or her hand to another player, and receives 3 to replace them. Players must select which cards they will pass before viewing the cards passed to them.
The pass sequence, repeating every four rounds, is as follows:
* Rounds 1, 5, 9... : Pass ''Left''.
* Rounds 2, 6, 10... : Pass ''Right''.
* Rounds 3, 7, 11... : Pass ''Across''.
* Rounds 4, 8, 12... : ''Hold''ing hand; no passing occurs.
==== Trick-play ====
Play is standard no-trump [[trick-taking game | trick-taking]]. The 2&clubs; is a round's '''initial lead''': the person holding this card, after the pass, leads it to the first trick. Players, if able, are required to follow suit.
All hearts and the Q&spades; are ''penalty cards'' which players desire to avoid winning in tricks.
==== "Gentleman's Rules" ====
There are some rules of Hearts, known as "Gentleman's Rules", that are sometimes included in hearts regarding the play of penalty cards. Four more notable gentleman's rules are:
# No player may lead a trick in the heart suit until a penalty card has been played (or until forced by having nothing else). This is called the "breaking of hearts" or "breaking the ice", and usually occurs either when the Q&spades; is played to a spade trick, or a heart is [[ruff_(cards)|ruff]]ed out-of-suit.
# No player may play a penalty card ("blood") on the first trick, unless the player has nothing else (an extremely unlikely situation).
# A player holding the Q&spades; must play it at the first legal opportunity where it cannot win the trick (for example, if the A&spades; were led, or if this player were afforded a ruffing opportunity.)
# On rare occasions you will encounter groups who forbid certain cards to be passed (most commonly the 2&clubs; or the Q&spades;).
The second rule listed is a relatively modern addition, and the third is rarely used today. All of these rules are controversial within the hearts community, and it is a good idea, before play, to verify with the other players which rules are to be used.
==== Scoring ====
At the end of a round, penalty ''points'' are assessed according to the cards taken in tricks. Each heart gives 1 point to the person taking it, and the Q&spades; carries a penalty of 13 points. Therefore, 26 points are assessed each round. However, if a player takes all the penalty cards (known as ''shooting the moon'', ''going for control'', or simply ''running hearts'') he or she takes no penalty points, and the other players take 26. Alternatively, some players allow this individual to ''subtract'' 26 points from his or her score. This has no effect on relative totals but slows the pace of the game.
Finally, the scores are checked against the game-ending condition, and the game ends or a new round begins.
== Variants ==
Having existed for centuries, and widely played in [[North America]], Hearts is one of the most varied card games, second perhaps only to [[Poker]] in the number and diversity of variants. Hundreds, if not thousands, exist on the [[Internet]].
We present some of the more notable variants. ''Play variants'' are variations where the game itself is different. ''Scoring variants'' are variations where the game's rules are no different, but objectives and scoring are altered: this may only slightly alter the game, or (via [[emergent behavior | emergent]] effects) make it utterly different.
===Open lead===
::Some players prefer to have the first lead determined according to dealership instead of the 2&clubs;, because having the 2&clubs; denies its holder one trick's worth of strategic liberty; otherwise, they could lead something more appropriate to their strategy. Instead, the first trick is led at dealer's left, and this player may lead any card not in the heart suit. In this variant, players are required to keep track of dealership.
===Split Pass===
::The most common variant involves a single extra passing phase, just before the players hold. The series of passes usually go Left, Right, Across, Split, Hold. The ''split pass'' requires players to pass one card to the Left, one card Across, and one card to the Right. If done every round, this can be called Hoosier Hearts, Indian Hearts or Hearts in Indiana.
===Dealer's choice===
::Another kind of passing variant is where the dealer has the authority to determine the round's passing structure. There is usually a limit to the number of cards that may be passed, and the dealer may have cards passed in a unconventional manner (e.g. "pass two left, one right"). The dealer should make this determination before viewing his or her own hand.
===Three players===
::'''Kitty Hearts''' The dealer deals a well-shuffled 52 card pack out to exhaustion, however, during the process he places one card face down in the middle, known as the "kitty", and the three players receive 17 cards each (17*3 + 1 = 52). Whoever takes the first trick (or, in some circles, the first trick with a penalty card) takes the kitty as well, and only that player may see what it is. With this rule, often the first player is not required to play the 2&clubs;, as getting the kitty can be advantageous, and some other variation of starting play is used. Another variation, the 3&clubs; or <font color = "red">2&#9830;</font> is removed from the deck, and hands of 17 cards are dealt. For all these variations, the "Across" passes are removed from the passing cycle.
::'''High-Low Joker Hearts''' Two Jokers are added to the deck so that there are 54 cards to deal out. There is no Kitty in the middle of the table. Each player gets 18 cards (18*3 = 54). The Jokers count as hearts, with the first Joker played being ''high'' and ranking above the Ace, and the second Joker played being ''low'' and ranking under the Deuce. With regards to scoring, the value of the Queen of Spades (in the Black Mary variant) is frequently raised to 15 points because there are now 15 points worth of Hearts. The exact values have to be decided on at the start of the game, as is usual with Gentleman's Rules. High-Low Hearts is also known as ''Hello Hearts.''
===Five players===
::The 3&clubs; and <font color = "red">2&#9830;</font> are removed from the deck, and hands of 10 cards are dealt. The passing cycle, then, is L1-R1-L2-R2-Hold, where "L2", for example, represents a pass two players to the left. Also, as is similar with one of the three player variations, two kitties can be used, either the player who gets the first trick takes both kitties, or one kitty is given out on the first and second tricks.
===Cancellation hearts===
::This is used when a large number (6+) of people is present. Two decks are used, yielding 52 penalty points. If two identical cards appear in the trick, they ''cancel'' and are unable to win the trick; the highest ''uncanceled'' card of the suit led will win. If all cards of the led suit cancel, the person leading to that trick also leads to the next, and the winner of that trick gets credit for that trick as well as the previous unclaimed trick(s). Cancellation only applies to trick-winning; canceled cards still maintain their penalty points.
::Each player is dealt an equally-sized hand&mdash;any remainder cards are left face-up and any penalty points assigned to the winner of the first trick. For example, with 7 players and two decks (104 cards) each player would receive a 14-card hand, and 6 cards would be left face-up for this purpose.
::Shooting the moon, analogously, earns 52 points to all players ''but'' the shooter. However, this is an extremely rare phenomenon in Cancellation Hearts.
::Passing cycles must also be modified in large Hearts games.
::If many more players are present (11 or 12+), it becomes necessary to use 3 decks. The cancellation rules outlined above still apply, but if all 3 identical cards appear in a trick, only the first 2 played get cancelled out. The third is still valid. This would mean that to shoot the moon gives out 78 points, and will usually either end the game or bring it very close. However, this is even rarer than with 2 decks. A similar cancellation strategy applies for 4 or more decks, but it is very unlikely that that many decks will be needed.
=== Scoring variants ===
'''Omnibus:''' This is a very popular scoring variant; Hearts is played almost as often w |
r]]
[[et:Pastapliiats]]
[[es:Bolígrafo]]
[[eo:Globkrajono]]
[[fr:Stylo à bille]]
[[gl:Bolígrafo]]
[[id:Pulpen]]
[[it:Penna a sfera]]
[[he:עט כדורי]]
[[nl:Balpen]]
[[ja:ボールペン]]
[[pl:Długopis]]
[[sv:Kulspetspenna]]
[[zh:圓珠筆]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bubble sort/C</title>
<id>4521</id>
<revision>
<id>15902786</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Damian Yerrick</username>
<id>1</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Change see-also into redirect to get it off the orphan radar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bubble sort]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bipolar spectrum</title>
<id>4523</id>
<revision>
<id>36987997</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T20:31:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Silvestre Zabala</username>
<id>225488</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted disambiguation from [[euthymia]] to [[Euthymia (medicine)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''bipolar spectrum''' is the continuous range of [[clinical depression|depressive]] diseases, ranging from [[bipolar disorder]] to [[unipolar depression]].
A simple nomenclature system was introduced in 1978, although there are others, by Angst, J., et al, to easier label individuals' affectedness within the spectrum, following a clinical study by the Psychiatric University Clinic of Zurich.
Points on the spectrum using this nomenclature are denoted using the following codes:
* 'M' severe [[mania]]
* 'D' severe depression ([[major depression|unipolar depression]])
* 'm' less severe mania ([[hypomania]])
* 'd' less severe depression
Thus, 'mD' represents a case with hypomania and major depression.
A further distinction is sometimes made in the ordering of the letters, to represent the order of the episodes, where the patient's normal state is [[Euthymia (medicine)|euthymic]], interrupted by episodes of mania followed by depression ('MD') or vice versa ('DM').
On this scale, major depression would be denoted as 'D'. Unipolar mania ('M') is, depending on the authority cited, either very rare, or nonexistent with such cases actually being 'Md'.
Unipolar hypomania ('m') without accompanying depression is not observed in the medical literature. There is speculation as to whether some high-achieving individuals are actually 'm', with their successful social functioning keeping them out of sight of the mental health profession.
Although it is officially considered a [[personality disorder]] rather than an [[affective spectrum|affective]]/[[mood disorder]], some experts advocate adding [[borderline personality disorder]] (BPD) to the bipolar spectrum. BPD has a lot of similarities to rapid-cycling bipolar type II and other depressive disorders, and many patients show a positive response to the same types of [[medication]].
==References==
Angst J, Felder W, Frey R, Stassen HH. ''Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr''. 1978 Oct 9;226(1):57-64. The course of affective disorders. I. Change of diagnosis of monopolar, unipolar, and bipolar illness. (PMID 708227)
[[Category:Mood disorders]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Burroughs</title>
<id>4524</id>
<revision>
<id>38879827</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T05:35:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.130.194.169</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the Burroughs Corporation. Other famous people with the surname of Burroughs include:''
:*[[William Seward Burroughs]] (1857-1898), US inventor<br>
:*[[Augusten Burroughs]] (b. [[1965]]), American writer<br>
:*[[William S. Burroughs]] (1914-1997), author and grandson of William Seward Burroughs<br>
:*[[William S. Burroughs Jr.]] (1947-1981), author, son of William S. Burroughs, and great grandson of William Seward Burroughs.<br>
:*[[Edgar Rice Burroughs]] (1875-1950), American author of [[Tarzan]] fame
----
The '''Burroughs Corporation''' began in [[1886]] as the '''American Arithmometer Company''' in [[St. Louis]] selling an [[adding machine]] invented by [[William Seward Burroughs]].
[[Image:wsbaddingmachine.jpg|right|thumb|140px|A Burroughs Class 1/Model 9 adding machine.]]
The company moved to [[Detroit]] in [[1904]] and changed its name to the Burroughs Adding Machine Company, in honor of Burroughs, who died in [[1898]]. Burroughs grew into the biggest adding machine company in America, although by the [[1950s]] it was selling more than the basic adding machines, including typewriters and computers.
In [[1953]] the Burroughs Adding Machine Company was renamed the Burroughs Corporation and began moving into computer products, initially for banking institutions. This move began with the purchase in June, 1956, of The ElectroData Corporation in Pasadena, California. It had originally been a division Consolidated Electrodynamics Corporation, and spun off. ElectroData had built the Datatron 205 and was working on the Datatron 220. The first major computer product that came from this marriage was the B205 Tube computer.
The Burroughs Corporation developed three highly innovative [[computer architecture|architectures]]. All three architectures were considered "main-frame" class machines:
* The "Burroughs large systems" machines starting with the [[Burroughs B5000|B5000]] in [[1961]] were [[stack machine]]s designed to be programmed in an extended [[Algol 60]]. Their [[operating system]]s, called MCP ([[Master Control Program]] - the name later borrowed by the screenwriters for [[Tron (film)|Tron]]), were programmed in [[ESPOL]] (Executive Systems Programming Oriented Language, a minor extension of Algol) almost a decade before [[Unix]], and the command interface developed into a compiled [[Structured programming|structured language]] with procedures called WFL ([[Work Flow Language]]).
* Burroughs produced the [[B2000]] or "medium systems" computers aimed primarily at the business world. The machines were architected to execute [[COBOL]] efficiently. This included a BCD [[Binary Coded Decimal]] based arithmetic unit, storing and addressing the main memory using Base 10 numbering instead of binary.
* Burroughs produced the [[Burroughs B1700|B1700]] or "small Systems" that were designed to be microprogrammed, with each process potentially getting its own [[virtual machine]] designed to be the best match to the [[programming language]] chosen for the application being run.
Burroughs Corporation was always a distant second to [[International Business Machines|IBM]] commercially if not technologically. At the same time, Burroughs was very much a competitor and just like IBM, Burroughs tried to supply a complete answer for its customers. This included providing Burroughs-designed Printers, Disk Drives, Tape Drives, etc., and even computer paper.
Burroughs was one of the eight major [[computer]] companies (with [[IBM]] - the largest, [[Honeywell]], [[NCR Corporation]], [[Control Data Corporation]], [[General Electric]], [[RCA]] and [[UNIVAC]]) through most of the [[1960s]]. IBM's share of the market at the time was so much larger than all of the others, that this group was often sarcastically referred to as "IBM and the Seven Dwarfs."
Later, this group became known as the [[BUNCH]] - ([[Burroughs]], [[UNIVAC]], [[NCR Corporation]], [[Control Data Corporation]], and [[Honeywell]])
In September [[1986]], Burroughs Corporation merged with [[Sperry Corporation]] to form [[Unisys Corporation]].
==External links==
* [http://www.cbi.umn.edu/collections/inv/burros/cbi00090-036.html Burroughs Corporation Records: ElectroData Division Records, 1952-1979 at the Charles Babbage Institute]
[[Category:Defunct computer companies of the United States]]
[[af:Burroughs]]
[[de:Burroughs Corporation]]
[[fr:Burroughs]]
[[ja:バローズ]]
[[sk:Burroughs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bill Haley and the Comets</title>
<id>4525</id>
<revision>
<id>15902790</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-17T05:43:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Bill_Haley_&_His_Comets]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bill_Haley_&_His_Comets]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brick</title>
<id>4526</id>
<revision>
<id>41563540</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T04:20:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Meggar</username>
<id>99405</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rev to last by 61.2.212.226</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about '''bricks''' used for construction. For other types of brick please see [[Brick (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:BrickWall.jpg|thumb|A weathered brick wall.]]
A '''brick''' is a [[ceramic]] block made of [[kiln]]-fired material, usually [[clay]] or ground [[shale]]. Clay bricks are formed in a mould (the soft mud method), or more frequently in commercial mass production by extruding clay through a [[Die (manufacturing)|die]] and then wire-cutting them to the proper size (the stiff mud process). Brick made from dampened clay must be formed in molds with a great deal of pressure, usually applied by a [[Hydraulics|hydraulic]] press. These bricks are known as hydraulic-pressed bricks, and have a dense surface which makes them highly resistant to [[weathering]], and thus suitable for facing work. The shaped [[clay]] is then dried and fired to achieve the final, desired strength. In modern brickworks, this is usually done in a continuously fired kiln, in which the bricks move slowly through the kiln on conveyors, rails, or kiln cars to achieve consistent physical characteristics for all bricks. Bri |
termediate System-Intermediate System<br>
Intermetrics, Inc.<br>
intermodulation distortion<br>
internal field separators<br>
Internal Translator<br>
International Algebraic Language<br>
International Atomic Time<br>
International Business Machines<br>
International Computers Limited plc<br>
International Core War Society<br>
International Data Encryption Algorithm<br>
International Electrotechnical Commission<br>
International Federation for Information Processing<br>
International Function Point Users Group<br>
internationalisation<br>
internationalization<br>
International Multimedia Teleconferencing Consortium<br>
International Olympiad in Informatics<br>
International Organisation for Standardisation<br>
International Organization for Standardization<br>
International Phonetic Alphabet<br>
International Programmable Airline Reservation System<br>
International Smalltalk Association<br>
International Standard<br>
International Telecommunications Union<br>
International Traffic in Arms Regulation<br>
Internet<br>
internet<br>
Internet Access Provider<br>
Internet Adapter<br>
Internet address<br>
internet address<br>
Internet Architecture Board<br>
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority<br>
Internet backbone<br>
Internet Chess Server<br>
Internet Control Message Protocol<br>
Internet-Draft<br>
Internet Engineering and Planning Group<br>
Internet Engineering Steering Group<br>
Internet Engineering Task Force<br>
Internet Experiment Note<br>
Internet Explorer<br>
Internet Express<br>
Internet Go Server<br>
Internet Group Management Protocol<br>
Internet Information Server<br>
Internet Inter-ORB Protocol<br>
Internet Message Access Protocol<br>
Internet Monthly Report<br>
Internet Network Information Center<br>
internet number<br>
Internet Open Trading Protocol<br>
Internet Protocol<br>
Internet Protocol Control Protocol<br>
Internet Protocol version 4<br>
Internet Protocol version 6<br>
Internet Public Library<br>
Internet Registry<br>
Internet Relay Chat<br>
Internet Research Steering Group<br>
Internet Research Task Force<br>
Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol<br>
Internet Server Application Programming Interface<br>
Internet Service Provider<br>
Internet Society<br>
Internet Telephony<br>
Internet Telephony Service Providers<br>
internetworking<br>
Internetwork Packet eXchange<br>
Internet Worm<br>
Internex On-Line<br>
InterNIC<br>
interoperability<br>
interoperable database<br>
inter-packet gap<br>
interpolation<br>
Interpress<br>
interpreted<br>
interpreter '''DONE'''<br>
Interpretive Menu Processor<br>
[[inter-process communication]] '''DONE'''<br>
interrupt<br>
interrupt handler<br>
interrupt list<br>
interrupt priority level<br>
interrupt request<br>
interrupts<br>
Intersil 6100<br>
Intersil 6120<br>
InterViews<br>
interworking<br>
intranet<br>
Intrinsics<br>
Intrusion Countermeasure Electronics<br>
Intrusive Testing<br>
Intuition<br>
intuitionism<br>
intuitionistic logic<br>
intuitionistic probability<br>
intuitionist logic<br>
invariant<br>
inverse<br>
Inverse Address Resolution Protocol<br>
inverted index<br>
InWorld VR<br>
io<br>
I/O<br>
IOI<br>
Iomega Corporation<br>
I-OOA<br>
I/O redirection<br>
IOS<br>
Iota<br>
IOT&amp<br>E<br>
IOW<br>
IP<br>
IPA<br>
IP address<br>
IPARS<br>
I-Pay<br>
IPC REDIRECT [[inter-process communication]]<br>
IPCP<br>
IPE<br>
IPL<br>
IP next generation<br>
IPng<br>
IP number<br>
IPS<br>
IPSE<br>
IPSec<br>
IPT<br>
IP Telephony<br>
IPv4<br>
IPv6<br>
IPX<br>
IPXCP<br>
IQ<br>
iq<br>
IQL<br>
IR<br>
ir<br>
IrBUS<br>
IRC<br>
ircop<br>
IRC penis war<br>
IrDA<br>
IrDA-C<br>
IrDA Control<br>
IrDA Data<br>
IRDATA<br>
IRDP<br>
IRDS<br>
IRET<br>
IRIS<br>
Iris<br>
IRIX<br>
[[RL|IRL]]<br>
IRM<br>
iron<br>
Iron Age<br>
iron box<br>
Ironman<br>
ironmonger<br>
IRQ<br>
irrational number<br>
irrefutable<br>
IRSG<br>
IRTF<br>
IRUS<br>
Irvine Dataflow<br>
Irvine Research Unit in Software<br>
IS<br>
is<br>
IS-11172<br>
IS-13818<br>
ISA -- '''DONE''' (redirected to Industry Standard Architecture<br>
Isabelle<br>
Isabelle-92<br>
Isabelle-93<br>
ISA bus<br>
ISAKMP<br>
ISAM<br>
ISAPI<br>
ISAPI filter<br>
ISBL<br>
ISDE<br>
ISDN<br>
ISE<br>
ISEE<br>
I see no X here.<br>
ISETL<br>
ISF<br>
ISINDEX<br>
ISIS<br>
IS-IS<br>
ISL<br>
ISLisp<br>
ISMAP<br>
ISO<br>
ISO 10646<br>
ISO 8072<br>
ISO 8073<br>
ISO 8208<br>
ISO 8326<br>
ISO 8327<br>
ISO 8613<br>
ISO 8649<br>
ISO 8650<br>
ISO 8805<br>
ISO 8807<br>
ISO 8822<br>
ISO 8823<br>
ISO 8825<br>
ISO 8859<br>
ISO 8859-1<br>
ISO 8879<br>
ISO 9000<br>
ISO 9072<br>
ISO 9660<br>
ISO 9735<br>
ISOC<br>
ISO C<br>
isochronous<br>
isochronous transfer<br>
ISODE<br>
ISO Development Environment<br>
ISO/IEC 10646-1<br>
isolated<br>
ISO Latin 1<br>
isometry<br>
isomorphic<br>
isomorphism<br>
isomorphism class<br>
ISO Pascal<br>
ISO seven layer model<br>
ISP<br>
ISPBX<br>
ISPF<br>
ISPL<br>
ISPS<br>
IST<br>
ISTAR<br>
ISTM<br>
ISV<br>
ISWIM<br>
IT<br>
it<br>
ITAR<br>
Iterated Function System<br>
iteration<br>
iterative deepening<br>
Iternet<br>
ITHACA<br>
ITIL<br>
ITP<br>
ITS<br>
it's a feature<br>
ITSP<br>
ITU<br>
ITU-T<br>
ITU-T X.680<br>
ITU X.209<br>
Ivan<br>
Ivan Sutherland<br>
Iverson's Language<br>
IVR<br>
ivs<br>
IVTRAN<br>
IV&amp<br>V<br>
IVY<br>
IWay<br>
IWBNI<br>
IXC<br>
IXI Limited<br>
IXO<br>
IYFEG<br>
J<br>
J2EE<br>
J2ME<br>
J2SE<br>
J3<br>
J73<br>
jabber<br>
JACAL<br>
jaccl<br>
jack in<br>
Jack Kilby<br>
Jackson method<br>
Jacquard, Joseph-Marie<br>
Jacquard loom<br>
JAD<br>
JADE<br>
Jade<br>
jadeTeX<br>
JAffer's Canonical ALgebra<br>
jaggies<br>
JaM<br>
jam<br>
James Clark<br>
James' DSSSL Engine<br>
James Gosling<br>
James H. Clark<br>
JANET<br>
JANET IP Service<br>
Janus<br>
japh '''DONE''' (renamed Just another Perl hacker)<br>
jar<br>
Jargon File<br>
Java<br>
Java 2<br>
Java 2 Platform<br>
Java 2 Platform, Enterprise Edition<br>
Java 2 Platform, Micro Edition<br>
Java 2 Platform, Standard Edition<br>
Java 2 SDK<br>
Java 2 Software Development Kit<br>
Java archive<br>
JavaBeans<br>
Java Database Connectivity<br>
Java Development Kit<br>
Java Message Service<br>
Java Native Interface<br>
Java Open Language Toolkit<br>
Java Remote Method Protocol<br>
Java Run-Time Environment<br>
JavaScript<br>
Java servelet<br>
JavaServer Pages<br>
Java servlet<br>
Java Servlet Development Kit<br>
Java Virtual Machine<br>
Java VM<br>
JAZ<br>
Jaz<br>
Jaz Drive<br>
JAZELLE<br>
JBIG<br>
JBOD<br>
JBOPS<br>
jc<br>
JCL<br>
JCS-13<br>
JDBC<br>
JDK<br>
JEAN<br>
Jean E. Sammet<br>
JEDR<br>
Jef Raskin<br>
Jerry Sussman<br>
JES<br>
JES2<br>
JES3<br>
JFCL<br>
JFET<br>
JFIF<br>
jiffy<br>
Jim Clark<br>
Jini<br>
JIPS<br>
JIT<br>
jitter<br>
JK flip-flop<br>
jm<br>
JMHO<br>
JMS<br>
JNI<br>
jo<br>
job<br>
Job Control Language<br>
Job Entry System<br>
Jobs<br>
job security<br>
jock<br>
joe<br>
joe code<br>
John Gilmore<br>
John McCarthy<br>
John Ousterhout<br>
John von Neumann<br>
join<br>
Joint Academic NETwork<br>
Joint Bi-level Image Experts Group<br>
Joint Photographic Experts Group<br>
Joint Technical Committee<br>
Joint Test Action Group<br>
jolix<br>
JOLT<br>
Jon Postel<br>
JOOP<br>
Joseph-Marie Jacquard<br>
JOSS<br>
Jossle<br>
journalling<br>
jove<br>
JOVIAL<br>
Joyce<br>
joystick<br>
Joy, William<br>
jp<br>
JPEG<br>
JPEG File Interchange Format<br>
jpg<br>
JPL<br>
JPLDIS<br>
J. Presper Eckert<br>
J. Random<br>
J. Random Hacker<br>
JRE<br>
JRL<br>
JRMP<br>
JRN<br>
JRST<br>
JS<br>
JSA<br>
JSDK<br>
JSP<br>
JTAG'''DONE'''<br>
JTB<br>
JTC<br>
JTC1/SC24<br>
JTS<br>
juggl |
on the Census.
Despite a massive effort, the Census Bureau has never been able to count every individual, leading to controversy about whether to use statistical methods to supplement the numbers for some purposes, as well as arguments over how to improve the actual head count. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] has ruled that only an actual head count can be used to apportion Congressional seats; however, cities and minority representatives have complained that urban residents and minorities are undercounted. In several cases, the Census Bureau will recount an area with disputed figures, provided the local government pays for the time and effort. The State of [[Utah]] protested the figures of the 2000 decennial census because it lost a seat in the House of Representatives to [[North Carolina]]. Had the Census Bureau been able to count the numbers of Utahns living overseas, including many [[Mormon]] missionaries, Utah would have retained the seat.
To minimize the burden on individuals and to provide improved data, the Bureau is preparing several alternative methods for gathering economic, demographic, and social information, including the [[American Community Survey]] and [[record linking]] of depersonalized administrative records with other administrative records and Census Bureau surveys.
By law (92 Stat. 915, Public Law 95-416, enacted on October 5, 1978), census records are sealed for 72 years; in an era when life expectancy was under 60 years, this attempts to protect individual's privacy by prohibiting the release of such information during their expected lifetimes. Thus, the most recent Census released to the public was the 1930 Census, released in 2002.
Indexes to some of the U.S. Censuses have been produced over the years, making the process of searching old census records much easier. Some indexes of census records have been produced by amateur volunteer genealogists. Due to the sheer volume of information, and the manual methodologies involved, the indexing used to be limited to the head-of-household. These indexes were published in bound volumes and are often available in regional libraries along with microfilm rolls that can be researched.
While valuable, indexes produced from these censuses can be problematic to use. The original census records from this era were completed by hand by census enumerators; this leads to problems in handwriting recognition and variations in spelling of surnames within the original documents.
The 1880 to 1920 censuses have indexes of last names, produced using the [[Soundex]] system; the indexing project was performed by the [[Works Progress Administration]]. The Soundex system is tolerant of variations in spelling; names with similar sounds but different spellings have the same encoding. The chief motivation in producing the Soundex name indexes was to assist citizens in finding census records to provide evidence of age, especially for those born before the advent of governmentally-approved birth certificates. (Verification of age was needed to establish eligibility for old-age benefits such as [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]). Partial Soundex indexes of the 1930 census are available; resources from the Works Progress Administration were diverted towards support of [[World War II]] efforts before the project was completed.
With the advent of computers, and more recently, the Internet, expanded indexes including all family members are beginning to appear on genealogy websites. These are accompanied with hypertext links that take the researcher directly to an image of the original census page, without having to travel to a regional library and scroll through endless rolls of microfilm.
Genealogists view censuses as secondary sources of information; primary sources of information such as birth certificates are viewed as more reliable. Still, census information often provides useful information for genealogists and clues on where to proceed to find further primary source documents.
====Local====
In additional to the decennial federal census, more localized versions are often used. An example of this is [[Massachusetts]], which takes a statewide census every fifth year. Likewise, each community in Massachusetts takes a municipal census each year.
[[Category:Population]]
====Sources====
*[http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/miscellaneous/000507.html U.S. Census Press Release on 1930 Census]
*[http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/spring_2002_soundex_projects.html U.S. Census Press Release on Soundex and WPA]
*Bielenstein, Hans. "Wang Mang, the restoration of the Han dynasty, and Later Han." In ''The Cambridge History of China'', vol. 1, eds. Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, 223-90 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978).
*[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=297 Effects of UK 'Jedi' hoax on 2001 UK census from ONS]
==External links==
*[http://www.archives.gov/genealogy/census/ Census at the U.S. National Archives]
*[http://www.censusscope.org CensusScope] Easy-to-navigate data, charts, maps, and graphs of U.S. Census Data.
*[http://www.censusfinder.com Census Finder - Links to census records online for the U.S., UK and Canada]
*[http://www.histpop.org Online Historical Population Reports Project (OHPR)]
*[http://statbel.fgov.be/census/links_en.asp Links to the official websites of various national censuses]
[[Category:Data collection]]
[[af:Sensus]]
[[da:Folketælling]]
[[de:Volkszählung]]
[[el:Απογραφή]]
[[es:Censo de población]]
[[eo:Censo]]
[[fr:Recensement]]
[[ko:인구 조사]]
[[id:Sensus]]
[[is:Manntal]]
[[it:Censimento]]
[[he:מפקד אוכלוסין]]
[[hu:Népszámlálás]]
[[nl:Volkstelling]]
[[ja:国勢調査]]
[[no:Folketelling]]
[[pl:Spis statystyczny]]
[[pt:Censo]]
[[ru:Перепись населения]]
[[simple:Census]]
[[sl:Popis prebivalstva]]
[[su:Sénsus]]
[[vi:Thống kê dân số]]
[[uk:Перепис населення]]
[[zh:人口普查]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catholic sacraments</title>
<id>6894</id>
<revision>
<id>41202678</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T19:30:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Carolynparrishfan</username>
<id>275342</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
: ''This article is about the sacramental doctrines of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. For those of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] churches, see [[Sacred Mysteries]].
The practice of the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] includes '''seven sacraments'''. As defined by Catholics, a [[sacrament]] is a material and spoken action which confers [[divine grace]] upon a person, especially what is called [[sanctifying grace]], i.e. a particular salvific effect.
There are seven sacraments:
*'''[[Baptism]]'''
*'''[[Confession (sacrament)|Penance and Reconciliation]]''' (informally called ''Confession'')
*'''[[Eucharist]]''' (informally called ''Communion'')
*'''[[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]]''' (in Eastern Catholic Churches and the Orthodox Church, equivalent to [[chrismation]])
*'''[[Christian view of marriage|Holy Matrimony]]'''
*'''[[Holy Orders]]'''
*'''[[Anointing of the Sick]]''' (also called ''Extreme Unction'')
Sacraments have a ''form'' and ''matter.'' A ''form'' is the verbal and physical liturgical script. The ''matter'' refers to any material objects used. Both these need to be present and followed for the sacrament to have its effect. Many sacraments are also only supposed to be done by a specific type of person, but there are exceptions allowed for emergencies. One final criteria for the sacrament to work is that the minister has to have the same intention in performing the sacrement as the church does. Someone teaching a priest how to do a baptism is not intending to perform one. There might customarily be a large amount of ritual besides the form and matter, but nothing is strictly necessary besides the form and matter.
A rite that has the intended sacramental effect is a '''valid''' sacrament. Catholics hold that only a [[priest]] properly ordained by a [[bishop]] who is in a succession of bishops dating back to the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] can perform the miraculous [[transubstantiation]] necessary for the validity of the Eucharist, and only such a priest can absolve sins of penitents. Such a priest need not be a Catholic in order that those sacraments be valid; priests of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] also have the requisite mystical powers. [[Protestant]] ministers, as they deny the doctrine of transubstantiation, do not. (It is a debated point among Catholic theologians whether [[Anglican]] priests have maintained apostolic succession. In fact some Anglican bishop ordinations in the 19th century were carried out by [[Old Catholic]] bishops, in order to re-establish apostolic succession, which some Anglican theologians feared had been lost.)
However, validity differs from licitness. Although an unordained person--even a non-Christian--can validly baptize, that is illegal except in emergencies. After an illicit but valid baptism, the baptized person may not be baptized again; that is determined by validity, not by licitness, though if the baptized person survives, he or she can have a ceremony containing the additional rites that were left out in the emergency baptism. Similarly, a priest who is not a bishop can validly perform the sacrament of confirmation, but in [[Latin Rite|Latin-rite]] Catholic churches, that is forbidden without an explicit permission from a bishop. Also, the ordination of a bishop by another bishop without the permission of the Pope is valid, but illicit (and also punished by automatic [[excommunication]]). Five of the seven sacraments can be validly performed only by a priest--the two exceptions being baptism and matrimony--and one only by a bishop: holy orders.
Three of the seve |
historical accuracy of the religious texts in question when compared to other historical sources; as well as questioning how documents that some believe to contain many contradictions could be considered infallible.
== Fundamentalism and politics ==
"Fundamentalism" is a morally charged, emotive term, often used as a term of opprobrium, particularly in combination with other epithets (as in the phrase "[[Islamic fundamentalism|Muslim fundamentalists]]" and "right-wing fundamentalists").
Very often religious fundamentalists, in all religions, are politically aware. They feel that legal and government processes must recognise the way of life they see as prescribed by God and set forth in Scripture. The state must be subservient to God, in their eyes: this, however is a basic belief of most religions, even if their practitioners do not insist upon it.
Most "Christian" countries go through a similar stage in their development. The governments of many [[Muslim]] countries, such as [[Iran]] and [[Saudi Arabia]], are Islamic, and include people with fundamentalist beliefs. More secular politicians are often to be found working in opposition movements in these countries. Christian fundamentalism is most prevalent in the politics of northern [[Ireland]].
==References==
*Appleby, R. Scott, Gabriel Abraham Almond, and Emmanuel Sivan (2003). ''Strong Religion''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226014975
*Armstrong, Karen (2001). ''The Battle for God: A History of Fundamentalism''. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-39169-1
*Brasher, Brenda E. (2001). ''The Encyclopedia of Fundamentalism''. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415922445
* Dorff, Elliot N. and Rosett, Arthur, ''A Living Tree; The Roots and Growth of Jewish Law'', SUNY Press, 1988.
* Marsden; George M. ''Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth Century Evangelicalism, 1870-1925'' Oxford University Press, ([http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98828304 1980])
*Marty, Martin E. and R. Scott Appleby (eds.). ''The Fundamentalism Project''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
**(1991). ''Volume 1: Fundamentalisms Observed''. ISBN 0-226-50878-1
**(1993). ''Volume 2: Fundamentalisms and Society''. ISBN 0-226-50880-3
**(1993). ''Volume 3: Fundamentalisms and the State''. ISBN 0-226-50883-8
**(1994). ''Volume 4: Accounting for Fundamentalisms''. ISBN 0-226-50885-4
**(1995). ''Volume 5: Fundamentalisms Comprehended''. ISBN 0-226-50887-0
*Ruthven, Malise (2005). "Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning". Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192806068
*Torrey, R.A. (ed.). (1909). ''The Fundamentals''. Los Angeles: The Bible Institute of Los Angeles (B.I.O.L.A. now [[Biola University]]). ISBN: 0801012643
* Religious movements: fundamentalist. In Goldstein, Norm (Ed.) (2003). ''The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law 2003'' (38th ed.), p. 218. New York: The Associated Press. ISBN 0-917360-22-2.
==See also==
*[[Grammatical-historical|Distinctions between those who interpret the Bible literally and those who don't but at the same time believe it to be inerrant]]
*[[Catholic fundamentalism]]
*[[Evangelicalism]]
*[[Fundamentalist Christianity]]
*[[Haredi Judaism]]
*[[Kach and Kahane Chai]]
*[[Islamic fundamentalism]]
*[[Khalistan]]
*[[Islamism]]
*[[Pentecostalism]]
*[[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventism]]
*[[Osama Bin Laden]]
*[[Bhindranwale]]
*[[Sectarianism]]
==External links==
*[http://lecturesoncentralasia.blogspot.com/2005/08/thoughts-on-religious-fundamentalism_22.html Thoughts on "Religious Fundamentalism" Identity]
*[http://www.icapi.org International Coalition Against Political Islam]
*[http://www.ntpi.org No to Political Islam]
*[http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejcmmsm/article/index.html Psychological Issues of Former Members of Restrictive Religious Groups] by Jim Moyers, MA, MFT; originally written for psychotherapists working with ex-fundamentalists
*[http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/1004/p25s1-wosc.html Q & A on Islamic Fundamentalism]
*[http://www.brucegourley.com/fundamentalism/ Introduction to Fundamentalism]
*[http://www.blessedquietness.com/ www.blessedquietness.com] a conservative Christian website, maintained by Steve van Natten
*[http://www.biblicaladvancedbasics.com/Topical.htm Mid-Acts Dispensational Fundamentals]
*[http://www.geocities.com/realitywithbite/index.htm Reality With Bite] A site highlighting the danger of religious fundamentalism, especially how it affects women.
*[http://www.reandev.com/taliban/ American Taliban] Quotes, mainly from fundamentalists, referred to here as the "American Taliban"
*[http://waf.gn.apc.org/ Women Against Fundamentalism (UK)]
*[http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1024&context=gis The Rise of Religious Violence]
[[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]]
[[ca:Fonamentalisme religiós]]
[[cs:Fundamentalismus]]
[[de:Fundamentalismus]]
[[et:Fundamentalism]]
[[es:Fundamentalismo]]
[[eo:Fundamentismo]]
[[fa:بنیادگرایی]]
[[fr:Fondamentalisme]]
[[he:פונדמנטליזם]]
[[hu:Fundamentalizmus]]
[[nl:Fundamentalisme]]
[[ja:原理主義]]
[[nn:Fundamentalisme]]
[[pl:Fundamentalizm]]
[[pt:Fundamentalismo]]
[[simple:Religious fundamentalism]]
[[fi:Fundamentalismi]]
[[sv:Fundamentalism]]
[[zh:基要主义]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fucking Åmål</title>
<id>11585</id>
<revision>
<id>41671422</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:42:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.28.68.100</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Film |
name = Fucking Åmål |
image = Fucking Åmål original poster.jpg |
writer = [[Lukas Moodysson]] |
starring = [[Alexandra Dahlström]],<br>[[Rebecka Liljeberg]],<br>[[Erica Carlson]],<br>[[Mathias Rust (actor)|Mathias Rust]] |
director = [[Lukas Moodysson]] |
producer = [[Lars Jönsson]] |
distributor = [[Sonet Film]] |
released = [[October 23]], [[1998]] |
runtime = 89 min. |
language = Swedish |
budget = [[SEK]] 9,000,000 |
imdb_id = 0150662 |
}}
'''''Fucking Åmål''''' (occasionally spelled without [[Ring_(diacritic)|rings]] as ''Fucking Amal'') is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[Film|movie]] that was distributed in English-speaking countries as '''''Show Me Love''''' (and in other countries under similarly toned-down titles such as '''''Raus Aus Åmål''''', '''''Descubriendo el Amor''''', '''''Amigas de Colégio''''' etc.). The title refers to the small town [[Åmål]] in western Sweden.
The movie from [[1998]] was written and directed by [[Lukas Moodysson]] and was his first full length film. It stars [[Alexandra Dahlström]] as Elin and [[Rebecka Liljeberg]] as Agnes. It won four ''Guldbagge'' (Golden Beetle) at the [[1999]] Swedish [[Guldbagge Award]]s. It has also won several other international awards, among them the Teddy award at the [[1999]] [[Berlin Film Festival]].
==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
The [[film]] tells the story of two girls, Agnes and Elin, who go to school in the insignificant town of [[Åmål]] ("[[fuck]]ing" is a word Elin uses to describe it). Elin is outgoing and has many friends, but finds her life unsatisfying. Agnes, by contrast, has almost no friends. Agnes has a crush on Elin, but cannot find any way to express it. Elin goes to Agnes' birthday party, mainly as an excuse to avoid going to a different party, where there will be people she wants to avoid. Elin's older sister, Jessica, who comes with her, dares her to kiss Agnes, which she does. Elin discovers she shares Agnes's feelings, and a relationship between them develops.
The film is not actually filmed in Åmål but in [[Trollhättan]].
==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0150662|title=Fucking Åmål}}
* [http://www.fucking-amal.com Fucking-Amal.com: Site in English, including an active forum]
* [http://amal.host.sk/fa2.htm Fan site 1]
* [http://www.eratosthenese.com/showmelove/index.html Fan site 2]
* [http://people.freenet.de/what-its-all-about/ Essay on the film]
[[Category:1998 films]]
[[Category:Lesbian films]]
[[Category:Swedish films]]
[[cs:Láska je láska]]
[[de:Raus aus Åmål]]
[[es:Fucking Åmål]]
[[fi:Fucking Åmål]]
[[fr:Fucking Åmål]]
[[no:Fucking Åmål]]
[[pl:Fucking Åmål]]
[[sv:Fucking Åmål]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Full disclosure</title>
<id>11586</id>
<revision>
<id>39311574</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T06:56:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pengo</username>
<id>35807</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */ dab cracker</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a policy of the security industry. For other meanings, see [[Full disclosure (disambiguation)]].''
In [[computer security]], '''full disclosure''' means to disclose all the details of a security problem which are known. It is also a philosophy of security management completely opposed to the idea of [[security through obscurity]], and that is what this article discusses.
The issue of full disclosure is controversial, but not new: [[locksmith]]s were discussing full disclosure over a century ago.
== Definition ==
'''Full disclosure''' requires that full details of a security vulnerability are disclosed to the public, including details of the vulnerability and how to detect and exploit it. The theory behind ''full disclosure'' is that releasing vulnerability information immediately results in quicker fixes and better security. Fixes are produced faster because vendors and authors are forced to respond in order to save face. Security is improved because the ''window of exposure'', the amount of time the vulnerability is open to attack, is reduced.
In the realm of computer vulnerabilities, disclosure is often achieved via maili |
Hingis]] as her partner. With Anna's being taller than the average tennis player, and being strong at the net and at the serve, she fits well into doubles. [Other comparable players have been [[Pam Shriver]] and [[Peter Fleming]], with numerous doubles championships to their credit, playing with shorter partners, such as [[Martina Navratilova]] and [[John McEnroe]]. With their skill and good looks, Anna and Martina jestingly called themselves "The Spice Girls of Tennis".
==Tennis career==
[[Image:Anna Kournikova plait.jpg|thumb|left|Playing tennis.]]
Kournikova dazzled the world at age 13 and 14 in international junior tennis, winning several tournaments including the [[1995]] [[Rome Masters|Italian Open]]. Kournikova was 14 years old when she ended 1995 as Junior European Champion Under 18 and ITF Junior World Champion Under 18.
Kournikova debuted in professional tennis at age 14 in the [[Fed Cup]] for Russia, the youngest player ever to participate and win. At age 15, she reached the fourth round of the 1996 [[U.S. Open (tennis)|U.S. Open]], only to be stopped by then-top ranked player [[Steffi Graf]].
Kournikova was a member of the Russian delegation to the [[1996 Olympic Games]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. In 1997, as a 16-year old, she reached the semi-finals of [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]], where she lost to the eventual champion, [[Martina Hingis]] by a score of 6-3, 6-2. 1998 was her breakthrough year, when she broke into the [[Women's Tennis Association|WTA]]'s top 20 rankings for the first time and scored impressive victories over [[Martina Hingis]], [[Lindsay Davenport]], and [[Steffi Graf]]. Kournikova's two [[Grand Slam in tennis|Grand Slam]] doubles titles came in [[1999]] and [[2002]], both at the [[Australian Open]] in the Women's Doubles event with partner [[Martina Hingis]], with whom she played frequently starting in 1999.
Kournikova proved a successful doubles player on the professional circuit, winning 16 tournament doubles titles, including two Australian Opens and being a finalist in mixed doubles at the [[U.S. Open]] and at Wimbledon, and reaching #1 ranking in doubles in the [[Women's Tennis Association]] tour rankings. Her pro career doubles record was 200-71. However, her singles career plateaued after 1999. For the most part, she managed to retain her ranking between #10 and #15 (her career high singles ranking was #8), but her expected finals breakthrough failed to occur; she only reached four finals out of 130 singles tournaments, never in a Grand Slam event, and never won one. One contributing factor might have been her habit of entering high-profile events with strong fields of elite players. As a player, Kournikova was noted for her excellent footspeed and aggressive baseline play; however, her flat, high-risk groundstrokes tended to produce high numbers of errors and her serve was sometimes unreliable in singles. [Anyone who wins big at doubles MUST serve well.] She had a record of 209-129 as a singles player.
Her final playing years were marred by a string of injuries, especially back injuries, which saw her ranking gradually erode. Kournikova has not played on the WTA tour since 2003, but still plays exhibition matches for charitable causes. In late 2004, she participated in three events organized by [[Elton John]] and by fellow tennis stars and good friends [[Serena Williams]] and [[Andy Roddick]]. In January [[2005]], she played in a doubles charity event for the [[Indian Ocean tsunami]] with [[John McEnroe]], Roddick, and [[Chris Evert]].
Anna was also a member of the Newport Beachbreakers in the World Team Tennis (WTT) competition in July and November 2005, playing doubles only. In November 2005 she teamed up with [[Martina Hingis]] playing against [[Lisa Raymond]] and [[Samantha Stosur]] in the WTT finals for charity. In a feature for ''[[Elle]]'' magazine's July 2005 issue, Kournikova stated that if she were 100% fit, she would like to come back and compete again.
==Media publicity==
[[Image:anna12.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Kournikova on the July, 2000 cover of [[Sports Illustrated]]]]Much of Anna's fame -- more, many have argued, than she ever gained in her tennis career -- has come from the publicity surrounding her personal life as well as numerous modeling shoots. During her debut at the 1996 U.S. Open 1996 at the age of 15, Kournikova's physical beauty was noticed by the world and soon pictures of her appeared in numerous magazines all over the planet. Anna has fine facial features and an attractive body, topped off by long blonde hair, sometimes braided into a meter-long queue (pony tail).
Many media outlets have reported that Kournikova was very briefly married to NHL hockey star [[Sergei Fedorov]] during the summer of 2001, though her agent and family deny this claim. A number of her relationships with other [[celebrity|celebrities]], including involvements with [[pop music|pop star]] [[Enrique Iglesias]] (whose video, ''Escape'', she appeared in) and hockey player [[Pavel Bure]], have also featured prominently in the [[tabloid|tabloid press]].
In 2000 Anna became the new face for [[Berlei]]'s shock absorber sports bras range, and appeared in the highly successful "only the ball should bounce" bill board campaign. Photographs of her scantily-clad form have appeared in various [[List of men's magazines|men's magazine]]s, including more than one much-publicized [[Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue]]s (2004-05), where she posed in bikinis and swimsuits, and in other popular men's publications such as ''[[FHM]]'' and ''[[Maxim (magazine)|Maxim]]''. So far, she has not posed topless or nude for any publications.
Kournikova was named one of ''[[People (magazine)|People]]'''s 50 Most Beautiful People in [[1998]], [[2000]], [[2002]], and [[2003]]. She has also been voted "hottest female athlete" and "hottest couple" (with Iglesias) on [[ESPN.com]] and 2003's "sexiest woman in the world" by worldwide [[FHM]] readers for. By contrast, [[ESPN]] -- citing the degree of hype as compared to actual accomplishments as a singles player -- ranked Anna 18<sup>th</sup> in its "25 Biggest Sports Flops of the Past 25 Years".
Kournikova had a small role (as a motel manager) in the 2000 film ''[[Me, Myself and Irene]]'', starring [[Jim Carrey]].
==Books==
*''Anna Kournikova'' by Susan Holden (2001)
*''Anna Kournikova (Women Who Win)'' by Connie Berman
==External links==
*[http://www.kournikova.com/ Official web site]
:*[http://www.kournikova.com/journal/ Her weblog]
*{{imdb name|id=0468045|name=Anna Kournikova}}
*[http://sports.quickfound.net/anna_kournikova_biography_index.html Comprehensive biography]
*[http://www.celebrityworld.tv/anna_kournikova.html Anna's Photos]
*[http://www.askmaki.com/anna_kournikova_video.html Anna Kournikova calendar shoot video]
[[Category:1981 births|Kournikova, Anna]]
[[Category:Living people|Kournikova, Anna]]
[[Category:Russian tennis players|Kournikova, Anna]]
[[Category:Russian bloggers|Kournikova, Anna]]
[[Category:Russian models|Kournikova, Anna]]
[[Category:Russian film actors|Kournikova, Anna]]
[[Category:Australian Open champions|Kournikova, Anna]]
[[bg:Анна Курникова]]
[[da:Anna Kournikova]]
[[de:Anna Sergejewna Kurnikowa]]
[[fr:Anna Kournikova]]
[[he:אנה קורניקובה]]
[[nl:Anna Kournikova]]
[[ja:アンナ・クルニコワ]]
[[no:Anna Kournikova]]
[[pl:Anna Kurnikowa]]
[[pt:Anna Kournikova]]
[[ru:Курникова, Анна Сергеевна]]
[[fi:Anna Kurnikova]]
[[sv:Anna Kournikova]]
[[bs:Ana Kurnikova]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Accounting</title>
<id>891</id>
<revision>
<id>15899404</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-05T20:49:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.73.149.165</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Accountancy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfons Maria Jakob</title>
<id>892</id>
<revision>
<id>41774975</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:37:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.225.130.131</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfons Maria Jakob''' ([[July 2]], [[1884]] &ndash; [[October 17]], [[1931]]) was a [[Germany|German]- Jewish] [[neurologist]]. He was the first to recognize and describe [[Alper's disease]] and [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] (the latter with [[Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt]]) and helped greatly in the description of various other neurological illnesses.
{{med-bio-stub}}
[[Category:1884 births|Jakob, Alfons Maria]]
[[Category:1931 deaths|Jakob, Alfons Maria]]
[[Category:Neurologists|Jakob, Alfons Maria]]
[[de:Alfons Maria Jakob]]
[[nl:Alfons Maria Jakob]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atheism</title>
<id>893</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42140957</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:18:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JuniorMuruin</username>
<id>410029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Types and typologies of atheism */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Atheist|the band|[[Atheist (band)]]}}
'''Atheism''', in its broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of [[deity|gods]]. This definition includes as atheists both those who assert that there are no gods, and those who make no claim about whether gods exist or not. Narrower definitions, however, often only qualify those who assert there are no gods as atheists, labeling the others as [[nontheism|nontheists]] or [[Agnosticism|agnostics]].
Although atheists often share common concerns regarding [[empiricism|empirical]] evidence and the [[scientific method]] of investigation and a large number are [[scientific skepticism|skeptics]], there is no single [[ideology]] that all atheists share. Additionally, there are certain individuals whose [[Religion|religious]] or [[spirituality|spiritual]] |
e topic! Remember that Wikipedia is an encyclopedia; if you want to write your own news stories, use [[Wikinews]].
* Do you know a foreign language? Add [[Wikipedia:Interlanguage links|interlanguage links]] to articles! Translate an article or two! Or check out one of the many translation tasks listed under the "Start with a list of things that need doing" section, above.
* Your college or university. Find its article on the [[list of colleges and universities]].
* Specific countries, provinces, counties, cities, and towns. Maybe one you've lived in, maybe one you like to visit. Start with the [[list of countries]] to find a place of interest. (But remember Wikipedia is not a travel guide; see [[Wikitravel]] for that.)
* What are your favorite subjects in history, entertainment, or sports?
* What are your favorite books (especially non-fiction)?
* Do you know anything about your local political or religious leaders? Find them on one of the [[lists of office-holders]].
* Are you a fan of anyone who should have an encyclopedia article? Find them on one of the [[lists of people]]. Are they properly indexed according to birth and death date?
===Start on a random page===
Visit a [[Special:Randompage]] and jump into the [[rabbit hole]]!
===Start with outside research===
Feed your appetite for knowledge. Pick a subject about which you know relatively little but have always been curious or want to remedy a guilty ignorance. If you already know a lot about something, the best references in the field might know more, or might be a helpful reference for other readers or helpful to you in your writing.
Try to find good online and print resources, both books and journal articles. Using good references is a way of improving the credibility of Wikipedia, which will be increasingly important as Wikipedia grows and becomes more and more relevant. Then [[Wikipedia:Cite sources|cite your sources]]. By citing sources you avoid copyright violations and plagiarism as long as you use only acceptable portions of other works. Doing research also makes it easier to think of material to add and allows you to improve any article, even one you didn't know much about.
Write about something you don't know about. Use this as an excuse to research a new topic. As you learn about it, write what you are learning here on Wikipedia. This is actually a good study aid because it forces you to take notes, to organize information, and to put what you've learned into your own words. You can take [[wikipedia:How to write a great article|how to write a great article]] as a guide.
Find something from a [[Public Domain Resources|public domain resource]],
update it, add links to it, and put it here (but make sure it really isn't
copyrighted&mdash;see [[wikipedia:Copyrights|Wikipedia copyrights]]).
Things you might want to learn about:
* What interesting things happened today in history? What interesting things have happened on your birthday? Search on http://www.google.com/search?q=this+day+in+history and then visit the [[list of historical anniversaries]].
==Thank you!==
Your contributions are what make Wikipedia possible.
[[Category:Wikipedia basic information|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Wikipedia how-to|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[ja:Wikipedia:&#12454;&#12451;&#12461;&#12506;&#12487;&#12451;&#12450;&#12395;&#23492;&#31295;&#12377;&#12427;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heavy metal music</title>
<id>13869</id>
<revision>
<id>42158488</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:11:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hmas</username>
<id>1019222</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|extreme music}}
{{Template:Heavymetal}}
'''Heavy metal''', sometimes referred to as simply '''metal''', is a form of music characterised by [[aggression|aggressive]], driving [[rhythm]]s and highly [[amplification|amplified]] [[distortion|distorted]] [[guitar]]s.
Heavy metal is a development of [[blues]], [[blues rock]], [[Rock and roll|rock]] and [[prog rock]]. Its origins lie in the [[hard rock]] bands who between [[1967]] and [[1974]] took blues and rock and created a hybrid with a heavy, guitar-and-drums-centered sound. From the late 1970s on, many bands would fuse this sound with a revival of [[European classical music]]. Heavy metal had its peak popularity in the [[1980s]], during which many of the now existing subgenres first evolved. Although not as commercially successful as it was then, heavy metal still has a large world-wide following of fans known by terms such as ''metalheads'', ''headbangers'' and ''moshers''.
==Characteristics==
Heavy metal is typically characterized by virtuosic instrumentation, especially a guitar, dark themes and lyrics, aggressive, uptempo rhythms and classical or symphonic styles. However, heavy metal subgenres have their own stylistic variations on the original formthat may omit some of these characteristics.
According to Allmusic.com, "Of all rock & roll's myriad forms, heavy metal is the most extreme in terms of volume, machismo, and theatricality. There are numerous stylistic variations on heavy metal's core sound, but they're all tied together by a reliance on loud, distorted guitars (usually playing repeated riffs) and simple, pounding rhythms."
===Instrumentation===
The most commonly used line-up for metal is a [[drummer]], a [[bass guitar|bassist]], a [[rhythm guitar|rhythm guitarist]], a [[lead guitar|lead guitarist]] (in early metal bands a single guitarist often sufficed &#8212; see [[power trio]]), a singer (who is sometimes also one of the instrumentalists), and occasionally a [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] player. Guitar playing is very important in heavy metal. Distorted amplification of the guitars, with effects and electronic processing, is used to thicken the sound. The result is simple and powerful, although some of the original heavy metallers joked that their simplified sound was more the result of limited ability than of innovation.
Heavy metal singers have wide variety in sounds among them, from mid-range clean vocals, to high-pitched wails, to deep growls. The black and death metal scene tends to use distorted and guttural [[death grunt|death grunts]] (exemplified by the band Possessed). Generally, it is hard to understand what the singer is "singing". Often, the text is considered to be too crude to be sung clearly (such as in [[Cannibal Corpse]]), but there are some bands (such as [[Eudoxis]] and [[Bolt Thrower (band)|Bolt Thrower]]) that will have more traditional lyrics obscured by the style of the singing.
Intricate solos and [[riff|riffs]] are a big part of heavy metal music. Guitarists use [[sweep-picking]], [[tapping]] and similar techniques for rapid playing. Heavy metal is not limited, however, to the standard outfit of guitars and drums. The Finnish cello quintet [[Apocalyptica]] has created its own version of heavy metal, difficult to categorise but leaning towards the darker side.
The American band [[Grand Funk Railroad]] was one of the early proto-heavy metal bands (along with [[The Who]], for example) that set new benchmarks for sound volume during shows. The volume of the music was seen as a factor equal in importance to its other qualities. Though this influence is often denigrated as pointless extravagance, it has proven enormously influential, and still dominates many people's perceptions of the genre. [[Motörhead]] and [[Manowar (band)|Manowar]] are more recent examples of bands that pride themselves on keeping the volume very high (see Manowar's 1984 song "All Men Play On Ten"). This behavior was mocked in the [[rockumentary]] spoof ''[[This Is Sp%C4%B1n%CC%88al Tap]]'' by guitarist "[[Christopher Guest|Nigel Tufnel]]", who revealed that his [[Marshall Amplification|Marshall amplifiers]] had been modified to "go to eleven."
===Themes===
Heavy metal, as an art form, is more than just music; it is as much visual as it is audible. Album covers and stage shows are almost as important to the presentation of the material as the music itself. Thus, through heavy metal, many artists collaborate to produce a menu of experiences in each piece, offering a wider range of experiences to the audience. In this respect, heavy metal becomes perhaps more of a diverse art form than any single form dominated by one method of expression. Whereas a painting is experienced visually, a symphony experienced audibly, a heavy metal band's "image" and the common theme that binds all their music is expressed in the artwork on the album, the set of the stage, the tone of the lyrics, in addition to the sound of the music.
[[Image:EmperorInTheNightsideEclipse.jpg|left|thumb|Some album covers can be quite intricate, as with [[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]'s [[In the Nightside Eclipse]]]]Rock historians tend to find that the influence of Western pop music gives heavy metal its escape-from-reality fantasy side, as an escape from reality through outlandish and fantastic lyrics, while African-American blues gives heavy metal its naked reality side, focusing on loss, depression and loneliness.
If the audio, and thematic components of heavy metal are predominantly blues-influenced reality, then the visual component is predominantly pop-influenced fantasy. The themes of darkness, evil, power, and apocalypse are fantastic language components for addressing the reality of life's problems. Further, in reaction to the "peace and love" [[hippie]] culture of the 1960s, heavy metal developed as a [[counterculture]], where light is supplanted by darkness, and the happy ending of pop is replaced by the naked reality that things do not always work out in this world. Whilst fans claim that the medium of darkness is not the message, critics have accused the genre of glorifying the ne |
chester]]
*[[New Britain, Connecticut|New Britain]]
*[[Norwalk, Connecticut|Norwalk]]
*[[Ridgefield, Connecticut|Ridgefield]]
*[[West Hartford, Connecticut|West Hartford]]
*[[Westport, Connecticut|Westport]]
|}
===25 Richest places in Connecticut===
{{main|Connecticut locations by per capita income}}
Ranked by [[per capita income]]:
#[[New Canaan, Connecticut]] $82,049
#[[Darien, Connecticut]] $77,519
#[[Weston, Connecticut]] $74,817
#[[Greenwich, Connecticut]] $74,346
#[[Westport, Connecticut]] $73,664
#[[Wilton, Connecticut]] $65,806
#[[Roxbury, Connecticut]] $56,769
#[[Georgetown, Connecticut]] $55,029
#[[Easton, Connecticut]] $53,885
#[[Essex Village, Connecticut]] $51,928
#[[Ridgefield, Connecticut]] $51,795
#[[Avon, Connecticut]] $51,706
#[[Groton Long Point, Connecticut]] $51,066
#[[Redding, Connecticut]] $50,687
#[[Woodbridge, Connecticut]] $49,049
#[[Sharon, Connecticut]] $45,418
#[[Fairfield, Connecticut]] $43,670
#[[Lyme, Connecticut]] $43,347
#[[Essex, Connecticut]] $42,806
#[[Bridgewater, Connecticut]] $42,505
#[[Cornwall, Connecticut]] $42,484
#[[Madison Center, Connecticut]] $42,046
#[[Old Lyme, Connecticut]] $41,386
#[[Noank, Connecticut]] $41,355
#[[Glastonbury, Connecticut]] $40,820
== Education ==
=== Colleges and universities ===
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[Albertus Magnus College]]
*[[Briarwood College]]
*[[Central Connecticut State University]]
*[[Charter Oak State College]]
*[[Connecticut College]]
*[[Eastern Connecticut State University]]
*[[Fairfield University]]
*[[Holy Apostles College and Seminary]]
*[[Manchester Community College]]
*[[Mitchell College]]
*[[Norwalk Community College]]
*[[Paier College of Art]]
*[[Post University]]
*[[Quinnipiac University]]
*[[Rensselaer at Hartford]]
</td><td valign=top>
*[[Sacred Heart University]]
*[[Saint Joseph College]]
*[[Southern Connecticut State University]]
*[[Trinity College (Connecticut)|Trinity College]]
*[[United States Coast Guard Academy]]
*[[University of Bridgeport]]
*[[University of Connecticut]]
*[[University of Hartford]]
*[[University of New Haven]]
*[[Wesleyan University]]
*[[Western Connecticut State University]]
*[[Yale University]]
</td></tr></table>
== Sports teams ==
*[[Connecticut Sun]] of the [[Women's National Basketball Association]]
*Until 1997, the National Hockey League had a franchise in Hartford, the [[Hartford Whalers]]. Their departure to [[North Carolina]] caused great controversy and resentment.
[[Minor League Hockey]] Teams:
*[[Bridgeport Sound Tigers]] of the [[American Hockey League]]
*[[Hartford Wolf Pack]] of the [[American Hockey League]]
*[[Danbury Trashers]] of the [[United Hockey League]]
[[Minor League Baseball]] Teams:
*[[Bridgeport Bluefish]]
*[[Connecticut Defenders]]
*[[New Britain Rock Cats]]
*[[Manchester Silkworms]] of the [[New England Collegiate Baseball League]]
*[[New Haven County Cutters]] of the [[Canadian-American League]]
[[Bicycle Racing|Professional Cycling]] Teams:
*Team Nerac.com presented by OutdoorLights.com
The [[Connecticut Interscholastic Athletic Conference]] is the state's sanctioning body for high school sports. [[Xavier High School (Middletown, CT)]] claimed the 2005 Class LL football championship. Other state champions in football include Staples (in Westport), Branford, Daniel Hand (in Madison), Woodland Regional (in Beacon Falls), and Hyde Leadership (in Hamden).
== Famous residents ==
*[[Leona Helmsley]], real estate maven who lives in [[Greenwich, Connecticut]]
*[[Martha Stewart]], domestic diva who lives in [[Westport, Connecticut]]
*[[Paul Newman]], salad dressing guru and actor with ties to [[New Canaan, Connecticut]]
*[[David Letterman]], late night talk show host with ties to [[New Canaan, Connecticut]]
*[[Phil Donahue]], former talk show host who lives in [[Westport, Connecticut]]
*[[Henry Kissinger]], former Secretary of State who lives in [[Kent, Connecticut]]
*[[Ivan Lendl]], former tennis pro who maintains a residence in [[Litchfield, Connecticut]]
*[[50 Cent]], rapper who maintains a residence in [[Farmington, Connecticut]]
*[[Rivers Cuomo]], lead singer of [[Weezer]], attended high school in [[Storrs, Connecticut]]
*[[John Mayer]], singer, native of [[Fairfield, Connecticut]]
*[[Ralph Nader]], consumer advocate and former U.S. presidential candidate, native of [[Winsted, Connecticut]]
*[[Diana Ross]], singer, maintains a residence in Belle Haven, [[Greenwich, Connecticut]]
== Connecticut in the mass media ==
{{further|[[List of television shows set in Connecticut]]}}
==See also==
*[[Connecticut State Troubadour]]
*[[Connecticut Conservative]]- A [[weblog]] dealing primarily with Connecticut politics.
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Connecticut}}
*[http://www.ct.gov/ State of Connecticut] - official state website
*[http://www.ctbound.org/ CTBound.org] - official state tourism website
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.chs.org/ Connecticut Historical Society]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/09000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/connecticut Connecticut Newspapers]
*[http://www.berkshirehiking.com - Free tourism site for western Connecticut]
*[http://www.antiquesandthearts.com/CS-2005-04-26-14-06-31p1.htm Review of book on Connecticut furniture makers]
*[http://www.ctmenus.com CTmenus.com - Free directory of Connecticut dining and restaurants]
*[http://www.wadsworthatheneum.org/view/america-decorative.php American Decorative Arts collection of the [[Wadsworth Atheneum]]], with pictures of Connecticut furniture in the collection.
*[http://www.connecticutcountymaps.com/ Connecticut County Maps] Full color maps with list of cities, towns.
* [[Connecticut business hall of fame | Connecticut Business Hall Of Fame]]
==References==
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.ct.gov/ctportal/cwp/view.asp?a=843&q=246434
| title = CT.gov: About Connecticut
| accessdate = [[December 18]], [[2005]]
}}
{{Connecticut}}
{{United States}}
[[Category:Connecticut|*]]
[[Category:New England]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1788 establishments]]
[[ang:Connecticut]]
[[bg:Кънектикът]]
[[ca:Connecticut]]
[[da:Connecticut]]
[[de:Connecticut]]
[[eo:Konetikuto]]
[[es:Connecticut]]
[[et:Connecticut]]
[[eu:Conecticut]]
[[fi:Connecticut]]
[[fr:Connecticut]]
[[gl:Connecticut]]
[[he:קונטיקט]]
[[hu:Connecticut]]
[[id:Connecticut]]
[[is:Connecticut]]
[[it:Connecticut]]
[[ja:コネチカット州]]
[[ka:კონექტიკუტი]]
[[ko:코네티컷 주]]
[[la:Connecticuta]]
[[lt:Konektikutas]]
[[lv:Konektikuta]]
[[mk:Конектикет]]
[[nl:Connecticut]]
[[nn:Connecticut]]
[[no:Connecticut]]
[[os:Коннектикут]]
[[pl:Connecticut]]
[[pt:Connecticut]]
[[ru:Коннектикут]]
[[simple:Connecticut]]
[[sk:Connecticut]]
[[sl:Connecticut]]
[[sq:Connecticut]]
[[sr:Конектикат]]
[[sv:Connecticut]]
[[tr:Connecticut]]
[[uk:Коннектикут]]
[[zh:康乃狄克州]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cystic Fibrosis</title>
<id>6467</id>
<revision>
<id>15904604</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-27T15:32:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect [[cystic fibrosis]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cystic fibrosis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Country Liberal Party</title>
<id>6468</id>
<revision>
<id>42031675</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:21:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Markrad</username>
<id>666954</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"> {{Infobox_Australian_Political_Party |
party_name = Country Liberal Party |
party_logo = [[Image:Countryliberallogo.png]] |
party_wikicolourid = CLP |
leader = [[Jodeen Carney]] |
foundation = [[1974]] |
ideology = [[Liberal conservatism|liberal conservative]] |
headquarters = 107 Woods Street<br>[[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] [[Northern Territory|NT]] 0800 |
holds_government = [[Australia|Federal]] (in [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]])|
website = [http://www.clp.org.au/ Country Liberal Party]|
international = No affiliation
}}
In [[Australia]]n politics, the '''Country Liberal Party''' (CLP) is the [[Northern Territory]] equivalent to the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] and [[National Party of Australia|National]] parties.
The CLP's Federal representatives (currently, the party has one [[Australian Senate|Senator]], [[Nigel Scullion]], and one [[Australian House of Representatives|MHR]], [[Dave Tollner]]) sit with the National and Liberal parties in the [[Australian Parliament]] as part of the [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]].
Until the major change of 2001, the CLP was closely associated with Territorians of European decent, while the ALP was associated with those of Aboriginal descent. This affected the way these groups were treated at both a Territory and Federal government level.
==History==
In [[1966]], the Country Party was well established in the territory, while the Liberal Party was small. In recognition of this, the local Liberals supported the Country candidate for the sole NT seat from 1966 to [[1972]]. An alliance had formed, primarily against the conservatives' arch rivals the [[Australian Labor Party]] (ALP).
In [[1974]], the Northern Territory was given self-government, and its own [[Legislative Assembly]]. The local Country and Liberal Party members decided to form an independent "Country Liberal Party" to field candidates for the Assembly. It was wildly successful, and remained so for 27 years.
In [[1979]], the CLP formally affiliated with both the now National Country Party and Liberal Party. These affiliations remain to this day, and relationships with both parties is close. However, the CLP has had no major opportunities to sway the actions of either.
In [[2001]], the CLP finally lost control of the Territory government in a landslide |
gnificant, however, is the daily variation in temperature, from 5°C at night to 17°C during the day.
Colombians customarily describe their country in terms of the climatic zones: the area under 900 meters in elevation is called the hot zone (tierra caliente), elevations between 900 and 1,980 meters are the temperate zone (tierra templada), and elevations from 1,980 meters to about 3,500 meters constitute the cold zone (tierra fría). The upper limit of the cold zone marks the tree line and the approximate limit of human habitation. The treeless regions adjacent to the cold zone and extending to approximately 4,500 meters are high, bleak areas (usually referred to as the páramos), above which begins the area of permanent snow (nevado).
About 86 % of the country's total area lies in the hot zone. Included in the hot zone and interrupting the temperate area of the Andean highlands are the long and narrow extension of the Magdalena Valley and a small extension in the Cauca Valley. Temperatures, depending on elevation, vary between 24°C and 38°C, and there are alternating dry and wet seasons corresponding to summer and winter, respectively. Breezes on the Caribbean coast, however, reduce both heat and precipitation.
Rainfall in the hot zone is heaviest in the Pacific lowlands and in parts of eastern Colombia, where rain is almost a daily occurrence and rain forests predominate. Precipitation exceeds 760 centimeters annually in most of the Pacific lowlands, making this one of the wettest regions in the world; in eastern Colombia, it decreases from 635 centimeters in portions of the Andean piedmont to 254 centimeters eastward. Extensive areas of the Caribbean interior are permanently flooded, more because of poor drainage than because of the moderately heavy precipitation during the rainy season from May through October.
The temperate zone covers about 8 % of the country. This zone includes the lower slopes of the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central and most of the intermontane valleys. The important cities of Medellín (1,487 meters) and Cali (1,030 meters) are located in this zone, where rainfall is moderate and the mean annual temperature varies between 19°C and 24°C, depending on the elevation. In the higher elevations of this zone, farmers benefit from two wet and two dry seasons each year; January through March and July through September are the dry seasons.
The cold or cool zone constitutes about 6 % of the total area, including some of the most densely populated plateaus and terraces of the Colombian Andes; this zone supports about onefourth of the country's total population. The mean temperature ranges between 10°C and 19°C, and the wet seasons occur in April and May and from September to December, as in the high elevations of the temperate zone.
Precipitation is moderate to heavy in most parts of the country; the heavier rainfall occurs in the low-lying hot zone. Considerable variations occur because of local conditions that affect wind currents, however, and areas on the leeward side of the Guajira Peninsula receive generally light rainfall; the annual rainfall of thirty-five centimeters recorded at the Uribia station there is the lowest in Colombia. Considerable year-to-year variations have been recorded, and Colombia sometimes experiences droughts.
Colombia's geographic and climatic variations have combined to produce relatively well-defined "ethnocultural" groups among different regions of the country: the Costeño from the Caribbean coast; the Caucano in the Cauca region and the Pacific coast; the Antioqueño in Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca departments; the Tolimense in Tolima and Huila departments; the Cundiboyacense in the interior departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá in the Cordillera Oriental; the Santandereano in Norte de Santander and Santander departments; and the Llanero in the eastern plains. Each group had distinctive characteristics, accents, customs, social patterns, and forms of cultural adaptation to climate and topography that differentiates it from other groups. Even with rapid urbanization and modernization, regionalism and regional identification continued to be important reference points, although they were somewhat less prominent in the 1980s than in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
==Relief==
The Andes range is located in Colombia from Southwest (Ecuador boarder) toward Northeast (Venezuela boarder) and is divided in the [[Colombian Massif]] (Macizo Colombiano) in three ranges (East Range, Centre Range and West Range) that form two long valleys, [[Magdalena]] and [[Cauca]] follow by the rivers of the same name.
The eastern half of Colombia, comprising more than half its territory, is plain and composed by [[savanna]] and [[rainforest]], crossed by rivers belonging to the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] basins. The northern part, called "Los [[Llanos]]" is a savanna region, mostly in the Orinoco basin (therefor called also Orinoquía). The southern part is covered by the Amazon rain forest and belongs mostly to the Amazon basin. It is usually called Amazonía.
At the north and west of the Andes range there are some coastal plains. The Caribbean plains at the north and the Pacific plains at the west.
Colombian Pacific Plains are among the most rainy parts in the world, chieftly at the north ([[Chocó]]).
The highest mountain in Colombia is not in the Andes but in the Caribbean plain: [[Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta]] with its highest points named Pico Cristobal Colon (5,5775 m) and Pico Simon Bolivar (same elevation). Other mountains in the Caribbean plain include the María Mountains and the San Lucas Range.
In the Pacific Plains there are other mountain formations, chieftly the [[Darién]] and the Baudó Ranges.
In the eastern Region, there is the Macarena Range and there are forations belongin the Guyanas Shield.
==Facts==
Location:
Northern South America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Panama and Venezuela, and bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between Ecuador and Panama
Geographic coordinates:
4 00 N, 72 00 W
Map references:
South America
Area:
total: 1,138,910 sq km
land: 1,038,700 sq km
water: 100,210 sq km
note: includes Isla de Malpelo, Roncador Cay, Serrana Bank, and Serranilla Bank
Area - comparative:
slightly less than three times the size of Montana
Land boundaries:
total: 6,004 km
border countries: Brazil 1,643 km, Ecuador 590 km, Panama 225 km, Peru 1,496 km (est.), Venezuela 2,050 km
Coastline:
3,208 km (Caribbean Sea 1,760 km, North Pacific Ocean 1,448 km)
Maritime claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
Climate:
tropical along coast and eastern plains; cooler in highlands
Terrain:
flat coastal lowlands, central highlands, high Andes Mountains, eastern lowland plains
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Pico Cristobal Colon 5,775 m
note: nearby Pico Simon Bolivar also has the same elevation
Natural resources:
petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, nickel, gold, copper, emeralds, hydropower
Land use:
arable land: 2.42%
permanent crops: 1.67%
other: 95.91% (2001)
Irrigated land:
8,500 sq km (1998 est.)
Natural hazards:
highlands subject to volcanic eruptions; occasional earthquakes; periodic droughts
Environment - current issues:
deforestation; soil and water quality damage from overuse of pesticides; air pollution, especially in Bogota, from vehicle emissions
Environment - international agreements:
party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
Geography - note:
only South American country with coastlines on both the North Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea
==Rivers and Lakes==
Colombia have four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin.
The [[Orinoco]] and [[Amazon River|Amazon]] Rivers mark limits with Colombia to [[Venezuela]] and [[Peru]] respectively.
{|
|- bgcolor="cccccc"
!width="25%"|Caribbean Drain
!width="25%"|Pacifice Drain
!width="25%"|Orinoco Basin
!width="25%"|Amazon Basin
|-
!colspan="4" align="left"|
===Rivers confined to Colombia===
|-
|valign="top"|<!--Caribe-->
*[[Atrato River|Atrato]]
*[[Cauca River|Cauca]]
*[[Magdalena River|Magdalena]]
*[[Nechí River|Nechí]]
*[[Sinú]]
|valign="top"|<!--Pacífico-->
*[[Baudó]]
*[[Patía]]
*[[San Juan River (Colombia)|San Juan]]
|valign="top"|<!--Orinoco-->
*[[Río Guaviare River|Guaviare]]
*[[Inírida]]
*[[Meta River|Meta]]
*[[Vichada River|Vichada]]
|valign="top"|<!--Amazonas-->
*[[Apaporis]]
*[[Caguán River|Caguán]]
|-
!colspan="4" align="left"|
===Rivers originated in Colombia===
|-
|valign="top"|<!--Caribe-->
*[[Catatumbo]]
|valign="top"|<!--Pacífico-->
|valign="top"|<!--Orinoco-->
*[[Arauca River|Arauca]]
|valign="top"|<!--Amazonas-->
*[[Caquetá River|Caquetá]]
*[[Guainía River|Guainía]]
*[[Içá River|Putumayo]]
*[[Vaupés River|Vaupés]]
|}
===Lakes===
*[[Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta]]
*[[La Cocha Lagoon]]
*[[Lake Tota]]
==See also==
* [[Colombia]]
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''
{{South America in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography by country|Colombia]]
[[Category:Geography of Colombia| ]]
[[es:Geografía de Colombia]]
[[fr:Géographie de la Colombie]]
[[pt:Geografia da Co |
p;ndash; [[December 16]], [[714]]) and his concubine [[Alpaida]] (or Chalpaida).
==Consolidation of power==
In December 714, Pippin the Middle died. He had, at his wife [[Plectrude]]'s urging, designated [[Theudoald]], his grandson by Plectrude's son [[Grimoald II|Grimoald]], his heir in the entire realm. This, however was immediately opposed by the nobles, for Theudoald was a child of eight years. Plectrude, however, was a vigorous woman and she immediately seized Charles Martel, her husband's eldest surviving son, a bastard, and put him in prison in [[Cologne]], the city which was destined to be her capital. This prevented an uprising on his behalf in [[Austrasia]], but not in [[Neustria]].
===Civil war of 715-718===
In [[715]], the Neustrian noblesse proclaimed one [[Ragenfrid]] [[List of Mayors of the Palaces|mayor of their palace]] on behalf of, and apparently with the support of, [[Dagobert III]], the young king, who in fact had the legal authority to select a mayor, though by this time the [[Merovingian]] dynasty had lost most such regal powers.
The Austrasians were not to be left supporting a woman and her young boy for long. Before the end of the year, Charles Martel had escaped from prison and been acclaimed mayor by the nobles of that kingdom. The Neustrians had been attacking Austrasia and the nobles were waiting for a strong man to lead them against their invading countrymen. That year, Dagobert died and the Neustrians proclaimed [[Chilperic II]] king without the support of the rest of the Frankish people.
In [[716]], Chilperic and Ragenfrid together led an army into Austrasia. The Neustrians allied with another invading force under [[Radbod, King of the Frisians]] and met Charles in battle near Cologne, still held by Plectrude. Chilperic and Ragenfrid were victorious and Charles fled to the mountains of the [[Eifel]]. The king and his mayor then turned to besiege their other rival in the city and took it, the treasury, and received the recognition of both Chilperic as king and Ragenfrid as mayor.
At this juncture, events turned in favour of Charles. Charles fell upon the triumphant army, as it returned to its own province, near [[Malmédy]] and, in the ensuing Battle of [[Amel|Amblève]], routed them and they fled. Hereafter, Charles remained virtually undefeated until his death.
In Spring [[717]], Charles returned to Neustria with an army and confirmed his supremacy with a victory at [[Vincy]], near [[Cambrai]]. He chased the fleeing king and mayor to [[Paris]] before turning back to deal with Plectrude and Cologne. He took the city and dispersed her adherents. On this success, he proclaimed one [[Clotaire IV]] king of Austrasia in opposition to Chilperic.
{{carolingians}}
After subjugating all Austrasia to his hand, he marched against Radbod and pushed him back into his territory, even forcing the concession of [[West Frisia]] (later [[Holland]]). He also sent the [[Saxons]] back over the [[Weser]] and thus secured his realms borders &mdash; in the name of the new king, of course. More than any other prior mayor of the palace, however, absolute power lay with Charles Martel, though he never cared about titles; his son did, and finally asked the [[Pope]] "who should be King, he who has the title, or he who has the power?" The Pope, highly dependent on Frankish armies for his independence from Lombard and Bzyantine power (the [[Byzantine emperor]] still considered himself to be the only legitimate "Roman" Emperor, and thus, ruler of all of the provinces of the ancient empire, whether recognised or not), declared for "he who had the power" and immediately crowned Pippin. Decades later, in [[800]], Pippin's son, [[Charlemagne]], was crowned emperor by the pope, further extending the "he who had the power" principle by delegitimising the nominal authority of the Byzantine emperor in the Italian peninsula (which had, by then, shrunk to little more than [[Apulia]] and [[Calabria]] at best) and ancient Roman Gaul, including the Iberian outposts Charlmagne had established in the ''[[Marca Hispanica]]'' across the [[Pyrenees]], what today forms [[Catalonia]]. In short, though the Byzantine Emperor claimed authority over all the old [[Roman Empire]], as the legitimate "Roman" Emperor, and this may have been legally true, it was simply not reality. The bulk of the [[Western Roman Empire]] had come under Carolingian rule, the Bzyantine Emperor having had almost no authority in the West since the [[sixth century]], though Charlemagne, a consummate politican, preferred to avoid an open breach with Constantinople. What was occurring was the birth of an institution unique in history: the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Though the sardonic [[Voltaire]] ridiculed its nomenclature, saying that the Holy Roman Empire was "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire," it constitued an enormous political power for a time, especially under the [[Saxon Dynasty|Saxon]] and [[Salian Dynasty|Salian dynasties]] and, to a lesser, extent, the [[Hohenstaufen]]. It lasted until [[1806]], by then a nonentity. Though his grandson became it's first emperor, the "empire" such as it was, was largely born during the reign of Charles Martel.
In [[718]], Chilperic, in response to Charles new ascendancy, allied with [[Odo the Great]] (or Eudes, as he is sometimes known), the [[duke of Aquitaine]] who had made himself independent during the civil war in 715, but was again defeated, at [[Soissons]], by Charles. The king fled with his ducal ally to the land south of the [[Loire]] and Ragenfrid fled to [[Angers]]. Soon Clotaire IV died and Odo gave up on Chilperic and, in exchange for recognising his kingship over all the Franks, the king surrendered his kingdom to the mayoralty of Charles over all the kingdoms (718).
===Foreign wars from 718-732===
The ensuing years were full of strife. Between 718 and 723, Charles secured his power through a series of victories: he won the loyalty of several important bishops and abbots (by donating lands and money for the foundation of abbeys such as [[Echternach]]), he subjugated [[Bavaria]] and [[Alemannia]], and he defeated the pagan [[Saxons]].
Having unified the Franks under his banner, Charles was determined to punish the Saxons who had invaded Austrasia. Therefore, late in 718, he laid waste their country to the banks of the [[Weser]], the [[Lippe]], and the [[Ruhr]], and the [[Teutoburg Forest]]. In [[719]], Charles seized [[West Frisia]] without any great resistance on the part of the [[Frisians]], who had been subjects of the Franks but had seized control upon the death of Pippin. Charles did not trust the pagans, but their ruler, [[Aldegisel, King of the Frisians|Aldegisel]], accepted Christianity in his realm and [[Willibrord]], [[bishop of Utrecht]], the famous Apostle to the Frisians, went to convert them at Charles behest. Charles also did much to support Winfrid, later [[Saint Boniface]], the Apostle of the Germans.
When Chilperic II died the following year ([[720]]), Charles appointed as his successor the son of Dagobert III, [[Theuderic IV]], who was still a minor, and who occupied the throne from 720 to 737. Charles was now appointing the kings whom he supposedly served, these ''rois fainéants'' were mere puppets in his hands and by the end of his reign, they were so useless, he didn't even bother appointing one. At this time, Charles again marched against the Saxons. Then, the Neustrians rebelled under Ragenfrid, who had been left the county of Anjou. They were easily defeated ([[724]]), but Ragenfrid gave up his sons as hostages in turn for keeping his county. This ended the civil wars of Charles' reign.
The next six years were devoted in their entirity to assuring Frankish authority over the dependent Germanic tribes. Between 720 and [[723]], Charles was fighting in Bavaria, where the [[Agilolfing]] dukes had gradually evolved into independent rulers, recently in alliance with [[Liutprand the Lombard]]. He forced the [[Alemanni]] to accompany him, and Duke [[Hugbert (Bavaria)|Hugbert]] submitted to Frankish suzerainty. In [[725]] and [[728]], he again entered Bavaria and the ties of lordship seemed strong. From his first campaign, he brought back the Agilolfing princess Swanachild, who apparently became his concubine. In [[730]], he marched against [[Lantfrid]], duke of Alemannia, who had also become independent, and killed him in battle. He forced the Alemanni capitulation to Frankish suzerainty and did not appoint a successor to Lantfrid. Thus, southern Germany once more became part of the Frankish kingdom, as had northern Germany during the first years of the reign.
But by 730, his own realm secure, Charles began to prepare exclusively for the coming storm from the west. In [[721]], the [[emir of Córdoba]] had built up a strong army from [[Morocco]], [[Yemen]], and [[Syria]] to conquer Aquitaine, the large duchy in the southwest of Gaul, nominally under Frankish sovereignty, but in practice almost independent in the hands of the Odo the Great since the Merovingian kings had lost power. The invading Muslims besieged the city of Toulouse, then Aquitaine's most important city, and Odo immediately left to find help. He returned three months later just before the city was about to surrender and defeated the Muslim invaders on [[June 9]], [[721]], at what is now known as the [[Battle of Toulouse (721)|Battle of Toulouse]]. The defeat was essentially the result of a classic enveloping movement on Odo's part. After Odo originally fled, the Muslims became overconfident and, instead of maintaining strong outer defenses around their siege camp and continuing scouting, did neither. Thus, when Odo returned, he was able to launch a near complete surprise attack on the besieging force, scattering it at the first attack, and slaughtering units which were resting, or |
eserve">#redirect[[health science]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hobbies</title>
<id>13222</id>
<revision>
<id>15910847</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hobby]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:How to edit a page</title>
<id>13223</id>
<revision>
<id>42101182</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:05:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>139.76.128.71</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* More information on editing wiki pages */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Help:Editing]], [[Help:Starting a new page]], [[m:Help:Editing]]''
{{shortcut|[[WP:HEP]]}}
[[Wikipedia]] is a [[wiki]], which means that anyone can easily edit any [[Wikipedia:Protected page|unprotected page]] and have those changes posted immediately to that page. To request a change to a protected page, you may use the {{tl|Editprotected}} template.
{{Style}}
''Editing'' a Wikipedia page is simple. Simply click on the "'''edit this page'''" tab at the top of a Wikipedia page (or on a [[Wikipedia:Section|section-edit]] link). This will bring you to a new page with a text box containing the editable text of the original page. '''If you just want to experiment, please do so in the [[Wikipedia:sandbox|sandbox]]'''; '''not here'''. You should write a short [[Wikipedia:Edit summary|edit summary]] in the small field below the edit-box. You may use shorthand to describe your changes, as described in the [[Wikipedia:Edit summary legend|legend]], and when you have finished, press the [[Wikipedia:Show preview|Show preview]] button to see how your changes will look. You can also see the difference between the page with your edits and the previous version of the page by pressing the [[Wikipedia:Show changes|Show changes]] button. If you're satisfied with what you see, [[Wikipedia:Be bold in updating pages|be bold]] and press the '''Save page''' button. Your changes will immediately be visible to other Wikipedia users[http://en.wikipedia.org].
You can also click on the "'''Discussion'''" tab to see the corresponding [[Wikipedia:Talk page|talk page]], which contains comments about the page from other Wikipedia users. Click on the "'''+'''" tab to add a new section, or edit the page in the same way as an article page.
You should remember to [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|sign your messages]] on [[Wikipedia:Talk pages|talk pages]] and some special-purpose [[Wikipedia:Project namespace|project pages]], but you should '''not''' sign edits you make to regular articles. In [[Wikipedia:Page history|page histories]], the [[MediaWiki]] software keeps track of which user makes each change.
==Tips on editing Wikipedia articles==
'''Always use a [[Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|neutral point of view]]''', because Wikipedia is [[Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a soapbox|not a soapbox]].
'''Cite your sources''', so others can check and extend your work. Most Wikipedia articles currently lack good references, and this continues to be Wikipedia's single greatest criticism—that it is not a reliable source. Please help by researching online and print resources to find references for the article you are working on, then [[Wikipedia:Citing sources|cite them]] in proper form, and consider in-text citation for contentious facts. There is no consensus on the best way to do this, but anything is better than nothing.
'''Link to your article''' from other articles. After making a new page, it's a good idea to use the ''[[Wikipedia:What links here|What links here]]'' feature to check the pages that already link to your new page. Make sure that all the links are referring to your page in the right context. For example, a link to the Mercury article in an astronomy-related article should direct readers to [[Mercury (planet)]] rather than [[Mercury (mythology)]]. You should also use the [[Wikipedia:Searching|search feature]] to find occurrences of the title of your new page—and possible variants thereof—so that you can [[Wikipedia:Links|create appropriate links]].
==Minor edits==
''See also [[Wikipedia:Minor edit]]''
When editing a page, a [[Wikipedia:How to log in|logged-in]] user can mark that edit as being "minor". Minor edits generally mean spelling corrections, formatting, and minor rearrangement of text. It is possible to ''hide'' minor edits when viewing the [[Wikipedia:Recent Changes|recent changes]]. Marking a significant change as a minor edit is considered bad behavior, especially when it involves the deletion of some text. If you accidentally mark an edit as minor, you should edit the source once more, mark it major (or, rather, ensure that the check-box for "This is a minor edit" is not checked), and, in the summary, state that the previous change was a major one.
==Wiki markup==
The '''wiki markup''' is the syntax system you can use to format a Wikipedia page.
In the left column of the table below, you can see what effects are possible. In the right column, you can see how those effects were achieved. In other words, to make text look like it looks in the left column, type it in the format you see in the right column.
You may want to keep this page open in a separate browser window for reference. '''If you want to try out things without danger of doing any harm, you can do so in the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|Sandbox]]'''. Try opening the Sandbox in a separate window or tab and keeping this page open for reference.
===Examples===
<!--
:'''The rest of this page is deprecated but will be updated periodically.'''
:'''Please direct edits to the [[meta:MediaWiki User's Guide: Editing overview|Meta-Wikimedia version of this page]]'''
-->
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|-
! What it looks like
! What you type
|- valign="top"
|
Start your [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (headings)|sections]] as follows:
<!-- The following code messes up the table of contents
and makes the section edit links much less useful,
so please do not use it.
== New section ==
=== Subsection ===
==== Sub-subsection ====
-->
<!-- The following should look almost the same, using
HTML headings markup instead of wiki headings.
However, it messes up the section edit links,
so please do not use it.
<h2>New section</h2>
<h3>Subsection</h3>
<h4>Sub-subsection</h4>
-->
<!-- The following just uses bolding and font changes,
so it should be safe. However, it might not
look exactly right, especially when people
use non-standard CSS stylesheets.
-->
'''<font style="font-size:120%">New section</font>'''
'''<font style="font-size:110%">Subsection</font>'''
'''<font style="font-size:100%">Sub-subsection</font>'''
* Start with a second-level heading (<tt><nowiki>==</nowiki></tt>); don't use first-level headings (=).
* Don't skip levels (for example, second-level followed by fourth-level).
* A [[#Placement_of_the_Table_of_Contents_.28TOC.29|Table of Contents]] will automatically be added to an article that has four or more sections.
*If appropriate, place subsections in an appropriate order. If listing countries, place them in alphabetical order rather than, say, relative to population of [[OECD]] countries, or some random order.
|
<pre><nowiki>
==New section==
===Subsection===
====Sub-subsection====
</nowiki></pre>
|- valign="top"
|
A single [[newline]]
generally has no effect on the layout.
These can be used to separate
sentences within a paragraph.
Some editors find that this aids editing
and improves the function ''diff''
(used internally to compare
different versions of a page).
But an empty line
starts a new paragraph.
* When used in a list, a newline ''does'' affect the layout ([[#lists|see below]]).
|
<pre><nowiki>
A single [[newline]]
generally has no effect on the layout.
These can be used to separate
sentences within a paragraph.
Some editors find that this aids editing
and improves the function ''diff''
(used internally to compare
different versions of a page).
But an empty line
starts a new paragraph.
</nowiki></pre>
|- valign="top"
|
You can break lines<br>
without starting a new paragraph.
* Please use this sparingly.
* Close markup between lines, do not start a [[link]] or ''italics'' or '''bold''' on one line and close it on the next.
|
<pre><nowiki>
You can break lines<br>
without starting a new paragraph.
</nowiki></pre>
|- id="lists" valign="top"
|
* It's easy to create a list:
** Start every line with a star ([[asterisk]]).
*** More stars means deeper levels.
**** A newline in a list
marks the end of a list item.
* An empty line starts a new list.
|
<pre><nowiki>
* It's easy to create a list:
** Start every line with a star.
*** More stars means deeper levels.
**** A newline in a list
marks the end of a list item.
* An empty line starts a new list.
</nowiki></pre>
|- valign="top"
|
# Numbered lists are also good
## very organized
## easy to follow
### easier still
|
<pre><nowiki>
# Numbered lists are also good
## very organized
## easy to follow
### easier still
</nowiki></pre>
|- valign="top" id="definition"
|
; Definition list : list of definitions
; item : the item's definition
; another item
: the other item's definition
* Begin with a semicolon. One item per line; a newline can appear before the colon, but using a space before the colon improves pa |
ad moved toward private provision of public infrastructure, including electric power, tollroads, and telecommunications. The financial crisis brought to light serious weaknesses in the process of dispute resolution, however, particularly in the area of private infrastructure projects. Although Indonesia continued to have the advantages of a large labor force, abundant natural resources and modern infrastructure, private investment in new projects largely ceased during the crisis.
In May [[2004]], an Indonesian court may have compounded the country's troubles attracting foreign investment when it ruled in favor of a petition by Indonesian chemical company, [[Tri Polyta]], that a bond issue be declared illegal and nullified, freeing that company of its obligation to repay its debts.
==Economic relations with the United States==
U.S. exports to Indonesia in 1999 totaled $2.0 billion, down significantly from $4.5 billion in 1997. The main exports were [[construction]] equipment, machinery, [[aviation]] parts, chemicals, and agricultural products. U.S. imports from Indonesia in 1999 totaled $9.5 billion and consisted primarily of clothing, machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum, natural rubber, and footwear. Economic assistance to Indonesia is coordinated through the [[Consultative Group on Indonesia]] (CGI), formed in 1989. It includes 19 donor countries and 13 international organizations that meet annually to coordinate donor assistance. The 2000 CGI meeting is to be held [[17 October]]-18 in [[Tokyo]].
The [[U.S. Agency for International Development]] (USAID) has provided development assistance to Indonesia since 1950. Initial assistance focused on the most urgent needs of the new republic, including food aid, infrastructure rehabilitation, health care, and training. Through the 1970s, a time of great economic growth in Indonesia, USAID played a major role in helping the country achieve self-sufficiency in rice production and in reducing the birth rate.
USAID's current program aims to support Indonesia as it recovers from the financial crisis by providing food aid, employment generating activities, and maintaining critical public health services. USAID is also providing technical advisers to help the Indonesian Government implement economic reforms and fiscal decentralization and is supporting democratization and civil society development activities through non-governmental organizations.
==See also==
* [[Indonesia]]
* [[Economy of Asia]]
* [[Taxation in Indonesia]]
{{APEC}}
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|Indonesia]]
[[Category:Economy of Indonesia| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Indonesia]]
[[Category:WTO members|Indonesia]]
[[es:Economía de Indonesia]]
[[fr:Économie de l'Indonésie]]
[[id:Ekonomi Indonesia]]
[[lt:Indonezijos ekonomika]]
[[ms:Ekonomi Indonesia]]
[[ru:Экономика Индонезии]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Indonesia</title>
<id>14648</id>
<revision>
<id>26355341</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-24T13:28:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>*drew</username>
<id>91902</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{cleanup}} -> {{cleanup-date|October 2005}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
3.291 million (1995)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
25.0 million (2004)
'''Telephone system:'''
domestic service fair, international service good
<br>''domestic:''
interisland [[microwave]] system and HF radio police net; domestic satellite communications system
<br>''international:''
satellite earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] (1 [[Indian Ocean]] and 1 [[Pacific Ocean]])
'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM 678, FM 43, shortwave 82 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
31.5 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
<br/>From AC Nielsen Report (1st Semester 2005): 11 national TV, 60 local TV
'''Televisions:'''
13.75 million (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
24 (1999)
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' ID
==See also==
*[[Indonesia]]
*[[List of Indonesian language television channels]]
*[[List of radio stations in Jakarta, Indonesia|List of radio stations in Jakarta]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Indonesia]]
[[Category:Communications in Indonesia| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Indonesia</title>
<id>14649</id>
<revision>
<id>33870982</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-04T18:44:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alberto Nogales</username>
<id>753293</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Indonesia's transport system has been shaped over time by the economic resource base of an archipielago with thousands of islands, and the distribution of its more than 220 milion people highly concentrated on a single island.
All transport modes play a role in the country’s transport system and are generally complementary rather than competitive.
Road transport is the predominant mode with a total length of 370,500 km in 2003.
The railway system has four unconnected networks in Java and Sumatra primarily dedicated to transport bulk commodities and long-distance passenger traffic.
Sea transport is extremely important for economic integration and for domestic and foreign trade; and well developed, with each of the major islands having at least one significant port city.
The role of inland waterways is relatively minor and is limited to certain areas of Eastern Sumatra and Kalimantan.
The function of air transport is significant, particularly where land or water transport is deficient or non-existent; and already established, based on an extensive domestic airline network where all major cities can be reached by passenger plane.
Common modes of '''transportation in Indonesia''' include many [[ferry|ferries]] and other [[ship]]s, a wide variety of [[road]] vehicles, limited [[railroad]] service, and extensive commercial [[aviation]].
==Marine transportation==
Because [[Indonesia]] encompasses a sprawling [[archipelago]], [[ship transport|maritime shipping]] provides essential links between different parts of the country. Boats in common use include large container ships, a variety of ferries, passenger ships, sailing ships, and smaller motorized vessels.
Frequent ferry services cross the straits between nearby islands, especially in the chain of islands stretching from [[Sumatra]] through [[Java (island)|Java]] to the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. On the busy crossings between Sumatra, Java, and [[Bali]], multiple car ferries run frequently twenty-four hours per day. There are also international ferry services between across the [[Straits of Malacca]] between Sumatra and [[Malaysia]], and between [[Singapore]] and nearby Indonesian islands, such as [[Batam]].
A network of passenger ships makes longer connections to more remote islands, especially in the eastern part of the archipelago. The national shipping line, [[Pelni]], provides passenger service to [[port]]s throughout the country on a two to four week schedule. These ships generally provide the least expensive way to cover long distances between islands. Still smaller privately-run boats provide service between islands.
On some islands, major rivers provide a key transportation link in the absence of good roads. On [[Kalimantan]], [[longboat]]s running on the rivers are the only way to reach many inland areas. Indonesia has 21,579 km of navigable waterways ([[As of 2004|2004]]), of which about one half are on Kalimantan, and a quarter each on Sumatra and [[Papua]].
Major ports and harbors include [[Cilacap]], [[Cirebon]], [[Jakarta]], [[Kupang]], [[Palembang]], [[Semarang]], [[Surabaya]], and [[Makassar]]. Ports are managed by the various [[Indonesia Port Corporation|Indonesia Port Corporations]], of which there are four, numbered I through IV. Each has jurisdiction over various regions of the country, with I in the west and IV in the east.
== Roads and highways ==
[[Image:Bemo.jpg|thumb|right|Loading cargo onto a minibus]]A wide variety of vehicles are used for transportation on Indonesia's roads.
[[Bus]] services are available in most areas connected to the road network. Between major cities, especially on Sumatra, Java, and Bali, services are frequent and direct; many services are available with no stops until the final destination. In more remote areas, and between smaller towns, most services are provided with [[minibus]]es or small vans. Buses and vans are also the primary form of transportation within cities.
Many cities and towns have some form of transportation for hire available as well, such as [[Taxicab|taxi]]s and motorized [[autorickshaw]]s. [[Cycle rickshaw]]s, called ''becak'' in Indonesia, are common in many cities, and provide an inexpensive form of in-town transportation. They have been blamed for causing [[traffic congestion]] and banned from most parts of central [[Jakarta]]. [[Horse]]-drawn carts are found in some cities and towns.
Private [[automobile|car]]s are far too expensive for the majority of the population, and are uncommon except in larger cities.
Indonesia has about 158,670 km of paved highways and about 184,000 km of unpaved highways ([[As of 1999|1999]] estimate).
== Railways ==
{{main|Rail transport in Indonesia}}
Most railways in Indonesia are on Java, which has two major rail lines that run the length of the island, as well as several minor lines. Passenger and freight service runs on all of the lines. There is also [[commuter rail]] service in the Jakarta metropolitan area, and a [[monorail]] mass transit system is under construction in the city.
The only other areas in Indonesia having railroads are two separate regions of [[Sumatra]], one in the north around [[Medan, Indonesia|Medan]], and one near the southern tip. |
States|USA]])
|6-4 6-7 6-7 6-3 6-2
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|44.
|[[November 1]], [[1999]]
|[[Paris]]
|Carpet
|[[Marat Safin]] ([[Russia]])
|7-6 6-2 4-6 6-4
|- bgcolor="#e5d1cb"
|'''45.'''
|'''[[January 17]], [[2000]]'''
|'''[[Australian Open]]'''
|Hard
|[[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] ([[Russia]])
|3-6 6-3 6-2 6-4
|- bgcolor="#e5d1cb"
|'''46.'''
|'''[[January 15]], [[2001]]'''
|'''[[Australian Open]]'''
|Hard
|[[Arnaud Clement]] ([[France]])
|6-4 6-2 6-2
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|47.
|[[March 12]], [[2001]]
|[[Indian Wells Masters|Indian Wells]]
|Hard
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]])
|7-6 7-5 6-1
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|48.
|[[March 19]], [[2001]]
|[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]]
|Hard
|[[Jan-Michael Gambill]] ([[United States|USA]])
|7-6 6-1 6-0
|-
|49.
|[[July 23]], [[2001]]
|[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]]
|Hard
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]
|6-4 6-2
|-
|50.
|[[March 4]], [[2002]]
|[[Scottsdale]]
|Hard
|[[Juan Balcells]] ([[Spain]])
|6-2 7-6
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|51.
|[[March 18]], [[2002]]
|[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]]
|Hard
|[[Roger Federer]] ([[Switzerland]])
|6-3 6-3 3-6 6-4
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|52.
|[[May 6]], [[2002]]
|[[Rome Masters|Rome]], [[Italy]]
|Clay
|[[Tommy Haas]] ([[Germany]])
|6-3 6-3 6-0
|-
|53.
|[[July 22]], [[2002]]
|[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Jan-Michael Gambill]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 6-4
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|54.
|[[October 14]], [[2002]]
|[[Madrid]], [[Spain]]
|Hard
|[[Jiri Novak]] ([[Czech Republic]])
|W/O
|- bgcolor="#e5d1cb"
|'''55.'''
|'''[[January 13]], [[2003]]'''
|'''[[Australian Open]]'''
|Hard
|[[Rainer Schuettler]] ([[Germany]])
|6-2 6-2 6-1
|-
|56.
|[[February 10]], [[2003]]
|[[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Davide Sanguinetti]] ([[Italy]])
|6-3 6-1
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|57.
|[[March 17]], [[2003]]
|[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]]
|Hard
|[[Carlos Moyà]] ([[Spain]])
|6-3 6-3
|-
|58.
|[[April 21]], [[2003]]
|[[Houston]], [[United States|USA]]
|Clay
|[[Andy Roddick]] ([[United States|USA]])
|3-6 6-3 6-4
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|59.
|[[August 2]], [[2004]]
|[[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Lleyton Hewitt]] ([[Australia]])
|6-3 3-6 6-2
|-
|60.
|[[July 31]], [[2005]]
|[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Gilles Muller]] ([[Luxembourg]])
|6-4 7-5
|}
===Doubles (1)===
{| {{pt}}
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|'''No.'''
|'''Date'''
|'''Tournament'''
|'''Surface'''
|'''Partner'''
|'''Opponents in the final'''
|'''Score'''
|-
|1.
|[[August 16]], [[1993]]
|[[Cincinnati Masters]]
|Hard
|[[Petr Korda]] ([[Czech Republic]])
|[[Stefan Edberg]] ([[Sweden]]) & [[Henrik Holm]] ([[Sweden]])
|7-6 6-4
|}
===Performance timeline===
{| {{pt}}
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! Tournament !! [[2006]] !! [[2005]] !! [[2004]] !! [[2003]] !! [[2002]] !! [[2001]] !! [[2000]] !! [[1999]] !! [[1998]] !! [[1997]] !! [[1996]] !! [[1995]] !! [[1994]] !! [[1993]] !! [[1992]] !! [[1991]] !! [[1990]]
|-
|[[Australian Open]]
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|QF
|align="center"|SF
|align="center"|'''W'''
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|'''W'''
|align="center"|'''W'''
|align="center"|4r
|align="center"|4r
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|SF
|align="center"|'''W'''
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|-
|-
|[[French Open]]
|align="center"|
|align="center"|1r
|align="center"|1r
|align="center"|QF
|align="center"|QF
|align="center"|QF
|align="center"|2r
|align="center"|'''W'''
|align="center"|1r
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|2r
|align="center"|QF
|align="center"|2r
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|SF
|align="center"|F
|align="center"|F
|-
|[[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]]
|align="center"|
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|4r
|align="center"|2r
|align="center"|SF
|align="center"|SF
|align="center"|F
|align="center"|2r
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|1r
|align="center"|SF
|align="center"|4r
|align="center"|QF
|align="center"|'''W'''
|align="center"|QF
|align="center"|-
|-
|[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]
|align="center"|
|align="center"|F
|align="center"|QF
|align="center"|SF
|align="center"|F
|align="center"|QF
|align="center"|2r
|align="center"|'''W'''
|align="center"|4r
|align="center"|4r
|align="center"|SF
|align="center"|F
|align="center"|'''W'''
|align="center"|1r
|align="center"|QF
|align="center"|1r
|align="center"|F
|-
|Grand Slam W-L
|align="center"|
|align="center"|10-2
|align="center"|9-3
|align="center"|19-3
|align="center"|11-3
|align="center"|20-3
|align="center"|14-3
|align="center"|23-2
|align="center"|7-4
|align="center"|3-1
|align="center"|11-4
|align="center"|22-3
|align="center"|11-2
|align="center"|4-2
|align="center"|16-2
|align="center"|10-3
|align="center"|12-2
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
|'''Tournaments Won'''
|align="center"|
|align="center"|'''1'''
|align="center"|'''1'''
|align="center"|'''4'''
|align="center"|'''5'''
|align="center"|'''4'''
|align="center"|'''1'''
|align="center"|'''5'''
|align="center"|'''5'''
|align="center"|'''0'''
|align="center"|'''3'''
|align="center"|'''7'''
|align="center"|'''5'''
|align="center"|'''2'''
|align="center"|'''3'''
|align="center"|'''2'''
|align="center"|'''4'''
|-
|Hardcourt W-L
|align="center"|
|align="center"|19-3
|align="center"|37-10
|align="center"|32-6
|align="center"|36-7
|align="center"|35-10
|align="center"|25-9
|align="center"|41-9
|align="center"|47-10
|align="center"|11-10
|align="center"|34-7
|align="center"|53-3
|align="center"|29-6
|align=&amp;quot;center"|27-8
|align="center"|19-7
|align="center"|17-7
|align="center"|26-5
|}
{| {{pt}}
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! Tournament !! [[1989]] !! [[1988]] !! [[1987]] !! [[1986]]
|-
|[[Australian Open]]
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|-
|-
|[[French Open]]
|align="center"|3r
|align="center"|SF
|align="center"|2r
|align="center"|-
|-
|[[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]]
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|-
|align="center"|1r
|align="center"|-
|-
|[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]
|align="center"|SF
|align="center"|SF
|align="center"|1r
|align="center"|1r
|-
|Grand Slam W-L
|align="center"|7-2
|align="center"|10-2
|align="center"|1-3
|align="center"|0-1
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
|'''Tournaments Won'''
|align="center"|'''1'''
|align="center"|'''6'''
|align="center"|'''1'''
|align="center"|'''0'''
|-
|Hardcourt W-L
|align="center"|20-6
|align="center"|33-6
|align="center"|21-10
|align="center"|4-5
|}
==Head-to-Head==
*vs. Sampras, Pete: 14-20
*vs. Roddick, Andy: 5-1
*vs. Ginepri, Robby: 4-0
*vs. Blake, James: 4-1
*vs. Dent, Taylor: 5-0
*vs. Kiefer, Nicolas: 6-0
*vs. Rusedski, Greg: 8-2
*vs. Henman, Tim: 2-1
*vs. Johansson, Thomas: 6-1
*vs. Novak, Jiri: 5-1
*vs. Gaudio, Gaston: 4-1
*vs. Davydenko, Nikolay: 2-1
*vs. Coria, Guillermo: 5-2
*vs. Chang, Michael: 15-7
*vs. Ivanisevic, Goran: 4-3
*vs. Rafter, Patrick: 10-5
*vs. Connors, Jimmy: 2-0
*vs. McEnroe, John: 2-2
*vs. Becker, Boris: 10-4
*vs. Safin, Marat: 3-3
*vs. Hewitt, Lleyton: 4-4
*vs. Courier, Jim: 5-7
*vs. Muster, Thomas: 5-4
*vs. Federer, Roger: 3-8
*vs. Nadal, Rafael: 0-1
*vs. Grosjean, Sebastien: 4-3
*vs. Nalbandian, David: 1-0
*vs. Ferrero, Juan Carlos: 2-3
*vs. Kuerten, Gustavo: 7-4
*vs. Corretja, Alex: 5-3
*vs. Costa, Albert: 4-1
*vs. Moya, Carlos: 3-1
*vs. Malisse, Xavier: 5-0
*vs. Pioline, Cedric: 3-0
*vs. Haas, Tommy: 6-3
==External links==
*[http://www.atptennis.com/en/players/playerprofiles/default2.asp?playernumber=A092 Official ATP profile]
*[http://www.tenniscorner.net/index.php?corner=M&action=players&playerid=AGA001/ Profile on tenniscorner.net]
*[http://www.daviscup.com/teams/player.asp?player=10000009 Davis Cup record]
*[http://www.agassifoundation.org/ Andre Agassi Foundation]
*[http://www.olympic.org/uk/athletes/profiles/bio_uk.asp?PAR_I_ID=96979/ IOC profile]
*[http://www.agassiopen.com/ Agassi Open]
{{Tennis World Number Ones (men)}}
{{Footer Olympic Champions Tennis Men}}
{{Australian Open men's singles champions}}
{{French Open men's singles champions}}
{{Wimbledon men's singles champions}}
{{US Open men's singles champions}}
[[Category:1970 births|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:Living people|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:American tennis players|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:Ar |
to continue in the programme".<ref>UK Defense Committee Statement [http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_committees/defence_committee/def051220___no__13.cfm MoD 'slippage' set to leave forces with reduced capability, says committee] ''UK Parliament''. Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.</ref> Nonetheless, UK production commenced on [[2 February]] [[2006]].<ref>Helen Jocelyn [http://www.baesystems.com/newsroom/2006/feb/020206news1.htm Lift-Off as production starts on first STOVL F-35] ''BAE Systems''. Retrieved Feb.08, 2006.</ref>
International participants have at various times been cited as considering withdrawing from the JSF Program in favor of other aircraft such as [[Eurofighter Typhoon]], [[Gripen]] or [[Dassault Rafale|Rafale]]. Perceived inequitable sharing in JSF production is most often cited as the reason for considering withdrawal, rather than cost or performance concerns.
==Program history ==
[[Image:JSF competitors.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Boeing X-32]] (left) and Lockheed Martin X-35 prior to down-select in 2001, where the X-35 was chosen. DoD photo]]
The Joint Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) program was created in 1993 as a result of a [[United States Department of Defense]] (DoD) ''Bottom-Up-Review''. The major tactical aviation results of the review were to continue the ongoing [[F-22]] and F/A-18E/F programs, cancel the Multi-Role Fighter (MRF) and the A/F-X programs, curtail [[F-16]] and F/A-18C/D procurement, and initiate the JAST Program.
The JAST program office was established on [[January 27]], [[1994]]. It was established to define and develop [[aircraft]], [[weapons|weapon]], and [[radar|sensor technology]] that would support the future development of tactical aircraft. The final goal was to replace several aging U.S. and UK aircraft with a common family of aircraft, of which the JSF is one example.
It will complement the USAF's high-end [[F-22 Raptor]] air superiority fighter and the USN's [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet]] as well as Europe's Eurofighter.
===Concept demonstration===
The contract for development of the prototypes was awarded on [[16 November]] [[1996]] to Lockheed Martin and [[Boeing]], under which each was to produce two aircraft which were to demonstrate Conventional Take Off and Landing (CTOL), carrier take off and landing (CV version), and Short Take Off and Vertical Landing ([[STOVL]]).
Also in 1996 the UK [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] launched the [[Joint Combat Aircraft|Future Carrier Borne Aircraft]] project, a replacement for the [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]] (and later the [[RAF Harrier II|Harrier GR7]]), for which the Joint Strike Fighter was selected in January 2001.
===System development and demonstration===
The construction contract, System Development and Demonstration (SDD), was awarded on [[26 October]], [[2001]] to the Lockheed Martin X-35, beating the [[Boeing X-32]]. The first planes are expected to enter service in 2008. Announcing the decision, DoD officials and the UK [[William Bach|Minister of Defence Procurement]] said that while both aircraft met or exceeded requirements, the X-35 outperformed the Boeing aircraft consistently. This dominance can only have been achieved by Lockheed's method of STOVL flight; in fact, the decision is said to have clinched the contract.
On [[February 19]], [[2006]], the first F-35 (USAF version) was rolled out in [[Fort Worth]], [[Texas]] by Lockheed Martin. The aircraft will undergo extensive ground testing and then flight tests in the fall.
* [http://www.upi.com/SecurityTerrorism/view.php?StoryID=20060220-022201-9586r UPI Story]
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/78241254@N00/sets/72057594068144534/ Photos on Flickr]
==Design==
[[Image:Harrier.gr7.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[RAF Harrier II|Harrier]], which the JSF is set to replace.]]
The X-35 powerplant uses the highly complex Remote Shaft-Driven Lift Fan concept, where (in the STOVL mode) LP turbine power is diverted, forward via a clutch-and-bevel gearbox, to a vertically mounted, contra-rotating, remote fan. Bypass air exhausts through a pair of roll post nozzles on either side of the fuselage, whilst both the remote fan and the LP turbine streams exhaust through thrust vectoring nozzles. In effect, the X-35 power plant acts as a flow multiplier and consequently has more than sufficient thrust for lift operations. This lift concept has the additional benefit of lowering environmental effects during (primarily) landing, where the thermal effects on, for example, a carrier deck are greatly reduced.
The rival Boeing X-32 adopted the relatively elegant Direct Lift System, where the engine exhaust gases were redirected to thrust vectoring nozzles to achieve lift during a STOVL landing. However, even though the fan was oversized and throttle-pushed, it had insufficient thrust for lift. Because of the large engine airflow, the X-32 required a huge front air intake, compromising the aesthetics of the aircraft's aerodynamics. According to critics, Boeing designed an airplane "only its mother would love", in direct violation of the maxim "if it looks good, it flies good".
Both the X-32 and X-35 power plants were derived from Pratt & Whitney F119, with the STOVL variant of the latter incorporating [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls Royce]] Lift Fan module.
Note also that elements of the JSF design were pioneered by the F-22. The airframe appears quite similar to the F-22, albeit somewhat reduced in size, and only has a single engine.
Primary factors in the design included:
* [[Stealth technology]] capability
* Integrated avionics and sensor fusion - This allows information from off board sensors to be combined with those on-board the aircraft, to enhance the pilot's situational awareness and improve precision weapon delivery.
* Low construction cost
* Low maintenance cost
=== Advanced weapons ===
The direct lift fan assembly, when not installed, provides approximately 100 ft<sup>3</sup> of space <ref>Morris, Jefferson ([[26 September]] [[2002]]). [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:v3kRGjhuv2gJ:aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_military.jsp Keeping Cool A Big Challenge For JSF Laser, Lockheed Martin Says]. ''Aerospace Daily'' Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.</ref>, along with more than 27,000 [[Horsepower|hp]] (20 [[Megawatt|MW]]) available for electrical power production <ref>Fulghum, David A. ([[July 8]] [[2002]]). [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:aP3j50iJi6MJ:www.aviationnow.com/content/publication/awst/20020708/aw32.htm Lasers Being Developed for F-35 and AC-130]. ''Aviation Week and Space Technology'' Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.</ref>. This has made [[directed-energy weapon]]s possible for the F-35. Some of these designs, including solid state lasers and high-power microwave beams, are thought to be nearing operational status <ref> Fulghum, David A. ([[July 22]] [[2002]]). [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:nDo39ApEoK4J:www.aviationnow.com/content/publication/awst/20020722/aw173.htm ''Lasers, HPM Weapons Near Operational Status'']. ''Aviation Week and Space Technology'' Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.</ref>.
== Possible reduction to two primary variants ==
Experts predicted in 2005 that the JSF program's Conventional Take-off and Landing [CTOL] F-35A variant may be canceled by acting U.S. Deputy Defense Secretary Gordon England. <ref>Selinger, Marc ([[21 November]] [[2005]]). [http://www.aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_aerospacedaily_story.jsp?id=news/JSAF11215.xml U.S. Air Force's JSF Variant May Be Killed, Expert Says]. ''Aviation Week and Space Technology'' Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.</ref> This would not immediately save money in the program as the preproduction F-35A prototypes are already under construction, but long term, this cancellation could free up enough money to ensure that the program's F-35B and F-35C variants survive in the United States' tightening defense budget. Since then a flurry of lobbying from the JSF contractors, the Air Force, and representatives from the United Kingdom has convinced Secretary England and the DoD to stick with the 3-variant program.
Had such a cancellation occurred, the United States Air Force would stay in the program by purchasing either the STOVL F-35B for its close air support capabilities, the F-35C for its greater range, or a combination of the two. However, buys of these variants would likely be less than the 1000+ CTOL originally envisioned by the Air Force, as both variants cost more. This would have been a boon for A-10 and F-16 supporters, since those aircraft would probably be retained longer to compensate.
Export partners who were already wary of the JSF's rising costs showed some concern over a potential CTOL cancellation. Even the UK, which has no CTOL JSF requirement, lobbied to preserve that variant in order to keep costs of the others down. In the long run, the F-35B and F-35C should still be appealing to at least some of the international market, being the only fifth-generation program with a STOVL variant for countries in need of Harrier replacements.
== Analysis of JSF program ==
Critics of the program maintain that the JSF suffers from ill-defined design goals; that it has insufficient range to make a capable replacement for dedicated bombing aircraft; that its inability to [[supercruise]] limits it as an air defense platform, and that it is almost certain to suffer lengthy development delays and cost overruns; meaning that interim types will have to be purchased to fill the gap between the end of useful life of existing fleets and the introduction of the JSF. However, it is important to note that the multi-role design philosophy has been tested and proven in combat over a period of at least 25 years, with successful types like the F-16 Fighting Falcon and the F-18 Hornet. Several nations, mainly current F-16 and F-18 users, already have sufficient confidence in |
ton.htm George Washington for Kids]
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/washington/fitzpatrick/ 39 Volume Collection of the Works of George Washington]
*[http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/ Papers of Washington] Full versions on-line from the University of Virginia
*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/washpap.htm Papers of Washington] Avalon Project (incl. Inaugural Addresses, State of the Union Messages, and more)
*[http://www.heraldrysociety.us/presidents/index.php?page=Washington Armigerous American Presidents Series]
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/commission.html Library of Congress: Washington's Commission as Commander in Chief]
*[http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/49.htm Farewell Address]
*[http://www.libraryreference.org/washington.html Biography of George Washington]
*[http://marriage.about.com/od/presidentialmarriages/p/gwashington.htm George and Martha Washington Marriage Profile]
*[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~jamesdow/s004/f647706.htm A pedigree of George Washington]
*[http://genealogy.wikicities.com/wiki/George_Washington_%281732-1799%29 George Washington Genealogy] on Wikicities
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Thebes/8171/GeorgeWashington.html George Washington's German "Cousin"]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-2/washington.htm Teaching about George Washington]
*[http://www.thirty-thousand.org/pages/first_veto.htm The First Presidential Veto] Analysis of the first veto by a U.S. President
*[https://www.perscom.army.mil/tagd/tioh/rank/goa.htm General Washington's military rank]
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/gw1.html White House Biography]
* {{gutenberg author| id=George+Washington+(1732-1799) | name=George Washington}}
*[http://www.archontology.org/nations/us/us2/washington.php George Washington: Archontology.org, chronology, dates, terms, election results]
*[http://www.virginia.org/site/features.asp?FeatureID=200 George Washington historic sites in Virginia - Official Tourism Website]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29431 1st State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29432 2nd State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29433 3rd State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29434 4th State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29435 5th State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29436 6th State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29437 7th State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29438 8th State of the Union Address]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[United States Federalist Party|Federalist Party]] [[President of the United States|presidential]] candidate|before=''(none)''|after=[[John Adams]]|years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1789|1789]] (won)<sup>(a)</sup>, [[U.S. presidential election, 1792|1792]] (won)<sup>(a)</sup>}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=''(none)'' - [[Cyrus Griffin]] was [[President of the Continental Congress]] |after=[[John Adams]]|years=[[April 30]] [[1789]]<sup>(b)</sup> – [[March 3]] [[1797]]
<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on [[March 3]]. -->| }}
{{succession box|title=[[Commanding General of the United States Army|Senior Officer of the United States Army]]|before=[[James Wilkinson]]|after=[[Alexander Hamilton]]|years=1798-1799}}
{{succession footnote| marker=<sup>(a)</sup>| footnote=Washington was elected in 1789 and 1792 as an Independent, but the Federalist Party was formed by those most in agreement with continuing his policies.}}
{{succession footnote| marker=<sup>(b)</sup>| footnote=Washington's term as President is sometimes listed as starting on either [[March 4]] or [[April 6]]. [[March 4]] is the official start of the first presidential term. [[April 6]] is the date on which Congress counted the electoral votes and certified a winner. [[April 30]] is the date on which Washington took the oath of office.}}
{{end box}}
{{USpresidents}}
<!-- categories for career/main source of notability-->
<!-- categories for other accomplishments/notable relationships-->
<!-- categories for biographical trivia-->
<!-- self-defined category-->
<!-- Translations -->
{{Persondata
|NAME=Washington, George
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=1st U.S. President
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[February 22]] [[1732]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Colonial Beach, Virginia]], [[United States of America]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[December 14]] [[1799]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Mount Vernon (plantation)]], [[Mount Vernon, Virginia]], United States of America
}}
[[Category:1732 births|Washington, George]]
[[Category:1799 deaths|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Continental Army generals|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Washington, George]]
[[Category:English Americans|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Founding Fathers of the United States|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Washington]]
[[Category:French and Indian War people|Washington, George]]
[[Category:George Washington|George Washington]]
[[Category:People from Virginia|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Revolutionaries|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Signers of the United States Constitution|Washington, George]]
[[Category:United States presidential candidates|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Washington family|Washington, George]]
{{Link FA|bg}}
{{Link FA|de}}
[[am:ጆርጅ ዋሽንግተን]]
[[ang:George Washington]]
[[ar:جورج واشنطن]]
[[bg:Джордж Вашингтон]]
[[bn:জর্জ ওয়াশিংটন]]
[[ca:George Washington]]
[[cs:George Washington]]
[[da:George Washington]]
[[de:George Washington]]
[[eo:George WASHINGTON]]
[[es:George Washington]]
[[fa:جرج واشینگتن]]
[[fi:George Washington]]
[[fr:George Washington]]
[[ga:George Washington]]
[[gl:George Washington]]
[[he:ג'ורג' וושינגטון]]
[[hr:George Washington]]
[[hu:George Washington]]
[[id:George Washington]]
[[it:George Washington]]
[[ja:ジョージ・ワシントン]]
[[ka:ვაშინგტონი, ჯორჯ]]
[[ko:조지 워싱턴]]
[[la:Georgius Washingtonius]]
[[lt:Džordžas Vašingtonas]]
[[mk:Џорџ Вашингтон]]
[[nl:George Washington]]
[[nn:George Washington]]
[[no:George Washington]]
[[pl:George Washington]]
[[pt:George Washington]]
[[ro:George Washington]]
[[ru:Вашингтон, Джордж]]
[[sh:George Washington]]
[[simple:George Washington]]
[[sk:George Washington]]
[[sl:George Washington]]
[[sq:George Washington]]
[[sr:Џорџ Вашингтон]]
[[sv:George Washington]]
[[th:จอร์จ วอชิงตัน]]
[[tr:George Washington]]
[[uk:Вашинґтон Джордж]]
[[vi:George Washington]]
[[zh:乔治·华盛顿]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gulf Coast of the United States</title>
<id>11969</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41043261</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T18:07:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CrazyC83</username>
<id>321664</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:US map-Gulf Coast.PNG|thumb|300px|States that border the [[Gulf of Mexico]] are shown in red.]]
The '''Gulf Coast''' region of the [[United States]] comprises the coasts of states which border the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The states of [[Texas]], [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]], [[Alabama]], and [[Florida]] are Gulf Coast states. The Gulf Coast is sometimes referred to as the "third coast."
The Gulf Coast is a major center of economic activity. The marshlands along the Louisiana and Texas coasts provide breeding grounds and nurseries for ocean life that drive the [[Fishing industry|fishing]] and [[shrimp]]ing industries. The [[Port of South Louisiana]] ([[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]) and the [[Port of Houston]] are two of the ten busiest [[port]]s in the world by cargo volume. The discovery of [[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas|gas]] deposits along the coast and offshore, combined with easy access to shipping, have made the Gulf Coast the heart of the U.S. [[petrochemical]] industry.
The Gulf Coast is intersected by numerous rivers, the largest of which is the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]]. Land along the Gulf Coast tends to be low and flat, and much of it is (or was) [[marshland]]. The western portions of the Gulf Coast include many [[barrier island]]s and [[peninsula]]s, including the 130 mile (210 km) [[Padre Island]] and [[Galveston Island]]. These landforms protect numerous bays and inlets. The central part of the Gulf Coast, from eastern Texas through Louisiana, consists primarily of marshland.
Because of its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf Coast area is vulnerable to [[tropical cyclone|hurricanes]]. [[Flood]]s and severe [[thunderstorm]]s also affect the region; [[tornado]]es are infrequent but do occur (they are much more frequent in the inland portions of those states). [[Earthquakes]], however, are virtually unheard of.
== Cities on the U.S. Gulf Coast ==
*Texas
** [[Beaumont, Texas]]
** [[Brownsville, Texas]]
** [[Corpus Christi, Texas]]
** [[Freeport, Texas]]
** [[Galveston, Texas]]
** [[Houston, Texas]]
** [[Port Arthur, Texas]]
** [[Port Lavaca, Texas]]
** [[Sugar Land, Texas]]
*Louisiana
** [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]]
** [[Lafayette, Louisiana]]
** [[Lake Charles, Louisiana]]
** [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]
*Mississippi
** [[Gulfport, Mississippi]]
** [[Biloxi, Mississippi]]
*Alabama
** [[Mobile, Alabama]]
** [[Gulf Shores, Alabama]]
** [[Orange Beach, Alabama]]
** [[Fairhope, Alabama]]
** [[Daphne, Alabama]]
** [[Spanish Fort, Alabama]]
** [[Dauphin Island, Alabama]]
** [[Point Clear, Alabama]]
** [[Lillian, Alabama]]
** [[Bayou La Batre, Ala |
amway|
RollingStock=[[Bombardier Transportation|Bombardier]] [[Flexity Swift|CR-4000]]|
StationsServed=38|
LengthKm=28|
LengthMiles=18.5|
AnnualPassengers=18,000,000|
Depots=Therapia Lane|
}}
'''Tramlink''' (until recently known as '''Croydon Tramlink''') is a [[public transport]] [[tram]]way in [[south London]], operated by [[First Group|FirstGroup]] on behalf of [[Transport for London]]. Tramlink meets [[National Rail]] lines at a number of stations, but because it runs in an area relatively under-served by the [[London Underground]] (one of the reasons for its creation), its only interchange with the Underground is at [[Wimbledon station|Wimbledon]]. The system, centred on [[Croydon]], began operation in [[May 2000]].
==Trams==
[[Image:Croydon tramlink.PNG|thumb|left|550px|diagram of a tramlink flexity swift tram]]
Tramlink is operated with articulated [[low floor|low-floor]] [[Flexity Swift|Flexity Swift CR-4000]] [[tram]]s built by [[Bombardier Transportation]] in [[Vienna]]. The fleet is currently 24 strong, with one more planned. The trams are based on the very similar class K-4000 built for use on [[Cologne|Köln's]] low-platform routes.
The CR-4000 trams are six-axle single-articulated double-ended cars with four doors on each side. The low floor stretches between both the outer doors through the articulation (which rests on an unpowered [[bogie]]/truck). Between the outer door and each car end is a higher-floor section, accessed up a step and situated over the car's two power bogies. The low-floor section is 400 [[millimetre|mm]] above rail-level, sloping down to 350 mm in the doorways, a height which matches the platforms at tram stops, and each car has two [[wheelchair]] positions.
Each car is 30.1 [[metre|m]] long and 2.65 m wide and has 70 seats and a total capacity of just over 200 passengers. They operate from an overhead power supply at 750 [[volts]] [[direct current|DC]], and have a maximum speed of 80 km/h (50 mph). Each tram has an integral traction braking controller with [[dead-man's control|deadman's trigger]].
The trams are numbered beginning at 2530, continuing from the highest-numbered trams from London's old network.
The opening of the contrale tram stop adds time to the timetable therefore needs and extra tram. Currantly tramlink uses one out of the four spare trams but tfl say they will need to purchase an extra tram to substain punctuality
==Routes==
[[Image:TramlinkMap.svg|center|A map of the Tramlink network.]]
Tramlink is not shown on a standard [[tube map]] but is shown on the "London connections" map.
Tramlink consists of a varied mixture of street track shared with other vehicles, dedicated track within the street, and off-street track. The off-street track includes new rights-of-way, former railway lines, and one section which shares right-of-way (though not tracks) with an operational [[third rail|third-rail]] electrified [[Network Rail]] line.
All stops on Tramlink consist of low platforms at a height of 350mm above rail level, a height which matches the floor level of the car doors. Stops are unmanned and provided with automated ticket machines for ticket sales. In general, access between the platforms involves crossing the tracks by pedestrian level crossing.
The following routes are described in detail from east to west.
===Route 1 (yellow)===
[[Image:Croydon tram.jpg|thumb|250px|A tram en route to [[Elmers End]] on Tramlink route 1.]]
* ''Terminus:'' [[Elmers End station|Elmers End]]
* [[Arena tram station|Arena]]
* [[Woodside station|Woodside]]
* [[Blackhorse Lane tram station|Blackhorse Lane]]
* [[Addiscombe tram station|Addiscombe]]
* [[Sandilands tram station|Sandilands]]
* [[Lebanon Road tram station|Lebanon Road]]
* [[East Croydon station|East Croydon]]
* [[George Street tram station|George Street]]
* [[Church Street tram station|Church Street]]
* [[Wandle Park tram station|Wandle Park]]
* [[Waddon Marsh tram station|Waddon Marsh]] for Purley Way retail parks
* [[Ampere Way tram station|Ampere Way]] for [[IKEA]] and Valley Park
* [[Therapia Lane tram station|Therapia Lane]]
* [[Beddington Lane tram station|Beddington Lane]]
* [[Mitcham Junction station|Mitcham Junction]]
* [[Mitcham station|Mitcham]]
* Belgrave Walk
* Phipps Bridge
* Morden Road
* Merton Park
* [[Dundonald Road tram station|Dundonald Road]]
* ''Terminus:'' [[Wimbledon station|Wimbledon]]
''Then back to Wandle Park''
* [[Reeves Corner tram station|Reeves Corner]]
* [[Centrale]]
* [[West Croydon station|West Croydon]]
* [[Wellesley Road tram station|Wellesley Road]]
''Then to East Croydon and back to Elmers End''
===Route 2 (red)===
[[Image:Tramlink-Beckenham Jn.jpg|thumb|250px|A tram at the Beckenham Junction terminus]]
* ''Terminus:'' [[Beckenham Junction tram station|Beckenham Junction]] ''(train & bus interchange)''
* Beckenham Road ''(bus interchange)''
* Avenue Road
* [[Birkbeck station|Birkbeck]]
* Harrington Road
* [[Arena tram station|Arena]]
* [[Woodside station|Woodside]]
* Blackhorse Lane
* Addiscombe
* Sandilands
* Lebanon Road
* [[East Croydon station|East Croydon]]
* George Street
* Church Street
* [[Centrale]]
* [[West Croydon station|West Croydon]]
* Wellesley Road
''Then to East Croydon and back to Beckenham Junction''
On Sundays, route 2 services are extended to [[Wimbledon station|Wimbledon]] via route 1 to give shorter headways on the Wimbledon line.
===Route 3 (green)===
[[Image:Tramlink East Croydon.jpg|thumb|250px|A tram outside East Croydon station]]
* ''Terminus:'' New Addington
* King Henry's Drive
* Field Way
* Addington Village
* Gravel Hill for [[Addington Palace]]
* Coombe Lane
* Lloyd Park
* Sandilands
* Lebanon Road
* [[East Croydon station|East Croydon]]
* George Street
* Church Street
* [[Centrale]]
* [[West Croydon station|West Croydon]]
* Wellesley Road
''Then to East Croydon and back to New Addington''
===Former lines re-used===
From Elmers End to Woodside, Tramlink Routes 1 and 2 follow the former [[British Rail]] branch line from Elmers End towards a now-demolished Addiscombe station (500 metres from the present tram station of the same name). At Woodside, the old station buildings are still visible but disused, and the original platforms have been demolished to make way for accessible low platforms, in common with the rest of the system (except Elmers End, and Wimbledon, which continue to use their old respective branch line platforms). From Woodside to Sandilands (Routes 1 & 2) and from Sandilands almost to Lloyd Park (Route 3), Tramlink follows the route of the former [[Woodside and South Croydon Railway]]. This includes the Park Hill (or Sandilands) tunnels. Route 2 also runs parallel to the Crystal Palace to Beckenham loop line of the [[Southern_%28train_operating_company%29|Southern]] network between [[Birkbeck]] and [[Beckenham Junction]], the [[National Rail]] tracks having been singled.
From near Phipps Bridge to near Reeves Corner, the route follows that of the [[Surrey Iron Railway]]. This gives Tramlink a claim to be, in a sense, one of the world's oldest tramways! {{mmukpc prim|TQ273680|Tramway Path}} beside Mitcham tram stop had its name long before Tramlink. A partial obstruction of the route near this point has necessitated the use of [[:Image:028140 tramlink mitcham.jpg|gauntlet track]].
A Victorian footbridge beside Waddon New Road had to be demolished to make way for [http://www.transport-of-delight.com/Tramlink/Pages/TramsinAction/Flyover-1.htm the flyover] which takes Tramlink over the [[West Croydon railway station|West Croydon]] to [[Sutton railway station|Sutton]] railway line. The footbridge has been re-erected at [[Corfe Castle]] on the [[Swanage Railway]].
==Projected extensions==
*from Harrington Road and Birkbeck
**[[Crystal Palace, London|Crystal Palace]]
*from Church Street and Wellesey Road
**[[South Croydon]]
**[[Purley, London|Purley]]
*from Reeves Corner and West Croydon
**[[Thornton Heath Pond]]
**[[Norbury, London|Norbury]]
**[[Streatham]] ''(connection with Thameslink)''
*from Wimbledon ''(follows Thameslink to Sutton)''
**Wimbledon Chase
**South Merton
**[[Morden]] South
**[[St Helier, Sutton|St Helier]]
**Sutton Common
**West Sutton
**[[Sutton, London|Sutton]]
**Mitcham ''(intersection with current stop)''
**[[Tooting]] ''(connection with Thameslink)''
**[[Tooting Broadway]] ''(connection with [[Northern Line]])''
==External links==
{{commonscat|Tramlink}}
*[http://www.tfl.gov.uk/trams/ Transport for London Website on Tramlink]
*[http://www.croydon-tramlink.co.uk/ Croydon Tramlink - The Unofficial Website]
*[http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showthreaded.php/Cat/0/Number/96463 Collection of Google Earth locations of Tramlink stops] (Requires [http://earth.google.com Google Earth software]) from the Google Earth Community forum.
*[http://www.freewebs.com/tramfans a croydon trams fan site]
{{Britishmetros}}
[[Category:Croydon]]
[[Category:Electric railways]]
[[Category:Light rail]]
[[Category:Trams in London]]
[[Category:Tram transport in the United Kingdom]]
[[cs:Londýnská tramvajová doprava]]
[[de:Tramlink]]
[[nl:Tramlink]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catenary</title>
<id>7163</id>
<revision>
<id>41394604</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:14:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JackofOz</username>
<id>33566</id>
</contributor>
<comment>the Thomas Jefferson connection</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''catenary '''is the [[shape]] of a hanging flexible [[chain]] or [[cable]] when supported at its ends and acted upon by a uniform gravitational force (its own weight). The slope of the chain is largest near the points of suspension because this part of the chain has the most weight pulling down on it. Toward the bottom, the [[slope]] of the chain decreases because the chain is supporting less weight.
[[Image:catenary-pm.png|thumb|400px|right|Catenaries for different values o |
davra") by a single letter in the English transliteration; it is one of the few spells in ''Harry Potter'' not derived from Latin.
==See also==
*[[Hocus Pocus (magic)|Hocus Pocus]]
*[[presto]]
*[[The Unforgivable Curses in the world of Harry Potter#Avada Kedavra (The Killing Curse)|Avada Kedavra]] (a [[Harry Potter]] reference. Note, this article contains [[Wikipedia:Spoiler_warning|Spoilers]])
[[Category:Magic words]]
[[Category:Words]]
[[de:Abrakadabra]]
[[es:Abracadabra]]
[[fr:Abracadabra]]
[[it:Abracadabra]]
[[he:אברקדברה]]
[[nl:Abracadabra]]
[[pt:Abracadabra]]
[[ru:Абракадабра]]
[[sv:Abrakadabra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acts of Union 1707</title>
<id>2987</id>
<revision>
<id>42139669</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:06:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JSIN</username>
<id>226893</id>
</contributor>
<comment>it's --> its</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{UKFormation}}
The '''Acts of Union''' were twin Acts of Parliament passed in [[1707]] (taking effect on [[26 March]]) by the [[Parliament of England]] and the [[Parliament of Scotland]]. The acts were the implementation of the Treaty of Union, negotiated between the two kingdoms. The effect of the Acts was twofold:
* to create a new state: the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], although the name had been used on occasion since [[1603]] when speaking of the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of England|England]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] together, which had shared a monarch from that date but retained [[sovereignty | sovereign]] parliaments. [[Wales]] was also part of this Great Britain since it had been absorbed by England by the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]].
* to dissolve both parliaments and replace them with a new [[Parliament of Great Britain]] (this event is known as the '''Union of the Parliaments'''). The new parliament was to be based in the former home of the English Parliament.
[[Image:ActsOfUnion1707-Painting.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Walter Thomas Monnington's 1925 painting called ''Parliamentary Union of England and Scotland 1707'' hangs in the Palace of Westminster depicting the official presentation of the law that formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain.]]
While there had been three earlier attempts (in [[1606]], [[1667]] and [[1689]]) to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, these were the first Acts which had the will of both political establishments behind them, albeit for rather different reasons. In the English case, the purpose was to establish the Royal succession along [[Protestant]] lines in the same manner as provided for by the English [[Act of Settlement 1701]] rather than that of the Scottish [[Act of Security]]. The two countries had shared a king for much of the previous century. The English were now concerned that an independent Scotland with a different king, even if he were a Protestant, might make alliances against England.
In the Scottish case, the purpose was partly to use English subsidies to recover from the financial problems caused by the failure of the [[Darién scheme]] and partly to remove English trade sanctions put in place through the [[Alien Act]] to force the Scottish Parliament into compliance with the Act of Settlement.
The treaty consisted of 25 articles, 15 of which were economic in character. In Scotland, each article was voted on separately and several clauses in articles were delegated to specialised subcommittees. Article 1 of the treaty was based on the political principle of an incorporating union and this was secured by a majority of 115 votes to 83 on [[4 November]], [[1706]]. In order to minimalise the opposition of the [[Church of Scotland]], an act was also passed in order to secure the Presbyterian establishment of the Church after which the Church stopped its open opposition, although hostility remained at lower levels of the clergy. The treaty as a whole was finally ratified on [[16 January]], [[1707]] by a majority of 110 votes to 67.
The ultimate securing of the treaty in the [[Parliament of Scotland|Scottish Parliament]] can be attributed more to the weakness and lack of cohesion between the various opposition groups in the House as opposed to the strength of pro-incorporationists. The combined votes of the Court party with a majority of the Squadrone Volante were sufficient to ensure the final passage of the treaty through the House. Many members had invested heavily in the Darién Scheme and they believed that they would receive compensation for their losses; Article 14, the Eqivalent granted [[£]]398 085 10[[Shilling|s]] to Scotland to offset future liability towards the English national debt. In essence, it was also used a means of compensation for investors in Darién.
Bribery and financial persuasion were also prevalent. £20 000 (£240 000 [[Pound Scots|Scots]]) being despatched to Scotland for distribution by the Earl of Glasgow. James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry, the Queen's Commissioner in Parliament received £12 325 sterling, the majority of the funding. The bulk of this funding was used in the payment of [[Espionage|spies]] and agent provocateurs.
The Acts of Union were far from universally popular in Scotland, particularly amongst the general population. Many petitions were sent to the Scottish Parliament against union, and there were massive protests in [[Edinburgh]] and several other Scottish towns on the day it as threat of widespread civil unrest resulted in the imposition of martial law by the Parliament. [[George Lockhart|Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath]], a [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] and the only member of the Scottish negotiating team who was not pro-incorporation, noted that `The whole nation appears against the Union'. [[John Clerk of Penicuik|Sir John Clerk of Penicuik]], an ardent pro-unionist and Union negotiator, observed that the treaty was `contrary to the inclinations of at least three-fourths of the Kingdom'. [[Daniel Defoe]] first reports were of vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. ''"A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind,"'' he later reported ''"for every Scot in favour there is 99 against"''. Public opinion against the Treaty as it passed through the Scottish Parliament was voiced through petitions from the Scottish localities. Anti-union petitions were received from shires, burghs, presbyteries and parishes. The Convention of Royal Burghs also petitioned against the Union and not one petition in favour of an incorporating union was received by Parliament.
The twin Acts incorporated provisions for Scotland to send [[Peers and Parliament|representative peer]]s from the [[Peerage of Scotland]] to sit in the [[House of Lords]]. It guaranteed that the [[Church of Scotland]] would remain the established church in Scotland, that the [[Court of Session]] would "remain in all time coming within Scotland" and that [[Scots law]] would "remain in the same force as before".
Other provisions included the restatement of the [[Act of Settlement 1701]] and the ban on [[Roman Catholics]] from taking the throne. It also created a [[customs union]] and [[monetary union]]. Scotland kept its independence with respect to its legal (Article 19), religious and education systems.
The Act provided that any "laws and statutes" that were "contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Act would "cease and become void."
==See also==
{{wikisource}}
* [[Annexation]]
* [[Daniel Defoe]]
* [[Andrew Fletcher]]
* [[History of democracy]]
* [[Scottish Parliament]]
* [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]
* [[Political union]]
* [[Scottish National Party]]
* [[Scottish Unionist Party]]
[[Category:British laws]]
[[Category:History of England]]
[[Category:History of Scotland]]
[[Category:History of Great Britain]]
[[Category:Scottish laws]]
[[Category:English laws]]
[[Category:1707 in law]]
[[Category:United Kingdom constitution]]
[[Category:Treaties]]
[[de:Act of Union 1707]]
[[fr:Acte d'Union (1707)]]
[[pt:Tratado de União de 1707]]
[[sv:Treaty of Union 1707]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Admiralty</title>
<id>2988</id>
<revision>
<id>39804128</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T23:51:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Merchbow</username>
<id>802509</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Admiralty Arch was not the residence of the First Lord</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|a former military department of the United Kingdom}}
{{Royal Navy}}
The '''Admiralty''' was formerly the authority in the [[United Kingdom]] responsible for the command of the [[Royal Navy]]. Originally exercised by a single person, the office of '''Lord High Admiral''' was from the [[18th century]] invariably put "in commission", and was exercised by a '''Board of Admiralty''', officially known as '''The Commissioners for Exercising the Office of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, &c.''' (alternatively of '''[[Kingdom of England|England]]''', '''[[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]''' or the '''[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]''' depending on the period).
In [[1964]] the functions of the Admiralty were transferred to a new [[Admiralty Board]], which is a committee of the tri-service [[Defence Council of the United Kingdom]] and part of the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]]. The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a [[Navy Board]] (not to be confused with the historical Navy Board described later in this article). It is now uncommon for the various authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to simply as "The Admiralty."
The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom is now vested in the [[B |
pressions. It is used natively and predominantly by the [[Deaf]] and [[hard-of-hearing]] of the United States and Canada.
===Iconicity===
Although it often seems as though the signs are meaningful of themselves, in fact they can be as arbitrary as words in spoken language. For example, hearing children often make the mistake of using "you" to refer to themselves, since others refer to them as "you." Children who acquire the sign YOU (pointing at one's interlocutor) make similar mistakes&nbsp;&ndash; they will point at others to mean themselves, indicating that even something as seemingly explicit as pointing is an arbitrary sign in ASL, like words in a spoken language.
However, Edward Klima and Ursula Bellugi have modified the common theory that signs can be self-explanatory by grouping signs into three categories:
*Transparent: Non-signers can usually correctly guess the meaning
*Translucent: Meaning makes sense to non-signers once it is explained
*Opaque: Meaning cannot be guessed by non-signers
Klima and Bellugi used American Sign Language in formulating that classification. The theory that signs are self-explanatory can be conclusively disproved by the fact that non-signers cannot understand fluent, continuous sign language. The majority of signs are opaque.
Generally, signs that are "Transparent" are signs of objects or words that became popular after the basics of ASL were established. There are, of course, exceptions to this.
===Grammar===
The grammar of ASL uses spatial locations, motion, and context to indicate [[syntax]]. For example:
* The primary sentence structure in ASL is Topic-Comment and Object-Subject-Verb. For example, in the sentence "I want the book," I is the subject, ''Book'' is the object, and ''want'' is the verb. The sentence, therefore, would be signed as "BOOK, ME WANT." To add a time element, such as "I want the book tomorrow", the time component is placed at the beginning of the sentence, making it look like this: "TOMORROW BOOK ME WANT." In addition, [[prosody]] can alter sentence structure.
* ASL also relies heavily on Time Sequenced Ordering. Since ASL is a visual language, when signing a sentence or a story one signs it in the order in which events occurred. For example, in the case of the sentence "I'm going to be late tonight because my boss handed me a huge stack of work after lunch," one would sign "LUNCH FINISH, BOSS GIVE-ME BIG-STACK WORK, WILL ARRIVE LATE." In the case of stories, however, Time Sequenced Ordering can be a little more malleable since one could choose to sign information either in the order in which events occurred or in the order in which one found out about events.
* If a signer signs a noun and then points to a certain spot, he or she can refer back to that noun by pointing again to the same spot. This is also known as ''setting up'' something. For instance, if you point to a spot over your right shoulder in talking about your grandmother in another city, then when you mention her again, instead of signing "GRANDMOTHER," you can just point back to the same spot.
* Within ASL there is a class of ''directional'' verbs. These include the signs for ''pay'', ''give'', ''show'', ''invite'', ''send'', and several others. Depending on which way the hand moves, either away from the body or towards, distinguishes between the subject and object of the sentence, which are both included within the one sign. For example, to sign "I GIVE YOU", the hand in the shape of a flattened "O" moves away from the signer's body. In signing "YOU GIVE ME" the same handshape is drawn toward the body.
* To intensify the meaning of a verb or adjective (e.g., to say "very calm" instead of "calm"), the signer modulates the way it is expressed. Certain short words, such as "sad" or "mad" might be fingerspelled rather than signed. Other words can be repeated or slowed down, emphasizing their importance or degree. Some signs may be enlarged, so that they take up more body space. This can also involve a back and forth scissoring motion of the arms to indicate that the sign ought to be larger, but one is physically incapable of stretching the arms any farther than they already are. Moving the whole body and adding facial expressions are also useful modifiers.
* Raised eyebrows can indicate a yes-or-no question, while lowered eyebrows indicate a 'wh-question' or one that requests more information such as those that would use the question words: who, what, when, where, or why.
* To ask a rhetorical question, the eyebrows are raised to give the cue not to reply. Such as, "I don't like [what?] (raised eyebrows), garlic".
* Like some spoken languages, ASL does not use the linking verb "to be" (either as a '[[copula]]' or a [[auxiliary verb|helping verb]]). An example of a copula is the English phrase "My hair is wet", which when translated into ASL would be transliterated as, "MY HAIR, WET". (The comma indicates a short pause and raised eyebrow to topicalize "my hair".) An example of a helping verb is translating the English phrase "We are going to the store tomorrow", some possible ASL sentences, literally translated, could be
**"TOMORROW, STORE WE GO." (Topicalization, TOMORROW is the focus)
**"STORE, WE GO TOMORROW." (Topicalization, STORE is the focus)
* In ASL, a signer might not use the word "because", but instead break down the sentence into a [[rhetorical question]]. This is often used for clarity or emphasis. For instance, "I love to eat [[pasta]] because I am [[Italian people|Italian]]" would be translated into "I LOVE EAT PASTA, WHY? I ITALIAN." Rhetorical questions do not replace the word "because". Rather, they are used only when the speaker deems it necessary.
* Some signs can be executed in different locations for contextual reasons. The sign for "PAIN" - two pointed index fingers aimed at each other moved towards then away from each other - can be signed over one's leg to show that there is pain in the leg, or over the belly to indicate abdominal pain.
* Facial expression is also key in ASL. In signing "ANGRY", a facial expression of anger should be put on. Without expressions like this, the effect would be similar to listening to someone who was speaking in extremely monotone spoken English, or it would be taken as an indication of sarcasm or some other departure from the usual meaning of the sign.
* ASL also makes use of mouth morphemes, certain sounds or mouth configurations that add meaning to a sign. For example, one could sign "HE TALL" and communicate that a man is reasonably tall, but by adding the mouth morpheme "Cha," the sentence would then be understood as "He's ENORMOUS!!!"
==Writing systems==
ASL is often glossed with English words written in all capital letters. This is however a method used simply to teach the structure of the language. ASL is a visual language not a written language. There is no one-to-one correspondence between words in ASL and English, and much of the inflectional modulation of ASL signs is lost.
There are two true writing systems in use for ASL: a [[phoneme|phonemic]] [[Stokoe notation]], which has a separate symbol or diacritic mark for every phonemic hand shape, motion, and position (though it leaves something to be desired in the representation of facial expression), and a more popular iconic system called [[SignWriting]], which represents each sign with a rather abstract illustration of its salient features. SignWriting is commonly used for student newsletters and similar purposes.
=="Baby Sign"==
{{main|Baby Sign}}
In recent years, it has been shown that exposure to sign language has a positive impact on the socialization of hearing children. When infants are taught to sign, parents are able to converse with them at a [[Child development|developmental stage]] when they are not yet capable of producing verbal speech, which requires fine control of both breathing and the vocal tract. The ability of a child to actively communicate earlier than would otherwise be possible appears to accelerate language development and to decrease the frustrations of communication.
Many parents use a collection of simplified or ''ad hoc'' signs called "baby sign", as infants do not have the dexterity required for true ASL. However, parents can learn to recognize their baby's approximations of adult ASL signs, just as later on they will learn to recognize their approximations of verbal language, so teaching an infant ASL is also possible. Typically young children will make an ASL sign in the correct location and use the correct hand motion, but may be able only to approximate the handshape, for example, using one finger instead of three in signing ''water''.
==Primate usage==
ASL has allegedly been taught to both species of [[chimpanzee]], the [[bonobo]] and [[common chimpanzee]], as well as to [[gorilla]]s. Several of the animals have been said to have mastered more than one hundred signs, though not all agree with the ability of the [[primate]]s to sign. For example, when the [[washoe (chimpanzee)|Washoe]] research team asked the handlers of the chimp to write signs down whenever they witnessed them being produced by Washoe, the hearing people on the team turned in long lists of signs while the only deaf [[native speaker]] of ASL on the team turned in blank lists, explaining that what she saw were not signs at all, but simply gestures. Further fomenting the controversy, the researchers in the studies of [[Koko (gorilla)|Koko]] and Washoe refused to share their raw data with the [[scientific community]]. The theory that non-human primates have learned ASL, or that they |
on, Joshua]]
[[Category:Vancouverites|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[Category:American voice actors|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[Category:Canadian voice actors|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[de:Joshua Jackson]]
[[fr:Joshua Jackson]]
[[it:Joshua Jackson]]
[[nl:Joshua Jackson]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Jung</title>
<id>15588</id>
<revision>
<id>29330971</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-27T00:25:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eduard Gherkin</username>
<id>374239</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ Deleted [[Yung]] link.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Various people have the name '''Jung''':
* [[Andrea Jung]], Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer of Avon Products, Inc.
* [[Carl Jung]] (1875–1961), a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of analytical psychology
* [[Douglas Jung]] (1924&ndash;2002), the first ethnic Chinese Member of Parliament (MP) in the Canadian House of Commons
* [[Edgar Julius Jung]] (1894&ndash;1934), a Calvinist lawyer and leader of the right-wing Conservative Revolutionary movement
* [[George Jung]], a major player in cocaine importation in the United States in the 1970s and early 80s as a part of the Medellín Cartel; his life story was portrayed in the movie ''Blow''
* [[Johann Heinrich Jung]] (1740&ndash;1817), a German author best known by his assumed name of Heinrich Stilling
* [[Rudolf Jung]] (1882&ndash;1945), an instrumental force and agitator of Austrian National Socialism and later a member of the daughter party German Nazi Party
* [[Jung Myung Seok]] (1945&ndash;), a controversial Korean religious leader
'''Jung''' may also refer to:
* [[Jung-Kellogg Library]], located at Missouri Baptist University in St. Louis, Missouri
* [[Salar Jung Museum]], in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India, and houses the collection of the Salar Jung family
== See also ==
* [[Young]]
* [[Junge]]
[[Category:Surnames]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Jung]]
[[ja:ユング]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>JRR Tolkien</title>
<id>15589</id>
<revision>
<id>15913051</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>JFK (disambiguation)</title>
<id>15593</id>
<revision>
<id>42000016</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:26:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.244.112.139</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Nobody calls John Kerry 'JFK'</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''JFK''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, as described below:
* [[John F. Kennedy]], 35th President of the United States
* [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]] in New York City (IATA airport code)
* [[John F. Kennedy Stadium]] in Philadelphia, Pennslvania
* [[JFK (film)|''JFK'' (film)]], a 1991 film directed by Oliver Stone
* [[USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)|USS ''John F. Kennedy'']], a supercarrier and a modification of the Kitty Hawk class
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:JFK]]
[[id:JFK]]
[[ja:JFK]]
[[sv:JFK (olika betydelser)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>JesusChrist</title>
<id>15594</id>
<revision>
<id>15913053</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-15T20:06:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monedula</username>
<id>43000</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Jesus]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jesus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Jupiter (disambiguation)</title>
<id>15595</id>
<revision>
<id>41346473</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:20:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Muchness</username>
<id>282514</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fmt, add Jupiters, Jupiter Limited</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Jupiter]]''' is the fifth planet from the Sun.
'''Jupiter''' may also mean:
* [[Jupiter (god)]], a Roman god
* [[Jupiter, Florida]], a town in Palm Beach County, Florida
* [[Jupiter JVM]], a Java virtual machine
* [[Jupiter Novels]], a series of science fiction novels published by Tor Books
In '''business''':
* [[Jupitermedia Corporation]], a U.S. company that manages Internet properties
* [[Jupiter (company)]], a Japanese game and hardware development studio
* Jupiter Limited, an Australian gambling company that merged with [[Tabcorp Holdings|Tabcorp]] in 2003
In '''rocketry''':
*[[PGM-19 Jupiter]]
*[[Jupiter-C (rocket)]]
In '''music''':
*A line of music synthesizers made by [[Roland Corporation|Roland]]
**[[Roland Jupiter-4]]
**[[Roland Jupiter-6]]
**[[Roland Jupiter-8]]
* [[Jupiters]], a pop rock band from Pakistan
'''Jupiter''' may also be:
* A name given to Mozart's [[Symphony No. 41 (Mozart)|Symphony No. 41]]
* A variety of [[List of Apple cultivars|apple]] developed in Kent, England
* The main villain in [[Robin Jarvis]]'s ''The Deptford Mice'' trilogy
* "Jupiter, the Bringer of Jollity", a movement in Gustav Holst's suite ''[[The Planets]]''
* "Song of Jupiter", an arrangement by [[Leroy Anderson]] of the aria "Where'er you walk" from Handel's oratorio ''[[Semele (oratorio)|Semele]]''
* Sailor Jupiter, the codename of [[Makoto Kino]], a character in the ''Sailor Moon'' franchise
{{disambig}}
[[als:Jupiter]]
[[bg:Юпитер]]
[[ca:Júpiter]]
[[cs:Jupiter]]
[[da:Jupiter]]
[[de:Jupiter]]
[[es:Júpiter]]
[[fr:Jupiter]]
[[hr:Jupiter]]
[[is:Júpíter]]
[[la:Iuppiter]]
[[lb:Jupiter]]
[[hu:Jupiter]]
[[nl:Jupiter]]
[[ja:ジュピター]]
[[pl:Jowisz (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]
[[pt:Júpiter]]
[[ro:Jupiter]]
[[simple:Jupiter]]
[[sk:Jupiter]]
[[sl:Jupiter]]
[[sr:Јупитер]]
[[sv:Jupiter (olika betydelser)]]
[[tr:Jüpiter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>John Ray</title>
<id>15596</id>
<revision>
<id>40364495</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:John_Ray.jpg|thumb|200px|John Ray.]]
'''John Ray''' ([[November 29]], [[1627]] &ndash; [[January 17]], [[1705]]) was an [[England|English]] [[Natural history|naturalist]], sometimes referred to as the father of English natural history. Until [[1670]] he wrote his name as John Wray.
He published important works on [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, and [[natural theology]]. His classification of plants in his ''[[Historia Plantarum]]'' was an important step towards modern taxonomy. Ray rejected the system of dichotomous division by which species were classified according to a pre-conceived, either/or type system, and instead classified plants according to similarities and differences that emerged from observation. Thus he advanced [[empiricism|scientific empiricism]] against the [[deductive rationalism]] of the scholastics.
== Early life ==
Ray was born in the [[village]] of [[Black Notley]], near [[Braintree, Essex|Braintree]], in the [[Counties of England|county]] of [[Essex]], in the south east of [[England]]. He is said to have been born in the [[forge|smithy]], his father having been the [[blacksmith]] of [[Black Notley]] near [[Braintree]]. From Braintree school he was sent at the age of sixteen to [[Catharine Hall, Cambridge]], whence he removed to [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]] after about one year and three-quarters. His tutor at Trinity was [[James Duport]], [[Regius Professor of Greek (Cambridge)|Regius Professor of Greek]], and his intimate friend and fellow-pupil the celebrated [[Isaac Barrow]]. Ray was chosen minor fellow of Trinity in [[1649]], and in due course became a major fellow on proceeding to the [[master's degree]]. He held many college offices, becoming successively lecturer in Greek (1651), mathematics (1653),and humanity (1655), ''praelector'' (1657), junior dean (1657), and college steward (1659 and 1660); and according to the habit of the time, he was accustomed to preach in his college chapel and also at [[St Mary the Great with St Michael, Cambridge|Great St Mary's]] before the university, long before he took holy orders. Among his sermons preached before his ordination, which was not till the [[23 December]], [[1660]], were the famous discourses on ''The Wisdom of God in the Creation'', and on ''The Chaos, Deluge and Dissolution of the World''. Ray's reputation was high also as a tutor; and he communicated his own passion for natural history to several pupils, of whom [[Francis Willughby]] is by far the most famous.
== Career ==
Ray's quiet college life closed when he found himself unable to subscribe to the [[Act of Uniformity 1661]], and was obliged to give up his fellowship in 1662, the year after [[Isaac Newton]] had entered the college. We are told by Dr Derham in his ''Life of Ray'' that the reason of his refusal:
<blockquote>was not (as some have imagined) his having taken the 'Solemn League and Covenant,' for that he never did, and often declared that he ever thought it an unlawful oath; but he said he could not declare for those that had taken the oath that no obligation lay upon them, but feared there might</blockquote>
From this time onwards he seems to have depended chiefly on the bounty of his pupil Willughby, who made Ray his constant companion while he lived, and at his death left him 6 shillings a year, with the charge of educating his two sons.
In the spring of [[1663]] Ray started together with Willughby and two other pupils on a tour through [[Europe]], from which he returned in March 1666, parting from Willughby at [[Montpellier]], whence the latter continued his journey into [[Spain]]. He had previously in three different journey |
])
*[[1887]] - [[Ernst Toch]], Austrian composer (d. [[1964]])
*[[1888]] - [[Joyce Cary]], Irish author (d. [[1957]])
*1888 - [[Hamilton Fish]], American politician (d. [[1991]])
*[[1903]] - [[Danilo Blanuša]], Croatian mathematician (d. [[1987]])
*[[1904]] - [[Konstantin Sokolsky]], Russian singer
*[[1905]] - [[Gerard Kuiper]], Dutch-born American astronomer (d. [[1973]])
*[[1910]] - [[Louis Prima]], American musician (d. [[1978]])
*[[1912]] - [[Daniel Jones (composer)|Daniel Jones]], British composer (d. [[1993]])
*[[1915]] - [[Eli Wallach]], American actor
*[[1922]] - [[Howard Zinn]], American historian and activist
*[[1924]] - [[Mário Soares]], [[President of Portugal]]
*[[1927]] - [[Helen Watts]], British contralto
*[[1928]] - [[Noam Chomsky]], American linguist and political writer
*[[1932]] - [[Ellen Burstyn]], American actress
*[[1942]] - [[Harry Chapin]], American singer and songwriter (d. [[1981]])
*1942 - [[Peter Tomarken]], American game show host
*[[1943]] - [[Bernard C. Parks]], Chief of the Los Angeles Police Department
*[[1944]] - [[Daniel Chorzempa]], American organist
*[[1945]] - [[Marion Rung]], Finnish singer
*[[1947]] - [[Johnny Bench]], American baseball player
*1947 - [[Garry Unger]], Canadian ice hockey players
*[[1948]] - [[Gary Morris]], American singer and actor
*1948 - [[Mads Vinding]], Danish bassist
*[[1949]] - [[Tom Waits]], American singer, composer, and actor
*[[1954]] - [[Mark Hofmann]], American forger and bomber
*1954 - [[Mike Nolan (singer)|Mike Nolan]], British singer ([[Bucks Fizz]])
*[[1956]] - [[Larry Bird]], American basketball player
*[[1966]] - [[C. Thomas Howell]], American actor
*[[1967]] - [[Tino Martinez]], American baseball player
*[[1971]] - [[Vladimir Akopian]], Armenian chess player
*1971 - [[Chasey Lain]], American actress
*[[1972]] - [[Hermann Maier]], Austrian skier
*1972 - [[Tammy Lynn Sytch]], American professional wrestler
*[[1973]] - [[Terrell Owens]], American football player
*[[1974]] - [[Nicole Appleton]], Canadian-born singer
*[[1975]] - [[Jamie Clapham]], British footballer
*[[1980]] - [[John Terry]], English footballer
*[[1987]] - [[Aaron Carter]], American singer
*[[1988]] - [[Emily Browning]], Australian actress
==Deaths==
*[[43 BC]] - [[Cicero]], Roman politician and author (b. [[106 BC]])
*[[283]] - [[Pope Eutychian]]
*[[1254]] - [[Pope Innocent IV]]
*[[1279]] - King [[Boleslaus V of Poland]] (b. [[1226]])
*[[1295]] - [[Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Hertford]], English politician (b. [[1243]])
*[[1498]] - [[Alexander Hegius von Heek]], German humanist
*[[1562]] - [[Adrian Willaert]], Flemish composer
*[[1632]] - Emperor [[Sissinios of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1607]])
*[[1649]] - [[Charles Garnier (missionary)|Charles Garnier]], French Jesuit missionary (b. [[1606]])
*[[1672]] - [[Richard Bellingham]], English-born Massachusetts colonial magistrate (b. [[1592]])
*[[1683]] - [[John Oldham (poet)|John Oldham]], English poet (smallpox) (b. [[1653]])
*1683 - [[Algernon Sydney]], English politician (b. [[1623]])
*[[1723]] - [[Jan Santini Aichel]], Bohemian architect (b. [[1677]])
*[[1725]] - [[Florent Carton Dancourt]], French dramatist and actor (b. [[1661]])
*[[1775]] - [[Charles Saunders (admiral)|Charles Saunders]], British admiral
*[[1793]] - [[Joseph Bara]], French revolutionary (b. [[1780]])
*[[1815]] - [[Michel Ney]], French marshall (executed) (b. [[1769]])
*[[1817]] - [[William Bligh]], British naval officer (b. [[1745]])
*[[1874]] - [[Constantin von Tischendorf]], German biblical scholar (b. [[1815]])
*[[1902]] - [[Thomas Nast]], German cartoonist (b. [[1840]])
*[[1906]] - [[Élie Ducommun]], Swiss journalist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1833]])
*[[1941]] - [[Isaac C. Kidd]], American rear admiral (b. [[1884]])
*[[1947]] - [[Nicholas M. Butler]], American university president, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1862]])
*[[1956]] - [[Huntley Gordon]], Canadian actor (b. [[1887]])
*[[1970]] - [[Rube Goldberg]], American cartoonist (b. [[1883]])
*[[1975]] - [[Thornton Wilder]], American playwright (b. [[1897]])
*[[1978]] - [[Alexander Wetmore]], American ornithologist (b. [[1886]])
*[[1980]] - [[Darby Crash]], American punk-rock lengend (b. [[1958]])
*[[1985]] - [[Robert Graves]], British author (b. [[1895]])
*1985 - [[Potter Stewart]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. [[1915]])
*[[1990]] - [[Joan Bennett]], American actress (b. [[1910]])
*[[1993]] - [[Félix Houphouët-Boigny]], [[President of Côte d'Ivoire]] (b. [[1905]])
*1993 - [[Wolfgang Paul]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1913]])
*[[1998]] - [[Martin Rodbell]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1925]])
*[[2003]] - [[Carl F. H. Henry]] American theologian and publisher (b. [[1913]])
*2003 - [[Azie Taylor Morton]], [[Treasurer of the United States]] (b. [[1936]])
*2003 - [[Raúl Vale]], Venezuelan entertainer (b. [[1944]])
*[[2004]] - [[Frederick Fennell]], American conductor (b. [[1914]])
*2004 - [[Jerry Scoggins]], American singer (b. [[1913]])
*[[2005]] - [[Bud Carson]], American football player and coach (b. [[1931]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - Saint [[Ambrose]]: Memorial
* [[Holidays of the United States|United States]] - [[Pearl Harbor Day]] (observance)
* [[International Civil Aviation Day]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/7 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[December 6]] - [[December 8]] - [[November 7]] - [[January 7]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:7 Desember]]
[[ar:7 ديسمبر]]
[[an:7 d'abiento]]
[[ast:7 d'avientu]]
[[bg:7 декември]]
[[be:7 сьнежня]]
[[bs:7. decembar]]
[[ca:7 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 7]]
[[cv:Раштав, 7]]
[[co:7 di decembre]]
[[cs:7. prosinec]]
[[cy:7 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:7. december]]
[[de:7. Dezember]]
[[et:7. detsember]]
[[el:7 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:7 de diciembre]]
[[eo:7-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 7]]
[[fo:7. desember]]
[[fr:7 décembre]]
[[fy:7 desimber]]
[[gl:7 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 7일]]
[[hr:7. prosinca]]
[[io:7 di decembro]]
[[id:7 Desember]]
[[ia:7 de decembre]]
[[is:7. desember]]
[[it:7 dicembre]]
[[he:7 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:7 Desember]]
[[ka:7 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:7 gòdnika]]
[[ku:7'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:7 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 7]]
[[lb:7. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 7]]
[[mk:7 декември]]
[[ms:7 Disember]]
[[nap:7 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:7 december]]
[[ja:12月7日]]
[[no:7. desember]]
[[nn:7. desember]]
[[oc:7 de decembre]]
[[pl:7 grudnia]]
[[pt:7 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:7 decembrie]]
[[ru:7 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 7.]]
[[sco:7 December]]
[[sq:7 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:7 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 7]]
[[sk:7. december]]
[[sl:7. december]]
[[sr:7. децембар]]
[[fi:7. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:7 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 7]]
[[tt:7. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 7]]
[[th:7 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:7 tháng 12]]
[[tr:7 Aralık]]
[[uk:7 грудня]]
[[wa:7 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 7]]
[[zh:12月7日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 7]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 15</title>
<id>8145</id>
<revision>
<id>42011377</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:10:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ removed redundant year link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 15]]''' is the 349th day of the year (350th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 16 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[1290 BC]] - [[Seti I]], [[Pharaoh]] of [[Egypt]] dies. [[Ramesses II]] becomes [[Pharaoh]] of [[Egypt]].
*[[533]] - The [[Battle of Ticameron]] takes place between the armies of the [[Vandals]], commanded by King [[Gelimer]] and the eastern [[Roman Empire]] under the command of [[General Belisarius]].
*[[687]] - [[Pope Sergius I|St. Sergius I]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1256]] - [[Hulagu Khan]] captures and destroys the [[Hashshashin]] stronghold at [[Alamut]] in present-day [[Iran]] as part of the [[Mongol]] offensive on Islamic southwest Asia.
*[[1791]] - The [[United States Bill of Rights]] becomes law when ratified by the [[Virginia]] legislature.
*[[1891]] - [[James Naismith]] introduces the first version of [[basketball]], with thirteen rules, a peach basket nailed to either end of his school's gymnasium, and two teams of nine players.
*[[1913]] - [[Nicaragua]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1939]] - ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' premiers in [[Atlanta, Georgia]].
*[[1945]] - [[Occupation of Japan]]: General [[Douglas MacArthur]] orders that [[Shinto]] be abolished as state religion of [[Japan]].
*[[1960]] - King [[Baudouin of Belgium]] marries [[Queen Fabiola of Belgium|Fabiola Fernanda María de las Victorias Antonia Adelaida de Mora y Aragón]] in [[Brussels]].
*[[1961]] - In [[Jerusalem]], [[Adolph Eichmann]] is sentenced to death after being found guilty of 15 criminal charges, including charges of crimes against humanity, crimes against the Jewish people and membership of an outlawed organization.
*[[1965]] - [[Gemini program]]: [[Gemini 6A]], crewed by [[Wally Schirra]] and [[Thomas Stafford]], is launched from [[Cape Canaveral|Cape Kennedy]], [[Florida]]. Also the release of [[The Sound of Music]].
*[[1976]] - [[Samoa]] becomes a member of the [[UN]].
*[[1993]] - [[History of Northern Ireland]]:The [[Downing Street Declaration]] is issued by British [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[John Major]] and Irish [[Taoiseach]] [[Albert Reynolds]].
*[[1994]] - The [[web browser]] [[Netscape Navigator]] 1.0 is released.
*1994 - [[Palau]] becomes a member of the [[UN]].
*[[1995]] - The [[European Communities Court of Justice]] passes the "[[Bosman ruling]]", giving [[EU]] footballers the right to a free transfer at the end of their contracts, with the provision that they are transferring from one [[U |
g that sanctions against Fiji were being considered, following a Fijian refusal of a PNG [[kava]] shipment and an earlier rejection of [[corned beef]] shipped from PNG.
=== Relations with the European Union ===
The [[European Union]] announced on [[3 November]] [[2005]] that it would increase its assistance to Fijian schools from [[2006]] onwards. The assistance would cover infrastructure and building, as well as supplying schools with running water and telephone services.
=== Relations with South Africa ===
Foreign Minister [[Kaliopate Tavola]] announced on [[15 February]] [[2006]] that [[South Africa]] would be the first [[Africa]]n country to establish a diplomatic mission in Fiji. Diplomatic relations would open up new opportunities for trade and investment, Tavola said. On [[27 February]], it was announced that South Africa would be opening a [[High Commission]] in Fiji.
=== Relations with Brazil ===
[[Fiji Live]] reported on [[23 February]] [[2006]] that Fiji's [[United Nations]] [[Ambassador]] [[Isikia Savua]] and his [[Brazil]]ian counterpart [[Ronaldo Mota Sardenberg]] had recently signed a communiqué to establish diplomatic relations. Savua expressed the hope that Fiji's bio-fuels industry could benefit from Brazilian technology.
== Fijian missions abroad ==
* ''See main article: [[Diplomatic relations of Fiji]]''
Fiji maintains direct diplomatic or [[consul]]ar relations with countries with historical, culrural, or trading ties to Fiji; Ambassadors stationed in such countries are often accredited to neighbouring countries. Fiji maintains embassies in [[Belgium]] (taking care of Fiji's relations with the entire [[European Union]]), [[China]], [[Japan]], and the [[United States]]; and [[High Commission]]s in [[Australia]], [[India]], [[Malaysia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Papua New Guinea]], and [[New Zealand]] (in keeping with the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] practice of calling missions in fellow-commonwealth countries High Commissions rather than Embassies). Fiji also has a Permanent Mission to the [[United Nations]].
== Foreign reaction to Fijian legislation ==
* ''See main article: [[Foreign reaction to the Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill (Fiji)|Foreign reaction to the Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill]]''
[[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] have both expressed concern over legislation currently before the Fijian [[Parliament (Fiji)|Parliament]] (as of June [[2005]]), which proposes to establish a [[Reconciliation and Unity Commission (Fiji)|Reconciliation and Unity Commission]], with the power (subject to [[List of Presidents of Fiji|presidential]] approval) to compensate victims and pardon persons convicted of crimes related to the [[Fiji coup of 2000|coup d'état]] which deposed the elected government in [[2000]].
On [[30 August]] [[2005]], [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] Secretary-General [[Don McKinnon]] called on the Fijian government to ensure that the legislation reflected the views of its citizens. He emphasized, however, that the Commonwealth did not have a position on the bill.
== Fiji and international organizations ==
Fiji plays an active role in numerous international bodies. The [[South Pacific Forum]] was largely the brainchild of [[Kamisese Mara|Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara]], Fiji's first Prime Minister. The country has been an outspoken participant many international forums.
=== Oceania Customs Organisation ===
On [[1 September]] [[2005]], it was announced that the [[Oceania Customs Organization]] would relocate to Fiji in [[2006]]. Though located in Fiji, it would be totally independent of the Fijian government and of the [[Fiji Islands Revenue and Customs Authority]] (FIRCA), Finance Minister [[Jone Kubuabola|Ratu Jone Kubuabola]] said, and for the first three years of its presence in Fiji, its secretariat would be financed by the New Zealand government.
=== World Trade Organization ===
Speaking at the 18th [[Fiji-Australia Business Forum]] in [[Sydney]] on [[17 October]] [[2005]], Prime Minister Qarase strongly criticized the [[World Trade Organization]], saying that its policies were unfair to small countries like Fiji. ''"WTO is trying to impose equality of trade in an unequal world,"'' he said, ''"but for developing countries like Fiji there is no level playing field, just a slippery slope."'' It would be a long time before Fiji's economy could compete on equal terms with that of more developed nations, he considered.
=== International Labour Organization ===
On [[10 January]] [[2006]], the Fijian government criticized the [[International Labour Organization]] for what it said was the organization's unfair treatment of the [[Fiji Islands Congress of Trade Unions]] (FICTU). [[Minister for Labour (Fiji)|Labour Minister]] [[Kenneth Zinck]] said the government had received a complaint from FICTU about the ILO's discrimination against it in favour of the rival [[Fiji Trades Union Congress]].
== Diplomatic initiatives ==
Speaking at the 6th Session of the [[Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues]] in [[New York City]] on [[23 May]] [[2005]], [[Isikia Savua]], Fiji's Permanent Representative (Ambassador) to the [[United Nations]], called for equal recognition of individual and collective rights in national and international policies. He said that Fiji had embodied both concepts in its [[Constitution of Fiji|Constitution]], through such provisions as [[Communal constituencies (Fiji)|communal voting]] (giving each elector to vote for two members of the [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]], one from his or her own ethnic group, and the other from any ethnic group).
On [[1 September]] [[2005]], Prime Minister Qarase announced his intention to ask his Australian counterpart, [[John Howard]], for more favourable market access for Pacific Island products. He called on Australia and New Zealand to revise the rules of origin under the [[SPARTECA]] trade agreement, and reduce the figure from 50 percent to 35 percent, thereby allowing Fiji to export a higher percentage of garments made elsewhere to Australian and New Zealand markets.
On [[28 October]] [[2005]], Prime Minister Qarase criticized Australia and New Zealand for refusing to grant temporary work permits to Pacific Islanders. He said the two countries were acting unfairly in assuming that such permits would encourage illegal immigration. The Prime Minister claimed that in the absence of such work permits, Pacific Islanders visiting Australia and New Zealand often undertook illegal employment anyway.
[[Category:Politics of Fiji]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Fiji, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goal line</title>
<id>10664</id>
<revision>
<id>29770717</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-01T04:33:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zzyzx11</username>
<id>182902</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Football goal]] to [[Goal line]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''goal line''' is the chalked or painted line dividing the [[end zone]] from the field of play in [[Canadian football]] and [[American football]].
If any part of the ball reaches any part of the imaginary vertical plane transected by this line while [[in-bounds]] and in possession of a player whose team is striving toward that end of the field, this is called a [[touchdown]] and scores six points for the team whose player has advanced the ball to, or recovered the ball in, this position.
If any member of the [[offensive team]] is [[down (football)|down]]ed while in possession of the ball and at or behind the goal toward which the other team is striving, this is called a [[safety]] and scores two points for the [[defensive team]].
If, during the course of play, a loose ball travels past the goal line and is recovered within the [[end zone]], then it is a touchdown if recovered by the team striving toward that goal, or a [[touchback]] if recovered and [[football down|down]]ed by the team striving toward the goal at the opposite end of the field.
==See also==
*[[American football/Glossary]]
[[Category:American football terminology]]
[[Category:Canadian football terminology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Football down</title>
<id>10665</id>
<revision>
<id>15908464</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-06T11:35:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TimShell</username>
<id>4938</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Down_(football)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dead ball (American football)</title>
<id>10666</id>
<revision>
<id>36150473</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T00:24:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alynna Kasmira</username>
<id>299884</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''dead ball''' in [[American football]] is a condition that occurs between [[football play]]s. During the time in which a ball is dead, a team may not attempt to advance it and no change of possession takes place.
==See also==
*[[American football/Glossary]]
{{americanfootball-stub}}
[[Category:American football terminology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Tackle (football)</title>
<id>10667</id>
<revision>
<id>41383114</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:49:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.80.169.57</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Types of Tackles */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Most forms of [[football]] have a move known as a '''tackle'''. In most cases this move is one that prevents an opposing player from carrying out what they intend.
==American Football==
In [[American football]] and [ |
undredweight]]|| long cwt or cwt
| ≡ 112 lb av
| = 50.802 345 44 kg
|-----
| bag ([[coffee]]}
|
| ≡ 60 kg
| = 60 kg
|-----
| [[quintal (unit of mass)|quintal]] (metric) || q
|
| ≡ 100 kg
|-----
| [[wey]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 252 lb = 18 st
| = 114.305 277 24 kg (variants exist)
|-----
| long quarter|| &nbsp;
| ≡ ¼ long tn
| = 254.011 727 2 kg
|-----
| [[kip (unit)|kip]] || kip
| ≡ 1000 lb av<!--KIloPound-->
| = 453.592 37 kg
|-----
| [[short ton]] || sh tn
| ≡ 2000 lb
| = 907.184 74 kg
|-----
| [[tonne]] ([[mts]] unit) || t
|
| ≡ 1000 kg
|-----
| [[long ton]]|| long tn or ton
| ≡ 2240 lb
| = 1016.046 908 8 kg
|-----
| barge || &nbsp;
| ≡ 22 ½ sh tn
| = 20,411.656 65 kg
|}
In [[physics]], the [[pound (weight)|pound of mass]] is sometimes written '''lbm''' to distinguish it from the [[pound-force]] ('''lbf'''). It should not be read as the mongrel unit "pound metre".
===Time===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Time]], t
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[second]] || s
|
| ([[SI base unit]])
|-----
| [[Planck time]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ √([[gravitational constant|G]][[Dirac's constant|ℏ]]/''[[speed of light|c]]''<sup>5</sup>)
| ≈ 1.351 211 818×10<sup>-43</sup> s
|-----
| [[atomic units|atomic unit of time]] || au
| ≡ [[Bohr radius|a<sub>0</sub>]]/([[fine structure constant|α]]·c)
| ≈ 2.418 884 254×10<sup>-17</sup> s
|-----
| [[svedberg]] || S
| ≡ 10<sup>-13</sup> s
| = 100 fs
|-----
| shake || &nbsp;
| ≡ 10<sup>-8</sup> s
| = 10 ns
|-----
| sigma || &nbsp;
| ≡ 10<sup>-6</sup> s
| = 1 μs
|-----
| jiffy || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/60 s
| ≈ 16.666 667 ms
|-----
| jiffy (alternate) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/100 s
| ≈ 10 ms
|-----
| [[helek]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/1080 h
| ≈ 3.333333 s
|-----
| [[minute]] || min
|
| ≡ 60 s
|-----
| moment || &nbsp;
| ≡ 90 s
| ≡ 90 s
|-----
| [[hour]] || h
| ≡ 60 min
| = 3600 s
|-----
| [[day]] || d
| ≡ 24 h
| = 86 400 s
|-----
| [[week]] || wk
| ≡ 7 d
| = 604 800 s
|-----
| [[fortnight]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 2 wk
| = 1 209 600 s
|-----
| [[month]] (hollow) || mo
| ≡ 29 d
| = 2 505 600 s
|-----
| [[month]] (full) || mo
| ≡ 30 d
| = 2 592 000 s
|-----
| [[year]] (Calendar) || a ''or'' y
| ≡ 365 d
| = 31 536 000 s
|-----
| [[year]] (Gregorian) || a ''or'' y
| ≡ 365.2425 d
| = 31 556 952 s
|-----
| [[year]] (Julian) || a ''or'' y
| ≡ 365.25 d
| = 31 557 600 s
|-----
| [[sidereal year]] || a ''or'' y
| ≡ 365.256363 d
| = 31 558 149.76 s
|-----
| lustre; lustrum || &nbsp;
| ≡ 5 a of 365 d
| = 1.5768×10<sup>8</sup> s
|-----
| [[octaeteris]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 8 a of 365 d
| = 2.522 88×10<sup>8</sup> s
|-----
| [[decade]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 10 a of 365 d
| = 3.1536×10<sup>8</sup> s
|-----
| [[enneadecaeteris]]; [[Metonic cycle]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 110 mo (hollow) + 125 mo (full) = 19 a of 365 d
| = 5.996 16×10<sup>8</sup> s
|-----
| [[Callippic cycle]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 441 mo (hollow) + 499 mo (full) = 76 a of 365.25 d
| = 2.398 377 6×10<sup>9</sup> s
|-----
| [[century]] (Calendar) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 100 a of 365 d
| = 3.1536×10<sup>9</sup> s
|-----
| [[century]] (Julian) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 100 a of 365.25 d
| = 3.155 76×10<sup>9</sup> s
|-----
| [[Hipparchic cycle]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 4 Callippic cycles - 1 d
| = 9.593 424×10<sup>9</sup> s
|-----
| [[millennium]] (Calendar) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1000 a of 365 d
| = 3.1536×10<sup>10</sup> s
|-----
| [[millennium]] (Gregorian) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1000 a of 365.2425 d
| = 3.155 695 2×10<sup>10</sup> s
|-----
| [[millennium]] (Julian) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1000 a of 365.25 d
| = 3.155 76×10<sup>10</sup> s
|-----
| [[Sothic cycle]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1461 a of 365 d
| = 4.607 409 6×10<sup>10</sup> s
|}
===Speed===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Speed]], v
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[metre per second]] (SI unit)|| m/s
|
| ≡ 1 m/s
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[hour]] || fph
| ≡ 1 ft/h
| ≈ 8.466 667×10<sup>-5</sup> m/s
|-----
| [[furlong]] per [[fortnight]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ ½ fur/wk
| ≈ 1.663 095×10<sup>-4</sup> m/s
|-----
| [[inch]] per [[minute]] || ipm
| ≡ 1 in/min
| ≈ 4.23 333×10<sup>-4</sup> m/s
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[minute]] || fpm
| ≡ 1 ft/min
| = 5.08×10<sup>-3</sup> m/s
|-----
| [[inch]] per [[second]] || ips
| ≡ 1 in/s
| = 2.54×10<sup>-2</sup> m/s
|-----
| [[kilometre per hour]] || km/h
| ≡ 1 km/h
| ≈ 2.777 778×10<sup>-1</sup> m/s
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[second]] || fps
| ≡ 1 ft/s
| = 3.048×10<sup>-1</sup> m/s
|-----
| [[mile per hour]] || mph
| ≡ 1 mi/h
| = 0.447 04 m/s
|-----
| [[knot (speed)|knot]] || kn
| ≡ 1 [[nautical mile|NM]]/h = 1.852 km/h
| ≈ 0.514 444 m/s
|-----
| [[knot (speed)|knot]] (Admiralty) || kn
| ≡ 1 NM (Adm)/h = 1.853 184 km/h
| ≈ 0.514 773 m/s
|-----
| [[mile]] per [[minute]] || mpm
| ≡ 1 mi/min
| = 26.8224 m/s
|-----
| [[mile]] per [[second]] || mps
| ≡ 1 mi/s
| = 1.609 344 km/s
|-----
| [[speed of light]] in vacuum || ''c''
|
| ≡ 2.997 924 58×10<sup>8</sup> m/s
|}
===Acceleration===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Acceleration]], a
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[metre per second squared]] (SI unit)|| m/s²
|
| ≡ 1 m/s²
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[hour]] per [[second]] || fph/s
| ≡ 1 ft/h·s
| ≈ 8.466 667×10<sup>-5</sup> m/s²
|-----
| [[inch]] per [[minute]] per [[second]] || ipm/s
| ≡ 1 in/min·s
| ≈ 4.233 333×10<sup>-4</sup> m/s²
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[minute]] per [[second]] || fpm/s
| ≡ 1 ft/min·s
| = 5.08×10<sup>-3</sup> m/s²
|-----
| [[Galileo (unit)|galileo]] || Gal
| ≡ 1 cm/s²
| = 10<sup>-2</sup> m/s²
|-----
| [[inch]] per [[second]] squared || ips²
| ≡ 1 in/s²
| = 2.54×10<sup>-2</sup> m/s²
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[second]] squared || fps²
| ≡ 1 ft/s²
| = 3.048×10<sup>-1</sup> m/s²
|-----
| [[mile]] per [[hour]] per [[second]] || mph/s
| ≡ 1 mi/h·s
| = 4.4704×10<sup>-1</sup> m/s²
|-----
| [[knot (speed)|knot]] per [[second]] || kn/s
| ≡ 1 kn/s
| ≈ 5.144 444×10<sup>-1</sup> m/s²
|-----
| standard [[gravity]] || ''g''
|
| ≡ 9.806 65 m/s²
|-----
| [[mile]] per [[minute]] per [[second]] || mpm/s
| ≡ 1 mi/min·s
| = 26.8224 m/s²
|-----
| [[mile]] per [[second]] squared || mps²
| ≡ 1 mi/s²
| = 1.609 344×10³ m/s²
|}
===Force===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Force (physics)|Force]], F
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[newton]] (SI unit) || N
| ≡ kg·m/s²
|
|-----
| [[atomic units|atomic unit of force]] || au
| ≡ m<sub>e</sub>·[[fine structure constant|α]]²·''[[speed of light|c]]''²/[[Bohr radius|a<sub>0</sub>]]
| ≈ 8.238 722 241×10<sup>-8</sup> N
|-----
| [[dyne]] ([[cgs unit]]) || dyn
| ≡ g·cm/s²
| = 10<sup>-5</sup> N
|-----
| gravet || &nbsp;
| ≡ ''[[gee|g]]'' × 1 g
| = 9.806 65 mN
|-----
| [[poundal]] || pdl
| ≡ 1 lb·ft/s²
| = 0.138 254 954 376 N
|-----
| [[ounce-force]] || ozf
| ≡ ''g'' × 1 oz
| = 0.278 013 850 953 781 2 N
|-----
| [[pound-force]] || [[lbf]]
| ≡ ''g'' × 1 lb
| = 4.448 221 615 260 5 N
|-----
| [[kilogram-force]]; kilopond; grave || kgf; kp
| ≡ ''g'' × 1 kg
| = 9.806 65 N
|-----
| sthene ([[mts]] unit) || sn
| ≡ 1 t·m/s²
| = 1 kN
|-----
| [[kip (unit)|kip]]; kip-force || kip; kipf; klbf
| ≡ ''g'' × 1000 lb
| = 4.448 221 615 260 5 kN
|-----
| [[ton]]-force || tnf
| ≡ ''g'' × 1 sh tn
| = 8.896 443 230 521 kN</td>
|}
===Pressure===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Pressure]], p (lower case)
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[pascal]] (SI unit) || Pa
| ≡ N/m²
| = kg/m·s²
|-----
| barye ([[cgs unit]]) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1 dyn/cm²
| = 0.1 Pa
|-----
| [[poundal]] per square [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] || pdl/sq ft
| ≡ 1 pdl/sq ft
| ≈ 1.488 164 Pa
|-----
| millimetre of [[water]] (3.98 °C) || mmH<sub>2</sub>O
| ≈ 999.972 kg/m³ × 1 mm × ''g''
| = 9.806 38 Pa (= 0.999972 kgf/m²)
|-----
| [[pound (weight)|pound]] per square [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] || psf
| ≡ 1 lb/sq ft × ''g''
| ≈ 47.880 259 Pa
|-----
| centimetre of [[water]] (3.98 °C) || cmH<sub>2</sub>O
| ≈ 999.972 kg/m³ × 1 cm × ''g''
| = 98.0638 Pa
|-----
| [[torr]] || torr
| ≡ 101 325/760 Pa
| ≈ 133.322 368 4 Pa
|-----
| [[torr|millimetre of mercury]] || [[mmHg]]
| ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m³ × 1 mm × ''g'' ≈ 1 torr
| = 133.322 387 415 Pa
|-----
| [[inch]] of [[water]] (3.98 °C) || inH<sub>2</sub>O
| ≈ 999.972 kg/m³ × 1 in × ''g''
| = 249.082 Pa
|-----
| pièze ([[mts]] unit) || pz
| ≡ 1000 kg/m·s²
| = 1 kPa
|-----
| centimetre of mercury || cmHg
| ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m³ × 1 cm × ''g''
| = 1.333 223 874 15 kPa
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] of [[water]] (3.98 °C) || ftH<sub>2</sub>O
| ≈ 999.972 kg/m³ × 1 ft × ''g''
| = 2.988 98 kPa
|-----
| [[inch]] of mercury || inHg
| ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m³ × 1 in × ''g''
| = 3.386 388 640 341 kPa
|-----
| [[Pound-force per square inch|pound per square inch]] || psi
| ≡ 1 lb × ''g'' / 1 sq in
| ≈ 6.894 757×10³ Pa
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] of mercury || ftHg
| ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m³ × 1 ft × ''g''
| = 40.636 663 684 091 9 kPa
|-----
| short [[ton]] per square [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1 sh tn × ''g'' / 1 sq ft
| ≈ 95.760 518 kPa
|-----
| [[Atmospheric pressure|atmosphere]] (technical) || atm
| ≡ 1 kgf/cm²
| = 98.0665 kPa
|-----
| [[bar (unit)|bar]] || bar
|
| ≡ 10<sup>5</sup> Pa
|-----
| [[Atmospheric pressure|atmosphere]] (standard) || atm
|
| ≡ 101 325 Pa
|-----
| [[kip (unit)|kip]] per square [[inch]] || ksi
| ≡ 1 kipf/sq in
| ≈ |
s the names ''Alamanni'' and ''Suebi'' seem to become synonymous, although some of the Suebi later migrated to [[Hispania]] and established an independent kingdom there that endured well into the 6th century.
==Conflicts with the Roman Empire==
The Alamanni were continually engaged in conflicts with the [[Roman Empire]]. They launched a major invasion of Gaul and northern [[Italy]] in [[268]], when the Romans were forced to denude much of their German frontier of troops in response to a massive invasion of the [[Goths]]. Their depredations in the three parts of Gaul remained traumatic: [[Gregory of Tours]] (died ca 594) mentions their destructive force at the time of [[Gallienus|Valerian and Gallienus]] (253&ndash;260), when the Alemanni assembled under their "king", whom he calls [[Chrocus]], "by the advice, it is said, of his wicked mother, and overran the whole of the Gauls, and destroyed from their foundations all the temples which had been built in ancient times. And coming to [[Clermont-Ferrand|Clermont]] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call ''Vasso Galatae'' in the Gallic tongue," martyring many Christians ([http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html#book3 ''Historia Francorum'' Book I.32&ndash;34]). Thus [[6th century]] Gallo-Romans of Gregory's class, surrounded by the ruins of [[Roman temple]]s and public buildings, attributed the destruction they saw to the plundering raids of the Alemanni.
In the early summer of 268, the [[Roman Emperors|Emperor]] [[Gallienus]] halted their advance in Italy, but then had to deal with the Goths. When the Gothic campaign ended in Roman victory at the [[Battle of Naissus]] in September, Gallienus' successor [[Claudius II|Claudius II Gothicus]] turned north to deal with the Alamanni, who were swarming over all Italy north of the [[Po River]].
After efforts to secure a peaceful withdrawal failed, Claudius forced the Alamanni to battle at the [[Battle of Lake Benacus]] in November. The Alamanni were routed, forced back into Germany, and did not threaten Roman territory for many years afterwards.
Their most famous battle against Rome took place in Argentoratum ([[Strasbourg]]), in [[357]], where they were defeated by [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], later Emperor of Rome, and their king Chnodomar ("[[Chonodomarius]]") was taken prisoner.
On [[January 2]], [[366]] the Alamanni crossed the frozen [[Rhine]] in large numbers, to invade the Gallic provinces.
In the great mixed invasion of [[406]], the Alamanni appear to have crossed the [[Rhine|Rhine river]], conquered and then settled what is today [[Alsace]] and a large part of [[Switzerland]]. [[Fredegar]]'s Chronicle gives an account. At ''Alba Augusta'' ([[Aps]]) the devastation was so complete, that the Christian bishopric was removed to [[Viviers]], but Gregory's account that at Mende in [[Lozère]], also deep in the heart of Gaul, bishop Privatus was forced to sacrifice to idols in the very cave where he was later venerated may be a generic literary trope epitomizing the horrors of barbarian violence.
===List of battles between Romans and Alamanni===
* [[268]], [[Battle of Lake Benacus]] &mdash; Romans under Emperor [[Claudius II]] defeat the Alamanni.
* [[271]]
** [[Battle of Placentia]] &mdash; Emperor [[Aurelian]] is defeated by the Alamanni forces invading Italy
** [[Battle of Fano]] &mdash; Aurelian defeats the Alamanni, who begin to retreat from Italy
** [[Battle of Pavia (271)]] &mdash; Aurelian destroys the retreating Alamanni army.
* [[298]]
** [[Battle of Lingones]] &mdash; [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Constantius Chlorus]] defeats the Alamanni
** [[Battle of Vindonissa]] &mdash; Constantius again defeats the Alamanni
* [[356]], [[Battle of Reims (356)|Battle of Reims]] &mdash; [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] is defeated by the Alamanni
* [[357]], [[Battle of Strasbourg (357)|Battle of Strasbourg]] &mdash; Julian expels the Alamanni from the [[Rhineland]]
* [[367]], [[Battle of Solicinium]] &mdash; Romans under Emperor [[Valentinian I]] defeat yet another Alamanni incursion.
* [[378]], [[Battle of Argentovaria]] &mdash; Western Emperor [[Gratianus]] is victorious over the Alamanni, yet again.
==Alamanni and Franks==
{{main|Alamannia}}
The kingdom (or duchy) of [[Alamannia]] between Strasbourg and Augsburg lasted until [[496]], when the Alamanni were conquered by [[Clovis I]] at the [[Battle of Tolbiac]]. The war of Clovis with the Alamanni forms the setting for the conversion of Clovis, briefly treated by [[Gregory of Tours]] ([http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gregory-clovisconv.html#n30 Book II.31]) Subsequently the Alamanni formed part of the [[Franks|Frankish]] dominions and were governed by a Frankish duke.
In 746, [[Carloman%2C_son_of_Charles_Martel|Carloman]] ended an uprising by summarily executing all Alemannic nobility at the [[blood court at Cannstatt]], and for the following century, Alamannia was ruled by Frankish dukes. Following the [[treaty of Verdun]] of [[843]], Alamannia became a province of the eastern kingdom of [[Louis the German]], the precursor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The duchy persisted until [[1268]].
==List of Alamannic rulers==
'''Kings'''
* [[Chrocus]] 306
* [[Mederich]] (father of Agenarich, brother to Chnodomar)
* [[Chnodomar]] 350, 357
* [[Vestralp]] 357, 359
* [[Ur (Alamannic ruler)|Ur]] 357, 359
* [[Agenarich]] (Serapio) 357
* [[Suomar]] 357, 358
* [[Hortar]] 357, 359
* [[Gundomad]] 354 (co-regent of Vadomar)
* [[Ursicin]] 357, 359
* [[Makrian]] 368&ndash;371
* [[Rando]] 368
* [[Hariobaud]] 4th c.
* [[Vadomar]] vor 354&ndash;360
* [[Vithicab]] 360&ndash;368
* [[Priarius]] ?&ndash;378
* [[Gibuld]] (Gebavult) c. 470
'''Dukes under [[List of Frankish Kings|Frankish rule]]'''
* [[Butilin]] 539&ndash;554
* [[Leuthari I]] before 552&ndash;554
* [[Haming]] 539&ndash;554
* [[Lantachar]] until 548 (Avenches diocese)
* [[Magnachar]] 565 (Avenches diocese)
* [[Vaefar]] 573 (Avenches diocese)
* [[Theodefrid]]
* [[Leutfred I]] until 588
* [[Uncilin]] 588&ndash;607
* [[Gunzo]] 613
* [[Chrodobert]] 630
* [[Leuthari II]] 642
* [[Gotfrid]] until 709
* [[Willehari]] 709&ndash;712 (in [[Ortenau]])
* [[Lantfrid]] 709&ndash;730
* [[Theudebald (Alamannic ruler)|Theudebald]] 709&ndash;744
==Christianization==
[[Christianization]] of the Alamanni took place during [[Merovingian]] times (6th to 8th centuries). Sources are sparse, but in the mid-6th century, the Byzantine chronicler [[Agathias of Myrina]] records, in the context of the wars of the Goths and Franks against Byzantium, that the Alamanni fighting among the troops of Frankish king [[Theudebald]] were like the Franks in all respects except religion, since they
:"worship trees, rivers, hills and gorges as gods, and decapitate horses and cows, and innumerable other animals, as if it were a holy rite,"
also adding the particular ruthlessness of the Alamani in destroying Christian sanctuaries and plundering churches while the genuine Franks were respectful towards those sanctuaries. Agathias expresses his hope that the Alamanni would assume better manners through prolongued contact with the Franks, which is by all appearances what eventually happened.
Apostles of the Alamanni were [[Saint Columbanus]] and his disciple [[Saint Gall]]. [[Jonas of Bobbio]] records that Columbanus was active in [[Bregenz]], where he disrupted a beer sacrifice to [[Wodan]]. For some time, the Alamanni seem to have continued their pagan cult activities, with only superficial or [[Syncretism|syncretistic]] Christian elements. In particular, there is no change in burial practice, and tumulus warrior graves continued to be erected throughout Merovingian times. Syncretism of traditional Germanic [[theriomorph|animal-style]] with Christian symbolism is also present in artwork, but Christian symbolism becomes more and more prevalent during the 7th century. Unlike the later Christianization of the Saxon and of the Slavs, the Alamanni seem to have adopted Christianity gradually, and voluntarily, spread by emulation of the Merovingian elite.
From ca. the 520s to the 620s, there was a surge of Alamannic [[Elder Futhark]] inscriptions. About 80 specimens have survived, roughly half of them on [[fibula]]e, others on belt buckles (see [[Pforzen buckle]]) and other jewellry and weapon parts. Use of runes subsides with the advance of Christianity.
The establishment of the bishopric of [[Constance]] cannot be dated exactly and was possibly undertaken by Columbanus himself (before 612). In any case, it existed by [[635]], when [[Gunzo]] appointed [[John of Grab]] bishop. Constance was a missionary bishopric in newly converted lands, and did not look back on late Roman church history (unlike [[Basel]], episcopal seat from [[740]], which continued the line of Bishops of [[Augusta Raurica]], see [[Bishop of Basel]], and the Raetian bishopric of [[Chur]], established [[451]]). The establishment of the church as an institution recognized by worldly rulers is also visible in legal history. The early 7th century ''[[Pactus Alamannorum]]'' marginally mentions special privileges of the church, while [[Lantfrid]]'s ''[[Lex Alamannorum]]'' of [[720]] has an entire chapter reserved for ecclesial matters.
See also: [[Germanic Christianity]].
==Modern Alemanni==
''Allemania'' lost its distinct jurisdictional identity when [[Charles Martel]] absorbed it into the Frankish empire, early in the 8th century. Today, ''Alemannic'' is a linguistic term, referring to [[Alemannic German]], encompassing the dialects of the southern two thirds of [[Baden-Württemberg]] (German State), in western [[Bavaria]] (German State), in [[Vorarlberg]] (Austrian State), [[Swiss German]] in Switzerland and the [[Alsatian language]] of the [[Alsace]] (France).
The word "Frankish" eventua |
[[God]] in believing it, and the nobler is the victory of faith."
==Posthumous reputation==
Bacon's ideas about the improvement of the human lot were influential in the 1640s and 1650s among a number of [[Parliamentarian]] scholars. In the [[Restoration]] Bacon was commonly invoked as a guiding spirit of the new-founded [[Royal Society]]. In the nineteenth century his emphasis on [[Induction (philosophy)|induction]] was revived and developed by [[William Whewell]], among others.
Bacon was ranked #90 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].
===Bacon and Shakespeare===
Since the nineteenth and twentieth centuries a number of writers extended Bacon's acknowledged body of work by claiming that Bacon was the author of the plays usually attributed to [[William Shakespeare]]. There is disputed evidence for this via Bacon's Shakespeare notebook, [[The Promus]] and [[The Northumberland Manuscript]]. See: [[Shakespearean authorship]].
==Summary==
<timeline>
ImageSize = width:450 height:450
PlotArea = left:50 right:0 bottom:10 top:10
DateFormat = yyyy
Period = from:1560 till:1630
TimeAxis = orientation:vertical
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1560
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1560
PlotData=
color:red mark:(line, black) align:left fontsize:S
shift:(25,0) # shift text to right side of bar
# there is no automatic collision detection,
# so shift texts up or down manually to avoid overlap shift:(25,-10)
at:1561 text:Born at London
at:1573 fontsize:XS text:Ed. at Trinity Coll. Cambridge; dissatisfied with Aristotlean philosophy
at:1579 text:Enters Gray's Inn
from:1576 till:1579 text:In France
at:1582 text:Called to Bar
at:1584 text:Enters Parliament
at:1591 text:Becomes friend of Essex
at:1593 text:Essex presents him with estate
at:1597 text:Publishes first ed of Essays
at:1601 text:Prosecutes Essex
at:1605 text:Publishes Advancement of Learning
at:1607 text:Solicitor General
at:1609 text:Publishes Wisdom of the Ancients
at:1613 text:Attorney General
at:1616 text:Prosecutes Somerset
at:1618 fontsize:XS text:Lord Keeper
at:1619 fontsize:XS text:Lord Chancellor with title of Verulam
at:1620 fontsize:XS text:Publishes Novum Organum
at:1621 fontsize:XS text:Viscount St. Albans; Charged with corruption, retires from public life.
at:1622 fontsize:XS text:Publishes Henry VII and third part of Instauratio
at:1626 text:Dies
</timeline>
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord High Chancellor]] | before=[[Thomas Egerton, 1st Baron Ellesmere|Sir Thomas Egerton]] | after=In Commission | years=1617&ndash;1621}}
{{succession box two to two | before=New Creation | title1=[[Viscount St Albans]] | after=Extinct | years1=1621&ndash;1626 | title2=[[Baron Verulam]] | years2=1618&ndash;1626}}
{{end box}}
==Notes==
#{{note|SexOr}} Bacon's sexual orientation is discussed in detail at the website [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/baconfra.htm Gay History and Literature].
==References==
* {{1911}}
* {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}
* ''Some material originally from the 1911 Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion.''
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Francis_Bacon|name=Francis Bacon}}
* [http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/british-authors/16th-century/francis-bacon/ Francis Bacon Books]
* [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/bacon_francis.html Online editions of Bacon's works]
* [http://www.constitution.org/bacon/nov_org.htm Novum Organum Online]
* [http://www.sirbacon.org/ Sir Francis Bacon's New Advancement of Learning]
* [http://www.hirohurl.net/engren.html Essays on the English Renaissance]
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-25 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Baconianism
* [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/baconfra.htm Rictor Norton, "Sir Francis Bacon"] quotes excised passages of [[Sir Simonds D'Ewes]]
* [http://www.quotationsbook.com/authors/377/Bacon_Francis Quotations Book - Francis Bacon]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/francis-bacon/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://www.twickenham-museum.org.uk/detail.asp?ContentID=184 The Twickenham Museum - Sir Francis Bacon]
* [http://www.henrywotton.org.uk/ Henry Wotton employed by Bacon's intelligence system]
*[http://www.fbrt.org.uk/frameset.html Francis Bacon Research Trust - Studies of Bacon's connections to the [[Rosicrucian]]s, [[Freemasonry]], [[Shakespeare]]]
* [http://nrg78.com/ipw-web/b2/index.php?m=20051017#108 - ''For knowledge itself is power'': a blog post that compares Bacon to Machiavelli.]
* [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com A READABLE version of the New Organon]
[[Category:1561 births|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:1626 deaths|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:British MPs|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Early modern philosophers|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Empiricists]]
[[Category:English essayists|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:English spies|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:History of science|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Lord Chancellors of England|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Medieval spies|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Tudor people|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Viscounts in the Peerage of England|St Albans, Viscount 01-001]]
[[Category:Rhetoricians|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Pederasty|Bacon, Francis]]
<!--Interlanguage links-->
[[bg:Френсис Бейкън]]
[[bn:ফ্রান্সিস বেকন]]
[[ca:Francis Bacon]]
[[ct:Francis Bacon]]
[[cs:Francis Bacon]]
[[de:Francis Bacon]]
[[et:Francis Bacon]]
[[es:Francis Bacon]]
[[eo:Francis BACON]]
[[fa:فرانسيس بيكن]]
[[fr:Francis Bacon (philosophe)]]
[[gl:Francis Bacon (filósofo)]]
[[ko:프랜시스 베이컨]]
[[io:Francis Bacon]]
[[it:Francesco Bacone]]
[[he:פרנסיס בייקון]]
[[hr:Francis Bacon]]
[[ku:Francis Bacon]]
[[hu:Francis Bacon]]
[[mk:Френсис Бекон]]
[[nl:Francis Bacon (wetenschapper)]]
[[ja:フランシス・ベーコン (哲学者)]]
[[pl:Francis Bacon (filozof)]]
[[pt:Francis Bacon (filósofo)]]
[[ru:Бэкон, Фрэнсис]]
[[sk:Francis Bacon]]
[[sl:Francis Bacon]]
[[sr:Френсис Бекон]]
[[fi:Francis Bacon (yleisnero)]]
[[sv:Francis Bacon]]
[[tr:Sir Francis Bacon]]
[[uk:Бекон Френсіс]]
[[zh:弗兰西斯·培根]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 2</title>
<id>11322</id>
<revision>
<id>40904469</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T20:15:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rewster</username>
<id>262116</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv to last version by Zoicon5</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=2}}
|}
'''[[February 2]]''' is the 33rd day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 332 days remaining (333 in [[leap year]]s).
==Events==
*[[962]] - ''[[Translatio imperii]]'': [[Pope John XII]] crowns [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor]], the first [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in nearly 40 years.
*[[1032]] - [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor]] becomes King of [[Burgundy]].
*[[1119]] - [[Pope Callixtus II|Callixtus II]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1509]] - [[Battle of Diu]] takes place near [[Diu]], [[India]], between [[Portugal]] and [[Turkey]].
*[[1536]] - [[Spain|Spaniard]] [[Pedro de Mendoza]] founds [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]].
*[[1542]] - [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] under [[Christovão da Gama]] capture a [[Moslem]]-occupied hillfort in northern [[Ethiopia]] in the [[Battle of Baçente]].
*[[1653]] - [[New Amsterdam]] (later renamed [[New York City]]) is incorporated.
*[[1709]] - [[Alexander Selkirk]] is rescued from shipwreck on a desert island, inspiring the book ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]].
*[[1812]] - [[Russia]] establishes a fur trading colony at [[Fort Ross]], along the [[California]] coast.
*[[1848]] - [[Mexican-American War]]: The [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] is signed ending the war.
*1848 - [[California Gold Rush]]: The first ship with [[China|Chinese]] emigrants seeking fortune in [[California]]'s gold country arrive in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]].
*[[1870]] - It is revealed that the famed [[Cardiff Giant]] was just carved [[gypsum]] and not the petrified remains of a [[human]].
*[[1876]] - The [[National League|National League of Professional Baseball Clubs]] of [[Major League Baseball]] is formed.
*[[1878]] - [[Greece]] declares war on [[Turkey]].
*[[1880]] - The first electric [[streetlight]] is installed in [[Wabash, Indiana]].
*[[1882]] - The [[Knights of Columbus]] are formed in [[New Haven, Connecticut]].
*[[1887]] - In [[Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania]] the first [[Groundhog Day]] is observed.
*[[1897]] - The [[Pennsylvania]] state capitol is destroyed by fire.
*[[1899]] - The [[Australia|Australian]] [[Premiers' Conference]] held in [[Melbourne]] decides to locate [[Australia]]'s capital ([[Canberra]]) between [[Sydney]] and [[Melbourne]].
*[[1920]] - [[Tartu Peace Treaty]] signed between [[Estonia]] and [[Russia]].
*1920 - [[France]] occupies [[Memel]].
*[[1925]] - [[Dog sled]]s reach [[Nome, Alaska]] with [[diphtheria]] serum, inspiring the [[Iditarod]] race.
*[[1933]] - [[Adolf Hitler]] dissolves the [[Germany|German]] [[Parliament]].
*[[1935]] - The [[polygraph machine]] is tested for the first time. [[Leonard Keeler]] conducts the experiment in [[Portage, Wisconsin]].
*[[1940]] - [[Frank Sinatra]] debuts with the [[Tommy Dorsey]] orchestra.
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: The last [[Germany|German]] forces surrender to the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]s after the [[Battle of Stalingrad]].
*[[1945]] - World War II: [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] |
''F''(''f'') for all morphisms ''f'' : ''x'' &rarr; ''y'' and ''g'' : ''y'' &rarr; ''z''.
A ''contravariant functor'' ''F'' from ''C'' to ''D'' is a functor that "turns morphisms around" ("reverses all the arrows"). Specifically, ''F'' is contravariant if whenever ''f'' : ''x'' &rarr; ''y'' is a morphism in ''C'', then ''F''(''f'') : ''F''(''y'') &rarr; ''F''(''x''). The quickest way to define a contravariant functor is as a covariant functor from the opposite category ''C''<sup>op</sup> to ''D''.
==Natural transformations and isomorphisms==
''Main article: [[natural transformation]]''
A ''natural transformation'' is a relation between two functors. Functors often describe "natural constructions" and natural transformations then describe "natural homomorphisms" between two such constructions. Sometimes two quite different constructions yield "the same" result; this is expressed by a natural isomorphism between the two functors.
If ''F'' and ''G'' are (covariant) functors between the categories ''C'' and ''D'', then a natural transformation from ''F'' to ''G'' associates to every object ''x'' in ''C'' a morphism &eta;<sub>''x''</sub> : ''F''(''x'') &rarr; ''G''(''x'') in ''D'' such that for every morphism ''f'' : ''x'' &rarr; ''y'' in ''C'', we have &eta;<sub>''y''</sub> &#9675; ''F''(''f'') = ''G''(''f'') &#9675; &eta;<sub>''x''</sub>; this means that the following diagram is [[commutative diagram|commutative]]:
[[Image:NaturalTransformation-01.png|center|Commutative diagram defining natural transformations]]
The two functors ''F'' and ''G'' are called ''naturally isomorphic'' if there exists a natural transformation from ''F'' to ''G'' such that &eta;<sub>''x''</sub> is an isomorphism for every object ''x'' in ''C''.
==Universal constructions, limits, and colimits==
''Main articles: [[universal property]], [[limit (category theory)]]''
Using the language of category theory, many areas of mathematical study can be cast into appropriate categories, such as the categories of all sets, groups, topologies, and so on. These categories surely have some objects that are "special" in a certain way, such as the [[empty set]] or the [[product topology|product of two topologies]]. Yet, in the definition of a category, objects are considered to be atomic; i.e. we do not know, whether an object ''A'' is a set, a topology, or any other abstract concept. Hence, the challenge is to define special objects without referring to the internal structure of these objects. But how can we define the empty set without referring to elements, or the product topology without referring to open sets?
The solution is to characterize these objects in terms of their relations to other objects, as given by the morphisms of the respective categories. Thus the task is to find [[universal property|universal properties]] that uniquely determine the objects of interest. Indeed, it turns out that numerous important constructions can be described in a purely categorical way. The central concept which is needed for this purpose is called categorical ''limit'', and can be dualized to yield the notion of a ''colimit''.
==Equivalent categories==
''Main articles: [[equivalence of categories]], [[isomorphism of categories]]''
It is a natural question to ask, under which conditions two categories can be considered to be "essentially the same", in the sense that theorems about one category can readily be transformed into theorems about the other category. The major tool one employs to describe such a situation is called ''equivalence of categories''. It is given by appropriate functors between two categories. Categorical equivalence has found numerous applications in mathematics.
==Further concepts and results==
The definitions of categories and functors provide only the very basics of categorical algebra. Additional important topics are listed below. Although there are strong interrelations between all of these topics, the given order can be considered as a guideline for further reading.
* The [[functor category]] ''D''<sup>''C''</sup> has as objects the functors from ''C'' to ''D'' and as morphisms the natural transformations of such functors. The [[Yoneda lemma]] is one of the most famous basic results of category theory; it describes representable functors in functor categories.
* [[Dual (category theory)|Duality]]: Every statement, theorem, or definition in category theory has a ''dual'' which is essentially obtained by "reversing all the arrows". If one statement is true in a category ''C'' then its dual will be true in the dual category ''C''<sup>op</sup>. This duality, which is transparent at the level of category theory, is often obscured in applications and can lead to surprising relationships.
* [[Adjoint functors]]: A functor can be left (or right) adjoint to another functor that maps in the opposite direction. Such a pair of adjoint functors typically arises from a construction defined by a universal property; it can be seen as a more abstract and powerful view on universal properties.
==Higher-dimensional categories==
Many of the above concepts, especially equivalence of categories, adjoint functor pairs, and functor categories, can be situated into the context of ''higher-dimensional categories''. Briefly, if we consider a morphism between two objects as a "process taking us from one object to another", then higher-dimensional categories allow us to profitably generalise this by considering "higher-dimensional processes".
For example, a (strict) [[2-category]] is a category together with "morphisms between morphisms", i.e. processes which allow us to transform one morphism into another. We can then "compose" these "bimorphisms" both horizontally and vertically, and we require a 2-dimensional "exchange law" to hold, relating the two composition laws. In this context, the standard example is '''Cat''', the 2-category of all (small) categories, and in this example, bimorphisms of morphisms are simply [[natural transformation]]s of morphisms in the usual sense. Another basic example is to consider a 2-category with a single object&mdash;these are essentially [[monoidal category|monoidal categories]]. [[bicategory|Bicategories]] are a weaker notion of 2-dimensional categories where the composition of morphisms is not strictly associative, but only associative "up to" an isomorphism.
This process can be extended for all [[natural number]]s ''n'', and these are called [[n-category|''n''-categories]]. There is even a notion of ''&omega;-category'' corresponding to the [[ordinal number]] &omega;. For a conversational introduction to these ideas, see [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/week73.html John Baez: The Tale of ''n''-categories].
== See also ==
{{Wikibookspar|Abstract algebra|Category theory}}
* [[List of category theory topics]]
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Category theory| Important publications in category theory]]
* [[Glossary of category theory]]
==References==
* Adámek, Ji&#345;í, Herrlich, Horst, & Strecker, George E. (1990). [http://www.math.uni-bremen.de/~dmb/acc.pdf ''Abstract and Concrete Categories'']. Originally publ. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-60922-6. (now free on-line edition)
* Barr, Michael, & Wells, Charles (2002). [http://www.cwru.edu/artsci/math/wells/pub/ttt.html ''Toposes, Triples and Theories'']. (revised and corrected free online version of ''Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften (278).'' Springer-Verlag,1983)
* Borceux, Francis (1994). ''Handbook of Categorical Algebra.''. Vols. 50-52 of ''Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Lawvere, William, & Schanuel, Steve. (1997). ''Conceptual Mathematics: A First Introduction to Categories''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Mac Lane, Saunders (1998). ''[[Categories for the Working Mathematician]]'' (2nd ed.). Graduate Texts in Mathematics 5. Springer. ISBN 0-387-98403-8.
==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/category-theory/ "Category Theory" in ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'']
* [http://www.mta.ca/~cat-dist/categories.html Homepage of the Categories mailing list], with extensive list of resources
* [http://us.geocities.com/alex_stef/mylist.html ''Category Theory'' section of Alexandre Stefanov's list of free online mathematics resources]
* [http://ex-code.com/b2evolution/index.php/math/2005/08/12/p49 Discussion about alternative definitions of category with multiple sources and destinations for each morphism]
[[Category:Category theory|*]]
[[Category:Higher category theory]]
{{Mathematics-footer}}
[[de:Kategorientheorie]]
[[es:Categorías y fundamentos]]
[[eo:Teorio De Kategorioj]]
[[fr:Théorie des catégories]]
[[it:Teoria delle categorie (matematica)]]
[[ja:圏論]]
[[pl:Teoria kategorii]]
[[pt:Teoria das categorias]]
[[ru:Теория категорий]]
[[sv:Kategoriteori]]
[[tr:Kategori Teorisi]]
[[zh:范畴论]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Comic</title>
<id>5870</id>
<revision>
<id>24164979</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-27T16:23:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karmosin</username>
<id>181365</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirect to [[comics]] as per talkpage.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[comics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cardiac arrhythmia/tachycardia</title>
<id>5871</id>
<revision>
<id>15904060</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-12T08:03:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TUF-KAT</username>
<id>8351</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect, gonna merge</ |
hash tables]
* Open addressing hash table removal algorithm from [[ICI programming language]], ''ici_set_unassign'' in [http://cvs.sourceforge.net/viewcvs.py/ici/ici/set.c?rev=1.14&view=auto set.c] (and other occurrences, with permission).
* {{planetmath reference|id=3327|title=good hash table primes}}
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programming:Perl The Perl Wikibook] - [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programming:Perl_Hash_Variables Perl Hash Variables]
== References ==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 6.4: Hashing, pp.513&ndash;558.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Chapter 11: Hash Tables, pp.221&ndash;252.
* [[Michael T. Goodrich]] and [[Roberto Tamassia]]. ''Data Structures and Algorithms in Java'', 4th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 0-471-73884-0. Chapter 9: Maps and Dictionaries. pp.369&ndash;418
[[Category:Data structures]]
[[Category:Search algorithms]]
[[da:Hashtabel]]
[[de:Hashtabelle]]
[[es:Tabla hash]]
[[fr:Table de hachage]]
[[it:Hash table]]
[[lt:Dėstymo lentelės]]
[[nl:Hashtabel]]
[[ja:ハッシュテーブル]]
[[pl:Tablica mieszająca]]
[[pt:Tabela hash]]
[[ru:Хеш-таблица]]
[[sk:Hašovacia tabuľka]]
[[zh:哈希表]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hello world program</title>
<id>13834</id>
<revision>
<id>42115061</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:43:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Savidan</username>
<id>677067</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed 99 bottles as article was transwikied and deleted</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''"hello world" program''' is a [[computer program|software program]] that prints out "Hello, world!" on a display device. It is used in many introductory tutorials for teaching a [[programming language]] and many students use it as their first programming experience in a language.
==Introduction==
Such a program is typically one of the simplest programs possible in a computer language. Some, however, are surprisingly complex, especially in some [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) contexts; but most are very simple, especially those which rely heavily on a particular [[command line interpreter|command line interpreter ("shell")]] to perform the actual output. In many [[embedded system]]s, the text may be sent to a one or two-line [[liquid crystal display]] (LCD) (and in yet other systems, a simple [[light emitting diode|LED]] being turned on may substitute for "Hello world!").
A "hello world" program can be a useful [[sanity test]] to make sure that a language's [[compiler]], [[development environment]], and [[run-time environment]] are correctly installed. Configuring a complete programming [[toolchain]] from scratch to the point where even trivial programs can be compiled and run may involve substantial amounts of work. For this reason, a simple program is used first when testing a new tool chain.
While small test programs existed since the development of programmable [[computer]]s, the tradition of using the phrase "Hello world!" as the test message was influenced by an example program in the book ''[[The C Programming Language (book)|The C Programming Language]]'', by [[Brian Kernighan]] and [[Dennis Ritchie]], published in [[1978]]. The example program from that book prints "<code>hello, world</code>" (i.e., no capital letters, no [[exclamation sign]]; those entered the tradition later). The book had inherited the program from a [[1974]] [[Bell Labs|Bell Laboratories]] internal memorandum by Kernighan &mdash;''Programming in C: A Tutorial''&mdash; which shows the first known version of the program:
main( ) {
printf("Hello, world!");
}
However, the first known instance of the usage of the words "hello" and "world" together in computer literature occurred in ''A Tutorial Introduction to the Language B'', by Brian Kernighan, [[1973]] [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/bintro.html], with the following code:
main( ) {
extrn a, b, c;
putchar(a); putchar(b); putchar(c); putchar('!*n');
}
a 'hell';
b 'o, w';
c 'orld';
There are many variations on the punctuation and casing of the phrase, and the examples on this page print out several of these variations. Variations include the presence or lack of the comma and exclamation mark, and the capitalisation of the 'H', both 'H' and 'W', or neither. The most commonly accepted variation, despite not being the original text, is "<code>Hello, world!</code>" Some languages are forced to implement different forms, such as "<code>HELLO WORLD!</code>," on systems that only support capital letters, while many [[Hello world program in esoteric languages|"hello world" programs in esoteric languages]] print out a slightly modified string. For example, the [[Malbolge]] program prints "HEllO WORld", this having been determined to be "good enough." "Hello world" programs also normally print a newline character or character sequence (either [[ASCII]]-10 or 13, 10).
== See also ==
*[[List of hello world programs]]
*[[Hello world program in esoteric languages]]
*[[Fibonacci number program]]
*[[Trabb Pardo-Knuth algorithm]]
*[[Just another Perl hacker]]
*[[List of basic computer science topics]]
*[[Hello, Sailor]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.latech.edu/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml ACM "Hello World" project]
*[http://www.rawbw.com/~rem/HelloPlus/hellos.html "HelloWorld online on Web, and steps beyond HelloWorld"]
*[http://www.cuillin.demon.co.uk/nazz/trivia/hw/hello_world.html A Collection of Hello World Programs]
*[http://www.roesler-ac.de/wolfram/hello.htm Another Collection of Hello World Programs] with 200+ programs, including "Hello World" in several human languages
* http://www.99-bottles-of-beer.net/ 99 bottles ... over 600 programming languages used ...
*[http://www.westnet.com/mirrors/99bottles/beer_n_r.html smaller one site "mirror" of the very impressive site 99 bottles site mentioned above]
*[http://fox.wikis.com/wc.dll?Wiki~HelloWorld A bunch of Visual FoxPro way to write a Hello World program]
*[http://www.4raccoons.com/~wayne/merry.html How to print "Merry Christmas" 15 times in a bunch of programming languages (from about 1983)]
*Humor:
**[http://www.netfunny.com/rhf/jokes/new90/helowor.html from rec.humor.funny]
**[http://www.gnu.org/fun/jokes/helloworld.html from the GNU Humor Collection]
[[Category:Programming games]]
[[Category:Programming]]
[[bg:Hello, world]]
[[cs:Hello world]]
[[da:Hello world-program]]
[[de:Hallo-Welt-Programm]]
[[et:Hello world]]
[[es:Hola mundo]]
[[eu:Kaixo mundua]]
[[fr:Hello world]]
[[ko:Hello world 프로그램]]
[[id:Hello world]]
[[ia:Hello World]]
[[it:Hello world]]
[[he:תוכנית Hello world]]
[[hu:Helló, Világ!-program]]
[[nl:Hello world]]
[[ja:Hello world]]
[[no:Hello, world]]
[[nn:Hello World]]
[[pl:Hello world]]
[[pt:Programa Olá Mundo]]
[[ro:Program Hello, world!]]
[[ru:Программа Hello world]]
[[sk:Hello world]]
[[sl:PozdravljenSvet]]
[[sv:Hello, World!]]
[[th:Hello world]]
[[vi:Chào thế giới!]]
[[zh:Hello World程序]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heavy metal</title>
<id>13839</id>
<revision>
<id>39302582</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T05:14:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Flowerparty</username>
<id>240961</id>
</contributor>
<comment>unpiped and tidied links per [[MoS:DP]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Heavy metal''' may mean:
* [[heavy metals]], chemical elements within a particular range of atomic weights
* [[heavy metal music]], a style of rock music
** [[heavy metal umlaut]], the use of an [[umlaut]] by musicians involved in heavy metal music
* ''[[Heavy Metal (magazine)]]'', an American fantasy magazine based on the French magazine ''[[Métal Hurlant]]''
* ''[[Heavy Metal (film)]]'', a 1981 animated film based on the magazine, or its sequel ''[[Heavy Metal 2000]]''
* ''[[Heavy Metal: a Tank Company's Battle to Baghdad]]'', a book about Operation Iraqi Freedom
* [[Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.²]], a video game
* [[Heavy Metal (BattleTech)]], software for [[BattleTech]] game
* [[Erick Casas]], a Mexican professional wrestler whose ring name is 'Heavy Metal'
{{disambig}}
[[ca:Heavy Metal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hudson river</title>
<id>13841</id>
<revision>
<id>15911429</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-07T13:38:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maury Markowitz</username>
<id>2175</id>
</contributor>
<comment>two copies of the page with different capitalization</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hudson River]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the Hebrew language</title>
<id>13842</id>
<revision>
<id>15911430</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-07T18:00:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gilgamesh</username>
<id>47947</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT:[[Hebrew languages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hebrew language/Phonetics</title>
<id>13843</id>
<revision>
<id>15911431</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-05T02:29:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-> Hebrew language</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hebrew language]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<titl |
for the region (the oldest recorded) was "[[Gallaecia]]", but the use of a "z" has a claim to antiquity relative as long as “Galiza” is found in the initial texts written in the Galizan-Luso-language, and was only gradually replaced by “Galicia” during the Leon-Castillian domination of the Kingdom, still exerted today.
Therefore, the use of Galicia is considered a Spanish interference by many, who consider the ancient form as the purest one (linguistically speaking). Logically, leftist nationalist parties and organizations nationwide (such as [[Bloque Nacionalista Galego|BNG]]) use only Galiza.
==History==
{{main|History of Galicia}}
The name Galicia comes from the Latin name [[Gallaecia]], associated with the name of the ancient Celtic tribe that resided above the [[Douro]] river, the ''Gallaeci'' or ''Callaeci'' in Latin, and [[Kallaikoi]] in Greek (these tribes were mentioned by [[Herodotus]]).
Before the Roman invasion, a series of tribes lived in the region, having &mdash; according to [[Strabo]], [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], [[Herodotus]] and others &mdash; a similar culture and customs. These tribes appear to have [[Celts|Celtic]] culture; there is evidence that the last Galician Celtic speaker died in the 15th century.
The region was first entered by the Roman legions under [[Decimus Junius Brutus]] in [[137 BC | 137]]&ndash;[[136 BC]]. (Livy lv., lvi., ''Epitome''); but the province was only superficially Romanized in the time of [[Augustus]].
In the [[5th century AD]] invasions, Galicia fell to the [[Suevi]] in [[411]], who formed a kingdom. In [[584]], the Visigothic King Leovigild invaded the Suebic kingdom of Galicia and defeated it, bringing it under Visigoth control. During the Moorish invasion of Spain, the Moors briefly occupied Galicia until they were driven out in [[739]] by [[Alfonso I of Asturias]].
During the [[9th century|9th]] and [[10th century|10th centuries]], the counts of Galicia owed fluctuating obedience to their nominal sovereign, and Normans/Vikings occasionally raided the coasts. The Towers of Catoira[http://www.catoira.net (see Viking Festival)] (Pontevedra) were built as a system of fortifications to stop Viking raids of [[Santiago de Compostela]].
In [[1063]], [[Ferdinand I of Castile and León]] divided his kingdom among his sons. Galicia was allotted to [[Garcia II of Galicia]]. In [[1072]], it was forcibly reannexed by Garcia's brother [[Alphonso VI of Castile]], and from that time Galicia remained part of the kingdom of Castile and Leon, although under differing degrees of self-government.
The final episode of Galician independence, up to today, was the dynastic conflict between [[Isabella of Castile]] and Xoana, called "a beltranexa" ("Daugther of Beltrán", and not to be confused with [[Juana of Castile|Juana the Crazy (Juana of Castille)]]). Queen Isabella, during her reign as queen of Castilla, made (the historically unproven) accusations upon her niece (Xoana) of being a bastard of Beltrán and the former queen (hence the name Beltranexa). A political fight ensued, and the Xoana-supporting nobles lost (most of the Galician aristocracy); thus giving Isabel a free ticket to initiate the process she called "Doma y Castración del Reino de Galicia" ("Taming and Castration of the Kingdom of Galicia"(sic)(Court Historian, [[Zurita y Castro, Jeronimo|Zurita]])).
{{History of Galicia}}
Galician [[nationalism|nationalist]] and federalist movements arose in the nineteenth century, and after the second Spanish Republic was declared in [[1931]], Galicia became an autonomous region following a referendum. During the 1936&ndash;75 dictatorship of General [[Francisco Franco]] &mdash; himself a Galician from [[Ferrol]] &mdash; Galicia's autonomy statute was annulled (in common with those of Catalonia and the Basque provinces). Franco's regime also suppressed any official promotion of the Galician language, although its everyday use was never proscribed. During the last decade of Franco's rule, there was a renewal of nationalist feeling in Galicia.
Following the transition to democracy, after Franco's death in [[1975]], Galicia regained its status as an autonomous region within Spain. Varying degrees of nationalist or separatist sentiment are evident at the political level. The only nationalist party of any electoral significance, the ''[[Bloque Nacionalista Galego]]'' or BNG, it's a conglomerate of left-wing and radical left wing (national-socialist) individuals, that advocate total independence from Spain. However, the nationalist parties such as those have hitherto obtained only minority electoral support at election time.
From 1990 to 2005, the region's government and parliament, the [[Xunta de Galicia]] was presided over by the ''Partido Popular'' ('People's Party', Spain's main national conservative party) under [[Manuel Fraga]], a former minister and ambassador under the Franco regime. However, in the 2005 Galician elections, the People's Party lost its overall majority, while just remaining the largest party in the parliament. As a result power passed to a coalition between the ''Partido Socialista de Galicia'' (PSdeG) ('Galician Socialist Party'), a regional sister-party of Spain's main socialist party, the ''Partido Socialista Obrero Español'' ('Spanish Socialist Workers Party') and the BNG. As the senior partner in the new coalition, the PSdeG nominated its leader, [[Emilio Perez Touriño]], to serve as Galicia's new president.
==Language==
{{main|Galician language}}
[[Image:MapaLinguisticoGalego.png|thumb|right|250px|Linguistic map of the [[Galician|Galician language]].]]
The spoken languages are [[Galician]] (Galician: ''Galego or Gallego''), the local national language derived from Latin, and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (''castellano'' or ''español''), in common with the rest of Spain.
Spanish was the only official language for several centuries. Since the end of the [[20th century|20<sup>th</sup> century]], the Galician language also has an official status, and both languages are taught in Galician schools. There is a broad consensus of support within the region for efforts to preserve the Galician language.
The Galician and [[Portuguese language| Portuguese]] languages are derived from the early [[Galician-Portuguese]] (''Galego-Português'') language, and are still considered by some but two dialects of the same Galician-Portuguese language. In the Middle Ages, the Galician and Portuguese languages began to diverge because of the political separation of Portugal from Galicia. There remain many similarities between Portuguese and Galician. Orally, these differences are comparable in scope to those between [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]] &mdash; a form of [[Dutch language |Dutch]] spoken in [[Belgium]] &mdash; and standard Dutch.
A distinct [[Galician literature|Galician Literature]] emerged after the Middle Ages. In the 13th century, important contributions were made to the romance canon in Galego-Português. The most notable was by the [[troubadour]] Martín Codax and King [[Alfonso X of Castile]], called El ''Sabio'' (The Wise). During this period, Galego-Português was considered the language of love poetry in the Iberian proto-romance linguistic culture.
==Geography==
Since 1833, Galicia has been divided in four administrative [[provinces of Spain|provinces]]:
*[[A Coruña (province)|A Coruña]],
*[[Ourense (province)|Ourense]],
*[[Pontevedra (province)|Pontevedra]], and
*[[Lugo (province)|Lugo]].
The main cities are [[Vigo]], [[A Coruña]] (Corunna in English), [[Pontevedra]], [[Lugo]], [[Ferrol]], [[Ourense]], and [[Santiago de Compostela]], the region's capital and archiepiscopal seat, and home of the shrine which gave rise to medieval Europe's most famous [[Pilgrim|pilgrimage]] route, The [[Way of St James]].
[[Image:galiciacoast.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Finisterre on the Atlantic coast of Galicia]]
Geographically, one of the most important features of Galicia is the presence of many fjord-like indentations on the coast, [[estuaries]] that were drowned with rising sea levels after the [[ice age]]. These are called ''[[rias|rías]]'' and are divided into the [[Rias Altas]] and the [[Rías Baixas]]. Most of the population live near the Rias Baixas, where several large urban centers including [[Vigo]] and [[Pontevedra]] are located. The ''rias'' are important for fishing, and make the coast of Galicia one of the most important fishing areas of the world. The spectacular landscapes and wildness of the coast attract great numbers of tourists.
The weather is Atlantic, with mild temperatures all over the year. Santiago de Compostela has an average 100 days of rain a year. The interior, specifically the more mountainous parts of Ourense and Lugo, receive significant freezes and snowfall during the winter months.
Galicia has preserved much of its dense Atlantic forests where wildlife is commonly found. It is scarcely polluted, and its landscape composed of green hills, cliffs and ''rias'' is very different to what is commonly understood as Spanish landscape.
Inland, the region is less populated and suffers from migration to the coast and the major cities of Spain. There are few small cities ([[Ourense]], [[Lugo]], [[Verín]], [[Monforte de Lemos]], [[A Rua]]), and there are many small villages. The terrain is made up of several low mountain ranges crossed by many small rivers that are not navigable but have provided hydroelectric power from the many dams. Galicia has so many small rivers that it has been called the "land of the thousand rivers". The most important of the rivers are the [[Miño]] and the [[Sil]], which has a spectacular canyon.
The mountains in Galicia are not high but have served to isolate the rural population and discourage development in the interior. There is a ski resort in [[Cabeza de Manzaneda]] (1700 m) in [[Ourense (pro |
on to Fernando Pessoa: Modernism and the Paradoxes of Authorship / Sadlier, Darlene., 1998
* A Centenary Pessoa / Pessoa, Fernando., 1997
* Fernando Pessoa: Voices of a Nomadic Soul / Kotowicz, Zbigniew., 1996
* The Continuing Presence of Walt Whitman: the Life after the Life / Martin, Robert., 1992
* Fernando Pessoa: the Bilingual Portuguese Poet / Terlinden-Villepin, Anne., 1990
* Three Persons on One: A Centenary Tribute to Fernando Pessoa / McGuirk, Bernard., 1988
* Fernando Pessoa, a Galaxy of Poets / Carvalho, Maria Helena Rodrigues de., 1985
* Fernando Pessoa's The Mad Fiddler: A Critical Study / Terlinden-Villepin, Anne., 1984
* Spatial Imagery of Enclosure in the Poetry of Fernando Pessoa / Guyer, Leland Robert., 1979
* The Role of the Other in the Poetry of Fernando Pessoa / Jones, Marilyn Scarantino., 1974
* Selected Poems of Fernando Pessoa / Rickard, Peter., 1972
* Three Twentieth-Century Portuguese Poets / Parker M., John., 1960
<b>Articles:</b>
<i>(The following articles are located on the Gale website (Galenet.com) --note: password is required for access. Ask your public librarian for a password...More essays can be located in the Gale Criticism Anthologies; these are also found in your public library.)</i>
* Wood, Michael, "Mod and Great" in The New York Review of Books, Vol. XIX, No. 4, September 21, 1972, pp. 19-22.
* Hollander, John, "Quadrophenia," in New Republic, September 7, 1987, pp. 33-6. <br>
* Eberstadt, Fernanda, "Proud of His Obscurity," in The New York Times Book Review, Vol 96, September 1, 1991, p.26.
* Dyer, Geoff, "Heteronyms" in The New Statesman, Vol. 4, December 6, 1991, p. 46. <br>
* Haberly, David T., "Fernando Pessoa: Overview" in Reference Guide to World Literature, 2nd ed., edited by Lesley Henderson, St. James Press, 1995.
* Rosenthal, David H., "Unpredictable Passions," in The New York Times Book Review, December 13, 1987, p. 32.
* Sheets, Jane M., "Fernando Pessoa as Anti-Poet: Alberto Caeiro," in Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, Vol. XLVI, No. 1, January 1969, pp. 39-47. Reprinted in Poetry Criticism, Vol. 20.
* Severino, Alex, "Fernando Pessoa's Legacy: The Presença and After," in World Literature Today, Vol. 53, No. 1, Winter, 1979, pp. 5-9. Reprinted in Poetry Criticism, Vol. 20.
* Sousa, Ronald W., "The Structure of Pessoa's Mensagem," in Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, Vol. LIX, No. 1, January 1982, pp. 58-66. Reprinted in Poetry Criticism, Vol. 20.
* Guyer, Leland, "Fernando Pessoa and the Cubist Perspective," in Hispania, Vol. 70, No. 1, March 1987, pp. 73-8. Reprinted in Poetry Criticism, Vol. 20.
* Cruz, Anne J., "Masked Rhetoric: Contextuality in Fernando Pessoa's Poems," in Romance Notes, Vol. XXIX, No. 1, Fall, 1988, pp. 55-60. Reprinted in Poetry Criticism, Vol. 20.
<b>Português:</b>
* Pessoa / Carvalho, António Carlos. Publication: Lisboa: Pergaminho, 1999
* O coração do texto = Le coeur du texte: novos ensaios pessoanos / Seabra, José Augusto.; Galhoz, Maria Aliete Dores. Publication: Lisboa : Edições Cosmos, 1996
* Para compreender Fernando Pessoa: uma aproximação a Fernando Pessoa e heteronimos / Pais, Amélia Pinto. Publication: Porto : Areal Editores, 1996
* Pessoa inédito / Lopes, Maria Teresa Rita. Publication: Lisboa: Livros Horizonte, 1993
* A vivência do tempo em Fernando Pessoa e outros ensaios pessoanos / Matos, Maria Vitalina Leal de, Publication: Lisboa, Portugal: Editorial Verbo, 1993
* As coerências de Fernando Pessoa / Henriques, Mendo Castro, Lisboa, Editorial Verbo, 1989
* Literatura & heteronímia: sobre Fernando Pessoa / Diogo, Américo António Lindeza. Publication: Pontevedra-Braga: Irmandades da Fala de Galiza e Portugal, 1992
* Pessoa por conhecer, 2 volumes / Lopes., 1990
* Fernando Pessoa espelho e a esfinge / Moisés, Massaud. Publication: São Paulo: Editora Cultrix : Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 1988
* Nos passos de Pessoa: ensaios / Mourão-Ferreira, David. Publication: Lisboa: Editorial Presença, 1988
* Estudos sobre Fernando Pessoa / Crespo, Angel. Publication: Lisboa, Portugal: Teorema, 1988
* Fernando Pessoa, o desconhecido de si mesmo / Paz, Octavio; Da Costa, Luís Alves. Publication: Lisboa: Vega, 1988
* Fernando Pessoa: os trezentos e outros ensaios / Centeno, Y. K. Publication: Lisboa: Editorial Presença, 1988
* Microleituras de Alvaro de Campos: e outras investigações pessoanas / Coêlho, Joaquim-Francisco. Publication: Lisboa: Publicações Dom Quixote, 1987
* Compreender Pessoa / Vilhena, Ramires. Publication: Lisboa : Vega, 1986
* O essencial sobre Fernando Pessoa / Lancastre, Maria José de. Publication: [Lisbon]: INCM, 1985
* Fernando Pessoa: aquém do eu, além do outro / Perrone-Moisés, Leyla. Publication: São Paulo, SP, Brasil: Martins Fontes, 1982
* Estudos sobre Fernando Pessoa / Lind, Georg Rudolf. Publication: [Lisbon]: Impr. Nacional-Casa da Moeda, 1981
* Pessoa e Camões: três análises divergentes / Alves, José Edil de Lima. Publication: Porto Alegre: Editora Movimento, 1979
* O constelado Fernando Pessoa / Quesado, José Clécio Basílio. Publication: Rio de Janeiro: Imago Editora, 1976
* Um Fernando Pessoa / Silva, Agostinho da. Publication: Lisboa: Guimarães Editores, 1959
* Introduction a la poesie de Fernando Pessoa / Casais Monteiro, Adolfo, 1938
<b>Español:</b>
* El silencio de los poetas: Pessoa, Pizarnik, Celan, Michaux / Cohen, Sara / Publicacion: Buenos Aires: Editorial Biblos, 2002
* Con Fernando Pessoa / Crespo, Angel / Publicacion: Madrid : Huerga & Fierro, 2000
* Un baúl lleno de gente: Escritos sobre Pessoa / Tabucchi, Antonio; Ladrón de Guevara, Pedro Luis. / Publicacion: Madrid: Huerga & Fierro, 1997
* Identidad y alteridad en Fernando Pessoa y Antonio Machado: / Lourenço, António Apolinário. / Publicacion: Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 1997
* Fernando Pessoa en palabras y en imágenes / Llardent, José Antonio. / Publicacion: [Madrid] : Ediciones Siruela: Ministerio de Cultura, 1995
* La sensibilidad finisecular: Joyce, Woolf, Pessoa / Alzuru, Pedro / Publicacion: Mérida, Venezuela: Consejo de Publicaciones, ULA, 1993
* El texto íntimo: Rilke, Kafka y Pessoa / Castro Flórez, Fernando / Publicacion: Madrid: Tecnos, 1993
* Pessoa, la respuesta de la palabra / López Meléndez, Teódulo/ Publicacion: Caracas: Academia Nacional de la Historia, 1992
* Fernando Pessoa, un místico sin fe: una aproximación al pensamiento heteronímico / Ordóñez, Andrés / Publicacion: México, D.F.: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1991
* Díptico pessoano / García Martín, José Luis / Publicacion: Mérida: Editora Regional de Extremadura, 1990
* Fernando Pessoa: identidad y diferencia / Vázquez Medel, Manuel Angel / Publicacion: Sevilla: Galaxia, 1988
* Estudios sobre Pessoa / Crespo, Angel / Publicacion: Barcelona, España: Bruguera, 1984
* Fernando Pessoa / García Martín, José Luis/ Publicacion: Madrid: Ediciones Júcar, 1983
[[Category:1888 births|Pessoa, Fernando]]
[[Category:1935 deaths|Pessoa, Fernando]]
[[Category:Portuguese poets|Pessoa, Fernando]]
[[Category:Portuguese essayists|Pessoa, Fernando]]
[[de:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[es:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[eo:Fernando PESSOA]]
[[fr:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[gl:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[is:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[it:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[he:פרננדו פסואה]]
[[nl:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[pl:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[pt:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[fi:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[zh:費爾南多·佩索亞]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Full moon</title>
<id>11432</id>
<revision>
<id>40228442</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T02:33:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: gl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Full moon.jpeg|thumb|200px|The [[Galileo probe|Galileo]] spacecraft took this composite image on [[7 December]] [[1992]] on its way to explore the [[Jupiter_(planet)|Jupiter]] system in 1995-97. The color is 'enhanced' in the sense that the CCD camera is sensitive to near infrared wavelengths of light beyond human vision.]]
The '''Full Moon''' is the [[lunar phase]] that occurs when the [[Moon]] lies on the opposite side of [[Earth]] from the [[Sun]]. The Moon as seen from the surface of Earth is fully illuminated by the Sun at this time, presenting a "full" round disk to viewers on Earth. As always, only half the total surface of the Moon is illuminated.
==Eclipses==
A Full Moon is the only time when a [[lunar eclipse]] is possible; at that time the Moon may move through the shadow cast by Earth. However, because of the tilt or inclination of the Moon's [[orbit]] around Earth relative to Earth's orbit around the Sun, the Moon usually passes to the north or south of Earth's shadow at Full Moon, so a lunar eclipse does not occur at every Full Moon.
Full Moons are generally a poor time to conduct [[astronomy|astronomical]] observations, since the bright reflected sunlight from the Moon overwhelms the dimmer light from stars.
==Numbers and formulae==
Although on average it takes only 27.322 days ([[sidereal month]]) for the Moon to complete one [[orbit]] around Earth, it requires about two more days than that to again catch up with the Sun. On average, the number of days between Full Moons is about 29.5306 days. The actual number of days may differ from the average number by more than a half day. From one Full Moon to the next, the number of days in one ''lunation'' can vary between 29.272 and 29.833 days.
The age and apparent size of the Full Moon vary in a cycle of just under 14 synodic [[month]]s, which is called the [[Full moon cycle]].
The combined date and time of Full Moon number ''N'', using a fictitious moon that moves at a strictly mean rate |
make chirping or chattering noises when observing prey, or as a means of expressing interest in an object to nearby humans. When directed at out-of-reach prey, it is unknown whether this is a threatening sound, an expression of frustration, or an attempt to replicate a birdcall (or replicate the call of a bird's prey, for example a [[cicada]]). Recent animal behaviorists have come to believe this noise is a "rehearsal behavior" in which it anticipates or practices the killing of prey, because the sound usually accompanies a jaw movement similar to the one they use to kill their prey (the "killing bite" which saws through the victim's neck vertebrae).
When passing solid waste, cats, like many types of predators, release from anal glands a small amount of liquid that scents their feces, to mark their territory. These scent-producing anal sacs are found in all predators; those of the [[skunk]] are used for self-defense, for example. During moments of excitement or other strong emotions, a cat's anal sac may discharge, releasing a foul-smelling brown liquid. Anal irritation, possibly shown by the cat rubbing its bottom on the floor and frequent licking of the area, can be a sign that the cat's anal sacs are not being emptied when waste passes <ref>{{cite web | title=Anal Sac Disease | url=http://www.dr-dan.com/analsac.htm | accessdate=October 24 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>. Although this condition can be treated through the addition of a small amount of bran to each meal, it may require veterinary attention. Shorthair cats are more prone to this problem.
Cats will twitch the tips of their tails when hunting or angry, while larger twitching indicates displeasure. A tail held high is a sign of happiness, while half-raised shows less pleasure, and unhappiness is indicated with a tail held low. A scared cat may puff up its tail and the hair along its back and turn its body sideways to a threat in order to increase its apparent size. Tailless cats, such as the [[Manx (cat)|Manx]], who possess only a small stub of a tail move the stub around as though they possessed a full tail, though it is not nearly as communicative as that of a fully tailed cat. Touching noses is a friendly greeting for cats, while a lowered head is a sign of submission.
[[image:2003-08-10 feather 04.JPG|thumb|left|A mackerel tabby cat kneading a blanket before a nap. Note the forward position of the whiskers, indicating happiness.]]When cats are happy, they are known to paw their owners, or that on which they sit, with a kneading motion. Cats often use this action alongside purring to show contentment and affection for their owners. The action is often referred to as paddy-pawing, making muffins or treading paws. It is instinctive to cats, and they use it when they are young to stimulate the mother cat's [[nipple]] to release milk during nursing. As a result, cats that are hand-raised by humans may lack this reflex. Pawing is also a way for cats to mark their territory. The scent glands on the underside of their paws release small amounts of scent onto the person or object being pawed, marking it as "theirs" in the same way they would urinate to mark their territory.
===Hunting and diet===
Relative to size, domestic cats are very effective predators. They ambush and dispatch vertebrate [[prey]] using tactics similar to those of [[leopard]]s and [[tiger]]s by pouncing; they then deliver a lethal neck bite with their long [[canine tooth|canine teeth]] that severs the victim's [[spinal cord]], or asphyxiate it by crushing the windpipe.
The domestic cat can hunt and eat about one thousand [[species]]—many [[big cat]]s will eat fewer than 100. Although, theoretically, big cats can kill most of these species as well, they often do not due to the relatively low nutritional content that smaller animals provide. An exception is the leopard, which commonly hunts rabbits and many other smaller animals.
[[Image:Cat_yawning.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A cat [[yawn]]ing, showing characteristic [[canine tooth|canine teeth]]]]
Cats have highly specialized teeth and a digestive tract suitable to the digestion of meat. The premolar and first molar together compose the carnassial pair on each side of the mouth, which efficiently functions to shear meat like a pair of scissors. While this is present in [[Canidae|canines]], it is highly developed in felines. The cat's tongue has sharp spines, or [[papillae]], designed to retain and rip flesh from a carcass. These papillae are small backward-facing hooks that contain [[keratin]] and assist in their grooming. Unlike most carnivores, cats eat almost no vegetable matter apart from that found in the digestive tracts of their prey. Whereas [[bear]]s and dogs commonly supplement their diet of meat with fruits, berries, roots, and honey when they can get them, cats feed exclusively on meat, usually freshly killed. Cats, including the great cats, have a genetic anomaly that prevents them from tasting sweetness <ref>{{cite web | title=PLoS Genetics: Pseudogenization of a Sweet-Receptor Gene Accounts for Cats&#39; Indifference toward Sugar | url=http://genetics.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0010003 | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>, which is probably related to their meat-only habits.
In captivity, cats cannot be adapted to an unsupplemented [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]] diet because they cannot synthesize all the amino acids they need from plant material. Specifically this applies to [[taurine]], the absence of which causes the cat's retina to slowly degenerate, causing eye problems and (eventually) irreversible blindness. This condition is called [[central retinal degeneration]] (CRD). Cow's milk is a poor source of taurine and adult cats are generally [[lactose intolerant]]. Lactose-free milk is perfectly safe, but still not a substitute for meat. This contrasts with domesticated dogs, which commonly are fed a mixture of meat and vegetable products and have been adapted in some cases to a vegetarian diet. Despite this, however, the majority of brand-name [[cat food]]s are primarily grain based, often containing large amounts of corn or rice and supplemented with meats and essential vitamins. Some vegetarian owners feed their cats a vegetarian diet containing supplemental taurine.
Cats are also known to munch on grass, leaves, shrubs and houseplants. They do not eat a lot in one sitting, but prefer to have it as a snack. Eating vegetation in this way may aid the cat's digestive system and can prevent hairballs. <ref>{{cite web | title=Felidae World - Catnip and Grasses for Cats | url=http://felidaeworld.com/grassnip.html | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>.
Cats can be fussy eaters. This mostly happens when the [[vomeronasal organ|vomeronasal, or Jacobson's, organ]] becomes sensitized to a specific food, at which point the cat will reject any food that doesn't fit the pattern it is expecting. Additionally, cats have been known to develop a fondness for "people food" such as chicken, bread, french fries, pizza, ice cream, tomato soup, carrot juice, olives, and carnitas burritos, as well as cat diet exotica such as corn kernels and diced cantaloupe. Many "people foods" are not good for cats; [[chocolate]], for example, can be fatal due to the presence of [[theobromine]] (see [[theobromine poisoning]]).
Domestic cats, especially young ones, are known for their love of string play. Many cannot resist a dangling piece of string, or a piece of rope drawn randomly and enticingly across the floor. This notorious love of string is often depicted in cartoons and photographs, which show kittens or cats playing with balls of yarn. This propensity is probably related to their hunting instinct. However, string is more often being replaced with a red dot [[laser pointer]]. This is because, if the string is ingested, it can be caught in the cat’s stomach or intestines causing illness or, in extreme cases, death. Some people discourage the use of laser pointers for play with pets, however, because of the risk of eye damage and the loss of satisfaction (especially for cats) associated with the successful capture of prey.
Because of their small size, domestic cats pose almost no danger to humans—the only hazard is the possibility of infection (or, rarely, [[rabies]]) from a cat bite or scratch.
Cats can be destructive to [[ecosystem]]s in which they are not native and whose species did not have time to adapt to their [[introduced species|introduction]]. In some cases, cats have contributed to or caused [[extinction]]s—for example, see the case of the [[Stephens Island Wren]].
===Hygiene===
[[Image:Litter box.jpg|A cat litter box.|170px|thumb]]
Cats are known for their cleanliness. They [[groom]] themselves by [[licking]] their [[fur]]. Their [[saliva]] is a powerful cleaning agent, but it can provoke [[Allergy|allergic]] reactions in humans. Some people who are allergic to cats&mdash;typically manifested by [[hay fever]], [[asthma]] or a skin [[rash]] &mdash;quickly acclimate themselves to a particular animal and live comfortably in the same house with it, while retaining an allergy to cats in general. Many cats also enjoy grooming humans or other cats. Some cats occasionally regurgitate [[hair balls]] of fur that have collected in their [[stomach]]s as a result of their grooming. Longhair cats are more prone to this than shorthairs. Hairballs can be prevented with certain cat foods and remedies that ease [[defecation|elimination]] of the hair. Cats expend nearly as much fluid grooming as they do urinating.
Indoor cats may be provided a [[litter box]] containing [[sand]] or similar commercial material ([[cat litter|litter]]). This arrangement serves the same purpose as a [[toilet]] for [[humans]]. It should be cleaned daily and changed often (dependin |
least most, but ideally all, of the above criteria. The fewer which are matched, the less scientific it is. If it meets two or less of these criteria, it cannot be treated as scientific in any useful sense of the word.
<blockquote>Scientists have considered the hypotheses proposed by creation science and have rejected them because of a lack of evidence. Furthermore, the claims of creation science do not refer to natural causes and cannot be subject to meaningful tests, so they do not qualify as scientific hypotheses. In 1987 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that creationism is religion, not science, and cannot be advocated in public school classrooms [http://straylight.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0482_0578_ZS.html]. Most major religious groups have concluded that the concept of evolution is not at odds with their descriptions of creation and human origins [http://books.nap.edu/html/creationism/preface.html].<br>
(NAS)</blockquote>
A summary of the objections to creation science by mainstream scientists:
* ''Creationism is not falsifiable'' : [[Theism]] is not falsifiable, since the existence of God is typically asserted without sufficient conditions to allow a falsifying observation. God being a transcendental being, beyond the realm of the observable, claims about his existence can neither be supported nor undermined by observation, hence making creationism, the argument from design and other arguments for the existence of God ''[[a posteriori]]'' arguments. (See also the section on [[#Creation science and falsifiability|falsifiability]] below.)
* ''Creationism violates the principle of parsimony'' : Creationism fails to pass [[Occam's razor]]. Adding supernatural entities to the equation is not strictly necessary to explain events.
* ''Creationism is not empirically testable'' : Creationism violates a basic premise of science, [[naturalism (Philosophy)|naturalism]], so is not empirically testable.
* ''Creationism is not based upon controlled, repeatable experiments'' : That Creationism is not based upon controlled, repeatable experiments stems not from the theory itself, but from the phenomenon that it tries to explain.
* ''Creationism is not correctable, dynamic, tentative or progressive'' : Creationism professes to adhere to an "absolute Truth", "the word of God", not a provisional assessment of data which can change when new information is discovered. Once it is claimed that "the Truth" has been established, there is simply no possibility of future correction. The idea of the progressive growth of scientific ideas is required to explain previous data and any previously unexplainable data as well as any future data. It is often given as a justification for the naturalistic basis of science. In any practical sense of the concept, creationism is not progressive: it does not explain or expand upon what went before it and is not consistent with established ancillary theories.
Creationism's lack of adherence to the standards of the [[scientific method]] mean that it (and specifically creation science) cannot be said to be scientific in the way that science is conventionally understood and utilized.
<!--Scientists note that creation science differs from mainstream science in that it begins with an assumption, then attempts to find evidence to support that assumption. [No, science involves this as well.] Conversely, science sets out to learn about the world through the collection of empirical evidence and the use of the scientific method.-->
===Historical, philosophical, and sociological criticism of Creation Science===
Historically, the debate of whether creationism is compatible with science can be traced back to [[1874]], the year science historian [[John William Draper]] published his ''History of the Conflict between Religion and Science''. In it Draper portrayed the entire history of scientific development as a war against religion. This presentation of history was propagated further by followers such as [[Andrew Dickson White]] in his essay ''A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom''. Their conclusions, however, have been disputed [http://www.bede.org.uk/university.htm].
Some opponents consider creation science to be an [[ideology|ideologically]] and [[politics|politically]] motivated [[propaganda]] tool, with [[cult]]-like features, to promote the creationist agenda in society. They allege that the term "creation science" was chosen to purposely blur the distinction between [[science and religion]], particularly in countries which are religiously-neutral by law (such as the United States) in an attempt to gain official government sanction and recognition of their religious tenets above those of other faiths. In the United States, the principal focus of Creation Science advocates is on the government-supported [[Public school|public school system]]s, which are prohibited by the [[U.S. Constitution]] from promoting specific religions.
== Subjects within creation science ==
Subjects within creation science can be into split into three broad categories, each covering a different area of [[origins]] research: [[creationist cosmologies]], [[flood geology]] and [[creation biology]].
===Creation biology===
{{main|Creation biology}}
Creation biology centers around an idea derived from Genesis that states that life was created by God in a finite number of [[created kind]]s rather than through [[biological evolution]]. Creationists who involve themselves in this endeavor believe that observable [[speciation]] took place through inbreeding and harmful mutations during an alleged [[population bottleneck]] after the [[great flood]] of [[Noah's ark]], which they claim was an actual historical event that happened in a manner consistent with its description in the Bible. Mainstream scientists argue that there is no physical evidence for a global flood event that is consistent with the methods and standards of [[scientific evidence]] (see [[Creation science#Flood geology|below]]).
Creation biology disagrees with biological evolution (see [[Creation-evolution controversy]]). Creationists contend that there is no empirical evidence that a [[speciation|new plant or animal species has ever originated]] as a result of the gradual accumulation of [[DNA]] mutations through [[natural selection]].
Popular arguments against evolution have changed over the years since the publishing of [[Henry M. Morris]]'s first book on the subject, ''Scientific Creationism'', but some themes remain common: [[missing links]] as an indication that evolution is incomplete; arguments based on [[entropy]], [[complexity]] and [[information theory]]; arguments claiming that natural selection is an impossible mechanism; and general criticism of the conclusions drawn from [[natural history|historical sciences]] as lacking experimental basis. The [[human evolution|origin of the human species]] is particularly hotly contested; the fossil remains of purported [[hominid]] ancestors are not considered by advocates of creation biology to be evidence for a speciation event involving [[Homo sapiens]].
When asked what would disprove evolution in favor of creationism, biologist [[J. B. S. Haldane|J.B.S. Haldane]] replied "fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era", a period more than 540 million years ago. This is an era during which evolutionists claim that life on Earth consisted largely of bacteria, algae and plankton. [[Richard Dawkins]] explains that evolution "is a theory of gradual, incremental change over millions of years, which starts with something very simple and works up along slow, gradual gradients to greater complexity ... If there were a single hippo or rabbit in the Precambrian, that would completely blow evolution out of the water. None have ever been found." [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1090909,00.html]<!--Time Magazine, [[15 August]] [[2005]], page 32-->.
===Flood geology===
{{main|Flood geology}}
Flood geology is an idea based on the belief that many of Earth's geological formations were created by the global flood described in the story of Noah's ark. [[Fossil]]s and [[fossil fuels]] are believed by its followers to have formed from animal and plant matter which was buried rapidly during this flood, while submarine canyon extensions are explained as having formed during a rapid runoff from the continents after the seafloors dropped. Sedimentary strata are described as sediments predominantly laid down after Noah's flood.
Mainstream geologists conclude that no such flood is seen in the preserved [[rock layers]] and moreover that the flood itself represents a [[physics|physical impossibility]]. For instance, since [[Mount Everest]] is approximately 5.5 miles in elevation and the Earth's surface is approximately [[Earth#Geography|200 million square miles]] in area, to cover Mount Everest to the depth of 15 [[cubits]] as indicated by [[Genesis]] 7:20 would require 1.1 billion cubic miles of water. The [[Earth's atmosphere]], however, only has the capacity to store water in vapor form sufficient to blanket the globe to a depth of [[Water vapor#Water vapor in Earth's atmosphere|25 millimeters]]. Nevertheless, there continue to be many creationists who argue that the flood can explain the [[fossil record]] and the evidence from geology and [[paleontology]] that are often used to dispute creationists' claims. In addition to the above ideas that are in opposition to the principles of [[geology]], advocates of flood geology reject [[uniformitarianism]] and the findings of [[radiometric dating]]. The [[Creation Research Society]] argues that "uniformitarianism is wishful thinking" [http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/notes/39/39_1/Note0206.htm].
=== Radiohaloes ===
{{main|Radiohalo}}
In the [[1970s]], young Earth creationist [[Robert V. Gentry]] proposed that radiohaloes in certain |
on]]
*Canadian [[Annexationist Movement]]
==References==
* Carman F. Randolph, ''Law and Policy of Annexation'' (New York and London, 1901)
* Charles Henry Butler, ''Treaty-making Power of the United States'' (New York, 1902), vol. i. p. 79 ''et seq''.
* {{1911}}
[[Category:International law]]
[[Category:Political geography]]
[[bg:Анексия]]
[[cs:Anexe]]
[[de:Annexion]]
[[et:Anneksioon]]
[[eo:Anekso]]
[[hr:Aneksija]]
[[nl:Annexatie]]
[[pl:Aneksja]]
[[ru:Аннексия]]
[[sv:Annexion]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atomic bomb</title>
<id>1238</id>
<revision>
<id>15899734</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-28T04:40:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.191.221.15</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nuclear weapon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ashoka</title>
<id>1239</id>
<revision>
<id>41901762</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:08:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Embrace of Buddhism */ disambig servant</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other meanings, see [[Ashoka (disambiguation)]].}}
[[Image:Ashoka2.jpg|thumb|200px|Emperor Ashoka (a possible picturisation)]]
'''Ashoka the Great''' ([[Devanagari language|Devanagari]]: &#2309;&#2358;&#2379;&#2325;; [[IAST|IAST transliteration]]: ''{{IAST|Aşoka}}'') was the emperor of the [[Mauryan Empire]] from [[273 BCE]] to [[232 BCE]]. After a number of military conquests, Ashoka reigned over most of [[South Asia]] and beyond, from present-day [[Afghanistan]] to [[Bengal]] and as far south as [[Mysore]]. An early supporter of [[Buddhism]], Ashoka established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of [[Shakyamuni Buddha]], and according to Buddhist tradition was closely involved in the preservation and transmission of Buddhism. In his edicts he is reffered to as "Devaanaampriya" or "The Beloved Of The Gods"
The name "Ashoka" means "without sorrow" in [[Sanskrit]]. Ashoka was the first ruler of ancient [[Bharatavarsha]] ([[India]]), after the famed [[Mahabharata]] rulers, to unify such a vast territory under his empire, which in retrospect exceeds the boundaries of the present-day [[Republic of India]].
The [[British literature|British author]] [[H.G. Wells]] wrote of Ashoka: ''"In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called themselves 'their highnesses,' 'their majesties,' and 'their exalted majesties' and so on. They shone for a brief moment, and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly like a bright star, even unto this day."''
==Historical sources==
Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the [[Sanskrit]] ''[[Avadana|Ashoka Avadana]]'' ('Story of Ashoka') and the two [[Pāli]] chronicles of [[Sri Lanka]] (the [[Dipavamsa]] and [[Mahavamsa]]) provide most of the currently known information about Asoka. Additional information is contributed by the [[Edicts of Asoka]], whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts ('''Priyadarsi'''- meaning 'good looking', or 'favored by the Gods') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Mauriya.
The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, and the interpretations of his edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution.
Later scholars have tended to question this assessment. The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources- the Ashokan edicts- make only a few references to Buddhism directly, despite many references to the concept of [[dharma]] (Sanskrit: [[dharma]]). Some interpreters have seen this as an indication that Ashoka was attempting to craft an inclusive, poly-religious civil religion for his empire that was centered on the concept of ''dharma'' as a positive moral force, but which did not embrace or advocate any particular philosophy attributable to the religious movements of Ashoka's age (such as the [[Jain]]s, Buddhists, orthodox [[Brahmanism|Brahmanists]], and [[Ajivika]]s).
Most likely, the complex religious environment of the age would have required careful diplomatic management in order to avoid provoking religious unrest. Modern scholars and adherants of the traditional Buddhist perspective both tend to agree that Ashoka's rule was marked by tolerance towards a number of religious faiths.
==Early life==
Ashoka was the son of the [[Maurya|Mauryan]] emperor [[Bindusara]] by a relatively lower ranked Queen known as Dharma. Dharma, it is said was the daughter of a poor Brahmin, who was introduced into the harem by her father as it was predicted that her son would be a great king. Understandably, her status in the harem was very low. Ashoka had several elder half-brothers and just one younger sibling, Vitthashoka, another son of Dharma.
The Buddhist sources also indicate that he was quite ugly.
==Rise to power==
Developing into an impeccable warrior general and a shrewd statesman, Ashoka went on to command several [[regiment]]s of the Mauryan army. His growing popularity across the empire made his elder brothers wary of his chances of being favoured by [[Bindusara]] to become the next emperor. The eldest of them, Prince [[Susima]], the traditional heir to the throne, persuaded Bindusara to send Ashoka to quell an uprising in the city of [[Takshashila]] in the north-west province of [[Sindh]], of which Prince Susima was the governor. Takshashila was a highly volatile place because of the war-like [[Indo-Greek]] population and mismanagement by Susima himself. This had led to the formation of different [[militia]]s causing unrest. Ashoka complied and left for the troubled area. As news of Ashoka's visit with his army trickled in, he was welcomed by the revolting militias and the uprising ended without a fight. (The province revolted once more during the rule of Ashoka, but this time the uprising was crushed with an iron fist).
Ashoka's success made his half-brothers more wary of his intentions of becoming the emperor, and more incitements from Susima led Bindusara to send Ashoka into exile. He went into [[Orissa|Kalinga]] and stayed incognito there. There he met a fisherwoman named [[Kaurwaki]], with whom he fell in love; recently found inscriptions indicate that she went on to become his second or third queen.
Meanwhile, there was again a violent uprising in [[Ujjain]]. Emperor Bindusara summoned Ashoka back after an exile of two years. Ashoka went into Ujjain and in the ensuing battle was injured, but his generals quelled the uprising. Ashoka was treated in hiding so that loyalists of the Susima group could not harm him. He was treated by Buddhist monks and nuns. This is where he first learned the teachings of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], and it is also where he met Devi, who was his personal nurse and the daughter of a merchant from adjacent [[Vidisha]]. After recovering, he married her. Ashoka, at this time, was already married to Asandhimitra who was to be his much loved chief queen for many years till her death. She seems to have stayed on in Patliputra all her life.
The following year passed quite peacefully for him and Devi was about to deliver his first child. In the meantime, Emperor Bindusara took ill and was on his death bed. A clique of ministers lead by Radhagupta, who hated Susima, summoned Ashoka to take the crown, though Bindusara preferred Susima. As the Buddhist lore goes, in a fit of rage, Prince Ashoka attacked [[Pataliputra]] (modern day [[Patna]]), and killed all his brothers, including Susima, and threw their bodies in a well in Pataliputra. It is not known if Bindusara was already dead at this time. At that stage of his life, many called him '''Chanda Ashoka''' meaning murderer and heartless Ashoka.The Buddhist legends paint a gory picture of his sadistic activities at this time. Most are incredible, and must be read as supporting background to highlight the transformation Buddhism brought about later.
Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, expanding it from the present-day boundaries of [[Bangladesh]] and the state of [[Assam]] in India in the east to the territory of present-day [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]] in the west; from the [[Pamir Knots]] in the north to the almost peninsular part of [[southern India]]. At that stage of his life, he was called '''Chakravarti''' which literally translates to "he for whom the wheel of law turns" (broadly meaning the emperor).
====Conquest of Kalinga====
[[Image:ashokan_empire.gif|right|thumb|250px|After the battle of Kalinga, Ashoka ruled most of the Indian subcontinent]]
While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's teaching after his conquest of Kalinga, on the east coast of India in the present-day state of [[Orissa]]. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its [[sovereignty]] and [[democracy]]; with its monarchical-cum-parliamentary democracy, it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata, as there existed the concept of [[Rajdharma]], meaning the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and [[Kshatriya dharma]].
The pretext for the start of the [[Kalinga War]] ([[265 BC]] or [[263 BC]]) is uncertain. One of Susima's brothers might have fled to Kalinga and found official refuge there. This enraged Ashoka immensely. He was advised by |
<text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people T}}
{{Index only| a person}}
<!--
This comment exists to keep this permanently short page (like others that should never include names, within the tree whose root is
List of people by name
) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text.
-->
[[de:Liste der Biografien/T]]
[[es:Lista de biografías (T)]]
[[eo:Listo de biografioj - T]]
[[nl:Biografielijst T]]
[[pl:Noty biograficzne - T]]
[[pt:Biografias: T]]
[[sv:Lista över personer efter namn: T]]
[[zh:人名表/T]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of people by name: X</title>
<id>3910</id>
<revision>
<id>40398418</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T07:12:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Greasysteve13</username>
<id>658625</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{List_of_people}}
*[[Malcolm X|X, Malcolm]] (1925-1965), US Black Nationalist leader
*[[Callistus Xanothopoulos|Xanothopoulos, Callistus]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Xanthippe|Xanthippe]], wife of Socrates
*[[Isidore Xanthopoulos|Xanthopoulos, Isidore]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Francis Xavier|Xavier, Francis]] (1506-1552), Spanish missionary
*[[Iannis Xenakis|Xenakis, Iannis]] (1922-2001), Greek composer
*[[Xenocles]], Ancient Greek writer
*[[Xenocrates]] (396-314 BC), philosopher
*[[Xenophanes]] (570-480 BC), philosopher
*[[Xenophon]] (431-c. 360 BC), Athenian knight, philosopher
*[[Xenophon of Ephesus]] (fl. c. 2th century), Greek writer
*[[Xerxes I]] (486-465 BC), Persian king
*[[Xerxes II]] (424-423 BC), Persian king
*[[Xiang Yu]] (232-202 BC), a powerful warlord
*[[Deng Xiaoping|Xiaoping, Deng]] (1904-1997), Chinese statesman
*[[Ettore Ximenes|Ximenes, Ettore]] (1855-1919), Italian painter
*[[Fortún Ximénez|Ximénez, Fortún]] (died 1533), early Spanish colonizer in Mexico
*[[George Xiphilinus|Xiphilinus, George]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[John Xiphilinus|Xiphilinus, John]] (died 1078), patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Xuan Zang]] (602-644), Buddhist monk
*[[Da Xuanxi|Xuanxi, Da]], Korean king of Balbae
*[[Xuxa]] (born 1963), singer
*[[Xu Zhimo]] (1897-1931), Chinese poet
*[[Xzibit]] (born 1974), rapper
[[de:Liste der Biografien/X]]
[[es:Lista de biografías (X)]]
[[nl:Biografielijst X]]
[[pl:Noty biograficzne - X]]
[[pt:Biografias: X]]
[[sv:Lista över personer efter namn: X]]
[[zh:人名表/X]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of Biblical figures</title>
<id>3912</id>
<revision>
<id>40606277</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T20:00:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: Epistle to Philemon</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An categorical and alphabetical '''list of people featured in the [[Bible]]'''. (Note, the [[Torah]] or "[[Old Testament]]" of [[Judaism]] is the source of the Bible. Judaism does not accept the [[New Testament]] of [[Christianity]].) However, Messianic Judaism does accept the New Testament. For a more complete lst of names see [[list of Biblical names]].
==Names==
===New Testament===
* [[Agabus]]
* [[Agrippa I]], called "Herod" in [[Acts of the Apostles]]
* [[Apostle Andrew|Andrew]]
* [[Saint Anne|Anna]]
* [[Apollos]]
* [[Priscilla_%28Christian%29|Aquila]]
* [[Barnabas]]
* [[Bartholomew]]
* [[Caiaphas]]
* [[Dionysius_the_Areopagite|Dionysius the Areopagite]]
* [[Epaphras]] fellow prisoner of Paul Philemon 1:23 Fellow worker Colossians 4:12-13
* [[Gallio]] Acts 18:12
* [[Herod the Great]]
* [[Herod Antipas]]
* [[Saint James the Just|James]]
* [[Jesus]]
* [[John the Baptist]] or baptizer
* [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]]
* [[Judas the Zealot|Judas]]
* [[Judas Iscariot]] (the traitor)
* [[Jude Thomas|Jude]]
* [[Lazarus]]
* [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]]
* [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]]
* [[Martha]]
* [[Mary Magdalene]]
* [[The Virgin Mary|Mary, mother of Jesus]]
* [[Mary, sister of Martha]]
* [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]]
* [[Onesimus]]
* [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] also known as Saul
* [[Saint Peter|Peter]]
* [[Philemon of Colossae|Philemon]]
* [[Pontius Pilate]]
* [[Priscilla_%28Christian%29|Priscilla]]
* [[Silas]]
* [[Sopater]]
* [[Saint_Stephen|Stephen]] first martyr
* [[Timothy]]
* [[Thomas (apostle)|Thomas]]
* [[Apostle Titus|Titus]]
==Priests==
===Old Testament===
* [[Aaron]]
* [[Elazar]]
* [[Eli (Judges)|Eli]]
* [[Phinehas]]
===New Testament===
* [[Caiaphas]]
==Prophets==
===Old Testament===
* [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]]
* [[Aaron]]
* [[Daniel]]
* [[Deborah]]
* [[Elijah (prophet)|Elijah]]
* [[Elisha]]
* [[Ezekiel]]
* [[Habakkuk]]
* [[Hosea]]
* [[Joel]]
* [[Samuel]]
* [[Moses]]
===New Testament===
* [[Agabus]]
* [[Saint Anne|Anna]]
* [[John the Baptist]]
* [[Jesus]] Yeshua HaMashiach
==Hebrew Scriptures==
===Tribes of Israel===
According to the [[Book of Genesis]], all the [[Israelites]] were desendents of the sons of [[Jacob]], who was also blessed with the name [[Israel]]. His twelve male children become the ancestors of the Twelve Tribes of Israel.
* [[Tribe of Asher|Asher]]
* [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]]
* [[Tribe of Dan|Dan]]
* [[Tribe of Gad|Gad]]
* [[Tribe of Issachar|Issachar]]
* [[Tribe of Joseph|Joseph]], which was split into two tribes descended from his sons:
** [[Tribe of Ephraim]]
** [[Tribe of Manasseh]]
* [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]]
* [[Tribe of Levi|Levi]]
* [[Tribe of Naphtali|Naphtali]]
* [[Tribe of Reuben|Reuben]]
* [[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]]
* [[Tribe of Zebulun|Zebulun]]
==New Testament==
===Christian Apostles of Jesus===
*[[Saint Peter|Peter]] (Simon Kefa)
*[[Apostle Andrew|Andrew]] (Simon's brother)
*[[Saint James the Great|James son of Zebedee]]
*John son of Zebedee (aka [[John the Evangelist]])
*[[Philip the Apostle|Philip]]
*[[Bartholomew]]
*[[Thomas (apostle)|Thomas]]
*[[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]]
*[[St. James the Less|James son of Alphaeus]]
*[[Saint Jude|Judas son of James]] (aka Thaddeus or Judas Lebbaeus)
*[[Simon the Canaanite]]
*[[Judas Iscariot]] (the traitor)
==Links==
{{Jew}}
{{Christianity}}
* [[List of Biblical names]]
* [[List of Jews]] (Religious figures)
* [[List of minor Biblical figures]]
==External links==
===Christian===
*[http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible?Matthew+10:2-4;Mark+3:16-19;Luke+6:14-16;Acts+1:13 Matthew 10:2-4, Mark 3:16-19, Luke 6:14-16, Acts 1:13]
* Additionally, [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] is a self-described apostle.[http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible?Rom+1:1;1Cor+1:1;2Cor+1:1;Gal+1:1;Eph+1:1;Col+1:1;1Tim+1:1;2Tim+1:1;Titus+1:1 Rom 1:1, 1 Cor 1:1, 2 Cor 1:1, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:1, Col 1:1, 1 Tim 1:1, 2 Tim 1:1, and Titus 1:1]
* Finally, [[Saint Matthias|Matthias]] is often forgotten. He is the apostle who replaced [[Judas Iscariot]]. [http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible?Acts+1:15-26 Acts 1:15-26]
*See also: [http://www.bibletexts.com/glossary/thetwelve.htm "The twelve disciples and the women who followed Jesus"], Copyright 1999-2001 Robert N. Cramer.
===Jewish===
*[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0.htm The Hebrew Bible in English]
*[http://bible.ort.org/ Navigating the Bible online]
[[Category:Lists of people by time period|Biblical]]
[[fr:Liste des personnages de la Bible]]
[[ia:Personages biblic]]
[[nl:Lijst van bijbelse personen]]
[[ja:聖書の登場人物の一覧]]
[[fi:Luettelo Raamatun henkilöistä]]
[[zh:聖經人物列表]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BinaryOperation</title>
<id>3913</id>
<revision>
<id>15902225</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Binary operation]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British and Irish Lions</title>
<id>3914</id>
<revision>
<id>41987040</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:36:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Forever young</username>
<id>477314</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* 1910-1938 */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="wikitable" align="right" width="300" style="margin-left:0.5em"
|-
! style="background:#FFD700" align="center" colspan="2" | <big>British and Irish Lions</big>
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | [[Image:Lions2005.JPG|none|100px]]
|-
| '''Unions''' || <small>[[Rugby Football Union]]<BR/>[[Irish Rugby Football Union]]<BR/>[[Scottish Rugby Union]]<Br/>[[Welsh Rugby Union]]</small>
|- style="text-align:center;"
|-
|- style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|'''First International'''<br />[[Otago]] 3 - 8 Lions<BR/>([[28 April]], [[1888]])
|- style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|'''Largest win'''<br />[[Argentina national rugby union team|Argentina]] 0 - 46 Lions<BR/>([[7 August]], [[1927]])
|- style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|'''Worst defeat'''<br />[[New Zealand national rugby union team|New Zealand]] 38 - 6 Lions<BR/>([[16 July]], [[1983]])
|- style="text-align:center;"
|}
The '''British and Irish Lions''' [[rugby union]] side comprises a pick of the best players from [[England national rugby union team|England]], [[Ireland national rugby union team|Ireland]], [[Scotland national rugby union team|Scotland]] and [[Wales national rugby union team|Wales]]. Rugby union circles refer to these four international Rugby Unions collectively as the "[[Home Nations]]" and therfore sometimes refer to the Li |
story, [[Naval History]].
*[[Paleography]]: study of ancient texts.
*[[Political history]]: the study of politics in the past.
*[[Psychohistory]]: study of the psychological motivations of historical events.
*[[History of science]]: study of the structure and development of science.
*[[Social History]]: the study of societies in the past.
''Other''
*[[Changelog]]: log or record of changes made to a project, such as a website or software project.
*[[Human evolution]]: process of change and development, or evolution, by which human beings emerged as distinct species.
*[[Social change|Social change]]: changes in the nature, the social institutions, the social behavior, or the social relations of a society or community of people.
''Lists''
*[[List of historians]]
*[[List of historians by area of study]]
*[[List of history journals]]
==References==
*Asimov, Isaac; ''Asimov's Chronology of the World''; Harper Collins, 1991
*Durant, Will & Ariel; ''The Lessons of History''; MJF Books, 1997, ISBN#1567310249.
*Durant, Will & Ariel; ''The Story of Civilization''; 11 vols., Simon & Schuster.
*Evans, Richard J.; ''In Defence of History''; W. W. Norton (2000), ISBN 0393319598
*Gonick, Larry; ''The Cartoon History of the Universe''; Doubleday, vol. 1 (1990) ISBN#0-385-26520-4, vol. II (1994) ISBN#0-385-42093-5, W. W. Norton, vol. III (2002) ISBN#0-393-05184-6.
*Wells, H. G.; ''An Outline of History''; Reprint Services Corporation (1920), ISBN#0781206618.
*''The World Almanac and Book of Facts'' (annual); World Almanac Education Group; 2004 ISBN 0-99687-910-8.
== External links==
*[http://www.endeavorpub.com/wiki/map.php World History Timeline on Google Maps] - Create events on a timeline and plot their location on Google Maps
*[http://www.simaqianstudio.com History Forum Simaqian Studio] - Online community for world history discussion
*[http://www.history-forum.com History Forum] - A world history discussion community
*[http://www.pophistorynow.com A comprehensive look at popular history from the 1950's-2000's Week-By-Week.]
*[http://www.younghistorians.com/forum History Forum] - A history forum for teens, focusing on modern history as well as debating.
*[http://www.historyishappening.com/ History Forums - History is Happening] -Discuss all historical topics, as well as current events, in an academic setting.
*[http://timelines.ws "Timelines of History"] - A collection of timelines organized by time, location and subject matter
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ Internet History Sourcebooks Project] See also [[Internet History Sourcebooks Project]]. Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts presented cleanly (without advertising or excessive layout) for educational use.
*[http://51.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HI/HISTORY.htm History] Article from the 1911 '''Encyclopedia Britannica'''.
*[http://www.historyofnations.net/ History of Nations] - Offers a history of every nation in the world.
*[http://personal.cmich.edu/~loren1mg/world-history.html World History Web Resources: An Annotated Guide] - Librarian Michael Lorenzen gives advice on history searching on the Web.
*[http://english.historia.se Historicalstatistics.org] - Links to historical economic statistics for different countries and regions
*[http://www.freehistory.org Free History] - A [[search engine]] that indexes sites that deal with history
*[http://www.sankey.ws/sankey.html An example of Family History]
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Humanities_bookshelf#History Wikibooks:History ]
* [http://www.fsmitha.com/ World History] - a very large database of articles covering most time periods, with a single unified timeline of historical events worldwide.
*[http://world-history-blog.blogspot.com/ World History Blog] - Blog that features different aspects of world history
*[http://vlib.iue.it/history/index.html WWW-VL: History Central Catalogue] first history on the WWW, located at European University Institute
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:History| ]]
[[Category:School subjects]]
[[Category:Social sciences]]
[[Category:Top 10| History]]
<!--Interlanguage links-->
[[af:Geskiedenis]]
[[ar:تاريخ]]
[[an:Istoria]]
[[ast:Historia]]
[[az:Tarix]]
[[bg:История]]
[[zh-min-nan:Le̍k-sú]]
[[be:Гісторыя]]
[[bn:ইতিহাস]]
[[bs:Historija]]
[[br:Istor]]
[[ca:Història]]
[[ceb:Kasaysayan]]
[[cv:Истори]]
[[cs:Historiografie]]
[[cy:Hanes]]
[[da:Historie]]
[[de:Geschichte]]
[[et:Ajalugu]]
[[el:Ιστορία]]
[[es:Historia]]
[[eo:Historio]]
[[eu:Historia]]
[[fa:تاریخ]]
[[fr:Histoire]]
[[fy:Skiednis]]
[[ga:Stair]]
[[gl:Historia]]
[[ko:역사]]
[[hi:इतिहास]]
[[hr:Povijest]]
[[io:Historio]]
[[id:Sejarah]]
[[ia:Historia]]
[[is:Sagnfræði]]
[[it:Storia]]
[[he:היסטוריה]]
[[ka:ისტორია]]
[[sw:Historia]]
[[ku:Dîrok]]
[[lad:Istoria]]
[[la:Historia]]
[[lv:Vēsture]]
[[lt:Istorija]]
[[lb:Geschicht]]
[[li:Historie]]
[[hu:Történelem]]
[[mt:Storja]]
[[ms:Sejarah]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis]]
[[ja:歴史]]
[[no:Historie]]
[[nn:Historie]]
[[oc:Istòria]]
[[ps:تاريخ]]
[[pl:Historia]]
[[pt:História]]
[[ro:Istorie]]
[[ru:История]]
[[sa:इतिहास]]
[[sc:Istòria]]
[[sco:Historie]]
[[scn:Storia]]
[[simple:History]]
[[sk:Dejiny]]
[[sl:Zgodovina]]
[[sr:Историја]]
[[su:Sajarah]]
[[fi:Historia]]
[[sv:Historia]]
[[ta:வரலாறு]]
[[tt:Taríx]]
[[th:ประวัติศาสตร์]]
[[vi:Lịch sử]]
[[tr:Tarih]]
[[uk:Історія]]
[[ur:تاريخ]]
[[zh:历史]]
[[fiu-vro:Aolugu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the Levant</title>
<id>13210</id>
<revision>
<id>41844667</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:45:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gramaic</username>
<id>213771</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* The Iron age */ wikify "Iron age"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This article concerns the '''[[History]] of the [[Levant]]''', which is a geographical term that refers to a large area in [[Southwest Asia]], south of the [[Taurus Mountains]], bounded by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the west, the [[Arabian Desert]] in the north, and [[Mesopotamia]] to the east. Occasionally, the term is employed to refer to modern events or states in the region immediately bordering the eastern Mediterranean Sea: [[Israel]], [[Palestine]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], and [[Syria]].
The Levant does not include [[Anatolia]] (although at times [[Cilicia]] may be included), the [[Caucasus Mountains]], or any part of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] proper. The [[Sinai]] Peninsula is sometimes included, though more considered an intermediate, peripheral or marginal area forming a land bridge between the Levant and northern [[Egypt]].
''For what the area is called by natives and others, see [[Names of the Levant]]. See also [[History of the Middle East]].''
==The [[Stone age]]==
The earliest known permanent settlements in the [[Levant]] were established by the hunters and gatherers of the [[Natufian culture]]. The following [[Neolithic]] period is divided into the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] and B and the pottery neolithic. [[Agriculture]] became the dominant life-style during the PPNB, but there are traces of [[nomad]]ic hunters, especially in the Southern Levant and the [[Sinai]].
==The [[Bronze age]]==
The first cities started developing in southern [[Mesopotamia]] during the [[4th millennium BC]]. With these ties of religion began to replace ties of kinship as the basis for society. Each city had a patron god, worshipped in a massive central temple called a ''[[ziggurat]]'', and was ruled by a priest-king (''ishakku''). Society became more segmented and specialized and capable of coordinated projects like irrigation and warfare.
Along with cities came a number of advances in technology. By around the [[31st century BC]], writing, the wheel, and other such innovations had been introduced. By now the Sumerian Peoples of south Mesopotamia were all organized into a variety of independent [[City-state]]s, such as Ur and Uruk, which by around [[26th century BC]] had begun to [[coalescence|coalesce]] into larger political units. By accommodating the conquered people's gods, religion became more polytheistic and government became somewhat more secular; the title of ''lugal'', big man, appears along side the earlier religious titles, although his primary duty is still the worship of the state gods.
This process came to its natural conclusion with the development of the first empires around the [[24th century BC]]. A people called the [[Akkadians]] invaded the valley under Sargon I and established their supremacy over the [[Sumerians]]. They were followed by the empires of [[Ur]] during the [[21st century BC|21st]] and [[22nd century BC|2nd]] centuries BC and the [[Old Kingdom of Babylonia]] during the [[17th century BC|17th]] and [[18th century BC|18th]] centuries BC.
Parallel developments were meanwhile occurring in [[Egypt]], which by the [[32nd century BC]] had been unified to form the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt]], and amongst the peoples of the [[Indus River|Indus Valley]] in north-western [[India]]. All of these civilizations lie in fertile river valleys where agriculture is relatively easy once dams and irrigation are constructed to control the flood waters.
This started to change around the end of the third millennium as cities started to spread to the nearby hilly country: among the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] in north Mesopotamia, the [[Canaanites]] in Syria-Palestine, to the [[Minoans]] in [[Crete]], and to the [[Hittites]] in eastern [[Anatolia]]. Around this same time various immigrants, such as the Hittites and [[Achaeans]], started appearing around the peripheries of civilization.
These groups are associated with the appearance of the light two-wheeled war chariot and typically with [[Indo-European]] languages. Horses and chariots require a lot of time and upkeep, so their use was mainly confined to a small nobility. These are the "heroic" societies familiar to us from epics like the ''[[Il |
iaspora of Christianity into all the nations.
== The [[Second Coming]] ==
Eschatology concerns the things hoped for, yet to be revealed. The return of Jesus Christ is the most important eschatological event. The central act of Christian worship calls the Christian's attention toward the return of Jesus Christ and the renewal of the creation, at the "Lord's table" (called [[Eucharist]], "The thanks"; or Communion).
:[[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 22:15 And he said to them, "I have earnestly desired to eat this Passover with you before I suffer. 16 For I tell you I will not eat it until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God." (ESV)
:[[First Corinthians]] 11:26 For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes. (ESV)
==The [[resurrection]] of the righteous and the wicked==
With the coming of Christ, Christians anticipate a resurrection of both the righteous and the wicked.
== Final judgment ==
''Main article: [[Last Judgment]]''
Following the resurrection of the dead, Christians anticipate that Christ will personally judge the living and the dead, to determine the eternal destiny of each according to their deeds. There will be a definite limit to the time of probation, during which there is opportunity to enter into life. This time of probation ends with Final Judgment.
=== [[Heaven]], or everlasting reward ===
Some historians believe that the concept of heaven was imported into Judaism from [[Zoroastrianism]], perhaps by the prophet Daniel through his exposure to the Zoroastrian Magi of the court of Darius I. The belief in heaven appears to have supplanted the earlier concept of "Sheol" (mentioned in Isa 39:18; Ps 6:6; Job 7:7&ndash;10), although there is evidence of much earlier belief in a physical resurrection to a state of fellowship with God (Ps 16:10&ndash;11; Job 19:25&ndash;27).
Jewish believers in this concept of heaven and hell included the group known as the "Pharisees". The larger dogmatically conservative "Sadducees" maintained their belief in Sheol. While it was the Sadducees that represented the Jewish religious majority, it was the Pharisees who best weathered Roman occupation, and their belief in heaven and hell was passed on to both Christianity and [[Islam]].
Some traditions of Christianity, chiefly, [[Fundamentalism|Fundamentalist]] sects, dogmatically hold that Heaven is in some sense a place: a spatial compartment of the cosmos literally, and spatially located above the sky. However, reasoning that God is the only limitless being, and noting that Christ speaks of Himself as the abode of God, some theologians argue that "heaven" in the sense of an everlasting abode is nothing other than the everlasting reconciliation with God through Jesus Christ. Therefore, just as God is everywhere, heaven is everywhere that God is, and spatial distances and limitations which define the present life will no longer confine the blessed. The mode of existence belonging to this state is not fully imaginable. Views of both sorts are considered orthodox in most Christian traditions, usually favoring the conception of heaven as a spatial confinement or section of the cosmos, without deciding dogmatically where heaven is located.
[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] holds that [[theosis]] (deification) literally involves the adoption into the person blessed by grace of the attributes of God. (By this is meant attributes such as love and goodness, but not attributes such as omnipotence or omniscience.) Each person who enters into the light of God becomes light and, by translation into glory, will be individually a complete expression of the [[Energies of God]], a perfected icon (likeness) of God as shown by Christ in His Glorification. Theosis is a process of becoming more "godly" and more closely united to God in his energies, that begins in this life and continues in the next. It must be remembered, however, that the Orthodox Church stresses that even theosis does not erase the fundamental ontological gap between the uncreated and the created.
The [[Roman Catholic Church]] teaches that the saints in heaven attain to a direct intuition of the essence of God, in such a way that nothing created intervenes as the medium by which God communicates knowledge of Himself ([[1 Corinthians|1 Cor]] 13:8&ndash;13; [[Gospel of Matthew|Matt]] 18:10; [[1 John|1 John]] 3:2; [[2 Corinthians|2 Corinthians]] 5:6&ndash;8).
[[Protestantism]] denies views that amount to deification by adoption, which expect the literal removal of temporal and creaturely limitation from creaturely consciousness or spatial particularity. Protestantism holds dogmatically that the distinction between divine and creaturely being is impossible to violate. Human beings will always be limited and partial, creaturely expressions of divine perfection. However, in blessed communion of holiness, together with God through Christ, the blessed will enjoy the never-ending increase in the knowledge of God. Through the knowledge and enjoyment of Him, transformed into the likeness of Christ's glorified humanity, the glorified believer will increase in the knowledge and enjoyment of all things, forever.
===[[Hell]], or everlasting punishment===
As views vary concerning the location of the everlasting abode of the holy, so views vary concerning the exact nature and location of the punishment of men and of [[demon]]s, usually without dogmatic definition. Some hold that as God is everywhere, men and demons who are unreconciled to God will be doomed by their unrepentant hatred of God, to be in torment by the conscious awareness of the presence of God, metaphorically pictured as a lake of fire, forever. Others hold that the torments of fire are of some other nature, a rather more literal flame, into which all who have rejected God will be cast. Unlike ideas of heaven, however, hell is always envisioned as a place of confinement and of separation: as remote as possible from the abode of the holy.
The existence of hell is generally considered a matter of fundamental Christian faith. However, as with anything else, it is not universally believed by all Christian groups or sects. Some groups, especially most [[Millerites]], teach that the abyss of Hell is a metaphor for uncreation or annihilation. The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (Mormons) also denies the existence of never-ending torment. Instead, they teach (not entirely without analogy in orthodox Christianity) that there are degrees of reward that are immeasurably below the rewards of the righteous, to which the wicked are consigned, which by comparison are infinitely less desirable to the righteous than the highest heaven (which, in their teaching, entails becoming a God&mdash;"Exaltation").
==The end of the world and the renewal of creation==
The final event foreseen is a transformation of all created things, in which all old things will have passed away and all things will become new.
==The consummation of all things==
The endless era called "The Eternal State" will be the high point of New Testament prophecy. It is the very period for which Christ promises to house and abide with His followers--forever. It is the kingdom without end, the "forever and ever" of Scripture. Remarkably, the Bible says very little about the eternal state. All that is directly mentioned is found in Revelation 21:1-22:5. The first heaven and earth pass away, the sea disappears, and then the new heaven and earth take its place. The New Jerusalem, which Paul describes in Galatians 4:26 as "free" and "mother of us all" and in Hebrews 12:10 as the "City with Foundations, whose builder and maker is God", descends from heaven to the New Earth. Those who dwell in the New Jerusalem are God, the angels, and redeemed humanity. Two things now happened: God will now live among people (Revelation 21:3) and effects of the curse which happened at the Fall of Mankind (Genesis 3:16-19) will be reversed. The redeemed now are completely and permanently free from all curses, have citizenship in the New Jerusalem, access to the pure river of water of life as well as the tree of life, and the glory of God will provide all the light they need. The Eternal State is not just defined by those things that are in it, like the New Jerusalem, God, and the redeemed, but it is also defined by the things that will not be in it. This means there will be no more: Death, Hades, Sea, sorrow, crying, pain, cowardice, unbelieving, abominations, murderers, sexually immoral, sorcerers, idolaters, all liars, temple, night and curse. The Eternal State is ultimately where righteousness and the righteous find their true home--forever and ever.
== Specific dates of the end of days ==
According to someone's speculation on the [[Bible code]]s, the end of the world begins in the year AD 2012. This date can be "confirmed" by the Mayan calendar, which ends on December 21, 2012.
==See also==
*[[Summary of Christian eschatological differences]]
*[[End times]]
*[[Resurrection of the dead]]
*[[Millennialism]]
*[[Amillennialism]]
*[[Preterism]]
*[[Apocalypse]]
*[[Apocalypticism]]
*[[Revelation]]
*[[Soul]]
*[[Psychopannychism]]
*[[Death]]
*[[Jerusalem syndrome]]
*[[Jehovah's Witnesses]]
*[[Olivet discourse]]
*[[Six Ages of the World]]
*[[Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius]]
*[[Antichrist]]
*[[Number of the Beast]]
==External links==
*[http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/RTOT/RTOT.HTM Reading The Old Testament] -- includes texts of Deuterocanonical books
[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Prophecy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chicago White Sox</title>
<id>5945</id>
<revision>
<id>42070131</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:43:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.148 |
ty of South Carolina Columbia|University of South Carolina]]
#[[University of South Carolina at Aiken]]
#[[University of South Dakota]]
#[[University of South Florida]]
#[[University of the South Pacific]]
#[[University of Southampton]]
#[[University of Southern California]] ([[Los Angeles, California]])
#[[Colorado State University - Pueblo|University of Southern Colorado]]
#[[University of Southern Denmark]]
#[[University of Southern Indiana]]
#[[University of Southern Maine]]
#[[University of Southern Mississippi]]
#[[University of Southern Queensland]]
#[[University of St. Andrews]]
#[[University of St. Gallen]]
#[[University of St. Michael's College]]
#[[University of St. Thomas (Minnesota)|University of St. Thomas, Minnesota]]
#[[University of St. Thomas (Texas)|University of St. Thomas, Texas]]
#[[University of Stellenbosch]]
#[[University of Stirling]]
#[[Università per Stranieri Dante Alighieri Reggio Calabria]]
#[[University of Strathclyde]]
#[[Università degli Studi Federico II di Napoli]]
#[[Università degli Studi Tor Vergata (Roma)]]
#[[Università degli Studi dell'Aquila]]
#[[Universita degli Studi di Bologna|Università degli Studi di Bologna]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Camerino]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Catania]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Chieti G. D'Annunzio]]
#[[Universita degli Studi di Firenze|Università degli Studi di Firenze]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Lecce]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Messina]]
#[[Universita degli Studi di Milano|Università degli Studi di Milano]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Palermo]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Pisa]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Pavia]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Reggio Calabria]]
#[[University of Rome La Sapienza|Università degli Studi di Roma ''La Sapienza'']]
#[[Universita degli Studi di Siena|Università degli Studi di Siena]]
#[[Universita degli Studi di Torino|Università degli Studi di Torino]]
#[[Universita degli Studi di Trieste|Università degli Studi di Trieste]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Udine]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Verona]]
#[[Universität Stuttgart]]
#[[Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina]]
#[[University of Sudbury]]
#[[University of Sunderland]]
#[[University of Surrey]], [[Guildford]], [[Surrey]], [[United Kingdom]]
#[[University of Sussex]]
#[[Università della Svizzera Italiana]]
#[[University of Sydney]] ([[Sydney, Australia]])
=== T ===
#[[Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María]]
#[[Universidade Tecnica de Lisboa]]
#[[Universitat Tubingen]]
#[[Universidad de Talca]]
#[[University of Tampere]]
#[[Universidad de Tarapacá]]
#[[University of Tartu]]
#[[University of Tasmania]]
#[[Université de Technologie de Compiègne]]
#[[University of Technology, Sydney]]
#[[Universidad Tecnologica Equinoccial]]
#[[Universidad Tecnologica de Mexico]]
#[[Universidad Tecnologica de Panama]]
#[[Universidad Tecnologica de la Mixteca]]
#[[University of Teesside]]
#[[University of Tehran]]
#[[Universiti Teknologi Malaysia]]
#[[University of Tennessee, Chattanooga]]
#[[University of Tennessee, Knoxville]]
#[[University of Tennessee, Martin]]
#[[University of Tennessee, Memphis]]
#[[University of Tetova]]
#[[University of Texas Health Center at Tyler]]
#[[University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio]]
#[[University of Texas Medical Branch]]
#[[University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center]]
#[[University of Texas at Arlington]]
#[[University of Texas at Austin]]
#[[University of Texas at Dallas]]
#[[University of Texas at El Paso]]
#[[University of Texas at San Antonio]]
#[[University of Texas-Houston Health Science Center]]
#[[University of Texas-Pan American]]
#[[University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce]]
#[[University of Tirana]] ([[Tirana]], [[Albania]])
#[[University of Tokushima]]
#[[University of Tokyo]]
#[[University of Toledo]]
#[[University of Toronto]] ([[Toronto, Ontario]])
#[[University of Toronto, Scarborough]]
#[[University of Transkei]]
#[[University of Trento]]
#[[Universitat Trier]]
#[[University of Tromsø]]
#[[University of Tsukuba]]
#[[University of Tulsa]]
#[[University of Turku]]
#[[Universiteit Twente ]] ([[Enschede]], [[The Netherlands]])
=== U ===
#[[Universitat Ulm]]
#[[University of Ulster]]
#[[University of Utah]]
=== V ===
#[[University of Vaasa]]
#[[Universitat de Valencia]]
#[[University of Valladolid]]
#[[Universidad del Valle (Colombia)]]
#[[Universidad del Valle (Guatemala)]]
#[[University of Venice]]
#[[Universidad Veracruzana]]
#[[University of Vermont]]
#[[University of Veszprem]]
#[[University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna]]
#[[University of Victoria]]
#[[University of Vienna]]
#[[Universidade de Vigo]]
#[[University of the Virgin Islands]]
#[[University of Virginia]]
=== W ===
#[[University of Waikato]]
#[[University of Wales, Aberystwyth]]
#[[University of Wales College of Medicine]]
#[[University of Wales, Lampeter]]
#[[University of Wales, Bangor]]
#University of Wales, Cardiff (See [[Cardiff University]])
#[[University of Wales, Swansea]]
#[[University of Warwick]]
#[[University of Washington]] ([[Seattle, Washington]])
#[[University of Waterloo]] ([[Waterloo, Ontario]])
#[[University of West Alabama]]
#[[University of West Bohemia]]
#[[University of West Florida]]
#[[University of West Georgia]]
#[[University of the West Indies, Mona]]
#[[University of the West Indies, St. Augustine]]
#[[University of the West of England]]
#[[University of Western Australia]]
#[[University of the Western Cape]]
#[[University of Western Ontario]] ([[London, Ontario]])
#[[University of Western Sydney]]
#[[University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury]]
#[[University of Western Sydney, Macarthur]]
#[[University of Western Sydney, Nepean]]
#[[University of Westminster]]
#[[University of Windsor]] ([[Windsor, Ontario]])
#[[University of Winnipeg]]
#[[University of Wisconsin System]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Green Bay]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-La Crosse]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Madison]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Parkside]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Platteville]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-River Falls]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Stout]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Superior]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Whitewater]]
#[[University of the Witwatersrand]]
#[[University of Wollongong]]
#[[University of Wolverhampton]]
#[[University of Wyoming]]
=== Y ===
#[[University of York]]
=== Z ===
#[[Universidad de Zaragoza]]
#[[University of Zurich]]
#[[University of Zagreb]]
#[[University of Zambia]]
#[[Universidad del Zulia]]
#[[University of Zululand]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|U]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with V</title>
<id>6495</id>
<revision>
<id>37627525</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T03:54:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kunalthakar</username>
<id>158028</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added Vishwakarma Institute of Technology</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- '''V''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Växjö University]]
#[[Valdosta State University]]
#[[Valencia Community College]]
#[[Valley City State University]]
#[[Valparaiso University]]
#[[Vanier College]]
#[[Van Nung Institute of Technology]]
#[[VanNumg Junior College]]
#[[Vanderbilt University]]
#[[Vanguard University Of Southern California]]
#[[Van Mildert College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[Vasavi College of Engineering]]
#[[Vassar College]]
#[[Veermata Jijabai Technical Institute]]
#[[Vellore Engineering College]]
#[[Vermont Law School]]
#[[Vermont Technical College]]
#[[Vernon Regional Junior College]]
#[[Vesalius College (Vrije Universiteit Brussel)]]
#[[Vestfold College]]
#[[Victoria Jubilee Technical Institute]]
#[[Victoria School]]
#[[Victoria University of Manchester]]
#[[Victoria University of Technology]]
#[[Victoria University of Wellington]]
#[[Vienna University of Technology]]
#[[Villa Julie College]]
#[[Villanova University]]
#[[Vilnius Technical University]]
#[[Vilnius University]]
#[[Vincennes University]]
#[[Virginia Commonwealth University]]
#[[Virginia Military Institute]]
#[[Virginia Tech]]
#[[Virginia Wesleyan College]]
#[[Virtual Online University]]
#[[Vishwakarma Institute of Technology]]
#[[Vista University]]
#[[Visvesvaraya Regional College of Engineering]]
#[[Vivekanand Education Society's Institute of T |
nt size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE9A;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE9C</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE9C;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE9B</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE9B;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[ṯāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṯ}}
|{{IPA|[θ]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>062C</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x062C;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE9D</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE9D;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE9E</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE9E;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEA0</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEA0;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE9F</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE9F;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[ǧīm]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ǧ}} (also j, g)
|{{IPA|[ʤ]}} / {{IPA|[&#658;]}} / {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>062D</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x062D;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEA1</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEA1;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEA2</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEA2;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEA4</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEA4;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEA3</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEA3;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[ḥāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḥ}}
|{{IPA|[ħ]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>062E</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x062E;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEA5</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEA5;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEA6</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEA6;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEA8</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEA8;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEA7</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEA7;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[ḫāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḫ}} (also kh, x)
|{{IPA|[x]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>062F</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x062F;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEA9</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEA9;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEAA</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEAA;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE" colspan="2"|—
|{{ArabDIN|[[dāl]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|d}}
|{{IPA|[d]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0630</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0630;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEAB</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEAB;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEAC</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEAC;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE" colspan="2"|—
|{{ArabDIN|[[ḏāl]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḏ}} (also dh, ð)
|{{IPA|[ð]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0631</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0631;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEAD</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEAD;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEAE</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEAE;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE" colspan="2"|—
|{{ArabDIN|[[rāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|r}}
|{{IPA|[r]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0632</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0632;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEAF</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEAF;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEB0</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEB0;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE" colspan="2"|—
|{{ArabDIN|[[zāī]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|z}}
|{{IPA|[z]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0633</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0633;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEB1</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEB1;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEB2</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEB2;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEB4</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEB4;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEB3</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEB3;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[sīn]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|s}}
|{{IPA|[s]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0634</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0634;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEB5</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEB5;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEB6</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEB6;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEB8</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEB8;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEB7</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEB7;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[šīn]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|š}} (also sh)
|{{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0635</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0635;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEB9</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEB9;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEBA</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEBA;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEBC</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEBC;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEBB</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEBB;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[ṣād]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṣ}}
|{{IPA|[sˁ]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0636</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0636;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEBD</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEBD;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEBE</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEBE;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEC0</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEC0;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEBF</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEBF;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[ḍād]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḍ}}
|{{IPA|[dˁ]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0637</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0637;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEC1</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEC1;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEC2</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEC2;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEC4</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEC4;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEC3</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEC3;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[ṭāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṭ}}
|{{IPA|[tˁ]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-he |
y the right-wing press dominated by [[Alfred Hugenberg]].
==Related concepts outside of Weimar Germany==
Other wars have been viewed as winnable but being lost due to betrayal at home. For example, some view this as happening with the [[Vietnam War]], in what was dubbed the [[Vietnam Syndrome]].
==Sources==
*Spielvogel, Jackson J. ''Hitler and Nazi Germany: A History.'' New Jersey, Prentice Hall: 2001.
*Gerald D. Feldman, "Die Massenbewegungen der Arbeiterschaft in Deutschland am Ende des Esten Weltkreiges 1917-1920" Politische Vierteljahrschrift 1972.
*Chickering, Roger "Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914-1918." Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 2004.
*[http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/h/hitler-adolf/oss-papers/text/oss-profile-05-04.html OSS Psychological Profile of Hitler, Part Five]
[[Category:World War I]]
[[Category:Military history of Germany during World War II]]
[[Category:Weimar Republic]]
[[Category:Propaganda examples]]
[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[de:Dolchstoßlegende]]
[[fr:Dolchstoßlegende]]
[[it:Dolchstosslegende]]
[[nl:Dolkstootlegende]]
[[no:Dolkestøtlegenden]]
[[sr:Легенда о убоду у леђа]]
[[sv:Dolkstötslegenden]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DAP</title>
<id>8595</id>
<revision>
<id>41174931</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T15:21:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mmeinhart</username>
<id>676562</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">DAP has various meanings, including:
* [[German Workers' Party|Deutsche Arbeiterpartei]], [[Germany|German]] name of the [[German Workers' Party]].
* [[Democratic Action Party]], Malaysian political party.
* [[Directory Access Protocol]], an implementation of the [[OSI model]] [[application layer]].
* [[Digital audio player]], device that stores and plays digital music files.
* [[Distributed Array Processor]], the first commercial [[massively parallel computer]].
* [[Download Accelerator]] Plus, An application created to speed downloads.
* [[DAP (company)]], maker of [[caulk]], [[cement]]s, and other construction and home repair products.
* [[Diammonium Phosphate]], used as a fertilizer and flame retardent (18-46-0), highly soluble, skin irritant
* Dapping or doming is a metalworking technique. See [[Doming technique]].
DAP (or Dap) also has several connotations within urban American culture, including:
* Dap - A form of greeting or sign of respect in which two people slap and grasp hands briefly. Similar to a high five, except dap is given chest high. Less frequently, dap can be given in the form of pounding fists in a vertical manner.
* Dap - A stylized manner of walking that projects the appearance of "cool". This term is used primarily by older individuals, as it has been replaced in youthful conversation with the adjective "pimp" (as in "pimp walk" or "pimp limp").
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:DAP]]
[[nl:DAP]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Desmond Tutu</title>
<id>8597</id>
<revision>
<id>42027649</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:28:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Elf-friend</username>
<id>44029</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fix vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
subject_name=Archbishop Desmond Tutu|
image_name= Archbishop-Tutu-medium.jpg|160px
image_caption=
dead= |
date_of_birth= [[October 7]], [[1931]]|
place_of_birth= [[Klerksdorp]], [[Transvaal]]|
date_of_death= |
place_of_death=
}}
The Most Reverend '''Desmond Mpilo Tutu''' (born [[October 7]], [[1931]]) is a [[South Africa]]n [[cleric]] and activist who rose to worldwide fame during the [[1980s]] as an opponent of [[History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era|apartheid]]. Tutu was the first black South African [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] [[Archbishop]] of [[Cape Town]], South Africa, and [[primate (religion)|primate]] of the [[Church of the Province of Southern Africa]]. He was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1984]].
He is generally credited with coining the term [[Rainbow Nation]] as a metaphor to describe post-apartheidist [[South Africa]] after [[1994]] under [[African National Congress|ANC]] rule. The expression has since entered mainstream consciousness to describe South Africa's ethnic diversity.
== Background ==
Born in [[Klerksdorp]], [[Transvaal]], Tutu moved with his family to [[Johannesburg]] at age 12. Although he wanted to become a [[physician]], his family could not afford the training and he followed his father's footsteps into teaching. Tutu studied at the Pretoria Bantu Normal College from [[1951]] through [[1953]]. Tutu went on to teach at Johannesburg Bantu High School where he remained until [[1957]]; he resigned following the passage of the [[Bantu Education Act]], protesting the poor educational prospects for black South Africans. He continued his studies, this time in [[theology]], and in [[1960]] was ordained as an [[Anglican]] [[priest]]. He became [[chaplain]] at the [[University of Fort Hare]], a hotbed of dissent and one of the few quality universities for black students in the southern part of Africa.
Tutu left his post as chaplain and travelled to [[King's College London]], ([[1962]]–[[1966]]), where he received his [[Bachelor's degree|Bachelor's]] and [[Master's degree]]s in Theology. He returned to South Africa and from [[1967]] until [[1972]] used his lectures to highlight the circumstances of the black population. He wrote a letter to [[B.J. Vorster|Prime Minister Vorster]], in which he described the situation in South Africa as a "[[gunpowder|powder barrel]] that can explode at any time." The letter was never answered.
In [[1972]] Tutu returned to the [[United Kingdom|UK]], where he was appointed vice-director of the Theological Education Fund of the [[World Council of Churches]], at [[Bromley]] in [[Kent]]. He returned to South Africa in [[1975]] and was appointed [[Dean (religion)|Dean]] of St. Mary's Cathedral in [[Johannesburg]]—the first black person to hold that position.
He has been married to [[Leah Nomalizo Tutu]] since [[1955]]. They have four children: Trevor Thamsanqa, Theresa Thandeka, Naomi Nontombi and Mpho Andrea, all of whom attended the famous [[Waterford Kamhlaba]] School.
In 1996, Tutu was diagnosed with [http://www.malecare.com prostate cancer].
In [[2000]] Tutu received a L.H.D. from [[Bates College]] and in [[2005]], Tutu received an [[honorary degree]] from the [[University of North Florida]], one of the many universities in North America and Europe where he has taught.
== Political work ==
In [[1976]] protests in [[Soweto]], also known as the [[Soweto Riots]], against the government's use of [[Afrikaans]] in black schools became a massive uprising against apartheid. From then on Tutu supported an economic [[boycott]] of his country. Desmond Tutu was [[Bishop]] of [[Lesotho]] from [[1976]] until [[1978]], when he became [[Secretary-General]] of the South African Council of Churches. From this position, he was able to continue his work against apartheid with agreement from nearly all churches. Tutu consistently advocated [[reconciliation]] between all parties involved in apartheid through his writings and lectures at home and abroad.
On [[October 16]], [[1984]], Tutu was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. The Nobel Committee cited his "role as a unifying leader figure in the campaign to resolve the problem of apartheid in South Africa."{{ref|Nobel}}
Tutu became the first black person to lead the Anglican Church in [[South Africa]] on [[September 7]], [[1986]]. In [[1989]] Tutu was invited to [[Birmingham, England|Birmingham]], [[England]], as part of Citywide Christian Celebrations. Tutu and his wife visited a number of establishments including [[Nelson Mandela]] School in [[Sparkbrook]].
After the fall of apartheid, he headed the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission]], for which he was awarded the [[Sydney Peace Prize]] in [[1999]].
In 2004, Tutu returned to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] as Visiting Professor in Post-Conflict Societies at [[King's College London|King's College]] and gave the Commemoration Oration, as part of the College's 175th anniversary. He also visited the students' union nightclub, named "Tutu's" in his honour and featuring a rare bust of his likeness.
=== Political views ===
Tutu believes the treatment of [[Palestinian]]s by the Jewish state of [[Israel]] is a form of apartheid.{{ref|Apartheid}} {{ref|BBC_Apr02}} {{ref|terrorism}} He has repeatedly called upon the Israeli government to respect the human dignity of the Palestinian people, whether [[Muslim]] or [[Christianity|Christian]]. Tutu has also urged divestment from Israel in protest at its policies towards the Palestinians. The US- based [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]] has opposed his call.{{ref|Wiesenthal}}
In [[2003]] he became the patron of [http://www.sabeel.org/documents/Archbishop%20Tutu%20Letter.htm Sabeel Ecumenical Liberation Theology Center] located in [[Jerusalem]].
The Nobel laureate also has expressed support for the [[West Papua]]n independence movement, criticizing the [[United Nations]]' role in the takeover of West Papua by [[Indonesia]]. Tutu said: "For many years the people of South Africa suffered under the yoke of oppression and apartheid. Many people continue to suffer brutal oppression, where their fundamental dignity as human beings is denied. One such people is the people of West Papua."
Tutu has also criticised human rights abuses in [[Zimbabwe]], calling Zimbabwean [[President of Zimbabwe|president]] [[Robert Mugabe]] a "caricature of an African dictator", and criticising the [[South Africa]]n government's policy of quiet diplomacy towards Zimbabwe.
Commenting days after the [[August 5]], [[2003]] election of [[Gene Robinson]], |
recognized the usefulness of multitasking support for a variety of reasons. Multitasking makes it possible for a single user to run multiple applications at the same time, or to run "background" processes while retaining control of the computer.
In simple terms: Pre-emptive multitasking involves the use of a scheduler which hands out CPU time to various processes so that they can be performed simultaneously. Therefore all processes will get some amount of CPU time at any given time.
{{mergefrom|Pre-emptive multitasking}}
{{mergefrom|Time slice multiplexing}}
== Real time ==
Another reason for multitasking was in the design of [[real-time]] computing systems, where a number of possibly unrelated external activities needed to be controlled by a single processor system. In such systems a hierarchical interrupt system was coupled with process prioritization to ensure that key activities were given a greater share of available process time.
== Multithreading ==
As multitasking greatly improved the throughput of computers, programmers started to implement
applications as sets of cooperating processes (e.g. one process gathering input data, one process
processing input data, one process writing out results on disk.) This, however, required some tools to allow processes to efficiently exchange data.
[[Thread (computer science)|Threads]] were born from the idea that the most efficient way for cooperating processes to exchange
data would be to share their entire memory space. Thus, threads are basically processes that run
in the same memory context. Threads are described as ''lightweight'' because switching between threads does not involve changing the memory context.
While threads are scheduled preemptively, some operating systems provide a variant to threads, named ''fibers'', that are scheduled cooperatively. On operating systems that do not provide fibers, an application may implement its own fibers using repeated calls to worker functions. Fibers are even more lightweight than threads, and somewhat easier to program with, although they tend to lose some or all of the benefits of threads on [[multiprocessing|machines with multiple processors]].
== Memory protection ==
When multiple programs are present in memory, an ill-behaved program may (inadvertently or deliberately) overwrite memory belonging to another program, or even to the operating system itself.
The operating system therefore restricts the memory accessible to the running program. A program trying to access memory outside its allowed range is immediately stopped before it can do any change to memory belonging to some other process.
Another key innovation was the idea of privilege levels. Low privilege tasks are not allowed some kinds of memory access and are not allowed to perform certain instructions. When a task tries to perform a privileged operation a [[trap]] occurs and a supervisory program running at a higher level is allowed to decide how to respond. This created the possibility of virtualizing the entire system, including virtual peripheral devices. Such a simulation is called a virtual machine operating system. Early virtual machine systems did not have virtual memory, but both are common today.
== Swapfile ==
Use of a [[swapfile]] is a way for the operating system to provide more memory than is physically available by keeping portions of memory in [[secondary storage]]. While multitasking and memory swapping are two completely unrelated techniques, they are very often used together, as swapping memory allows more tasks to be loaded at the same time. Typically, a [[multitasking]] system allows another process to run when the running process hits a point where it has to wait for some portion of memory to be reloaded from [[secondary storage]].
== Programming in a multitasking environment ==
Processes that are entirely independent are not much trouble to program. Most of the complexity in multitasking systems comes from the need to share computer resources between tasks and to synchronize the operation of co-operating tasks.
Large computer systems were sometimes built with a central processor(s) and some number of I/O processors, a kind of asymmetric multiprocessing. One use for interrupts is to allow a simpler processor to simulate the dedicated I/O processors that it did not have.
Over the years, multitasking systems have been refined. Modern operating systems generally include detailed mechanisms for prioritizing processes, while symmetric [[multi-processing]] has introduced new complexities and capabilities.
[[Category:Operating system technology]]
[[cs:Multitasking]]
[[da:Multitasking]]
[[de:Multitasking]]
[[es:Multitarea]]
[[fa:چندکارگی]]
[[fr:Multitâches]]
[[id:Multitasking]]
[[it:Multitasking]]
[[hu:Többfeladatos]]
[[nl:Multitasking]]
[[ja:マルチタスク]]
[[pl:Wielozadaniowość]]
[[pt:Multitarefa]]
[[ru:Многозадачность]]
[[simple:Multitasking]]
[[sk:Multitasking]]
[[fi:Moniajo]]
[[sv:Multikörning]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clarence Thomas</title>
<id>6858</id>
<revision>
<id>42055002</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:15:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Life */ dab. Catholic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Clarence Thomas official.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Justice Clarence Thomas]]
'''Clarence Thomas''' (born [[June 23]], [[1948]]) is an American [[jurist]] and has been an [[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States|Associate Justice]] of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] since [[1991]]. He is considered to be part of the "[[conservative]] wing" in the current court. He is the second [[African American]] to serve on the nation's highest court, having replaced [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States|Justice]] [[Thurgood Marshall]]. Thomas was the youngest of the justices with whom he served from the time of his appointment to the confirmation of [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[John G. Roberts, Jr.]] in 2005.
==Life ==
Clarence Thomas was born in [[Pin Point, Georgia]], a small community outside [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]]. His father abandoned his family when he was only a year old, leaving his mother [[Leola Anderson]], to take care of the family. At age seven they went to live with the mother's father, [[Myers Anderson]] in Savannah. He had a [[fuel oil]] business that also sold ice; Thomas often helped him make deliveries.
His grandfather believed in hard work and self-reliance and would counsel him to "never let the sun catch you in bed in the morning". In [[1975]], when Thomas read ''[[Race and Economics]]'' by economist [[Thomas Sowell]], he found an intellectual foundation for this philosophy. The book criticized social reforms by government and instead argued for individual action to overcome circumstances and adversity. Thomas later said that the book changed his life.
Raised [[Roman Catholic]] (he later attended an [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal]] church with his wife, but returned to the Catholic Church in the late 1990s), Thomas considered entering the priesthood and briefly attended [http://www.conception.edu/default.htm Immaculate Conception Seminary], a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[seminary]] in [[Missouri]]. Thomas later attended [[College of the Holy Cross]], where he co-founded the school's Black Student Union and received an [[Bachelor of Arts|A.B.]], ''[[cum laude]]''. He received a [[Juris Doctor]] ([[J.D.]]) degree from [[Yale Law School]] in [[1974]].
Thomas has one child, [[Jamal Adeen]], from his first marriage. This marriage, to Kate Ambush, lasted from 1971 until their 1984 divorce. Thomas married Virginia Lamp in [[1987]].
== Early career ==
He served as Assistant [[Attorney General]] of [[Missouri]] from 1974-1977, an [[attorney]] with [[Monsanto]] from 1977-1979 and [[Legislative Assistant]] to Senator [[John Danforth]] from 1979-1981.
In 1981, he began his rise through the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration. From 1981-1982, he served as [[Assistant Secretary of Education for the Office of Civil Rights]] in the [[US Department of Education]] ("DOE"), and as Chairman of the US [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] ("EEOC") from 1982-1990. Thomas cautiously accepted these assignments aware of the pressures for placing [[minority|minorities]] in government positions.
In 1990, President [[George H. W. Bush]] nominated Thomas to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]]. At first, the nomination appeared to be stuck in the Senate Judiciary Committee, until a copy of a "documents request" from the committee (which at the time was controlled by the Democrats and chaired by Senator [[Joe Biden]]) was leaked to the ''[[Wall Street Journal]]''. The Journal reprinted the documents request, taking up one-quarter of the op-ed page. In the ensuing negative publicity surrounding the documents request, Thomas's nomination was discharged from the committee. Thomas was confirmed by the Senate in March 1990.
== Appointment ==
On July 8, [[1991]] President [[George H. W. Bush]] nominated Thomas to replace [[Thurgood Marshall]] who had recently announced his retirement.[http://uspolitics.about.com/od/usgovernment/a/supreme_court_3.htm] Marshall had been the only black justice on the court. While the selection of Thomas preserved the existing racial balance of the court, it was seen as likely to move the ideological balance to the right. While most recent Supreme Court nominees have been deemed "well-qualified" by the [[American Bar Association]], the rating for Justice Thomas was split between "qualified" and "not qualified."
Organizations including the [[NAACP]], the [[Urban Leag |
By 1965 Rosenbloom had decided to stop manufacturing guitars and chose to become the exclusive North American distributor for Hoshino Gakki instruments. At the time, the phrase "made in Japan" was considered to have negative connotations of low quality, so Hoshino Gakki and Rosenbloom wanted to distribute the instruments under a "non-Japanese" name. Hoshino had recently acquired a small Spanish guitar company named '''Ibanez''', and it was decided to market the instruments under this brand name. In [[1971]] Hoshino purchased Elger Guitars, renaming the company "Ibanez U.S.A." and retaining the company headquarters in Bensalem, Pennsylvania as a distribution and quality-control center.
In the early 1970s Ibanez began making guitars that were almost exact copies of popular models by [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]], [[Fender]] and [[Rickenbacker]]. Using somewhat cheaper materials and greater automation in manufacturing, they were able to sell these guitars for a significantly lower price than the originals. The low price combined with the relatively high quality of the guitars made these models very popular. Many guitar aficionados feel that the early- and mid-70s mark a low point in the quality of guitars from the major manufacturers, which helped contribute to the popularity of the Ibanez copies. These guitars have become known as "lawsuit" guitars and have become somewhat collectible.
The actual lawsuit referred to was brought by the '''Norlin Corporation''', the parent company of [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]] guitars, in [[1977]], and was based on an Ibanez [[Guitar#Headstock|headstock]] design that had been discontinued by [[1976]]. Ibanez settled out of court, and by [[1978]] had begun making guitars from their own designs.
Abandoning the strategy of copying "classic" electric guitar designs, the newer models began incorporating more modern elements into their design, such as radical body shapes, slimmer necks and flatter fingerboards (which allowed for faster playing), higher-output electronics and colorful finishes. This led to an increasing popularity with [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] musicians. The company also began an extensive program of consulting with well-known guitar players, such as [[Joe Satriani]] and [[Steve Vai]] and creating signature models made to the players' specifications.
[[Image:K7BGvert.jpg|thumb|200px|Ibanez K7]]
==Guitars==
===Electric Guitars===
*ARTCORE Series
*ARTIST Series
*AT Series
*AX Series
*GB Series
*GSA Series
*JEM Series
*JETKING Series
*JS Series
*JSM Series
*JUMPSTART Series
*[[K7 Series]]
*MMM Series
*[[MTM Series]]
*NDM Series
*PGM Series
*PM Series
*RG Series
*S Series
*SA Series
*SZ Series
*X Series
===Bass Guitars===
*ARTCORE Series
*BTB Series
*DWB Series
*EDB Series
*GAXB Series
*GSR Series
*GWB Series
*ICB Series
*JUMPSTART Series
*K5 Series
*ROADGEAR Series
*SR Series
*SRX Series
===Acoustic Guitars===
*AE Series
*AES Series
*AW Series
*DT Series
*EP9 Series
*EW Series
*GA Series
*JAMPACK Series
*MANDOLIN Series
*MASA Series
*PF Series
*TALMAN Series
*V Series
==Effect Pedals==
In the 1970's, the Maxon company developed and began selling a series of effect pedals in Japan. Ibanez licensed these for sale under their name outside of Japan. The two companies eventually began doing less and less business together until Maxon ceased manufacting the TS-9 reissue for Ibanez in 2002.
'''Tube Screamers''' - Based on the earlier Overdrive I and II pedals, Ibanez began releasing the first Tube Screamer, the TS-808 in the late 1970's. These contained the famed JRC4558D [[integrated circuit|integrated circuit (IC)]]. Many players consider this one of the best [[solid state]] pedals to emulate the sound produced by an [[Overdrive (music)|overdriven]] [[vacuum tube]] [[Instrument amplifier|guitar amplifier]]. Over the years, Ibanez released many different kinds of pedals bearing the Tube Screamer name. The first was the TS-9 Tube Screamer, which included only a few component changes and often, but not always, different IC's. In 1985 the Master or L series were introduced and sold only for a year. Many claim that in this series there's no Tubescreamer. Looking closer circuitwise shows that there is one but in the disguise of the Metal Screamer with slightly changed component values. The name change was most likely for marketing reasons. Based on the Master series but with slight changes in in housing in 1986, the Power Series were introduced, which included the TS-10. Like many of the Master and Power Series pedals, there were not many differences in the circuitry between these and their 9-series counterparts. To make production cheaper, these pedals used circuit board-mounted [[potentiometer|potentiometers (pots)]] and jacks. In 1992, Ibanez began re-issuing the TS-9. Then in 1996, Ibanez added a [[CE_mark|CE mark]] to the back of the pedal, which is required for it to be sold in Europe. In the early 90's, Ibanez released the Soundtank series, which, except for the first run which was metal, had cheap plastic enclosures and like the Power Series before it, used less expensive parts. Around 2000 came the Tone Lok series, and the TS-7, which included a switch for added gain. In 1998, the new TS-9DX was introduced, which included a 4-way switch for capacitor changes and changes in the clipping section. Then in 2002, Maxon stopped production of the TS-9 for Ibanez. Post-2002 circuit boards say Ibanez instead of Maxon. Due to popular demand, Ibanez reissued the TS-808 in 2004, complete with the JRC4558D chip. Original TS-808's, and to a lesser extent, TS-9s, have become highly collectible. Many overdrive pedals in production, especially those by "boutique" manufacturers, are a modified version of the Tube Screamer circuit.
==References/External links==
*[http://www.ibanez.com/ Ibanez]
*[http://www.hoshinogakki.co.jp/hoshino_e/history/history.html History of Hoshino Gakki Co., Ltd.]
*[http://www.guitarattack.com/destroyer/lawsuit.htm Origins of Ibanez and the Lawsuit Models]
*[http://www.ibanezregister.com/ Ibanez Register] - Gallery of past and present Ibanez guitars and basses.
*[http://www.ibanezrules.com/ IbanezRules] - Buy/Sell used Ibanez guitars, technical guides, catalog scans, manuals, wiring diagrams, etc.
*[http://www.jemsite.com/ JEM Site] - An Ibanez JEM series fansite
*[http://www.geocities.com/louferri Ibanez JS Site] - Ibanez Joe Satriani fansite
*[http://www.chrisbsmusic.com/hisofibguit.html Ibanez History] - Ibanez History
*[http://www.korn.com Korn Site] - Official KoRn website.
[[Category:Guitar manufacturers]]
[[da:Ibanez]]
[[de:Ibanez]]
[[es:Ibanez]]
[[fr:Ibanez]]
[[it:Ibanez]]
[[mk:Ибанез]]
[[nl:Ibanez]]
[[pl:Ibanez]]
[[pt:Ibanez]]
[[fi:Ibanez]]
[[sv:Ibanez]]
[[tr:Ibanez]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isothermal</title>
<id>14911</id>
<revision>
<id>15912437</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-05T21:18:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stevertigo</username>
<id>4099</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect:[[Isothermal process]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Incest</title>
<id>14912</id>
<revision>
<id>41908411</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:15:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Natalinasmpf</username>
<id>107009</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Inbreeding among animals */ formalise</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{FamilyLaw}}
'''Incest''' is [[sexual activity]] between close [[family]] members.
Although incest is [[taboo]] or forbidden in the majority of current and historical [[culture]]s, the precise meaning of the word varies widely, because different cultures have differing notions of "sexual activity" and "close family member." Some [[jurisdiction]]s consider only those related by birth, others also those related by [[adoption]] or [[marriage]]; some prohibit sexual relations between people who grew up in the same [[household]], while others prohibit sexual relations between people who grew up in related households.
Incest between close blood-relations is a [[felony]] in many [[Western world|Western]] nations, as well as in those nations that were [[colonialism|colonialised]] by Western nations, although again the extent of the definition of "close" varies. However, child abuse attorney, Andrew Vachss, notes that in the United States, most states' penal codes give priviledged treatment to parents who rape their own children. He states that despite those penal codes, "most US citizens agree that child sexual abuse is one of the foulest crimes imaginable".
==Inbreeding among animals==
[[Biology|Biologically]], [[animal]]s may have an aversion or inclination to inbreeding based on specific local circumstances and [[theory of evolution|evolutionary]] trends. In some species, most notably [[Bonobo]]s, sexual activity, including between closely related individuals, is a means of [[dispute resolution]] or even a [[greeting]]. Incest between family members, including parents and children occurs; however, incest between a mother and immature sons, who are less than four years old, has not been observed.
The pattern of parenting behavior combined with the structure of dominance hierarchies among many species of animals serves to discourage inbreeding. For example, offspring, in some cases only the male offspring, are often driven away by the mother at about the same age they reach sexual maturity.
==Distinctions between incest and inbreeding==
The concepts "incest" and "[[inbreeding]]" are not synonymous. Incest refers to inappropriate [[Human sexuality|sexual activity]] between individuals who are considered to be too closely related either socially or [[genetics|genetically]]. It is a soc |
her great step—crossing of the Abyss and the attainment of the grade of Master of the Temple. (''Magick Without Tears'', Ch.83) </blockquote>
Crowley felt that attaining Knowledge and Conversation was so important, that he staked the claim that any other magical operation was, in a sense, evil.
==Angels as a development step of the soul==
Some [[mystics]] believe, that a [[soul]] is growing in steps from minerals, plants and animals to men. When the human body dies, a soul could become an angel. The Persian [[Sufism|Sufi]] mystic poet [[Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi]] wrote in his poem [[Masnavi]]:
:''I died as inanimate matter and arose a plant,''<br/>
:''I died as a plant and rose again an animal.''<br/>
:''I died as an animal and arose a man.''<br/>
:''Why then should I fear to become less by dying? ''<br/>
:''I shall die once again as a man''<br/>
:''To rise an angel perfect from head to foot!''<br/>
:''Again when I suffer dissolution as an angel,''<br/>
:''I shall become what passes the conception of man!''<br/>
:''Let me then become non-existent, for non-existence''<br/>
:''Sings to me in organ tones, 'To him shall we return.' ''<br/>
:''(Translation from Wikisource, [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Masnavi_I_Ma'navi:_Book_III Masnavi I Ma'navi, Book III], Story XVII)’’
The Christian mystic [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] has a similar imagination. In his late work ''Conjugal Love'' he describes, that a soul of a man and a soul of a woman are united by the marriage in heaven to become an angel.
==See also==
* [[Hierarchy of angels]]
* [[Angels in art]]
* [[Angelici (sect)|Angelici]], ancient sect that worshipped angels
* [[Death (personification)#Angels of death|Angel of death]]
* [[Guardian angel]]
* [[Metatron]]
* [[In Praise of Michael the Archangel]]
* [[The Testament of Solomon]]
* [[Angel (Buffyverse)]]
* [[Angel (TV series)]]
* [[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]
* [[WingedAngelz]], Angelz in StairwayToHeaven of Shattered Galaxy
==Named angels and archangels==
* [[Azrael]]
* [[Barachiel]]
* [[Belial]]
* [[Chamuel]]
* [[Gabriel]]
* [[Haniel]]
* [[Israfel]]
* [[Jegudiel]]
* [[Jophiel]]
* [[Malik]]
* [[Metatron]]
* [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]]
* [[Nakir and Munkar]]
* [[Obbieuth]]
* [[Phanuel (archangel)|Phanuel]]
* [[Raguel]]
* [[Raphael (archangel)|Raphael]]
* [[Raziel]]
* [[Remiel]]
* [[Sandalphon]]
* [[Shamsiel]]
* [[Sariel]]
* [[Uriel]]
* [[Zadkiel]]
==Bibliography==
* Cheyne, James Kelly (ed.) (1899). Angel. ''Encyclopædia biblica''. New York, Macmillan.
* Driver, Samuel Rolles (Ed.) (1901) ''The book of Daniel.'' Cambridge UP.
* Hastings, James (ed.) (1898). Angel. ''A dictionary of the Bible''. New York: C. Scribner's sons.
* Oosterzee, Johannes Jacobus van. ''Christian dogmatics: a text-book for academical instruction and private study.'' Trans. John Watson Watson and Maurice J. Evans. (1874) New York, Scribner, Armstrong.
* Smith, George Adam (1898) ''The book of the twelve prophets, commonly called the minor.'' London, Hodder and Stoughton.
==References==
* Bamberger, Bernard Jacob, (March 15, [[2006]]). ''Fallen Angels: Soldiers of Satan's Realm.'' Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0827607970
* Bennett, William Henry. Angel. ''[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* Briggs, Constance Victoria, [[1997]]. ''The Encyclopedia of Angels : An A-to-Z Guide with Nearly 4,000 Entries.'' Plume. ISBN 0452279216.
* Bunson, Matthew, ([[1996]]). ''Angels A to Z : A Who's Who of the Heavenly Host.'' Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0517885379.
* Cruz, Joan C. [[1999]]. ''Angels and Devils.'' Tan Books & Publishers. ISBN 0895556383.
* Davidson, Gustav. ''A Dictionary of Angels: Including the Fallen Angels''. Free Press. ISBN 002907052X
* Graham, Billy, [[1994]]. ''Angels: God's Secret Agents.'' W Pub Group; Minibook edition. ISBN 0849950740
* Guiley, Rosemary, 1996. ''Encyclopedia of Angels.'' ISBN 0816029881
* Kreeft, Peter J. [[1995]]. ''Angels and Demons: What Do We Really Know About Them?'' Ignatius Press. ISBN 0898705509
* Lewis, James R. ([[1995]]). ''Angels A to Z.'' Visible Ink Press. ISBN 0787606529
* Melville, Francis, [[2001]]. ''The Book of Angels: Turn to Your Angels for Guidance, Comfort, and Inspiration.'' Barron's Educational Series; 1st edition. ISBN 0764154036
* Ronner, John, [[1993]]. ''Know Your Angels: The Angel Almanac With Biographies of 100 Prominent Angels in Legend & Folklore-And Much More!'' Mamre Press. ISBN 0932945406.
* Swedenborg, Emanuel ([[1979]]). ''Conjugal Love.'' Swedenborg Foundation. ISBN 0877850542
* {{1911}}
==External links==
{{commonscat|angels}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01476d.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on angels]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1521&letter=A&search=angelology Jewish Encyclopedia entry on angels]
*[http://www.faizani.com/books/5thG_chapters/fourfold_firmaments.html Islam Way Online - Your Religion and Spirituality Portal] Islamic philosophy on angelic hierarchy in the creation
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/06-Jewish-Thought/section-14.html Judaism FAQs: What about angels, demons, miracles, and the supernatural?]
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/angels/ Angels on the Web (resource and art directory)])
*[http://mediaguidetoislam.sfsu.edu/religion/03b_concepts.htm The Media Guide to Islam]
*[http://www.sunna.info/Lessons/islam_331.html Angels in Islam]
[[Category:1911 Britannica]]
[[Category:Angels]]
[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:New Age]]
[[Category:Tanakh]]
[[Category:Torah]]
[[ang:Engel]]
[[ar:ملاك]]
[[bg:Ангел (религия)]]
[[ca:Àngel]]
[[cs:Anděl]]
[[da:Engel]]
[[de:Engel]]
[[et:Ingel]]
[[es:Ángel]]
[[eo:Anĝeloj]]
[[fr:Ange]]
[[id:Malaikat]]
[[it:Angelo]]
[[he:מלאך]]
[[la:Angelus]]
[[lt:Angelas]]
[[hu:Angyal]]
[[ms:Malaikat]]
[[nl:Engel]]
[[ja:天使]]
[[no:Engel]]
[[pl:Anioł]]
[[pt:Anjo]]
[[ru:Ангел]]
[[simple:Angel]]
[[sk:Anjel]]
[[fi:Enkeli]]
[[sv:Ängel]]
[[tr:Melek]]
[[uk:Ангел]]
[[zh:天使]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Angel/Angels in art</title>
<id>2158</id>
<revision>
<id>15900596</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-30T12:17:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removing 'see also' from redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Angels_in_art]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Allied Control Council</title>
<id>2160</id>
<revision>
<id>41900908</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:00:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wikipeditor</username>
<id>394720</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Notes */ case</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kammergericht.jpg|thumbnail|right||Kammergericht, Headquarters of the Allied Control Council]]
The '''Allied Control Council''' or '''Allied Control Authority''', known in [[German language|German]] as the ''Alliierter Kontrollrat'', was a military occupation governing body of [[History of Germany|Germany]] after [[the end of World War II in Europe]]; the members were the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[Soviet Union]]. [[France]] was later added with a vote but had no duties. The Allied Control Council was based in [[Schöneberg|Berlin-Schöneberg]].
== Creation ==
After the death of [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Karl Dönitz]] became [[Reichspräsident|president of Germany]] in accordance with [[Last will and testament of Adolf Hitler|Hitler's last political testament]]. He authorised the signing, at [[Rheims]], of the unconditional surrender of all German forces, which took effect on [[8 May]] [[1945]], and tried to establish a government under [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] [[Ludwig Graf Schwerin von Krosigk|von Krosigk]]. This government was not recognised by the Allies, however, and Dönitz and the other members were arrested on [[23 May]] by British forces.
The surrender document used by [[SHAEF]] at Rheims, was modelled on the one used a few days earlier to allow the German forces in Italy to surrender{{ref|page_256}}. They did not use the one which had been drafted for the surrender of Germany by the "[[European Advisory Commission]]" (EAC). This created a legal problem for the Allies, because although the German armed forces had surrendered unconditionally, the ''civilian'' German government had not been included in the surrender. This was considered a very important issue, given that Hitler had used the surrender of the civilian government, but ''not'' of the military, in [[1918]], to create the "stab in the back" argument{{ref|page_109}}. The Allies understandably did not want to give any future hostile German regime any kind of legal argument to resurrect an old quarrel. Eventually they decided not to recognise Dönitz, but to sign a four power document instead, creating the Allied Control Council. On [[5 July]] [[1945]], in [[Berlin]], the supreme commanders of the four occupying powers signed a common [[Declaration Regarding the Defeat of Germany]] (the so-called Berlin Declaration), which formally abolished any German governance over the nation:
:''The Governments of the United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United Kingdom, and the Provisional Government of the French Republic, hereby assume supreme authority with respect to Germany, including all the powers possessed by the German Government, the High Command and any state, municipal, or local government or authority. The assumption, for the purposes stated above, of the said authority and powers does not affect the annexation of Germany.'' [US Department of State, Treaties and Other International Acts Series, No. 1520.]
In reality, of course, all German central civilian authority had ceased to exist with the death of Hitler and the fall of Berlin at the latest. These parts of the Berlin declaration, t |
S' increased data capacity.
In addition to [[GMSK]] (Gaussian minimum-shift keying) EDGE uses [[8PSK]] (8 Phase Shift Keying) for its upper five of the nine modulation and coding schemes. EDGE produces a 3bit word for every change in carrier phase. This effectively triples the gross data rate offered by GSM. EDGE, like [[GPRS]], uses a rate adaptation algorithm that adapts the modulation and coding scheme (MCS) due to the quality of the radio channel, and thus the bit rate and robustness of data transmission. It introduces a new technology not found in GPRS, Incremental Redundancy, which, instead of retransmitting disturbed packets, sends more redundancy information to be combined in the receiver. This increases the probability of correct decoding.
EDGE can carry data speeds up to 236.8 kbit/s for 4 time slots (theoretical maximum is 473.6 kbit/s for 8 time slots) in packet mode and will therefore meet the [[International Telecommunications Union]]'s requirement for a [[3G]] network, and has been accepted by the ITU as part of the [[IMT-2000]] family of 3G standards. It also enhances the circuit data mode called [[HSCSD]], increasing the data rate of this service also. EDGE has been introduced into GSM networks around the world since 2003, initially in North America.
EDGE is actively supported by GSM operators in North America. Some GSM operators elsewhere view [[UMTS]] as the ultimate upgrade path and either plan to skip EDGE altogether or use it outside the UMTS coverage area. However, the high cost and slow uptake of [[UMTS]] (as demonstrated by the upstart network '''[[3 (telecommunications)|3]]''') have resulted in fairly common support for EDGE in the global GSM/GPRS market.
Although EDGE requires no hardware changes to be made in [[GSM]] core networks, base stations must be modified. An EDGE compatible tranceiver unit must be installed and base station system needs to be upgraded to support EDGE. New mobile terminal hardware and software is also required to decode/encode using the new shift keying scheme.
Whether EDGE is 2G or 3G depends on implementation. While Class 3 and below EDGE devices clearly are not 3G, class 4 and above devices perform at a higher bandwidth than other technologies conventionally considered as 3G (such as 1xRTT). With a maximum bandwidth of 236,8 kbit/s at Class 10, EDGE transcends both common 2G and 3G definitions.
See also: [[UMTS]]
==EDGE networks==
The following companies have EDGE networks in production:
* [[T-Mobile]] Czech Republic has large EDGE coverage in [[Czech Republic]] including all the main cities.
* [[Meteor Mobile Communications]], is upgrading its existing 2.5G Network to EDGE throughout [[Ireland]] in 2006/07.
* [[Sonera]] has large EDGE coverage in [[Finland]] including all the main cities.
* [[Telstra]] in [[Australia]] is to start upgrading it's existing 2.5G network to EDGE.
* [[Elisa Oyj]] has large EDGE coverage in [[Finland]] including all the main cities.
* [[Dna Finland]] is constructing lare EDGE/UMTS network and has partly opened it in [[Finland]].
* [[Azercell]] has EDGE network in Baku, the capital of Azerbiajan.
* [[Cell C]] has EDGE coverage in South Africa.
* [[Cellcom (Israel)|Cellcom]] has EDGE coverage in Israel.
* [[DiGi]] has reasonable EDGE coverage in Malaysia, particularly in West Malaysia. Coverage in East Malaysia is currently limited to Kuching, Kota Kinabalu and several main town centres. [[DiGi]] streams its MobileTV service over its EDGE network.
* [[Rogers Wireless]] has an EDGE network in Canada.
* [[Cingular]] and [[T-Mobile]] have EDGE networks in the United States.
* [[Orange SA|Orange]] has EDGE networks in France, Poland, Slovakia, Romania, Belgium, and has recently launched EDGE in the UK[http://www.3g.co.uk/PR/April2005/1301.htm].
* [[Bouygues Telecom]] has now an EDGE Network in France that covers 95 % of the population ; it's the largest EDGE implementation in France [http://www.option.com/news/detail.cfm?newsitemgroup_id=239].
* Mobilkom Austria provides an EDGE network in Austria [http://press.nokia.com/PR/200504/991043_5.html].
* [[Moldcell]] has EDGE networks in large cities of Moldova [http://www.infotag.md/press_release_en/10039/].
* [[MTN]] has EDGE coverage for large areas of South Africa.
* [[AirTel]] and [[Hutch (Indian cellular company)|Hutch]] provide EDGE coverage in large parts of India [http://www.3g.co.uk/PR/August2004/8193.htm] [http://www.3g.co.uk/PR/August2004/8139.htm].
* Velcom is constructing EDGE network and has partly opened it in [[Belarus]] [http://www.e-belarus.org/news/200512301.html].
* [[Telfort]] has full EDGE coverage in The Netherlands.
* [[DTAC]] is running an EDGE implementation in [[Bangkok]]/[[Thailand]] [http://www.dtac.co.th/edge/edgeindex.html].
* [[Telcel]] and [[movistar]] both operate independent EDGE networks in Mexico. Telcel's covers Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterrey and has expansions scheduled.
* VIPnet has full EDGE coverage in Croatia [http://vmc.vipnet.hr].
The full list of EDGE Operators previously maintained by GSM World was discontinued in May 2005, but they say "virtually all new GSM infrastructure deployments are also EDGE capable".
==External links==
* [http://www.gsmworld.com/technology/edge/index.shtml GSM World: EDGE Platform]
* [http://www.3g-generation.com/gprs_and_edge.htm 3g-generation.com: GPRS and EDGE]
* [http://www.ericsson.com/products/white_papers_pdf/edge_wp_technical.pdf Ericsson.com: EDGE Description (PDF file)]
* [http://www.moldcell.md/eng/Services/Data/EDGE/]
* [http://www.nokia-online.co.uk/Edge-data-connections/ Nokia - How EDGE for mobile device works]
[[category:GSM Standard]]
[[cs:EDGE]]
[[de:Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution]]
[[es:Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution]]
[[fr:Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution]]
[[is:EDGE]]
[[it:EDGE]]
[[he:EDGE]]
[[nl:Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution]]
[[no:EDGE]]
[[pl:EDGE]]
[[pt:EDGE]]
[[sk:Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution]]
[[sl:EDGE]]
[[fi:EDGE]]
[[sv:EDGE]]
[[zh:EDGE]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EDGE</title>
<id>10214</id>
<revision>
<id>18420413</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-08T20:28:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cacophony</username>
<id>94933</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eth</title>
<id>10216</id>
<revision>
<id>41689036</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:57:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Big Adamsky</username>
<id>468840</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{for|a list of letters that look similar to '''Ð''' in uppercase|Đ}}
[[Image:Ett.png|right|200px]]
'''Eth''' (Ð, ð), also spelled ''edh'' or ''eð'', is a [[letter]] used in [[Old English language|Old English]] (Anglo-Saxon) and present-day [[Icelandic alphabet|Icelandic]], and in [[Faroese alphabet]] which call the letter ''edd''. It was also used in [[medieval]] [[Scandinavia]], but was subsequently replaced with ''dh'' and later ''d''.
The letter had its origin as a ''d'' with a cross-stroke added. The lowercase version has retained the curved shape of a [[medieval]] scribe's ''d'', which ''d'' itself in general has not (but see for instance the [[Audi]] logo). Some scholars therefore argue that Eth (Ðð) and [[D with stroke]] (Đđ) are actually the same letter with local glyph variants {{fact}}, like ''[[ø]]'' and ''[[ö]]'', but the [[Unicode]] Consortium decided not to unify them.
In Icelandic, ''ð'' represents a voiced dental [[fricative]], as in ''th'' in English "them". As a point of curiosity, however, the name of the letter is pronounced ''eþ'', i.e., ''voiceless'', unless followed by a vowel. In Faroese, ''ð'' isn't assigned to any particular phoneme but is mostly there for etymological reasons, however, it does show where most of the Faroese glides are, and when the ''ð'' is before ''r'' it is in a few words pronounced as {{IPA|[g]}}. In the Icelandic and Faroese [[alphabet]]s, ''ð'' follows ''d''. In [[Olav Jakobsen Høyem]]'s version of [[Nynorsk]] based on [[Trøndersk]], the ''ð'' is always silent and introduced for etymological reasons. In [[Älvdalska]] orthography, the ''ð'' has the sound value [ð] and is a preserved from Old Norse. In Anglo-Saxon, ''ð'' may represent the same sound as in Icelandic, or the voiceless ''th'' of "thread", both of which were also represented by [[þ]] (thorn). In [[Middle English]], ''ð'' was no longer used; the [[Normans]] did not like characters in English which did not exist in the Latin alphabet. Ð and [[þ]] were replaced with ''th''.
Lower-case eth is used as a symbol in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA), again for a [[voiced dental fricative]], and in IPA usage, the name of the symbol is pronounced with the same voiced sound, as {{IPA|[&#603;ð]}}.
== Computer encoding ==
In the [[Unicode]] universal character encoding standard, upper and lower case eth are represented by U+00D0 and U+00F0, respectively. These code points are inherited from the older [[ISO 8859-1]] standard. In [[HTML]], eth is represented by the Latin character entities <code>&amp;ETH;</code> and <code>&amp;eth;</code>.
== Miscellany ==
* The letter ''ð'' is sometimes used in [[mathematics|mathematical]] and [[engineering]] textbooks as a symbol for a [[partial derivative]], but the more usual symbol is ∂.
* The modern [[Greek language|Greek]] letter [[Delta (letter)|delta]] ([[Δ]], [[δ]]) has, in general, the same phonetic value, and ''ð'' is the only actual [[Latin alphabet]] letter faithfully representing delta's phonetic value.
==External links==
* [http://briem.ismennt.is/2/2.11/2.1.3.eth.cap.htm How to make the Eth]
{{Latin alphabet |
d in the prologue of ''[[Gilgamesh]], [[Enkidu]] and the Underworld''. In this, Inanna, transplants the ''huluppu'' tree from the [[Euphrates]] to her own garden, but a wicked serpent made its nest amongst the roots of the tree, the Anzu bird had nested in the Branches and [[Lilith|Lilitu]] had taken residence in the trunk, and could not be charmed out. This tale connects the serpent to the garden, as well as, due to the presence of Inanna, goddess of love, holding knowledge coming from trees, and the theme of lust. Removing the part about Enki's rib from the story, and moving it to the start, would have allowed the failure to gain immortality being seen as punishment for eating the fruit, rather than a failure to obtain a gift.
Another confusing point is that translation "rib" from the Hebrew text is inaccurate. It was not interpreted as "rib" until after the [[Septuagint]] in the first, second, or third centuries B.C.E.
:The Hebrew word translated 'rib'. . . occurs forty-two times in the O. T., and in this instance alone is it translated 'rib.' In the majority of cases it is translated 'side' or 'sides,' in other places 'corners' or, 'chambers,' but never 'rib' or 'ribs.' [http://godswordtowomen.org/resources/onlinebooks/lessons%201-10.htm][http://www.jasher.com/Adamsrib.htm]
===[[Vedic]] (Hindu) Connection===
A [[Vedic]] story told in Mundakopanisad (Vedic text from about 1000BC) refers to two birds perched on a Pippala (Ficus religiosa) tree. One eats the fruit while the other watches, the one who eats fruit represents the individual self "Jiva" because it has sensual pleasure(taste) the second bird does not eat(denies the senses) and represents the Supreme Reality "Atman" [[sanskrit]]. They are both on the same "tree of knowledge" this symbolizes one body. In the Bible "Jiva" becomes [[Eve]] "Atman" becomes [[Adam]] and Pippala becomes apple. This provides a philosophical interepretation for the origin of Adam and Eve, where Eve incurs sin for eating the fruit. "Jiva" in [[Sanskrit]] means "life" could also be the origins of the word "live". In short only the complete control of the five senses leads to the Supreme Reality or [[God]] whereas sensual pleasure incurs ultimate unhappiness or [[sin]]. This theme runs through all the worlds major religions.
==Cultural influence==
[[Image:Masaccio-TheExpulsionOfAdamAndEveFromEden-Restoration.jpg|thumb|When it was cleaned, [[Tommaso Masaccio]]'s [[fresco]] of ''The Expulsion'' (1426&ndash;1427) lost the added fig leaves.]]
[[Early Renaissance art]]ists used the theme of Adam and Eve as a way to represent female and male nudes. Later, the nudity was objected to by more modest elements, and fig leaves were added to the older pictures and sculptures, covering their [[genital]]s. The choice of the [[fig tree|fig]] was a result of Mediterranean traditions identifying the unnamed ''Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil'' as a fig tree, and since figs leaves were actually mentioned in Genesis as being used to cover Adam and Eve's nudity.
In Northern Europe, the unnamed "Forbidden fruit" became considered a form of [[Apple (fruit)|apple]], partly since the [[germanic language|Germanic]] word ''apple'' originally meant any kind of fruit, only later becoming specialised. The [[larynx]] in the human throat, noticeably more prominent in males, was consequently called an ''[[Adam's apple]]'', from a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit sticking in Adam's throat as he swallowed, and the name has stuck.
Some [[Old Church Slavonic|Slavonic]] texts state that the "forbidden fruit" was actually the [[grape]], that was later changed in its nature and made into something good, much as the serpent was changed by losing its legs and speech.
In [[Aramaic]], the spelling of the name of Eve - חיויה or חיווי - also means ''[[snake]]''. Perhaps coincidentally, there are some examples of iconography depicting Lilith with a snake wrapped around her.
In late [[20th Century]] / early [[21st Century]] politics, the names of Adam and Eve are frequently invoked by those who oppose homosexuality on a religious basis, in the [[Anti-gay slogan|slogan]] "God made Adam and Eve, not Adam and Steve".
[[John Steinbeck]]'s [[1952]] novel ''[[East of Eden]]'' is based of the story of Adam, Eve, Cain and Abel. It was later made in to a [[East of Eden (1955 film)|film]] starring [[James Dean]].
[[Cockney Rhyming Slang]] uses "Adam and Eve" to mean "believe" (e.g. "Would you Adam and Eve it?", meaning "Would you believe it?"). This phrase is atypical, in that unlike most cockney rhyming slang, both the rhyming and non-rhyming parts are used.
In [[C.S. Lewis]]' ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe|The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe]]'' of ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' series of novels, the kings and queens that sit on Narnia's throne at the castle in Narnia's capital, Cair Paravel, are referred to as "Sons of Adam" and "Daughters of Eve". In the story, two male and two female humans are to sit on the four thrones of Cair Paravel to signify the return of peace to Narnia.
==References==
* Mahmoud Ayoub, ''The Qur'an and its Interpreters'', SUNY: Albany, 1984.
* R. Patai, ''The Jewish Alchemists'', Princeton University Press, 1994.
* Fazale Rana and [[Hugh Ross (creationist)|Ross, Hugh]], ''Who Was Adam: A Creation Model Approach to the Origin of Man'', 2005, ISBN 1-576-83577-4
* ''Sibylline Oracles'', III; 24-6. This Greek acrostic also appears in 2 Enoch 30:13.
* David Rohl, ''Legend: The Genesis of Civilisation'', 1998
* Bryan Sykes, ''The Seven Daughters of Eve''
* C.S. Lewis, ''The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe"
* Adam Mackie, The Importance of being Adam - Alexo 1997 (only 2000 copies published)
==See also==
*[[The Urantia Book,]] Papers 73 through 78: The Garden of Eden; Adam and Eve; The Default of Adam and Eve; The Second Garden; The Midway Creatures; The Violet Race after the Days of Adam
*[[The Seven Daughters of Eve]]
*[[Kaliyan]]
*[[Creation narrative]]
*[[Garden of Eden]]
*[[Mitochondrial Eve]]
*[[Pre-Adamite]]
*[[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]
*[[Y-chromosomal Adam]]
*[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe|The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe]]
*[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]
==External links==
*[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/world/human.html First Human Beings] ([[Library of Congress]])
*[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Topics/Lilith/alphabet.html The Story of Lilith in ''The Alphabet of Ben Sira'']
*[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Podcasts/Fall%20of%20Adam%20podcast.html Islamic view of the fall of Adam (audio)]
*[http://www.reasons.org/resources/apologetics/chromosome.shtml Chromosome dating]
[[Category:Torah people]]
[[Category:Characters in Paradise Lost]]
[[Category:Islamic prophets]]
[[ar:آدم]]
[[ca:Adam]]
[[cs:Adam a Eva]]
[[de:Adam und Eva]]
[[et:Aadam]]
[[es:Adán]]
[[eo:Adamo]]
[[fr:Adam]]
[[gl:Adán e Eva]]
[[id:Adam]]
[[it:Adamo]]
[[he:אדם וחוה]]
[[la:Adam]]
[[nl:Adam]]
[[ja:アダムとイヴ]]
[[no:Adam og Eva]]
[[pl:Adam]]
[[pt:Adão e Eva]]
[[ru:Адам]]
[[sk:Adam a Eva]]
[[sr:Адам и Ева]]
[[fi:Aadam]]
[[sv:Adam och Eva (Bibeln)]]
[[th:อาดัม]]
[[wa:Adan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ALU</title>
<id>2266</id>
<revision>
<id>20274181</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-04T17:22:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ceyockey</username>
<id>150564</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>qualified redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arithmetic logic unit]] {{R from abbreviation}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ascorbic acid</title>
<id>2268</id>
<revision>
<id>41945430</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:23:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KlaudiuMihaila</username>
<id>934064</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>interwiki ro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="margin-left:1em"
|-
! colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#cccccc" |Ascorbic acid
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| align="center" | <small>2-oxo-L-threo-hexono-<br>1,4-lactone-2,3-enediol <br>or<br>(''R'')-3,4-dihydroxy-<br>5-((''S'')-1,2-dihydroxyethyl)<br>furan-2(5''H'')-one</small>
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>6</sub>
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 176.12 g/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 190 - 192 °C (decomposes)
|-
| [[Specific gravity]]
| 1.65
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 50-81-7
|-
| [[EC-No|EC number]]
| 200-066-2
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| <small>OC1=C(C(O[C@@H]1<br>[C@H](CO)O)=O)O</small>
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | [[Image:Ascorbic acid.png|chemical structure of L-Ascorbic acid]]
|}
:''This article deals with the molecule ascorbic acid in General, for the nutrient see [[Vitamin C]]''
'''Ascorbic acid''' is an [[organic_chemistry| organic]] acid with [[antioxidant]] properties. Its appearance is white to light yellow crystals or powder. It is water soluble. The L-[[enantiomer]] of ascorbic acid is commonly known as [[vitamin C]]. In [[1937]] the [[Nobel Prize]] for chemistry was awarded to [[Walter Haworth]] for his work in determining the structure of ascorbic acid (shared with [[Paul Karrer]], who received his award for work on vitamins), and the prize for Physiology or medicine that year went to [[Albert Szent-Györgyi]] for his studies of the biological |
], who worked with him on his next three operas. The first of these, ''[[La bohème]]'' [[1896]] (based on a story by [[Henri Murger]]), is considered one of his best works, as well as one of the most romantic operas ever composed. His next opera, ''[[Tosca]], ''[[1900]] was Puccini's first foray into [[verismo]]. ''[[Madama Butterfly]]'' [[1904]] (based on a play by [[David Belasco]]) was greeted with great hostility at its opening (mostly orchestrated by his rivals), but after some reworking it has become another of his most successful operas.
Composition was slow after this. In 1903 he was injured in an automobile accident. In 1906, Giacosa died. In 1909, there was scandal after Puccini's wife, Elvira, falsely accused their maid of having an affair with Puccini. The maid then committed [[suicide]]. And in 1912, Puccini's editor, Ricordi, died.
Nonetheless, in 1910, Puccini completed ''[[La fanciulla del West]]'', which he later on thought of as his most powerful opera, and, in 1917, finished the score of ''[[La rondine]]'', a piece he reworked from an operetta he had attempted to compose only to find that his style and talent were incompatible with the genre.
In [[1918]], ''[[Il Trittico]]'' premiered. This work is composed of three one-act operas in the style of the Parisian [[Grand Guignol]]: a horrific episode (''[[Il Tabarro]]''), a sentimental tragedy (''[[Suor Angelica]]'') and a comedy or farce (''[[Gianni Schicchi]]''). Of the three, ''Gianni Schicchi'' is the most popular and ''Il Tabarro'' the least. ''Gianni Schicchi'', which takes place in [[Florence]], is sometimes performed as a double-bill with a one act opera such as [[Cavalleria Rusticana]] or [[I Pagliacci]].
A habitual chain smoker of cigarettes, Puccini began to complain of chronic sore throats towards the end of 1923. A diagnosis of throat cancer led his doctors to recommend a new and experimental treatment called [[Radiation therapy|radiation therapy]], which was being offered in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]. He died there on [[November 29]] [[1924]] from complications from the treatment. Uncontrolled bleeding led to a heart attack one day after undergoing surgery. News of his death reached [[Rome]] during a performance of ''La bohème''. The opera was immediately stopped, and the orchestra played [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]]'s [[Piano Sonata No. 2 in B flat Minor (Chopin)|''Funeral March'']] for the stunned audience. He was buried in Milan, but in 1926 his son ordered the transfer of his father's remains to the chapel in his house at Torre del Lago where he still lies together with his wife and son. His death marked the end of opera as a popular art form. [[Turandot]], his last opera was left unfinished. The last two scenes were completed by [[Franco Alfano]]. When the opera was premiered by [[Toscanini]] he had chosen not to perform the score by Alfano. The performance progressed to the last measures that Puccini himself completed and orchestrated, and at this point, the orchestra stopped, and the performers froze in position. Toscanini turned to the audience and said: "Here the opera finishes, because at this point the Maestro died". Only in 2001 an official new completion was made by [[Luciano Berio]].
== Music ==
Although Puccini is mainly known for his operas, he also wrote some orchestral pieces, sacred music, chamber music and songs for voice and piano.
===Puccini's operas===
*''[[Le Villi]]'', 1884.
*''[[Edgar (opera)|Edgar]]'', 1889.
*''[[Manon Lescaut (Puccini)|Manon Lescaut]]'', 1893.
*''[[La bohème]]'', 1896.
*''[[Tosca]]'', 1900.
*''[[Madama Butterfly]]'', 1904.
*''[[La fanciulla del West]]'', 1910.
*''[[La rondine]]'', 1917.
*''[[Il Trittico]]'': ''[[Il Tabarro]]'', ''[[Suor Angelica]]'', ''[[Gianni Schicchi]]'', 1918.
*''[[Turandot]]'', left unfinished in 1924 by the time of the composer's death, it was premiered in 1926 in a version completed by [[Franco Alfano]].
===Puccini's works and versions===
*Messa di Gloria (Gloria Mass, Lucca, 1880)
*Preludio Sinfonico in A major (Milan, 1882)
*Capriccio Sinfonico (Milan, 1883)
*Le Villi (1884-05-31 Teatro dal Verme, Milan)
*Le Villi [rev] (1884-12-26 Teatro Regio, Turin)
*Edgar (1889-04-21 [[La Scala, theatre|Teatro alla Scala]], Milan - 4 acts)
*Edgar [rev ] (1891-09-05 Teatro del Giglio, Lucca - 4 acts)
*Edgar [rev 2] (1892-02-28 Teatro Comunale, Ferrara - 3 acts)
*Manon Lescaut (1893-02-01 Teatro Regio, Turin)
*La bohème (1896-02-01 Teatro Regio, Turin)
*Tosca (1900-01-14 Teatro Costanzi, Rome)
*Madama Butterfly (1904-02-17 Teatro alla Scala, Milan)
*Madama Butterfly [rev] (1904-05-28 Teatro Grande, Brescia)
*Edgar [rev 3] (1905-07-08 Teatro Colón, Buenos Aires - 3 acts)
*Madama Butterfly [rev 2] (1905-07-10 Covent Garden, London)
*Madama Butterfly [rev 3] (1905-12-28 Opéra Comique, Paris)
*La fanciulla del West (1910-12-10 Metropolitan Opera, New York)
*La rondine (1917-03-27 Opéra, Monte Carlo)
*Il trittico (1918-12-14 Metropolitan Opera, New York):
**Il tabarro
**Suor Angelica
**Gianni Schicchi
*Turandot (1926-04-25 Teatro alla Scala, Milan)
==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Giacomo Puccini - Preludio Sinfonico.ogg|title=Preludio Sinfonico|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
== References ==
* http://www.bohemianopera.com/puccini.htm
* http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/puccini.html
== External links ==
*[http://cylinders.library.ucsb.edu/search.php?query=puccini&queryType=%40attr+1%3D1016 Puccini cylinder recordings], from the [[Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project]] at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] Library.
*{{IckingArchive|idx=Puccini|name=Giacomo Puccini}}
[[Category:1858 births|Puccini]]
[[Category:1924 deaths|Puccini]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Puccini]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Puccini]]
[[Category:Natives of Lucca|Puccini]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Puccini]]
[[Category:Puccini|*]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Puccini]]
{{Link FA|sr}}
[[ca:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[da:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[de:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[et:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[es:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[eo:Giacomo PUCCINI]]
[[fr:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[hr:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[it:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[he:ג'אקומו פוצ'יני]]
[[hu:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[nl:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[ja:ジャコモ・プッチーニ]]
[[no:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[pl:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[pt:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[ro:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[sr:Ђакомо Пучини]]
[[fi:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[sv:Giacomo Puccini]]
[[th:จิอาโคโม ปุชชินี]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Godesberg</title>
<id>12751</id>
<revision>
<id>41457410</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T13:39:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stemonitis</username>
<id>156441</id>
</contributor>
<comment>stub sort</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Godesberg''' (roughly "god's mountain"), a hill in the [[Eifel]] mountains in the [[Rhineland]], [[Germany]]. [[Bad Godesberg]] ("Bad" indicates a [[spa town|spa]]) is a town near [[Bonn]] in the Eifel, founded in [[1210]].
Godesberg is one of many places in Germany named after the highest Germanic pre-Christian god [[Gwodan]].
==External links==
*http://www.eifelfuehrer.de/B/BadGodesberg.html (in [[German language|German]], with images)
{{NorthRhineWestphalia-geo-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gramophone</title>
<id>12753</id>
<revision>
<id>15910419</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-22T18:12:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.158.106.247</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Phonograph]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Cukor</title>
<id>12754</id>
<revision>
<id>41029508</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T16:24:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bellhalla</username>
<id>160900</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>wfy some films, spelling fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''George Cukor''' ([[July 7]], [[1899]] &ndash; [[January 24]], [[1983]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[film director]].
==Life and career==
'''George Dewey Cukor''' was born in [[New York City]] to [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Jewish]] immigrants, Victor F. and Helen (Gross) Cukor. (His name means ''sugar'' in Hungarian.) As a teenager, he was infatuated with [[theater]] and often cut classes to attend afternoon matinees. Following his graduation from De Witt Clinton High School in 1916, he spent a year with the Students Army Training Corps. He then obtained a job as an assistant stage manager for a [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] theater company. After gaining three years of experience, he formed his own stock company in [[Rochester, New York]] in 1920, and worked there for seven years. He then returned to Broadway where he worked with such formidable actresses as [[Ethel Barrymore]] and Jeanne Eagles.
When [[Hollywood]] began to recruit New York theater talent for [[sound films]], Cukor answered their call and moved there in 1929. His first job was as a dialog director at [[Paramount Pictures]] for the film ''River of Romance'' (1929), followed by ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]]'' (1930). He then co-directed three films before making his solo debut directing [[Tallulah Bankhead]] in ''Tarnished Lady'' (1931). Cukor left Paramount after a legal dispute resulting from his dismissal from an earlier film (''One Hour With You'') and went to work with [[David O. Selznick]] at [[RKO Studios]].
Cukor's career flourished at RKO where he directed a string of impressive films including ''[[What Price Hollywood?]]'' (1932), ''[[A Bill of Divorcement]]'' (1933), ''[[Dinner at Eight]]'' (1933), ''[[Little Women (1933 film)|Little Women]]'' (1933), ''[[Personal History, Adventures, Experience, and Observation of David Copperfield the Younger|David Copperfield]]'' (1935) |
linton, his stepfather was a gambler and an alcoholic who regularly abused Clinton's mother, and sometimes Clinton's half-brother [[Roger Clinton, Jr.|Roger, Jr.]].
Clinton was a member of the Masonic Youth Order of [[DeMolay International|DeMolay]], but never became a [[Freemasonry|Freemason]].
Clinton was an excellent student and a talented saxophonist. He considered dedicating his life to music, but a visit to the White House of President John F. Kennedy, following his election as a [[Boys Nation]] Senator, led him to pursue a career in politics.
==Arkansas political career and education==
Clinton received a [[Bachelor of Science]] in Foreign Service (B.S.F.S.) degree from the [[Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service]] at [[Georgetown University]] in [[Washington D.C.]], where he became a brother of [[Alpha Phi Omega]], worked for Senator [[J. William Fulbright]], was elected to [[Phi Beta Kappa]] and won a [[Rhodes Scholarship]] to the [[University of Oxford]], ([[University College, Oxford|University College]]) in England where he was selected as a ''Chevalier''. After attending Oxford, Clinton obtained a [[Juris Doctor]] (J.D.) degree from [[Yale Law School]] in 1973. While at Yale, he met a classmate who would eventually be his wife, [[Hillary Rodham Clinton|Hillary Rodham]]; the couple married in 1975.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:CarterClinton.jpg|thumb|200px|President [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] (right) meets Governor Clinton.]] -->
In 1974, his first year as a [[University of Arkansas]] law professor, Clinton ran for the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. The incumbent, [[John Paul Hammerschmidt]], defeated Clinton with 52% of the vote. In 1976, Clinton was elected [[Attorney General]] of [[Arkansas]] without opposition in the general election.
In 1978, Bill Clinton was first elected [[Governor of Arkansas|governor of the state of Arkansas]], the youngest to be elected governor since 1938. His first term was fraught with difficulties, including an unpopular motor vehicle tax and popular anger over the escape of Cuban prisoners (from the [[Mariel boatlift]]) detained in [[Fort Chafee]] in 1980.
In the 1980 election, Clinton was defeated in his bid for a second term by [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] challenger [[Frank D. White]], becoming a victim of the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] Republican landslide. As he once joked, he was the youngest ex-governor in the nation's history. But in 1982, Clinton won his old job back, and over the next decade helped Arkansas transform its economy. He became a leading figure among the so-called New Democrats, who called for welfare reform, smaller government, and other Reagan-like ideas.
Clinton's approach mollified conservative criticism during his terms as governor. However, personal and business transactions made by the Clintons during this period became the basis of the [[Whitewater scandal|Whitewater]] investigation, which dogged his later presidential administration. After very extensive investigation over several years, no indictments of any kind were made against either of the Clintons growing out of their Arkansas years.
==Rise to the Presidency==
===1992 Presidential campaign===
Clinton's first foray into national politics occurred when he was enlisted to speak at the [[1988 Democratic National Convention]], introducing candidate [[Michael Dukakis]]. Clinton's address, scheduled to last 15 minutes, lasted over half an hour. <ref>[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/08/15/potus.speech/ Clinton touts success, boosts Gore in nostalgic farewell to Democratic convention] - Mike Ferullo, [[CNN]], [[August 15]], [[2000]]</ref>
Four years later, Clinton prepared for a run in 1992 against incumbent President [[George H. W. Bush]]. In the aftermath of the [[Persian Gulf War]], Bush seemed unbeatable, and several potential Democratic candidates — notably [[Governor of New York|New York Governor]] [[Mario Cuomo]] — passed on what seemed to be a lost cause. Clinton won the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]]'s nomination.
====Vice President Choice====
Clinton chose [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] [[Al Gore|Albert A. Gore Jr.]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]-[[Tennessee]]) to be his running mate on [[July 9]] [[1992]]. Initially this decision sparked criticism from strategists due to the fact that Gore was from Clinton's neighboring state of [[Tennessee]] which would go against the popular strategy of balancing a Southern candidate with a Northern partner. In retrospect, many now view Gore as a helpful factor in the 1992 campaign.
====Criticism====
Many character issues were raised during the campaign, including allegations that Clinton had dodged the draft during the [[Vietnam War]], and had used [[marijuana]], which Clinton claimed he had pretended to smoke, but "didn't inhale". Allegations of extramarital affairs and shady business deals were also raised. While typically these types of allegations would have resulted in a candidate withdrawing from the race, Clinton displayed the resiliency in the face of scandal that would later be pivotal in his presidency. As the candidate with the most money and the best-articulated campaign strategy&nbsp;— creating more jobs&nbsp;— Clinton was able to stay in the race the longest, fending off all rivals long before the Democratic convention. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/candidates/campaign.96/index2.html Campaign '96 Ads] - [[CNN]], accessed [[February 25]], [[2006]]</ref>
====Election====
=====Results=====
[[Image:Clinton.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Official Presidential Portrait of President Bill Clinton.]]
Clinton won the [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992 presidential election]] (43.01% of the vote) against Republican [[George H. W. Bush]] (37.4% of the vote) and billionaire populist [[Ross Perot|H. Ross Perot]] who ran as an independent (18.9% of the vote), largely on a platform focusing on domestic issues; a large part of his success was due to George H.W. Bush's steep decline in public approval. Previously described as "unbeatable" due to his approval ratings in the 80 percent range during the [[Persian Gulf]] conflict, Bush saw his public approval rating dropped to just over 40% by election time.
=====Reasons=====
Three factors made this possible. First, the campaign came in the midst of the [[Late 1980s recession|recession of 1992]]. While in historical terms the recession was mild and actually ended before the election, the resulting job loss (especially among middle managers not yet accustomed to white collar downsizing) fueled strong discontent with Bush, who was successfully portrayed as aloof, out of touch, and overly focused on foreign affairs. Highly telegenic, Clinton was perceived as sympathetic, concerned, and more in touch with ordinary families.
=====Tax Increases=====
Second was the decision by Bush to accept a tax increase. Pressured by rising budget deficits, increased demand for entitlement spending and reduced tax revenues (each a consequence of the recession) Bush agreed to a budget compromise with Congress (where rival Democrats held the majority). Not having been in Congress at the time, Clinton was able to effectively condemn the tax increase on both its own merits and as a reflection of Bush's honesty. Effective Democratic TV ads were aired showing a clip of Bush's infamous 1988 campaign speech in which he promised "[[Read my lips: no new taxes|Read my lips ... No new taxes.]]"
=====Ross Perot=====
Finally, Bush's coalition was in disarray. Ross Perot's independent campaign played to moderates' concerns about the budget deficit, siphoning crucial swing votes from Bush. Meanwhile, conservative voters &mdash; especially social conservatives-- lacked confidence in Bush, an avowed moderate. Previously, conservatives had been united by anti-communism; with the end of the Cold War, old rivalries re-emerged. Meanwhile, despite a fractious and ideologically diverse party, Clinton was able to successfully court all wings of the Democratic party, even where they conflicted. To garner the support of moderates and conservative Democrats, he cannily attacked [[Sister Souljah]], a rap musician whose lyrics Clinton condemned. Clinton could also point to his moderate, New Democrat record as Governor of Arkansas. More liberal Democrats were impressed by Clinton's academic credentials, 60's-era protest record, and support for social causes such as a woman's right to abortion. Supporters remained energized and confident, even in times of scandal or missteps.
Clinton was the first Democrat to serve two full terms as president since [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. His election ended an era in which the Republican party had controlled the [[White House]] for 12 consecutive years, and for 20 of the previous 24 years. That election also brought the Democrats full control of the political branches of the federal government, including both houses of [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] as well as the presidency, for the first time since the administration of the last Democratic president, [[Jimmy Carter]].
==First Term==
===Significant events of the first term===
Clinton's first act as president was to sign [[executive order]] 12834 (entitled "Ethics Commitments by Executive Branch Appointees"), which placed substantial restrictions upon the ability of his senior political appointees to [[lobbying|lobby]] their colleagues after they leave office. Clinton rescinded the order shortly before he left office in executive order 13184 of [[December 28]], [[2000]].
[[Image:ClintonGore2.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Clinton and Vice President Gore talk while walking through the Colonnade at the White House.]]
Shortly after taking office, Clinton fulfilled a campaign promise by signing the [[Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993]], w |
ogies, with different models becoming available as the years pass. The most primitive model holds relatively few people and produces considerable pollution, while later models are clean and efficient.
A level of the computer game ''[[Deus Ex: Invisible War]]'' posits a futuristic arcology on the edge of an ancient [[Medina quarter|medina]] in [[Cairo]].
Arcologies are common elements in futuristic [[anime]] and [[manga]] titles. An example would be the [[post-apocalyptic]]/[[cyberpunk]] series ''[[Appleseed]]'' by [[Masamune Shirow]], in which arcologies dominate the skyline of the city Olympus.
In the 1982 [[cyberpunk]] film ''[[Blade Runner]]'' by [[Ridley Scott]], the main offices of the fictional Tyrell Corporation are located in an arcology; The Genom Tower arcologies (among other things) in the [[anime]] ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]'' were partially inspired by the Tyrell arcology.
== See also ==
* [[Arcosanti]]
* [[Broadacre City]]
* [[Ecumenopolis]]
* [[Old Man River City/Super Urban Structure]]
* [[Bionic tower]], [[Shanghai]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.arcosanti.org/ Arcosanti.org] &ndash; Official Webpage for a prototype arcology in [[Arizona]]
* [http://www.arcology.com/ Arcology.com] &ndash; Useful links
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/arcology/ The Yahoo Group]
* [http://eserver.org/fiction/nightland/default.html The Night Land by William Hope Hodgson] (Full text online)
* [http://www.victorycities.com/ Victory City]
* [http://www.globalvillages.info/index.php/ArcologyWiki/ArcologyWiki A discussion of arcology concepts]
[[Category:Buildings and structures]]
[[Category:Planned cities]]
[[Category:Portmanteaus]]
[[de:Arkologie]]
[[es:Arcología]]
[[fr:Arcologie]]
[[he:&#1488;&#1512;&#1511;&#1493;&#1500;&#1493;&#1490;&#1497;&#1492;]]
[[it:Arcologia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 5</title>
<id>2194</id>
<revision>
<id>42039115</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:04:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>220.236.201.157</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=5}}
|}
'''[[April 5]]''' is the 95th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (96th in [[leap year]]s). There are 270 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[33]] - (traditional date) [[Resurrection]] of [[Jesus]], according to the [[Christian]] gospels. (date est. by Sir [[Isaac Newton]])
*[[1242]] - During a battle on the ice of [[Chudskoye Lake]], [[Russia]]n forces rebuff an invasion attempt by the [[Teutonic Knights]].
*[[1614]] - In [[Virginia]], [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[Pocahontas]] marries [[England|English]] colonist [[John Rolfe]].
*[[1621]] - The ''[[Mayflower (ship)|Mayflower]]'' sets sail from [[Plymouth, Massachusetts|Plymouth]] on a return trip to [[Great Britain]].
*[[1654]] - The [[1654 Treaty of Westminster|Treaty of Westminster]], ending the [[First Anglo-Dutch War]], is signed.
*[[1690]] - Patrizio Cardinal Ficca is elected pope and takes the name [[Patricius I]].
*[[1792]] - U.S. President [[George Washington]] [[veto]]s a bill designed to apportion representatives among [[U.S. state]]s. This was the first time the presidential veto had been used in the [[United States]].
*[[1804]] - The first recorded meteorite falls in Possil, [[Scotland]] ([[High Possil Meteorite]]).
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Yorktown (1862)|Battle of Yorktown]]. The battle begins when Union forces under General [[George McClellan]] close in on the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] capital [[Richmond, Virginia]].
*[[1923]] - [[Firestone Tire and Rubber Company]] starts production of balloon-[[tire]]s.
*[[1930]] - In an act of [[civil disobedience]], [[Mohandas Gandhi]] breaks British law after marching to the sea and making [[salt]].
*[[1936]] - [[Tupelo-Gainesville Outbreak]]: A F5 tornado slams into the north side of [[Tupelo, Mississippi]], killing 233. It is the 4th deadliest tornado in [[U.S.]] history.
*[[1942]] - [[World War II|Second World War]]: [[Japanese Navy]] attacks [[Colombo]] in [[Ceylon]] ([[Sri Lanka]]). [[Royal Navy]] [[Cruisers]] [[HMS Cornwall]] and [[HMS Dorsetshire]] are sunk southwest of the island.
*[[1945]] - [[Cold War]]: [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] leader [[Josip Broz|Josip "Tito" Broz]] signs an agreement with the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] allowing "temporary entry of Soviet troops into Yugoslav territory."
*[[1949]] - [[Fireside Theater]] debuts on [[television]].
*1949 - A fire in a hospital in [[Effingham, Illinois]], [[United States]], kills 77 people.
*[[1951]] - [[Ethel and Julius Rosenberg]] are sentenced to death for performing [[espionage]] for the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1955]] - [[Winston Churchill]] resigns as [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] amid indications of failing health.
*[[1956]] - In [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Mahajana Eksath Peramuna]] won the general elections in a lanslide and [[Solomon Bandaranaike|S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike]] sworn in as the Prime Minister.
*[[1957]] - In [[India]], [[Communist Party of India|Communists]] won the first elections in united [[Kerala]] and [[E. M. S. Namboodiripad]] sworn in as the first chief minister.
*[[1969]] - [[Vietnam War]]: Massive [[antiwar demonstration]]s are held in [[New York, New York|New York City]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[Washington, D.C.]], and other cities around the [[United States]].
*[[1971]] - In [[Sri Lanka]], [[Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna]] launches insurrection against the [[United Front]] government of Mrs [[Sirimavo Bandaranaike]].
*[[1972]] - Vietnam War: [[North Vietnam]]ese forces invade [[Binh Long Province]], launching a second front of the [[Nguyen Hue Offensive]].
*[[1973]] - [[Pierre Messmer]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]]
*[[1976]] - In the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[April Fifth Movement]] leads to the [[Tiananmen incident]].
*[[1986]] - [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing|Bombing]] of the [[La Belle (discotheque)|La Belle Discotheque]] in [[West Berlin]], [[Germany]], kills three.
*[[1991]] - [[Atlantic Southeast Airlines|ASA]] [[Embraer]] [[Embraer EMB 120|EMB 120]] crashes in [[Brunswick, Georgia]], [[United States]], killing all 23 aboard.
*[[1992]] - Several hundred-thousand [[abortion rights]] demonstrators march in [[Washington, D.C.]]
*1992 - [[Siege of Sarajevo]] begins when Serb paramilitaries murder peace protestor Suada Dilberovic on the Skenderija Bridge.
*[[1993]] - The [[Child Support Act 1991]], administered by the [[Child Support Agency]], comes into effect in the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1994]] - [[Kurt Cobain]] of the band [[Nirvana]] found dead after an apparently successful suicide attempt.
*[[1998]] - In [[Japan]], the [[Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge]] linking [[Shikoku]] with [[Honshu]] and costing about US$3.8 billion, opens to traffic, becoming the largest [[suspension bridge]] in the world.
*[[1999]] - Two [[Libya]]ns suspected of bringing down [[Pan Am flight 103]] in [[1988]] are handed over for eventual trial in the [[Netherlands]].
*1999 - In [[Laramie, Wyoming]], [[United States]], Russell Henderson pleads guilty to [[kidnapping]] and felony [[murder]] in order to avoid a possible [[death penalty]] conviction for the [[hate crime]] killing of [[Matthew Shepard]].
*[[2005]] - [[ABC News]] anchor [[Peter Jennings]] announces on ''[[ABC World News Tonight|World News Tonight]]'' that he had been diagnosed with [[lung cancer]]. It was his last on-air appearance.
==Births==
*[[1288]] - [[Emperor Go-Fushimi]] of Japan (d. [[1336]])
*[[1472]] - [[Bianca Maria Sforza]], wife of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1510]])
*[[1479]] - [[Guru Amar Das]], third Sikh Guru (d. [[1574]])
*[[1523]] - [[Blaise de Vigenère]], French diplomat and cryptographer (d. [[1596]])
*[[1588]] - [[Thomas Hobbes]], English philosopher (d. [[1679]])
*[[1604]] - [[Charles III, Duke of Lorraine]] (d. [[1675]])
*[[1622]] - [[Vincenzo Viviani]], Italian mathematician and scientist (d. [[1703]])
*[[1649]] - [[Elihu Yale]], American benefactor of Yale University (d. [[1721]])
*[[1692]] - [[Adrienne Lecouvreur]], French actress (d. [[1730]])
*[[1732]] - [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]], French artist (d. [[1806]])
*[[1784]] - [[Louis Spohr]], German violinist and composer (d. [[1859]])
*[[1816]] - [[Samuel Freeman Miller]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. 1890)
*[[1827]] - [[Joseph Lister]] English surgeon (d. [[1912]])
*[[1832]] - [[Jules Ferry]], French statesman (d. [[1893]])
*[[1837]] - [[Algernon Charles Swinburne]], English poet (d. [[1909]])
*[[1856]] - [[Booker T. Washington]], American educator (d. [[1915]])
*[[1871]] - [[Mirko Seljan]], Croatian explorer
*[[1875]] - [[Mistinguett]], French vaudeville performer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1893]] - [[Clas Thunberg]], Finnish speed skater (d. [[1973]])
*[[1900]] - [[Spencer Tracy]], American actor (d. [[1967]])
*[[1901]] - [[Melvyn Douglas]], American actor (d. [[1981]])
*[[1908]] - [[Bette Davis]], American actress (d. [[1989]])
*1908 - [[Herbert von Karajan]], Austrian conductor (d. [[1989]])
*1908 - [[Jagjivan Ram]], Indian politician (d. [[1986]])
*[[1909]] - [[Albert R. Broccoli]], American film producer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1911]] - [[Jussi Björling]], Swedish tenor (d. [[1960]])
*[[1912]] - [[John Le Mesurier]], British actor (d. [[1983]])
*[[1916]] - [[Gregory Peck]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1917]] - [[Robert Bloch]], American author (d. [[1994]])
*[[1920]] - [[Arthur Hailey]], American writer (d. [[2004]])
*1920 - [[Rafique Zakaria]], Indian author and legal expert (d. [[2005]])
*[[1922]] - [[Christopher Hewett]], British actor (d. [[2001]])
*1922 - [[Gale Storm]], American singer and actress
*[[1923]] - [[Michael Gazzo]], American actor |
stated principles of due process. In practice, the narrowing down of individual choice may be here principally aimed at reducing the incidence of specific coercion, rather than forcing on everybody some special sub-set of positive goals. More generally, unspecific coercion may be the form taken by disciplinary coercion, and this appears to be in fact the case within the most effective command systems of the modern world.
Unspecific coercion is thus the same thing as the [[rule of law]] in its widest sense. This must not however be confused with the ‘’monopoly of coercion by the State’’. First, State coercion may very easily be arbitrary – indeed technically very ‘’specific’’, according to the above definition. Secondly, there are well-documented historical examples of (small) societies that have practiced unspecific coercion ‘’without’’ the help of State institutions – like [[Iceland]] in the early [[Middle Ages]]. The identification between State and law is but a special ‘’normative’’ principle introduced by (public) Roman law, which according to some, like [[Maitland]], was for this very reason to be treated as the quintessential “law of tyranny”.
==Effects==
The effects of coercion may differ substantially according to its type and scope. Here they will be considered from the legal, psychological, social and ethical points of view.
===Legal effects===
In most legal systems, the use of ‘’physical’’ specific coercion by private individuals is a [[criminal offence]] in all cases not involving self defence.
The picture is less simple for ‘’psychological’’ specific coercion, owing to the general difficulty in finding clear evidence for it. In most systems psychological coercion is treated as a criminal offence when it is aimed at ‘’extortion’’, as is typical of blackmail. It is also punished when it leads to ‘’undue influence’’, defined as a master-slave relationship.
Finally, ‘’economic’’ coercion is generally unlawful under most systems of anti-trust legislation, where it can amount to either a criminal offence – as under the Sherman Act of the US – or an administrative offence liable to a mere fine – as under EU legislation on the abuse of a dominant position. It is important however to remember that [[trade unions]] and other groups of organised workers are mostly exempted from this general principle for acts of economic coercion (like strikes) against their employers,
====Exculpation and nullity====
Specific coercion may be used as a legal defence in criminal cases for acts committed under threat of injury. Similarly, one may claim the legal nullity of a [[contract]] signed under duress.
In both cases, however, the question arises of whether a "[[reasonable person]]" would have perceived a threat, and reacted in the same way. Moreover, under most modern legal systems ‘’disciplinary’’ coercion cannot be claimed as an exculpating circumstance for [[war crimes]] committed under unlawful orders.
===Psychological effects: the effectiveness of thought coercion===
As already stated, thought coercion – either religious or ideological – is defined by its ultimate end to alter the fundamental values and beliefs of its victims. To ask whether this can in fact be done is to put a fundamental and age-old question: can [[conscience]] be coerced?
At the beginning of the sixth century, in a famous letter to the Jews of [[Genoa]], the [[Goths|Gothic]] king [[Theodoric the Great]], who was an [[Arian]] Christian, wrote: “...We cannot command the religion of our subjects, since no-one can be forced to believe against his will”: Hodgkin (1886) p. 219. This idea that conscience ‘’cannot’’ in fact be coerced originated among the [[Stoic]] philosophers of ancient [[Greece]], and resurfaced many centuries later during and after the European [[Renaissance]], as one of the basic tenets of classic (or Whig) [[liberalism]].
The opposite view was however the dominant one within what [[Karl Popper]] (1945) has called the [[Platonic]] tradition, which included among other things both mainstream Christianity and [[Hegel]]’s philosophy, with its later polar developments of [[Marxism]] and [[Fascism]].
Yet, though these opposite answers may lead to divergent ethical and political prescriptions, the question itself is about a matter of mere psychological fact, which can be addressed empirically, looking at experience. Lifton (1961) on Chinese thought reform is one of the very few such works, and its findings are thus highly relevant here. Very broadly and on the whole, these findings were that on most victims the impact of thought reform tended to be temporary. In the short run it might be considerable, even leading to something close to a profound religious experience – particularly in subjects of relatively younger age (under thirty). But after a few years, and left to themselves, the victims tended to question the principles they had been indoctrinated with, reverting in most cases to their former values and convictions.
If correct, these findings would suggest that thought coercion cannot generally achieve its ultimate goal to ‘’permanently’’ affect people’s basic values. In the Chinese case, this prediction came soon true, with the unorthodox outcomes of the “Hundred Flowers” episode of 1957. More generally, one would hence be led to expect that – far from being temporary – thought coercion would have to become a ‘’stable’’ feature of society, in order to produce any long-lasting result. And indeed – as seen above – such predicted tendency to repeat and institutionalise itself appears to be borne out by the historical record of thought coercion in both Communist regimes and the Catholic Church.
===Social effects: coercion and progress===
====Whig-liberal tradition====
According to the Whig-liberal tradition, due to the Scottish moral philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, widespread specific coercion has the general effect of limiting society’s ability to find new and better ways of doing things: see e.g. Hayek (1960). This follows from the view of social culture as the outcome of an [[evolutionary process]] of adaptation and selection through trial and error. Since specific coercion restricts the range of potential choices to the whims of only a few individuals, it narrows down society’s chances to experiment and select new solutions, and hence its ability to adapt. Thus, it is predicted that ‘’in the long run’’ the most successful societies would mainly be those where the incidence of specific coercion was less.
However, this only applies to ‘’specific’’ coercion. By contrast, it is argued that ‘’unspecific’’ coercion – brought about by the rule of law – does not in itself hinder adaptation in any important way, because it is as uniform and predictable as the constraints following from natural laws. Moreover, the rule of law is the only available way to curb specific coercion. Hence, far from being a hindrance, unspecific coercion is in this view a necessary condition for human progress.
====Platonic tradition====
Needless to say, those who believe they already know what is best for society, and thus feel no need to rely on any evolutionary process, do not share the Whig-liberal negative view of the social effects of specific coercion. They often opt instead for a so-called [[social engineering]] approach, whereby a [[command]] system steered by a few competent individuals – and buttressed up by quite specific coercion – is assumed to be the most “rational” way to ensure social progress.
The earliest formulation of this alternative view is found in [[Plato]]’s ‘’Republic’’. In modern times the idea re-surfaced during the French Revolution, thanks to Rousseau’s famous distinction between the will of all and a supposed “’’general will’’”, which – unlike the former – was defined as embodying the objective “good” for society. According to Rousseau and his followers, social progress required that those who are somehow inspired by the “general will” should be entitled to enforce it through revolutionary coercion on the will of all. Later on, during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, this French revolutionary principle – though not of course its specific way to identify the “general will” – percolated into first [[Socialist]] and then [[Fascist]] political thinking.
===Ethical effects: coercion and freedom===
To most people, the ethical implications of individual predatory coercion are straightforward. In recent times, some have attempted to extend a similar ethical judgement to non-predatory forms of coercion by individuals. Thus, for instance, the [[Taking Children Seriously]] movement has criticised pedagogic coercion by adults, including parents, on children, holding that it is possible and desirable to act with a child in such a way that all activities are consensual.
The ethical standing of wider forms of supposedly “altruistic” specific coercion – like political and thought coercion – is however much more controversial, along lines relating to the assumed relationship between coercion and [[freedom]], which is often regarded as an ethical value in itself.
====Coercion as the negation of freedom====
The Whig-liberal tradition has led to the well-known notion of (negative) freedom as lack of specific coercion. According to this view, any form of specific coercion is then unethical in itself as an injury to freedom, quite apart from its damaging effects on social progress. Indeed, the ethical value of (negative) freedom is grounded on the idea that conscience cannot be coerced, and is thus the ultimate standard of morality. It hence follows that – from an ethical point of view – coercion cannot even be regarded as a lesser evil: since it cannot produce conscientious behaviour, it can never bring about the fulfilment of ‘’any’’ ethical value.
====Coercion as a source of freedom====
However, the basing of all ethical values on conscience has also produced a diametrically |
and the [[HapMap]].
==Benefits==
Clear practical results of the project emerged even before the work was finished. For example, a number of
companies, such as [[Myriad Genetics]] started offering inexpensive and easy ways to administer genetic tests that can show predisposition to a variety of illnesses, including [[breast cancer]], [[blood clotting]], [[cystic fibrosis]], [[liver]] diseases and many others.
There are also many tangible benefits for biological scientists. For example, a researcher investigating a certain form of [[cancer]] may have narrowed down his search to a particular gene. By visiting the human genome database on the worldwide web, this researcher can examine what other scientists have written about this gene, including (potentially) its three-dimensional structure, its function(s), its evolutionary relationships to other human genes, or to genes in mice or yeast or fruitflies, possible detrimental mutations, interactions with other genes, body tissues in which this gene is activated, diseases associated with this gene... The list of datatypes is long, one reason why [[bioinformatics]] is so challenging.
The work on interpretation of genome data is still in its initial stages. In the future the knowledge gained by the understanding of the genome will boost the fields of [[medicine]] and [[biotechnology]], potentially leading to cures for [[cancer]], [[Alzheimer's disease]] and other diseases.
On a more purely scientific level, the analysis of similarities between DNA sequences from different organisms is opening new avenues in the study of the theory of [[evolution]]. In many cases, evolutionary questions can now be framed in terms of [[molecular biology]]; indeed, many major evolutionary milestones (the emergence of the [[ribosome]] and [[organelle]]s, the development of embryos with body plans, the [[vertebrate]] [[immune system]]) can be related to the molecular level. Many questions about the similarities and differences between humans and our closest relatives (the [[primate]]s, and indeed the other [[mammal]]s) are expected to be illuminated by the data from this project.
==Whose genome was sequenced?==
''This answer is posted as supplied by Dr. Marvin Stodolsky, U.S. DOE Office of Biological and Environmental Research, Office of Science. This statement is believed to be in the public domain since it is a work of the United States government''
<blockquote>Whose genome was sequenced in the public (HGP) and private projects?</blockquote>
<blockquote>The human genome reference sequences do not represent any one person’s genome. Rather, they serve as a starting point for broad comparisons across humanity. The knowledge obtained is applicable to everyone because all humans share the same basic set of genes and genomic regulatory regions that control the development and maintenance of their biological structures and processes.</blockquote>
<blockquote>In the international public-sector Human Genome Project (HGP), researchers collected blood (female) or sperm (male) samples from a large number of donors. Only a few of many collected samples were processed as DNA resources. Thus the donor identities were protected so neither donors nor scientists could know whose DNA was sequenced. DNA clones from many different libraries were used in the overall project.</blockquote>
<blockquote>Technically, it is much easier to prepare DNA cleanly from sperm than from other cell types because of the much higher ratio of DNA to protein in sperm and the much smaller volume in which purifications can be done. Using sperm does provide all chromosomes for study, including equal numbers of sperm with the X (female) or Y (male) sex chromosomes. However, HGP scientists also used white cells from the blood of female donors so as to include female-originated samples.</blockquote>
<blockquote>In the Celera Genomics private-sector project, DNAs from a few different genomes were mixed up and processed for sequencing. The DNA resources used for these studies came from anonymous donors of European, African, American (North, Central, South), and Asian ancestry. The lead scientist of Celera Genomics at that time, [[Craig Venter]], has since acknowledged that his DNA was one of those in the pool.</blockquote>
<blockquote>Many small regions of DNA that vary among individuals (called polymorphisms) also were identified during the HGP, mostly single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Most SNPs are without physiological effect, although a minority contribute to the delightful and beneficial diversity of humanity. A much smaller minority of polymorphisms affect an individual’s susceptibility to disease and response to medical treatments.</blockquote>
<blockquote>Although the HGP has been completed, SNP studies continue in the International HapMap Project, whose goal is to identify patterns of SNP groups (called haplotypes, or “haps”). The DNA samples for the HapMap came from a total of 270 individuals: Yoruba people in Ibadan, Nigeria; Japanese in Tokyo; Han Chinese in Beijing; and the French Centre d’Etude du Polymorphisme Humain (CEPH) resource.{{ref|HGP}}</blockquote>
==References==
#{{note|barnhart}} {{cite journal
| last = Barnhart | first = Benjamin J.
| year = 1989
| url = http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/publicat/hgn/v1n1/01doehgp.shtml
| title = DOE Human Genome Program
| journal=Human Genome Quarterly
| volume = 1 | pages = 1
}} Retrieved 2005-02-03.
#{{note|delisi}} {{cite journal
| last = DeLisi | first = Charles
| year = 2001
| url = http://genome.gsc.riken.go.jp/hgmis/publicat/hgn/v11n3/05delisi.html
| title = Genomes: 15 Years Later A Perspective by Charles DeLisi, HGP Pioneer
| journal=Human Genome News
| volume = 11 | pages = 3–4
}} Retrieved 2005-02-03.
#{{note|HGP}} Stodolsky, Dr. Marvin [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/faq/seqfacts.shtml#whose Oak Ridge National Laboratory Website]
*[http://www.wired.com/news/medtech/0,1286,66822,00.html DNA Testing Goes DIY], Associated Press via Wired News, March 07, 2005.
==See also==
*[[National Human Genome Research Institute]]
*[[Chimpanzee Genome Project]]
*[[Cancer Genome Project]]
*[[International HapMap Project]]
*[[Sanger Institute]]
==External links==
* [http://www.genome.gov National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)]. [[NHGRI]] led the National Institutes of Health's ([[NIH]]'s) contribution to the International Human Genome Project. This project, which had as its primary goal the sequencing of the 3 billion base pairs that make up human genome, was successfully completed in April 2003.
* [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/publicat/hgn/hgn.shtml Human Genome News]. Published from 1989 to 2002 by the US Department of Energy, this newsletter was a major communications method for coordination of the Human Genome Project. Complete online archives are available.
*[[Project Gutenberg]] hosts e-texts for Human Genome Project, titled ''Human Genome Project, Chromosome Number #'' (# denotes 01-22, X and Y). This information is raw sequence, released in November 2002; access to entry pages with download links is available through http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3501 for Chromosome 1 sequentially to http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3524 for the Y Chromosome. Note that this sequence might not be considered definitive due to ongoing revisions and refinements. In addition to the chromosome files, there is a [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11799 supplementary information file] dated March 2004 which contains additional sequence information.
*[http://www.doegenomes.org/ The HGP information pages]
*[http://www.ensembl.org/ Ensembl project], an automated annotation system and browser for the human genome
* [http://genome.ucsc.edu UCSC genome browser]
*[http://www.nature.com/genomics/human/ Nature magazine's human genome gateway], including the HGP's paper on the draft genome sequence
*[http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/genome/ Wellcome charitable trust description of HGP] "Your Genes, your health, your future".
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-2/genome.html Learning about the Human Genome. Part 1: Challenge to Science Educators. ERIC Digest.]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-2/genome2.html Learning about the Human Genome. Part 2: Resources for Science Educators. ERIC Digest.]
* [http://www.prospect.org/print/V11/26/goozner-m.html ''Patenting Life'' by Merrill Goozner]
* [http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OSTP/html/00626_4.html Prepared Statement of Craig Venter of Celera] Venter discusses Celera's progress in deciphering the human genome sequence and its relationship to healthcare and to the federally funded Human Genome Project.
{{genomics-footer}}
[[Category:Big Science]]
[[Category:Classification systems]]
[[Category:Genome projects]]
[[Category:U.S. sponsored enterprises]]
[[da:HUGO]]
[[de:Humangenomprojekt]]
[[es:Proyecto Genoma Humano]]
[[fr:Projet Génome Humain]]
[[he:פרויקט הגנום האנושי]]
[[id:Proyek Genom Manusia]]
[[it:Progetto Genoma Umano]]
[[ja:ヒトゲノム計画]]
[[nl:Menselijk genoomproject]]
[[pl:Projekt poznania ludzkiego genomu]]
[[pt:Projeto Genoma Humano]]
[[sv:Human Genome Project]]
[[th:โครงการจีโนมมนุษย์]]
[[tr:İnsan Genom projesi]]
[[zh:人类基因组计划]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Holocaust Industry</title>
<id>13786</id>
<revision>
<id>41842237</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:25:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.38.238.68</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''The Holocaust Industry: Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering''''' is a [[book]] by [[Norman G. Finkelstein]], who is jewish, which argues that an "industry" has exploited the memory of [[the Holocaust]] to further Jewish and [[Israeli]] interests, and has corrupted the Jewish culture and Jewish heritage of [[Judaism]] as w |
ate the first and last quarter. Traditionally, the [[Sabbat (neopaganism)|Sabbat]]s are times of [[celebration (party)|celebration]], while magical work is done at the esbats.
There are thirteen [[canonical]] full moons each year, although some years will have only twelve, because a lunar month is more than twenty-eight days long (actually about 29 1/2 days). A "[[blue moon]]" is popularly defined as the second full moon in a calendar month, although some define it as the second full moon while the sun is in one sign of the [[Zodiac]].
In '''The Witches' Goddess''', Janet and [[Stewart Farrar]] note that the [[Babylon]]ians considered the new moon to be the time when the [[Goddess]] was [[Menstrual cycle|menstruating]], and it was bad luck to do work on that day. In [[Jew]]ish culture, the new moon is the first day of the month, called [[Rosh Chodesh]], and is still observed by some as a holiday for women.
The term '''esbat''' is a recent adoption, dating to the writings of [[Margaret Murray]]. It is derived from French ''esbat'' (modern ''&eacute;bat''), meaning roughly "frolic, romp", with some sexual connotations. This term was used during the [[witch trials|European witch trials]] to describe the supposed behaviour of [[witches]] engaging in [[Devil worship]]. [[Margaret Murray|Murray]] was misled by the word's coincidental resemblance to the term '''sabbat'''.
==External links==
*[http://www.avalonia.co.uk/book_of_shadows/esbats_introduction.htm What are Esbats?] - An introduction to the Wiccan Full Moon Ceremonies
[[Category:Wicca]]
[[de:Esbat]]
[[eo:Esbato]]
[[it:Esbat]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evolution of societies</title>
<id>10305</id>
<revision>
<id>19845550</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-29T10:46:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Piotrus</username>
<id>59002</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sociocultural evolution]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic dance music</title>
<id>10306</id>
<revision>
<id>15908126</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-19T13:26:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.193.97.2</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Completely redundant entry with no redeeming value. </comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronic music]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Equal temperament</title>
<id>10307</id>
<revision>
<id>41723474</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:13:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.133.182.195</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Equal temperament''' is a scheme of [[musical tuning]] in which the [[octave]] is divided into a series of equal [[step]]s (equal frequency ratios). The best known example of such a system is ''twelve-'''t'''one '''e'''qual '''t'''emperament'', sometimes abbreviated to ''12-TET'', which is nowadays used in most [[Western music]]. Other equal temperaments do exist (some music has been written in [[19 equal temperament|19-TET]] and [[31 equal temperament|31-TET]] for example, Arabian and eastern styled music is based on a [[Arab tone system|24-tone]] equal temperament), but they are so rare that when people use the term ''equal temperament'' without qualification, it is usually understood that they are talking about the twelve tone variety.
== Explanation ==
The distance between each step and the next is ''aurally'' the same for any two adjacent steps; though, because steps form a [[geometric sequence]], the difference in [[frequency]] increases from one to the next. A [[linear]] sequence of one frequency difference would create ever smaller intervals ([[ratio]]s), such as the [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]]. See also [[logarithmic scale]].
Equal temperaments allow the use of [[integer notation]]; a single integer can be used to represent the pitch. The [[pitch class]]es can then be expressed in terms of [[modular arithmetic]] modulo the number of divisions of the octave, and this expedites mathematical methodology when examining these temperaments.
==History==
[[Vincenzo Galilei]] (father of [[Galileo Galilei]]) may have been the first person to advocate equal temperament (in a 1581 treatise). The first person known to introduce a mathematically accurate specification for equal temperament is probably [[Chu Tsai-Yu]] (朱載堉) in the [[Ming Dynasty]], who published a theory of the temperament in 1584. Soon after, European mathematicians [[Simon Stevin]] (1585, inspired by V. Galilei) and [[Marin Mersenne]] (1636) accurately described equal temperament.
In 1582, the great Chinese scholar of the Jesuits, Matteo Ricci, commenced his studies at Macao. From 1580, the Viceroy of the Cantonese province had established biannual 'trade fairs' lasting several weeks, at which Chinese and Westerners exchanged ideas and goods. The interchange between East and West was intense just at the moment when Chu Tsai-Yu went into print with his new theory. We do not know the exact mode of transmission of the idea to Europe. Within fifty-two years of Chu's publication, his ideas were published by Pere Marin Mersenne. The Ming Dynasty ended eight years later, but influenced musical theory for many years later.
Twelve tone equal temperament was introduced in the West to permit the playing of [[music]] in all keys with an equal amount of mis-[[tuning]] in each, without having to provide more than 12 pitches per octave on instruments, while still roughly approximating [[just intonation]] intervals. This allows much more facile harmonic motion, while losing some subtlety of intonation. True equal temperament was not available to musicians before about 1870 because scientific tuning and measurement was not available. And in fact, from about 1450 to about 1800 musicians tolerated even less mistuning in the most common keys, like C major. Instead, they used approximations that emphasized the tuning of [[Major third|third]]s or [[Perfect fifth|fifth]]s in these keys, such as [[meantone temperament]].
At the time equal temperament was beginning to take hold in the West, many people perceived the much-increased mis-tuning of the music, relative to [[meantone temperament]], as a disgrace. Those in opposition to equal temperament worried that the temperament, by degrading the purity of each chord, would degrade the purity of music. The composers against equal temperament included [[Giuseppe Tartini]].
Equal temperament does have a weak point in tonal music. Group of musicians such as string ensemble or [[a capella]], where tuning by microtones can be possible simultaneously during concerts, often prefer to tune the parts comprising each chord in just tuning relative to one another, in order to maximize the effect of [[Consonance and dissonance|consonance]]. Other instruments, such as [[Wind instruments|wind]], [[Keyboard instruments|keyboard]], and [[Fret|fretted]]-instruments, use equal temperament or ''quasi''-equal temperament, when the instruments have technical limitations to be tuned exactly equal. The dissonance of such temperaments is known to be noticed by an average audience. Some claim that this is especially troubling in the lower register, and had somewhat constrained composers in the classical and romantic eras from writing chords narrower than octave for the left hand in keyboard music, while such examples in cello parts of string quartets are more common. Others hear the dissonance as most troubling in the higher register, where [[beat (acoustics)|beating]] between harmonics of mistuned consonances is faster, and where combinational tones, often an entire semitone out-of-tune in equal temperament, are louder.
On the other hand, [[J. S. Bach]] wrote [[The Well-Tempered Clavier]] to demonstrate the musical possibilities of [[well temperament]], where in some keys the consonances are even more degraded than in equal temperament. There is some reason to believe that when composers and theoreticians of this era wrote of the "colors" of the keys, they described the subtly different dissonances of particular tuning methods, though it is difficult to determine with any exactness the actual tunings used in different places at different times by any composer. (Alternatively, many of these composers may have possessed [[absolute pitch]].) Well temperaments were gradually supplanted by equal temperament over the course of the 19th century, and it is in the environment of equal temperament that the new styles of symmetrical tonality and [[polytonality]], [[atonality|atonal music]] such as that written with the [[twelve tone technique]] or [[serialism]], and [[jazz]] (at least its piano component) developed and flourished.
==Twelve-tone equal temperament==
The ratio between two adjacent semitones can be found with a few steps:
:1. Let ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> be the frequency of a tone ''n'', with ''a''<sub>12</sub> an [[octave]] above ''a''<sub>0</sub>. This creates twelve tones for each octave.
:2. Since the frequency ratio of a tone from one octave to the next is 2:1, the ratio of the frequency of one tone (''a''<sub>12</sub>) to the frequency of a tone an octave lower (''a''<sub>0</sub>) is 2:1 as well, so
::<math>\frac{a_{12}}{a_0} = 2</math>
:3. Since the frequencies of the tones are in a geometric sequence, the frequency for a tone ''k'' (relative to the tone designated zero) will be equal to ''s''<sup>''k''</sup>''a''<sub>0</sub> where ''s'' is the constant ratio between adjacent frequencies. This gives for ''k'' = 12,
::<math>a_{12} = s^{12} a_0</math>
::<math>\frac{a_{12}}{a_0} = s^{12}</math>
:4. Since ''a''<sub>12</sub> / ''a''<sub>0</sub> was found to be two, the formula with constant ratio ''s'' is
:: |
Christianity, affirming that [[God]] has been begotten and manifest in the human being [[Jesus]], has formulated a number of statements of faith that seek to assert his [[doctrine]].
In this sense, perhaps the earliest statement of Christian faith is the slogan affirming that ''[[Jesus]] is Lord'', which appears in St [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s [[Epistle to the Romans]] 10:9. The meaning and importance of this slogan comes from its affirmation that Jesus Christ is the full revelation of the God [[Yahweh]] of [[Judaism]] made incarnate, a doctrine thought impossible and indeed [[blasphemous]] by the rest of the Jewish community.
As Christianity wrestled with the implications of this statement, its developing [[theology]] required more complex formulations.
=== Apostles' Creed ===
It is likely that the earliest creed of Christianity that deserves the title in full is the [[Apostles' Creed]]. [[Christian mythology]] attributes this creed to all [[Twelve Apostles|twelve Apostles]] as a joint composition, and assigns one phrase of the creed to each Apostle. This attribution is unlikely, but the creed itself is quite old; it seems to have developed from a [[catechism]] used in the [[baptism]] of adults, and in that form can be traced as far back as the [[2nd century|second century]]. The Apostles' Creed seems to have been formulated to resist [[Docetism]] and similar ideas associated with [[Gnosticism]]; it emphasizes the birth, physical death, and bodily resurrection of Jesus Christ.
The [[Nicene Creed]] clearly derives from the Apostles' Creed, and equally obviously represents an elaboration of its basic themes. The most salient additions to this creed are much more elaborate statements concerning [[Christology]] and the [[Trinity]]. These reflect the concerns of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in [[325]] A. D., and have their chief purpose the rejection of [[Arianism]], which the church adjudged a [[heresy]]. In the [[Roman Catholic]] [[liturgy]] the Nicene Creed is repeated during each [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]].
Christians today probably use the Nicene Creed most widely, followed by the Apostles Creed.
=== A creed as a catalogue of heresies ===
In an atmosphere of increasingly complicated theological controversy, orthodox belief might become more complicated in outline. In the decade before 594, [[Gregory of Tours|Gregory, bishop of Tours]] set out to write a ''Historia Francorum'' ("History of the Franks"). In Gaul, a part of Europe recently beset with both royal [[Arianism|Arians]] and royal pagans (until the conversion of [[Clovis]]), Gregory prefaced his history with a declaration of his faith, "so that my reader may have no doubt that I am Catholic" (Book I.i). The confession is in many phrases, each of which refutes a specific Christian heresy. Thus Gregory's creed presents, in negative, a virtual catalogue of heresies:
:<!--phrases need to be linked to their respective Wikipedia entries-->''I believe, then, in God the Father omnipotent. I believe in Jesus Christ his only Son, our Lord God, born of the Father, not created. [I believe] that he has always been with the Father, not only since time began but before all time. For the Father could not have been so named unless he had a son; and there could be no son without a father. But as for those who say: "There was a time when he was not," [note: A leading belief of Arian Christology.] I reject them with curses, and call men to witness that they are separated from the church. I believe that the word of the Father by which all things were made was Christ. I believe that this word was made fresh and by its suffering the world was redeemed, and I believe that humanity, not deity, was subject to the suffering. I believe that he rose again on the third day, that he freed sinful man, that he ascended to heaven, that he sits on the right hand of the Father, that he will come to judge the living and the dead. I believe that the holy Spirit proceeded from the Father and the Son, that it is not inferior and is not of later origin, but is God, equal and always coeternal with the Father and the Son, consubstantial in its nature, equal in omnipotence, equally eternal in its essence, and that it has never existed apart from the Father and the Son and is not inferior to the Father and the Son. I believe that this holy Trinity exists with separation of persons, and one person is that of the Father, another that the Son, another that of the Holy Spirit. And in this Trinity confess that there is one Deity, one power, one essence. I believe that the blessed Mary was a virgin after the birth as she was a virgin before. I believe that the soul is immortal but that nevertheless it has no part in deity. And I faithfully believe all things that were established at Nicæa by the three hundred and eighteen bishops. But as to the end of the world I hold beliefs which I learned from our forefathers, that Antichrist will come first. An Antichrist will first propose circumcision, asserting that he is Christ; next he will place his statue in the temple at Jerusalem to be worshipped, just as we read that the Lord said: "You shall see the abomination of desolation standing in the holy place." But the Lord himself declared that that day is hidden from all men, saying; "But of that day and that hour knoweth no one not even the anger in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father alone." Moreover we shall here make answer to the heretics [note: the Arians] who attack us, asserting that the Son is inferior to the Father since he is ignorant of this day. Let them learn then that Son here is the name applied to the Christian people, of whom God says: "I shall be to them a father and they shall be to me for sons." For if he had spoken these words of the onlybegotten Son he would never have given the angels first place. For he uses these words: "Not even the angels in heaven nor the Son," showing that he spoke these words not of the only-begotten but of the people of adoption. But our end is Christ himself, who will graciously bestow eternal life on us if we turn to him."'' [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html#book3]
=== Other creeds ===
Other notable creeds include the:
* [[Athanasian Creed]]
* [[Chalcedonian Creed]]
* [[Social Creed (Methodist)]]
* The Masai Creed is a creed composed in about 1960 by Western Christian missionaries for the [[Masai]] people of East Africa. The missionaries were from the Congregation of the Holy Ghost. The creed attempts to express the essentials of the Christian faith within the Masai culture.
==Islamic creeds==
The most basic attempt to put the religion of [[Islam]] in a brief statement of doctrine is the [[shahada]], the proclamation that there is no [[god]] but [[Allah]], and [[Muhammad]] is His [[prophet]].
More detailed credal declarations of Islamic [[dogma]] constitute [[aqidah]].
==See also ==
* [[American's Creed]]
* [[Articles of Faith]]
* [[Book of Concord]]
* [[Pledge of Allegiance]]
* [[Rifleman's Creed]]
* [[Thirty-Nine Articles]]
* [[Westminster Confession of Faith]]
==Further reading==
* ''[http://www.creeds.net The Creeds of Christendom]'' A website linking to many formal Christian declarations of faith.
* ''[http://yalepress.yale.edu/YupBooks/viewbook.asp?isbn=0300093896 Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition]''. Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss. Published by [[Yale University Press]] in [[2003 in literature|2003]].
* ''[http://www.scientology.org/world/worldeng/corp/creed.htm The Creed of the Church of Scientology]''.
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Aqidah]]
[[ar:عقيدة دينية]]
[[cs:Krédo]]
[[da:Trosbekendelse]]
[[de:Glaubensbekenntnis]]
[[es:Credo]]
[[it:Credo religioso]]
[[la:Symbolum]]
[[nl:Geloofsbelijdenis]]
[[no:Trosbekjennelse]]
[[pt:Credo]]
[[ru:Символ веры]]
[[sl:Izpoved vere]]
[[sv:Trosbekännelse]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Claudius Aelianus</title>
<id>7213</id>
<revision>
<id>41506701</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:53:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Veledan</username>
<id>306701</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>serpent --> Serpent (symbolism). Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Aelianus Tacticus]], Greek military writer of the 2nd century CE, resident at Rome, is sometimes confused with Claudius Aelianus.''
'''Claudius Aelianus''' (c. [[175]] - c. [[235]]), often seen as just '''Aelian''', born at [[Praeneste]], was a Roman author and teacher of [[rhetoric]] who flourished under [[Septimius Severus]] and probably outlived [[Elagabalus]], who died in 222. He spoke [[Greek language|Greek]] so perfectly that he was called "honey-tongued" (''meliglossos''); Roman-born, he preferred Greek authors, and wrote in a slightly archaizing Greek himself.
His two chief works are valuable for the numerous quotations from the works of earlier authors, which are otherwise lost, and for the surprising lore, which offers unexpected glimpses into the Greco-Roman world-view.
==''De Natura Animalium (&Pi;&epsilon;&rho;&iota; &Zeta;&omega;&omega;&nu; &Iota;&delta;&iota;&omicron;&tau;&eta;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;)''==
''On the Nature of Animals,'' ("On the Characteristics of Animals" is an alternative title; usually cited, though, by its Latin title), is a curious collection, in 17&nbsp;books, of brief stories of natural history, sometimes selected with an eye to conveying allegorical moral lessons, sometimes because they are just so astonishing:
:"The Beaver is an amphibious creature: by day it lives hidden in rivers, but at night it roams the land, feeding itself with anything that it can fi |
[[Psychiatry|psychiatrist]] Amadeus Arkham converted his estate into a mental health institution. Dr. Arkham studied under [[Carl Jung]], interviewed [[Aleister Crowley]] during a trip to Europe and pioneered several key concepts in [[criminal psychology]]. Unfortunately, a series of personal tragedies caused Dr. Arkham's mental deterioration. At the start of the [[Great Depression]] in 1929, Amadeus was incarcerated for assaulting his [[stock broker]]. He died years later, imprisoned in the asylum he created. His nephew, Jeremiah Arkham, currently runs the asylum, and oversaw its reconstruction in 1992, and its movement to the Mercey House in 1995. Unfortunately the asylum has rarely managed to cure or keep its various insane inmates for long.
===Recent events===
In the late 1990s, Gotham City suffered from an artificially created [[epidemic]], and was given its most devastating blow when an [[earthquake]] (measuring 7.6 on the [[Richter Scale]]) struck the city in 1998, resulting in untold property damage and, according to ''[[Adventures of Superman]]'' # 648, 5,057 dead at last recorded count. After much political controversy, a federal edict cut off the city from the rest of the [[United States]], with most of Gotham's residents evacuating in the process. After a full year as a federally proclaimed "[[No Man's Land (comics)|no man's land]]," the reconstruction of the city was initiated by privately owned businesses, and later taken over by the Federal Works Projects. Old landmarks were painstakingly restored or recreated in tribute to the city's rich history. New buildings were erected, in addition to the completion of the Gotham Rapid Transit System, which included the longest independently operated [[monorail]] system in the world. Gotham thus regained its identity, and remains today as one of the greatest cities in the world.
Additionally, [[James Gordon (comics)|James Gordon]] retired from service as Gotham's police commissioner. He currently is a law professor at Gotham University. He has been succeeded by the new police commissioner, [[Michael Akins]]. However, the status quo was recently restored during the One Year Later event, and James Gordon is now once again Commissioner, serving his third stint in the position.
==Mayors==
A list of Gotham City's [[mayor|mayors]], in chronological order from earliest to latest:
* Hamilton Hill &mdash; before [[KnightSaga]]
* Armand Krol &mdash; early 1990s; during KnightSaga; lost election to Grange; later died from the Clench virus unleashed by [[Ra's al Ghul]] in the "Legacy" storyline
* Marion Grange &mdash; late 1990s; failed to prevent the [[federal government]] from declaring [[No Man's Land (comics)|No Man's Land]] before being assassinated by agents of [[Nick Scratch(DC Comics)|Nick Scratch]].
* Daniel Danforth Dickerson III &mdash; early 2000s; elected mayor following No Man's Land; [[political corruption|corrupt]]; [[assassin]]ated by the [[Joker (comics)|Joker]]
* David Hull &mdash; current
William Borg was the mayor in the 1989 ''[[Batman (film)|Batman]]'' film.
Hamilton Hill was the mayor in ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]''.
Marion Grange is the mayor in the ''[[The Batman (TV series) |The Batman]]''
==Residents==
One of Gotham City's most famous residents is [[Batman|Bruce Wayne]], [[CEO]] of Wayne Enterprises and noted [[philanthropist]] and [[playboy]].
A number of heroes associated with Batman have operated in Gotham City. These include several youths in the role of [[Robin (comics)|Robin]] (Batman's [[sidekick]]), [[Nightwing]] (the original Robin [[Dick Grayson]]'s adult superhero identity), [[Batgirl]] and [[Huntress (comics)|The Huntress]].
Apart from Gotham's [[superhero]] residents, the residents of the city were featured in a back up series in ''[[Detective Comics]]'', "Tales of Gotham City" and in two [[limited series]] called ''Gotham Nights''. In addition, the Gotham City Police Department is the focus of its own series, ''[[Gotham Central]]''.
Other [[DC Comics]] characters outside the Batman-related titles also reside in Gotham City. [[Alan Scott]], the [[Golden Age of Comics|Golden Age]] [[Green Lantern]], is based there and [[Plastic Man]] has been said to operate out of Gotham City as well. The original [[Black Canary]] was shown as residing in Gotham in the [[Justice Society of America]] series, and in later years, her daughter resided there during much of the [[Birds of Prey (comics)|Birds of Prey]] series. In the original [[Justice League|Justice League of America]] series, it was revealed that [[Zatara]] and [[Zatanna]] also resided in a mansion known as Shadowcrest, located in Gotham. Tommy Monaghan, the title character from the [[Garth Ennis]] comic-book series ''[[Hitman (comics)|Hitman]]'', is a hired killer from Gotham's "Cauldron" neighborhood. Also operating in Gotham City is the superhero team [[Section 8 (comics)|Section 8]].
==Notable areas, landmarks, institutions and businesses==
In addition to Arkham Asylum, other major facets of Gotham City seen in Batman comics include:
* Blackgate Maximum Security Penitentiary – the city’s main [[prison]], located on Blackgate Isle.
* Brentwood Academy – a privately run [[high school]] once attended by Tim Drake ([[Robin (comics)|Robin III]]).
* The Clocktower – A tower in central Gotham which once located the secret headquarters of [[Oracle (comics)|Barbara Gordon]], currently known as Oracle.
* Crime Alley – Formally "Park Row," Crime Alley is a small side street, located in the East End, where Thomas and Martha Wayne were killed by [[Joe Chill]] during [[Bruce Wayne]]'s youth, after the family had visited a [[movie theater|cinema]]. It is a dangerous, [[crime]]-infested area. In [[post-Crisis]] comic continuity, this is also the location where Batman first met [[Jason Todd]], when he attempted to steal the tires off of the [[Batmobile]].
* The East End – an underdeveloped part of town, where poverty and crime are widespread (in the 2005 movie ''[[Batman Begins]]'' a similar type of area in Gotham is referred to as ''The Narrows''). Some comics writers occasionally conflate the East End together with Crime Alley.
* Finnigan's - a bar popular with uniformed police officers in Gotham.
* Gotham Heights – The affluent area where Wayne Manor is located. Also known as "Bristol" and/or "Crest Hill", due to mutual proximity of the three neighbourhoods of those names.
* Gotham County High School - A public high school once attended by Tim Drake ([[Robin (comics)|Robin III]]).
* Grand Avenue - Gotham City's version of [[New York City]]'s [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]].
* The Iceberg Lounge - a nightclub in the city centre operated by the [[Penguin (comics)|Penguin]].
* Killinger's Department Store - Large department store similar to ''[[Macy's]]'' in New York.
* Monarch Playing Card Factory - the factory where a costumed criminal named the [[Red Hood]] fell into a vat of chemicals and became the [[Joker (comics)|Joker]].
* My Alibi - a lowlife bar in the city centre.
* Robinson Park – The city’s main park (named after 1940s Batman artist and [[Joker (comics)|Joker]] co-creator [[Jerry Robinson]], as were Robinson Square and Robinson Plaza)
* The Statue of Justice - also known as "Lady Gotham", modelled loosely on the [[Statue of Liberty]] in New York, modified with a blindfold over her eyes, and a sword and scales in her outstretched hands. ''In Batman: The Animated Series'', the statue is shown holding a shield and a torch.
* "Toxic Acres" - An abandoned neighborhood of newly built houses, unsuitable for habitation due to its proximity to a toxic waste dump. Gas masks and/or antivenom is required to prevent illness while staying. Toxic Acres was a onetime hideout for [[Poison Ivy (comics)|Poison Ivy]] and [[Harley Quinn]].
* Wayne Manor – sometimes referred to as ''Wayne Mansion'' or ''Stately Wayne Manor''. The [[mansion]] estate of Bruce Wayne, and the location of the [[Batcave]].
* Wayne Tower – Headquarters of Wayne Enterprises. Located at the corner of Finger and Broome Streets (named after comic creators [[Bill Finger]] and [[John Broome (writer)|John Broome]]).
* ''Zesti Cola'' - the soft drink of choice in Gotham. ''Coka Cola'' is also a popular beverage.
Many other areas and landmarks have been referred to more inconsistently in the comics and most are named in homage to important Batman creators. These include:
* Aparo Park and Aparo Expressway - (named after artist [[Jim Aparo]])
* Barr Town - (named for writer [[Mike W. Barr]])
* Archie Goodwin International Airport (named after writer and editor [[Archie Goodwin]])
* Cape Carmine - (named after artist [[Carmine Infantino]])
* Davis Avenue - (named for artist [[Alan Davis]])
* Dixon Dock - (named after writer [[Chuck Dixon]])
* Finger River - (named after Batman co-creator [[Bill Finger]])
* Finger Memorial Park - (Named after Batman co-creator [[Bill Finger]])
* Grant Park - (named after writer [[Alan Grant]])
* Miller Harbour - (named after writer/artist [[Frank Miller]])
* Novick Tunnel - (named after artist [[Irv Novick]])
* Robbinsville – (named after artist [[Jerry Robinson]])
* R.H. Kane Building and the Robert Kane Memorial Bridge - (named after Batman co-creator [[Bob Kane]])
* Sprang Bridge and the Sprang River - (named after artist [[Dick Sprang]])
* The Westward Bridge - (named after the ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]'' live-action TV series' actors [[Adam West]] and [[Burt Ward]]).
Gotham City is a major economic center within the [[DC Universe]]'s United States; its important industries include manufacturing, [[shipping]], finance, [[fine arts]] (with its numerous museums, galleries, and jewelry displays), and the production of giant novelty props. In addition to a commercial [[seaport]], there is also a [[naval shipyard]].
Major businesses based in Gotham |
mes include, "[[kleurlinge]]", "[[basters]]", "[[griqua]]", "[[namaqua]]", or "[[khoikhoi]]". They are sometimes called "bruin afrikaners" (meaning '''brown Afrikaners'''), or "bruinmense" (meaning '''brown people'''). This has seen some success despite the history of exclusion during the colonial and apartheid eras. However, many Afrikaans-speaking coloureds feel they have developed a separate identity from [[whites|white]] Afrikaans speakers due to the strict [[racial segregation]] policies of the apartheid years.
Recently, some liberal Afrikaans-speaking South Africans and Namibians have started rejecting the label 'Afrikaner', because of its negative connotations of racism, conservatism and religious intolerance. Some use the racially neutral term "Afrikaanses" to refer to themselves as persons whose mother tongue is Afrikaans, disregarding racial identity or apartheid-era categorisation.
A group of Afrikaners has settled in the town of [[Orania]], with the goal of ultimately gaining a [[Volkstaat]] for Afrikaners as a result of Afrikaner demographic consolidation.
==Afrikaner versus Boer==
Currently, a number of white Afrikaans-speaking people, mainly with "conservative" political views, prefer to be called "[[Boer|Boers]]", rather than "Afrikaners". They feel that there were many people of [[Voortrekker]] descent who were not co-opted or assimilated into what they see as the [[Cape Province|Cape]]-based Afrikaner identity which began emerging after the [[Second Anglo-Boer War]] and the subsequent establishment of the [[Union of South Africa]].
They contend that the Boers of the [[South African Republic|South African]] (ZAR) and [[Orange Free State]] republics were recognized as a separate people or cultural group under international law by the Sand River Convention (which created the South African Republic in [[1852]]), the Bloemfontein Convention (which created the Orange Free State Republic in [[1854]]), the Pretoria Convention (which re-established the independence of the South African Republic [[1881]]), the London Convention (which granted the full independence to the South African Republic in [[1884]]) and the [[Peace of Vereeniging|Vereeniging Peace Treaty]], which formally ended the [[Second Anglo-Boer War]] on [[31 May]] [[1902]]. Others contend, however, that these treaties dealt only with agreements between governmental entities and do not imply the recognition of a Boer cultural identity ''per se''.
The supporters of these views feel that the Afrikaner designation (or label) was used from the [[1930s]] onwards as a means of unifying (politically at least) the white Afrikaans speakers of the Western Cape with those of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent (whose ancestors began migrating eastward during the 1690s and throughout the 1700s and later northward during the [[Great Trek]] of the 1830s) in the north of South Africa, where the Boer Republics were established.
The supporters of the "Boer" designation view the Afrikaner designation as an artificial political label which usurped their history and culture turning "Boer" achievements into "Afrikaner" achievements. They feel that the Western-Cape based Afrikaners — whose ancestors did not trek eastwards or northwards — took advantage of the republican Boers' destitution following the Anglo-Boer War and later attempted to assimilate the Boers into a new politically-based cultural label as "Afrikaners".
==Notable historic Afrikaners==
* [[Andries Hendrik Potgieter]] [[Voortrekker]] leader
* [[Andries Pretorius]] Voortrekker leader
* [[Daniel François Malan|D.F. Malan]] [[Prime minister]] (1948 - 1954), elected on [[Apartheid]] platform
* [[Eugene Marais]] Poet
* [[Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd|Hendrik Verwoerd]] Prime minister (1958 - 1966) and considered architect of Apartheid
* [[James Barry Munnik Hertzog|J.B.M. Hertzog]] Prime minister (1920 - 1921), (1924 - 1939)
* [[Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom|J.G. Strijdom]] Prime minister (1954 - 1958)
* [[Jan Smuts]] Statesman (1870 - 1950)
* [[Louis Botha]] First prime minister of South Africa (1910 - 1919) and former Boer general
* [[Olive Schreiner]] Author (1855 - 1920)
* [[Paul Kruger]] President of the [[Transvaal Republic]]
* [[Petrus Jacobus Joubert]] Boer general and cabinet member of the Transvaal Republic government
* [[Piet Retief]] Voortrekker leader
* [[Sailor Malan]] [[World War II]] [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] fighter pilot (1910 - 1963)
* [[Sarel Cilliers]] Voortrekker leader
* [[Siener van Rensburg]] Prophet
==Notable contemporary Afrikaners==
* [[Andre Brink|André P Brink]] Author
* [[Andre Stander]] Notorious bank robber
* [[Antjie Krog]] Author
* [[Arnold Vosloo]] Actor ([[The Mummy (1999 movie)|''The Mummy'']], [[24 (television)|''24'']]) (1962 -)
* [[Athol Fugard]] Playwright (1922 - )
* [[Beyers Naudé]] Cleric, theologian and anti-apartheid activist
* [[Bram Fischer]] Advocate and fugitive leader of the [[South African Communist Party]]
* [[Breyten Breytenbach]] Poet (1938 - )
* [[Casper de Vries]] Comedian
* [[Charlize Theron]] [[Academy-Award]] winning actress (1975 - )
* [[Christiaan Barnard]] Performed the first [[heart transplant]] (1922 - 2001)
* [[Constand Viljoen]] Former head of the [[SADF]] (1980 - 1985) and leader of the [[Freedom Front]] (1994 - 2001)
* [[Ernie Els]] Golfer (1969 - )
* [[Ernst van Heerden]] Poet
* [[Ettienne le Roux]] Author (1922 - 1989)
* [[Eugène Terre'Blanche]] Controversial Boer irredentist / former White supremacist
* [[F.W. de Klerk]] Statesman (1936 - ) President of the Republic of South Africa from 1989 - 1994.
* [[Francois Pienaar]] [[Springboks]] rugby captain during the team's victory in the [[1995 Rugby Union World Cup]]
* [[Frederik van Zyl Slabbert]] Politician
* [[Hestrie Cloete]] (1978 - ) High jumper
* [[J.M. Coetzee]] Nobel-Prize winning author (1940 - )
* [[Jan Breytenbach]] Founder of the [[South African Special Forces Brigade]]
* [[Gert Potgieter]] Former 400m hurdles world record holder.
* [[Gerrie Coetzee]] Former world heavy weight boxing champion.
* [[ Corrie Saunders]] Former world heavy weight boxing champion.
* [[Johan Degenaar]] Philosopher
* [[Johan Heynz]] Theologian
* [[Koos du Plessis]] Singer songwriter
* [[Koos Kombuis]] Singer songwriter
* [[Laurens van der Post]] Author (1906-1996)
* [[Leon Schuster]] Comedian
* [[Lina Spies]] Poet (1939 - )
* [[Okkert Brits]] [[Pole vault|Pole-vaulter]]
* [[Pieter Willem Botha|P.W. Botha]] Prime minister (1978 - 1984), first executive president of the Republic of South Africa (1984 - 1989)
* [[Retief Goosen]] Golfer
* [[Richard E. Grant]] Actor (1957 - ) (Born Richard Grant Esterhuysen)
* [[T.T. Cloete]] Poet
* [[Zola Budd]] Long distance athelete
Hundreds of Afrikaner South Africans have represented South Africa at [[rugby union]]. The most famous include [[Paul Roos]] (original Springbok captain), [[Boy Morkel]], [[Boy Louw]], [[Chris Koch]], [[Frik du Preez]], [[Danie Craven]] (widely considered the greatest Springbok ever), [[Morne du Plessis]], [[Naas Botha]], [[Francois Pienaar]], [[Joost van der Westhuizen]], [[Corné Krige]], [[Os du Randt]],[[Marius Joubert]], [[Schalk Burger]].
==See also==
* [[Afrikaner Calvinism]]
* [[Anglo-African]]s
* [[Boers]]
* [[Cape Coloured]]s
* [[Cape Dutch]]
* [[Cape Malay]]
* [[Culture of South Africa]]
* [[Orania]]
* [[South African Farmer Murders]]
* [[Trekboers]]
* [[Volkstaat]]
* [[Voortrekkers]]
==References==
*<sup>1</sup> [http://www.statssa.gov.za/census01/html/default.asp South African Census 2001]
* Hermann Giliomee, ''The Afrikaners: Biography of a People'', University of Virginia Press, 2003
==External links==
*[http://www.statssa.gov.za/census2001/digiAtlas/index.html 2001 Digital Census Atlas]
*[http://www.home.intekom.com/southafricanhistoryonline/pages/specialprojects/Luli/Place-in-the-city/Unit4/unit4.htm Afrikaner Nationalism Captures The State.]
*[http://strategyleader.org/profiles/afrikaner.html The Afrikaners of South Africa.]
*[http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/afrique/afriquesud.htm Afrique du Sud]
*[http://fr.encarta.msn.com/text_761557321___83/Afrique_du_Sud.html] (in French)
*[http://www.geocities.com/history4may/history/h4may/h4may31.html Boer soldiers]
*[http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/11.htm British Policies and Afrikaner Discontent]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Rhodes/1266/genetic2.htm The genetic heritage of one Afrikaner family]
{{Ethnic Groups South Africa}}
[[Category:Ethnic groups in South Africa]]
[[af:Afrikaner]]
[[bg:Бури]]
[[da:Boer]]
[[de:Afrikaaner]]
[[et:Afrikandrid]]
[[fr:Afrikaner]]
[[it:Afrikaner]]
[[he:אפריקאנרים]]
[[ja:アフリカーナー]]
[[lt:Būrai]]
[[nl:Boeren]]
[[no:Boer]]
[[pl:Burowie (nowożytni)]]
[[pt:Africânder]]
[[simple:Afrikaner]]
[[sh:Afrikaneri]]
[[sv:Boer]]
[[zh:阿非利卡人]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alkali</title>
<id>2955</id>
<revision>
<id>40924730</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T22:38:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.160.170.178</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">''For the battery, see [[alkaline battery]]''
----
The word '''alkali''' can mean:-
*In [[chemistry]], an alkali is a specific type of [[Base (chemistry)|base]], formed as a [[carbonate]], [[hydroxide]] or other [[Ionic compound|ionic]] [[salt]] of an [[Alkali metal|alkali metal]] or [[Alkaline earth metal|alkali earth metal]] [[Chemical element|element]]. The word alkali or the adjective '''alkaline''' are frequently used to refer to all bases, since most common bases are alkalis, although such use is really a [[synecdoche]].
*In the western parts of the USA, natural soda or potash deposits (soda and potash themselves are both alkali salts).
*[http://www.tomlaidlaw.com/clickable/alkali.html Alkali Springs] is a place in [[Oregon]] in the USA.
*Alkali is also th |
rs from ''[[Bubble Bobble]]''. Inspired many official sequels as well as unofficial clones.
}}
:''For other things called ''Bust a Move'', see [[Bust a Move]].''
'''''Puzzle Bobble''''' (known in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and sometimes in [[Europe]] as '''''Bust a Move''''') is an arcade [[Computer puzzle game|puzzle game]] series created by [[Taito Corporation|Taito]] and contains elements of [[Sega]]'s ''[[Columns (video game)|Columns]]'' and [[Atari]]'s ''[[Breakout]]''.
At the top of the rectangular playing arena, a number of balls of various colours are placed in a prearranged pattern at the start of the level. At the bottom of the screen, the player controls the angle of a fixed cannon that fires semi-randomly coloured balls in a straight line. The ball, when fired, travels in straight lines, possibly bouncing off the side walls of the arena, before eventually coming to rest either touching one or more of the balls, or at the top of the arena.
If the ball manages to come into contact with identically coloured-balls, thus forming a group of three or more, those balls, and any balls hanging only from them, are removed from the field of play, and points are awarded depending on how many balls are removed from the screen at once.
An exponential scoring system is used, leading to large rewards for removing many balls at once.
To make life more difficult, as the game proceeds, the top of the playing arena, and all the balls, move down the screen from time to time. This imposes a time limit, as the player must remove every ball from the arena before a ball passes a line at the bottom of the arena.
As well as typically cute [[Japanese animation]] (the characters from ''[[Bubble Bobble]]'' operate the cannon) and music, the game's mechanics and level design were beautifully balanced, and the game was terrifically successful at the arcades, spawning several sequels. It is unusual in being popular with women and girls.
One or two players can play the game. In the single-player puzzle game the goal is simply to clear the arena of balls. The two player game pits two players against each other. Both players have an arena each (both visible on screen) and an identical arrangement of coloured balls in each arena. When a player removes a large group (four balls or more) some of the balls removed percolate over to the opponent's arena, usually frustrating her efforts at trying to remove all the balls from the arena. The two player game can also be played by one player against a computer opponent.
== Game Series ==
# '''Puzzle Bobble''' (aka '''Bust-a-Move''') - 1994
# '''Puzzle Bobble 2''' (aka '''Bust-a-Move 2''' in Europe, '''Bust-a-Move Again''' in North America) - 1995
# '''Puzzle Bobble 2X''' (Christmas Edition, with a Christmas animation and a special mode with new levels) - 1995
# '''Puzzle Bobble 3''' (aka '''Bust-a-Move 3''' in Europe, '''Bust-a-Move '99''' in North America) - 1996
# '''Puzzle Bobble 4''' (aka '''Bust-a-Move 4''') - 1997
# '''Super Puzzle Bobble''' (aka '''Super Bust-a-Move''') - 1999
# '''Super Puzzle Bobble 2''' (aka '''Super Bust-a-Move 2''') - 2002
# '''Super Puzzle Bobble All-Stars''' (aka '''Super Bust-a-Move All Stars''' in Europe, '''Bust-a-Move 3000''' in North America) - 2003
# '''Puzzle Bobble VS''' (on Nokia N-Gage) - 2003
# '''Puzzle Bobble DS''' (aka Bust-a-Move DS) - 2005
# '''Puzzle Bobble Pocket''' (on Sony PSP) - 2005
# '''Puzzle Bobble Mobile''' (on various mobile devices) - 2005
== External links ==
* [http://taito.overclocked.org/ Bubble Bobble HQ]
*[http://www.neo-geo.com/reviews/neo-reviews/bust-a-move/bust-a-move1.html ''Bust-A-Move'' review at Neo-Geo.com]
* [http://www.klov.com/game_detail.php?game_id=9169&letter=P KLOV entry for Puzzle Bobble]
* [http://www.arcade-history.com/history_database.php?page=detail&id=2079 Arcade History Database entry]
* [http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Puzzle/Puzzle_Bobble_Series/ open directory project: Bubble Bobble Series]
* [http://www.ventoline.com/frozenbubble/bustamove.html Puzzle Bobble Flash Port: play the arcade online now !]
==See also==
* ''[[Frozen Bubble]]''
* ''[[Snood (game)]]''
{{Bubble Bobble series}}
[[Category:Neo-Geo games]]
[[Category: 1994 arcade games]]
[[Category:1994 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Puzzle computer and video games]]
[[Category:Arcade games]]
[[Category: PC games]]
[[Category: Game Gear games]]
[[Category: 3DO games]]
[[Category: Super NES games]]
[[Category:WonderSwan games]]
[[Category:Taito games]]
[[fr:Bust a Move]]
[[it:Puzzle Bobble]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bone</title>
<id>4099</id>
<revision>
<id>40042818</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T18:42:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>137.164.143.36</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Bone pathologies */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Gray252.png|thumb|[[Gray's Anatomy|Gray's]] illustration of a human [[femur]], a typically recognized bone.]]
'''Bone''', also called osseous tissue, (''Latin: "os"'') is a type of [[Rockwell scale|hard]] [[endoskeleton|endoskeletal]] [[connective tissue]] found in many [[vertebrate]] [[animal]]s. Bones support body structures, protect internal [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, and (in conjunction with [[muscle]]s) facilitate [[movement]]; are also involved with [[cell formation]], [[calcium metabolism]], and [[mineral storage]]. The bones of an animal are, collectively, known as the [[skeleton]]. Bone has a different composition than [[cartilage]], and both are derived from [[germ layer#Mesoderm|mesoderm]]. In common parlance, cartilage can also be called "bone", certainly when referring to animals that only have cartilage as hard connective tissue, such as cartilaginous fish ([[Chondrichthyes]]) like [[shark]]s. True bone is present in bony fish ([[Osteichthyes]]) and all [[tetrapod]]s.
There are several [[evolution]]ary alternatives to bone. These evolutionary solutions are not completely functionally analogous to bone.
*[[Exoskeleton|Exoskeletal]] protection is offered by [[animal shell|shell]]s, [[carapace]]s (consisting of [[Calcium in biology|calcium compounds]] or [[silica]]) and [[chitin|chitinous exoskelotons]].
*A true [[endoskeleton]] (that is, protective tissue derived from mesoderm) is also present in [[Echinoderm]]s. [[Porifera]] (sponges) possess simple endoskeletons that consist of calcareous or siliceous [[spicule]]s and a [[spongin]] fiber network.
Bones and skeletons are studied in [[osteology]]. Bones can be prepared for study by several methods, such as [[maceration (bone)|maceration]]. Maceration is done by boiling fleshed bone with dish detergent and a little bleach until all large particles are off. The bones are then cleaned by hand, usually with a toothbrush and a degreaser.
==Functions==
Long bones can be connected to muscles via [[tendon]]s. Bones connect at [[joint]]s by [[ligament]]s. The interaction between bone and muscle is studied in [[biomechanics]].
===Post-mortem functions===
Cut and polished bone from a variety of animals is sometimes used as material for [[jewelry]] and other crafts. Ground cattle bone is sometimes used as fertilizer. In the [[Stone Age]] bone was used to manufacture [[pre-historic art|art]], weapons, needles, ''etc''.
== Structure ==
[[Image:Illu compact spongy bone.jpg|450px|right]]
[[Image:Illu long bone.jpg|300px|right]]
Bone is a relatively hard and lightweight [[composite material]], formed mostly of [[calcium phosphate]] in the chemical arrangement termed calcium hydroxyapatite. It has relatively high [[compressive strength]] but poor [[tensile strength]]. While bone is essentially brittle, it does have a degree of significant [[elasticity]] contributed by its organic components (chiefly [[collagen]]). Bone has an internal [[mesh]]-like structure, the [[density]] of which may vary at different [[points]].
Bone can be either '''compact''' or '''cancellous''' (spongy). '''Cortical''' (outer layer) bone is compact; the two terms are often used interchangeably. Cortical bone makes up a large portion of skeletal mass; but, because of its density, it has a low surface area. Cancellous bone is ''trabecular'' (has an open, meshwork or honeycomb-like structure). It has a relatively high surface area, but forms a smaller portion of the skeleton.
Bone can also be either ''woven'' or ''lamellar''. Woven bone is put down rapidly during growth or repair. It is so called because its fibres are aligned at random, and as a result has low strength. In contrast lamellar bone has parallel fibres and is much stronger. Woven bone is often replaced by lamellar bone as growth continues.
''Long bones'' are tubular in structure (e.g. the [[tibia]]). The central shaft of a long bone is called the [[diaphysis]], and has a hollow middle&mdash;the ''medullar cavity'' filled with [[bone marrow]]. Surrounding the medullar cavity is a thin layer of cancellous bone that also contains marrow. The extremities of the bone are called the ''epiphyses'' and are mostly cancellous bone covered by a relatively thin layer of compact bone. In children, long bones are filled with [[red marrow]], which is gradually replaced with [[yellow marrow]] as the child ages.
''Short bones'' (e.g. finger bones) have a similar structure to long bones, except that they have no medullar cavity.
''Flat bones'' (e.g. the skull and ribs) consist of two layers of compact bone with a zone of cancellous bone sandwiched between them.
''Irregular bones'' are bones which do not conform to any of the previous forms (e.g. vertebrae).
All bones consist of living ''cells'' embedded in a mineralised organic ''matrix'' that makes up the main bone material.
=== Cells ===
Bone Heads include ''[[osteoblast]]s'', so called ''Bone Lining Cells'', ''[[osteocyte]]s'' and ''[[osteoclast]]s''. Osteoblasts are typically viewed as bone forming cells. They are loc |
t these fall out and are not replaced. In adult Aardvarks, the only teeth are the molars at the back of the jaw.
[[Image:Orycteropus afer01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Aardvark]]
Aardvarks are only vaguely pig-like; the body is stout with an arched back; the limbs are of moderate length. The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb')&mdash;resulting in four toes&mdash;but the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust nail which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a claw and a hoof. The ears are disproportionately long and the tail very thick at the base with a gradual taper. The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and at the end of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils open. The mouth is typical of species that feed on termites: small and tubular. Aardvarks have long, thin, protrusible tongues and elaborate structures supporting a keen [[olfaction|sense of smell]].
Weight is typically between 40 and 65 kg; length is usually between 1 and 1.3 m. Aardvarks are a pale yellowish gray in color, often stained reddish-brown by soil. The coat is thin and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin; Aardvarks have been known to sleep in a recently excavated ant nest, so well does it protect them.
In the past, several individual species of Aardvark were named, however current knowledge indicates that there is only one species, ''Orycteropus afer'', with several subspecies; 18 have been listed but most are regarded as invalid.
Aardvarks are [[nocturnal]] and solitary creatures that feed almost exclusively on [[ant]]s and [[termite]]s. An Aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range, swinging its long nose from side to side to pick up the scent of food. When a concentration of ants or termites is found, the Aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of insects with its long, sticky tongue&mdash;as many as 50,000 in one night has been recorded. They are exceptionally fast diggers, but otherwise move rather slowly.
Aside from digging out ants and termites, aardvarks also excavate burrows to live in: temporary sites scattered around the home range as refuges, and the main burrow which is used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances, and be 13m long. Aardvarks change the layout of their home burrow regularly, and from time to time move on and make a new one. Only mothers and young share burrows.
After a gestation period of 7 months, a single young weighing around 2 kg is born, and is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks. At six months of age it is digging its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next [[mating season]]. Aardvarks can grow older than 20 years in captivity.
Aardvarks are distributed across most of [[sub-Saharan Africa]], and although killed by humans both for their flesh and for their teeth (which are used as decorations), do not appear to be threatened.
''Aardvark'' is always the first noun in the English dictionary.
More precise information are given in a diploma thesis on the biology of the aardvark which can be downloaded here: [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Image:Aardvark.pdf '''The Biology of the Aardvark''' (''Orycteropus afer'')
==Similar animals==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aard-vark}}
*The [[anteater]]s of South America.
*[[Pangolin]]s are also called ''scaly anteaters''.
*The [[Numbat]] (''Myrmecobius fasciatus''), a [[marsupial]].
*[[Echidna]]s, a family of [[monotreme]]s, are still sometimes called ''spinous anteaters''.
*[[Armadillo]]s are omnivorous but ants form a large part of their diet.
{{Mammals}}
[[Category:Dutch loanwords]]
[[Category:Mammals]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]
[[cs:Hrabáč]]
[[da:Jordsvin]]
[[de:Erdferkel]]
[[et:Tuhnik]]
[[es:Cerdo hormiguero]]
[[eo:Orikteropo]]
[[fr:Oryctérope du Cap]]
[[he:שנבובאים]]
[[sw:Mhanga]]
[[lt:Vamzdžiadančiai]]
[[li:Eerdverke]]
[[nl:Aardvarken]]
[[no:Jordsvin]]
[[ja:ツチブタ]]
[[pl:Mrównik]]
[[pt:Oricterope]]
[[ru:Трубкозуб]]
[[simple:Aardvark]]
[[sv:Jordsvin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aardwolf</title>
<id>681</id>
<revision>
<id>42099772</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:55:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hansnesse</username>
<id>247414</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv to last edit by Dawson</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{taxobox
| color=pink
| name=Aardwolf
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| image = Aardwolf.png
| image_width = 235px
| image_caption = Aardwolf
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Hyaenidae]]
| genus = '''''Proteles'''''
| species = '''''P. cristatus'''''
| binomial = ''Proteles cristatus''
| binomial_authority = [[Anders Sparrman|Sparrman]] [[1783]]
}}
The '''Aardwolf''' (''Proteles cristatus'') is a small [[mammal]] related to the [[Hyena]], native to Africa. The name means "earth wolf" in [[Afrikaans]].
There are two subspecies:
* ''Proteles cristatus cristatus'' ([[Southern Africa]])
* ''Proteles cristatus septentrionalis'' ([[East Africa]])
The Aardwolf looks most like the [[Striped Hyena]] but smaller with a more pointed [[muzzle]], sharper [[ear]]s, vertical stripes, and a long mane down the middle line of the neck and back. It stands about 50 cm at the shoulder, weighs around 9 kg, and has two glands at the rear that secrete a musky fluid for marking territory and communicating with other aardwolves.
[[Image:Aardwolf.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Aardwolf from the zoo in [[San Antonio]], [[Texas]]]]
The Aardwolf is nocturnal, sleeping in underground burrows by day. By night, an Aardwolf can consume up to 200,000 harvester [[termites]]. They are also known to feed on other insects, larvae, and eggs.
While primarily solitary, a mating pair will occupy the same territory with their young. Gestation lasts between 90 and 100 days. The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den with the mother. After three months, they begin supervised foraging and set off on their own shortly thereafter.
==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aard-wolf}}
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Proteles_cristatus.html Animal Diversity Web]
[[Category:Hyenas]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]
[[bg:Земен вълк]]
[[da:Jordulv]]
[[de:Erdwolf]]
[[es:Lobo de tierra]]
[[eo:Protelo]]
[[it:Proteles cristatus]]
[[he:פרוטל (צבועון)]]
[[nl:Aardwolf]]
[[no:Jordulv]]
[[pt:Proteles cristatus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adobe</title>
<id>682</id>
<revision>
<id>41628033</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:03:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ugur Basak Bot</username>
<id>735354</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: tr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the software company|Adobe Systems}}
[[Image:AdobeSurfaceCoatingRenewalOnWall.jpg|frame|right|Renewal of the surface coating of an adobe wall in Chamisal, New Mexico]]
'''Adobe''' is a [[building material]] composed of water, [[sand]]y [[clay]] and [[straw]] or other organic materials, which is shaped into bricks using wooden frames and dried in the sun, also known as [[Mudbrick]] . Adobe structures are extremely durable and account for the oldest extant buildings on the planet. Adobe buildings also offer significant advantages in hot, dry [[climate]]s, as they remain cooler as it stores and releases heat very slowly.
The word "adobe" is Spanish and comes from the Arabic "at-tub", the brick, and from the Coptic "tObe". The word may be pronounced ah-doh-beh or uh-doh-bee. Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common in [[the Middle East]], [[North Africa]], and in [[Spain]] (usually in the [[Mudejar]] style). The method of brickmaking was imported to the Americas in the [[16th century]] by Spaniards.
A distinction is sometimes made between the smaller ''adobes,'' which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger ''adobines,'' some of which are as much as from one to two yards long.
In more modern usage, the term "adobe" has come to mean a style of architecture that is popular in the [[desert]] [[climate]]s of [[North America]], especially in [[New Mexico]]. Cf. [[stucco]].
[[Image:Adobe kilns from HABS.jpg|frame|right|Detail of Adobe kilns in Arizona]]
==Composition of adobe==
An adobe brick is made of soil mixed with water and an organic material such as straw or animal dung. The soil composition typically contains [[clay]] and [[sand]]. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly. Dung offers the same advantage and is also added to repel insects.
==Adobe bricks==
Bricks are made in an open frame, 25 cm (10 inches) by 36 cm (14 inches) is a reasonable size, but any convenient size is fine for your own use. After the mud is put into the frame the frame is removed. After a few hours the bricks are put on edge to finish drying. Bricks should be dried in the shade to avoid cracking.
Use the same mixture you use to make bricks for mortar when laying the bricks and for plaster on the interior and exterior walls. Some ancient cultures used concrete for the plaster to avoid rain damage. It is sometimes useful to include occasional pieces of wood as you lay a wall to give something to nail insulation onto, and stone can be used for additional strength.
The largest structure ever made from adobe (bricks), was the [[Bam Citadel]], which suffered serious damage, up to 80%, by an earthquake on December 26, 2003. Other large adobe structures are the [[Huaca del Sol]] in [[Peru]], built using 100 million signed bricks, an |
s Over Texas]]'' [[2003in television|2003]]
*''[[U.S. Library Of Congress Living Legend Ceremony]]'' [[2004in television|2004]]
==Documentaries==
*''[[The Nashville Sound]]'' ([[1970 in film|1970]])
*''[[Heartsong]]'' ([[1994 in film|1994]])
*''[[CMT]] Insider- Dolly Parton ([[2001]])
*''[[Our Country]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
*''[[Uncut: The True Story of Hair]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
*''[[Travel Channel]] American Roadtrip: Dollywood ([[2002]])
*''[[E! True Hollywood Story]]- Dolly Parton ([[2005]])
==Trivia==
*The [[Dolly the sheep|first cloned mammal]] was a sheep named "[[Dolly the Sheep|Dolly]]" in honor of Dolly Parton, because it was cloned from a [[mammary gland|mammary]] [[cell (biology)|cell]]. Parton is famous for her ample [[breast|bust]], now augmented by [[breast implants]].
*She is believed to be a cousin of porn star [[Julia Parton]].
*As the writer [[Tony Barrell (journalist)|Tony Barrell]] has pointed out (London [[Sunday Times]], January 8, 2006), Parton was born on the same day as the eminent British novelist [[Julian Barnes]], and both stars have [[theme park]] connections. Parton, of course, has [[Dollywood]], and Barnes's 1998 novel, [[England, England]], is about an entrepreneur re-creating England as a theme park on the [[Isle of Wight]].
*Parton reportedly told [[Sandra Bullock]] while they were rehearsing her scene in ''[[Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous]]'', "I want to make that Britney-Madonna kiss look tame."
*In a [[Celebrity Jeopardy! (SNL)|Celebrity Jeopardy!]] sketch on [[Saturday Night Live]], [[Darrell Hammond]], portraying [[Sean Connery]], answers "Dolly Parton!" in the category "Famous Titles," which he thinks is "Famous [[Breast|Titties]]."
* She once said: "I'm not offended by all of the dumb blonde jokes because I know I'm not dumb--and I'm also not blonde."
*In 1981 in [[Academy Award]] she had a nomination for the best song: "Nine to Five" from the movie [[Nine to Five]], but sadly she didn't catch it. In 2006 she has her second [[Academy Award]] nomination for the best song: "Travelin' Thru" from the movie [[Transamerica (film)]]
==See also==
*[[Academy of Country Music]]
*[[Country Music Association]]
*[[Country Music Hall of Fame]]
*[[List of country music performers]]
*[[List of best-selling music artists]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
===Official websites===
*[http://www.dollywood.com/ Dollywood (Parton’s theme park)]
*[http://www.dollywoodssplashcountry.com/ Dollywood’s Splash Country (her water park)]
*[http://www.dixiestampede.com/ Dolly Parton’s Dixie Stampede (her restaurant)]
*[http://www.imaginationlibrary.com/ Dolly Parton’s Imagination Library (her nationwide literacy program)]
*[http://www.sugarhillrecords.com/catalog/artist.cgi?Dolly+Parton Sugar Hill Records]
===Fan websites===
*[http://www.dollymania.net/ Dollymania: The Online Dolly Parton Newsmagazine]
*[http://www.dollyon-line.com/ Dolly On-line.com]
*[http://www.dollyonline.net/ Dolly Online.net]
*[http://www.ultimatedolly.co.uk/ Ultimate Dolly U.K.]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/dollypartoncentral/ Dolly Parton Central]
===Unofficial websites===
*[http://www.cmt.com/artists/az/parton_dolly/artist.jhtml? Artist page at CMT]
*[http://www.morethings.com/music/dolly_parton/pictures.htm Dolly Parton Photo Galleries] Hundreds of pictures
*[http://www.gactv.com/legends/bios/parton_d.html Artist page at Great American Country]
*[http://www.vh1.com/artists/az/parton_dolly/artist.jhtml Artist page at VH1]
*{{imdb name|id=0000573|name=Dolly Parton}}
*[http://www.lyricsdir.com/dolly-parton-lyrics.html Dolly Parton Lyrics]
[[Category:1946 births|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American country singers|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American entrepreneurs|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American female singers|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American film actors|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American memoirists|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American women|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:Appalachian culture|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:Bluegrass musicians|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:People from Tennessee|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:Gay icons|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:Living people|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:Cherokee people|Parton, Dolly]]
[[bg:Доли Партън]]
[[da:Dolly Parton]]
[[de:Dolly Parton]]
[[fr:Dolly Parton]]
[[nl:Dolly Parton]]
[[pl:Dolly Parton]]
[[fi:Dolly Parton]]
[[sv:Dolly Parton]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diprotodont</title>
<id>8717</id>
<revision>
<id>42137915</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:50:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.243.173.123</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{verify}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Diprotodonts
| status = {{StatusPrehistoric}}
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| subclassis = [[Marsupialia]]
| ordo = [[Diprotodontia]]
| subordo = [[Vombatiformes]]
| familia = [[Diprotodontidae]]
| genus = '''''Diprotodon'''''
| genus_authority = [[Richard Owen|Owen]], 1838
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''Diprotodon opatum<br />Diprotodon minor''<br />
''Diprotodon loderi<br />Diprotodon annextans''
}}
'''Diprotodonts''' were the largest [[Marsupialia|marsupial]]s that ever lived. They, along with many other members of a group of unusual species collectively called the [[Australian megafauna]], existed from 1.6 million years ago until about 50,000 years ago (through most of the [[Pleistocene|Pleistocene epoch]]). ''Diprotodon'' spp. [[fossil]]s have been found in many places across [[Australia]], including complete skulls and skeletons, as well as hair and foot impressions. More than one female skeleton has been found with a baby lying in her pouch where it was [[abortion|aborted]].
They inhabited open forest, woodlands, and grasslands, possibly staying close to water, and eating leaves, shrubs and some grasses. The largest were [[hippopotamus]]-sized: about three meters from nose to tail, standing two meters tall at the shoulder. The closest surviving relatives are the [[wombat]]s and the [[Koala]]. It is fancifully suggested that diprotodonts may have been the inspiration for the legends of the [[bunyip]].
==Theories on diprotodont extinction==
Diprotodonts, along with a wide range of other Australian [[megafauna]], became extinct shortly after humans arrived in Australia about 50,000 years ago. Three theories have been advanced to explain the mass extinction.
===Climate change===
Australia has undergone a very long process of gradual aridification since it split off from [[Gondwana]] about 40 million years ago. From time to time the process reverses for a period, but overall the trend has been strongly toward lower rainfall. The recent [[ice age]]s produced no significant glaciation in mainland Australia but long periods of cold and very dry weather. It is suggested that lowered rainfall during the last ice age killed off all the large diprotodonts. Critics of this theory point out that the large diprotodonts had already survived a long series of similar ice ages and that there does not seem to be any particular reason why the most recent one should have achieved what all the previous ice ages had failed to do, and add that, in any case, the peak period of climate change appears to have been 25,000 years ''after'' the extinctions. Finally, critics point out that even during climatic extremes some parts of the continent always remain relatively exempt: the tropical north, for example, stays fairly warm and wet in all climatic circumstances; alpine valleys are less affected by drought, and so on.
[[image:Diprotodon.jpg|thumb|right|Cast of a diprotodont skeleton]]
===Human hunting===
The 'blitzkrieg' theory begins with the observation that the extinctions appear to have coincided with the arrival of human beings on the continent, notes that, in broad, it was the largest and least well-defended species that died out, and argues that the obvious explanation is that human hunters killed and ate them&#8212;as happened with the [[megafauna]] of [[New Zealand]] and, at least in part, [[The Americas|America]]&#8212;probably in the space of only a thousand years or so. Recent finds of ''Diprotodon'' bones which appear to display butchering marks lend support to this theory. Critics of this theory regard it as simplistic, argue that (unlike New Zealand and America) there is little direct evidence of hunting, and that the dates on which the theory rests are too uncertain to be relied on.
===Human land management===
The third theory also places humans at centre stage, but as indirect rather than direct agents of change. It draws a link between the known land-management and hunting practices of modern [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] people as recorded by the earliest European settlers before Aboriginal society was devastated by European contact and disease&#8212;regular and persistent burning off to drive game, open up dense thickets of vegetation, and create fresh green regrowth for both people and game animals to eat&#8212;and the sudden increase in ash deposits at the time that people first arrived in Australia. By changing the landscape with fire, this theory argues, the first human settlers destroyed the ecosystem on which large marsupial fauna depended.
===Conclusion===
These theories are not mutually exclusive. Although they are hotly and sometimes acrimoniously debated by specialists, few would argue that it is necessary to choose one single explanation for the extinction of many different animals in a wide range of different environments, from tropical to temperate, from desert to rainforest. Secondly, each of the three proposed mechanisms is broadly supportive of the other two, and often it makes little differe |
language|Italian]]''' || mese || nuovo || madre || notte || naso || tre || nero || rosso || giallo || verde
|-
| '''[[German language|German]]''' || Monat || neu || Mutter || Nacht || Nase || drei || schwartz || rot || gelb || grün
|-
| '''[[Romanian language|Romanian]]''' || luna || nou/noi || mama || noapte || nas || trei || negru || roşu || galben || verde
|-
| '''[[Welsh language|Welsh]]''' || mis || newydd || mam || nos || trwyn || tri || du (/di/) || coch || melyn || gwyrdd
|}
Note: How close "red" and "black" are to Welsh, a Celtic language.
Note: The roots for "yellow" and "green" are very similar to the Romanian for "green" and "yellow". Does this show a similarity with Latin or with other languages of the [[Balkans]] such as [[Dacian language|Dacian]]? The separation must have occured when "green" and "yellow" were not considered distinct colours much as we consider both "turquoise" (cyan) and "indigo" (primary blue) to be "blue".
==Geographic distribution==
[[Image:Albanian language map.jpg|thumb|300px|Albanian distribution and dialects]]
Albanian is spoken by about 6 million people mainly in [[Albania]] and [[Kosovo]] but also in many other countries, including the [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Belgium]], [[Egypt]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Italy]], [[Sweden]], [[Turkey]] ([[Europe]]), [[Ukraine]], the [[UK]] and USA.
===Official status===
Albanian in the [[Tosk]] dialect is the [[official language]] of the [[Republic of Albania]]. Albanian is also one of the official languages of [[Kosovo]], Montenegro, and the [[Republic of Macedonia]]
===Dialects===
There are two principal [[dialects]], [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] (Toskërishte) and [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] (Gegërishte), which have been diverging for at least a millennium, and their less extreme forms are mutually intelligible. A subgroup of dialects deriving from Tosk are spoken by descendants of [[15th century|15th]] and [[16th century]] immigrants in southeastern [[Italy]], in small communities in the provinces of [[Sicily]], [[Calabria]], [[Basilicata]], [[Campania]], [[Molise]], [[Abruzzi]], and [[Puglia]], is called [[Arbëreshë]], and a further group of varying intelligibility dialects, are spoken in [[Greece]], by descendents of [[Orthodox Christian]] [[13th century|13th]] and [[15th century]] immigrants in [[Attica]], [[Boeotia]], southern [[Evia]], the island of [[Salamina]], in the [[Epirus]] region and in [[Athens]]. The geographical border between the two dialect groups spoken within Albania proper, has traditionally been the [[Shkumbin River]] in Albania, with Gheg being spoken north of the river, and Tosk south of the river. The two dialects have [[phonology|phonological]] as well as [[lexicon|lexicological]] differences.
Tosk is furthermore divided into many mutually intelligible sub-dialects, which either belong to the ''Labërishte'' sub-group or the ''Çamërishte'' sub-group, including north-western Greece, but not to be confused with the [[Arvanites]]. This dialect is spoken by most members of the large Albanian immigrant communities that have recently arrived in these two countries, and in smaller Albanian communities in [[Ukraine]], [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]], and [[United States]].
Gheg (or Geg) is divided into many mutually intelligible sub-dialects, which either belong to the Northern Gheg sub-group or the Southern-Gheg sub-group, the traditional border between the two being the [[Mati River]] in northern [[Albania]]. This dialect is spoken in northern Albania and by the Albanians of [[Serbia and Montenegro]] (Southern Montenegro and Southern Serbia), the UN protectorate of [[Kosovo]], as well as those of the [[Republic of Macedonia]].
Since after [[World War II]] there have been efforts to create a ''Standard'' or ''Literary'' Albanian that borrows most heavily from the Tosk dialect (at the behest of the dictator [[Enver Hoxha]], himself a Tosk speaker). The Congress on the Orthography of Albanian, held in 1972 with the additional participation of delegates from the Yugoslav territories of Kosovo, Macedonia and Montenegro and Calabria (Italy), established a unified literary language. The resulting orthographic rules were codified in such tomes as ''Drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe (1973)'' (The Orthography of the Albanian Language) and ''Fjalori drejtshkrimor i gjuhës shqipe (1976)'' (The Orthographic Dictionary of the Albanian Language).
====Notable lexicological differences between Tosk and Gheg====
{|border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" class="wikitable"
!Standard form !! Tosk form !! Gheg form !! Translation
|-
| Shqipëri || Shqipëri || Shqypni || Albania
|-
| është || është || âsht || is
|-
| bëj || bëj || bâj || do
|-
| emër || emër || êmën || name
|-
| pjekuri || pjekuri || pjekuni || maturity
|-
| gjendje || gjëndje || gjêndje || situation
|-
| zog || zok || zog || bird
|-
| mbret || mbret || mret || king
|-
| për të punuar || për të punuar || me punue || to work
|-
| rërë || rërë || rânë || sand
|-
| qenë || qënë || kenë/kânë || been (part.)
|}
(ˆ) denotes [[nasal vowel]]s, which are a common feature of Gheg.
==Sounds==
Albanian has 7 [[vowel]]s and 29 [[consonant]]s. [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] has a set of [[nasal vowel]]s which are absent in [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]]. Another peculiarity is the mid-central vowel "ë" reduced at the end of the word. Two dental fricatives exist (/{{IPA|ð}}/ and /{{IPA|θ}}/) and the sounds r and l can be weak or strong. The original [[Indo-European]] phonetic system was destroyed in Albanian after diphthongs disappeared, and unstressed vowels were dropped. The stress is fixed mainly on the penultimate syllable.
===Consonants===
{|class="wikitable"
! &nbsp;
![[bilabial consonant|bilabial]]
![[labiodental consonant|labio-<br />dental]]
![[interdental consonant|dental]]
![[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
![[palato-alveolar consonant|post-<br />alveolar]]
![[palatal consonant|palatal]]
![[velar consonant|velar]]
![[glottal consonant|glottal]]
|-
|'''[[plosive consonant|plosive]]'''
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|p&nbsp;&nbsp;b}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|t&nbsp;&nbsp;d}}
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|c&nbsp;&nbsp;ɟ}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|k&nbsp;&nbsp;g}}
| &nbsp;
|-
|'''[[nasal consonant|nasal]]'''
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|m}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|n}}
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|ɲ}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
|'''[[flap consonant|flap]]'''
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|ɾ&nbsp;&nbsp;r}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
|'''[[fricative consonant|fricative]]'''
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|f&nbsp;&nbsp;v}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|θ&nbsp;&nbsp;ð}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|s&nbsp;&nbsp;z}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|ʃ&nbsp;&nbsp;ʒ}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|h}}
|-
|'''[[affricate consonant|affricate]]'''
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|ts&nbsp;&nbsp;dz}}
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|tʃ&nbsp;&nbsp;dʒ}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
|'''[[approximant]]'''
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|j}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
|'''[[lateral consonant|lateral approximant]]'''
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|l}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|ɫ}}
| &nbsp;
|}
{|border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" class="wikitable"
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !! Description !! Written as !! Pronounced as in
|-
| {{IPA|p}} || [[Voiceless bilabial plosive]] || p || {{bold dark red|p}}en
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || [[Voiced bilabial plosive]] || b || {{bold dark red|b}}at
|-
| {{IPA|t}} || [[Voiceless alveolar plosive]] || t || {{bold dark red|t}}an
|-
| {{IPA|d}} || [[Voiced alveolar plosive]] || d || {{bold dark red|d}}ebt
|-
| {{IPA|c}} || [[Voiceless palatal plosive]] || q || similar to {{bold dark red|k}}eep
|-
| {{IPA| ɟ}} || [[Voiced palatal plosive]] || gj || similar to {{bold dark red|g}}eek
|-
| {{IPA|k}} || [[Voiceless velar plosive]] || k || {{bold dark red|c}}ar
|-
| {{IPA|g}} || [[Voiced velar plosive]] || g || {{bold dark red|g}}o
|-
| {{IPA|ts}} || [[Voiceless alveolar affricate]] || c || ha{{bold dark red|ts}}
|-
| {{IPA|dz}} || [[Voiced alveolar affricate]] || x || goo{{bold dark red|ds}}
|-
| {{IPA|tʃ}} || [[Voiceless postalveolar affricate]] || ç || {{bold dark red|ch}}op
|-
| {{IPA|dʒ}} || [[Voiced postalveolar affricate]] || xh || {{bold dark red|j}}et
|-
| {{IPA|θ}} || [[Voiceless dental fricative]] || th || {{bold dark red|th}}in
|-
| {{IPA|ð}} || [[Voiced dental fricative]] || dh || {{bold dark red|th}}is
|-
| {{IPA|f}} || [[Voiceless labiodental fricative]] || f || {{bold dark red|f}}ar
|-
| {{IPA|v}} || [[Voiced labiodental fricative]] || v || {{bold dark red|v}}an
|-
| {{IPA|s}} || [[Voiceless alveolar fricative]] || s || {{bold dark red|s}}on
|-
| {{IPA|z}} || [[Voiced alveolar fricative]] || z || {{bold dark red|z}}ip
|-
| {{IPA|ʃ}} || [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative]] || sh || {{bold dark red|sh}}ow
|-
| {{IPA|ʒ}} || [[Voiced postalveolar fricative]] || zh || vi{{bold dark red|s}}ion
|-
| {{IPA|h}} || [[Voiceless glottal fricative]] || h || {{bold dark red|h}}at
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || [[Bilabial nasal]] || m | |
cessories) and would cost just under US$1,000 in the United States; most likely it will have been manufactured in [[East Asia]], although its actual brand name may be European or American. Basic serviceable second-hand bicycles can be bought for US$50-150 or more from classified adverts and through online [[auction]]s.
Being sized for a bike and taking it for a test ride are both recommended before making a purchase. Most road bikes include [[clipless pedal]]s in which special shoes attach to special pedals, which allows for the transfer of power to the bike throughout the entire pedaling motion.
The [[bicycle#Drivetrain|drivetrain]] components of the bike should also be considered. A middle grade [[derailleur]] is most likely sufficient for a beginner. Also, unless a lot of serious climbing will be done, a double-[[crankset|crank]] (two chainrings) front [[bicycle gearing|gear system]] will suffice in place of a triple-crank (three chainrings) system.
When buying a bicycle, set aside some money for accessories. Accessories that some consider helpful include a [[bicycle lock|lock]], mudguards/fenders, lights, luggage racks and pannier bags, [[bicycle pump|pump]], [[cycling shorts]] (with padding), clips to hold wide trousers/slacks/jeans, [[cycling shoe]]s, spare inner tubes, [[carbon dioxide|CO2 cartridge]]s as a possible replacement for a tyre pump, [[water bottle]] and water [[bottle cage]], a puncture repair kit and [[tyre levers]].
Winter cycling also requires [[bicycle lighting|lights]], [[cycling gloves]], a waterproof jacket and/or overtrousers and possibly waterproof overshoes.
Items that can be purchased later or omitted include full sized tire pump, multi-tool, [[cyclocomputer|bicycle computer]], [[studded tires]] and [[degreaser]]. A [[bicycle helmet]] is obligatory in some jurisdictions, especially for children.
Cycling is a reasonably low maintenance transport form/hobby/sport and the beginner can learn much from online forums and bike shop personnel. Many bike shops even hold complimentary maintenance classes. Inspection and maintenance of brakes is important.
==Organized rides and races==
Many cycling clubs hold organized rides and varying races that bicyclists of all types compete in. The typical organized race/ride starts with a large group of riders. This will thin out over the course of the ride. Many riders choose to ride together in groups of the same skill level to take advantage of [[drafting (racing)|drafting]].
Most organized rides include registration requirements and will provide information either through the mail or online concerning start times and other requirements. Rides usually consist of 25, 50 and 100 mile routes, each with a certain number of rest stops that usually include refreshments, first aid and maintenance tools.
==Bicycling and health==
Bicycles are commonly used by people seeking to improve their fitness and cardiovascular health. It has been estimated that the life-years gained by regular bicycle users outweigh any associated risks of death through injury by a factor of 20:1 <!-- Source is Mayer Hillman Policy Studies institute will get proper ref later - Google Mayer Hillman you want more -->. In this regard, bicycles are especially helpful for those with arthritis of the lower limbs and who are unable to pursue sports such as running that involve more pounding and resultant trauma to joints.
Cyclists do however place themselves at risk for both acute and chronic injuries. In addition to head and extremity injuries from falls and collisions, cyclists may incur nerve damage at points of weight bearing. The [[ulnar nerve]] in the palm is one such site. Heavy and/or prolonged bicycling over very long distances may eventually result in bicycle seat neuropathy <sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup> and in extreme cases, [[Pudendal Nerve Entrapment]] and diminished sexual function. The pudendal nerve leads to the testes.
==Notes==
*1 [http://www.emedicine.com/sports/topic12-Followup.htm "Bicycle Seat Neuropathy, follow up"], Feb.8, 2006
==See also==
{{portal}}
'''Utility cycling and slow recreation'''
* [[Bicycle transportation engineering]]
* [[Bicycle touring]]
* [[List of cycleways]]
* [[Segregated cycle facilities]]
* [[Utility cycling]]
'''General'''
* [[Bicycle]]
* [[Bicycle culture]]
* [[Cyclist]]
* [[Challenge riding]]
* [[Road cycling]]
* [[Vehicular cycling]]
* [[Clothing-optional bike rides]]
'''Sports-related cycling and fast-paced recreation'''
* [[Bike trials riding]]
* [[Bicycle racing]]
* [[BMX racing]]
* [[Bike derby]]
* [[Cycle speedway]]
* [[Cyclo-cross]]
* [[Folding bicycle]]
* [[Mountain biking]]
* [[Offroad cycling]]
* [[Road bicycle racing]]
* [[Spinning (cycling)|Spin-class]]
* [[Track cycling]]
'''Other'''
* [[Aerobic exercise]]
* [[Heart rate monitor]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cyclingnews.com/ Cycling News]
*[http://www.roadcycling.com/ Road Cycling]
*[http://www.dailypeloton.com/ Daily Peleton]
*Rec.Bicycles Frequently Asked Questions Parts: [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/bicycles-faq/part1/ 1], [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/bicycles-faq/part2/ 2], [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/bicycles-faq/part3/ 3], [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/bicycles-faq/part4/ 4], [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/bicycles-faq/part5/ 5]
*[http://www.icebike.org/ Icebike: Effects of ice and snow on cycling]
*[http://www.active.com/cycling/ Cycling at Active.com]
*[http://www.velonews.com Velo News]
*[http://www.kenkifer.com/bikepages The late cycling enthusiast Ken Kifer's bike pages]
*[http://www.sheldonbrown.com/articles.html Sheldon Brown's bike articles]
*[http://www.ebykr.com/ EBykr, bicycle artistry]
*[http://www.southcoastbikes.co.uk/Articles.asp?article=NO_BSO Describing the pitfalls of cheap new bikes]
[[Category:cycling| ]]
[[Category:Outdoor recreation]]
[[bg:&#1050;&#1086;&#1083;&#1086;&#1077;&#1079;&#1076;&#1077;&#1085;&#1077;]]
[[ca:Ciclisme]]
[[cs:Cyklistika]]
[[da:Cykling]]
[[de:Radsport]]
[[et:Jalgrattasport]]
[[es:Ciclismo]]
[[eo:Biciklado]]
[[fi:Pyöräily]]
[[fr:Cyclisme]]
[[id:Bersepeda]]
[[io:Biciklado]]
[[it:Ciclismo]]
[[ja:&#12469;&#12452;&#12463;&#12522;&#12531;&#12464;]]
[[nl:Wielersport]]
[[nb:sykling]]
[[nn:sykling]]
[[pl:Kolarstwo]]
[[pt:Ciclismo]]
[[sl:Kolesarstvo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carbohydrate</title>
<id>5932</id>
<revision>
<id>41946784</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:34:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vanka5</username>
<id>428424</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ bg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Carbohydrates''' are [[chemical compound]]s that contain [[oxygen]], [[hydrogen]], and [[carbon]] [[atom]]s. They consist of [[monosaccharide]] [[sugar]]s of varying chain lengths and that have the general [[chemical formula]] C<sub>n</sub>(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub> or are [[derivative (chemistry)|derivative]]s of such.
Certain carbohydrates are an important storage and transport form of [[energy]] in most [[organism]]s, including [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s. Carbohydrates are classified by their number of sugar units: [[monosaccharide|monosaccharides]] (such as [[glucose]] and [[fructose]]), [[disaccharide|disaccharides]] (such as [[sucrose]] and [[lactose]]), [[oligosaccharide|oligosaccharides]], and [[polysaccharide|polysaccharides]] (such as [[starch]], [[glycogen]], and [[cellulose]]).
== Structure ==
[[Image:D-glucose.png|88px|left|thumb|[[Glucose]] as a straight-chain carbohydrate ([[Fischer projection]])]]
[[Image:D-fructose.png|88px|right|thumb|[[Fructose]] ([[Fischer projection]])]]
Pure carbohydrates contain [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]] [[atom]]s, in a 1:2:1 [[mole (unit)|molar]] [[ratio]], giving the general [[formula]] C<sub>''n''</sub>(H<sub>''2''</sub>O)<sub>''n''</sub>. (This applies only to monosaccharides, see below, although all carbohydrates have the more general formula C<sub>''n''</sub>(H<sub>''2''</sub>O)<sub>''m''</sub>.) However, many important "carbohydrates" deviate from this, such as [[deoxyribose]] and [[glycerol]], although they are not, in the strict sense, carbohydrates. Sometimes compounds containing other elements are also counted as carbohydrates (e.g. [[chitin]], which contains [[nitrogen]]).
The simplest carbohydrates are [[monosaccharide]]s, which are small straight-chain [[aldehyde]]s and [[ketone]]s with many [[hydroxyl]] groups added, usually one on each carbon except the functional group. Other carbohydrates are composed of monosaccharide units and break down under [[hydrolysis]]. These may be classified as [[disaccharide]]s, [[oligosaccharide]]s, or [[polysaccharide]]s, depending on whether they have two, several, or many monosaccharide units.
==Monosaccharides==
[[Monosaccharide]]s may be divided into [[aldose]]s, which have an [[aldehyde]] group on the first carbon atom, and [[ketose]]s, which typically have a ketone group on the second. They may also be divided into [[triose]]s, [[tetrose]]s, [[pentose]]s, [[hexose]]s, and so forth, depending on how many carbon atoms they contain. For instance, [[glucose]] is an [[aldohexose]], [[fructose]] a [[ketohexose]], and [[ribose]] an [[aldopentose]].
Further, each carbon atom that supports a hydroxyl group (except for the first and last) is [[Optical activity|optically active]], allowing a number of different carbohydrates with the same basic structure. For instance, [[galactose]] is an aldohexose but has different properties from glucose because the atoms are arranged differently.
[[Image:Ribose.png|160px|left|thumb|A heterocyclic form of [[ribose]] ([[Haworth projection]]) ]]
The straight-chain structure described here is only one of the forms a monosaccharide may take. The aldehyde or ketone group |
ss also within some circles has some undesirable stigmas attached to it. Electric guitarists feel that the Bass is 'primitive' as it ordinarily only has 4 strings and only rarely is made to play chords (a note which requires fretting several strings) or strumming, it is sometimes referred to as being "The poor man's guitar". Owing to this, it is a running joke that rock bands downplay the bass players- having them hiding in the corner, stooping as to not show their face and not making too much noise so as not to bore the audience or draw attention away from the 'real' musicians.
==See also==
*[[List of bass guitarists]]
*[[Acoustic bass guitar]]
*[[Double bass]]
*[[Electric upright bass]]
*[[Fender Precision Bass]]
== External links ==
{{Wikibookspar|Guitar|Bass Guitar}}
* [http://www.musicinstructionbooks.com/index.php Music Instruction] - Bass instructional books, dvd's, songbooks and videos.
* [http://www.bassplaza.com/ BassPlaza.com] - Bass resource website.
* [http://www.platinumtabs.com Guitar Tabs] has some cool bass tabs available for free use, easy way to learn how to play.
* The history of guitar-like instruments from 1900 B.C. through modern times is summarized at [http://www.classicalguitarmidi.com/history/guitar_history.html Classical Guitar Illustrated History]
* [http://www.bajoelectrico.com/ BajoElectrico.Com] - El Club del Bajista.
* [http://www.basstopia.com/ Basstopia] - features bass news, a bass tab search, and other resources for bassists.
* [http://www.talkbass.com/ Talkbass] - extensive resources for bass players, including player interviews, equipment reviews and arguably the largest bass-oriented online forum.
* [http://www.angelfire.com/id/bass/ The Bass Guitar Scale Page] - has free lessons on standard and exotic bass scales.
* [http://www.mxtabs.net Mxtabs.net] - lots of bass, guitar, and even drum tabs
* [http://www.basscrawler.org/ The Bass Tablature Search Engine] - includes bass magazine, lessons
*[http://www.ultimate-guitar.com Ultimate Guitar] - Massive database of tabs, lessons, and articles.
* [http://www.activebass.com/ ActiveBass] - An online bass community featuring interactive lessons.
* [http://www.jimleemusic.com JimLeeMusic.com] Downloads for bass guitar.
* [http://www.LiutaioMottola.com Liutaio Mottola Lutherie Information Website] - Information about building stringed musical instruments including electric basses. Includes downloadable instrument plans.
* [http://www.wikiguitar.net Wiki Guitar] Community Guitar site with bass tabs, articles, resources, and lessons.
* [http://www.bass-list.com The Bottom Line] The official web site of the Internet's Bass Player mailing list.
* [http://www.basswebsites.com Bass Websites] Human-edited directory of web sites for Bass Players.
As of Monday 12th December, 2005, tabs are considered illegal by the music industry , and numerous prominent sites providing tabs, such as Mxtabs.net, have been closed down.
[[Category:Amplified instruments]]
[[Category:Electric bass guitars]]
[[Category:Guitars]]
[[br:Gitar-boud]]
[[ca:Baix elèctric]]
[[da:El-bas]]
[[de:E-Bass]]
[[es:Bajo (instrumento musical)]]
[[fi:Bassokitara]]
[[fr:Guitare basse]]
[[ga:Dordghiotár]]
[[ko:베이스 기타]]
[[it:Basso elettrico]]
[[he:גיטרה בס]]
[[lt:Bosinė gitara]]
[[mk:Бас гитара]]
[[nl:Basgitaar]]
[[ja:エレクトリックベース]]
[[no:Bassgitar]]
[[pl:Gitara basowa]]
[[pt:Baixo]]
[[ru:Бас-гитара]]
[[sv:Elbas]]
[[tr:Bas gitar]]
[[zh:低音吉他]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beatles</title>
<id>3920</id>
<revision>
<id>30153759</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-04T22:12:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JedOs</username>
<id>623213</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Beatles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Basketball</title>
<id>3921</id>
<revision>
<id>42148852</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:31:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tomf688</username>
<id>94202</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.94.81.35|68.94.81.35]] ([[User talk:68.94.81.35|talk]]) to last version by Kuru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Three point shoot.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Sara Giauro shoots a [[Three-point field goal|three-point shot]], FIBA Europe Cup for Women Finals 2005]]
'''Basketball''' is a sport in which two [[teams]] of five players each try to score points by throwing a ball through a hoop (the ''basket'') under organized rules.
Since its invention in 1891, it has developed to become a truly [[global|international]] sport. Organized league play originated in the [[YMCA]]; early leagues were formed in colleges. Basketball eventually became a [[professional sports|professional]] sport. Even though it was originally a North American sport, it quickly spread internationally and outstanding players and teams are found today all over the world.
Basketball is primarily an indoor sport, played in (the [[basketball court|court]]). Points are scored for passing the ball through the basket from above (''shooting''); the team with more points at the end of the game wins. The ball can be advanced on the court by bouncing it (''[[dribbling]]'') or passing it between teammates. Disruptive physical contact (''fouls'') is not permitted and there are restrictions on how the ball can be handled (''violations'').
Through time, basketball has developed to involve common techniques of shooting, passing and dribbling, as well as players' positions, and offensive and defensive structures. While competitive basketball is carefully regulated, [[variations of basketball|variations]] have developed for casual play. Basketball is also a popular spectator sport.
==History==
===Early basketball===
Basketball is unique in that it was [[invented sport|invented]] by one person, rather than evolving from a different sport. In early December 1891, Dr. [[James Naismith]], a [[Canadian]]-born physician and minister on the faculty of a college for [[YMCA]] professionals (today, [[Springfield College]]) in [[Springfield, Massachusetts]], sought a vigorous indoor game to keep young men occupied during the long [[New England]] winters. Legend has it that, after rejecting other ideas as either too rough or poorly suited to walled-in [[gym|gymnasium]]s, he wrote the basic rules, and nailed a peach basket onto the 10 foot elevated track. The first official game was played in the YMCA gymnasium on [[January 20]] [[1892]]. At that time, it was played with nine players on a court just half the size of a present-day [[NBA]] court. "Basket ball", the name suggested by one of his students, was popular from the beginning, and with its early adherents being dispatched to YMCAs throughout the United States, the game was soon played all over the country.
Interestingly, while the YMCA was responsible for initially developing and spreading the game, within a decade, it discouraged the new sport, as rough play and rowdy crowds began to detract from the YMCA's primary mission. Other amateur sports clubs, colleges, and professional clubs quickly filled the void. In the years before World War I, the [[Amateur Athletic Union]] and the [[Intercollegiate Athletic Association]] (forerunner of the [[NCAA]]) vied for control over the rules for the game.
Basketball was originally played with a [[soccer]] ball. The first balls made specially for basketball were brown, and it was only in the late 1950s that [[Paul D. "Tony" Hinkle|Tony Hinkle]], searching for a ball that would be more visible to players and spectators alike, introduced the orange ball that is now in common use.
===College basketball and early leagues===
[[Image:basketball.jpg|thumb|210px|right|[[Kent Benson]] of [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana]] takes a hook shot.]]
Naismith himself was instrumental in establishing the college game, coaching at [[University of Kansas]] for six years before handing the reins to renowned coach [[Phog Allen]]. Naismith disciple [[Amos Alonzo Stagg]] brought basketball to the [[University of Chicago]], while [[Adolph Rupp]], a student of Naismith at Kansas, enjoyed great success as coach at the [[University of Kentucky]]. College leagues date back to the 1920s, and the first national championship tournament, the [[National Invitation Tournament]] (NIT) in New York, followed in 1938. College basketball was rocked by gambling scandals from 1948 to 1951, when dozens of players from top teams were implicated in [[match fixing|game fixing]] and [[point shaving]]. Partially spurred by the association of the NIT with many of the cheaters, the [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship|NCAA national tournament]] surpassed the NIT in importance. Today, the NCAA tournament is rivaled only by the [[baseball]] [[World Series]] and the [[Super Bowl]] of [[American football]] in the American sports psyche.
In the 1920s, there were hundreds of professional basketball teams in towns and cities all over the United States. There was little organization to the professional game, as players jumped from team to team, and teams played in armories and smoky dance halls. Leagues came and went, and barnstorming squads such as the [[New York Renaissance|New York Rens]] and the [[Original Celtics]] played up to two hundred games a year on their national tours.
===U.S. high school basketball===
Before widespread school district consolidation, most U.S. [[high school]]s were far smaller than their present day counterparts and during the first decades of the 20th century basketball quickly became the ideal interscholastic sport due to its modest equipment and personnel requirements. In the days before widespread [[television]] coverage of professional and college sports, the popularity of high school basketball was unrivaled in many parts of America.
Today virtually every high school in |
lican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] over the years. Outside of its legal work, the organization has also engaged in [[lobbying]] of elected officials and civil liberties [[activism]] [http://action.aclu.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AP_action_homepage]. The ACLU is one of the most influential NGOs in the United States today; often controversial, its stances have engendered criticism from both sides of the political spectrum (see [[American Civil Liberties Union#Critics of the ACLU|Critics of the ACLU]]).
==History, structure and leadership==
The ACLU was originally established in 1917 as the [[National Civil Liberties Bureau]] (NCLB), an outgrowth of the [[American Union Against Militarism]], an organization that was against American intervention in [[World War I]]. The NCLB provided legal advice and aid for [[conscientious objector|conscientious objectors]] and those being prosecuted under the [[Espionage Act of 1917]] or [[Sedition Act of 1918]]. The organization was subpoenaed by the New York legislature's Joint Legislative Committee to Investigate Seditious Activities, popularly known as the [[Lusk Committee]], which considered the organization's efforts and pacifist ties to be a vehicle for socialist and communist propaganda. The NCLB changed its name in 1920 to the American Civil Liberties Union.[http://www.aclu.org/about/index.html]
Founders include [[Crystal Eastman]], [[Albert DeSilver]] and [[Roger Nash Baldwin]] among others.
In the year of its birth, the ACLU was formed to protect aliens threatened with [[deportation]], and U.S. nationals threatened with criminal charges by [[U.S. Attorney General]] [[Alexander Mitchell Palmer]] for their [[communist]] or [[socialist]] activities and agendas (see [[Palmer Raids]]). It also opposed attacks on the rights of the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] and other [[labor union]]s to meet and organize.
In 1940, the ACLU formally barred communists from leadership or staff positions, and would take the position that it did not want communists as members either. The board declared that it was "inappropriate for any person to serve on the governing committees of the Union or its staff, who is a member of any political organization which supports [[totalitarian dictatorship]] in any country, or who by his public declarations indicates his support of such a principle." [http://www.aclu-mass.org/about/about_history.html] [http://infoshare1.princeton.edu/libraries/firestone/rbsc/finding_aids/aclu1920/] The purge, which was led by Baldwin, himself a former supporter of Communism, began with the ouster of [[Elizabeth Gurley Flynn]], a member of both the [[Communist Party of the USA]] and the [[IWW]] [http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unitarians/baldwin.html]. The ACLU has been criticized by some of its later members for this policy, and in the 1960s there was an internal push to remove this prohibition. [http://volokh.com/archives/archive_2005_09_04-2005_09_10.shtml#1126047007]
In the 1988 presidential election, then-[[Vice President]] [[George H.W. Bush]] called then-[[Governor]] [[Michael Dukakis]] a "card-carrying member of the ACLU," which Dukakis proudly acknowledged. [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/debatingourdestiny/dod/1988-broadcast.html] It now serves as a jocular recruitment slogan for the ACLU. [http://www.aclu.org/Contribute/Contribute.cfm]
The [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], and the ensuing debate regarding the proper balance of civil liberties and security including the passage of the [[USA PATRIOT Act]], led to a 20% increase in membership between August 2001 and December 2002, when its total enrollment reached 330,000 [http://www.post-gazette.com/localnews/20021202aclusidebarp8.asp]. The growth has continued; in August 2004, ACLU membership was at 400,000 [http://www.madison.com/tct/news/images/index.php?ntid=7175&ntpid=0].
The ACLU has been a vocal opponent of the PATRIOT Act of 2001, the proposed (as of 2003) [[Domestic Security Enhancement Act of 2003|PATRIOT 2]] Act, and associated legislation made in response to the threat of domestic terrorism, that it believes violates either the letter or the spirit of the [[United States Bill of Rights|U.S. Bill of Rights]]. In response to a requirement of the PATRIOT Act, the ACLU withdrew from a Federal Donation Program that provides matching funds from the federal government for federal employees. The requirement was that ACLU employees must be checked against a federal anti-terrorism watch list. The ACLU estimates that it will lose approximately $500,000 in such contributions.
''See also:'' [[ACLU v. Ashcroft (2004)]]
<!--Need more here on PATRIOT Act challenges, and ACLU activities post-9/11 in general, including stats on increase in membership.-->
Currently, the leadership of the ACLU includes Executive Director [[Anthony Romero]], President [[Nadine Strossen]], and Legal Director [[Steven Shapiro]]. Notably, [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]], a current Justice of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]], founded the ACLU's Women's Rights Project in 1972.
[[Image:Antonio Villaraigosa.jpg|left|thumb|260px|[[Los Angeles]] Mayor [[Antonio Villaraigosa]] speaking at an [[ACLU]] event. Villaraigosa is the former director of the ACLU Southern California affiliate.]]
Although the ACLU has its national headquarters located in New York City, the organization does most of its work through locally based affiliates, organized into fifty state chapters. These affiliates maintain a certain amount of autonomy from the National organization, and are able to work independently from each other. Many of the ACLU's cases originate from the local level and are handled by lawyers from the local affiliates.
The ACLU's involvement in the internment of Japanese in the United States during World War II, which bears on the question of local autonomy, is misunderstood, and often misrepresented. There are differing ideas on the role the ACLU took, some have argued that the ACLU remained silent on the issue. Still others have claimed that the national branch of the ACLU threatened to revoke the chapter status of the ACLU of Northern California for defending Toyosaburo Korematsu in the Supreme Court in [[Korematsu v. United States]], {{ussc|323|214|1944}}. These arguments are hard to square with the fact that the national branch of the ACLU actually filed a brief of amicus curiae with the court on behalf of Mr. Korematsu.
In fact, the ACLU argued that some internments may have been necessary for the security of the nation, but that by interning Americans without giving them a hearing, the military was violating their right to due process. The ACLU argued that the internments should have civilian oversight, instead of military, and that the Japanese in the camps had been interned on the basis of racial discrimination.
State chapters remain the basic unit of the ACLU's organization. In a twenty month period beginning January 2004, the ACLU's [[New Jersey]] chapter, to take one example, was involved in fifty-one cases according to their annual report -- thirty-five cases in state courts, and sixteen in federal court. They provided legal representation in thirty-three of those cases, and served as amicus in the remaining eighteen. They listed forty-four volunteer attorneys who assisted them in those cases.
==Positions==
The ACLU's stated mission is to defend the rights of all citizens as enshrined in the [[Bill of Rights]] of the United States Constitution. While the bulk of the ACLU's cases involve the [[First Amendment]], Equal Protection and Due Process and cases involving the right to privacy (see, ''e.g.'', the [[Louisiana]] chapter [http://www.laaclu.org/Complaints/complaints.html]), the organization has taken positions on a wide range of controversial issues. In particular, the ACLU:
* Supports the [[separation of church and state in the United States|separation of church and state]]; under this mandate, the ACLU:
** Opposes the government-sponsored display of religious symbols on [[public property]];
** Opposes official prayers, religious ceremonies, or [[moment of silence|moments of silence]] in public schools or schools funded with public [[money]];
* Supports full [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|first amendment]] rights of citizens, organizations and the press, including school [[newspaper]]s;
* Supports [[reproductive rights]], including the right to use [[contraception]] and to have an [[abortion]];
* Supports full civil rights for [[homosexuality|homosexuals]], including government benefits for homosexual couples equal to those provided for heterosexual ones;
* Supports [[affirmative action]] as a means of redressing past discrimination and achieving a racially diverse student body [http://www.aclu.org/RacialEquality/RacialEqualityMain.cfm];
* Supports the rights of [[defendant]]s and suspects against [[unconstitutional]] [[police]] practices;
* Supports the [[decriminalization]] of [[recreational drug use|drugs]] such as [[heroin]], [[cocaine]] and [[marijuana]] [http://www.aclu.org/DrugPolicy/DrugPolicy.cfm?ID=12401&c=19];
* Opposes demonstration permits and other requirements for protests in public places;
* Is critical of current surveillance camera practices, citing privacy violations [http://www.aclunc.org/police/oak-video.html].
The ACLU has opposed some campaign finance laws such as the [[Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act]], which it considers an inappropriate restriction upon freedom of expression. It does not, however, have a blanket opposition to all laws on campaign finance.
The official policy of the national ACLU argues that the [[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|second amendment]] is "intended mainly to protect the right of the states to maintain militias to assure their own freedom and security against the central government" and is not intended to "confer an unlimited right upo |
hings, the Koestler Parapsychology Unit at Edinburgh University
*[http://koestlerarthur.fw.hu http://koestlerarthur.fw.hu]
*[http://www.draken.com/ahellas/koestler.html Arthur Koestler Project]
[[Category:1905 births|Koestler, Arthur]]
[[Category:1983 deaths|Koestler, Arthur]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Koestler, Arthur]]
[[Category:Hungarian philosophers|Koestler, Arthur]]
[[Category:Hungarian novelists|Koestler, Arthur]]
[[Category:Hungarian writers|Koestler, Arthur]]
[[Category:Khazar studies|Koestler]]
[[Category:Writers who committed suicide|Koestler]]
[[de:Arthur Koestler]]
[[es:Arthur Koestler]]
[[eo:Arthur KOESTLER]]
[[fr:Arthur Koestler]]
[[he:ארתור קסטלר]]
[[hu:Arthur Koestler]]
[[ja:アーサー・ケストラー]]
[[pl:Arthur Koestler]]
[[ro:Arthur Koestler]]
[[ru:Кестлер, Артур]]
[[sk:Arthur Koestler]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atlantic Ocean</title>
<id>698</id>
<revision>
<id>41796941</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:38:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chcknwnm</username>
<id>644872</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.209.193.99|209.209.193.99]] to last version by Cactus.man</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Atlantic}}
{{Five oceans}}
The '''Atlantic Ocean''' is [[Earth]]'s second-largest [[ocean]], covering approximately one-fifth of its surface. The ocean's name, derived from [[Greek mythology]], means the "[[Sea]] of [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]]".
This ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending in a north-south direction and is divided into the North Atlantic and South Atlantic by [[Equatorial Counter Current|equatorial counter current]]s at about 8° north [[latitude]]. Bounded by the [[Americas]] on the west and [[Europe]] and [[Africa]] on the east, the Atlantic is linked to the [[Pacific Ocean]] by the [[Arctic Ocean]] on the north and the [[Drake Passage]] on the south. An artificial connection between the Atlantic and Pacific is also provided by the [[Panama Canal]]. On the east, the dividing line between the Atlantic and the [[Indian Ocean]] is the 20° east meridian, running south from [[Cape Agulhas]] to [[Antarctica]]. The Atlantic is separated from the [[Arctic Ocean]] by a line from [[Greenland]] to northwestern [[Iceland]] and then from northeastern Iceland to southernmost tip of [[Spitsbergen]] and then to [[North Cape, Norway|North Cape]] in northern [[Norway]].<ref>[http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/OceanTeacher2/01_GlobOcToday/03_GeopolOc/s23_1953.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'']. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953.</ref>
[[Image:Ireland-AtlanticOceanwithAranIsland.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Atlantic Ocean as seen from the west coast of [[Ireland]] on a fair day.]]
Covering approximately 20% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic Ocean is second only to the Pacific in size. With its adjacent seas it occupies an area of about [[1 E14 m²|106,400,000]] [[square kilometre]]s (41,100,000 [[square mile]]s); without them, it has an area of [[1 E13 m²|82,400,000 square kilometres]] (31,800,000 sq mi). The land area that drains into the Atlantic is four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic Ocean with its adjacent seas is [[1 E15 m³|354,700,000]] [[cubic kilometre]]s (85,100,000 [[cubic mile|cu mi]]) and without them 323,600,000 cubic kilometres (77,640,000 cu mi).
The average depths of the Atlantic, with its adjacent seas, is 3,332 [[metre]]s (10,932 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]); without them it is 3,926 metres (12,881 ft). The greatest depth, 8,605 metres (28,232 ft), is in the [[Puerto Rico Trench]]. The width of the Atlantic varies from [[1 E6 m|2,848]] [[kilometre]]s (1,770 [[mile|miles]]) between Brazil and [[Liberia]] to about [[1 E6 m|4,830 kilometes]] (3,000 mi) between the United States and northern Africa.
The Atlantic Ocean has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. These include the [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[Black Sea]], [[North Sea]], [[Labrador Sea]], [[Baltic Sea]], and [[Norwegian Sea|Norwegian]]-[[Greenland Sea]]. Islands in the Atlantic Ocean include [[Faroe Islands]], [[Greenland]], [[Iceland]], [[Rockall]], [[Great Britain]], [[Ireland]], [[Fernando de Noronha]], the [[Azores]], the [[Madeira Islands]], the [[Canaries]], the [[Cape Verde]] Islands, [[Sao Tome e Principe]], [[Newfoundland]], [[Bermuda]], the [[West Indies]], [[Ascension Island|Ascension]], [[Saint Helena (Britain)|St. Helena]], [[Trindade Island|Trindade]], [[Martin Vaz]], [[Tristan da Cunha]], the [[Falkland Islands]], and [[South Georgia Island]].
[[Image:Atlantic_Ocean.png|right|Atlantic Ocean]]
==Ocean bottom==
The principal feature of the bottom [[topography]] of the Atlantic Ocean is a great submarine mountain range called the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]]. It extends from [[Iceland]] in the north to approximately 58° south latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi). A great [[rift valley]] also extends along the ridge over most of its length. The depth of water over the ridge is less than 2,700 metres (8,900 ft) in most places, and several mountain peaks rise above the water, forming islands. The South Atlantic Ocean has an additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large [[trough (geology)|trough]]s with depths averaging between 3,700 and 5,500 metres (12,000 and 18,000 ft). Transverse ridges running between the continents and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins. Some of the larger basins are the Guiana, North American, Cape Verde, and Canaries basins in the North Atlantic. The largest South Atlantic basins are the Angola, Cape, Argentina, and Brazil basins.
The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat, although numerous [[seamount]]s and some [[guyot]]s exist. Several deeps or trenches are also found on the ocean floor. The Puerto Rico Trench, in the North Atlantic, is the deepest. The [[Laurentian Abyss]] is found off the eastern coast of Canada. In the south Atlantic, the [[South Sandwich Trench]] reaches a depth of 8,428 metres (27,651 ft). A third major trench, the [[Romanche Trench]], is located near the equator and reaches a depth of about 7,454 metres (24,455 ft). The shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography. In addition, a number of deep channels cut across the continental rise.
Ocean [[sediment]]s are composed of terrigenous, pelagic, and authigenic material. Terrigenous deposits consist of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by erosion, weathering, and volcanic activity on land and then washed to sea. These materials are largely found on the [[continental shelf|continental shelves]] and are thickest off the mouths of large rivers or off desert coasts. Pelagic deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, include red clays and [[Globigerinida|Globigerina]], [[pteropod]], and siliceous oozes. Covering most of the ocean floor and ranging in thickness from 60 metres to 3,300 metres (200 ft to 11,000 ft), they are thickest in the convergence belts and in the zones of upwelling. Authigenic deposits consist of such materials as [[manganese nodule]]s. They occur where [[sediment]]ation proceeds slowly or where currents sort the deposits.
==Water characteristics==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Capespearnew.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The Atlantic Ocean at [[Cape Spear]], Newfoundland]] -->
The [[salinity]] of the surface waters in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand by mass and varies with latitude and season. Although the minimum salinity values are found just north of the equator, in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers flow into the ocean. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north latitude. Surface salinity values are influenced by evaporation, precipitation, river inflow, and melting of sea ice.
Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from less than −2&nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]] to 29&nbsp;°C (28&nbsp;°[[Fahrenheit|F]] to 84&nbsp;°F). <!-- less than 2 is not −2, but assuming less than -2 intended, degree signs butt to letter with space from number --> Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by 7&nbsp;°C to 8&nbsp;°C (13&nbsp;°F to 15&nbsp;°F).
The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major water masses. The North and South Atlantic central waters constitute the surface waters. The sub-Antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The North Atlantic deep water reaches depths of as much as 4,000 metres (13,200 ft). The [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] bottom water occupies ocean basins at depths greater than 4,000 metres (13,200 ft).
Within the North Atlantic, ocean currents isolate a large elongated body of water known as the [[Sargasso Sea]], in which the salinity is noticeably higher than average. The Sargasso Sea contains large amounts of [[seaweed]], and is also the spawning ground for the [[European eel]].
Due to the [[Coriolis effect]], water in the North Atlantic circulates in a clockwise direction, whereas water circulation in the South Atlantic is counter clockwise. The South [[tide]]s in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-[[diel|diurnal]]; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. The tides are a general wave that moves from south to north. In latitudes above 40° north some east-west oscillation occurs.
==Climate==
[[Image:Atlantic hurricane |
rcissus]], [[daffodil]]s, [[crocus]], [[hyacinth]]s, and [[tulip]]s).
* [[Vander Veer Botanical Park]]
== References ==
# {{cite web | title=Homepage | work=City of Davenport, Iowa | url=http://www.cityofdavenportiowa.com/ | accessdate=December 17 | accessyear=2005}}
== External links ==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|41.542982|-90.590745}}
*[http://www.HavenWorks.com/davenport Davenport Iowa News.]
{{Iowa}}
[[Category:Cities in Iowa]]
[[Category:Scott County, Iowa]]
[[Category:Cities on the Mississippi River]]
[[io:Davenport, Iowa]]
[[sv:Davenport]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diffraction</title>
<id>8603</id>
<revision>
<id>40198523</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T22:23:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: gl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Diffraction''' is the bending and spreading of [[wave]]s when they meet an obstruction. It can occur with any type of wave, including [[sound]] waves, [[water]] waves, and [[electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic waves]] such as [[light]] and [[radio waves]]. Diffraction also occurs when any group of waves of a finite size is propagating; for example, a narrow beam of [[light]] waves from a [[laser]] must, because of diffraction of the beam, eventually diverge into a wider beam at a sufficient distance from the laser. As a simple example of diffraction, if you speak into one end of a cardboard tube, the sound waves emerging from the other end spread out in all directions, rather than propagating in a straight line like a stream of water from a garden hose.
== Introduction ==
Diffraction is one particular type of wave [[interference]], caused by the partial obstruction or lateral restriction of a wave. Not all interference is diffraction; for example, sound waves emitted by two stereo speakers will interfere with each other if they are of the same frequency and have a definite phase relationship, but this is not diffraction. Diffraction will not occur if the wave is not [[coherence (physics)|coherent]], and diffraction effects become weaker (and ultimately undetectable) as the size of obstruction is made larger and larger compared to the wavelength. In well-defined cases, a '''diffraction pattern''' may be observed.
Diffraction is not the same as [[refraction]], although both are phenomena in which a wave does not propagate in a single direction. Refraction is not an interference phenomenon, and, e.g., can occur without coherence.
It is the diffraction of "particles," such as electrons, which stood as one of the powerful arguments in favor of [[quantum mechanics]]. It is possible to observe diffraction of particles such as [[neutrons]] or [[electron]]s and hence we are able to infer the existence of [[wave-particle duality]]. Indeed, this diffraction is a useful tool; the wavelengths of these particle-waves are small enough that they are used as probes of the atomic structure of crystals. See [[electron diffraction]] and [[neutron diffraction]].
<div style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align: center;">[[image:doubleslitdiffraction.png]]<br />''Double-slit diffraction''<br />
<br /><br />
[[image:Laserdiffraction.jpg]]<br />
Double-slit diffraction<br />
<small>(''red laser light'')</small><br /><br />
[[image:Diffraction2vs5.jpg]]<br />
''2-slit and 5-slit diffraction''
</div>
The most conceptually simple example of diffraction is double-slit diffraction in which both slits have relatively narrow widths compared to the [[wavelength]] of the wave. Suppose, for the sake of visualization, that these are water waves. After passing through the slits, two overlapping patterns of semicircular ripples are formed, as shown in the first figure. Where a crest overlaps with a crest, a double-height crest will be formed; this is constructive [[interference]]. Constructive interference also occurs where a trough overlaps another trough. However, when a trough and a crest overlap, they cancel out; the interference is destructive. The second figure shows the result of this process with light waves of a single wavelength originating from a laser. The constructive-interference locations are called maxima, because they have maximum brightness. The destructive-interference locations are the minima. Historically, the first proof that light was a wave phenomenon came from the [[double-slit experiment]] of [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]].
== General facts about diffraction ==
Several qualitative observations can be made:
* When the dimensions of the diffracting object are reduced, the angular spacing of the diffraction pattern is increased in inverse proportion. (More precisely, this is true of the [[sine]]s of the angles.)
* The diffraction angles are invariant under scaling; that is, they depend only on the ratio of the wavelength to a dimension, ''a'', of the diffracting object.
* When the diffracting object is repeated, the effect is to narrow each maximum, concentrating its energy within a narrower range of angles. The third figure, for example, shows a comparison of a double-slit pattern with a pattern formed by five slits, both sets of slits having the same spacing, ''a'', between the center of one slit and the next.
== Mathematical description ==
It is mathematically easier to consider the case of far-field or [[Fraunhofer diffraction]], where the diffracting obstruction is many wavelengths distant from the point at which the wave is measured. The more general case is known as near-field or [[Fresnel diffraction]], and involves more complex mathematics. As the observation distance is increased the results predicted by the Fresnel theory converge towards those predicted by the simpler Fraunhofer theory. This article considers far-field diffraction, which is commonly observed in nature.
Quantitatively, the angular positions of the minima in multiple-slit diffraction are given by the equation
:<math> \sin \theta = \frac{\lambda}{a} m, </math>
where ''m'' is an [[integer]] that labels the ''order'' of each minimum. The central maximum is two orders wide, however, so ''m'' = 0, &theta; = 0 is the absolute maximum of the distribution and intensity functions. This is a form of '''Bragg's law''' (see below).
<div style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align: center;">[[image:diffraction1.png]]<br />''Graph and image''</div>
===Quantitative analysis of single-slit diffraction===
As an example, an exact equation can now be derived for the intensity of the diffraction pattern as a function of angle in the case of single-slit diffraction.
A mathematical representation of [[Huygens' principle]] can be used to start an equation.
Consider a monochromatic complex plane wave <math>\Psi^\prime</math> of wavelength &lambda; incident on a slit of width ''a''.
If the slit lie in the x&prime;-y&prime; plane, with its center at the origin, then it can be assumed that diffraction generates a complex wave &psi;, traveling radially in the r direction away from the slit, and this is given by:
:<math>\Psi = \int_{slit} \frac{i}{r\lambda} \Psi^\prime e^{-ikr}\,dslit</math>
let (x&prime;,y&prime;,0) be a point inside the slit over which it is being integrated. If (x,0,z) is the location at which the intensity of the diffraction pattern is being computed, the slit extends from <math>x^\prime=-a/2</math> to <math>+a/2\,</math>, and from <math>y'=-\infty</math> to <math>\infty</math>.
The distance ''r'' from the slot is:
:<math>r = \sqrt{\left(x - x^\prime\right)^2 + y^{\prime2} + z^2}</math>
:<math>r = z \left(1 + \frac{\left(x - x^\prime\right)^2 + y^{\prime2}}{z^2}\right)^\frac{1}{2}</math>
Assuming [[Fraunhofer diffraction]] will result in the conclusion <math>z >> \big|\left(x - x^\prime\right)\big|</math>. In other words, the distance to the target is much larger than the diffraction width on the target.
By the [[binomial expansion]] rule, ignoring terms quadratic and higher, the quantity on the right can be estimated to be:
:<math>r \approx z \left( 1 + \frac{1}{2} \frac{\left(x - x^\prime \right)^2 + y^{\prime 2}}{z^2} \right)</math>
:<math>r \approx z + \frac{\left(x - x^\prime\right)^2 + y^{\prime 2}}{2z}</math>
It can be seen that 1/''r'' in front of the equation is non-oscillatory, i.e. its contribution to the magnitude of the intensity is small compared to our exponential factors. Therefore, we will lose little accuracy by approximating it as ''z''.
{|
|-
|<math>\Psi \,</math>
|<math>= \frac{i \Psi^\prime}{z \lambda} \int_{-\frac{a}{2}}^{\frac{a}{2}}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} e^{-ik\left[z+\frac{ \left(x - x^\prime \right)^2 + y^{\prime 2}}{2z}\right]} \,dx^\prime \,dy^\prime</math>
|-
|
|<math>= \frac{i \Psi^\prime}{z \lambda} e^{-ikz} \int_{-\frac{a}{2}}^{\frac{a}{2}}e^{-ik\left[\frac{\left(x - x^\prime \right)^2}{2z}\right]} \,dx^\prime \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} e^{-ik\left[\frac{y^{\prime 2}}{2z}\right]} \,dy^\prime</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\Psi^\prime \sqrt{\frac{i}{z\lambda}} e^\frac{-ikx^2}{2z} \int_{-\frac{a}{2}}^{\frac{a}{2}}e^\frac{ikxx^\prime}{z} e^\frac{-ikx^{\prime 2}}{2z} \,dx^\prime</math>
|-
|}
To make things cleaner, a placeholder 'C' is used to denote constants in the equation. It is important to keep in mind that C can contain imaginary numbers, thus the wave function will be complex, however at the end, the &psi; will be bracketed, which will eliminate any imaginary components.
Now, in Fraunhoffer diffraction, <math>kx^{\prime 2}/z</math> is small, so <math>e^\frac{-ikx^{\prime 2}}{ |
me 10 metric tons. Formulas for different colors of glass are closely guarded. The receipe for a true [[black]] glass was lost during World War I, and modern black glass held to sunlight is a deep purple. Examples of true black glass are circulating in jewelry pieces made to comemerate the [[funeral]] of [[Queen Victoria]].
The color of the bead can be transparent or opaque. Transparent seed beads benefit from
lining the interior hole in silver, gold, copper. Linings of pink or blue are also common.
An exterior coating of a metallic film adds a lustre to seed beads called "AB" - Aurora Borealis.
Glass rods made with concentric layers of color or stripes of color can be used to make patterns of color in seed beads.
Seed bead machinery uses glass rods softened to a red heat, fed into a steel [[Die (manufacturing)|die]] stamp that forms the shape of the bead with a reciprocating needle that forms the hole. Manual and automatic machinery is in use in the Czech Republic. As the [[steel]] dies wear eventually, they are replaced.
; Weight
Japanese beads are sold by gram weight, never by the hank, despite some seller claims on eBay.
Most Japanese seed beads are repackaged for retail sale in manageable quantities based on price codes. More expensive beads may be sold in 2.5 or 5 gram units. Standard Japanese seed beads are usually sold in approximately 10 gram tubes. Thus, a 250 gram wholesale package would fill 25 tubes &mdash; a bit more than the average beader would need.
One major supplier, Miyuki, sells factory packages which contain up to 1 kg of beads, and are almost always repackaged into tubes or other containers for retail sale. To accommodate the average "wholesale" customer, whether it be a bead shop or designer, some larger distributors have made deals to receive their wholesale packages of beads in smaller (50 to 250 gram) pre-packaged sizes.
Toho, the other major Japanese supplier, seems to have a more flexible packaging policy. Many of the tubed beads you see hanging in the craft stores are stamped with their name on the bottoms, indicating both a wholesale and retail packaging setup.
===Varieties===
; Cylinder beads
During the last decade, a new shape of Japanese seed beads, the [[Cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]] bead, has become increasingly popular.
Unlike regular rounded seed beads, the cylinder beads are quite uniform in [[shape]] and [[Measurement|size]] and have large holes for their size. Because the ends are [[flat]] instead of rounded, work created with cylinder beads has a flat, smooth texture. [[line|Row]]s and [[columns]] in [[weaving]] line up more uniformly, so pattern work comes out more accurate and even.
There are now 3 versions of cylinder beads:
* Delicas® made by Miyuki
* Treasures (formerly Antiques) made by Toho
* [http://tohobeads.net/type/cylinder.html Aiko] - an all new, extremely precise bead made by Toho, and introduced in 2005
; Charlotte cut beads
Charlotte cuts are seed beads that have a single facet per bead to add sparkle. These are called "the most brilliant of all seed beads".
; Other
Most of today's good quality seed beeds are made in [[Japan]] or the [[Czech Republic]]. Japanese seed beads are more uniform than the Czech ones and have larger holes for the same size of bead. There are also good seed beads from France that are available in historic "old-time" colors and are popular for use in repairing or replicating antiquities.
===Confusing terminology===
Seed beads used by craftspersons should not be confused with Seed Beads&trade;: laboratory-grown beads made of [[PTFE]] used to generate seeds of protein crystals.
==Other types of beads==
[[Image:Firebead.jpg|thumb|right|Fire polished beads (10 mm) with AB coating]]
===[[Chevron bead]]s===
Chevron Beads are special glass [[bead]]s, originally made for the slave trade in [[Africa]] by glassmakers in [[Italy]]. They are composed of many consecutive layers of colored [[glass]] which are then cut to show the resulting chevron pattern.
===Fire-polished beads===
Fire-polished beads are faceted glass beads from the [[Czech republic]]. They are popular in jewelry and come in sizes from 4 mm to 15 mm. The pattern of facets is always the same and the resulting bead is somewhat oval in the larger sizes. The beads are glazed in a red hot oven after being machine faceted.
[[Image:Chevronbeads.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chevron bead]]s]]
===[[Lampwork beads]]===
Lampwork beads are made by using a torch to heat a rod of glass and spinning the resulting thread around a metal rod covered in bead release. When the base bead has been formed, other colors of glass can be added to the surface to create many designs.
[[Image:Pressedglass.jpg|thumb|right|Pressed glass beads (with AB coating)]]
===[[Millefiori]] beads===
Millefiori beads are made with mutiple canes of glass fused together to make an all-over flower pattern.
===Pressed glass beads===
[[Image:Crystbeads.jpg|thumb|right|[[Swarovski]] crystal beads (6 mm&ndash;8 mm), pendant 3 cm]]
[[Image:Cinnabarbead.jpg|thumb|right|Carved [[Cinnabar]] [[lacquer]] beads]]
Pressed glass beads are formed by pressing the hot glass into mold to give the bead its shape.
===[[Slave beads|Trade beads or Slave beads]]===
Trade beads are various types of beads made in Europe specifically to be used in the slave trade and other trading in Africa. Chevron beads are a specific, historically important type of trade bead.
===[[Swarovski]]&reg; crystal and other lead crystal beads===
Swarovski crystal beads are also prized by hobbyists. They are a high-lead crystal, have an incredible sparkle and clarity, and are often multi-faceted to resemble gemstones. Styles and colors go in and out of production, so vintage cuts and colors are often prized with a similarly associated price tag.
===[[Faux]] natural beads===
Often beads are made to look like a more expensive original material, especially in the case of fake [[pearl]]s and simulated rocks, [[minerals]], and [[gemstone]]s. Precious metals and [[ivory]] are also imitated.
[[Image:Furnaceglass.jpg|thumb|left|Furnace glass beads]]
===Ethnic beads===
Other beads considered trade beads are those made in Africa, by and for Africans, such as [[Kiffa beads]]. Other ethnic beads include [[Dzi bead]]s and African brass beads. [[Rudraksha bead]]s are customary in India for making Buddhist and Hindu rosaries ([[Japa mala|malas]]). [[Magatama]] are traditional [[Japan]]ese beads, and [[cinnabar]] was often used for beads in [[China]].
===Furnace glass beads===
Furnace glass are a special type of art bead. They are made using traditional glassworking techniques from Italy that are more often used to make art glass objects. The manufacture of these beads requires a large glass furnace and annealing kiln.
==See also==
[[Glass beadmaking]]
==External links==
; Some information resource sites
*[http://www.thebeadsite.com The Bead Site] Includes the Center for Bead Research
*[http://www.bead-world.com/facts.html Bead Facts/Charts] Handy charts from Bead World
*[http://members.cox.net/sdsantan/measure.html Bead Weights and Measures]
*[http://www.suncountrygems.com/seed_beads.html Sun Country Gems] Includes history and basic data
*[http://www.craftland.net/Catalog_Static/Catalog_14.aspx Craftland Bead Supply] Czech seed beads sizes and colors
*[http://www.shipwreckbeads.com/support/docs/seedbeadstats.html Shipwreck Beads] Czech and Japanese seed beads, charts and info
; Seed bead manufacturers
*[http://tohobeads.net Toho Beads] A Japanese manufacturer's site, manufactures Treasures (formerly Antiques)
*[http://www.miyuki-beads.co.jp Miyuki Beads] The manufacturer of Delicas&reg;
[[Category:Beadwork]]
[[Category:Craft materials]]
[[es:Abalorio]]
[[ja:&#12499;&#12540;&#12474;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bead weaving</title>
<id>3403</id>
<revision>
<id>36614240</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T07:29:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pschemp</username>
<id>110252</id>
</contributor>
<comment>wl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Bead weaving on a loom==
[[Bead]] [[weaving]] using [[seed beads]] can be done on a [[loom]]. The beads are locked in between the [[warp]] threads by the [[weft]] threads. Although a [[heddle]] can be used as in ordinary weaving, the most common technique requires two passes of the weft thread. First, an entire [[row]] of beads is strung on the weft [[yarn|thread]]. Then, the beads are pressed in between the warp threads. The [[needle]] is passed back through the beads above the warp threads to lock the beads into place. The most difficult part of loomwork is finishing off the warp threads.
Although loomed pieces are typically rectangular, it is possible to increase and decrease to produce angular or curvy shapes. [[Fringe]] can also be added during weaving or before the piece is removed from the loom.
Bead looms vary in size and are typically made of [[wood]] or [[metal]]. Usually, a [[comb]] or [[spring]] is used to hold the warp threads a bead width apart. Some looms have roller bars that allow the weaver to produce pieces that are longer than the loom is. Most looms are meant to sit on a [[table]], but some have [[floor]] stands or are meant to sit in the [[lap]].
==Off-loom bead weaving==
Off-loom bead weaving is a family of [[beadwork]] techniques in which [[bead]]s (typically [[seed beads]]) are woven together into a [[Cloth|fabric]]. Bead weaving on a loom is different enough that it is specifically excluded. All off-loom techniques can be accomplished using a single needle and thread (no warp threads), but some have two-needle variations.
Off-loom bead weaving encompasses a number of techniques, including
* [[gourd stitch]] or [[peyote stitch]]
* [[brick stitch]]
* [[square stitch]]
* [[right-angle weave]]
* [[tr |
ed when the Republican Calendar was official are still in force in France and have kept their original dates for citation purposes.
== Criticism and shortcomings of the calendar ==
[[Image:Horloge-republicaine1.jpg|thumb|Clock dial]]
[[Image:Horloge-republicaine2.jpg|thumb|Clock dial]]
Leap years in the calendar are a point of great dispute, due to the contradicting statements requiring the year to start at the ''autumnal equinox'' while adding a ''leap day every 4 years'' (like the [[Gregorian calendar]]). The years III, VII, and XI were observed as leap years, and the years XV and XX were also planned as such.
A fixed arithmetic rule for determining leap years was proposed in the name of the Committee of Public Education by Gilbert Romme on 19&nbsp;Floréal&nbsp;An&nbsp;III ([[8 May]] [[1795]]). The proposed rule was to determine leap years by applying the rules of the Gregorian calendar to the years of the French Republic (years IV, VIII, XII, etc. were to be leap years) except that year 4000 (the last year of ten 400-year periods) should be a common year instead of a leap year. Because this proposal was never adopted, the original astronomical rule continued, which excluded any other fixed arithmetic rule. The proposal was intended to avoid uncertain future leap years caused by the inaccurate astronomical knowledge of the [[1790s]] (even today, this statement is still valid due to the uncertainty in [[Delta T|&Delta;T]]). In particular, the committee noted that the true equinox of year 144 was predicted to occur at "11:59:40 {{PM}}", which was closer to midnight than its inherent 3 to 4 minute uncertainty.
The calendar was abolished because having a ten-day work week gave workers less rest (one day off every ten instead of one day off every seven); because the equinox was a mobile date to start every new year (a fantastic source of confusion for almost everybody); and because it was incompatible with the secular rhythms of [[trade]] fairs and agricultural markets.
Perhaps the most famous date in this calendar was immortalised by [[Karl Marx]] in the title of his pamphlet, ''[[The 18th Brumaire of Louis Napoléon]]'' ([[1852]]). The [[18 Brumaire]] ([[9 November]] [[1799]]) is considered the end of French Revolution. Another famous revolutionary date is [[9 Thermidor]], the date the Convention turned against [[Robespierre]], who, along with others associated with [[the Mountain]], was [[guillotine]]d the following day. (''See [[Glossary_of_the_French_Revolution#Events_commonly_known_by_their_Revolutionary_dates|Glossary of the French Revolution]] for other significant dates under this calendar.'')
[[Emile Zola]]'s novel ''[[Germinal]]'' takes its name from the calendar, as does the dish, [[Lobster thermidor]].
==The months==
The Republican calendar year began at the [[autumn equinox]] and had twelve months of 30 days each, which were given new names based on nature:
*Autumn:
**[[Vendémiaire]] (from Latin ''vindemia'', "vintage") Starting [[September 22|Sept 22]], 23 or 24
**[[Brumaire]] (from French ''brume'', "mist") Starting [[October 22|Oct 22]], 23 or 24
**[[Frimaire]] (From French ''frimas'', "frost") Starting [[November 21|Nov 21]], 22 or 23
*Winter:
**[[Nivôse]] (from Latin ''Nivosus'', "snowy") Starting [[December 21|Dec 21]], 22 or 23
**[[Pluviôse]] (from Latin ''pluviosus'', "rainy") Starting [[January 20|Jan 20]], 21 or 22
**[[Ventôse]] (from Latin ''ventosus'', "windy") Starting [[February 19|Feb 19]], 20 or 21
*Spring:
**[[Germinal (French Republican Calendar)|Germinal]] (from Latin ''germen'', "seed") Starting [[March 20|Mar 20]] or 21
**[[Floréal]] (from Latin ''flos'', "flower") Starting [[April 20|Apr 20]] or 21
**[[Prairial]] (from French ''prairie'', "meadow") Starting [[May 20]] or 21
*Summer:
**[[Messidor]] (from Latin ''messis'', "harvest") Starting [[June 19|Jun 19]] or 20
**[[Thermidor]] (from Greek ''thermos'', "hot") Starting [[July 19|Jul 19]] or 20
**[[Fructidor]] (from Latin ''fructus'', "fruits") Starting [[August 18|Aug 18]] or 19
Note that the English names are approximate, as most of the month names were new words coined from similar [[French language|French]], [[Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]] words. The endings of the names are grouped by season.
In England, people against the Revolution mocked the calendar by calling the months: Wheezy, Sneezy and Freezy; Slippy, Drippy and Nippy; Showery, Flowery and Bowery; Wheaty, Heaty and Sweety.
==The ten days of the week==
The month is divided into three ''decades'' or 'weeks' of ten days each, named simply:
*''primidi'' (first day)
*''duodi'' (second day)
*''tridi'' (third day)
*''quartidi'' (fourth day)
*''quintidi'' (fifth day)
*''sextidi'' (sixth day)
*''septidi'' (seventh day)
*''octidi'' (eighth day)
*''nonidi'' (ninth day)
*''décadi'' (tenth day)
==The days of the year==
Instead of most days having a [[saint]] as in the Catholic Church's calendar, each day has an animal (days ending in 5), a tool (days ending in 0) or a plant (all other days) associated with it.
=== Autumn ===
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ccf;"
! [[Vendémiaire]] ([[September 22|Sep 22]] ~ [[October 21|Oct 21]])
! [[Brumaire]] ([[October 22|Oct 22]] ~ [[November 20|Nov 20]])
! [[Frimaire]] ([[November 21|Nov 21]] ~ [[December 20|Dec 20]])
|-
|
# [[Grape|Raisin]] (Grape)
# [[saffron|Safran]] (Saffron)
# [[chestnut|Châtaigne]] (Chestnut)
# [[crocus|Colchique]] (Crocus)
# [[horse|Cheval]] (Horse)
# [[Balsamine]] (Balsamine)
# [[Carrot|Carotte]] (Carrot)
# [[Amaranth|Amarante]] (Amaranth)
# [[Parsnip|Panais]] (Parsnip)
# [[Barrel|Cuve]] (Barrel)
# [[potato|Pomme de terre]] (Potato)
# [[Everlasting flower|Immortelle]] (Everlasting flower)
# [[Pumpkin|Potiron]] (Pumpkin)
# [[mignonette|Réséda]] (Mignonette)
# [[donkey|Âne]] (Donkey)
# [[Mirabilis (plant)|Belle de nuit]] (Beautiful of Night, a flower)
# [[pumpkin|Citrouille]] (Pumpkin)
# [[buckwheat|Sarrasin]] (Buckwheat)
# [[sunflower|Tournesol]] (Sunflower)
# [[wine-press|Pressoir]] (Wine-Press)
# [[hemp|Chanvre]] (Hemp)
# [[peach|Pêche]] (Peach)
# [[turnip|Navet]] (Turnip)
# [[Amaryllis]] (Amaryllis)
# [[cow|Boeuf]] (Cow)
# [[Aubergine]] (Eggplant)
# [[chili pepper|Piment]] (Chile Pepper)
# [[tomato|Tomate]] (Tomato)
# [[barley|Orge]] (Barley)
# [[aging barrel|Tonneau]] (Barrel)
|
# [[apple|Pomme]] (Apple)
# [[celery|Céleri]] (Celery)
# [[pear|Poire]] (Pear)
# [[beet|Betterave]] (Beet root)
# [[goose|Oie]] (Goose)
# [[Heliotropium|Héliotrope]] (Heliotrope)
# [[Fig]]ue (Fig)
# [[black salsify|Scorsonère]] (Black Salsify)
# [[Wild Service Tree|Alisier]] (Chequer Tree)
# [[plough|Charrue]] (Plough)
# [[salsify|Salsifis]] (Salsify)
# Macre (?)
# [[Jerusalem artichoke|Topinambour]] (Jerusalem Artichoke)
# [[Endive]] (Endive)
# [[turkey (bird)|Dindon]] (Turkey)
# [[Skirret|Chervis]] (Skirret)
# [[watercress|Cresson]] (Watercress)
# [[plumbaginaceae|Dentelaire]] (Leadworts)
# [[pomegranate|Grenade]] (Pomegranate)
# [[harrow (tool)|Herse]] (Harrow)
# [[Maenad|Bacchante]] (Priestess of the Greek god [[Bacchus]])
# [[Acerola|Azerole]] (Acerola)
# [[Madder|Garance]] (Madder)
# [[Orange (fruit)|Orange]] (Orange)
# [[pheasant|Faisan]] (Pheasant)
# [[pistachio|Pistache]] (Pistachio)
# [[Lathyrus tuberosus|Macjonc]] (Tuberous pea)
# [[quince|Coing]] (Quince)
# [[Service Tree|Cormier]] (Service tree)
# [[roller (agricultural tool)|Rouleau]] (Roller)
|
# [[Mignonette|Raiponce]] (Mignonette)
# [[Turnip|Turneps]] (Turnip)
# [[chicory|Chicorée]] (Chicory)
# [[medlar|Nèfle]] (Medlar)
# [[pig|Cochon]] (Pig)
# [[corn salad|Mâche]] (Corn Salad)
# [[cauliflower|Chou-fleur]] (Cauliflower)
# [[honey|Miel]] (Honey)
# [[juniper|Genièvre]] (Juniper)
# [[pick|Pioche]] (Pick)
# [[wax|Cire]] (Wax)
# [[horseradish|Raifort]] (Horseradish)
# [[cedar|Cèdre]] (Cedar tree)
# [[fir|Sapin]] (Fir tree)
# [[roe deer|Chevreuil]] (Roe Deer)
# [[gorse|Ajonc]] (Gorse)
# [[Cupressus sempervirens|Cyprès]] (Cypress Tree)
# [[ivy|Lierre]] (Ivy)
# [[Juniper|Sabine]] (Juniper)
# [[grub-hoe|Hoyau]] (Grub-hoe)
# [[maple|Erable sucré]] (Maple Tree)
# [[heather|Bruyère]] (Heather)
# [[reed (plant)|Roseau]] (Reed plant)
# [[sorrel|Oseille]] (Sorrel)
# [[cricket (insect)|Grillon]] (Cricket)
# [[pinion|Pignon]] (pinion tool)
# [[cork|Liège]] (cork)
# [[truffle|Truffe]] (Truffle)
# [[Olive]] (Olive)
# [[shovel|Pelle]] (shovel)
|}
===Winter===
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ccf;"
! [[Nivôse]] ([[December 21|Dec 21]] ~ [[January 19|Jan 19]])
! [[Pluviôse]] ([[January 20|Jan 20]] ~ [[February 18|Feb 18]])
! [[Ventôse]] ([[February 19|Feb 19]] ~ [[March 20|Mar 20]])
|-
|
# [[peat|Tourbe]] (Peat)
# [[coal|Houille]] (Coal)
# [[bitumen|Bitume]] (Bitumen)
# [[sulphur|Soufre]] (Sulphur)
# [[dog|Chien]] (Dog)
# [[basin|Lave]] (Wash basin)
# [[topsoil|Terre végétale]] (Topsoil)
# [[manure|Fumier]] (Manure)
# [[saltpeter|Salpêtre]] (Saltpeter)
# [[Flail (agriculture)|Fléau]] (Flail)
# [[granite|Granit]] (Granite stone)
# [[clay|Argile]] (Clay)
# [[slate|Ardoise]] (Slate)
# [[sandstone|Grès]] (Sandstone)
# [[rabbit|Lapin]] (Rabbit)
# [[flint|Silex]] (Flint)
# [[marl|Marne]] (Marl)
# [[limestone|Pierre à chaux]] (Limestone)
# [[marble|Marbre]] (Marble)
# [[horse carriage|Van]] (Horse Carriage)
# [[plaster of paris|Pierre à plâtre]] (Plaster Of Paris)
# [[salt|Sel]] (Salt)
# [[iron|Fer]] (Iron)
# [[copper|Cuivre]] (Copper)
# [[cat|Chat]] (Cat)
# [[tin|Étain]] (Tin)
# [[lead|Plomb]] (Lead)
# [[Zinc]] (Zinc)
# [[Mercury (element)|Mercure]] (Mercury metal)
# [[Sieve|Crible]] (Sieve)
|
# [[laurel|Lauréole]] (Laurel)
# [[moss|Mousse]] (Moss)
# [[Ruscaceae|Fragon]] (Butcher's Broom)
# [[snowdrop|Perce-neige]] (Snowdrop)
# [[bull|Taureau]] (Bull)
# [[Laurestinus|Laurier-thym]] (Laurestinus)
# [[Amadou]]vier (Tinder polypore)
# [[Mezerion tree|Mézéréon]] (Mezerio |
cyclic model of the planets; the armillary sphere; spherical trigonometry; ellipse calculations; first visibilities of the planets; calculating the lunar crescent; astronomical instruments; the seasons; and problems of astronomical calculations.
From the [[12th century]], [[Bhaskara]] and various [[Kerala School|Keralese mathematicians]] first conceived [[differential calculus]], [[mathematical analysis]], [[trigonometric]] [[series (mathematics)|series]], [[floating point]] numbers, and concepts foundational to the overall development of [[calculus]].
===European renaissance from the 12th century===
{{main articles|[[Renaissance of the 12th century]], [[Scholasticism]], and [[Medieval technology]]}}
[[Image:Map_of_Medieval_Universities.JPG|left|thumb|''Map of [[Medieval university|Medieval Universities]]'']]
An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of [[Medieval university|medieval universities]] in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily after the [[Reconquista]] and during the [[Crusades]] allowed Europeans access to preserved copies of the Ancient Greek and Roman works along with the works of Islamic philosophers, specially [[Averroes]]. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities.
At the beginning of the 13th century there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable [[scholastics]] such as [[Robert Grosseteste]], [[Roger Bacon]], [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Duns Scotus]]. Precursors of the modern scientific method can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon. According to [[Pierre Duhem]], the [[Condemnation of 1277]] led to the birth of modern science, because it forced thinkers to break from relying so much on [[Aristotle]], and to think about the world in new ways.
The first half of the 14th century saw the scientific work of great thinkers. [[William of Ockham]] introduced the principle of [[parsimony]]: philosophy should only concern itself with subjects on whom it could achieve real knowledge. This should lead to a decline in fruitless debates and move ''natural philosophy'' toward ''science''. Scholars such as [[Jean Buridan]] and [[Nicolas Oresme]] started to question the received wisdom of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory of impetus which was a first step towards the modern concept of [[inertia]].
[[Image:Vitruvian.jpg|right|thumb|140px|[[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s [[Vitruvian Man]], an example of the blend of art and science during the Renaissance]]
In 1348, the [[Black Death]] and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, when many [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the invention of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. These developments paved the way for the [[Scientific Revolution]], which may also be understood as a resumation of the process of scientific change, halted at the start of the Black Death.
==The Scientific Revolution==
{{main|Scientific Revolution}}
[[Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|thumb|120px|left|[[Isaac Newton]]]]
Modern science in Europe began in a period of great upheaval. The [[Protestant Reformation]], the discovery of the Americas by [[Christopher Columbus]], the [[Fall of Constantinople]], the [[Spanish Inquisition]], but also the re-discovery of Aristotle in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]] questioned religious doctrine. The works of [[Ptolemy]] (astronomy), [[Galen]] (medicine), and [[Aristotle]] (physics) were found not always to match everyday observations. For example, an arrow flying through the air after leaving a bow contradicts Aristotle's laws of motion, which say that a moving object must be constantly under influence of an external force, as the natural state of earthly objects is to be at rest. Work by [[Vesalius]] on human cadavers also found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.
[[Image:1543,AndreasVesalius'Fabrica,BaseOfTheBrain.jpg|thumb|120px|right|[[Vesalius]]' experiments inspired interest in human anatomy.]]
The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the [[Scientific Revolution]]. The Scientific Revolution is held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when ''[[De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium |De Revolutionibus]]'', by the astronomer [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], was first printed. The thesis of this book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' in 1687 by [[Isaac Newton]].
Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Edmond Halley]], [[Robert Hooke]], [[Christiaan Huygens]], [[Johannes Kepler]], [[Gottfried Leibniz]], and [[Blaise Pascal]]. In philosophy, major contributions were made by [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]], Sir [[Thomas Browne]], [[René Descartes]], and [[Thomas Hobbes]]. The basics of scientific method were also developed: the new way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations.
==Modern science==
[[Image:Einstein patentoffice.jpg|thumb|right|130px|[[Albert Einstein]] ]]
The Scientific Revolution established science as the preeminent source for the growth of knowledge. During the 19th century, the practice of science became professionalized and institutionalized in ways which would continue through the 20th century, as the role of scientific knowledge grew and became incorporated with many aspects of the functioning of nation-states.
===<U>[[Natural science]]s</U>===
====Physics====
{{main|History of physics}}
The Scientific Revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] revived the [[heliocentric]] model of the solar system first devised by [[Aristarchus of Samos]]. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]] in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Also, [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] pioneered the use of experiment to validate physical theories, a key idea in scientific method.
[[Image:James Clerk Maxwell.jpg|thumb|right|140px|[[James Clerk Maxwell]]]]
In 1687, [[Isaac Newton]] published the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]],'' detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: [[Newton's laws of motion]], which lead to classical mechanics; and [[gravity|Newton's Law of Gravitation]], which describes the fundamental force of gravity. The behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by [[Michael Faraday|Faraday]], [[Georg Ohm|Ohm]], and others during the early 19th century. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of [[electromagnetism]], by [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]] (known as [[Maxwells equations|Maxwell's equations]]).
[[Image:Universe expansion.png|thumb|left|Diagram of the [[expanding universe]]]]
The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, [[Max Planck]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Niels Bohr]] and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of [[general relativity]], proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of [[spacetime]], on which both [[Newtonian mechanics]] and [[special relativity]] depended, could not exist. In 1925, [[Werner Heisenberg]] and [[Erwin Schrödinger]] formulated [[quantum mechanics]], which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by [[Edwin Hubble]] in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the [[Big Bang]] theory by [[George Gamow]].
[[Image:Trinity explosion.jpg|thumb|right|The development of the [[atomic bomb]] ushered in the era of "[[Big Science]]" in physics.]]
Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of [[radar]] and the development and use of the [[atomic bomb]]. Though the process had begun with the invention of the [[cyclotron]] by [[Ernest O. Lawrence]] in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "[[Big Science]]", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each othe |
similarities in chemistry, it was noticeable that placing them in strict order of [[atomic weight|atomic mass]] resulted in some mismatches. [[Iodine]] and [[tellurium]], if listed by atomic mass, appeared to be in the wrong order, and would fit better if their places in the table were swapped. Placing them in the order which fit chemical properties most closely, their number in the table was their atomic number. This number appeared to be approximately proportional to the mass of the atom, but, as the discrepancy showed, reflected some other property than mass.
The anomalies in this sequence were finally explained after research by [[Henry Moseley|Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley]] in [[1913]]. Moseley discovered a strict relationship between the [[x-ray diffraction]] spectra of elements, and their correct location in the periodic table. It was later shown that the atomic number corresponds to the [[electric charge]] of the nucleus &mdash; in other words the number of protons. It is the charge which gives elements their chemical properties, rather than the atomic mass.
The atomic number is closely related to the [[mass number]] (although they should not be confused) which is the number of protons and [[neutron|neutrons]] in the nucleus of an atom. The mass number often comes after the name of the element, e.g. [[carbon-14]] (used in [[carbon dating]]).
==See also==
*[[Periodic table]]
*[[List of elements by number]]
*[[Effective atomic number]]
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Chemical properties]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
<!--Interwiki-->
[[af:Atoomgetal]]
[[als:Ordnungszahl]]
[[ar:رقم ذري]]
[[ast:Númberu atómicu]]
[[bg:Атомен номер]]
[[bs:Atomski broj]]
[[br:Niver atomek]]
[[ca:Nombre atòmic]]
[[cs:Atomové číslo]]
[[da:Atomnummer]]
[[de:Ordnungszahl]]
[[et:Järjenumber]]
[[es:Número atómico]]
[[eo:Atomnumero]]
[[fr:Numéro atomique]]
[[gl:Número Atómico]]
[[ko:원자 번호]]
[[hr:Atomski broj]]
[[io:Atomala nombro]]
[[id:Nomor atom]]
[[is:Sætistala]]
[[it:Numero atomico]]
[[he:מספר אטומי]]
[[lt:Atomo numeris]]
[[nl:Atoomnummer]]
[[ja:原子番号]]
[[no:Atomnummer]]
[[nn:Atomnummer]]
[[pl:Liczba atomowa]]
[[pt:Número atómico]]
[[ro:Număr atomic]]
[[ru:Атомный номер]]
[[simple:Atomic number]]
[[sk:Protónové číslo]]
[[sl:Vrstno število]]
[[sr:Атомски број]]
[[fi:Järjestysluku (kemia)]]
[[sv:Atomnummer]]
[[th:เลขอะตอม]]
[[tr:Atom numarası]]
[[uk:Атомний номер]]
[[zh:原子序数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anatomy</title>
<id>674</id>
<revision>
<id>42072900</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:10:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brian0918</username>
<id>90640</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.11.5.9|216.11.5.9]] ([[User talk:216.11.5.9|talk]]) to last version by El C</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ENC plate 1-143 750px.jpeg|thumb|250px|Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the ''[[Encyclopédie]]''.]]
[[Image:Anatomical chart, Cyclopaedia, 1728, volume 1, between pages 84 and 85.jpg|thumb|300px|Anatomical chart from the ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'', 1728]]
'''Anatomy''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''{{polytonic|ἀνατομία}} anatomia'', from '' {{polytonic|ἀνατέμνειν}} anatemnein'', to cut up, cut open), is the branch of [[biology]] that deals with the structure and organization of living things. It can be divided into animal anatomy ([[zootomy]]) and plant anatomy ([[phytonomy]]). Furthermore, anatomy can be covered either regionally or systemically, that is, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest for the former, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systmes for the latter. Major branches of anatomy include [[comparative anatomy]], [[histology]], and [[human anatomy]].
==Animal anatomy==
Animal anatomy may include the study of the structure of different animals, when it is called [[comparative anatomy]] or [[animal morphology]], or it may be limited to one animal only, in which case it is spoken of as ''special anatomy''.
==Human anatomy==
From a utilitarian point of view the study of [[human]]s is the most important division of special anatomy, and this human anatomy may be approached from different points of view.
From that of Medicine it consists of a knowledge of the exact form, position, size and relationship of the various structures of the healthy human body, and to this study the term descriptive or topographical human anatomy is given, though it is often, less happily, spoken of as ''anthropotomy''.
So intricate is the [[human body]] that only a small number of professional human anatomists, after years of patient observation, are complete masters of all its details; most of them specialize on certain parts, such as the brain or viscera, contenting themselves with a good working knowledge of the rest.
''Topographical anatomy'' must be learned by repeated dissection and inspection of dead human bodies.
It is no more a [[science]] than a pilot's knowledge is, and, like that knowledge, must be exact and available in moments of emergency.
From the morphological point of view, however, human anatomy is a scientific and fascinating study, having for its object the discovery of the [[morphogenesis|causes]] which have brought about the existing structure of humans, and needing a knowledge of the allied sciences of [[embryology]] or [[developmental biology]], [[phylogeny]], and [[histology]].
''[[Anatomical pathology|Pathological anatomy]]'' (or ''morbid anatomy'') is the study of [[disease]]d [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, while sections of normal anatomy, applied to various purposes, receive special names such as medical, surgical, gynaecological, artistic and superficial anatomy.
The comparison of the anatomy of different [[race]]s of humans is part of the science of physical anthropology or anthropological anatomy.
In the present edition of this work the subject of anatomy is treated systematically rather than topographically.
Each anatomical article contains first a description of the structures of an organ or system (such as [[nerve]]s, [[Artery|arteries]], [[heart]], and so forth), as it is found in humans; this is followed by an account of the development (embryology) and comparative anatomy (morphology), as far as [[Vertebrate|vertebrate animals]] are concerned; but only those parts of the lower animals which are of interest in explaining human body structure are here dealt with.
The articles have a twofold purpose; first, to give enough details of structure to make the articles on physiology, surgery, medicine and pathology intelligible; and, secondly, to give the non-expert inquirer, or the worker in some other branch of science, the chief theories on which the modern scientific groundwork of anatomy is built.
==Major body systems==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*[[Circulatory system]]
*[[Digestive system]]
*[[Endocrine system]]
*[[Excretory system]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Immune system]]
*[[Integumentary system]]
*[[Lymphatic system]]
*[[Muscular system]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Nervous system]]
*[[Reproductive system]]
*[[Respiratory system]]
*[[Skeletal system]] ([[Human skeleton]])
{{col-end}}
==[[Organ (anatomy)|Organ]]s==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*[[Anus]]
*[[Vermiform appendix|Appendix]]
*[[Brain]]
*[[Breast]]
*[[Colon (anatomy)|Colon]] or large intestine
*[[Diaphragm (anatomy)|Diaphragm]]
*[[Ear]]
*[[Eye]]
*[[Heart]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Kidney]]
*[[Labium|Labia]]
*[[Larynx]]
*[[Liver]]
*[[Lung]]
*[[Nose]]
*[[Ovary]]
*[[Pharynx]]
*[[Pancreas]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Penis]]
*[[Placenta]]
*[[Rectum]]
*[[Skin]]
*[[Small intestine]]
*[[Spleen]]
*[[Stomach]]
*[[Tongue]]
*[[Uterus]]
{{col-end}}
==[[Bone]]s in the [[human skeleton]]==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*[[Collar bone]] (clavicle)
*[[Thigh bone]] (femur)
*[[Humerus]]
*[[Mandible]]
*[[Patella]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Radius (bone)|Radius]]
*[[Skull]] (cranium)
*[[Tibia]]
*[[Ulna]]
*[[Rib]] (costa)
{{col-3}}
*[[Vertebrae]]
*[[Pelvis]]
*[[Sternum]]
{{col-end}}
==[[Gland]]s==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*[[Ductless gland]]
*[[Mammary gland]]
*[[Salivary gland]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Thyroid gland]]
*[[Parathyroid gland]]
*[[Adrenal gland]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Pituitary gland]]
*[[Pineal gland]]
{{col-end}}
==[[Biological tissue|Tissues]]==
*[[Connective tissue]]
*[[Endothelial tissue]]
*[[Epithelial tissue]]
*[[Glandular tissue]]
*[[Lymphoid tissue]]
==Externally visible parts of the human body==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*[[Abdomen]]
*[[Arm]]
*[[Back]]
*[[Buttock]]
*[[Chest]]
*[[Ear]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Eye]]
*[[Face]]
*[[Genitals]]
*[[head (anatomy)|Head]]
*[[Joint (anatomy)|Joint]]
*[[Human leg|Leg]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Mouth]]
*[[Neck]]
*[[Scalp]]
*[[Skin]]
*[[Tooth|Teeth]]
*[[Tongue]]
{{col-end}}
==Other anatomic terms (not classified)==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*[[Artery]]
*[[body cavity| Coelom]]
*[[Diaphragm (anatomy)|Diaphragm]]
*[[Gastrointestinal tract]]
*[[Hair]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Exoskeleton]]
*[[Lip]]
*[[Nerve]]
*[[Peritoneum]]
*[[Serous membrane]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Skeleton]]
*[[Skull]]
*[[Spinal cord]]
*[[Vein]]
{{col-end}}
==See also==
*[[List of anatomical topics]]
*[[List of human anatomical features]]
*[[List of publications in biology#Anatomy|Important publications in anatomy]]
*[[History of anatomy]]
*[[Human anatomy]]
*[[Organ (anatomy)]]
*[[Superficial anatomy]]
*[[Zootomical terms for location]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Anatomy}}
*[http://brainmaps.org High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases]
*[http://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html Free online anatomy atlas]
*[http://www.npac.syr.edu/projects/vishuman/VisibleHuman.html The NPAC Visible Human Viewer]
*[http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/index.html On-Line Medical Dictionary]
*[http://www.bartleby.com/107/ Anatomy of the Human Body by Henry Gray]
*[http://www.rtstudents.com/ Online Radiology Anatomy Resources]
*[http://www.wikimd.org/index.php?title=Gray%27s_Anatomy Gray's Anatomy wiki]
*http://immunity-info.net
*[http:/ |
ority. [[Noam Chomsky]] says that "''There's nothing remotely like capitalism in existence. To the extent there ever was, it had disappeared by the 1920s or '30s''." (interview with Detroit Metro Times). Libertarians and other free-market advocates may also share this opinion regarding some or all of the major economies. However, in the 18th century in America, production and distribution of goods were regulated by government ministries. Also, government subsidies were granted to agriculture. Economic intervention continued throughout the 19th century.
[[Image:Index2006 EconFreedomMAP.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A map of the [[Heritage Foundation]]'s [[Index of Economic Freedom]]s. Various reserachers have argued that nations with a higher economic freedom have a higher GDP/capita and less poverty.]]
Proponents of the world-system perspective suggest that the whole globe has been incorporated into a single capitalist world-economy. Even though a state (such as Cuba) may be socialist, it works in relation to a much larger, overarching capitalist world-economy.
Mainstream economists, for their part, admit that the present economic systems have diverged from earlier forms labeled "capitalism", but many believe that some of the modern economies are still best described as being "capitalism".
==== Index of Economic Freedom ====
There are two [[Index of Economic Freedom|Indices of Economic Freedom]] used in economic research. The publishers are [[right-wing]], business-orientated and funded [[think tank]]s. One index is released by the [[Heritage Foundation]] and [[Wall Street Journal]], the other by the [[Fraser Institute]]. Both attempt to measure of the degree of economic freedom in countries, mostly in regard to rule of law, lack of governmental intervention, private property rights, and free trade. The Index of Economic Freedom defines "economic freedom" [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/faq.cfm] as "the absence of government coercion or constraint on the production, distribution, or consumption of goods and services beyond the extent necessary for citizens to protect and maintain liberty itself." (This is otherwise known as [[laissez-faire]]).
==Capitalism in decline or on the rise?==
Citing the ideal of a [[free market]], many consider an economy with lower taxes, smaller government and fewer regulations to be more capitalistic. If government spending is used as a gauge of government expansion, the last century saw a very large increase in the role of government in Western countries. Combined U.S. government spending increased from 3-4% of GDP to 33% flattening somewhat since 1983 when the sharp upward trend was broken during President Ronald Reagan's term. An average for 16 industrial nations jumped from 8% of GDP to 45%. ''Non-defense'' spending in the U.S. as a percentage of net income increase from 11.5% in 1945 to 30% in 1983, remaining stable through 2003 (some exclude defense spending when gauging government expansion). Compliance with more regulations is increasingly costly [http://mwhodges.home.att.net/intl-spend.htm][http://mwhodges.home.att.net/regulation.htm]. Thus, it can be argued that the degree of capitalism has seen a remarkable ''decline'' in Western nations. However, since 1983 the percentage of non-defense government spending in the U.S. has stabilized, leading some such as Milton Friedman to express some hope that the tide may reverse toward more capitalism [http://www.hooverdigest.org/051/friedman.html]. Alan Greenspan, in a speech in 2005, expressed his belief that "free-market capitalism" is being rediscovered through deregulation after a period of stifling regulation brought about by [[Keynesian economics]]. [http://business.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,16849-1823177,00.html]
One explanation for this is that the Western nations have increasingly averted or regulated various market failures such as pollution, health care, unemployment, wealth inequality, and education. Supporters of less state interference, such as [[libertarians]], [[neoliberals]], and financial [[conservatives]], would instead argue that the regulations restrict competition, that the taxes go to the special interest groups with the most political clout, that governments do things less efficiently than the private sector, and that market failures are actually caused by government regulations, such as the minimum wage, and public schools.
==Criticisms of capitalism==
''Main article: [[Criticisms of capitalism]], [[Anti-capitalism]]''
Capitalism has met with strong opposition throughout history, mainly from the [[left wing politics|left]] but also from the [[right wing politics|right]]. These have included [[socialism|socialists]] and [[anarchism|anarchists]], such as [[Karl Marx]], [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], [[Mikhail Bakunin]], [[Benjamin Tucker]], [[Lenin]], [[Peter Kropotkin]] and [[Mao Ze Dong]]. More recently, various aspects of capitalism have come under attack from the [[anti-globalisation]] movement, and activists such as [[Naomi Klein]] and [[Angela Davis]].
==Notes==
#{{note|Wikiquote}} Definitions of capitalism on [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Capitalism Capitalism]. Wikiquote, (2006)
#{{note|oecd}} The West and the Rest in the International Economic Order by [[Angus Maddison]], [http://www.oecdobserver.org/news/fullstory.php/aid/884/The_West_and_the_Rest_in_the_International_Economic_Order.html?PHPSESSID=530d711f4ca31817d1c2b39ba97420f8%2520]
#{{note|Case}} Case, Karl E., Fair, Ray C., Principles of Macroeconomics, Chapter 22 Globalization, Prentice Hall (2004)
==See also==
* [[Capitalism and related political ideologies]]''
* Related topics: [[History of Economic Thought]], [[Emergence of early capitalism]], [[Capitalism.org]], [[Distributed resource allocation]], [[Spirit of capitalism]], [[Capitalism Day]]
* Related words: [[capitalist]], [[crony capitalism]], [[capitalist mode of production]], [[state monopoly capitalism]], [[late capitalism]], [[merchant capitalism]], [[Collective capitalism]], [[The Black Book of Capitalism]]
* Related ideologies: [[anti-capitalism]], [[classical liberalism]] ([[libertarianism]], [[culture of capitalism]], [[minarchism]], [[anarcho-capitalism]]), [[conservatism]] ([[political conservatism]]), [[mercantilism]], [[protectionism]], [[social democracy]] ([[welfare state]], [[liberalism]], [[political liberalism]], [[liberal democracy]]), [[statism]], [[fascism]], [[state capitalism]], [[socialism]], [[Localism (Politics)|localism]], [[communism]], [[libertarian socialism]], [[Democratic Socialism|democratic socialism]], [[Democratic Capitalism|democratic capitalism]], [[Marxism]], [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]]
* disambiguation: [[Capitalism (game)]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.greekshares.com/capitalism.asp Capitalism Basics]
* [http://economics.about.com/od/howtheuseconomyworks/a/mixed_economy.htm "A Mixed Economy: The Role of the Market" from U.S. Department of State] Article from the [[U.S. Department of State]] says the U.S. is a [[mixed economy]]
* [http://www.polyarchy.org/essays/english/capitalism.html "Capitalism/Anticapitalism"] On the origin and features of capitalism
* [http://www.blackmask.com/books18c/prspircap.htm Protestantism and the Rise of Capitalism, by Max Weber]
===Pro-capitalist===
* [http://www.adamsmith.org/ Adam Smith Institute] The Adam Smith Institute is the UK's leading innovator of free-market policies.
* [http://www.coin.dk/ Copenhagen Institute] The Copenhagen Institute
* [http://www.celebratecapitalism.org/bernsteindeclaration/ The Bernstein Declaration] "On the Principles and Possibilities of Capitalism" (from the “Celebrate Capitalism” organization)
* [http://capitalism.net/ Capitalism.net: A treatise on economics, by George Reisman ]
* [http://austrianforum.com/ The Austrian Forum] - Discussion of Austrian and other economic schools
* [http://globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=324 In Defense of the Free Market]
* [http://www.mises.org/ The Mises Institute, adherents of the Austrian school]
* [http://www.freetheworld.com/ The Fraser Institute Index of Economic Freedom]
* [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ The Heritage Foundation Index of Economic Freedom]
* [http://business.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,16849-1823177,00.html Alan Greenspan Speech] [[Alan Greenspan]] defends "free market capitalism" in speech to the [[NIAF]] (2005)
* [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Capitalism.html ''Capitalism''] by Robert Hessen - says "capitalism" is a misnomer for "economic individualism"
* [http://www.hoover.org/publications/books/fulltext/edcap/103.pdf ''Nine Myths About Capitalism''] from ''Education and Capitalism'' by Herbert J. Walberg and Joseph L. Bast
===Anti-capitalist===
* [http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/capitalism_economy.htm Understanding Capitalism Part I: Capital and Society]
* [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/antic/ ''Anti-Capitalism: Modern Theory and Historical Origins'']
* [http://libcom.org/library/anti-capitalist-aufheben-10 Anti-Capitalism as an ideology... and as a movement]
* [http://www.anti-capitalism.com/anti-capitalism Rejection of the label ''Anti-Capitalism'']
* [http://libcom.org/library/value-price-and-profit-karl-marx Value, Price and Profit] - Karl Marx on the basic features of capitalism.
* [http://www.sozialoekonomie.info/Info_Foreign_Languages/info_foreign_languages.htm Social economy: A Market Economy without Capitalism]
* [http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/~rcgfrfi/ww/castro/1992-csw.htm ''Capitalism is a Society of Wolves'' by Fidel Castro]
* [http://www.phys.uu.nl/~droop/sheepfoot/what-is-capitalism.mp3 What is Capitalism?] an MP3 of a speech giving a Marxist perspective on the structure of capitalism
==Further reading==
* [[Ravi Batra|Batra, Ravi]]. "The Downfall of Capitalism and Communism.&qu |
the body to recede from the axis of rotation.
Newton discusses a [[bucket]] filled with [[water]] hung by a cord. If the cord is twisted up tightly on itself and then the bucket is released, it begins to spin rapidly , not only with respect to the experimenter, but also in relation to the water it contains.
Although the relative motion at this stage is the greatest, the surface of the water remains flat, indicating that the parts of the water have no tendency to recede from the axis of relative motion. Eventually, as the cord continues to unwind, the surface of the water assumes a concave shape as it assumes the spinning motion of bucket relative to the experimenter. This shows that the parts of the water have acquired a centrifugal endeavor despite the fact that they are at rest relative to their immediate surroundings, contrary to Descartes theory.
Having established to his satisfaction that true motion can be understood only in reference to absolute space, Newton remains concerned to address the problem how it is that we can experimentally determine the true motions of bodies in light of the fact that absolute space is not something that can be perceived. This, he says, can be accomplished by observing the causes and effects of motion as well as the apparent motions of bodies relative to one another, which are the differences of true motions. For example, if two [[globes]], floating in [[space]], connected by a cord that is under [[tension]], with no other clues to assess the situation, measuring the amount of tension in the cord alone suffices to indicate how fast the two objects are revolving around the common center of mass. (This employs an effect of true motion.) Also, the sense of the rotation --- whether it is in the clockwise or the counter-clockwise direction, can be discovered by applying forces to opposite faces of the globes and ascertaining whether this leads to an increase or a decrease in the tension of the cord. (This employs a cause of true motion.) Alternatively, the sense of the rotation can be determined by measuring the apparent motion of the globes with respect to a system backgound bodies that, according to the preceding methods, have been established not to be in a state of rotation.
== See also ==
[[Philosophy of space and time#Absolutism vs. Relationalism|"Absolutism vs. Relationalism" at Philosophy of space and time]]
==External links==
* [http://acnet.pratt.edu/~arch543p/readings/Newton.html Newton's Scholium] The text from the ''Scholium'' of the ''Principia'' as translated in 1729 from its original Latin by A. Motte and later translated to 20th century English by F. Cajori
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-stm/ Newton's Views on Space, Time, and Motion] from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article by Robert Rynasiewicz. At the end of this article, loss of fine distinctions in the translations as compared to the original Latin text is discussed.
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/leib-met.htm Life and Philosophy of Leibniz] see section on ''Space, Time and Indiscernibles'' for Leibniz arguing against the idea of space acting as a causal agent.
[[Category:Thought experiments]]
[[Category:Isaac Newton]]
[[Category:Classical mechanics]]
[[Category:Philosophical arguments]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Breviary</title>
<id>4865</id>
<revision>
<id>38838960</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T23:43:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
<id>101935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Remove refs from Amazon URL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''breviary''' (from [[Latin]] ''brevis'', 'short' or 'concise') is a [[liturgy|liturgical]] [[book]] containing the public or canonical [[prayer]]s, [[hymn]]s, the [[Psalms]], readings, and notations for everyday use, especially for priests, in the Divine Office (i.e., at the [[canonical hours]] or [[Liturgy of the Hours]], the Christians' daily prayer). A breviary of such convenient size that it could be carried on the person is called a portuary (portas in plural).
[[Image:Stuartbreviary.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Maria Stuart|Mary Stuart]]'s personal breviary, which she took with her to the scaffold, is preserved in the [[Russian National Library]] of [[St. Petersburg]].]]
Before the rise of the [[mendicant order]]s (wandering [[friar]]s) in the thirteenth century, the daily services were usually contained in a number of large volumes. The first occurrence of a single manuscript of the [[Canonical hours|daily office]] was written by the [[Benedictine]] order at [[Monte Cassino]] in [[Italy]] in 1099. By a strange twist, the [[Benedictine]]s were not a [[mendicant order]], but a stable, [[monastery]]-based order, and single-volume breviaries are rare from this early period.
However, mendicant friars travelled around a lot and needed a shortened, or abbreviated, daily office contained in one portable book, and single-volume breviaries flourished from the thirteenth century onwards.
These abbreviated volumes soon became very popular and eventually supplanted the [[Roman Catholic Church]]'s [[Curia]] office, previously said by [[clergy]].
Before the advent of [[printing]], breviaries were written by hand and were often richly decorated with initials and miniature illustrations telling stories in the lives of [[Christ]] or the [[saints]], or stories from the [[Bible]].
Later printed breviaries usually have [[woodcut]] illustrations, interesting in their own right but the poor relation of the beautifully [[illuminated manuscript|illuminated]] breviaries.
The word ''breviary'' can also refer to an abridged version of any text, a brief account or a summary of some subject.
== See also ==
* [[Matins]]
* [[Lauds]]
* [[Prime (liturgy)|Prime]]
* [[Terce]]
* [[Sext]]
* [[None (liturgy)|None]]
* [[Vespers]]
* [[Compline]]
* [[Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary]]
==External links==
*[http://www.anglicanbreviary.com/ The Anglican Breviary]: The Divine Office, in Jacobean English, ie. The Roman Breviary according to the Language and Psalter of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, with excerpts from the 1611 Authorised Version of the Holy Scriptures.
*[http://www.breviary.info/ The breviary information server]: Web site dedicated to breviaries, and particularly to making the most of the Church of England's daily office; includes a link to the office online
*[http://www.kellerbook.com/ Kellerbook.com]: Information about the history of some Christian breviaries and psalters
*[http://www.universalis.com/ Universalis Online Breviary]
*[http://www.ebreviary.com/ Liturgy of the Hours by eBreviary] (A5 size booklet arrangement for those requiring print-outs, whether for individual Hours or all the Hours of a day combined)
*[http://www.breviary.net/ Latin-English Catholic Roman Breviary 1911 ed.]
*[http://www.saint-mike.org/apologetics/qa/Answers/Divine_Office/buyOffice.html Official Catholic editions of the Latin Rite breviary in American English]
*[http://www.chartreux.org/en/texts.html Liturgy of the Carthusian Order of the Catholic Church]
*[http://www.litpress.org/Detail.aspx?ISBN=0814628338 Benedictine Divine Office]
*[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0005995043 abbreviated Catholic Divine Office, approved for use in Commonwealth countries]
[[Category:Catholic liturgical books]]
[[Category:Liturgy of the Hours|*]]
[[pl:Brewiarz]]
[[sv:Breviarium]]
[[fi:Breviario]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boomer</title>
<id>4866</id>
<revision>
<id>39505371</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T23:46:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.181.143.2</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Entertainment */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''boomer''' may refer to:
=== Demographic ===
* An abbreviation for [[baby boomer|baby '''boomer''']]
* A mostly archaic American term for workers who travel from location to location, following jobs as they become available, especially in the [[construction]], [[electric power]], [[petroleum]], and [[railroad]] industries. This is the source of such terms as "oil boom" and "boomtown." "Boom up" means to move on to another job or location. "Bump up," a term used today in [[wildfire|wildland fire]], has the same meaning as "boom up" and is probably a bastardization of that term.
* An early white settler of [[Indian Territory]] ([[Oklahoma]]). See '''[[Sooners]]'''.
=== Entertainment ===
* A [[boomer (anime term)|type of robot]] from the ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]'' series
* [[Boomer Esiason|'''Boomer''' Esiason]], former [[National Football League|NFL]] quarterback
* [[Chris Berman|Chris "Boomer" Berman]], [[ESPN]] football anylyst.
* a television show called '''''[[Here's Boomer]]'''''
* [[Meltdown (comics)|Meltdown]], from [[Marvel Comics|Marvel's]] [[X-Men]] comics
*'''[[Boomer (Battlestar Galactica)]]''', a character from the television show ''[[Battlestar Galactica (original series)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' and its [[Battlestar Galactica (2003)|2003 remake]]
* Boston Red Sox pitcher [[David Wells]]
* A member of [[The Rowdyruff Boys]]
* A popular bot in the popular online game [[GunBound]].
* [[Boomers! Parks|Boomers!]] is a chain of [[Family Entertainment Center|Family Entertainment Centers]] owned by [[Palace Entertainment]].
* A Pfhor corvette 'liberated' and rechristened by Durandal during the story of [[Marathon (computer game series)|Marathon 2]]
* Toledo High School Mascot in Toledo Oregon : A Boomer (Mountain Beaver) "GO BOOMERS"
=== Military ===
* A nickname for a [[ballistic missile submarine]], based upon the fact that nuclear warheads detonate, or "boom," at their targets.
* A nickname for the '''[[Boom operator (military)|boom operator]]''' on an [[aerial refuelling]] aircraft.
T
=== Nature ===
*Slang term for psilocybin |
ventually joined the new party, along with one member of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], [[Christopher Brocklebank-Fowler]]. Williams and Jenkins were not at the time MPs, but were elected to the Commons in by-elections at Crosby and Glasgow Hillhead respectively.
The party enjoyed a considerable honeymoon period with the press, who made considerable joke mileage out of their quirk for proffering Claret at their functions. Claret is an "agreeable" wine, and a metaphor for the party's harmonious internal relations compared to those of the strife-torn Labour Party of the period.
Jenkins unsuccessfully contested a by-election at Warrington in March 1982. In the Glasgow Hillhead by-election, another candidate named Roy Jenkins was nominated by Labour Party activists to contest the seat in order to confuse voters and split his potential vote. SDP polling agents were given special dispensation by the Returning Officer to have placards outside of polling stations to state which one on the ballot papers was the 'real Roy'.
[[Image:Gangoffour.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The 'Gang of Four' in 1981 - Bill Rodgers, Shirley Williams, Roy Jenkins and David Owen]]
A [[Social Democratic Party (UK) leadership election, 1982|leadership election]] was held later in the year, Jenkins beating Owen in the ballot to become the first party leader.
===The Alliance===
The SDP formed the [[SDP-Liberal Alliance]] with the Liberal Party late in [[1981]], under the joint leadership of Roy Jenkins (SDP) and Liberal leader [[David Steel]]. The Liberal Party, and in particular its leader, David Steel, had applauded the formation of the SDP from the sidelines from the very start. Senior Liberal MP for Rochdale [[Cyril Smith]] caused some embarrassment, however, by publicly stating that the SDP "should be strangled at birth". During an era of public disillusionment with the two main parties - Labour and the Conservative - and widescale unemployment, the Alliance achieved considerable success in parliamentary by-elections. At one point, the party had an opinion poll rating of over 50%. By 1981, David Steel was able to address the Liberal Party conference with the phrase "Go back to your constituencies, and prepare for government!"
In early [[1982]], after public disagreements over who could fight which seats in the forthcoming election, the poll rating dipped, but the party was still well ahead of the Conservatives, and far ahead of Labour. Labour lost one of their ten safest seats in a [[Bermondsey by-election, 1983|by-election in early 1983]] to Liberal candidate [[Simon Hughes]]: the sitting Labour MP [[Bob Mellish, Baron Mellish|Robert Mellish]] resigned to work for the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] but being opposed to the selection by his left-wing [[Constituency Labour Party]] of [[Peter Tatchell]], supported the former leader of [[London Borough of Southwark|Southwark council]] John O'Grady as "Real Bermondsey Labour" giving an impression of Labour division and infighting.
However, following victory in the [[Falklands War]] in June [[1982]], the Conservative government of [[Margaret Thatcher]] soared from third place in the public opinion polls. The standing of the Alliance and Labour declined. The Alliance did well in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983 general election]], winning 25% of the national vote, close behind Labour's 28%. Because of the British "first-past-the-post" electoral system, only 23 Alliance MPs were elected, six of whom were members of the SDP. Two more SDP MPs were elected in [[by-election]]s in the next four years, but in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987 general election]], with the SDP under the leadership of [[David Owen]], the Alliance's share of the vote fell slightly, and the SDP's parlimentary party was reduced from eight members to five. Roy Jenkins was amongst those who lost their seats. ([[Mike Hancock]] had won a [[Portsmouth South by-election, 1984|by-election at Portsmouth South in 1984]] from the Conservatives, and [[Rosie Barnes]] had won the bitterly contested [[Greenwich by-election, 1987|Greenwich by-election]] in 1987 from Labour. Neither victory could disguise the fact that the electorate's "love affair" with the Alliance was beginning to cool: local government election results proved disappointing even after the Portsmouth result.
From the outset, the formation of the Alliance had raised questions as to whether it would lead to a merged party, or the two parties were destined to compete with each other. This in turn led to grassroots tensions in some areas between Liberal and SDP branches that impaired their ability to mount joint campaigns successfully. Such cross-party feuding was part of the reason for Jenkins losing his Hillhead seat to Labour candidate [[George Galloway]] in 1987.
Matters were exacerbated by tensions between local Liberal and SDP branches over joint "Alliance" candidate adoptions. Liberal pride was damaged by the sustained lampooning of the Alliance by ITV's ''[[Spitting Image]]'' puppet comedy programme portraying Steel as the craven lickspittle of Owen. Both Owen and Steel were to admit years later that ''Spitting Image'' did a lot of damage to the Alliance, which was heavily dependent on positive publicity to make up for the lack of activist numbers of the Conservatives and Labour.
One ''Spitting Image'' sketch had a Machiavellian Owen proposing to a simpering Steel that the parties merged under a new name: "and for our side we'll take 'Social Democratic', and from your side, we'll take ‘Party'", to which a hesitant Steel agreed.
Jenkins' critics believe that he saw the SDP as only a vehicle for siphoning off the right wing of the Labour Party into a new centrist party with the existing Liberals. This would provide a more pro-European and stable party of government within a Proportional Representation system of elections, avoiding the destructive policy swings from left to right caused by Labour and the Conservatives. Owen however saw the party as being a replacement for Labour altogether, of the same mould as the German Social Democrats which benefit from not being tied down by Trade Union control, and thus were seen as more approachable by business interests. It was Owen's vision that attracted to the SDP its main sponsor, the Sainsbury supermarket chain. [[Tony Blair]], the Labour MP from Sedgefield, was a very vocal critic of this SDP-business link. Years later, he made its owner a Lord in return for his considerable patronage of "New Labour".
===One merger, two splits===
After the disappointment of 1987, Steel proposed a formal merger of the two parties. This had been what Jenkins and Steel had wanted all along, although Jenkins' interest had been muted whilst SDP leader. He was fiercely opposed by Owen, who argued that such a merger would not be accepted by the electorate, and would not reverse their declining share of the vote. Owen was quoted as saying that Jenkins should have been honest and joined the Liberals in 1981 with his closest supporters, including [[Dick Taverne]], [[Tom Ellis]], [[Tom Bradley]] and [[Neville Sandelson]].
But the majority of the SDP's now demoralised membership (along with those of the Liberals) voted in favour of the union. Owen resigned as leader and was replaced by [[Robert Maclennan]]. Steel and Maclennan headed the new "Social and Liberal Democrat Party" (SLD) from [[March 3]], [[1988]]. An interim working name for the party, the "Democrats", was adopted by conference on [[26 September]] [[1988]]. This proved to be unpopular, and the party was re-named the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] in October 1989, as had been originally proposed at the September 1988 conference by the party's Tiverton branch.
Many SDP members, including SDP MP and future Liberal Democrat leader [[Charles Kennedy]], joined Maclennan in the merged party, but Owen remained defiantly at the head of a continuing SDP, along with two other MPs, [[John Cartwright (UK politician)|John Cartwright]] and [[Rosie Barnes]]. There was also a continuing [[Liberal Party (modern)|Liberal Party]], led by [[Michael Meadowcroft]] and [[David Morrish]], mainly based around Liverpool and West Country Liberals who feared a dilution by the former SDP members of the Liberal tradition within the merged party.
There was much rancour from the merged SLD at the continuing SDP. The low mark of this was a staged confrontation by Kennedy and Maclennan who turned up on the doorstep of Owen's home when he was hosting a birthday party for his young daughter. Accompanied by a TV news camera crew, they asked him why he had refused to accept the vote of the majority of SDP members. Both parties, however, had federal structures, which meant that individual branches of the SDP and Liberals could continue to carry on as before. The Greenwich branch of the SDP was one that chose to do so.
Some members simply dropped out of politics together out of disillusionment when the time came to renew their membership subscriptions. After a series of highly publicised expulsions, a now Militant-free Labour Party led by [[Neil Kinnock]] benefited from the feuding within the former Alliance that was supposed to see an end to "the politics of confrontation". The Liberal Democrats also lost to the continuing SDP its one major backer, [[David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville|Lord Sainsbury]].
The subsequent election of a new leader, [[Paddy Ashdown]], revived the new party's fortunes in time, and turned it into the most successful "third party" electorally in British politics since the days of Lloyd George.
(For information about the continuation of the SDP led by Dr. David Owen from 1988 to 1990, please see [[Social Democratic Party (UK, 1988)]], and about the subsequent continuation |
aifeng]] of [[China]] set the official record [[July 3]], [[2005]].
Although the size of a badminton court is smaller than that of a tennis court, the distance run by a player in a match is usually much greater than that in tennis. This is due, in part, to the fact that the entire court must be covered by the player as the [[shuttlecock]] is not allowed to bounce before being returned. Also, the rallies of each point tend to be much longer than tennis. This is true even though winning a 'shutout' match in badminton requires only winning 30 points (15-0, 15-0, in a Men's Single match) whereas in tennis it would require 72 points (6-0, 6-0, 6-0).
The game of badminton may look easy to play, but it can be physically more tiring than tennis since the tennis ball travels at a much slower speed as compared to a shuttlecock. Speed, reaction, and endurance are all important to being a successful badminton player. From a fitness perspective a close comparison can be made to [[squash]] which also has the same explosive starts.
As in tennis, there are typically five events: men's singles, women's singles, men's doubles, women's doubles and mixed doubles (each pair is composed of one man and one woman).
==The service court==
One decides between two service courts. There is the service court for singles, which is 5.18 meters wide by 13.40 meters long and the service court for doubles is 6.10 meters wide by 11.88 meters long. The service court is divided in two parts. In the middle of the court there is a net, which is 1.55 meters high. The short service lines go away 1.98 meters from the net. Left service court and right service court are divided by the center line.
==Equipment==
[[Image:Heads of badminton raquets.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Badminton racquets]]
'''Racquet:''' Traditionally racquets were made of wood. Later on aluminium or other light metals became the material of choice. Now, almost all professional badminton [[racquets]] are composed of carbon fiber composite ([[graphite reinforced plastic]]), and even [[titanium]] composites. Carbon fiber has an excellent strength to weight ratio, is stiff, and gives excellent kinetic energy transfer. However, some low-end models still use steel or aluminum for some or all of the racquet.
'''String:''' Perhaps one of the most overlooked areas of badminton equipment is the string. Different types of string have different response properties. Durability generally varies with performance. Most strings are 21 gauge in thickness and strung at 18 to 30 [[pound-force|lbf]] (80 to 130 [[newton]]s) of [[Tension (mechanics)|tension]]. Racquets strung at lower tensions (18 to 21 lbf or 80 to 95 N) generate greater power while racquets strung at higher tensions provide greater control (21 lbf, over 95 N). This is due to the trampolining effect - at lower tensions the shuttlecock can trampoline off, and the elastic recoil increases the power. Players' personal preferences play a strong role in string selection.
'''Shoes:''' Because acceleration across the court is so important, players need excellent grip with the floor at all times. Badminton [[shoes]] need a gum sole for good grip, reinforced side walls for durability during drags, and shock dispersion technology for jumping; badminton places a lot of stress on the knees and ankles.
The [[Japan|Japanese]] manufacturer [[Yonex]] dominates the badminton equipment market, making racquets, shoes, and everything in between.
==Playing the game==
Each player or pair takes position on either side of a net on a rectangular court marked on the floor, as shown in the diagrams.
The object of the game is to hit a shuttlecock (normally shortened to "shuttle" or "cock"; more colloquially, "bird" or "birdie"), using a racquet, over the net onto the court within the marked boundaries before the opposing player or pair can hit it back. For every time this is achieved by the team currently serving, the serving player or pair scores one point. After winning a point the same player serves again, and continues to serve as long as they continue to win points. If the non-serving team wins the rally, no point is scored but instead there is a change of server.
In doubles, one server starts the game, and after losing a rally the serve switches to the opposing team. From then on, both players on a team take turns serving before the serve switches back to their opponents. The player on the right-hand serving side always begins the serving.
== The Rules ==
At the start of a match, a coin is tossed. The side that wins the toss may choose whether to serve first, or may choose which end of the court to play. The other side exercises the remaining choice. In less formal settings, the shuttle may be hit into the air to determine which side serves: the shuttle lands pointing to the serving side.
'''Scoring'''
The first player or pair to reach 15 points (11 points for women's singles) wins the game. If the score reaches 14-all (10-all for women's singles) the receiving side can choose to "set" and hence extend the game by 3 points, i.e. the first to reach 17 (or 13) points wins. If the non-serving side chooses not to set, the game is decided by a single point, i.e. the first to reach 15 (or 11) points wins.
A badminton match can be made up of any odd number of games (3 in official matches). The winner of the match is the first to win more than half the number of games (e.g. the first to win 2 games in a 3 game match).
'''Service'''
The serve must be in an upwards direction, to land in the diagonally opposite service court. At the moment of impact on service, the shuttle must be below the waist, and the whole of the racket head must be below the hand holding the racket. These rules are designed to limit the attacking options of the server. A point is only added to the score on service. Unlike tennis, there is no "let" on service if the shuttle hits the tape.
At the start of a doubles game, the first side to serve will only continue serving until they lose a rally. After that, the serve will pass to the opponents, and for the remainder of the game both members of a serving pair will have an opportunity to serve. A server must change service courts after each rally won, so that he serves to the other opponent. The receiving pair, however, will not vary their positions in this way. When a pair have just regained the service, the first serve is always delivered by the player in the right-hand service court.
In singles each player has only one serve at a time; if the serve is lost, it passes to the opponent.
'''Experimental IBF Scoring'''
In December 2005 the [[International Badminton Federation|International Badminton Federation]] started an experimental scoring system for IBF events. The new system incorporates rally point scoring; a point can be won by the serving and receiving player or pair. In the traditional system only the serving player or pair could win a point. Under the new system games are played to 21 points, also for women's singles. A difference of 2 points is needed, up until 29-29, where the first player or pair to reach 30 wins. In doubles there is no second server anymore under the new system. When the serving pair loses a rally the serve passes immediately to the other pair. Pairs only switch service courts when they won a point while serving. If the pair who has won right to serve has an even score, the player in the right service court will serve, if the score is uneven the player in the left service court will serve.
Besides the new scoring system the experiment also has a rule change concerning breaks during a match. When a side reaches 11 points, both sides get a 60 second break. Between first and second game, as well as between second and third game, players receive a 2-minute break.
'''Faults'''
When players commit a fault, they lose the rally. The most common fault is for a player to fail to return the shuttle before it hits the floor, or to return it so that it lands out of court. It is also a fault if the shuttle touches the person or dress of a player, or in doubles if both players hit the shuttle.
At lower levels of play, players often commit service faults without realising. For example, see rules on service, above.
'''Lets'''
If a let is called, the rally is restarted. Lets are rare in professional play; they occur whenever some unexpected circumstance arises that interferes with the rally. For example, a let is called if the shuttle passes over the net and then becomes entangled in the net (except on service, when this is deemed a fault).
==Strategy==
To win in badminton, players need to employ a wide variety of strokes in the right situations. These range from extraordinarily powerful jumping smashes to soft, delicate tumbling net returns. The smash is a powerful overhead stroke played steeply downwards into the middle or rear of the opponents' court; it is similar to a tennis serve, but much faster: the shuttlecock can travel at 300km/h (186 mph). This is a very effective stroke, and pleases the crowds, but smashing is only one part of the game. Often rallies finish with a smash, but setting up the smash requires subtler strokes. For example, a netshot can force the opponent to lift the shuttle, which gives an opportunity to smash. If the netshot is tight and tumbling, then the opponent's lift will not reach the back of the court, which makes the subsequent smash much harder to return.
Deception is also important. Expert players make the preparation for many different strokes look identical, so that their opponents cannot guess which stroke will be played. For many strokes, the shuttlecock can be sliced to change its direction; this allows a player to move his racket in a different direction to the trajectory of the shuttlecock. If an opponent tries to anticipate the stroke, he will move in the wrong direction and may b |
inor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''fundamental tone''' often referred to simply as the '''fundamental''', is the lowest frequency in a [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]].
The '''fundamental [[frequency]]''' of a [[periodic signal|periodic]] [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] is the inverse of the [[Pitch (music)|pitch]] [[period (music)|period]] length. The pitch period is, in turn, the smallest repeating unit of a signal. One pitch period thus describes the periodic signal completely. The significance of defining the pitch period as the ''smallest'' repeating unit can be appreciated by noting that two or more concatenated pitch periods form a repeating pattern in the signal. However, the concatenated signal unit obviously contains redundant information.
A 'fundamental bass' is the [[root note]], or lowest note or pitch in a chord or sonority when that chord is in root position or [[normal form]].
==See also ==
*[[Missing fundamental]]
*[[oscillation]]
*[[Hertz]]
[[Category:Tuning]]
[[Category:Fourier analysis]]
[[da:Tone]]
[[de:Grundfrequenz]]
[[fr:Fondamentale]]
[[nl:Grondtoon]]
[[pt:Fundamental]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fable</title>
<id>11491</id>
<revision>
<id>41750294</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:54:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the term or its plural, see [[fable (disambiguation)]].''
In its strict sense a '''fable''' is a [[short story]] or [[folk tale]] embodying a [[moral]], which may be expressed explicitly at the end as a [[maxim_(saying)|maxim]]. "Fable" comes from Latin ''fabula'' (meaning 'conversation', 'narrative', 'tale') and shares a root with ''faber,'' "maker, artificer." Thus, though a fable may be conversational in tone, the understanding from the outset is that it is an invention, a fiction. A fable may be set in verse, though it is usually prose. In its pejorative sense, a fable is a deliberately invented or falsified account.
A fable often, but not necessarily, makes [[metaphor]]ical use of an [[animal]] as its central character. [[Old French|Medieval French]] ''[[fabliau]]x'' might feature [[Reynard]] the [[fox]], a [[trickster]] figure, and offer a subtext that was mildly subversive of the [[feudal]] order of society. A familiar theme in Slavic fables is an encounter between a wily peasant and the [[Devil]]. But the device of personificatoin may be extended to anything inanimate, such as trees, flowers, stones, streams and winds.
In some usage, "fable" has been extended to include stories with [[Mythology|myth]]ical or [[legend]]ary elements. The word "'''fabulous'''" strictly means "pertaining to fables," although in recent decades its metaphorical meanings have been taken to be literal meanings, i.e. "legendary," "mythical," "exaggerated," "incredible." An author of fables is called a '''fabulist'''.
==History==
Fables have long been told. The first notable fabulist was Aesop, a Greek slave ca. 600 B.C. He is considered the father of the genre because 200 fables have been attributed to him, though most of them may have been told earlier. Fables had a further long tradition through the [[Middle Ages]] and became part of European literature. During the 17th century, the works of [[Jean de La Fontaine]] (1621-1695) saw the soul of the fable in the '''moral''' — a rule of behavior. Starting with the Aesopian pattern, la Fontaine set out to satirize the court, the church, the rising [[bourgeoisie]], indeed the entire human scene of his time.
In modern times, the fable has been trivialized in children's books. Yet it has also been fully adapted to modern literature. For instance, James Thurber used the ancient style in his book, '''Fables for Our Time'''; and in a book, ''The Beast in me'', unmasked by fables. [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Animal Farm]]'' satirizes [[Stalinist Communism]] in particular, and [[totalitarianism]] in general, by using the animal story.
[[Epicharmus of Kos]] and Phormis have been reported as having been among the first to invent comic fables.{{ref|Buckham1}}
==Notable fabulists==
* [[Aesop]]
* [[Vishnu Sarma]]
* [[Phaedrus]]
* [[Hyginus]], author of ''Fabulae''.
* [[Berechiah ha-Nakdan]] (Berechiah the Punctuator, [[Jew]]ish author, [[1200s]]).
* [[Marie de France]]
* [[Biernat of Lublin]] ([[Poland|Polish]], [[1465]]? &ndash; after [[1529]]).
* [[Jean de La Fontaine]]
* [[Ignacy Krasicki]] ([[Poland|Polish]], [[1735]] &ndash; [[1801]]).
* [[Hans Christian Andersen]]
* [[Ivan Krylov]]
* "[[Uncle Remus]]" ([[Joel Chandler Harris]])
* [[James Thurber]]
* [[George Orwell]]
==Some modern fabulists==
*[[George Ade]]
*[[James Thurber]] (1894-1961), ''Fables For Our Time''.
*[[Damon Runyon]]
*[[Sholem Aleichem]]
==Notable fables==
* ''[[Stone Soup]]''
* ''[[The Little Engine that Could]]''
* ''[[Jonathan Livingston Seagull]]''
* ''[[Watership Down]]''
* ''[[The Lion King 1 and 2]]''
* ''[[Emperor's New Clothes (fable)]]''
* ''[[Fables and Parables]]'' by [[Ignacy Krasicki]]
* ''[[The Fox and the Cock]]'' by [[James Thurber]]
* ''[[Animal Farm]]'' by [[George Orwell]]
==See also==
*[[Allegory]]
*[[Anthropomorphism]]
*[[Apologue]]
*[[Apologia]]
*[[Fairy tale]]
*[[Ghost story]]
*[[Parable]]
*[[Urban Legend]]
==Notes==
#{{note|Buckham1}} P.W. Buckham, p. 245
==References==
* Philip Wentworth Buckham, ''Theatre of the Greeks'', 1827.
==External links==
*[http://www.nickbostrom.com/fable/dragon.html The Dragon-Tyrant]
*[http://www.lefavole.org/en/ Fables - Collection and guide to fables for children]
[[Category:Fables| ]]
[[cs:Bajka]]
[[da:Fabel]]
[[de:Fabel]]
[[es:Fábula]]
[[eo:Fablo]]
[[fr:Fable]]
[[ko:우화]]
[[he:משל]]
[[nl:Fabel]]
[[nds:Fabel]]
[[ja:寓話]]
[[no:Fabel]]
[[pt:Fábula]]
[[ro:Fabulă]]
[[sk:Bájka]]
[[sv:Fabel]]
[[wa:Fåve di djåzantès biesses]]
[[zh:寓言]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foot</title>
<id>11492</id>
<revision>
<id>39013050</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T03:04:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.192.102.136</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Esperanto fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{cleanup-date|June 2005}}
[[image:foot.png|left|thumb|A human foot - Enlarge to view legend]]
[[Image:Three right feet.jpg|thumb|200px|Right feet of three siblings]]
The '''foot''' is a biological structure found in many [[animal]]s that is used for [[locomotion]]. The plural of ''foot'' is ''feet'', and this pair is one of seven mutated [[English plural|English plurals]].
==Structure==
The sructural quality of a foot varies from animal to animal. Many [[vertebrate]]s that have [[Leg (anatomy)|legs]] also have a foot located at the end of each leg. For these animals, the foot is a complex structure of [[bone]], [[muscle]], and other [[connective tissue]]. Among animals that have soft or padded feet, the foot is commonly called a [[paw]]. In [[mollusk]]s, on the other hand, the foot is a purely muscular structure.
<div class="floatright">[[Image:foot-outside.jpg|thumb|none|Lateral (outward-facing) side of a human foot.]][[Image:foot-inside.jpg|thumb|none|Medial (inward-facing) side of a human foot, showing the arch.]]</div>
Human beings use their legs and feet for [[bipedal locomotion]], also known as [[walking]]. The structures of the human foot and [[hand]] are variations on the same basic five-digit anatomy, in common with many other vertebrates (the thumb and big toe have two phalanges, while the other fingers and toes consist of three). They are also the most complex, comprising half the bones in the body. The medical specialty related to treatment of the feet is orthopaedic foot and ankle subspecialty.
==Footwear==
In many societies, it is customary to cover the foot in most social situations; particularly outside, in many cultures (including [[North America]]n, [[Europe]]an, [[Japan]]ese and others) [[person|people]] wear protective clothing over the foot. Such [[footwear]] has special names, such as [[sandal (footwear)|sandal]]s, [[shoe]]s, and [[boot]]s. Consistent wearing of footwear, particularly in hot climates or during exercise, can lead to [[foot odor]]. If footwear is ill-fitting or badly designed, it can cause both short-term ([[blister]]s, for example) and long-term foot problems. On the other hand, carefully designed orthopedic footwear is an effective treatment for many foot, leg, and back problems.
==Customs==
Customs about foot covering while indoors vary significantly from place to place. For example, in much of [[Europe]] and [[Canada]], it is customary to remove one's shoes or boots when entering a home, while in the [[United States]] this is rare in most parts of the country. In [[Japan]], the custom is so widespread that floors are often made of materials that are too soft to survive being walked on by shod feet. In some cultures, bare feet may be considered unsightly or offensive. In [[Arab world|Arab]] countries and in [[Thailand]], it is considered extremely offensive to show someone the sole of your foot, although the practice of not wearing shoes is common, due to various reasons including poverty and religion.
==Kicking==
Certain [[martial art]]s, such as [[Savate]], emphasize kicking, reasoning that the foot is the only part of the body normally covered by protective clothing. On the other hand, some martial arts (including [[Karate]], [[Judo]]) are customarily trained in bare feet, as well as beach sport (for example [[beach volleyball]]). Many |
(via Mexico), was a colony of the [[United States]] from [[1898]] to [[1946]]
Today, none of the colonizing European and North American powers hold colonies in the traditional sense of the term. Some of their former colonies have been integrated as [[dependent area]]s or have closer integration with the country.
==Current colonies (examples)==
*[[Gibraltar]] has been a colonial possession of the [[British]] since [[1713]].
* [[Puerto Rico]]'s relationship to the [[United States]] is considered by some to be colonial, since citizens are subject to laws passed by [[congress]] without their consent. This view is shared by many supporters of [[independence]] and [[statehood]] for the island, as well as by some supporters of current [[commonwealth]] status. However, other [[Puerto Ricans]] do not agree with this perception.
==See also==
*[[List of Colonial Territories by country]]
[[Category:Colonialism]]
[[bg:Колония]]
[[zh-min-nan:Si̍t-bîn-tē]]
[[ca:Colonització]]
[[da:Koloni (magtområde)]]
[[de:Kolonie]]
[[es:Colonia administrativa]]
[[eo:Kolonio]]
[[fr:Colonie (peuplement)]]
[[ko:식민지]]
[[is:Nýlenda]]
[[it:Colonia (insediamento)]]
[[he:קולוניה]]
[[nl:Kolonie (staatkundig)]]
[[ja:植民地]]
[[no:Koloni]]
[[nn:Koloni]]
[[pl:Kolonia (geografia polityczna)]]
[[pt:Colónia (história)]]
[[ru:Колония]]
[[sv:Koloni]]
[[tr:Koloni]]
[[zh:殖民地]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Rod (cryptozoology)</title>
<id>6918</id>
<revision>
<id>39204147</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T13:38:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tsca.bot</username>
<id>601940</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot adding: pl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Rods''', a rather new entry in the field of [[Cryptozoology]], are creatures said to flit about in the air at such a high speed as to not be seen by the naked eye. Almost all sightings of rods are based on [[video]] evidence.
==Description==
Rods gain their name from their rodlike shape. However, they have also been called "skyfish" and "solar entities". They appear to be anywhere from 5 inches to 3 feet in length (about 15 to 90 cm), and is thought to have a thin [[membrane]] across their axis that is used for propulsion through the air. Their behavior as captured on film leads studiers of the phenomenon to posit they are a kind of "air-fish", moving in a similar fashion to fish in water, and having a body like that of a [[jellyfish]].
==Theories==
Rods are not taken seriously even by most cryptozoologists, who tend to look on them as [[forteana]]. Much evidence points to the conclusion that they are mere [[Optical illusion|tricks of light]] that affect the camera eye. In particular, the fast passage before the camera of an insect flapping its wings has been shown to produce rod-like effects, due to [[motion blur]]. Additional criticism points to the very speed of the film being physically unable to capture something that moves so fast. Their recent popularity seems to be a result of media exposure in television [[tabloid]]s. ''Jose Escamilla'', who runs the website [http://www.roswellrods.com RoswellRods.com], has appeared in numerous interviews and television "investigations".
==Flying Rod Mystery Solved==
In the early autumn of 2005, news bulletins in [[China]] and [[Hong Kong]] reported on a story which debunked the flying rods. Surveillance cameras in a research facility in Jilin supposedly captured video footage of flying rods identical to those shown in Jose Escamilla's video. The curious research staff of the facility, being scientists, decided that they would attempt to catch one. Huge nets were set up and the same surveillance cameras captured rods flying into the trap. When the nets were inspected, the "rods" were no more than regular moths and other flying insects. Subsequent investigations proved that the appearance of flying rods on video was an optical illusion created by the slower recording speed of the camera (done to save video space).
This discovery has, however, been quietly ignored by those in the business of "researching" the flying rod phenomenon, as their wealth and fame could obviously be shattered with such a revelation. The myth is thus allowed to persist.
===Reproducing the "Flying Rod" Effect on Video===
First, find a place with lots of flying insects. Then set your digital [[camera]] (on video mode) or [[camcorder]] to its slowest exposure speed (1/60 second is the slowest speed for an [[NTSC]] camcorder). Aim the camera to a fixed spot with insects flying left and right, and start recording. Lighting the target area with a light source will enhance the rod-like effect as light is reflected from the flying insect. The resulting video footage will have flying rod-like effects in place of the flying insects.
==Rods in fiction==
* There is an enemy in the video game [[Castlevania: Aria of Sorrow]] called Sky Fish, which normally appears in some places in the game as a white flash blitzing across the screen. The game itself also provides a Time-Stopper ability for the hero to actually see Sky Fish moving in slow-motion, and this is the only way to defeat it.
==External links==
* [http://www.opendb.com/sol/seq.htm Jose Escamilla's "Rods" Video Sequences (a very thorough debunking)]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mrodhoax.html ''Straight Dope'' report: What's up with "rods," the mysterious insects that can be seen only on video?]
* [http://home.flash.net/~storyink/hotrods/hotrods.htm Shannon L. Story's ''Rods: Facts or Fiction, You Decide'']
* [http://share-moment.com/passage/passage.aspx?userName=croc&ID=17008 Scroll to the bottom of this page and click on the video link to watch a documentary produced by Zhejiang TV debunking the flying rod (in Chinese)]
[[Category:Cryptids]]
[[ja:スカイフィッシュ]]
[[pl:Rods]]
[[fi:Ilmakala]]
[[zh:飛棍]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Column</title>
<id>6920</id>
<revision>
<id>40276259</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T12:42:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tail</username>
<id>64886</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+lv:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
[[Image:Deconstructing a Roman_pillar.jpg|right|thumb|Deconstructing a Roman pillar.]]
A '''column''' in [[architecture]] and [[structural engineering]] is part of a structure whose purpose is to transmit through [[physical compression|compression]] the weight of the structure. Other [[compression member]]s are often termed columns because of the similar stress conditions. Columns can be either compounded of parts or made as a single piece. Columns are frequently used to support [[Beam (structure)|beam]]s or [[arch]]es on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest.
==History==
In the architecture of [[ancient Egypt]] as early as [[2600 BC]] the architect [[Imhotep]] made use of stone columns whose surface was carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds; in later Egyptian architecture faceted cylinders were also common.
Some of the most elaborate columns in the ancient world were those of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] especially the massive stone columns erected in [[Persepolis]]. They included double-bull structures in their capitals. [[The Hall of Hundred Columns]] at Persepolis, measuring 70 x 70 meters was built by the [[Achaemenid]] king [[Artaxerxes I]] (465-424). Many of the ancient Persian columns are standing.
The impost (or pier) is the topmost member of a column. The bottom-most part of the arch, called the springer, rests on the impost.
==The classical orders in Europe==
{{main|Classical order}}
The Roman author [[Vitruvius]], relying on the writings (now lost) of Greek authors, tells us that the ancient [[Hellenic civilization|Greeks]] believed that their Doric order developed from techniques for building in wood in which the earlier smoothed tree trunk was replaced by a stone cylinder.
This myth of the transformation of wood into stone still causes controversy today - did the ancient Greeks invent columns this way for themselves, or did they imitate the stone construction of neighboring civilization?
===Doric order===
{{main|Doric order}}
The [[Doric order|Doric]], or Tuscan, order is the oldest and simplest of the classical order. It is composed of a vertical cylinder that is wider at the bottom. It generally has neither a base nor a [[Capital (architecture)|capital]]. It is often referred to as the masculine order because it is represented in the bottom level of the [[Colosseum]], and was therefore considered to be able to hold more weight. The height-to-thickness ratio is about 4:1.
[[Image:Ionic base of a column.jpg|thumb|Ionic base, the [[torus]] enriched with interlaced guilloche, at the [[Erechtheum]], Athens, [[421 BC|421]]-[[407 BC]].]]
===Ionic order===
{{main|Ionic order}}
The [[Ionic order|Ionic]] column is considerably more complex than the Doric. It usually has a base and the shaft is often fluted (it has grooves carved up its length). On the top is a [[Capital (architecture)|capital]] in the characteristic shape of a [[scroll (parchment)|scroll]], called a [[volute]], at the four corners. The height-to-thickness ratio is around 6:1.
===Corinthian order===
{{main|Corinthian order}}
The [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] order is named for the Greek [[city-state]] of [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], to which it was connected in the period. However, according to the Greek architectural historian Vitruvius, the column was created by the sculptor [[Callimachus (sculptor)|Callimachus]], probably an [[Athens|Athenian]], who drew [[Acanthus (genus)|acanthus]] leaves growing around a votive basket. In fact, the oldest known Corinthian capital was found in Bassae, dated at [[427 BC]]. It is sometimes called the feminine order because |
chaos]] or the [[Uncertainty principle]] is the prime mover according to science, and should accordingly be treated as divine.
===Surat Shabda Yoga===
Surat Shabda Yoga [[cosmology#Esoteric cosmology|cosmology]] depicts the whole of creation (the [[macrocosm]]) as being [[Emanationism|emanated]] and arranged in a spiritually differentiated hierarchy, often referred to as eggs, regions, or [[Plane (cosmology)|planes]]. Typically, eight spiritual levels are described above the physical plane, although names and subdivisions within these levels will vary to some extent by mission and Master. (One version of the creation from a Surat Shabda Yoga perspective is depicted at the Sant Ajaib Singh Ji Memorial Site in [http://www.santji.allegre.ca/planes-640.jpg “The Grand Scheme of All Creation”].) All planes below the purely spiritual regions are subject to cycles of creation and dissolution (pralya) or grand dissolution (maha pralya).
The constitution of the individual (the [[microcosm]]) is an exact replica of the macrocosm. Consequently, the microcosm consists of a number of [[Subtle body|bodies]], each one suited to interact with its corresponding plane or region in the macrocosm. These bodies developed over the [[yuga|yugas]] through [[Involution (philosophy)|involution]] ([[Emanationism|emanating]] from higher planes to lower planes) and [[spiritual evolution|evolution]] (returning from lower planes to higher planes), including by [[karma]] and [[reincarnation]] in various [[altered state of consciousness|states]] of [[consciousness]].
===Taoism===
[[Tao]] is the namelss void, the mother of the Ten Thousand Things. Tao is considered by Laozi to be that which eternally gives without being depleted, and eternally receives without being filled.
That which does not exist for its own sake is able to endure.
===[[Zen]]===
[[Everything]] and [[nothing]] are all interconnected, inseparable, a whole. Zen denies that the [[person]] is the [[first cause]]. If it speaks of origins at all, it says that the [[ground of being]] is the real [[first cause]].
===Zoroastrianism===
The [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] story of creation has [[Ahura Mazda]] creating 16 lands, one by one, such that each would be delightful to its people. As he finished each one, [[Angra Mainyu]] applied a counter-creation, introducing plague and sin of various kinds. The dualistic idea of two primordial spirits, called twins by Zoroaster, goes back to an Indo-European prototype.
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
* [[Abrahamic religions]]
* [[Biblical cosmology]]
* [[Cosmogony]]
* [[Cosmological argument]]
* [[Cosmology]] (disambiguation)
* [[Creation evolution controversy]]
* [[:Category:Creationism]]
* [[Creationism]]
* [[Creation (theology)]]
* [[Creator god]]
* [[Dating Creation]]
* [[Day-Age Creationism]]
{{col-2}}
* [[Deism]]
* [[Evolution]]
* [[Existence]]
* [[Gap Creationism]]
* [[Intelligent design]]
* [[Natural theology]]
* [[Old Earth creationism]]
* [[Theism]]
* [[Theistic evolution]]
* [[Timeline of the Big Bang]]
* [[Ultimate fate of the Universe]]
* [[Young Earth creationism]]
{{col-end}}
==References==
* Leeming, David Adams, and Margaret Adams Leeming, ''A Dictionary of Creation Myths''. Oxford University Press (1995), ISBN 0195102754.
==External links==
* [http://www.themage.net/India/Indian%20Cosmology.htm Indian cosmology]
*[http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_1/kojiki.html Japanese Creation Myth]
* [http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/creation.html Norse Creation Myth]
* [http://www.wsu.edu/~delahoyd/creation.populvuh.html Popul Vuh]
* [http://www.jcf.org/works.php?id=187 "Masks of God: Creative Mythology" by Joseph Campbell]
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-68 ''Dictionary of the history of Ideas'': Creation in Religion]
* [http://www.creationofuniverse.com The Qur'an and Earth], an Islamic perspective of creation.
{{origin_of_life}}
{{Philosophy navigation}}
[[Category:Spiritual evolution]]
[[Category:Mythology]]
[[Category:Creationism]]
[[Category:Mythemes]]
[[cs:Stvoření]]
[[de:Schöpfung]]
[[et:Loomismüüdid]]
[[fr:Mythes et création du monde]]
[[he:בריאת העולם]]
[[it:Cosmogonia]]
[[nl:Schepping]]
[[pt:Cosmogonia]]
[[sv:Skapelseberättelse]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crucifix</title>
<id>7324</id>
<revision>
<id>41206795</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T20:03:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.206.122.30</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Usage */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}<br><br>
[[image:Crucifix.JPG|left|thumbnail|150px|A crucifix amidst the cornfields near [[Mureck]] in rural [[Styria (state)|Styria]], [[Austria]]]]
[[Image:Small crucifix.jpg|right|thumbnail|150px|A handheld crucifix]]
[[Image:Krucifix.jpg|right|thumbnail|150px|A crucifix in front of the [[Holy Spirit Church]] in [[Košice]], [[Slovakia]]]]
A '''crucifix''' is a [[Christian cross|cross]] with a representation of [[Jesus]]'s body, or corpus (plural, corpora). It is a principal symbol of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[religion]]. It is primarily used among [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], certain [[Lutheran]], and high church [[Anglican]] Christians, and emphasizes Christ's sacrifice&mdash;his death by [[crucifixion]]. Some styles of crucifix feature a [[skull and crossbones]] below the corpus, reflecting a legend that the place of Jesus' crucifixion was also the burial place of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]].
The corpora of [[Eastern Orthodox]] crucifixes tend to be two-dimensional [[icon|icons]] that show Jesus as already dead, as opposed to the depictions of the still-suffering Jesus that can be found in some other Churches.
Among [[Protestant]] denominations, some prefer to depict the cross without the corpus in order to emphasize the resurrection while others claim that including the corpus is [[idolatry]].
A crucifix is often worn on a [[necklace]] as an item of [[jewelry]], or is attached to a [[rosary]]. It can be made out of various metals or wood.
Most Christians will ask their priest to bless a crucifix and place it in their home as a reminder of what Christ has done for them.
==Usage==
Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic and Anglican Christians generally use the crucifix in public religious services. They think the crucifix is in keeping with Scripture, which states that "we preach Christ crucified." Also, in the Old Testament, Moses lifted up a snake crucified on a pole-- a kind of symbolic crucifix. For a long time it was revered, but not worshiped. Later on it was destroyed by king Hezekiah because the people were treating it just like other pagan gods.
==See also==
* [[Christian symbolism]]
* [[Corpus]]
* [[INRI]]
* [[Rood]]
{{commons|Category:Crucifixion}}
[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Christian art]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Sacramentals]]
[[Category:Religious objects]]
[[Category:Cross symbols]]
[[Category:Christian symbols]]
[[cs:Krucifix]]
[[de:Kruzifix]]
[[fr:Crucifix]]
[[lt:Krucifiksas]]
[[nl:Crucifix]]
[[no:Krusifiks]]
[[pl:Krucyfiks]]
[[fi:Krusifiksi]]
[[sv:Krucifix]]
[[de:Triumphkreuz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>COFDM</title>
<id>7325</id>
<revision>
<id>15905399</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-27T17:49:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mulad</username>
<id>12070</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]] (bypass redirect)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coded orthogonal frequency division modulation</title>
<id>7326</id>
<revision>
<id>15905400</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-27T17:52:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mulad</username>
<id>12070</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]] (bypass redirect)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Copernican principle</title>
<id>7327</id>
<revision>
<id>41494481</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T19:17:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lapaz</username>
<id>773344</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Copernican principle''' is the [[philosophy|philosophical statement]] that no "special" [[observer]]s should be proposed. The term originated in the [[paradigm shift]] from the [[Ptolemaic system|Ptolemaic model]] of the heavens, which placed [[Earth]] at the [[center]] of the [[Solar system]] because it appears that everything revolved around Earth. [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] demonstrated that the motion of the heavens can be explained without the Earth (or anything else) being in the geometric center of the system, so the assumption that we are observing from a special position can be dispensed with. [[Kant]] used the expression "Copernican revolution" to account for the changes in the conception of the [[subject (philosophy)|subject]] of [[knowledge]].
== See also ==
* [[Anthropic principle]]
* [[Cosmological principle]]
* [[Doomsday argument]]
* [[Mediocrity principle]]
* [[Scientific revolution]]
* [[Subject-object problem]]
* [[Copernican federalism]]
{{philo-stub}}
[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]
[[de:Kopernikanisches Prinzip]]
[[fr:Principe de Copernic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cyprinid</title>
<id>7329</id>
<revision>
<id>41741931</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T12:16:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>T34</username>
<id>194293</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>es: fr:</co |
antages over earlier, purely mechanical designs, they were unreliable for various reasons. For example, building [[direct current]] [[sequential logic]] circuits out of relays requires additional hardware to cope with the problem of [[Switch#Contact bounce|contact bounce]]. While vacuum tubes do not suffer from contact bounce, they must heat up before becoming fully operational and eventually stop functioning altogether. {{ref|vactube}} Usually, when a tube failed, the CPU would have to be diagnosed to locate the failing component so it could be replaced. Therefore, early electronic (vacuum tube based) computers were generally faster but less reliable than electromechanical (relay based) computers. Tube computers like [[EDVAC]] tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the (slower, but earlier) [[Harvard Mark I]] failed very rarely {{Ref harvard|weik1961|Weik 1961:238|b}}. In the end, tube based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems. Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low [[clock rate]]s compared to modern microelectronic designs (see below for a discussion of clock rate). Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 [[Hertz|kHz]] to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with.
===Discrete transistor and IC CPUs===
The design and complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices. The first such improvement came with the advent of the [[transistor]]. Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements like [[vacuum tube]]s and [[Relay|electrical relays]]. With this improvement more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several [[printed circuit board]]s containing discrete (individual) components.
During this period, a method of manufacturing many transistors in a compact space gained popularity. The [[integrated circuit]] (IC) allowed a great deal of transistors to be manufactured on a single [[semiconductor]]-based die, or "chip." At first only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as [[NOR gate]]s were miniaturized into ICs. CPUs based upon these "building block" ICs are generally referred to as "small-scale integration" (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the [[Apollo guidance computer]], usually contained transistor counts numbering in multiples of ten. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs. As microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, thus decreasing the quantity of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI (medium- and large-scale integration) ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, then thousands.
In 1964 [[IBM]] introduced its [[System/360]] computer architecture, which was used in a series of computers that could run the same programs with different speed and performance. This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer. To facilitate this improvement, IBM utilized the concept of a [[microprogram]] (often called "microcode"), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs {{Ref harvard|Amdahl1964|Amdahl et al. 1964|a}}. The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the [[mainframe computer]] market for the next few decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM [[zSeries]]. In the same year (1964), [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the [[PDP-8]]. DEC would later introduce the extremely popular [[PDP-11]] line that originally was built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical. In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU comprised of only four LSI integrated circuits {{Ref harvard|dec1975|Digital Equipment Corporation 1975|a}}.
Transistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay. Thanks to both the increased reliability as well as the dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were obtained during this period. Additionally, while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like [[SIMD]] (Single Instruction Multiple Data) [[vector processor]]s began to appear. These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized [[supercomputer]]s like those made by [[Cray Inc.]]
===Microprocessors===
[[Image:80486dx2-large.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Die of an [[Intel 80486DX2]] microprocessor (actual size: 12&times;6.75 mm)]]
The introduction of the [[microprocessor]] in the 1970s significantly affected the design and implementation of CPUs. Since the introduction of the first microprocessor (the [[Intel 4004]]) in 1970 and the first widely used microprocessor (the [[Intel 8080]]) in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other implementations. Combined with the advent of the [[personal computer]], this has led to the term "CPU" being applied almost exclusively to microprocessors in the past few decades.
Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small [[integrated circuit]]s (ICs) on one or more circuit boards. Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU size as a result of being implemented on a single die means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic [[capacitance]]. This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz. Additionally, as the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased, the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU has increased dramatically. This widely observed trend is described by [[Moore's law]], which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity to date.
While the complexity, size, construction, and general form of CPUs have changed drastically over the past sixty years, it is notable that the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as Von Neumann stored-program machines.
As the aforementioned Moore's law continues to hold true, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like [[electromigration]] and [[subthreshold leakage]] to become much more significant. These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the [[quantum computer]], as well as to expand the usage of [[Parallel computing|parallelism]] and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical Von Neumann model.
==CPU operation==
[[Image:Mips32_addi.png|right|thumb|250px|Diagram showing how one [[MIPS architecture|MIPS32]] instruction is decoded. {{Ref harvard|MIPSTech2005|MIPS Technologies 2005|a}}]]
[[Image:CPU block diagram.png|right|thumb|250px|Block diagram of a simple CPU]]
The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions called a program. Discussed here are devices that conform to the common [[Von Neumann architecture]]. The program is represented by a series of numbers that are kept in some kind of [[Memory (computers)|computer memory]]. There are four steps that nearly all Von Neumann CPUs use in their operation: fetch, decode, execute, and writeback.
The first step, fetch, involves retrieving an [[instruction (computer science)|instruction]] (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The location in program memory is determined by a [[program counter]] (PC), which stores a number that identifies the current position in the program. In other words, the program counter keeps track of the CPU's place in the current program. After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction word in terms of memory units. {{ref|iwordlength}} Often the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and superscalar architectures (see below).
The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory is used to determine what the CPU is to do. In the decode step, the instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other portions of the CPU. The way in which the numerical instruction value is interpreted is defined by the CPU's [[instruction set architecture]] (ISA). {{ref|isa}} Often, one group of numbers in the instruction, called the [[opcode]], indicates which operation to perform. The remaining parts of the number usually provide information required for that instruction, such as operands for an [[addition]] operation. Such operands may be given as a constant value (called an immediate value), or |
41628027</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:03:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haham hanuka</username>
<id>111674</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the plant family. For the genus '''Cactus''', see [[Mammillaria]], [[Melocactus]] and [[Opuntia]]. For the Texas town, see [[Cactus, Texas]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cacti
| image = Ferocactus1.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''[[Ferocactus|Ferocactus pilosus]]'' (Mexican Lime Cactus) growing south of [[Saltillo]], [[Coahuila]], northeast [[Mexico]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Caryophyllales]]
| familia = '''Cactaceae'''
| familia_authority = [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|Juss.]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision =
See [[Taxonomy of the Cactaceae]]
}}
'''Cactus''' is the name given to any member of the [[flowering plant]] family [[Cactaceae]]. Cacti are almost exclusively [[New World]] plants. This means that they are native only in [[North America]], [[South America]], and the [[West Indies]]. There is however one exception, ''Rhipsalis baccifera''; this species has a pantropical distribution, occurring in the [[Old World]] in tropical [[Africa]], [[Madagascar]] and [[Sri Lanka]] as well as in tropical America. This plant is thought to be a relatively recent colonist in the Old World (within the last few thousand years), probably carried as seeds in the digestive tracts of [[bird migration|migratory]] [[bird]]s. Many other cacti have become naturalized to similar environments in other parts of the world after being introduced by people.
[[Image:Cactus1web.jpg|thumb|left|Many species of cactus have long, sharp spikes.]]
Many [[succulent plant]]s in both the Old and New World
bear a striking resemblance to cacti, and are often called "cactus" in common usage.
This is, however, due to [[parallel evolution]];
none of these are closely related to the Cactaceae.
One distinct identifying characteric of the Cactus family
is the [[areole]], a specialized structure from which spines and new shoots grow.
Cacti are believed to have evolved in the last 30 to 40 million years. Long ago, the Americas were joined to the other continents, but separated due to [[continental drift]]. Unique species in the New World must have developed after the continents had moved apart. Significant distance between the continents was only achieved around in the last 50 million years. This may explain why cacti are so rare in Africa; the continents had already separated when cacti [[evolve|evolved]].
[[Image:Cactus flower02.jpg|thumb|left|Cactus Flower]]
Like other succulents, cacti are well-adapted to life with little [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]]. The [[leaf|leaves]] have evolved into [[spine (biology)|spines]], which in addition to allowing less water to evaporate than regular leaves, defend the cactus against water-seeking animals. [[Photosynthesis]] is carried out by enlarged [[Plant stem|stems]], which also store water. Unlike many other succulents, the stem is the only part of a true cactus where this takes place. Very few members of the family have leaves, and when present these are usually rudimentary and soon fall off; they are typically awl-shaped and only 1-3 mm long. Two genera, ''Pereskia'' and ''Pereskiopsis'', do however retain large, non-succulent leaves 5-25 cm long, and also non-succulent stems; they are possibly primitive genera, thought to be closely similar to the plants that cacti evolved from.
Cacti come in a wide range of shapes and sizes. Some grow to great size. Some cacti produce beautiful [[flower]]s, which like spines and branches arise from [[areole]]s. Many cactus species are night-blooming, as they are [[pollen|pollinated]] by [[nocturnal]] [[insect]]s or small animals, principally [[moth]]s and [[bat]]s. Cacti range from small and round to pole-like and tall, such as the [[Saguaro]].
A number of cactus species are cultivated for use as houseplants, as well as for ornamental gardens. They often form part of [[xeriscaping|xerophilic (dry) gardens]] in arid regions. Some cacti bear edible fruit.
Selected important genera include the following; for a full list see [[Taxonomy of the Cactaceae]]
*''[[Acanthocereus]]'' - [[triangle cactus]]
*''[[Ariocarpus]]'' - [[living rock]]
*''[[Bergerocactus]]'' - [[snakecactus]]
*''[[Carnegiea]]'' - [[saguaro]]
*''[[Cephalocereus]]'' - [[old man cactus]]
*''[[Cereus]]'' - [[sweetpotato cactus]]
*''[[Coryphantha]]'' - [[beehive cactus]]
*''[[Echinocactus]]'' - [[barrel cactus]]
*''[[Echinocereus]]'' - [[hedgehog cactus]]
*''[[Echinopsis]]'' - [[San Pedro (cactus)|San Pedro]]
*''[[Epiphyllum]]'' - [[climbing cactus]]
*''[[Epithelantha]]'' - [[pingpong ball cactus]]
*''[[Escobaria]]'' - [[foxtail cactus]], [[pincushion cactus]]
*''[[Ferocactus]]'' - [[barrel cactus]]
*''[[Gymnocalycium]]'' - [[Chin cactus]]
*''[[Harrisia]]'' - [[applecactus]]
*''[[Hylocereus]]'' - [[nightblooming cactus]]
*''[[Lophophora]]'' - [[peyote]]
*''[[Mammillaria]]'' - [[fishhook cactus]], [[globe cactus]], [[bird's-nest cactus]]
*''[[Opuntia]]'' - [[prickly pear]], [[cholla]]
*''[[Pediocactus]]'' - [[hedgehog cactus]]
*''[[Pilosocereus]]'' - [[tree cactus]]
*''[[Schlumbergera]]'' - [[holiday cactus]]
*''[[Sclerocactus]]'' - [[fishhook cactus]]
*''[[Selenicereus]]'' - [[moonlight cactus]], [[nightblooming cereus]]
*''[[Turbinicarpus]]'' - [[top cactus]]
==Etymology==
The word ''cactus'' is ultimately derived from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] Κακτος ''kaktos'', used in classical Greek for a species of spiny [[thistle]], possibly the [[cardoon]], and used as a generic name, ''Cactus'', by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in 1753 (now rejected in favor of ''Mammillaria''). There is some dispute as to the proper plural form of the word; as a Greek loan into English, the correct plural in English would be "cactuses". However, as a word in [[Botanical Latin]] (as distinct from [[Classical Latin]]) "cactus" would follow standard Latin rules for pluralization and become "cacti", which has become the prevalent usage in English.
==See also==
*[[Plant]]
*[[Succulent]]
==References and external links==
* Anderson, Edward F. ''The Cactus Family'' (Timber Press, 2001) ISBN 0-88192-498-9 - Comprehensive and lavishly illustrated
* Benson, Lyman ''The Cacti of Arizona'' (The University of Arizona Press, 1981) ISBN 0-8165-0509-8 - Thorough treatment of the Arizona, U.S.A., species
* [http://www.cactiguide.com/ CactiGuide.com - many photos, and discussion forum]
* [http://www.cactus-mall.com/ Cactus portal]
* [http://www.cactusi.com/ Cactus Gallery]
* [http://hydrocactus.free.fr Hydrocactus flowering Cacti videos]
{{commons|Cactus}}
{{commons2|Cactaceae}}
[[Category:Cacti| ]]
[[Category:Plant families]]
One of the largest cactus (and other succulents) collection in the unprotected open air (NOT under cover of a roof or shade net) can be found at Soekershof Walkabout in South Africa. http://soekershof.com
[[bn:ক্যাক্টাস]]
[[bo:ཀླུ་ཥིང་]]
[[da:Kaktus-familien]]
[[de:Kakteengewächse]]
[[es:Cactus]]
[[fr:Cactaceae]]
[[gl:Cacto]]
[[hr:Kaktusi]]
[[it:Cactus]]
[[he:קקטוס]]
[[lt:Kaktusiniai augalai]]
[[nl:Cactus]]
[[ja:サボテン]]
[[no:Kaktus]]
[[pl:Kaktusowate]]
[[pt:Cactaceae]]
[[ru:Кактус]]
[[simple:Cactus]]
[[fi:Kaktuskasvit]]
[[sv:Kaktusar]]
[[vi:Xương rồng]]
[[zh:仙人掌]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CCC</title>
<id>7820</id>
<revision>
<id>40608657</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T20:20:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cameron Nedland</username>
<id>652628</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''CCC''' may be (in alphabetical order):
* [[California Conservation Corps]]
* [[Campus Crusade for Christ]]
* [[Canadian computing competition]]
* [[Candy Cane Children]]
* [[Carmarthenshire County Council]]
* [[Cartesian closed category]]
* [[Cascadia Community College]]
* [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], an exposition of Roman Catholic Church teachings
* [[Cellules Communistes Combattantes]]
* [[Certificate of Clinical Competence]], entry-level certification for speech-language pathologists and audiologists
* [[Chaos comix clan]] formerly Chaos Comix
* [[Chaos Computer Club]]
* [[China Compulsory Certificate]]
* [[Christian Card Collectors]], an online sportscard trading group.
* [[Christian City Churches]]
* [[Civilian Conservation Corps]], a New Deal program under Franklin D. Roosevelt
* [[Clackamas Community College]]
* [[Clean Clothes Campaign]]
* [[Clear Channel Communications]]
* [[Coca-Cola Company]]
* Colby Community Colledge
* [[Combatant Communist Cells]]
* [[Command, control, and communications]]
* [[Copyright Clearance Center]]
* [[Coricidin]] Cough & Cold - a cough medication
* [[Corsham Computer Centre]]
* [[Council of Conservative Citizens]] (also abbreviated CofCC)
* [[Countable chain condition]]
* [[County cricket club]], any of the clubs participating in the [[County Championship]]
* [[Cyclists Combating Cancer]]
* CCC, The city of opportunities, a comic-flash series created by Vinnie Veritas.
* Cardiff County Council, in [[Cardiff]]
* Carlito Caribbean Cool, a stage name for wrestler [[Carly Colon]]
* China Christian Council, official Chinese Christian organization, along with the [[Three-Self Patriotic Movement]]
* Customs Cooperation Council, former name of the [[World Customs Organization]]
CCC, a company based in Hong Kong
== See also ==
*[[C3]]
{{3LC}}
[[de:CCC]]
[[fr:CCC]]
[[nl:CCC]]
[[ja:CCC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Civilian Conservation Corps</title>
<id>7821</id>
<revision>
<id>42048361</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:04:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.73.109.2</ip>
</contributor>
|
e-party rule can also produce disadvantages.
One such disadvantage is that the government may not consider as wide a range of perspectives and concerns. It is entirely possible that a voter will find that all major parties agree on a particular issue. In this case, the voter will not have any meaningful way of expressing a dissenting opinion through his or her vote.
Another disadvantage is that fewer choices are offered to the voters, often pressuring voters to vote for a candidate with whom they largely disagree so as to oppose a candidate with whom they disagree even more (See [[Plurality voting system|tactical voting]] above); this feature pressures candidates to appeal to the extremes in order to avoid being undercut. This appeal-to-extremes operates by giving those voters who are more centrist no choice but to vote for them. The likely result of this is that candidates will less closely reflect the viewpoints of those who vote for them.
It may also be argued that one-party rule is more likely to lead to radical changes in government policy that are only favored by a plurality or bare majority of the voters, whereas multi-party systems usually require greater consensus in order to make dramatic changes.
===Safe seats===
{{seealso|Rotten borough}}
A ''safe seat'' is one in which a plurality of voters support a particular candidate or party so strongly that their votes for that candidate are guaranteed in advance of the election. This causes the difficulty that all ''other'' voters in the constituency can then make no difference to the result, since the winner of the seat is already known in advance. This results in serious feelings of disenfranchisement, and to [[abstention]].
{{sect-stub}}
===Wipeout and clean sweep results===
Since FPTP combined with single member constituencies generate a winner's bonus, if not winner takes all, the opposition can be left with few if any seats (see above).
It is argued that a weak or absent opposition due to an [[Wipe-out results (elections)|electoral wipeout]] is bad for the government. Provincial elections in several Canadian provinces provide suitable [[Wipe-out results (elections)|examples]].
===Disproportionate influence of smaller parties===
Smaller parties can disproportionately change the outcome of a FPTP election by swinging what is called the 50-50% balance of two party systems, by creating a [[political faction|faction]] within one or both ends of the [[political spectrum]] which shifts the winner of the election from an [[absolute majority]] outcome to a [[simple majority]] outcome favoring the previously less favored party. In comparison, for electoral systems using [[proportional representation]] small groups win only their proportional share of representation. In the [[United States]], this mechanism falls within one major reasoning (USA, Voting act, 1970s) favoring two-party, First-past-the-post (FPTP) electoral systems.
==Current events==
<!-- put this text somewhere...maybe: The Independent Commission on the Voting System, popularly known as the [[Jenkins Commission]] after its chairman Roy Jenkins, was a commission into possible reform of the United Kingdom electoral system. -->
The [[United Kingdom]] continues to use the first-past-the-post electoral system for general elections, and for local government elections in England and Wales. Changes to the UK system have been proposed, and alternatives were examined by the [[Jenkins Committee]] in the late [[1990s]] but no major changes have been implemented. [[Canada]] also uses this system for national and [[Provinces and territories of Canada|provincial]] elections. In May [[2005]] the Canadian province of [[British Columbia]] had a referendum on abolishing single-member district plurality in favor of multi-member districts with the [[Single Transferable Vote]] system after the [[Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform]] made a recommendation for the reform. The referendum obtained 57% of the vote, but failed to meet the 60% requirement for passing.
[[Wales]], [[Scotland]], [[Northern Ireland]], the [[Republic of Ireland]] and [[New Zealand]] are notable examples of countries within the UK, or with previous links to it, that use non-FPTP electoral systems.
Recent examples of nations which have undergone democratic reforms but have not adopted the FPTP system include [[South Africa]], almost all of the former [[Eastern bloc]] nations, [[Russia]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]].
===Where plurality voting is used===
Countries that use this system to elect the lower or only house of their legislature include:
*[[Antigua and Barbuda]]
*[[Bahamas]]
*[[Bangladesh]]
*[[Barbados]]
*[[Belize]]
*[[Bhutan]]
*[[Botswana]]
*[[Canada]]
*[[Dominica]]
*[[Ethiopia]]
*[[The Gambia]]
*[[Ghana]]
*[[Grenada]]
*[[India]] (Proportional representation in upper house)
*[[Italy]] ([[Politics of Italy#History of the political landscape|Since 1993]], In both houses of the [[Parliament of Italy]], an [[Additional Member System]] is used where three-quarters of seats are filled by single member plurality. There is currently discussion in the Italian parliament of going back to an analogue system ahead of the 2006 elections.)
*[[Jamaica]]
*[[Kenya]]
*[[Malawi]]
*[[Malaysia]]
*[[Federated States of Micronesia]]
*[[Morocco]]
*[[Nepal]]
*[[Nigeria]]
*[[Pakistan]]
*[[Palau]]
*[[Papua New Guinea]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
*[[Saint Lucia]]
*[[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
*[[Samoa]]
*[[Singapore]]
*[[Solomon Islands]]
*[[South Korea]]
*[[Swaziland]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Tonga]]
*[[Trinidad and Tobago]]
*[[Tuvalu]]
*[[Uganda]]
*[[United Kingdom]] (Parliamentary and local government elections in England and Wales only, PR in elections for EU)
*[[United States]] (except for [[Louisiana]])
*[[Yemen]]
*[[Zambia]]
*[[Zimbabwe]]
{{seealso|Table of voting systems by nation}}
The plurality election system is used in the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] for executive offices such as county magistrates, mayors, and the president, but not for legislative seats which used the [[single non-transferable vote]] system. This has produced an interesting [[Politics of the Republic of China|party structure]] in which there are two broad coalitions of parties which cooperate in executive elections but which compete internally in legislative elections. {{ref|count}}
India uses a [[proportional representation]] system for its upper house.
==See also==
*[[Portal:Politics|List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
*[[Proportional representation]]
*[[Runoff voting]]
*[[Single non-transferable vote]]
*[[Single Transferable Vote|Single transferable vote]]
*[[Voting system]]
{{note|brit}} [http://www.aceproject.org/main/english/es/esh.htm "The Global Distribution of Electoral Systems"]
{{note|count}} ''Making Votes Count'', Gary Cox (1997)
==External links==
*[http://www.aceproject.org/main/english/es/esd01.htm ACE Project: First Past The Post] - Detailed explanation of first-past-the-post voting
*[http://www.citizensassembly.bc.ca/public The Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform says the new proportional electoral system it proposes for British Columbia will improve the practice of democracy in the province.]
*[http://www.citizensassembly.bc.ca/public/learning_resources/learning_materials/av ASSEMBLY AUDIO AND VIDEO Below, you'll find audio and video recordings of six Learning Phase weekends, a meeting held in Prince George and the six Deliberation Phase weekends. The Learning Phase and Deliberation Phase recordings were broadcast on Hansard TV during 2004.] - week 5 gives a detailed description by David Farrell, of the University of Manchester (England), Elizabeth McLeay of Victoria University in Wellington, New Zealand.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Illinois_District_4_2004.png Districting in FPTP systems, The unusual "earmuff" shape of the 4th Congressional District of Illinois connects two Hispanic neighborhoods while remaining contiguous by narrowly tracing Interstate 294.]
[[Category:Voting systems]]
[[de:Mehrheitswahl]]
[[et:Majoritaarne valimissüsteem]]
[[eo:Majoritata balotsistemo]]
[[fr:Scrutin uninominal majoritaire à un tour]]
[[ja:小選挙区制]]
[[zh:多數制]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fetish</title>
<id>10881</id>
<revision>
<id>15908671</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.253.39.211</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirecting to article title</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fetishism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 14</title>
<id>10882</id>
<revision>
<id>42163465</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:06:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Deaths */ removed redundant year links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=14}}
|}
[[February 14]] is the [[45 (number)|45]]th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 320 days remaining, 321 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[842]] - [[Charles the Bald]] and [[Louis the German]] swear the [[Oaths of Strasbourg]] in French and German language.
* [[1014]] - [[Pope Boniface I]] recognizes [[Henry the Fowler|Henry of Bavaria]] as [[King]] of [[Germany]].
* [[1076]] - [[Pope Gregory VII]] excommunicates [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]].
* [[1556]] - [[Thomas Cranmer]] is declared a [[heresy|heretic]].
* [[1575]] - [[Henry III of France]] marries [[Louise de Lorraine-Vaudémont]].
* [[1743]] - [[Henry Pelham]] becomes [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]].
* [[1779]] - [[James Cook]] is killed by the natives of the [[Sandwich Islands]].
* [[1797]] - [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent]] & [[Horatio Nelson, |
, [[London]], laid by wife of Sir [[Charles Barry]].
*[[1861]] - President [[Abraham Lincoln]] suspends the [[writ of habeas corpus]].
*[[1865]] - The [[steamboat]] ''[[Sultana (steamboat)|Sultana]]'', carrying 2,300 passengers, explodes and sinks in the [[Mississippi River]], killing 1,700, most of whom were [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] survivors of the [[Andersonville Prison]].
*[[1897]] - [[Grant's Tomb]] is dedicated.
*[[1904]] - The [[Australian Labor Party]] becomes the first such party to gain national government, under [[Chris Watson]].
*[[1906]] - [[Salem, Ohio]] celebrates its Centennial.[http://www.salemohio.com]
*[[1908]] - The [[1908 Summer Olympics]] open in [[London]].
*[[1909]] - [[Sultan]] of [[Turkey]] [[Abdul Hamid II]] is overthrown, and is succeeded by his brother, [[Murat V]].
*[[1911]] - Following the resignation and death of [[William P. Frye]], a [[Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate, 1911-1913|compromise is reached to rotate]] the office of [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate]].
*[[1914]] - [[Honduras]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1936]] - The [[United Auto Workers]] (UAW) gains autonomy from the [[American Federation of Labor]].
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Germany|German]] troops enter [[Athens]].
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: Last German troops are expelled from [[Lapland War|Finnish Lapland]] (the last day of World War II going on in [[Finland]]). The day is the national war veteran day in Finland.
*1945 - The [[Völkischer Beobachter]], the newspaper of the [[Nazi Party]], ceases publication.
*[[1947]] - [[Babe Ruth]] Day is celebrated at [[Yankee Stadium]].
*[[1950]] - [[Apartheid]]: In [[South Africa]], the [[Group Areas Act]] is passed formally segregating races.
*[[1960]] - [[Togo]] gains independence from [[France|French]]-administered UN trusteeship.
*[[1961]] - [[Sierra Leone]] is granted its [[independence]] from the [[United Kingdom]], with [[Milton Margai]] as the first [[Heads of Government of Sierra Leone|Prime Minister]].
*[[1964]] - "[[Love Me Do]]" by the [[Beatles]] was #1 for one week in the US
*[[1972]] - [[Constructive Vote of No Confidence]] against [[Chancellor of Germany|German Chancellor]] [[Willy Brandt]] fails under obscure circumstances.
*[[1981]] - [[Xerox PARC]] introduces the [[computer mouse]].
*[[1986]] - [[Captain Midnight]] (John R. MacDougall) hijacks [[Home Box Office|HBO]]'s [[satellite]] and transmits his own message to HBO viewers.
*[[1992]] - The [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] is proclaimed, comprising of [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]].
*[[1994]] - [[South African general election, 1994]]: The first democratic [[general election]] in [[South Africa]], in which black citizens vote.
*[[1997]] - [[Andrew Cunanan]] murders [[Jeffrey Trail]], beginning a murder spree that will last until [[July]] and terminate with the murder of [[fashion designer]] [[Gianni Versace]].
*[[2005]] - The Superjumbo jet aircraft [[Airbus 380]] makes its first flight from [[Toulouse]], [[France]].
==Births==
*[[1623]] - [[Johann Adam Reinken]], German organist (d. [[1722]])
*[[1701]] - King [[Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia]] (d. [[1773]])
*[[1718]] - [[Thomas Lewis (Virginia)|Thomas Lewis]], Irish-born Virginia settler (d. [[1790]])
*[[1737]] - [[Edward Gibbon]], English historian (d. [[1794]])
*[[1759]] - [[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]], English activist and author (d. [[1797]])
*[[1791]] - [[Samuel F. B. Morse]], American inventor (d. [[1872]])
*[[1812]] - [[Friedrich von Flotow]], German composer (d. [[1883]])
*[[1820]] - [[Herbert Spencer]], English philosopher (d. [[1903]])
*[[1822]] - [[Ulysses S. Grant]], 18th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1885]])
*[[1840]] - [[Edward Whymper]], English mountain climber (d. [[1911]])
*[[1878]] - [[Frank Alvin Gotch]], American professional wrestler (d. [[1917]])
*[[1888]] - [[Florence La Badie]], Canadian actress (d. [[1917]])
*[[1891]] - [[Sergei Prokofiev]], Russian composer (d. [[1953]])
*[[1894]] - [[Nicolas Slonimsky]], Russian-born musicologist and composer (d.[[1995]])
*[[1896]] - [[Rogers Hornsby]], baseball player (d. [[1963]])
*[[1899]] - [[Walter Lantz]], American cartoonist (d. [[1994]])
*[[1904]] - [[Cecil Day-Lewis]], Irish poet and writer (d. [[1972]])
*[[1913]] - [[Philip Hauge Abelson]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[2004]])
*[[1916]] - [[Enos Slaughter]], baseball player (d. [[2002]])
*[[1920]] - [[Guido Cantelli]], Italian conductor (d. [[1956]])
*1920 - [[Edwin Morgan]], Scottish poet
*[[1922]] - [[Jack Klugman]], American actor
*[[1927]] - [[Coretta Scott King]], American civil rights activist and wife of [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] (d. [[2006]])
*[[1931]] - [[Igor Oistrakh]], Ukrainian violinist
*[[1932]] - [[Anouk Aimée]], French actress
*1932 - [[Casey Kasem]], American disc jockey
*1932 - [[Gian-Carlo Rota]], Italian-born mathematician and philosopher (d. [[1999]])
*[[1937]] - [[Sandy Dennis]], American actress (d. [[1992]])
*1937 - [[Robin Eames]], Northern Irish clergyman
*[[1938]] - [[Earl Anthony]], American bowler (d. [[2001]])
*[[1939]] - [[Judy Carne]], British actress and comedienne
*[[1941]] - [[Lee Roy Jordan]], American football player
*[[1942]] - [[Jim Keltner]], American drummer
*[[1944]] - [[Cuba Gooding, Sr.]], American musician ([[The Main Ingredient]])
*[[1945]] - [[August Wilson]], American playwright (d. [[2005]])
*[[1947]] - [[Ann Peebles]], American singer
*[[1948]] - [[Kate Pierson]], American singer ([[The B-52's]])
*[[1951]] - [[Ace Frehley]], American musician ([[KISS (band)|KISS]])
*[[1952]] - [[George Gervin]], American basketball player
*[[1959]] - [[Sheena Easton]], Scottish singer
*[[1963]] - [[Cali Timmins]], Canadian actress
*[[1967]] - [[Prince Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands]]
*[[1969]] - [[Darcey Bussell]], British ballerina
*1969 - [[Mica Paris]], British singer and presenter
*[[1970]] - [[Kylie Travis]], English actress and model
*[[1976]] - [[Isobel Campbell]], Scottish singer, cellist and composer
*1976 - [[Walter Pandiani]], Uruguayan footballer
*[[1984]] - [[Patrick Stump]], American musician ([[Fall Out Boy]])
*[[1987]] - [[William Moseley (actor)|William Moseley]], British actor
<!-- Please do not add your own birthday to this list. Thank you. -->
==Deaths==
*[[630]] - King [[Ardashir III of Persia]]
*[[1404]] - [[Philip II, Duke of Burgundy]] (b. [[1342]])
*[[1521]] - [[Ferdinand Magellan]], Portuguese explorer
*[[1530]] - [[Jacopo Sannazaro]], Italian poet (b. [[1458]])
*[[1599]] - [[Maeda Toshiie]], Japanese general (b. [[1538]])
*[[1605]] - [[Pope Leo XI]] (b. [[1535]])
*[[1613]] - [[Robert Abercromby]], Scottish Jesuit (b. [[1532]])
*[[1625]] - [[Mori Terumoto]], Japanese warrior (b. [[1553]])
*[[1656]] - [[Jan van Goyen]], Dutch painter (b. [[1596]])
*[[1694]] - [[John George IV, Elector of Saxony]] (b. [[1668]])
*[[1695]] - [[John Trenchard (Secretary of State)|John Trenchard]], English statesman (b. [[1640]])
*[[1702]] - [[Jean Bart]], French admiral (b. [[1651]])
*[[1782]] - [[William Talbot, 1st Earl Talbot]], English politician (b. [[1710]])
*[[1813]] - [[Zebulon Pike]], American frontiersman and explorer (b. [[1779]])
*[[1882]] - [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], American essayist (b. [[1803]])
*[[1915]] - [[Alexander Scriabin]], Russian composer (b. [[1872]])
*[[1921]] - [[Arthur Mold]], English cricketer (b. [[1863]])
*[[1932]] - [[Hart Crane]], American writer (suicide) (b. [[1899]])
*[[1936]] - [[Karl Pearson]], English statistician (b. [[1857]])
*[[1952]] - [[Guido Castelnuovo]], Italian mathematician (b. [[1865]])
*[[1965]] - [[Edward R. Murrow]], American journalist (b. [[1908]])
*[[1970]] - [[Arthur Shields]], Irish actor (b. [[1896]])
*[[1972]] - [[Kwame Nkrumah]], leader of Ghana (b. [[1909]])
*[[1977]] - [[Stanley Adams (actor)|Stanley Adams]], American actor (b. [[1915]])
*[[1992]] - [[Olivier Messiaen]], French composer (b. [[1908]])
*[[1995]] - [[Willem Frederik Hermans]], Dutch writer (b. [[1921]])
*[[1996]] - [[William Colby]], American director of the Central Intelligence Agency (b. [[1920]])
*[[1998]] - [[Carlos Castaneda]], Peruvian-born writer (b. [[1925]])
*[[1999]] - [[Al Hirt]], American trumpeter (b. [[1922]])
*[[2000]] - [[Vicki Sue Robinson]], American singer (b. [[1954]])
*[[2002]] - [[George Alec Effinger]], American author (b. [[1947]])
*2002 - [[Ruth Handler]], American toy manufacturer (b. [[1916]])
*2002 - [[Hans Heinrich Thyssen-Bornemisza]], Swiss industrialist and art collector (b. [[1921]])
<!-- Please do not add your own death to this list. Thank you. -->
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Slovenia]]: Day of Uprising Against Occupation
*[[South Africa]]: [[Freedom Day (South Africa)|Freedom day]]
*[[Catalonia]]: [[Montserrat's Day]] (see [[Montserrat (mountain)|Montserrat]])
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/27 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[April 26]] - [[April 28]] - [[March 27]] - [[May 27]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[ceb:Abril 27]]
[[nap:27 'e abbrile]]
[[war:Abril 27]]
[[pam:Abril 27]]
[[af:27 April]]
[[ar:27 أبريل]]
[[an:27 d'abril]]
[[ast:27 d'abril]]
[[bg:27 април]]
[[be:27 красавіка]]
[[bs:27. april]]
[[ca:27 d'abril]]
[[cv:Ака, 27]]
[[co:27 d'aprile]]
[[cs:27. duben]]
[[cy:27 Ebrill]]
[[da:27. april]]
[[de:27. April]]
[[et:27. aprill]]
[[el:27 Απριλίου]]
[[es:27 de abril]]
[[eo:27-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 27]]
[[fo:27. apríl]]
[[fr:27 avril]]
[[fy:27 april]]
[[ga:27 Aibreán]]
[[gl:27 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 27일]]
[[hr:27. travnja]]
[[io:27 di aprilo]]
[[id:27 April]]
[[ia:27 de april]]
[[ie:27 april]]
[[is:27. apríl]]
[[it:27 aprile]]
[[he:27 באפריל]]
[[jv:27 April]]
[[ka:27 აპრილი]]
[[csb:27 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:27'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 27]]
[[lb:27. Abrëll]]
[[li:27 april]]
[[hu:Április 27]]
[[mk:27 април]]
[[ms:27 April]]
[[nl:27 apri |
Feifer)
"Ninety percent of the buildings on the island were completely destroyed, and the lush tropical landscape was turned into a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots." [http://www.nyc-shorinryu.com/okinawa.html]
"By the end of May monsoon rains which turned contested slopes and roads into a morass exacerbated both the tactical and medical situations. The ground advance began to resemble a World War I battlefield as troops became mired in mud and flooded roads greatly inhibited evacuation of wounded to the rear. Troops lived on a field sodden by rain, part garbage dump and part graveyard. Unburied Japanese bodies decayed, sank in the mud, and became part of a noxious stew. Anyone sliding down the greasy slopes could easily find their pockets full of maggots at the end of the journey." [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/okinawa-battle.htm]
"While on Okinawa, the marines and soldiers were going through their crucible of hell brought on by rain, heat, poison snakes, mosquitoes...the stench of human feces and rotting human flesh filled with maggots...." [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ht/34.1/tzeng.html#FOOT21]
== Allied involvement ==
Although the land battle was entirely a US campaign, Allied naval ships added to the air bomdardment principally supplied by the U.S. Navy. [[British_Pacific_Fleet|Task Force 57]], a carrier group with British, Australian and New Zealand ships and personnel provided about 20% of the available naval air power.
Task Force 57 was assigned the task of neutralising the Japanese airfields in the [[Sakishima Gunto]], which it did from [[26 March]] until [[10 April]]. On [[10 April]], its attentions were transferred to airfields on northern [[Taiwan]]. The force withdrew to San Pedro Bay on [[23 April]]. Although by then a commonplace event for the U.S. Navy, this was the longest time that a Royal Naval force of that size had been maintained at sea.
From [[4 May]] [[1945]], Task Force 57 returned to action, subduing the airfields as before, this time with naval bombardment as well as aircraft. A number of Kami-kaze suicide attacks caused significant damage but only a brief interruption to the force's work. They finally withdrew to [[Guam]] and [[Manus Island]] on [[25 May]].
== Aftermath ==
The most famous American casualty was the [[Journalist|war correspondent]] [[Ernie Pyle]], who was killed by a Japanese [[sniper]] on [[Ie Shima]], just off the northwest coast of Okinawa.
U.S. General [[Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr.]] was killed by a Japanese ricocheting artillery shell while inspecting his troops at the front line, just 4 days before the end of the battle. He was the highest-ranking American to die during the war.
Many military historians believe that Okinawa led directly to American use of the [[atomic bomb]], on [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]]. A prominent holder of this view is [[Victor Davis Hanson]], who states it explicitly in his book ''[[Ripples of Battle]]''. The theory goes: ''because the Japanese on Okinawa, including native Okinawans, were so fierce in their defense (even when cut off, and without supplies), and because casualties were so appalling, many American strategists looked for an alternative means to subdue mainland Japan, other than a direct invasion. This means presented itself, with the advent of atomic bombs, which worked admirably in convincing the Japanese to sue for peace, without American casualties. Ironically, the American conventional fire-bombing of major Japanese cities (which had been going on for months before Okinawa) was far more effective at killing civilians than the atomic bombs and, had the Americans simply continued, or expanded this, the Japanese would likely have surrendered anyway. Nevertheless, the bombs were a powerful symbolic display of American power, and the Japanese capitulated, obviating the need for an invasion of the home islands.''
In 1945, [[Winston Churchill]] called the battle "among the most intense and famous in military history."
==External links==
*[http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/wwii/okinawa/ US military on the Battle of Okinawa]
*[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Navy-c24.html New Zealand account with reference to Operation ''Iceberg'']
*[http://www.adamsplanes.com/USS%20Gilbert%20Is%201945.htm USS Gilbert Islands CVE 107. 1945 {at Okinawa}]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Okinawa/ United States Army in World War II The War in the Pacific Okinawa: The Last Battle]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/okinawa-battle.htm/ Global Security history of Battle of Okinawa particular combat fatigue figures]
*[http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/wwii/okinawa/default.aspx/ History Online about Battle of Okinawa particular force strengths and casualties on both sides]
==References==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102426744 Appleman, Roy E., James M. Burns, Russell A. Gugeler, and John Stevens. ''Okinawa: the Last Battle'' (1948)] official US Army history.
*Feifer, George (1992), ''Tennozan: The Battle of Okinawa and the Atomic Bomb'' ISBN 0395700663
*Keegan, John, ''The Second World War'' ISBN 0712673842
[[Category:World War II operations and battles of the Pacific Campaign|Okinawa]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II|Okinawa]]
[[de:Schlacht um Okinawa]]
[[fr:Bataille d'Okinawa]]
[[he:קרב אוקינאווה]]
[[ja:沖縄戦]]
[[pl:Bitwa o Okinawę]]
[[pt:Batalha de Okinawa]]
[[sr:Битка за Окинаву]]
[[sv:Slaget om Okinawa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of El Alamein</title>
<id>4987</id>
<revision>
<id>39858032</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T09:36:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">There were two '''battles of [[El Alamein]]''', both during [[1942]]. In [[Egypt]], Allied (primarily Commonwealth) forces under a British General finally stopped the Germans. It was a turning point for [[World War II]].
* [[First Battle of El Alamein]] - July 1942
* [[Second Battle of El Alamein]] - November 1942
{{disambig}}
[[ja:&#12456;&#12523;&#12539;&#12450;&#12521;&#12513;&#12452;&#12531;&#12398;&#25126;&#12356;]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod El Alamein]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brezhnev Doctrine</title>
<id>4988</id>
<revision>
<id>33912189</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-05T00:59:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vina-iwbot</username>
<id>727408</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Brezhnev Doctrine''' was a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] policy doctrine, introduced by [[Leonid Ilych Brezhnev|Leonid Brezhnev]] in a speech at the Fifth Congress of the [[Polish United Workers' Party]] on [[November 13]], [[1968]], which stated:
:"''When forces that are hostile to [[socialism]] try to turn the development of some socialist country towards [[capitalism]], it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries.''"
Implicit in this doctrine was that the leadership of the Soviet Union reserved, for itself, the right to define "socialism" and "capitalism". This meant in practice that no country was allowed to leave the [[Warsaw Pact]] or to disturb that nation's communist party's monopoly on power. The doctrine was used to justify the invasions of [[Czechoslovakia]] that terminated the [[Prague Spring]] in [[1968]] and of the non-Warsaw Pact nation of [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] in [[1979]]. The Brezhnev Doctrine was superseded by the facetiously named [[Sinatra Doctrine]] in [[1988]].
{{Wikisourcepar2|Brezhnev Doctrine|Text of Brezhnev's speech}}
[[Category:Foreign policy doctrines]]
[[Category:Soviet external politics]]
[[de:Breschnew-Doktrin]]
[[es:Doctrina Brezhnev]]
[[it:Dottrina Brežnev]]
[[nl:Brezjnev-doctrine]]
[[no:Brezjnev-doktrinen]]
[[sv:Brezjnevdoktrinen]]
[[zh:勃列日涅夫主义]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bain-marie</title>
<id>4990</id>
<revision>
<id>41661580</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:23:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arsine</username>
<id>447227</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */ rm redundant interwiki links (already in the side bar)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bain-marie''' or '''Mary's bath''' is a method utilised in [[industry]] ([[pharmacy|phamaceutical]], [[cosmetics]], [[conserves]], etc.), [[chemistry|chemical]] laboratories and in the kitchen to slowly warm or convey uniform [[temperature]] to a [[Liquid|liquid]] or [[Solid|solid]] substance, by submerging the container into a larger one with boiling or near boiling water.
The main concept here is that of ''bath'' which implies ''indirect heating'' of a substance. [[Heat transfer]] to the ''medium'' (water of the bath) is by [[convection]], while [[Thermal conduction|conduction]] is the process involved in the warming of the substance. The medium (''bath'') could be [[mineral oil]]; pure [[water]], [[salt]] [[solution]]s of varying [[solute]]s [[concentration]]s, etc., depending on the temperature at which the substance is required to be warmed. It is customary to add ''medium'' at ambient (room) temperature to decrease its temperature and consequently the heat transfer rate from it to the substance.
The term originates from [[alchemy]], where some practitioners needed to give their materials prolonged periods of gentle heating, in an attempt to mimic the supposed natural processes whereby [[precious metal]]s [[germination|germinated]] in the earth. It was said to be an invention of [[Mary the Jewess]], an ancient alchemist and traditionally sup |
ike its predecessor this album was a huge success for Amr and reinforced his popularity in the Arab world and abroad.
The "Best of Amr Diab" released in early 1999 contained a brand new song "Maham Kibirt Sugheir" recorded as a tribute to the Legends of Arabic music such as Omm Kolsoum, Abdel Halim Hafez and Mohammed Abdul Wahab that have influenced him. A strong ballad with a spectacular video of the concert footage inspired by Puff Daddy (who he met at the Monaco Awards) it became another big hit for Amr. The album also contains a previously unreleased European remix of Habibi, and the most popular songs from Amr's albums of the 1990s.
July 1999 sees the release of Amr's new studio album "Amarain", (two moons) already hailed as the best work of his career to date and including the eagerly anticipated duets with the France based international Rai superstar, Khaled of "Didi" fame, and with the Greek diva, Angela Dimitrou, whose crossover smash "Marguerites" was a huge hit across the Middle East in 1998. The title track Amarain is the first video to be broadcast and the album seems certain to confirm Amr's position as the leading and most innovative artist from the Middle East.
“Tamally Ma'ak” (Always With You) came next, which was released on[[17 July]] [[2000]], and achieved a high level of popularity and success. The title track’s video, Tamally Ma’ak, which was shot in the Czech Republic, was considered one of the best videos for Amr Diab. Again he appeared with a new look and a new style!
On [[1 August]] [[2001]], and after a great anticipation by the huge number of fans, "Aktar Wahed" was released. The album's name is a short for one of the songs "Aktar Wahed Beyhebbak". It contains 10 tracks and a bonus oriental remix for the song "Wala Ala Balo". "Wala Ala Balo", a well-studied mash up of both Trance/Techno rhythms and Oriental Arabic Music. The song featured the rapper SandMan. The video on the other hand was shot in London in a discotheque. An even newer style for Amr Diab The album contains a good number of significant songs like "Adeeni Rege'telek", "Ya Habeeby La", "Sadda'ni Khalas" and "Ba'edd Ellayali".
Later in 2003, Amr released "Allem Alby" (Teach My Heart). The Album's release date was arranged to be with the debut broadcast of Alam El Phan's (Allem Alby's Production Company, Owned by Mohsen Gaber) music channel "Mazzika".
The album was a great success, with the release of the video "Ana Ayesh" which was directed by Stuart Gosling. The video was intensely broadcasted on Mazzika . The album contains other good songs, like the album-titled "Allem Alby" which is a solid R&B influenced hit. Others that tend to be more oriental like "Kollohomm" and "Law Ash'any".
As most of the US and International populations have seen the Pepsi commercial which brings 3 important icons in Pop Music together; Beyoncé Knowles, Pink and Britney Spears. In the US version, Enrique Iglesias takes the role of the Cesar. But in the pan Arab version, the three American divas were maintained but the male figure was replaced with Amr Diab. This was not the first Pepsi Commercial Amr Diab has done. He did one using his song "Allem Alby".
In between 2003 and 2004, and after a long successful career with Alam El Phan, Amr Diab was officially announced the termination of his contract with Mohsen Gaber (owner of Alam El Phan). Rumors were spread around about the tense situation going on between Gaber and Diab. Since they've been known as good friends, it was a bit of a surprise. Then other rumors circulated that Saudi Prince Waleed Bin Talal (owner of [[Rotana]]) has lured Amr with offering a better deal.
In late summer of 2004, Amr's first album with [[Rotana]] was released, titled "Leily Nahari" (My Nights, -are- My Days) but it refers more that he's been up all his nights because his beloved is far away. The album's cover was from the promotional photo shoot of Pepsi, but the album was brand new. The video "Leily Nahari" directed by Casey Cameron was a great aid to give Amr his space in the record-exclusive music channels. Still, it was a bit criticized to be similar to his Previously Unreleased video of "El Alem Allah" from the album "Tamally Ma'ak".
Most of his albums so far had met wide popularity all over the Arab world and even globally.
He also won the world music award twice as the best selling middle eastern Artist in 2002 and 1998
He also obtained many local and international prizes in song festivals, including his song [[Nour El Ain]].
==Discography==
* [[Kammel Kalamak]] (Continue Your Remark) (2005)
* [[Leily Nahary]] (My nights , My days) (2004)
* Allem Alby (Teach My heart) (2003)
* Aktar Wahed (The Most One) (2001)
* Tamally Maak (Always with you) (2000)
* Amarain (Two Moons) (1999)
* Awedony (They Make Me Used To) (1998)
* Nour Alain (Sight Of The Eye) (1996)
* Rag'een (Returnees) (1995)
* Weylomony ('and' They Blame Me) (1994)
* Zekrayat (Memories) (1994)
* Ya Omrina (Our Lifetime) (1993)
* Ayyamna (Our Days) (1992)
* Ice Cream Fe Gleem (Ice-cream In Glym) (1992)
* Habiby (My Darling/Beloved) (1991)
* Matkhafeesh (Dont Be Afraid) (1990)
* Shawwa'na (Made us Eager) (1989)
* Mayyal (Susceptible) (1988)
* Khalseen (We're Even) (1987)
* Hala Hala (Ola Ola) (1986)
* Ghanny Men Albak (Sing From Your Heart) (1984)
* Ya Taree' (Hey Road) (1983)
==External links==
*[http://www.amrdiabworld.com Amr Diab's official website]
*[http://forums.amrdiabworld.com The official online fans community]
*[http://www.amrdiabworld.com/musicshop.php Buy all Amr Diab's CDs]
*[http://www.amrdiab.net Amr Diab First Fan Network, since 2000]
*[http://www.3arabiaphoto.com/singers/amr_diab.html Amr Diab Bio, Pictures and Wallpapers]
[[Category:1961 births|Diab, Amr]]
[[Category:Living people|Diab, Amr]]
[[Category:Egyptian singers|Diab, Amr]]
[[Category:Arabic language singers|Diab, Amr]]
[[es:Amr Diab]]
[[eo:Amr Diab]]
[[hu:Amr Diab]]
[[fi:Amr Diab]]
[[de:Amr Diab]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Archeoastronomy</title>
<id>2912</id>
<revision>
<id>15901292</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
</contributor>
<comment>re-re-redirect...</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Archaeoastronomy]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Auckland, New Zealand</title>
<id>2913</id>
<revision>
<id>15901293</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-24T05:25:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ben Arnold</username>
<id>54671</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to Auckland</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Auckland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>African rap in France</title>
<id>2914</id>
<revision>
<id>15901294</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-13T00:55:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TUF-KAT</username>
<id>8351</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving content needlessly and artificially split</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[French hip hop]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ghanaian hip hop</title>
<id>2915</id>
<revision>
<id>40360131</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ghanaian hip hop''' is the origin of [[hip life]], a combination of [[hip hop music]] and [[highlife]]. The [[Ghanaian music]] scene has also produced a number of rappers and DJs with local and international renown. Ghanaian [[rapping]] is mostly in the [[English language]], but is also sometimes in [[Twi language|Twi]], [[Ga language|Ga]] or [[Hausa language|Hausa]].
==DJs, crew and rappers==
*[[Abeeku]]
*[[Akyeame]]: known for using folk elements in their music, including [[Osibsi music]] and traditional [[Akan music]]
*[[C-A-B]]
*[[Chicago (rapper)|Chicago]]
*[[Da Multy Krew]]: Ghanaian-Dutch crew, major part of the [[Dutch hip hop]] scene
*[[Kaseem]]
*[[Lifeline Family]]
*[[Lord Kenya]]
*[[Lord Lust]]
*[[Mensah]]
*[[Mr. Oduro]]
*[[Nananome]]: hip life
*[[Nsoroma]]
*[[Obrafo]]
*[[Omahene Pozo]]: [[Miami bass]]-styled
*[[Reggie Rockstone]]
*[[The SASS Squad]]
*[[Talking Drums]]: pioneering mid-90s duo
*[[VIP (hip hop crew)|VIP]]
==References==
*[http://www.africanhiphop.com/index.php?module=subjects&func=viewpage&pageid=75]
==External links==
*[http://www.musicinghana.com/ Ghana Music News] The Best Alternative to everything about Ghana Music and the Ghanaian music industry.
*[http://www.ghanamusic.com/ Ghana Music.com] The largest source of info on the Ghanaian music industry.
{{music-genre-stub}}
{{worldhiphop}}
[[Category:Ghanaian music]]
[[Category:Hip hop by nationality]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Belgian hip hop</title>
<id>2916</id>
<revision>
<id>37929971</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T01:06:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wackytacky</username>
<id>853927</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text x |
attracted visitors from across the world and displayed Britain at the height of its Imperial dominance.
[[Image:Crystal_palace_1851.JPG|thumb|250px|[[The Crystal Palace]] in 1851.]]
As the capital of a massive empire, London became a magnet for immigrants from the colonies and poorer parts of Europe. A large [[Ireland|Irish]] population settled in the city during the Victorian period, with many of the newcomers refugees from the [[Irish potato famine]]. At one point, Irish immigrants made up about 20% of London's population. London also became home to a sizable [[Jew]]ish community, and small communities of Chinese and South Asians settled in the city.
In 1888, the new [[County of London]] was established, administered by the [[London County Council]]. This was the first elected London-wide administrative body, replacing the earlier Metropolitan Board of Works, which had been made up of appointees. The County of London covered what was then the full extent of the London conurbation, although the conurbation later outgrew the boundaries of the county. The county was split in 1899 into [[metropolitan borough]]s.
Many famous buildings and landmarks of London were constructed during the 19th century including:
*[[Trafalgar Square]]
*[[Big Ben]] and the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]]
*The [[Royal Albert Hall]]
*The [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
*[[Tower Bridge]]
==20th century London==
===London from 1900 to World War II===
London entered the 20th century at the height of its influence as the capital of largest empire in history, but the new century was to bring many challenges.
London suffered its first bombing raids during [[World War I]] carried out by [[zeppelin]] [[airship]]s; these killed around 700 people and caused great terror, but were merely a foretaste of what was to come.
The period between the two World Wars saw London's geographical extent growing more quickly than ever before or since. A preference for lower density suburban housing, typically semi-detached, by Londoners seeking a more "rural" lifestyle, superseded Londoners' old predilection for terraced houses. This was facilitated not only by a continuing expansion of the rail network, including the Underground, but also by slowly widening car ownership.
Like the rest of the country, London suffered severe unemployment during the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s. The population of London reached an all time peak of 8.6 million in 1939.
In the early part of the 20th century, Londoners used [[coal]] for heating their homes, which produced large amounts of smoke. In combination with climatic conditions this often caused a characteristic [[smog]], and London became known for its typical "London Fog", also known as "Pea Soupers". London was sometimes referred to as "The Smoke" because of this. The [[Clean Air Act 1956]] was introduced following the five-day "pea souper" of [[5 December]] to [[9 December]] [[1952]], which killed over 4,000 people, mandating the creating of "smokeless zones" where the use of "smokeless" fuels was required (this was at a time when most households still used open fires). The Act was effective.
===London in World War II===
[[Image:StPaulsCathedral.jpg|thumb|[[St. Paul's Cathedral]] during the [[World War II|WWII]] bombings of London.]]
During [[World War II]], London, as many other British cities, suffered severe damage, being bombed extensively by the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' as a part of [[The Blitz]]. Prior to the bombing, hundreds of thousands of children in London were evacuated to the countryside to avoid the bombing. Civilians took shelter from the air raids in underground stations.
London suffered severe damage during the bombing, the worst hit part being the [[Docklands]] area of the [[East End of London|East End]]. By the war's end, nearly 35,000 Londoners had been killed, and around 50,000 seriously injured, tens of thousands of buildings were destroyed, and hundreds of thousands of people were made homeless.
===Postwar London===
Immediately after the war, the [[1948 Summer Olympics]] were held at [[Wembley Stadium]], at a time when the city had barely recovered from the war.
In the immediate postwar years housing was a major issue in London, due to the large amount of housing which had been destroyed in the war. The authorities decided upon high-rise [[tower block|blocks of flats]] as the answer to housing shortages. During the 1950s and 1960s the skyline of London altered dramatically as tower blocks were erected, although these later proved unpopular. In a bid to reduce the number of people living in overcrowded housing, a policy was introduced of encouraging people to move into newly built [[new town]]s surrounding London.
Starting in the mid 1960s, and partly as a result of the success of such UK musicians as [[the Beatles]] and the [[Rolling Stones]], London became an epicentre for the world-wide [[youth culture]], exemplified by the [[Swinging London]] subculture which made [[Carnaby Street]] a household name of youth fashion around the world. London's role as a trendsetter for youth fashion was revived strongly in the 1980s during the [[New Wave music|New Wave]] and [[Punk Rock|Punk]] eras. In the mid-1990s this was revived to some extent with the emergence of the [[Britpop]] era.
===Greater London===
The outward expansion of London was slowed by the war, and the [[Green Belt]] established soon afterwards. Due to this outward expansion, in 1965 the old [[County of London]] (which by now only covered part of the London conurbation) and the [[London County Council]] were abolished, and the much larger area of [[Greater London]] was established with a new [[Greater London Council]] (GLC) to administer it, along with 32 new [[London borough]]s.
In the early 1980s, due to political disputes between the GLC run by [[Ken Livingstone]] and the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government of [[Margaret Thatcher]] the GLC was abolished in 1986 and all of its powers were relegated to the [[London borough]]s. This left London as the only large metropolis in the world without a central administration.
===Greater London Authority===
[[Image:London.eye.overallview.byday.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|An icon of 21st century London: the [[London Eye]].]]
In 2000, the [[Greater London Authority]] was established, covering the same area of [[Greater London]] as before and representing London as one of the nine [[regions of England]], distinct from the rest of the South East. The [[London Commuter Belt]] covers an area much wider but is not normally considered part of London.
From the beginning of "[[The Troubles]]" in [[Northern Ireland]] in the early 1970s until the mid-1990s, London was subjected to repeated [[terrorism|terrorist]] attacks by the [[Provisional IRA]].
Greater London's population declined steadily in the decades after World War II, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s. However it then began to increase again in the late 1980s, encouraged by strong economic performance and an increasingly positive image. The [[London Plan]], published by the [[Mayor of London]] in 2004, estimated that the population would reach 8.1 million by 2016, and continue to rise thereafter. This was reflected in a move towards denser, more urban styles of building, including an increased number of tall buildings, and proposals for major enhancements to the public transport network. However, funding for projects such as [[Crossrail]] remained a struggle.
==21st Century London==
At the turn of the 21st century, London hosted the much derided [[Millennium Dome]] at [[Greenwich]], to mark the new century. Other Millennium projects were more successful. One was the largest observation wheel in the world, the "Millennium Wheel" of the [[London Eye]], which was erected as a temporary structure, but soon became a fixture, and draws four million visitors a year. The [[National Lottery]] also released a flood of funds for major enhancements to existing attractions, for example the roofing of the Great Court at the [[British Museum]].
On [[July 6]], [[2005]] London won [[London 2012 Olympic bid|the bid to host the 2012 Olympics]]. However, celebrations were cut short the following day when, on [[July 7]], [[2005]], London was rocked by [[7 July 2005 London bombings|a series of terrorist attacks]]. More than 50 were killed and 700 injured in the four bombings on [[London Underground]] and aboard a [[double decker bus]] near [[Russell Square]].
==Population==
:1AD -- a few farmsteaders
:50 -- 5 - 10,000
:140 -- 45 - 60,000
:300 -- 10 - 20,000
:400 -- fewer than 5000?
:500 -- a few hundred?
:700 -- a few thousand in the new city of [[Lundenwic]]
:900 -- a few thousand in the re-established city of [[Lundenburgh]]
:1000 -- 5 - 10,000
:1100 -- 10,000 - 20,000
:1300 -- 50 - 100,000 (according to research by [[Derek Keene]])
:1350 -- 25 - 50,000 following the [[Black Death]]
:1500 -- 50,000 - 100,000
:1600 -- 100,000 - 200,000
:1700 -- 550,000 (nearly 10% of the population of [[England and Wales]])
:1750 -- 700,000
:1801 -- 959,300 (at the time, Europe's largest city)
:1831 -- 1,655,000 (most populous city in the world)
:1851 -- 2,363,000
:1891 -- 5,572,012
:1901 -- 6,506,954
:1911 -- 7,160,525
:1921 -- 7,386,848 (soon to be overtaken by New York as most populous city in the world)
:1931 -- 8,110,480
:1939 -- 8,615,245 (population peak)
:1951 -- 8,196,978
:1961 -- 7,992,616
:1971 -- 7,452,520
:1981 -- 6,805,000
:1991 -- 6,829,300
:2001 -- 7,322,400
:2003 -- 7,387,900
:2016 -- 8.2m (forecast in 'London's Place in the UK Economy' [[Corporation of London]] Sept. 2002)
The first Census was in 1801, so early dates are "guesstimates" based on archaeological density of sites compared with known population of the City of London between 1600 - 1800 (''i.e.' |
who are experts or students of GR may be interested in the [[null geodesic]] article and an article about [[exact solutions in general relativity]].
==Primary Sources==
Einstein, Albert. "Relativity : the Special and General Theory." <u>Project Gutenberg</u>. <http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5001.>
[[Category:Albert Einstein]]
[[Category:Effects of gravitation]]
[[et:Gravitatsiooniline punanihe]]
[[zh:重力紅移]]
{{relativity-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Educational choice</title>
<id>10348</id>
<revision>
<id>15908165</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[School choice]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epicor</title>
<id>10349</id>
<revision>
<id>40534412</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T06:42:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TPO-bot</username>
<id>725128</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Changing template: ict-corp-stub</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = Epicor Software Corporation |
company_logo = NA |
company_type = Public ([[NASDAQ]]: [http://quotes.nasdaq.com/asp/SummaryQuote.asp?symbol=EPIC&selected=EPIC EPIC]) |
foundation = ??? ([[1984]]) |
location = [[Irvine, California]] |
key_people = L. George Klaus <small>(Chairman, President, CEO)</small> |
industry = [[Computer software]] |
products = [[Enterprise resource planning|ERP]] |
num_employees = 1,550 |
revenue = ??? $226,000,000 [[United States dollar|USD]] (2004) |
homepage = [http://www.epicor.com www.epicor.com]
}}
'''Epicor''' {{nasdaq|EPIC}} markets a range of enterprise [[software]] products targeted at mid-sized companies. It has its headquarters in [[Irvine, California]] and was founded in [[1984]] as Platinum Software.
In 1999 they [[acquisition|acquired]] Clientele, Inc. and are now selling their Clientele CRM package.
==External links==
* http://www.epicor.com
{{ict-company-stub}}
[[Category:Software companies]]
[[Category:Computer companies of the United States]]
[[Category:1984 establishments]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Easter Rising</title>
<id>10350</id>
<revision>
<id>41764983</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:08:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jdorney</username>
<id>184223</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ fn</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Easter Proclamation}}
The '''Easter Rising''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: ''Éirí Amach na Cásca'') was a militarily unsuccessful rebellion staged in [[Ireland]] against [[United Kingdom|British]] rule on [[Easter]] Monday in April [[1916]]. Nevertheless, despite its military failure, it can be judged as being a significant stepping-stone in the eventual creation of the Irish Republic.
The rebellion was the most significant since the rising of 1798 (lead by the father of Irish Republicanism, Theobald Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen). It was an attempt by militant [[Irish republicanism|republicans]] to violently force independence from the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. The [[Ireland|Irish]] Republican revolutionary attempt occurred from [[April 24]] to [[April 30]], [[1916]], in which a part of the [[Irish Volunteers]] led by school teacher and [[barrister]] [[Pádraig Pearse]] and the smaller [[Irish Citizen Army]] of [[James Connolly (nationalist)|James Connolly]] seized key locations in [[Dublin]] and proclaimed an [[Irish Republic]] independent of [[Britain]]. The Rising was suppressed and its leaders executed.
The event is seen as a key turning point on the road to Irish independence (however, this can only be the case once one aknowledges the importance of the summary executions) , as it marked a split between physical-force [[republicanism]] and mainstream non-violent [[Irish Nationalism|nationalism]] represented by the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]] under [[John Redmond]]. Redmond, through democratic parliamentary politics had won an initial stage of Irish self-government within the United Kingdom, granted through the Third [[Home Rule Act 1914]]. This Act, limited by the fact that it [[Partition of Ireland|partitioned]] Ireland into [[Northern Ireland]] and "[[Southern Ireland]]", was placed on the statute books in September 1914, but suspended for the duration of [[World War I]]. It ultimately became enacted under the [[Government of Ireland Act, 1920]].
However, by then Irish nationalism was dominated by militant Republican politics that had been espoused by the Easter 1916 rebels. The only surviving leader of the uprising (Eamon de Valera) went on to organise the [[Irish War of Independence]] from 1919-1921 which resulted in the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] of 1921 and independence for 26 of Ireland's 32 counties. The executed leaders of the Easter Rising are venerated in the [[Irish Republican]] tradition as [[martyrs]] and as founders of the [[Irish Republic]].
==Planning the Rising==
While the Easter Rising was for the most part carried out by the Irish Volunteers, it was planned by the [[Irish Republican Brotherhood]] (IRB). Shortly after the outbreak of World War I on [[August 4]], [[1914]], the Supreme Council of the IRB met and, under the old dictum that "England's difficulty is Ireland's opportunity", decided to take action sometime before the conclusion of the war. To this end, the IRB's treasurer, [[Tom Clarke (Irish republican)|Tom Clarke]] formed a Military Committee to plan the rising, initially consisting of Pearse, [[Eamonn Ceannt]], and [[Joseph Plunkett]], with himself and [[Sean MacDermott]] added shortly thereafter. All of these were members of both the IRB, and (with the exception of Clarke) the Irish Volunteers. Since its inception in 1913, they had [[entryism|surreptitiously hijacked]] the Volunteers, and had fellow IRB members elevated to officer rank whenever possible, hence by 1916 a large portion of Volunteer leadership were devoted republicans in favor of physical force. A notable exception was the founder and Chief-of-Staff [[Eoin MacNeill]], who was determined to use the Volunteers as a bargaining tool with Britain following World War I, and who was certainly opposed to any rebellion that stood little chance of success. Nevertheless, the IRB hoped to either win him over to their side (through deceit if necessary) or bypass his command altogether. They had little success with either plan.
The plan encountered its first major hurdle when James Connolly, head of the [[Irish Citizen Army]], a group of armed [[socialist]] [[labor union]] men, completely unaware of the IRB's plans, threatened to initiate a rebellion on their own if other parties refused to act. As the ICA was barely 200 strong, any action they might take would result in a fiasco, and spoil the chance of a potentially successful rising by the Volunteers. Thus the IRB leaders met with Connolly and convinced him to join forces with them. They agreed to act together the following Easter.
In an effort to thwart informers, and, indeed, the Volunteers' own leader, early in April Pearse issued orders for 3 days of "parades and manoeuvres" by the Volunteers for Easter Sunday (which he had the authority to do, as Director of Organization). The idea was that the true republicans with the organization (particularly IRB members) would know exactly what this meant, while men such as MacNeill and the British authorities in [[Dublin Castle]] would take it at face value. Of course this was too much to hope for, and MacNeill soon got wind of what was afoot and threatened to "do everything possible short of phoning Dublin Castle" to prevent the rising. Although he was briefly convinced to go along with some sort of action when MacDermott revealed to him that a shipment of German arms was about to land in [[County Kerry]], planned by the IRB in conjunction with Sir [[Roger Casement]] (who ironically had just landed in Ireland in an effort to ''stop'' the rising), the following day MacNeill reverted to his original position when he found out the shipment was scuttled. With the aid of his cohorts of like mind, notably [[Bulmer Hobson]] and [[The O'Rahilly]], he issued a countermand to all Volunteers, canceling all actions for Sunday. This only succeeded in putting the rising off for a day, although it greatly reduced the number of men who turned out.
==The Rising==
The plan, largely devised by Plunkett (and apparently very similar to a plan worked out independently by Connolly), was to seize strategic buildings throughout Dublin in order to cordon off the city, and resist the inevitable attack by the British army. If successful, the plan would have left the rebels holding a compact area of central Dublin, roughly bounded by the canals and the circular roads. However, this would have required more men than the 1250 or so who were actually mobilized. As a result, the rebels left several key points within the city, notably [[Dublin Castle]] and [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]], in British hands, meaning that their own forces were separated from each other. This in effect doomed the rebel positions to be isolated and taken one after the other.
The Volunteer's Dublin division had been organized into 4 battalions, each under a commandant who the IRB made sure were loyal to them. A makeshift 5th battalion was put together from parts of the others, and with the aid of the ICA. This was the battalion of the headquarters at the [[General Post Office (Dublin)|General Post Office]], and included the President and [[Commander-in-Chief]], Pearse, the commander of the Du |
ive chairman and [[Larry Lucchino]] serving as president and CEO. Dan Duquette was fired on February 28 and, while former Angels general manager Mike Port served as interim-GM in 2002, he was eventually replaced by [[Yale University|Yale]] graduate [[Theo Epstein]] after [[Oakland Athletics|Oakland]]'s [[Billy Beane]] turned down the position. Epstein, who at age 28 became the youngest general manager in the history of the Major Leagues at that time, grew up in nearby [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]] rooting for the Red Sox.
Hopes ran high in the [[2003 in baseball|2003]] season, but the postseason would deliver yet another blow to Red Sox fans. The Sox rallied from a 2-0 deficit against the [[Oakland Athletics]] to win the best-of-five [[2003 American League Division Series|American League Division Series]]. Game Five was especially dramatic, with Derek Lowe saving a 4-3 victory by striking out the A's [[Terrence Long]] with the tying run on third base. They then faced the Yankees in the [[2003 American League Championship Series]]. In the deciding seventh game, Boston led 5-2 in the eighth inning, but [[Pedro Martínez]] allowed three runs to tie the game, including Jason Giambi's second home run of the game. The Red Sox could not score off of Mariano Rivera over the last three innings and lost the game 6-5 on a home run by Yankee [[third baseman]] [[Aaron Boone]] off of [[Tim Wakefield]]'s first pitch of the 11th inning.
Many Red Sox fans blamed the loss on their manager, [[Grady Little]], for not removing Martínez after seven strong innings, when he began to show signs of tiring. It was viewed as the culmination of two years of questionable decision-making by Little, and shortly after the ALCS Little was fired. He would be replaced by [[Terry Francona]], who would lead the Red Sox to not only some of the greatest moments in the franchise's history, but an epic comeback unprecedented in baseball history.
===The 2004 World Series Championship===
During the 2003-04 offseason, the Red Sox acquired another ace pitcher in [[Curt Schilling]] and a closer in [[Keith Foulke]] to bolster the pitching staff. Expectations once again ran high that [[2004 in baseball|2004]] would finally be the year that the Red Sox ended their championship drought. The regular season did not start well, and through midseason the team had struggled mightily, falling more than ten games behind New York. Management shook up the team at the MLB trading deadline [[July 31]] when they traded the team's popular yet often hurt and disgruntled shortstop [[Nomar Garciaparra]] to the [[Chicago Cubs]], getting [[Orlando Cabrera]] of the [[Montreal Expos]] and [[Doug Mientkiewicz]] of the [[Minnesota Twins]] in return. In a separate transaction, the Red Sox also traded AAA outfielder [[Henri Stanley]] to the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] for speedy centerfielder [[Dave Roberts]]. The club would turn things around soon after, going on to finish within three games of the Yankees in the AL East and qualifying for the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. Players and fans affectionately referred to the players as "The Idiots," a term coined by [[Johnny Damon]] and [[Kevin Millar]] during the playoff push to describe the team's eclectic roster and devil-may-care attitude toward the supposed "[[Curse of the Bambino]]."
Boston began the playoffs by sweeping the [[American League West|AL West]] champion [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim Angels]]. The Red Sox blew out the Angels 9-3 in Game 1, scoring 7 of those runs in the fourth inning. However, the Sox' 2003 offseason prize pickup Curt Schilling suffered a torn tendon while running to first base to retire a batter. The second game, pitched by Pedro Martinez, stayed close throughout until Boston scored 4 in the ninth to win 8-3. In game three, what looked to be a blowout turned out to be a nail-biter, as [[Vladimir Guerrero]] hit a grand slam to tie it at six. However, [[David Ortiz]], who is noted for his clutchness, delivered in the 10th inning with a game winning 2-run homer over the [[Green Monster (Fenway Park)|Green Monster]]. The Red Sox thus advanced to a rematch in the [[2004 American League Championship Series]] against their bitter rivals, the [[New York Yankees]].
Despite high hopes that the Red Sox would finally vanquish their nemesis, the series started disastrously for them. Curt Schilling pitched with the torn tendon sheath in his right ankle he had suffered in Game One of the Divisional Series against Anaheim, and was routed for six runs in three innings. Mussina had six perfect innings, and once had a lead that was 8-0. Despite the Sox' best effort to come back (they had scored seven unanswered runs to make it 8-7), they ended up losing 10-7. In Game Two, after being tied 1-1 throughout most of the game, [[John Olerud]] hit a 2-run home run to put the Yankees up for good. They were down three games to none after a crushing 19-8 loss in Game Three, in which the two clubs set the record for most runs scored in a League Championship Series game.
In Game Four of the Series, the Red Sox found themselves facing elimination, trailing 4-3 in the ninth with Yankees superstar [[Closer (baseball)|closer]] [[Mariano Rivera]] on the mound. After Rivera issued a walk to [[Kevin Millar]], [[Dave Roberts]] came on to pinch run and promptly [[The Steal |stole]] second base. He then scored on an [[Run batted in|RBI]] [[Single (baseball)|single]] by [[Bill Mueller]] which sent the game to extra innings. The Red Sox went on to win the game on a two-run home run by [[David Ortiz]] in the 12th inning. The Red Sox would win Game Five the next night, in a game that featured another rally against Rivera to force extra innings. In Game 5, the Red Sox were down again late, this time by the score of 4-2, thanks to [[Derek Jeter]]'s bases-clearing double. But the Sox struck back in the 8th, as "Senor Octubre" hit a homer over the monster to bring the Sox within a run. [[Jason Varitek]] hit a sacrifice fly to bring home Dave Roberts to score the tying run. The game would go for fourteen innings, capped off by many squandered Yankee opportunities (they were 1 for 13 with runners in scoring position). In the top of the 13th, though, Jason Varitek came in to catch the knucleballing [[Tim Wakefield]]. It was a very sloppy inning, in which at one point the Yankees had runners on second and third. The nation was spared though, as Varitek and Wakefield were able to get through the inning unscathed. In the bottom of the 14th, Ortiz would again seal the win with a game-winning RBI single that brought home Damon. The game set the record for longest postseason game in terms of time (5 hours and 49 minutes) and for longest ALCS game (14 innings).
With the series returning to [[Yankee Stadium]] for Game Six, the improbable comeback continued with Curt Schilling pitching on an ankle that had three sutures wrapped in a bloody (literally red) sock. Schilling struck out four, walked none, and only allowed one run over seven innings to lead the team to victory. [[Mark Bellhorn]] also helped in the effort as he hit a 3-run home run in the fourth inning. The bottom of the 9th inning in that game was one of the most terrifying moments in the postseason, as [[Tony Clark]], who had played extremely poorly for the Sox in '02 came up to the dish representing the winning run. This was extremely nerveracking for a lot of Sox fans, and as [[Theo Epstein]] put it: "He ruined our 2002 season and it looked like he'd probably ruin our 2004 one." In Game Seven, the Red Sox completed their sensational and historic comeback on the strength of [[Derek Lowe]]'s pitching and [[Johnny Damon]]'s two home runs, including a devastating grand slam in the second inning off the first pitch of reliever [[Javier Vasquez]]. Ortiz, who had the game winning RBIs in Games Four and Five, was named ALCS Most Valuable Player.
The Red Sox faced the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] in the [[2004 World Series]]. The Cardinals had posted the best record in the major leagues that season, and had previously defeated the Red Sox in the [[1946 World Series|1946]] and [[1967 World Series|1967]] Series, with both series going seven games. The third time would be the charm, however, as the momentum and confidence Boston had built up in the ALCS would overwhelm St. Louis. The Red Sox began the Series with an 11-9 win, marked by Mark Bellhorn's game-winning home-run off of [[Pesky's Pole]]. It was the highest scoring World Series opening game ever (breaking the previous record set in [[1932 World Series|1932]]). The Red Sox would go on to win Game 2 in Boston (thanks to another sensational performance by the bloody-socked Schilling). The Red Sox won both these games despite making 4 errors in each game. In Game Three, Pedro Martinez shut out the Cardinals for seven innings. The Cardinals only made one real threat- in the third inning when they loaded the bases. However, the Cardinals' "rally" was killed by [[Jeff Suppan]]'s horrendous baserunning gaffe, in which he tried to go home on a routine out and ended up getting run down at third. The Red Sox needed one more game to win their first championship since the [[1918 World Series|1918]]. In Game four, the Red Sox did not allow a run, as [[Edgar Renteria]] (who would become the 2005 Red Sox starting SS) hit the ball back to Keith Foulke. This was the second time that Renteria had ended a world series, as he won it for the Marlins 7 years prior in the [[1997 World Series]]. After Foulke lobbed the ball to Doug Mientkiewicz, the Sox had officially won their first World Championship in 86 years. The Sox held the Redbird's offense (the best in the NL in 2004) to only three runs in the last three games. The Red Sox never trailed in the series. [[Manny Ramírez]] was named World Series MVP. The Red Sox won Game 4 of the series on October 27, eighteen years to the day from when they lost |
ml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arthur Koestler.jpg|110px|thumb|Arthur Koestler]]
'''Arthur Koestler''' ([[September 5]], [[1905]], [[Budapest]] &ndash; [[March 3]], [[1983]], [[London]]) was a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[polymath]] who became a naturalized [[United Kingdom|British]] subject. He wrote [[journalism]], [[novels]], social [[philosophy]], and books on scientific subjects. He was a [[Communism|Communist]] during much of the 1930s and remained politically active until the 1950s. He wrote a number of popular books, including ''Arrow in the Blue'' (the first volume of his autobiography), ''The Yogi and the Commissar'' (a collection of essays, many dealing with [[Communism]]), ''The Sleepwalkers'' (''A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe''), ''The Act of Creation'', and ''The Thirteenth Tribe'' giving a new theory of the origins of the Jews of Eastern Europe. His most famous work, the novel ''[[Darkness at Noon]]'' about the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Great Purge|purges]] of the 1930s, ranks with [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' as a fictional treatment of [[Stalinism]]. He also wrote ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' articles.<!--Many number?? I know but one.-->
== Life ==
He was born Kösztler Artur (Hungarians put the [[surname]] first) in [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]] to a [[German language|German-speaking]] Hungarian family of [[Ashkenazi Jews| Ashkenazi Jewish]] descent. His father, Henrik, was an [[industrialist]] and [[inventor]] whose business ideas revealed flawed judgement; for example, he invested for a while in the manufacture of a kind of [[radioactive]] soap. When Artur was 14, his family moved to [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]. In 1918, Hungary obtained its independence from Austria and flirted for a while with [[Bolshevism]].
Koestler studied [[science]] and [[psychology]] at the [[University of Vienna]], where he became involved in [[Zionism]]. After completing his studies, he worked as a [[news correspondent]]. From [[1926]] to [[1929]] he lived in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]], partly in a ''[[kibbutz]]''. He joined the [[Germany|German]] [[Communist Party]] in [[1931]], but left it after the [[Stalin]]ist purges of [[1938]]. During this period he traveled extensively in the [[Soviet Union]] and climbed [[Mount Ararat]] in [[Turkey]]. In [[Turkmenistan]], he met the black American writer [[Langston Hughes]]. In [[1931]], he was a member of a [[zeppelin]] expedition to the [[North Pole]].
In his memoir ''The Invisible Writing'', Koestler recalls that during the summer of [[1935]] he "wrote about half of a satirical novel called ''[[The Good Soldier Švejk|The Good Soldier Schweik Goes to War Again....]]''. It had been commissioned by [[Willi Münzenberg|Willy Münzenberg]] <nowiki>[</nowiki>the [[Comintern]]'s chief [[propagandist]] in the [[Western world|West]]] ... but was vetoed by the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Party]] on the grounds of the book's 'pacifist errors'..." (p. 283).
Soon after the outbreak of [[World War II]], the French authorities detained him for several months in a camp for resident aliens at Le Vernet in the foothills of the [[Pyrenees]] mountains. Upon his release, he joined the [[French Foreign Legion]]. He eventually escaped to [[England]] via Morocco and Portugal. In England, he served in the [[British Army]] as a member of the [[British Pioneer Corps]], 1941-42, then worked for the [[BBC]]. He became a [[British subject]] in [[1945]]. He returned to France after the war, where he rubbed shoulders with the set gravitating around [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Simone de Beauvoir]]. One of the characters in de Beauvoir's novel ''The Mandarins'' is believed based on Koestler.
He returned to [[London]] and spent the rest of his life writing and lecturing. He was made a [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] in the [[1970s]]. In [[1983]], Koestler, suffering from [[Parkinson's disease]] and [[leukemia]], committed joint [[suicide]] by taking an overdose of drugs with his third wife Cynthia. He had long been an advocate of voluntary [[euthanasia]], and in [[1981]], had become vice-president of "[[EXIT]]", a British group campaigning for it. His will endowed the chair of [[parapsychology]] at the [[University of Edinburgh]] in [[Scotland]].
===Multilingualism===
In addition to his mother tongue [[German language|German]], Koestler became fluent in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[English language|English]], and [[French language|French]], and knew some [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. His biographer [[David Cesarani]] claims there is some evidence that Koestler may have picked up some [[Yiddish]] from his grandfather. Koestler's multilingualism was principally due to his having resided, worked, and/or studied in [[Hungary]], [[Austria]], [[Germany]], [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] (pre-independence [[Israel]]), the [[Soviet Union]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]], all by 40 years of age.
Though he wrote the bulk of his later work in English, Koestler wrote his best-known novels in three different languages: ''The Gladiators'' in Hungarian, ''Darkness at Noon'' in German (although the original is now lost), and ''Arrival and Departure'' in English. His journalism was written in German, Hebrew, French and English. He claimed to have produced the first Hebrew language [[crossword]] puzzles.
===Women===
Koestler was married to Dorothy Asher (1935-50), Mamaine Paget (1950-52), and Cynthia Jefferies (1965-83). He also had a very short fling with the French writer [[Simone de Beauvoir]], one that may explain the mutual animosity between him and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. David Cesarani claimed that Koestler beat and raped several women, including [[film director]] [[Jill Craigie]]. The resulting protests led to the removal of a bust of Koestler from public display at the [[University of Edinburgh]].
Questions have also been raised by his [[suicide pact]] with his last spouse. Although he was [[Terminal illness|terminally ill]] at the time, she was apparently healthy, leading some to claim he wrongly persuaded her to take her own life.
==Mixed legacy==
Just as ''[[Darkness at Noon]]'' was selling well during the [[Cold War]] of the 40s and 50s, Koestler announced his retirement from [[politics]]. Much of what he wrote thereafter revealed a multidisciplinary thinker whose work anticipated a number of trends by many years. He was among the first to experiment with [[LSD]] (in a laboratory). He also wrote about [[Japan|Japanese]] and [[India|Indian]] mysticism in ''[[The Lotus and the Robot]]'' ([[1960]]). He did not merely arrive at different answers to accepted questions; rather, he tended to ask questions that no one else thought to ask.
This originality resulted in an uneven set of ideas and conclusions. Some of them, such as his work on creativity (''Insight and Outlook, Act of Creation'') and the history of science (''The Sleepwalkers''), are arguably brilliant and challenge us to readjust our thinking. Some of his other pursuits, such as his interest in the [[paranormal]], his support for [[euthanasia]], his theory of the origin of [[Ashkenazi Jews]] like himself, and his disagreement with [[Darwinism]], are more controversial.
=== Politics ===
Koestler was involved in a number of political causes during his life, from [[Zionism]] and [[communism]] to [[anti-communism]], voluntary [[euthanasia]] and campaigns against [[capital punishment]], particularly [[hanging]]. He was also an early advocate of [[nuclear disarmament]].
=== Journalism ===
Until the bestseller status of ''[[Darkness at Noon]]'' made him financially comfortable, Koestler often earned his living as a journalist and foreign correspondent, trading on his ability to write quickly in several languages, and to acquire with facility a working knowledge of a new language. He wrote for a variety of newspapers, including ''Vossische Zeitung'' (science editor) and ''B.Z. am Mittag'' (foreign editor) in the 1920s. In the early 1930s, he worked for the Ullstein publishing group in [[Berlin]] and did freelance writing for the French press.
While covering the [[Spanish Civil War]], in [[1937]], he was captured and held for several months by the [[Falange|Falangists]] in [[Málaga]], until the [[United Kingdom|British]] Foreign Office negotiated his release. His ''[[Spanish Testament]]'' records these experiences, which he soon transformed into his classic prison novel ''[[Darkness at Noon]]''. After his release from Spanish detention, Koestler worked for the ''News Chronicle'', then edited ''Die Zukunft'' with [[Willi Münzenberg]], an anti-Nazi, anti-Stalinist German language paper based in [[Paris]], founded in [[1938]]. During and after [[WWII]], he wrote for a number of English and American papers, including ''The Sunday Telegraph'', on various subjects.
===Science===
During the last 30 years of his life, Koestler wrote extensively on science and scientific practice. The [[Post-Modernism|post-modernist]] scepticism colouring much of this writing tended to alienate most of the scientific community. A case in point is his 1971 book ''The Case of the Midwife Toad'' about the biologist [[Paul Kammerer]], who claimed to find experimental support for [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarckian inheritance]].
[[Mysticism]] and a fascination with the [[paranormal]] imbued much of his later work, and greatly influenced his personal life. He left a substantial part of his estate to establish the Koestler Institute at the [[University of Edinburgh]] dedicated to the study of [[Parapsychology|paranormal]] phenomena. His ''The Roots of Coincidence'' centered on yet another line of unconventional research by Paul Kammerer, this time his claim of a quantum theory of coincidence or [[synchronicity]], a theory Koestler evaluated in light of the writings of [[Carl Jung]]. More controversial were Koestler's studies of [[l |
ally Ellington's music. He studied [[trombone]], and later [[cello]]. Much of the cello technique he learned was applicable to [[double bass]] when he took up the instrument in [[high school]].
Even in his teen years, Mingus was writing a considerable number of rather advanced pieces; many are similar to Third Stream Jazz. A number of them were recorded in 1960 with conductor [[Gunther Schuller]], and released as ''Pre-Bird'', referencing [[Charlie Parker|Charlie "Bird" Parker]].
Mingus gained a reputation as something of a bass prodigy. He toured with [[Louis Armstrong]] in 1943, then played with [[Lionel Hampton]]'s band in the late 1940s; Hampton performed and recorded a few of Mingus's pieces. A popular trio of Mingus, [[Red Norvo]] and [[Tal Farlow]] in 1950 and 1951 received considerable acclaim. Mingus was briefly a member of Ellington's band in the early 1950s, and Mingus's notorious temper reportedly led to his being the only musician personally fired by Ellington.
Also in the early 1950s, before attaining commercial recognition as a bandleader, he played a number of live bookings with Charlie Parker, whose compositions and improvisations greatly inspired and influenced Mingus. Mingus considered Parker the greatest genius and innovator in jazz history, but he had a love-hate relationship with Parker's legacy. Mingus blamed the Parker mythology for a derivative crop of pretenders to Parker's throne. He was also conflicted and sometimes disgusted by Parker's self-destructive habits and the romanticized lure of drug addiction they offered to other jazz musicians. In response to the many sax players who imitated Parker, Mingus titled a song, "If Charlie Parker were a Gunslinger, There'd Be A Whole Lot of Dead Copycats."
In 1952 Mingus co-founded [[Debut Records]] with [[Max Roach]], in order to conduct his recording career as he saw fit. After bassist [[Oscar Pettiford]] broke his arm playing [[baseball]], Mingus stepped in to replace him at the famed May 15, 1953 concert at [[Massey Hall]]. He joined [[Dizzy Gillespie]], Charlie Parker, [[Bud Powell]], and Max Roach in what was to be the last recorded meeting of the two lead instrumentalists. After the event, Mingus chose to overdub his barely-audible bass part. The two 10" albums of the Massey Hall concert (one featured the trio of Powell, Mingus and Roach) were among Debut Records' earliest releases. Mingus may have objected to the way the major record companies treated musicians, but Gillespie once commented that he did not receive any [[royalties]] "for years and years" for his Massey Hall appearance. The records though, are often regarded as among the finest live jazz recordings.
In 1955, Mingus was involved in a notorious incident while playing a club date billed as a "reunion" with Parker, [[Bud Powell|Powell]], and Roach. Powell, who had suffered from alcoholism and mental illness for years (potentially exacerbated by a severe police beating and [[electroshock]] treatments), had to be helped from the stage, unable to play or speak coherently. As Powell's incapacitation became apparent, Parker stood in one spot at a microphone, chanting "Bud Powell...Bud Powell..." as if beseeching Powell's return. Allegedly, Parker continued this incantation for several minutes after Powell's departure, to his own amusement and Mingus's exasperation. Mingus took another mic and announced to the crowd, "Ladies and gentlemen, please don't associate me with any of this. This is not jazz. These are sick people." Roughly a week later, Parker died of complications of years of drug abuse.
[[Image:Charles_Mingus_USPS.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Charles Mingus postage stamp; issued by the USPS on September 16, 1995.]]
===''Pithecanthropus Erectus''===
Mingus had already recorded about ten albums as a bandleader, but [[1956]] was a breakthrough year, with the release of ''[[Pithecanthropus Erectus]]'', arguably his first major work as both a bandleader and composer. Like Ellington, Mingus wrote songs with specific musicians in mind, and his band for ''Erectus'' included adventurous, though distinctly [[blues]]-oriented musicians, especially saxophonist [[Jackie McLean]] and piano player [[Mal Waldron]]. The title song is a ten minute [[tone poem]], depicting the rise of man from his [[hominid]] roots ([[Java Man|''Pithecanthropus erectus'']]) to an eventual downfall. A section of the piece was [[free improvisation|improvised]] free of structure or theme.
Another album, ''The Clown'' ([[1957]] on [[Atlantic Records]]) was the first to feature [[drum]]mer [[Dannie Richmond]]. Richmond played with Mingus for the next twenty years, until Mingus' death. Richmond and Mingus formed one of the most impressive and versatile [[rhythm section]]s in jazz. Both were accomplished performers seeking to stretch the boundaries of their music while staying true to its roots. When joined by pianist [[Jaki Byard]], they were dubbed "The Almighty Three". [http://www.fantasyjazz.com/catalog/mingus_c_cat.html]
The following decade is widely regarded as Mingus's most productive and fertile era. Impressive new compositions and albums appeared at an astonishing rate: Some ''thirty'' records in ten years, for a number of record labels (Debut, [[Candid Records|Candid]], [[Impulse Records]] and others), a pace perhaps unmatched by any musician or group excepting Ellington.
Mingus often worked with a mid-sized ensemble (around 8&ndash;10 members) of rotating musicians known as the '''Jazz Workshop'''. Mingus broke new ground, constantly demanding that his musicians be able to explore and develop their perceptions on the spot. Those tapped to join the Workshop (or Sweatshops as they were colorfully dubbed by the musicians) were skilled musicians yearning for a taste of the big time. Mingus shaped these promising novices into a cohesive [[improvisation]]al machine that in many ways anticipated [[free jazz]].
Jazz Workshop members included:
*[[Pepper Adams]]
*[[Jaki Byard]]
*[[Eric Dolphy]]
*[[Booker Ervin]]
*[[Rahsaan Roland Kirk]]
*[[Jimmy Knepper]]
*[[John Handy]]
*[[Jackie McLean]]
*[[Charles McPherson (saxophonist)|Charles McPherson]]
*[[Horace Parlan]]
Only one misstep occurred in this era: [[1962]]'s ''Town Hall Concert''. An ambitious program, it was unfortunately plagued with troubles from its inception. [http://www.villagevoice.com/issues/0023/santoro.php] Mingus' vision was finally realized in [[1989]], see [[Epitaph (Mingus)]].
===''Charles Mingus Presents Charles Mingus''===
Mingus witnessed [[Ornette Coleman]]'s legendary &mdash; and controversial &ndash; 1960 appearances at [[New York City]]'s [[Five Spot]] jazz club. Though he initially expressed rather mixed feelings for Coleman's innovative music, Mingus was in fact a prime influence of the early [[free jazz]] era. He formed a quartet with Richmond, trumpeter [[Ted Curson]] and saxophonist [[Eric Dolphy]]. This ensemble featured the same instruments as Coleman's quartet, and is often regarded as Mingus rising to the challenging new standard established by Coleman. ''Charles Mingus Presents Charles Mingus'', the quartet's sole album, is frequently included among the finest in Mingus's catalogue.
===''The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady''===
In [[1963]], Mingus released ''[[The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady]]'', a sprawling, multi-section masterpiece, described as "one of the greatest achievements in [[orchestration]] by any composer in jazz history." [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&uid=UIDSUB040405070932540817&sql=A4f867ur070jd] The album was also unique in that Mingus asked his [[psychotherapy|psychotherapist]] to provide notes for the record.
1963 also saw the release of an unaccompanied album ''Mingus Plays Piano''. His piano technique, though capable and expressive, was somewhat unrefined when compared to [[Ahmad Jamal]] or other contemporary jazz pianists, but the album is still generally well regarded. A few pieces were entirely improvised and drew on [[European classical music|classical music]] as much as jazz, preceding [[Keith Jarrett]]'s landmark ''[[The Köln Concert]]'' in those regards by some twelve years.
In [[1964]] Mingus put together one of his best-known groups, a sextet including Dannie Richmond, [[Jaki Byard]], Eric Dolphy, [[trumpet]]er [[Johnny Coles]], and tenor saxophonist [[Clifford Jordan]]. The group was recorded frequently during its short existence; Coles fell ill during a European tour.
===''Changes''===
Mingus's pace slowed somewhat in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In [[1974]] he formed a quintet with Richmond, pianist [[Don Pullen]], trumpeter [[Jack Walrath]] and saxophonist [[George Adams]]. They recorded two well-received albums, "[[Changes One (Mingus)|Changes One]]" and "[[Changes Two]]".
''Cumbia and Jazz Fusion'' in [[1976]] sought to blend [[Colombia]]n music (the "[[Cumbia]]" of the title) with more traditional jazz forms.
===Later career and demise===
By the mid-1970s, Mingus was suffering from [[amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]] (popularly known as [[Lou Gehrig]]'s disease), a wastage of the musculature. His once formidable bass technique suffered, until he could no longer play the instrument. He continued composing, however, and supervised a number of recordings before his death.
Mingus died aged 56 in [[Cuernavaca]], [[Mexico]], where he had traveled for treatment and convalescence. His ashes were scattered in the [[Ganges River]].
At the time of his death, Mingus had been recording an album with singer [[Joni Mitchell]], which included vocal versions of some of his songs (including "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat") among Mitchell originals and short, spoken word duets and home recordings of Mitchell and Mingus. To show how important his influence was on the jazz world, this album also featured [[Jaco Pastorius]], a similarl |
rriors in the sanctuary.
In the novels of [[E. E. Smith]]'s [[lensman|Lensman Series]] Aldebaran's second planet is portrayed as having no native intelligent life, and, being otherwise very Earth-like, attracting large scale human settlement. This yields a vibrant world with a notably hedonistic culture.
==Aldebaran in media==
Aldebaran (displayed as Al De Baran) is the name of a city in the [[MMORPG]] [[Ragnarok Online]].
Aldebaran of Tauros in the Saint Seya, Japonese Manga end Anime.
Aldebaran is the name of a song by '''[[Enya]]''' on the album ''[[The Celts]]''
==References==
*{{1728}}
==External links==
* {{cite web
| title = Gl 171.1A
| work = ARICNS
| url = http://www.ari.uni-heidelberg.de/aricns/cnspages/4c00382.htm
| accessdate = November 14
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Aldebaran 2
| work = SolStation
| url = http://www.solstation.com/stars2/aldebaran.htm
| accessdate = November 14
| accessyear = 2005
}}
[[Category:Orange giants]]
[[Category:Bayer objects|Tauri, Alpha]]
[[Category:Taurus constellation]]
[[Category:Irregular variables]]
[[Category:Red giant branch stars]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[ca:Aldebaran]]
[[cs:Aldebaran]]
[[de:Aldebaran]]
[[et:Aldebaran]]
[[es:Aldebarán]]
[[eo:Aldebarano]]
[[fr:Aldébaran (étoile)]]
[[gl:Aldebarán]]
[[io:Aldebaran]]
[[it:Aldebaran]]
[[lt:Aldebaranas]]
[[nl:Aldebaran]]
[[ja:アルデバラン]]
[[pl:Aldebaran]]
[[pt:Aldebarã]]
[[sk:Aldebaran]]
[[fi:Aldebaran]]
[[sv:Aldebaran]]
[[zh:畢宿五]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Altair</title>
<id>3078</id>
<revision>
<id>41748641</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:36:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nerfboy</username>
<id>1011337</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|a star in the Aquila constellation}}
{{Starbox begin |
name=Altair }}
{{Starbox image |
image=[[Image:Altair-medium photo.jpeg|250px]] |
caption=Altair. }}
{{Starbox observe |
epoch=J2000 |
constell=[[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]] |
ra=19h 50m 47.0s |
dec=+08&deg; 52' 06&quot; |
appmag_v=0.77 }}
{{Starbox character |
class=A7 IV-V |
b-v=0.22 |
u-b=0.08 |
variable=None }}
{{Starbox astrometry |
radial_v=-26.1 |
prop_mo_ra=536.82 |
prop_mo_dec=385.54 |
parallax=194.97 |
p_error=0.86 |
dist_ly=16.72 |
dist_pc=5.13 |
absmag_v=2.22 }}
{{Starbox detail|
age=<10<sup>9</sup> |
metal=200% Sun |
mass=1.7 |
radius=1.8 |
rotation=6.5&ndash;10.4 hours |
luminosity=10.7 |
temperature=7,550 }}
{{Starbox catalog |
names=&alpha; Aquila, 53 Aquila, [[Henry Draper catalogue|HD]] 187642, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 7557, [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]]+08&deg;4236, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 4665.00, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue|GJ]] 768, [[Luyten Half-Second catalogue|LHS]] 3490, and [[Hipparcos Catalogue|HIP]] 97649. }}
{{Starbox end}}
'''Altair''' (&alpha; Aql / &alpha; Aquilae / [[alpha (letter)|Alpha]] Aquilae / Atair ) is the brightest [[star]] in the [[constellation]] [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]] and the [[list of brightest stars|twelfth brightest star]] in the nighttime sky, at [[visual magnitude]] 0.77.
Altair is a [[vertex]] of the [[Summer Triangle]]. It is an &quot;A&quot; type or [[Stellar classification|white star]] located 17 [[light year]]s away from Earth, one of the closest stars visible to the [[naked eye]].
The name &quot;Altair&quot; is [[Arabic language|Arabic]] for &quot;the flyer&quot;, from the phrase '''&#1606;&#1587;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585;''' ''an-nasr a&#355;-&#355;&#257;?ir'' &quot;the flying eagle&quot;.
The spelling &quot;Atair&quot; is also used frequently.
Altair is most notable for its extremely rapid rotation; by measuring the width of its [[spectral line]]s, it was determined that its [[equator]] does a complete rotation in about 6 1/2 hours (various other sources give 9 hours, or 10.4 hours). In comparison, our star, the [[Sun]], requires a little more than 25 days for a complete rotation. As a result of its rapid rotation, Altair is [[oblate]]: its equatorial diameter is at least 14 percent greater than its polar diameter.
Altair, along with [[Beta Aquilae]] and [[Gamma Aquilae]], form the well-known line of stars sometimes referred to as the shaft of Aquila.
==References to the star==
In [[Chinese mythology]], there is a love story of [[Qi Xi]] in which Niu Lang ('''Altair''') and his two children (Aquila -&#946; and -&#947;) are separated forever from their mother Zhi Nü ([[Vega]]) who is on the far side of the river, the [[Milky Way]]. The Japanese [[Tanabata]] festival is also based on this legend.
In [[astrology]], the star Altair was ill-omened, portending danger from [[reptile|reptiles]].
In [[computing]], an important early microcomputer, the [[Altair 8800]], was named after the star because the daughter of the man responsible for coming up with a suitable name, when asked what she thought the computer should be called, was watching an episode of ''Star Trek'' where the Starship Enterprise had the star '''Altair''' as its destination. So Altair it was.
In [[science fiction]], Altair is:
* The planet Altair IV is the main setting of the book and film ''[[Forbidden Planet]]''
* The homeworld of Harlan, an artificial lifeform in [[Stargate SG-1]]
* The homeworld of the Ancients, an extinct civilization annihilated by the [[Shivans]] eight thousand years ago, in the space-combat simulation game, [[Freespace 2]].
* The homeworld of the [[Alkari]], one of the alien races in the [[Master of Orion]] computer game series.
In [[space travel]], Altair is:
* The [[NASA]] Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) designed to travel to the Moon and International Space Station.
==External links==
*[http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA04204 Report] on ultra high-resolution photograph.
*[http://www.tweb.com.mx/altairtest ALTAIR] Automation Library System.
* [http://www.solstation.com/stars/altair.htm SolStation]
* [http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?id=4333 NASA Names New Spacecraft]
[[Category:Aquila constellation]]
[[Category:Bayer objects|Aquilae, &alpha;]]
[[Category:White main sequence stars]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[ca:Altair]]
[[cs:Altair]]
[[de:Altair]]
[[es:Altair]]
[[fr:Altaïr]]
[[gl:Altair]]
[[io:Alter]]
[[it:Altair]]
[[he:אלטאיר]]
[[lt:Altayras]]
[[nl:Altair]]
[[ja:アルタイル]]
[[pl:Altair]]
[[pt:Altair]]
[[sk:Altair]]
[[fi:Altair]]
[[sv:Altair]]
[[tl:Altair]]
[[vi:Sao Ngưu Lang]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Australian Broadcasting Corporation</title>
<id>3079</id>
<revision>
<id>42154635</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:29:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hamil</username>
<id>729993</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{RRevised}}
[[Image:Abc-logo.jpg|left|ABC logo|110px]]
The '''Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)''' is [[Australia]]'s national non-commercial [[Public broadcasting|public broadcaster]]. Inaugurated in 1932 as a [[radio network]], the corporation has gradually expanded and diversified into many different broadcasting and print mediums, including [[television]], [[radio]] and [[online]] services. The ABC can be seen and heard throughout metropolitan and regional Australia, and overseas via its Asia-Pacific television service and [[Radio Australia]]. <!--What kind of magazines does ABC publish?-->The corporation publishes magazines, and runs a chain of ABC Shops selling books and audio/video recordings relating to its programming. The ABC is funded almost entirely by direct annual grants from the [[Federal Budget (Australia)|federal budget]], and does not receive income from commercial sources or public donations besides the ABC bookshops.
==History==
===Early period===
[[Image:ABC Perth.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The ABC building in Perth, 1937]]
Following the failure of the previous two-tiered system of "A-class" and "B-class" radio licences set up in 1924, the 12 radio stations of the original "A-class" category were nationalised and combined, and the new national broadcaster (based on the [[BBC]] model) was officially incorporated [[1 July]] [[1932]] as the "Australian Broadcasting Commission". The new national broadcaster was initially permitted to present advertising, but this was removed from the legislation before it came into force. The ABC was funded in part by direct government grant, but drew most of its revenue from listener licence fees.
The radio spectrum was now divided between the ABC and the commercial sector. This new two-tier system became the structural foundation for the industry, and was used as the model for the TV industry in the mid-50s. That arrangement would not change significantly for the next 40 years.
The ABC originally controlled twelve stations around the country: [[2FC]] and [[2BL]] in [[Sydney]], [[3AR]] and [[3LO]] in [[Melbourne]], [[4QG]] in [[Brisbane]], [[5CL]] in [[Adelaide]], [[6WF]] in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[7ZL]] in [[Hobart]] and the relay stations [[2NC]] in [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], [[2CO]] at [[Corowa]], [[4RK]] in [[Rockhampton, Queensland|Rockhampton]] and [[5CK]] at [[Crystal Brook, South Australia|Crystal Brook]].
Opening day programs on [[1 July]] [[1932]] included the first "Children's Session" with 'Bobby Bluegum'; the first sports program, "Racing Notes" with W.A. Ferry calling the [[Randwick, New South Wales|Randwick]] races; "British Wireless News" received by cable from London; weather; stock exchange and shipping news; the ABC Women's Association session (topics were 'commonsense housekeeping' and |
greater.
The regimental reserves were historically carried in six S.A.A. carts and on eight [[pack animal]]s. The six carts are distributed, one as reserve to the
machine gun, three as reserve to the battalion itself, and two as part of the brigade reserve, which consists therefore of eight carts. The brigade reserve communicates directly with the brigade ammunition columns of the [[artillery]] (see below). The eight pack animals follow the eight companies of their battalion. These, with two out of the three battalion carts, endeavour to keep close to the firing line, the remaining cart
being with the reserve companies. Men also are employed as carriers, and this duty is so onerous that picked men only are
detailed. Gallantry displayed in bringing up ammunition is considered indeed to justify special rewards. The amount of
S.A.A. in regimental charge is 100 rounds in the possession of each soldier, 2000 to 2200 on each pack animal, and 16,000
to 17,600 in each of four carts, with, in addition, about 4000 rounds with the machine gun and 16,000 more in the fifth cart.
===Current small arms ammunition===
Currently, every army of an internationally recognized country (except those who rely on others for defense, such as [[Andorra]], and those that do not have a true army, such as the [[Vatican City]]) has adopted [[assault rifle]]s as the main infantry weapon.
In western ([[NATO]]) forces, the [[7.62 NATO|7.62 mm NATO]] round has been mostly replaced by the lighter [[5.56 x 45 mm NATO|5.56 mm NATO]] round, which is better suited for automatic fire than the larger round and each soldier can carry more ammunition. The larger [[caliber]] ammunition is still retained where range and weight of shot is important eg [[machine gun]]s and [[sniper rifle]]s.
Other nations, especially forces with former ties to the [[Soviet Union]] tend to use rifles related to or devleoped from the [[AK-47]] with similar sized rounds to the NATO ones.
=== Anti-tank ===
The tank made horse mounted cavalry obsolete and while an infantryman could deal with a horse-borne enemy new weapons were needed to damage a tank or other vehicle or penetrate and wound the crew. The first anti-tank weapons given to infantry were based on small arms, for example the [[anti-tank rifle]]. As even the lighter designs of tank carried more armour the limit of a man-portable rifle that could fire a round with sufficient kinetic energy to penetrate the armour was reached. The introduction of the [[shaped charge]] warhead gave the infantry a weapon that used chemical energy rather than kinetic to beat the armour and in a focussed way which made them more effective than large grenades. When propelled by a rocket, the shaped charge gained range as well. Weapons such as the Bazooka or Panzerfaust were never small but they were suitable for infantry use - though they often had to be used at close range where they could be aimed accurately at the vehicles weak points. Post World War 2, the advent of the missile delivered both great range and accuracy and provided infantry with a weapon that could reliably destroy the heaviest tanks at long distances.
=== Anti-aircraft ===
Today's infantryman can deploy sophisticated multi-spectral man-portable surface-to-air missiles equipped with the ability to reject decoys and defeat counter-measures. In Somalia it was demonstrated that slow moving/stationary aircraft at low altitudes could be defeated with unguided anti-armour infantry weapons. It is also true that aircraft are relatively delicate machines, filled with highly flammable fuel, and since their first usage in World War I a plane can be brought down by single bullet striking something vital. The main weaknesses of ammunition provided to infantry to deal with aircraft are limited range and small warheads, both due to the necessity that such weapons remain portable by men on foot. The premier SAM for infantry is the FIM-92 Stinger MANPADS (Man Portable Air Defence System), provided as an all-up round in a canister it is attached to a launcher unit and is ready to expend. Numerous other missiles in this class exist from different nations of origin. Infantry machine guns and rifles may improve their ability against aircraft by utilising tracer ammunition, to allow the aimer to better gauge the lead aim necessary to strike his target. Weapons developed primarily for anti-tank roles can add proximity fusing to increase the probability of a kill by having the warhead detonate nearby the target with having to make contact.
==Large weapon ammunition==
See Main article, [[Shell (projectile)]], for information on the various types of shell and shot.
Modern artillery ammunition is generally of two types: separate loading and semi-fixed. Semi-fixed ammunition (rounds) appear in the form of a [[projectile]] mated with a cartridge case which contains the [[propellant]] and they resemble small arms rounds.
The canister is outfitted with a primer on its base which fires upon contact from the firing pin. [[Gunpowder]], precision machined to burn evenly, is contained inside of cloth bags that are numbered. US/NATO 105mm howitzers use semi-fixed ammunition, containing seven powder bags referred to as increments or charges. Putting the powder in bags allows the howitzer crew to remove the increments when firing at closer targets. The unused increments are disposed of by burning in a powder pit at a safe distance from the guns.
Above a certain size, semi-fixed rounds are impracticable; the weight of the whole assembly is either too much to be carried effectively. In this case separate loading ammunition is used: the projectile and propelling charge are supplied and loaded separately. The projectile is rammed home in the chamber, the powder charge(s) are loaded (usually by hand), then the breech is closed and the primer is inserted into the primer holder on the back the breech. Separate loading ammunition is typically used on 155mm and larger howitzers. Several propellant types are available for 155mm howitzer.
All normal projectiles arrive at the weapon with a plug in the [[Fuse (explosives)|fuze]] well on the nose of the projectile. Using a special fuze wrench, the plug is unscrewed and a fuze is screwed in. The decision as to which type of fuze to use is made by the fire direction center and carried out by the gun crew.
The armaments fitted to early tanks were contemporary field or naval artillery pieces and used the same ammunition. When tank versus tank combat became more important, the trend became that anti-aircraft artillery pieces (designed to fire high velocity shells to altitude) were often adapted to tank use where a gun specifically made for the vehicle was not available. equally as the armour applied to tanks increased, ammunition for tank use paralleled that of anti-tank guns.
Current tank gun ammunition is a single fixed round ("shell" and charge combined in a single piece) for quick load, the charge is in a combustible case - so there is no empty cartridge to be removed and stored in the turret and the "shell" is a saboted shot, a shaped charge or sensor fuzed warhead.
== Naval ammunition ==
The ranges at which engagements are conducted by warships are typically much greater than that at which land warfare is observed. The targets are also generally machines, not men. Naval ammunition is therefore optimized for great velocity (to reach those great ranges, to hit aircraft flying at altitude and also with the benefit of reducing the lead that has to be applied to hit a distant moving target) and to disable said machines, rather than rending human flesh. Naval gun ammunition of WWII vintage came in two main varieties, armour piercing shells to attack hardened warships or [[high explosive incendiary]] shells (with point detonating fuzes to start fires on ships, or mechanical time fuzes designed to fragment and create clouds of shrapnel to defeat aircraft). With the demise of the armoured warship, contemporary naval gun ammunition is solely the high explosive variety, but new fuzing and guidance options are available to increase lethality, especially against high speed missile or aircraft threats.
== Fuzes==
Common artillery fuzes include point detonating, delay, time, and [[Proximity fuze | proximity (variable time)]]. Point detonating fuzes detonate upon contact with the ground. Delay fuzes are designed to penetrate a short distance before detonating. Time fuzes, as the name implies, detonate a certain time after being fired in order to achieve an air burst above the target. Time fuzes are set to the tenth of a second. [[Proximity fuze | Proximity or variable time fuzes]] contain a simple radio [[transceiver]] activated a set time after firing to detonate the projectile when the signal reflected from the ground reaches a certain strength, designed to be 7 meters above the ground. Fuzes are armed by the rotation of the projectile imparted by the rifling in the tube, and usually arm after a few hundred rotations.
==See also==
* [[List of rifle cartridges]]
* [[List of handgun cartridges]]
* [[Ammunition column]]
* [[Reloading]]
* [[Rotation of ammunition]]
* [[Armor-piercing shot and shell]]
* [[Teflon coated bullet]]
* [[Hollow point bullet]]
* [[Full metal jacket bullet]]
* [[Dum dum]]
* [[Explosive]]
* [[High Explosive Incendiary]]
* [[Ammo dump]]
* [[Tracer ammunition]]
* [[Fuze for ammunition]]
* [[Proximity fuze]]
* [[Tubes and primers for ammunition]]
* [[Bullet]]
* [[Cartridge (firearms)]]
* [[Howitzer]]
* [[Shell (projectile)]]
* [[Hatton round]]
==References==
*{{1911}}
{{commons|Ammunition}}
{{Technology-footer}}
[[Category:Ammunition]]
[[Category:Explosives]]
[[Category:Military equipment]]
[[de:Munition]]
[[es:Munición]]
[[fr:Munition]]
[[he:תחמושת]]
[[no:Ammunisjon]]
[[pl:Amunicja]]
[[sv:Ammunition]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AMMO (US Air Force)</title>
<id>3257</id>
<revision>
<id>38 |
cause they are not Christian.
This interpretation is related to [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s concept of "[[secondary creation]]" expounded in his [[1947]] essay ''[[On Fairy-Stories]]'', reflecting discussions Lewis and Tolkien had in the [[Inklings]] group.
==Role in the Narnia narrative==
{{spoiler}}
In the course of ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', Aslan is put to death by the White Witch on the Stone Table in the place of a traitor - symbolic of the [[Crucifixion]]. He subsequently rises from the dead, and makes appearances in the remaining books in the series. He appears as the creator of Narnia in the prequel ''[[The Magician's Nephew]]''.
When Narnia is destroyed in ''[[The Last Battle]]'', Aslan judges every creature who has died. It turns out his kingdom is the real Narnia and the one that was destroyed was merely a copy.
The books also make reference to an [[Emperor-Over-Sea]], whose son Aslan is said to be; this further highlights his Christ-like status. The Emperor-over-the-Sea is similar to ''[[Eru Ilúvatar]]'' of [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s [[Middle-earth]], in His separation from His creation.
At various points, Aslan's role as an evangelist for Christian beliefs becomes explicit. After turning from a lamb (Jesus was often said to be the Lamb of God in the Bible) back into a lion (Christ was often called the Lion of the Tribe of Judea) in [[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader|''The Voyage of the'' Dawn Treader]], he announces he is known by another name in our world, and while that name is not mentioned specifically, the connotations and imagery in Aslan's story strongly suggest that he is referring to Christ. See the Wikipedia entry on [[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader|''The Voyage of the'' Dawn Treader]] for this description.
{{endspoiler}}
==Portrayals in film and television==
In all three (''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', ''Prince Caspian and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'', ''The Silver Chair'') of the [[BBC]] television serial adaptations of the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]], Aslan is voiced by [[Ronald Pickup]], with the costume operated by William Todd Jones.
In the 2005 film ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'', he is voiced by [[Liam Neeson]].
==References==
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/lion/section10.rhtml Spark notes reference to the meaning of Aslan's death]
* [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/010/22.32.html "Aslan is still on the move" ''Christianity Today'' editorial, [[6 August]] [[2001]].
==See also==
{{NarniaCharacters}}
[[Category:Narnia characters]]
[[Category:Fictional lions|Aslan]]
[[Category:Fictional deities|Aslan]]
[[Category:Fictional kings]]
[[es:Aslan]]
[[eo:Aslano]]
[[pl:Aslan]]
[[pt:Aslan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AT bus architecture</title>
<id>1952</id>
<revision>
<id>15900412</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-27T21:20:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Radiojon</username>
<id>15970</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#redirect [[Industry Standard Architecture]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Industry Standard Architecture]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adobe Systems</title>
<id>1955</id>
<revision>
<id>41868339</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:25:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>00user001</username>
<id>1015755</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company |
company_name = Adobe Systems, Inc. |
company_logo = [[Image:AdobeSystems.png|196px]] |
company_type = [[Corporation]] ([[NASDAQ]]: [http://quotes.nasdaq.com/asp/SummaryQuote.asp?symbol=ADBE ADBE]) |
foundation = [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] ([[1982]]) |
location = [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[California]] |
key_people = [[Charles Geschke]], Founder<br />[[John Warnock]], Founder<br />[[Bruce Chizen]], [[Chief Executive Officer|CEO]] |
industry = [[Software|software publishing]] [http://www.hoovers.com/adobe/--ID__12518--/free-co-factsheet.xhtml] |
products = [[#Products|See complete products listing.]] |
revenue = [[Image:green up.png]] $1.97 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2005]]) |
num_employees = 3,142 (2005) |
homepage = [http://www.adobe.com/ www.adobe.com]
}}
'''Adobe Systems''' ({{nasdaq|ADBE}}) ({{lse|ABS}}) is an [[United States|American]] [[computer]] [[Computer software|software]] company headquartered in [[San Jose, California]] that was founded in December 1982 by [[John Warnock]] and [[Charles Geschke]]. They founded Adobe after leaving [[Xerox PARC]] in order to further develop and commercialize the [[PostScript]] [[page description language]]. Adobe played a significant role in sparking the [[desktop publishing]] revolution when [[Apple Computer]] licensed PostScript for use in the [[LaserWriter]] [[computer printer|printer]] product line in 1985. The company name ''Adobe'' comes from the Adobe Creek, which ran behind the house of one of the company's founders.
In 2005, Adobe Systems had over 4,000 employees, at least half of whom were located in San Jose. Adobe also has major development operations in [[Seattle, Washington]]; [[Noida]], [[India]]; and [[Ottawa]], [[Canada]]. Minor Adobe development offices include a location near [[Minneapolis]], [[Minnesota]] and in [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]]. The 4,000 count was prior to the [[December 3]], [[2005]] merger with [[Macromedia]] of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]].
==History==
[[Image:Adobe HQ.JPG|300px|thumb|right|Adobe Systems headquarters in San Jose]]
Adobe's first products following PostScript were digital [[Typeface|font]]s. Adobe has continued to be a strong presence in the fonts market: in 1996, the company, in combination with [[Microsoft]], announced the [[OpenType]] font format, and in 2003 Adobe completed the conversion of its library of [[Type 1 font]]s to OpenType.
In the mid-[[1980s]], soon after introducing PostScript, Adobe entered the consumer [[Computer software|software]] market with [[Adobe Illustrator]], a [[vector graphics|vector]]-based drawing program for the [[Apple Macintosh]]. Illustrator was the logical outgrowth of commercializing their in-house font-development software. Additionally, it helped popularize the use of PostScript-enabled [[laser printer]]s. Unlike [[MacDraw]] (then the standard Macintosh vector drawing program), Illustrator described all shapes with more flexible [[Bézier curve]]s, providing a level of accuracy not seen in other programs. Font rendering in Illustrator, however, was left to the Macintosh's [[QuickDraw]] libraries and would not be superseded by a PostScript-like approach until Adobe's own [[Adobe Type Manager]] software was introduced, preceding Apple's eventual adoption of [[TrueType]].
Although Illustrator was an excellent product and continues to be highly valued by the [[prepress]] industry, Adobe introduced what was to become its [[flagship]] product, [[Adobe Photoshop]] for the Macintosh, in 1989. Although Photoshop 1.0 had competitors, it was extremely stable and well-featured&mdash;and Adobe had the resources to market it. The combination enabled Photoshop to soon dominate its market.
Arguably, one of Adobe's few missteps on the Macintosh platform was their failure to develop their own [[desktop publishing]] (DTP) program. Instead, [[Aldus]] with [[Adobe PageMaker|PageMaker]] in 1985 and [[Quark, Inc.|Quark]] with [[QuarkXPress]] in 1987 gained early leads in the DTP market. Adobe was also slow to address the emerging [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] DTP market. In a classic failure to predict the direction of computing, Adobe released a complete version of Illustrator for [[Steve Jobs]]' ill-fated [[NeXT]] system, but a poorly produced version for Windows.
History has been kind to Adobe however, because the company always had licensing fees from the PostScript interpreter to fall back on, Adobe was able to simply outlast many of its rivals in the late 1980s and early [[1990s]], and, like [[Microsoft]], eventually acquired its main competitors or continued to improve its applications until they became industry standards. For reasons unknown, [[Corel]] never leveraged their [[CorelDraw]] product to do professional illustration&mdash;users quietly derided it as something only office users would touch&mdash;so when Illustrator was finally revamped for Windows, prepress users found it too good to ignore. Corel's interest in acquiring [[WordPerfect]] from [[Novell]] Corporation around this time may have proved to be a key distraction. In 1994, Adobe took over Aldus and acquired PageMaker and the [[TIFF]] file format; in 1995 they acquired the long-document DTP application [[FrameMaker]] from Frame Technologies.
Adobe's latest efforts are mainly centered on its [[Portable Document Format]] (PDF). Although sales of [[Adobe Acrobat]], which generates PDF files, were slow to start in the mid-1990s, Adobe continued to develop the product, perceiving its long-term potential for revenues. History has since shown this to be a wise investment. Adobe has also seen several ancillary benefits: PDF provides a common, high-quality data exchange infrastructure for its DTP applications.
Among open software advocates, some see Adobe as overly aggressive. This image was created with their decision to use an encrypted, proprietary format for their high-quality Type 1 fonts, thus allowing them to charge licensing fees for any other company that wanted to produce or use Type 1 fonts. The size of these fees was a factor in Apple's development of their own [[TrueType]] technology as well as Microsoft's decision to license TrueType from Apple. At the presentation at which TrueType was introduced, Adobe head Warnock followed TrueType talks from both Apple and Microsoft VPs, |
ber who desires to leave the House of Commons.
{{see|Resignation from the British House of Commons}}
==Officers==
[[Image:British House of Commons 1834.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Speaker presides over debates in the House of Commons, as depicted in the above print commemorating the destruction of the Commons Chamber by fire in 1834.]]
The House of Commons elects a presiding officer, known as the Speaker, at the beginning of each new parliamentary term, and also whenever a vacancy arises. If the incumbent Speaker seeks a new term, the House may re-elect him or her merely by passing a motion; otherwise, a secret ballot is held. A Speaker-elect cannot take office until he or she has been approved by the Sovereign; the granting of the royal approbation, however, is a mere formality. The Speaker is assisted by three Deputy Speakers, the most senior of which holds the title of Chairman of Ways and Means. The two other Deputy Speakers are known as the First and Second Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means. These titles derive from the Committee of Ways and Means, a body over which the Chairman once used to preside; even though the Committee was abolished in 1967, the traditional titles of the Deputy Speakers are still retained. The Speaker and the Deputy Speakers are always Members of the House of Commons.
Whilst presiding, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker wears a ceremonial black robe. The presiding officer may also wear a wig, but this tradition has been abandoned by the present Speaker, [[Michael Martin (politician)|Michael Martin]], and by his predecessor, [[Betty Boothroyd]]. The Speaker or Deputy Speaker presides from a chair at the front of the House. The Speaker is Chairman of the [[House of Commons Commisssion]], which oversees the running of the House, and controls debates by calling on Members to speak. If a Member believes that a rule (or Standing Order) has been breached, he or she may raise a "point of order," on which the Speaker makes a ruling that is not subject to any appeal. The Speaker may discipline Members who fail to observe the rules of the House. Thus, the Speaker is far more powerful than his Lords counterpart, the [[Lord Chancellor]], who has no disciplinary powers at all. Customarily, the Speaker and the Deputy Speakers are non-partisan; they do not vote, or participate in the affairs of any political party. By convention, a Speaker seeking re-election is not opposed in his or her constituency by any of the major parties. The lack of partisanship continues even after the Speaker leaves the House of Commons.
The [[Clerk of the House of Commons|Clerk of the House]] is both the House's chief adviser on matters of procedure and Chief Executive of the House of Commons. He is a permanent official, not a Member of the House itself. The Clerk advises the Speaker on the rules and procedure of the House, signs orders and official communications, and signs and endorses bills. He chairs the Board of Management, which consists of the heads of the six departments of the House. The Clerk's deputy is known as the Clerk Assistant. Another officer of the House is the [[Serjeant-at-Arms]], whose duties include the maintenance of law, order, and security on the House's premises. The Serjeant-at-Arms carries the ceremonial [[ceremonial mace|Mace]], a symbol of the authority of the Crown and of the House of Commons, into the House each day in front of the Speaker. The Mace is laid upon the Table of the House of Commons during sittings.
==Procedure==
[[Image:UK House of Commons Chamber.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Benches in the House of Commons Chamber are coloured green. In contrast, the [[House of Lords]] is decorated in red.]]
Like the House of Lords, the House of Commons meets in the Palace of Westminster in London. The Commons Chamber is small and modestly decorated in green, in contrast with the large, lavishly furnished red Lords Chamber. There are benches on two sides of the Chamber, divided by a centre aisle. This arrangement reflects the design of [[St Stephen's Chapel]], which served as the home of the House of Commons until destroyed by fire in 1834. The Speaker's chair is at one end of the Chamber; in front of it is the Table of the House, on which the Mace rests. The Clerks sit at one end of the Table, close to the Speaker so that they may advise him or her on procedure when necessary. Members of the Government sit on the benches on the Speaker's right, whilst members of the Opposition occupy the benches on the Speaker's left.
In front of each set of benches, a red line is drawn on the carpet. The red lines in front of the two sets of benches are two-sword lengths apart; a Member is traditionally not allowed to cross the line during debates, for he or she is then supposed to be able to attack an individual on the opposite side. Government ministers and important Opposition leaders sit on the front rows, and are known as "frontbenchers." Other Members of Parliament, in contrast, are known as "backbenchers." Oddly, all Members of Parliament cannot fit in the Chamber, which can only seat 427 of the 646 Members. Members who arrive late must stand near the entrance of the House if they wish to listen to debates. Sittings in the Chamber are held each day from Monday to Thursday, and also on some Fridays. During times of national emergency, the House may also sit on Saturdays.
Due to recent reforms, the House of Commons sometimes meets in another chamber in the Palace of Westminster, known as Westminster Hall. Debates in Westminster Hall are generally uncontroversial or non-partisan; business which leads to actual votes must still be conducted in the main Chamber. Westminster Hall sittings take place each Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday. On Wednesdays the sitting is suspended for a lunch break. Sittings are also suspended whenever there is a division taking place in the House itself.
Sittings of the House are open to the public, but the House may at any time vote to sit in private, by the vote of a simple majority. (However, this has only been done twice since 1950.) Traditionally, a Member who desired that the House sit privately could shout "I spy strangers," and a vote would automatically follow. In the past, this was to clear the public gallery in case someone would tell the Monarch what was happening - about an issue the House wanted to keep private. More often, however, this device was used to delay and disrupt debates; it was abolished in 1998. Now, Members seeking that the House sit in private must make a formal motion to that effect. Public debates are broadcast on the [[radio]], and on [[television]] by [[BBC Parliament]], and are recorded in [[Hansard]].
Sessions of the House of Commons have often been disrupted by angry protesters who hurl objects into the Chamber from the [[Strangers Gallery]] and other galleries. Items which have been thrown into the House include leaflets, manure, flour (see [[Fathers 4 Justice House of Commons protest#House of Commons protest|Fathers 4 Justice House of Commons protest]]), and a canister of [[CS gas|chlorobenzylidene malonitrile]]. Even members have been known to disturb proceedings of the House; for instance, in 1976, Conservative MP [[Michael Heseltine]] seized and brandished the Mace of the House during a heated debate. Perhaps the most famous disruption of the House of Commons was caused by King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], who entered the Commons Chamber in 1642 with an armed force in order to arrest five Members of Parliament who belonged to an anti-royalist faction. This action, however, was deemed a grave breach of the privilege of Parliament: according to the Constitution, the current Monarch may only ever enter the House once a year - at the [[State Opening of Parliament]]. Above is the only time this was ever broken.
By a custom which has been strictly maintained since 1642, no monarch has sought to set foot in the Commons Chamber. Another tradition that arose from Charles I's actions involves the [[State Opening of Parliament]], an annual ceremony in the Lords Chamber during which the Sovereign, in the presence of Members of both Houses, delivers an address on the Government's legislative agenda. The [[Black Rod|Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod]] (a Lords official) is responsible for summoning the Commons to the Lords Chamber; when he arrives to deliver his summons, the doors of the Commons Chamber are slammed shut in his face, symbolising the right of the Lower House to debate without interference. The Gentleman Usher knocks on the door thrice with his Black Rod, and only then is he granted admittance. He then, politely, informs the MP's that the Monarch awaits them. Then they all go to the House of Lords for the [[Queen's Speech]].
During debates, Members may only speak if called upon by the Speaker (or the Deputy Speaker, if the Speaker is not presiding). Traditionally, the presiding officer alternates between calling Members from the Government and Opposition. The Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition, and other leaders from both sides are normally given priority when more than one Member rises to speak at the same time. Formerly, all [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Counsellors]] were granted priority; however, the modernisation of Commons procedure led to the abolition of this tradition in 1998.
Speeches are addressed to the presiding officer, using the words "Mr Speaker," "Madam Speaker," "Mr Deputy Speaker," or "Madam Deputy Speaker." Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other Members must be referred to in the third person. Traditionally, Members do not refer to each other by name, but by constituency, using forms such as "the Honourable Member for [constituency]," or, in the case of Privy Counsellors, "the Right Honourable Member for [constituency]." The Speaker enforces the |
*[http://www.cpindia.org/ Communist Party of India]
*[http://www.cpim.org/ Communist Party of India (Marxist)]
===Other sites===
*[http://www.electionworld.org/india.htm India from election world]
*[http://www.eci.gov.in/ Election Commission of India]
*[http://www.electionnext.com/ Election Analysis]
[[fr:Politique de l'Inde]]
[[he:פוליטיקה של הודו]]
[[pt:Política da Índia]]
[[sv:Indiens politik]]
[[zh:印度政治]]
[[Category:Politics of India]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in India</title>
<id>14601</id>
<revision>
<id>41329923</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T17:04:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Cochin]] to [[Kochi, India]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephone - Land lines:'''
48.93 million (2005)
'''Telephones - Mobile users:'''
81.1 million (January 2006)
'''Teledensity:'''
11.43% (2005)
'''Telephone system:'''
The telecommunications system in India was thrown open to private players in the [[1990s]].
The country is divided into multiple zones, called circles (roughly along state boundaries) and the four largest cities ([[Delhi]], [[Mumbai]], [[Kolkata]] and [[Chennai]]) are circles in their own right.
The government owned [[BSNL]] runs local, mobile and long distance telephone services all over the country (except in the Delhi and Mumbai circles). Several private companies give competition to BSNL/[[MTNL]] in different circles.
''Landlines:'' Landline service in India is primarily run by [[BSNL]] ([[MTNL]] in Delhi and Mumbai). There are other companies too, such as [[Touchtel]] and [[Tata Teleservices]] which do not have a pan-Indian presence. [[Reliance Infocomm]] has licences to provide services all over the country, but have started off only with [[CDMA]] mobile and fixed mobile services (where the phone is not wired to the exchange, but is used like a fixed line at home or office).
Landlines are now facing competition from mobile telephones ([[GSM]] and CDMA based). Mobile phone connections are readily available from private companies for relatively low prices. The competition has forced the government owned monopoly BSNL (MTNL in Delhi and Mumbai) to become more efficient. The landline network quality has improved and landline connections are now usually available on demand, even in high density urban areas. In addition to the government monopoly, there are several private landline telephone companies, notably Reliance and Tata Teleservices and [[Bharti]] (which runs the landline company Touchtel and the mobile company [[Airtel]]).
Long distance service is now more comprehensive and cheaper, carried primarily on fiber optic cable. There are several private long distance companies, the government owned [[BSNL]] continues to use its monopoly against them. However, the competition has caused prices to drop and calls across India are now comparable in price to calls across the continental United States.
The [[subscriber trunk dialling|STD]] codes within India are:
{|
| Bangalore
| (0)80
|-
| Mumbai
| (0)22
|-
| Kolkata
| (0)33
|-
| [[Dehradun]]
| (0)135
|-
| [[Delhi]]
| (0)11
|}
''Mobile Cellular:'' The mobile service has seen phenomenal growth since [[2000]]. In fact, in September, 2004 the number of mobile phone connections have crossed fixed-line connections. Currently there are an estimated 50 million mobile phone users in India compared to 45 million fixed line subscribers. The rules allow for up to 4 mobile phone companies in each circle (one is always [[BSNL]]). India primarily follows the [[GSM]] mobile system, in the 900 MHz band. Recent operators also operate in the 1800 MHz band. The dominant players are [[Airtel]] (almost all over India), [[Hutch (Indian cellular company)|Hutch]], [[Idea cellular]] (from the [[Tata]] group) and [[BSNL]]/[[MTNL]]. There are many smaller players, with operations in only a few states. International [[roaming]] agreements exist between most operators and many foreign carriers.
A recent entrant has been the Reliance group, which originally only had licences for landline service. Loopholes in the regulations allowed it to set up mobile operations across India using [[CDMA]] technology. Since it hadn't paid the high fees for mobile licences, it could offer calls at very low rates. This resulted in high competition with the established mobile players, with lower prices and increased features all around. Eventually the telecommunications regulator ([[TRAI]]) stepped in and levelled the playing field, but the low prices have stayed.
''Dialling System:'' On landlines, calls within cities are considered local calls. Calls to other cities (beyond 200km) are considered long distance calls and are metered according to distance. For local calls, you just dial the local number. For long distance calls, you dial the area code prefixed with a zero (e.g. For calling Delhi, you would dial 011-XXXX XXXX). For international calls, you would dial "00" and the country code+area code+number. The country code for India is 91.
On mobile phones, calls within a circle are considered local, even if they are intra-city. For calling mobiles, you dial the 10 digit mobile number 9XXXX-YYYYY. When dialling any landlines, you dial the entire number, including the area code with the 0 prefix.
If you were calling a mobile phone in the same circle from a land line, you would dial the 10 digit mobile number (9XXXX-YYYYY). If you were calling a mobile number in another circle, it would be a long distance call, with a zero prefix (0-9XXXX-YYYYY).
There is a conversion process underway to make all numbers in India 10 digits long.
''International:''
* Nine satellite earth stations - 8 [[Intelsat]] ([[Indian Ocean]]) and 1 [[Inmarsat]] (Indian Ocean region).
* Nine gateway exchanges operating from Mumbai, New Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, [[Jalandhar]], [[Kanpur]], [[Gandhinagar]], [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] and [[Ernakulam]].
* 4 submarine cables :
** LOCOM linking Chennai to [[Penang]].
** Indo-[[United Arab Emirates|UAE]]-Gulf cable linking Mumbai to [[Al Fujayrah]], UAE.
** India-SEA-ME-WE-3, SEA-ME-WE-2 with landing sites at [[Kochi, India|Cochin]] and Mumbai.
** [[Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe]] (FLAG) with a landing site at Mumbai (2000).
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
[[Amplitude modulation|AM]] 153, [[Frequency modulation|FM]] 91, [[shortwave]] 68 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
116 million (1997)
'''Television terrestrial broadcast stations:'''
562 (of which 82 stations have 1 kW or greater power and 480 stations have less than 1 kW of power) (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
100 million (2004) ''Source: Business Today issue dated November 21, 2004'')
In India, only the government owned ''[[Doordarshan]]'' (''Door'' = Distant = Tele, ''Darshan'' == Vision) is allowed to broadcast terrestrial television signals. It initially had one major National channel (also known as [[DD1]]) and a Metro channel in some of the larger cities (also known as [[DD2]]).
Satellite/Cable television took off during the first [[Gulf War]] with [[CNN]]. There are no regulations against ownership of [[dish antennas]], or operation of cable television systems, which led to an explosion of viewership and channels, let by the [[Star TV]] group and [[Zee TV]]. Initially restricted to music and entertainment channels, viewership grew, giving rise to several channels in [[regional language]]s and many in the national language, [[Hindi]]. The main news channels available were [[CNN]] and [[BBC World]]. In the late 1990s, many current affairs and news channels sprouted, becoming immensely popular because of the alternative viewpoint they offered compared to Doordarshan. Some of the notable ones are [[Aaj Tak]] (means ''Till Today'', run by the [[India Today]] group) and [[Star News]], initially run by the [[NDTV]] group and their charismatic lead anchor, [[Prannoy Roy]] ([[NDTV]] now has its own channels, NDTV 24x7 and NDTV India).
Here is a reasonably comprehensive [[List of Indian television stations]].
'''Internet Users:'''
50,600,000 (December 2005) ''Source: Internet World Stats''
'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs) & Hosts:'''
86,571 (2004) ''Source: CIA World FactBook''
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' IN
:''See also :'' [[India]]
[[Category:Communications by country|India]]
[[Category:Communications in India| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in India</title>
<id>14602</id>
<revision>
<id>41475519</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T16:34:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ian Pitchford</username>
<id>230605</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ambassadorsccotertrain.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Three of the most influential means of transportation in modern India: (''from left to right'') the [[Hindustan Ambassador]], the [[Bajaj scooter|Bajaj]] [[motor scooter]] and the [[steam engine]].]]
[[Image:Mumbai Taxi.jpg|right|250px|thumb|A [[taxicab]] in [[Mumbai]]. The [[Fiat 1100|Premier Padmini]] model ruled the Indian roads for almost three decades.]]
[[India]] has a large and extensive transportation system. The country has one of the world's largest [[railway]] and [[roadway]] network transporting millions of people every year. However, vast sections of the country's transportation network remains underdeveloped.
==Traditional means==
===[[Walking]]===
In ancient times, people often covered long distances on foot. For instance, the [[Adi Sankara]] traveled all over India. Even today it is not uncommon for people in rural areas to commute several kilometers every day.
===[[Bullock cart|Bullock Cart]]===
[[Image:Bullockcart.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bullock |
re practical effect on the campaign costs for district elections. As districts become increasingly [[concave]] and oddly elongated, the difficulty of finding transportation and focusing [[campaign advertising]] across a district increases significantly, resulting in higher costs to run for office. When incumbents have an advantage at securing campaign funds (as is commonly the case), this further amplifies the advantage to incumbents that gerrymandering provides.
===Less descriptive representation===
Gerrymandering also has significant effects on the [[representation (politics)|representation]] received by voters in gerrymandered districts. Because gerrymandering is designed to increase the number of wasted votes among the electorate, the relative representation of particular groups can be drastically altered from their actual share of the voting population. This effect can significantly prevent a gerrymandered system from achieving [[proportional representation|proportional]] and [[descriptive representation]], as the winners of elections are increasingly determined by who is drawing the districts rather than the preferences of the voters.
Sometimes, however, gerrymandering is advocated as a solution for improving representation amongst otherwise underrepresented groups by packing them into a single district. This can be controversial, and may lead to those groups remaining marginalized in the government as they become confined to a single district and representatives outside that district no longer need to represent them to win election. As an example, much of the redistricting conducted in the United States in the early 1990s involved the intentional creation of additional "majority-minority" districts where racial minorities such as [[African Americans]] were packed into the majority. Curiously, this "[[maximization policy]]" was supported by elements of both the Republican Party (who had little support among the minority groups) and minority representatives elected as [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]s from these constituencies, who then had "[[safe seat]]s". <!-- cite a famous politician or political scientist that has a good quote of this here -->
===Incumbent gerrymandering===
[[Image:California District 38 2004.png|thumb|250px|right|Carved out with the aid of a computer, this congressional district was the product of [[California government and politics#Bi-partisan gerrymandering|California's incumbent gerrymandering]]. This is the district of Democrat [[Grace Napolitano|Grace Flores Napolitano]], who ran unopposed in 2004, obtaining 100 percent of the vote.]]
Gerrymandering can also be done to help [[incumbent]]s as a whole, effectively turning every district into a packed one and greatly reducing the potential for competitive elections. This is particularly likely to occur when the minority party has significant obstruction power - unable to enact a partisan gerrymander, the legislature instead agrees on ensuring their own mutual reelection.
In an unusual occurrence in 2000, for example, the two dominant parties in the state of [[California]] cooperatively redrew both state and federal legislative districts to preserve the status quo, ensuring the electoral safety of the politicians from possibly unpredictable voting by the electorate. This move proved completely effective, as no State or Federal legislative office changed party in the [[U.S. House election, 2004|2004 election]], with 53 congressional, 20 state senate, and 80 state assembly seats potentially at risk.
==Reforms targeted against gerrymandering==
Due to the myriad of issues associated with gerrymandering and the subsequent impact it has on competitive elections and democratic accountability, various [[electoral reform]]s aimed at making gerrymandering either more difficult or less effective have been proposed. These reforms can be controversial, however, and frequently meet particularly strong opposition from groups that are benefitting from gerrymandering who stand to lose considerable influence in a more representative government.
===Redistricting by neutral or cross-party agency===
The most commonly advocated electoral reform proposal targeted at gerrymandering is to change the redistricting process. Under these proposals, an independent, and presumably objective, commission is created and charged with redistricting rather than the legislature. To help ensure neutrality, members of the board can come from relatively apolitical sources such as retired state judges or longstanding members of the [[bureaucracy]], possibly requiring adequate representation from competing political parties. Additionally, members of the board can be denied access to information that might aid in gerrymandering, such as the demographic makeup or voting patterns of the population. As a further constraint, [[consensus]] requirements can be imposed to ensure that the resulting district map reflects a wider perception of fairness, such as a requirement for a [[supermajority]] approval of the commission for any district proposal.
<!--mention Iowa's district method here as an example. Also mention how these bodies are sometimes instructed to draw districts in a way that maximizes competition, even when that doesn't make much sense given a region's demographics - sort of like an inverse gerrymander-->
===Changing the voting system===
Because gerrymandering relies on the wasted vote effect to be effective, the use of a different [[voting system]] with fewer wasted votes can help reduce gerrymandering. In particular, the use of [[multimember district]]s alongside voting systems establishing [[proportional representation]] can greatly reduce the proportion of wasted votes, and therefore the potential for gerrymandering. Similarly, the use of semi-proportional voting systems such as [[cumulative voting]] or the [[single non-transferable vote]] can also help achieve a large reduction in the number of wasted votes, and due to their relative simplicity and similarity to [[first past the post]] they are often advocated as a replacement system by advocates of electoral reform.
{{sect-stub}}
===Changing the size of districts and the elected body===
If a proportional or semi-proportional voting system alongside multimember districts is used, then increasing the number of winners in any given district will reduce the number of wasted votes. This can be accomplished both by merging seperate districts together and by increasing the total size of the body to be elected. Since gerrymandering relies on exploiting the wasted vote effect to secure electoral advantage, reducing the number of wasted votes by increasing the number of winners in a district can greatly reduce the potential for gerrymandering. Unless all districts are merged, however, this method cannot eliminate gerrymandering entirely.
In contrast to proportional methods, if a nonproportional voting system with multiple winners (such as a form of [[bloc voting]]) is used, then increasing the size of the elected body while keeping the number of districts constant will not reduce the amount of wasted votes, leaving the potential for gerrymandering the same. Merging districts together under such a system, however, can reduce the potential for gerrymandering, but doing so also amplifies the effect of bloc voting's tendency to produce [[landslide victories]], which has a similar effect in concentrating wasted votes among the opposition and denying them representation.
If a system of single-winner elections is used, then increasing the size of the elected body will implicitly increase the number of districts to be created. This can actually make gerrymandering easier when raising the number of single-winner elections, as opposition groups can be more efficiently packed into smaller districts without accidentally including supporters, further increasing the number of wasted votes amongst the opposition.
===Using fixed districts===
Another possible method of avoiding further gerrymandering is to simply avoid redistricting altogether and continue to use existing political boundaries such as state, county, or provincial lines. Doing this makes further increasing electoral advantage by changing boundaries impossible, however any existing advantage may become deeply ingrained. The [[United States Senate]], for instance, has far more competitive elections than the House of Representatives due to the use of existing state borders rather than gerrymandered districts, however several states often resemble packed districts from the national perspective due to their slant towards a particular party.
The use of fixed districts creates an additional problem, however, in that fixed districts do not take in to account changes in population and individual voters can therefore grow to have vastly different degrees of influence on the legislative process. This [[malapportionment]], in turn, can have a particularly focused effect on representation after long periods of time or large population movements. The United States Senate, for instance, provides nearly 66 times the representation to voters in the state of Wyoming than voters in the state of California, making it the most malapportioned directly-elected legislative body in the developed world. In the United Kingdom during the [[Industrial revolution]], several districts which had been fixed since the formation of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] became so small that they could be won with only a handful of voters (''[[rotten borough]]s'').
[[Image:Illinois District 4 2004.png|thumb|250px|right|The unusual "earmuff" shape of the 4th Congressional District of [[Illinois]] connects two Hispanic neighborhoods while remaining continuous by narrowly tracing [[Interstate 294]].]]
===Establishing objective rules for the creation of districts===
Another avenue of tying |
nected space|connected]] whereas the nonzero real numbers are not.
==Complex analysis==
{{details|Complex analysis}}
The study of functions of a complex variable is known as [[complex analysis]] and has enormous practical use in [[Applied Mathematics|applied mathematics]] as well as in other branches of mathematics. Often, the most natural proofs for statements in [[real analysis]] or even [[number theory]] employ techniques from complex analysis (see [[prime number theorem]] for an example). Unlike real functions which are commonly represented as two dimensional graphs, complex functions have four dimensional graphs
and may usefully be illustrated by color coding a three dimensional graph to suggest four dimensions, or by animating the complex function's dynamic transformation of the complex plane.
==Applications==
===Control theory===
In [[control theory]], systems are often transformed from the [[time domain]] to the [[frequency domain]] using the [[Laplace transform]]. The system's [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]]s and [[zero (complex analysis)|zero]]s are then analyzed in the ''complex plane''. The [[root locus]], [[Nyquist plot]], and [[Nichols plot]] techniques all make use of the complex plane.
In the root locus method, it is especially important whether the [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]]s and [[zero (complex analysis)|zero]]s are in the left or right half planes, i.e. have real part greater than or less than zero. If a system has poles that are
*in the right half plane, it will be [[unstable]],
*all in the left half plane, it will be [[stability|stable]],
*on the imaginary axis, it will be [[marginally stable]].
If a system has zeros in the right half plane, it is a [[nonminimum phase]] system.
===Signal analysis===
Complex numbers are used in [[signal analysis]] and other fields as a convenient description for periodically varying signals. The absolute value |''z''| is interpreted as the [[amplitude]] and the argument arg(''z'') as the [[phase]] of a [[sine wave]] of given [[frequency]].
If [[Fourier analysis]] is employed to write a given real-valued signal as a sum of periodic functions, these periodic functions are often written as the real part of complex valued functions of the form
:<math> f ( t ) = z e^{i\omega t} \,</math>
where &omega; represents the [[angular frequency]] and the complex number ''z'' encodes the phase and amplitude as explained above.
In [[electrical engineering]], the Fourier transform is used to analyze varying [[voltage]]s and [[current (electricity)|current]]s. The treatment of [[resistor]]s, [[capacitor]]s, and [[inductor]]s can then be unified by introducing imaginary, frequency-dependent resistances for the latter two and combining all three in a single complex number called the [[impedance]]. (Electrical engineers and some physicists use the letter ''j'' for the imaginary unit since ''i'' is typically reserved for varying currents and may come into conflict with ''i''.) This use is also extended into [[digital signal processing]] and [[digital image processing]], which utilize digital versions of Fourier analysis (and [[Wavelet]] analysis) to transmit, [[compression|compress]], restore, and otherwise process [[digital]] [[Sound|audio]] signals, still images, and [[video]] signals.
===Improper integrals===
In applied fields, the use of complex analysis is often used to compute certain real-valued [[improper integral]]s, by means of complex-valued functions. Several methods exist to do this, see [[methods of contour integration]].
===Quantum mechanics===
The complex number field is also of utmost importance in [[quantum mechanics]]
since the underlying theory is built on (infinite dimensional) [[Hilbert space|Hilbert spaces]] over '''C'''.
===Relativity===
In [[special relativity|special]] and [[general relativity]], some formulas for the metric on [[spacetime]] become simpler if one takes the time variable to be imaginary.
===Applied mathematics===
In [[differential equations]], it is common to
first find all complex roots ''r'' of the [[characteristic equation]] of a
[[linear differential equation]] and then attempt to solve the system
in terms of base functions of the form ''f''(''t'') = ''e''<sup>''rt''</sup>.
===Fluid dynamics===
In [[fluid dynamics]], complex functions are used to describe [[potential flow in 2d]].
===Fractals===
Certain [[fractal]]s are plotted in the complex plane e.g. [[Mandelbrot set]] and [[Julia set]].
==History==
The earliest fleeting reference to square roots of negative numbers occurred in the work of the Greek mathematician and inventor [[Heron of Alexandria]] in the [[1st century]] [[common era|CE]], when he considered the volume of an impossible [[frustum]] of a [[pyramid]] {{citation needed}}. They became more prominent when in the [[16th century]] closed formulas for the roots of third and fourth degree polynomials were discovered by Italian mathematicians (see [[Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia]], [[Gerolamo Cardano]]). It was soon realized that these formulas, even if one was only interested in real solutions, sometimes required the manipulation of square roots of negative numbers. For example, Tartaglia's cubic formula gives the following solution to the equation <math>x^3-x=0</math>:
:<math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\left(\sqrt{-1}^{1/3}+\frac{1}{\sqrt{-1}^{1/3}}\right).</math>
At first glance this looks like nonsense. However formal calculations with complex numbers show that the equation <math>z^3=i</math> has solutions &minus;''i'', <math>\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}+\frac{1}{2}i</math> and <math>\frac{-\sqrt{3}}{2}+\frac{1}{2}i</math>. Substituting these in turn for <math>\sqrt{-1}^{1/3}</math> into the cubic formula and simplifying, one gets 0, 1 and &minus;1 as the solutions of <math>x^3-x=0.</math>
This was doubly unsettling since not even negative numbers were considered to be on firm ground at the time. The term "imaginary" for these quantities was coined by [[René Descartes]] in [[1637]] and was meant to be derogatory (see [[imaginary number]] for a discussion of the "reality" of complex numbers). A further source of confusion was that the equation <math>\sqrt{-1}^2=\sqrt{-1}\sqrt{-1}=-1</math> seemed to be capriciously inconsistent with the algebraic identity <math>\sqrt{a}\sqrt{b}=\sqrt{ab}</math>, which is valid for positive real numbers ''a'' and ''b'', and which was also used in complex number calculations with one of ''a'', ''b'' positive and the other negative. The incorrect use of this identity (and the related identity <math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{a}}=\sqrt{\frac{1}{a}}</math>) in the case when both ''a'' and ''b'' are negative even bedeviled [[Euler]]. This difficulty eventually led to the convention of using the special symbol ''i'' in place of <math>\sqrt{-1}</math> to guard against this mistake.
The [[18th century]] saw the labors of [[Abraham de Moivre]] and [[Leonhard Euler]]. To De Moivre is due (1730) the well-known formula which bears his name, [[de Moivre's formula]]:
:<math>(\cos \theta + i\sin \theta)^{n} = \cos n \theta + i\sin n \theta \,</math>
and to Euler (1748) [[Euler's formula]] of [[complex analysis]]:
:<math>\cos \theta + i\sin \theta = e ^{i\theta }. \,</math>
The existence of complex numbers was not completely accepted until the geometrical interpretation (see below) had been described by [[Caspar Wessel]] in [[1799]]; it was rediscovered several years later and popularized by [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], and as a result the theory of complex numbers received a notable expansion. The idea of the graphic representation of complex numbers had appeared, however, as early as 1685, in [[John Wallis|Wallis]]'s ''De Algebra tractatus''.
Wessel's memoir appeared in the Proceedings of the [[Copenhagen Academy]] for 1799, and is exceedingly clear and complete, even in comparison with modern works. He also considers the sphere, and gives a [[quaternion]] theory from which he develops a complete spherical trigonometry. In 1804 the Abbé Buée independently came upon the same idea which Wallis had suggested, that <math>\pm\sqrt{-1}</math> should represent a unit line, and its negative, perpendicular to the real axis. [[Buée]]'s paper was not published until 1806, in which year [[Jean-Robert Argand]] also issued a pamphlet on the same subject. It is to Argand's essay that the scientific foundation for the graphic representation of complex numbers is now generally referred. Nevertheless, in 1831 Gauss found the theory quite unknown, and in 1832 published his chief memoir on the subject, thus bringing it prominently before the mathematical world. Mention should also be made of an excellent little treatise by [[Mourey]] (1828), in which the foundations for the theory of directional numbers are scientifically laid. The general acceptance of the theory is not a little due to the labors of [[Augustin Louis Cauchy]] and [[Niels Henrik Abel]], and especially the latter, who was the first to boldly use complex numbers with a success that is well known.
The common terms used in the theory are chiefly due to the founders. Argand called <math>\cos \phi + i\sin \phi</math> the ''direction factor'', and <math>r = \sqrt{a^2+b^2}</math> the ''modulus''; Cauchy (1828) called <math>\cos \phi + i\sin \phi</math> the ''reduced form'' (l'expression réduite); Gauss used ''i'' for <math>\sqrt{-1}</math>, introduced the term ''complex number'' for <math>a+bi</math>, and called <math>a^2+b^2</math> the ''norm''.
The expression ''direction coefficient'', often used for <math>\cos \phi + i
\sin \phi</math>, is due to Hankel (1867), and ''absolute value,'' for ''modulus,'' is due to Weierstrass.
Following Cauchy and Gaus |
ver $1 billion.[http://www.philly.com/mld/inquirer/business/personal_finance/7774843.htm] Harvard, with a $25.5 billion endowment (as of [[2005]]), is the wealthiest university in the world.[http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=503347] Yale, with an endowment size of $15.2 billion (2005 value), is the second-wealthiest, and Princeton, with $11.2 billion, is fifth. Next within the Ivy League comes Columbia with $5.2 billion, Penn with $4.4 billion, Cornell with $3.8 billion, Dartmouth with $2.7 billion, and Brown with $2.0 billion.
For comparison purposes, other elite private American universities' endowments are: Stanford ($12.4 billion), MIT ($6.7 billion), Emory ($4.4 billion) and University of Chicago ($4.1 billion). Internationally, most other elite schools are publicly owned and financed institutions (University of Tokyo, the French [[Grandes écoles]]). In Britain, Oxford and Cambridge universities have endowments of approximately $6.0 billion and $4.0 billion respectively.
===Per Capita Endowment===
Princeton, the wealthiest institution in the country on a per capita basis, has a per-student endowment of $1.64 million, followed by Yale with $1.34 million, Harvard with $1.29 million, Dartmouth with $470,000, Brown with $263,000, Columbia with $218,000, Penn with $189,000, and Cornell with $187,000.
==Land ownership==
''(In alphabetical order)''
*Brown owns 143 acres (0.6 km&sup2;) in urban Providence and the 375 acre (1.5 km&sup2;) Mount Hope Grant in Bristol.
*Columbia owns over 82 acres (0.33 km&sup2;) in Manhattan, which consists of the 36 acre (0.14 km&sup2;) campus in Morningside Heights, the 26 acre (0.1 km&sup2;) Baker Field athletic complex, and a 20 acre (0.09 km&sup2;) health sciences campus, as well as numerous individual buildings and properties. It is notably among the largest private landowners in New York City, third after the city itself and the [[Catholic Church]]. Columbia also operates the 157 acre (0.64 km&sup2;) [[Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory]] in the [[New York Palisades]], and the 500 acre [[Harriman Estate]] ("Arden House") in a northern suburb of New York City, [[Orange County, New York|Orange County]].
*Cornell has the largest campus in the Ivy League with 745 acres (3 km&sup2;) of property in [[Upstate New York]].
*Dartmouth, the largest Ivy landowner overall, owns 265 acres (1.1 km&sup2;) on its main campus in [[Hanover, New Hampshire]], and over 31,000 acres (109&nbsp;km&sup2;)[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~doc/secondcollegegrant/] in the rest of New Hampshire, making it the largest private New Hampshire landowner as well.
*Harvard owns nearly 571 acres (2.3 km&sup2;) in an urban setting (220 in Cambridge[http://thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=254361] and 352 directly across the river in Boston[http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/daily/2005/10/24-allstonfaq.html]) as well as holding a 1000-year lease (ending in 2882) on the 265 acres of the [[Arnold Arboretum]] also in Boston[http://www.arboretum.harvard.edu/aboutus/history.html].
*Princeton owns 600 acres (2.4 km&sup2;) in a suburban environment.
*The University of Pennsylvania has a core campus of 269 acres (1.1 km&sup2;), a 92 acre arboretum in northwestern Philadelphia and a 690 acre veterinary research complex in suburban Philadelphia.
*Yale has a core campus of 260 acres (1.1 km&sup2;) in an urban setting, 515 acres in a nature preserve and golf course, 100 acres in athletic fields, and 30 acres in off-campus residential land
==Cooperation==
Seven of the eight schools (Harvard excluded) participate in the Borrow Direct [[interlibrary loan]] program, making a total of 40 million items available to participants with a waiting period of four working days. This ILL program is not affiliated with the formal Ivy arrangement.
==Athletics & competition==
Ivy champions are crowned in 33 men's and women's sports. In some sports, Ivy teams actually compete as members of another league, the Ivy championship being decided by isolating the members' records in play against each other. (For example, the six league members who participate in [[ice hockey]] do so as members of the [[ECAC Hockey League]]; but an Ivy champion is extrapolated each year.) Unlike all other Division I [[basketball]] conferences, the Ivy League has no tournament for the league title; the school with the best conference record represents the conference in the Division I NCAA Basketball Tournament (with a playoff in the case of a tie).
On average, each Ivy school has more than 35 varsity teams. All eight are in the top 20 for number of sports offered for both men and women among Division I schools. In some sports, notably baseball and tennis, the Ivy League teams also frequently compete against [[United States Military Academy|Army]] and [[United States Naval Academy|Navy]].
Harvard and Yale are celebrated [[American football|football]] and [[sport rowing|crew]] rivals. Penn and Cornell are football rivals. Columbia and Princeton have a rivalry that goes back to the fourth college football game ever played. Princeton and Penn are mainly basketball rivals. Cornell and Harvard are hockey rivals. Unlike most Division I athletic conferences, the Ivy League prohibits the granting of athletic scholarships; all scholarships awarded are need-based ([[financial aid]]) [http://www.ivyleaguesports.com/whatisivy/index.asp]. Since there is no outright athletic scholarship program, the schools are typically less competitive in football and basketball, even when compared to universities with comparably rigorous academic standards.
In the time before recruiting for college sports became dominated by those offering athletic scholarships, the Ivy League was successful in many sports relative to other universities in the country. In particular, Princeton won 24 recognized national championships in [[college football]], and Yale won 19. Both of these totals are considerably higher than those of other historically strong programs such as [[University of Notre Dame|Notre Dame]], which has won 12, and [[University of Southern California|USC]], which has won 10. Of course, Ivy League schools never win national championships anymore.Yale, who holds the record for most national football championships, hasn't won a national championship in decades. Yale, whose coach [[Walter Camp]] was the "Father of American Football," held on to its place as the all-time wins leader in college football throughout the entire [[20th century]], but was finally passed by [[University of Michigan|Michigan]] on [[November 10]], [[2001]].
Although no longer as successful nationally as they once were in many of the more popular college sports, the Ivy League is still competitive in others. One such example is [[college rowing (United States)|rowing]]. All of the Ivies have historically been among the top crews in the nation, and most continue to be so today. (Other historical top crews include [[University of California, Berkeley|Cal]], [[University of Washington|Washington]],[[University of Wisconsin|Wisconsin]] and [[Naval Academy|Navy]]). Most recently, on the men's side, Harvard won the [[Intercollegiate Rowing Association]] Championships the last three years in a row (2003, 2004, 2005), and on the women's side, Harvard and Brown won the 2003 and 2004 [[NCAA Rowing Championships]], respectively.
===Athletic logos===
<gallery>
Image:Brown 2440.gif|<center>Brown Bears</center>
Image:SmallLionLogo.jpg|<center>Columbia Lions</center>
Image:Corne 2461.gif|<center>[[Cornell Big Red]]</center>
Image:Logo dartmouth.jpg|<center>Dartmouth Big Green</center>
Image:Harvard shield-University.png|<center>Harvard Crimson</center>
Image:PennsylvaniaQuakers2.gif|<center>Penn Quakers</center>
Image:Prn240.gif|<center>Princeton Tigers</center>
Image:Yale bulldog y logo.jpg|<center>Yale Bulldogs</center>
</gallery>
===Conference stadia===
{| border="2" cellpadding="5"
|-
!School
!Football stadium
!Stadium capacity
!Basketball arena
!Arena capacity
|-
|Brown
|[[Brown Stadium]]
|20,000
|[[Pizzitola Sports Center]]
|2,800
|-
|Columbia
|[[Lawrence A. Wien Stadium|Wien Stadium]]
|17,000
|[[Levien Gymnasium]]
|3,408
|-
|Cornell
|[[Schoellkopf Field]]
|25,597
|[[Newman Arena]]
|4,473
|-
|Dartmouth
|[[Memorial Stadium (Dartmouth)|Memorial Field]]
|20,000
|[[Leede Arena]]
|2,100
|-
|Harvard
|[[Harvard Stadium]]
|30,898
|[[Lavietes Pavilion]]
|2,195
|-
|Penn
|[[Franklin Field]]
|52,593
|The [[Palestra]]
|8,700
|-
|Princeton
|[[Princeton Stadium]]
|27,800
|[[Jadwin Gymnasium]]
|6,854
|-
|Yale
|[[Yale Bowl]]
|64,269
|[[Payne Whitney Gym]]
|3,100
|}
Although the Ivy League is usually regarded as a cohesive group from the outside, there is a considerable amount of internal academic rivalry and competition among its eight members. Among these elite universities, there is a heated competition for students. In [[2002]], admissions officers at Princeton logged into the Yale admissions website to view the admissions status of cross-applicants, using the names, birthdates, and social security numbers indicated on their [[Princeton University|Princeton]] applications [http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2002/05/17/news/5201.shtml]. Yale's administration notified the [[FBI]] about the actions after conducting its own investigation. Princeton moved one admissions official to a different department over the incident and the university's Dean of Admissions retired soon thereafter.
==References==
#{{note|early_usage}} {{news reference
| author=The Associated Press
| title=Yale Jinx Overcome, Dartmouth Now Seeks To Break Spell Cast by Princeton Teams
| org=The New York Times
| page=35
| date=1935-10-5
}}
#{{note|student_effort_to_organize}} {{news reference
| title = Immediate Formation of |
n.de/planen/stadtmodelle/de/extra_fenster_schwarzplaene.shtml Comparison of historic layouts of the city]
*[http://www.western-allies-berlin.com/ Western Allies Berlin - History of the western allies in Berlin from 1945 to 1994]
*[http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/psf/box31/t297c01.html Agreement to divide Berlin]
{{Germany_states}}
{{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}}
[[Category:Berlin| ]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Cities in Germany]]
[[Category:German state capitals]]
[[Category:Hanseatic League|Berlin]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]]
[[Category:States of Germany]]
{{Link FA|cs}}
{{Link FA|sk}}
{{Link FA|sr}}
[[af:Berlyn]]
[[als:Berlin]]
[[an:Berlín]]
[[ang:Berlin]]
[[ar:برلين]]
[[ast:Berlín]]
[[be:Бэрлін]]
[[bg:Берлин]]
[[bs:Berlin]]
[[ca:Berlín]]
[[cs:Berlín]]
[[csb:Berlin]]
[[cy:Berlin]]
[[da:Berlin]]
[[de:Berlin]]
[[eo:Berlino]]
[[es:Berlín]]
[[et:Berliin]]
[[eu:Berlin]]
[[fa:برلین]]
[[fi:Berliini]]
[[fo:Berlin]]
[[fr:Berlin]]
[[ga:Beirlín]]
[[gd:Berlin]]
[[gl:Berlín - Berlin]]
[[he:ברלין]]
[[hr:Berlin]]
[[hu:Berlin]]
[[id:Berlin]]
[[io:Berlin]]
[[is:Berlín]]
[[it:Berlino]]
[[ja:ベルリン]]
[[jv:Berlin]]
[[ka:ბერლინი]]
[[ko:베를린]]
[[ku:Berlîn]]
[[la:Berolinum]]
[[lb:Berlin]]
[[li:Berlien]]
[[lt:Berlynas]]
[[lv:Berlīne]]
[[mk:Берлин]]
[[nds:Berlin]]
[[nl:Berlijn]]
[[nn:Berlin]]
[[no:Berlin]]
[[oc:Berlin]]
[[pl:Berlin]]
[[pt:Berlim]]
[[ro:Berlin]]
[[ru:Берлин]]
[[scn:Birlinu]]
[[sh:Berlin]]
[[simple:Berlin]]
[[sk:Berlín]]
[[sl:Berlin]]
[[sr:Берлин]]
[[sv:Berlin]]
[[ta:பெர்லின்]]
[[th:เบอร์ลิน]]
[[tr:Berlin]]
[[uk:Берлін]]
[[vi:Berlin]]
[[zh:柏林]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benjamin Whorf</title>
<id>3355</id>
<revision>
<id>40360510</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:27:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Benjamin Lee Whorf''' ([[April 24]], [[1897]] &ndash; [[July 26]], [[1941]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[linguist]].
Born in [[Winthrop, Massachusetts]], the son of Harry and Sarah (Lee) Whorf, Benjamin Lee Whorf graduated from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1918 with a degree in [[chemical engineering]] and shortly afterwards began work as a fire prevention engineer (inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company, pursuing linguistic and anthropological studies as an avocation.
In 1931 he began studying linguistics at [[Yale University]] under the famed [[Edward Sapir]]. Sapir was impressed enough with Whorf to further support his academic interests and, in 1936, Whorf was appointed Honorary Research Fellow in Anthropology at Yale. In 1937 the university awarded him the Sterling Fellowship. He was a Lecturer in Anthropology from 1937 through 1938, when he began having serious health problems.
Although he never took up linguistics as a profession (he used to say that having an independent, non-academic source of income allowed him better and more freely to pursue his specific academic interests), his contributions to the field were, nevertheless, profound, and show repercussions to this day.
Whorf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]] languages, particularly those of [[Mesoamerica]]. He became quite well known for his work on the [[Hopi language]], and for a theory he called the [[principle of linguistic relativity]]. Developed in conjunction with Sapir (who had already published a version of it in 1929) it became more widely known as the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.
Some of Whorf's early work on linguistics and particularly on linguistic relativity was inspired by the reports he wrote on insurance losses, where misunderstanding had been a cause. In one famous example, an employee who was not a [[native speaker]] of English had placed drums of liquid near a heater, believing that as a 'flammable' liquid would burn then a 'highly inflammable' one would not. His papers and lectures featured examples from both his insurance work and his fieldwork with Hopi and other American languages.
The [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] primarily dealt with the way that language affects thought. Also sometimes called the Whorfian hypothesis (much to Whorf's disapproval) this theory claims that the language a person speaks (independent of the [[culture]] in which he or she resides) affects the way that he or she thinks, meaning that the structure of the language itself affects cognition.
Less well known, but important, are his contributions to the study of the [[Nahuatl]] and [[Mayan languages|Maya]] languages. He claimed that Nahuatl was an [[oligosynthetic language]] (a claim that would be brought up again some twenty years later by [[Morris Swadesh]], another controversial American linguist). Regarding Maya, he focused on the linguistic nature of the Mayan writing, claiming that it was syllabic to some degree (a claim that has been proven right by [[Scheele|Linda Scheele]] ''et al.'' over the past decade).
Benjamin Lee Whorf died of cancer at the relatively young age of 44, and much of his most significant work was published posthumously.
==External links==
:[http://mtsu32.mtsu.edu:11072/Whorf/mindblw.htm About Whorf]
[[Category:1897 births|Whorf, Benjamin]]
[[Category:1941 deaths|Whorf, Benjamin]]
[[Category:American linguists|Whorf, Benjamin]]
[[Category:ISBN needed]]
[[da:Benjamin Lee Whorf]]
[[de:Benjamin Whorf]]
[[ja:&#12505;&#12531;&#12472;&#12515;&#12511;&#12531;&#12539;&#12454;&#12457;&#12540;&#12501;]]
[[pl:Benjamin Lee Whorf]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bill Clinton</title>
<id>3356</id>
<revision>
<id>42119887</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:20:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tombadevil</username>
<id>751201</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ross Perot */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- NOTE to Editors: Vandalism will result in being blocked.--> {{Infobox_President
| name=President William Jefferson Clinton
| image=Bill_Clinton.jpg
| order=42nd President
| term_start=[[January 20]] [[1993]]
| term_end=[[January 20]] [[2001]]
| vicepresident=[[Al Gore]]
| predecessor=[[George H. W. Bush]]
| successor=[[George W. Bush]]
| birth_date=[[August 19]] [[1946]]
| birth_place=[[Hope, Arkansas]]
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]
| spouse=[[Hillary Rodham Clinton]]
}}
'''William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton''' (born '''William Jefferson Blythe III''' on [[August 19]] [[1946]]) was the 42nd [[President of the United States]], serving from 1993 to 2001. Clinton served five terms as the [[Governor of Arkansas|Governor]] of [[Arkansas]]. His wife, [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]], is currently the [[Junior senator|junior U.S. Senator]] from [[New York]].
Generally regarded as a moderate [[populism|populist]], and a member of the moderate [[New Democrat]] wing of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], he headed the centrist [[Democratic Leadership Council]] in 1990 and 1991. During his tenure as president, his domestic priorities included efforts to create a universal healthcare system, improve [[education]], restrict [[pistol|handgun]] sales, strengthen [[environmentalism|environmental]] regulations, improve race relations, and protect the jobs of workers during pregnancy or medical emergency. His domestic agenda also included other themes such as reforming welfare programs, expanding the "[[War on Drugs]]", and increasing [[law enforcement]] funding. [[Foreign relations of the United States|Internationally]], his priorities included reducing [[trade barrier]]s, preventing [[nuclear proliferation]], and mediating the [[Northern Ireland peace process]] and [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]s.
Clinton was the third-youngest president, behind [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (the youngest) and [[John F. Kennedy]] (the youngest ''elected''). He was the first [[Post-WW2 baby boom|baby boomer]] president. The Clinton/Gore ticket of 1992 was the youngest in history, with a combined age of 90 (Clinton was 46, Vice Presidential nominee [[Al Gore]] was 44). Clinton was one of only two Presidents in American history to be [[Impeachment in the United States|impeached]], and was acquitted by a vote of the [[United States Senate]] on [[February 12]], [[1999]]. In both runs for Presidency, Clinton never received a majority of the popular vote, though he ended his Presidential career with a 65% approval rating, the highest end-of-term approval rating of any President in the post-[[Eisenhower]] era. <ref>[http://abcnews.go.com/sections/politics/DailyNews/poll_clintonlegacy010117.html Historical Presidential Approval Ratings], [[abcnews.go.com]], accessed [[February 27]], [[2006]]</ref>
==Early years==
Clinton was born '''William Jefferson Blythe III'''<!-- Authoritative birthname. See Talk page for more information. -->; in [[Hope, Arkansas]] and raised in [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]]. He was named after his father, [[William Jefferson Blythe, Jr.]], a traveling salesman who had been killed in an auto accident three months before his son was born. His mother, born [[Virginia Clinton Kelley|Virginia Dell Cassidy]] (1923–1994), remarried in 1950 to [[Roger Clinton, Sr.|Roger Clinton]]. Billy, as he was called, was raised by his mother and stepfather, assuming his last name "Clinton" throughout elementary school, but not formally changing it until he was 14. Clinton grew up in a traditional, albeit blended, family; however, according to C |
he numbers corresponding to exact [[logarithm]]s. Col. De Morgan moved his family to [[England]] when Augustus was seven months old. As his father and grandfather had both been born in India, De Morgan used to say that he was neither English, nor Scottish, nor Irish, but a Briton "unattached," using the technical term applied to an undergraduate of [[Oxford]] or [[Cambridge]] who is not a member of any one of the Colleges.
When De Morgan was ten years old, his father died. Mrs. De Morgan resided at various places in the southwest of England, and her son received his elementary education at various schools of no great account. His mathematical talents were unnoticed till he had reached the age of fourteen. A friend of the family accidentally discovered him making an elaborate drawing of a figure in [[Euclid]] with ruler and compasses, and explained to him the aim of Euclid, and gave him an initiation into demonstration.
De Morgan suffered from a physical defect&mdash;one of his eyes was rudimentary and useless. As a consequence, he did not join in the sports of the other boys, and he was even made the victim of cruel practical jokes by some schoolfellows. Some [[psychologist]]s have held that the perception of distance and of solidity depends on the action of two eyes, but De Morgan testified that so far as he could make out he perceived with his one eye distance and solidity just like other people.
He received his secondary education from Mr. Parsons, a Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, who could appreciate classics much better than mathematics. His mother was an active and ardent member of the [[Church of England]], and desired that her son should become a clergyman; but by this time De Morgan had begun to show his non-grooving disposition, due no doubt to some extent to his physical infirmity.
===University education===
In [[1823]], at the age of sixteen he entered [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], where he immediately came under the tutorial influence of [[George Peacock]] and [[William Whewell]]. They became his life-long friends; from the former he derived an interest in the renovation of algebra, and from the latter an interest in the renovation of logic&mdash;the two subjects of his future life work.
At college the [[flute]], on which he played exquisitely, was his recreation. He took no part in athletics but was prominent in the musical clubs. His love of knowledge for its own sake interfered with training for the great mathematical race; as a consequence he came out fourth [[wrangler]]. This entitled him to the degree of [[Bachelor of Arts]]; but to take the higher degree of [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|Master of Arts]] and thereby become eligible for a fellowship it was then necessary to pass a theological test. To the signing of any such test De Morgan felt a strong objection, although he had been brought up in the [[Church of England]]. In about [[1875]] theological tests for academic degrees were abolished in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
===London University===
As no career was open to him at his own university, he decided to go to the Bar, and took up residence in [[London]]; but he much preferred teaching mathematics to reading law. About this time the movement for founding the London University took shape. The two ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge were so guarded by theological tests that no Jew or Dissenter outside the Church of England could enter as a student, still less be appointed to any office. A body of liberal-minded men resolved to meet the difficulty by establishing in London a University on the principle of religious neutrality. De Morgan, then 22 years of age, was appointed Professor of Mathematics. His introductory lecture "On the study of mathematics" is a discourse upon mental education of permanent value which has been recently reprinted in the United States.
The London University was a new institution, and the relations of the Council of management, the Senate of professors and the body of students were not well defined. A dispute arose between the professor of anatomy and his students, and in consequence of the action taken by the Council, several of the professors resigned, headed by De Morgan. Another professor of mathematics was appointed, who was accidentally drowned a few years later. De Morgan had shown himself a prince of teachers: he was invited to return to his chair, which thereafter became the continuous centre of his labours for thirty years.
The same body of reformers&mdash;headed by [[Henry Peter Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux|Lord Brougham]], a Scotsman eminent both in science and politics who had instituted the London University&mdash;founded about the same time a [[Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge]]. Its object was to spread scientific and other knowledge by means of cheap and clearly written treatises by the best writers of the time. One of its most voluminous and effective writers was De Morgan. He wrote a great work on ''The Differential and Integral Calculus'' which was published by the Society; and he wrote one-sixth of the articles in the ''Penny Cyclopedia'', published by the Society, and issued in penny numbers. When De Morgan came to reside in London he found a congenial friend in William Frend, notwithstanding his mathematical heresy about negative quantities. Both were arithmeticians and actuaries, and their religious views were somewhat similar. Frend lived in what was then a suburb of London, in a country-house formerly occupied by [[Daniel Defoe]] and [[Isaac Watts]]. De Morgan with his flute was a welcome visitor; and in [[1837]] he married Sophia Elizabeth, one of Frend's daughters.
The London University of which De Morgan was a professor was a different institution from the [[University of London]]. The University of London was founded about ten years later by the Government for the purpose of granting degrees after examination, without any qualification as to residence. The London University was affiliated as a teaching college with the University of London, and its name was changed to [[University College, London|University College]]. The University of London was not a success as an examining body; a teaching University was demanded. De Morgan was a highly successful teacher of mathematics. It was his plan to lecture for an hour, and at the close of each lecture to give out a number of problems and examples illustrative of the subject lectured on; his students were required to sit down to them and bring him the results, which he looked over and returned revised before the next lecture. In De Morgan's opinion, a thorough comprehension and mental assimilation of great principles far outweighed in importance any merely analytical dexterity in the application of half-understood principles to particular cases.
De Morgan had a son George, who acquired great distinction in mathematics both at University College and the University of London. He and another like-minded alumnus conceived the idea of founding a Mathematical Society in London, where mathematical papers would be not only received (as by the Royal Society) but actually read and discussed. The first meeting was held in University College; De Morgan was the first president, his son the first secretary. It was the beginning of the [[London Mathematical Society]].
===Retirement and death===
In the year [[1866]] the chair of mental philosophy in University College fell vacant. Dr. Martineau, a [[Unitarian]] clergyman and professor of mental philosophy, was recommended formally by the Senate to the Council; but in the Council there were some who objected to a Unitarian clergyman, and others who objected to theistic philosophy. A layman of the school of Bain and Spencer was appointed. De Morgan considered that the old standard of religious neutrality had been hauled down, and forthwith resigned. He was now 60 years of age. His pupils secured a pension of $ 500 for him, but misfortunes followed. Two years later his son George -- the younger Bernoulli, as he loved to hear him called, in allusion to the two eminent mathematicians of that name, related as father and son -- died. This blow was followed by the death of a daughter. Five years after his resignation from University College De Morgan died of nervous prostration on [[March 18]] [[1871]], in the 65th year of his age.
==Mathematical work==
De Morgan was a brilliant and witty writer, whether as a controversialist or as a correspondent. In his time there flourished two Sir [[William Hamilton]]s who have often been confounded. The one was [[Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet]] (that is, his title was inherited), a Scotsman, professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of Edinburgh; the other was a knight (that is, won the title), an Irishman, professor at astronomy in the University of Dublin. The baronet contributed to logic, especially the doctrine of the quantification of the predicate; the knight, whose full name was [[William Rowan Hamilton]], contributed to mathematics, especially [[geometric algebra]], and first described the [[Quaternion]]s. De Morgan was interested in the work of both, and corresponded with both; but the correspondence with the Scotsman ended in a public controversy, whereas that with the Irishman was marked by friendship and terminated only by death. In one of his letters to Rowan, De Morgan says, "Be it known unto you that I have discovered that you and the other Sir W. H. are reciprocal polars with respect to me (intellectually and morally, for the Scottish baronet is a polar bear, and you, I was going to say, are a polar gentleman). When I send a bit of investigation to [[Edinburgh]], the W. H. of that ilk says I took it from him. When I send you one, you take it from me, generalize it at a glance, bestow it thus generalized upon society at large, and make me the second discoverer of a known theorem."
Th |
f prepared in broad outline the 1866 [[North German Constitution]], to become the 1871 [[Wikisource:Constitution of the German Empire|Constitution of the German Empire]] with some adjustments. Germany acquired some democratic features: notably the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'', that in contrast to the parliament of [[Prussia]] was elected by direct and equal manhood suffrage. However, legislation also required the consent of the ''Bundesrat'', the federal council of deputies from the states, in which Prussia had a large influence. Behind a constitutional façade, Prussia thus exercised predominant influence in both bodies with executive power vested in the ''Kaiser,'' who appointed the federal chancellor &ndash; Otto von Bismarck. The Chancellor was accountable solely to and served entirely at the discretion of the Emperor. Officially, the Chancellor was a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice, the [[State Secretary| State Secretaries]] (bureaucratic top officials in change of such fields as finance, war, foreign affairs, etc) acted as unofficial portfolio ministers. With the exception of the years [[1872]]-[[1873]] and [[1892]]-[[1894]], the Chancellor was always simultaneously the Prime Minister of the imperial dynasty's hegemonic home-kingdom, Prussia. The ''Reichstag'' had the power to pass, amend or reject bills, but could not initiate legislation. The power of initiating legislation rested with the Chancellor.
While the other states retained their own governments, the military forces of the smaller states were put under Prussian control, while those of the larger states such as the kingdoms of [[Bavaria]] and [[Saxony]], were coordinated along Prussian principles and would in war times be controlled by the federal government. Although authoritarian in many respects, the empire permitted the development of political parties.
[[Image:Reichsgruendung2.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Proclamation of the German Empire in Versailles. Bismarck in white in the centre of the image]]
The evolution of the authoritarian German Empire is somewhat in line with parallel developments in Italy and Japan. Similarly to Bismarck, [[Count Camillo Benso di Cavour]] in [[Italy]] used diplomacy and war to achieve his objectives: he allied with France before attacking Austria, securing the [[unification of Italy]] as a kingdom under the Piemontese dynasty (except for Austrian [[Venice]] and the [[Papal States]]) by [[1861]]. In the interests of Piedmont-Sardinia, Cavour, hostile to the more revolutionary nationalism of liberal republicans such as [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] and [[Giuseppe Mazzini]], sought the unification of Italy along conservative lines. Similarly, [[Japan]] would follow a course of conservative modernization from the fall of the [[Tokugawa Shogunate]] and the [[Meiji Restoration]] to [[1918]] along with Cavour's Italy. In fact, Japan issued a commission in 1882 to study various governmental structures throughout the world and were particularly impressed by Bismarck's Germany, issuing a constitution in [[1889]] that formed a premiership with powers analogous to Bismarck's position as chancellor with a cabinet responsible to the emperor alone.
The unification of Germany also meant absorbing the entire [[Kingdom of Prussia]] into it. The three provinces of [[East Prussia]] ( [[West Prussia]]),and [[Provinz Posen]] that were before parts of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], were incorporated into the new nation-state. All had large Polish populations, with Poles being majority in Provinz of Posen, the area being the historic birthplace of the Polish state. Another province, [[Silesia]], together with [[Bohemia]] and unlike [[East Prussia]], [[West Prussia]] and [[Provinz Posen]] part of the [[German Confederation]] had a considerable [[Poland|Polish]] minority. Since the Polish population was growing more rapidly, and Germans were migrating from eastern to western Germany in the [[Ostflucht]], eastern provinces gradually became populated by increasing Polish population. To counteract that trend and fearing the national liberation movement of Poles, the government attempted at enforcing the German language and culture by discriminating Poles and other national minorities.
One factor in the social anatomy of these governments had been the retention of a very substantial share in political power by the [[landed elite]], the [[Junker]]s, due to the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the peasants in combination with urban areas.
==List of Constituent States of the Empire==
[[Image:Map-deutsches-kaiserreich.png|thumb|German Empire, 1871&ndash;1918]]
*Kingdoms ''(“Königreiche”)''
**[[Bavaria]] ''(“Bayern”)'' - capital [[Munich]]
**[[Prussia]] ''(“Preußen”)'' - capital [[Berlin]]
**[[Saxony]] ''(“Sachsen”)'' - capital [[Dresden]]
**[[Württemberg]] - capital [[Stuttgart]]
*Grand Duchies ''(“Großherzogtümer”)''
**[[Baden]] - capital [[Karlsruhe]]
**[[Hesse]] ''(“Hessen”)'' - capital [[Darmstadt]]
**[[Mecklenburg-Schwerin]] - capital [[Schwerin]]
**[[Mecklenburg-Strelitz]] - capital [[Strelitz]]
**[[Oldenburg]] - capital [[Oldenburg]]
**[[Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach]] ''(“Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach”)'' - capital [[Weimar]]
*Duchies ''(“Herzogtümer”)''
**[[Anhalt]] - capital [[Dessau]]
**[[Brunswick]] ''(“Braunschweig”)'' - capital [[Braunschweig]]
**[[Saxe-Altenburg]] ''(“Sachsen-Altenburg”)'' - capital [[Altenburg]]
**[[Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]] ''(“Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha”)'' - capital [[Coburg]]
**[[Saxe-Meiningen]] ''(“Sachsen-Meiningen”)'' - capital [[Meiningen]]
*Principalities ''(“Fürstentümer”)''
**[[Lippe]] - capital [[Detmold]]
**[[Reuss#The Younger line|Reuss-Gera or Reuss Younger Line]] ''(“Reuß jüngere Linie”)'' - capital [[Gera]]
**[[Reuss#The Elder Line|Reuss-Greiz or Reuss Elder Line]] ''(“Reuß ältere Linie”)'' - capital [[Greiz]]
**[[Schaumburg-Lippe]] - capital [[Bückeburg]]
**[[Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt]] - capital [[Rudolstadt]]
**[[Schwarzburg-Sondershausen]] - capital [[Sondershausen]]
**[[Waldeck-Pyrmont]] - capital [[Arolsen]]
*Free Cities ''(“Freie Hansestädte”)''
**[[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]
**[[Hamburg]]
**[[Lübeck]]
*Others:
**Imperial Territory of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] ''(“Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen”)''
==Conservative modernization==
Bismarck's domestic policies played a great role in forging the authoritarian political culture of the [[Kaiserreich]]. Less preoccupied by continental power politics following unification in [[1871]], Germany's semi-parliamentary government carried out a relatively smooth economic and political revolution from above that pushed them along the way towards becoming the world's leading industrial power of the time.
Not only did German manufacturers capture German markets from British imports, by the 1870s, British manufacturers in the staple industries of the [[Industrial Revolution]] were beginning to experience real competition abroad. Industrialization progressed dynamically in Germany and the [[United States]], allowing them to clearly prevail over the old French and British capitalisms. The German textiles and metal industries, for example, had by the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War surpassed those of Britain in organization and technical efficiency and usurped British manufacturers in the domestic market. By the turn of the century, the German metals and engineering industries would be producing heavily for the free trade market of Britain.
After achieving formal unification in 1871, Bismarck devoted much of his attention to the cause of national unity and achieving this under the ideology of Prussianism. Catholic conservatism, conceptualized by the reactionary turn of the [[Holy See|Vatican]] under [[Pope Pius IX]] and its [[dogma]] of [[Papal Infallibility]], and working class radicalism, represented by the emerging [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]], in many ways both reacted to concerns of dislocation by very different segments of German society, brought by a rapid shift from an agrarian-based economy to modern industrial capitalism under reactionary tutelage. While out-and-out suppression failed to contain either socialists or Catholics, Bismarck's "carrot and stick" approach significantly mollified opposition from both groups.
One can summarize Bismarck's objectives under three keywords: ''[[Kulturkampf]],'' Social reform and national unification.
*'''''Kulturkampf.''''' Following the incorporation of the Catholic states in the south and the former Polish lands in the east, [[Catholicism]], represented by the [[Catholic Centre Party]], was seemingly the principal threat to Bismarck's military-aristocratic Prussian nationalism, because Catholics were perceived as having loyalty to [[Pope]] over the state. Southern Catholics, hailing from a much more agrarian base and falling under the ranks of the peasantry, artisans, guildsmen, clergy, and princely aristocracies of the small states more often than their Protestant counterparts in the North, initially had trouble competing with industrial efficiency and the opening of outside trade by the [[Zollverein]].
:After 1878, the struggle against socialism would unite Bismarck with the Catholic Centre Party, bringing an end to the ''Kulturkampf'', which had led to far greater Catholic unrest than existed beforehand and had strengthened rather than weakened Catholicism in Germany.
*'''Social reform.''' To contain the working class and to weaken the influence [[socialism|socialist]] groups, Bismarck's reluctant creation of a remarkably advanced [[welfare state]] would give the working class a stake in German nationalism as well. The social security systems installed by Bismarck (health care in 1883, accidents insurance in 1884, invalidity and old-age insurance in 1889) at the time were the most advanced in the world and, to a degree, still exist in Germany today.
*'''National unification.''' Bismarck's efforts |
center">2.22</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1980 in baseball|1980]]</td>
<td>[[Steve Carlton]]</td>
<td>[[Philadelphia Phillies]]</td>
<td align="center">24-9</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.34</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1981 in baseball|1981]]</td>
<td>[[Fernando Valenzuela]]</td>
<td>[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]</td>
<td align="center">13-7</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.48</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1982 in baseball|1982]]</td>
<td>[[Steve Carlton]]</td>
<td>[[Philadelphia Phillies]]</td>
<td align="center">23-11</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.11</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1983 in baseball|1983]]</td>
<td>[[John Denny]]</td>
<td>[[Philadelphia Phillies]]</td>
<td align="center">19-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.37</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1984 in baseball|1984]]</td>
<td>[[Rick Sutcliffe]]*&dagger;</td>
<td>[[Chicago Cubs]]</td>
<td align="center">20-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.64</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1985 in baseball|1985]]</td>
<td>[[Dwight Gooden]]*</td>
<td>[[New York Mets]]</td>
<td align="center">24-4</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1.53</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1986 in baseball|1986]]</td>
<td>[[Mike Scott (baseball player)|Mike Scott]]</td>
<td>[[Houston Astros]]</td>
<td align="center">18-10</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.22</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1987 in baseball|1987]]</td>
<td>[[Steve Bedrosian]]</td>
<td>[[Philadelphia Phillies]]</td>
<td align="center">5-3</td><td align="center">40</td><td align="center">2.83</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1988 in baseball|1988]]</td>
<td>[[Orel Hershiser]]*</td>
<td>[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]</td>
<td align="center">23-8</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">2.26</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1989 in baseball|1989]]</td>
<td>[[Mark Davis (baseball)|Mark Davis]]</td>
<td>[[San Diego Padres]]</td>
<td align="center">4-3</td><td align="center">44</td><td align="center">1.85</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1990 in baseball|1990]]</td>
<td>[[Doug Drabek]]</td>
<td>[[Pittsburgh Pirates]]</td>
<td align="center">22-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.76</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1991 in baseball|1991]]</td>
<td>[[Tom Glavine]]</td>
<td>[[Atlanta Braves]]</td>
<td align="center">20-11</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.55</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1992 in baseball|1992]]</td>
<td>[[Greg Maddux]]</td>
<td>[[Chicago Cubs]]</td>
<td align="center">20-11</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.18 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1993 in baseball|1993]]</td>
<td>[[Greg Maddux]]</td>
<td>[[Atlanta Braves]]</td>
<td align="center">20-10</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.36</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1994 in baseball|1994]]</td>
<td>[[Greg Maddux]]*</td>
<td>[[Atlanta Braves]]</td>
<td align="center">16-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1.56</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1995 in baseball|1995]]</td>
<td>[[Greg Maddux]]*</td>
<td>[[Atlanta Braves]]</td>
<td align="center">19-2</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1.63</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1996 in baseball|1996]]</td>
<td>[[John Smoltz]]</td>
<td>[[Atlanta Braves]]</td>
<td align="center">24-8</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.95</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1997 in baseball|1997]]</td>
<td>[[Pedro Martínez]]</td>
<td>[[Montreal Expos]]</td>
<td align="center">17-8</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1.90</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1998 in baseball|1998]]</td>
<td>[[Tom Glavine]]</td>
<td>[[Atlanta Braves]]</td>
<td align="center">20-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.47</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1999 in baseball|1999]]</td>
<td>[[Randy Johnson]]</td>
<td>[[Arizona Diamondbacks]]</td>
<td align="center">17-9</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.49</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[2000 in baseball|2000]]</td>
<td>[[Randy Johnson]]</td>
<td>[[Arizona Diamondbacks]]</td>
<td align="center">19-7</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.64</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[2001 in baseball|2001]]</td>
<td>[[Randy Johnson]]</td>
<td>[[Arizona Diamondbacks]]</td>
<td align="center">21-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.49</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[2002]]</td>
<td>[[Randy Johnson]]*</td>
<td>[[Arizona Diamondbacks]]</td>
<td align="center">24-5</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.32</td>
</tr>
<td>[[2003 in baseball|2003]]</td>
<td>[[Eric Gagne]]</td>
<td>[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]</td>
<td align="center">2-3</td><td align="center">55</td><td align="center">1.20</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[2004 in baseball|2004]]</td>
<td>[[Roger Clemens]]</td>
<td>[[Houston Astros]]</td>
<td align="center">18-4</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.98</td>
</tr>
<td>[[2005 in baseball|2005]]</td>
<td>[[Chris Carpenter]]</td>
<td>[[St. Louis Cardinals]]</td>
<td align="center">21-5</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.83</td>
</tr>
</table>
(*) Denotes a unanimous selection, i.e., a player who received all first-place votes.
&dagger; Sutcliffe was traded mid-season on [[June 13]]. He went 4-5 with a 5.15 ERA with the Cleveland Indians before being traded to the Chicago Cubs where he went 16-1 with a 2.69 ERA to finish the season.
[[Category:Baseball awards and trophies]]
[[de:Cy Young Award]]
[[es:Premio Cy Young]]
[[fr:Trophée Cy Young]]
[[ja:&#12469;&#12452;&#12539;&#12516;&#12531;&#12464;&#36062;]]
[[zh:賽揚獎]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christian anti-semitism</title>
<id>6726</id>
<revision>
<id>15904847</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-09T15:12:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Christianity_and_anti-Semitism]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christianity_and_anti-Semitism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christianity and anti-Semitism</title>
<id>6728</id>
<revision>
<id>42013980</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:37:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.183.58.112</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">This article is about the history of [[Christianity]] and [[anti-Semitism]]. Anti-Jewish sentiment has been expressed by many Christians over the last 2000 years, but many other Christians, increasingly in recent years, have also condemned these sentiments.
== Early origins ==
There have been philosophical differences between Christia |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.